1
encyclopedia BRITANNICA.
VOLUME the SECOND.
Encyclopedia Britannica;
OR, A
DICTIONARY
O F
ARTS and SCIENCES,
COMPILED UPON A NEW PLAN.
IN WHICH
The different Sciences and Arts are digeffed into
diftindt Treaties or Syitems;
AND
The various TfchnicalTervs, <&c. are expl-aiued as they occur
in the order of the Alphabet.
ILLUSTRATED WITH ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY COPPERPLATES.
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Encyclopaedia Britannica;
Or, A
D I C T I
O
ARTS and S
CAB
CAABA, or Caabah, properly fignifies a fquare
building; but is particularly applied by the
Mahometans to the temple of Mecca, built,
as they pretend, by Abraham and Ifmael his
fon. . It is towards this temple they always
turn their faces when they pray, in whatever part of
the world they happen to be.
This temple enjoys the privilege of an afylum for
all forts of criminals; but it is moft remarkable for
the pilgrimages made to it by the devout muflulmans,
who pay fo great a veneration to it, that they believe
a Angle fight of its facred walls, without any particu¬
lar adt of devotion, is as meritorious, in the fight of
God, as the molt careful difcharge of one’s duty, for
the fpace of a whole year, in any other temple.
CAB, an Hebrew dry meafure, being the fixth part of
a feah or fatum, and the eighteenth part of an ephah :
A cab contained 2^ pints of our corn meafure: A
quarter-cab was the meafure of dove’s dung, or more
properly a fort of chick-peafe, called by this name,
which was fold at Samaria, during the fiege of that
city, for five Ihekels.
CABALIST, in French commerce, a fadtor, or perfon,
who is concerned in managing the trade of another.
CABALLARIA, in middle-age writers, lands held by
the tenure of furnilhing a horfeman, with fuitable e-
quip:ige, in time of war, or when the lord had occa-
fion for him.
CABALLEROS, or Cavalleros, are Spanilh wools,
of which there is a pretty confideraJble trada at Bay¬
onne, in France.
CABALLINE denotes fomething belonging to horfes :
Thus caballine aloes is fo called, from its being chiefly
Voa. II. No. 30. 3
NEW
O N A R Y
F
C I E N C E S.
CAB
ufed for purging horfes; and common brimftone is cal¬
led fulphur caballinum, for a like reafon.
CABBAGE, in botany. See Brassica.
CABBAGE-fm-, a name fometimes given to the palm
tree, called by Linhasus* phoenix. See Phoenix.
CABBAGING, among gardeners, a term ufed for the
knitting of cabbages into round heads.
CABBALA, according to the Hebrew ftyle, has a very
diftindt fignification from that wherein we underftand
it in our language. The Hebrew cabbala fignilies tra¬
dition ; and the rabbins, who are called cabbalilts, iiudy
principally the combination of particular words, let¬
ters, and numbers, -and by this means pretend to d;l-
cover what is to come, and to fee clearly into the fenfe
of many difficult pafl'ages in fcripture: There are no
fore principles of this knowledge, but it depends up¬
on fome particular traditions of the ancients; for which
reafon it is termed cabbala.
The cabbalifts have abundance of names, which they
call facred: Thefe they make ufe of in invoking of
fpirits, and imagine that they receive great light from
them: They tell us, that the fecfets of the cabbala
were difcovered to Mofes on mount Sinai; and that
thefe have been delivered down to them from father to
fon, without interruption, and without any ufe of let¬
ters ; for to write them down, is what they are by
no means permitted to do. This is likewife termed
the oral law, becaufe it pafled from father to fon, in
order to diftinguiffi it from the written laws.
There is another Cabbala, called artificial, which
confilts in fearching for abltrufe and mylieriOus figni-
fications of a tvord in fcripture, from whence they
borrow certain explanations, by combining the letters
A which
CAB ( :
•which compofe it: this, cabbala is divided into three
kinds, the gematrie, the notaricon, and the temura or
themurah. The firft whereof confifts in taking the
letters of a Hebrew word for ciphers or arithmetical
numbers, and explaining every word by the arithmeti¬
cal value of the letters whereof it is compofed. The
fecond fort of cabbala, called notaricon, confhts in ta¬
king every particular letter of a word for an entire
didion ; and the third, called themurah, i. e. change,
confifts in making different tranfpofitions or changes
of letters, placing one for the other, or one before
the other.
Among the OhrffUans likewife, a certain fort of
magic is, by miflake, called cabbala, which .confifts
in ufing improperly certain paffages of fcripture for
magic operations, or in forming magic characters or
figures with ftars and talifmans.
Some vifionaries, among the Jews, believe, that
Jefus Clirift wrought his miracles by virtue of the my-
fteries of the cabbala.
CABBALISTS, the Jewifh dodors who profefs the
ftudy of the cabbala.
In the opinion of thefe men, there is not a ■word,
letter, or accent in the law, without Tome myftery in
it. The Jews are divided into two general feCts ; the
karaites, who refufe to receive either tradition or the
talmud, or any thing but the pure text of fcripture ;
and the rabbinifts, or talmudifts, who, befides this,
receive the traditions of the ancients, and follow the
talmud.
The latter are again divided into two other feCts ;
pure rabbinifts, who explain the fcripture, in its na¬
tural fenfe, by grammar, hiftory, and tradition ; and
cabbalifts, who, to, difcover hidden myftical fenfes,
which they fuppofe God to have couched therein,
make ufe of the cabbala, and the myftical methods a-
bove mentioned.
CABECA, or Cabesse, a name given to the fineft filks
in the Eaft- Indies, as thofe from 15 to 20 per cent.
inferior to them are called barina. The Indian
workmen endeavour to pafs them off one with the o-
thcr ; for which reafon, the more experienced Euro¬
pean merchants take care to open the bales, and to
examine all the fkains one after another. The Dutch
diftinguilh two forts of cabecas ; namely, the moor ea-
beca, and the,common cabeca. The former is fold at
Amfterdam for about 2 i-I fchellinghen Elemilh, and the
other for about lSJ-..
CABENDA, a port-town of Congo, in Africa, and
fubjeCl to the Portuguefe : E. long.-12?, and S. lat. 4Q.
CABlDOS, .or Cavidqs, a long meafureufed at Goa,
and in other places of the Eaft Indies belonging to the
Portuguefe, to meafure Huffs, linens, tire, and equal
to 4- of the Paris eli.
CABIN, in the fea-language, a fmall room, or apart¬
ment, v/hereof there are a great many in fevefal parts
of a ftrip ; particularly on the quarter-deck, and on
each fide of the fteerage,. for the officers of the fhip to
lie in.
The great cabin is the chief of all, and that which
properly belongs to the captain. or chief commander.
) CAB
CABINET, or Cabbinet, the moft retired place in
the fineft part of a building, fet apart for writing, ftu-
dying, or preferving any thing that is precious.
A complete apartment confifts of a hall, anti-cham¬
ber, chamber, and cabinet, with a gallery on one fide.
Hence we fay, a cabinet of paintings, curiofities,
Cabinet alfo denotes a piece of joiner’s workmanfhip,
being a kind of prels or cheft,. with feveral doors and
drawers.
There are common cabinets of oak or of chefnut,
varnifiled cabinets of China and Japan, cabinets of in¬
laid work, and fome of ebony, or the like fcarCe and
precious woods..
Formerly the Dutch and German cabinets were
much efteemed in France, hut are now quite out of
date, as well as the cabinets of ebony, which came
from Venice.
CABIRI, a term in the theology of the ancient Pagans,.
fignifying great and powerful gods j being a name
given to the gods of Samothracia. They were alfo
worfhipped in other parts of Greece, as 'Lemnos and
Thebes, where the cabiria were celebrated in honour
of them : thefe gods are faid to be, in number,
four, viz. Axieros, Axiocerfa, Axiocerfus, and
Cafmilus.
CABIRIA, feftivals in honour of the cabiri, celebrated
in Thebes and Lemnos, but efpecially in Samothra¬
cia, an ifland confecrated to the cabiri. All who were
initiated into the myfteries of thefe gods, were thought;
to be fecured thereby from ftorms at fea, and all other
dangers. The ceremony of initiation was performed
by placing the candidate, crowned with olive-branches,
a»d girded about the loins with a purple ribband, on
a kind of throne, about which the priefts, and perfons
before initiated, danced.
CABLAN, the'nan)- of a kingdom and city of India,
beyond the Ganges.
CABLE, a thick, large, ftrong rope, commonly of
hemp, which ferves to keep a fhip at anchor.
There is no merchant-ffiip, however weak, but has
at leaft three cables ; namely, the chief cable, or
cable of the ffieet-anchor, a common cable, and a
fmaller one.
Cable is alfo faid of ropes, which ferve to raife
heavy loads, by the help of cranes, pullies, and other
engines. The name of cable is ufually given to fuch
as have, at leaft, three inches in diameter ; thofe that
are lefs are only called ropes: of different names, ac¬
cording to their ufe.
Every cable, of what thicknefs foever it be, is com¬
pofed of three ftrands ; every ftrand of three ropes ; and
every rope of three twifts : the twift is made of more
or lefs threads, according as the cable is to be thicker
or thinner.
In the manufafture of cables, after the ropes are
made, they ufe ftieks, which they pafs firft between
the ropes of which, they make the. ftrands, and after¬
wards between the ftrands of which they make the
cable, to the end that they may all twift the better,
and be more regularly wound together; and alfo, to
prevent them, from twining or intangling, they hang,
at
CAB ( 3 )
CAB
at- the end of each ftrand and of each rope, a weight
of lead or of ftone.
The number of threads each cable is compofed of
is always propoitioned to its length and thicknefs ;
and it is by this number of threads that its weight and
value are afcertained : thus a cable of three inches
circumference, or one inch diameter, ought to confill:
of 48 ordinary threads, and weigh 192 pounds; and
on this foundation is calculated the following table,
very ufeful for all people engaged in marine commerce,
who fit out merchant-men for their own account, or
freight them for the account of others.
A table of the number of threads and ’weight of
cables of different circumferences.
Circumf. Threads. , Weight.
3 inches. 48 192 pounds
13
16
17
18
19
2P
77
121
174
238
3*i
393
485
598
699
82*
952
1093
*244
14°4
1574
*754
*943
308
484
696
952
1244
1572
1940
2392
2706
3284
3808
4372
4976
5616
6296
7016
7772
Sheet-anchor Ca.-bi.il, is the greatefl cable belonging to
a ftiip.
Serve or plate the Cable, is to bind it about with ropes,
clouts, to keep it from galling in the hawfe.
To fplice Cable, is to make two pieces faft together,
by working the feveral threads of the- rope, the one
into the other.
Pay more CkBi.B, is to let more out of the fliip. Pay
cheap the cable, is to hand it out apace. ' Veer more
cable, is to let more out, tec,
CABLED, in heraldry, a term applied to a crofs,
formed of the two ends of a ihip’s cable ; fometimes
alfo to a crofs covered over with- rounds of rope,
more properly called a crofs-corded.
Cabl eD-jfa/e, in archite&ure, fuch flutes as are filled
up with pieces, in the form of a cable.
CABO de Istria, the capital of the province of Iftria,
in the dominion of Venice, fituated on the gulph of
Venice, about twelve miles fouth of Triefte : E. long,
140 7<f, and N. lat. 45° yc/.
CABOCHED, in heraldry, is when the heads of beafts
are borne without any part of the neck, full-faced.
CABOLETTO, in commerce,. a coin of the republic of
Genoa, worth about 3 d. of our money;
GABUL, the capital of a province of the fame name,
on the north-wed of India. Both the town and pro¬
vince of Cabul were ceded to the Perfians in 1739:-
E. long. 69°, and N. lat. 3'30 30'.
CABURNS, on ihip-board, are fimall lines, made of
fpun yarn, to bind cables, feize tackles, or the like.
C AC AC A, a city of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez.
CACAGOGA, among ancient phyfiaans, ointments,
which, applied to the fundament, procure Fools.
Panins iEgineta diretfts to boil alum, mixed with ho¬
ney, for that purpofe.
CACALIA, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia poly-
gamia sequalis clafs. The receptacle is naked ; the
pappus is hairy; and the calix is cylindrical, oblong,
and has a kind of fmall cup at the bafe. There are
12 fpecies, none of which are natives of Britain.
CACALIANTHEMUM, in botany, a fynonime of the
cacalia. See Cacalia.
CACAO, in botany. See Theobroma.
CACERES, a town of Eftremadura, in Spain, about
feventeen miles fouth-eafl: of Alcantara : W. long. 6°
45/, and N. lat. 390 X2,.
CACHAN, a city of Perfia, fituated in a large plain,
about 20 leagues from Ifpahan.
It is remarkable for its manufa&ures of gold and'
filver fluffs, and of fine earthen ware.
CACHAO, or Kechio, the capital of the kingdom of •
Tonquin, fituated on the wefiern fhore of the river--
Domea : E. long. 105°, and N. lat. 22° 30'.
CACHECTIC, fomething partaking of- the nature of,
or belonging to a cachexy. See Cachexy.
CACHEMIRE, or Kachemire, a province of Afia, .
in the country of the Mogul. The inhabitants are
thought to have been originally Jews, becaufe they
fpeak much of Mofes and*3olomon, whom they believe
to have travelled into their country.
Cachemtre is alfo thetcapital of that province, fituated
in 76° E. long, and 340 30' N. lat.
CACHEXY, in medicine, a vitious fiate of the humours
and whole habit. See MEmciNE.
CACHRYS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digy-
nia clafs. The fruit is oval and a little angled. There
are but two fpecies, viz. the libanotts, a native of
Sicily ; and the ficula, a native of'Sicily and Spain.
CACOETHES; in medicine, an epithet applied, by.
Hippocrates, to malignant and difficult diffempers:
when applied to figns or fymptoms, it imports what is -
very bad and threatening; and if given to tumours,
ulcers, tec. it denotes a great malignancy.
CACTUS, in botany, a-genus of the icofandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix confirts of one leaf, imbricated,
and above the -fruit. The berry: has but one cell,
containing many feeds. The fpecies are twenty-three,
one of which is the cochmeal-plant. See Cochi¬
neal.
CAD, or Cade: See Cade.
CADARI, or Ka dari, a ferft of Mahometans, which
attributes the adtions of men to men alone, and not
to the divine decree determining his will; and denies
all abfolute decrees, and predeflination. Ben Aun
calls the cadari, the magi or manichees of the mufful- -
mans.
CADE,
CAD ,(
CADE, a cag, caflc, Or barrel. A cade of herrings is
a veffel containing the quantity of 500 red herrings,
or of fprats 1000.
Cade-lamb, a young lamb, weaned and brought up by
hand in a houfe.
Cade-oil, an oil much ufed in France and Germany:
it is prepared from the fruit of a fpecies of cedar, cal¬
led oxycedrus.
Cade-worm, in zoology, the maggot or worm of a fly,
called phryganea. See Phryganea.
CADENCE, in reading, is a falling of the voice below
the key-note at the clofe of every period. In reading,
whether profe or verfe, a certain tone is aflumed which
is called the key-note; and in this tone the bulk of
the words are founded; but this note is generally
lowered towards the clofe of every fentence.
CADENCE, in mufic, according to the ancients, is a
feries of a certain number of notes, in a certain inter¬
val, which ftrike the ear agreeably, and efpecially at
the end of the fong, Eanza, <bc. It confiils ordina¬
rily of three notes.
Cadence, in the modern mufic, may be defined a
certain conclufion of a fong, or of the parts of a fong,
which divide it, a’s it were, into fo many numbers or
periods. It is when the parts terminate in a chord or
note, the ear feeming naturally to expedit; and is
much the fame in a fong, as the period that clofes the
fenfe in a paragraph of a difcourfe.
A cadence is either perfed, confifting of two notes
fung after each other, or by degrees conjoined in
each of the two parts, and by thefe means fatisfying
the ear; or imperfed, when its laft meafure is not in
the odavc or unifon; but a fixth or third. It is cal¬
led imperfed, becaufe the ear doth not acquiefce in
the conclufion, but expeds a continuation of the fong.
The cadence is faid to be broken, when the bafs, in-
ftead of fttiling a fifth, as the ear expeds, rifes a fe-
cond, either major or minor. Every cadence is in
two meafures; fometimes it is fufpended, in which
cafe it is called a repofe, and only confilts of one mea¬
fure, as when the two parts flop at the fifth, without
finifhing the cadence. With regard to the bafs-viol,
Mr Rouffeau diftinguifiies two cadences, one with a
reft, when the finger, that (hould lhake the cadence,
flops a little, before it (hakes, on the note immediately
above that which requires the cadence ; and one with¬
out a reft, when the flop is omitted.
Cadence, in the menage, an equal meafure or propor¬
tion, obferved by a horfe in all his motions; fo that
his times have an equal regard to one another, the
one does not embrace or take in more ground than
the other, and the horfe obferves his ground regu¬
larly.
CADENE, one of the forts of carpets which the Eu¬
ropeans import from the Levant. They are the worft
fort of ail, and are fold by the piece from one to two
piafiers per carpet.
CADET, the younger fon of a family, is a term natu¬
ralized in our language from the French. At Paris,
among the citizens, the cadets have an equal patrimo¬
ny with the reft. At Caux, in Normandy, the cu-
* ) CAD
ftom, as with us, is to leave all to the eldeft, except
a fmall portion to the cadets. In Spain, it is ufual
for one of the cadets in great families to take the
mother’s name. \
Cadet is alfo a military term denoting a young gentle¬
man who chufes fo carry arms in a marching regi¬
ment as a private man. His views are, to acquire
fome knowledge in the art of war, and to obtain a
commifiion in the army. Cadet differs from volun¬
teer, as the former takes pay, whereas the latter ferves
without any pay.
CADI, or Cadhi, a judge of the civil affairs in the
Turkilh empire.
It is generally taken for the judge of a town; jud¬
ges of provinces being diftinguiihed by the appellation
of molla’s.
In Biledulgerid in Africa, the cadi decides in fpiri-
tual affairs.
CADILESCHER, a capital officer of juftice among
the Turks, anfwering to a chief juftice among us.
It is faid, that this authority was originally confined
to the foldiery ; but that, at prefent, it extends itfelf
to the determination of all kinds of law-fuits; yet ne-
verrhelefs fubjett to appeals.
There are but three cadilefchers in all the grand
fignior’s territories; the firft is that of Europe; the
fecond, of Natolia; and the third refides at Grand
Cairo. This laft is the moft confiderable : they have
their feats in the divan next to the grand vizir.
CADIZ, a city and port-town of Andalufia in Spain,
lituated on the north-weft end of the ifland of Leon,
or Lyon, oppofite to Port St Mary on the continent,
about frxty miles fouth-weft of Seville, and forty
north-weft of Gibraltar: W. long. 6° 40, N. lat.
36<> 3°'-.
The ifland it (lands on is in length about eighteen
miles; the fouth-weft end is about nine broad, but
the other end, where the city Hands, not above two
It has a communication with the continent by means
of a bridge; and, with the oppofite (bore, forms a bay
of twelve miles long and fix broad. About the mid¬
dle of this bay, there are two head-lands, or promon¬
tories, one on the continent, and the other on the
ifland, which advance fo near together, that the forts
upon them, called the Puntal and Matagorda, com¬
mand the palfage; and within thefe forts is the har¬
bour, which it is impoiTible for an enemy to enter till
he has firft taken the forts.
CADIZADELITES, a fed of Mahometans very like
the ancient ftoics. They ftiun feafts and diverfions,
and affeft an extraordinary gravity in all their adions ;
they are continually talking of .God, and fome of them
make a jumble of Chriftianity and Mahometanifm ; they
drink wine, even in the fall of the ramazan; they
love and proted the Chriftians 5 they believe that Ma¬
homet is the Holy Ghoft, pradife circumcifion, and
jultify it by the example of Jefus Chrift.
CADMIA, a metallic fubftance feparated from the ore
of zinc by fufion. See Chemistry, Of ziiu.
CADORIN, a province of Italy, in the territories of
Venice, bounded by the bilhopric of Brixen on the
north;
C JE M (5
north; by Friuli, on the eaft; by the Bellunefe, on
the fouth and by the Trentin, on the weft.
CADRITES, a fort of Mahometan friars, who once
a-week fpend great part of the night in turning round,
holding each other’s hand, and repeating inceflantly
the word hat, which fignifies living, and is one of the
attributes of God; during which one of them plays
on a flute. They never cut their hair, nor cover
their heads, and always go barefooted; they have
liberty to quit their convent when they pleafe, and to
marry.
CADSAND, an iljand on the coaft of Dutch Flanders,
fituated at the mouth of the Scheld, whereby the
Dutch command the navigation of that river.
CADUCEUS, in antiquity, Mercury’s rod, or fceptre,
being a wand entwifted by two ferpents, borne by that
deity, as the enfign of his quality and office, given
him, according to the fable, by Apollo, for his feven-
. ftringed harp.
Wonderful properties are afcribed to this rod by
the poets, as laying men afleep, raifing the dead,
It is ufed alfo as a fymbol of peace. The caduceus,
as found on fome medals, is a common fymbol, figni-
fying good conduct, peace, and profperity.
CADUS, in antiquity, a wine-veflel of a certain capa¬
city, containing eighty amphorae, or firkins, each of
which, according to the beft accounts, held nine gal¬
lons.
CALCILIA, in zoology, a genus of ferpents belonging
to the amphibia clafs. The caecilia has no fcales; it
is fmooth, and moves by means of lateral rugae or
prickles. The upper lip is prominent, and furnifhed
with two tentacula. It has no tail. There are but
two fpecies of this ferpent, viz. i. The tentaculata,
has 135 rugae. It is about a foot long and an ipeh in
circumference, preferving an uniform cylindrical fhape
from the one end to the other. The teeth are very
fmall. It has fuch a refemblance to an eel, that it
may eafily be miftaken for . one ; but as it has neither
fins nor gills, it cannot be clafled with the fifties., It
is a native of America, and its bite is not poifonous.
2. The glutinofa has 340 rugae or prickles above
and ten below the anus. It is of a brownifh colour,
with a white line on the fide, and is a native of the
Indies.
CiEGUM, or Coecum, in anatomy, the blind-gut.
See p. 260. col. 2.
CAilMENT, in a general fenfe, any glutinous fubftance,
capable of uniting and keeping things together in clofc
cohefion: in this fenfe, under caement, are compre¬
hended mortar, folder, glue,, isc. but, ftriftly fpeak-
ing, the term caement only denotes a glutinous compo-
fition, ufed in caementing broken glafles, china-ware,
or earthen-ware.
One of the fineft, and at the fame time ftrongeft
caement for this purpofe, is the juice of garlic ftamped
in a ftone mortar: this, if the operation is done with
care, leaves little or no mark. Another caement is
made by beating the white of an egg very clear, and
mixing with it fine powdered quick-lime : or ifing-glafs,
powdered chalk, and a little lime may be mixed toge-
Von. II. Numb. 30. 3
) C iE R
ther, and diflblved in fair water. With tbefe, the
glaftes, 6c. are to be caemented, and th<-n fet in tl e
ftiade to dry; a caution which ftiotftd always be ob-
ferved, whichever of the above caements is ufed.
A caement for cracked "chemical-giaftes, that will
ftand the fire, may be thus prepared : take wheat flour,
fine powdered Venice glals, and pulverized chalk, of
each an equal quantity ; of fine brick-duft, one half of
the faid quantity; and a little fcraped lint: mix them
all together with the whites of eggs; then, fpreading
this mixture upon a linen cloth, apply it to the cracks
of the glafies, which muft be well dried before they
are ufed. Old varnifti is another csement that will
anfwer the fame purpofe.
Cement, among builders, a ftrong fort of mortar, u-
fed to bind bricks or ftones together for fome kind of
mouldings ; or in cxmenting a block of bricks for the
carving of capitals, fcrolls, or the like. There an;
two forts, 1. Hot casment, which is the moft commoa,
made of refin, bees-wax, brick-duft, and chalk, boiled
together. The bricks to be cemented with this kind,
muft be made hot with the fire, and rubbed to and
fro after the ctement is fpread, in the fame manner as
joiners do when they glue two boards together. 2.
Cold csement, made of Cheihire-cheefe, milk, quick¬
lime, and whites of eggs.. This csement is lefs ufed
than the former, and is accounted a fecret known
but to few bricklayers.
C/ement, among engravers, jewellers, 6c. a compo-
fition of fine brick-duft well fifted, refin, and bees-wax,
in ufe among thefe artificers to keep the metals to be
engraven or wrought on firm to the block; and alfa
to fill up what is to be chefleled.
Clement, in chemiftry, a kind of menftruum compound-
ed of fairs, fulphurs, and brick, reduced to dry pow¬
ders, and ftrewed betwixt plates of metal, in order to
raife their colour, or feparate one metal from another.
See Chemistry.
Clement-pots, or thofe jufed in the csementation of
metals, are made of fine potter’s clay, and that either
pure, or mixed with fand in different proportions.
CEMENTATION, in a general fenfe, the corroding
of metals in a dry form, by means of the fumes of
acid falts. See Chemistry, Part II.
CAEN, the capital of a county of the fame name in
Normandy, fituated on the river Orne, about feventy-
five miles well of Rouen, and thirty fouth-weft of
Havre de Grace: W. long. 2s', N. lat. 490 20'.
It has an univerfity, firft founded by king Henry
VI. of England, in 1431.
CAERFILLT, a town of Glamorganftiire, about five
miles north of Landaff: W. long. 30 1 c' and N.
lat. 51° 35'.
CAERITES, or C^eritum tabulje, in Roman anti¬
quity, tables or regifters in which the names of the
Casrites were regiftered. The people of Csere were
accounted dtizens of Rome, hut had no privilege of
voting; hence when a Roman citizen was degraded,
if a fenator, he was expelled the fenate; if a knight,
he loft the public borfe; and if a plebeian, his name
was inferted in the regifter of the Casrites; that is, he
B was
c s ( i
was fubjeft to all taxes, but incapable of voting or en¬
joying any public office.
CAERLEON, a market-town of Monmouthffiire, fitu-
ated on the river Uike, about fixteen miles fouth-weft
of Monmouth: W. long. 30, N. lat. 510 4c/.
CAERMARTHEN, the capital of Caermarthenffiire in
Wales, iituated upon the river Tivy, about five miles
from the fea.
CAERN ARYAN, the chief town of Caernarvanffiire in
Wales, fituated upon the river Menay.
CAERWIS, a market town in Flintffiire, in north Wales,
about five miles eaft of St Afaph, and four well of Flint:
W. long. 30 25', N. lat. 530 20'.
C2ESALPINIA, in botany, a genus of the decandria
monogynia clafs. The calix has five fegments, the
lowed of which is larged; the corolla eonfids of five
petals; the capfule is of the pod kind. There are
four fpecies, all natives of the Indies.
C .ESALPINOIDES, in botany, a fynonime of the
gleditfia. See Gleditsia.
■CjESAR, in Roman antiquity, a title borne by all the
emperors, fronii Julius Cssfar, to the dedru&ion of
the empire. It was alfo ufed as a title of didinftioft,
for the intended '6r prefumptive heir of the empire,
as King of the Romans is now ufed for that of the Ger¬
man empire.
This title took its rife from the furname of the fird
emperor, C. Julius Csefar, which, by a decree of the
fenate, all the fucceeding emperors were to bear. Un¬
der his fucceflbr, the appellation of Augudus being
appropriated to the emperors, in compliment to that
prince, the title Caefar was given to the fecond per-
ion in the empire, though dill it continued to be gi¬
ven to the fird ; and hence the difference betwixt C«-
far ufed Amply, and Caefar with the addition of Ira-
perator Augudus.
The dignity of Caefar remained the fecond of the
empire, till Alexius Comnenus having defied Nice-
phorus Meliffehus Caefar, by contradl ; and it being
neceffary to confer fome higher dignity on his own
brother Ifaacius, he created him Sebadocrator, with
the precedency over Meliffenus; ordering, that in all
acclamations, &c. Ifaacius Sebadocrator ffiould be
named the fecond, and Meliffenus Caefar, the third.
CAESARIAN operation, in midwifery. See Mid¬
wifery.
•C/E3ARIANS, c^farienfes, in Roman antiquity, were
officers or mioiders of the Roman emperors : They
kept the account of the revenues of the emperors, and
took poffeffion, in their name, of fuch things as de¬
volved, or were cohfifcated to them.
GVESTUS, in antiquity, a large gantlet made of raw
hide, which the wredlers made ufe of when they fought
at the public games.
This was a kind of leathern *drap, drengihened
with lead, or plates of Iron, which encompaffed the
hand, the wrid, and a part of the arm, asi well to de¬
fend thefe parts, as to enforce their blows.
Caistus, orCiESTUM, was alfo a kind of girdle, made
of wool, which the hufband untied for his fpoufe the
drift day of marriage, before they went to bed.
; ) C A G
This relates to Venus’s girdle, which Juno borrow*-
ed of her, to entice Jupiter to love her. See Ces-
tus.
CiESURA, in the ancient poetry, is when, in the fcan-
ning of a verfe, a word is divided fo, as one part
feems cut off, and goes to a different foot from the
red:; as,
Menti\ri no\li, nun\quam men\dacia\ profunt.
where the fyllables ri, li, quatn, and men, are cse-
furas.
Cassure, in the modern poetry, denotes a red, or paufe,
towards the middle of an Alexandrian verfe, by which
the voice and pronunciation are aided, and the verfe,
as it were, divided into two hemidichs. See Pause.
CAFFA, in commerce, painted cotton-cloths manufac¬
tured in the E. Indies, and fold at Bengal.
Caffa, or Kaffa, a city and port-town of Crim Tar¬
tary, fituated on the fouth-eall part of that peninfula :
E. long. 370, N. lat. 440 55'.
It is the mod confiderable town in the country, and
fives name to the draits of Caffa, which run from the
mxine or Black fea, to the Palus Meotis, or lea of
Azoph.
CAFFILA, a company of merchants or travellers, who
join together in order to go wirh more fecurity thro’
the dominions of the Grand Mogul, ana-through other
countries on the continent of the E. Indies.
The Caffila differs from a caravan, at lead in Per-
fk; for the caffila belongs properly to fome fovereign,
or to fome powerful company in Europe ; whereas a
caravan is a company of particular merchants, each
trading upon his own account. The Engliffi and
Dutch have each of them their caffila at Gambron.
Caffila on the coad of Guzerat or Cambaya, fignifies
a fmall fleet of merchant-ffiips.
CAFFRARIA, the country of the Caffers, or Hotten¬
tots, in the mod foutherly part of Africa, lying in the
form of a crefcent about the inland country of Mono-
motapa, between 35° S. lat. and the tropic of Capri¬
corn ; and bounded on the ead, fouth, and wed, by
the Indian and Atlantic oceans,
Mod of the fea-coads of this country are fubjetf to
the Dutch, who have built a fort near the mod fouthern-
promontory, called the Cape of Good-Hope.
CAG, or Keg, a barrel or veffel, that contains from
- four to five gallons.
CAGE, an inclofure made of wire, wickery or the like,
interwoven lattice-wife, for the confinement of birds,
or wild beads.
The cage, in the Roman amphitheatres, was a
place wherein favage animals were confined. It was
inclofed with iron rails, and open at top, fo as to be
feen to the bottom by the fpeflators.
CAGLI, a town of the province ofUrbino, in the pope’s*
territories, about twenty-five miles fouth of the city
ofUrbino: E. long. 140, N. lat. 430 i$'.
CAGLIARI, the capital of the ifland of Sardinia, fitu¬
ated on a bay of the fea in the fouthern part of that
ifland : E. long. 90 X2,) N. lat. 390.
CAGUI, in zoology, a fynonime of two fpecies of mon¬
key, viz. the jaccchus and cedipus. See Simia,
CAHERAH,
C A I (
CAHERAH, or Al-caherah, the capital of Egypt*
which we call Grand Cairo. See Cairo.
CAHLO, the name by which fome call the lupus pif-
cis or wolf-fiih.
CAHORS, the capital of the territory of Querci, in the
province of Guienne in France, fituated about forty-
five, miles north of Tholoufe: E. long. i°, N. lat.
44° 25/-
It is the fee of a bifliop, and has an univerfity.
CAHYS, a dry meafure for corn, ufed in fome parts of
Spain, particularly at Seville and at Cadiz. It is near
a bulhel of our meafure.
CAJANABURG, the capital of the province of Caja-
nia, or eaft Bothnia in Sweden, fituated on the north-
eaft part of the lake Cajania, about three hundred miles
north-eaft of Abo : E. long. 270, N. lat. 63° 50'.
CAJAZZO, a town of the province of Lavoro in the
kingdom of Naples, fituated about fixteen miles north-
ealt of the city of Naples: E. long. 15°, N. lat.
4l° 1S'-
CAJEPUT, an oil brought from the E. Indies, which
refembles that of cardamoms.
CAIFUM, a city of China, fituated in the province of
Honan, on the river Crocceus, three hundred and fifty
miles north-weft of Nanking : E. long. 113° 30/, and
N. lat. 350.
CAIMACAN, or Caimacam, in the Turkifh affairs,
a dignity in the Ottoman empire, anfwering to lieute¬
nant, or rather deputy, among us.
There are ufuaily two caimacans, one refiding at
Conftantinople, as governor thereof ; the other attend¬
ing the grand vizir, in quality of his lieutenant, fe-
cretary of ftate, and firft minifter of his council; and
gives audience to ambaffadors. Sometimes there is a
third caimacan, who attends the fultan ; whom he
acquaints with any public difturbances, and receives
his orders concerning them.
CAIMAN, or Caiman-islands, certain American
iflands lying fouth of Cuba, and north-weft of Ja¬
maica, between 8i° and 86° of W. long, and in 210
of N. lat.
They are moft remarkable on account of the fifhery
of tortoife, which the people of Jamaica catch here,
and carry home alive, keeping them in pens for food, ,
and killing them as they want them.
GAINIANS, or Cainites, in church-hiftory, Chii-
ftian heretics, that fprung up about the year 130, and
took their name from Cain, whom they looked upon
as their head and father : They faid, that he was
formed by a celeftial and almighty power, and that A-
bel was made but by a weak one.
This fefl: adopted all that was impure in the herefy
of the gnoftics, and other heretics of thofe times :
They acknowledged a power fuperior to that of the
Creator ; the former they called Wifdom, the latter.
Inferior Virtue : They had a particular veneration for
Korah, Abiram, Efau, Lot, the -Sodomites, and e-
fpecially Judas, becaufe his treachery occafioned the
death of Jefus Chrift: They even made ufe of a go-
fpel, which bore that falfe apoftle’s name.
GAINITOj in botany. SeeCtfRYSoPHYLLUM.
7 ) CAL
CAIRO, or Grand Cairo, the capital of Egypt, fi¬
tuated in a plain at the foot of a mountain, about two
miles eaft of the Nile, and 100 miles fouth of the
mouth of that river: E. long. 3;0, N. lat. 30°.
The town is ten miles in circumference, and full of
inhabitants. The caftle ftands on the fummit of a
hill, at the fouth end of the town, and is three miles
round. The Britifh and other European ftates have
their confuls and factors here, for the prote&ion of
trade.
CAIRO AN, a town of the kingdom of Tunis in A-
frica, fituated on the river Magrida, about eighty
miles fouth of Tunis : E. long. 90, N. lat. 36<).
CAINS, a name given to the Greeks in the ifle of Crete,
who revolt from the Turks to the Venetians.
CAISSON, in the military art, a wooden cheft, into
which feveral bombs are put, and fometimes only fil¬
led with gun-powder : This is buried under fome work
whereof the enemy intends to pofftfs themfelves, and,,
when they are mafters of it, is fired, in order to blow
them up.
Caisson is alfo ufed for a wooden frame or cheft, ufed
in laying the foundations of the piers of a bridge.
CAITHNESS. SccCathness.
CAKILE, in botany. See Bunias.
CALABA, in botany. See Calophyllum
CAL ABAS H-/rvp, in botany. See Crescentia.
CALABRIA, the moftToutherly part of the kingdom.:
of Naples, fituated over againft Sicily.
There are two provinces of Calabria called the Hi¬
ther and Farther Calabria, with refpeft to the city
of Naples; Cofenza being the capital of the former, .
and Rheggio of the latter.
CALADE, in the menage, the defcent or floping decli¬
vity of a rifing menage ground, being a fmall eminence
upon which we ride down a horfe feveral times, put¬
ting him to a fliort gallop, with his fore-hams in the
air, to make him learn to ply or bend his haunches, .
and form his ftop upon the aids of the calves of the •
legs, the ftay of the. bridle, and the cavefon feafonably
given.
CALAHORRA, a city of Old Caftilein Spain, .fituated
on the river Ebro, near the confines of Navarre, a-
bout fixty miles north-weft of Saragoffa : W. long. .
2°, N. lat. 420 zcx.
CALAIS, a port-town of Picardy- in France, fituated
on the Englifh channel, about twenty-two miles fouth-
eaft of Dover : E. long. 20, N. lat. 51
CALAMANCO, a fort of woolen fluff manufactured in
England and in Brabant. It has a fine glofs, and is
chequered-in the warp, whence the checks appear on¬
ly on the right fide. Some calamancos are quite
plain, others have broad ftripes adorned with flowers;
fome with plaimbroad ftripes, fome with narrow itripes,
and others watered.
CALAMINARIS, or Lapis Calaminaris, in na¬
tural hiftory, a kind of foffd, the general ore of zinc,
of a fpungy fubftance and a lax and cavernous tex¬
ture, yet-confiderably-heavy.
It is of no determinate lhape or fize, but is found
in maffes of a very various and irregular figure. It is,
when..
CAL ( S
when mod pure and perfeft, of a pale browmfh grey.
It is found in Germany, Saxony, Bohemia, and Eng¬
land. See Chemistry, Of zinc.
After roafting the calamine, in order to purge it
of fulphureous or arfenical matter, it is ufed by phy-
ficians in collyria againft defluxions of thin acrid hu¬
mours upon the eyes, for drying up moiflr running ul¬
cers, and healing excoriations.
CALAMINT, in botany. See Melissa,'and Men¬
tha.
CALAMITA, in natural biftory, a name given to fty-
rax. See Sty rax.
Calamita is fometimes alfo ufed for the magnet or
load-ftone.
CALAMITES. See Osteocolla.
CALAMUS, in botany, a genus of the hexandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix has fix leaves; it has no
corolla; the berry is imbricated, and contains but one
feed. There is but one fpecies, viz. the rotang, a
native of India.
Calamus aromaticus, or fweet-fcented flag, in the ma¬
teria medica, a fpecies of flag called acorus by Lin-
nteus. See Acorus. The root is generally looked
upon as a carminative and llomachic medicine, and as
fuch is fometimes ufed in pra&ice.
Calamus fcriptorius, in antiquity, a reed or rufli to
wnte with.
The ancients made ufe of ftyles to write on tables
covered with wax ; and of reed, or rulh, to write on
parchment, or Egyptian paper.
CALANGAY, in ornithology. See Psittacu s.
CALASH, or Calesh, a light and very low kind of
chariot, ufed chiefly for taking the air in parks and
gardens.
CALASIRIS, in antiquity, a linen tunic fringed at the
bottom, and worn by the Egyptians under a white
woolen garment; but this lalt they were obliged to
pull off when they entered the temples, being only al¬
lowed to appear then in linen habits.
CALATAJUD, a city of Aragon, in Spain, fituated
on the river Xalo, about fifty miles weft of Saragolfa:
W. long. 2° s', N. lat. 410 ij'.
CALATHUS, in antiquity, a balket, hamper, or pan¬
nier of ofiers, reeds, or twigs, for women to put their
work in, or to gather flowers in.
Calathus was alfo a veflel, or pan, for cheefe-curds
and milk ; alfo the name of a cup for wine, ufed in
facrifices.
CALATOR, in antiquity, was a public fcrvant, and a
freeman, fuch as a bailiff or crier, a fumner, to fum-
mon courts, fynods, and other public aflemblies.
CALATRAVA, a city of new Caftile, in Spain, fi¬
tuated on the river Guadiana, forty-five miles fouth of
Toledo: W. long. 40 20', N. lat. 390.
Knights o/Calatrava, a military order in Spain, in-
ftituted under Sancho III. king of Caftile, upon the
following occafion. When that prince took the ftrong
fort of Calatrava from the moors of Andalufia, he gave
it to the templars, who, wanting courage to defend it,
returned it him again. Then Don Reymond, of the
order of the Ciftercians, accompanied with feveral
) CAL
perfons of quality, made an offer to defend the place,
which the king thereupon delivered up to them, and
inftituted that order. It increafed fo much under the
reign of Alphonfus, that the knights defired they might
have a grand mafter, which was granted. Ferdinand
and Ifabella afterwards, with the confent of pope In¬
nocent VIII. reunited the grand mafterfhip of Cala¬
trava to the Spanifh crown ; fo that the kings of Spain
are now become perpetual adminiftrators thereof.
The knights of Calatrava bear a crofs gules, fluer-
delifed with green, &c. their rule and habit was ori¬
ginally that of the Ciftercians.
CALCADA, or St Domingo de Calcada, a city
of Old Caftile, in Spain, forty-eight miles eaft of Bur¬
gos : W. long. 30, N. lat. 420 ^(s .
CALCANEUM, or os Calc is, in anatomy. See
p. 186. col. i.
CALCAR, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
nautilus. See Nautilus.
Calcar, in glafs-making, a fort of oven, or reverbera¬
tory furnace, in which, being well heated, the cryftal
frit, or bollito, is made.
Calcar, in geography, a town of the duchy of Cleves,
and circle of Weftphalia, in Germany : E. long. 50
5o\ and N. lat. 51° qj'.
CALCARIOUS, in general, denotes fomething be¬
longing, to, or partaking of the nature of calx. See
Calx.
CALCARIUS lapis, in natural hiftory, the fame with
lime-ftone. See Lime.
CALCEARIUM, in antiquity, a term ufed to denote
the allowance made the foldiers to buy their Ihogs.
CALCEOLUS, in botany. See Cypripedium.
CALCINATION, in chemiftry, the reducing of fub-
ftances to a calx by fire. See,Chemistry.
CALCITRAPA, and Calqitrapoides, in botany.
See Centaurea.
CALCULUS, in natural hiftory, properly denotes a
little ftone or pebble. See Pebble.
Calculus, or calculus humanus, in medicine,
the ftone in the bladder or kidneys. See Medicine,
and Surgery.
Calculus alfo denotes a method of computation, fo
called from the calculi, or counters, anciently ufed for
this purpofe. Hence,
Calculus specialise or literalis, is the fame
with algebra. See Algebra.
Calculus diffcrentialis is a method of differencing
quantities, that is, of finding an infinitely fmall quan¬
tity, which being taken an infinite number of times,
fhall be equal to a given quantity. See Fluxions.
Calculus among mathematicians, a me¬
thod of differencing exponential quantities, and fum-
ming up the differentials of exponential quantities.
See Fluxions.
Calculus integralis, or summatorius, is a me¬
thod of fumming up differential quanties ; that is,
from a differential quantity given, to find the quantity
from whofe differencing the given differential refults.
See Fluxions.
CALDARIUM, in the ancient baths, a certain vault.
CAL (
or room, made fo as to colleft the vapours, and pro¬
duce fweating : whence it fignifies a hot houfe, bagnio,
ftove, or fweating-room.
CALEFACTION, the produftion of heat in- a body
from the aftion of fire, or that impulfe impreffed by a
hot body upon other bodies about it. This word is
ufed in pharmacy, by way of diitindtion from codtion,
which implies boiling ; whereas calefa&ion is only heat¬
ing a thing.
CALENBURG-CASTLE, the capital of a duchy of
the fame name, in Lower Saxony, in Germany, fi-
tuated upon the river Leine, about fifteen miles fouth
of Hanover : E. long. 90 40', and N. lat. 520 20 .
CALENDAR, a diftnbution of time, accommodated
to the various ufes of life, but more efpecially fuch as
regard civil and eccleliaftical polity. See Astrono¬
my, Of the divijion of time.
Julian Chriftian Calendar. See Astronomy, .0/'
. the divifion of time.
Gregorian Calendar. See Astronomy, Of the di-
vifion of time.
CALENDER, a machine ufed in manufactories, to prefs
certain woollen and filken Huffs, and linens, to make
them fmooth, even, and gloffy, or to give them vyaves,
or water them, as may be feen in mohairs and tabbies.
This inrtrument is compofed of two thick cylinders,
or rollers, of very hard and polilhed wood, round
which the Huffs to be calendered are wound : thefe
rollers are placed crofs-ways between two very thick
boards, the lower ferving as a fixed bafe, and the up¬
per moveable, by means of a thick fcrew, with a rope
faflened to a fpindle, which makes its axis : the up-
permoH board is loaded with large Hones weighing
20000 R>. or more. It is this weight that gives the
poliih and makes the waves on the Huffs about the
rollers, by means of a fhallow indenture or engraving
cut in it.
CALENDS, in Roman antiquity, the firfl day of each
month, fo called from the Greek [T«/e/«], to pro¬
claim : it being cuHomary, on thofe days, to proclaim
the number of holy-days in each month.
The Roman method of reckoning the days of their
months has foipething extremely Angular in it: in-
Head of computing forwards, in the natural order of
the numbers 1,2, 3, <bc. they reckoned backwards,,
in the manner expreffed in the following verfes :
Prima dies menfts cujufque eji dicla calends :
Sex Maius, nonas, Julius, Oflober, it Mars;
Shiatuor at reliqui: habet idus quilibet otto ;
Inde dies reliquos ornnes die ejj'e calendas ;
Shsas retro numerans, dices a menfe fequ^nte.
Hence to find the day of our month anfwering to that
of the calends, to the number of days in the preceding
month add two, and from this fum fubtrafting the
number of calends given, the remainder will be the
day of our month : thus the fourth of the calends of
June is found to anfwer to the twenty-ninth of May ;
and fo in other cafes.
CALENDULA, or Marygold, in botany, a genus of
the fyngenefia polygamia- neceflaria clafs. The re¬
ceptacle is naked ; it has no pappus ; the calix cpn-
Vol. II. Numb. 30. 3
9 ) CAL
fiHs of many equal leaves ; the feeds of the diik are
membranaceous. There are eight fpecies, none of
them natives of Europe. The fiowers of the calen¬
dula officinalis, or garden marygold, are faid to- be
aperient and attenuating, as alfo cordiac, alexiphar-
mic, and fudorific. They are principally celebrated
in uterine obftruftions, and for throwing out the fmall
pox.
CALF, in zoology, the young of the ox-kind. See
Bos.
Among fportfmen, the term calf is ufed for a hart
or hind of the firfl year : the fame term is alfo ufed
for the young of the whale.
Sea Calf. See Phoca.
Calf’s-/«c>s/, in botany. See Antirrhinum.
CALIACA, a town of Bulgaria, fituated upon the
Black-fea, belonging to the Turks.
CALIBER, or Caliper, properly denotes the diame-'
ter of anybody: thus we fay, two columns of the
- fame caliber, the caliber of the bore of a gun, the ca¬
liber of a bullet, itc.
Q,K\.\v,Y.v.-compa(fes, the name of an inflrument, made
either of wood, iron. Heel, or brafs : that ufed for
meafuring buliets confifls of two branches, bending in¬
wards, with a tongue fixed to one of them, ^hd the
other graduated in fuch a manner, that if the bullet be
compreffed by the ends of the two branches, and the
tongue be applied to the graduated branejj, it will fhew
the weight of the bullet.
Caliber alfo fignifies an inflrument ufed by carpenters,
. joiners, and bricklayers, to fee whether their work be
well fquared.
CALICUT, a town fituated on the Malabar co'afl, in
the hither peninfula of India, fubjedt to its o.wn
prince : E. long. 750, and N. lat. x i° 20'.
This was the firlt port the Portuguefe made in In¬
dia, after failing round the Cape of Good Hope.
CALIDUCT, in antiquity, a kind of pipes, or canals,
difpofed along the walls of houfes and apartments,
ufed, by the ancients, for conveying heat to feveral
remote parts of the houfe, from one common furnace.
CALIFORNIA. See Callifornia.
CALIMUS. See Callimus.
CALIN, a compound metal, whereof the C.hinefe make
tea-caniflers, and the like. The ingredients feem to
be lead and tin.
CALIPH, the fupreme ecclefiaflical dignity among the
Saracens ; or, as it is otherwife defined, a foveveign
dignity among the Mahometans, vefled with abfolute
authority in all matters relating both to religion and
policy.
It. fignifies in the Arabic, fuccefibr or vicar : the
Saracen princes affumed this title as -defendants from
Mahomet ; the caliphs bearing the fame relation to
Mahomet, that the popes pretend they do to Jefus
ChriH or St Peter. It is at this day one of the grand
fignior’s titles, as fuccefibr of Mahomet 1 and of the
fophi of Perfia, as fuccefibr of Ali.
CALIPPIC PERIOD, an improvement of the cycle of
Mcton, of nineteen years, which Calippus, a famous
Grecian aflronomer, finding in reality to contain nine-
C teen
CAL (
teen of Nabonaffar’s years, four days, and |4|> ^e>
to avoid fraflions, quadrupled the golden number, and
by that means made a new cycle of feventy-fix years ;
which time being expired, be fuppofed the lunation,
or changes of the moon, would happen on the fame
day of the month, and hour of the day, that they were
on feventy-lix years before.
CALIX. See Calyx.
CALIXTINS, in church-hiftory, a fedt of ChriiTians,
in Bohemia and Moravia : the principal point in which
they differed from the church, was the ufe of the cha¬
lice, or communicating in both kinds.
Caljxtins, is alfo a name given to thofe, among the
Lutherans, who follow the fentiments of George Ca-
lixtus, a celebrated divine, who oppofed the opinion of
St Augulline, on predeftination, grace, and free-will.
CALKA, a kingdom of Tartary, in Alia, to the eaft of
Siberia.
CALKING. See Caulking.
CALKINS, the prominent parts at the extremities of a
horfe-lhoe, bent downwards, and forged to a fort of
point.
Calkins are apt to make horfes trip ; they alfo oc-
calion blymes, and ruin the back fmev/s. If falhioned
in form of a hare’s ear, and the horn of a horfe’s heel
be pared a little low, they do little damage.; whereas
the great fquare'calkins quite fpoil the foot.
Calkins are either fingle or double, that is, at one
end of the Ihoe, or at both : thefe laft are deemed lels
hurtful, as the horfe can tread more even.
.CALL, among hunters, a leffon blown upon the horn,
to comfort the hounds.
CALLS, natural and artificial, among fowlers, a fport
much praftifed during the wooing feafon of partridges,
efpecially for taking cock-partridges ; for which they
put a hen into a cadge, to call and bring them near.
The hen-partridge Ihould be fet near a hedge, in a
thin, open, wire-cage, fo that Ihe maybe feen at a
good diftance : then the net, called hallier, Ihould be
placed quite round the cage, each part about the di-
flance of twenty feet: the fowler fhould retire behind
the hedge.
Artificial Calls are bell made of box, walnut-tree, or
the like : they are formed of the' bignefs of an hen’s
. egg, bored through from end to end ; about thy mid¬
dle there muft be a hole hollowed, within, to the bot¬
tom ; then have a pipe of a fwan’s quill, and the bone
of a cat’s foot, opened at one end, which muft be con¬
veyed into the hole at the end, and fo thruft into the
hole at the middle ; take afterwards a goofe-quill,
opened at both ends, and put it in at the other end of
the call; blow into the quill, and it will make the like
noife as the panridge-cock does.
CALLA, in botany, a genus of the gynandria polyan-
dria clafs. The fpatha is plain ; the fpadix is co¬
vered with flofcules ; it has no corolla ; the berry con¬
tains many feeds. There are three fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
CALLABAS, a town of Indoftan in Afia, upon the road
from Surat to Agra.
CALLAO, a port-town in a little ifland on the coaft of
io ) CAL
Peru, in South America, oppofite to Lima: W. lono
76°, and S. lat. 120.
CALLEN, a town of Ireland, in the county x>f Kilken¬
ny, and province of Leinfter, about ten miles fouth-
weft of Kilkenny : W. long. 7° 22', and N. lat. 52°
25'-
CALLICHTYS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of filurus. See Silurus, '
CALLICO, in commerce, a kind of linen manufacture,
made of cotton, chiefly in the Eaft Indies, fome of
which are painted with various flowers of different co¬
lours ; and others that are never dyed, having a ftripe
of gold and filver quite through the piece ; and at each
end they fix a tifiue of gold, filver, and filk, inter¬
mixed with flowers. This manufacture is brought hi¬
ther by.the Eaft-India company, and is re-exported
by merchants to other parts of Europe. The general
wear of ftained or printed India calicoes in this nation
having become a general grievance, and occafioning
unfpeakable diftrefs upon our own manufacturers, they
were prohibited by flat. 7 Geo. I. cap. vii,
CALLIDRYS, in ornithology, the trivial name of a
ipecies of motacilla. See Motacilla.
CALLIFORNIA, a large country of the Weft Indies,
lying between 116° and 138° W. long, and between
230 and 46° N. lat. It is uncertain whether it be a
peninfula or- an ifland.
CALLIGONUM, in botany, a genus of the polyandria
digyniaclafs. ’The calix has five leaves ; the petals are
four ; it has two ftyli; and the capfule is divided into
two partitions, each containing two feeds. There is
but one fpecies, viz. the polygonoides, a native of
mount Ararat.
CALLIGRAPHUS, in antiquity, a copift or fcriviner,
who tranfcribed, in a fair hand, what the notaries had
taken down in notes, or minutes, being generally in a
kind of cypher or fliort-hand, which, as they were in
that hand, being underftood by few, were'copied over
fair and at length by perfons who had a good hand,
for fale, foe.
CALLING the houfe, in the Britilh parliament, is the
calling over the members names, every one anfwering
to his own, and going out of the houfe, in the order
in which he is called : this they do, in order to dif-
cover whether there be any perfons there not returned
by the clerk of the crown ; or if any member be abfent
without leave of the houfe.
CALLIONYMUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties be¬
longing to the order of jugulares. The upper lip is
doubled up; the eyes are very near each other ; the
membrane of the gills has fix radii; the operculum is
fliut ; the body is naked ; and the belly-fins are at a
great diftance from each other. There are three fpe¬
cies of callionymus, viz. 1. The lyra, with the firft
bone of the back-fin as long as the body of the animal,
and a cirrhus at the anus. It is of the Atlantic. 2,
The dracunculus, with the firft bone of the bacLfin
fhorter than its body ; which is of afpotted yellow co¬
lour. It frequents the (hoies of Genoa and Rome.
3. The indicus, has a fmooth head with longitudinal
wrinkles ; the lower jaw is a little longer than the up¬
per
CAL (
per one ; the tongae is obtufe and emarginated ; the
apertures of the gills are large : it is of a livid colour,
and the anus is in the middle of thejjody. It is a1 na¬
tive of Alia.
CALLISTEA, in Grecian antiquity, a Leibian feftival,
wherein the women ^relented themfelves in Juno’s
temple, and the prize was affigned to the faired.
There was another of thefe contentions at the fellival
of Ceres Eleufinia, among the Parrhalians, and ano¬
ther among the Eleans, where the mod beautiful man
was prefented with a complete fuit of krmour, which
he confecrated to Minerva, to whofe temple he walk¬
ed in proceflion, being accompanied with his friends,
who adorned him with ribbands, and crowned him
with a garland of myrtle.
CALLOSUM corpus, in anatomy. See p 285. c. 2.
CALLUS, or Callosit y, in a general fenfe, any cu¬
taneous, corneous, or ofleous hardnefs, whether na¬
tural or preternatural : but mod frequently it means
the callus generated about the edges of a fra&ure, pro¬
vided by nature to prelerve the fradtured bones, or di¬
vided parts, in the fituation in which they are replaced
by the furgeon.
CALM, in the fea language, is when there is no wind
dirring.
That tradl of fea, to the northward of the equator,
between 40 and io° of latitude, lying between the me-
tidians of Cape Verde, and of the eadermod idand of
that name, feems to be a place condemned to perpetual
calms : the little winds that are being only feme bid¬
den uncertain gabs of very fmall continuance, and lefs
extent. The Atlantic ocean, near the equator, is
very much fubjett, nay, always attended with thefe
calms.
CALMAR, the capital of the province of Gothland, in
Sweden, fituated on the coad of the Baltic feaj about
forty miles north of Carelfcroon : E. long. 160, and
N. lat. {6° 40'.
CALMUCKS, certain wandering tribes or herds of Tar¬
tars, inhabiting the country north of the Gafpian fea,
under the protedion of Ruffia
CALNE, a borough-town of Wiltbiire, about twenty
miles north of Salilbury, which fends two members to
parliament : W. long. 20, and N. lat. 510 gcA
CALOGERI, in church-hid'ory, monks of the Greek
church, divided into three degrees, the novices, call¬
ed archari; the ordinary profeded, called michroche-
mi; and the more perfed, called megalochemi : they
are likewife divided into coenobites, anchorets, and
reclufes. The coenobites are employed in reciting their
office from midnight to fun-fet ; they are obliged to
make three genuflexions at the door of the choir, and
returning, to bow to the right and to the left, to their
brethren. The anchorets retire from the converfation
of the world, and live in hermitages, in the neigh¬
bourhood of the monaderiesj they cultivate a little
fpot of ground, and never go out but on Sundays and •
holy-days, to perform.their devotions at the next mo-
nadery. As for the reclufe, they (hut themfelves up
in grottos and caverns, on the tops of mountains,
which they never go out of, abandoning themfelves.
i ) CAL
entirely to Providence : They live on the alms fent
them by the neighbouring monaderies.
-CALOMEL, or dulcified fublimate of mercury, is pre¬
pared in the following manner. Take of corrolive
fublimate, one pound; purified quick filver, nine
ounces. Having powdered the fublimate, add to it
the quick-fdver, and digeb them together in a matrafs,
with a gentle fand heat, until they unite ; then increa-
fing the heat, let the mixture be fublimed. The fub-
limed matter, freed from the acrimonious part at top
and fuch mercurial globules as happen to appear di-
bin£t in it, is to be reduced into powder, and fubli¬
med again; and this fublimation mud be repeated fix
times. This dulcified mercury, or calomel, is one of
the bed preparations for general ufe. The dofe, for
raifing a falivation, is ten or fifteen grains, taken in
the form of a bolus, or pills, every night or oftener,
till the ptyalifm begins. As an alterant and diaphore¬
tic, it is given in doles of five or fix grains, a purga¬
tive being oecafionally interpofed, to prevent its afFeid-
ing the mouth. It anfwers however much better
when given in fmaller quantities, as one, two, or three
grains every morning and evening, in cohjun<5t;on with
fuch fubdances as determine its adticn to the fkin, as
the extra# or relin of guaicum; the patient at the
fame time keeping warm, and drinking freely of
warm diluting liquors. By this method of managing ,
it. obdinate, cutaneous, and veneral didempers have
been fuccefsfully cured, without any remarkable in-.
creafe of the fenfible evacuations.
CALOPHYLLUM, 'in botany, a genus of the polyan-
dria monogynia clafs. The corolla confids of five pe¬
tals ; the calix has five teeth ; and the drupa is globu-
Jar. There are but two ipecies, viz. theinophyUum,
and calaba, both natives of India.
CALOTTE, a cap or coif of hair, fatin, or other duff:
an- ecclefiadicai ornament in mod popiffi- countries.
See Cap.
Calotte1, in architeflure, a round cavity or depreffure,
in form of a cap or cup, lathed and pladered, ufed to
diminifh the rife or elevation of a moderate chapel,
cabinet, alcove, which, without fuch an expedient,
would be too high for other pieces" of the apartment.
CALPE, the mountain, at the foot of which, towards
the fea, Gibraltar bands. It is half a league in height
towards the land, and fo deep, that there is no ap¬
proaching it on that fide.
CALQUING, or Calking, a term ufed in painting,
<ac. where the backfide of any defign is covered with
a black or red colour^ and the brokes* or lines, tra¬
ced through, on a waxed plate, wall, or other mat¬
ter, by paffing lightly over each broke of the defign
with a point, which leaves, an impredidn of the colour
on the plate or wall.
CALTHA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria poly-
gynia clafs. It has no callx; there are five petals;
and the capfules are , many, containing a great number
of feeds. There is but one.fpeeies, viz, the paludrk,
or mardi-marygold, a native of Britain.
Caltrop, in botany, the Englilh name of the tribulus.
See Tribulus. .
CALVARIA,..
CAL ( r
■'CALVARIA, in anatomy, the hairy fcalp. . See p. i j i.
Calvary, in heraldry, a crofs fo called, becaufe it re-
fembles the crofs on which our Saviour luffered. It
is always fet upon fteps.
-CAL VI, a town of the province of Lavoro, in the king¬
dom of Naples, fituated near the fea, about fifteen
miles-north of the city of Naples : E. long. 140 45',
and N.-lat. 410 15'.
Calvi is alfo the name of a fea-port in the ifland of Cor-
fica, fitu.ited on a bay, on the weft fide of the illand,
about forty miles fouth-weft of Baftia: E. long, 90
5', and N. lat. 420 16.
CALVINISTS, in church-hiftory, thofe who follow
the opinions of John Calvin, one of the principal re¬
formers of the church, in the XVIth century, a per-
fon of great parts and induftry, and of confiderable
learning; whole dodtrine ftill fubfifts in its greateft
purity at Geneva, where it was firft broached, and
from whence it was propagated. This is the prevail¬
ing religion of the United Provinces. In England,
it is confined ampng the diflenters ; and, in Scotland,
it is the only orthodox faith.
The Calvinifts are great advocates for the abfolute-
nefs of God’s decrees, and hold that eledlion and re¬
probation depend on the merp will of God, without
any regard to the merit or demerit of mankind; that
he affords to the eledt an irreliftible grace, a faith that
they cannot lofe, which takes away the freedom of
will, and neceffitates all their adtions to virtue.
The Calvinifts believe that God foreknew a deter¬
minate number, whom he pitched upon to be perlbns,
in whom he would manifeft his glory; and that ha¬
ving thus foreknown them, he predeftinated them to
be holy, in order to which he gives them an irrefifti-
ble grace, which makes it impoffible for them to be
otherwife.-
CALVITIES, or Calvitium, in medicine, baldnefs,
or a want of hair, particularly on the finciput, occa-
fioned by the moifture of the head, which Ihould feed
it, being dried up, by fome difeafe, old age, or the
immoderate ufe of powder, <&c. See Alopecia.
CALUMET, a fymbol of peace among the Indians,
in the north of America ; It is made of a red done,
like our marble ; the head refembles our tobacco-pipes,
but larger ; and is fixed on a hollow reed, to hold it
for fmoking : They adorn it with fine wings of feveral
colours, and is the calumet of the fun, to whom they
prefent it, efpecially if they want fair weather, or
rain. This pipe is a pafs and fafe conduft amongft all
the allies of the nation who has it given : in all em-
baffies the embaffador carries it as an emblem of peace,
.and it always meets with a profound regard; for the
favages are generally perfuaded, that a great misfor-
foitune would befal them, if they violated the public
faith of the calumet.
CALX, properly fignifies lime, but is alfo ufed by che-
mifts and phyficians for a fine powder remaining after
the calcination or corrofion of metals and other mi¬
neral fubftances. See Chemistry.
Calx antitnonii. See Chemistry, Of antimony.
Calx nativa, in natural hiftory, a kind of marly
: ) CAM
earth, of a dead whitilh colour, which, if thrown in¬
to water, makes a confidefable bubbling and hiffmg
noife, and hat, without previous burning, the quality
of making a casment like lime, or plafter of Pans.
Calx viva, or quick-lime, that whereon no water has
been call, in contradiftmction to lirne which has been
flaked by pouring water on it. See Chemistry,
Of lime.
Calx, in anatomy. See Calcaneum.
CALYCISTAl, an appellation given by Linnaeus to
thofe botanifts who have clafied plants according to
the different ftrudure of the calyx, or cup of the flow¬
er ; fuch was Magnolius.
CALYPTRA, among botanifts, a thin membranaceous
involucrum, ufually of a conic figure, which covers
the parts of frudification. The capfules of moft of
the moffes have calyptrae. See Botany.
CALYX, among botanifts, a general term exprefling
the cup of a flower, or that part of a plant which
furrounds and fupports the other parts of the flower.
The cups of flowers are very various in their ftruc-
ture, and on that account diftinguilhed by feveral names,
as perianthium, involucrum, fpatha, gluma, <&c. See
Botany.
CAM, a river, anciently called Grant, which, arifing
in Hertfordftiire, runs north-eaft by Cambridge, and
afterwards continues its courfe northwards, to tbe ifle
of Ely, where it falls into the river Qufe.
CAMAIA, in natural hiftory,, a genus of the femipellu-
cid gems, approaching to the onyx ftrudure, being
compofed of zones, and formed on a cryftalline bafis;
but having their zones very broad and thick, and laid
alternately on one another, with no common matter
between; ufually lefs tranfparent, and more debaled
with earth, than the onyxes.
1. One fpecies of tbe camsea is the dull-looking
onyx, with broad black and white zones; and is the
camsea of the moderns, and the Arabian onyx : This
fpecies is found in Egypt, Arabia, Perfia, and the
Eaft Indies. 2. Another fpecies of the camsea is the
dull, broad-zoned, green and white camsea, or the
jafpi-cameo of the Italians: It is found in the Eafi:
Indies, and in fome parts of America. 3. The third
is the hard camaea, with broad white and chefnut-co¬
loured veins. 4. The hard camaea, with bluifti,
white, and flelh-coloured broad veins, being the far-
donyx of Pliny’s time, only brought from the Eaft
Indies.
CAMAIEU, a term in painting, when there is only
one colour, the lights and fhades being of gold, or on
a golden and azure ground. It is chiefly ufed to re-
prefent baflo-relievos.
CAMALDULIANS, a religious order founded by St
Romauld, in a little plain, on the mount Apennine,
called Camaldalia, fituated in the ftate of Florence.
The manner of life firft: enjoined this order was,
that they dwelt in feparate cells, and met together on¬
ly at the time of prayer : Some of them, during the
two lents of the year, obferved an inviolable filence ;
and others, for the fpaceof an hundred days. On Sun¬
days and Thurfdays they fed on herbs, and the reft of
Plafe XJX.
CAM (
the week only on bread and water. Thefe conftitu-
tions were, however, a little moderated fome time af¬
terwards. This hermitage is now accounted very
rich. .
CAMARA, in botany. See Lantana.
CAM ARAN A, an ifland of Arabia in the Red fea, fi-
tuated in 15 0 N. lat,
CAMBAIA, a city of the province of Cambaia, or Gu-
; zarat, in the higher peninfula of India ; it is a very
large city, and had once a great trade, now removed
to Surat : E. long. 720, and N. lat. 230 30'.
CAMAYES, in commerce, cotton linens made at Ben¬
gal, at Madrafs, and fome other places on the coalt
of Coromandel.
CAMBER-among builders, a piece of timber in
an edifice, cut archwife, or with an obtufe angle in
.the middle, commonly ufed in platforms, as church-
leads, and on other occafions where long and llrong
beams ^re required.
CAMBLET, or Camlet, a plain Huff, compofed of
a warp and woof, which is manufadtured on a loom,
with two treddles, as linens and flannels are.
There are camblets of feveral forts, fome of goat’s
hair, both in the warp and woof; others, in which
the warp is of hair, and the woof half hair and half
filk; others again, in which both the warp and the
woof are of wool; and laftly, fome of which the
warp is of wool and the umof of thread. Some are
dyed in thread, others are dyed in the piece, others
are marked or mixed; fome are flripped, fome wea¬
ved or watered, and fome figured.
Camblets are proper for feveral ufes, according to
their different kinds and qualities ; fbme ferve to make
garments both for men and women ; fome for bdd-cur¬
tains ; others for houfehold-furniture, drc.
CAMBODIA, the capital of a kingdom of the fame
name in India, beyond the Ganges: E. long. 104°,
N. lat 120 30',
The kingdom of Cambodia extends from 90 to 150
of N. lat. being bounded by the kingdom of Laos on
the north, Cochin-china on the eaft, the Indian ocean
on the fouth, and by the bay of Siam on the weft.
CAMBRAY, a city in the French Netherlands, fituated
on the river Schelde, near its fource : E. long. 30 x j7,
and N. lat. 50° l5,.
It is a large and well-built pity, confiderable for its
linerr manufa&ure, efpecially cambricks, which took
their name from hence.
CAMBRICKS, a fpecies of very fine white linen, made
of flax at Cambray.
CAMBRIDGE, the capital of Cambridgefliire, fituated
upon the river Cam, about fifty-five miles nortlx of
London, and fixty north-eaft of Oxford.
Cambridge is moft remarkable on account of its uni-
verfity, which confifts of fixteen colleges, wherein are
educated about fifteen hundred Undents. There are
fourteen parifhes in the town, which is faid to contain
about fix thoufand inhabitants.
New Cambridge, a town of New- England, about
'three miles weft of Bolton; likev/ife remarkable for
Vgl. II. No. 30. 3
13 ) G A M
an univerfity, confifting of three colleges : W. long.
70° 4', and N. lat. 420.
CAMEL, in zoology. See Camelus.
CAMELFORD, a borough-town of Cornwall, about
twenty miles weft of Launcefton: W. Ions;, c0, and
N. lat. 50° 40’.
It fends two members to parliament.
CAMELIA, in botany, a genus of the monodelphia po-
lyandria clafs. 'The calix is imbricated, and confifts
of many leaves, the anterior of which are longeft.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the japonica, a native
of China and Japan.
CAMELOPARDALIS, in zoologj', the trivial name
of a fpecies of cervus. See Cervus.
CAMELUS, or Camel, in zoology, a genus of qua¬
drupeds belonging to the order of pecora. The cha-
rafters of the camel are thefe : It has no horns, it has
fix foreteeth in the under-jaw; the laniard are wide fet,
three in the upper, and two in the lower jaw; and there
is a fiflure in the upper lip, refembiing the cleft in the
lip of a hare. The Ipecies are four, viz. 1. The drome-
darius, or African camel, (Plate LIX. fig. 2.) with one
bunchy or protuberance on the back. I t has four cal¬
lous protuberances on the fore-legs, and two on the
hind ones. The hoof, or rather callous fkin of their
feet, which is fofter than the hoofs of other animajs,
enables the camel to walk along the fandy paths of
warm climates with greater eafe ; by yielding to the
preflure, it is not fo fubjetf to be injured by fritfion.
The ftrutfure and conftitution of the camel is admira¬
bly adapted to the climate wdiich produces them. In
Africa and Arabia, where this animal is moft frequent,
and is employed in carrying all kinds of burdens, there
is great fcarcity of water. The camel has often been
obfervednto travel longer than any other creature with¬
out drink. This it is enabled to do, from a Angular
conftruAion in its ftomachs. It is one of the rumina¬
ting animals, and has four ftomachs. At the top of
the fecond ftomach, there are feveral fquare holes,
which are the orifices of about twenty cavities or facks,
placed between the two membranes which compofethe
fubftance of this ftomach. Thefe facks are fo many
refervoirs which they fill over and above what fatisfies
their prefent thirft, and ferve for fupplying them with
water in long journeys through the dry and fandy de¬
farts, where wells or rivers are feldpm to be met with.
Travellers, when much oppreffed with drought, are
fometimes obliged to kill their camels, in order to
have a fupply of drink from thefe refervoirs. The ca¬
mel carries very heavy burdens, andYravels long, but
with a flow pace. They have fometimes been known
to travel feveral days without a frefh fupply of water.
When fatigued, they lie on their breaft. 2. The Badtri-
anus, or Baftrian camel (fig. 3.), has two bunches on the
back, the hindmoft of which is by much the largeft.
It is a native of Africa, and is more rardy to be met
with than the dromedary. It is alfo much fwifter h:
its motion. 3. The glama, or South-American ca-
mtl-ftieep, has a fmojoth ikin, and very fiiort hair; it
has a bunch or protuberance on the .breaft, which fe-.
cretes
CAM (H) CAM
cretes a liquor. They are very impatient of cold ; are crifices to the gods, but more efpecialiy attended the
eafily tamed, and carry burdens of about fifty or fixty flamen dialis.
pounds weight. When reftive, they are pufhed on by CAMIS, or Kamis, in the Japonefe affairs, denote the
iqueezing their teliicles. When enraged by their dri- ' deified fouls of illuftrious perfonages, believed to in-
ver, they throw out from their mouth a liquor which tereft themfelves in the welfare of their countrymen :
corrodes and makes the Ikin rife into Llifters. 4. The In which fenfe they anfwer to the deified heroes of an-
pacos, or Iheep of Chili, has no bunch on the back. tiquity. See Hero.
It is covered with a fine valuable wool, which is of a CAMISARDS, a name given by the French to the
blood-red colour on the back of the animal, and white Calvinifts of the Cevennes, who formed a league, and
on the belly. It is unfit for carrying burdens, and is took, up arms in their own defence, in 1688.
kept principally for the fake of the wool, and the CAMLETINE, a flight (fuff, made of hair and coarfe
flefh, which is exceedingly well-tafled. filk, in the manner of camblet. It is now out of fa*
CAMERA obfcurct, in optics, a machine reprefenting fliion.
an artificial eye, wherein the images of external ob- CAMMIN, a port-town of Brandenburg-Pomerahia in
jedls are exhibited diltindtly, in their native colours,; Germany, fituated on the eafter-n mouth of the river
either inverted or eredh See Optics.
CAMERARIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The flower of which is a petal of a
funnel-form, with a cylindrical long tube, ventricofe
both at the bafe and top, and a plane limb divided
into five lanceolated fegments: The fruit is compofed
of two oblong follicles, bent horizontally, obtufe at
both ends, and fending out a lobe on each fide,, near
the bafe ; they have one cell, with one valve, contain¬
ing numerous, oval, and imliricated feeds, inferred in
a large oval membrane at the bafe. There are two
fpecies, viz. the latifolia, and anguftifolia, both na¬
tives of America.
CAMERATED, among builders, the fame with vault¬
ed or arched.
GAMERET-BAY, in the province of Britany in
France, forms the harbour of Brelt. See Bilest.
GAMERINO, a town of the ecclefiaftical ftate in I-
taly.
CAMERLINGO, according to Ducange, fignified for¬
merly the pope’s or emperor’s treafurer: At prefent,
camerlingo is nowhere ufed, but at Rome, where it
notes the cardinal who governs the ecclefiallical ftate,
and adminifters juftice. It is the moft eminent office at
the court of Rome, becaufe he is at the head of the
treafury. During a vacation of the papal chair, the
cardinal camerlingo publiffies edifts, coins money, and
exerts every other prerogative of a fovereign prince 'r
he has under him a treafurer-general, auditor-general,
and twelve prelates called clerks of the chamber.
GAMERONIANS, a party of' prefbyterians, which
fprung up in Scotland in the reign of king Charles II.
They affirmed that the king had forfeited his right to
the crown, by breaking the folemn league and cove¬
nant, which were the terms on which he received it.
They pretended both to dethrone and excommunicate
him; and broke out into an-open rebellion. Upon the
revolution, they were reconciled to the kirk, and their
preachers fubmitted to the general aftembly of the
church of Scotland,, in 1690. That fed is now great¬
ly declined. They are few in number,-and. fplit into
many parties.
CAMERY, or Frounce, in korfes. SeeTROUNCE.
C.AMILLI, and Camilla, in Roman antiquity, a cer¬
tain number, of boys and girls, who.affifted in the far
Oder, about thirty miles north of Stetin : E. long..
1 50, N. lat. 540.
CAMP, the ground upon which an army pitch their tents.
It is marked out by the quarter-mafter general, who
appoints every regiment their ground.
The chief advantages to be minded in chufing a
camp for an army, are, to have it near the water, in a
country of forage, where the foldiers may find wood
for dreffing their vifluals ; that it have a free commu¬
nication with garrifons, and with a country from
whence it may be fuppiied with proviftons ; and, if
poffible, that it be fituated on a rifing ground, in a
dry gravelly foil. Befides,. the advantages of the
ground ought to be confidered, as marlhes, woods,
rivers, and inclofures ; and if the camp be near the
enemy, with no river or marfh to cover it, the army
ought to be intrenched. An army always encamps
fronting the enemy ; and generally in two lines, run¬
ning parallel about five hundred yards diftance ; the
horie and dragoons, on the wings, and the foot in the
centre: Sometimes a body of two, three, or four bri¬
gades is encamped behind the two lines, and is called
the body of referve. The artillery and bread-wag¬
gons are generally encamped in the rear of the two
lines. A battalion of foot is allowed eighty or an hun¬
dred paces for its camp ; and thirty or forty for an
interval betwixt one battalion and another. A fqua-
dron of horfe is allowed thirty for its camp, and thirty,
for an interval, and more if the ground will allow it.
The difpofition of the Hebrew encampment was.at.
firft laid out by God himfelf. Their camp was of a
quadrangular form, furrounded with an inclofure:of
the height of ten hands-breadth. It made a fquare
of twelve miles in compafs about the tabernacle ; and,
within this was another, called the. Levites camp.
The Greeks had alfo their camps, fortified with gates*
and ditches. The Lacedemonians made their camp
of a round figure, looking, upon that as the moft per-
fe<3 anddefenfible of any form : We are not, however,
to imagine, that they thought this form fo effential
to. a camp, as never to be difpenfed with when the
circuraftance of the place required it. Of the reft,of
the Grecian camps, it maybe obferved, that the moft
valiant of the foldiers were placed at the extremities,
the reft in the middle. Thus we learn from Homer,
that
CAM (
that Achilles and Ajax were polled at the ends of the
camp before Troy, as bulwarks on each fide of the
reft of the princes.
The camps of the Romans were generally of an ex-
a&'fquare form, or elfe oblong; though this, without
doubt, was often accommodated to the fituation of the
place. They were always fortified, and a very exa&
difcipline maintained in them, in order to prevent fur-
prifes from the enemy.
Camp is alfo ufed, by the Siamefe, and fome other na¬
tions in the E Indies, as the name of the quarters
which they affign to the foreigners who come to trade
with them.
In thefe camps, every nation forms, as it were, a
particular town, where they carry on all their trade,
not only keeping all their ware-houfes and Ihops there,
but alfo live in thefe camps with their whole families.
The Europeans, however, are fo far indulged, that at
Siam, and almoft every where elfe, they may live ei¬
ther in the cities or fuburbs, as they (hall judge moll
convenient.
CAMPAGNA, in geography. See Campania.
CAMPAIGN, in the art of war, denotes the fpace of
time that an army keeps the field, or is incamped, in
oppofition to quarters.
CAMPANIA, a city of the hither principate in the king¬
dom of Naples. fituated about t!,iny-five miles fouth-
eaft of the city of Naples : E. long. 15 ° 30 , N. lat.
4° 45/-
Campania, or Campagna di Roma, a province of
- the pope’s territories in Italy, extending from the city
of Rome fouth-eaft, as far as the frontiers of the king¬
dom, of Naples.
CANPANIFORM, or Campanulated, an appella¬
tion given.to flowers refembling a.bell,
GAMPANINI, a name given to a marble of Italy, dug
out of the mountains of Carrara, becaufe when it- is
worked it refounds like a bell..
CAMPANULA, or Bell-flower, in botany, a genus
of the pentandria monogynia clafs. The corolla, is
campaniform or bell-lhaped, the bottom of which is do¬
led with five valvulous nedaria ; the ftigma is trifid ;
and the capfule is below the flbv/er, and opens at the
fides. There are forty-one fpecies of campanula,: only
nine of which are natives of Britain, viz the rotundi-
folia, or lefler round-leaved bell flower; the patula, or
field bell-flower; the uniflora, or mountain bell-flower;
the rapnnculus, or rampions ; the latifolia,. or giant
throat-wort; the tracheluna, great throat-wort, orCan-
terbury bells; and the glomerata, lefler throat-wort,
or Canterbury-bells.
CAMPBELL-TOWN, a parliament town of Argyle-
(hire in Scotland, .fituated on the eaftern (bore of
Kintire, about ten miles weft of the ifland.of Arrau ; •
Whlong. 50; \d, N- lat. 55° 35'.
CAMPDEN, a market-town in Gloucefterfhire, about
eighteen, miles north-eaft, of Gloucefter: W. longr.
i° 5cr, and N. lat. 52°.
CAMPEACHY, or Campechy, a town of the pro¬
vince of. Jucatan, on the bay or gulf of Mexico: W.
long, 93°, N. lat. 19°.
5 ) C A M
Campeachy-wood, in botany. See HiEMAro-
.XYLUM.
CAMPEN, a port-town, in the provine of Overyffel,.
in the united Netherlands, near the mouth of the ri¬
ver Iflel, about forty-two miles north-eaft of Am-
fterdam: E. long. y° 4c/, and N. lat. 520 35'.
CAMPHOR, or Camphire, a folid concrete juice
extraded from the wood and roots of the laurus cam-
phora, which grows in Japan. The camphor is ex-
traded in the fame way by which we extrad effential
oils. As it firft fublimes from the wood, it appears
brownifh, compofed of femipellucid grains mixed with
dirt. In this (late it is exported by the Dutch, and
purified by a' fecorid fublimation ; after which it is re¬
duced to loaves, probably by fufion in clofe veflels,
and in this form it is fold to us. Pure camphor is
very white, pellucid, fomewhat unduous to the touch ;
of a bitterifti, aromatic, acrid tafte, yet accompanied
with a fenfe of coolnefs. It has a fragrant fmell,
fomewhat like that of rofemary, but much ftronger.
It is totally volatile and inflammable ; foluble in vinous
fpirits, oils, and mineral acids; but not in water, al¬
kaline liquors, or the vegetable acids Camphor is
efteemed one of the moft efficacious diaphoretics, and
has long been celebrated in fevers, malignant and epi¬
demical diftempers. In deliria, where opiates fail of
procuring fleep, this medicine frequently (ucceeds.
Jrtificidl Camphor is prepared with gum-fandarach
and white vinegar diftilled,. kept twenty days in horfe-
dung, and afterwards expofed a month to the fun to -
dry, at the end of which the camphor is found in
form of the cruft of a white loaf. This is alfo called
juniper-gum, and maftic.
Camphor-tree. See Laurus:
CAMPHORATA, in botany. See Folycnemum.
CAMPION, in botany. See Lychni-s.
CAMPOIDES, in botany. . See Scorpiurus.
CAMPREDON, a town of Catalonia, in Spain, about r
fifty miles north.of Barcelona.: E. long. 20, and N.
lat. 420 20 .
Campus Maii, in ancient ■ cnftoms, an anniverfary af-
fembly of our anceftors held on May-day, when they
confederated together for defence of the kingdom a-
gainft all its enemies.
Campus martius, among the Romans,: a field,'by the
,. fide of the Tiber,: where the youth exercifed them-
felves in warlike exercifes, . It was .fo called, on ac¬
count of a temple that ftood on it, confecrated to the
god Mars. The confuls Brutus and Collatinus made
n the place for holding the comitia or aflemblies of
the people, and in after-times it was adorned .with' a s.
great quantity of fine ftatues.
CAMUS, a perfon with a low flat nofe, .hollowed in '
the middle.
The Tartars are.: great admirers of camtts beauties.
Rubruquis obferves, that the wife of the great jeh-
gbis Kan, a .celebrated .beauty, had only two .holes
for a nofe.
CAN, in the fea-language, .as can-pump, a veftel, where¬
with feamen pour water into the pump to make it go.
Can-buoy, a larger fize of buoy, ufed to difcover dan- -
gerous :
CAN ’( 16
'gerous rocks and flielves, by being placed over them.
Cav-hook. See Hook.
CANADA, or New France, an extenflve tradl of
North America, bounded by New Britain and the
Britifli colonies on Hudfon’s bay, on the north ; by
the river of St Lawrence, the Iroquois, or five Indian
nations, the Huron and Illonois lakes, on the call and
fouth ; and by unknown lands, on the weft. Its chief
town is Quebec.
CANAL e/' communication, an artificial cut in the
ground, fupplied with water from rivers, fprings, <bc.
in order to make a navigable communication betwixt
one place and another.
The particular operations necefiary for making ar¬
tificial navigations depend upon a number of circum-
ftances. The fuuation of the ground; the vicinity
or connection with rivers ; the eafe or difficulty with
which a proper quantity of water can be obtained ;
thefe and many other circumftances neceflarily produce
great variety in the ftruCture of artificial navigations, and
augment or diminiffi the labour and expence of exe¬
cuting them. When the ground is naturally level,
and unconnneCted with rivers, the execution is eafy,
and the navigation is not liable to be difturbed by
floods ; but, when the ground rifes and falls, and can¬
not be reduced to a level, artificial methods of
railing and lowering veffels muft be employed; which
likewife vary according to circumftances.
A kind of temporary Unices are fometimes employed
for raffing boats over falls or ffioals in rivers by a very
fimple operation. Two polls or pillars of mafon-
work, with grooves, are fixed, one on each bank of the
river, at fome diftance below the ffioal. The boat ha¬
ving palfed thefe polls, planks are let down acrofs the
river by pullies into the grooves, by which the water
is dammed up to a proper height for allowing theffioat
to pafs up the river over the ffioal.
The Dutch and Fleemings at this day, fometimes
when obllruCled by cafcades, form an inclined plane or
rolling-bridge upon dry land, along!! which their vef¬
fels are drawn from the river below the cafcade into
-the river above it. This, it is faid, was the only me¬
thod employed by the ancients, and is ftili ufed by the
Chinefe, who are faid to be entirely ignorant of the
nature and utility of locks. Thefe rolling-bridges
confift of a number of cylindrical rollers which turn|
ealily on pivots, and a mill is commonly built near by,
fo that the fame machinery may ferve the double pur-
pofe of working the mill and drawing up veffels.
A Lock is a bafon placed length wife in a river or
canal, lined with walls of mafonry on each fide, and
terminated by two gates, placed where there is a caf¬
cade or natural fall of the country ; and fo conftrudled,
that the bafon being filled with water by an upper fluice
to the level of the waters above, a veffel may afcend
through the upper gate; or the water in the lock be¬
ing reduced to the level of the water at the bottom of
the cafcade, the veflel may defcend through the lower
gate; for when the waters are brought to a level on
either fide, the gate on that fide may be eafily opened.
) CAN
But as the lower gate is ftrained in proportion to the
depth of water it fupports, when the perpendicular
height of the water exceeds 12 or 13 feet, more locks
than one become neceffary. Thus, if the fall be ] 7
feet, two locks are required, each having 8|- feet fall;
and if the fall be 26 feet, tnree locks are neceflary,
each having 8 feet 8 inches fall. The fide-walls of a
lock ought to be very ftrong. Where the natural
foundation is bad, they ffiould be founded on piles and
platforms of wood: They ffiould likewife llop out¬
wards, in order to refill'the prelfure of the earth from
behind.
Plate LX. fig. i. A perfpedtive view of part of a
canal: the veflel L, within the lock A C.—Fig. 2.
Sedlion of an open lock : the veflel L about to en¬
ter.—Fig. 3. Sedlion of a lock full of water : the
veffel L raifed to a level with the water in the fupert-
or canal.—Fig. 4. Ground feftion of a lock. L, a
veflel in the inferior canal. C, the under gate. A,
the upper gate. G H, a fubterraneous paflage for
letting water from the fuperior canal run into the
lock. K F, a fubterraneous paflage for water from the
lock, to the inferior canal.
X and Y (fig. 1.) are the two flood-gates, each
of which confifts of two leaves, relting upon one ano¬
ther, fo as to form an obtufe angle, in order the bet¬
ter to refill the preflure of the water. The firft (X)
prevents the water of the fuperior canal from falling
into the lock ;, and the fecond (Y) dams up and fu-
llains the water in the lock. Thefc flood-gates ought
to be very Itrong, and to turn freely upon their.hin¬
ges. In order to make them open and Unit with eafe,
each leaf is furniflied with a long lever A b, A b;
C C L They ffiould be made very tight and dole,
that as little water as poflible may be loft.
By the fubterraneous paflage G H (fig. 2, 3, & 4 )
which defeends obliquely, by opening the lluice G, the
water is let down from the fuperior canal D, into the
lock, where it is ftopt and retained by the gate C when
ffiut, till the water in the lock comes to be on a level
with the water in the fuperior canal D ; as reprefented,
fig 3. When, on the other hand, the water contained
by the lock is to be let out, the paffitge G H muft be
ffiut by letting down the lluice G, the gate A muft be
alfo ffiut, and the paflage K F opened by railing the
fluice K : A free paflage being thus given to the wa¬
ter, it defeends through K F, into the inferior canal,
until the water in the lock is on a level with the water
in the inferior canal B ; as reprefented, fig. 2.
Now, let it be required to raife the veflel L (fig. 2.)
from the inferior canal B, to the fuperior one D ; ifthe
lock happens to be full of water, the fluice G muftbe ffiut,
and alfo the gate A, and the fluice K opened, fo that
the water in the lock may run out till it is on a level
with the water in the inferior canal B. When the
water in the lock comes to be on a level with the
water at B, the leaves of the gate C are opened by
the levers C b, which is eafily performed, the water
on each fide^of the gate being in equilibrio; the vefl'el
then fails veto the lock. After this the gate C, and the
fluice
> • ■ . ys,,,y. \
v ir "■ '
-
CAN
fluice K are (hut, and the fluice G opened, in order to
fill the lock, till the water in the lock, and confequently
the veflel, be upon a level with the water in the fu-
perior canal D ; as is reprefented in fig. 3. The gate
A is then opened, and the veffel pafl’es into the ca¬
nal D.
• Again, let it be required to make a veflel defcend from,
the canal D, into the inferior canal B. If the lock is
empty, as in fig. 2. the gate C and fluice K muft be flint,
and the upper fluice G opened, fo that the water in
the lock may rife to a level with the water in the
upper canal D. Then open the gate A, and let the
veflel pafs through into the lock. Shut the gate A and
the fluice G: then open the fluice K, till the water in,
the lock be on a level with the water in the inferior ca¬
nal ; then the pte C is opened, and the veffel paffes along
into the canal B, as was required.
It is almoflf needlefs to fpend time in enumerating the
many advantages which neceffarily refult from artificial
navigations. Their utility is now fo apparent, that molt
nations in Europe give the higheft encouragement to un¬
dertakings of this kind where-ever they are pra&icable.
The advantages of navigable canals did not efcape the
obfervation of the ancients. From the molt early ac¬
counts of fociety we read of attempts to cut through
large ifthmufes, in order to make a communication by
water, either betwixt different nations, or diftant parts of
the fame nation, where land-carriage was long and ex-
penfive. Herodotus relates, that the Cnidians, a people
of Caria in Afia Minor, defigned to cut the litbmus
which joins that Peninfula to the continent; but were fu-
perftitious enough to give up the undertaking, becaufe
they were interdidled by an oracle. Several Kings of
Egypt attempted to join the Red-fea to the Mediterra¬
nean. Cleopatra was exceedingly fond of this project.
Soiiman II. emperor of the Turks, employed 50,000
men in this great work. This canal was compleated un¬
der the caliphate of Omar, but was afterwards allowed
to falTinto difrepair ; fo that it is now difficult to dif-
cover any traces of it. Both the Greeks and Romans
intended to make a canal acrofs the Ifthmus of Corinth,
which joins the Morea and Achaia, in order to make a
navigable paffage by the Ionian fea into the Archipelago.
Demetrius, Julius Czfar, Caligula, and Nero, made
feveral unfuccefsful efforts to 'open this paffage. But,
as the ancients were intirely ignorant of the ufe of wa¬
ter-locks, their whole attention was employed in making
level cuts, which is probably the principal reafon why
they fo often failed in their attempts. Charlemagne form¬
ed a defign of joining the Rhine and the Danube, in or¬
der to make a communication between the ocean and the
Black-fea, by a canal from the river Almutz which dif-
charges itfelf into the Danube, to the Reditz, which
falls into the Maine, and, this laft falls into the Rhine
near Mayence : For this purpofe he employed a prodi¬
gious number of workmen ; but he met with fo many ob-
flacles from different quarters, that he was obliged to
give up the attempt.
The French at prcfent have many fine canals : That
of Briare was begun under Henry IV. and finilhed under
the diretfion of cardinal PJchelieu in the reign of Lewis
Von. II. Numb. 30. -3
17 ) CAN
XIII. This canal makes a communication hnwixt ri fe
Loire and the Seine by the river Loing. It extends
eleven French great leagues from Briare to Montargis.
It enters the Loire a little above Briare, and terminates
in the Loing at Cepci. There are forty-two locks on this
canal.
The canal of Orleans, for making another communi¬
cation between the Seine and the Loire, was begun in
1675, and finifhed by Philip of Orleans, regent of
France, during the minority of Lewis XV. and is fur-
nifhed with twenty locks. It goes by the name of the
canal of Orleans ; but it begins at the village of Com-
bleux, which is a fmall French league from the town of
Orleans.
But the greateft and moft ufeful work of this kind is
the junflion of the ocean with the Mediterranean by the
canal of Languedoc. It vyas propofed in the reigns
of Francis I. Henry IV. and was undertaken and
finiffied under Lewis XIV. It begins with a iarje
refervoir 4000 paces in circumference, and 24 feet
deep, which receives many fprings from the mountain
Noire. This canal is about 64 leagues in length, is fup-
-plied by a number of rivulets, and is furniffied with 104
locks, of about, eight feet rife each. In feme places it
paffes over bridges of vaft height; and in others it cuts
through folid rocks for 1000 paces. At one end it joins
the river Garonne near Tholoufe, and terminates at the
other in the lake Tau, which extends to the port of Cette.
It was. planned by Francis Riquet in the 1 666, and fi-
niflted before his death, which happened in the 1680.
In the Dutch, Auflrian, and French Netherlands,
there is a very great number of canals; that from
Bruges to Offend carries veffcls of 200 tons.
The Chincfe have alfo a great number of canals ; that
which runs from Canton to Pekin, extends about 825
miles in length, and was execute about 800 years ago. •
It would be an endlefs talk to deferibe the numberkfs
canals in Holland, Ruflia, Germany, i&c. We lhall
therefore confine ourfelves to thofe that are either already
finiffied, or at prefent executing in our own country.
As the promoting of commerce is the principal intention
of making canals, it is natural to expect that their fre¬
quency in any nation ffiould bear fome proportion to the
trade carried on in it, providing the fituation of the
country will admit of them. The prefent ffate of Eng?-
land and Scotland confirms this obfervation. Though
the Romans made a canal between the Nyne, a little be¬
low Peterborough, and the Witham, three miles below
Lincoln, which is now almoff entirely filled up, yet it is
not long fince canals were revived in England. They are
now however become very* numerous, particularly in the
counties, of York, Lincoln, and Chefhire. Molt
of the counties betwixt the mouth of the Thames and
the Briftol channel are conne&ed together either by
natural or artificial navigations ;. thofe upon the Thames
and Ifis reaching within about, twenty miles of thofe upon
the Severn. The jluke cf Bridgewater’s canal in Chelhire
. runs twenty-feven miles on a perfect level ; but at Barton
it is carried by a very high aqueduft bridge.over the Tr-
well, a navigable river; fo that it is common for vefleis
to be paffing at the fame time both under and above the
E , bridge.
(
CAN - (
bridge. It is likewife cut fome miles into the hills,
where the Duke’s coal mmes are wrought.
Though a navigable communication between the rivers
Forth and Clyde in Scotland had been long talked of, it
was never conlidered with a view to execution till the
year 1761, when the ground was furveyed by Mr Smea-
ton, at the defil e of the trullees for fisheries and manu-
fadhtres in Scotland. From Mr Smeaton’s furvey and
report, the practicability of this canal was fully demon-
ftrated. But, after the fcheme became an objedt of ge¬
neral attention, it was found that a canal of larger di-
menfions than the one originally propofed would be pro¬
ductive of ftiil greater advantages to the nation. Mr
Smeaton was therefore directed to make a fecond fufvey,
and to report to the intended proprietors an eftimate of
the expence of making a canal 24 feet broad at bottom,
54 at top, containing feven feet deep of water, and ex¬
tending From the Forth to the Clyde, a diftance of about
31 miles, with a collateral branch to the town of Glaf-
gow, which is about fix miles, and another from Bains-
ford to the river Carron below Carron-works, making
in all about 37 miles. _ This report was approved of, an
afl: pf parliament was obtained, and the canal is now cut¬
ting upon this very plan. It begins at the Holemerrie
in the mouth of the Carron, and terminates at Dam-
muir-burn-fbot on the river Clyde, about feven miles be¬
low Glafgow. Above feven miles are already cut, from
the Holemerrie weftward; a number of hands are like¬
wife employed at the point of partition in Dollater-bog,
and the whole is expeCled to be finifhed in five years. At
the point of partition, which is l168 feet above the level of
the fea at low water, a very large refervoir is to be
made for fupplying the canal; and the veffels are to
be raifed and lowered by means of 41 locks. Where
the courfe of the cafnal is interfe&ed by burns or ri¬
vers, it is to be carried over them by aqueduCl-bridges ;
three of thefe bridges will-be large, and require con-
fiderable labour and expence, viz. one over the Grange-
burn, one over Bony-mill-burn, and a third over the
Kelvin.in the Glafgow branch. The expence of execu¬
ting the whole is computed to be about 150,000 1.
Sea-vefiels, about 20 feet wide and 60 feet long, and
carrying 70 or 80 tons, may pafs along by this canal
from the one frith to the other. But it will admit a
free paffage to veffels of 140 tons, provided they be
built in the manner of the flat veflels ufed by the Dutch.
The toll-duty, allowed by the aft of parliament, is not
to exceed 2 d. a ten per mile. Privileged goods, fuch
as lime and lime-ftone, are to pay only one third of the
ufual toll-duty; ftones, gravel, and other materials for
making or repairing roads, likewife dung, foil, marie,
and all forts of manure, are exempted from paying any
toll-duty,. provided they do not pafs any lock but when
the water {hall flow over the place made for difchargmg
the overplus-water in the canal.
We muft not conclude this article without obferving, that
in Ireland alfo the utility of artificial navigations has not been
unattended to. Several canals are there making; in particu¬
lar, one froro-Loch-Neach toNewry, about 20 miles; and
another from the river Shannon to Dublin, about 70 miles.
18 ) CAN
Canal, in anatomy, a duft or pafiage through which
any of the juices flow.
CANARIES, iflands, to the number of feven, fituated
in the-^tlantic ocean, between 120 2I7 W. long, and
between 27° and 290 N. lat. the mofl: eafterly of
them lying about 150 miles from Cape Non, on the
coafl: of Biledulgerid, in Africa.
CANARY, properly fo called, is a confiderable ifiand,
about 150 miles in circumference ; the chief town of
which is Palma, from whence comes the excellent
palm-fack, and other rich wines.
It lies in 160 W. long, and between 27° and 28°
N. lat.
Canary-£/W. See Fringilla.
CANCALE, a fmall town of France, near St Malo’s,
where {hips may ride in eight fathoms water, with a
fandy bottom.
CANCELIER, in falconry, is when a light-brown
hawk, in her {looping, turns two or three times upon
the wing, to recover herfelf, before flie feizes.
CANCELLI, a term ufed to denote lattice-windows,
or thofe made of crofs-bars, difpofed lattice-wife ; it
is alfo ufed for rails or ballufters, inclofing the com¬
munion-table, a court of juftice, and the like, and for
the net-work in the inlide of hollow bones.
CANCER, or Crab, in zoology, a genus of infefts be¬
longing to the order of infefta aptera. The generic
charafters are thefe : They have eight legs, (feldom
ten or fix), befides the two large claws'Which anfwer
the purpole of hands. They have two eyes at a con¬
fiderable diftance from each other, and for the moft
part fupported by a kind of pedunculi or foot-ftalks;
the eyes are likewife elongated and moveable. They
have two clawed palpi ; and the tail is jointed. There
are no lefs than 87 fpecies of Cancer, diftinguiflted
principally by the length af their tails and the margins
of their breafts. This genus includes the lobfteri;
flirimp, &c.
Cancer, in medicine, a roundifti, unequal, hard, and
livid tumour, generally feared in the glandulous parts
of the body, fuppofed to be fo called, becaufe it ap¬
pears at length, with turgid veins {hooting out from
it, fo as to referable, as it is thought, the figure of a
crab-fifli; or, as others fay, becaufe, like that filh,
where it has once got, it is fcarce poflible to drive it-
away. See Medicine, and Surgery.
Cancer, in aftronomy, one of the twelve figns of the
zodiac, reprefented on the globe in the form of a crab,'
and thus marked (25) in books.
7>0/>& Cancer, in aftronomy, a lefler circle of the
fphere parallel to the equator, andpaffing through the
beginning of the fign cancer.
CANCHERIZANTE, or Cancherizato, in the
Italian mufic, a term fignifying a piece of mafic that
begins at the end, being-the retrograde motion from*
the end of a fong, <bc. to the beginning.
CANDAROR, the capital of a territory of the fame*
name, fubjeft to Perfia : E. long. 67°, and N. lat..
33°-
CANDIA, the modem name of Crete,, an ifland fituated*
iii*
GAN (
'in the Mediterranean fea, between 220 and 270 E.
long, and between 35® and 36° N.-lat.
There is no river of any confequence in the whole
ifland, which is watered by a multitude of rivulets ;
whereof Lethe is one. Here too is mount Ida, fo
much celebrated in the writings of the ancients.
Candja, or Mutium, is the capital of the above
ifland, fituated on its northern coaft, in 250 E. long,
and 350 3c/ N. lat.
CANDIDATE, a perfon u'ho afpires to fome public
office.
In the Roman commonwealth, they were obliged
to wear a white gown, during the two years of their
foliciting for a place. This garment, according to
Plutarch, they wore without any other cloaths, that
the people might not fufpeft they concealed money for
purchafmg votes ; and alfo, that they might the more
eafdy flrow to the people, the fears of thofe umunds
they had received in fighting for'the defence of the
commonwealth.
CANDIDATI Milites, an.order of foldiers, among
the Romans, who ferved as the emperor’s body¬
guards, to defend him in battle. They were the tai¬
led and dronged of the whole troops, and mod pro¬
per to infpire terror. They were called candidaity
becaufe cloathed in white, either that .they might be.
more confpicuous, or becaufe they were confidered in
the way of preferment.
GANDISH, a province of the hither India, hounded by
Chitor and Malva, on the north; by Orixa, on the
ead; by Decan, on the fouth; and by Guzurat, on
the wed : It is fubjeft .to the Mogul.
CANDLE, a fmall taper of taliow, wax, or fperma-
ceti; the wick of which is commonly of feveral threads
of cotton, fpun and twided together.
A tallow-candle, to be good, mud be half ffieeps,
and half bullocks tallow; for hogs tallow makes the
candle gutter, and always gives an offenfive fmell,
with a thick black fmcke. The wick ought to be pure,
fufficiently dry, and. properly twided ; otherwife the
candle will emit an uncondant vibratory flame, which
is both prejudicial to the eyes, and infuffi'eient for the
didindf illumination of obje&s.
There are two forts of tallow-candles; the one dip¬
ped, the other moulded : The former are the com*
rpon candles ; the others are .the invention of the fieur
le Brege at Paris.
As to the method of making candleSj in general ;
After the tallow has been weighed, and mixed in the
due proportions, it is cut into very fmall pieces, #hat
it may melt the fooner; for the tallow in lumps, as it
comes from the butchers, v/ouldffie in danger of burn¬
ing or turning black, if it were left too long over the
fire. Being perfectly melted and Ikimmed, they pour
a certain quantity of water into it, proportionable to
the quantity of tallow. This- ferves to precipitate,
to the bottom of the veflel, the impurities of the tal¬
low, which may have efcaped the fkimmer. No wa¬
ter, however, mud be thrown into the tallow de¬
fined for the three fird dips; becaufe the wick, being
dill: quite dry, would imbibe the water, which makes
19 ) CAN
the candles crackle in burning, and renders them of bad
ule. The tallow, thus melted, is poured into a tub,
through a coarfe fieve of horfe-hair, to purify it dill
more, and may be ufed after having dood three hours.
It will continue fit for ufe twenty-four hours in dim¬
mer, and fifteen in winter.
The wicks are made of fpun cotton, which the tal¬
low-chandlers buy in Ikains, and which they wind up
into bottoms or clues. Whence they are cut out,'
with an indrument contrived on purpofe, into pieces
of the length of the candle required; then put on the
dicks or broaches, or elfe placed in the moulds, as
the candles are intended to be either dipped or mould¬
ed. Wax-candles are made of a cotton or flaxen
wick, flightly twided, and covered with white or yel¬
low wax. Gf thefe, there are feveral kinds ; fome of
a conical figure, ufed to illumine churches, and in pro-
ceflions, funeral ceremonies, <tc. See Taper.
Others of a cylindrical form, ufed on ordinary oc-
caflons.
The fird are either made w;th a ladle or the hand.
To make wax candles with the ladle.
The wicks being prepared, a dozen of them’are
tied by the neck, at equal didances, round an iron
circle, fufpended dire&ly over a large bafon of copper
tinned, and full of melted wax : A large ladle full of
this wax is- poured gently on the .tops of the wicks one
after another, and this operation continued till the
candle arrive at its dedined bignefs ; with this precau*-
tion, that the three fird ladles be poured on at the top
of the wick, the fourth at the height of the fifth
at i, and the fixth at in order to give the candle
its pyradimal form. Then the candles are taken down
kept warm, and rolled and fmoothed upon a walnut-
tree table, with a long fquare indrument of box,
fmooth at the bottom.
As to the manner of making wax-candles by'the
hand, they begin to foften the wax, by working it fe¬
veral times in hot water, contained in a narrow, but
deep caldron; A piece of the wax is then taken oup;
- and difpofed by little and little, around the wick,
which is hung on a hook in the wall, by the extremity
oppofite to the neck; fo that they begin with the big
And, diminiffiing dill as they defeend towards the neck.
In other refpetfs, the method is nearly the fame as in
the- former cafe. However,, it mud be obferved, that
in the former cafe, water is always ufed to moiden
the feveral indrunients, to prevent the wax from dick-
ing; and in the latter, oil of olives, or lard, for the'
hands, <bc. The cylindrical wax-candles- are either
made, as the former, with a ladle* or drawn. Wax-
candles drawn, are fo called, becaufe aftually drawn
in the manner of wire, by means of two large rollers
of wood, turned by a handle, which turning back¬
wards and forwards feveral times, pafs the wick
through melted’ wax contained in a brafs bafon, and
at the fame time through the holes of an indrumont
like that ufed for drawing wire fadened at one fide of
the bafon.
Makers of candles are not to ufe melting-houfts,
without due entry thereof at the excife-cffice,' on pain
of:
CAN ( 20 )
m tool. ; and to give notice of making candles to the
excife-officer for the duties, and of the number, .6-c.
or {hall forfeit 501. Removing the candjes before
weighed by the officer, or mixing them with others,
is liicewife liable to penalties.
Candle is alfo a term in medicine, and is reckoned a-
mong the imlruments of forgery. . Thus the candela
fumalis, or the candela pro fuffitu odorata,. is a mafs
of an oblong form, confiding of odoriferoas powders,
mixed up with a third, or mort, of the charcoal of
willow or lime-tree, and reduced to a proper confid¬
ence with a mucilage of gum-tragacanth, ladanum, or
turpentine. It is intended to excite a grateful fmell
without, any flame, to correct the air, to fortify the
brain, .and to excite the {pirits.
Medicated Candle, or Bougie, in furgery, a Tmall
dick of wax in form of a candle, which furgeons jn-
troduce into the uretha, either to dilate it and keep
it open, or to confume cainofities. . There are two
forts of thefe candles, the one Ample, and the other
compound. The fimple are made of wax, of cat-gut,
or even of lead; and the intention of them is to keep
the canal of the urethra properly diflended. Their
rhicknefs, therefore, ffiould be proportioned to the
diameter of that caned. The compound bougies are
loaded with fome medicine capable of producing a
fuppuration, or of deltroying carnofnies and excref-
cences in the urethra. See Surgery.
Candle. Sale or auction by inch of candle, is when a
imail piece of candle being lighted, the- byftanders
are allowed to bid for the merchandife that is felling;
but the moment the candle is out, the commodity is
adjudged to the lad bidder.
There is alfo an excommunication b,y. inch of can¬
dle ; when the finner is allowed to come tp repentance
while a lighted candle continues burning ; but after it
is confumed, he remains excommunicated to all intents
and purpofes.
Candle-berry-tree, in botany. See Myrica.
CANDLEMAS, a feaft of the church held on the fe-
cond day of February, in honour of the purification
of the Virgin Mary. It is borrowed from the prac¬
tice of the ancient Chriftians, who on that day ufed
abundance of lights both in their churches and pro-
ceffions, in memory, as is fuppofed, of our Saviour’s
being, on that day, declared by Simeon, “ to be a
light to lighten the Gentiles.” In imitatiqn of this
cuftom, the Roman catholics, on this cj^y, confecrate
all the tapers and candles which they ufe in their
churches during the whole year. At Rome, the pope
performs that ceremony himfelf, and diftributes wax-
candles to the cardinals and others, who carry them
in proceffion through the great hall of the pope’s pa¬
lace. This ceremony was prohibited in England, by
an order of council in 1548.
CANDLESTICK, an inftrument to hold a candle,
made in different forms, and of all forts of matter.
The golden candleftick was one of the facred uten-
fils made by Mpfes to be placed in the Jewiffi taberna- C,
cle. It was made of hammered gold, a talent in
weight. It confifted of feven branches, fupported by
CAN
a bafe or foot. Thefe branches were adorned at equal
diflances with fix flowers like lilies, and with as many
bowls and knobs placed alternately. Upon the flock
and fix branches of the candleftick, were the golden
lamps, which were immoveable, wherein were put od
and cotton.
Thefe feven lamps were lighted every evening, and
extinguiffied every morning. The lamps had their
tongs or fnuffers to draw the cotton in or out, and
difhes underneath them to receive the fparks and drop¬
pings of the oil. This candleftick was placed in the
antichamber of the fandtuary on the fouth-fide, and
ferved to illuminate the altar of perfume, and the ta¬
ble of the ffiew-bread. When Solomon had built the
temple of the Lord, he placed in it ten golden can-
dleftieks, of the fame form as that deferibed by Mo-
fes, five on the north, and five on the fouth-fide of
the holy. But after the Babylonifli captivity, the gol¬
den candleftick was again placed in the temple, as it
had been before in the tabernacle by Moffis. This fa¬
cred utenfil, upon the deftrudtion of the temple by
the Romans, was lodged in the temple of Peace, built
by Vefpafian ; and the reprefenfation of it is ftill to be
feen on the triumphttl arch at the foot of mount Pa¬
latine, on which Vefpafian’s triumph is delineated.
Candlestick, a kind of fountain, the fpout
of which is raifed upon a pedeftal in form of a large
baluftrade, which carries a fmall bafon like a table or
ftand, from which the water falls into a larger bafon,
level wfith the alleys in a garden.
CANDY, in geography, the capital of the ifland of Cey¬
lon, fituated in the middle of the ifland: E. lone. 70°,
N. lat. 8°.
Candy, or Candy, a preparation of fugar, made
by melting and cryftalizing it fix or feven times over,
to render it hard and tranfparent. It is of three
kinds, white, yellow, and red. The white comes
from the loaf-fugar, the yellow from the caffonado,
and the red from the mufeovado. •
CANDYING, in pharmacy, the aft of preferving Pim¬
ples in fubftance, by boiling them in fugar.
The performance of this originally belonged to the
apothecaries, but is now become a part of the bufinefs
of a confeftioner.
CANE, in botany. See Arundo.
Cane denotes alfo a walking-ftick. It is cuftomary to
adorn it with a head of gold, filver, agate, <&c. Some
are without knots, and very fmooth and even ; others
are full of knots, about two inches diftant from each
other. Thefe laft have very little elafticity, and will
not bend fo well as the others.
Canes of Bengal, are the moft beautiful which the
Europeans bring into Europe. Some of them are fo
fine, that people work them into veffels or bowls,
which, being varniffied over in the infide with blacker
yellow lacca, will hold liquors as well as glafs or
china-ware does, and the Indians ufe them for that
purpofe.
ine is alfo- the name of a long meafure, which differs
according to the feveral. countries where it is ufed.
At Naples, the cane is equal to 7 feet 3^- inches
Englilh
Tlate I,XT.
CAN (2
Englifh meafure : The cane of Tholoufe and the up¬
per Languedoc is equal to the varre of Arragon, and
contains 5 feet 84 inches; at Montpelier, Provence,
Dauphine, and the lower Languedoc, to 6 Englilh
feet j-l: inches.
CANEA, a fea-port town on the north fide of Candia,
efteemed the fecond in the ifland. It is a pretty good
harbour, but the fortifications are out of repair: E.
long. 240, N. lat. 350 36'.
CANEPHORJE, in Grecian antiquity, virgins who,
when they became marriageable, prefented certain
balkets full of little curiofities to Diana, in order to
get leave to depart out of her train, and change their
ftate of life.
CANEPHORIA, in Grecian antiquity, a ceremony
which made part of a feaft celebrated by the Atheni¬
an virgins, on the eve of their marriage-'day.
At Athens, the caflephoria confided in this; that
the maid, conduced by her father and mother, went
to the temple of Minerva, carrying with her a baflcet
full of prefects, to engage the goddefs to make the
marriage-ftate happy ; or, as the fcholiaft of Theocri¬
tus has it, the baiket was intended as a kind of honour¬
able amends made to that goddefs, the protedlrix of
virginity, for abandoning her party ; or a ceremony
to appeafe her wrath. Suidas calls it a fpftival in ho¬
nour of Diana.
Canephoria is alfo the name of a feftival of Bacchus,-
celebrated particularly by the Athenians, on which the
young maids carried golden baikets full of fruit, which
baflcets were covered, to conceal the myftery from
the uninitiated. >
CANETO, a fortified town of the duchy of Mantua,
fituated on the OgHo, about twelve miles fouth-weft
of Mantua: E. long. io° 50', N. lat. 45°.
GANG, a gulf or fea, lying between China and Tarta¬
ry, at the eaft end of the long wall.
CANICULA, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of fqualus. See S^italus. 1
CANICULA, or Caniculus, in aftronomy. See A-
stronomy, OffixedJiars. /
It is alfo a name given to dne of the ftars of the
conftellation cam's major, called, the dog-ftar, and by
the Greeks, firius.
CANICULAR days, commonly called dog-days, a cer¬
tain number of days preceding and enfuing the heliacal
raifing of canicula, or the dog-ftar, in the morning.
The Ethiopians-and Egyptians began their year at the
rifing of the dog-ftar, reckoning to its rife again the
next year, which is callecbthe annus canarins. The
Romans fuppofed it to be the caufe of the fultry wea¬
ther ufually felt in the dog-days; and therefore facrificed
abrown dog every year at its rifing, to appeafe its wrath.
The dog-days begin towards the end of July, and
end the beginning of September.
CANINE/whatever partakes of, or has any relation
with the nature of a dog,- Thus,
Canine teeth, are twofharp-edged teeth in each jaw; one
on ea"h fide, placed between the incifores and molares.
•CANTS, or Dog, in zoology, a.genas of quadrupeds,
■Vox. II. No. 3-1. 3
i ) CAN
belonging to the order of ferae. The chara&ers of
the dog are thefe: He has fix fore-teeth in the upper
jawi thofe in the fides being longer than the inter¬
mediate ones, which are lobated; in the under jaw
there are likewife fix fore-teeth, thofe on the fides
being lobated. He has fix.grinders in the upper, and
feven in the lower jaw. The teeth called dog-teeth are
four, one on each fide, both in the lower and upper jaw;
they are iharp-pointed, bent a little inward, and Hand at
a diftknce from any of the reft.
There are nine fpecies of this genus,, viz. 1. The famili-
aris, of domeftic dog, is diftinguilhed from the other fpecies,
by having his tail bent to the left fide ; which mark is fo
fingular, that perhaps the tail of no other quadruped is
bent in this manner. Of this fpeyies there are a great
number of varieties. Linnaeus enumerates eleven, ami
Bouffon gives figures of no lefs than twenty-feven, viz.
. the molofi’us, or maftiff, which is about the fize of a
wolf, with the fides of the lips hanging down, and a full
robuft body. The large Danifti dog, differs only from
the former in being fuller in the body, and generally cf
a larger fize. The grey-hound is likewife the fame with
the maftiff; but its make is more (lender and delicate.
Indeed the difference betwixt thefe three dogs, although
perfe&ly diftinguifhable at firft fight, is not greater than
that betwixt a Dutchman, a Frenchman, and an Italian.
The fhepherd’s dog, the wolf-dog, and what is common¬
ly called the Siberian dog, to which may be joined the
Lapland dog,, the Canada dog, and, in general, all thofe
which have ftrait ears and a pointed fnout, are all one
kind, differing only in thicknefs, the roughnefs or fmooth-
nefs of their ikin, the length of their legs, and tails. The
hound, or beagle, the terrier, the braque, or ftrort-tailed
fetting-dog, and the fpaniel, may be confidered as the
fame kind : they have the fame form and die fame in-
ftin&s ; and differ only in the length of their legs, and
fize of their ears, which in each of them .are long, foft,
and pendulous. The bull-dog, the fmail Danilh dog,
the Turkifh dog, and the Iceland dog, may likewife be
confideted as the fame kind, all the varieties in their ap¬
pearance taking their rife merely from climate. For in-
ftance, the Turkilh dog, which has no hair, is nothing
elfe but the fmail Danilh dog tranfported to a warm
climate, which makes the hair fall off. A dog of any
kind lofes its hair in very warm climates. But this is
not the only change which arifes from difference of cli¬
mate. In fome countries, the voice is changed-; in 0-
thers, dogs become altogether filent. In fome climates,
they lofe the faculty of barking, and howl like wolves, or
yelp like foxes. Warm climates even change their form
and inftimSs: They turn ill-fhaped, and their ears be¬
come ftrait and pointed. It is only in temperate climes
that dogs preferve their natural courage, ardour, and
fagacity.
In order to give an idea of the different kinds of dogs,
in different climates, and of the varieties produced by
commixtures, we lhall give an explanation of Bouffon’s
genealogical tree. See Plate LXI. fig. 1. This tree is
conftnnfted ih the form of a geographical chart, in which
the fituation of the different climates to which the parti-
F cular
CAN (2
cular dogs Belong, is obferved as accurately as the na¬
ture of the thing will admit.
The Ihepherd’s dog is the flump of the tree. This
dog, when tranfported to. Lapland, or any very cold cli¬
mate, affumes an ugly: appearance, and its legs become
ihort. But. in Britain, Raffia, Siberia, fyc. where'the
•cold is not fo rigorous, and the people are more civili¬
zed, he arrives at greater perfe<5!ion, Both in form and
iagacity. The fame fhepherd’s dog,- when brought up in
a country fully civilized,. as Britain or France, lofes his
•fivage air, his flrait ears, his thick-long hair, and becomes
what is cajled a bull-dog, a maftifr, a beagle, or hound,
T’hefe changes, Bouffon attributes to the influence of the
climate, the manners of the people, <bc. The mafliff
and the bull-dog have their ears flill partly flrait, or
half-pendent, and referable in their manners and fan-
guine difpolition the dog From which they derive their
origin. The beagle or hound preferves lefs of the apr
pearance of its origin than the other two; its ears are
long and entirely pendent; the foftnefs, the tra&abilb
ty, the timidity of this dog, Boufton confiders as fo
many proofs of its great degeneracy, or rather of that
perfedlion which it acquires by culture, and living among
a civilized people.
The hound, the fmail fpotted fetting-dog, and the
terrier, are all of the fame family ; for all the three
kinds are often produced at the fame litter, although the
female hound had been covered only by one of thefe kinds.
When the hound is tranfported to Spain, or Barbary,
where alraofl every animal has fine, long, downy hair, it
is changed into a water hound, or fpaniel. And the
fmail and large fpaniel, which differ only in the tail, when
carried to Britain, are changed from a white to a black
colour, and become what is called the large and fmail
fiiagged dogs.
The maftiff, when carried to the north, is changed
into the large Danifh dog; and when tranfported to the
fouth, it becomes a grey-hound. The large grey-hounds
come from the Levant; thofe of a leffer fize come from
Italy, and the Italian grey-hounds, when brought to
Britain, become what the French call levrons, that is,
grey-hounds of the lead fize.
The great Danifh dog, when carried ro Ireland, the
Ukrain, Tartary, is changed into the Irifh dog,
which is the larged of all dogs.
The buil-dog, when carried from Britain to Denmark,
becomes the fmalf Danifh dog ; and this fmall Danifh
<^og, when tranfported into a warm climate, lofes its
hair, and is changed into the Turkifh dog.
All thefe races or families, with their varieties, are
produced by the influence of climate, food, and educa¬
tion : The other kinds marked in the tree are not pure
or didinft families, but are produced by the commixture
of the other families. Thefe mungrel dogs, with the
particular parents which produce them, are marked out
isiithe tree by dotted lines. For example,.
The grey-hound and mafliff produce the mungrel
grey-hound;, which is likewife called the grey-hound with-
wolf’s hair. The large Danifh dog and the large fpa-
niel produce the Calabrian dog; which is a beautiful dog,
with long bufhy hair,, and of a larger fize than the ma-
t ) CAN
fciff. The fpanie'l and the fmall Danifh dog produce the
lion-dog, which is a very rare kind. It is needlefsi to
give more examples, as they can .eafily be traced doom
the dotted lines in the tnee.
Having thus traced the varieties of the dog, and (the
probable fources of thefe varieties; we fhall now give an
account of his nature and itiflinfts.
From. the ilru&ure of-the teetR, it might be concluded
a priori that the dog is a carnivorous animal. 'He
does-not however eat indifcriminately every "kind of ani¬
mal fubftance. There are fome birds, as the colym-bus
ardficus, which the water-dog will lay hold off with keen-
nefs, but will not bring out of the water, becaufe its
fmell is exceedingly offenfive to him. He will not “eat
the bones of a goofe, crow, or hawk : But he devours e-
ven the purtrid flefh of molt other animals. He is pof-
feffed of fuch ftrong digeflive powers, as to draw nou-
rifliment from the hardelt bo’nes. When flefh cannot be
procured, he will eat fifh, fruits, fuccuknt herbs, and
bread of all kinds. When oppreffed with ficknefs, to
which he is very fubjedt, efpecially in the beginning of
fummer, in order to procure a puke, he eats the leaves
of the quicken grafs, the bearded wheat-grafs, or the
rough cock’s-foot-grafs, which gives him immediate re¬
lief. When he deals a piece of flefli, as confcious of
the immorality, of the adlion, he. runs off with his tail
hanging and bent in betwixt his feet.
His drink is water, which he takes in-fmall quantities
at a time, by licking with his tongue. He is in fome
meafure obliged to lick in this manner, otherwife his
nofe would be imroerfed in the water.
His excrements are generally hard, fcybals, which,
efpecially after eating bones, are white, and go by the
name of album gra-curn among phyfidans. This album
grascum was for a long, time in great repute as a feptic;
but it is now entirely difregarded. He does not throw
out his excrements promifcuoufly upon every thing that
happens to be in the way, but upon Hones, trunks of
trees, or barren places-. This is a wife infliuuion of na¬
ture ; for the excrements of a dog dellroy almofl every
vegetable or animal fubllance. They are of fuch a pu¬
trid nature, that if a man’s fhoe touches them when re¬
cently expelled, that particular part will rot in a few
days. He obferves the fame method in making bis u-
rine, which he' throws out at a fide. It is remarkable,
that a dog will not pafs a (lone or a wall againft which
any other dog has piffed, without following his example,
although a hundred (herald occur in a few minutes, in fo
much, that it is aftonifhing how fuch a quantity can be
fecr.eted in fo (hort a time.
The dog is an animal not only of quick motion, but
remarkable for travelling very long journeys. He can
eafily keep up with his mafier, either on foot or horfe-
back, for a whole day. When fatigued, he does not
fweat, but lolls out his tongue. Every kind of dog can
fwim ; but the water-dog excells in that article.
The dog. runs round when about to lie down, in order-
to difeover the mod proper fituation. He lies generally
on his bread, with his head turned to one fide, and fome-
times with his head above his two fore-feet. He fleeps
little, and even that does.not feem to be very quiet; forhe
often-
CAN '( 23 ) C A N
•ofien ilafts, and feems to heaf with more acutenefs in
Heep than when atv^ke; They have a tremulous mo¬
tion in deep, frequently move their legs, and bark,
which js an indication of dreaming.
Dogs are pofleffed of the fenfation of fmetiing in a
high degree. They can trace th'sir mader bythe fmeli
of his feet in a church, or in the ftreets of a populous
city. This fenfation is not equally ftrong in every kind.
The'hound can trace game, or his matter's Heps, twenty-
four hours afterwards., He barks more furioufly the
nearer he approaches the fowls, unle's he be beat and
trained to fdencei
With regard to'the propagation'of dogs ; the females
admit the males before they are'twelve months" oldi
They remain in feafon ten, twelve^ or even fifteen days,
during which time they will admit a variety of males.
They come in feafon generally twice in the year, and
more frequently in the cold than in the hot months.
The male difeovers the condition of the female by the
fmeli; but (he feldom admits him the firft fix or feven
days. One coitus will make her conceive a great number
of young; but, when net reftraihed, (he will admit feve-
fal dogs every dav : fhe feems to have no choice or pre-
dilefhon, except in favour of large dogs : From this cir-
cumttance, it fometimes happens, that, a fmall female,
who has admitted1; a mattifF, peri flies in bringing forth her
young. During the time of copulation, thefe animals
cannot feparate themfelves, but remain united fo long as
the erection fubfifts. This is Owing to the ftriuflure of
the parts. The rbg has not only a bone in his penis,
but in the middle of the corpus cavernofum there is a
large hollow, which is blown up in the time of eredbon
to a conliderable bulk. The female, on the other hand,
has a larger clitoris then perhaps any other animal ; be-
fides a large firm protuberance rifes in the time of copu¬
lation, and remains perhaps longer than that of the male,
and prevents him from retiring till it fubfides : Accor¬
dingly after the aft of copulation is over, the male turns
about in order to teft himfelf on his legs, and remains in
that pofition till thefe parts turn flaccid. The female goes
with young about nine weeks. They generally bring forth
from fix to twelve puppies. Thole of a fmall fize bring
forth five, four, and fometimes but two. They continue
to copulate and bring forth-during life, which latts gene¬
rally about fourteen or fifteen years.. The whelps-are com¬
monly blind, and cannot open their eyes till the tenth or
twelfth day. In the fourth month, they lofe fome.of
their teeth, which are foon fucceeded by'others.
The dog has fucli a- ftrong refemblanee to the wolf
and the fox, that he is commonly fuppofed to be the pro¬
duction of one or other of thefe animals tamed and civi¬
lized. Bqtiffon informs us, that he kept a young dog
and a young wolf together till they were three years of
ag^, without their difeovering the leaft inclination to co¬
pulate. He made the fame experiment upon a dog and
a fox; but their antipathy was rather, increafed when
the female was in feafon. From thefe experiments he
concludes, that dogs, wolfs, and foxes, are perfectly
diflinft fpecies of animals..
With regard to the .natural difpofnion of the dog:
In a favage flate, he is fierce, cruel, and voracious ;
but, when civilized and accu.lomcd to live with men.
he is poflelTed of every amiable quality. He feems to
have.no other defire than to pleafe and proteCt his ma¬
tter. He is gentle, obedient, fubmiffive, and faithful.
Thofe difpofitions, joined to his almoft unbounded faga-
city. juttly claim the etteem of mankind. Accordingly
no animal is fo much carefled or refpeCted: He is fo duc¬
tile, and fo much formed to pleafe, that he aflumes the
very air and temper of the family in which he refides.
An animal endowed with fuch uncommon qualities,
mutt anfwer many ufeful purpofeg. His fidelity and vigi¬
lance are daily employed to proteCt our perfons, our flocks,
or our goods. The acutenefs of his fmell gains him em¬
ployment in Hunting; in fome parts of Siberia, he is
trained to draw carriages from one inn to another; and
the negroes eat dogs fleflr with great relifli.
The dog is liable to many difeafes, as the fcab, madnefs*
aqd,he feldom wants the taenia or tape-worm in his
guts, efpecially if he drinks dirty water.. See Plate LXI.
and LXII.
2. The fecond fpecies of this kind is the lupus or wolf,
which is dittinguifhed from the dog by having its tail turn¬
ed inward. The wolf is larger and fiercer than a dog.
His eye^fparkle, and there is a great degree of fury and
wildnefs in his looks. He draws up his claws when he
walks, to prevent his tread from being heard. His neck
is ftiort, but admits of very quick motion to either, fide.
His colour is generally blackiih. Like mott ferocious ani¬
mals, he can bear hunger a very long time; but, at lafi,
when the appetite for yiChrals becomes intolerable, he
grows perfeCHy furious, and will attack men, horfes,
dogs, and cattle of all kinds; even the graves of the
dead are not proof againtt his rapacity. This circum-
ftance is finely.deferibed, in the following lines.
By wintry famine rous’d, 
Cruel as death, and hungry as the grave !
Burning for blood ! bony, and ghant, and grim !
Aflembling wolves in raging troops defeend;
And, pouring o’er the Country, bear along.
Keen as the north-wind fweeps the glofly inow.
All is their prize. They fatten on the tteed,
Prefs him to earth, and pierce his mighty heart.
Nor can the bull his awful front defend.
Or ttrake the murthering favages away.
Rapacious at the mother’s throat they fly,
■ And tear the fereaming infant from her breaftF
The god-like face of Man avails him nought.
Even beauty, force divine ! at whofe bright glance
• The generous Jion rtands in foften’d gaze,'
Here bleeds, a haplefs hndiflinguifn’d prey.
But if, appris’d of the fevere attack,
The country be fliut up, lur’d by the feent,
On church-yards drear (inhuman to relate!)
The difappointed prowlers fail, and dig
The flirouded body from the grave ; o’er which;
Mix’d with foul fliadcs, and frighted ghotts, they howl.
Thomson’s Winter^
The wolf is extremely fufpkious, and, unlefs prefled
with hunger, feldom ventures out of the woods. They-
make a howling npife in the night, and afiemble toge¬
ther in troajjs in order to devour their prey. T he ,wolf
is a imive of Europe, and frequents' the woods of many.
pprts:
C AN (2
parts of the continent to this day. This country, a few
centuries ago, was much infefted with them. So late as
the year 1457, there is an adt of parliament obliging all
the gentlemen and tenants in the different (hires of Scotland,
to rife, properly armed, four times in the year, in order to
deltroy the wolv.es. But they are now fo effedtually rooted
but. that not one of them has been feen wild, even in
the highlands, for a century pall. See Plate LXII. fig. 5.
3. The hyaena, has a (trait jointed tail, with the hair
of its neck eredt, fmall naked ears, and four toes on each
foot. It is about the fize of a fow, and its headrefem-
bles that of a boar. The hairs on the back are about a
fpan long, eredt, and black at the points, and the eyes
are near each other. The hyaena is a native of India
and Africa. He digs holes in the earth like a fox,
where he retires from danger. He is very fond of hu-
fnan flelh, which he digs out of church-yards in the night.
When irritated, he lays hold of a weapon, or any thing
that offends, and keeps it faft in his teeth, which makes
him an eafy prey to.hunters.
4. The vulpes, or fox, has a flrait tail, white at the
point. His body is yellowifh, or rather ftraw-coloured ;
his ears are fmall and eredt:; his lips are whitifh, and
his fore-fbet are black. From the bafe of the tail, a
Prong fcent is emitted, which to fome people is very
fragrant, and to others extremely difagreeable. The
fox is a native of almoft every quarter of the globe : He
digs holes or dens in the earth ; and is of fuch a wild and
favage d Tpofition, that it is impoflible fully to tame him.
He is efteemed to be the mod crafty and cunning of all
beads of prey. His craftinefs is principally difcovered
by the fchemes he falls upon in order to catch lambs,
geefe,. hens, and all kinds of fmall birds. When the
females are in feafon, they make a difagreeable yelping
noife in the night. He flies when he hears the exploiion
of a gun, or fmells gun-powder. He is exceedingly
fond of grapes, and does much mi'chief in vineyards.
Various methods are daily employed to deflroy foxes;
they are hunted with dogs ; iron-traps are often fet at
their holes; and their holes are fometimes fmoked to
make them run out, that they may the more readily fall
into thefnares, or be killed by dogs or fite-arms. But all
the arts that have been employed are infuffleient for the
purpofe of rooting him out of any country. They have
fo many paflages in their dens, and often at a great di-
(lance, that they often make their efcape. When hunt¬
ed, they never run directly foreward, but make a great
many doublings and turnings ; and when in danger of be¬
ing taken, they emit fuch a fmell from their poltei iors, that
the hunters can hardly endure it. See Plate LXII. fig. 4.
5. The alopex, or field-fox, is every way the fame with
the common fox, except in the point of the tail, which is
black. \ _
6. The lagopus, or white fox, with a (trait tail, and
the apex of different colours. The legs are very hairy.
It inhabits the mountains.of Lapland and Siberia.
7. The aureus, or jackal!, is a native of the Eaft
Indies. There is no genuine, defeription of this animal.
They affemble in large troops in the night, in feveral
parts of Alia, and make a hideous howling noife. When
one calls, he is anfwered by numbers even at great di-
(tances; fo that in a fhort time the whole woods refound
with their noife. This noife roufes all the other wild
4 ) CAN
animals, as lions, tygers, 6c. who take advantage of
the general confternation, and devour the weaker ani¬
mals. This circumftance has probably given rife to the
notion of the jackall’s being the lion’s provider. They
hide themfelves in holes during the day, and go in queft
of their prey in the night: They fometimes fall upon
children, and devour them when no afliftance is near.
8. The Mexicanus, has a fmooth crooked tail. The
body is afh-coloured, variegated with yellow fpots. It is
a native of Mexico, and is called the mountain-cat by Seba.
9. The thous, has a fmooth, crooked tail. The up¬
per put of his body is grey, and the belly is white.
He is about the fize of a large cat, and is found at Su¬
rinam.
Canis, the Dog-fish, a name given to feverai fpecies
of fqualus. See Squalus.
Canis major, in altronomy, a conftellation of the fou-
thern hemifphere.
Canis minor, Caniculus, or Canicula, in aftro-
nomy, a conftellation of the northern hemifphere..'
CANKER, a difeafe incident to trees, proceeding chiefly
from the nature of the foil. It makes the bark rot
and fall. If the canker be in a bough, out it off;
in a large bough, at (bme diftance froth the tree ;
and in a fruall one, clofe to it: But for over-hot
ftrong ground, the mold is to be cooled about the
roots with pond mud, and cow-dung.
CANNA, in botany, a genus of the monandria mono-
gyma clafs. There are four fpecies of this plant, all
natives of the Indies.
CANNABIS, hemp, in botany, a genus of the dioecia
pentandria clafs. • The calix of the male is divided
into five fegments, and it has no corolla. The calix-
of the female confifts of one leaf, open at the fide; it
has two ftyli ; and the nut or capfule confifts of two
valves. There is but one fpecies, viz. the fativa, or
common hemp, a native of India. For the method
of cultivating and preparing hemp, fee Flax, and
Hemp.
CANNACORUS, in botany. See Canna.
CANNEL-COAL, a fubftance which has a long time,
though with very little reafon, been confounded, both
by authors and druggifts, with jet. It is dug up in
many parts of England in great abundance, particularly
in Lancafttire, where it is burnt as common fuel. It
is worked into toys and utenfils of various kinds, under
the name of jet. In medicine, it is faid to be good in
the colic ; but the prefent practice takes no notice
of it.
CANNON, in the military art, an engine or fire-arm for
throwing iron, lead, or ftone bullets, by force of gun¬
powder.
Cannons at firft were called bombardae, from the
noife they made. They had likewife the name of cul-
verin, bafiliik, 6c. from the beads that were repre-
fented upon them ; and the Spaniards, from devotion,
gave them the name of faints ; witnefs the twelve a-
poftles which Charles V. ordered to be caft at Malaga,
for his expedition to Tunis.
The metal of which cannons are compofed, is ei¬
ther Iron, or which is more ufual, a mixture of cop¬
per, tin, and brafs ; the tin being added to the cop-
XJ afe J.XCT.
^MA_iS TIF'JF'.
Wom.
s./3e//0 f(i
.
,rrr
•v
. u •< *i oH ,■. )
■1
GA N ( 25 ) CAN
per, to make the metal more denfe and compact; To
that the better and heavier the copper is, the lefs tin
is required. Some to an hundred pounds of copper,
add ten of tip, and eight of brafs ; others ten of tin,
five of brafs, and ten of lead. The fieur Bereau pre¬
tends, that when old .pieces of metal are ufed, the
founder ought to add to one hundred weight of that
metal, twenty-five pounds of good copper, and five
pounds of tin. Braudius defcribes a method of making
cannon of leather; and. it is certain the Swedes made
ufe of fuch in the long war of the laft century; but
thefe burft too eafily to have much effedh With re-
garcfto iron cannon, they arp not capable of fo much
refiftance as thofe of brafs ; but as they are lefs ex-
penfive, they are often ufed on board of fitips, and alfo
in feveral fortified places.
Cannons are diitinguiihed by the diameters of the
balls they carry. The rule for their length is, that it
be fuch as that the whole charge of powder be on'fire,
before the ball quit the piece. If it be too long, the
quantity of air to be drawn out before the ball, will
give too much refiftance to the impulfe ; and that im-
pulfe ceafing, the fri&ion of the ball againft the furface
of the piece will take off from the motion.
In former days, cannon were made much longer
than they are now ; but experience has taught us,
that a ball moves with a greater impetus through a lefs
fpace than a greater : and accordingly it is found, that
an iron ball of forty-eight pound weight goes farther
from a ftiort cannon, than another ball of ninety-fix
pound out of a longer piece; whereas, in other re-
fpedts, it is certain, the larger the bore and ball, the
greater the range.
It is found too*, by experience, that of two cannons
of equal- bore, but different lengths, the longer re¬
quires a greater charge of powder than the fhorter.
The ordinary charge of a cannon is, for the weight of
its gun-powder to be half that of its ball.
We fhall here fubjoin a table exhibiting the names
of the feveral cannon, their length, their weight, and
that of their ball.
Names of cannon.
weight of
an iron
ball.
weight
of the
cannon.
length
of the
Cannon royal
Demi cannon large
Demi cannon ordinary
Demi cannon leaft
Culverin largefl:
Culverin ordinary
Culverin leaft
Demi culverin ordinary
Demi culverin leaft
Saker ordinary
Saker leaft
Minion largeft
Minion ordinary
Falcon
Falconet
Rabinet
Bafe
lb. oz.
48 o
36 o
32 o
30 o
20 o
17 5
15 o
10 11
4 12
3 12
lb.
8000
6000
5600
5400
4800
4500
4000
2700
2000
1500
1400
I coo
800
750
400
300
200
Cannon are likewife diftinguifhed according to the
diameter of their mouth, or calibre. This calibre is
divided, in confequence of an order from the king of
France, into thirty-fix parts, in order to determine
by thefe parts the dimenfions of the different moulds
for cannon. We hope the reader, then, will not be
diffatisfied to find an account of the dimenfions of the
feveral parts of cannon of five different calibres, as
they are regulated by that order of the king of Franc \
on Off. 7, 1732, in the following table :
Pieces of cannon
Length of the bore
Depth of the chamber
Thicknefs of metal at breech
Length of the cafcabel
Diameter of the trunions
Projeffion of the trunions
Calibre of the piece
Diameter of the ball
Length of the whole piece
Weight of the piece
5 8
.? S'
8 8
9 I
of 8
150 lb.
Von. II. No. 31,
Cannon
3
G
CAN (
CiNN’ON, wish letter-founders, and printers, the name
of the large!! fize of the letters they ufe.
C ANNUL A, ir> forgery, a tube made of different me¬
tals, principally of filver and lead, but fometimes of
iron.
They are introduced into hollow ulcers, in order to
facilitate a difcharge. of pus or any other fubftanCe ;
or into wounds,, either accidental or artificial, of the
large cavities, as the thorax or abdomen: they are
tiled in the operation of branchotomy, and by iome,
after cutting for the (lone, as a drain for the urine.
Other cannulas are ufed for introducing cauteries,
either a&ual or potential, in hollow parts, in order to
guard the parts adjacent to that to be cauterifed, from
injury. They are of various figures j fome being oval,
feme round, and others crooked.
CANOE, a fmall boat, made of the trunk of a tree,
bored hollow j, and fometimes alfo of pieces of bark
fewed together.
It is ufed by the natives of America to go a-filhing
in the fea, or upon fome other expedition, either by
lea, or upon the rivers and lakes.
CANON, commonly called prebendary, a perfon who
poffeffes a prebend, or revenue allotted for the per¬
formance of divine fervice in a cathedral or collegiate
church. Originally, canons were only priells, or in¬
ferior ecclefiauics, who lived in community, refiding
near the cathedral church to affift the hiihop, depend¬
ing entirely on his will, fuppotted by the revenues of
his biftiopric, and living in the fame houfe as his do-
meftics or counfellors, <bc. By degrees thefe com¬
munities of priefts, lhaking olF their dependence, form¬
ed feparate bodies ; in time they freed themfelves from
heir rules, and at length ceafed to live in a commu¬
nity. It is maintained, that the colleges of canons,
which have been introduced into each cathedral',, were
not in the ancient church, but are of modern appoint¬
ment.
In the Romifil church, when a perfon is promoted
to the office of a canon, he muft be prefented in a very
ceremonious manner to the chapter, who aflemble in
the cathedral, in order to receive him : he kifies the
altar thrice, after which he goes and takes his place
in the choir; he afterwards makes his confeffidn of
faith aloud, and fwears to obferve the ordinances of
the dliurch and his holinefs the pope : being thus fo-
lemnly inftalled, he is impoweredto ailtft at the chap¬
ter, to chaunt the office of-the choir, &c.
Canons are of various kinds, as,
Cardihel-CkMon s, thofe attached, or, as the Latins
call it, incardinati, to a church, as a pried: is to a
parifh.
Domicelhry-Cfi.^o^t,, young canons, who, not being in
orders, had no right in an ^particular chapters.
i,N/K?if?«//W-CANONS were fuckas, without having any
revenue or prebend, had the-titles and dignities of
canons, a voice in the chapter, and a place in the
choir, till fuch time as a prebend fhould fall.
For sign -Canons, fuch as did not officiate in the canon-
ries to which they belonged. To thefe were oppofed
roaiffionary canons.
26 ) CAN
Regufar Cakoks, thofe who ftill live hi conimtthtty,
and who, like religious, have, to the pra£Hce of their
rules, added the foLmn profeffion of vov/s.
Tertiary Canon, a perfon who had only the third part
of the revenues of the canonicate.
Canon, in an eccLfiaftical fenfe, a law, rule, or regu¬
lation of the policy and difeipline of a church, made
by councils either general, national, or provincial.
Canons e/' the apojiles, a colledion of ecclefiaftical
laws, which, though very ancient, were not left us
by the apoftles. It is true, they were fbmetimes call¬
ed apoftolic canons; but this means no more than
that they were made by biffiops, who lived foon after
the apoftles, and were called apoftolical men. They
confiH of regulations, which agree with the difeipline
of the fecond and third centuries : The Gieeks gene¬
rally count eighty-five, but the Latins receive only
fifty, nor do they qbferve all thefe.
Canon of mafs, in the Romiffi churfeh, the name of a
prayer which the pfieft reads low to himfelf, the peo¬
ple kneeling.
In this part of the mafs, the pried particularly men¬
tions fome perfons for whom he is going to offer the
facrifices, and prays to God for the redemption of
their fouls, the hopes of their falvatiori, drc.
Pafchal Canon, a table of the moveable feafts, fhewing
the day of Eafier, and the other feafts depending on
it, for a cycle of nineteen years.
Canon of fdriplure, a catalogue or lift of the infpired
writings, or fuch books of the Bible as are called ca¬
nonical; becaule they are in the number of thofe
books which are looked upon as facred, in oppofition
to thofe which are either not acknowledged as di¬
vine books, or are rejected as heretical and fpurious,
and are called apocryphal.
Canon, in monaftic orders, a book wherein the religi¬
ous of every convent have a fair tranferrpt of the rules
of their order, frequently read among them* as their
local ftatutes.
Canon is alfo ufed for the catalogue of faints acknow¬
ledged and canonized in the Romifti church.
Can^jn, in mufic, a ftiort compofition of two or more
parts, in which one leads, and the other follows :
Or it is a line of any length, fhewing, by its divifions,
how mufical intervals are diftinguiffied, according to
the ratios, or proportions, that the founds termina¬
ting the intervals, bear one to another, when confi-
dered according to- their degree of being acute- or
grave.
Canon-Law, a colledtion of ecclefiaftical laws, ferving
as the rule and meafure of church-government.
The power of making laws was exercifed by the
church before the Roman empire became Chriftian.
The canon-law that obtained throughout the Weft, till
the twelfth century, was the colleiftion of canons made
by Dionyfius Exiguus in 520, the capitularies of
Charlemagne, and the decrees of the popes, from Sir-
cius to Anaftafius.
The canon-law, even when papal authority was at
its height in England, was of no force when it was
fbuad to contradidt the prerogative of the king, the
laws.
CAN (
laws, ftatutcs, and cufcoms of the realm, or the doc¬
trine of the eftabliihed church.
The ecclefiafKcal jurifoidtion of the fee of Rome in
England, was founded on the canon-law; and this
created quarrels between kings and feveral archbithops
and prelates, who adhered to the papal uiurpation.
Befides the foreign canons, there were feveral laws
and conftitutions made here for the government of the
church; but all thefe received their force from the
royal alTent: And if, at any time, the ecclefiallical
courts did, by their fentence, endeavour to enforce
obedience to fuch canons, the courts at common law,
upon complaints made, would grant prohibitions.
The authority vetted in the church of England of ma¬
king canons, was afcertained by a ftatute of Henry
VIII. commonly called the aft of the clergy’s fubmif-
fion ; by which they acknowledged, that the convoca¬
tion had been always adembled by the king’s writ; fo
that though the power of making canons refided in the
clergy met in convocation, their force was derived
from the authority of the king’s affenting to, and con¬
firming them.
The old canons continued in force till the reign nf
James I. when the clergy being alfembled in convoca¬
tion, the king gave them leave to treat and confult
upon canons ; which they did, and pielented them to
the king, who gave them the royal afient: Thefe
were a collefHon out of the feveral preceding canons
and injunfrions. Some of thefe canons are now ohfo-
lete. In the reign of Charles I. feveral canons were
puffed by the clergy in convocation.
CANONESS, in the Romilh church, a woman who
enjoys a prebend, affixed, by the foundation, to
maids, without their being obliged to renounce the
world, or make any vows.
CANONIZATION, a ceremony in the Romiffi church;,
by which perfons deceafed are ranked in the catalogue’
of the faints. It fucceeds beatification. See Beat
tification.
Before a beatified perfon is canonized; the qualifi¬
cations of the candidate are ftriftly examined into, in
. fome confiftories held for that purpofe; after which
one of the confifforial advocates, in the prefence of
the pope and cardinals, makes the panegyric of the
perfon who is to be proclaimed a faint, and gives a
particular detail of his life and miracles : Which done,
the holy father decrees his canonization, and appoints
the day.
On the day of canonization, the pope officiates in
wfiite, and their eminences are drefl’ed in the fame co¬
lour. St Peter’s church is hung with rich tapeftry,
iipoa which the arms of the pope, and of the prince
or ftate requiring the canonization, are embroidered
in gold and filver. An infinite number of lights blaze
all round the church, which is crowded with pious
fouls, who wait, with a devote impatience, till the
new faint has made his public entry, as it were, into
paradife, that they may offer up their petitions to
him, without danger of being rejected.
The following maxim, with regard to canonization,
is now ohferved, though it has not been followed a-
27 ) * C AN
hove a-century, vi-z,'do* to enter into the inquiries
prior to canonization, till fifty years, at leaft, after
the death of the perfon to be canonized. By the ce-
remQny of canonization, it appears, that this rite of
the modern Romans, has fometbing in it very like the
apotheofis or deification of the ancient Romans, and in-
all probability owes its rife to it; at leaft, feveral ce¬
remonies of the fame nature are confpicuous in both.
C ANONOR, a town on the Malabar coaft, in the Hither
India: E. long, yj0, N. lat. io°.
Here the Dutch have a fort and fadory, which they
took from the Portuguefe in 1663.
CANONRY, the benefice filled by a canon. It differs
from a prebend, Jn that the prebend may fubfift with¬
out the canoniqate; whereas the canonicate is infepa-
rable from the prebend; again, the rights of fuffra-
ges, and other privileges, are annexed to the cancni-
cate, and not to the prebend.
CANOPUS, in aftronomy, a ftar of the firft magnitude
in the rudder of Argo, a conftellation of the fouthern
hemifpbere. See Astronomy, Of the fixed Jlarj.
CANTABRICA, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies of
convolvulus. See Convolvulus.
CANTALIVERS, in architecture, pieces of wood fram¬
ed into the front or other frdes of a houfe, to fufpend
the mouldings and eyes over it.
CANTAR, or Cantaro, in commerce, a weight u-
fed in Italy, paiticularly at Leghorn, to weigh forae
forts of merchandifes.
There are three forts of cantari, or quintals, one
weighs 150 pounds, the other 151* and the third
160 : The firft fei ves to weigh alum and cheefe, the
fecond is for fugar, and the third for wool and cod-
fiffi.
Cantar is alfo a meafure of capacity ufed at Cochin,
and containing four rubis.
CANTATA, in raufic, a fong. or c.ompofition, inter¬
mixed with recitatives, airs, and different movements,
chiefly intended for a imgle voice, with a thorough
bafs, though fometimes for other inftruments.
The cantata, when performed with judgment, has
fomething in it very agreeable; the variety of the move¬
ment not clogging the ear, like other compofitions. It
was firft ufed in Italy, then in France, whence it puf¬
fed to us.
CANTERBURY, the capital city of Kent, fifty-five
miles eaft of London, and fixteen north-weft of Do¬
ver : E. long i° 15', N lajt. 510 16'.
It is a county of itfelf, and the fee of an archbi-
ffiop, who is primate and metropolitan of all England.
It is a large, populous, and trading city; has a good
filk nranufadory, and fends two members to parlia¬
ment.
Canterbury-bell, in botany. See Campanula.
CANTHARIS, in zoology, a genus of infers belong¬
ing to the order of infedta coleoptera. The feelers of
this genus are fetaceous the breaft is marginated,
and ihorter than the head; the elytra, or wing-cafes,
are flexile; and the fides of the belly are plaited and
papillous. Linnaeus ennmerates 27 fpecies of the cpn-
thuris, raoft of them to-be found in differents parts of
Europe,
CAN ( 2:
' Europe. The cantharis ufed in making bliftering
plafters, is ranked under a different genus, viz, the
Meloe. See Meloe.
CANTICLES, a canonical book of the Old Teflament.
The Talmudifts afcribe it to Hezekiah, but the learn¬
ed ’are agreed that king Solomon was the author of it;
and his name is prefixed to it ia the title of the He¬
brew text, and of the ancient Greek verfion.
CANTO, in mufic, the treble, or at lead the higher
part of a piece.
This word more properly fignifies the firfi: treble,
unlefs the word fecundo, for the fecond, or ripieno,
for the treble of the grand chorus, be added.
.CANTON, in geography, denotes a fmall country, or
diffriit, conftituting a diflind: government: fuch are
the cantons of Switzerland.
Canton is alfo the name of a large, populous, and
wealthy city and port-town of China, fituated on the
river Ta, about fifty miles from the Indian ocean:
E. long. ii2° 30', N. lat. 230 25'.
It is a fortified place, within the walls of which no
Chriftians are permitted to enter, notwithftanding their
great trade thither ; it being from thence that they
import all manner of Chinefe goods, as china-ware,
tea, cabinets, raw and wrought lilks, gold-dull, foe.
CANTONING, in the military art, is the allotting
diftind and feparate quarters to each regiment of an
army; the town where they are quartered, being
divided into fo many cantons, or divifions, as there
are regiments.
CANTRED, or Cantref, fignifies an hundred villa¬
ges, being a^Britilh word, compounded of the adjec¬
tive cant) i. e. hundred, and tref, a town or village.
In Wales,, fome of the countries are divided into can-
treds, as in England into hundreds.
CANVAS, in commerce, a very clear unbleached cloth
of hemp, or flax, wove very regularly in little fquares.
It is ufed for working tapeftry with the needle, by
palling the threads of gold, filver, filk, or wool,
through the intervals or fquares.
Canvas is alfo a coarfe cloth of hemp, unbleached,
fomewhat clear, which ferves to cover womens llays,
alfo. to ftiffen mens cloaths, and to make fome other
of their wearing-apparel, foe.
Canvas is alfo a very coarfe cloth made of hemp, un¬
bleached, ferving to make towels, and anfwering o-
ther domeftic purpofes. It is alfo ufed to make fails
for dripping, foe.
Canvas is ufed among the French, for the model and
firft words, where an air or piece of mufic is compo-
fed, and given to a poet to regulate and finilh.
CANATUS, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of tringa. SeeTaiNGA.
CANZONE, in mufic, fignifies, in general, a fong
where fome little figures are -introducedBut it is
fometimes ufed for a fort of Italian poem, ufually
pretty long, to which mufic may be compofed in the
llyle of a cantata. If this term be added to a piece
of inftrumental mufic, it fignifies much the fame as
cantata : If placed in any part of a fonata, it implies
the fame meaning as allegro, and only denotes that
3 ) CAP
the part to which it is prefixed, is to be played or
fung in a brifk and lively manner.
CANZONETTA, a diminutive of canzone, denoting a
little flrort fong: The canzonette neapolitane have two
(trains, each whereof is fung twice over, as the vau¬
devilles of the French : The canzonette ficrliane are a
fpecies of jigg, the meafare whereof is ufually twelve
eights, and fix eights, and fometimes both, as ron¬
deaus.
CAP, a part of drefs made to cover the head,
much in the figure thereof.
The ufe of caps and hats is referred to the year
1449, the firft feen in thefe parts of the world being
at the entry of Charles VII. into Rouen : from that
time they began to take place of the hoods, or cha-
peroons, that had been ufed til! then. When the cap
was of velvet, they called it mortier; when of wool,
fimply bonnet. None but kings, princes, and knights,
were allowed the ufe of the mortier. The cap was
the head-drefs of the clergy and graduates : Church¬
men and members of univerfities, ftudents in law, phy-
fic, foe. as well as graduates, wear fquare caps in
moft univerfities. Dodiors are diftinguifhed by pecu¬
liar caps, given them in afluming the dodlorate. Paf-
quier fays, that the giving the cap to ftudents in the
univerfities, was to denote that they had acquired full
liberty, and were no longer fubjedl to the rod of their
fuperiors, in imitation of the ancient Romans, who
gave a pileus or cap to their Haves, in the ceremony
of making them free. The cap is alfo ufed as a marie
of infamy in Italy. The Jews are diftinguilhed by a
yellow cap at Lucca, and by an orange one in France,
Cap of maintenance, one of the regalia, or ornaments
of ftate belonging to the kings of England, before
whom it was carried at the coronation, and other great
folemnities. Caps of maintenance are alfo carried be¬
fore the mayors of the feveral cities in England.
CAPE, in geography, an high land running out with a
point, into the fea, as Cape-Nord, Cape-Horn, the
Cape of Good-Hope, foe.
Cavk of Good-Hope'. See Good-Hope.
Q.AV\-.-coaft-caflle, the principal Britifh fort and fettle-
ment on the gold-coaft of Guinea, fituated under the
meridian of London, in j° N. lat.
CAPELLA, in aftronomy, a bright fixed ftar in tire
left ftioulder of the conftellation auriga.
CAPER, in botany. SccCapparis.
CAPERQUIN, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Waterford, and province of Munfter, fituated- on the
river Blackwater : W. long. 70 jo', and N. lat.
52° 5'.
CAPHAR, a duty which the Turks raife on the Chri¬
ftians, who carry or fend merchandifcs from Aleppo
to Jerufalem, and other places in Syria.
This duty of caphar was firft impofed by the Chri¬
ftians themfelves, when they were in pofleflion of the
Holy land, for the maintenance of the troops, which
were planted in difficult pafles, to obferve the Arabs,
and prevent their incurfions. It is Hill continued, and
much increafed by the Turks, under pretence of de¬
fending the Chriftians againft the Arabs, with whom,
never-
CAP (
neverthelefs, they keep a fecret intelligence, favour¬
ing their excurfions and plunders.
CAPI-AGA, or Capou-agassi, a Turkifh officer,
who is, as it were, grand-mafter of the feraglio.
He is the firfl: in dignity and repute of all the white
eunuchs, and is always near the Grand Signior’s per-
fon. It is he who introduces embaffadors to audience;
and all great affairs pafs through his hands before they
come to that of the prince.
CAPIAS, in law, a writ of two forts, one before judge¬
ment in an adtion, and the other after: That before
judgment is called capias ad refpondendum, where an
original is fued out, <bc. to take the defendant, and
make him anfwer the plantiff; and that after judge¬
ment is the capias ad fatisfaciendum, &c.
CAPIGI, in the Turkifh affairs, the name of certain in¬
ferior officers belonging to the feraglio, to the number
of five hundred, whofe bufinefs is to affifl: the janiza¬
ries in guarding the firft and fecond gate of that pa¬
lace ; whence alfo the name capighi, which fignifies a
gate.
CAP.ILLAMENT, in a general fenfe, fignifies a hair,
whence the word is applied to feveral things, which,
on account of their length or their finenefs, refemble
hairs: As,
Capillaments of the nerves, in anatomy, the fine fi¬
bres, or filaments, whereof the nerves are compofed.
'CAPILLARY, in a general fenfe, an appellation given
to things on account of their extreme finenefs, or re-
fembling hair.'
Capillary tubes, in phyfics, little pipes whofe canals
are extremely narrow, their diameter being only a
half, third, or fourth of a line. See Hydrosta¬
tics.
CAPILLUS veneris, in botany. See Adiantum.
CAPITAL, in geography, denotes the principal city of
a kingdom, province, or flate.
Capital, among merchants, traders, and bankers, fig¬
nifies the fum of money which individuals bring to make
up the common flock of a partnerlhip.
Capital crime, fuch a one as fubjedts the criminal to
capital punifhment, that is, the lofs of life.
Capital, in architedfure, the uppermofl part of a co¬
lumn or pilafler, ferving as the head, or crowning,
and placed immediately over the fhaft, and under the
entablature. See Architecture.
CAPITANATE, a province of the kingdom of Naples,
fituated on the gulf of Venice, and having the pro¬
vince of Molife on the north, and the Principate on the
fouth.
CAPITANIA, in geography, an appellation given to
the twelve governments eftablifhed by the Portuguefe
in the Brafils.
CAPITATION, a tax or impofition raifed on each per-
fon in confideration of his labour, induflry, office,
rank, &c. It is a very ancient kind of tribute. The
Latins call it tributum, by which taxes on perfons are
diflinguifhed from taxes on merchandife, which were
called veftigalia.
Capitations are never pradlifed among us but in ex¬
igencies of ftate. In France, the capitation was in-
Vol. II. Numb. 31, 3
29 ) CAP
troduced by Lewis XIV. in 1695, an<^ is a tax very
different from the taille, being levied from all perfons
whether they be fubjedt to the taille or not. The
clergy pay no capitation, but the princes of the blood
are not exempted from it.
CAPITOL, in antiquity, a caflle on the Mons Capito-
linus at Rome, where there was a temple dedicated to
Jupiter, in which the fenate anciently affembled. The
capitol confifted of three parts ; a nave, facred to Ju¬
piter ; and two wings, the one confecrated to Juno,
and the other to Minerva.: It was afcended to by flairs;
the frontifpiece and fides were furrounded with galle¬
ries, in which thofe who were honouted with triumphs
entertained the fenate at a magnificent banquet, after
the facrifices had been offered to the gods.
Both the infide and outfide were enriched with infi¬
nite ornaments, the mofl diflinguifhed of which was
the flatue of Jupiter, with his golden thunder-bolt,
his fceptre, and crown. In the capitol alfo were a
temple to Jupiter the guardian, and another to Juno,
with the mint; and on the defcent of the hill was the
temple of Concord.
This beautiful edifice contained, the mofl facred de-
pofits of religion, fuch as the ancylia, the books of the
fybils, 6c.
Capitoline £<mi?.r, annual games inflitutod by Camil-
lus, in honour of Jupiter Capitolinus, and in comme¬
moration of the capitol’s not being taken by the Gauls.
Plutarch tells us, that a part of the ceremony confifl-
ed in the public crier’s putting up the Hetrurians to
fale by audtion : They alfo took an old man, and, ty
ing a golden bulla about his neck, expofed him to the
public derifion. Feflus fays, they alfo dreffed him in
apraetexta. There was another kind of capitoline
games, inflituted by Domitian, wherein there were
rewards and crowns beflowed on the poets, champions,
orators, hiflorians, and muficians. Thefe laft capi¬
toline games were celebrated every five years, and be¬
came fo famous, that inflead of calculating time by
luflra, they began to count by capitoline games, as the
Greeks did by olympiads. It appears, however, that
this cuflom was not of long continuance.
CAPITOUL, an appellation given to the chief magi-
Ilrates of Tholoufe, on account of their meeting in a
place called the Capitol : They are eight in number,
are chofen annually, and have each the government of
a capitoulate, or precimft, like the wards of London.
CAPITULATION, in military affairs, a treaty made
between the garrifon or inhabitants of a place befieged,
and the befiegers, for the delivering up the place on
certain conditions.
The mofl honourable and ordinary terms of capitu¬
lation are, to march out at the breach, with arms and
baggage, drums beating, colours flying, a match
lighted at both ends, and fome pieces of cannon,
waggons and convoys for their baggage, and for the
fick and wounded.
Capitulation, in the German polity, a contrafi:
which the emperor makes with the eledors, in the
name of all the princes and Hates of the empire, be¬
fore he is declared emperor, and which he raiifies be-
H fore
cap ( a
fere he is raifed to that fovereign dignity. The prin¬
cipal points which the emperor undertakes to obferve,
are, i. To defend the church and the empire. 2. To
obferve the fundamental laws of the empire. And,' 3.
To maintain and preferve the rights, privileges, and
immunities of the elediors, princes, and other dates
of the' empire, fpecified in the capitulation. Thcfe .
articles and capitulations are prefented to the emperor ,
by the electors only, without the concurrence of the
other dates, who have complained from time to time
of fuch proceedings -; and in the time of the Wedpha-
lian treaty, in 1648, it was propofed to deliberate in
the following diet, upon a way of making a perpetual
capitulation ; but the electors have always found means
of eluding the execution of this article. In order how¬
ever to give fome fatisfa&ion to their adverfaries, they
have inferred fn the capitulations of the emperors, and
in that of Francis I. in particular, a promife to ufe all
their influence to bring the affair of d perpetual capitu¬
lation to a conclufion. Some German authors own,
that this capitulation limits the emperor’s power ; but
maintain that it does not weaken his fovereignty :
_ Though the mod part maintain, that he is not abfo-
lu;e, beyaufe he receives the empire under conditions
which fet bounds to an abfolute authority.
GAPNOIDES, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
of fumaria. See Fumaria.
CAPON, a cock-chicken, gelded as foon as left by the
dam, or as foon as he begins to crow. They are, of
ufe either to lead chickens, ducklings, pheafants, be.
and defend them from the kites and buzzards ; or to
feed for the table, they being reckoned more delicate
than either a cock or a hen.
GAPPACIA, a town of the hither principate,, in the
kingdom of Naples. It is a bifliop’s fee, and fituated
about fifty-five miles fouth-ead of the city of Naples :
E. long. 1 j° 20', and N. lat. 40° 40'.
GAP PARIS, in botany, a genus of the polyandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix confids of four cortaceous.
-leaves; the corolla has four petals; the damina are
long ; and the capfule is flefhy within, unilocular, and
fupported by a pedunculus. ''There are ten fpecies,
none of which are natives of Britain
CAPRA, or Goat, a genus of quadrupeds belonging
to the'order .of pecora. The horns are hollow, turn¬
ed upwards, ereft, and fcabrous. There are eight
fore teeth in the 1 under jaw, and none in the upper ;
and they have no dog-teeth. This genus confids of
twelve fpecies, viz.
1. The hircusj or common-goat, with arched cari-
nated horns, and a long beard. The goat of Angora
is only a variety of this fpecies ; its hair is white, and
hangs down to the feet; ^nd the ears are plain and
pendent. The common goat is a native of theeadern
mountairs. See Plate LXIII.
The goat is an animal of more fagacity than the
Iheep. indead of having an antipathy at mankind,
they voluntarily mingle with them,' and are eafily
tamed. Even in uninhabited countries, they betray
.jao favage d fpofitions. In the year 1698, an Englilh
vdTel having put in . to the illand of Eonovida, two
) CAP
negroes came aboard, and offered gratis to the captain
as many goats as he pleafed. The captain expreffed
his adoniihment at this offer, But the negroes replied,
that there were only twelve perfons in the ifl.md ; that
the goats had multiplied to-fuch a degree, that they
were become extremely troublefome; and that, in dead
of having, any difficulty in catching them, they followed
the men where-ever they went, and were fo obdinately
officious, that they could not get quit of them upon
any account whatever.
Goats are fenlible of careffes, and capable of a con-
fiderable degree of friendffiip. They are dronger,
more agile, and Jefs timid than ffieep. They have a
lively, capricious, and wandering difpofition; are fond
of high and folitary'places;, and frequently fleep upon
the very points of rocks. They are more eafily lup-
ported than any other animal of the fame lize; for
there is hardly an herb or the bark of a tree, which
they will not eat with pleafure. Neither are they
liable to fo many difeafes as ffieep: They can bear
heat and cold with Ids inconvenience. The adtions,
and movements of animals depend more upon the
force and variety of their fenfations, than the drudture
of their bodies : The natural incondancy or fanciful-
nefs of goats is accordingly expreffed by the irregula¬
rity of their adtions : They walk, dop ffiort, °run-,
jump, ffiew, and hide themfelves, as it were by mere
caprice, and without any other caufe than what a-
rifes from the natural vivacity of their temper.
The buck will copulate when he is a year old, and
the female when die is feven months. But as this is ra¬
ther premature, they are generally redrained till they
be eighteen months'or two years. The buck is bald,
beautiful, and vigorous; one is fufficient toferve 150
females. A buck for propagation ffiould be large, .
handfome, and about two years of age ; his neck
ffiould be ffiort, and fleffiy; his head flender ; his ears
pendent; his thighs thick; his limbs firm ; his hair
black, thick^ and foft; and his beard fhoukl be Jong,
and bulhy. The females are generally in feafon from
September to the end of November. The time^ of
going with young is five months. They generally pro¬
duce one kid, fometimes two, feldom three, and never
more than four; and continue fruitful till they be feven .
years of age : But a buck is feldom kept after he is five.
Goat’s flefh is not fo good as mutton : The rank
fmell of the buck does not proceed from the fleffi, but
from the fkin.
The food of this animal cods next to nothing, as it
lives modly upon fuch plants as are rejefted by other
cattle, and can fupport itfelf even upon the mod bar-.
ren mountains. But their produce is valuable. Cheefe
is made of their milk, whi '*i befides is reckoned good
in confumptions,. and other difeafes. Their fleffi, tab-
low, hair, and hides, are all ufeful and faleable com¬
modities.
2. The ibex, has large knotty horns reclined upon
its back, js of a yellowilh colour, and its beard is .
black. This fpecies is a native of Crete ; and is like-
wife to be met with in the mountains of fome of the
northern parts of. Europe.
3. The,
CAP ( 31
The mambrica, with reclined horns, about the
length of the neck, pendent ears, and a beard. It is
a native of India.
4. The rupicapra, or fhamoy-goat, has credit and
hooked horns. It inhabits the inacceffible mountains
cf Switzerland. The,body is of a duflry red colour ;
but the front, top of the head, gullet, and infide of
the ears are white ; the under part of the tail is black-
ifh; and the upper lip is a little divided. They fel-
dom defcend from the mountains but in hard winters,
when they come down to feed upon the branches and
barks of fir-trees, <bc. On occafions of this kind, one
of the herd always keeps watch to give notice to the
refl of any approaching danger.
5. The deprefl'a, is an American goat, withfmall de-
preffed horns, bent inwards and lying upon the head.
It is about the fize of a kid; and the.hair is long and
pendulous.
6. The reverfa, is likewife an American goat, with
ereft horns curved back at the points. It is about the
fize of a kid of a year old.
7. The gazella, is an Indian goat, with long, ere&,
cylindrical horns, annulated near the bafe.
8. The cervicapra, is likewife an Indian goat, with
plaited, cylindrical horns.. The hair near the horns
is longer than in any other part of the body.
9. The Bezoanica, or Bezoar-goat, is bearded,
and has cylindrical, arched, and wholly amiulated
boms. It is a native of Perfia. The bezoar is found
in one of the flomachs called abomafus. See Be¬
zoar.
10. The dorcas, or antelope, has cylindrical, an¬
nulated horns, bent backward, contorted, and arifing
from the front between they eyes. It is a native-of
Africa and Mexico.
11. The tartarica-, has cylindrical, ftrait, annula¬
ted horns, diaphonous at the points. ,.It has no beard,
and is found in the northern parts of Afia.
12. The ammon, has ftmicircular, plain, white
horns, and no beard. It is about the fize of a ram,
and is a native of Siberia.
CAPRAIA, an ifland on the coaft of Tufcany, about
thirty miles fouth-weft of Leghorn: E. long. ii°,
and N. lat. 430-15'.
CAPRARIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia-'Rn-
giofpermia clafs. The calix is divided into five feg-
ments ; the corolla is bell fhaped, and divided intohve
parts; the capfule has two valves, and contains many
feeds. There are three fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain;
GAPRAROLA, a town of St Peter’s patrimony in
Italy, about twenty miles north of the city of Rome,
and eight fouth of Viterbo : E. long, i j0-, and N.lat.
'420 3c/.—It is a bifhop’s fee.
CAPRI,1 or Caprea, a city and ifland at the entrance
of the gulf of Naples, about twenty miles fouth of.
that city: E. long. 140 jo', and N. lat. 40? 45'.
The ifland is only four miles long,, and one broad ;
the city is a bifhop’s fee, fituated on a, high rock, at
the weft end of the ifland.
CAPRICORN, in zoology. See Mordella.
) CAP
Capricorn-^//?. See Cerambyx.
Capricorn, in aftronomy, one of the twelve figns of
the zodiac.
Tropic of Capricorn, a lefler circle of the fphere-,
which is parallel to the equinoxial, and at 23g 30
diftance from it fouth wards.
CAPRI FICATION, a method ufed in the Levant, for
ripening the fruit of the domeftic fig-tree, by means of
infers bred in that of the wild fig-tree.
It is faid, that thefe figs will never come to matu¬
rity, unlefs wounded by. the infers depoflting their
eggs. Poflibly the reafon of this effeift, may be their
lacerating the veftels of the fruit, and thereby deriving
thither a greater quantity of nutricious juice.
Plumbs and pears, wounded in the lame manner;
are found to ripen fooneft, and the pulp about the
wound has A more exquifite tafte than the reft.,,
CAPRIFICUS-, in botany. See. Ficus. .
CAERIFOLIUM, in botany. See Lonicera.
CAPRIMULGUSj Goat socker, or Fern-owl,
in ornithology, a genus of birds belonging to the order
ofpafleres. The beak is incurvated, fmall, tapering^
and deprefled at the bafe ; the hairs at the mouth,
which it opens very wide, are placed in a row, There
are two fpecies, viz. the Europasus/with the tubes of
the noftrils hardly vifible. It is a native of Europe,
and feeds upon moths and nofturnal infedis. This bird
is,faid to fuck goats in the night. See PI. 63. 2. The
Americanus, has-the tubes of the noftrils very confpi-
cuous. This is a night-bird, and is found in America..
CAPRIOLES, in the menage, leaps that a horfe makes
in the fame place, without advancing, in fuch a man¬
ner, that when he is at the height qf the leap, he jerks
out with his hinder legs even and near. It is the moft
difficult of all the high menage, It differs from a
croupade in this, that in a croupade the horfe does not
fhew his ffioes ; and from a ballotade, becaufe in this
he does not jerk but, To make a horfe wotk well at
caprioles, he muft- be put between two pillars, and
taught to raife firft his fore-quarters, and then his
hind quarters, while his fore are yet in the air, for
which end you muft give the-whip and the poinfon.
CAPSICUM, or Guinea-pepper, a genus of the pen-
tandria monogynia clafs. The corolla is rotated, and
the berry wants juice. There are two fpecies, both
natives of the Indies. The feeds are ufed in. fauces
and pickles.
CAPSQUAR-ES, in gunnery, ftfong plates of iron
which come over the trunnions of a gua, and keep it
in the carriage.
They are faftened . by a hinge to the prize-plate,
that they may lift up. and down, and form a part of
an arch in the middle to receive a .third part of the
thicknefs of the trunnions ; for two thirds are let into
the carriage, and the other end is faftened by two ■
iron wedges, called the. fore-locks and keys.
CAPSTAN, or Main capstan, in a ./hip, a great ■
piece of timber in the nature of a windlafs, placed next
behind the main-maft, its foot (landing in a ftep on the
lower deck, and its head between the upper decks*
formed into feveral fquares with, holes in them. Its
ufe.
CAP (3
ufe is to weigh the anchors, to hoife up or ftrike down
top-mafts, to heave any weighty matter, or to drain
any rope that requireth a main force.
JVtfr Capstain is placed between the main-mart and
the mizen, and ferves to (train any rope, heave up
on the jear rope or upon the'viol, or hold off by at
the weighing of an anchor.
Capstan-Wj-, the piebes of wood that are put into the
caprtan-holes, to heave up any thing of weight into
the drip.
Pawl of a Capstan, a Ihort piece of iron made fart to
the deck, and.refting upon the whelps, to keep the
capftan from recoiling, which is of dangerous confe-
quence.
Whelps of a Capstan are fhort pieces of wood, made
fart to it, to keep the cable from coming too nigh, in
turning it about.
Pawling the Ch.vsra.k, is flopping it from turning by
means of the pawl.
Come up Capstan, or launch out the Capstan, that
is, flacken the cable which you heave by.
CAPSULE, in a general fenfe, denotes a receptacle, or
cover in form of a bag.
Capsule, among botanifts, a fpecies of pericarpium, or
feed-veffel, compofed of feveral dry elaftic valves,
. which ufually burrt open at the points, when their feeds
are ripe : It differs from a pod, in being roundifti and
Ihort. This kind of pericarpium fometimes contains
one cell or cavity, fometimes more: In the hr ft cafe
it is called unilocular, as it is bilocular, trilocular, <&c.
when it contains two, three, &c. cells or cavities.
CAPSUL/E atrabiliaria, called alfo glanduU renales,
and renes fuccenturiati. See p. 269.
CAPTAIN, a military officer, whereof there are various
kinds, according to their commands.
Captain of a troop or company, an inferior officer, who
commands a troop of horfe, or company of foot, under
a colonel. In the fame fenfe we fay, captain of dra¬
goons, of grenadiers, of marines, of invalids, fac.
In the horfe and foot guards, the captains have the
rank of colonels.
Captain general, he who commands in chief.
Qattslivi lieutenant, he who with the rank of captain,
but the pay of lieutenant, commands a troop or
company in the name and place of fome Other perfon
who is difpenfed with on account of his quality from
performing the fun&ions of his port.
Thus the colonel, being ufually captain of the firft
company of his regiment; that company is commanded
by his deputy, under the title of captain-lieutenant.
So in England, as well as in France, the king,
queen, dauphin, princes, &c. have ufually the title of
captains of the guards, gens d' armes, &c. the real
duty of which offices is performed by captain-lieute¬
nants.
Captain reformed, one who, upon the redu&ion of the
forces, has his commiffion and company fuppreffed;
yet is continued captain, either as fecond to another,
or without any port or command at all.
Captain of militia, he who commands a company of
the militia, or trained bands. See Militia. -
2 ) CAP
Captain of a fhip of war, the commanding officer of a
(hip, galley, fire-ffiip, or the like. This officer ranks
with a colonel in the land-fervice.
Captain of a merchant-fhip, he who has the diredtion
of the (hip, her crew, and lading, tec. In fmall (hips
and ftiort voyages, he is more ordinarily called the
mafter. In the mediterranean, he is called the pa-
troon.
The proprietor of the veffel appoints die captain or
mafter, and he is to form the crew, and chufe and
hire the pilots, mates, and feamen ; though, when
the proprietor and mafter refide on the fame fpot,' they
generally aft in concert together.
Captain Bashaw, or Capondan Bashaw, in the
polity of the Turks, fignifies the Turkilh high ad¬
miral. He poffeffes the third office of the empire,
and is inverted with the fame power at fea that the
vizir has on Ihore. Soliman II. inftituted this office
in favour of the famous Barbaroffa, with abfolute au¬
thority over the officers of the marine and arfenal,
whom he may puniffi, caffiier, or put to death, as
foon as he is without the Dardanelles. He commands
in chief in all the maritime countries, cities, caftles,
&c. and, at Conftantinople, is the firft magiftrate of
police in the villages on the fide of the Porte, and the
canal of the Black-fea. The mark of his authority is
a large Indian cane, which he carries in his hand, both
in the arfenal and with the army.
The captain-baffiaw enjoys two forts of revenues ;
the one fixed, the other cafual. The firft arife from
a capitation of the iflands in the Archipelago, and cer¬
tain governments in Natolia and Galipoli. The lat¬
ter confift in the pay of the men who die during a
campaign ; in a fifth of all prizes made by the begs ;
in the profits accruing from the labour of the flaves,
whom he hires as rowers to the grand fignior ; and in
the corv.ributions he exafts in all places where he
partes.
CAPTION, in Scots law, a writ iffuing under his ma-
jefty’s fignet, in his majefty’s name, obtained at the
inftance of a creditor in a civil debt, commanding mef-
fengers at arms and other officers of the law to ap¬
prehend and imprifon the perfon of the debtor until he
pay the debt. See Scots Law, title, Sentences and
their execution.
CAPTIVITY, a puniffiment which God inflifted upon
his people for their vices and infidelities. The firft of
thefe captivities is that of Egypt, from which Mofes
delivered them ; after which, are reckoned fix during
the government of the judges ; but the greateft and
moft remarkable, were thofe of Judah and Ifrael,
which happened under the kings of each of thefe king¬
doms. It is generally believed, that the ten tribes of
Ifrael never came back again after their difperfion ;
and Jofephus and St Jerom are of this opinion : ne-
verthelefs, when we examine the writings of the pro¬
phets, we find the return of Ifrael from captivity
pointed out in a manner almoft as clear as that of the
tribes of Benjamin and Judah. See Hofea i. 10.
xi. 12. Amos ix. 14. Ifaiah xi. 13, 14. Ezekiel
xxxvii. 16, <bc.
The
CAR ( :
The captivities of Judah are generally reckoned
four; the fourth and laft of which fell in the year of
the world 3416, under Zedekiah ; and from this pe¬
riod begins the feventy years captivity, foretold by Je¬
remiah.
Since the deftrudion of the temple by the Romans,
the Hebrews boaft, that they have always had their
heads, or particular princes, whom they call princes
of the captivity, in the eaft and weft. The princes of
the captivity in the eaft governed the Jews who dwelt
at Babylon, in Chaldea, Affyria, and Perfia; and
the prince of the captivity in the weft governed thofe
who dwelt in Judea, Egypt, Italy, and in other parts
of the Roman empire. He who refided in Judsea,
took up his. abode commonly at Tiberias, and aflumed
the title of Rofchabboth, head of the fathers or pa¬
triarchs. He prefided in aflemblies, decided in cafes
of confcience, levied taxes for the expences of his vi-
fits, and had officers under him, who were difpatched
through the provinces, for the execution of his orders.
As to the princes of the captivity of Babylon, or the
eaft, we know neither the original nor fucceffion of
them ; it appears only, that they were not in being
before the end of the lecond century.
CAPTURE fignifies, particularly, prizes taken by pri¬
vateers in time of war.
CAPUA, a.city of the province of Lavoro, in the king¬
dom of Naples, fituated on the river Volturno, about
fifteen miles north-w eft of the city of Naples : E. long.
150, and N. lat. 410 20 .
It is the fee of an archbiffiop.
CAPUCHINS, in the church of Rome. See Fran¬
ciscans.
CAPUT mortuum, in chemiftry, that thick dry matter
wffiich remains after diftillation of any thing, but of
minerals efpecially.
CAPY-BARA, in zoology. See Sus-.
CARABINE, a fire-arm, ffiorter than a mufket, car¬
rying a ball of twenty-four In the pound, borne by the
light-horfe, hanging at a belt over the left ffioulder.
The barrel is two feet and a half long, and is fome-
times furrowed fpirally within, which is faid to add to
the range of the piece.
CARABINEERS, or Carabiniers, regiments of
light horfe, carrying longer carabines than the reft,
and ufed fometimes on foot.
CARABUS, in zoology, a genus of infers belonging to
the order of infedta coleoptera. The feelers are
briftly; the breaft is ffiaped like a heart, and margi-
nated; and the elytra are likewife marginated. There
are 43 fpecies of this genus, moftly diftinguiffied by
their colour. »
CARACATY, a large country in the north of Alia,
extending from the wall of China to the ancient Mo-
goliftan.
CARACOL, in the menage, the half turn which a horfe-
man makes, either to the right or left.
In the army, the horfe always make a caracol after
each difcharge, in order to pafs to the rear of the
fquadron.
Vol. II. No. 31. 3
3 ) CAR
Caracol, in architecture, denotes a ftair-cafe in a helix
or fpiral form.
CARACOLI, a kind of metal, of which the Caribbees,
or natives of the Lefter Antilles, make a fort of orna¬
ment in the form of a crefcent, which they alfo call
caracoli.
This metal comes from the main land ; and the
common opinion is, that it is a compound of filver,
copper, and gold, fomething like the Corinthian brafs
among the ancients. Thefe metals are fo perfectly
mixed and incorporated together, that the compound
which refults from them, it is faid, has a colour that
never alters, how long foever it remains in the fea, or
under ground. It is fomething brittle, and they who
work at it, are obliged to mix a large proportion cf
gold with it, to make the compound more tough and
malleable.
CARACT, Carat, or Carrat, the name of that
weight which expreftes the degree of finenefs that gold
is of.
The mint-mafter, or cuftom, have fixed the purity
of gold at 24 caraCts ; though it is not poffible fo to
purify and refine that metal, but It will want ftill about
one fourth part of a caraCt in abfolute purity and per¬
fection. The caraCt is divided into and j!T.
Thefe degrees ferve to diftinguiffi the greater or lefier
quantity of alloy therein contained ; for inftance, gold
of 22 caraCts, is that which has two parts of lilver, or
of any other metal, and 22 of fine gold.
Caract is alfo a certain weight which goldfmiths and
jewelers ufe wherewith to weigh precious ftones and
pearls.
This caraCt weighs four grains, but fomething light¬
er than the grains of other weights. Each of thefe
grains is fubdivided into -J-, -g-, -r'^-, eirc.
CARAGROUTH, in commerce, a filver-coin of the
empire, weighing nine drachms. It goes at Conftan-
tinople for 120 afpers. There are four forts of them,
which are all equally current, and of the fame value.
CARAGUATA, in botany. See Tillandsia.
CARAITES, in the ecclefiaftical hiftory of the Jews,
a religious fed among that people, who adhere clofeiy
to the text and letter of the feriptures, rejecting the
rabbinical interpretations, and the cabbala. The Ca-
raites pafs for the moft learned of the Jewiffi doctors ;
they are chiefly to be met with in Poland, Mufcovy,
and the eaft : they are but few in companion of the
bulk of the Jews, who are of the party of the rabbins :
the latter have fo great an averfion for the Caraites,
that they will have no alliance, nor even converfatioft
with them : they treat them as baftards ; and if a ca-
raite would turn rabbinift, the other Jews would not
receive him.
CARAMANIA, a province of Natolia, in Afia, fitu¬
ated on the Mediterranean fea, oppofite to the ifland
of Cyprus.
CARAMANICO, a large well-peopled town of the king¬
dom of Naples, in the hither Abruzzo.
CARAMANTA, the name of a province of South A-
merica, bordered on the north by the diftriCt of Car-
I thagena ;
CAR (3.
thagena ; on the eaft, by New Grenada ; and on the
fouth and weit, by Popayan.
Caramanta is a'fo the name of the capital of that pro¬
vince, fituated in s° i8' N. lat.
CARANNA, a refsnous fubftance brought from New
Spain jn little maffes rolled up in leaves of flags. It is
rarely kept in the fhops, and is rejefted by the cata¬
logue of the London college, though it is ftill retained
in the Edinburgh.
CARAPO, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of gymnotus. SeeGYMNorus.
CARAVAN, dr Caravanne in the eaft, fignifies a
company or affembly of travellers and pilgrims, and
more particularly of merchants, who, for their greater
fecurity, and in order to aflift each other, march in a
body through the defarts, and other dangerous places,
which are infefted with Arabs or robbers.
There is a chief, or aga, w'ho commands the cara¬
van,' and is attended by a certain number of janizaries,
or other militia, according to the countries from whence
the caravans fet out; which number of foldiers muft
be fufficient to defend them and conduft them with
fafety to the places for which they are defigned, and
on a day appointed. The caravan encamps every even¬
ing near fuch wells or brooks, as their guides are ac¬
quainted with ; and there is a ftridt difcipline obferved
upon this occafion, as in armies in time of war. Their
beads of burden are partly horfes, but moft commonly
camels, who are capable of undergoing a very great
fatigue.
CARAVANSERA, or Karavansera, a place ap¬
pointed for receiving and loading the caravans.
It is commonl'y a large fquare building, in the mid¬
dle of which there is a very fpacious court; and under
the arches or piazzas that furround it there runs a
bank, railed fome feet above the ground, where the
merchants, and thofe who travel with them in any ca¬
pacity, take up their lodgings as well as they can ; the
beads of burden being tied to the foot of the bank.
Over the gates, that lead into the court, there are
fometimes little'rooms, which the keepers of the cara-
vanferas let out at a very high price to fuch as have a
mind to be private.
The caravanferas in the eafl are fomething in the
nature of the inns in Europe, only that you meet with
little accommodation either for man or bead, but are
obliged to carry almoft every thing with you : there is
never a c&ravanfera without a well, or fpring of water.
Thefe buildings are chiefly owing to the charity of the
Mahometans ; they are edeemed Lcred dwellings,
where it is not permitted to infult any perfon, or to
pillage any of the effects that are depofited there.
They even carry their precautions fo far,- as not to
fufifer any man who is not married to lodge there ;
becaufe they are of opinion, that a man who, has no
wife is more dangerous than another.
CARAVANSERASKIER, the deward, or keeper of
a caravanfera.
He keeps an account of all the merchandifes that
are fold upon trud, and demands the payments of the
* ) CAR
fums due to the merchants for what has been fold in
the caravanfera, on the feller’s paying two per cent.
CARAWAY, in botany. See Carum.
CARBUNCLE, in natural hidory, a very elegant gem,
whofe colour is deep red, with an admixture of fcarlet.
This gem was known among the ancients by the
name of anthrax. It is ufually found pure and fault-
lefs, and is of the fame degree of hardnefs with the
fapphire : it is naturally of an angular figure, and is
found adhering, by its bafe, to a heavy and ferrugine-
ous done of the emery kind : its ufual fize is near a
quarter of an inch in length, and two thirds of that in
diameter in its thicked parts : when held up againft
the fun, its lofes its deep tinge, and becomes exadtly
of the colour of a burning charcoal, whence the pro¬
priety of the name which the ancients gave it. It
bears %he fire unaltered, not parting with its colour,
nor becoming at .all the paler by it. It is only found
in the Ead Indies, fo far as is yet known, and there
but very rarely.
Carbuncle, or Anthrax, in furgery, an inflamma¬
tion which arifes, in time of the plague, with a veficle
or blider almod like thofe produced by burning.
Carbuncle, in heraldry, a charge or bearing, confid
ing of eight radii, four whereof make a common crofs,
and the other four a faltier.
Some call thefe radii buttons, or daves, becaufe
round, and enriched with buttons, or pearled like
pilgrims daves, and frequently tipped or terminated
with flower-de luces ; others blazon them, royal fcep-
tres, placed in faltier, pale and fefle.
CARCHARIAS, in ichthyology. See Squalus.
CARCASSE, or Carcuss, in the art of war, an iron-
cafe, or hollow capacity, about the bignefs of a bomb1,
of an oval figure, made of ribs of iron, filled with
combudible matters, as meal-powder, faltpetre, ful-
phur, broken glafs, (havings of horns, turpentinei
tallow, fire. ; the defign of it is to be thrown out of a
mortar to fet houfes on fire, and do other execution.
It has two or three apertures through which the fire
is to blaze.
CARCASSONE, a town of Languedoc, in France, fi¬
tuated on the river Ande, about twenty five miles wed
of Narbonne : E. long. 2°, and N. lat. 430 20'- It
is a bifhop’s fee.
CARCERES, in the ancient Circenfian games, were
inclofures, in the circus, wherein the horfes were re*
drained till the fignal was given for darting, when, by
an admirable contrivance, they all at once flew open.
CARCINOMA. See Canker.
CARD, among artificers, an indrument confiding of a
block of wood, befet with fharp teeth, ferving to ar¬
range the hairs of wool, flax, hemp, and the like :
there are different kinds of them, as hand-cards, dock-
cards, &/C.
CARDS, among gameders, little pieces of fine thin
padeboard of an oblong figure, of feveral fizes, but
mod commonly in England three inches and an half
long, and two and an half broad, on which are painted
feveral points and figures.
The
CAR ( 35 ) C A R
The moulds and blocks for making cards, are ex-
adlly like thofe that were ufed for the firft bpoks : they
lay a (heet of wet or moiu paper on the block, which
is firft llightly done ov'er with a fort of ink made with
lamp-black diluted in water, and mixed with fome
ftarch to give it a body They afterwards rub it off
with a round lift. The court-cards are coloured by
means of feveral patterns, hyisA ftane-fihs. Thefe
coniift Of p ;pers cut through with a pen-knife, and in
thefe apertures they apply feveraliy the various co¬
lours, as red, black, <bc. Thefe patterns are paint¬
ed with oil-colours, that the brufhes may not wear
them out; and when the pattern is laid on the pafte-
' board, they flightly pafs over it a brufh full of colour,
which, leaving it within the openings, forms the face
or figure of the card.
Cards,, upon fufficient fecurity, may be exported
without payment of the ftamp-duty; but for every
pack fold without the label of the ftamp-office, in Eng¬
land, there is a penalty of 10I.
CARDAMINDUM, in botany. See Trop^olum.
CARDAMINE, lady’s smock, in botany, a genus of
the tetradynamia filiquofa clafs. The pod opens with
a fpring, and the valves are revoluted : The ftigma is
entire; and the calix gapes a little. There are fif¬
teen fpecies, feven of which are natives of Britain,
t/iz. - the bellidifolia, or daify-leaved lady’s-fmock ;
thepetraea, or mountain lady’s-fmock ; the pratenfis, or
common lady’s-fmock; the amara, bitter creffes, or
lady’s-fmock ; the impatiens, or impatient lady’s-fmock ;
the parviflora, or fmall flowered lady’s-fmock; and the
hirfuta, or hairy lady’s-fmock.
CARDAMOM, in materia medica, the feeds of a fpe¬
cies of amomum. They are diftinguilhed into the lef-
fer and greater. The- greater cardamom is a dried
fruit or pod containing two rows of fmall triangular
feeds of a warm aromatic flavour. The lefler is about
half the fixe of the former, and the feeds are confide-
rably ftronger both in fmell and tafte. Hence this
lort is the only one now ufed as a medicine. The
feeds are warm, grateful, pungent, aromatic, and fre-
. quently employed as fuch in pradlice.
Cx^lRDIAC, an appellation given to fuch medicines as
are fuppofed to preferve or increafe the ftrength of
. - the heart.
CARDIACA, in botany. See Leonurus.
CARDIALGIA, the heart-burn, in medicine, a
diforder of the ftomach attended with anxiety, a nan-r
fea, and often a reaching or a&ual vomiting. See
Medicine.
CARDIFF, a borough-town of Glimorganfliire, in
fouth Wales, fituated on the river Tave, about two
miles fouth-eaft of Landaff: W. long. 30 20 , N.
lat. 510 30'. It fend? only one member to parlia¬
ment.
CARDIGAN, the capital, of Cardiganlhire, near the
mouth of the river Tivy and the Iriih channel, about
thirty miles north of Pembroke : W. long. 40 40,
N. lat. .52° I5,> It gives the title of earl to the no¬
ble family of Brudenel, and fends only one member
to parliament.
CARDINAL, in a general fenfe, an appellation given
to things on account of their prehemintnee: thus we
fay, cardinal virtues, 6c.
Cardinal signs in the zodiac, are Aries, Libra,
'Cancer, and Capricorn.
Cardinal, more particularly fignifies an ecclefiaftical
prince in the Romilh church, being one who has a
voice in the conclave at the-election of a pope. The
cardinals were originally nothing more than deacons,
to whom was intrufted the care of diftributing the
alms to the poor of the feveral quarters of Rome;
and as they held aflembiies of the poor in certain
churches of their feveral diftridts, they took the title
of thefe churches. They began to be called cardinals
in the year 300, during the pontificate of St Sylveft-
er, by which appellation was meant the chief priefts
-of a parilh, and next in dignity to a bilhop. This
office grew more conftderable afterwards, and by fmall
degrees arrived at its prefent height, in which it is the
reward of fuch as have ferved his holinefs well, even
princes thinking it no diminution of their honour to
become members of the college of cardinals.
The cardinals compofe the pope’s council, and, till
the time of Urban VIII. were ftyled nioji illujlrious ;
but by a decree of that pope in 1630, they had the
title of eminence conferred upon them.
At the creation of a new cardinal, the pope per¬
forms the'ceremony of fnutting and opening his mouth,
which is done in a private ccnfiftory. The (hutting
his mouth, implies the depriving him of the liberty of
giving his opinion in congregations ; aud the opening
his mouth, which is performed fifteen days after, fig¬
nifies the taking off this reftraint. However, if the
pope happens to die during the time a cardinal’s mouth
is (hut, he can neither give his voice in the eledtiou
of a new pope, nor be himfelf advanced to that dig¬
nity..
The cardinals are divided into fix clafles or orders,
confifting of fix bifnops, fifty priefts, and fourteen
deacons, making in all feventy*; whic h conftitute the
facred college. The number of cardinal-bifliops has
very feldom been changed, but that of priefts and dea¬
cons have varied at differen: times.
The privileges of the cardinals are very great:
They have an abfolute power in the church during the
vacancy of the holy fee: They have a right to tied
the new pope, and. are the only perfons on whom the
choice can fall: Moft of the grand offices in the court
of Rome are filled by cardinals. The drefs of a
cardinal is a red foutanne, a rochet,, a.fhort purple
mantle, and the red hat. When they, are lent to the
courts of princes, it is in quality of legates « Aj/tw,-
and when they are appointed governors of towns,
their government is called by the name of legation.
Cardinal is alfo a title given to fome bilhops, as thofe
of Mentz and Milan, to the archbifhop of Bourges ;
and the abbot of Vendome Calls, himfilf cardinalis
natus.
Cardinal’s flower. See Rapuntium.
CARDIOlD, in the higher geometry, an algebraical
curve, fo called from its refeiiblance to a heart.
CARDIOSe
CAR ( ) CAR
CARDIOSPERMUM, in botany, a genus of the 6c-
tandria trigynia clais. The calix has four leaves;
there are four petals; an unequal four-leaved nedfan-
um; and there are three inflated capfules. There are
two fpecies, both natives of the Indies.
CARDIUM, in zoology, a genus of infetts belonging
to the older of vermes teflacea. The fhell confilts of
two equ;d valves, and the fides are equal. There are
21 fpecies of this genus.
CARDONNA, a city of Catalonia, in Spain, fituated
on a river of the fame name, about forty miles north-
weft of Barcelona : E. long. i° 2o\ N. lat. 410 35'.
CARDUEL, a province of Georgia, in Alia, lying be¬
tween the Cafpian and Euxinefeas, the capital where¬
of is Teflis. It belongs partly to the Turks, and
partly to the Perfians.
CARDUELIS, in ornithology, a fynonime of a fpecies
of fringilla. See Fringilla.
CARDUUS, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia poly-
gamia aequalis clafs. The calix is ovated, and im¬
bricated with fpinous fcales; and the receptacle is
hairy. There are 26 fpecies, ten of which are na¬
tives of Britain, viz. the lanceolatus, or fpear-thiftle;
the nutans, or mufk-thiftle; the acanthoides, or welted-
thiftle ; the crifpus, or thiftle upon thiftle; the palu-
ftris, or marfh-thiftle ; the difie&us, orEnglilh foft thi-
ftb ; the helenioides, or melancholy thiftle; the maria-
nus, or milk-thiftle; and the acaulos, or dwarf carline-
thiftle.
CAREENING, in the fea-language, the bringing a fhip
to lie down on one lide, in order to trim and caulk
the other fide.
A fhip is faid to be brought to the careen, when
the moft of her lading being taken out, (he is hailed
down on one fide by a fmall veffel as low as neceffary;
and there kept by the weight of the ballaft, ordnance,
as well as by ropes, left her marts fhould be
{trained too much ; in order that her fides and bottom
may be trimmed, feams caulked, or any thing that is
faulty under water mended. Hence when a fhip
lies on one fide when fhe fails, fhe is faid to fail on
the careen.
Carelia, in geography, a province of Finland, bound¬
ed by the province of Savolaxia on the north, and by
the gulph of Finland on the fouth. It is fubjedt to
Rufiia.
CARELSCROON, a port-town of the province of
Gothland, in Sweden, fituated on the coaft of the
Baltic: E. long. 150, and N. lat. 56° 20 .
It is an excellent harbour, where the Swedes lay
up their royal navy.
CARENTAN, a town of Normandy, in France, fitua¬
ted at the mouth of a river of the fame name: W.
long. i° 15', and N. lat. 490 20 .
CARET, among grammarians, a character marked thus
a, fignifying that fomething is added on the margin,
or interlined, which ought to have come in where the
caret ftands.
CARETTA, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of teftudo. SccTestudo.
CAREX, in botany, a genus of the moncecia triandria
clais. The amentum of the male is imbricated; it
has no corolla; and the calix confifts of one leaf. The
amentum of the female is likewife imbricated ; the co¬
rolla is wanting ; and the calix confifts of one leaf;
the nedtarium is inflated and three-teethed; there are
three ftigmata ; and the feeds are triangular and con¬
tained within the nedlarium. There are 37 fpecies,
26 of which are natives of Britain.
CARGADORS, a name which the Dutch give to thofe
brokers, whofe bufinefs is to find freight for ihips out¬
ward bound, and to give notice to the merchants,
who have commodities to fend by fea, of the {hips
that are ready to fail, and of the places for which they
are bound.
CARGAPOL, or Kargapol, the capital of a terri¬
tory of the fame name, in the province of Dwina, in
Mufcovy: E. long. 36°, and N. lat. 63°.
CARGO denotes all the merchandifes and effedts which
are laden on board a Ihip.
Super-ChKGo, a perfon employed by merchants to go a
voyage, and overfee the cargo, and difpofe of it to the
beft advantage.
CARIAMA, in ornithology, a fynonime of the palame-
dea. See Palamedea.
CARIBBE-islands, a clufter of iflands, fituated in
the Atlantic ocean, between 590 and 63°, W. long,
and between 110 and 180 N. lat. They belong part¬
ly to the Britifti, and partly to the French, Dutch,
<bc.
CARIBBIANA, or Caribiana, the north eaft coaft:
of Terra-firma, in fouth America, otherwife called
New-Andalufia. See Andalusia.
CARICA, in botany, a genus of the dioecia decandria
clafs. The male has hardly any calix ; the corolla is
bell-ftraped, and divided into five fegments; the fila¬
ments are inferred into the tube of the corolla, and
are alternately Ihorter. The calix of the female has
five teeth; the corolla confifts of five petals; there
are five ftigmata; and the berry is unilocular, and con¬
tains many feeds.
CARICATURA, in painting, denotes the concealment
of real beauties, and the exaggeration of blemifties,
but ftill fo as to preferve a refemblance of the objedl.
CARICOUS, an epithet given to fuch tumours as re-
femble the figure of a fig. They are frequently found
in the piles.
CARIES, in furgery, the corruption or mortification of
a bone. See Surgery.
CARIGNAN, a fortified town of Piedmont, fituated on
the river Po, about feven miles fouth of Turin: E.
long. 70 25', and N. lat 440 3c/.
CARIGUE, orCARicuEYA, in zoology, a fynonime
of a fpecies of didelphis. See Di del phis.
CARINTHIA, a duchy in the circle of Auftria, in Ger¬
many, bounded by the archbiflropric of Saltzburg on
the north, and by Carniola and the dominions of Ve¬
nice on the fouth. It is fubjeiS to the houfe of Au¬
ftria.
CARIONOLA, a city of the province of Lavoro, in
the
CAR ( 37 ) CAR
the kingdom of Naples, about twenty miles north of CARMELITES, or White friers, are an order of
the city of Naples : E. long. 150, and N. lat. 410 20'.
It is a bilhop’s fee.
CARIPI, a kind of cavalry in the Turkifh army.
The caripi, to the number of about one thoufand,
are not flaves, nor bred dp in the feraglio, like the
reft, but are generally Moors, or renegado Chriftians,
who, having followed adventures, and being poor,
and having their fortune to feek by their dexterity and
courage, have arrived to the rank of horfe-guards to
the grand fignior.
CARISBROOK-CASTLE, a caftle fituated in the
middle of the ifle of Wight, where king Charles I. was
imprifoned : W. long. iQ 30', and N. lat. 50° 40'.
CARKE denotes the thirtieth part of a farplar of wool.
See Sarplar.
CARLINA, or Carline thistle, in botany, a genus
of the fyngenefia polygamia aequalis clafs. The calix is
radiated, with long coloured fcales. There are feven
fpecies, only one of which, viz. the vulgaris, is a na-
• tive of Britain. The roots are faid to be diaphoritic
and alexipharmic.
CARLINE, or Caroline, a filver coin, current in the
Neapolitan dominions, and worth about four-pence of
our money.
CARLING FORD, a port-town of Ireland, in the
county of" Lowth, and province of Leinfter, about
twenty-two miles north of Drogheda : W. long. 6°
23', and N. lat. 540 5'.
CARLINGS, or Carlines, in a ftiip, two pieces of
timber, lying fore and aft, along from beam to beam,
whereon the ledges reft on which the planks of the
fhip are faftened. All the carlings have their ends let
into the beams culvertail-wife : They are diredtly over
the keel, and ferve as a foundation for the whole bo¬
dy of the fhip.
CARLISLE, the capital city of Cumberland, fituated
near the mouth of the river Eden, and the Solway
frith : W. long. 20 30,) and N. lat. 540 45'.
It is a bifhop’s fee.
CARLOCK, in commerce, a fort of ifing-glafs made
with the fturgeon’s bladder, imported from Archan¬
gel. The chief ufe of it is for clarifying wine ; but
it is alfo ufed* by dyers. The beft carlock comes from
Aftracan, where a great quantity of fturgeon is caught.
CARLOWITZ, a town of Sclavonia, fituated on the
weft fide of the Danube, about thirty-five miles north-
weft of Belgrade: E. long. 20° 45', and N. lat.
45° 2?'.
CARLSTADT, the capital of Croatia, a frontier pro¬
vince of Chriftendom againft the Turks: E. long.
160, and N. lat. 450 5'. It is fubjeft to the houfe of
Auftria.
Carlstadt is alfo the name of a town in the bifhopric
of Wurtfburg, in the circle of Franconia in Germany,
fituated on the river Maine, about fourteen miles north
of Wurtfburg : E. long. 90 jo', and N. lat. 50°.
CARMAGNIOL, a fortified town of Piedmont, fitua¬
ted on the river Po, about ten miles fouth of Turin :
E. long, y0 30', and N. lat. 440 45'.
Vol. II. No. 31. 3
our lady of Mount Carmel, making one of the four
orders of mendicants. They pretend to derive their
original from the prophets Elijah and Elifha. Their
original rules contained fixteen articles, one of which
confined them to their cells, and enjoined them to
employ themfelves day and night in prayer ; an¬
other prohibited the brethren having any property;
another enjoined fafting, from the feaft of the exalt¬
ation of the holycrofs till Eafter, excepting on Sundays;
abftinence at all times from flefh, was enjoined by an¬
other article ; one obliged them to manual labour ;
another impofed a drift filence on them, from vefpers
till the tierce the next day: However, thefe conftitu-
tions have been in fome refpefts altered.
This order is fo much increafed, that it has at pre-
fent thirty-eight provinces, befides the congregation of
Mantua (in which there are fifty-four monafteries, un¬
der a vicar-general) and the congregation of bare-foot¬
ed Carmelites in Italy and Spain, which have their pe¬
culiar generals.
If a monk of this order lie -with a woman, he is
prohibited faying mafs for three or four years, is decla¬
red infamous, and obliged to difcipline himfelf public¬
ly once a week: If he is again guilty of the fame of¬
fence, his penance is doubled: And if a third time,
he is expelled to order.
GARMENTALIA, feafts celebrated by the Romans,
in honour of the prophetefs Carmfenta, the mother of
Evander.
They were folemnized twice in the month of Ja¬
nuary, viz. on the nth and ijth.
CARMINATIVES, in pharmacy, medicines ufed in
colics, or other flatulent diforders, fo difpel the wind.
The four carminative flowers are thofe of camomile,
melilot, motherwort, and dill; befides, angelica, fen
nel, lovage, anife, caraway, coriander, cummin, <bc.
all agree in their carminative qualities, and are there¬
fore ufed in compofitions of that intention.
CARMINE, a powder of a very beautiful red colour,
bordering upon purple, and ufed by painters in minia¬
ture ; though but rarely, becaufe of its great price.
It is extrafted from cochineal, by means of water,
wherein chouan and antour have been infufed; fome
add rocoti, but this gives it too much of the oval caft.
Others make carmine with brafil-wood, fernambouc,
and leaf-gold, beat in a mortar, and fteeped in white-
wine vinegar ; the fcum ariling from this mixture,.up¬
on boiling, when dried, makes carmine ; but this kind
is vaftly inferior to the former : There is another car¬
mine, made of brafil-wood and fernambouc, by a diffe¬
rent preparation.
CARMONA, a town of Andalufia in Spain, about fe-
venteen miles eaft of Sevil: W. long. 50 35', N. lat.
370 20'.
CARNARVON, a borough-town of Carnarvonfhire, in
north Wales, about five miles fouth-weft of Bangor :
W. long. 40 25', and N. lat. 530 20'. It gives the
title; of earl to the noble family of Bridges ; andfeifds
one member to parliament,
K
■ GARNA-
CAR (38
CARNATION, in botany. See Caryophyllus.
CARNATioN-co/sKr, among painters, is underflood of
all the parts of a picture, in general, which reprefent
fielh, or which are naked and without drapery.
In colouring for fielh, there is fo great a variety,
that it is hard to lay down any general rules for in-
. fu udion therein y neither are there any regarded by
thole who have acquired a fkill this way : The vari¬
ous colouring for carnations, may be eafily produced,
by taking more or le's red, blue, yellow, or bifhe, whe¬
ther for the firft colouring, or for the finilhing : The
colour for women fhould be bluilh, for children a little
red, both frelh and gay ; and for the men it Ihould
incline to yellow, efpecially if they are old.
CARNELIAN, in natural hiftory, a precious ftone, of
which there are three kinds, dillinguilhed by three co¬
lours, a red, a yellow, and a white. The red is very
well known among us, and is found in roundilli or oval
mafles, much like our common pebbles ; and is gene¬
rally met with between an inch and two or three inches
in diameter: It is of a fine, Compact, and clofs tex¬
ture, of a glofly furface; and, in thefeveral fpecimens,
is of all the degrees of red, from the paled flelh-
colour to the deeped blood-red. It is generally free
from fpots, clouds, or variegations ; but fometimes it
is veined very beautifully with an extremely pale red,
or with white; the veins forming concentric circles,
or other lefs regular figures, about a nucleus, in the
manner of thofe of agates. The pieces of carnelian
which are all of one colour, and perfectly free from
veins, are thofe which our jewellers generally make
ufe of for feals, though the variegated ones are much
reorg beautiful. The carnelian is tolerably hard, and
capable of a very good polilh : It is not at all affecfted
by acid mendruums : The fire diveds it of a part of
its colour, and leaves it of a pale red; and a drong
and long continued heat will reduce it to a pale dirty
- ray- . . -
'The fined carnelians are thofe of the Ead Indies ;
but there are very beautiful ones found in the rivers
of Silefia and Bohemia ; and we have feme not defpi-
cable ones in England.
Though the ancients have recommended the car-
nelian as adringent, and attributed a number of fanci¬
ful virtues to it, we know no other ufe of the done,
than the cutting feals on it, to which purpofe it is
excellently adapted, as being not too hard for cutting,
and yet hard enough not to be liable to accidents, to
take a good polifii, and to feparate eafily from the~
w;ax.
CARNERO, in geography, a name given to that part
of the gulf of Venice, which extends from the wedern
coad of fdria to the ifland of GroiTa and the coaft of
Morlachia.
©arnero is likewife the name of the cape to the wed of
the mouth of the bay- of Gibraltar.
CARNIOLA, a territory of Audria, in Germany, bound¬
ed by Carinthia and Stiria on the north, and by the
dominions of Venice on the fouth.
CARNIVAL, or Carnaval, a time of rejoicing, a
feafoaaf mirth, obferved with great folemnity by the
) CAR
Italians, particularly at Venice, holding from twelfth-
day till lent.
Feads, balls, operas, concerts of mufic, intrigues,
marriages, &c. are chiefly held in carnival-time. The
carnival begins at Venice the fecond holiday in Ohrid-
mas: Then it is they begin to wear mafks, and o-
pen their play-houfes and gaming-houfes p the Place
of St Mark is filled with mountebanks, jack-puddings,
.pedlars, whores, and fuch like mob, who flock thi¬
ther from all parts : There have been no lefs than
feven fovereign princes, and thirty thoufand foreign¬
ers here, to partake of thefe diverfions.
CAROB-frfr. See CERATONtA.
CAROLINA, a province ofN. America, belonging to
Great Britain : It is fituated, comprehending Geor¬
gia, between 750 and 86° W. long, and between 31°
and 36° N. lat. and bounded by Virginia on the north,
by the Atlantic ocean on the ead, by Spanifh Floxida
on the fouth, and by the Apalachian mountains on the
wed; or rather extends wedward, without any limits.
It is divided into three didimfl governments, viz-.
North and South Carolina, and Georgia.
CAROLINE-Zw/L, the name of four books, compofed
by order of Charlemagne, to refute the fecond council
of Nice Thefe books are couched in very harfh and fe-
vere termSi containing one hundred and twenty heads of
accufation againd the council of Nice, and condemning
the worfhip of images.
CAROLSTAT, a town of Gothland in Sweden, fitu¬
ated at the north end of the Wener-lake, about one
hundred and forty miles wed of Stokholm : E. long.
130 30 , and N. lat. 590 4c/. >
CAROLUS, an ancient Englifh broad piece of gold,
druck. under Charles I. its value has of late been at
twenty-three fhiliings derling, though at the time it
was coined, it is faid to have been rated at twenty
fhillings.
Car onus, a fmall copper coin, with a little filver mix¬
ed with it, druck under Charles VIII. of France.
The carolus was worth twelve deniers, when it cea-
fed to be current.
Thofe which are dill current in trade, in Lorrain,
or in feme neighbouring provinces, go under, the name
of French fols.
CAROTID arteries, in anatomy. See p. 226.
CARP, in ichthyology, the Englifh name of a fpecies
of cyprinus. SeeCypRiMus.
CARPENTRY, the art of cutting, framing, and join¬
ing large pieces of wood, for the ufes of building. It
is one of the arts fubfervient to architefture, and is
divided into houfe-carpentry and fhip-carpentry: The
firdis employed in railing roofing, flooring of houfes;6^c.
and the fecond in the building of fhips, barges, &c.
The rules in carpentry are much the fame with thpfe
of joinery; the only difference is, that carpentry is
ufed in the larger coarfer work, and joinery in the
fmaller and curious. See Joinery.
CARPET, a fort of covering of duff, or other materi¬
als, wrought with the needle or on a loom, which is
part of the furniture of ahoufe, and commonly fpread
over tables, or laid upon the floor.
Perfian
CAR (
Perfian andTurkey carpets are thofe moil: efleemed;
though at Paris there is a manufactory after the manner
of Perfia, where they make them littfe inferior, not
to lay finer, than the true Perfian carpets. They are
velvety, and perfectly imitate the carpets which come
from the Levant. There are alfo carpets of Germany,
forne of which are made of woollen fluffs, as ferges,
&c. and called fquare carpets: Others are made of
wool alfo, but wrought with the needle, and pretty
often embellilhed with filk; and laflly, there are car¬
pets made of ddg's hair. We have likewife carpets
made in England, which are uied either as floor-
carpets, or to make chairs and other houlehold furni¬
ture : It is true, we are not arrived at the like per¬
fection in this manufacture with our neighbours the
French; but may not this be owing to the want of
the like public encouragement?
CAllPI, a town of the Veronefe in Italy, fituated on
the river Adige, twenty four miles fouth-eaft of Vero¬
na : E. long ii° 40r, and N. lat. 450 ic/. •
Cx^R-PINUS, the Horn-bean, in botany, a genus of
the monoecia polyandria clafs. The calix of the male
is bell-fhaped, and divided into five fegments ; it has
no corolla ; and the (lamina are ten. The calix of
the female has four teeth ; there is no corolla; the
ftyli are three; and the capfule has four valves, con¬
taining two feeds. There are but two fpecies, both
natives of America.
CARPIO, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of falmo and cyprinus. See Salmo, and Cyprinus.
CARPOBALSAM, in the materia medica, the fruit of
the tree which yields the true oriental balfam.
The caprobalfam is ufed in Egypt, according to
Profper Alpinus, in all the intentions for which the
balfam itfelf is applied: But the only ufe the Euro-^
peans make of it is in venice-treacle and mithridate,
and in thefe not a great deal; for cubebs and juniper-
berries are generally fubftituted in its place.
CARPOBOLUS, in botany. See Lycoperdon.
CARPUS, the Wrist, in anatomy. Seep.-179, 180.
CARR, among the ancients, a kind of throne mounted
on wheels, and ufed in triumphs and other folemn ocr
cafions.
CARRIAGE, a vehicle ferving to convey perfons, goods,
merchandifes, and other things from one place to an¬
other.
For the conflruClion and mechanical principles of
wheel-carriages, fee Mechanics.
Carriage of a cannon, the frame or timber-work on
which it is mounted, ferving to point it. for (hooting,
or to carry it from one place to another. It is made
of two planks of wood, commonly one half the length
of the gun, called the cheeks, and joined by three
wooden tranfums, llrengthened with three bolts of
iron. It is mounted on two wheels; but on a march
has two fore-wheels, with limbers added. The prin¬
cipal parts of a carriage are the cheeks, tranfums, .
bolts, plates, train, bands, bridge, bed, hooks, tru-
nion-holes, and capfquare..
2?/<3c-LCarriage, a cart made on purpofe for carrying •
mortars and their beds from place to place,
39 ) CAR
TVaci-CARRiAGE, two fliort planks of wood fupported
on two axle-trees, having four trucks of folid wood
for carrying mortars or guns upon battery, where
their own carriages cannot go. They are drawn by
men.
CARRICK, the mod foutherly divifion of the (hire of
Air in Scotland.
Carrick on the Sure, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Tipperary, and province of Munder, about four¬
teen miles north-wed of Waterford: W. long. 70 24,
and N. lat. 520 16'.
Carrick-fergus, a town in the county of Antrim,
and province of Ulder, in Ireland, about eighty-five
miles north of Dublin : W. long. 6° ij', and N. lat.
5Ag 4f'-
CARROT, in botany. See Daucus.
fftfrti'/y-CARROT. SeeMYRRHIS.
Z)eW/y-CARROT. See Thapsia.
Mountain Carrot. See Foeniculum.
CARROUSAL, a courfe of horfes and chariots, ora
magnificent entertainment exhibited by princes on fome
public rejoicing. It confids in a cavalcade of feveral
gentlemen richly dreffed and equipped, after the man¬
ner of ancient cavaliers divided into fquadrons, meet¬
ing in fome public place,, and prafliling jails, tourna¬
ments, <bc. 'The lad carroufals were in the reign of
. Lewis XIV.
GARS, or Kars, a city of Turcomania, or the greater
Armenia, fituared on a river of the fame name: E.
long. 440, and N. lat. 41 “ go'.' It is fubjedt to the
Turks.
CARSE, or Carse of Cowry, the name of a didrid of
Perthlhire in Scotland, lying eadward of Perth, on
the northern bank of the Tay,
CART, a land-carriage with two wheels, drawn com¬
monly with horfes, to carry heavy goods, ~&c. from
one place to another. See Mechanics.
CARTAMA, a town of Granada, in Spain, about ten
miles north-wed of Malaga : W. long, 40 a©', and
N lat. 36° 40/.
CARTEL, an agreement made between two dates for
the exchange of their prifoners of war.
Cartel fignifies alfoa letter of defiance, or a challenge,
to decide a controverfy, either in a tournament, or in
(ingle combati See Duel.
CARTERET, a county of South .Carolina, in North
America.
CART'ESIANS, a fed of philofophers, who adhere to
the fydem of Des Cartes, and founded on the two fol¬
lowing principles ; the one metaphyfical, the other
pbyfical : the metaphyfical one is, 1 think, therefore
1 am; the phyfical principal is, That nothing exifls
but fubfiance. Subdance he makes of two kinds ; the
one a fubftance that thinks, the other a fubdance ex¬
tended ; whence adual thought and adual extenfion
are the effence of fubdance.
The effenee of matter being thus fixed in extenfion
the Cartefians conclude, that there is no vacuum, nor
any poflibility thereof in nature, but that the world
is.abfolutely full : uisre fpace is precluded by this prin-
ciplr, >
CAR ( ,
ciple, in regard, extenfion being implied in the idea of
ipace, matter is lb too.
Upon thefe principles, the Cartefians explain me¬
chanically, and according to the laws of motion, how
the world .was formed, .and whence the prefent appear¬
ances of nature do rife. They fuppofe, that matter
was created of an indefinite extenfion, and divided into
little fquare mafleS, full of angles ; that the Creator
impreffed two motions on this matter; one whereby
each part revolved round its centre, another whereby
an aflemblage, or fyftem, turned round a common cen¬
tre ; whence arofe as many different vortices as there
were different maffes of matter, thus moving round
common centres.
The confequences of this hypothefis, according to
the Cartefians, will be, that the parts of matter in
each vortex could not revolve among each other, with¬
out having their angles gradually broken, and that this
continual fridtion of parts and angles produced three
elements; the firft, an infinitely fine dull, formed of
the angles broken off; the fecond, the fpheres re¬
maining, after all the angular irregularities are thus
removed : ,thefe twq make the matter of Des Cartes’s
firft and fecond element; and thofe particles not yet
rendered fmooth and fpherical, and which ftill retain
fome of their angles, m ike the third element.
Now, according to the laws.of motion, the fubtileft
element mult take up the centre of each fyftem, being
that which conftitutes the fun, the fixed ftars above,
and the fire below ; the' fecond element, compofed of
fpheres, makes the atmofphere, and all the matter be¬
tween the earth and the fixed ftars, in fuch a manner
as that the largeft fpheres are always next the circum¬
ference of the vortex or fyftem, and the fmalleft next
its centre ; the third element, or the hooked particles,
is the matter that compofes the earth, all terreftrial
bodies, comets, fpots in the fun, <bc. Though both
philofophers and divines have a juft plea againft this
romantic fyftem, yet it muft be owned, that £)es Car¬
tes, by introducing geohietry into phyfics, and account¬
ing for natural phenomena by the laws of mechanics,
did infinite fervice to philofophy.
CARTHAGE, or New Carthage, the capital of
Coftarica, a province of Mexico, in North America :
W. long. 86°, and N. lat. 90 44'.
CARTHaGENA, a large city, with one of the beft
harbours in Spain, fituated in the province of Murcia,
about twenty miles fouth of that city: W. long. x°
5', and N. lat. 370 4c/. It is a bilhop’s fee.
New Carthagena, the capital of a province of the
fame name, in South America, fituated on a kind of
pentnfala: W. long. 770, and N. lat. nQ. It is
one of the largeft and beft fortified towns in South
America.
CARTHAMUS, or Bastard-saffron, in botany, a
genus of the fyngenefia polygamia aequalis clafs. The
caiix is ovated, and imbricated with foliaceous fcales
of an oval Ihape. There are nine fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain. The feeds are purgative ;
but operate flowly, and diforder the bowels.
CARTHUSIANS, a religious order, founded in the
o ) CAR
year ipgo, by one Bruno. Their rules are very fe-
vere. They are not to go out of their cells, except
to church, without leave of their fuperior; nor fpeak
to any perfon without leave. They muft not keep any
portion of their meat or drink till next day; their beds
' are of ftraw, covered with a felt; their cloathing two
hair-cloths, two cowls, two pair of hofe, and a cloke,
all coarfe. In the refe&ory, they are to keep their
eyes on the dilh, their hands on the table, their at¬
tention on the reader, ancf their hearts fixed on God.
Women are not allowed to come into their churches.
CARTHUSIAN-powder, the fame with kermes mi¬
neral. See Kermes.
CARTILAGE, in anatomy, a body approaching much
to the nature of bones ; but lubricous, flexible, and
elaftic.
CARTMEL, a market-town of Lancalhire, about ten
miles north-weft of Lancafter : W. long. 20 40', and
N. lat. J4° ty',
CARTON, or Cartoon, in painting, a den^n dtawn
ort ftrong paper, to be afterwards calked through, and
transferred On the frefti plafter of a wall to be painted
in frefeo.
Carton is alfo ufed for a defign coloured, for work¬
ing in molaic, tapeftry, &c. The cartons at Hamp-
ton-court are defigns of Raphael Urbin, intended for
tapeftry
CARTOUCHE, in architeflure and fculpture, an orna¬
ment reprefenting a (croll of paper. It is ufually a flat
member, with wavings, to reprefent fome infcription,
device, cypher, or ornament of armoury. They are,
in architetture, much the fame as modilltons ; only
thefe are fet under the cornice in wainfcotting, and
thofe under the cornice at the eaves of a houfe.
Cartouche, in the military art, a cafe of wood, a-
bout three inches thick at the bottom, girt with mar¬
lin, holding about four hundred mulket-balls, befides
fix or eight balls of iron, of a pound weight, to be
fired out of ahobit, for the defence of a pafs, &c.
A cartouche is fometimes made of a globular form,
and filled with a ball of a pound weight; and fome¬
times it is made for the guns, being of ball of half or
quarter pound weight, according to the nature of the
gun, tied in form of a bunch of grapes, on a tompion
of wood, and coated over. Thefe were made in the
room of partridge-lhot.
CARTRIDGE, in the military art, a cafe of pafteboard
or parchment, holding the exaff charge of a fire-arm.
Thofe for mulkets, carabines, and piftols, hold both
the powder and ball for the charge ; and thofe of can¬
non and mortars are ufually in cafes of pafteboard or
tin, fometimes of wood, half a foot long, adapted to
the calibre of the piece.
Cartridge-box, a cafe of wood or turned iron, co¬
vered with leather, holding a dozen mufquet-cart-
ridges. It is wore upon a belt, and hangs a little
lower than the right pocket-hole.
CARVA, in botany. See Laurus.
CARUI or Carvi, in botany. See Carum.
CARVING. See Sculpture.
CARUM, Caraway, in botany, a genus of the pen-
tan dria
CAS ( ,
tandrla digynia clafs. The fruit is oblong and ftriated ;
the involucrum confifts of but one leaf; and the petals
are carinated and emarginated. There is but one fpe-
cies, viz. the caroi, a native of Britain. The feeds
have an aromatic fmell and pungent talle ; and are fre¬
quently employed as a ftomachic and carminative in
flatulent cafes.
CARUNCULA, in anatomy, a term denoting a little
piece of flefh, and applied to feveral parts of the body,
thus :
CARUNCUUE myrtiformes. See p. 276.
CARUS, in medicine, # fudden deprivation of fenfe and
motion, affedting the whole body.
CARWAR, a tqjvn on the coaft of Malabar, m the Hi¬
ther India, fixty miles fouth of Goa : E. long. 730,
and N. lat. ij°. Here our Eaft-India company have
a fadtory, from whence they import pepper.
fcARYATIDES, or CarA1 te s, in architedhire. See
P- 3*3-
CARYOCATACTES, in ornithology, the trivial name
of a fpecies of corvus. See Corvus.
CARYOCOSTINUM, or f.lectorium et scam-
monio, in pharmacy, is compofed of the following
ingredients : An ounce ant] a half of fcammony; of
cloves and ginger, each fix drams ; half a pound of
honey; half a dram of efTenrial oil of caraway-feeds;
the fpices mull be ground together and mixed with
the honey; then add the powdered fcammony, and
afterwards the oil. This eledluary is a warm brilk
purgative.
CARYOPHYLLATA, in botanv. See Geum.
CARYOPHYLLUS, the Pink,' in botany. See Di-
ANTHUS.
CaRyophyllus, the clove-tree, in botany, a ge¬
nus of the polyandria monogynia clafs. The corolla
has four petals; the calix confifts of four duplicated
leaves ; and the berry contains one feed. There is
but one fpecies, viz. the aromaticus, a native of the
Molucca iflands.. The cloves are the flowcr-cups,
have a ftrong agreeable aromatic fmell, and a bitterifh
pungent talle. The eflential oil of cloves is an ingre¬
dient in many of our officinal compofitions.
CARYOTA, in botany, a genus of plants ranged under
thejialmae bipennatifolise. The calix of the male is
common ; the corolla is divided into three parts ; and
the llamina are numerous. The calix and corolla of
the male are the fame with thofe of the female ; there
is but one pillillum ; and the berry contains two feeds.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the urens, a native of
India.
CASAL, the capital of the duchy of Montferrat, in
Italy, fituated on the river Po, forty-five miles eaft of
Turin : E. long. 8° 35/, and N. lat. 45°.
CASAN, or Kasan, a province of Ruffia, lying be¬
tween the province of Mofcow on the welt, and Sibe¬
ria on the call.
CASCADE, a fleep fall of water from a higher into a
lower place.
They are either natural, as that at Tivoli, dr
artificial, as thofe of Verfailles, and either falling
Vol. II. N-umb. 31. 3
t y cas
with gentle defcent, as thofe of Sceaux; or in form
of a buffet, as at Trianon ; or down Heps, in form of
a perron, as at St Clou ; or from bafon to bafon,
CASCAIS, a town of Eftremadura, in Portugal, ft-
tuated at the mouth of the river Tagus, feventeen,
miles call of Lilbon : W. long. io° 15 , and N. lat.
38° 40'.
CASCARILLA, in botany. See Cinchona.
CASE, among grammarians, implies the different in¬
flexions or terminations of nouns, ferving to exprefs
the different relations they bear to each other, and to
the things they reprefent.
Case, among printers, denotes a floping frame, divided
into feveral compartments, each containing a number
of types or letters of the fame kind. See Print¬
ing.
Case of crown glafi contains ufually twenty-four tables,
each table being nearly circular, and about three feet
fix inches diameter.
Case of Ncwcojile glafs contains thirty-five tables ; of
Normandy glafs twenty-five.
Case-hardening, a method of preparing iron, fo as
to render its outer furface hard, and capable of refill¬
ing any edged tool.
This is a leffer degree of Heel-making, and is prac-
tifed by baking, calcination, or cementation in an oven
or other clofe veffel, flratified with charcoal and pow¬
dered hoofs and horns of animals, fo as to exclude the
air. See Steel.
Case-shot, in the military art, mulket-ball, Hones,
old iron, &c. put into cafes, and ffiot out of great
guns.
CASERTA, a city of the province of Lavoro, in the
kingdom of Naples, about fixteen miles north of the
city of Naples : E. long. 15 0 f, and N. lat. 41° io\
It is a biffiop’s fee.
CASH book. See Book-keeping, p. 618.
CASHELL, orCASHiLL, a city of the county of Tip¬
perary, in Ireland, about eighty miles fouth-wefl of
Dublin : W. long. 70 40', and N. lat. 520 l6,. It
is a biffiop’s fee.
CASHEW-NUT, in botany. See Anacardium.
CASIA, in botany. See Osyris.
CASK, a veffel of capacity, for preferving liquors of
divers kinds ; and alfo fometimes dry goods, as fugar,
almonds, <bc.
A calk of fugar is a barrel of that commodity, con¬
taining from eight to eleven hundred weight. A calk
of almonds is about three hundred weight.
CASPIAN-SEA, a large fea, or lake of Alia, bounded
by the province of AHracan on the north, and by part
of Perfia on the eafl, fouth, and welt. It is upwards
of four hundred miles long from fouth to north, and
three hundred miles broad from eafl to well.
CASSANDRA, the fame with the lyra, or harp-ffiell, a
fpecies of dolium.
CASSANO, a fortrefs, in the Milanefe, in Italy, fi¬
tuated on the river Adda, about twelve miles north-
eafl of Milan : E. long io°, and N. lat. 450 20'.
CASSEL, the capital of the landgravate of Heffe-caffel,
L in
CAS ( 42 ) CAS
in the circle of the Upper Rhine, in Germany,’ fitu-
ated on the river Fulde : E. long. 20 20r, and N.
lat. 51° 20'.
Cassel is alfo the name of a town in French Flanders,
about fifteen miles fouth of Dunkirk : E.long. 2° $0',
and N. lat. 50° 5'.
CASSIA, in botany, a genus of the decandria monogy-
nia clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves; the petals
are five ; and the antheras are roflrjted and barren ;
the pod is a legumen. There are 30 fpecies, all na¬
tives of warm climates. The cafiia fiftula is a native
of Egypt, and the Eaft Indies. The fruit is a cylin¬
drical pod, the pulp of which is a gentle laxative me¬
dicine.
CASSIDA, in botany. See Scutellaria.
Cassida, in zoology, a genus of infedts belonging to
the order of coleoptera. The feelers are like threads,
but thicker on the outfide ; the elytra are marginated ;
and the head is hid under the thorax. There are 31
fpecies of this infedt, difHnguilhed principally by dif¬
ferences in their colour.
CASSIMERE, the capital city of a province of the fame
name in the Hither India: E. long. 75°, and N. lat.
350. It was once the capital of a kingdom, and is
(HH fometimes the refidence of the Mogul.
CASSINE, in botany, a genus of the pentandria trigy-
nia clafs. The calix confifts of five parts or fegmenrs ;
the petals are five, and the berry contains three feeds.
There are only two fpecies, both natives of ^Ethiopia.
CASSIOPEIA, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the
northern hemifphere, fituated oppofite to the great
bear, on the other fide of the pole.
CASSIS, the HELMET-SHELL. SeeMuREX.
CASSITERIA, in the hiftoryof foftils, a genus of cry-
ftals, the figures of which are influenced by an admix¬
ture of fome particles of tin.
The eafliteria are of two kinds : the whitifh pellu-
- cid caifiterion, and the brown caffiterion; the firft is a
tolerably bright and pellucid cryftal, and feldom fub-
jedt to the common blemifhes of cryftal: It is of a per¬
fect and regular form, in the figure of a quadrilateral
pyramid, and is found in Devonfhire and Cornwall
principally. The brown cafliterion is like the former
in figure: It is of a very fmooth and glofly furface,
. and is alfo found in great plenty in Devonfhire and
Cornwall.
CASSOCK, or Cassula, a kind.of robe or gown,
wore over the reft of the habit, particularly by the
clergy. The word caflbck comes from the French
tafaque, an horfeman’s coat.
CASSOWARY, in ornithology. See Struthio.
CASSUMBAZAR, a town of India, in Afia, fituated
on the river Ganges, in the province of Bengal: E.
long. 370, and N. lat. 240.
CASSUMUNAR, in. the materia medica, a root ap¬
proaching to that of zedoary.
It is cardiac and fudorific, and famous in nervous
cafes : It is alfo an ingredient in many compofitions,
and is prefcribed in powders, bolufles, and infufions.
Its dofe is from five to fifteen grains.
CASTANEA, in botany.. See Fagus.
CASTANOVITZ, a town of Croatia, fituated on rhe.
river Unna, which divides Chriftendom from Turky :
E. long. 170 20', and N. lat. 450 40'. It is fubjtft
to the houfe of Auftria.
CASTEL-ARAGONESE, a fortrefs of Sardinia, .fi¬
tuated on the north-weft coaft of that ifland : E. long
8° 45', and N. lat. 41°.
Castel-bar, a town of Ireland, in the countv of
Mayo, and province of Connaught, about thirty-eight
miles north of Gall fray: W. long. 90 24', N. lat.
53° 25'.
Castel-brancho, a city of the province of Bfira, in
Portugal, about ninety five miles north-eaft of Lifbon :
W-long. 8°, N. lat. 390 35'.
Castel de vide, a town of Alentejo, in Portugal,
about twelve miles eaft of Portalegre, and thirty-five
weft of Alcantara: W. long. 70 40, N. lat. 390.
CASTELLA, a town of the Mantuan, in Italy, about
five miles north-eaft of the city of Mantua : E. long.
11° 15', N. lat. 45 0 30'.
CASTELLAN, the name of a dignity or charge in Po¬
land : The caftellans are fenators of the kingdom, but
fenators only of the lower clafs, who, /in diets, fit on
low feats, behind the palatines, or great fenators.
They are a kind of lieutenants of provinces, and com¬
mand a part of the palatinate under the palatine.
CASTELLANY, the territory belonging to any cityor
town, chiefly ufed in France and Flanders ;. Thus we
fay, the caftellany of Lifle,.Ypres, <bc.
CASTIGLIONE, a fortified town in the duchy of
Mantua, about twenty miles north-weft of the city of
Mantua : E, long. 11 N. lat. 4J 0 15 .
CASTILE, the name of two inland provinces of Spain,
fituated almoft in the middle of that kingdom: The
moft foutherly one is called New Caftile, and the o-
ther, towards the north, Old Caftile ; Madrid being
the capital of the former, and Burges of the latter.
CASTlLLAN, or Castillane, a gold-coin, current
in Spain, and worth fourteen rials and fixteen deniers.
Castillan is alfo a weight ufed in Spain for weigh¬
ing gold. It is the hundredth part of a pound Spanifh
weight.
What they commonly call a weight of gold in Spain,,
is always underftood of the caftiilan.
CASTILLARA, a town of the Mantuan, in Italy, fi¬
tuated fix miles north-eaft of the city of Mantua: E.
long. ii° 25 , N. lat. 450 20'.
CASTILLON, a town of Perigort, in the province of
Guienne, in France, fituated on the river Dordonhe,
fixteen miles eaft of Bourdeaux: W. long. 20 40,
N. lat. 440 50'.
CASTLE, a fortrefs or place rendered defenceable, ei¬
ther by nature or art.
A caftle is a fort, or little citadel. See Citadel.
It frequently fignifies with us the principal manfion
of noblemen.
In. the time of Henry II. there were no lefs than*
1115 caftles in England, each of which contained a
manor.
Castle, in the fea-language, is a part of .the ftiip, of
which, there are two, the fore-caltle, being the eleva¬
tion:
CAS (4
rion at the' prow, or the uppermoft deck, towards
the mizen, the place where the kitchens are. Hind-
caftle is the elevation which reigns on the Hern, over
the lad deck, where the officers cabins and places of
affembly are.
Castle-carev, a market town of Somerfetfhire, fitu-
ated ten miles fouth-eaft of Wells: W. long. 2° 40',
N: lat. 51° 15'.
Ca.stle-rising, a borough-town of Norfolk, fituated
near the fea coaft, about^thirty miles weft of Norwich,
and feyen north of Lynn : E. long.. 4c/,; N. laf. 520.
46/. It fends two members to parliament.
Castle-work, fervice or labour done by inferior te¬
nants, for the building and upholding of caftles of de¬
fence, towards which lome gave their perfonal alfift-
ance, and others paid their contributions. This vyas
one of the three neceflary charges to which all lands
among our Saxon anceftors were exprefsly, fubjeft.
CASTON, . a market town of Norfolk, about eight
miles north-weft, of Norwich: E. long. i° 2c/, N.
lat. 520 4s'.
CASTOR, or Beaver, in., zoology, a getjuj of qua¬
drupeds belonging to the order of glires. The fore¬
teeth of the upper jaw are truncated, and-hdlowed in
a tranlverfe angular direction. The tops, of the fore¬
teeth of the lower-jaw lie in a tranfverfe direction ;
and the tail is depreffed. There are three fpecies of
caftor, viz. 1. The fiber, with a plane ovated tail,
is found on the banks of rivers in Europe, Aha, and
America. It is from the inguinal glands of this ani¬
mal that the caftor is obtained ;; it is contained in
cods or pouches which refemble a dog’s tefticl.es.
Several writers have taken notice of the ingenuity
- of American beavers in making their houfes, of which
we lhallhere give fomeaccount. The firft thing they
do when they are about to build, is to aiTemble in com¬
panies, fometimes of two or three hundre.d together;
then they chufe a place where plenty of provifions are
to be had, and where all neceflaries are to be found
proper for their ufe. Their houfes are always, in the
water, and when they can find neither lake, nor, pond,
they endeavour to fupply that defedt by ftopping the
current of a brook or fmall river, by means of a dam.
To this end they firft cut down trees in the following
manner: Three or four beavers will go to work about
a large tree, and by continually gnawing of it with
their teeth, they at laft throw it down, and fo contrive
matters that it always falls towards the water, that
they may have the lefs way to carry it, when they
have divided it into pieces. After they have done
this, they take each piece by itfelf, and roll it towards,
the water, where they intend to place it.
Thefe pieces are more or lefs thick and long, ac¬
cording to the nature and fituation of the places where
they are required. Sometimes they make ufe of the-,
large trunks of trees, which they lay down flat;
fometimes the dam only confifts of branches as thick
as one’s thigh, which are fupported by (lakes inter¬
woven with the branches of trees; and all the vacant
places are filled up with a fort of clay, in fuch a man¬
ner, .that no water can pafs through them. They
l ) CAS
.prepare the clay with their paws or hands; and their
tails ferve inftead of a carriage, as well as a trowel to
lay on their clay.
Tne foundation of the dams are generally ten or
twelve feet thick, and they leflen gradually till they
come to two or three. They always obferve an exadl
proportion, infomuch, that the moft curious architects
are not capable of performing their work more regularly.
That fide towards the current of the water is always
Hoping, but the other is perpendicular.
The conftfuction of the houfes is altogether as won¬
derful ; for they are generally built upon piles in fmall
lakes, which are formed by making of the dams. Some¬
times they are on the bank of a river, or on the extre-,
mity of a point of -4and, which advances into the water.
They are, of a round or oval form, and the top of them
is like a dome.
This defcription of one of their houfes which
was examined and meafured, will perhaps give the
reader more fatisfaClion than an 'account in general.
It was about three parts fur-rounded with w-ater, and
the other part was joined to the land. It W'as round*
with an oval dome at the top, and the height above
the furface of the water, was eight feet. It was a-
baut forty feet in dianreter, and one hundred and twen¬
ty in circumference, which perhaps may feem ftrange,
becaufe the proportion is geometrical; this however is.
fad, for it was meafured feveral times. The part that;
joined to the bank was not. made out of it, but was of
the fame materials with, the reft.
The bottom of the houfe was of earth, or foil, w'itfi
pieces of wood laid in it, above three inches in circum¬
ference; then a parcel of poplar fticks laid with one end
in the hoqfe, and another flanting a long way under wa¬
ter; then a layer of earth again, and then poplar fticks,-
which were repeated to the height of eighteen inches.
From thence to the top of the houfe there was a mix¬
ture of earth, ftones, .aod-fticks, curioufly.put together ;
and the whole was covered with fods, that had long
grafs growing thereon. The largeft pieces of. wood made
ufe of near the top, were about three in dies in diameter*
and all the reft was. final! ftuff, not above two or three
fingers thick.
The outermoft part of this houfe did not ftand farther-
out in the creek than the edge of theihore; but that
which brought the water almoft round the fibufe were
the. treadles, which were made by taking, out the earth*
thefe,were nine, feet in the broadeft part, and eighteen
feet in length. The creek at-the front, of the houfe was.
fix and thirty feet broad, , and feemed to be pretty deep.
The houfe was fo contrived as to be very folid, for there
was no breaking into it without an ax ; and in the frofty
feafon it .was quiteimpenetrable. From this houfe-there
W'ere feveral paths into the wood, through which they
drew, the fticks and trees, wfiidi. they made ufe offer
food or building.
7 lie wall of the houfe was two feet thick; and it
was covered with fiuooth day on the infide in fuch a
manner that it would not admit the lead breath of-
air. Two thirds of the ftru&ure was out of the . wa-
ter; and in the upper part, each beaver had his par^
tiedar
CAS (4.
ticdkr place, whereon leaves were fire wed to lie upon.
There never was any tilth feen in any of thefe houfes,
which are made like an oven in the infide, with a paf-
fage for thefe animals to go -and bathe in the water.
One of thefe will generally lodge about eight or ten bea¬
vers, though fometimes they have held thirty; but this
rs very uncommon.
Thefe creatures are never furprifed by the froft and
fnow; for they finifh their work towards the end of Sep¬
tember ; and then they lay in provifions for the winter.
In the fummer-time they live upon fruits, and the barks
and leaves of trees ; and they likewife catch fmall fifh,
and particularly crabs or craw-fifh. However, their
winter-provifion is the tender branches of trees, parti¬
cularly poplar, of which they feem to be very fond. It
is ufually faid, and upon pretty good authority, that
thefe beavers make the walls of their houfes of a thick-
nefs in proportion to the feverity of the fucceeding win¬
ter ; which if true, thefe animals muft be furnifhed with
uncommon forefight.
When there are great floods caufed by the melting
of the fnow, which damage the houfes of the beavers,
they then leave them, and ihift for themfelves as well
as they can ; however, the females return as foon as
the waters are abated; but the males keep the field till
July, when they aflemble again to repair the damage
that has been done by the flood, either to their houfes
or dams. When any of their houfes are demoldhed by
the hunters, they never repair them again, but build
others quite new. Some authors have faid, that the
beavers make feveral rooms in their houfes; but this up¬
on examination has been found to be falfe.
In hunting the beavers, the favages fometimes fhoot
them, always getting on the contrary fide of the wind;
for they are very fhy, quick in hearing, and of a very
keen feent. This is generally done when the beavers
are at work, or on Ihore feeding on poplar bark. If
they hear any node when at work, they immediately
jump into the water, and continue there fome time;
and when they rife, it is at a didance from the place
where they went in.
They fometimes are taken with traps : thefe are no¬
thing but poplar dicks laid in a path near the water;
which when the beaver begins to feed upon, they caufe
a large log of wood to fall upon their necks, which is
put in motion by their moving of the dicks, and con-
fequently requires an ingenious contrivance. The fava¬
ges generally prefer this way of taking them, becaufe it
does not damage their Ikins.
In the winter time they break the ice in two places
at a didance from the houfe, the one behind the other.
Then they take away the broken ice with a kind of a
racket, the better to fee where to place their dakes.
They faden their nets to thefe, which have large me-
fhes, and fometimes are eighteen or twenty yards in
length. When thefe are fixed, they proceed to demo-
lifh the houfe, and turn a dog therein ; which terrifying
the beaver, he immediately leaves it, and takes to the
water ; after which, he is foon entangled by the net.
Mr Lawfon who was general furveyor of North Ca¬
rolina, affirms, that beavers are very plenty in that coun-
) CAS
try. He confirms what has been faid about their in¬
genuity in building of their dams and houfes, and ob-
ierves, that their food is chiefly the bark of trees
andflirubs; fuch as that of the faflafras, aih, fweet
gum, and feveral others. He adds, that if they are
taken young, they will become very tame; but then
they will do a great deal of mifehief in the orchards,
by breaking the trees. They will likewife block up
the doors of the houfes in the night, with the dicks
and wood which they bri.g thither. He farther in¬
forms us, that it is certain death for them to eat any
thing that is fait. The flefh is looked upon as very
delicate food.
2. The mofehatus, with a long, comprefled, lan-
ceolated tail, and palmated feet. It is the exotic wa¬
ter-rat of Clufius, and is a native of Ruflia.
3. The zibethicus, or mnfk-rat, with a long, com-
prefled, and lanceolated tail, and the toes of the feet
feparate from each other. The follicles of the tail
are faid to banilh moths and other infefts from deaths,
fac. For this reafon the inhabitants of Ruflia and
Canada few them into the folds of their cloaths, to
keep off vermin and contagious difeafes.
Castor is alfo the name of a market-town of Lincoln-
fliire, twenty miles north-ead of Lincoln: W. long.
12/, and N. lat. 53° go'.
CASTOREA, in botany. See Duranta.
CASTOREUM, in the materia medica, a fubdance
obtained from the inguinal glands of the cador. See
Castor.
CASTRATION,, in furgery, the operation of gelding.
It was prohibited by a-decree of the fenate of Rome
under Hadrian; and the Cornelian law fubjefted the
perfon who performed the operation, to the fame pe«-
nalties as the perfon on whom it was performed, al¬
though it was done with his confent.
Cadration is much in ufe in Afia arid Turkey,
where it is pradifed upon the flaves, to prevent any
commerce with their women. In Italy, 'cadration is
frequent from another motive, namely, to preferve
the voice for ringing. It is fometimes found neceflary
in chirurgical cafes, as in a farcocele and cancer of the
tedicles. For the method of performing this opera¬
tion, fee Surgery.
CASTRES, a city of Languedoc, in France, about
thirty-five triiles ead of Thouloufe : E. long. 2°, and
N. lat. 430 40/. It is a bilhop’s fee.
CASTRO, the capital of the illand of Chiloe, on the
coad of Chili, in fouth America : W. long. 82°, S.
lat. 430.
Castro is alfo the capital of a duchy of the fame name
in the pope’s territories, in Italy, fituated on the
confines of Tufcany: E. long. 120 35', N. lat.
42° 30'
Castro is likewife a town in the territory of Otranto,
in the kingdom of Naples, about feven miles fouth of
Otranto: E. long. 190 2;', N. lat. 40° 8r.
Castro marine, a town in the province of Algarva,
in Portugal, fituated near the mouth of the river Gua-
diana, on the confines of Andalufa: W. long. 8°
N. lat. 370.
CAS (4
Cx4SUALTIES cf fuperiority, in Scots law, thbfe
duties and emoluments which a fuperior has right to
demand out of his vaflal’s eftate, over and befides the
c-.ndant yearly duties eftablifhed by the reddendo of
his charter, upon certain cafual events. See Scots
Law,-title. Of the cafual ties du? to the fuperior.
CASUS amijjierfis, in Scots law. In aftions of proving
the tenor of obligations extinguifliable by the debtor’s
retiring or cancelling them, it is neceffary for the pur-
fuer, before he is allowed a proof of the tenor, to
condefcend upon fuch a cafus amijfonis, or accident,
by which the writing was deftroyed, as fhews it was
Jolt while in the creditor’s pofleflion. See Scots
Law, title, Attions.
CAT, in zoology. See Felis.
Cat-w/'w/, in botany. See Mentha.
Cat, or Cx c-head, on Clipboard, a fhort piece of tim¬
ber in a fhip, lying aloft.right over the hawfe, having
at one end two drivers, wherein is reeved a rope, with
a great iron-hook faftened to it, called
CatvSccL Its ufe is to trice up the anchor, from the
hawfe to the top of the fore-caflle.
Cat holes, in %lhip, are over the parts as right with
the capllan as they can be :' Their ufe is to heave the
fliip a-ttern, upon occafionj by a cable, or hawfe, called
ftern-faft. See Ste^n-fast.
Cat of the mountain. See Felis.
CkT-Jilver, in natural hiftory. See Micje.
CATACAUSTIC curves, in the higher geometry, that
fpecies of cauftic curves which are formed by reflexion.
See Fli’xions;
CATACRHESIS,. in rhetoric, > trope which borrows
the name of one thing to exprefs another. Thus
Milton defcrtbing Raphael’s defcent from the empyreal
heaven to paradife, fays,
“ Down thither prone in flight
“ He fpeeds, and thro’ the vafl: etherial flty
“ Sails between worlds and worlds.”
CATACOMB, a grotto or fubterraneous place for the
burial of the dead.
The term is particularly ufed in Italy, for a vaft
aflemblage of fubterraneous fepulchres, three leagues
from Rome, in the' via Appia, fuppofed to be the fe¬
pulchres of the ancients: Others imagine t-hefe cata¬
combs to be the cells wherein the primitive Chriflians
hid themfelves. - Each catacomb is three feet broad,
and eight or ten high, running in form of an alley or
gallery, and communicating with one another.
CATAGMATIC3, in pharmacy, remedies proper for
curing a catagma or fradture.
CATALEPSY, in medicine. See Medicine.
CATALONIA, a province of Spain, bounded by the
Pyrenean mountains which divide it from France, on
the north ; by the Mediterranean, on the eaft and
Toiith ; and by the provinces of Aragon and Valencia,
j>x\ the weft.
CATAMENIA, in medicine. See Menses.
CATAMI1 E, a boy kept for fodomitical pradtices.
CATANANCHE, in botany, a genus of plants belong-
'ing to the fyngenefla polygamia eequalis clafs. The
Vol. II. No. 32. 3 .
5 ) CAT
receptacle'is paleaceous; 'the calix is imbricated ; and
the pappus has an awn, with a kind of cet-aceous calix.
There are three Ipecies, none of which are natives of
Britain.
CATAPASM, among ancient phyficians, fignifies any
dry medicine reduced to powder, in order to be ufed
by way of infpiration in the whole body, or any pa: t
of it.
CATAPHONICS, the fcience which conflders the pro¬
perties of refledled founds.
CATAPHORxAj’ in medicine, the fame as coma. See
Coma.
CATAPHRACTA, in antiquity, a kind of coat of
mail, which covered the foldier from head to foot.
Hence, cataphradti were horfemen armed with the
cataphradla, whofe horfes, as Salluft fays, were co¬
vered with linen full of iron plates difpoicd like fea¬
thers.
CATAPLASM, an external topical medicine, prepared
of ingredients of different virtues, according to the
intention of the phyfician. Hence there are different
forts of cataplafms with refpedt to the matter of which
they confift, as emollient, refolvent, difcutient, fup-
purative, corroborative, anodyne, and antifeptic cata¬
plafms. They are commonly applied hot, or luke¬
warm, rolled up in linen cloths, which by means of
the oils which are added preferve heat for a conii-
derable time; for which end alfo fome, upon thefe,
apply a fwine’s or ox’s bladder, and fometimes on the
top of all apply an earthen tile.
CATAPULTA, in antiquity, a military engine contri¬
ved for the throwing of arrows, darts, and ftones, up¬
on the enemy.
Some of thefe engines were of fuch force, that they
would throw ftones of an hundred weight. Jofepbus
takes notice of the furprifing effedfs of thefe engines,
and fays, that the ftones thrown out of them beat
down the battlements, knocked-off the angles of the
towers, and would level a whole file of men, from one
end to the other, were the phalanx never fo deep.
CATARACT, in hydrography, a precipice in the chan¬
nel of a river, caufed by rocks, or other obftades,
flopping the courfe of the ftream, from whence the
water falls with a greater noife and impetuofity: Such
are the cataradts of the Nile, the Danube, Rhine, and
the famous one of Niagara in America.
Cataract, in medicine and furgery, a diforder of the
humours in the eye, by which the pupilla, that ought
to appear tranfparent and black, looks opaque, grey,
blue, brown, he. by which vifion is varioufly impe¬
ded, or totally deftroyed. See Medicine, and Sur¬
gery.
CATARO, the'Capital of a territory of the fame name,
in the Venetian Dalmatia, about twenty five miles
fouth-eaft of Ragufa: E. long. 20', N. lat.
42° 25'.
CATARACTES, in ornithology, the trivial name of
a fpecies of larus. SeeLARus.
CATARRH, in medicine, a diftillation or defluxion
from the head upon the mouth and afpera arteria
M . 1 and
CAT (46
and through .them upon the lungs. See Medicine.
CATASTASIS, in poetry, the third part of the an¬
cient drama, being that wherein the intrigue, or ac¬
tion, fet forth in the epitafis, is fupported and carried
on, and heightened, till it be ripe for the unravelling
in the cataftrophe. Scaliger defines it, the full growth
of the fable, while things are at a Hand in that confu-
fion to. which the poet has brought them.
CATASTROPHE, in dramatic poetry, the fourth and
lall part of the ancient drama, or that immediately
fucceeding the cataftafis : Or, , according to others,
the third only ; the whole drama being divided into
protafis,, epitafis, and cataftrophe; or, in the terms of
Ariftotle, prologue, epilogue, and exode. See Epic
and Dramatic compofitions.
CATCH-yfy, in botany. See Lychnis.
Catch-pole, a term ufed by way of reproach, for
the bailiff’s follower, or affdiant.
CATCH-uwr/, among printers, that placed at the bot¬
tom of each page, being always the firft word of the
following page.
CATECHETIC. Catechetic fchools were buildings
appointed foi the office of the catechift, adjoining to
, the church, and called catechutnena: Such was that
in winch Origen, and many other famous men, read
catechetical ledures at Alexandria. See Catechu¬
men.
CATECHISM, the name of a fmall book, defigned for
inftrudting children in the principles of religion. The
church of Rome, the church of England, the prelby-
terian church, <&c. have all catechifms containing and
enforcing their peculiar opinions.
CATECHU, in the materia medica, the name of a
troch confifting of Japan earth and gum arabic, each
two ounces, and of fugar'of rofes fixteen ounces,
beat together, with a.little water. It is recommended,
as a mild reftringent, &C.
C ATECHUMEN, a candidate, for baptifm, or one who
prepares himfelf for. the receiving thereof.
The catechumens, in church-hiftory, were the lowed
order of Chrillians in the primitive church. They had.
feme title to the common name of Chriftian, being a
degree above pagans and heretics, though not confum-
mated by baptifra. They were admitted to the date
of catechumensi by the impofition of hands, and the
lign of the crofs. The children, of believing.parents
were admitted catechumens; as foon as ever they were
capable of indrudlion : But at what age thofe of hea¬
then parents might be admitted, is not fo clear. As
to the time of their continuance in this date, there
were no general rules: fixed about it ; but the practice
varied according to the difference of times and places,
and the readinefs and proficiency of the catechumens
tbemfelves.
There were fon-r orders or degrees of catechumens-;
the fird were thofe indrudted privately without the
church,, and kept, at a didance, for, fome time, from
the privilege, of entering the church, to make them
the more eager and defirous ofits The next degree
were the audiertcs, fo called from their being, admitted
to hear fermons,and. the fcriptures read in the church,.
) CAT
but were not allowed to partake of the prayers. The
third fort of catechumens were the genu fltftenles, fo
called, becaufe they received impofition of hands
kneeling. The fourth order was the cojnpetentn & '
eletti, denoting the immediate candidates for baptifm,
dr fuch as were appointed to be baptized the next ap¬
proaching fedival, before which, drift examination was
made into their proficiency under the feveral dages of
catechetical exercifes.
After examination, they were exercifed.for twenty
days together, and were obliged to fading and confef-
fion: Some days before baptifm they went veiled ;
and it.was cudomary to touch their ears, faying, Epha-
tha, i. e. be opened^ as alfo, to anoint their eyes
with clay; both ceremonies being in imitation of our
Saviour’s praftice, and intended to (hadow out to the
catechumens their condition both before and after their
adroiflion into the Chridian church.
CATEGORY, in logic, a feries or order of all the
predicates or attributes contained under any genus.
The fchool-philofophers didribute all the objefts
of our thoughts and ideas into certain genera or
claffes, not fo much, fay they, to learn what they
do not know', as to communicate a didinft notion of
what they do know ; and thefe claffes the Greeks
called categories, and the Latins predicaments.
Aridotle made ten categories, viz. quantity, qua¬
lity, relation, aftion, paflion, time, place, fituation,
and habit, which are ufually expreffed by the follow¬
ing technical didich :
Arbory fex, fervos, ardore, rifrigerat, ujios,
Ruri eras ftabo, nec tunicatus ero.
CATENARIA, in the higher geometry, the name of a
curve line formed by a rope hanging freely from two
points of fufpenfion, whether the points be horizontal
or not. See Fluxions.
CATERGI,.the name of the public carriers in the grand.
Signior’s dominions. In Europe, the merchant or tra¬
veller gives- earned to the carrier ; but the catergi in
Turky give earned to the merchant and others, as a
fecurity that they will: certainly carry their goods, or
not fet out with them.
CATERPILLAR, in zoology, the name of all winged
infefts when in their reptile or worm-date. See Na¬
tural History, Of infetta
CATESBHCA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla is long. monopetalous, and
fhaped like a tunnel ; the damina are within the faux;
and the berry contains but one feed. There is but one
fpecies, viz. the fpinofa, a native of Providence.
CATH/ERETICS, in pharmacy, medicines of acaudiu
nature, ferving to eat oflf proud flefli.
CATHARTICS, in medicine, remedies which promote
evacuation by dool.
CATHEDRAL, a church wherein is a biihop’s fee or-
feat.
CATHETER, in furgery, a fidulous indrument, ufuaU
ly made of filvef, to.be introduced into, the bladder,
in order to fearch for the done, or difeharge the mine
when fuppreffed. See Surgery.
CATHETUS, in geometry, aline or radius falling per¬
pendicularly
CAT t ‘
pendicularly on another line or furface: thus the ca-
theti of a right-angled triangle are the two fides that
include the right angle.
Cathetus of incidence, in catoptrics, a right line
drawn f|-om a point of the objed, perpendicular to the
refteding line.
Cathetus of reflexion, or of the eye, a right line
drawn from the eye, perpendicular to the refieding
line.
Cathetus of obliquation, a right line drawn perpen¬
dicular to the fpeculum, in the point of incidence or
refledion.
Cathetus, in architedure, a perpendicular line, fup-
pofed to pafs through the middle of a cylindrical bo¬
dy, as a balufter, column, <Sc.
CATHNESS, the moft northerly county of Scotland,
having the Caledonian ocean on the north, eaft, and
fouth-eaft, and the fliire of Sutherland on the fouth
and weft. Its capital is Wick.
CATHOLIC, m a general fenfe, denotes any thing
that is univerfal or general.
Catholic church. The rife of herefies induced the
primitive Chriftian church to affume to itfelf the ap¬
pellation of catholic, being, a charadteriftic to diftin-
guifh it from all feds, who, though they had party-
names, fometimes fneltered themfclves under the name
of Chriftians.
The Romilh church diftinguifhes itfelf now by the
name of catholic, in oppofition to all thole who have
feparated from her communion, and whom (he conli-
ders as only heretics and fchifmatics, and herfelf only
as the true and Chriftian church. In the ftrid fenfe
of the word, there is no catholic church in being,
that is, no univerfal Chriftian communion.
Catholic king, a title which hath been hereditary to
the kings of Spain, ever fince Alphonfus, who, having
gained feverah victories over the Saracens, and re-
eftablilhed the Chriftian faith in Spain, was honoured
with the title of Catholic. Some fay it was in the time
of Ferdinand and Ifabella.
CATHOLICON, in pharmacy, a kind of foft purgative,
eledluary, fo called, as being fuppofed an univerfal
purger of all humours.
CATOCHE, otCatochusv in medicine, a difeafe, by
which the patient is rendered, in an inftant, as im¬
moveable as a ftatue, without either fenfe or motion,
and continues- in the fame pofture he was in at the mo¬
ment he was feized. See Medicine.
CATODON, in ichthyology, the trivial name.of a fpe-
cies of phyfeter. See Physeter.
CATOPSIS, in medicine. See Myopia.
CATOPTRICS,. that part of optics that treats>of reflex
vifion, and explains the laws and properties of reflec¬
tion. See Optics.
CATULUS, in ichthyology. See Squauu s.
CATUS-PARDUS, in zoology. See Felis.
Catus'zibethicus. See Castor.
CATZENELLIBOQEN, a city of Heffe, fituated up¬
on the Upper Rhine, in Germany, about fixteen miles
north of Mentz.: E. long. 70 40', N. lat. 50° 20 .
Ii is the capital of a.county of the fame.name..
L7 ) C A V
CAVALIER., in fortification, an elevation of earth of
different fhapes, fituated ordinarily in the gorge of a
baftion, bordered with a parapet, and cut into more or
lefs embrafures, according to the capacity of the ca¬
valier.
Cavaliers are a double defence for the faces of the
oppofite baftion : they defend the ditch, break the be-
fiegers galleries, command the traverfes in dry moats,
fcowr the failliant angle of the counterfcarpe where the
befiegers have thbir counter-batteries, and infilade tho
enemies trenches, or oblige them to multiply their pa¬
rallels : they are likewife very ferviceable in defending
the breach, and the retrenchments of the befieged, and
can very much incommode the entrenchments which the
enemy make, being lodged in the baftion.
CAVALtER, in the menage, one that underftands horfes,
and is pradlifed in the art of riding them.
CAVALRY, a body of foldiers that charge on horfe-
back. They are divided into fquadrons, and encamp
on thawings of the army.
CAVAN, the capital of a county of the feme name, in
the province of Ulfter, in Ireland, fituated about fixty
miles north-weft of Dublin : W. long. 7? 35', and
N. lat.. 540.
CAUCALIS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria di-
gynia clafs. The corolla is radiated; the fruit is
hairy, and the involucra are entire. There are fix
fpecies, three of which are natives of Britain, viz.
the arvenfis, or fmall corq-parfley ; the anthrifeus, or
hedge-parlley; and the leptophylla, or fine-leaved
baftard parlley.
CAUCASUS, a vaft ridge of mountains, running from
the Leffer Afia through the north of Perfia to the Eaft-
Indies ; thefe acquire different names in the feveral
countries through which they pafs.
CAUDIVERBERA, in zoology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of lacerta. See Lacerta.
CAVEAR, Cavker, orCAviARY, the fpawn, or hard
roes of fturgeon, made into fmall cakes, an inch
thick, and of an hand’s breadth, faked, and dried ia
the fun. This fort of food is in great repute through¬
out Mufcovy, becaufe of their three lents, which they
keep with a fuperftitious exaftnefs ; wherefore the I-
talians fettled at Mnfcow, drive a very great trade in
this commodity throughout that empire, becaufe there
is a prodigious quantity of fturgeon taken at the mouth
of the Wolga and of the other rivers which fall into
the Cafpian fea. There is a pretty large quantity of
this commodity confumed in Italy, and they are very
well acquainted with it in France and England, where
it is reckoned no defpjcable dilh.
Tiie French and Italians getthe cavear from Arch¬
angel, but they feldom get it at the firft hand, fur
they commonly buy it of the Englife and Dutch.
CAVEAT, in law, a kind of procels in the fpiritual
courts, to liop the proving of a will, the granting let¬
ters of adminiftration, to the prejudice of ano¬
ther. It is alfo ufed to ftop the inftitution of a clerk;
to a benefice.
CAVEATING, in fencing, is the lifting the fword
from one fide of .that of your adverfary to the other.
CAVEDG,.
C A .u ( 4
CAVEDO, in commerce, a Ponuguefe- long meafure,
equal to ccT.y-A.. Englifh inches.
"CAVETTO, in architeilnre, a hollow member, or
round concave moulding, containing a quadrant of a
circle, and having a quite contrary effect to that of a
quarter round : it is ufed as an ornament in cornices.
CAVEZON, in the menage, a fort of nofe-band, either
of iron, leather, or wood, fometimes flat, and at other
times hollow or twifted, clapt upon the nofe of a horfe,
to wring it, and fo forward the fuppling and breaking
of the horfe.
CAVIA-cobaya, a fynonime of the mus porcellinus, or
Guinea-pig. See Mus.
CAVILLON, a town of Provence in France, fltuated
on the river Durance, about fifteen miles fouth of
Avignon : E. long. 50, and N. lat. 430 50'. It is a
bifliop’s fee, and fubjeft to the pope.
CAUKING, or Caulking of .a Jhip, is driving oakum,
or the like, into all the feams of the planks of a (hip,
to prevent leaking, and keep out the water.
Caulking-irons, are iron chiflels for that purpofe.
Some of thefe irons are broad, fome round, and 0-
therscgrpoyed. After the feams are flopped with
oakum, it is done over with a mixture of tallow, pitch,
and tar, as low as the fliip draws water.
CAUL, in anatomy. See p. 266. col. 2.
CAULIFLOWERS, in gardening, a much eftaemed
fpecies of cabbage*
Cauliflowers have of late years been fo much im¬
proved in Britain, as to exceed in goodnefs and mag¬
nitude any produced in moft parts of Europe ; and, by
the dkill of the gardener, are continued for feveral
months together, but the moft common feafon for
them is in May, June, and July.
CAULIS, in botany. See p. 641. col. 2. and Plate
LVII. fig. 148.
CAUSALTY, among metaphyficians, the adtion or
power of acaufe in producing its effedt.
Causalty, among miners, denotes the lighter, ful-
phureous, earthy parts of ores, carried off in the ope¬
ration of waftiing.
This, in the mines, they throw in heaps upon banks,
which, in fix or feven years, they find it worth their
while to work over again.
CAUSE, that from whence any thing proceeds, or by
virtue of which any thing is done : it flands oppofed to
effedt. We get the ideas of caufe and effedt from our
obfervation of the vicillitude of things, while we per¬
ceive fome qualities or fubftances begin to exift, and
that they receive their exiflence from the due applica¬
tion and operation of other beings. That which pro-'
duces, is the caufe; and that which is produced, the
effedt: thus, fluidity in wax is the effedt of a certain
degree of heat, which we obferve to be conftahtly pro¬
duced by the application of fuch heat.
Firji Cause, that which adts of itfeif, and of its own
proper power or virtue : God is the only firft caufe in
this fenfe.
Second Causes are thofe which derive the power and
faculty of adtion from 4 firft caufe.
Efficient Cxvses are the agents employed in the pro-
dudtion-of any thing.
1 ) C A U
Material Causes, the fubjedts whereon the agents
work ; or the materials whereof the thing is produced.
Final Causes are the motives inducing an agent to adt;
or the defign and purpofe for which the thing was
done.
Pkj/ical Cause, that which produces a fenfible corpo¬
real effedt; as the fun is the phyfical caufe of light. !
Moral Cavse, that which produces a real effedt, but
. in things immaterial; as repentance is the caule of
forgivenefs. A mofal caufe is alfo defined, that which
determines us, though not neceffarily, to do, or not to
do, any thing; as advice, intreaties, commands, me¬
naces, <&c.
It is to be obferved, that, in this fenfe, a moral
caufe is only applicable to a free intelligent agent: it
is alfo obfervable, that the latter notion of a phyfical
as well as a moral caufe is the moft juft, clear, and
diftindh
Cause, among civilians, the fame with adtion. See
Action.
CAUSTICS, in phyfic, an appellation given to medi¬
cines of fo hot and fiery a nature, that, being applied;
confume, and, as it were, burn the texture of the
parts, like hot iron.
Cauftics are generally divided into four forts, the
common ftronger cauftic, the common milder cauftic,
the antimonial cauftic, and the lunar cauftic.
The ftronger cauftic is prepared by boiling to a
fourth part any quantity of the lees of almond-foap,
adding lime that has been kept in a veffel pretty clofe
ftopt for feveral months ; the lime is to be added till
all the liquor is abforbed, and the whole reduced to a
pafte, which is to be kept in a veffel well ftopt.
The common milder cauftic is prepared by taking e-
qual parts of foft foap and frefh quick-lime, and mix¬
ing them at the time of ufing.
The antimonial cauftic is prepared thus : Take of
antimony one pound, of corrofive fublimate two pounds;
and being reduced feparately into powder, mix them
well, and diftill them in a retort with a wide neck, in
a gentle heat of fand ; let what afeends into the neck
of the retort be expofed to the air, that it may run in¬
to a liquor.
The method of preparing the lunar cauftic is as fol¬
lows : Diffolve pure filver by a fand-heat, in about
twice its weight of aqua-fortis ; then dry away the hu¬
midity with a gentle fire, afterwards melt it in a cru¬
cible, that it may be poured into proper moulds, care¬
fully avoiding over-much heat, left the matter fhould
grow too thick.
Caustic curve, in the higher geometry, a curve form¬
ed by tbe .concourfe or coincidence of the rays of light
reflefted from fome other curve.
Caustic glasses. See Burning-glasses.
CAUSTICUM antimoniale, in the London Difpen-
fatory, the fame with the oil of antimony.
CAUSUS, or Burning-fever, a fpecies of continual
fever, accompanied with a remarkable inflammation of
the blood.
CAUTERIZATION, the application of .cauteries to
any pan of the body,
CAUTERY,
C E D ( ,
CAUTERY, in furgery, a medicine for burning, eating,
or corroding any folid part of the body.
Cauteries are diftinguiflied into two clafles, a&ual
and potential: by a&ual cauteries, are meant red hot in-
ftruments, ufuallyofiron, and by potential cauteries are
underftood certain kinds of corroding, medicines. See
Medicine, and Surgery.
CAUTION, in the civil and Scots law, denotes much
the fame with what, in the'daw of England, is called
bail. See Bail.
CAUTIONER, in Scots law, that perfon who becomes
bound for another to the performance of any deed or
obligation. As to the diifferent kinds and effedts of
cautionry, fee Scots Law, title, Obligations arijing
from confent.
CAXA, a little coin made of lead, mixed with fdme
fcoria of copper, (truck in China, but current chiefly
at Bantam in the ifland of Java, and fome of the neigh¬
bouring iflands.
The caxas are of two kinds, great and fmall. Of
the fmall, 300,000 are equal to fifty-fix livres five fols
French money; and of the great, 6000 are equal to
four (hillings and fixpence fterling.
CAXAM ALCA, the name of a town and diftridt of Pe¬
ru, in South America, where there was a mod fump-
tuous palace belorfging to the Yncas, and a magnificent
temple dedicated to the fun. It was at Caxamalca
that Pizarro put to death Athualpha, their lad king.
CAY, in zoology, a fynonime of the fimia midas. See
Simi A.
CAZEROM, or Cazeron, a city of Perfia, the capi-
- tal of the province of Kurch Schabour, fituated in 70°
E. long, and 290 1 s' N. fat.
CAZIMIR, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Lublin.
CEANOTHUS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The petals are vaulted ; and the
berry is dry, having three cells, containing each one
feed. There are three fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain.
CECROPIA, in botany, a genus of the dicecia diandria
clafs. The fpatha of the male is caducous; the a-
menta are imbricated with helmet-fhaped fcales ; and
the corolla is wanting. The germina of the female
are imbricated ; it has but one (tylus ; the digma is
lacerated; and the berry contains but one feed.
There is one fpecies, viz. the peltata, a native of Ja¬
maica.
CEDAR, in botany, the Englifli name of a fpecies of
juniperus. See Juniperus.
CEDRELA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo¬
nogynia clafs. The calix is bell-fhaped, and di¬
vided into three fegments ; the corolla is fliaped like
a funnel, and has five petals inferred into the bafe of
the receptacle ; the capfule is lignous, and has five
cells and five valves ; the feeds are imbricated on the
back part, and have membranaceous edges. There is
but one fpecies, viz. the odorata, a native of Ame¬
rica.
CEDRUS, in botany. See Juniperus, and Pinus.
CELANDINE, in botany. See ChemIjonium.
Vol. II. No. 32. 3
9 ) CEL
CELASTRUS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla confids of five open pe¬
tals ; the capTule is triangular, and has three cells ;
and the feeds have a calyptra. There are five fpecies,
none of them native# of Britain.
CELERES, in Roman antiquity, a regiment of body¬
guards, belonging to the Roman kings, edablifhed by
Romulus, and compofed of 300 young men, chofen
out of the mod illudrious Roman families, and. ap¬
proved by the fuffrages of the curiae of the people, each
of which furniflied ten.
CELERI, in botany, the Englifli name of the apium
graveolens, or celery, which is cultivated in our gar¬
dens as a pot-herb.
CELERITY, in mechanics,-the fwiftnefs of any body
in motion.
It is alfo defined to be an afle&ion of motion, by
which any moveable body runs through a given fpace
in a given time. See Mechanics.
CELESTINS, in church-hidory, a religious order of
Chridians, reformed from the Bernardins by pope Ce-
ledin V. Their rules are divided into three parts ;
the fird, of the provincial chapters, and the elexdions
of fuperiors ; the fecond contains the regular obfer-
vances ; and the third, the vifitation and correftion of
the monks.
The Celedins rife two hours after midnight to fay)
matins : they eat no fleih at any time, except when
they are fick : they fad every Wednefday and Friday
to the fead of the exaltation of the holy crofs ; and
from that fead to Eader, every day.
CELIBACY, the date of unmarried perfons, to which,
according to the dodtrine, or at lead the difcipline, of
the church of Rome, the clergy are obliged.
That celibacy has no pretence of divine or apodoli-
cal inditution, feems no difficult point to prove :
whence it is, at fird, hard to conceive from what mo r
tive the court of Rome perfided fo very obdinately to
impofe this inditution on the clergy. But we are to
obferve, that this was a leading dep to the execution
6f the projedt formed of making the clergy indepen¬
dent of princes, and rendering them a feparate bodv,
to be governed by their own laws. In effedt, while
prieds had -children, it was very difficult to prevent
their dependence upon princes, whofe favours have
fuch an influence on private men ; but having no fa¬
mily, they were more at liberty to adhere to the
pope.
CELOSIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo¬
nogynia clafs. The calix has three leaves ; the fla-
mina are joined to the bafe of a plaited nedlarium ;
and the capfule opens horizontally. There are eight
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
CELSIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia angio-
fpermia clafs. The calix is divided into five fegments -
the corolla is rotated ; the filaments are barbed ; and
the capfule is bilocular. There is but one fpecies,
viz. the orientalis, a native of Greece.
CELTIS, in botany, a genus of the polygamia monoe-
cia clafs. The calix of the hermaphrodite is divided
into five fegments ; it has no corolla; there are five
N dami*a.
C E N (50
{lamina, and two flyli ; the drupa contains but one
fe6d. The calix of the male is divided into fix feg-
ments ; it has no corolla ; and the {lamina are fix.
The fpecies are three, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain. ' ' <
CEMENT, or Clement. See Clement. .
CEMENTATION. See Cementation.
CEMETERY. See Coemetery.
CENADA, a town of the Venetian territories in Italy,
fituated about thirty-two miles north of Padua : E.
long. 120 40', and N. lat. 46° $ .
GENCHRAMIDEA, in botany. See Clusia.
CENCHRIS, in zoology, a fynonime of the boa con-
ftrisSor. See Boa.
CENCHRUS,' in botany, a genus of the polygamia mo-
ncecia clafs. The involucrum is laciniated, and in-
clofes two flowers ; the calix is a two flowered gluma,
one of the flowers being a male, and the other a fe- (
male. The corolla of the hermaphrodite is a blunt
gluma ; the {lamina are three ; and the ftylus is bifid ;
there is but one feed. The corolla of the male is like-
wife an obtufe gluma ; and there are three,{lamina.
The fpecies arc fix, none of them natives of Britain.
GENCONTLTAOLLI, in ornithology. See Tor- <
DUS.
CENOBITE, or Coenobite. See Coenobite.
CENOTAPH, in antiquity, a monument erefted in ho¬
nour of the dead, but not containing any of their re¬
mains. Of thefe there were two forts ; one eredled
for fuch perfons as had been honoured with funeral
rites in another place ; and the fecond fort, for thofe
that had never obtained a juft funeral.
The fign whereby honorary fepulchres were diftin-
guifhed from others, was commonly the wreck ,of a
(hip, to denote the deceafe of the perfon i.n fome fo¬
reign country.
CENSER,, a facred ijrftrument made ufe of in the reli¬
gious rites of the ancients. It was a vafe, containing
incenfe to be ufed in facrificing to the gods. Cenfers
were likewife in ufe among the Jews, as we find in
I Kings vii. 50. The cenler is alfo ufed in Romifti
churches.
CENSOR, in Roman antiquity, a magiftrate, whofe
bufipefs it was to reform the manners, and to value the
eftates of the people.
There were two cenfors firfl created in the 31 i-th
year of Rome, upon the fenate’s obferving thar the 1
confuls were generally fo much taken up in military
a£tions as -to have no leifure to attend to private af¬
fairs. At fir 11 they were chofen out of the fen ate,
but after the plebeians had got the ionfulate open to
them, they foon arrived at the cenforlhip.
After the cenfors were ele&ed in the comitia cen- 1
turialia, they proceeded to the capitol, where they took
an oath not to manage either by favour or difaffedlion,
but to adl equitably and impartially through the whole
courfe of their adminiltration : and, notwithftandmg
their great authority, they were obliged to give an ac¬
count of their management to the tribunes and tsdUes*
curules. In proccfs of time, the dignity of this office
dwindled very much j under the emperors it funk to
> ) CEN
nothing, as their majellies engrofled all the branches-
of that jurifdi&ion. The republic of Venice has at
this day a cenfor of manners of their people, whofe
office lalis fix months.
Censors of hoiks, are a body of do£tors or others ella-
bliffied in divers countries, to examine all books before
they go to the prefs, and to fee they contain nothing
contrary to faith and good manners
At Paris, the faculty of theology claim this privi-
legej as granted to them by .the pope; but in 1624,
new commiflions of four doblors were created, by let-
ters-patent, the foie cenfors of all books, and anfwer
able for every thing contained therein.
In England, we had formerly an officer of this kind,
under the title of Licenfer of the prefs ; but, fince the
revolution, oUr prefs has been laid under no fuch re-
firaint.
CENSURE, a judgment which condemns fome book,
perfon, or adlion, or more particularly a- reprimand
from a fuperior. Ecclefiaftical cenfures, are penalties
by Which, for fome remarkable mifbehaviour, Chri-
ftians are deprived of the communion of the church, or
prohibited to execute the facerdotal office.
CENSUS, in Roman antiquity, an authentic declaration
made before the cenfors, by the feveral fubjeHs of the
empire, of their refpedive names and places of abode..
This declaration was regiflered by the cenfors, and
contained an enumeration, in writing, of all the eflates,
lands, and inheritances they pofleffed ; their quantity,
quality, place, wives, children, domeilics, tenants,
{laves.
. The cenfus was inllituted by Servius Tullius, and
was held every five years. It was of great fervice to
the republic, became, by means of it, they difeovered
the number ef citizens capable of bearing arms, and
the money they could afford for thejexpence of a war.
It went through all ranks of people, though under dif¬
ferent names : that of the common people was called
eenfus ; that of the knights, cenfus. recenfio, recog-
nilio ; that of the fenators, lettio, reteflio.
The cenfus which intitled one to the dignity of a-
knight, was 400,000 feflerces : that of a fenator, was
double that fum.
In the Voconian law, cenfus is ufed fora man,
whofe eflate- in the Cenfor’s books is valued at 100,000
fefterces.
CENTAUR, in ancient poetry, denotes a fabulous kind
of animal, half man, half horfe.
The Theffalians who firrt taught the art of break¬
ing horfes, appearing on horfeback to make only one
body with the animaTon which they rode, gave rife to-'
the fidlion of the hippocentaur.
CENTAUREA, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia
polygamia fruftranea clafs. The receptacle is brfilly;
the pappus is fimple ; the rays of the corolla are tun--
nel-ffiaped, long, and irregular. There are 61'fpe¬
cies, five of which are natives of Britain, v*z. the
cyanus, or blue-bottle ; the fcabiofa, or . great knap¬
weed ; the jdcea, or common knapweed; the calci-
trapa, or flar-thiftle; and the fdlftitialis,' or St Bar- •
naby ’s thiilie,.
CENTAURY.
C E N ( I
CENTAURY. See Chelidoni'um.
Center of gravity, in mechanics, that point about
which all the pafts of a body do, in any fituation, ex¬
actly balance each other. See Mechanics.
Center of motion, that point which remains at reft,
while all the other parts of a body move about it. See
Mechan cs.
CENTESIMATION, a milder kind of military punifli-
ment, in cafes of defertion, mutiny, and the like,,
when only every hundredth man is executed.
CENTIPES, in zoology. See Scolopendra.
CENTON iRII, in antiquity, certain officers of the
Roman army, who provid d tents and other fluff-,
called centones, made ufe of to quench the fire, which
the enemy’s engines threw into the camp.
Thefe centonarii kept with the carpenters and other
officers of the artillery.
CENTRAL forces, the powers which eaufe amoving
body to tend towards, or recede from the centre of
motion. See Mechanics. .
Central rule, a rule difcovered by Mr Thomas
Baker, whereby to find the centre of a circle defigned
to cut the parabola in as many points, as an equation
to be conftrudled hath real roots. Its principal ufe is
in the coaftrudtion of equations, and he has applied it
with goodfuccefs as far as biquadratics.
The central rule is' chiefly founded on this property
of the parabola, that if a line be infcribed in that durve
perpendicular to any diameter, a redtangle formed of
thefegments of the ipfcript, is equal to the redangle
of the intercepted diameter and parameter, of the
axis.
The centraf rule has the advantage over Cartes and
De Latere’s methods of conftruding equations, in that
both thefe are fubjed to the trouble of preparing the-
equati n, by: taking away the fecond term.
CENTRIFUGAL force, that force by which‘all bo¬
dies that move round any other body in a curve, en-.
deavour to fly off from the axis of their motion in a
tangent to the periphery of the curve, and that in
every point of it. See Mechanics.
CENTRINA. in ichthyology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of fqualus. See Squalus.
CENVRIPETAL force,, that force by which a body-
is every where impelled, or any how tends towards-
fome point as a centre. See Mechanics.
GENTRISCUS, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to
the.order of amphibia names. The. head .gradually
ends in a narrow fnout; the aperture is broad and flat;
the belly is carinated; and the belly-fins are united.
There are two fpeciesv viz, i. The fcutatus has its
back covered with a fmooth bony ffiell, which ends fin
a fharp fpine, under which is the tail ; but the back-
fins are between the tail and the fpine. It is a native
of the Eaft Indies. 2. The fcol- pax has a rough
fctbrous body, and a ftrait extended tail. It has two
belly-fins, with four rays in each, and has no teeth.
It is found in the Mediterranean.
GENTUMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, judges appointed,
to decide common caufes among the people : they were.
; 1 ) CEP
chofen three out of each tribe ; and though five more
than an hundred, were neverthelefs called centumviri,
from the round number centum, an hundred.
CENTUNCULUS, in botany, a genus of the tetran-
dria monogynia clafs. The calix confifts of four feg-
ments ; the corolla has four divifions, and open ; the
ftamina are Ihort; and the capfule has but one cell.
There is only one fpecies, viz. the minimus, or baftard
pimpernel, a native of Britain.
CENTURION, among the Romans, an officer in the
infan. ry, who commanded a century, or an hundred
men.
The centurions held the firft rank in the firft cohort
of a legion, and two of them the place of the two fir ft
haftati or pike-men : the firft among the principes was
alfo a centurion.
The centurion, primipilus was the chief of the cen¬
turions : he was not under the command of any tri¬
bune, as all the reft were ; he'had four centuries un¬
der his.direction, and guarded the ftandard and the ea¬
gle of the legion.
CENTURY, in a general fenfe, any thing divided into <
or confiding of an hundred parts.
The Roman people, when they were aflembled for:
the eledting of magiftrates, enadiing of laws, or deli¬
berating upon any public affair, were always diyideii
into centuries^ and voted by centuries,, in order that
their fuffrages might be the more eafily collefled ;
whence thefe aflemblies were called comitia cenluriata*
The Roman cohorts were alfo divided into centuries.
See Centurion and Cohort.
Century, in chronology, the fpace of one hundred
• years-.
1 his method of computing by centuries is generally
obferved in church hiftory, commencing from the time
0/our Saviour’s incarnation; in which fenfe we fay.'
the'firft century, the fecond century, lire.
C.e n t u r i ex /of Magdeburg, a famous ecclefiafticafhi-.-
llory, ranged into thirteen centuries, carried down to
the year 1298, compiled by feveral hundred Prote-1
ft-ants -of Magdeburg, the chief of whom was Matthias
Flacius Ulyricus.
CENTUSSIS. in Roman antiquity, a coin containing ;
an hundred affes.-
CEPA,.in botany, the trivial Hame.of a fpecies of alii.-!
um. See Allium..
CEPAEA, in botany.. See Sedum.
CEPHALANTHUS, in botany, a genuS.of the tetran-
dria mdnogynia ciafs. It.has po common calix;.
the proper calix is tunnel-ftaped ; the receptacle is
globular, and naked; andffhe feeds are downy. There
is but orte fpecies, viz. the oecidentalis, .a. native of
America.
CEPHALIC, in a general meaning, fignifies. any thing
belonging to the head.
Ce phal'i CKtntdicints are. remedies for.diforders of the
head./
Cephalic in anatomy. See p. 241.
CEPHALONIA, the capital of an ifland of the fame
name, fituaced in the Mediterranean, near, the coafib
- o£.
G E II (52
of Epirus, and fubjuft to the Venetians: E. long. 21
and N. lat. 38° 30'.
CEPiIALOPHARYNGjEI, in anatomy. Seep. 302.
CEPhLiLUS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of mugil. See Mugil.
CEPHEUS, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the nor¬
thern hentifphere^
CEPHUS, in ornithology, a fynonime of a fpecies of
larus. See Larus.
CERAM, an ifland in the Indian ocean, between the
Molucca iflands on the north, and thofe of Amboyna
and Banda on the fouth, lying between 126° and
1290 E. long, and in 30 S. lat.
It is about one hundred and fifty miles long, and
fixty broad ; and here the Dutch have a fortrefs,
which keeps the natives in fubje<5tion.
CERAMBYX, in zoology, a genus of infedts of the
beetle kind, belonging to the order of infedla coleop-
tera. The antennse are long and fmall; the breaft is
Ipinous or gibbous; and the elytra are linear. There
are no lefs than 83 fpecies enumerated by Linnseus,
principally diftinguiihed by the figure of the bread.
CERASTES, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of coluber; it is likewife the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of anguis. SeeANGuis, and Coluber.
CERASTIUM, in botany, a genus of the decandria
pentagynia clafs. The calix has five- leaves ; the pe¬
tals are bifid; and the capfule is unilocular, and opens
a: the top. There are fixteen fpecies, feven of which
are natives of Britain, viz. the vulgatum, or narrow-
leaved moufe-ear chickweed ; the vifcofum, or broad¬
leaved moufe-ear chickweed ; the femidecandrium,
or lead moufe-ear chickweed; the arvenfe, or corn
moufe-ear chickweed; the alpinum, or mountain
moufe-ear chickweed; the tomentofum, or wooly
moule-ear chickweed; and the aquaticum, or mardi
moufe-ear chickweed.
CERASUS, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies of
prunus. See Prunus.
CER ATE, in pharmacy, a kind of ointment applied to
ulcerations, excoriations, &c. There are four kinds
of cerate, viz. the white cerate> which is compofed
of a quarter of a pint of olive-oil, four ounces of
tyhite wax, and half an ounce of fpermaceti, liquified
-together and iharred till ,the cerate be cold. The
yellow cerate is compofed of half a pound of yellow
bafilicum ointment,- and an ounce of yellow wax, melt¬
ed together. The ceratum epuhticum, is compofed
of one pint of olive-oil, and of yellow wax and cala¬
mine prepared each half a pound. Liquify the wax
with the oil, and, as fooh as the mixture begins to
grow diff, fprinkle in the calamine, keeping them
condantly dirring till the cerate is quite cold. The
mercurial cerate is compofed of yellow wax, hogs
lard dried, each half a pound .; three ounces of quick-
lilver; and one dram of fimple balfam of fulphur.
Melt the wax with the lard, then gradually add this
mixture to the quick-filver and balfam of fulphur pre-
vioufly ground together.
CERATION, the name given by the ancients to the
) CEE
fmall feeds of the ceratonia, ufed by the Arabian
phyficians, as a weight to adjud the dofes of medi¬
cines ; as the grain weight with us took its rife from
a grain of barley.
Ceration, or Ceratium, was alfo a filver.coin, e-
qual to one third of an obolus.
CERATOCARPUS, in botany, a genus of the monoe-
cia monandria clafs. The calix of the male is divi¬
ded into two parts ; it has no corolla; and the filament
is long : The calix of the female confids of two leaves
connjded to the germen ; it has no corolla; the dy-
li are two; and the feeds are bicorned and comp ref-
fed. There is but one fpecies, viz. the arenarius, a
native of Tartary.
CERATOGEPHALOIDES, in botany. See Ver-
BESINA.
CERATOCEPHALUS, in botany. SeeBiDENs.
Ceratoides, in botany. See Urt 1 ca.
CERATONIA, in botany, a genus of the polygamia
polycecia clafs. It is a native of Sicily, Crete, and
other eadern countries.
CERATOPHYLLUM, in botany, a genus of the mo-
noecia polyandria clafs. The calix of the male is di¬
vided into many fegments ; it has no corolla; and the
flamina are from 16 to 20. The calix and corolla
of the female are the fame with thofe of the male;
it has one pidil, no dylus, and one naked feed. There
are two fpecies, one of which, viz. the demerfum or
horned pondweed, is a native.of Britain.
CERATUM, in pharmacy. See Cerate.
CERBERA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The fruit is a drupa containing one
feed. There are three fpecies, all of them natives of
the Indies. >
CERCELE, in heraldry. A crofs cercele is a crofs
which opening at the ends, turns round both ways,
like a ram’s horn. See Cross.
CERCIS, in botany, a genus of the decandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix is five-teethed, and gibbous
below; the corolla is papilionaceous, with a fhort vex-
illum under the wings; the capfule is a legumen.
There are two fpecies, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
CEREBELLUM, in anatomy. See p. 286.
CEREBRUM, in anatomy. See p. 285.
CEREMONY, an afiemblage of feveral actions, forms,
and circumdances, ferving to render a thing more
magnificent and folemn; particularly ufed to denote
the external rites of religious worlhip, the formalities
of introducing ambafladors to audiences, <bc.
Majler of the Ceremonies, an officer indituted by
king James I. for the more honourable reception of
ambaffadors and drangers of quality : he wears about
his neck a chain of gold, with a medal under the
crown of Great Britain, having on one fide an emblem
of peace, with this motto, beati pacifici; and on the
other, an emblem of war, with dieu et mon droit:
his falary is three hundred pounds per annum.
Afifiant majler of the Ceremonies is to execute the
employment in all points, whenfoever the mader -of
the
C E R ( 53 ) c E li¬
the ceremonies is abfent. His falary is one hundred
and forty-one pounds thirteen ftiillings and four-
pence per annum.
Marjhal of the Ceremonies is their ofFxcer, being fub-
ordinate to them both. His falafy is one hundred
pounds per annum. «
CEREU3, in botany. See Cactus.
CERIGO, or Cytherea, in geography, an ifland of
the Archipelago,, on the eaftern coaft of the Morea,
and fifty miles north of the ifland of Candia. It is a
mountainous country, between forty and fifty miles in
circumference, and fituated in E. long. 23° 4c/, and
N. lat. 36°. ■
CERINTHE, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The limbus of the corolla is tubu¬
lar and ventricofe, opening at the faux ; the feeds are
often four, and fometimes two. There are only two
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
CERINTHIANS, in church-hiftory, Chrillian heretics,
followers of Cerinthus, who lived and publifhed his
herefy in the time of the apofllts themfelves. They did
not allow that God was the author of the creatures,
but faid that the world was created by an inferior
power: they attributed to this creator an only, fon,
but born in time, and.different from the world: they
admitted feveral angels and inferior powers: they
maintained that the law and the prophets came not
from God, but from the angels; and that the God
of the Jews was only an angel: they diftinguiflted be¬
tween Jefus and Chrift; and faid, that Jefus was a
mere man, born, like other men-, of jofeph and Ma
ry; but that he excelled all other men in prudence
and wifdom ; that Jefus being baptized, the Chrifl: of
the fupreme God, that is, the Holy Ghoftf defend¬
ed upon him; and that by the afliflance of this Chrifl:,
Jefus performed his miracles. It was partly to refut.e
this feet that St John wrote his gofpd.
CERINTHOIDES, in botany. See Cerinthe.
CEROPEGIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The limbus of th^borolla is conni-.
vent; and the feeds are plumofe. There are two
fpecies, both natives of India.
CERRUS, in botany. See ALgilops.
CERTHIA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of picas. The beak of this genus, is arched, ■.
flender, fliarp, and triangular ; the tongue is (harp at
the point; and the fi?et are of the walking kind, i. e.
having the toes’ open and unconnefted. There are
25 fpecies, viz. 1. The familiaris, or creeper, is
grey above and white underneath, with brown wings,
and ten white fpots on the ten prime feathers. It is a
native of Europe, creeps up trees, lays about 20 eggs,
and feeds upon caterpillars and the eggs of infeds.
2. The muraria, or wall-creeper, is afh-coloured,
with yellow fpots on the wings. It frequents towers
and old walls, in the holes of which itv.builds its neft.
3. The pufilla, is grey above, and white below; the
eye-brows are white; the prime feathers of the wings
are brown, and white on the outer edge. It is a na¬
tive of India. 4. The capenfis, is grey, with black-
iih wings, the outermofl prime feathers of which are
Vol. II. Numb. 32. 3
edged with white: It is a mtive of the Cape of Good -
Hope. y. The olivacea, is olive-coloured above, and
grey below, with the orbits of the eyes whire. It is
found in Madagascar. 6. The currucaria is likewiie
olive above, but yellowiflr below; and the prime wing-
- feathers are equal. It is a native of Ceylon. 7. T he
jugularis is greyiflr above, and yellowilh below; the
•throat is of a violet colour; and the two outmofl
prime feathers of the wings are yellow at the points.
It is found in the Philippine Illes. 8. The cafruka
has a blue belt round the eyes; and the throat, and
prime wing and tail feathers are black: The bill is
very long. It is a native of Surinam. 9. The caya-
na is of a green filming colour above, and flreaked
- with white below. It is'a native of Cayenne. 10.
The chalybeata is green and filming above ; the breafl
is red, and on the fore-part ofit there is an iron-co¬
loured belt. 11. The afra is green above ; the breaft
is red; the belly is white; and it has a fliort blue
tail. The above two fpecies are found at the Cape
of Good-Hope. 12. The fpiza is green, with the
head and prime wing-feathers black. It is a native of
Brafil. -t 3. The fperata is purple above, and red be¬
low; the head, throat, and tail, are violet. It is
found in the Philippine Ifles. 14. The fenegalenfis
is of a blackifli violet colour; the top of the head and
throat are greenifli, and the breaft is red. It is a na¬
tive of Senegal. iy. The gutturahs is greenifli; the
throat is a ihining green, and the breafl is purple.
It is a native of Brafil, 16. The pinus is yellow be¬
low, and olive above; the wings are blue, with two
white belts.. It is a native of North America. 17.
The cruenta is blackifti above, and white below; the
top of the head, the neck, and tail, are red. It is a
native of Bengal. 18. The flaveola is black above,
and yellow below; the eye-brows, and the tops cf
- the outermofl prime wing-feathers, are white. It is
a native of America. 19. The pulchella has a greea
Aiming body, and a red breafl; the two intermedia:,-,
prime wing-feathers are very long. It is a native of
Senegal. 20. The famofa has the-two intermediate
prime wing-feathers very long; the body is of a flu-
mng green ; and the axillae of the wings are yellow.
It is, found at the Cape of Good Hope. 21. The phi-
lippina has the two intermediate wing-feathers very
long, a grepnifli grey body, and ydlowifli underneath.
It is a native of the Philippine Hies. 22. The vio-
lacea has the two intermediate prime wiqg-flathers
very long, a fliinmg violet-colon red body, and the
breaft and belly are yellow. 23. The zeylonica has
-a green head, an iron-cbloured back, a yellow belly,
and the throat and tail are azure. It is a native of
Ceylon. 24. The cyanea is blue, with a black belt
round the eyes; the flioulders, wings, and tail are
black, and the feet are red. It is a native of Brafil
and Cayenne. 25. The lotentia is blue, with a red
belt overuhe breafl. It is a native of Ceylon.
CERTIORARI, a writ which iflues out of the chancery,
direded to an inferior court, to call up the records 0
a caufe there depending, in order that juftice mav be
. done. And this writ is obtained upon complaint, that
C E R ( 54 ) C E R
the pnrty who fecks it has received hard afage, or is
not like to have an impartial trial in the inferior
court. A cirtioraii is made returnable either in the
king’s bench, common pleas, or in chancery.
It is not only iffued out of the court of chancery,
but likewife out of the king’s bench, in which laft
mentioned court it lies where the king would be cer¬
tified of a record. In ’.’dlments from inferior courts,
and proceedings of the quarter-feffions of the peace,
may alfo ba removed into the king’s bench by a certi¬
orari ; and here the very record mull be returned,
and not a tranfcript of it; though ufually in chancery,
if a certiorari be returnable there, it removes only a
tenor of the record.
CERTITUDE, confidered in the things of ideas which
are the obje&s of our underftanding, is a neceffary a-
- greement or difagreement of one part of our know¬
ledge with another : as applied to the mind, it is the
perception of fuch agreement or difagreement; or fuch
a firm well-grounded alfent, as excludes not only all
. manner of doubt, but all conceivable poffibility of a
inhtake.
There are three forts of certitude, or affurance,
according to the different natures and circumftances of
things.
i, A phyfical or natural certitude, which depends
upon,the evidence of fenfe ; as that I fee fuch or fuch
a colour, or hear fuch or fuch a found : no body que-
flions the truth of this, where the organs, the medi¬
um, and the objeiS are rightly difpofed. 2. Mathe¬
matical certitude, is that arifing from mathematical evi¬
dence ; fuch is, that the- three angles of a triangle are
equal to two right ones. 3:' Moral certitude is that
founded on moral evidence, and is frequently equiva¬
lent to a mathematical one ; as that there was former¬
ly fuch an emperor as Julius Csefar, and that he wrote
the Commentaries which pafs under his name; becaufe
the hiitorians of thefe times have recorded it, and no
man has ever difproved itfince: this affords a moral
certitude, in common fenfe fo great, that one would
be thought a fool or a madman for denying it.
CERVIA, in geography, a city and port town of Ro¬
mania, in Italy, fituated on the gulph of Venice, a-
bout ten miles fouth-eaft of Ravenna, and lubjeA to
the pope : F,. long, ij0, and N. kt. 449 3c/.
CERVICAL nerves, in anatomy. See p. 251.
CERVIX, in anatomy. See p. 166.
Cervix of the uterus. Seep. 274.
CERUMEN, ear-wax. See p. 296.
.CERUSE, or Ceruss, white lead, a fort of calx of
lead, made by expofing plates of that metal to the
vapour of vinegar.
The beff way of preparing it is the following: A
c'afs-cucurbit is to. be cut off in fuch a manner as to
leave it a very long mouth; an alembic bead of glafs
is to be fitted to this ; fome vinegar is to be put into
the body, and a number of thin plates of lead are to
be placed in the head in fuch a manner that they may
{land fomewhat ere<2 : when the head is fitted on, the
body is to be fet in a gentle fand-heat for twelve hours ;
then unfitting the vefAls, the receiver, which had been
fitted to the nofe of the head, will contain a fweet
and ftyptic liquor, naufeous and turbid, called, the
vinegar of lead, or the folution of lead; and the plates
of lead, taken out of the head, will be found covered
with a white dufty matter; this is cerufs; and if the
operation be repeated, the whole lead will be in fine
reduced to this ftate of cerufs.
Cerufs is ufed externally either mixed in ointments,
or by fprinkling it on old gleeting and watery ulcers, and
in many difeafes of the fkin. If, when it is reduced
into a fine powder, it is received in with the breath in
infpiratiqn, and carried down into the lungs, it caufes
terrible afthmas, that are almoff incsrable, and at laft
generally prove fatal: fad inflances of the very perni¬
cious effedts of this metal are too often feen among -
thofe perfons who work lead in any form, but particu¬
larly among the workers in white-iead.
, The painters ufe it in great quantities, and, that it
may be afforded cheap to them, it is generally adulte¬
rated with common whiting: the Englilh and Dutch
cerufs are very bad in this refpeft: the Venetian ought
always to be ufed by apothecaries,
Cerurs of antimony, a medicine prepared by difHIHng
powdered regains of antimony with fpirit of nitre,
till no more fumes arife; what remains in the retort
being pulverifed and wafhed, makes the cerufs of anti¬
mony, which is efteemed a powerful diuretic.
CERVUS, or Deer, jn zoology, a genus of quadru¬
peds belonging to the order of pecora. The horns
are folid, brittle, covered with a hairy fkin, and grow¬
ing from the top; they likewife fall off, and are re¬
newed annually. There are eight fore-teeth in the
under jaw, and they have no dog-teeth. The fpecies
of this genus are feven, viz. i. The Camelopardalis,v
with fimple or unbranched-horns, and the fore-feet re¬
markably longer than the hind feet. This is an un
common animal, few of them having ever been feen
in Europe. It is a native of Ethiopia, and is very
mild and gentle: The head is like that of a flag ; its
horns are blunt and about fix inches long. The neck
refembles that of a camel, hut much longer, being fome-
times feven feet in length. The body is fmall, covered
with white hair, and fpotted with red. He is eighteen
feet in length from the tail to the top of the head ; and
when he holds up his head, it is fixteen feet from the
ground. He feeds principally on the leaves of trees.
2. The alces, or elk, has palmated horns, with¬
out any proper ftem, and a ftefhy protuberance on the
throat. This is the larveft animal of the deer kind.
At the fair of St Germain, at Paris, in the year 1752,
a female elk was exhibited as a fhow. It was caught
in the year 1749, in a foreft of Red Ruffia, belong¬
ing to a Khan of Tartary. The height was fix feet
feven inches, the length ten feet, and the thicknels-
eight. The hair was long, like that of a wild boar.
The ikin is faid to refill the force of a gun bullet. The
elk is a very fwift animal; arid he feeds upon leaves
of alder, birch, willow, <bc. When tamed, he de¬
vours large quantities of hay or bread. This animal
is found in the northern woods of Europe, Afia, and
America,
3. The
GET (5
3. The elaphus, is a kind of elk, with cylindrical
ramified horns, bent backwards. It is a native cf the
northern parts of Europe and Afia.
4. The tarandus, or rein-deer, is a native of Lap-
land, and the northern parts of Europe, Afia, and A-
merica. The horns are large, cylindrical^ branched,
and palmafed at the tops. Two of the branches hang
over the face. He is about the fize of a buck, of a
dirty whitilh colour ; the hairs of his ikin are thick
and ftrong. Thefe animals are of great ufe to the
Laplanders ; they feed upon their flefn ; they employ
their finews ip fewing the boards of fledges together,
and their milk affords them good cheefe: They like-
_ wife make garments of their Ikins. The rein-deer
are always employed in drawing fledges along the
' fnowy. mountains, where horfes cannot travel. In
a beaten track, they will drag a fledge twenty-five
' miles a day. When the animal is'tired, his matter
' loofes him from the fledge, and he immediately fcrapes
the fnow from the ground with his feet, and feeds
upon a fpecies 6f liver-wort, called rein-deer liver¬
wort, which is very plentiful in thefe countries. This
is the only nourifhment they require.
5. The darna, or buck and doe, a well known ani¬
mal, kept tame in parks; the horns are branched, com-
preifed, and p-.ilmated at the top. It is a native'of Eu¬
rope. Their fleili, which goes by the name of venifon,
* is in high repute with the luxurious. See Plate LXtll.
6. The capreolus, has ereft, cylindrical, branched
horns, and forked at the top. It is called by feme
authors the Brafilian goat, and is a native of Europe
and Afia.
7. The Gulneenfis,' is of a greyifli colour, and
black Underneath. It is a native of Guinea', and the
fize and figure of its horns have not been hitherto
‘ deferibed with any prccifion.
Cervus votans, in zoology, a fynonime of a fpecies. of
lucanos. See Lucanus.
•CESARE, among logicians, one of the modes of the
fecond figure of fyllogifms ; the minor propofition of
which is an univerfa! affirmative, and the other two
univerfal negatives: Thus,
Ce No immoral books ought to be read :
sa But every obfeehe book is immoral:
re Therefore no obfeene book ought to be read.
CESSIO bonorum, in Scots law. The name of that
afiion by which an infolvent debtor may apply for li¬
beration from prifon, upon making over his whole real
and p'erfonal eftate to his creditors. See Scots Law,
title, Sentencsj and their execution.
CESTRUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla is tunnel-fliaped ; and the
berry is unilocular. There are two fpecies,, both na¬
tives of America.
GESTHS, among ancient'poets, a fine embroidered gir¬
dle faid to be worn by Venus, to which Homer
aferibes the faculty of charming and conciliating love.
CETACEOUS, an appellation given -to fifties of the
whale k'nd.
CETE, the name of Linnasus’s feventh order of mam¬
malia, comprehending the Monos on, Bal^ena,
5 ) C H A
Physeter, and Delphinus ; fee thefe articles.
CETER.ACH, in botany, the trivial i|ame of a fpccics
of afplenium. See Asp.lenium.
CETTE, a port-town of Languedoc, in France, fitua-
ted on a bay of the Mediterranean, in E. long. 30 iC,
and N. lat. 430 2s'.
CETUS, in aftroriom}', a conftellation of the fouthern
hemifphere, comprehending twenty-two flars in Ptole¬
my’s catalogue, twenty-one in TycWs, and in the
Britannic catalogue feventy-eight.
CEUTA, a city of the kingdom of Fez, in Africa, fi-
tuated on the fouth fide of the ftreights of Gibraltar,
almoft oppofite to it : W. long. 6° 30', and N. lat.
jj0 50'. It is a ftrong fortrefs, in the pofleflion of
the Spaniards.
CEYLON, an ifland in the Indian ocean, fituated be¬
tween 78° and 82° E. long, and between 6° and to0
N. lat. It is about two hundred and fifty miles long,.
and two hundred broad. The Dutch, who are in
pofieffion of all the fea-coaft, monopolize all the cin¬
namon produced in the ifland, the king being obliged
to keep in the centre, of the ifiand, in his capital of
Candy.
CHABLAIS, a country of Savoy, with the title of
duchy.
CHACO, a large country of South America,Tituated be¬
tween 190 and 270 S. lat.
CHAlROPHYLLUM, or Chervil, in botany, a ge¬
nus of the pentandria digymia clafs. The involucruni-
is concave and refledted ; the petals are cordated ^ and.
the fruit is fmooth and oblong. The fpecies are fe-
ven, only two of which are natives of Britain, viz.
the iylveftre, or wild cicely, or cow-weed ; and the
tumulum, or wild chervil. The leaves of the chervil,
are gently aperient and diuretic, and at the fame time
grateful to the palate and ftomach.
CHfETODON, in ichthyology, a gentis- of fiffies be¬
longing to* the'’order of thoraci. The teeth are very;
numerous, thick, fetageous, and flexile: The rays of
the gills are fix. The back-fin and the fin at the a-
nus are fleffiy and fquamous. There are twenty-three
fpec.es, diflinguiffied from each other principally by
the figure of the tail, and the number of fpines in t)ie
back fin.
CHAFF-FINCH, in ornithology, the Engliffi name of
a fpecies of fringilla. See Fringilla.
CpIAGRE, a fort at the mouth of a river- of the fame
name, a little fomh of Porto Btilo : W. long, 82°,
and N. lar: 90 50'.
CHAIN, a long piece of metal compofed of feveraHinks
or rings, engaged the one in the other. They are
made of divers metals, fome round, fome fiat, others '
fquare; fome fingle, fome double ; and ferve to fo
many ufes, that it would be tedious to give-a particu¬
lar account of them all.
Chain is alfo a kind of mealure in France, in the trade
of wood for fuel: There are chains for wood by tale,
for wood by the rope, for faggots, for cleft wood, and '
for round flicks. There are alfo chains raeafuring the
ffieaves of all forts of corn, particularly with regard
to the payment of tythes; for meafuring pottles of
C II A ( 5
-hay, and for roeafuring horfes. All thefe are divided
into feet, inches, hands, fcc. according to the uiS
they are defigned for.
Chata-Jhot, two bullets with a chain, between them.
They are ufed at fea to (hoot down yards or malts,
and to cut the fhfouds or rigging of a Ihip.
Chain, in furveying, a meafure of length, made of a
certain number of links of iron-wire, ferving to take
the diftance'between two or more places.
Gunter’s chain of ioo Inch links, each meafuring
yT/'j inches, and confequently equal to 66 feet, or
four poles. See Surveying.
CHAISE, a fort of light, open chariot, or calafli. See
CnARroT.
CHALAZA, aniong naturalifts, a white knotty fort of
. fixing at each end of an egg, formed of a plexus of
the fibres of the membranes, whereby the yolk and
wldte are conne&ed tpgether. See Egg.
CHALCEDONY, in natural hifiory, a genus of femi-
pcllucid gems, of an even and regular not tabulate^!
texture, of a femi-opaque cryfialine bafis, and vari¬
egated with different chlours, difperfed in form of
‘ rnifts and clouds, and, if nicely examined, found to
be owing to an admixture of various kinds of earths,
‘ but imperfectly blended in the mafs, and often vifible
In difiinct moleculas.
Of this genus there are a great many fpecies, as
the bJuiih-white chalcedony; the brownilh-black chalv
cedony, or frrioaky jafper or capnitis of the ancieitfs ;
and the yellow and red chalcedony.
All the chalcedonies give fire readily with fteel,
and make no effervefcence with aqua-fortis.
CHALCIDES, in zoology, the trivial name of . fpecies
lacerta. See Lacerta.
CHALDEA, or Babylonia, the ancient name of a
country of Alia, now called Eyrac Arabic.
CHALDEE, or CHXi.TiA.ic language, that fpoken by
the Chaldeans, or people of Chaldea : It is a dialect
of the Hebrew. See Hebrew.
CHALDRON, a dry Engliih meafure, confifting of
thirty-fix bulhels, heaped up according to the fealed
bufhel kept at Guild-hall, London: baton (hip-board,
twenty-one chaldron of coals are allowed to the fcore.
The chaldron fhould weigh two thoufand pounds.
CHALK, in natural-hiftory, the Englifh name of the
white, dry marie, with a dufty furface, found in hard
roaffes, and called by authors creta, and terra creta.
1 - Chalk thrown-into water, raifes a great number of
bubbles, with a hiffing notfe, and (lowly diffufes itfelf
into an impalpable powder. It ferments more firong-
ly with acids than any other earth, and burns to lime.
As a medicine, chalk deferves, perhaps, the higheft
place' among the alkaline abforbents ; nor is it lefs ufe-
ful in many of the ordinary affairs of life. Ls ufe
in cleaning various utenfils is well known; and it is
in no.fmall repute as a manure, efpecially for cold four
lands ; in which intention the foft undhious chalk is
mofi: proper^ as thee dry, hard, and ftrong chalk is for
lime. It is a great improver of lands, and will even-
change the very nature of them. However, it is moft
advifeable to mix one load of chalk, with two or three
; ) C IT A
of dung, mud, or fre(h mould, whereby it will be¬
come a lafiing advantage to the ground: The common
allowance is fourteen loads of chalk to every acre.
Black Chalk, among painters, denotes a kind of ochre-
ous earth, of a clofe firuflure, and fine black colour,
ufed in drawing upon blue paper.
Red Chalk, an indurated clayey ochre, common in the
colour-Ihops, and much ufed by painters and arti-
fleers.
CHALLONS'flfl the Marns, the capital of the Chal-
lonois, in the province of Champaign in France, fitu-
ated eighty-two miles eaft of Paris, and thirty fouth-
eaft of Reims: E.long. 40 35', N. lat. 48° 55'. It
is a biftiop’s fee.
Challons c>«/Af a city of Burgundy in France,
thirty-two miles fouth of Dijon : E. long. 50, N. lat.
46° 4c/. It is the fee of a bdhop.
CHALYBEAT, in medicine, an appellation given to
any liquid, as wine or water, impregnated with parti¬
cles of iron or fteel.
Dr Monro, profeffor of anatomy.at Edinburgh, by
pouring a tindure of galls into common water, ^nd
diffolving therein-a fmall quantity of fal martis, add¬
ing fome filings of iron, and oil of yitrol, ’procured,
a water exadly like the natural chalybeat water ; and
he is of opinion, that where thefe are not to be had, the
artificial water may be made to anf.ver all their inten¬
tions, according to its being more or lefs clofely kept,
or expofed in the air or heat,
CHAM, or Khan, a word of much-the fame import
with king in Engliih : It is the title of the fovereign
princes of Tartary, and is likewife applied to the
principal noblemen in Perfia.
Cham, in geography, a town of the Bavarian palatinate,
fituated on a river of the fame name,, about twenty-
five miles north-eafi of Ratifbon; E. long. 130, N.
lat. 490 15'.
CHAMA, in zoology, a genus of (hell-fifti belonging to
the order of Vermes teftacea. The (hell is thick, and
has two valves; it is an animal of the oyfier kind.
Linnaeus enumerates 14 fpecies, principally difiinguiff-
ed by the figure of their (hells.
CHAMvEBATOS, in botany. SeeRuBus.
CHAM/EBUXUS, in botany.. See Pol.ygala.
CHAMgECERASUS, in botany. See LoNicERA.
CHAMAlCLEMA, in botany. See Hedera.
CHAMAlCRISTA, in botany. See Cassia.
CHAMZEDAPHNE, in botany. ' SeeKALMiA.
CHAMAiDRYS, in botany. See Veronica.
CHAMAlLE \, in botany. See Cenorum.
CHAMAlLEON, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of lacerta See Lacerta.
CHAM ALL INUM; in botany. See Linum.
CHAMAlMILUM, in botany. See Matricaria.
CHAMAiNERION. in botany. See Epilobium.
CHAMALPITYS, fn botany. SccTeucrium.
CHAMAlRHODODENDROS, in botany. See A-
z'alea.
CHAMASROPS, or Humble palm, in botany, ai ge¬
nus ranged under the palms flabellifolis of Linnaeus.
It is a native of Spain.
Privy j
tA/f'r Aft:
C H A (57
Prtvy-C h a mbe r , Gentlemen of the privy-chamber,
are fervants of the king, who are to wait and attend
on him and the queen at court, in their diveriions,
&c. Their number is forty-eight under the lord-
chambeilain, twelve of whom are in quarterly waiting,
and two of thefe lie in the privy-chamber.
In the abfence of the lord-chamberlain, ot vice¬
chamberlain, they execute the king’s orders : at coro¬
nations, two pf them perfonate the dukes of Aquitain
and Normandy: and fix of them, appointed by the
lord-chamberlain, attend ambalfadors from crowned
heads to their audiences, and in public entries. The
gentlemen of the privy-chamber were inllituted by
Henry VII.
Chamber, in policy, the place where certain aflemblies
are held, alfo the aflemblies themfelves. Of thefe,
fome are eftablilhed for the adminiftration of juflice,
others for commercial affairs.
Of the firft kind are, x. Star-chamber, fo called,
becaufe the roof was painted with ftars ; the autho¬
rity, power, and jurifdi&ion of which are abfolutely
abolifhed by the ftatute 17 Car. I. 2. Imperial cham¬
ber of Spire, the fupreme court of judicatory in the
empire, ere&ed by Maximilian I. This chamber has
a right of judging by appeal, and is the laft refort of
all civil affairs of the flates and fubjedts of the empire,
in the fame manner as the aulic council of Vienna;
Neverthelefs it is reflrained in feveral cafes ; it takes
no notice of matrimonial caufes, thefe being left to
the pope ; nor of criminal caufes, which either belong
to particular princes or towns in their refpe&ive terri¬
tories, or are cognizable by all the ftates of the em¬
pire in a diet. By the treaty of Ofnaburg, in 1648,
fifty afleffors were appointed for this chamber, where¬
of twenty.four were to be Proteftants, and twenty-fix
Catholics; befides five prefidents, two of them Pro¬
teftants, and the reft Catholics. 3. Chamber of ac¬
counts, a-^bvereign court in France, where accounts
, are rendered of all the king’s revenues, inventories,
and avowels thereof regiftered; oaths of fidelity ta¬
ken, and other things relating to the finances tranfac-
ted. There are nine in France, that of Paris is the
chief; it regifters proclamations, treaties of peace,
naturalizations, titles of nobility, i&c. All the mem¬
bers wear long black gowns of velvet, of fattin, or da-
mafk, according to their places. 4. Ecclefiaftical
chambers in France, which judge by appeal of differ¬
ences about colledting thetythes. 5. Chamber of au¬
dience, or grand chamber, a jurifdidtion in each par¬
liament of France, the counfellors of which are called
jugeurs, or judges, as thofe of the chamber of in-
quefts are called rapporteurs, reporters of procefles
by writing. 6. Chamber of the edidt, or miparty, a
court eftablifhed by virtue of the edidt of pacification,
in favour of thofe of the reformed religion. This
chamber is now fupprefled. 7. Apoftolical chamber
of Rome, that wherein affairs relating to the reve¬
nues of the church and the pope are tranfadted. This
council confifts of the cardinal-camerlingo, the gover¬
nor of the rota, a treafurer, an auditor, a prefident,
one advocate-general, a folicitor-general, a commifla-
Vol. II. No. 32. 3
) C II A
ry, and twelve clerks. 8. Chamber of London, an
apartment in Guildhall, where the city-money is de-
pofited.
Of the laft fort are, 1. The chambers of commerce.
2. The chambers of aflurance. And, 3. The royal
or fyndical chamber of bookfellers in France.
The chamber of commerce is an afl'embly of msr-
chants and traders, where the affairs relating to trade
are treated of. There are feveral eftablifned in moft
of the chief cities of France ; and in our own coun¬
try, we have lately feen chambers of this kind eredled
for carrying on the Britifh herring-fifhery. Chamber
of aflurance in France, denotes a fociety of merchants
and others for carrying on the bufinefs of infuring;
but in Holland, it fignifies a court of juftice, where
caufes relating to infurances are tried. Chamber of
bookfellers in Paris, an aflembly confifting of a fyndic
and afliftants, eledted by four delegates from the prin¬
ters, and twelve from the bookfellers, to viflt the
books imported from abroad, and to fearch the houfes
of fellers of marbled paper, printfellers, and dealers
in printed paper for hangings, who are prohibited
from keeping any letters proper for printing books. In
the vifitation of books, which ought to be performed
by three perfons at leaft from among the fyndic and
ailiftants, all libels againft the honour of God and the
welfare of the ftate, and all books printed cither with¬
in or without the kingdom in breach of their regula¬
tions and privileges, are ftopt, even with the merchan-
difes that may happen to be in the bales with fuch li¬
bels, or other prohibited books. The days appointed
for this chamber to meet, are Tuefdays and Fridays,
at two o’clock in the afternoon.
CHAMBERLAIN, an officer charged with the ma¬
nagement and dire&ion of a chamber. See Cham¬
ber, in policy.
There are almoft as many kinds of chamberlains as
chambers, the principal whereof are as follows.
Lord Chamberlain of Great Britain, the fixth great
officer of the crown ; to whom belongs livery and lodg¬
ing in the king’s court; and there are certain fees due
to him from each archbilhop or bifliOp, when they
perform their homage to the king ; and from all peers
at their creation, or doing their homage. At the co
ronation of every king, he is to have forty ells of
crimfon velvet for his own robes. This officer, on
the coronation-day, is to bring the king his fliirt,
coif, and wearing cloaths; and after the king is dref
fed, he claims his bed, and all the furniture of his
chamber for his fees : he aifo carries at the coronation,
the coif, gloves, and linen to be ufed by the king on
that occafion ; alfo the fword and fcabbard, the gold
to be offered by the king, and the robes-royal and
crown: he drefl'es and undrefles the king on that day,
waits on him before and after dinner, ,<fcc.
To this officer belongs the care of providing all
things in the houfe of lords, in the time of parliament •
to him alfo belongs the government of the palace of
Weftminfter: he difpofes likewife of the fword of
ftate, to be carried before the king, to what lord he
pleafes.
P
Lord
C H A (
Lord Chamberlain of the houfehold, an officer who has
the overfight and direfHon of all officers belonging to
the king’s chambers, except the precind of the king’s
bed-chamber.
He has the overfight of the officers of the wardrobe
at all his majefty’s houfes, and of the removing ward¬
robes, or of beds, tents, revels, mufic, comedians,
hunting, meffengers, <bc. retained in the king’s fer
vice. He moreover has the overfight and diredion of
the ferjeants at arras, of all phyficians, apothecaries,
furgeons, barbers, the king’s chaplain, d'c and ad-
minifters the oath to all officers above Hairs.
Other chamberlains, are thofe of the king’s court
of exchequer, of North Wales, of Chefter, of the ci¬
ty of London, &c. in which cafes this officer is ge¬
nerally the receiver of all rents and revenues belonging
to the place whereof he is chamberlain.
In the exchequer there are two chamberlains, who
keep a controulment of the pells of receipts and exi-
tus, and have certain keys of the tieafury, records,
<bc.
Chamberlain of London keeps the city-money, which
is laid up in the chamber of London : he alfo prefides
over the affairs of mafters and apprentices, and makes
free of the city, &c.
His office la Its only a year, but the cuftom ufually
obtains to re-chufe the fame perfon, unlefs charged
with any mifdemeanor in his office.
CHAMBERRY, the capital of the duchy of Savoy, in
Italy, fituated ninety miles north-we/t of Turin, and
forty five fouth of Geneva: E. long, 50 4S/, N. lat.
45° 40'.
CHAMOIS, or Chamois-goat, in zoology. See
Capra.
CHAMPAIGN, a province of France, bounded by Pi¬
cardy on the north, by Lorrain on the ea(t, by Bur¬
gundy on the fouth, and by the ille of France on the
welt. Its capital is Troyes.
CHAMPAIN, or point Champa in, in heraldry, a
mark of diflionour in the coat of arms of him who
kills a prifoner of war after he has cried quarter.
CHAMPION, a perfon who undertakes a combat in the
place or quarrel of another; and fometimes the word
is ufed for him who fights in his own caufe.
It appears that champions, in the juft fenfe of the
word, were perfons who fought inftead of thofe that,
by cuftom, were obliged to accept the duel, but had
a juft excufe for difpenfing with it, as being too old,
infirm, or< being ecclefiaftics, and the like. Such
caufes as could not be decided by the courfe of com¬
mon law, were often tried by fingle combat; and he
who had the good fortune to conquer, was always re¬
puted to have juftice on his fide. Champions who
fought for intereft only, were held infamous ; thefe
hired themfelves to the nobility,, to fight for.them in
cafe of need, and did homage for their penfion
Champion. 0/' the king, a perfon whofe office it is, at
the coronation of our kings, to ride armed into Weft-
minftei-hall, while the king is at dinner there, and, by
the. proclamation, of a herald, make challenge to this
58 ) C H A
effeff, viz. “ That if any man (hall deny the king’s
“ title t0 the crown, he is there ready to defend it in
“ fingle combat, Which done, the king drinks
to him, and fends him a gilt cup, with a cover, full
of wine, which the champion drinks, and has the cup
for his fee.
CHANCE, in a general fenfe, a term applied to events
not neceffarily produced as the natural effetfs of any
proper foreknown caufe. For the dotfrine of chance
and its application to games. <&c. fee Gaming.
CHANCE-;;W/e>, in law, is the accidental killing of a
man, not altogether without the killer’s fault, though
without any evil intention ; and is where one is doing
a lawful a<ft, and a perfon is killed thereby : For, if
the adt be unlawful, it is felony.
CHANCEL, a particular part of the fabric of a Chri-
ftian church; or that part of the choir between the
altar and the baluftrade that inclofes it, where the mi-
nifter is placed at the celebration of the communion.
CHANCELLOR, an officer fuppofed originally to have
been a notary or feribe under the empeiors, and na¬
med cancellarius\ becaufe he fat behind a lattice, call-
led in Latin cancellus, to avoid being crowded by the
people.
According to a late treatife, the chancellor original¬
ly prefided over a political college of fecretaries, fbr
the writing of treaties, and other public bufinefs ; and
the court of equity, under the old conftitution, was
held before the king and his council, in the palace,
where one fupreme court for bufinefs of every kind
was kept At firft the chancellor became a judge, to
hear and determine petitions to the king, which were
preferred to him ; and in the end, as bufinefs increa-
fed, the people addreffed their fuit to the chancellor,
and not to the king ; and thus the chancellor’s equi¬
table power, by degrees, commenced by prefeription.
Lord high Chancellor of Great Britain, or Lord
keeper ef the great feal, is the higheft honour of the
long robe, being made fo per traditionem magni Ji-
gilii, per dominum regem, and by taking the oaths :
He is the firft perfon of the realm next after the king,
and princes of the blood, in all civil affairs ; and is
the chief adminiftrator of jwftice, next the fovereign,.
being the judge of the court of chancery.
All other juftices are tied to the ftridl rules of the
law in their judgment: But the chancellor is inverted
with the king’s abfolute power, to moderate the writ¬
ten law, governing his judgment purely by the law
of nature and confcience, and ordering all things
according to equity and juftice. In this refpeeff
Staundford fays, the chancellor has two powers, one
abfolute, the other ordinary: Meaning, that although
by his ordinary power, in fome cafes, he muft obferve
the forms of proceedings, as other inferior judges;
yet in his abfolute power, he is not limited by the Jaw,
but by confcience and equity.
The lord chancellor not only keeps the king’s great
feal; but alfo all patents, commiffions, warrants,
from the king, are, before they are figned, perufed
by him : He has the difpofition of all ecclefiaftical be¬
nefices
C H A (5:
nefices in the gift of the crown under 20I. a year, in
the king’s books; and he is fpeaker of the houfe of
lords. See Parliament.
Chancellor of a cathedral, an officer that hears lef-
fons andleftures read in the church, either by hinifelf
or his vicar ; to correct and let right the reader when
he reads amifs ; to infpedt fchoois ; to hear caufes;
apply the feal ; write and difpatch the letter^ of the
chapter; keep the books; take care that there be
frequent preachings, both in the church and out of it;
and alfign the office of preaching to whom he pleales.
Chancellor of the dutchy of Lancajler, an officer ap¬
pointed chiefly to determine controverfies between the
king and his tenants of the dutchy-land;1 .and other-
wile to diretd ail the king’s affairs belonging to that
court. See DutchY-ro.vr/.
Chancellor of the exchequer, an officer who pre¬
sides in that court, and takes care of.the interdt of
the crown. ' .
He is altvays in commiffion with the lord-treafurer,
for the letting of crown lands, &<;. and has power,
with others, to compound for forfeitures of lands, up¬
on penal ftatutes : He has alfo great authority in mana¬
ging the royal revenues, and in matters relating to the
fir ft-fruits.
Chancellor of the order of the garter, and other mi¬
litary orders, is an- officer who feals the commillions
and mandates of the chapter and affembly of the
knights, keeps the regifter of their proceedings, and
delivers ads thereof under the feal of their order.
Chancellor of an univerjity, is he who feals the di¬
plomas, or letters of degree*, provifion, <fac. given in
the univerlity.
The chancellor of Oxford is ufually one of the prime
nobility, cholen by the ftudents themfelves in convo¬
cation. He is their chief magiftfate ; his office is,
rantevita, to govern the univerlity, preferve and de¬
fend its rights and privileges, convoke affemblies, and
do juftice among the members under His jurifdi&ioth.
Under the chancellor is the vice-chancellor, who is
chofen annually, being nominated by the chancellor,
qnd defied by the umverfity in convocation : He is'al¬
ways the head of fome college, and in holy orders.
His proper office is to execute the chancellor’s power,
to govern the univerlity according to her ftatutes, to
fee that officers and ftudents do their duty, that courts
be duly called, 6 c. When he enters upon his office,
he chufes four pro-vice-chancellors out of the heads
of the colleges, to execute his power in his abfence.
The chancellor of Cambridge is alfo ufually one of
the prime nobility, and in moft refpefts the fame as
that in Oxford ; only he does not hold his office du¬
rante vita, but may be defied every three years. Un¬
der, the chancellor there is a commiffary, who holds-
a court of record for all privileged perfons and fcho-
lars under the degree of mailer of arts, where all
caufes are tried and determined by the civil and fta--
tute law, and by the cuflom of the univerlity.
The vice-chancellor of Cambridge is chofen annu¬
ally, by the fenate, out of two perfons nominated by
the heads of the feveral colleges and halL
I 5 C H A
CHANCERY, the grand court of equity and confcieneei
inilituted to moderate the rigour of the other courts
that are bound to the drift letter of the law.
The jurifdiftion of this court is of two kinds, ordi¬
nary or legal, and extraordinary or abfolute. The
ordinary jurifdiftion is that wherein the lord-chancel¬
lor, who is judge of this court, in his proceeding and
judgment, is bound to oblerve the order and method
of the common law; in fuch cafes the proceedings,
- which were formerly in Latin, but now in Englilh, are
filed or enrolled in the petty-bag-office; and the ex¬
traordinary, or unlimited powxr, is that jurifdiflion
which the court exercifes in cafes of equity, wherein
relief is to be had by bill and anfwcr.
The ordinary court holds plea of recognizances ac¬
knowledged in the chancery, writs of Jcire facias for
repeal of the king’s letters-patent. <bc. aifo of ail per-
fonal aflions by or againft any officer of the court,
and of feveral offences and caufes by aft of parliament;
all original writs, commiffions of bankrupts, of chari¬
table ufes, of ideots, lunacy, fac. are iflued hence.
The extraordinary cou^t gives relief for and againft.
infants, notwithftanding their minority ; for and a-
gainft married women,, notwithftanding their over¬
ture. All frauds and deceits, for which there is no.
redrefs at common law; all breaches of truft, confi-
dances and accidents, as to relieve obligors, mortga--
gors, he. againft penalties and forfeitures, where the '
intention was to pay the debt, are here remedied.
Butin all cafes where the plantiffcan have his remedy
at law, he ought not to be relieved in chancery ; and
a thing which may be tried by a jury, is not triable in
this court.-
The court of chancery will not retain a fuit for any
thing under ten pounds value, except in cafes of cha¬
rity, nor*for lands, he. under forty (hillings per ar.n.
In this court all patents^ moft forts of commillions,,
deeds between, parties touching lands and eftates, trea*
ties with foreign princes, he. are fealed and enrolled.
Out of it are iffued writs to convene the parliament-
and convocation, proclamations and charters, he. For
the feveral officers belonging to the court of chancery,.,
fee the articles Masters/' the rolls. Masters in
chancery. Clerk., he.
CHANDELIER, in fortification, a kind of moveable
parapet,- confiding of a wooden frame, made of two •
upright (takes, about fix feet high, with crcfs planks ,
between them; ferving to fupport fafeines to cover the
pioniers.-
CHANNEL, in geography, an arm of the fea, or a
narrow fea between two continents, or between a con¬
tinent and an ifland. Such are the Britiffi channel,
St George’s channel, the channel of Conftantinople,
he.
CHANTILLY', a village in France, about (even leagues
from Paris, where there is a magnificent palace and
fine foreft belonging to-the duke of Bourbon.
CHANTOR a finger in the choir of a cathedraL. The
word is almoft grown obfolete, choYifer or finging- -
man being commonly ufed inftead of it. . All great"
chapters ^
C II A ( 6<
chapters have oh amors and chaplains to a Sift the ca¬
nons, and officiate in their abfenee.
Chant or is ufed by'way of excellence for the precen¬
tor or mafter of the choitj whicii is one of the firft dig¬
nities of the chapter. At St David’s in Wales, where
there is no dean, he is next in dignity to the biihop.
The ancients called the chantor pr 'ttnicerius cantorum.
To him belonged the. dire&ios of the deacons and o-
ther inferior officers.
Chanters in the temple of Jerufalem, were a num¬
ber of Levites employed in finging the praifes of God,
and playing upon inftruments before his altar. They
had no habits difiint'l from the reft of the people ; yet
in the ceremony of removing the ark to Solomon’s tem¬
ple, the chahtors appeared dreffed in tunics of byffus
or fine linen. 2 Chron. v. 12.
CHANTRY, or Chauntry, a church or chappel, en¬
dowed with lands, fac. for the maintenance of one or
more priefts to fay mafs for the fouls of the do¬
nors. Hence,
Chantry-t^/j', are rents ftill paid to the crown by the
purchafers of thofe lands.
CHAOS, that - confufion in which matter lay when
newly produced out of nothing at the beginning of
the world, before God, by his almighty word, had
put it into the order and condition wherein it was af¬
ter the fix days creation.
Chaos, in zoology, a genus of infedts belonging to the
order of vermes zoophyta. The body has no fnell
or covering, and is capable of reviving after being
dead to appearance for a long time: It has no joints or
external organs of fenfation. There are five fpecies,
moftly obtained by infufions of different vegetables in
water, and only difcoverable by the microfcope.
CHAPEAU, in heraldry, an ancient cap of dignity worn
by dukes, being fcartlet-coloured velvet on the out-
fide, and lined with a fur. It is frequently borne a-
bove an helmet inftead of a wreath, under gentlemen’s
crefts.
CHAPEL, or Chappel, a place of divine worfhip,
ferved by an incumbent under the denomination of a
chaplain.
Chapel is alfo a name given to a printer’s work-houfe;
in which fenfe they fay, the laws of the chapel, the
fecrets of the chapel.
Knights of the Chapel, called alfo poor knights of
Windfor, were inftituted by Henry VIII. in his tefta-
ment. Their number was at firft thirteen, but has
been fince augmented to twenty-fix. They affift in the
funeral fervices of the kings of England : They are
fubjedt to the office of the canons of Windfor, and
live on penfions affigned them by the order of the gar¬
ter. They bear a blue or red cloke, with the arms of
St George on the left fhoulder.
CHAPELET, in the menage, a couple of ftirrup lea¬
thers, mounted each of them with a ftirrup, and join¬
ed at top in a fort of leather buckle, called the head
of the cbapelet, by which they are made faft to the
pummel of the faddle, after being adjufted to the ri¬
der’s length and bore. They are ufed both to avoid
D ) C H A
the trouble of taking up or letting down the ftirrups,
every time that the gentleman mounts on a different
horfe and faddle, and to fupply the place of the aca¬
demy faddles, which have no ftirrups to them.
CHAPITERS, in architedlure, the fame with capitals-.
Chapiters, in law, formerly fignified a fummary of
fuch matters as were inquired of, or prefented before
juftices in eyre, juftices of affize or of the peace, in
their feffions.
Chapiters, at this time, denote fuch articles as are
delivered by the mouth of the juftice in his charge to
the inqueft.
CHAPLAIN, an ecclefiaftic who officiates in a chapel.
See Chapel.
The king of Great Britain hath forty-eight cha¬
plains in ordinary, ufually eminent do&dts in divinity,
who wait four each month, preach in the chapel, read
the fervice to the family, and to the king in his private
oratory, and fay grace in the abfence of the clerk of
the clofet. Befides, there are twenty-four chaplains
at Whitehall, fellows pf Oxford or Cambridge, who
preach in their turns, and are allowed 301. per annum
each. According to a ftatute of Henry VIII. the
perfons veiled with a power of retaining chaplains, to¬
gether with the number each is allowed to qualify, is
as follow^: An archbiffiop, eight; a duke or biihop,
fix; marquefs or earl, five; vifeount, four; baron,
knight of the garter, or lord-chancellor, three; a
dutchefs, marchionefs, countefs, baronefs, the treafu-
rer and comptroller of the king’s houfe, clerk of the
clofet, the king’s fecretary, dean of the chapel, al¬
moner, and mafter of the rolls, each of them two;
chief juftice of the king’s bench, and warden of the
cinque-ports, each one. All thefe chaplains may pur-
chafe a licence or difpenfation, and take two benefices
with cure of fouls. A chaplain mull be retained by
letters teftimonial under hand and feal; for it is not
fufficient that he ferve as chaplain in the family.
Chaplain of the order of Malta, otherwife called di-
aco, and clerk conventual, the fecond clafs of the or¬
der of Malta. The knights make the firft rank.
CHAPLET, a ftring of beads ufed by the Roman Ca¬
tholics, to count the number of their prayers. The
invention of it is aferibed to Peter the hermit, who
probably learned it of the Turks, as they owe it to
the Eaft-Indians.
Chaplets are fometimes called pater-nofters, and are
made of coral, of diamonds, of wood, &c. The
common chaplet contains fifty ave-marias, and five pa¬
ter-nofters. There is alfo a chaplet of our Saviour,
confiding of thirty-three beads, in honour of his thir¬
ty three years living on earth, inftituted by father Mi¬
chael the Camaldulian.
CHAPPE\ in heraldry, the dividing an efcutcheon by
lines drawn from the centre of the upper edge to the
angles below, into three parts, the feftions on the
fides being of a different metal or colour from the reft.
CHAPPEL in frith, a market town of Derbyffiire, a-
bout twenty-fix miles north-weft of Derby; W. long.
i° 50',' N. lat. 53° 22 .
CHAPTER,
C II A ( ) C H A
CHAPTER, in ecclefiaftical polity, a fociety or com¬
munity of clergymen belonging to the cathedrals and
collegiate-churches.
It was in the eighth century that the body of canons
began to be called a chapter. The chapter of the ca¬
nons of a cathedral were a Handing council to the bi-
fhop, and, during the vacancy of the fee, had the ju-
rifdidtion of the diocefe. In the earlier ages, the bi-
ihop was head of the chapter; afterwards abbqts and
other dignitaries, as deans, provoHs, treafurers, 6c.
were preferred to this diftimftion. The deans and
- chapters had the privilege of chufing the bilhops in
England; but Henry VIII. got this power verted in
the crown: and as the fame prince expelled the monks
from the cathedrals, and placed fecular canons in their
room, thofe he thus regulated were called deans and
chapters of the new foundation; fuch are Canterbury,
Winchefter, Ely, Carlifle, 6c.
Chapter, in matters of litera.ture, a divifion in a book
for keeping the fubjett treated of more clear and di-
ftinfr.
CHARA, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia algae
clafs. The calix confifts of two leaves; the antherae
are globular and fertile; there are three ftigmata, and
one round feed The fpecies are four, three of which
are natives of Britain, viz. the tomentofa, or brittle
chara ; the vulgaris, or common chara; the hifpida,
or rough chara ; and the flexilis, or fmooth chara.
CHARABON, a fea-port town on the northern coaft of
the ifland of Java, in the Indian ocean, fnuated 130
miles eaft of Batavia; E. long. 108°, fouth lat. 6°.
CHARACTER, in a general fenfe-, denotes any mark
whatever, ferving to reprefent either things or ideas :
thus letters are charaiflers, types, or marks of certain
founds; words, of ideas, 6c.
Literal characters may be divided, with refpeft to
the nations among whom they have been invented, in¬
to Greek characters, Roman characters, Hebrew cha¬
racters, 6c. The Latin character now ufed through
all Europe was formed from the Greek, as the Greek
was from the Phoenician ; and the Phoenician, as well
as the Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic characters, were
formed from the ancient Hebrew, which fubfilled till
the Babylonilh captivity ; for, after that event, the
character of the Affyrians, which is the fquare He¬
brew now in ufe, prevailed, the ancient being only
found on fome Hebrew medals, commonly called Sa¬
maritan medals. It was in 1091 that the Gothic cha¬
racters, invented by Uifilas, were abolilhed, and the
Latin ones eftablifhed in their room.
Medallifts obferve, that the Greek character, con-
fifting only of majulcule letters, has preferved its uni¬
formity on all medals, as low as the time of Gallienus ;
from that time it appears fomewhat weaker and round¬
er : from the time of Conrtantine to Michael we find
only Latin Characters ; and after Michael the Greek
characters recommence ; but from that time they be¬
gin to alter with the language, which was a mixture
of Greek and Latin. The Latin medals preferve both
their character and language as low as the tranflation
•of the feat of the empire to ConftantinopL : towards
Von. II. No. 32. 3
the time of Decius the character began to lofe i;s
roundnefs and beauty; fome time after, it retrieved,
and fubfifted tolerably till the time of Juftin, when it
degenerated gradually into the Gothic. The rounder,
then, and better formed a character is upon a medal,
the fairer pretence it has to antiquity.
Character is alfo ufed, in feveral of the arts, for a
fymbol, contrived for the more concife and immediate
conveyance of the knowledge of things. For the
Characters ufed in algebra, fee p. 79, 80.
Characters ufed in. aflronomy, viz.
Of the planets. See plate XXXIX,
Of the figns. See plate XXXIX.
Of the afpeds.
or S Conjunction A Trine
SS Semifextile Bq Biquintile
* Sextile Vc Quincunx
Q^Quintile g Oppolition
O Quartile fl Dragon’s head
Td Tredecile Dragon’s tail
Of time.
A. M. ante meridiem, before the fun comes upon
the meridian.
O. or N. noo/).
P. M. pofl meridiem, when the fun is part the me¬
ridian.
Characters in commerce.
D° ditto, the fame
N° nurnero, or num¬
ber
F° folio, or page
C or 0 hundred
weight, or 112
pounds
qrs quarters
S or / (hillings
d pence or deniers
lb pound weight.
Characters in chemiftry.
R° reftol rl.
V° veroy fol,°
£. or /. founds fterling
[fo, per, or by, as
ana. by the year,
cent.
Rx rixdollar
D' ducat
P. S. poftfcript, 6c.
See Chemistry.
Characters in geometry and trigonometry.
|| the character of X. equiangulr, or fi-
parallelifm milar
A triangle JL equilateral
□ fquare ^ an angle
[] □ rectangle L right angle
O circle J_ perpendicular
0 denotes a degree; thus 450 implies 45 degrees.
' a.minute ; thus, 50°^ is 50 minutes. ", ", , de¬
note feconds, thirds, and fourths : and the fame cha¬
racters are ufed where the progrellions are by tens, as
it is here by fixties.
Characters in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, &c.
( ) parenthefis
[ ] crotchet
- hyphen
’ aportrophe
1 emphafis or accent
v breve
•• dialyfis
a caret and circumflex
CL
SS. T. D. doctor in
divinity
V. D. M. minifter
of the word of
God
LL D. doctor of laws
J. V. D. doctor of ci¬
vil and canon law
“ 'quotation
C H A
(
62
“ quotation
f J and # references
§ fedtion or divifion
paragraph
M. D. doftor in phy-
fic
A. M. mailer of arts
A. B. bachelor of arts
F. R. S. fallow of the royal fociety
For the other charadters ufed in grammar, fee Com¬
ma, Colon, Semicolon, iic.
Characters among the ancient lawyers, and in an¬
cient infer ipt ions,
§ paragraphs
' jf dtgefts
Scto fenatus con-
fulto
E. extra
S. P. Q^R. fena¬
tus populufque
Romanus
P. P. pater patriae
C. code
C. C. confules
T. titulus
P. P. D. D. propria
pecunia dedicavit
D. D. M. dono dedit
monumentum
Characters in medicine and pharmacy.
M. manipulus, a
handful
P. a pugil
P. Ah equal quan¬
tities
S. A. according to
q. s. a fufficient
quantity
q. pi. as much as
you pleafe
P. P. pulvis patrum,
the Jefuit’s bark.
See Music.
R recipe
a, da, or ana, of each
alike
lb a pound or a pint
3 an ounce
3 a drachm
9 a fcruple
gr. grains
£ or fs, half of any
thing
cong. congius, a gallon
coch. cochleare, a
fpoonful
Characters ufed in mafic
Numeral Characters ufed to exprefs numbers, are
either letters or figures. The Arabic charadter, call¬
ed alfo the common one, becaufe it is ufed almoft
throughout Europe in all forts of calculations, con-
fills of thefe ten digits, 1, 2, 5, 4, 5. 6, 7, 8, 9» o.
The Roman numeral charadter confills of feven ma-
jufcule letters of the Roman alphabet, viz. I, V, X,
L, C, D, M. The I denotes one, V five, X ten,
L fifty, C a hundred, D five hundred, and M a
thoufand.
Tlie I repeated twice makes two, II ; thrice, three,
III ; four is exprefied thus IV, as I before V or X
takes an unit from the number expreffed by thefe let¬
ters. To exprefs fix, an I is added to a V, VI ; for
feven, two, VII: and for eight, three, VIII: nine
is exprefied by an I before X, thus IX.
The fame remark may be made of the X before L
or C, except that the diminution is by tens ; thus,
XL denotes forty, XC ninety, and LX fixty. The
C before D or M diminilhes each by a hundred.
T he number five hundred is fometimes exprefled by
an I before a C inverted, thus, 10 ; and inftead of
M, which fignifies a thoufand, an I is fometimes ufed
between two Cls, the one diredt, and the other in¬
verted, thus CIO. The addition of C and 0 before
or after, raifes CIO by tens, thus, CCIOO exprefies
ten thoufand, CCCIOOO, a hundred thoufand.
* 7'he Romans alTo exprelfed any number of thou-
fands by a line drawn over any numeral lefs than a
thoufand; thus, "v" denotes five thoufand, LX
) C H A
thoufand : fo likewife "M is one million, MM is two
millions, &c.
Some modern writers have admitted variations in
this method of notation; thus we find IIX exprefling
eight, IICIX eighty-nine, or V denoting 100,
and 00 or Handing for CIO ; whence ten thou¬
fand, ^ W twenty thoufand.
The Greeks had three ways of expreffing numbers :
firll, every letter, according to its place in the alpha¬
bet, denoted a number, from «, one, to a, twenty-
four. 2. The alphabet was divided into eight units,
a, one, jS two, y three, <bc. into eight tens, , ten,
x, twenty, a thirty, and eight hundreds, g one
hundred, a two hundred, r three hundred, drc. 3.
I Hood for one, FI five, A ten, H a hundred, x a
thoufand, M ten thoufand ; and when the letter n in-
clofed any of thefe, except I, it fhewed the inclofed
letter to be five times its value; as gj fifty, ]§[ five
hundred, |&[ five thoufand, ]mJ fifty thpufand.
French Characters, ufed in the chamber of accounts,
and by perfons concerned in the management of the
revenue, is, properly fpeaking, nothing elfe than the
Roman numerals, in letters that afe not majufcule:
thus, inllead of exprelling fifty-fix by LVR they de¬
note it by fmaller chara&ers Ivj.
Characters upon tomb-Jlones.
S. V. Side viator, i. e. Stop traveller.
M. S. Memoriae facrum, i.e. Sacred to the memory.
D. M. Diis manibus.
I H S. Jefus.
X. P. a charaffer found in the catacombs, about the
meaning of which authors are not agreed.
Character, in epic and dramatic poetry, that which
is peculiar in the manners of any perfon, and dillin-
guilhes him from all others. See Epic, and drama¬
tic compactions.
CHARADRIUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to
the order of grallae. The beak is cylindrical and
blunt; the nollrils are linear, and the feet have three
toes. There are 12 fpecies, viz. \. The hiaticula,
or fea-lark of Ray, has a black bread, a white dreak
along the front; the top of the head is brown ; and
the legs and beak are reddilh. It is found on the
fhores of Europe and America. -2. Thfe alexandrinus,
or oriental dotterell, is of a brownifh colour, with the
fore-head, collar, and belly white; the prime tail-
feathers on both fides are white; and the legs are
black. It is a native of Egypt, and is much valued
for its finging. It ,is about the fize of a crow, and
lives upon mice, rats, 3. The vociferus, or
noify plover of Catelby, has black dreaks on the bread,
neck, fore-head, and cheeks; and the feet are yel¬
low. It is a native of North America. 4. The
aegyptius, has a black dreak on the bread, white
eye-brows, the prime tail-feathers dreaked with black
at the points, and bluifh legs. It is found in the
plains of Egypt, and feeds on infects. 5. 1 he mori-
nellus has an iron coloured bread, a fmall white
dreak on the bread and eye-brows, and black legs.
It is the dotterell of -Ray, and a native of Europe.
6. The apricarius hag a black belly; the body is
brown,
C II A ( 63 ) C H A
brown, and variegated with white and yellow fpots ;
and the legs are alh coloured. It is the fpotted plo¬
ver of Edwards, and a native of Canada. 7. The
pluvialis, is black above, with green fpots, white un¬
derneath, and the feet are alh-coloured. It is the
green plover of Ray, and is a hative of Europe. 8.
The torquatus, has a black bread1, and a white front;
the top of the head and the collar is black; and the
beak and feet are bluifh. It is a native of St Domin¬
go. 9. The calidris, has black feet and a black bill;
the rump is greyifli; and the body is pure white below.
It frequents the Ihores of Eurppe. 10. The oedicne-
mus, or done curlew of Ray, is of a grey colour,
with two of the prime wing-feathers black, but white
in the middle; it has a fharp bill, and alh-coloured
feet. It is a native of Britain. 11. The luinantopus, is
white below, with a black back, and a long black
bill; the feet are red and very long. It is the au¬
tumnal dotterell of Engliih authors, and frequents the
fea-fhores of Europe. 12. Spinofus, armed dotterell,
or lap wing, has a black bread, legs, and wings; it
has a cred on the hinder part of the head. It is of
the fize of a pidgeon; the French call it dominicanus,
from the refemblance it has to the drefs of a domini-
can monk: It is a native of Egypt.
CHARANTIA, in botany See Momordica.
CHARAX, in ichthyology. See Salmo.
CHARBON, in the menage, that little black fpot o
mark which remains after a large fpot in the cavity of
the corner teeth of a -horfe : about the feventh or
eighth year, when the cavity fills up, the tooth being
fmooth and equal, it is faid to be rafed.
CHARCAS, the fouthern divifion of Peru, in South
America, remarkable for the filver-mines of Potofi.
CHARCOAL, a kind of fuel, confiding of half burnt
wood, much ufed by artificers of different profeffion3
and that not only as fuel, but for polifhing brafs or
copper plates, <fac.
The bed charcoal for common ufes is that made of
oak; but in the manufacture of gunpowder they comr-
monly ufe charcoal made of alder.
CHARENTE, a river of France, which arifing in the
Limofin, runs wedward by Angoulefme and Saintes,
falling into the bay of Bifcay, oppofite to the ide of
Oleron.
CHARENTON, the name of two towns in France, the.
one upon the Marmaude, in the Bourbonois ; the o-
ther in the ifle of France, near the confluence of the
Marne with the Seine, about three miles fouth-ead of
Paris: E. long. 20 30', and N. lat. 48° 45'.
Charge, in heraldry, is applied to the figures repre-
fented on the efcutcheon, by which the bearers are di-
dinguifhed from one another; and it is to be obfer-
ved, that too many charges are. not fo honourable as
fewer.
Charge of lead denotes a. quantity of thirty-fix pigs.
See Pig
Charge to enter heir, in Scots law, a writing,palling
under the fignet, obtained at the indance of a creditor,
either againfl the heir of his debitor, for fixing upon
him the debt as reprefenting the debitor, which is
called a general charge : Or, againd the debitor him-
felf, or his heir, for the purpofe of veding him in the.
right of any heritable fubjeft fo which he has made up
no title, in order the creditor may attach that fubjeft
for payment of his debt, in the fame manner as if his
debitor or his heir were legally veded in it byfervice
or otherwife. This lad kind is called a fpecial charge.
See Scots Law, title, Apprijings and adjudications.
CHARGED, in heraldry, a Ihield carrying fome im-
prefs or figure, is faid to be charged therewith ; fo^
alfo when one bearing, or charge, has another figure
added upon it, it is properly faid to be charged.
CHARIOT, a half coach, having only a feat behind,
with a Aool, at mod, before. See Coach.
The chariots of the ancients, chiefly ufed in war,
were called by the feveral names bigee, trigce, &c. ac¬
cording to the number of horfes applied to draw them.
Every chariot carried two men, who were probably
the warrior and the charioteer ; and we read of fe¬
veral men of note and valour employed in driving the
chariot. When the warriors came to encounter in
clofe fight, they alighted out of the chariot, and fought
on foot ; but when they were weary, which often hap¬
pened, by reafon of their armour, they retired into
their chariot, and thence annoyed their enemies with
darts and miflive weapons. Thefe chariots were mader
fo drong, that they laded for feveral generations.
Befides this fort, we find frequent mention of the
currus falcati, or thofe chariots armed with hooks,
or fcythes, with which whole ranks of foldiers were
cut off together, if they had not the art of avoiding'
the danger ; thefe were not^only ufed by. the Perfians,
Syrians, Egyptians, but w.e find them among our
Britifu ancedorst.
Triumphal Chariot was one of the principal orna¬
ments of the Roman celebration of a vi<5lory.
The Roman triumphal chariot was generally made
of ivory, round like a. tower, or rather of a cylindri¬
cal figure ; it was fometimes gilt at the top, and or-
namentedtwith crowns ; and, to reprefent a victory
more naturally, they ufed to dain it with blood. It
was ufually drawn by four white horfes, but often¬
times by lions, elephants, tygers, bears, leopards,
dogs, &c..
CHARISTIA, a.fedival of the ancient Ramans, cele-•
brated in the month of February, wherein the rela¬
tions by blood and marriage met, in order to preferve
a good correfpondence ; and that, if there happened
to be any difference among them, it might be the more
eafily accommodated, by the gpod.humour and mirth,
of the entertainment.
CHARITY, among divines, one of the three grand the¬
ological virtues, confiding in the love of God and of
our neighbour, or the habit and difpofition of loving
God with all our heart, and. our neighbour as our-
felves.
Charity <3/ St Hippolitus, a religious congregation
founded, about the end of the XIYth century, by'
one. Bernardin Alvarez, a Mexican, in honour of St .
Hippolitus
C H A ( ^4 ) C H A
Hippolitus the martyr, patron of the city of Mexico ;
and approved by pope Gregory XIII.
CHARLEMONT, a town of the province of Namur, in
the Au/Irian Netherlands, about eighteen miles fouth
of Namur: E. long. 40 40', andN. lat, 50° 10'.
Charlemont is alfo the name of a town of Ireland, fi-
tuated on the river Blackwater, in the county of Ar¬
magh, and province of Ulfter, about fix miles foitth-
eaft of Dungannon : W. long. 6° 50', and N. lat.
50° 16'. -
CHARLEROY, a ftrong town in the province of Na¬
mur, in the Auftrian Netherlands, fituated on the ri¬
ver Sambre, about nineteen miles weft of Namur: E.
long. 40 20', and N. lat. 50. 30'.
CHARLES’S CAPE, a promontory of Virginia, in
North America, forming the northern head-land, of
the ftreight that enters the bay of Cheafepeak.
Charles’s-fort, a fortrefs in the county of Cork, and
province of Munfter in Ireland, fituated at the mouth
of Kinfale harbour : W. long. 8° 20', and N. lat.
Si° 21'.
Charles’s-town, the capital of South Carolina, in
North America, fituated on a peninfula formed by
Alhley and Cooper rivers, the former of which is na¬
vigable for (hips twenty miles above the town: W.
long. 790, and N. lat. 320 30'.
Charles’s-wain, in aftronomy, feven ftars in the con-
ftellation called urfa major, or the great bear.
CHARLETON, an illand at the bottom of Hudfon’s-
bay, in North America, fubjeft to Great Britain :
W. long. 8o°, and N. lat. 52° 30'.
CHARLOCK, the Englifti name of the raphanus. See
Raphanus.
CHARM, a term derived from the Latin carmen, a
verfe; and ufed to denote a magic power, or fpell,
by which, with the alfiftance of the devil, forcerers
and witches were fuppofed to <do wonderful things,
far furpaffing the power of nature.
CHARNEL, or Charnel-h ous>e, a kind of portico,
or gallery, ufually in or near a church-yard, over
which were anciently laid the bones of the dead, after
the flefh was wholly confumed.
Charnel-houfes are now ufually adjoining to the
church.
CHARNUB, in botany. See Ceratonia.
CHART, or Sea-chart, an hydrographical map, or
a proje<5Hon of fome parts of the earth’s fuperficies
in piano, for the ufe of navigators. See Naviga-
tiom.
CHA RT A - magna. See Magna chart a.
CHARTER, in law, a written inftrument or evidence
of things adted between one perfon and another.
Charters of private perfons, are deeds and inftru-
ments for the conveyance of lands, <bc. Here the
purchafer of land {hall have all the charters and deeds,
as incident to the fame, and for the maintenance of
his title. But this is. underftood where the feoffer is
not bound to a general-warranty of the land.
CHARTER, in Scots law, that writing which contains
the grant of a feudal fubjeft to theVaftal. See Scots
Law, tit. Of the conjiilution of heritable rightt.
CHARTOPHYLAX, the name of an officer of the
church of Conftantinople, who attends at the door of
the rails when the facrament is adminiftered, and gives
notice to the priefts to come to the holy table. He
reprefents th<j patriarch upon the bench, tries all ec-
clefiaftical caufes, keeps all the marriage regifters,
affifts at- the confecration of biffiops, and prefents the
bifliop eledl at the folemnity, and likewife all other
fubordinate clergy. This office refembles in fome
ffiape that of the bibliothecarius at Rome.
CHARTRES, a large city of France, in the province
of Orleanois, fituated on the river Eure, about forty-
two miles fouth-weft of Paris : E.long. i° 32', N. lat.
48° 2f. It is a biffiop’s fee.
CHARTREUSE, or Chartreuse-grand, a cele¬
brated monaftery, the capital of all the convents of
the Carthufian monks, fituated on a fteep rock in the
middle of a large foreft of fir-trees, about feven miles
north-eaft of Grenoble, in the province of Dauphine
in France: E. long. 50 5', N. lat. 45° 20'. See
Carthusians.
From this mother-convent, all the others of the fame
order take their name; among which was the Chartreufe
of London, corruptly called the charter-houfe, now
converted into an hofpital, endowed with a revenue of
600 1. per ann.
Here are maintained eighty decayed gentlemen, not
under fifty years of age:1 Alfo forty boys are educated
and fitted either for the univerfity or trades. Thofe
fent to the univerfity, have an exhibition of 201. a
year for eight years ; and have an immediate title to
nine church-livings in the gift of the governors of the
hofpital, who are fixteen in number, all perfons of the
firft diftintftion, and take their turns in the nomination
of penfioners and fcholars.
CHARYBDIS, a rock in the ftralt of Meffina, between
Italy and Sicily, much celebrated in the writings of
ancient poets.
Charybdis is alfo an appellation given by Dr Plot to
certain openings in the bottom of the fea, whereby the
water is conveyed to the origin or fources of fprings,
rivers, foe. fuch is Maelftroom, on the coaft of Nor¬
way, fuppofed to be. See Maelstroom.
CHASING ofgold,ftlver, &c. See Enchasing.
CHASTE-/r<?<?. See Vitex.
CHATELET, the name of certain courts of juftice e-
ftabliffied in feveral cities in France. The grand cha-
telet at Paris, is the place where the prefidial or ordi¬
nary court of juftice of the provoft of Paris is kept;
confifting of a prefidial, a civil chamber, a criminal "
chamber, and a chamber of policy. The little chate-
let is an old fort, now ferving as a prifon.
CHATHAM, a port-town of Kent, adjoining to Ro-
chefter, fituated on the river Medway, thirty miles
fouth-eaft of London: E. long. 40', N. lat. 510 20'.
It is the principal ftation of the royal navy, furnilh-
ed with timber, rope-yards, and all manner of naval
ftores, fufficient for the building and fitting out the
largeft fleet.
CHATTEAU-CAMBRESIS, a town of the Cambre-
fis, in the French Netherlands, fituated on the river
Selie,
CHE ( <
Selle, thirteen miles fouth eaft of Cambray, E. long.
9° 25', N. lat. 50° 6'.
Chatteau dauphine, a fortrefs fituated on the fron¬
tiers of Piedmont, in the province of Dauphine, but
yielded to the king of Sardinia : E. long. 6° 40', N.
lat. 440 3c/.
CHATTELS, in law, all forts of goods moveable and
immpveable, except fuch as are in the nature of free¬
hold.
CH ATTIGAN, a port-town of India, in the province
of Bengal, fituated at the mouth of the moft eafter!y
branch of the Ganges, fubjedt to the Mogul : E, long.
gi°, N. lat. 230.
CHATTILLON, a town oPBurgundyin France, about
fixteen miles fouth-weft of Geneva: E. long. y° 40',
N. lat. 46° 16'..
Chattillon is likewife the name of feveral other tov/ns
of France, fituated upon the Indre, the Loing, the
Loire, the Marne, the Saone, <bc.
CHAUMONT, the name of two towns in France; the
one fituated in the ifle of France, thirty miles north-
weft of Paris, E. long. 20, N. lat. 490 iS'; the o-
ther fituated on the river Marne, in the province of
Champaign, E. long. 50 15', N. lat. 48° \2 .
CHAUSE-TRAPE. See Caltrop.
CHEADLE, a market-town of Staffbrdfhire, ten miles
north-eaft of Stafford : W. long. 20, N. lat. 53°.
CHEASPEAK-BAY, a large frith or arm of the fea,
which runs up about three hundred miles into the
country between Virginia and Maryland, in North
America : It is navigable ahfloft all the way for large
fhips; being about twenty miles broad at the entrance
between Charles-cape and Cape Henry, and between
twenty and thirty miles broad afterwards. See
Charles-cape.
CHECAYA, in Turkiih affairs, the fecond officer of the
janizaries, who commands them under the aga, and
is otherwife called proiogero.
There is alfo a checaya of the treafury, ftables,
kitchen, <bc. the word fignifying as much as lieutenant,
or the fecond in any office.
CHECK, or Check-roll, a roll or book, wherein is
contained the names of fuch perfons as are attendants
and in pay to the king, or other great perfonages, as
their houfehold fer^ants.
Clerk of the Chkck., in the king’s houfehold, has the
check and controulment of the yeomen of the guard,
and all the uffiers belonging to the royal family, al¬
lowing their abfence or defedts in attendance, or di
minifliing their wages for the fame, <bc. He alfo, by
himfelf or deputy, takes the view of thofe that are to
watch in the court, and has the fetting of the watch, cb'c.
Clerk of the Check, in the king’s navy at Plymouth, is
alfo the name of an officer invefted with the like
power.
Check, in falconry, a term ufed of a hawk when- ffie
forfakes her proper game, to flie at,pyes, crows, rooks,
or the like, that ’crofs her in her flight
CHECKY, in heraldry, is when the fhield, or a part
thereof, as a bordure, fee. is chequered, or divided
into chequers or fquares, in the manner of a chefs-
board.
Vol. II. Numb. 32.
5 ) CUE
This is one of the moft noble and moft ancient fi¬
gures ufed in armory; and a certain author faith, that it
ought to be given to none but great warriors, in token
of their bravery : For the chefs-board reprefents a
field of battle; and the pawns of men, placed on both
fides, reprefent the foldiers of the two armies, which
move, attack, advance, or retire, according to the
Will of the gamefters, who are the generals.
This figure is always compofed of metal and colour:
But fome authors would have it reckoned among the
feveral forts of furs. .
CHEEK, in anatomy, that part of the face fituated be¬
low the eyes, on each .fide. Seep. 305.
CHEESE, a fort of food, prepared of curdled milk,
purged from the ferum or whey, and afterwards dried
for ufe.
Phyficians condemn thfc too free ufe of cheefe, by "
reafon it loads the ftomach’when new, and heats and
inflames when old.
Every country has its places noted for this commo¬
dity : Thus Chefter and Gloucefter-cheefe are famous
in England ; -and the Parmefan cheefe is in no lefs
repute abroad, efpecially in France. This fort of
cheefe is entirely made of fweet cow’s milk: But at
Rqchfort in Languedoc, they make cheefe of ewe’s
milk ; and in other places, it is ufual to add goat or
ewe’s milk, in a certain proportion, to that of cow’s.
There is likewife a kind of medicated cheefe,
made by intimately mixing the expreffed juice of
certain herbs, as fage, baum, mint, ~fee. with die
curd, before it is fafhioned into a cheefe. The 100
weight of cheefe pays on importation, 1 s. 3^ d. and
draws back, on exportation, is. ii-d. at the rate of
6s. 8 d. The cheefe of Ireland is prohibited to be
imported.
Cheese-runnet, in botany. See Gallium.
CHEGFORD, a market-town of Devonlhire, about
thirteen miles weft of Exeter : W. long. 40, N. lat.
jo° 40'.
CHEIRANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the tetradyna-
mia filiquofa clafs. The germen has teeth-like glands
on each fide; the calix is clofe, and confifts of two fmall
leaves, gibbous at the bafe; and the feeds are plain.
There are thirteen fpecies, only two of which are na¬
tives of Britain, viz. the cheiri, wall-flower, or
wild cheir; and the tricufpidatus, or fea ftock-gilly-
flower. The leaves of the wall-flower are faid to be
cordial, anodyne, aperient, and emmenagoguei but
are wholly neglefted in practice.
CHEKAO, a kind of pafte prepared by calcination and
trituration from a hard ftony fubftance, and afterwards
waftiing the powder in large quantities of fair water.
The Chinefe ufe the chekao in drawing the elegant
figures we fee in the wholly white china-ware, which
they afterwards varnifli in the common way. See
China-ware.
CHEKAIM, a province of China, bounded by that of
Nankin on the north, and by the ocean on the ea!t.
CHELAsCANCRORUM, in the materia medica. See
Crab’s claws.
CHELIDONHJM, in botany, a genus of the polyan-
dria monogynia clafs. The corolla has four petals -
R th;
3
CHE ( 66 ) CHE
the calix confifts of two leaves ; and the pod is linear
and unilocular. There are four fpeties, three of
which are natives of Britain, viz. the majus, or ce¬
landine ; the glaucium, or yellow horned poppy ; and
the hybridum, or violet-coloured horned poppy. The
leaves and root of the majus, or celandine, are ftimu-
lating, aperient, diuretic, and fudorific : It is peculi¬
arly recommended in the flow kind of jaundice, where
there are no fymptoms of inflammation, and in dropfies.
Chelidonius /apis, in natural-hiftory, a ftone faid by
the ancients to be found in the flomachs of young
fwallows, and greatly cried up for its virtues in the
falling-ficknefs; but from their defcription, it appears
to be only a fpecies of lycodontes, or bufonitte. See
Lvcodontes, and Bufonit^e.
CHELM, a town of Poland, capital of a palatinate of
the fame name : It is fituated in the province of Red
Ruflia, no miles fouth-eafl: of Warfaw : E. long.
230 30', N. lat. 510 25'.
CHELMSFORD, the county town of Eflex, fituated
on the river Chelmer, twenty five -miles north-eaft of
London : E. long. 30', N. lat. 510 40'. It fends
two members to parliament.
CHELONE, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
C H E M
giofpermia clafs. The calix is divided into five parts ;
there are the rudiments of a fifth filament betwixt the
two higher ftamina; and the capfule is bilocular.
There are three fpecies, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
CHELSEA, a fine village fituated on the northern
bank of the river Thames, a mile weftward of Weft-
minfter, remarkable for a magnificent hofpital of inva¬
lids and old decrepit foldiers; and a pleafure-houfe,
called Ranelagh, to which a great deal of fine compa¬
ny refort in fummer.
CHELTENHAM, or Chilthenham, a market-town
of Glouceflerfhire, feven miles north-eaft of Gloucef-
ter : W. long. 20 io\ N. lat. 510 50'. It is chiefly
remarkable for its mineral waters, of the fame kind
with thofe of Scarborough. See Scarborough.
CHEMISE, in fortification, the wall with which a ba-
ftion, or any other bulwark of earth, is lined for its
greater fupport and firength : Or it is the folidity of
the wall from the talus to the ftone-row.
F/Vf-CnEMisE, a piece of linen cloth, fteeped in a com-
pofition of oil of petrol, camphor, and other combufti-
ble matters, ufed at fea, to fet fire-to an enemy’s
veflel.
S T R Y.
TH E objedt and chief end of chemiftry is to fepa-
rate the different fubftances that enter into the
compofition of bodies ; to examine each of them apart;
to difcover their properties and relations; to decompofe
thofe very fubftanees, if poflible ; to compare them to¬
gether, and combine-them with others; to reunite
them again into one body, fo as to reproduce the original
compound with all its properties ; or even to produce
new compounds that never exifted among the works of
nature, from mixtures of other matters differently com¬
bined.
But this analyfis, or decompofition, of bodies is finite ;
for we are unable to carry it beyond a certain limit. In
whatever way we attempt to go further, we are always
flopped by fubftances in which we can produce no change.
PARTI. THEORY
Of the Principles of Bodies.
Of Air.
Air is that fluid which we conftantly breathe, and
which encompafles the whole furface of the terreftrial
globe. Being heavy, like other bodies, it penetrates ia-
and which are incapable of being refolved into others.
To thefe fubftances we may give the title of principles
or elements. Of this kind the principal are earth, wa¬
ter, air, and fire. For though there be reafon to think,
that thefe are not the firft component parts, or the moft
Ample elements, of matter ; yet, as we know by expe¬
rience, that our fenfes cannot poflibly difcover the prin¬
ciples of which they are themfelves compofed, it feems
more reafonable to fix upon them, and confider them as
fimple homogeneous bodies, and the principles of the
reft, than to tire our minds with vain conje&ures about
the parts or elements of which they may confift.
Before entering upon the examination of compound
fubftances, it is neceffary to confider the moft fimple ones,
or the four firft principles, with fome attention.
of CHEMISTRY.
to all places that are not either abfolutely inacceflible, or
filled with fome other body heavier than itfelf. Its prin¬
cipal property is, to be fufceptible of conderifation and
rarefaction ; fo that the very fame quantity of air may
occupy a much greater, or a much fmaller fpace, accor¬
ding to the different ftate it is in. Heat and cold are
the moft vifual caufes of its condenlation and rarefadion t
For if a certain quantity of air be heated, its bulk en¬
larges
i
C H E M
arges in proportion to the degree of heat applied to it;
the confequence whereof is, that the fame fpace now
contains fewer particles of air than it did before. Cold
again produces juft the contrary effeft.
On this property which air has of being condenfed and
dilated iy heat, its elafticity chiefly depends. For if air
were forced by condenfation into a lefs compafs than it
took' up before, and then expofed to a very conliderable
degree of cold, it would remain quite inactive, without
exerting fuch an effort as it ufually makes againft the de-
prefltng body. On the other hand, the elafticity of
heated air arifes only from hence, that being rarefied by
the a&ion of fire, it requires much more room than it
occupied before.
Air enters into the compofition of many fubftances,
efpecially vegetable and animal bodies: For by analyfing
moft of them fuch. a considerable quantity thereof is ex¬
tricated, that fome naturalifts have fufpeded it to be alto¬
gether deftitute of elafticity when thus combined with the
other principles in the compofition of bodies. According
to them, the efficacy of the elaftic power of the air is fo
prodigious, and its force when comprefled fo exceflive,
that it is not poflible the other component parts of bo¬
dies Ihould be able to confine fo much of it in that ftate
of compreffion which it muft needs undergo, if retaining
its elafticity whe,n pent up among them.
However that be, this elaftic property of the air pro¬
duces the moft lingular and important phenomena obfer-
.vable in the refolution and compolition of bodies.
Of W ATE R.
Water is a thing fo well known, that it is almoft
needlefs to attempt giving a general idea of it here. E-
very one knows that it is a tranfparent, infipid fubftance,
and ufually fluid. We fay it is ufually fo; for being expo-
fed to a certain degree of cold, it becomes folid: Solidity
therefore feems to be its moft naturaf ftate.
Water expofed to the fire grows hot; but only to a
limited degree, beyond which its heat never rifes, be
the force of fire applied to it ever fo violent: It is known
to have acquired this degree of heat by its foiling up
with great tumult. Water cannot be made hotter, be-
eaufe it is volatile, and incapable of enduring the heat
without being evaporated and entirely diflipated.
If fuch a violent and fudden heat be applied to water
as will not allow it time to exhale gently in vapours, as
when, for inftance, a fmall quantity thereof is thrown
upon a metal in fufion, it is diffipated at once with vaft
impetuofity, producing a moft terrible and dangerous ex-
plofion. This furprifing effedl may be deduced from the
inftantaneous dilatation of the parts of the water itfelf,
or rather of the air contained in it. Moreover, water
enters into the texture of many bodies, both compound'
and fecondary principles ; but, like air, it feems to be.
excluded from the compofition of all metals, and moft
minerals. For although an immenfe quantity of water
exifts in the bowels of the earth, moiftening all its con-
ten s, it does not therefore follow, that it is one of the
principles of minerals. It is only interpofed between
their parts; for they may be entirely robbed of it, with-
I S T K Y. 67
out any fort of decompofition : Indeed it is not capable,
of an intimate conne&ion with them.
Of Earth.
We obferved, that the twm principles above treated of
are volatile ; that is, the aftion of fire feparates them
from the bodies they help to compofe. But earth is fix¬
ed, and, when abfolutely pure, refifts the utmoft force
of fire. So that, whatever remains of a body, after it
hath been expofed to the power of the fierceft fire, muft
be confidered as containing nearly all its earthy princi¬
ple, and confiding chiefly thereof.
Earth therefore is a fixed principle which is permanent
in the fire. There is reafon to think it very difficult, if
not impoflible, to obtain the terrene principle wholly,
free from every other fubftance: For after our utmoft
endeavours to purify them, the earths we obtain from
different compounds are found to have different proper¬
ties, according to the different bodies from which they are
procured ; or elfe, if thofe earths be pure, we muft al¬
low them to be effentially different, feeing they have dif¬
ferent properties.
Earth, in general, with regard to its properties, may
be diftributed into fufble and unfufble\ that is, into
earth that is capable of melting or becoming fluid in the
fire, and earth that conftantly remains in a folid form,
never melting in the flrongeft degree of heat to which we
can expofe it.
The former is aUb called virtifiable, and the lat¬
ter unvitrifiable earth; becaufe, when earth is melt¬
ed by the force of fire, it becomes what we call glafs,
which is nothing but the parts of earth brought into
nearer contadf, and more clofely united by the means of
fufion. Perhaps the earth, which we look upon as unca-
pable of vitrification, might be fufed if we could apply
to it a fufficient degree of heat. It is at leaft certain,
that fome earths, or ftones, which feparately refift the
force of fire, fo that they cannot be melted, become fu-
fible when mixed together. Experience convinced Mr
du Hamel, that lime-ftone and flate are of this kind. It
is however undoubtedly true, that one earth differs
from another in its degree of fufibility : And this gives
ground to believe, that there may be a fpecies of earth
abfolutely unvitrifiable in. its nature, which, being mixed
in different proportions with fufible earths, renders them
difficult to melt.
Whatever may be in this, as there are earths which
we are abfolutely unable to vitrify, that is a fufficient
reafon of our divifion of them. Unvitrifiable earths feem
to be porous, for they imbibe water; whence they have
alfo got the name of abforbent earths.
G/Fire.
The matter of the fun, or of light, the phlogifton,,
fire, the fulphureous principle, the inflammable matter,
are all of them names by which the element of fire is u-
fually denoted. But it ffiould feem, that an accurate ■
diftin&ion hath not yet been made between the different
ftates in which it exifts ; that is, between the phenomena
o£
68 CHE M
of fire actually exifting as a principle in the compofition
of bodies, and thofe which it exhibits when exifting fe-
parately and in its natural date : nor have proper diiHnft
appellations been defigned to it in thofe different circum-
ftances. In the latter date we may properly give it the
names of fire, matter of the fun, of light, and of heat;
and may conlider it as a fubftance compofed of infinitely
fmall particles, continually agitated by a mod rapid mo¬
tion, and of confequence effentially fluid.
This fubdance, of which the iun may be called the
general refervoir, leems to flow inceffantly from that
lource, diffufing itfelf over the world, and through all
the bodies we know; but not as a principle, or effential
part of them, fittce they may be deprived thereof, at
lead in a great meafure, without fufFering any decompo-
fition. The greated change produced on them, by its
prefence or its abfence, is the rendering them fluid or
folid : fo that all other bodies may be deemed naturally
folid; fire alone effentially fluid, and the principle of
fluidity in others. This being prefippofed, air itfelf
might become folid, if it could be entirely deprived of
the fire it contains; as bodies of mod difficult fufion be¬
come fluid, when penetrated by a fufficient quantity of
the particles of fire.
One of the chief properties of this pure fire is to pe¬
netrate eafily into, all bodies, and to diffufe itfelf among
them with a fort of uniformity and equality: for if a
heated body be contiguous to a cold one, the former
communicates to the latter all its excefs of heat, cooling
in exad proportion as the other warms, tiM both come
to have the very fame degree of heat. Heat, however,
is naturally communicable fooned to the upper parts of a
body; and confequently, when a body cools, the under
parts become fooned cold. It hath'been obferved, for
indance, that the lower extremity of a heated body,
freely fufpended in the air, grows cold fooner than the
upper; and that when a bar of iron is red-hot at one
end, and cold at the other, the cold end is much fooner
heated by placing the “bar fo that the hot eqd may be
undermod, than when that end is turned uppermod.
The levity of the matter of fire, and the vicinity of the
earth, may poffibly be the caufes of this phenomenon.
Another property of fire is to dilate all bodies into
which it penetrates. This hath already been {hewn with
regard to air and water; and it produces the fame effedt
on earth.
Fire is the mod powerful agent we can employ to de-
compofe bodies ; and the greated degree of heat produ-
c:ble by man, is that excited by the rays of the fun col-
lededin the focus of a large burning-glafs.
. Of the Phlogiston.
From what hath been faid concerning the nature of
fire, it is evidently impoffible for us to-fix and confine it
in any body. Yet the phenomena attending the combu-
dion of inflammable bodies drew that they really contain
the matter of fire as a condituent principle. By what
mechanifm then is this fluid, fo fubtile, fo adtive, fo
difficult to confine, fo capable, of penetrating into every
other fubdance in nature, fo fixed as to make a com-
I S T R Y.
ponent part of the mod folid bodies ? It is no eafy mat"
ter to give a fatisfadory anfwer to this quedion. But*
without pretending to guefs the caufe of the phenomenon,
let us red contented with the certainty of the fad, the
knowledge of which will undoubtedly procure us confi-
derable advantages. Let us therefore examine the pro¬
perties of fire thus fixed and become a principle of bo¬
dies. To this fubdance, in order to diflinguiffi it from
pure and unfixed fire, the chemids have afligned the pe¬
culiar title of the Phlogijion, which is indeed no other
than a Greek word for the inflammable matter; by
which latter name, as well as by that of the fulphureous
principle, it is alfo fometimes called. It differs from
elementary fire in the following particulars, i. When
united to a body, it communicates to it neither heat nor
light. 2. It produces no change in its date, whether of
folidity or fluidity; fo that a folid body does not be¬
come fluid by the acceflion of the phlogidon, and vice
verfa; the folid bodies to which it is joined being only
rendered thereby more apt to be fufed by the force of
jhe culinary fire. 3. We can convey it from the body
with which it is joined into another body, fo that it
ffiall enter into the compofition thereof, and remain fix¬
ed in it.
On this occafion both thefe bodies, that which is de¬
prived of the phlogidon and that which receives it, un¬
dergo very confiderable alterations ; and it is this lad
circumffance in particular that obliges us to didinguiffi
the phlogidon from pure fire, and to confider it as the
element of fire combined with fome other fubdance,
which ferves it as a bafis for condituting a kind of fecon-
dary principle For if there were no difference between
them, we ffiould be able to introduce and fix pure, fire
itfelf where-ever we can introduce and fix the phlogidon :
yet this is what we can by no means do, as will appear
from experiments to be afterwards produced.
Hitherto chemids have never been able to obtain the
phlogidon quite pure, and free from every other fub¬
dance : for there are but two ways of feparating it from
a body of which it makes a part; to wit, either by ap¬
plying fome other body with which it may unite the mo¬
ment it quits the former; or elfe by calcining and burn¬
ing the compound from which you defire to fever it. In
the former cafe, it is evident that we do npt get the phlo¬
gidon by itfelf, becaufe it only paffes from one combi¬
nation into another; and in the latter, it is entirely dif-
fipated in the decompofition, fo that no part of it can poflE-
bly be fecured.
The inflammability of a body is an infallible fign that
it contains a phlogiflon; but from a body’s not being in¬
flammable, it cannot be inferred that it contains none;
for experiments have demondrated, that certain metals
abound with it, which yet are by no means inflammable.
We have now delivered what is mod neceffary to be
known concerning the principles of bodies in general.
They have many other properties befides thofe above-
mentioned ; but we cannot properly take notice of them
here, becaufe they prefuppofe an acquaintance with fome
other things relating to bodies, of which we have hitherto
faid nothing, intending to treat of them in the fequei as
occafion ffiall offer. We ffiall only obferve in this place.
C H E M
that when animal and vegetable matters are burnt in fiich
a manner as to hinder them from flaming, fome part of
the phlogifton contained in tl^em unites intimately with
their molt fixed earthy parts, and wiih them forms a
compound that can be confumed only by making it red-
hot in the open air, where it fparkles and waftes away,
without emitting any flame. This compound is called a
coal. We fliall inquire into the properties of this coal
under the head of oils: at prefent it fuffices that we
know in general what it is, and that it readily commu¬
nicates to other bodies the phlqgifton it contains.
A general View of the Affinities or elefih'e At¬
tractions that fubfifi between Bodies.
Before we can reduce compound bodies to the firft
principles above pointed out, we obtain, by analyfing
them, certain fubflances which are indeed more Ample
than the bodies they helped to compofe, yet are them-
felves compofed of our primary principles. They are
therefore at one and the fame time both principles and
compounds ; for which reafon we (hall call them by the
name of fecondary principles. Saline and oily matters
chiefly conftitute this clafs. But before we enter upon
an examination of their properties, it is fit we lay before
the reader a general view of what chemifts underftand by
the relations or affinities of bodies ; becaufe it is neceflary
to know thefe, in order to a diftindt conception of the
different combinations we are to treat of.
All the experiments hitherto made concur in proving,
that different bodies, whether principles or compounds,
hav? fuch a mutual conformity, relation, affinity, or at¬
traction, as difpofes fome of them to 'join and unite to¬
gether, while they are incapable of contracting any union
with others. This effeCt, whatever be its caufe, will
enable us to account for, and conned together, all the
phenomena that chemiftry produces. The nature of this
iffiiverfal affedion of matter is laid down in the following
propofitions.
Firfl:,, If one fubftance has any affinity or conformity
with another, the two will unite together, and form one
compound.
Secondly, All fimilar fubftances have an affinity with
each other, and are confequently difpofed to unite ; as
water with water, earth with earth, <bc.
Thirdly, Subftances that unite together lofe fome of
their feparate properties ; and the compounds refulting
from their union partake of the properties of thofe fub-
ftances which ferve as their principles.
Fourthly, The Ampler any fubflances are, the more
perceptible and confiderable are their affinities : whence
it follows, that the lefs bodies are compounded, the more
difficult it is to analyfe them ; that is, to feparate from
each other the principles of which they confifl.
Fifthly, If a body confift of two fubftances, and to
this compound be prefented a third fubftance that has no
affinity at all with one of the two primary fubftances a-
forefaid, but has a greater affinity with the other than
thofe two fubftances have with each other, there will en-
fue a decompofition, and a new union ; that is, the third
fubftance will feparate the two compounding fubftances
Vol. II. No. 33. 3
I S T R Y. 69
from each other, coalefce with that which has an affinity
with it, form therewith a new combination, and difengag;
the other, which will then be left at liberty, and fuch as
it was before it had contra&ed any union.
Sixthly, It happens fometimes that when a third fub¬
ftance is prefented to a body confiding of two fubftanccs,
no decompofition follows j but the two compounding
fubftances, without quitting each other, unite with the
fubftance prefented to them, and form a combination of
three principles : and this happens when that third fub¬
ftance has an equal, or nearly equal, affinity with each
of the compounding fubftances. The fame thing may al-
fo happen even when the third fubftance hath no affinity
but with one of the compounding fubftances only. To
produce fuch an effeift, it is fufficient that one of the two
compounding fubftances have to the third body a relation
equal, or nearly equal, to that which it has to the other
compounding fubftance with which it is already combined.
Hence it follows, that two fubftances, which, when a-
part from all others, are incapable of contra&ing any
union, may be rendered capable of incorporating toge¬
ther in fome meafiare, and becoming parts of the fame
compound, by combining with a'third fubftance with
which each of them has an equal affinity.
Seventhly, A body, which of itfelf cannot decompofe
a compound confifting of two fubftances, becaufe they
have a greater affinity with each other than it has with
either of them, becomes neverthelefs capable of fepa-
rating the two by uniting with one of them, when it is
itfelf combined with another body having a degree of af¬
finity with‘that one fufficient to compenfate its own want
thereof. In that cafe there are two affinities, and thence
enfues a double decompofition, and a double combina¬
tion.
Thefe fundamental truths, from which we ffiall deduce
an explanation of all the phenomena in chemiftry, will
be confirmed and illuftrated by applying them to the fe-
veral cafes, of which our defign in this treatife obliges us
to give a circumftantial account.
Of Saline Subfiances in general.
If a particle of water be intimately united with a par¬
ticle of earth, the refult will be a new compound, which,
according to our third propofition of affinities, will par¬
take of the properties of earth and of water ; and this
combination principally forms what is called a faline fub¬
ftance. Confequently every faline fubftance muft have
an affinity with earth and with water, and be capable of
uniting with both or either of them, whether they be fe¬
parate or mixed together : and accordingly this property
charadterifes all falts or faline fubftances in general.
Water being volatile, and earth fixed, falts in general
are lefs volatile than the former, and lefs fixed than the
latter; that is, fire, which cannot volatilize and carry
off pure earth, is capable of rarefying and volatilizing a
faline fubftance ; but then this requires a greater degree
of heat than is neceffary for producing the fame effects on
pure water.
There are feveral forts of falts, differing from one ano¬
ther in refpedl: either of the quantity or the quality of the
S earth
7o C H E M
earth in their compofition ; or, laftly, they differ on ac¬
count of fomc additional principles, which not being com¬
bined with them in fufficient quantity to hinder their fa-
line properties from appearing, permit them to retain the
name of falts, though they render them very different
from the fimpleft faline fubffances.
It is eafy to infer from what has been (aid of falts in
general, that fome of them muff be more, fome lefs, fixed
or volatile than others, and fome more, fome lefs, dif-
pofed to unite with water, with earth, or with particular
forts of earth, according to the nature or the proportion
of their principles.
Before-we proceed further, it is proper juft to mention
the principal reafons which induce us to think that every
faline fubftance is actually a combination-of earth and wa¬
ter, as we fuppofed at our entering on this fubjeft. The
firft is, the conformity fairs have with earth and water, or
the properties they poffefs in common with both. Of
thefe properties we fiia'l treat fully, as occafion offers to
confider them, in examining the feveral forts of falts.
The fecond is, that all falts may be actually refolved in¬
to earth and water by fundry proceffcs; particularly by
repeated diffolntion in water, evaporation, deficcation,
and calcination.- Indeed the chemifts have not yet been
able to produce a faline fubftance by combining earth and
water together. This favours a fufpicion, that befides
thefe two there is fome other principle in the compofition
of fdts which efcapes our refearches, becaufe we cannot
preferve it when we decompofe them : but it is fufficient
to our purpofe, that water and earth are demonftrably a-
mongft.the real principles of faline fubftances, and that
no experiment hath ever fhewn us any other.
Of A c i d s.
The.fimpleft faline fubftance is that called an acid, on
account of its tafte, which is like that of verjuice, forrel,
vinegar, and other four things, which for the fame rea-
fon are alfo called acids. By this peculiar tafte are acids
chiefly known. They have moreover the property of
turning all the blue and violet colours of vegetables red,
which diftinguifhes them from all other fahs.
The form under which acids moft commonly appear,
is that of a tranfparent liquor ; though folidity is rather
their natural ftate. This is owing to their affinity with
water; which is fo great, that, when they contain but
juft as much of it as is neceffary to conftitute them falts,
and confequently have a folid form, they rapidly unite
.therewith the moment they come into contadl with it :
and as the air is always loaded with moifture and aqueous
vapours, its contact alone is fufficient to liquify them ;
becaufe they unite with its humidity, imbibe it greedily,
and by that means become fluid. We therefore fay, they
attradkthe moifture of the air. This change of a fait
from a folid to a fluid ftate, by the foie contad of the
air, is alfo called deliquitwi; fo that when a fait changes
an this manner from a folid into a fluid form, it is faid to
run per deliquium. Acids being the fimpleft fpecies of
faline bodies, their affinities with different fubftances are
ftronger than thofe of any other fort of fait with the fame
fubftances; which is agreeable to. our fourth propofition
concerning affinities.
I S T R Y.
Acids in general have a great affinity with earths •
that with which they moft readily unite is the unvitrifi-
able earth to which we gave the name of abforb&it earth.
They feem not to ad at all upon vitrifiable earths, fuch
as fand ; nor yet upon fome other kinds of earths, at
leaft while they are in their natural ftate. Yet the na¬
ture of thefe earths may be in fome meafure changed, by
making them red hot in the fire, and then quenching
them fuddenly in cold water : for by repeating this often
they are brought nearer to the nature of abforbent earths,
and rendered capable of uniting with acids.
When an acid liquor is mixed with an abforbent earth,
for inftance with chalk, thefe two fubftances inftantly
rufh into union with fo much impetuofity, that a great e-
bullition is immediately produced, attended with confi-
derable hiding, heat, and vapours, which rife the very
inftant of their conjundion.
From the combination of an acid with an abforbent
earth there arifes a new compound, which fome chemifts
have called falfalfum ; becaufe the acid by uniting with
the earth lofes its four tafte, and acquires another not
unlike that of the common fea-falt ufed in our kitchens ;
yet varying according to the different forts of acids and
earths combined together. The acid at the fame time
Jofes its property of turning blue or violet vegetables red.
If we inquire what is become of its propenfity to unite
with water, we (hall find that the earth, v/hich of itfelf
is not foluble in water, hath by its union with the acid
acquired a facility of diffolving therein ; fo that our fal
falfum is foluble in water. But, on the other hand, the
acid hath, by its union with the earth, loft part of the
affinity it had with water ; fo that if a fal faljum be
dried, and freed of all fuperfluous humidity, it will re¬
main in that dry folid form, initead of attrading the
moifture of the air and running per deliquium, as the acid
would do if it were pure and unmixed with earth
Acids have likewife a great affinity with the phlogifton.
When we come to treat of each acid in particular, we
(hall examine the combinations of each with the phlo¬
gifton : they differ fo widely from one another, and ma¬
ny of them are fo little known, that we cannot at prefent
give any general idea of them.
Of Alkalis.
Alkalis are faline combinations in which there is a
greater proportion of earth than in acids. The princi¬
pal arguments that may be adduced to prove this fad are
thefe : Firft, if they be treated in the manner propofed
above for analyfing faline fubftances, we obtain from them
a much greater quantity of earth than we do from acids.
Secondly; by combining certain acids with certain earths
we can produce alkalis ; or at kaft fuch faline compounds
as greatly refemble ahem. Our third and kft argument
is drawn from the properties of thofe alkalis which, when
pure and unadulterated with any other principle, have
lefs affinity with water than acids have, _and are alfo
more fixed, refifting the utmoft force of fire. On this
account it is that they have obtained the title of fixed,
as well as to diftinguifti them from another fpecies of
alkali, to be confidered hereafter, which is impure and
volatile.
Though
C H E M
Though fixed alkalis, when dry, fiiftain the utmoft
violence of fire without flying off in vapours, it is re¬
markable that, being boiled with water in an open veflel,
confiderable quantities of them rife with the (team; an
effect which muft be attributed to the great affinity be¬
tween thefe two fubftances, by means whereof water
communicates fome part of its volatility to the fixed fait.
Alkalis freed of their fuperfiuous humidity by calcina¬
tion attradl the moifture of the air, but not fo llrongly
as acids : fo that it is eafier to procure and preferve them
in a folid form.
They flow in the fire, and are then capable of uniting
with vitrifiable earths, and of forming therewith true
glafs ; which, however, will partake of their properties,
if they be ufed in fufficient quantity.
As they melt more readily than vitrifiable earth,, they
facilitate its fufion ; fo that a weaker fire will reduce it
to glafs when a fixed alkali is joined with it, than will
melt it without that addition.
Alkalis are'known by their tafle, which is acrid and
fiery; and by the properties they pofiefs of turning blue
or violet vegetables green ; particularly fyrup of violets.
Their affinity with acids is greater than that of abfor-
bent earths ; hence, if an alkali be prefented to a combi¬
nation of an acid wirh an abforbent earth, the earth will
be feparated from the acid by the alkali, and a new union
between the acid and the alkali will take place. This is
both an inllance and a proof of our fifth propofition con--
cerning affinities.
If a pure alkali be prefented to a pure acid, they ruffi
together with violence, and produce the fame pheno¬
mena as were obferved in the union of an abforbent earth
with an acid, but in a greater and more remarkable de-
grce.
Fixed alkalis may in general be divided into two forts:
one of thefe hath all the above recited properties ; but
the other pofiefies fome that are pectdiar to itfelf. We
fltall confider this latter fort more particularly under the
head of fea-falt.
O/" Neutral Salts.
The acid and the alkali thus uniting, mutually rob
each other of their charadteriftic properties; fo that the
compound refulting from their union produces no change
in the blue colours of vegetables, and has a tafte which
is neither four nor acrid, but laltilh, A faline combina
tion of this kind is for that reafon named fal falfuiu, fal.
nedium, or a neutral fait.
It muft be obferved, that in order make thefe falts
perfectly neutral, it is neceflary that neither of the two
faline principles of which they are compounded be'pre¬
dominant over the other; for in that cafe they will have
the properties of the prevailing principle. The reafon is
this: neither of thefe faline fubftances can unite with the
other but in a limited proportion beyond which there
can be no further coalition between them, The aftion
by which this perfect union is accomplifhed is termed fa- .
turatim; and the inftant when fuel) proportions of the
two faline fubftances are mixed together, that the one is
incorporated with a,.much of the other as it can poffibly
take up, is called the point of faturatioiu
I S T R Y. 71
The point of faturation is known to be Obtained, when,
after repeated affufions of an acid in fmall quantities to
an alkali, or an abforbent earth, we find'thofe phenomena
ceafe, which in fuch cafes conftantly attend the confiidt of
union, namely, ebullition, biffing, and we may be
aflured the faturation is complete when the new compound
harh neither an acid nor an acrid tafte, nor in the leaft
changes the blue colours of vegetables.
Neutral falts have not fo great an affinity with water
as either acids or alkalis have, becaufe tfoy are more
compounded; for we obferved before, that the affinities
of the moft compounded bodies are generally weaker than
thofe of the moft Ample. In confequence hereof few
natural falts, when dried, attratf the moifture of the air;
and thole that do, attraft it more flowly and in lefs quan¬
tity than either acids or alkalis do.
All neutral falts are foluble it water ; but tr^ore or lefs
readdy, and in a greater or fmaller quantity, accpid.ing
to the nature of their component principles.
Water made boiling hot diffolves a greater quantity cf-
thofe falts which do not attract the moifture of the air,
than when it is cold; and indeed it muft be boding hot
to take up as much of them as it is capable of ddfolving :
but as for thofe which run in the air, the difference is
imperceptible.
Some neutral falts have the property of fhooting into
cryftals, and others have it not.
The nature of cryftallization is this: Water cannot
dillblve, nor keep in folution, more than a determinate
quantity of any particular fait; when therefore fuch a,
quantity of water is evaporated from the folution of a
lalt capable of cryftallization, that the remainder con¬
tains juft as much fait as it can diffolve, then by conti¬
nuing the evaporation the fait gradually recovers its folid
form, and concretes into feveral little tranfparent maffes
calledi cryftajs. Thefe cryftals have regular figures, all
differing from one another according to trlie fpecies of fait
of which-they are formed. Different methods of evapo¬
rating faline fojutions have different effetfls on the figure
and regularity of the cryftals; and each particular fort
of fait requires a peculiar method of evaporation to make
its cryftals perfedUy regular.
A folution of fait defigoed: for cryftallization is ufually
evaporated-by means of fire to a pellicle; that is. till
the fait began to concrete; which is perceived by a kind
of thin dark'fldn that gathers on the furface of the li¬
quor, and is formed of the cryftallized particles of fait.
When this pellicle appears, the folution is fuffered to cool,
and the crvftals form therein fafter or flower according to
the fort of fait in hand. If the evaporation be carried
on brilkly to perfetft drineff, no cryftals will be formed,
and only an irregular mafs of fait will be obtained.
The rcafons why. no cryftals appear when the evapora¬
tion is haftily performed,, and carried on to drinefs, are,
firft, that die particles of fait, being always in motion
while the folution is hot, have not time to exert thtir
mutual affinities, and to unite together as cryftaliization
requires: fecondly, that a certain quantity of water en¬
ters into the very compofition of cryftals; which is there¬
fore abfolurely ueceffary to their formation, and in a
greater-
72 C H E M I
greater or, fmaller proportion according to the nature of
the fait.
If thefe cryfialized fairs be expofed to the fire, they
firft part with that moifture which is not neceffary to a
fa line concretion, and which they retained only by means
of their crydallization: afterwards they begin to flow,
but with different degrees of fufibility.
It muff be.obferved, that certain falts melt as foon as
they are expofed to the fire; namely, thofe which retain
a great deal of water in cryflallizing. But this fluor
which they fo readily acquire muft be carefullydiftin-
guii'hed from actual fufion; for it is owing only to their
fuperfluous humidity, which heat renders capable of dif-
folving and liquifying them ; fo that when it is evapo¬
rated, the• fait ceafes to be fluid, and requires a much
greater degree of fire to bring it into real fufion.
The neutral falts that do not cryftallize may indeed be
dried by evaporating the water which keeps them fluid;
but. by becoming folid they acquire no regular form;
they again attradt the moifture of the air, and are there¬
by melted into a liquor. Thefe may be called liquef-
cettt falls.
Moft of the neutral falts, that confift of an acid join¬
ed with a fixed alkali, or with an abforbent earth, are
themfelves fixed and refill the force of fire; yet feveral
of them, if they, be diffolved in water, and the folution
boiled and evaporated, flie off along with the Hearns.
Of the federal Sorts of Saline Siibftancesf
l. P/V/;? Universal, or Vitriolic Acid.
The uhiverfal acid is fo called, becaufe it is in faff
the acid which Is moll univerfally diffufed through all
nature, in svaters, in the atmofphcre, and in the bowels
of the earth. But it is feldom pure; being almoll al¬
ways combined with fome other fubffance. That from
which we obtain it, with moll cafe, and in the greatCfl
quantity, is vitriol; and this is the reafbn why it is call¬
ed the vitriolic acid; the name by which it is bell
known.
When the vitriolic acid contains but little phlegm, yet
enopgh to give it it fluid fRrm> it Is called oil 'of vitriol ;
on account of a certain unffuofity belonging to it.
If the vitriolic acid cotitain much water, it is then
called fpirit of vitriol. When it does not contain e-
nough to render it fluid, and fo is ,in a folid form, it is
named the icy oil of vitriol.
When oil of vitriol, highly concentrated, Ss mixed
with water, they rulh into union with fuch an impetuofi-
ty, that, the moment they touch each other, there arifes
a hiding noife, like that of red-hot iron pidngfed in cold
water, together with a very confiderable degree of heat
proportioned to the degree in which the' Acid was con¬
centrated.
If inflead of mixing this concentrated acid with water,
you only leave it expof d to the air for fome time, it
attraffs the moillure thereof, and imbibes it moll gree¬
dily. Both its bulk and its weight are increafed by this
accelflon ; and if it be under an icy form, that is, if it
be concreted, the phlegm thus acquired will foon refolve
it into fluid.
S T II Y.
The addition of water renders the vitriolic acid, and
indeed all- other acids, weaker in one fenfe ; which is,
that when they are very aqueous, they leave on the
tongue a much fainter talte of p.cidity, and are lefs ac¬
tive in the folution of fome particular bodies: But that
occafions no change in the ftrength of their affinities^ but
in fome cafes rather enables them to diffolve feveral fub-
ftances which, when well dephlegmated, they are not
capable of attacking.
The vitriolic acid combined to the point of faturation
with a particular abforbent earth, well known, forms a
neutral fait that cryllallizes. This fait is called alusn,
and the figure of its cryllals is that of an offahedron or
folid of eight fides. Thefe offahedra are triangular py¬
ramids, the angles of which are To cut off that four of the
furfaces are hexagons, and the other four triangles.
There are feveral forts of alum, which differ accord¬
ing to the earths combined with the vitriolic acid. Alum
diffolves eafily in water, 'and in cryftallizatipn retains a
confiderable quantity of it; which is the reafbn that
bein'g expofed to the fire it readily melts, fwelling and
puffing up as its foperfluous raoifture exhales. \Y"hen
that is quite evaporated, the remainder is called burnt
alum, and is very difficult to fufe. The acid of the alum
is partly diilipated by this calcination. Its tafte is faltilh,
with a degree of roughnefs and afttingency.
The vitriolic acid combined with certain earths forms
a kind of neutral fait c?A\z& felenites, which cryflallizes
in different forms according to. the nature of its earth.
There are numberlefs fprings of water iijfeffed with dif¬
folved felenitts; but when thjs fait is once cryftallized,
it is exceeding difficult to diffolve. it-in water' a fecond
time. For that purpofe a-very great quantity of water is
neceffary, and moreover it mull boil; for, as it cools,
moll of the diffolved felenites takes a folid form, and
falls in a powder to the bottom of the veffel.
If an alkali be prefented to the felenites, or to alum,
thefe falts will be thereby decompofed; that is, the
acid will quit the earths; and join the alkali, with
which it hath a greater affinity. " And from this con-
junffion of the vitriolic acid with a fixed alkali there re-
fults another-fort of neutral fait, which is called arca¬
num duplicatum, fal de duobus, and vitriolaied tartar,
becaufe one of the fixed alcalis moll in ufe is called fait
of taitar.
Vitriolatfed tartar is almoll as hard to diffolve in wa¬
ter As the felenites. It Ihoots into eight-fided cryllals,
having the apices of the pyramids pretty obtufe. Its
tafte is fahifh, inclining to bitter ; and it decrepitates
on burning coals. It requires a very great. degree of
fire to make it flow.
The vitriolic acid is capable of uniting with the phlo-
giftort, or rather it has a greater affinity with it than with
any other body: whence it follows, that all compounds
of which it makes a part may be decompofed by means
of the phlogillon.
From the conjunffion of the vitriolic acid with the
phlogillon arifes a compound called mineral fulphur, be¬
caufe it is found perfectly formed in the bowels of the
earth. It is aifo called fu'lphur vivum, or fimply ful-
phur. : .
Sulphur
CUE M ]
Sulphur is abfolutely infoluble in water, and incapable
of contrafting any fort of union with it. It melts with
a very moderate degree of heat, and fublimes in fine
light downy tufts called flowers of fulflhur. By being
thus fublimed it fuffers no decompofition, let the opera¬
tion be repeated ever fo often; fo that fublimed fulphur,
or flower of fulphur, hath exactly the fame properties
as fulphur that has never been fublimed.
If fulphur be expofed to a brilk heat in the open a*r>
in takes fire, burns, and is wholly confumed. This de-
flagration^of fulphur is the only means we- have of de-
compofing it, in order to obtain its acid in purity. The
phlogifton is deltroyed by the flame, and the acid ex¬
hales in vapours ; thefe vapours colledted have all the
properties of the vitriolic acid, and differ from it only as
they flill retain fome portion of the phlogifton ; which,
however, fot^n quits them of its own accord, if the free
accefs of the common air be not precluded.
The portion of phlogifton retained by the acid of
fulphur is much more confiderable when that mineral is
burnt gradually and flowly : in that cafe the vapours
•which rife from it have fuch a penetrating odour, that
they inftantaneoufly fuffocate any perfon who draws in a
certain quantity of them with his breath. Thefe va¬
pours conftitute what is called the volatile' fpirit of
fitphur. There is reafon to think this portion of phlo¬
gifton which the acid retains is combined therewith in a
manner different from that in which thefe two are united
in the fulphur itfelf; for nothing but adtual burning is
capable of feparatinj* the vitriolic acid and the phlogi¬
fton, which by their union form fulphur; whereas in the
volatile fpirit of fulphur they feparate fpontaneoufly
when expofed to the open air; that is, the phlogifton
flies off and leaves the acid, which then becomes in e-
very refpedt fimilar to the vitriolic acid.
That the volatile fpirit of fulphur is a compound, ap¬
pears evidently from hence, that whenever the vitriolic
acid touches any fubftance containing the phlogifton,
•provided that phlbgifton be difengaged or opened to a
certain degree, a volatile fpirit of fulphur is infallibly
and immediately generated. This fpirit hath all the
properties of acids, but confiderably weakened, and of
courfe lefs perceptible. It unites with abforbent earths
or fixed alkalis; and with them forms neutral falls:
but when combined therewith it may be feparated from
them by the vitriolic acid, and indeed by any of the
mineral acids, becaufe its'affinities are weaker. Sul¬
phur hath the property of uniting with abforbent earths,
but not near fo intimately as with fixed alkalis.
If equal parts of fulphur and an alkali be melted toge¬
ther, they incorporate with each other; and from their
conjundion proceeds a compound of a moft unpleafant
fmell, much like that of rotten eggs, and of a red co¬
lour nearly refembling that of an animal liver, which
has occafioned it to bear the name of hepar fulphuris,
or liver of fulphur.
In this compofxtion the fixed alkali communicates to
the fulphur the property of diffolving in water: and
hence it comes that liver of fulphur may be made as well
when the alkali is diflblved by water into a fluid, as
■when it is fufed by the aftion of fire.
Vol. II. No. 33. 3
S T R Y. 7.3
Sulphur has lels affinity than any acid with the fixed
alkalis: and therefore liver of fulphur may be decom¬
pounded by any acid whatever; which will unite with
the fixed alkali, form therewith a neutral fait, and fe¬
parate the fulphur.
If liver of fulphur be diffolved in water, and an acid
poured thereon, the liquor, which was tranfparent be¬
fore, inftantly turns to an opaque white; becaufe the
fulphur, being forced to quit its union with the alkali,
lofes at the fame time the property of diflblving in wai¬
ter, and appears again in its own opaque form. The
liquor thus made white by the fulphur is called milk of
fulphur.
If this liquor be fuffered to ftand ftill fbr fome time*,
the particles of fulphur, now moft minutely divided, gra^
dually approach each other, unite, and fall infenfibly to
the bottom of the veffel ; and then the liquor recoveis
its tranfparency. The fulphur thus depofited on the
bottom of the veffel is called the magifttry or precipi¬
tate fulphur. The names of magiftery and precipitate
are alfo given to all fubltances whatever that are fepa¬
rated from another by this method ; which is the reafoa
that we ufe the expreffion of precipitating one fubftance
by another, to figntfy the feparating one of them by
means of the other.
3. Of the Nitrous Acid.
The nitrous acid conibined with certain abforbent .
earths, fuch as chalk, marie, boles, forms neutral falts
which do not cryftallize; and which, after being dried*,
run in the air per deliquium.
All thofe neutral falts which confift of the nitrous a-
cid joined to an earth, may be decompofed by a fixed
alkali, with which the acid unites, and deferts the earth;
and from this union of the nitrous acid with a fixed al¬
kali refults a new neutral fait, which is called nitre, or
falt-petre. This latter name fignifies the fait of ft one;
and in fad, nitre is extraded from the ftones and plai-
fter, in which it forms, by boiling them in water fatura*
ted with a fixed alkali.
Nitre ffioots in long cryftals adhering fideways to
each other ; it has a faltifli tafte, which produces a fen-
fation of cold on the tongue.
This fait ealily diffolves in water; which, when it
boils, takes up ftill a greater quantity thereof.
It flows with a pretty moderate degree of heat, and
continues fixed therein: but being urged by a brilk fire,
and in the open air, it lets go fome part of its acid, and
indeed flies off itfelf in part.
The moft remarkable property of nitre, and that which
charaderizes it, is its fulmination or explofion; the na¬
ture of which is as follows:
When nitre touches any fubftance containing a pblog!-
fton, and adually ignited, that is, red hot, it burfts out
into a flame, burns, and is decompounded with much
noife.
In this deflagration the arid is diffipated, and totally
feparated from the alkali, which now remains by itfelf.
Indeed the acid, at leaft the greateft part of it, is by
this means quite deftroyed. The alkali which is left
when nitre is decompounded by deflagration, is called in
T general
74 CHEMISTRY.
general fixed nitre, and, mofe partipliiarly, nitre fixed
by fuch and fuch a fnbftance as was ufed in the opera¬
tion. But if nitre be deflagrated with an inflammable
fubftance containing the vitriolic acid, as fulphur, for in-
ftance, the fixed fait produced by the deflagration-is not
a pure alkali, but retains a good deal of the vitriolic a-
cid, and, by combining therewith, hath now formed a
neutral fait.
The reafon why-nitre flames, and is decompounded
in the manner above mentioned, when it comes in con-
ta<5l with a phlogillon properly circumflanced, is, that the
nitrous acid, having a greater affinity with the phlogi-
llon than with the fixed alkali, naturally quits the latter
to join with the former, and fo produces a kind of ful¬
phur, differing probably from the common fulphur, form¬
ed by the vitriofic acid, in that it is combuftible to fuch
a degree, as to take, fire and be confumed in the very
moment of its produition ; fo that it is impoflible to
prevent its being thus deftroyed, and confequently im¬
poflible to fave it. In fupport of this opinion let it be
considered, that the concurrence of the phlogifton is ab-
fpiutely neceflary to produce this deflagration, and that
the matter of pure fire is altogether incapable-of effect¬
ing it: for though nitre be expofed to the moft violent
degree of fire, even that in the focus of the moff power¬
ful burning-glafs, it will not flame; nor will that effeCt
ever happen till the nitre be brought into contaCt with
a phlogiffon properly fo called, that is, the matter of
fire exilting as a principle of fome body; and it is more¬
over neceffary that this phlogifton be actually on firei
and agitated with the igneous motion, or elfe, that the
nitre itfelf he red-hot, and fo penetrated with fire as to
kindle any inflammable matter that touches it;.
This experiment, among others, helps to flrew the
difllnCtion that ought to be made between pure elementa¬
ry fire, and fire become a principle of bodies to which
we have given the name of phlogifton.
Before we leave this fubjeCt, we (hall obferve, that
nitre deflagrates only with fueh fubftances as contain the
phlogifton in its Jimpleft and pureft form; fuch as char¬
coal, fulphur, and the metailine fubftances ; and that,
though it will not deflagrate without the addition of fome
combuftible matter, it is neverthelefs the only known
body that will burn, and make other combuftibles burn
wit it, in clofe yeflels,. without the admiffion of frefh air.
The nitrous acid hath not fo great an affinity with
earths and alkalis as the vitriolic acid hath; whence it
follows, that the vitriolic acid decompofes all neutral
falts arifing from a combination of the nitrous acid with
an earth or an alkali. The vitriolic acid expells .the ni¬
trous acid, unites with the fubftance which ferved it for
a b'afis, and therewith forms a neutral fait, which is an
alum, a felenites, or a vitriolated tartar, according to
the nature of that bafis.
The nitrous acid, when thus feparated from its bafis
by the vitriolic acid, is named fpirit ofi nitre, or aqua
fortis. If it be dephlegmated, or contain but little fu-
pei fluous water, it exhales in reddifh vapours ; thefe va¬
pours being condenfed and collected, form a liquor of a
brdwnifh yellow, that inceffantly emits vapours of the
tame colour, and of a pungent difagrecable fmell. Thefe
cbaracfters have procured it. the names of /making fpi¬
rit of nitre, and yello-w aqua fortis. This property in
the nitrous acid of exhaling in vapours, fhews it to be
lefs fixed than the vitriolic acid; for the latter, though
ever fo thoroughly dephlegmated, never yields any va¬
pours, nor has it any fmell.
3. Of the Acid o/'Sea-salt.
The acid of fea-falt is-fo called, becaufe it is iri fail
obtained from fuch fea-falt as is ufed in our kitchens. It
is not certainly known in what this acid differs from the
vitriolic and the nitrous, with regard to its conftituent
parts.
When it is combined with abforbent earths, fuch as
lime and chalk, it forms a neutral fait that does not cry-
ftallize ; and, when dried, attracts the moifture of, the
air. If tfie abforbent earth be not fully faturated with
the marine acid, the fait thereby formed has the proper¬
ties' of a fixed alkali: And this is what made us fay,
when we .were on the fubjeft of thofe falts, that they
might be imitated by combining an earth with an acid.
The marine acids like the reft, hath not fo great an af¬
finity with earths as with fixed alkalis.
When it is combined with the latter, it forms a neu¬
tral fait which flioots into cubical cryftals. This fait is
inclined to grow moift-in the air, and is confequently one
of thofe which water diflblves in equal quantities, at
leaft as to fenfe, whether it be boiling hot or quite cold.
The affinity of this acid with alkalis and abforbent
earths is not fo great as that of the vitriolic and nitrous
acids: Whence it follows, that, when combined there¬
with, it may be feparated from them by either of thofe
acids.
The acid of fea-falt, thus difengaged from the fub¬
ftance which ferved it for a bafis, is called fpirit of fait.
When it contains but little phlegm, it is of a lemon co¬
lour, and continually emits many white, very denfe, and
very elaftic vapours; on which account it is named the
fmoking or volatile fpirit of fait. Its fmell is not dif-
agreeable, nor much unlike that of iaffron; but extreme-
1) quick and fuffocating when it fmokes.
The acid of fea-falt, like the other two, feems to
have a greater affinity with the phlogifton, than with
fixed alkalis. We are led to this opinion by a very
curious operation, which gives ground to think, that
fea-falt may be decorapofed by the proper application of
a fhbftance containing the phlogifton.
From the marine acid; combined with a phlogifton,
refults a kind of fulphur, differing from the common
fort in many refpe&s ; but particularly in this property,
that it takes fire of itfelf upon being expofed to the open
air. This combination is called EngliJJj phofphorus,
phofphorus of urine, becaufe it is generally prepared
from urine, or only pbafphorus.
This combination of the marine acid with a phlogifton
is not eafily effedted ; becaufe it requires a difficult ope¬
ration in appropriated veffels. . For thefe reafons it does
not always fucceed ; and phofphorus is fo fcarce and
dear, that hitherto chemifts have not been able to make
on it the experiments neceffary to difcover all its proper¬
ties. If phofphorus be fuffered to burn away in the air.
C H E M
a fmali quantity of an acid liquor may be obtained from
it, which feems to be fpirit of fait, but either altered, or
combined with feme adventitious matter; for it has fe-
veral properties that ard not tp’ be found in the pure ma¬
rine acid; fuch as, leaving a fixed fufible fubftance be¬
hind it when expoled to a ftfong fire, and being eafily
combined with the phlogifton fo as to reproduce a phof-
phorus.
Phofphorus refembles fulphur in feveral of its proper¬
ties : It is foluble m oils ; it melts with a gentle heat;
it is very combuftibleit burns without producing foot;
and its flame is vivid and bluifh.
From what has been faid of the union of the acid of
fea-falt with a fixed alkali, and of the neutral fait, refult-
ing therefrom, it may be concluded, that this neutral
fait is no other than the 'Common kitchen-falt. But it
mult'be obferved, that the fixed alkali, which is the na¬
tural bafis of the common filt obtained from fea-water,
is of a fort fomewhat differing from fixed alkalis in gene¬
ral, and hath certain properties peculiar to itfelf. For,
x. The bafis of fea-falt differs from other fixed alkalis
in this, that it cryflallizes like a neutral fait.
2. It does not grow moifl: in the air: On the contra¬
ry, when expofed to the air, it lofes part of the water
that united with it in cryflallization, by which means its
cryftals lofe their tranfpatency, become as it were mealy,
and fall into a fine flour.
3. When combined with the vitriolic acid tp the point
of faturation, it forms a neutral fait differing from vitri-
olated tafiar, firfl, in the figuie of its cryilals, which
are oblong fix-fided folids ; fecondly, in its quantity of
water, which in cryftallizatio’n unites therewith in a
much greater proportion than with vitriolated tartar ;
whence it follows, that this fait diffolves in water more
readily than vitriolated f tattar ; thirdly, in that it flows
with a very moderate degree of lieat, whereas vittiokted
tartar requires a very fierce one.
If the acid of fea-falt be feparated from its bafis by
means of the vitriolic acid, it is eafy to fee, that, -when
the operation is finifhed, the fait we have been fpeaking,
of muff be the refult. A famous chemiff, named Glau¬
ber, was the firft who extradited the fpirit of fait in this
manner, examined the neutral fait refulting from his pro-
cefs, and finding it to have fome fingular properties,
called it \\\s fal juirnbite, or wonderful fait: On this ac¬
count it is ftill Called Glauber’s fat viirabile, or Glau¬
ber's fait.
4. When the bafis of the fea-falt is combined with the
nitrous acid to the point of faturation, there refults
a neutral fait, or a fort of nitre, differing from the
common nitre, firft, in that it attradls the niqlftnre of
the air pretty ftrongly; and this makes it .difficult to.
cryftallize : fecondly, in the figure of its jcryflals, which
are parallelepipeds ; and this has procured .it the name
of quadrangular nitre.'
Common fait, or the neutral fait formed by combining
the marine acid with this particular fort of fixed alkali,
has a tafte well known to everybody. The figure of its
cryftals is exadlly cubical. It grows mbift in the air, and,
when expofed to the fire, it burffs, before it melts, into
I S T R Y. 75
many little fragments, with a crackling noife ; which is
called the decrepitation of fea-falt.
That neutral fait mentioned above, ■which is formed
by combining the marine acid with a common fixed al¬
kali, and called fal febrifngum fylvii, hath alfo this pro-
perty.
India furnifhes us with a faline fubftance, known by
the name of borax, which flows very eafily, arid then
takes the form of glafs. It is of great ufe in facilitating
the fufion of metallic fubftances. It poffeffes fome of the
properties of fixed alkalis, which has induced certain
chemifts to reprefent it, through miffake, as a pure fixed
alkali.
By mixing borax with the vitriolic acid, Mr Homberg
obtained from it a fait, which fublimes in a certain de¬
gree of heat, whenever fuch a mixture is made. This
fait has very lingular properties ; but its nature is not yet
thoroughly underffood. It diffolves in water with great
difficulty; it is not volatile, though it rifes by fublima-
tion from the borax. According to Mr Rouelle’s obfer-
vation, it rifes then only by means of the water which
carries it up ; for when once made, it abides the 'fierCelt
fire, flows and vitrifies juft as borax does, provided cafe
be taken to free it previoufly from moifture by drying it
properly. Mr Homberg called it fedative fait, on ac¬
count of its medical effedls. The fedative fait hath the
appearance, and fome of the properties, of a neutral fait;
for it fhootsinto cryftals, and does not change the colour
of violets : but it ads the part of an acid with regard to-
alkalis, uniting with them to the point of faturktion, khd
tfiereby forming a true neutral fait. It alfo ads, like the
acid of vitriol, on all neutral falls ; that is, it difehargeb
the acid of fuch as have not the vitriolic acid in their
compofition.
Since Mr Homberg’s time it hath been difeovered,
that a fedative fait may be made either with the nitrous
or, with the marine acid ; and that fublimation is not fie-
ceffary to extrad it from the borax, but that it may be
obtained by cryftallization only. For this latter difeo-
very, we are indebted to Mr Geoffrey, as we are to Mr
Lemery for the former.
Since that time M. Baron d’ Henouville, an able che-'
miff, hath ftiewn that a fedative fait may be obtained by
rhe means of vegetable acids ; and hath lately deraon-
ftrated, that the fedative fait exifls adually and perfedly
in the borax, and that it is not produced by mixing acids-
with that faline fubftance, as it feetns all the chemifts be¬
fore him imagined. This he proves convincingly from-
his analyfis of borax, (which thereby appears to be no¬
thing elfe but the fedative fait united with that fixed al¬
kali which is the bafis of fea-falt) and From his regetie-,
rating the fame borax by uniting together that alkali and
the fedative fait: a proof the moll complete that can-
pofllbly be produced in natural philofophy, and equiva¬
lent to dernonftration itfelf.
In order to finifh what remains to be faid upon the fe¬
veral forts of faline fubftances, we ftiould now fpeak of
the acids obtained from vegetables and animals, and alfo
of the volatile alkalis ; but, feeing thefe faline fubftances
differ from thofe of which we have already treated, only
C H E M
as they are varloufly altered by the unions they have con-
trafted with certain principles of vegetables and animals,
of which nothing has been yet faid, it is proper to defer
being particular concerning them, till we have explained
thofc principles.
0/ Lime.
Any fub'dance whatever, that has been roafled a con-
fiderable time in a ftrong fire without melting, is com¬
monly called a calx. Stones and metals are the princi¬
pal fubjefts that have the property of being converted in¬
to calces. We (hall treat of metalline calces in a fubfe-
quent chapter, and in this confine ourfelves to the calx of
Jione, known by the name of lime.
In treating of earths m general, we obfervedthat they
may be divided into two principal kinds ; one of which
a&ualiy and properly flows when ekpofed to the action of
fire, and turns to glafs ; whence it is called a fuftile or
vitrifiable earth • the other refifts the utmofl force of
fire, and is therefore faid to be an unfufiblt or unvitrifi-,
able earth. The latter is alfo not uncommonly called
calcinable earth ; though fundry forts of unfufible earths
are incapable of acquiring by the a<5Hon of fire all the
qualities of calcined earth, or lime properly fo called :
fuch earths are particularly diftinguifhed by the denomi¬
nation of refrattory earths.
As the different forts of flones are nothing more than
compounds of different earths, they have the fame pro¬
perties with the earths of which they are compofed, and
may, like them, be divided into fufible or vitrifiable, and
unfufible or calcinable. The fufible ftones are generally
denoted by the name of flints ; the calcinable (tones, a-
gain, are the feveral forts of marbles, cretaceous (tones,
thofe commonly called free-ftones, tec. fome of which,
as they make the belt lime, are, by way of eminence,
called lime-Jlones. Sea-fhells alfo, and (tones that a-
bound with foflile (hells, are capable of being burnt to
lime.
All thefe fubltances being expofed for a longer or
(hotter time to the violent action of fire, are faid to be
calcined. By calcination they lofe a confiderable part of
their weight, acquire a white colour, and become friable,
though ever fo folid before ; as, for inftance, the very
hardeft marbles. Thefe fubftances, when thus calcined,
take the name of quick-lime.
Water penetrates quick-lime, and ru(hes into it with
Yaft aftivity; If a lump of newly calcined lime be thrown
into water, it inftantly excites almoft as great a noife, e-
bullition, and fmoke, as would be produced by a piece
of red-hot iron ; with fuch a degree of heat too, that, if
the lime be in due proportion to the water, it will fetfire
to combuftible bodies ; as hath unfortunately happened
to veffels laden with quick lime, on their fpringing a
fmall leak.
As foon as quick-lime is put into water, it fwells, and
falls afunder into an infinite number of minute particles :
in a word, it is in a manner diffolved by the water,
which forms therewith a fort of white pafte called flack¬
ed lime.
If the quantity of water be confiderable enough for
I S T R Y.
the lime to form with it a white liquor, this liquor is
called lac calcis; which, being left fome time to fettle,
grows clear and tranfparent, the lime which was fufpend-.
ed therein and occafioned its opacity fubfiding to the
bottom of the veffel. Then there forms on the furface
of the liquor a cryftalline pellicle, fomewhat opaque and
dark coloured, which being (kimmed off is reproduced!
from time to time. This matter is called cremor calcis.
Slacked lime gradually grows dry, and takes the fornj
of a folid body, but full of cracks and deftitute of firm-
nefs. The event is different when you mix it up, while
yet a pafte, with a certain quantity of uncalcined ftony
matter, fuch as fand for example : then it takes the name
of mortar, and gradually acquires, as it grows drier and
older, a hardnefs equal to that of the heft (tones. This
is a very (jugular property of lime, nor is it eafy to ac¬
count for it; but it is a beneficial one, for every body
knows the ufe of mortar in building.
Quick-lime attraAs the moifture of the air in the fame
manner as concentrated acids and dry fixed alkalis, but
not in fuch quantities as to render it fluid : it only fails
into extremely fmall particles, takes the form of a fine-
powder, and the title of lime flacked in the air.
Lime once (lacked, however dry it may afterwards ap¬
pear, always retains a large portion of the water it h d
imbibed ; which cannot be feparated from it again but by
means of a violent calcination. Being fo recalcined it re¬
turns to be quick-lime, recovering all its properties..
Befides this great affinity of quick-lime with water,
which difeovers a faline character, it has feveral other
faline properties, to be afterwards examined, much re-
fembling thofe of fixed alkalis. In chemiftry it afts very
nearly as thofe falts do, and may be confidered as hold¬
ing the middle rank between a pure abforbent earth and
a fixed alkali; and this hath induced many chemifts to.
think that lime contains a true fait, to which all the pro-,
perties it pofieffes in common with falts may be attri¬
buted.
But as the chemical examination of this fubjedt hath
long been neglefted, the exiftence of a faline fubftance in
lime hath been long doubtful. Mr du Fay was one of
the firft who obtained a fait from lime, by lixiviating it
with a great deal of water, which he afterwards evapo¬
rated. But the quantity of fait he obtained by that
means was very fmall; nor was it of an alkaline nature,,
as one would think it fhould have been, confidering the
properties of lime. Mr du Fay did not carry his expe¬
riments on this fubjeA any further, probably for want
of time; nor did he determine of what nature the fait
was.
Mr Malouin had the curiofity to examine this fait of
lime, and foon found that it was nothing elfe but what
was above called cremor calcis. He found moreover,
that, by mixing a fixed alkali with lime-water, a vitriol-
ated tartar was formed ; that, by mixing therewith an
alkali like the bafis of fea-falt, a Glauber’s fait .was pro¬
duced ; and, laftlv, by combining lime with a fubftance
abounding in phlogifton, he obtained a true fulphur. Thefe
very ingenious experiments prove to a demonftration, that
the vitriolic acid conftitutes the fait of lime ; for, as hath
been (hewn, no other acid is capable of forming fuch
combi-
C H E M
combinations. On the other hand, Mr Malouiri, having
forced the vitriolic acid of this fait to combine with a
phlogifton, found its bafis to be earthy, and analogous
tp that of the felenites : whence he concluded, that the
fait of lime is a true neutral falt„ of the fame kind as the
felenites. Mr Malouin tells us he found feveral other
falts in lime. But as none of them was a fixed alkali,
and as all the faline properties of lime have an affinity
with thofe of that kind of fait, there is great reafon to
think that all thole falts' are foreign to lime, and that
their union with it is merely accidental.
Lime unites with all acids, and in conjunftion with
them exhibits various phenomena.
• The vitriofie acid poured upon lime diffolves it with
effervdfcence and heat. From this mixture there exhales
a great quantity of vapours, in fmefl and colour perfe<Slly
like thofe of Tea-falt ; from which however they are
found to be very different when colle&ed into a liquor.
From this combination of the vitriolic acid with lime a-
rifes a neutral fait, which (hoots into cryftals, and is of
the fame kind with the felenitic fait obtained from lime
~ by'Mr Malouin;
The nitrous acid poured upon lime diffolves it in like
manner with effervefcenCe and heat: but the folution is
tranfparent, and therein differs from the former^ which
is opaque. From this mixture thfere arifes a neutral
fait, which does not eryllallizei and has withal the very
lingular property of being volatile, and riling wholly by
diflillation in' a liquid form. This phenomenon is fo
much the' more remarkable, as lime, the bafis- of this
fait, is one of the moft fixed bodies known in chemiftry.
With the acid of fea-falt lime forms alfo a lingular fort
of fait, which greedily imbibes the moiftuxe of the air.
We lhall have occallon to take further notice of it in an-
■ other place.
Lime applied to fixed alkalis adds confidefably to their
canftic quality, and makes them more penetrating and
adlive. An alkaline lixivium in which lime hath been
boiled, being evaporated to drinefs, forms a very caultic
fubfiance, which flows in the fire much more eafily, at¬
tracts and retains moiffure much more ftrongly, than fixCd
alkalis that have not been fo treated. An alkali thus a-
cuated by lime is called the caujiic Jione, or potential
cautery, becaufe it is employed by furgeons to produce
efchars on the Ikin and cauterize it.
Of Metallic Subjlahces in general.
Metallic fubflances are heavy, glittering, opaque,
' fufible bodies. They confiff Chiefly of a vitrifiabk earth
united with the phlogiflon. ^
Several chemifls infill on a third principle in thefe bo¬
dies, and have given it the name of mercurial earth ;
which,; according to Becher and Stahl, is the very fame
that being1 cbmbined with the vitriolic acid forms and
: charaCterifes the acid of fea-falt. The exiftence of this
' principle hath not yet been demonflrated by any decifive
experiment; but we lhall Ihew that there are pretty
■ ftrong^reafons for admitting it.
We lhall begin with mentioning the experiments which
Vol. II. Numb. 33. 3
I S T R Y. 77
prove metallic fobllanceSs to confiff of a vitrifiable ear.h
united with the phlogiftqn. The firff is this : if they be
calcined in fuch a manner as to have no commuriicatioa
with any_inflammable matter, they will be fpoiled of all
their properties, and reduced to an earth or calx, tha':
has neither the fplendour nor the dudility of a metal,
and in a llrong fire turns to an aClual glafs, inllead of
flowing like a metal.
The fecond is, that the calx or the glafs refidting from
a metal thus decompofed, recovers all its metalline pro¬
perties by being fuled in immediate contaCt with an in¬
flammable fubftance, capable of reltoring the pblogifton
of which calcination had deprived it.
On this occafion we muff obferve, that chemifis have
not yet been able, by adding the phlogifton, to give the
properties of metals to all forts of vitrifiable earths indif-
criminately, but to fuch only as originally made a part of
fome metallic bocjy. For example, a compound cannot
be made with the phlggifton and fand that lhall have the
lead refemblance of a metal : and this is what leems to
point out the reality of a third principle as neceffary to
form the metalline combination. This principle may
probably remain united with the vitrifiable earth of a me¬
tallic fubftance, when reduced to a glafs ; whence it fol¬
lows, that fuch vitrified metals require only the addition
of a phlogifton to enable them to appear again in their
priftine form.
It may be inferred from another experiment, that the
calx and the glafs of a .metal are not its pure virrifiable
earth, properly fo called : foj; by repeated, or long con¬
tinued calcinations, fuch a calx or glafs may be rendered
incapable of ever refuming the metalline form, in what
ever manner the phlogiftoit be afterwards applied to if;
fo that by this means it is brought into the condition of
a pure vitrifiable earth, abfolutely free from any mix¬
ture.
When by adding the phlogifton to a metallic glafs, we
re (lore it to the form of a metal, we are faid to reduce,
refufeitate, or revivify that metal.
Metallic fubftances ire of different kinds, and are di¬
vided into metals and femi-metals.
Thofe are called metals, which, befides their metalline
fplendor and appearance, are alfo malleable ; that is, have
the property of ffretching under the hammer.
Thofe which have only the metalline fplendor and ap¬
pearance, without malleability, are called femi-metals.
Metals alfo are further fubdivided into tvyo forts ; 'vit.
perfect and itnpcrfett metals.
The perfeft metals are thofe which fuffer no damage
or change whatever by the moft violent and moft lafting
■ aCtion of fire.
■ The imperfeCt metals are thofe which by the force of
fire may be deprived of their phlogifton, and confequeotly
of their metalline form.
When a moderate degree of fire only is employed to
deprive a metal of its phlogifton, the metal is faid to be
calcined ; and then it appears in the form of a powdered
earth, which is called a calx; and this metalline calx
. being expofed to a more violent degree of fire, melts and
• turns to gkfs.
U
Metallic
78 C H E M I
Metallic fubftances have an affinity with acids, but not
equally with all; that is, every metallic fubftance is not
capable of uniting and joining with every acid.
When an acid unites with a metallic fubftance, there
commonly arifes an ebullition, attended with a kind of
h’fling noife and fuming exhalations. By degrees, as the
union becomes more perfesft, the particles of the metal
combining with the acid become invifible : this is termed
dijfolution; and when a metalline mafs thus difappears
in an acid, the metal is fai4 to be dijfolved by that acid.
It is proper to obferve, that acids aft upon metalline fub-
ftances, in one refpett, juft as they do upon alkalis and
abforbent earths : for an acid cannot take up above fuch
a certain proportion thereof as is fufficient to faturate it,
to deftroy feveral of its properties, and weaken others.
For example, when an acid is combined with a metal to
the point of faturation, it lofes its tafte, does not turn the
blue colour of a vegetable red, and its affinity with water
is confiderably impaired. On the other hand, metalline
fubftances, which, when pure, a£e incapable of uniting
with water, by being joined with an acid, acquire the
property of diflblving in water. Thefe combinations of
metalline fubftances with acids form different forts of
neutral falls ; fome of which have the property of {hoot¬
ing into cryftals, while others have it not: moft of them,
when thoroughly dried, attraft the moifture of the air.
The affinity which metalline fubftances have with a-
cids is lefs than that which abforbent earths and fixed
alkalis have with the fame acids ; fo that all metalline
falts may be decompounded by one of thefe fubftances,
which will unite with the acid, and precipitate the metal.
Metalline fubftances thus feparated from an acid fol-
vent are called niagijieries, and precipitates of metals.
None of thefe precipitates, except thofe of the perfect
metals, retain the metalline form : moft of their phlo-
gifton hath been deftroyed by the folution and precipita¬
tion, and muft-be reftored before they can recover their
properties. In (hort, they are nearly in the fame ftate
with metalline fubftances deprived of their phlogifton by
calcination ; and accordingly fuch a precipitate is called
a calx.
A metalline calx prepared in this manner lofes a great¬
er or a lefs portion of its phlogifton, the more or lefs
effectually and thoroughly the metalline fubftance of
which it made a part was diflblved by the acid.
Metallic fubftances have affinities with each other
which differ according to their different kinds ; but this
is not univerfal, for fome of them are incapable of any
fort of union with fome others.
It muft be obferved, that metallic fubftanees will not
unite, except they be both in a fimilar ftate ; that is,
both in a metalline form, or both in the form-of a glafs;
for a metalline fubftance, retaining its phlogifton, cannot
contradi an union with any metallic glafs, even its own.
Of M K T A L S.
There are fix metals, of which two are perfeft, and
four imperfedh The perfedt metals are gold and filver;
the others are copper, tin, lead, and iron. Some che-
mifts admit a fcventh metal-i. viz. quick-filver; but, as it
S T R Y.
is not malleable, it has been generally confidered as a
metallic body of a particular kind.
The ancient chemifts, or rather the alchemifts, who
fancied a certain relation- or analogy between metals and
the heavenly bodies, bellowed on the feven metals, reck¬
oning quick filver one of them, the names of the feven
planets of the ancients, according to the affinity which
they imagined they obferved between thofe feveral bodies.
Thus gold was called Sol, filver Luna, copper Venus.
tin Jupiter, lead Saturn, iron Mars, and quick-filver
Mercury. Though thefe names were afligned for rea-
fons merely chimerical, yet they ftill keep their ground;
fo that it is not uncommon to find the metak called by
the names, and denoted by the charafters, of the pla¬
nets, in the writings even of the beft chemifts. . Metals
are the heavielt bodies known in nature.
Of Gold.
Gold is the heavieft of all metals. The arts of
wire-drawing and gold-beating ffiew its wonderful dudti-
lity. The greateft violence of fire is not able to pro¬
duce any alteration in it.
Gold cannot be diffolved by any pure acid: but if the
acid of nitre be mixed with the acid of fea-falt, there
refults a compound acid liquor, with which fit has fo great
an affinity, that it is capable of being perfe&ly diflblved
thereby. The chemifts have called this folvent aqua
regis, on account of its being the only acid that can dil-
folve gold, which they confider as the king of metals.
The folution of gold is of a beautiful orange colour.
If gold diflblved in aqua regis be precipitated by an
alkali or an abforbent earth, the precipitate gently dried,
and then expofed to a certain degree of heat, is inftant-
ly difperfed into the air, with a moft violent explofion
and noife: gold thus precipitated is therefore called au-
rum fulmiaans. But if,the. precipitated gold be care¬
fully walked in plenty of water, fo as to clear it of all
the adhering faline particles, it will not fulminate ; but
may be melted in a crucible without any additament,
and will then appear in its ufual form. The acid of vi¬
triol being poured on aurum fulminant likewife de¬
prives it of its fulminating quality.
Gold does not begin to flow till it be red-hot like a
live coal. Though it be the moft malleable and moft
dudtile of all metals, it has the Angular property of lo-
fing its duftility more eafily than any of them: even the
fumes of charcoal are fufficient to deprive it thereof, if
they come to contact with it whilfe it is in fufibn.
The malleability of this metal, and indeed of all the
reft, is alfo confiderably diminiffied by expofing it fud-
denly to cold when it is red-hot; for example, by
quenching it in water, or even barely expofing it to the
cold air. The way to reftore duftility to gold, when loft
by its coming in contadt with the vapour of coals, and in¬
general to every other metal rendered lefs malleable by
being fuddenly cooled, is to heat it again, to keep them
red hot a confiderable time, and then to let them cool
very flowly and gradually : this operation frequently re¬
peated will by degrees much increafe the malleability of
a metal.
Pure fulphur hath no effedt on gold ;. but being com¬
bined
C H E M I
bined with an alkali into a hepar fulphuris, it unites there¬
with very readily. Nay, fo intimate is their union, that
the gold by means thereof becomes foluble in water; and
this new conpound of gold and liver of fulphur, being
diffolved in water, will pafs through the pores of brown
paper without fufFering any decompofition; which does
not happen, at leaft in fuch a manifelt degree, to other
metallic.fubftances diflblved by liver of fulphur.
Aurum fuhninans mixed and melted with flour of
fulphur lofes its fulminating quality : which arifes from
hence, that on this occafion the fulphur burns, and its
acid, which is the fame with the vitriolic, being thereby
fet at liberty, becomes capable of afting upon the gold as
a vitriolic acid would; which, as w'as >faid above, de¬
prives the gold of its fulminating quality.
Of Silver.
Next t® gold, filver is the mod perfeiS metal. Like
gold, it refills the utmoft violence of fire, even that in
the focus of a btirning-glafs. However, it holds only
the fecohd place among metals; becaufe it is lighter-than
gold by almoll one half; is alfo fomewhat lefs duftile;
and lallly, becaufe it is a died upon by a greater number
of folvents.
Yet filver hath one advantage over gold, namely that
of being a little harder; which makes it alfo more fo-
norous.
This metal, like gold, begins to flow when it is fo
thoroughly penetrated by the fire as to appear ignited
like a live coal.
While this metal is in fufion, the immediate contact
of the vapour of burning coals deprives it almoll entirely
of its malleability, in the fame manner as we obferved
happens to gold : but both thefe metals eafily recover
that property by being melted with nitre.
The nitrous acid is the true folvent of filver, and be¬
ing fomewhat dephlegmated will very readily and eafily
.take up a quantity of filver equal in weight to itlelf.
Silver thus combined with the nitrous acid forms a
metallic fait which Ihoots into cryllals, called by the name
of lunar cryjlals, or cryftals of fiver.
Thefe cryllals are mod violently caullic: applied to
the flcin, they quickly afFed it much as a live coal would;
they produce a blackilh efchar, corroding and' entirely
. dellroying the parts they touch. Surgeons ufe them to
eat away the proud fungous flelh of ulcers.. As filver u-
nited with the nitrous acid hath the property of blacken¬
ing all animal fubltances, a folution of this metallic fait
is employed to die hair, or other animal, matters, of a
beautiful and durable black.
Thefe cryllals flow with a very moderate heat, and
even before they grow red. Being thus melted, they
form a blackilh mafs; and in this form they are ufed
by furgeons, under the title of lapis infcrnalis, infernal
feme, ''ox filver cauflic.
Silver is alfo dilfolved by the vitriolic acid: but then-
the acid mud be concentrated, and in quantity double
the weight of the filver: nor will the folution fucceed
without a confiderable degree of heat.
Spirit, of fait and a Qua regis, as wellas the otlier a-
s T R Y. 79
cids, are incapable of diflblving this metal, at lead in
the ordinary way.
Though filver be not foluble in the acid of fea-falt,
nor eafily in the acid of vitriol, as hath jull been obfer¬
ved, it doth not follow, that it hath but a weak affinity
with the latter, and none at all with the former: on the
contrary, it appears from experiment, that it hath with
thefe two acids a much greater affinity than with the a-
cid of nitre : which is Angular enough, confidering the
facility with which this lalt acid dillblves it.
The experiment which proves the fadt is this. To a
folution of filver in the nitrous acid add the acid eithei'
of vitriol or of fea-falt, and the filver will inflantly quit
its nitrous folvent to join with the fuperadded acid.
Silver thus united with the vitriolic or the marine a-
cid is lefs foluble in water than when combined with the
nitrous acid : and for this reafon it is, that when either,
of thefe two acids is added to a folution of filver, the li¬
quor immediately becomes white, and a precipitate is
formed, which is no other than the filver united with the
precipitating acid. If the precipitation be elFefted by the
vitriolic acid, the precipitate will difappear upon adding
a fufficient quantity of water, becaufe there will then be
water enough to diflblve it. But the cafe is not the fame
when the precipitation is made by the marine acid : for
filver combined therewith is fcarce foluble in water.
This precipitate of filver procured by means of the ma¬
rine acid is very eafiiy fufed, and when fufed changes to
a fubflance in fome meafure tranfparent and flexible;
which hath occafioned it to be called by the name of
luna cornea. If it be propofed to decompound this
lima cornea, that is, to feparate the marine acid from,
the filver with which it is united, the luna cornea mud
be melted along with fatty and abforbent matters, with
wliich the acid will unite, and leave the metal exceeding
pure.
It muft be obferved, that if, inftead of the: marine a-
cid, fea-falt in fubflance be added to a fohmon of filver
in the nitrous acid,, a precipitate is alfo produced, which
by fufion appears to be a true luna cornea. The reafon
is, that the fea-falt is decompofed by the nitrous acid,
which feizes its balls, as having a greater affinity there¬
with than its own acid hath ; and this acid being con-
fequently difengaged and fet at liberty unites with the
filver, which, as has been fhewn, has greater affinity
with it than with the nitrous, acid. This is an inflance
of decompofition effected by means of one of thofe
double affinities mentioned in the feventh propofition
concerning affinities*
From what hath been already faid it i. clear, that all
thefe combinations of filver with acids may be decom¬
pounded by abforbent earths and by fixed alkalis ; it be¬
ing a general law with regard to all metallic fubflances.
Silver, when feparated by.thefe means fiom the acids
in which it was diflolved, requires nothing but fimnle fu¬
fion to reflare it to its ufual form ; becaufe it doeV not
any more than gold, lofe its phlogifton. by thofe folutions
and precipitations.
Silver unites with fulphur in fufion-. If this metal ke¬
enly made red-hot in a crucible, and fulphur be then ad-
ded,.
8b C H E M I
ckd, it immediately flows ; the fulphur a ding as a flux
to it. Silver thus united with fulphur forms a mafs that
may be cut, is half malleable, and hath nearly the co¬
lour and confidence of lead, If this fulphurated filver
be kept a long time in fufion, and in a great degree of
heat, the fulphur flies off and leaves the filver pure. But
if the fulphur be evaporated Sjra violent heat, it carries
oft' with it part of the filver.
Silver unites and mixes perfectly with gold in fufion.
The two metals thus mixed form a compound with pro¬
perties partaking of both.
Metallurgifts have hitherto fought in vain for a per-
fedlly good and eafy method of feparating thefe two me¬
tals by the dry <waji only: (This term is ufed to fignify
all operations performed by fufion:) but they are conve¬
niently enough parted by the war/? ttw)', that is, by acid
folvents. This method is founded on the above-men¬
tioned properties of gold and filver with refped to acids.
It hath been ftiewn, that aqua regis only will diffolve
gold; that filver, on the contrary, is hot foluble by a-
qua regh, and that its proper folvent is the acid of nitre :
Confequently, when gold and filver are mixed together,
if the compound mafs be put into aqua fortis, this acid
will take up all the filver, without dilfolving a particle of
the gold, which will therefore remain pure ; and by this
means the deli red feparation is effeifted. This method,
which is commonly made ufe of by goldfmiths and in
mints, is called the parting ajfay.
It is plain, that if aqua regis were employed inftead of
aqua fortis, the feparation would be equally effe&ed;
and that the only difference between this procefs and the
former would confift in this, that now the gold would be
diffolved, and the filver remain pure. But the operation
by aqua fortis is preferable; becaufe aqua regis does
take up a little filver, whereas aqua fortis hath not the
leaft effedt on gold.
It muft be obferved, that when gold and filver are
mixed together in equal parts, they cannot be parted by
the means of aqua forlis. To enable the aqua Jortis^ to
adt duly on the filver, this metal muft be, at leaft, in a
triple proportion to the gold. If it be in a lefs propor¬
tion, you muft either employ aqua regis to make the le-
paration, or, if you prefer the ufe of aquafortis, melt
the metalline mafs, and add as much filver as is neceffary
to make up the proportion above-mentioned: And hence
this procefs is called quartation.
This effedt, which is pretty fingular, probably arifes
from hence, that when the gold exceeds, or even equals
the filver in quantity, the parts of both being intimately
united, the former are capable of coating over the latter,
and covering them fo as to defend them from the adtion
of the aquafortis-, which is not the cafe when there is
thrice as much filver as gold.
There is one thing more to be taken notice of with re¬
gard to this procefs; which is, that perfedtly pure aqua
forth is rarely to be met with, for two reafons: lirft, it
is difficult in making it wholly to prevent the rifing of the
medium employed to difengage the nitrous acid; that is,
a little of the vitriolic acid will mix with the vapours of
the aqua fortis : Secondly, unlefs the faltpetre be very
"well puriiied, it will always hold fame fmall portion of
S T R Y.
fea-falt, the acid of which, we know, is very readily fct
loofe by the vitriolic acid, and confequently rifes toge¬
ther with the vapours of the aqua fortis. It is eafy to
fee, that aqua fortis, mixed either with the one or the
other, is not proper for the parting procefs ; becaufe, as
has juft been faid, the vitriolic and the marine acid e-
qually precipitate filver diffolved in the nitrous acid ; by
which means, •when they are united with that acid, they
weaken its adtion upon the filver, and hinder the diffolu-
tion. Add, that aqua fortis adulterated with a mixture
of fpirit of fait becomes an aqua regis, and confequently
is rendered capable of diffolving gold, in proportion as
its adtion upon filver is diminilhed.
In order to remedy this inconvenieiice, and free aqua
fortis from the vitriolic or marine acid with which it is
tainted, filver muft be diffolved therein : By degrees, as
the metal diffolves, thofe heterogeneous acids lay hold
of it, and precipitate with it in the form of a white pow-
dei, as we obferved before. This precipitate being
wholly fallen, the liquor grows clear; after which, if it
be found capable of diffolving more filver, without turn¬
ing milky, it may be depended on as a perfedlly pure a-
qua fortis. Then filtre it, diffolve more filver in it, as
long as it will take up any, and you will have a folution
of filver in a very pure aqiia fortis. By means of this
fo'lution may other aqua fortis be purified : For, pour
a few drops, thereof into a very impure aqua fortis, and
immediately the vitriolic or marine acid, with which that
aqua fortis is contaminated, will join the filver and fall
therewith to the bpttom. When the folution of filver
prepared as above does not in the leaft affect the tranfpa-
rency of the aqua fortis, it is then very pure, and fit
.Tor the purpofes of quartation. %
This operation of purifying aqua fortis by a folution
of filver is called the precipitation of aqua fortis; and
aqua fortis thus purified is called precipitated aqua
fortir.
When filver is diffolved in aqua fortis it may be fepa-
rated therefrom, as has been firewn, by abforbent earths
and fixed alkalis.
Of Copper.
Of all the imperfedl metals, copper comes the neareft
to gold and filvei. Its natural colour is a deep-red yel¬
low. ItTrefills a very violent degree of fire for a confi-
derable time ; but lofing its phlogifton at laft, it changes
its metalline form for that of a calx, or a pure reddilh
earth. This calx is hardly, if at all, reducible to glafs,
without the addition of fomething to promote its fufion;
all that the fierceft heat can do being only to render it
foft. Copp-r, even while it retains its metalline form,
and is very pure, requires a confiderable degree of fire to
melt it, and does not begin to flow till long after it is
red-hot. When in fufion, it communicates a greenilh
colour to the flame of the coals.
This metal is inferior to 'filver in point of gravity ;
nor is its dudlility fo great^ though it be pfetty confider¬
able : But, on the other hand, it exceeds that metal in
hijrdnefs. It unites readily with gold and filver; nor
does it greatly leffen their beauty when added to them in
a fmail quantity : Nay,, it even procures them fome ad¬
vantages ;
-c H E M I S T R Y. 81
vantages ; fuch as making them harder, and lefs fubjedt
to lofe their dudhlity. This may probably arife from
hence, that the ductility of copper has the peculiarity of
refilling moft of thofe caufes which rob the perfedt me¬
tals of theirs.
The property which other metalline fubflances have in
common with copper, of lofing the phlogifton by calci¬
ning and then vitrifying, furnifhes us with a method of
feparating them from gold and filver, when they are
combined therewith. Nothing more is required than to
expofe the mafs, compounded of the perfeft metals and
other metalline fubfiances, to a degree of heat fufficient
to calcine whatever is not either gold or filver. It is
evident that by this means thefe two metals will be ob¬
tained as pure as is poffible ; for, as hath already been
faid, no metalline calx or glafs is capable of uniting with
metals poflefl'ed of their phlogifton. On this principle is
formed the whole bufinefs of refining gold and filver.
. When the perfedt metals have no other alloy but cop¬
per, as this metal is not to be calcined or vitrified with¬
out great difficulty, which is increafed by its union with
the unvitrifiable metals, it is eafy to fee that it is almoft
impoffible to feparate them without adding fomething to
facilitate the vitrification of the copper. Such metals as
have the property of turning eafily to glafs are very fit for
this purpofe; and it is necefiary to add a certain quantity
thereof, when gold or filver is to be purified from the
alloy of copper. We :ffiall have occafion to be more
particular on this fubjedt when we come to treat of lead.
Copper is foluble in all the acids, to which it commu¬
nicates a green colour, and fometimes a blue. Even the
neutral falls, and water itfelf, adt upon this metal. With
regard to water indeed, as the procuring it abfolutely
pure and free from any faline mixture is next to an im-
poffibility, it remains a queftion, whether the effedt it
produces on copper be not owing to certain faline parti¬
cles contained in it. It is this great facility of being dif-
folved that renders copper fo fubjedl to ruft; which is
nothing.elfe but fome parts of its furface corroded by
faline particles contained in the furrounding 'air and
Ivatef.
The ruft of copper is always green or blue, or of a
colour between thefe two. Internally ufed it is very
noxious, being a real poifon, as are all the folutions of
this metal made by any acid whatever. The blue co¬
lour, which copper conftantly aflumes, when corroded by
any faline fubftance, is a fure fign- by which it may be
difcovered where-ever it exifts, even in a very fmall
quantity.
Copper diflblved in the vitriolic acid forms a kind of
metalline fait, which {hoots into rhomboidal cryftals of a
moft beautiful blue colour. Thefe cryftals are called
blue vitriol, or vitriol of copper. They are fometimes
found ready formed in the bowels of the earth; and
may be artificially made by diffolving copper in the vitri¬
olic acid ; but the folution will not fucceed unlefs the a-
cid be well dephlegmated. The tafte of this vitriol is
faitiffi and aftringent. It retains a confiderable quantity
tf water in cryftallizing, on which account it is eafily
rendered lluid by fire.
It muft be obferved, that when it is expofed to a cer-
VaiL. II. No. 33. 3
tain degree of heat in order to free it of its humidity, a
great part of its acid flies oflf at the fame time : And
hence it is that, after calcination, there remains only a
kind of earth, or metalline calx, of a red colour, which
contains but very little acid. This earth cannot be
brought to flow but with the greateft difficulty.
A folution of copper in the nitrous acid forms a fait
which does not cryftallize, but, when dried, powerfully
attrads the moifture of the air. The fame thing hap¬
pens when it is diflblved in the fpirit of fait, or in aqua
regis.
If the copper, thus diflblved by any of thefe acids,
be precipitated by an earth or an alkali, it re'tains nearly
the colour it had in the folution: But thefe precipitates
are fcarce any thing more than the earth of copper, or
copper deprived of moft of its phlogifton ; fo that if they
were expofed to a violerit fire, without any additament,
a great part-of th:m would be converted into an earth
that could never be reduced to a metalline form. There¬
fore, when we intend to reduce thefe precipitates to cop¬
per, it is neceflary to add a certain quantity of a fubftance
capable of reftoring to them the phlogifton they have loft.
The fubftance Which hath been found fitted for fuch
reductions is charcoal dull; becaufe charcoal is nothing
but a phlogifton clofely combined with an earth, which
renders it exceedingly fixed, and capable of refifting a
violent force of fire. But as charcoal will not melt, and
confequently is. capable of preventing rather than for¬
warding the flux of a metalline calx or glafs, which ne-
verthelefs is efleijtiaUy neceflary to complete the reduc¬
tion, it hath been contrived to mix it, or any other fub¬
ftance containing the phlogifton, with fuch fixed alkalis
as eafily flow, and are fit to promote the flux of other
bodies. Thefe mixtures are called reducing fluxes; be¬
caufe the general name of fluxes is given to all falls, or
mixtures of falls, which facilitate fufion.
If fulphur be applied to copper made perfeftly red-hot,
the metal immediately runs ; and thefe two fubftances
uniting, form a new compound much more fufible than
pure copper.
This compound is deftroyed by the foie force of fire,
for two realons: The firft is, that, fulphur being vola¬
tile, the fire is capable of fubliming a great part of it,
efpecially when it is in a great proportion to the copper
with which it is joined; the fecond is, that the portion
of fulphur which remains, being more intimately united
with the copper, though it be rendered lefs combuftible
by that union, is neverthelefs burnt and confumed in
time. Copper being combined with fulphur, and toge¬
ther with it expofed to the force of fire, is found to be
partly changed into a blue vitriol; becaufe the vitriolic
acid, being difengaged by burning the fulphur, is by
that means qualified to difolve the copper. The affinity
of copper wi h fulphur is geater than that of filver.
This metal, as well as the other imperfeft metals and the
femi-metals, being mingled with nitre and expofed to the
fire, is decompofed and calcined much fooner than by it¬
felf; becaufe the phlogifton which it contains occafions
the deflagration of the nitre, and confequently the two
fubftances mutually decompofe each other. There are
certain metalline fubftances whofe phlogifton is fo abun-
X dant,
82 C H E M
dant, and fo weakly connefted with their earth, that,
when they are thus treated with nitre, there arifes im¬
mediately a detonation, accompanied with flame, and as
violent as if fulphur or charcoal dull had been employ¬
ed ; fo that in a moment the metalline fubftance lofes its
phlogifton, and is calcined. The nitre, after thefe de¬
tonations, always aflumes an alkaline character.
Of Iron.
Iron is lighter and lefs duftile than copper ; but it is
much Tiarder, and of more difficult fufion.
It is the only body that has the property of being at-
trafted by the magnet, which therefore ferves to difco-
ver it where-ever it is. But it muft be obferved, that it
hath this property only when in its metalline date, and
lofes it when converted to an earth or calx. Hence
very few iron-ores are attracted by the loadftone ; be-
caufe, for the moft part, they are only forts of earths,
which require a phlogifton to be added before they can
be brought to the form of true iron.
When iron hath undergone no other preparation but
the fufion which is neceffary to fmelt it from its ore, it
is ufually quite brittle, and flies to pieces under the ham
Bier: Which arifes in fome meafure from its containing
a certain portion of unmetallic earth interpofed between
its parts. This we call pig-iron.
By melting this a fecond time it is rendered purer,
and more free from heterogeneous matters : But ftill, as
its proper parts are probably not brought fufficiently
Bear, or clofely enough united, till the iron hath under¬
gone fome further preparation befides that of fufion, it
feldom hath any degree of malleability.
The way to give it this property is to make it juft red-
hot, and then hammer it for fome time in all direftions;
to the end that its parts may be properly united, incor¬
porated, and Welded together, and that the heterogeneous
matters which keep them afunder may be feparated. I-
ron made by this means as malleable as poflible, we
call bar-iron, or forged iron.
Bar iron is ftill harder to fufe than pig-iron: To make
it flow requires the utmoft force of fire.
Iron has the property of imbibing a greater quantity of
phlogifton than is neceflary to give it the metalline form.
It may be made to take in this fuperabundant phlogifton
two ways : The firft is by fufing it again with matters
that contain the phlogifton; the fecond is, by encom-
pafling it with a quantity of fuch matters, charcoal-duft,
for inftance, and then expofing it fo encompafled, for a
certain time, to a degree of fire barely fufficient to keep
it red-hot. This fecond method, whereby one fub-
,fiance is incorporated with another by means of fire, but
without fifing either of them, is in general called cement-
tit ion.
Iron thus impregnated with an additional quantity of
phlogifton is called feel. The bardnefs of fteel may be
confiderably augmented by tempering if, that is, by
making it red-hot, and fuddenly quenching it in fome
cold liquor. The hotter the metal, and the colder the
liquor in which it is quenched, the harder will the fteel
be. By this means tools are made, fuch as files and
ftieers, capable of cutting and dividing the hardeft bo-
I S T R Y.
dies, as glafs, pebbles, and iron itfelf. The colour of
fteel is darker than that of iron, and the facets which
appear on breaking it are fmaller. It is alfo lefs dudlile
and more brittle, efpecially when tempered.
As iron may be impregnated with an additional quan¬
tity of phlogifton, and thereby converted into fteel, fo
may fteel be again deprived of that fuperabundant phlo¬
gifton, and brought back to the condition of iron. This
is effe&ed by cementing it with poor earths, fuch as cal¬
cined bones and chalk. By the fame operation fteel
may be untempered: nay, it will lofe the hardnefs it
had acquired by tempering, if it be but made red-hot,
and left to cool gradually. As iron andftcel differ only
in the refpedts we have here taken notice of, their pro¬
perties being in all other refpe&s the fame, what follows
is equally applicable to both.
Iron being expofed to the adlion of fire for fome
time, efpecially when divided into fmall particles, fuch
as filings, is calcined, and lofes its phlogifton. By this
means it turns to a kind of reddilh yellow earth, which
on account of its colour is called crocus Martis, or
faffron of Mars.
This calx of iron has the Angular property of flowing
in the fire with fomewhat lefs difficulty than iron itfelf;
whereas every other metalline calx flows with lefs eafe
than the metal that produced it. It has moreover the
remarkable property of uniting with the phlogifton. and
of being reduced to iron without fufion ; requiring for
that purpofe only to be made red-hod.
Iron may be incorporated with filver, and even with
gold, by means of certain operations. Under the article
of lead, we ffiall fee how it may be feparated from thefe
metals.
The acids produce on it muck the fame effe<fts as on
copper : every one of them adb upon it. Certain neu¬
tral falts, alkalis, and even water itfelf, are capable of
diffolving it; and hence it is alfo very fubjetft to ruft.
The vitriolic acid diffolves it with the greateft eafe:
but the circumftances which attend the diffolution there¬
of are different from thofe with which the fame acid
diffolves copper. For, i. Whereas the vitriolic acid
muft be concentrated to diffolve copper, it muft on the
contrary be diluted with water to diffolve iron, which
it will not touch when well dephlegraated. 2. The
vapours which rife in this diffolution are inflammable;
fo that if it be made in a fmall-necked bottle, and the
flame of a candle be applied to the mouth thereof, the
vapours in the bottle take fire with fuch rapidity as to
produce a confiderable explofion.
This folution is of a beautiful green colour; and from
this union of the-vitriolic acid with iron, there refults a
neutral metalline felt, which has the property of (hoot¬
ing into cryftals of a rhomboidal figure, and a green co¬
lour. Thefe cryftals are called green vitriol, and vi¬
triol of Mars.
Green vitriol hath a faltifh and aftringent tafte. As
it retains a great deal of water in cryftallizing it quickly
flows by the aftion of fire : but jhis, fluidity is owing to¬
ns water only, and is not a real fufion; for as foon as
its moifture is evaporated, it refumes a folid form Its
green tranfparent colour is now changed into an opaque
wlute ?-
C H E M I
white: and, if the calcination be continued, its acid al-
fo exhales, and is diflipated in vapours ; and as it lofes
that, it turns gradually to a yellow colour, which comes
fo much the nearer to a red the longer the calcination
is continued, or the higher the force of the fire is raifed;
which being driven to the utmoft, what remains is of a
very deep red. This remainder is nothing but the body
of the iron, which, having loft its phlogifton, is now no
more than an earth, nearly of the lame nature with that
which is left after calcining the metal itfelf.
Green vitriol diffolved in water fpontaneoufly lets fall
a yellowilh earthy fediment. If this folution be defecated
by filtration, it (till continues to depolite fome of the
fame fubftance, till the vitriol be wholly decompofed.
This fediment is nothing but the earth of iron, which is
then called ochre.
The nitrous acid diflblves iron with great eafe. This
folution is of a yellow colour, inclining more or lefs to a
ruflet, or dark-brown, as it is more or lefs fatura-
ted with iron. Iron diflblved by this acid alfo falls
fpontaneoufly into a kind of calx, which is incapable of
being difiblved a fecond time ; for the nitrous acid will
not a<ft upon iron that has loft its phlogifton. This fo¬
lution does not cryftallize, and if evaporated to drynefs
attracts the moifture of the air.
Spirit of fait likewife diflbves iron, and this folution
is green. The vapours which rife_during the diflblution
are inflammable, like thofe which afcend when this metal
is attacked by the vitriolic acid. Aqua regis makes a
folution of iron, which is of a yellow colour.
Iron hath a greater affinity than either filver or cop¬
per with the nitrous and vitriolic acids : fo that if iron be
prefented to a folution of either, in one of thefe two a-
cids, the diffolved metal will be precipitated ; becaufe
the acid quits it for the iron, with which it has a grea¬
ter affinity.
On this occafion it muft be obferved, that if a lolution
of copper in the vitriolic acid be precipitated by means
of iron, the precipitate has the form and fplendour of a
metal, and does not require the addition of a phlogiftorv
to reduce it to true copper ; which is not the cafe, when
the precipitation is effected by earths or alkaline falts.
The colour of this metalline precipitate hath deceived
feveral perfons, who being unacquainted with fuch phe-'
nomena, and with the nature of blue vitriol, imagined
that ir n was tranfmuted into copper, when they faw a
bit of iron, laid in a folution A that vitriol, become,
in form and external appearance, exadlly like copper:
whereas the fur face only of the iron was crufted over
with fhe particles of copper ccr. ained in the vitriol,
which had gradually fallen upon, and adhered to the
iron, ■? the s' were precipitated out of the folution.
Anion g the fhi vents of iron we mentioned fixed alka¬
lis ; and that they have fuch a power, is proved by the
following phenomenon. If a large proportion of alkaline
falts be fuddenly mixed with a folution of iron in an a-
cid, no precipitation enfues, and the liquor remains clear
and pellucid ; or if at firft it look a little turbid, that
appearance lafts but a moment, and the liquor prefently
recovers its tranfparency. The reafon is, that quantity
of alkali is more titan fufficient to faturate all the acid of
S T R Y. 83
the folution; and the fuperabundant portion thereof,
meeting with the iron already finely divided by the acid,
diflblves it with eafe as faft as it falls, and fo prevents
its mudding in liquor. To evince that this is fo in fa<5t,
let the alkali be applied in a quantity that is not fufficient,
or but qarely fufficient, to faturate the acid, and the iron
will then precipitate like any other metal.
Water alfo adts upon iron ; and therefore iron expo-
fed to moifture grows rufty. If iron filings be expofed
to the dew, they turn wholly to a ruft, which is called
crocus Martis aperient.
Iron expofed to the fire, together with nitre, makes
it detonate pretty brifkly, fets it in a flame, and decom-
pofes it with rapidity.
This metal hath a greater affinity than any other me¬
talline fubftance with fulphur; on which account, it is
fuccefsfully ufed to precipitate, and feparate all metalline
fubftances combined with fulphur.
Sulphur uniting with iron communicates to it fuch a
degree of fufibility, that if a mafs of this metal, heated
red-hot, be rubbed with a bit of fulphur, it inceflantly
runs into as perfedt a fufion as a metal expofed to the fo¬
cus of a large burning-glafe.
0/ Tin.
Tin is the lighteft of all metals. Though it yields
eafily to the impreffion of hard bodies, it has but little
dudlility. Being bent backwards and forwards it makes a-
fmall crackling noife. It flows with a very moderate degree
of fire, and long before it comes to be red-hot. When
it is in fuficn, its furface foon grows duflcy, and thete
forms upon it a thin dark-coloured dufty pellicle, which
is no other than a part of the tin that has loft its phlo^
gifton, or a calx of tin. The metal thus calcined eafily
recovers its metalline form, on the addition of a phlogi¬
fton. If the calx of tin be urged by a ftrong fire it grows
white, but the greateft violence of heat will not fufe it;
which makes fome chemifts confider it as a calcinable or
abforbent earth, rather than a vitrifiable one. Yet it
turns to glafs in fome fort, when mixed with any other
fubftance that vitrifies eafily. However, it always pro¬
duces an imperfedt glafs only, which is not at all tranf-
parent, but of an opaque white. The calx of tin thus*
vitrified is called Enamels are made of feveral
colours by the addition of this or that metalline calx.
Tin unites eafily with all the metals ; but it deftroys-
the dudlility and malleability of every one of them,
lead excepted. Nay, it poflefles-this property of ma¬
king metals brink, in fuch an eminent degree, that the
very vapour of it, when in fufion, is capable of produ¬
cing this effed. Moreover, which is very Angular, the
moft dudtile metals, even gold and filver, are thofe on
which it works this change with the moft eafe, and in.
the greateft degree. It lias alfo the property of making
filver, mixed with it, flow over a very fmall fire.
It adheres to, and in fome meafure incorporates with,
the furface of copper and of iron; whence arofe the
pradlice of coating over thofe metals with tin. Tin¬
plates are no other than thin plates of iron tinned
If to twenty parts of tin one part of copper be added*
this-
I S T R Y.
?4 e H E M
this alloy renders it much more folid, - and the mixed
mafs continues'tolerably duftile.
If, on the contrary, to one part of tin ten parts of
Copper be added, together with a little zinc, a femi-
metal to be confidered hereafter, from this combination
there refults a metalline compound, which is hard, brittle,
and very fonorous; fo that it is ufed for calling bells:
This compofition is called bronze and bell-metal.
Tin hath an affinity with the vitriolic, nitrous, and
marine acids. All of them attack and corrode it; yet
none of them is able to diffolve it without great difficulty :
So that if a clear folution thereof be defired, particular
methods mull be employed for that purpofe ; for the a-
cids do but in a manner calcine it, and convert it to a
kind of white calx or precipitate. The folvent which has
the greatell power over it is aqua regis, which has even a
greater affinity therewith than with gold itfelf; whence
it follows, that gold diflblved in aqua regis may be pre¬
cipitated by means of tin ; but then the aqua regis mull'
be weakened. Gold thus precipitated by tin is of a moll
beautiful colour, and is ufed for a red in enamelling and
painting on porcelain, as alfo to give a red colour to ar¬
tificial gems. If the aqua regisbz not lowered, the pre¬
cipitate will not have the purple colour.
Tin hath the property of giving a great lullre to all
red colours in general ; on which account it is ufed by
the dyers for linking a beautiful fcarlet, and tin-velfels
are employed in making fine fyrup of violets. Water
does not a<ft upon this metal, as it does upon iron and
copper ; for which reafon it is not fubjefl to rult: ne-
verthelefs, when it is expofed to the air, its furfacefoon
lofes its poliffi and fplendor.
Tin mixed with nitre, and expofed to the fire, defla¬
grates with it, makes it detonate, and is immediately
converted to a refractory calx; for fo all fubltances are
called which are incapable of fufion.
Tin readily unites with fulphur, and with it becomes
a brittle and friable mafs.
Of Lead.
Next to gold and mercury, lead is the heavieft of all
metalline fubfhnces, but in hardnefs is exceeded by e-
very one of them. Of all metals alfo it melts the eafiell,
except tin. While it is in fufion there gathers inceffant-
ly on its furface, as on that of tin, a blackilh, dully pel¬
licle, which is nothing but a calx of lead.
This calx further calcined by a moderate fire, the
flame being reverberated on it, foon grows white. If
the calcination be continued it becomes yellow, and at
lad of a beautiful red. In this Hate it is called minium,
and is ufed as a pigment. Minium is not ealily made,
and the operation fucceeds well in large manufactures
only.
To convert lead into litharge, which is the metal in
a manner half vitrified, you need only keep it melted by
a pretty llrong fire; for then, as its furface gradually
calcines, it tends more and more to fufion and vitrifi¬
cation.
All thefe preparations of lead are greatly difpofed to
perfeCl fufion and vitrification, and for that purpofe re¬
quire but a moderate degree of fire ; the calx or earth of
lead being of all metalline earths that which vitrifies the
mod eafily.
Lead hath not only the property of turning into glafs
with the greated facility, but it hath alfo that of pro¬
moting greatly the vitrification of all the other imperfect,
metals ; and, when it is actually vitrified, procures the
ready fufion of all earths and dones in general, even thofe
which are refractory, that is, which could not be.fufed
without its help.
Glafs of lead, befides its great fufibility, 'hath alfo the
Angular property of being fo fubtile and aCtive as to cor¬
rode and penetrate the crucibles in which it is melted, un-
lefs they be of an earth that is exceeding hard, compaCt,
and withal very refractory : for glafs of lead being one of
the mod powerful fluxes that we know, if the earth of
the crucible in which it is melted be in the fmalled de¬
gree fufible, it will be immediately vitrified ; efpecially if
there be any metallic matter in its compofition.
The great activity of glafs of lead may be weakened
by joining it with other vitrifiable matters ; but unlefs
thefe be added in a very great proportion, it will dill
remain powerful enough to penetrate common earths, and
carry off the matters combined with it.
On thefe properties of lead, and of the glafs of lead,
depends, the whole bufinefs of refining gold and filver. It
hath been ffiewn, that as thefe two metals are indedruCli-
ble by fire, and the only ones which have that advantage,
they may be feparated from the imperfect metals, when
mixed therewith, by expofing the compound to a degree
of fire fufficiently drong to vitrify the latter ; which when
once converted into glafs can no longer remain united
with any metal that has its metalline form. But it is
very difficult to procure this vitrification of the imperfeCt
metals, when united with gold and filver ; nay, it is in a
manner impoffible to vitrify them entirely, for two rea-
fons : fird, becaufe mod of them are naturally very dif¬
ficult to vitrify: fecondly, becaufe the union they have
contracted with the perfect metals defends them, in a
manner, from the aCtion of the fire, and that fo much
the more effectually as the proportion of the perfeCt me- .
tals is greater; which being indedruCtible, and in fome
fort coating over thofe with which they are alloyed, ferve
them as a prefervative and impenetrable ffiield againd the
utmod violence of fire.
It is therefore clear, that a great deal of labour may be
faved, and that gold and filver may be refined to a much
greater degree of purity than can otherwife be obtained,
if to a mixture of thefe metals with copper, for indance,
or any other imperfeCt metal, be added a certain quantity
of lead. For the lead, by its known property, will in¬
fallibly produce the defired vitrification ; and at it like-
wife increafes the proportion of the imperfeCl metals, and
fo leffens that of the perfeCt metals, in the roafs, it evi¬
dently deprives the former of a«.part of their guard, and
fo effects a more complete vitrification. As the glafs of
lead hath the property of running through the crucible,
and carrying with it the matters which it has virrifietf>.
it follows, that when the vitrification of the imperfeCt me¬
tals is effected by its means, all thofe vitrified matters
together penetrate the veffel containing the fufed metal¬
line mafs, difappear, and leave only the gold and filver
perfectly
C H E M
perfe&ly pure, and freed, as far as is poflible, from all
admixture of heterogeneous parts.
The better to promote the reparation of fuch parts, it
is ufual to employ in this procefs a particular fort of fmall
crucibles, made of the allies of calcined bones, which are
exceedingly porous and eafily pervaded. They are called
cupels, on account of their figure, which is that of a wide¬
mouthed cup : and from hence the operation takes its
name; for when we refine gold and filver in this manner,
we are faid to cupel thofe metals. It is eafy to perceive,
that the more lead is added, the more accurately will the
gold and filver be refined ; and that fo much the more
lead ought to be added as the perfect metals are alloyed
with a greater proportion of the imperfedt. This is the
moft fevere trial to which a perfedt metal can be put, and
confequently any metal that Hands it may be fairly con-
fidered as fuch.
In order to denote the finenefs of gold, it is fuppofed
to be divided into twenty-four parts called carats ; and
gold, which is quite pure and free from all alloy, is faid
to be twenty-four carats fine; that which contains ^
•part of alloy is called gold of twenty-three carats ; that
which contains of alloy is but twenty-two carats ; and
fo on. Silver again is fuppofed to be divided into twelve
parts only, which are called penny-’weights; fo that when
abfolutely pure it is faid to be twelve penny-weights fine;
when it contains ^ of alloy, it is then called eleven
penny-weights fine; when it contains -rT of alloy, it is
called ten penny-weights fine ; and fo on.
In treating of copper, we promifed to (hew under the
article of lead how to feparate it from iron. The pro¬
cefs is founded on that property of lead which renders it
incapable of mixing and uniting with iron, though it rea¬
dily diflblves all other metalline fubftances. Therefore
. if you have a mafs compounded of copper and iron, it
mull be fufed with a certain quantity of lead, and then
the copper, having a greater affinity with lead than with
iron, will defert the latter and join the former, which
being incapable of »ny union with iron, as was faid, will
wholly exclude it from the new compound. The next
point is to feparate the lead from the copper ; which is
done by expofing the mafs compounded of thefe two me¬
tals to a degree of fire llrong enough to deprive the lead
of its metalline form, but too weak to have the fame ef¬
fect on the copper : and this may be done, fince of all the
imperfect metals lead is, next to tin, the eafieft to be cal¬
cined, and copper, on the contrary, refills the greatell
force of fire longeft, without lofing its metalline form.
Now what we gain by this exchange, viz. by feparating
copper from iron, and uniting it with lead, confills in this,
that as lead is calcined with lefs fire than iron, the cop¬
per is lefs expofed to be dellroyed : for it mull be ob-
ferved, that, however moderate the fire be, it is hardly
poffible to prevent a certain quantity thereof from being
calcined in the operation.
Lead melted with a third part of tin forms>a compound,
^vhich being expofed to a fire capable of making it tho¬
roughly red hot, fwetls, puffs up, feems in fome fort fo
take fire, and is prefently calcined. Thefe two metals
mixed together are much fooner calcined than either of
'them feparately.
Von. II. No. 33. 3
I S T R Y. 85
Both lead and tin are in fome meafure affedied by wa¬
ter, and by a moill air ; but they are both much lefs fub-
jedt than iron or copper to be corroded by thefe folvents,
and of courfe are much lefs liable to ruff.
The vitriolic acid adts upon and dilfolves lead much in
the fame manner as it doth filver.
The nitrous acid diffolves this metal with much eafe,
and in great quantities ; and from this Ablution a fmail
portion of mercury may be obtained.
When this folution of lead is diluted with a good deal
of water, the lead precipitates in the form of a white
powder ; which happens becaufe the acid is rendered too
weak to keep the lead diflblved.
If this folution of lead be evaporated to a certain de¬
gree, it ffioois into cryftals formed like regular pyramids
with fquare bafes. Thefe cryftals are of a yellowiffi co¬
lour, and of a faccharine tafte : they do not eafily diffolve
in water. This nitrous metalline fak has the Angular
property of detonating in a crucible, without any addi-
tament, or the contadl of any other inflammable fubftance.
This property it derives from the great quantity of phlo-
gifton contained in, and but loofely connected with the
lead, which is one of its principles.
If fpirit of fait, or even fea-falt in fubftance, be added
to a folution of lead in the nitrous acid, a white precipi¬
tate immediately falls ; which is no other than the lead
united with the marine acid. This precipitate is extreme¬
ly like the precipitate of filver made in the fame manner;
and that being called luna cornea, hath occafioned this to
be named plumbum corneum. Like the luna cornea, it
is very fufible, and, being melted, hardens like it into a
kind of horny fubftance : it is volatile, and may be re¬
duced by means of inflammable matters combined with
alkalis. But it differs from the luna cornea in this
chiefly, that it dilfolves eafily in water ; "whereas the lu¬
na cornea, on the contrary, diffolves therein with great
difficulty, and in a very fmall quantity.
As this precipitation of lead from its folution in fpirit
of nitre is procured by the marine acid, lead is thereby
proved to have a greater affinity with the latter acid than
with the former. Yet, if you attempt to diffolve lead di-
reftly by the acid of fea-falt, the folution is not fo eafily
effedied as by the fpirit of nitre, and it is always imper-
fe<ft ; for it wants one of the conditions effential to every
folution in a liquor, namely tranfparency.
If lead be boiled for a long time in a lixivium of fixed
alkali, part of it will be diffolved.
Sulphur renders this metal refraftory and fcarce fufible;
and the mafs they form when united together is friable.
Hence it appears that fulphur adts upon lead much in the
fame manner as upon tin ; that is, it renders both thefe
metals lefs fufible, which are naturally the moft fufible
of any, while it exceedingly facilitates the fufion of fil¬
ver, copper, and iron, metals which of themfelves flow
with the greateft difficulty.
Of C^u I c K-S I L V E R.
We treat of quick-filver in a chapter apart, becaufe
this metallic fubftance cannot be claffed with the metals
properly fo called, and yet has fome properties which
^ will
86 CHEMISTRY.
will not allow us to confound it with the ferai metals.
The reafon why quick-filver, by the chemifh commonly
called mercury, is not reputed a metal, is, that it wants
one of the effential properties thereof, viz. malleability.
When it is pure and unadulterated with any mixture, it
is always fluid, and of courfe unmalleable. But as, on
the other hand, it eminently poflefles the opacity, the
fplendor, and above all the gravity of a metal, being,
next to gold, the heavieft of all bodies, it may be conu-
dered as a true metal, differing from the reft no otherwife
than by being conftantly in fufion ; which we may fup-
pofe arifes from its aptnefs to flow with fuch a fmail de¬
gree of heat, that be there ever fo little warmth on earth,
there is ftill more than enough to keep mercury in fufion ;
which would become folid and malleable it it were pofli-
ble to apply to it a degree of cold confiderable enough for
that purpofe. Thefe properties will not allow us to con¬
found it with the femi-metals. Add, that we are not yet
allured by any undoubted experiment that it can be wholly
deprived of its phlogifton, as the imperfedt metals may.
Indeed we cannot apply the force of fire to it as could be
wiflied : for it is fo volatile, that it flies off and exhales in
vapours with a much lefs degree of fire than is neceflary
to make it red-hot. The vapours of mercury thus raifed
by the adtion of fire, being colledied and united in a cer¬
tain quantity, appear to be no other than true mercury
retaining every one of its properties ; and no experi¬
ment hath ever been able to Ihew the leaft change thus
produced in its nature.
If mercury be expofed to the greateft heat that it can
bear without fublimation, and continued in it for feveral
months, or even a whole year together, it turns to a red
powder, which the chemifts call mercurius pracipitatus
per fe But to fucceed in this operation, it is abfolutely
neceflary that the heat be fuch as is above fpecified ; for
this metallic fubftance may remain expofed to a weaker
heat for a confiderable number of years, without under¬
going any fenfible alteration.
Some chemifts fancied that by this operation they had
fixed mercury, and changed its nature; but without any
reafon ; for if the mercury thus feemingly tranfmuted be
expofed to a fomewhat ftronger degree of fire, it fublimes
and exhales in vapours _as ufual; and thofe vapours col-
iedted are nothing elfe but running mercury, which has
recovered all its properties without the help of any addi-
tament.
Mercury has the property of diflolving all the metals,
iron only excepted. But it is a condition abfolutely ne-
ceflary to the fuccefs of fuch diflblution, that the metal¬
line fubftances be pofiefled of their phlogifton ; for if they
be calcined, mercury cannot touch them : and hence it
follows, that mercury doth not unite with fubftances
that are purely earthy. Such a combination of a metal
with mercury is called an amalgam Trituration alone
is fufficient to effedt it; however, a proper degree of
heat alfo is of ufe.
Mercury amalgamated with a metal gives it a confift-
ence more or lefs foft, and even fluid, according to the
greater or fmaller proportion of mercury employed All
amalgams are foftened by heat, and hardened by cold.
Mercury is very volatile ; vaftly more fo than the moft
unfixed metals : moreover, the union it contrafls with
any metal is not fufficiently intimate to entitle the new
compound refulting from that union to all the properties
of the two fubftances united ; at leaft with regard to
their degree of fixity and volatility. From all which
it follows, that the beft and fureft method of feparating
it from metals diflblved by it, is to expofe the amalgam
to a degree of heat-fufficient to make all the quick-filver
rife and evaporate ; after which the metal remains in the
form of a powder, and being fufed recovers its malleabi¬
lity. If it be thought proper to fave the quick-filver,
the operation muft be performed in clofe veflels, which
will confine and colledl: the mercurial vapours. This o-
peration is moft frequently employed to feparate gold and
filver from the feveral forts of earths and fands with
which they are mixed in the ore ; becaufe thefe two mer
tals, gold efpecially, are of fufficient value to compenfate
the h.fs of mercury, which is inevitable in this procefs :
befides, as they very readily amalgamate with it, this
way of feparating them from every thing unmetallic is
very commodious.
Mercury is diffplved by acids ; but with circumftances
peculiar to each particular acid.
The vitriolic acid concentrated and made boiling hot
feizes on it, and prefently reduces it to a kind of white
powder, which turns yellow by the affufion of water,
but does not dillblve in it : it is called turbith mineral.
However, the vitriolic acid on this occafion unites with a
great part of the mercury in fuch a manner that the com¬
pound is foluble in water. For if to the water which was
ufed to waffi the turbith a fixed alkali be added, there
falls inftantly a ruflet-coloured precipitate, which is no
other than mercury feparated from the vitriolic acid by
the intervention of the alkali.
This diflblution of mercury by the vitriolic acid is ac¬
companied with a very remarkable phenomenon ; which
is, that the acid contrafts a ftrong fmell of volatile fpirit
of fulphur : a notable proof that part of the phlogifton of
the mercury hath united therewith. And yet, if the
mercury be feparated by means of a fixed alkali, it does
not appear to have fuffered any alteration. Turbith mi¬
neral is not fo volatile as pure mercury.
The nitrous acid diflblves mercury with eafe. The
folution is limpid and tranfparent, and as it grows cold
ffioots into cryftals, which are a nitrous mercurial fait.
If this folution be evaporated to drinefs, the mercury
remains impregnated with a little of the acid, under the
form of a red powder, which hath obtained the names
of red precipitate, and arcanum corallinum This pre¬
cipitate, as well as turbith, is lefs volatile than pure mer¬
cury.
If this folution of mercury be mixed with a folution of
copper made lik; wife in the nitrous acid, and the mix¬
ture evaporated to drinefs, there will remain a green
powder caUefrgreen precipitate. Thefe precipitates are,
cauftic and corrofive ; and are ufed as fuch in furgery.
Though mercury be diflblved more eafily and com¬
pletely by the nitrous acid than by the vitriolic, yet it
has a greater affinity with the latter than with the for¬
mer ; for if a vitriolic acid be poured into a folution of
mercury in fpirit of nitre, the mercury will quit the lat¬
ter
C H E M
ter acid in which it was diflblved, and join the other
which was added. The fame thing happens when the
marine acid is employed inftead of the vitriolic.
Mercury combined with fpirit of fait forms a lingular
body; a metalline fait which {hoofs into long cryftals,
pointed like daggers. This fait is volatile, and fublimes
eafily without decompofition. It is moreover the moft
violent of all the corrofives hitherto difcovered by che-
miftry. It is called corrojive fublimate, becaufe it muft
abfdutely be fublimed to make the combination perfect.
There are feveral ways of doing this : but the operation
will never fail, if the mercury be rarefied into vapours
and meet with the marine acid in a fimilar date.
Corrofive fublimate is di{foved by water, but in very
fmall quantities only. It is decompounded by fixed al¬
kalis, which precipitate the mercury in a reddifli yellow
powder, called, on account of its colour, yellow preci¬
pitate.
If corrofive fublimate be mixed with tin, and the com¬
pound diddled, a liquor comes over, which continually
emits abundance of denfe fumes, and from the name of
its inventor is called the fmoking liquor of Libav'us.
This liquor is no other than the tin combined with the
marine acid of the corrofive fublimate, which therefore
it hath a&ually decompounded : whence it follows, that
this acid hath a greater affinity with tin than with mer¬
cury.
j The marine acid in corrofive fublimate is not quite fa-
turated with mercury; but is capable of taking up a much
greater quantity thereof. For if corrofive fublimate be
mixed with freffi mer. ury, and fublimed a fecond time,
another compound will be produced containing much more
mercury, and lefs acrimonious ; for which reafon it is
named fweet fublimate of mercury, mcrcurius dulcis,
ttquila alba. This compound maybe taken internally,
and is purgative or emetic according to the dofe admi-
niftered. It may be rendered ftill more gentle by re¬
peated fublimations, and then it takes the title of pana-
caa mercuriaiis. No way hath hitherto been found to
diffolve mercury in aqua regis without great difficulty,
and even then it is but imperfedtly dilfolved.
Mercury unites eafily and intimately with fulphur. If
thefe two fubftances be only rubbed together in a gentle
beat, or even without any heat, they will contraft an
union, though but an incomplete one. This combination
takes the form of a black powder, which has procured it
the name of Mihiops mineral
If a more intimate and perfedt union be defired, this
compound muft be expofed to a ftronger heat; and then
a red ponderous fubftance will be fublimed, appearing
like a mafs of fiaining needles : this is the combination de
fired, and is called cinabar. In this form chiefly is mer¬
cury found in the bowels of the earth. Cinabar finely
levigated acquires a much brighter red colour, and is
known to painters by the name of vermilion.
Cinabar rifes wholly by fublimation, without fuffer-
ing any decompofition ; becaufe the two fubftances of
which it confifts, viz. mercury and fulphur, are both
volatile. ,
Though mercury unites and combines very well with
fulphur, as hath been faid, yet it hath lefs affinity with
I S T R Y. 87
that mineral than any other metal, gold only excepted :
whence it follows, that any of the other metals will de¬
compound cinabar, by uniting with its fulphur, and lo
fetting the mercury at liberty to appear in its ufual form.
Mercury thus feparated from fulphur, is efteemed the
pureft, and bears the name of mercury revivified Jrom
cinabar.
Iron is generally uffid in this operation preferably to
the other metals, becaufe among them all it has the great-
eft affinity with fulphur, and is the only one that has
none with mercury.
Cinabar may alfo be decompounded by means of fixed
alkalis; the affinity of thefe falls with fulphur being ge¬
nerally greater than that of any metalline fubftance what¬
ever.
Of the Semi-Metals.
C/'Regulus of Antimony.
Regulus of antimony is a metallic fubftance of a
pretty bright white colour. It has the fplendor, opacity,,
and gravity of a metal ; but it is qu te unmalleable, and
crumbles to duft, inftead of yielding or ftretching under
the hammer; on which account it is clafled with the fe-
mi-metals.
It begins to flow as foon as it is moderately red; but,
like the other'femi-metals it cannot ftand a violent de¬
gree of fire ; being thereby diflipated into fmoke and
white vapours, which adhere to fuch cold bodies as they
meet with, and fo are colleifted into a kind of farina call¬
ed yfoouerr of antimony.
If regulus of antimony, inftead of being expofed to a
ftrong fire, be only heated fo moderately that it ffiall not
even melt, it will calcine, lofe its phlogifton, and take
the form of a greyifh powder deftit te of all fplendor :
this powder is called calx of anthnony.
This calx is not volatile like the regulus, but will en¬
dure a very violent fire ; and being expofed thereto will
flow, and turn to a. glafs of the. yellowiffi colour of a hy¬
acinth.
It is to be obferved, that the more the regulus is de¬
prived of its phlogifton by continued calcination, the more
refraftory is the calx obtained from it. The glafs there-^
of Lis alfo fo much the lefs colour, and comes the nearer
to common glafs.
The calx and the glafs of antimony will recover their
metalline form, like every other calx and glafs of a me¬
tal, if reduced by reftoring to them their loft phlogifton.
Yet, if the calcination be carried too far, their reduftion
will become much more difficult, and a much fmaller
quantity of regulus will be refufcitated.
Regulus of antimony is capable of difiblving the me¬
tals ; but its affinities with them are various, and differ
according to the following order. It affedts iron the
moft powerfully, next copper, then tin, lead, and filver.
It promotes the fufion of metals, but makes them all
brittle and unmalleable.
It will not amalgamate with mercury; and though, by
certain proceffes, particularly the addition of water and
continued trituration, a fort of union between thefe two
fob-
8* C H E M I
fubftances may be produced, yet it is but apparent and
momentary ; for being left to themfelves, and undifturb-
ed, they quickly difunite and feparate.
The vitriolic acid, affifted by heat, and even by di-
ftiilation, diflblves regulus of antimony. The nitrous
acid likewife attacks it; but the folution can by no art
be made clear and limpid ; fo that the regulus is only
calcined, in a manner, by this acid.
The marine acid diffolves it well enough ; but then it
muft be exceedingly concentrated, and applied in a pecu¬
liar manner, and efpecially by diftillation. One of the
befl methods of procuring a perfect union between the
acid of fea-falt and regulus of antimony, is to pulverize
the latter, mix it with corrofive fublimate, and diftil the
whole. There rifes in the operation a white matter,
thick, and fcarce fluid, which is no other than the regulus
of antimony united and combined with the acid of fea-
falt. This compound is extremely corrofive, and is call¬
ed butler of antimony.
It is plain, that the corrofive fublimate is here decom¬
pounded ; that the mercury is revivified ; and that the
acid which was combined therewith hath quitted it to join
the regulus of antimony, with which its affinity is great¬
er. This butter of antimony, by repeated diftillations,
acquires a confiderable degree of fluidity and limpidnefs.
If the acid of nitre be mixed with butter of antimony,
and the whole diftilled, there rifes an acid liquor, or a
) fort of aqtia regis^ which ftill retains fome of the dif-
folved regulus, and is called bezoardic fpirit of nitre.
After the diftillation there remains a white matter, from
which freffi fpirit of nitre is again abftracted, and which
being then waffied with water, is called bezoar mineral.
This bezoar mineral is neither fo volatile, nor fo cauftic,
as butter of antimony ; becaufe the nitrous acid hath not
the property of volatilizing metallic fubftances, as the
marine acid does, and becaufe it remains much more in¬
timately combined with the reguline part.
If butter of antimony be mixed with water, the liquor
immediately becomes turbid and milky, and a precipitate
falls, which is nothing but the metallic matter partly fe-
parated from its acid, which is too much weakened by the
addition of water to keep it diflblved. Yet this precipi¬
tate ftill retains a good deal of acid ; for which reafon it
continues to be a violent emetic, and in fome degree cor¬
rofive. It hath therefore been very improperly called
tnercurius vita.
The proper folvent of regulus of antimony is aqua re-
pis ; by means whereof a clear and limpid folution of this
femi-metal may be obtained.
Regulus of antimony mixed with nitre, and projedted
into a red-hot crucible, fets the nitre in a flame, and
makes it detonate. As it produces this dfedt by means
of its phlogifton, it muft needs, at the fame time, be cal¬
cined, and lofe its metallic properties, which accordingly
happens : and when the nitre is in a triple proportion to
the regulus, the latter is fo perfectly calcined as to leave
only a white powder, which is fufed with great difficulty,
and then turns to a faintly coloured glafs, not very dif¬
ferent from common glafs, and which is not reducible to
a regulus by the addition of inflammable matter ; at leaft
it yields but a very fmall quantity thereof. Iflefs nitre
S T R Y.
be ufed, the calx is not fo white ; the glafs it produces
is more like a metalline glafs, and is more eafily reduced.
The calx of the regulus thus prepared by nitre is called,
on account of the medicinal virtue afcribed to it, diapho¬
retic antimony, or diaphoretic mineral.
Nitre always becomes an alkali by deflagration, and in
the prefent cafe retains part of the calx, which it even
renders foluble in water. This calx may be feparated
from the alkali, if an acid be employed to precipitate it ;
and then it is called materia perlata. This pearly mat¬
ter is a calx of antimony, fo completely deprived of its
phlogifton as to be altogether incapable of reduction to a
regulus.
Regulus of antimony readily joins and unites with ful-
phur, forming therewith a compound which has a very
faint metallic fplendor. This ^compound appears like a
mafs of long needles adhering together laterally • and
under this form it is ufually found in the ore, or at leaft
when only feparated by fufion from the ftones and earthy
matters with which the ore is mixed. It is called crude
antimony.
Antimony flows with a moderate heat, and becomes
even more fluid than other metallic fubftances. The
aftion of fire diflipates or confumes the fulphur it con¬
tains, and its phlogifton alfo, fo as to convert it into a
calx and a glafs, as it does the regulus.
Aqua regis, which we obferved to be the proper fol¬
vent of the regulus, being poured on antimony, attacks
and diflblves the reguline part, but touches not the ful¬
phur; in confequence whereof it decompofes the antimo¬
ny, and feparates its fulphur from its regulus.
There are feveral other ways of effeding this decom-
pofition, and obtaining the reguline part of antimony by
itfelf: They confift either in deftroying the fulphureous
part of the antimony by combuftion, or in melting the
antimony with fome fubftance which has a greater affini¬
ty than its reguline part with fulphur. Moft metals are
very fit for this latter purpofe: For though the regulus
has a confiderable affinity with fulphur, yet all the me¬
tals, except gold and mercuiy, have a greater.
If therefore iron, copper, lead, filver, or tin, be
melted with antimony, the metal employed will unite
with the fulphur, and feparate it from the regulus.
It m«ft be obferved, that, as thefe metals have fome
affinity with the regulus of antimony, *he regulus will
be joined in the operation by fome of the metal employ¬
ed as a precipitant, (fo thofe fubftances are called which
ferve as the means of feparating two bodies from each
other;) and therefore the regulus procured in this man¬
ner will not be abfolutely pure : On this account care is
taken to diftinguiffi each by adding the name of the me¬
tal employed in its precipitation ; and thence come thefe
titles, martial regulus of antimony, or only martial re¬
gulus, regulus veneris ; and fo of the reft.
Antimony is employed with advantage to feparate
gold from all other metals with which it may be alloyed.
It has been ffiewn, that all the metals have a greater affi¬
nity, than the reguline part of antimony, with fulphur,
gold only excepted; which is incapable of centrading
any union therewith : And therefore, if a mafs com¬
pounded of gold and feveral other metals be melted with
anti-
C H E M
antimony, every thing in that mafs which is not gold will
unite with the fulpl?ur of the antimony. This union oc-
cafions two feparations, to wit, that of the fulphur of
the antimony from its reguline part, and that of the
gold from the metals with which it was adulterated ;
and from the whole two new compounds arife ; namely,
a combination of the metals with the fulphur, which be¬
ing lighted rifes to the furface in fufion ; and a metal¬
line mafs formed of the gold and ths*reguline part of the
antimony united together, which being much the heati-
eit finks to the bottom-. There is no difficulty in part¬
ing the gold from the regulus of antimony with which
it is alloyed t For the metalline mafs need only be expo-
fed to a degree of fire capable of diffipating into vapours
all the femi-metal it contains; which being very volatile,
the operation is much eafier, and more expeditipufly fi-
niffied, than if the metals with which the gold was de-
bafed were to be vitrified on the cupel; without taking
into the account that if filver were one of them, re-
courfe muft needs be had to the procefs of quartation af¬
ter that of the cupel.
If equal parts of nitre and antimony be mixed toge¬
ther, and the mixture expofed to the aftion of fire, a
violent detonation enfues; the nitre deflagrating con-
fumes the fulphur of the antimony,- and even a part of
its phlogifton. After the detonation there remains a
greyiffi matter which contains fixed nitre, vitriolated tar¬
tar, and the reguline part of the antimony in fome mea-
fure deprived of its phlogifton, and half vitrified by the
a&ion of the fire, which is confiderably increafed by’the
deflagration. This matter is called liver of antimony.
If inftead of equal parts of nitre and antimony,, two
parts of the former be ufed to one of the latter, then the
reguline part lofes much more of its phlogifton, and're¬
mains in the form of a yellowilh powder.
Again, if three parts of nitre be taken to one of anti¬
mony, the regulus is thereby entirely robbed of its phlo-
gifton, and converted to a white calx which b^ars the
name of diaphoretic antimony, or diaphoretic mineral.
The pearly matter may be precipitated by pouring an a-
cid on the faline fubftances which here remain after the
detonation, in the fame manner as we ffiewed above was
to be done with regard to the regulus.
In the laft two operations, where the nitre is in a
double or triple proportion to the antimony, the reguline,
part is found after the detonation to be converted into a
calx, and not into a half vitrified matter, which we have
feen is the effeft when equal pans only of nitre and an¬
timony are ufed. The reafon of this difference is, that
in thefe two cafes the reguline part, being wholly, or al-
moft wholly, deprived oFits phlogifton, becomes, as was
obferved, more difficult to fufe, and confequently cannot
begin to vitrify in the fame degree of heat as that which
hath not loft fo much of its phlogifton. If, inftead of
performing the operation with equal parts of nitre and
antimony alone, a portion of fome fubftance which a-
bounds with phlogifton be added, in that cafe the fulphur
only of the antimony will be confumed, and the regulus
will remain united with its phlogifton, and feparated
from its fulphur.
Voj.. II. Numb. 33. 3
I S T 11 Y. 39
The regulus prepared in this manner is abfolutely
pure, becaufe no metalline fubftance being employed,
none can mix with it and adulterate it. It is called re¬
gulus of antimony per fe, or only regulus of antimony.
It is true indeed, that in this operation, much of the
reguline part unavoidably lofes its phlogifton and is cal¬
cined, and confequently a much fmaller quantity of re¬
gulus is obtained than when metalline precipitants are
employed: But this lofs is eafiiy repaired, if it be
thought proper, by reftoring to the calcined part its
loft phlogifton.
. Antimony melted with two parts of fixed alkali yields
no regulus, but is entirely diffolved by the fait, and
forms with it a mafs of & reddiffi yellow colour.
The reafon why no precipitate is produced on this oc-
cafion is, that the alkali uniting with the fulphur of the
antimony forms therewith the combination called liver of
fulphur, which by its nature is qualified to keep the re¬
guline part diffolved. This mafs, formed by the union
of the antimony with the alkali, is foluble in water. If
any acid whatever be dropt into this folution, there falls
a precipitate of a reddiffi yellow colour; becaufe the acid
unites with the alkali, and forces it to quit the matters
with which it is combined. This precipitate is called
golden fulphur of antimony.
As in the operation for preparing regulus of antimony
per fe, fome of the nitre is, by the inflammable matter s
added thereto, turned to an alkali ; this alkali feizes on
part of the antimony, and therewith forms a compound
like that juft defcribed. Hence it comes, that if thi
fcoria formed in this prooers be diffolved in water, and
an acid dropped into the folution, a true golden fulphur
of antimony is thereby feparated.
This union of antimony with an alkali may alfo be
brought abqut by the humid way; that is, by making
ufe of an alkali refolved into a liquor, aijd boiling the
mineral in it. The alkaline liquor, in proportion as it
aits'upon the antimony, gradually becomes, reddiffi and
turbid. If left to fettle and cool, when well faturated
therewith, it gradually depofites the antimony it had ta¬
ken up, which precipitates in the form of a red powder:
And this precipitate is the celebrated remedy known by
the name of kermes mineral. It is plain, that the kermes
is nearly the fame thing with the golden fulphur : Yet it
differs from it in fome refpeils ; and efpecially in this,
that being taken inwardly it operates- mftch more gently
than the golden fulphur, which is a violent emetic.
Nitre, fixed by charcoal, and refolved into a liquor, is
the only alkali employed in preparing the kermes.
It was ffiewn above, that regulus of antimony, mixed
and diftilled with corrofive fublimate, decompounds it,
difengages the mercury, and joining itfelf to the marine
acid forms therewith a new combination, called butter of
antimony. If the fame operation be performed with
crude antimony inftead of its regulus, the fame effedts
are produced; but then the antimony itfelf is alfo de-
compofed; that is, the reguline part is. feparated from
the fulphur, which being fet free unites with the mercu¬
ry, now alfo at liberty, and thefe two together form a
true cinabar, called cinabur of antimony.
Of
po C H E M
^ B I S M tj! T H.
Bismuth, known alfo by the name tin-glafs, is a
femi-metal, having almoft the fame appearance as reguius
of antimony; yet it has a more dufky caft, inclining
fbmewhat to red, and even prefents fome changeable
Hreaks, efpecially after lying long in the air.
When expofed to the fire it melts long before it is
red. and confeqnently with, lefs heat than reguius of an¬
timony, which does not flow, as was (hewn above, till it
begin to.be red hot. It becomes volatile, like all the
other femi-metals, when a<51ed on by a violent fire :
Being kept in fufion by a "proper degree of heat it lofes
its phlogifton with its metallic form, and turns to powder
dr a calx ; and that again is converted into glafs by the
cbntinued aftion of fire. The calx and glafs of biimuth
may be reduced, like any other metallic calx, by reflo-
rihg their phlogifton.
Bifmjth mixes with all the metals in fufion, and even
facilitates the fufion of fuch as do not otherwife flow rea¬
dily. It whitens them by its union, and deftroys their
malleability.
It amalgamates with mercury, if thfiy be rubbed tp*-
getner witlv the addition of water : Yet after fome time
thefe two metalline fubftances defert each other, and the
bifmtith appears again in the form of a powder. Hence
it is plain that the union it contradls with mercury is not
perfeift ; and yet it has the Angular property of attenua¬
ting lead, and altering it in fuch a manner that it afterwards
amalgamates with mercury much more perfeftly, fo as
even to pafs with it through fliamoy leather without any
fepiiration. The bifmuth employed in making this a-
rnalgama afterwards feparates from it fpontaneoufly, as
ufual; but the lead ftill continues united with the mer¬
cury, and always retains the property thus acquired.
The vitriolic acid does not diffolve bifmuth : Its pro¬
per folvent is the nitrous acid, which diftblves it with vi¬
olence, and abundance of fumes.
Bifmuth diffolved in the nitrous acid is precipitated
not only by alkalis, but even by the bare addition of
water. This precipitate is extremely white, and known
by the name of ?mg{fiery of bifmuth.
The acid of ft a-fait and aqua regis likewife aft upon
bifmuth, but with lefs violence.
This feini-metal does not fenfibly deflagrate with ni¬
tre : yet it is quickly deprived of its phlogifton, and
turned into a vitrifiable calx, when expofed with it to
the aftion of fire.
It readily unites with fulphur in fufion, and forms
therewith a compound which appears to cohfift of needles
adhering laterally to each other.
It may be feparated from the fulphur with which it is
combined, by only expofing it to the fire, without any
additament; for the fulphur is either confumed or fub-
limed, and leaves the bifmuth behind.
Of Zinc.
Zinc to appearance differs but little from bifmuth,
and has even been_ confounded with it by feveral authors.
Nevert-helefs, befides that it has fomething of a bluifh
caft, and is harder than bifmuth, it differs from it ef
I S T R Y.
fentially in its properties, as will prefently fie fhewn.
Thefe two metallic fubftances fcafce referable each other
in any thing, but the qualities common to all femi-
metals.
Zinc melts the moment it grows red in the fire, and then
alfo begins to turn to a calx, which, like any other metaliic
calx, may be reduced by means of the phlogifton : But if
the fire be confiderably increafed' it ful.limes, flames, and
burns like an oily matter; which is a prbofofthe great quan¬
tity of phlogifton in its compofition. hi the fame time abun¬
dance of flowers rife from it in the form of white flakes, Hy¬
ing about in the air like very light bodies ; and into this
form may the whole fubftance of the zinc be converted.
Several names have been given to thefe flowers, fuch as
pomphdix, pbilcfaphic 'wool. They are fuppofed .to be
no other than the zinc itfelf deprived of its phlogifton ;
yet no body has hitherto been able to refufeitate them in
the form of zinc, by reftoring their phlogifton according
to the methods ufed in the reduftion of metals. Though
they rife in the air with very great eafe while the zinc is
calcining, yet when once formed they are very fixed; for
they withftand the utmoft violence of fire, and are capable
of being vitrified, efpecially if joined with a fixed alkali.
They are foluble in acids.
Zinc dnites with all metalline fubftances, except bif¬
muth. It has this fiugular property, that being mixed
with copper, even in a confiderable quantity, fuch as a
fourth part, it does not greatly leflen the duftility there¬
of, and at the fame time communicates to it a very beau¬
tiful colour not unlike that of gold : On which account
the compofition is frequently made, and produces what
is called brafs. This metal melts much more eafily than
copper alone, becaufe of the zinc with which it is alloy¬
ed. If it be expofed to a great degree of heat, the zinc
which it contains takes fire, and fublimes in white flowers,
juft as when it is pure
It is to be obferved, than brafs is ductile pnly while it
is cold, and not then unlefs the zinc ufed in making it
was very pure; otherwife the compofition will prove but
tombac, or prince’s metal, having very little malleability.
Zinc is very volatile, and carries ofl: with it any me¬
tallic fubftance with which it is fufed, making a kind of
fublimate thereof. In the furnaces where they fmelt
ores containing zinc, the matter thus fubliflied is called
cadmia fornacum, to diftinguiih it from the native cad-
mia called alfo calamine, or lapis calaminaris; which,
properly fpeaking, is an ore of zinc, containing a great
deal of that femi-metal, together with fome iron-, and a
ftony fubftance. The name of cadmia fornacum is not
appropriated folely to the metallic fublimates procured by
means of zinc, but is given in general to all the metallic
fublimates found in fmelting-houfes.
If a violent and fudden heat be applied to zinc, it fub¬
limes in its metalline form ; there not being time for it to
burn and be relolved into flowers.
This femi-metal is foluble in all the acids, but efpe¬
cially in fpirit of nitre, which attacks and diflblves it
with very great violence.
Zinc has a greater affinity than iron or copper with
the vitriolic acid ; and therefore it decompounds the
green and blue vitriols, precipitating thofe two metals
by
CHE M
by uniting with the vitriolic acid, with which it forms
a metallic fait or vitriol called ■white vitriol, or .vitriol
of zinc.
Nitre mixed with zinc, and projected into a red hot
crucible, detonates with violence ; and during the detona¬
tion there arifes a great quantity of white flowers, like
thofe which appear when it is calcined by itfelf.
Sulphur has no power over zinc. Even liver of ful-
phur, which diflblves all other metallic fubltances, con-
tracls no union with this femi-metal.
C//Regulus of Arsenic.
Regulus of arfenic is the moll volatile of all the
femi-metals. A very moderate heat makes - it wholly
evaporate, and fly off in fumes; on which account it
cannot be brought to fulion, nor can any'confiderable
maffes thereof be obtained. It has a metallic colour,
fomewhut refembling lead ; but foon lofes its fplendor
tvhen expofed to the air.
It unites readily enough with metallic fubllances,
having the fame affinities with them as regulus of anti¬
mony hath. It makes them brittle, and unmallcable
It hath alfo the property of rendering them volatile, and
greatly facilitates their fcorification.
It very eafily parts with its phologiflon and metallic
form. When expofed to the fire it rifes in a kind of
Ihining cryltalline calx, which on that account looks
more like a faline matter than a metallic calx. To this
calx or thefe flowers are given the names of white arfe¬
nic, cryftalline arfenic, and moll commonly plain
arfenic.
Arfenic differs from every other metalline calx, firfl,
in being volatile ; whereas the calxes of all other metal¬
lic fubllances, not excepting thofe of the mod volatile
femi-metals, fuch as regulus of antimony and zinc, are
exceedingly fixed ; and fecondly, in having a faline eba-
radter, which is not found in any other metalline calx.
The faline chara&er of arfenic appears, firll, from its
being foluble in wat:r; fecondly, from its corrofive qua¬
lity, Which makes it none of the moll violent poifons:
a quality from which the other metallic fubllances are
free, when they are not combined with fome faline mat¬
ter. Regulus of antimony mull however be excepted:
but then the bed chemids agree, that this femi-metal is
either nearly of the fame nature with arfenic, or con¬
tains a portion thereof in its compofition: befides its
noxious qualities never difeover themfelves fo plainly as
when it is combined with fome acid. Ladly, arfenic
adls jud like the vitriolic acid upon nitre; that is, it
decompounds that neutral fait, by expelling its acid
from its alkaline balis, of which it takes poffeffion^ and
therewith forms a new faline compound.
This combination is a fpecies of fait that is perfectly
neutral. When the operation is performed in a clofe
velTei,. the fait ffioots into crydals in the form of right-
angled quadrangular prifms, terminated at each etremity
by pyramids that are alfo quadrangular and right-angled ;
fome of which, however, indead of ending in a point,
are obtufe as if truncated. The confequence is different
when the operation is performed in an open veffei; for
I S T R Y. 9r
then nothing is obtained but an alkaline fait impregnated
with arfenic, which cannot be cryflalfized.
The caufe of this different effeifl is this : When the
arfenic is once engaged in the alkaline bads of the nitre,
it can never be feparated from it by the utmod force of
fire, fo long as it is kept in a clofe veffei; whereas, if
you expofe it to the fire without that precaution, it readi¬
ly feparates from it.
This fait poffefles many Angular properties, the chief
of which are thefe : Fird, it cannot be decompounded
by the intervention of any acid, even the dronged acid
of vitriol; and this, joined to its property of expelling;
the nitrous acid from its balls, Ihews that it has a very
great affinity with fixed alkalis.
Secondly, this very fait, on which pure acids have no
effefl, is decompounded with the greated eife by acids
united with metallic fubdances. The reafon of this phe¬
nomenon is curious, and furnilhes us with an indance of
what we advanced concerning double affinities.
If to a folution of any metallic fubdance whatever,
made by any acid whatever,, (except that of mercury
by the marine acid, and that of gold by a
certain quantity of this fait diffolved in water be added,
the metallic fubdance is indantaneoufly feparated from
the acid in which it was diffolved, and falls to the bbttonr
of the liquor.
All metallic precipitates obtained in this manner are
found to ba a combination of the metal with arfenic;
whence it neceffarily follows that the neutral fait is by
this means decompounded, its arfenical part uniting with
the metallic fubdance, and its alkaline bads with the a-
cid in which that fubdance was diffolved.
The affinities of thefe feveral bodies mud be condder-
ed as operating on this occafion in the following manner:
The acids which tend to decompound the neutral fait
of arfenic, by virtue of their affinity with its alkaline
bads, are not able to accompliffi it, becaufe this affinity
is powerfully counteraded- by that which the arfenic has
with the fame alkaline bads, and which is equal or
even fuperior to theirs. But if thefe acids happen to
bd united with a fubdance which naturally has a very
great affinity with the arfenieal part of the neutral fait,
then, the two parts of which this fait confids, being
drawn different ways by two feveral affinities, tending to
feparate them from each other, the fait will undergo a
decompofition, v/hich could .not have been effeded with¬
out the help of this fecond affinity. Now, as metallic
fubdances have a great affinity with arfenic, it is not
furprifing that the neutral fait of arfenic, which cannot
be decompounded by a pure acid, Ihould neverthelefs'
yield to-an acid combined with a metal. The decompo¬
fition of this fait, therefore, and the precipitation which
of courfe it produces in metallic folutions, are brought
about by the means of a double affinity; namely, that
of the acid with the alkaline bafis of the neutral fait,
and that of the metal with the arfenical part of that
fait.
Arfenic has not the fame effed on fea-falt as on nitre,
and cannot expel its"acid: a very Angular phenomenon]
for which it is hard to affign a reafon; for the nitrous
acid?
92 .€ HEM
aci4 >8 known to have a greater affinity than the marine
acid with alkalis, and even with the bafts of fea-falt
i tie If.
. Yet arfenic may be combined with the bafis of fea-falt,
and a neutral fait thereby obtained, like that which re-
fults from the decompofition of nitre by arfenic : but for
that purpofe a quadrangular nitre mull be firft prepared,
and arfenic applied thereto as to common nitre.
. The fait produced by uniting arfenic with the bafis of
fea-falt very much refembles the neutral fah of arfenic
above treated of, as well in the figure of its cryftals as
in its feveral properties.
Arfenic prefents another fingular phenomenon, both
with the alkali of nitre and with that of fea-falt; which
is, that,if it be combined with thefeTales in a fluid (late,
it forms with them a faline compound, quite different
from the neutral fairs of arfenic which refults from the
decomppfition of nitrous falts. ■
This faline compound, called liver of arfenic, takes
up a much greater quantity of arfenic than is necefl’ary
for the perfed; faturation of the alkali. It has th.e ap¬
pearance of a glue, which is fo much the thicker the
more arfenip it contains. Its fmell is.difitgreeable.; it
attracts the moiflure of the air, and does not cryflallize;
it is eafily decompounded by any acid whatever, which
precipitates the arfenic arid unites with the alkali. Laffv
ly, the jeffeidsit produces on metallic folutions are differ¬
ent. from thofe offour neutral arfenical falts,.
Arfenic, is eafily reduced to a regulus. It need only
be mixed with any matter containing the phlogifton, and
by the help of a moderate heat, a true regulus will fub-
l .ne. This regulus,is very volatile, and calcines with
the grcatell eafe; which is the reafon why it cannot be
Obtained but, in frnall quantities; and alfo why, in order
to obtain maffes of it, fome have thought of adding
thereto fpme metal with which it has a great affinity,
fuch as copper or iron ; becaule, by joining with the me¬
tal, it is partly fixed arid reffrained from flying off. But
it is plain the regulus obtained by this means is not
pure, as it mull partake corifiderahly of the metal em¬
ployed.
Arfenic readily unites with fulphur, and rifes with it
in.a yellow compound called drpiment.
Sulphur cannot be feparated from arfenic but by the
intervention of two bodies only; to wii, a fixed alkali
and mercury.
The property which mercury poffeffes of feparating
fulphur from arfenic is founded on this, that thefe two
metallic fubffances are incapable of contradling any uni¬
on; whereas, though moft of the other metals and femi-
metals have a greater affinity with fulphur than mercury
hath, nevertbelefs they are all unable to decompound
orpiment; becaufe fome of them have as great an affinity
with arfenic as with fulphur ; others have no affinity with
either; and laftly, fulphur hath as great an affinity with
arfenic as with any of them.
It muff be obferved, that, if fixed alkalis be employed
to purify arfenic in this manner, no more muft be ufed
than is neceffary to abforb the fulphur or the phlogifton,
of which alfo it is their nature to deprive arfenic; for o-.
therwife, as it has been ftiewn that arfenic readily unites
I S T R Y.
with alkalis, they would abforb a confiderable quantity
thereof.
Of Oil in general.
Oil is an un&uous body, which burns and con-
fumes with flame and fmoke, and is not foluble in water.
It confifts of the phlogifton united with water by means of
an acid. There is, moreover, in its compofition a cer¬
tain proportion of earth, more or lefs according to each
feveral fort of oil.
The inflammability of oil evidently proves that it con¬
tains the phlogiftoa. That an acid is one of its confti-
tuent principles many experiments demonftrate, of whirih
thefe are the chief: If certain oils be long' triturated
with an alkaline fait, agd the alkali afterwards diffolved
in water, cryftals of a true neutral fait will be ptoducrid:
fome metals, and particularly copper, are corroded arid
rufted by oils,1 juft as they are by acids: again, acid
cryftals are found in fome oils that have been long kept.
This acid in oil ferres undoubtedly to unite its phlogi-
ftori with it's water ;. becaufe thefe two fubftahees havritig
no affinity with each other cannot be united without5the
intervention of fuch a medium as an acid, which has an
affiriity with* both. As to the exiftence of water in oils,
it appears plainly when they are decompofed by repeated
diftillatiqns, efpecially after mixing them with abforbent
earths. Lafftly, when an oil is deftroyed by .burning, a
certaiirquantity of earth is conftantly left behind.
Oils expofed to the fire in clofie yeflels pafs over almoft
wholly from the containing.veffel into,any rither applied
to receive them. There remains, however, a fmall
quantity of black matter, which is extremely fixed5, and
continues unalterable as long as it has no communication
with the external air, be the force of the-jire ever fo vio¬
lent. This matter is no other than part of the phlofti-
fton of the oil united with its moft liked and groffeft:
earth ; and this is what we called charcoal, or plainly a
coal.
Of Charcoal.
When oil happens to be united to much earth, as it
is in vegetable and animal bodies, it leaves-a confiderable
quantity of coal or charred matter.
This coal, expofed to the fire in the open air, burns
and waftes, but without blazing like other combuftible
matters: there appears only a fmall bluifti flame, but not
the leaft fmoke. Moft commonly it only glows and
fparkles, and fo gradually falls into alhes, which are
nothing but the earth of the body combined with an alka¬
line fait in burning. This alkaline fait may be feparated
from the earth, by lixiviating the allies with water, which
diffolves all the fait, and leaves the earth quite pure.
Charcoal is unalterable and indeftruflible by any other
body but fire; whence it follows, that when it is not
actually kindled and ignited, the moft powerful agents,
Tuch as the acids, though ever fo ftrong and concentra¬
ted, have not the leaft effeA on it.
The cafe is otherwife when it is lighted, that is, when
its phlogifton begins to feparate from its earth; for then
the pure acid of vitriol being joined therewith contrails
C H E M
an instantaneous union with its phlogifton, and evaporates
in a volatile fulphureous fpirit. If the vitriolic acid, in-
ftead of being applied quite pure, be firlt clogged with
fome bafis, efpecially an alkaline one, it quits that bafis,
enters into a more intimate union with the phlogifton of
the burning coal, and fo forms an adiual fulphur, with
which the alkali now unites and forms a hepar.
The pure acid fea-falt hath not been obferved to aft
in the lead upon charcoal, efpecially when it is not on
fire. But when this acid is incorporated with an alkaline
or metallic bafis,' and combined according to a peculiar
procefs with burning charcoal, it in like manner quits its
bafis, unites with the phlogifton, and therewith forms a
phofphorus.
Nor has the pure nitrous acid any effeft on a charred
coal, even when ignited: and fo far is it from being
able to kindle a cold one, that when poured on a live
one, it extinguifhes it like water. But when this acid
'is ;i ;ited with a bafis, it quits it, rapidly as foon as it
touches ^ burning coal, and rulhes violently into an uni-
.on A'lth the phlogifton thereof. From this union there
probably arifes, as we faid before, a kind of fulphur or
phofphorus, which is fo inflammable as to be deftroyed
by the fire the very moment it is generated.
The acids of nitre and vitriol aft upon oils ; but very
differently, according to the quantity of phlegm they con¬
tain. If they be awakened with much water, they have
no efFeft at all upon oils : if they contain little water, or
be dephlegmated to a certain degree, they dilfolve them
with heat, artd with them form compounds of a thick
confiftence. Acids thus combined in a confiderable pro¬
portion with oils render them foluble in water.
r Of Soap.
Alkalis alfo have the fame property. When an oil
is combined with an acid, or an alkali, in fuch a manner
that the compound refulting from their union is foluble in
water; fuch a compound may in general be called foap.
Soap itfelf hath the property of rendering fat bodies in
fome meafure foluble in water; on which account it is
very ufeful for fcouring or cleanfing any thing greafy.
Oily and faline fubftances, combined together, obferve
the fame general rules as all other combinations; that is,
they mutually communicate the properties belonging to
each : thus oils, which naturally are not foluble in water,
acquire by their union with faline matters the property of
diflblving therein ; and falts lofe by their conjunftion with
oils part of their natural tendency to incorporate with water;
fo that while they ferve to conftitute foap, they do not, as
before, attraft the moifture of the air, foe. and in like
manner, as they are not inflammable, they confiderably
leflen the inflammability of the oils combined with them.
Acid fqaps are decompounded by alkalis, as alkaline
foaps are by acids, according to the general rules of affi¬
nities.
. The acids of nitre and vitriol, when highly concen¬
trated, diflblve oils with fuch violence as to heat them,
make them black, burn them, and even fet them on fire.
How fea-fealt affefts oils is not yet fufficiently afeertained.
All oils have the property of diflblvuig fulphur ; which
Vol. II. No. 34. • 3
I S T R Y. 93
is not at all furprifing, feeing each of its component prin¬
ciples hath an affinity with oil.
It is alfo a property common to all oils tp become more
fluid, fubtile, light, and limpid, the oftener they are di-
ftilled. On the contrary, by being incorporated with
faline fubftances they acquire a greater confiftence, and
fometimes form compounds that are almoft folid.
Of the federal forts of Oils.
Oils are'diftinguiffied by the fubftances from which
they are drawn : and as oils are extrafted from minerals,
from vegetables, and from animals, there are of courfe
mineral, vegetable, and animal dils.
(?/ Mineral Oils.
In the bowels of the earth we find but one fort of oil,
called pitr«leum : Its fmell is Itrong, and not difagree-
able, and its colour fometimes more, fometimes lefs yel¬
low. There are certain mineral fubftances which yield
by diftillation a great deal of oil very like petroleum.
This fort of fubftance is called a bitumen, and is, indeed,
nothing but an oil rendered confiftent and folid by beinw
combined with an acid ; as appears from hence, that, by
uniting petroleum with the acid of vitriol, we can pro¬
duce an artificial bitumen very like the native.
<?/ Vegetable Oils.
Vegetable fubftances yield a very great quantity
and variety of oils ; for there is not a plant, or part of
a plant, that does not contain one or more forts there¬
of, generally peculiar to itfelf, and different from all
others.
By expreffion only, that is, by bruifing and fqueezing
vegetable fubftances, particularly certain fruits and feeds,
a fort of oil is obtained which has fcarce any fmell or
tafte. Oils of this fort are very mild and unftuous; and,
becaufe in this refpeft they refemble animal fat more than
the reft do ; they are called fat oils.
Thefe oils, being expofed to the air for fome time,
fooner or later grow thick, acquire an acrid tafte, and a
ftrong difagreeable fmell. Some of them congeal with
the fmalleft degree of cold. This fort of oil is well ad¬
apted to diflblve thofe preparations of lead Called li¬
tharge and minium, with which they form a thick tena¬
cious fubftance, that is ufed for the bafis of almoft all
plaifters. They alfo diflblve lead in its metalline form,
but not fo eafily as the forts of calx above-mentioned ;
probably bocaufe its body is not fo much opened, nor its
parts fo divided.
By expreffion alone we alfo procure from cert^jn vege¬
table fubftances another fort of oil, which is thin, lim¬
pid, volatile, of a pungent tafte, and retains the fmell of
the vegetable that yielded it; on which account it is
called an effential oil. Of this there are feveral forts,
differing from one another, like the fat oils, according to
the fubjefts from which they are obtained.
We muft obferve, that it is very difficult, or rather in
moft cafes impoffible, to force from the greateft part of
vegetables, by exprelfion only, all the effential oil they
2 A contain.
P4 C H E M I
contain. For this purpofe, therefore, recourfe mud be
had to fire : a gentle heat, not exceeding that of boiling
water, will extradf all the eflential oils of a vegetable ;
and this is the mod ufual and mod convenient way of pro¬
curing them.
The fat oils cannot be obtained by the fame method :
thefe being much lefs volatile than the efiential oils, re¬
quire a much greater degree of heat to raife them ;
which, neverthelefs, they cannot bear without being
much fpoiled and entirely changed in their nature, as {hall
prefently be fhewn. All oils, therefore, which rife with
the heat of boiling water, and fuch alone, Ihould be call¬
ed edentiaf oils.
Eflential oils, in a longer or ftiorter time, according to
the nature of each, lofe the fragrant fmell they had when
newly diddled, and acquire another which is drong,
rancid, and much lefs agreeable : They alfo lofe their te¬
nuity, becoming thick and vifeid ; and in this date they
greatly refemble thofe fubdances abounding in oil which
flow from certain trees, and which are called balfams or
rejins, according as they are lefs or more confident.
Balfams and refins are not foluble in water. But
there are other oily compounds which likewife run from
trees ; and, though not unlike refins, ate however fo¬
luble in water. Thefe are called gums ; sand their pro¬
perty of dtflblving in water arifes from their containing
more water and more fait than refins have ; or at lead
their faline parts are lefs clogged and more difengaged.
Balfams and refins diflilled with the heat of boiling
water yield great quantities of a limpid, fubtile, odori¬
ferous, and, in one word, eflential oil. In the dill there
remains a fubdance thicker and more confident than the
balfam or refin was before didillation. The fame thing
happens to eflential oils which by length of time have ac¬
quired a confidence, and are grown refinous. If they be
redidilled, they recover their former tenuity, leaving be¬
hind them a remainder thicker and more refinous than
they themfelves were. This fecond didillation is called
the rcdification of an oil.
It mud be obferved, that an eflential oil, combined
with an acid drong enough to diflblve it, immediately
becomes as thick and refinous, in confequence of this
union, as if it had been long expofed to the air ; which
proves the confidence an oil acquires by long keeping to
be owing to this, that its lighted and lefs acid parts be¬
ing evaporated, the proportion of its acid to the remain¬
der is fo increafed, that it produces therein the fame
change as an additional acid mixed with the oil would
have wrought before the evaporation.
This alfo fliewsus, that balfams and refins are only ef-
fential oils combined With a great proportion of acid, and
thereby thickened.
If vegetable fubdances, from which no more eflential
oil can be drawn by the heat of boiling water, be ex¬
pofed to a dronger heat, they yield an additional quan
tity of oil ; but it is thicker and heavier than the eflen-
tialoil. Thef oils are black, and have a very difagree-
able burnt fmell which hath m tde them be called fetid,
or empyreumatic oils. They are moreover very acrid.
It mud be obferved, that if a vegetable fubdance be
expofed to a degree of heat greater than that of boiling
S T R Y.
water, before the fat or the eflential oil is extracted from
it, an empyreumatic oil only will then be ob ained; be-
caufe both the fat and eflential oils, when expbfed to the
force of fire, are thereby burnt, rendered acrid, acquire
a fmell of the fire, and, in a word, become truly empy¬
reumatic. There is ground to think, that an empyreuma¬
tic oil is nothing elfe but an eflential or fat oil burnt and-
fpoiled by the fire, and that no other oil befides thefe two
exids naturally in vegetables.
Empyreumatic oils, diflilled and reftified feveral times
by a gentle heat, acquire by every didillation a greater
degree of tenuity, lightnefs, and limpidity. By this
means alfo they lofe fomething of their difagreeable o-
dour ; fo that they gradually come nearer and nearer to
the nature of eflential oils : and if the re&ifications be
often enough repeated, ten or twelve times for inflance,
they become perfeftly like thofe oils ; except that their
fmell will never be fo agreeable, nor like that of the fub-
flances from which they were obtained.
Fat oils may alfo be brought by the fame means to re¬
femble eflential oils : but neither eflential nor empyreu'-
matic oils are capable of acquiring the properties of fat
oils.
Of Animal Oils.
Distillation procures us confiderable quantities of
oil from all the parts of animal bodies, and efpecially
from their fat. This oil at firft is not very fluid, and is
extremely fetid ; but by many redfifications it gradually
acquires a great degree of clearnefs and tenuity, and at
the fame time lofes much of its difagreeable odour.
Of Fermentation in general.
By fermentation is meant an intedine motion, which,
arifing fpontaneoufly among the infenfible parts of a body,
produces a new difpofition and a different combination of
thofe parts.
To excite a fermentation in a mixt body, it is necef-
fary, fird, that there be in the compofition of that mixt a
ceriain proportion of watery, faline, oily, and earthy
parts; but this proportion is not yet fufficientlyafeer-
tained. Secondly, it is requifite that the body to be fer¬
mented be placed in a certain degree of temperate heat;
for much cold obflrudls fermentation, and too much heat
decompofes bodies. Ladly. the concurrence of the air.
is alfo neceflary to fermentation.
All vegetable and animal fubflances are fufceptible of
fermentation, becauf all of them contain in a due pro¬
portion the principles above fpecified. However, many
of them want the proper quantity of water, and cannot
ferment while they remain in fuch a date of drinefs. But
it is eafy to fupply that defeft.
With refpedt to minerals properly fo called, they are
not fubjedt to any fermentation, at lead that our fenfes
can perceive.
There are three forts of fermentation, diflinguifhed
from one another by their feveral produdlions. The firfl
produces wines and fpiritous liquors ; for which reafon
it is called the vinous ox fpirituous fermentatioss: The
refult of the fecond is an acid liquor : and therefore it is
called
C H E M
called the acetous fermentation : and the third generates
an alkaline fait; which, however, differs from the alka¬
line falls hitherto treated of, in this refped chiefly, ihat,
inflead of being fixed, it is extremely volatile : This laft
fort takes the name of the putrid or putnfattive fervien-
tati'.n. We (hall now confider thefe three forts of fer¬
mentation and their effedts a little more particularly.
Thefe three forts of fermentation may take place fuc-
ceflively in the fame fubjeft ; which proves them to be
only three different degrees of fermentation, all proceed¬
ing from one and the fame caufe. Thefe degrees of fer¬
mentation always follow the order in which we have here
placed them.
Of the Spiritu ous, or Vinous Fer¬
mentation.
The juices of almofl all fruits, all faccharine vege¬
table matters, all farinaceous feeds and grains of every
kind, being diluted with a fufficient quant ty of water,
are proper-fubjedts of fpirituous fermentation. If fuch
liquors be expofed, in veffels flightly flopped, to a mo¬
derate degree of heat, they begin in fome time to grow
turbid ; there arifes infenfibly a fmall commotion among
their parts, attended with a hiding noife ; this by little
and little increafes, till the grofl’er parts appear, like lit¬
tle feeds or grains, moving to and fro, agitated among
themfelves, and thrown up to the furface. At the fame
time fome air-bubbles rife, and the liquor acquires a pun¬
gent, penetrating fmell, occafioned by the very fubtile
vapours which exhale from it.
Thefe vapours have never yet been colledfed, in order
to examine their nature ; and they are known only by
their noxious eflfedts They are fo adtively pernicious,
that if a man comes rafhly into a clofe place, where large
quantities of liquors are fermenting, he fuddenly drops
down and expires, as if he were knocked on the head.
When thefe feveral phenomena begin to go off, it is
proper to flop the fermentation, if a very fpirituous liquor
be required : for if it be fuffered to continue longer, the
liquor will become acid, and from thence proceed to its
lafl flage, that is, to putrefadfion This is done by flop¬
ping the containing veffels very clofe, and removing them
into a cooler place. Then the impurities precipitate,
and fettling at the bottom leave the liquor clear and
tranfparent : And now the palate difcovers that the
fweet faccharine tafte it had before fermentation is
changed to an agreeable pungency which is not acid.
Liquors thus fermented are in general called ‘wines :
For though in commoa life that word properly fignifies
the fermented juice of grapes only, and particular names
ar given to the fermented juices of other vegetable fub-
ftances, as that obtained from apples, is called cyders’,
that made from malt is called beer; yet in chemiftry it
is ot ufe to have one general term denoting every liquor
that has undergone this (irft degree of fermentation.
By diftillatibn we draw from wine an inflammable li¬
quor, of a yellowifli white colour, light, and of a pene¬
trating pleafant fmell. This I quor is the truly fpirnuous
part of the wine, and the piodudl of fermentation.- That
which, comes off in the. firft. diflillation is commonly
I S T R Y. 95
loaded with much phlegm and fome oily parts, from which
it ^nay be afterwards freed. In this ftate it goes by the
name of brandy •, b\n, when freed from thefe heteroge¬
neous matters by repeated diflillations, it becomes flill
clearer, lighter, more fragrant, and much more inflam¬
mable, and then Is called fpirit of ‘wine, and rectified
fpirit of <wtne. or ardent fpirits, if confiderably puri¬
fied. The properties which diflingtiifh an ardent fpirjt
from all other fubflances are, its being inflammable ; its
burning and confuming entirely, without the leaft ap¬
pearance of fmoke or fuliginofity ; its containing no par¬
ticles reducible to a coal; and its being perfectly mifei-
-ble with water. Ardent fpirits are lighter and more vo¬
latile than any of the principles of the mixts from which
they were produced, and confequently more fo than the
phlegm, the acid, and the oil of which they themlelves
confifl. This arifes from a particular difpofition of thefe
principles, which are in a Angular manner attenuated by
fermentation, and thereby rendered more fufceptible of
expanfion and rarefaftion.
Ardent fpirits are fuppofed to be the natural folvent5
of oils and oily matters. But it is very'remarkable, that
they diflolve effential oils only, without touching the fat
of animals, or the fat oils obtained from vegetables by
expreflion; yet when thefe oils have once undergone the
atftion of fire,, they become foluble in fpirit of wine, and
even acquire a new degree of folubility every time they
are diflilled. It is not fo with eflential oils, which can
never be rendered more foluble in ardent fpirits than they
are at firfl ; and are fo far from acquiring a new degree
of folubility every time they are diftilled, that on the
contrary they even in fome meafure lofe that property by-
repeated reftifications.
Spirit of wine doth not diflolve fixed alkalis; or at
leaft it takes up but a very fmall quantity thereof; and
hence- ardent fpirits may be freed from much of their
phlegm by means of thefe falts thoroughly dried: For as
they ftrongly imbibe moifture, and have even a greater
affinity than ardent fpirits wdth water, if a fixed alkali
well exficcated be mixed with fpirit of wine that is not
perfeftly dephlegmated, the alkali immediately attra&s
its fuperfluous moifturc, and is thereby refolved into a
liquor, which on account of its gravity defeends to the
bottom of the veflel. The fpirit of wine, which fwims
a-top, is by this means as much deghlegmated, and as.
dry, as if it had been reeftified by Teveral diftillations.
As it takes up fome alkaline particles in this operation, it
is thereby qualifiedto diflolve oily matters with the great¬
er facility When redified in this manner, it is called
tartarifed fpirst of 'wine
Yet fpirit of wine, even when redified to an alcohol,
is not capable of diflblving all oily matters. Thofe
named gums will by no means enter into any fort of union
therewith ; but it readily diflblves moft- of thofe which
are known by the appellation of refins. When it has
diflolved a certain proportion of refinous particles, it ac¬
quires a- greater conliflence, and forms what is called, a
/pit it varnijh,. or a drying varnijh, becaule it foon dries.
This varniih is fubjed to be damaged by water. Many
forts thereof are prepared, different from each other ac¬
cording to the.different refins employed, or the propor¬
tions.
96 C H E M I
tions in which they are ufed. Moft of thefe varnifhes are
tranfparent and colourlefs. «.
Such bitumens or refins as fpirit of -wine will not touch
are diffolved in oils by means of fire, and then form an¬
other kind of varniih which water does not hurt. Thefe
varnifhes are ufually coloured, and require much longer
time to dry than the fpirit-varnifhes: They are called
oil-varnijhes.
Spirit of wine hath a much greater affinity with water
than with oily matters ; and therefore if a folution of
any oil or refin in fpirit of wine be mixed with water,
the liquor immediately grows turbid, and acquires a
■whitifh milky colour, owing entirely to the oily parts be¬
ing feparated from the fpirituous menftruum by the ac-
ceffion of water, and too finely divided to appear in their
natural form. But if the liquor (lands fome time quiet,
feveral of thefe particles unite together, and gradually
acquire a bulk fufficient to render them very perceptible
to the’eye.
Acids have an affinity with fpirit of wine, and may be
combined with it. By this union they lofe moft of their
acidity, and on that account are faid to be dulcified.
One part of highly concentrated oil of vitriol being
mixed with four parts of well dephlegmated /pirit of
wine, there arifes immediately a confiderable ebullition
and effervefcence, attended with great heat, and abun¬
dance of vapours, which fmell pleafantly, but are hurt¬
ful to the lungs. At the fame time is heard a hilling
Tike that produced by a piece of red-hot iron plunged in
water. Indeed it is proper to mix the liquors very gra¬
dually; for otherwife the veffels in which the operation
is performed will be in great danger of breaking.
If two liquors thus mixed be diftilled with a very gen¬
tle heat, there rifes firfl a fpirit of wine of a moft pene¬
trating and grateful odour: When about half thereof is
come over, what follows has a quicker and more fulphu-
reous fmell, and is alfo more loaded with phlegm. When
the liquor begins to boil a little, there comes off a
phlegm which fmells very ftrong of fulphur, and grows
gradually more acid. On this phlegm floats a fmall
quantity of a very light and very limpid oil. In the ftill
there remains a thick, blackilh fubftance, fomewhat like
a refin or bitumen. From this fubftance may be fepara¬
ted a good deal of a vitriolic but fulphureous acid.
When that is extracted, there remains a black mafs like
a charred coal, which, being put into a crucible, and
expofed to a violent heat, leaves a fmall portion of earth,
very fixed, and even vitrifiable.
By rectifying the ardent fpirit, which came over in di-
ftilling the above-mentioned mixture, a very fingular li¬
quor is obtained, which differs effentially both from oils
and from ardent fpirits, though in certain refpefts it re-
fembles them both. This liquor is known in chemiftry
by the name of <ether, and its chief properties are as
follows.
JEther is lighter, more volatile, and more inflamma¬
ble, than the moft highly rectified fpirit of wine. It
quickly flies off when expofed to the air, and fuddenly
catches fire when any flame approaches it. It burns like
fpirit of wine without the leaf! fmoke, and confumes en¬
tirely without leaving the fraalleft appearance of a coal or
S T R Y.
of afhes. It diffolves oils and oily matters with great
eafe and rapidity. Thefe properties it has in common
with an ardent fpirit. But it refembles an oil, in that it
is not mifcible with water; and this makes it effentially
different from fpirit of wine, the nature of which is to be
mifcible with all aqueous liquors.
Another very fingular property of aether is its great
affinity with gold, exceeding even that of aqua regis.
It does not indeed diffolve gold when in a mafs, and in
its metalline form: But if a fmall quantity of anher be
added to a folution of gold in aqua regis, and the whole
fhaken together, the gold feparates from the aqua regis,
joins the aether, and remains diffolv,ed therein.
The reafon of all the phenomena above-mentioned,
refulting from the mixture of fpirit of wine with oil of
vitriol, is founded on the great affinity between this acid
and water. For if the vitriolic acid be weak, and as it
were over-dofed with watery parts, neither oil nor aether
can be obtained by means thereof: But when highly con¬
centrated, it attraCls the aqueous parts very powerfully;
and therefore being mixed with fpirit of wine, lays hold
of moft of the water contained in it, and even robs it of
fome portion of that which is effendal to its nature, and
neceffary to conftitute it fpirit of wine: Whence it comes
to pais, that a certain quantity of the oily particles in its
compofition being feparated from the watery particles,
and fo brought nearer to each other, they unite and af-
fume their natural form ; and thus the oil that fwims at
top of the fulphureous phlegm is produced.
The vitriolic acid moreover thickens and even burns
fome of this oil; and hence comes the bituminous refidu-
um left at the bottom of the ftill, which looks like the
refult of a vitriolic acid combined with common oil.
Laftly, the vitriolic acid becomes fulphureous, as it al¬
ways doth when united with oily matters, and alfo very
aqueous, on account of the quantity of phlegm which it
attracts from the fpirit of wine.
Aither may be confidered as a fpirit of wine exceed¬
ingly dephlegm^ted, even to fuch a degree that its na¬
ture is thereby changed ; fo that the few aqueous parti¬
cles 1'eft in it are not fufficient to diffolve the oily par¬
ticles and keep them afunder ; which therefore being now
much nearer to one another than in common fpirit of
wine, the liquor hath loft its property of' being mifcible
with water.
Spirit of nitre, well dephlegmated, and combined with
fpirit of wine, prefents likewife fome very finnuiar ap¬
pearances.
Firft, in the very inftant of its mixture with fpirit of
wine, it produces a greater and more violent effervef¬
cence than the vitriolic acid occafions.
Secondly, this mixture, without the help of diftilla-
tion, and only by flopping the bottle in which the li¬
quors are contained, affords a fort of aether, produced
probably by the vapours which afeend from, and fwim a-
top of the mixture.
Thirdly, fome authors pretend, that, by diftilling the
mixture under confideration an oil is obtained greatly re-
fembling that which rifes from fpirit of wine combined
with vitriolic acid.
Fourthly, the two liquors we are fpeaking of, being
intimately
CHE M
intimately mixed by diftillation, form a liquor llightly
acid, ufed in medicine, and known by the name of J-uicet
Of dulcifiedfpirit of nitre: a very proper name, fee¬
ing the nitrous acid, by uniting with the ipirit of wine,
actually lofes almoft all its acidity and corrolive quality.
Fifthly, when the didillation is iimfhed, there remains
in the bottom of the veffel a thick, biackifli fnbilance,
nearly refembling that, which is found after diftilling oil
of vitriol and fpirit of wdne.
Spirit of fait hath likewife been combined with fpirit
of wine; but it does not unite therewith fo eafily or fo
intimately as the two acids above mentioned. To mix
. them thoroughly, the fpirit of• fait mult be highly con
centrated, and fmoking; aud moreover the affiltance of
the ftili mun be called in. , Some guthors pretend, that
from this mixture alfo a' fmall quantity of oil maybe ob-
tairifd ; Which probably happens when the .liquors have
the qualities above fpecified- The marine .acid likewife,
by uniting with fpirit of Wine, lofes moll: of its acidity,
on which account it is in like manner called fvjset or
d’ulcifiei fpirit of fait. A thick rehduum is alfo found
here after diffillation.
Of the A C E T O V S F E R M E N T A T 1 O N .
Besides an ardent fpirit, wine affords a great deal of
water, Oil, earth, and a fort of acid which ihall be eon-
fidered prefently. When the fpirituous ;part is feparated
from thefe other matters, theyundergq no further change.
But if all the conllituent parts of wine remain combined
together, then, after fome time, (hotter or longer as the
degree of heat in which the wine (lands is greater or lefs,
the fermentation begins afrefli, or rather arrives at its
fecondttage. The liquoronce more grows turbid, a new
inteftine motion arifes, and after fome days it is found
changed into an acid; which, however, is very diffe¬
rent from thofe hitherto treated of. The liquor then
takes the name of vinegar. The acetous fermentation
differs from the fpirituous, not only in its effedf, but al¬
fo in feveral of its concomitant circumdances. Moderate
motion is of fervice to this, wheVeas it obdruffs the fpi¬
rituous ; and it is attended with much more warmth than
the fpirituous. The vapours it produces are not noxi¬
ous, like thofe' of fermenting wine, Ladly, Vinegar
depodtes no tartar, even when the wine employed in this
operation is quite new, and hath not had time to dif-
charge its tartar: indead of tartar, vinegar depoGtes a
vifcid matter which is very apt to putrify.
Of Vinegar.
If wine, which has gone through this fecond dage of
fermentation, be diddled, indead of an ardent fpirit,
only an acid liquor is obtained, which is called diflilled
vinegar.
This acid has the fame properties as the mineral acids; •
that is, it unites with alkaline fairs, abforbent earths,
and metallic fubdances, and therewith forms neutral fa-
line combinations.
Its affinity with thefe fubdances obferves the fame or¬
der as that obferved by the mineral acids with regard to
Vot. II. No. 34. 3
I S T R Y. 97
the fame fubdances; but in general it is weaker; that is,
any mineral acid is capable of expelling die acid of vine¬
gar out of all matters with which it is united.
Vinegar hath likewife a greater affinity than fulphur
with alkalis : whence it follows, that it is capable of de-
. compounding that combination'of fulphur with an alkali
-called liver of fulphur, and of precipitating the fulphur
it contains.
The acid of vinegar, is always clogged with a certain
proportion of oily parts, which greatlywtaken.it, and
deprive it of much of its aftivity; and for this reafon it is
not near fo drong as the mineral acids, which are not en¬
tangled with any oil. By didillation, indeed, it may be
freed from this oil, and at the fame time from the great
quantity of water which in a manner ftiffocatCs it, and
by that means may be brought much nearer to the na¬
ture of the mineral acids: but this attempt hath not yet
been profecuted with the affiduit-y it deferves'. BeGdes
didillation; there is another way of freeing vinegar from
a good deal of its phlegm; and that is, by expoGng it
to a hard frod, which readily congeals the watery pait
into ice, while the acid retains its fluidity.
' Vinegar, faturated with a flxed alkali, forms a neutral
oily fait, of a dark colour, which is femi-volatile, melts
with a very gentle heat, flames when thrown upon burn¬
ing coals, and diffolves in fpirit of wine, of which, how¬
ever, it requires Gx parts to complete the folution. This
folution being evaporated to drinefs leaves a matter in the
form of leaves lying on each other; on which account it
hath obtained the name of terra foliata.. The fame
foliated matter will be obtained, though Hie fait, bib not
previoufly diffolved in fpitit of wine; but not fd readily.
This fait is alfo called regenerated tartar, tinder the
head of tartar we (hall fee the reafon of thefe different
appellations. Regenerated tartar is alfo in fome degree
capable of crydallizing : for this purpofe a refolution
thereof in water mud be flowly evaporated to the con¬
fidence of a fyrup, and then differed to dand quiet in a
cool place; by which means it will (hoot into cluflers of
crydals, lying one upon another, not unlike the feathers
on a quill.
With vinegar and feveral abforbent earths, fuch as
calcined pearls, coral, (hells of flflr, <bc. are alfo formed
neutral faline compounds, each of which take the name
of the particular earth employed in its compoGtion.
Vinegar perfeftly diffolves lead, and converts it to a
neutral metallic fait, which (hoots into crydals, and has
a fweet faccharine tade. This compound is called figar
of lead, or fal Saturni.
If lead be expofed to the bare vapour of vinegar, it
will be thereby corroded, calcined, and converted into a
white matter much ufed in painting, and known by the
name of cerufe, or, when it is Gner .than ordinary,
nuhite-lead.
Vinegar corrodes copper likewife, and converts it into
a beautiful green rud, which alfo is ufed in painting, and
didinguilhed by the name of verdegris. However, vi¬
negar is not commonly employed to make verdegris: for
this purpofe they ufe wine, or the rape of wine, from
'which fire extricates an acid analogous to that of vinegar.
2 B Of
98
C H E M I
©/Tartar.
This fub^ance is a faline compound, confifting of
earthy, oily, and efpecially acid parts It is found in the
form of crufts, adhering to the inner fides of veffels in
which wines have ftood for fome time, particularly acid
wines, fuch as thofe of Germany.
Tartar derives its origin from the fuperabundant quan¬
tity of the acid contained in the juice of the grape.
Tnis fuperfluous acid, being more than is requifite to
conftitute the ardent fpirit, unites with fome of the oil
and earth contained in the fermented liquor, and forms
a kind of fait; which for fome time continues fufpended
in that liquor, but, when the wine (lands undifturbed in
a cool pla^e, is depofited, as hath been faid, on the fides.
of the cade.
When it is purified; there appears On the furface of
the liquor a fort of white cryftalline pellicle, which is
Ikimtried off as it forms. This matter is called cream
t>f tartar. The fame liquor which produces this cream,
and in which the purified tartar is diflblved, being fet to
cool, yields a great number of white femi-tranfparent
cryftals, which are Called cryftttls of tartar. 'The
cream and the cryftals of tartar are therefore no other
than purified tartar, and differ from each other in their
form only.
Though the cryftals of tartar have every appearance of
a neutral fait, yet they are far from being fuch; for
they have all'the properties of a true acid, which fcarce
differs from that of vinegar, except that it contains lefs
water* and more earth and oil; to which it owes its folid
form, as well as its property of not being foluble in water
without much difficulty: for a very great quantity of wa¬
ter is requifite to keep the bryftals of tartar in folution;
and it muft moreover be boiling hot; otherwife as foon
as it cools moft of the tartar diffolved in it feparates from
the liquor, and falls to the bottom in the form of a white
powder.
Tartar is decompofed by calcination in the open fire.
All its oily parts are confumed or diffipated in fmoke,
together with moft of its acid. The other part of its
acid, uniting intimately with its earth, forms a vent
ftrong and very pure fixed alkali, called fait of tartarl
It will be (hewn in its proper place, that almoft every
vegetable matter, as well as tartar, leaves a fixed alkali
in its affies : yet tartar has thefe peculiar properties;
flrft, it affumes an alkaline charafter even when burnt or
calcined in clofe veffels, whereas other fubftances ac¬
quire it only by being burnt in the open air; (econdly, the
alkali of tartar is (trOnger and more faline than almoft
any that is obtained from other matters.
This alkali, when thoroughly calcined, powerfully at-
trafts the moifture of the air, and melts into an unftu-
cus alkaline liquor, improperly called oil of tartar per
deliquium. This is the alkali generally ufed in,making the
terra foliata, mentioned under the head of vinegar; for
which reafon this combinationis called terrafoliata tartari.
Cryftals of tartar combined with alkali of tartar pro¬
duce a great effervefcence while they are mixing, as all
acids ufually do, and if the combination be brought ex¬
actly up to the point of faturation, a perfedtlj neutral
S T R Y.
fait is formed, which (hoots into fcryftals, and eafily dif-
folves in water; and this hath procured it the name of
foluble tartar. It is alfo called the vegetable fait,
as being obtained from vegetables only; and again
tartarifed tartar, becaufe it confifts of the acid and
the alkali of tartar combined together.
Cryftals of tartar combined with alkalis procured from
the alhes of fea-weeds, fuch as foda, which alkalis re-
femble the bafis of fea-falt, form likewife a neutral fait,
which cryftallizes well, and diftblves eafily in water.
This fait is another fort of foluble tartar. It is called
Saignette's fait, from the inventor’s name.
Tartar likewife diffolves the abforbent earths, as lime,
chalk, and with^them forms neutral falts which are
foluble in water. It^even attacks metallic bodies, and
when combined with them becomes foluble. A foluble
tartar for medical ufe is prepared with cryrtals of tartar
and iron : the metallic fait thereby produced hath the
name of chalybeated foluble tartar. This fait attracts
the moifture of the air, and is one of thofe which do not
cryftallize.
Cryftallized tartar ads alfo upon feveral other metallic
fubftances : for inftance, it diffolves the regulus, liver,
and glafs of antimony, and thence acquires an emetic qua¬
lity : It is then called fibiated, or emetic tartar. It
likewife diffolves lead, and therewith forms a fait which,
in the figure of its cryftals, refembles tartarifed tartar.
It is very extraordinary, that tartar, which of itfelf is
not foluble in water, (hould be foluble therein when be¬
come a neutral fait by uniting either with alkalis or with
abforbent earths, or even with metals. All the foluble
tartars are eafily decompounded by expofing them to a
certain degree of neat. In diftillation they yield the fame
principles tyhich are obtained from tartar ; and what re¬
mains fixed in the fire, after they are thoroughly burnt,
is a compound of the alkali which tartar naturally pro¬
duces, and of the alkaline or metallic fubftance with
which it was converted into a neutraffalt.
As cryftal of tartar is the weakeft of all acids, on ac¬
count of the oily and earthy matters with which it is com¬
bined, foluble tartars are decompounded by all the acids ;
by any of which cryftal of tartar may be feparated from
the fubftance that ferves it for a bafis and renders it a
neutral fait.
Of the Putrid Fermentation, or Putrefatfion.
Every body which Hath gone through the two ftages
of fermentation above deferibed, that is, the fpirituous
• and the acetous fermentation, being left to itfelf in a due
degree of warmth, which varies according to the fubjeft^
advances to the laft ftage of fermentation ; that is, to pu¬
trefaction.
When a body is in a putrefying (late, it is eafy to dif-
cover, by the vapours which rife from it, by the opacity
wrich invades it, if a pellucid liquor, and frequently even
by a greater degree of heat than is found in the two o-
ther forts of fermentation, that an inteftine motion is be¬
gun among its conftituent parts, which lafts till the whole
be entirely putrefied.
The effect of this inteftine motion is to break the
union.
C H E M
union, and change the difpofition, of the particles con-
ftituting the body in which it is excited, and to produce
a new combination.
If we examine a fubftance that has undergone putre-
faftion, we fliall foon perceive that it contains a principle
'which did not exift in it before. If this fubftance. be di-
ftilled, there rifes firft, by means of a very gentle heat,
a faline matter which is exceedingly volatile, and affedts
the organ of fmelling brifkly and difagreeably. Nor is
the aid of diftillation necefla, y to difcover the prefence of
this produdt of putrefa&ion : it readily manifefts itfelf in
moft fubftances where it exifts, as any one may foon be
convinced by obferving the different fmell of frefh and of
putrefied urine ; for the latter not only affedls the nofe,
but even makes the eyes fmart, and irritates them fo as to
draw tears from them in abundance.
This faline principle, which is the produdt of putre-
fadtion, when feparated from the other principles of the
body which affords it, and colledted by itfelf, appears
either in the form of a liquor, or in that of a concrete
fait, according to the different methods ufed to obtain it.
In the former ftate it is called a volatile urinous fpirit;
and in the latter a volatile urinous fait. The qualifica¬
tion of urinous is given it, becaufe a great deal thereof is
generated in putrefied urine, to which it communicates its
fmell. It goes alfo by the general name of a volatile al¬
kali, whether in a concrete or in a liquid form. The
enumeration of its properties will fhew why it is called
an alkali.
Volatile alkalis, from whatever fubftance obtained, are
all alike, and have all the fame properties ; differing on¬
ly according to their degrees of purity. The volatile al¬
kali, as well as the fixed, confifts of a certain quantity
of acid combined with, and entangled by a portion of the
earth of the mixt body from which it was obtained ; and
on that account it has many properties like thofe of a fixed
alkali, But there is moreover in its compofition a con-
fiderable quantity of a fat or oily matter, of which there
is none in a fixed alkali; and on this account again there
is a great difference between them. Thus the volatility
of the alkali produced by putrefaction, which is the prin¬
cipal difference between it and the other kind of alkali,
whofe nature it is to be fixed, muft be attributed to the
portion of oil which it contains : for there is a certain
method of volatilizing fixed alkalis by means of a fatty
fubftance.
Volatile alkalis have a great affinity with acids, unite
therewith rapidly, and with ebullition, and form with them
neutral falts, which ffioot into cryftals, but differ from
one another according to the kind of acid employed in the
combination.
The neutral falts which have a volatile alkali for their
bafis are in general called ammoniacal falts That whofe
acid is the acid of fea-fak is called fal ammoniac. As
this was the firft known, it gave name to all the reft.
Great quantities of this fait are made ip Egypt, and
thence brought to us. They fublime it from the foot of
covv’s dung, which is the fuel of that country, and con¬
tains fea-fak, together with a volatile alkali, or at leaft
the materials proper for forming it; and confequently all
I S T R Y.
the ingredients that enter into the compofition of fal am¬
moniac.
The neutral faks formed by combining the acids of
nitre and of vitriol with a volatile alkali, are called, after
their acids, nitrous fal ammoniac, and vitriolic fal am¬
moniac : The latter, from the name of its inventor, is
alfo called Glauber’s fecret fal ammoniac.
A volatile alkali, then, has the fame property as a fixed
alkali with regard to acids ; yet they differ in this, that
the affinity of the former with acids is weaker than that
of the latter : and hence it follows, that any fal ammo¬
niac may be decompounded by a fixed alkali, which will
lay hold of the acid, and difcharge the volatile alkali.
A volatile alkali will decompound any neutal fait which
has not a fixed alkali for its bafis ; that is, ajl fuch as
confift of an acid combined with an abforbent earth or a
metallic fubftance. By joining with the acids in which-
they are diffolved, it difengages the earths or metallic
fubftances, takes their place, and, in conjundion with
their acids, forms ammoniac falts.
Hence it might be concluded, that, of all fubftances,
next to the phlogifton and the fixed alkalis, volatile al¬
kalis have the greateft affinity with acids in general. Yet
there is fome difficulty in this matter : for abforbent
earths and feveral metallic fubftances are alfo capable of
decompounding ammoniacal falts, difcbarging their, vo¬
latile alkali, and forming new compounds by uniting with
their acids. This might induce us to think that thefe
fubftances have nearly the fame affinity with acids.
But it is proper to obferve, that a volatile alkali de¬
compounds fuch neutral faks as have for their bafis either
an abfbrbent earth or a metallic fubftance, without the.
aid of fire ; whereas abforbent earths or metallic fub¬
ftances will not decompound an ammoniacal fait, unlefs
they be affifted by a certain degree of heat.
Now, as all thefe matters are extremely fixed, at lealt
in comparifon with.a volatile alkali, they have the ad¬
vantage of being-able to refill the force of fire, and fo of
ading in conjundjon therewith ; and fire greatly pro¬
motes the natural adion of fubftances upon one another
whereas the volatile . alkali in the ammoniacal fait, being,
unable to abide the force of fire, is compelled to defert
its acid ; and that lb much the more quickly, as its affi¬
nity therewith is confiderably weakened hy the prefence
of an earthy or metallic fubftance, both of which have a
great affinity with acids.
Thefe confiderations oblige us to conclude, that volatile
alkalis have a fomewhat greater affinity, than abforbent
earths and metallic fubftances, with acids.
Ammoniacal falts projeded upon nitre in fufion make,
it detonate ;. and the nitrous fal ammoniac detonates by,
itfelf, without the addition of any inflammable matter.
This lingular effed evidently demonftrates the exiftence,
of an oily matter in volatile alkalis ; for it is certain that,
nitre will never deflagrate without the concurrence and
even the immediate contad of fome combuftible matter..
This oily fubftance is often found combined with vola¬
tile alkalis in fuch a large proportion as to difguife it in
fome meafure, and render it exceeding foul. The fait,
may be freed from its fuperfluous oil by repeated fublima-
tions. j;
.100 c H E M
tions ; and particularly by fiibliming'it from abforbent
earths, which readily drink up oils. This is called the
reflificalion of a volatile alkali. The fait, which before
was of a yellowifh or dirty Colour, by being thus recti¬
fied, becomes very white, and acquires an odour more
ptingertt and lefs fetid than it had at firft, that is, when
obtained by onefinglediftillation from a putrid fubftance.
It is proper to obferve, that the rectification of a vo¬
latile alkali mud not be carried too far, or repeated too
often ; for by that means it may be entirely decompofed
at length; and particularly if an abforbent earth, and
efpecially chalk, be employed for that purpofe, the fait
may be converted into an oil, an earth, and water;
Volatile alkalis aCt upon feveral metallic fubftances,
and particularly on copper; of which they make a moft
beautiful' blue folution; On this property depends a
pretty fingular effeCI,- which happens fbmetimes when we
Attempt by means of a volatile alkali to feparate copper
from an acid with which it is combined. Inllead of fee¬
ing the liquor grow tuHaid, and the metal fall, both
which generally happen when any alkali whatever is mix¬
ed with a: metallic folotion, we are furprifed to Obferve
the folution of copper, upon adding a volatile alkali, re¬
tain its limpidity, and let fall no precipitate; or at leaf!
if the liquor does grow turbid, it remains fo but for a
moment, and inftantly recovers its tranfparency. This
is occafioned bjr adding fuch a quantity of volatile alkali
as is more than fufficient fully to faturate the acid of the
folution, and conliderable enough to di/Tolve all the cop¬
per as faff as it is feparated from the acid. On this oc-
cafion the liquor requires a deeper blue than it-had be¬
fore ; which arifes fr6m the property which volatile alkalis
have df giving this metal, when combined with them, a
fuller blue than any other folvent can: Hence we have
a touchftone to difcbver copper where-ever it is; for, let
the quantity of this metal, combined with other metals,
be ever fo'fmall, a volatile alkali never fails to difcover
it, by making it appear of a blue colour.
Though a volatile a!kali be conftantly the refult of
’ pUtrefaCHorr, yet it mu ft not therefore be imagined, that
none can be produced by Any other means; on the contrary,
inoft of thofe which contain the ingredients neceflary to
form it, yield no incohfiderable quantity thereof in di-
ftillation. Tartar, for example, which by being burnt
in an open fire is converted, as was fhewn, into a fixed
alkali, yields a volatile alkali when it is decompofed in
rlofe veffels; that is, when it is diftilled: Becaufe, in
this latter cafe, the oily part is not dilfipated ot burnt,
as it is by calcination in a naked fire, but has time to
ti.iite with fome of the earth and acid of the mixt, in
fueh a manner as to form a true volatile alkali.
To prove that on this occafion, as well as on all o-
thers, where unputrefied bodies yield a volatHe alkali,
this fait is the product of the fire, we need only obierve,
that in thefe diftillations it never rifes till after fome"
part of the phlegm of the acid, and even of the thick oil
of the mixt, is come over; which never is the cafe when
it is formed before-hand in the body which is the fubjeft
of the operation, as it is in thofe which have undergone
pntrefaftrort: For this fait, being much lighter and more
volatile than thofe other fubftances, rifes of courfe be¬
fore them in diftillatioh.
A General Vtevj of Chemical Decompofition.
Though we have confidered all the fubftances which
enter into the compofition of vegetables, animals, and
minerals, whether as primary or, as fecondary principles,
it will not be improper to Ihew in what order we obtain
thefe principles from the feveral mixts; and efpecially
from vegetables and animals, becaufe they are much
more complicated than minerals. This is called analy-
Jing a compound.
The method moft commonly taken to decompofe bo¬
dies is by applying to them fucceflive degrees of heat,
from the gentleft to the moft violent, in appropriated
veflelsr, fo contrived as to colled what exhales from them.
By this means the principles are gradually feparated from
each other; the moft volatile rife firft, and the reft fol¬
low in order, as they come to be aded on by the proper
degree of heat: And this is called dijiillation.
But it being obferved that fire, applied to the decom¬
pofition of bodies, moft commonly alters their fecondary
principles very fenfibly, by combining them in a different
manner with each other, or even partly decompofing
them, and reducing them to their primitive principles,;
other means have been ufed to feparate thofe principles
without the help of fire.
With this view the mixts to be decompofed are forci¬
bly comprefled, in order to fqueeze out of them all fuch
parts of their fubftance as they will by this means part
with ; or elfe thofe mixts are for a long time triturated,
either along with water, which carries off all their fa-
line and faponaceous contents ; or with folvents, fuch
as ardent fpirits, capable of taking up every thing in
them that'is of an oily or refinbus nature.
We ftiall here give a fuccind account of the effeds of
thefe different methods, as applied to the principal fub¬
ftances among vegetables-and animals, and likewife to
fome minerals.
Analysis ^Vegetable Substances.
A vaft many vegetable fubftances, fuch as kernels and
feeds, yield by ftrong compreffion great quantities of
mild, fat, uhduous oik, which are not foluble in ardent
fpirits : Thefe are what we called exprcJJ'ed oils. They
are alfo fometimes called fat oils, on account of their
unduoufnefs, in which they exceed all other forts of
oil. As thefe oils are obtained without the aid of fire,
it is certain that they exjfted in the mixt juft as we fee
them, and that they are not in the leaft altered; which
could not have been the cafe had they been obtained by
diftillation : For that never produces any oils but fuch as
are acrid and foluble in fpirit of wine.
Some vegetable matters, fuch as the rind of citrons,
lemons, Oranges, alfo yield, only by being fquee-
zed between the fingers, a great deal of oil. Th’s fpirts
out in fine fmall jets, which being received upon any po-
liflied furface, fuch as a lobking-glafs, run together, and
form a liquor that is a real oil.
But
CHEMISTRY. ioi
But it muft be carefully noted, that this fort of oil,
though obtained by expreffion only, is neverthelefs Very
different from the oils mentioned before to which the ti¬
tle of exprtffed oils peculiarly belongs : For this is far
lighter and thinner; moreover, it retains the perfect o-
dour of the fruit which yields it, and is foluble in fpirit
of wine; in a word, it is a true effential oil, but abounds
fo in the fruits which produce it, and is lodged therein
in fuch a manner, occupying a vaft number of little cells
provided in the peel for its reception, that a very flight
prefl'ure difeharges it; which is not the cafe with many
vegetables that contain an eflential oil.
Succulent and green plants yield by compreflion a great
deal of liauor or juice, which conlifts of molt of the
phlegm of the falts, and a fmall portion of the oil and
earth of the plant. Thefe juices, being fet in a cool
place for fome time, depofit faline cryflals, which are a
combination of the acid of the plant with part of its oil
and earth, wherein the acid is always predominant.
Thefe falts, as is evident from the defeription here gi¬
ven, bear a great refemblance to the tartar of wine treat¬
ed of above. They aie called effential falts ; fo that
tartar might likewife be called the effential fait of ouine.
Dried plants, and fuch as are of a ligneous, or acid
nature, require to be long triturated with water, before
they will yield their eflential falts. Trituration with wa¬
ter is an excellent way to get out of them all their faline
and faponaceous contents.
A vegetable matter that is very oily yields its eflential
fait with much difficulty, if at all; becaufe the excef-
five quantity of oil entangles the fait fo that it cannot
extricate itfelf or ffioot into cryftals. MrGerike, in his
Princples of Ckemifhy, fays. That if part of the oil of a
plant be extracted by fpirit of wine, its eflential fait may
be afterwards obtained with more eafe and in greater
quantity.
Eflential falts are among thofe fubftances which can¬
not be extracted from mixts by diftillation; for the firfl
impreflion of fire decompofes them.
Though the acid which predominates in the eflential
falls of plants be moll commonly analogous to the vege¬
table acid, properly fo called, that is, to the acid of
vinegar and tartar, which is probably no other than
the vitriolic acid difguifed; yet it fometimes-differs there¬
from, and fomewhat refembles the nitrous or the marine
acid. This depends on the places where the plants grow
which produce thefe falts : If they be fubmarine plants,
their acid is a-kin to the acid of fea-falt; if, on the con¬
trary, they grow upon walls, or in nitrous grounds, their
acid is like that of nitre. Sometimes one and the fame
plant contains falts analogous to all the three mineral a-
cids; which (hews that the vegetable acids are no other
than the mineral acids varioufly changed by circulatingy
through plants.
Liquors containing the eflential falts of plants being e-
vaporated by a gentle heat to the confiftence of honey, or
even further, are called extrafts. Hence it is plain,
that an extraft is nothing but the effential fait of a plant,
combined with fome particles of its oil and earth, that re-
Vol. II. No. 34. 3
mained fufpended in the liquor, and are now incorpora¬
ted by evaporation.
Extratfs of plants are alfo prepared by boiling them
long in water, and then evaporating fome part of it. But
thefe extracts are of inferior virtue; becaufe the fire dif-
fipates many of the oily and faline parts.
Emulsions.
Subftances which abound much in oil, being bruifed
and triturated with water for fome time, afford a liquor
of an opaque dead-white colour like milk. This liquor
confifls of fuch juices as the water is capable of diffol-
ving, together with a portion of the oil, which being na¬
turally indiflbluble in water, i5 only divided and difper-
fed in the liquor, the limpidity whereof is by that means
deftroyed. This fort of oily liquor, in which the oil is
only divided, not dtflblved, is called an emulfion. Tire
oily particles in emulfions fpontaneoufly feparate from the
water, when left at refl, and, uniting into geater maffes,
rife, on account of their lightnefs, to the furface of the
liquor, which by that means recovers a degree of tranf-
parency.
If vegetables, abounding in effential oils and refins, be
digefted in fpirit of wine, the menftruum takes up thefe
oily matters, as being capable of diffolving them; and
they may afterwards be eafily feparated from it by the
affulion of water. The water, with which fpirit of wine
has a greater affinity than with oily matters, feparates
them by this means from their folvent, agreeable to the
common laws of affinities.
Without the help of fire fcarce any thing, befides the
fubltances already mentioned, can be obtained from a
plant: But by the means of diflillation we are enabled to
analyfe them more completely. ' In profecuting this me¬
thod of extradling from a plant the feveral principles oF
which it confifls, the following order is to be obferved.
A plant being expofed to a very gentle heat, in a di-
ftilling veffel fet in the balneum maria, yields a water
which retains the perfedt fmell thereof. Some chemifls,
and. particularly the illuftrious Boerhaave, have called
this liquor xht fpirit ns rettor. The nature of this odo¬
riferous part of plants is not yet thoroughly known ; be¬
caufe it is fo very volatile, that it is difficult to fubjedt it
to the experiments neceffary for difeovering all its pro¬
perties.
If inftdad of diftilling the plant in the balneum maria,
it be diftilled oyer a naked fire, with the precaution of
putting a certain quantity of water into the diflilling vef¬
fel along with it, to prevent its fuffering a greater heat
than that of boiling water, all the eflential oil contained
in that plant will rife together with that water, and with
the fame degree of heat.
On this occafion it muft be obferved, that no eflential
oil can be obtained from a plant after the fpirttus reftor
hath been drawn off; which gives ground to think that
the volatility of thefe oils is o ving to that Ipirit.
The heat of boiling water is alio fufficient to feparate
from vegetable matters the fat oils which they contain :
That, however, is to be done by the way of decodtion
2 C only,
\
\ W'j
^003 S'
102 C H E M
only, and not by diftillation ; bccaufe, though theft; oils
will fwim on water,’yet they will not rife in vapours
without a greater degree of heat.
When the eflential oil is come over, if the plant be
expofed to a naked fire, without the addition of water,
and the heat be increafed a little, a phlegm will rife that
gradually grows acid ; after which, if the heat be increa¬
fed as occafion requires, there will come over a thicker
and heavier oil ; from fome a volatile alkali; aqd laft of
all, a very thick, black, empyreumatic oil.
When nothing more rifes with the 11 rongelt degree of
heat, there remains of the plant a mere coal only, called
the caput mortuum, or terra damnata. This coal when
burnt falls into allies, v/hich being lixiviated with wa¬
ter give a fixed'alkali.
It is obfervable, that in the dillillation of plants which
yield an acid and a volatile alkali, thefe two falts are of¬
ten found quitediftinft and feparate in the fame receiver;
which feems very extraordinary, confidering that they
are naturally difpofed to unite, and have a great affinity
with one another. The reafon of this phenomenon is,
that they are both combined with much oil, which em-
barrafies them fo that they cannot unite to form a neu¬
tral fait, as they would not fail to do were it not for
that impediment.
All vegetables, except fuch as yield a great deal of
volatile alkali, being burnt in an open fire, and fo as to
flame, leave in their allies a large quantity of, an acrid,
cauftic, fixed alkali. But if care be taken to fmother
them, fo as to prevent their flaming while they burn, by
covering them with fomething that may continually beat
down again what exhales, the fait obtained from their
alhes will be much lefs acrid and cauftic ; the caufe
whereof is, that fome part of the acid and oil of the
plant being detained in the burning, and flopped from
being difiipated by the fire, Combines with its alkali.
Thefe falts cryftallize, and being much milder than the
common fixed. alkalis, may be tifed in medicine, and ta¬
ken internally. They are called Tachetiius's falls, be-
caofe invented by that chemift.
Marine plants yield a fixed alkali analogous to that of
fea-falt. As for all other plants or vegetable fubftan-
. ces, the .fixed alkalis obtained from them, if rightly pre¬
pared and thoroughly calcined, are all perfeftly alike,
and of the fame nature.
The laft obfervation we have to make on the pro-
duftion of a fixed alkali is, that if the plant you intend to
work upon be fteeped or boiled in water before you burn
it, a much fmafler quantity of fait will be obtained from
it ; nay, it will yield none at all, if repeated boilings
have robbed it entirely of thofe faline particles which muft
neceflarily concur with its earth to form a fixed alkali.
The Analysis of Animal Substances.
Succulent animal fubftances, fuch as new-killed
fl'efh, yield by expreflion a juice or liquid, which is no
other than the phlegm, replete with all the principles of
the animal body, except the earth, of which it contains
but little. The hard or dry parts, fuch as the horns,
bones, tec. yield a fimilar juice, by boiling them in wa¬
ter. Thefe juices become thick, like a glue or jelly,
I S T R Y.
when their watery parts are evaporated ; and in this
ftate they are true extrafts of animal matters. Thefe
juices afford no cryftals of effential fait, like thofe ob¬
tained, from vegetables, and fhew no fign either of an a-
cid or an alkali.
Great part of the oil which is in the fldh of animals
may be eafily feparated without the help of fire; for it
lies in a manner by itfelf: It is commonly in a concrete
form, and is called fat. This, oil fomewhat refembles
the fat oils of vegetables; for like them it is mild, unc¬
tuous, indiffoluble in fpirit of wine, and is fubtilized
and attenuated by the aftion of fire. But there is not in
animals, as in vegetables, any light effential oil, which
rifes with the heat of boiling water ; fo that, properly
fpeaking, animals contain but one fort of oil.
Few animal fubftances yield a perceptible acid. Ants
and bees are almoft the only ones from which any can
be obtained ; and indeed the quantity which they
yield is very fmall, as the acid itfelf is extremely weak.
The reafon thereof is, that as animals do not draw
their nourifhment immediately from the earth, but feed
wholly either on vegetables or on the flefti of other ani¬
mals, the mineral acids, which have already undergone
a great change by the union contrafted between them and
the oily matters of the vegetable kingdom, enter into a
clofer union and combination with thele oily parts while
they are palling through the organs and ftrainers of ani¬
mals ; Whereby their properties are deftroyed, or at leaft
fo impaired that they are no longer fenfible.
Animal matters yield in diftillation, firft, a phlegm,
and then, on increafing the fire, a pretty clear oil, which
gradually becomes thicker, blacker, more fetid, and em¬
pyreumatic. It is accompanied with a great deal of vo¬
latile alkali; and if the fire be taifed and kept up till no¬
thing more comes over, there will remain in the diftilling
veffel a coal like that of vegetables; except that when
it is reduced to allies, no fixed alkali, or at leaft very
little, can be obtained from them, as from the allies of
vegetables. This arifes from hence, that, as we faid
before, the faline principle in animals being more inti¬
mately united with the oil than it is in plants, and being
confequently more attenuated and fubtilized, is.too. vola¬
tile to enter into the combination of a fixed alkali; on
the contrary, it is more difpofed to join in forming a vo¬
latile alkali, which on this occalion does not rife till
after the oil, and therefore muft certainly be the produc¬
tion of the fire.
The chyle, 'and the milk of animals which feed on
plants, ftill retain fome likenefs to vegetables ; becaufe
the principles of which thefe liquors are compofed have
not gone through all the changes which they muft fuffer
before they enter into the animal combination.
Urine'and fweat are excrementitious aqueous'liquors,
loaded chiefly with the faline particles which are of no
fervice towards the nouriftiment of the animal, but pafs
through its ftrainers without receiving any alteration ;
fuch as the neutral falts which have a fixed alkali for
their balls, and particularly the fea-falt which happens to
be in the food of animals, whether- it exift therein natu¬
rally, as it does in fome plants, or whether the animals
eat it to pleafe their palates.
C H E M
The faliva, the pancreatic juice, and efpecially the bile,
are faponaceous liquors ; that is, they cpnfift of faline and
oily particles combined together ; fo that being them-
felves dilfolved in- an aqueous liquor, they are capable of
dilfolving likewife the oily parts, and of tendering them
mifcible with water.
Laftly, jThe blood being; the receptacle of all thefe
liquors, partakes of the nature of each, more or lefs in
proportion to the quantity thereof which it contains.
The Analysis of Mineral Substances.
Minerals differ greatly from vegetables, and from
animals; they are not near fo complex as thofe organized
bodies, and their principles are much more fimple ;
whence it follows, that thefe principles are much more
clofely conne&ed, and that they cannot be feparated
without the help of fire ; which not having on their parts
the fame adtion and the fame power as 'on organized bo¬
dies, hath not the fame ill effedt on them ; we mean the
effedf of changing their principles, or even deftroying
them entirely.
We do not here fpeak of pure, vitrifabje, or refrac¬
tory earths of mere metals and femi-metals; of pure
acids ; or even of their fimpleit combinations, fuch as
fulphur, vitriol, alum, fea fair: - Of all thefe we have
faid enough.
We are now to treat of bodies that are more complex,
and therefore more fufceptible of decompofition. Thefe
bodies are compound maffes or combinations of thofe
above-mentioned ; that is, metallic fubltances as they are
found in the bowels of the earth, united with feveral
forts of fand, ftones, earths, femi-metals, fulphur, <&a
When the metallic matter is combine'd^vith other mat¬
ters in fuch a proportion to the reft that it may be fepa¬
rated from them with advantage and profit, thefe com¬
pounds are called ores when the .cafe is otherwife, ,they
are called pyrites, and marcajites ; efpecially if fulphur
or arfenic be predominant therein, which often happens.
In order to analyfe an ore, and get out of it the metal
it contains, the firft ftep is to free it from a great deal of
earth and ftones which commonly adhere to-it very (light¬
ly and fuperficially. This is effe&ed by pounding the
ore, and then wafning it in water ; to the bbttom of
which the metalline parts prefentlylink, as being the hea-
vieft, while the fmall particles of earth and ftone remain
fufpctjded fome time longer.
Thus the metallic part is left combined with fuch mat¬
ters only as are moft intimately complicated with it.
Thefe fubftances are moft commonly fulphur arid arfenic.
Now, as they are much more volatile than other mineral
matters, they may be diffipated in vapours, or the ful¬
phur may be confumed, by expofmg the ore which con¬
tains them to a proper degree of- heat. If the fulphur
and arfenic be defined by themfelves, the fumes thereof
may be catched andeolledted in proper velfels and places.
This operation is called roafling in ore.
The metal thus depurated is now fit to be expofed. to
a greater force of fire, capable of melting it.
On this occafion the femi metals and the imperfeft me¬
tals require the addition of fome matter abounding in
fhlogifton, particularly charcoal-duft ; becaufe thefe me-
I
R
Y.
103
tallic fubftances Jofe their phlogifton by the a<ftion of the
fire, or of the. fluxes joined with them, and therefore
without this precaution would never acquire either the
fplendor or the dudlility of a metal. By this means the
metallic fubftance is more accurately feparated from the
earthy and ftony parts, of which fome portion always re¬
mains. combined therewith till it is brought, to fulion.
For, as we obferved before, a metallic glafs or calx only
will contraft an union with fuch matters ; a metal pof-
fefled of its phlogifton and metalline form .being utterly
incapable thereof.
We took notice of the caufe of this feparation above,
where we (hewed that a metal pofiefled of its phlogifton
and metalline form will not remain intimately united with
any calcined pr vitrified matter, not even with its own
calx or glafs.
The metal therefore on this occafion gathers into a
mafs, and lies at the bottom of the veflel, as being moft
ponderous ; while the heterogeneous matters float upon it
in the form of a glafs, or a femi-vitrification. Thefe
floating matters take the nam^ offcorix, and the metal¬
line fubftance at bottom is called the rcgulus.
It frequently happens, that the metalline regulus thus
precipitated, is itfelf a compound of feveral metals mixed
together, which are afterwards to be feparated.
It is proper to obferve, before we quit this fubjedl^
' that the rules here laid down'for analyfing ores are not
abfolutely general: For example, it is often advifeable
to roaft the ore before you wadi it; for by that means
fome ores are opened, attenuated, and made very friable,
which would coft much trouble and expencp, on account
of their exceflive hardnefs, if you (hould attempt to pound
them with put a previous torrefacfion.
It is alio frequently neceflary to feparate the ore from
part only of its done; fometimes to leave the whole;
and fometimes to add more to it, before you fmelt it.
This depends on the quality of the done, which always
helps to promote fufion when it is in its own nature fu-
fible and vitrifiable : It is then called theof the ore.
We (hall now give a fuccinft account of the principal-
ores arid mineral bodies, contenting ourfelves with juft
pom ting' out the particulars of which they feveraily con-
Of the Pyrites.
The Yellow Pyrites.
The yellow pyrites is a mineral confiding of fulphur,
iron, an unmetallic earth, arid frequently a little copper :
The fulphur, which is the only one of thtfe principles
that is volatile, may be feparated from the reft by fubli-
mation : It ufually makes a fourth, and fometimes a
third, of the whole weight of thefe pyrites. The other
principles are feparated from one another by fufion and
redudlion with the phlogiftoir, which, by metallizing the
ferruginous and- Cupreous earths, parts them from, the
uiimetallic earth : for this earth vitrifies, and cannot af-'
terwards continue united with metallic matters pofleflid
of their metalline form.
There is yet another way of. decompofing the yellow
pyrites, which is to let it lie till it efHorefces, or begins
T04 CHE M
to ilioot into flowers ; which is nothing but a fort of flow
accenflon of the fulphur it contains. The fulphur being
by this means decompofed, its acid unites with the ferru¬
ginous and cupreous parts of the pyrites, and therewith
forms green and blue vitriols ; which may be extracted
by fieeping in water the pyrites which has efflorefced or
been burnt, and then evaporating the lixivium to a pelli¬
cle ; for by this means the vitriol will (hoot into cryftals.
Sometimes the pyrites contains alfo an earth of the fame
nature with that of alum : A pyrites of this fort, after
flowering, yields alum as well as vitriol.
The White Pyrites.
The white pyrites contains much arfenic, a ferrugi¬
nous earth, and an unmetallic earth. The arfenic being
a volatile principle, may be feparated by fublimation or
diftillation from the reft, which are fixed ; and thefe a-
caio may be disjoined from each other by fufion and re-
duftion, as was faid in relation to the yellow pyrites.
The Copper Pyrites.
The copper pyrites contains fulphur, copper, and an
ur,metallic earth. A great deal thereof likewife holds
ai funic, and its colour approaches more or lefs to orange,
yellow, or white, according to the quantity of arfenic in
it. It may be decompofed by the fame means as the
yellow and white pyrites.
Of Ores.
Of Gold Ores.
Gold being conftantly found in its metallme form,
and never combined with fulphur and arfenic, its ores are
not, properly fpeaking, ores ; becaufe the metal con¬
tained in them is not mineralized. The gold is only
lodged between particles of ftone, earth, or land, from
which it is eafily feparated by lotion, and by amalgama¬
tion with quick-filver. The gold thus found is feldom
pure, but is frequently alloyed with more or lefs filver,
from which it is to be feparated by quartation.
It is alfo very common to find gold in moft ores of o-
ther metals or femi-metals» and even in the pyrites ; but
the quantity contained therein is generally fo fmall, that
it would not pay the coft of extradting it. However, if
any (hould incline to attempt it, merely out of curiofity,
it would be neceflary to begin with treating thefe ores in
the manner proper for feparating their metalline part ;
then to cupel the metalline regulus. fo obtained ; and laft-
ly, to refine it by quartation.
Of Silver Ores.
It is no rare thing to find filver, as well as gold, in
its metalline form, only lodged in fundry earths and ftony
matters, from which it may be feparated in the fame man¬
ner as gold. But the greateft quantities of this metal are
ufually dug out of the bowels of the earth in a truly mi¬
neral ftate ; that is, combined with different fubftances,
and particularly with fulphur and arfenic.
Several filver ores are diftinguifhed by peculiar cha-
rafteriftics, and are accordingly denoted by particular
I S T R Y.
names. That which is called the vitreous filver ore, is
fcarce any thing elfe but a combination of filver and ful¬
phur. Another is known by the name of the horny ftlver
ore, becaufe when in thin plates it is femi-tranfparent:
In this ore the filver is mineralized by fulphur and a little
arfenic. The red filver ore is of the colour which its
name imports, fometimes more, fometimes lefs vivid ;
and is chiefly compofed of filver, arfenic, and fulphur :
It alfo contains a little iron.
Thefe three ores are very rich in filver : the firft con¬
tains nearly three fourths of its weight, and the others
about two-thirds of theirs.
There is a fourth, called the white fiver ore, wh:ch
though it be heavier, is not fo rich in filver, becaufe it
contains much copper. Many other ores contain filver,
yet are not, properly fpeaking, filver ores ; becaufe a
much greater quantity of other metals than of filver is
found in them.
When a filver ore is to be decompofed, in order to
have the filver pure, or when filver is to be extradled out
of any ore that contains it, the firft thing to be done is
to roaft the ore in order to clear it of the volatile mine¬
rals : and as fiber cannot be had pure without the ope¬
ration of the cupel, which requires more or lefs lead to
be joined with it, it is ufual to mix with the torrified
filer ore a quantity of lead proportioned to that of
the heterogeneous matters combined with the filver,
and to melt the whole together. Part of the added
lead vitrifies during the fufion, and at the fame time,
converts fome of the heterogeneous matter alfo into glafs,
with which it forms a fcoria that rifes to the furface of
the matter. The other part of the lead, with which the
filver is mixed, falls to the bottom in the form of a re¬
gulus, which muft be cupelled in order to have the filver
pure.
Of Copper Ores.
Copper* is much feldomer found in a metalline form,
than gold or filver; it is commonly in a mineral ftate:
it is mineralized by fulphur and'arfenic': almoit all its
ores contain alfo more or lefs iron; fometimes a little
filver or even gold, together with unmetallic earths and
ftones, as all ores do.
Moft copper ores are of a beautiful green or blue, or
elfe in (hades blended of thefe two colours. The mine-
• rals called mountain green, and mountain blue, are true
copper ores ; not in the form of hard ftones, like other
ores, but crumbly and friable like earth.
Neverthelefs there are feveral copper ores of different
colours, as a(h-coloured, whitifh, and (haded with yel¬
low or orange: which colours arife from the different
proportions of arfenic, fulphur, and iron, which thefe
ores contain.
In order to decompofe a copper ore, and to extraft
the copper it contains, it is firft of all to be freed from
as many of its earthy, ftony, fulphureous, and arfenical
parts, as is poflible, by roafting and wafhing; then what
remains is to be mixed with a flux compounded of a fix¬
ed alkali and fome inflammable matter; a little fea-falt
is to be put over all, and the whole melted by a ftrong
fire. The falts facilitate the fufion and fcorification of
* the
C H E M I
the unmetallic matters, and therewith form a flag, which
being the lighted rifes to the furfaefe. ; The metalline
masters are. colle<fted below in the form of a (hining regu-
lus of copper; which however, is not ufually line cop¬
per, but requires to be purified.'
In order to Teparate the copper from the unmetallic
matters, it is abfolutely neceffary.to melt its ore along
with the inflammable fubltances abounding in phlogilton.
For, as this metal is not poflefled of its metalline form
while it is in a mineral Hate, as it is dellitute of the true
quantity of phlogillon, and, though it were not, would
lofe it by the adtion of the fire, it would come to pals,
that, if its ore were-melted without the addition of any
inflammable matter, the cupreous earth, or calx, would
he fcorified and confounded with the unmetallic matters;
and as all metallic matters, except gold and lilver, are
fubjedt to this inconvenience as well as copper, the ad¬
dition of an inflammable fubftance, in fluxing all ores
that contain them, is a general rule that ought conftantly
to be obferved.
Of Iron Ores.
Iron is feldom found pure and malleable in the earth;
yet it is much feldomer found in the mineral ftate, pro¬
perly fo called, than any of the other metals : for molt
iron ores are fcarce any thing more than a ferruginous
earth mixed in different proportions with unmetallic
earths and ftpnes. "Some of them, however, contain al-
fo volatile minerals, fuch, as fulphur and arfenic; and
therefore it is neceflary to roaft the iron ores, like all o-
. thers, before you attempt to extradt the metal out of
them. That being done, they are to be fmelted with a
flux confifting of»fufible and inflammable matters, as the
general rule diredls.
Iron is the commoneft of all metals; nay, it is fo u-
niverfally diffufed through the earth, that it is difficult
to find any ftone, earth, or land, that does not contain
fome of it; and therefore none of thefe are ufually con-
fidered and treated as iron ores, except fucb as contain
a great deal of that metal, and melt eafily. The hema¬
tites, emery, yellow _pyrites, calamine, all contain a
pretty confiderably quantity of iron; but nobody at¬
tempts to extradi it from them, becaufe they are very
hard to melt. -
Ferruginous earth being naturally of an orange-colour,
a flone or earth may be judged to contain iron, if either
naturally or after roafling it appears to have any ftiade of
yellow or red.
The fingulat property which iron has of being attradie.d
by the magnet, and of being the only body, exclufive of
all others, that is fo, likewife affords us an eafy method
of difeovering the prefence of this metal among other
matters, where it often exifts in fuch a fmall quantity
that it could not otherwife be found out. For this pur-
pofe the body in which iron is fufpedted to lurk, muff be
pulverifed and torrefied with fome inflammable matter ;
and then the powder thus roafled being touched with a
magnet, or a magnetical bar, if it contains any particles
of iron they will infallibly adhere to the magnet or bar.
Of Tin Ores.
Ti n is never found in the earth pure and malleable;
Vol. II; No-. 34. 3
S T R Y, 105
buf always in a mineral ftate, and always mlneralifed by
arfehic. Tin ofes are not fnlphureous ; whence « comes
that though tin be the lighteft of all metals, its ores are
neverthelefs heavier thaiV thofe of other metals, as arfe¬
nic greatly exceeds fulphur in gravity. Some tin ores
contain alfo a little iron. The ores of tin are to be
wafhed, roafted, and fmelted with a reducing flux, ac¬
cording to the general rules.
Of Lead Ores.
Lead, like tin, is never found but in a mineral ftate.
It is moft commonly mineralifed by fulphur; yet there
are fome lead ores which alfo contain arienic.
Lead ores, as well as all others, muft be roafted and
fmelted with arreducing flux: however, as if is difficult
to free them from all their fulphur by torrefaftion only,
the reducing flux employed in their fufion may be made
Up with a quantity of iron filings, which being incapable
of any union with lead, and having a much greater affini¬
ty than that metal with fulphur, will on this occafion be
of great fervice by interpofing between them.
Of Hhtick-Silver Ores.
Running mercury is fometimes found in certain
earths, or grey friable ftones; but moft commonly in a
mineral ftate. It is always mineralized by fulphur, and
by fulphur alone: fo that ciaabar is the only ore of
quick-filver that we know of: and a very rich one it is,
feeing it contains fix or feven times as much mercury as
fulphur.
Roafting can be of no ufe towards decompofing the ore
of mercury, and feparating its fulphur; becaufe mercury
being itfelf very volatile would be carried off by the fire,
together with the fulphuc. In order therefore to part
the two fubftances of which cinabar confifts, recourfe
muft neceflarily be had to fome third body, which
will unite with one, of them, and by that means feparate
it from the other. Now all the metals, except gold,
having a greater affinity than mercury with fulphur, fuch
a body is eafily found : any metal but gold may be em¬
ployed with fuccefs in this deebmpbfition ; but as iron
hath a greater affinity with fulphur than any of the reft,
and is, moreover, the only one that cannot unite with
mercury, it muft, on account of thefe two qualities, be
preferred to all the reft.
Fixed alkalis ate alfo well qualified to abforb the ful¬
phur of cinabar. Cinabar muft be decompounded in
clofe veflels, and by the way of diftillation ; otherwife
the mercury, as fbon as k feparates from the fulphur,
will be diffipated in vapours and entirely loft.
In this operation it is needlefs to add either flux or
phlogifton ; becaufe the cinabar is decompofed without
melting, and the mercury, though in a mineral ftate,
contains, like gold and filver, all the phlogifton requifite
to fecure its metalline properties.
Of the Ores of Regulus of Antimony.
Reg ulus of antimony is always found in a mineral
ftate: it is mineralifed by fulphur: but fometimes, tho’
rarely, it is alfo combined with a little arfenic.
When the ore of regulus of antimony is to be decom-
2 D pofed.
io6
H E
M
I
R
Y.
pofed, the firft thing to be done, is to expofe it to a
degree of heat too weak to melt its earthy and ftony
parts, but ftrong enough to fufe its reguline together
with its fulphureous parts, which by this means’ are fe-
parated from the earth, and united into one mafs,
known by the name of Antimony.
It is plain, that this firft operation, which is founded
on the great fufibility of antimony, produces, with re¬
gard to the ore of regulus of antimony, the fame effedt
that wafhing hath oh other ores : fo that after this firft fu-
fion nothing more is requifite to the obtaining of a pure
reguius of antimony, but to feparate it from its fulphur
by roafting, and to melt it with fome matter abounding
in pblogifton, in the fame manner as other metallic mat¬
ters are treated. The term calcination is generally u-
fed to exprefs this torrefaftion of antimony, by means
whereof the metallic earth of the regulus of antimony is
feparated from its fulphur.
As regulus of antimony hath, like mercury, much lefs
affinity with fulphur than the other metals have, it fol¬
lows that antimony may be decompofed by the fame
means as cinabar ; but the regulus fo obtained is adul¬
terated with a portion of the additament made ufe, of,
which combines therewith.
Of the Ores of Bifmuth.
The ore of bifmuth confifts of the femi-metal minera-
lifed by the arfenic, and of an unmetalljc earth. It is
very eafy to decompofe this ore, and to extradl the bif¬
muth it contains: for this purpofe it need only be ex-
pofed to a moderate heat, whereby the arfenic will be
diffipated in vapours, and the bifmuth melted, which will
then feparate from the unmetallic earth. This earth, at
leaft in feveral ores of bifmuth, pofleffes the property of
tinging all vitrifiable matters with which it is melted of
a beautiful blue colour.
To decompofe the ore of bifmuth no flux or inflam¬
mable matter-is ufed ; becaufethis femi metal is pofleffed,
even in its mineral ftate, of all the phlogifton requifite to
maintain its metalline properties; and its great fufibility
makes it unneceffary to melt the metallic earth contained
in its ore.
Of the Ores of Zinc.
Zinc is not generally obtained from a particular ore
of its own; but fublimes during the fufion of a mine
ral, or rather a confufed mafs of minerals, that contains
this femi metal together with iron, copper, lead, ful¬
phur, arfenic, and, like all other ores, an unmetallic
earth.
Neverthelefs there is a fubftance which may be confi-
dered as the proper ore of zinc, becaufe it contains a
pretty large quantity of that femi-metal, a little iron,
and an unmetallic earth. It is called calamine, or lapis
calaminaris : but hitherto the art of procuring zinc di
redly from this mineral hath no where been pra&ifed.
Calamine is commonly employed only to convert copper
into brafs or a yellow metal, by cementing it therewith.
Indeed till lately no eafy or practicable method of obtain¬
ing pure zinc from calamine was publicly known ; for
that femi-metal being volatile and very inflammable, its
• ore cannot be fufed like others. Mr Margraaf was the
firft who, by mixing powdered charcoal with calamine
in clofe veffels, obtained a perfect zinc from it, by the
means of diftillation or fublimation.
Of ArfenicaA Minerals.
Arsenic, as well as fulphur, is naturally combined
with almoft all ores, or minerals containing metallic fub-
ftances. As it is very volatile, while the matters with which
it is united are fixed, at leaft in comparifon therewith,
it is eafily feparated by fublimation.
The minerals that contain moft arfenic are the white
pyrites, orpiment, and cobalt. We have already con-
fidered the white pyrites: as to orpimenf, it confifts of
fulphur and arfenic. Both thefe fubftances' being very
volatile, it is difficult to feparate them by' fublimation:
yet, with proper management, and a due regulation of
the fire, this feparation may be effeded; becaufe fulphur
fublipies a little more eafily than arfenic. But it is more
convenient, as well as more expeditious, to make ufe of
fome additament that hath a greater affinity with one of
thofe fubftances than with the other. Fixed alkalis and
mercury, both of which have more affinity with fulphur
than with arfenic, may be very properly employed on
this occafion Cobalt is a mineral compofed of arfenic,
an unmetallic earth, and frequently bifmuth : and as
none of thefe are very volatile, except the'arfenic, this
maybe eafily ■ feparated from the reft by fublimation.
The unmetallic earth which remains has, like that of the
ore of bifmuth, the property of giving a blue colour to any
vitrifiable matters melted with it; whence it is conjedu-
red, that cobalt and the ore of bifmuth have a great re-
femblance, or are often blended with each other.
Befides the minerals already.recited, there is found in
the bowels of the earth another fpecies of compound
body, of which we have already taken notice; but
which is fuppofed, with fome degree of probability, to
belong as much to the vegetable as to the mineral king¬
dom : we mean the bitumens; which the beft obfervations
oblige us to confider as vegetable oils, that by lying
long in the earth have contraded an union with the mi¬
neral acids, and by^that means acquired the thicknefs,
confidence, and other properties obfervable in them.
By diftillation they yield an oil, and an acid not un¬
like a mineral acid Mr Bourdelin has even demonftra-
.ted, by a very artful and ingenious procefs, that amber
contains a manifeft acid of fea-falt.
Explanation of the fable of Affinities or eletfive
Attractions.
We have already explained what is meant by affinities,
and have laid down the principal laws to which the rela¬
tions of different bodies are fubjed. The late Mr Geof-
froy, ^being convinced of the" advantages which all who
cultivate chemiftry would receive from having conftantly
before their eyes a ftate of the beft afcertaii.ed relations
between the chief agents in chemiftry, was the firft who
undertook to reduce them into order, and unite them all
in one point of view, by means of a table. This table
will be of conliderable ufe to fuch as are beginning to
Itudy
C H E M ]
ftudy chemiftry, in helping them to form a juft idea of
the relations which different fubftances have with one
another; and the pradHcat chemift wi-11 thereby be en¬
abled to account for what paftes in feveral of his opera¬
tions. otherwife difficult to be underftood, as well as to
judge what may be expedted to refult from mixtures of
different compounds. Thefe reafons have induced us to
infert it at the end of this elementary treatife, and to
give a fhort explanation of it here ; efpecially as it will
ferve at the fame time for a recapitulation of the whole
work, in which the feveral axioms of this table are di-
fperfed. See Plate LXV.
The upper line of Mr Geoffrey’s table comprehends
feveral fubftances ufed in chemiftry. Under each of thofe
fubftances are ranged in diftinft columns feveral matters
compared with them, in the order of their relation to
that firft fubftance ; fo as that which is the neareft to it
is that, which hath the greateft affinity with it, or that
which none of the fubftances {landing below it can fepa-
rate therefrom ; but which, on the contrary, feparates
them, all when they are combined with it, and expels
thejn in order to join itfelf therewith. The fame is to
be underftood of that which occupies the fecond place of
affinity ; that js, it has the, fame property with regard to
all below it,''yielding only to that which is above it: and
fo of all the reft.
At the top of the firft column ftands the charafler
which denotes an acid in general. Immediately under
this ftands the mark of a fixed alkali, being placed there
as the fubftance which has the greateft affinity with an
acid. After the fixed alkali, appears the volatile alkali,
whofe affinity with acids yields only to the fixed alkali.
Next come the abforbent earths ; and, laft of all, metallic
fubftances. Hence it follows, that when a fixed alkali
is united with an acid, it cannot be feparated therefrom
by any other fubftance ; that a volatile alkali united with
an acid cannot be feparated from it by any thing but a
fixed alkali; that an abforbent earth combined with an
acid may be feparated from it either by a fixed or by a-
volatile alkali ; and laftly, that any metallic fubftance
combined with an acid, may be feparated from it by a
fixed alkali, a volatile alkali, or an abforbent earth.
At the head of the fecond column ftands the character
of the marine acid, which figntfies that the affinities of
this acid are the fubjeft of the column. Immediately be¬
low it is placed the mark of tin. As this is a metalline
fubftance, and as the firft column places metalline fub¬
ftances in the loweft degree of affinity with all acids, it
is plain we muft fuppofe fixed alkalis, volatile alkalis^
and abforbent earffis, to be placed here in order after the
marine acids, and before tin. Tin, then, is of all me¬
talline fubftances that which has the greateft: affinity with"
the marine acid ; and then follow regulus f antimony,
copper, filver mercury. Gold comes laft of alt ; and
there are no lefs than two vacant places above it. Bv
this means it is in fome fort exclu ded from the rank of
fubftances that have an affinity with the marine acid.
“The reafon thereof is, that this acid alone is not canable
of diflblving gold and combining therewith, neceftarily
requiring for that nurpofe the aid of the nitrous acid, or
at leaft. of the phlogiflon.
[ S T R Y. 107
The third column exhibits the affinities of the nitrous-
acid, the character whereof ftands at its head. Imme¬
diately below it is the fign of iron, as the metal which
has the greateft affinity with this acid ; and then follow
other meta\ each according to the degree of its relation,
ti/z. copper, lead, mercury, and filver. In this column,,
as in the preceding one, we muft fuppofe the fubftances,
which incite firft column ftand above metallic fubftances,.
to be placed in their proper order before iron.
The fourth column is intended to reprefent the affini¬
ties of the vitriolic acid. The phlogifton ftands upper-
moft. Below it the fixed alkalis, volatile alkalis, and
abforbent earths, to fhew that this is an exception to the
firft column. As to metalline fubftances, Mr Geoffrey has:
fet down but three, being thofe with which the vitriolic
acid has the moft perceptible affinity: thefe metals, placed
in the order of their affinities, are iron, copper, and
filver.
The fifth column (hews the affinities of abforbent
earths. As thefe earths have no fenfible affinity but with
acids, this column contains only the charadters of the-
acids ranked according to the degree of their ftrength, or
affinity with the earths, viz. the vitriolic, the nitrous,.,
and the marine acids. Underneath this laft might be
placed the acid of vinegar, or the vegetable acid.
The fixth column expreffes the affinities of fixed alka¬
lis with acids, which are the fame with thofe of abfor¬
bent earths. Moreover, we find fulphur placed here be- .
low all the acids; becaufe liver of fulphur, which is a
combination of fulphur with a fixed alkali, is actually de¬
compounded by any acid : for any acid precipitates the
fulphur and unites with the alkali.
Immediately over the fulphur, or in the fame fquare
with it, might be fet a mark denoting the. volatile ful-
phureous fpirit; becaufe, like fulphur, it has lefs affinity
than any other acid with fixed alkalis. Oils might alfo
be ranked with fulphur, becaufe they unite with fixed al¬
kalis, and therewith form, foaps which are decompounded
by-any acid whatever.
The ffiventh column points out the affinities of volatile
alkalis, which are likewife the fame as thofe of abforbent
earths ; and the vegetable acid might be placed here alfi>
under the marine acid.
The eighth column fpecifies the affinities of metallic"
fubftances with acids. The affinities of the acids, which
with refpeft to fixed alkalis, volatile alkalis, and abfor¬
bent earths, fucceed each other uniformly,. do not ap¬
pear in the fame order here. The marine acid, inftead
of being placed below the vitriolic and nitrous acids,,
ftands, on the contrary, at their head ; becaufe, in faff,,
this acid feparates metalline fubftances ffom all the other
acids with which thev happen to be united,, and, forcing
thefe acids to quit poffeffion, intrudes into their place.
Neverthelefs-. this is not a general rule ; for feveral me¬
talline fubftances muft be excepted; particularly iron and
copper.
The ninth" column declares the affinities of fulphur.
Fixed alkalis, iron, copper lead, filver, regulus of an-
timonv, mercury, and gold, ftand below it in the order-
of their affinities. With regard ro gold, it muft be ob-
ferved, that it will not unite with pure fulphur ; it fuf-
fers:
soft C H E M
fere itfelf to be diffolved only by the liver of fulphur,
which is known to be a compoiition of fulphur and fixed
alkali.
At the head of the tenth column appears mercury, and
beneath it feveral metalline fubftances, in the order of
their affinities with it. Thofe metalline fubitances are
gold, filver, lead, copper, zinc, and regulus of anti¬
mony.
The eleventh column ffiews that lead has a greater affi¬
nity with filver than with copper.
The twelfth, that copper has a greater affinity with
mercury than with calamine.
The thirteenth, that filver has a greater affinity with
lead than with copper.
The fourteenth contains the affinities of iron. Re¬
gulus of antimony Hands immediately underneath it, as
being the metallic fubllance which has the greateft affi¬
nity with it. Silver, copper, and lead, are placed to¬
gether in the next fquare below, becaufe the degrees of
affinitj'. which thofe metals have with iron are not exactly
determined.
The fame is to be faid of the fifteenth column : Re¬
gulus of antimony Hands at its head *, iron is immediately
below it; and below the iron the fame three metals oc¬
cupy one fquare as before.
LaHly, The fixteenth column indicates that water has
a greater affinity with fpirit of wine than with falls. By
this general expreffion muH not be underHood any faline
fubfance whatever; but only the neutral falts, which
fpirif of wine frees from the water that kept them in fo-
lution. Fixed alkalis, on the contrary, as well as the
mineral acids, have a greater affinity than fpirit of wine
with water ; fo that thefe faline fubflances, being well
dephlegmatcd and mixed with fpirit of wine, imbibe the
water it contains and re&ify it.
The ’Theory of Conftrutting the Vejfels mofl
commonly ufed in Chemijlry.
Chemists cannot perform the operations of their art
without the help of a confiderable number of veflels, in-
Hruments, and furnaces, adapted to. contain the bodies
on which they intend to work, and to apply to them the
feveral degrees of heat required by different proceffes.
Veffels intended for chemical operations ffiould be able
to bear, without breaking, the fudden application of
great heat and great cold ; be impenetrable to every
thing, and unalterable by any folvent; unvitrifiable, and
capable of enduring the moH violent fire without melt¬
ing : But hitherto no veffels have been found with all
thefe qualities united.
They are made of fundry materials, namely, of me¬
tal, of glafs, and of earth. Metalline veffels, efpecially
thofe made of iron or copper, are apt to be corroded by
ahnolt every faline, oily, or even aqueous fubHance.
For this reafon, in order to render the ufe of them a lit¬
tle more^extenfive, they are tinned on the infide. But,
notwithffanding this precaution, they are on many occa-
frons not to be trufled ; and ffiould never be employed in
any nice operations which require great accuracy ; they
are, moreover, incapable of refiffing the force of fire.
I S T R Y.
Earthen veffels are ol£ feveral forts. Some, that are
made of a refraftory earth, are capable of .being fudden-
ly expofed to a ffrong fire without breaking, and even of
fuffaining a great degree of heat for a confiderable time:
But they generally fuffer the vapours of the matters which
they contain, as well as vitrified metals, to pafs through
them ; efpecially the glafs of lead, which eafily pene¬
trates them, and runs through their pores, as through a
a fieve. There are others made of an earth, that, when
well baked, looks as if it were half vitrified : Thefe be¬
ing much lefs porous are capable of retaining the vapours
of the matters which they contain, and even glafs of
lead in fufion; which is one of the feverefl trials a veffel
can be put to: But then they are moit brittle than the
other fort.
Good glafs-veffels ffiould conffantly be employed in
preference to all others, whenever they can poffibly be
ufed : And that not only becaufe they are no way inju¬
red by the moH adfive folvents, nor fuffer any part of
what they contain to pafs through, but alfo becaufe their
tranfparency allows the chemiff to obferve what paffes
within them' which is always both curious and ufeful.
But it is pity, that veffels of this fort ffiould not be a-
bie to endure a fierce fire'without melting.
Diffiilation, as hath been already faid, is an opera¬
tion by which we feparate from a body, by the help
of a gradual heat, the feveral principles of which it
con fills.
There are three methods of diffilling. The firff is
performed by applying the heat over the body whofe
principles are to be extracted. In this cafe, as the li¬
quors when heated and converted into vapours conffantly
endeavour to fly from the centre of heat, they are for¬
ced to re-unite in the lower part of the veffel that con¬
tains the matter in diffillation, and fo pafling through
the pores or holes of that veffel, they fall into another
cold veffel applied underneath to receive them. This
way of diffilling is, on this account, called diftilling per
defcenfum. It requires no other apparatus than two
veffels figured like fegments of hollow fpheres, whereof
that which is pierced with little holes, and intended to
contain the matter to be diftilled, ought to be much lefs
than the other which is to contain the fire, and dole its
aperture exaftly; the whole together being fupported
vertically upon a third veffel, which is to ferve the purpole
of a recipient, admitting into its mouth the convex bot¬
tom of the veffel containing the matter to be diffilled,
which muff accurately fill it. This method of diffilling
is but little ufed.
The fecond method of diftilling is performed by ap¬
plying the heat underneath the matter to be decompofed.
On this occafion the liquors being heated, rarefied, and
converted into vapours, rife, and are condenfed in a vef¬
fel contrived for that phrpofe, which we ffiall prefently
defcribe. This way of diftilling is called diftilling per
afcenfum, and is much ufed.
The veffel in which the diffillation per afcenfum is
performed, we call an alembic. Plate LXIV. fig.J.
There are feveral forts thereof differing from one an¬
other both in the matter of which, and tfie manner in
Which, they are made.
Thofe
C H E M
Thofe employed to draw the odoriferous waters and
effential oils of plants are generally made of copper, and
confift of feveral pieces. The firft, which is defigned to
contain the plant, is formed nearly like a hollow cone,-
the vertex whereof is drawn out in the fhape of a hollow
cylinder or tube : This part is named the cuburbit, Plate
LXIV. fig. i. A ; and its tube the neck of the alembic B.
To the upper end of this tube another veffel is foldered :
This is called the head C, and commonly has likewife
the form of a cone, joined to the neck of the alembic by
its'bafe, round which on the infide is hollowed a fmall
groove communicating with an orifice that opens at its
moft depending part. To this orifice is foldered a fmall
pipe in a diredtion Hoping downwards, which is called the
nofe, fpout, or beak D of the alembic. '
As foon as the matters contained in the alembic grow
hot,' vapours begin to arife from them, and afcending
through the neck of the alembic into the head, are by
the fides thereof Hopped and condenfed: From thence
they trickle down in little ftreams to the groove, which
conveys them to the fpout; and by that they pafs out of
the alembic into a glafs veffel or receiver G with a long
neck, the end of the fpout being introduced into that
neck and luted thereto.
To facilitate the refrigeration and condenfation of the
vapours circulating in the head, all alembics of metal are
‘moreover provided with another piece, which is a kind
of large pan of the Qime metal, fitted and foldered round
the head. This piece ferves to keep cold water in,
which inceffantly cools the head, and therefore it is call¬
ed the refrigeratory E. The water in the refrigeratory
itfelf grows hot after fome time, and muft therefore be
changed occafionally ; the heated water being firft drawn
off by means of a cock fixed near the bottom of the re¬
frigeratory. All copper alembics Ihould be tinned on the
infide for the reafons already given.
When faline fpirits are to be diftilled, alembics of me¬
tal muft not be fifed; becaufe the faline vapours would
corrode them. In this cafe recourfe muft be had to a-
lembics of glafs. Thefe confift of pieces only; namely, a
cucurbit, whofe fuperior orifice is admitted into, and ex-
a<ftly luted with its head, which is the fecond piece.
In general, as alembics require that the vapours of
the matter to be diftilled fhould rife to a confiderable
height, they ought to be ufed only when the moft volatile
principles are to be drawn from bodies: And the lighter
and more volatile the fubftances to be feparated by diftil-
lation are, the taller murt the alembic be ; becaufe the
moft ponderous parts, being unable to rife above a cer¬
tain heighth, fall back again into the cucurbit as foon as
they arrive there, leaving the lighter to mount alone,
whofe volatility qualifies them to afcend into the head.
When a matter is to be diftilled that requires a very
tall alembic, and yet does not admit of a metalline vef¬
fel, the end will be beft anfwered by a glafs veffel of a
round or oval fhape, having a very long neck, with a fmall
head fitted to its extremity. Such a veffel ferves many
purpofes: It is fometimes employed as a receiver, and
at other times as a digefting veffel; on which laft occa-
fion it goes under the name of a matrafs, fig. 3. When
Voi. II. No. 34. .3
I S T R Y. 109
one of thefe provided with ahead, (fig.J. C), is applied
to the purpofe of diftilling, it forms a fort of alembic. >
There are fome alembics of glafs, blown in fuch a man¬
ner by the workmen, that the body and head form but
one continued piece. As thefe alembics do not ftand in
need of having their feveral pieces luted together, they
are very ufeful on fome occafions, when fuch exceeding
fubtile vapours rife as are capable of tranfpiring through
lutes. The head muft be open at the top, and provided
with a fliort tube, through which by means of a funnel
with a long pipe, the matter to be diftilled may be in¬
troduced into the cucurbit. This is to be exaiftly clofed
with a.glafs ftopple, the furface whereof muft be made
to fit the infide of the tube in every point, by rubbing
thole two pieces well together with emery.
Another fort of alembic hath alfo been invented,
which may be ufed with advantage when cohobation is
required; that is, when the liquor obtained by diftilla-
tion is to be returned upon the matter in the cucurbit;
and efpecially when it is intended that this cohobation
lhall be repeated a great number of times. The veffel
we are fpeaking of is conftrufted exaftly in the fame
manner as that laft defcribed ; except that its beak, in-
ftead of being in a ftreight line as in the other alembics,
forms a circular arch, and re-enters the cavity of the cu¬
curbit, in order to convey back again the liquor colleft-
ed in the head. This inftrument hath commonly two
beaks oppofite to each other, both turned in this manner,
and is called a pelican : It faves the artift the trouble of
frequently unluting and reluting his veffels, as well as
the lofs of a great many vapours.
There are certain fubftances which in diftillation af¬
ford matters in a concrete form, or rife wholly in the
form of a very light powder, called flowers. When
fuch fubftances are to be diftilled, the cucurbit which
contains them is covered with a head without a nofe,
which,is named a blind head.
When the flowers rife in great quantities and very
high, a number of beads is employed to colleft them ;
or rather a number of a kind of pots, confifting of a bo¬
dy only without any bottom, which fitting one into the
other form a canal, that may be lengthened or Ihortened
at pleafure, according as the flowers to be fublimed are
more or lefs volatile. The laft of the heads, which ter¬
minates the canal, is quite clofe at one end, and makes
a true blind-head. Thefe veffels are called 'aludels :
they are ufually of earthen or ftone ware.
All the veffels above mentioned are fit only for di¬
ftilling fuch light volatile matters as can be eafily raifed
and brought over; fuch as phlegm, effential oils, fra¬
grant waters, acid oily fpirits, volatile alkalis, &c. But
when the point is to procure,- by diftillation, principles
that are much lefs volatile, and incapable of rifing high,
fuch as the thick fetid oils, the vitriolic, the nitrous, and
the marine acids, we are under a neceffity of having
recourfe to other veffels, and another manner of di¬
ftilling.
It is eafy to imagine, that fuch a veffel muft be much
lower than the alembic. It is indeed no more than a
hollow globe, whofe upper part degenerates into* a neck
2 E or
no C H E M
or tube, that is bent into a horizontal poiitioh; for which ,
reafon this inflrument is called a retort: It is always of
one Angle piece.
The matter to be diftilled is introduced into the body
of the retort by means of a ladle with a long tubular
fliank. Then it is fet in a furnace built purpofely for
this ufe, and fo that the neck of the retort coming out
of the furnace may, like the the nofe of the alembic,
Hand in a floping pofition, to facilitate the egrefs of
the liquors, which by its means are conveyed to a re¬
ceiver, into which it is introduced, and with which it is
luted. This way of diftilling, in which the vapours
feem rather to be driven out of the veffel horizontally
.and laterally, than railed up and fublimed, is for that
reafon called diftillation per- latus*
Retorts are, of all the inftruments of diftillation,
thofe that muft fuftain the greateft heat, and refift the
ftrongeft folvents ; and therefore they mull not be made
of metal. Some, however, which are made of iron may
do well enough on certain occafions : The reft are either
of glafs or earth. Thofe of glafs, for the reafons above
given, are preferable to the other fort, in all cafes where
they are not to be expofed to fuch a force of fire as may
melt them. The beft glafs, that which ftands both heat
and folvents beft, is that in which there are feweft alka¬
line falts : Of this fort is the green German glafs : The
beautiful white cryftaf glafs is far from being equally fer-
viceable.
Retorts, as well as alembics, may be of different
forms. For example, fome matters are apt to fwell and
rife over the neck of the retort in fubftance without fuf-
fering any decompofition ; when fuch matters are to be
diftilled in a retort, it is proper that the body of the vef¬
fel, inftead of being globular, be drawn out into the form
of a pear, fo as nearly to refemble that of a cucurbit. In
a retort of this kind, the diftance between the bottom
and the neck being much greater than in thofe whofe
bodies are fpherical, the matters contained have much
more room for expanfion ; fo that the inconvenience
here mentioned is thereby prevented. Retorts of this
form are called Englifh retorts : as they hold the mid¬
dle place between alembics and common retorts, they
may be ufed to diftill fuch matters as have a mean degree
of volatility between the greateft and the leaft.
It is moreover proper to have in a laboratory fundry
fetorts with necks of different diameters. Wide necks
will be found the fitteft for conveying thick matters, and
fuch as readily become fixed; for inftance, fome very
thick fetid oils, butter of antimony, isc. for as thefe
matters acquire a confiftence as foon as they are out of
the reach of a certain degree of heat, they would foon
choak up a narrow neck, and by flopping the vapours,
which rife at the fame time from the retort, might occa-
fion the burfting of the veffels.
Some retorts are alfo made with an opening on their
upper fide, like that of tubulated glafs alembics, which
is to be clofed in the fame manner with a glafs ftopple.
Thefe retorts are alfo called tubulated retorts, and ought
alway> to be ufed whenever it is neceffary to introduce
frelh matter into the retort during the operation ; feeing
it may be done by means of this invention, v/ithout un-
: S T R Y.
luting and-reluting the veffels ; which ought always to
be avoided as much as poflible.
One of the things that moft perplexes the chemifts is,
the prodigious elafticity of many different vapours, which
are frequently difeharged with impetuofity during the di¬
ftillation, and are even capable of burfting the veffels
with explofion, and with danger to the artift. On fuch
occafions it is abfolutely neceffary to give thefe vapours
vent, as we Ihall direft in its proper place : But as that
can never be done without lofing a great many of them ;
as fome of them in particular are fo elaftic, that fcarce
any at all would remain in the veffel ; for inftance, thofe
of the fpirit of nitre, and efpecially thofe of the fmoking
fpirit of fait; the practice is to make ufe of very large
receivers, of about eighteen or twenty inches diameter,
that the vapours may have fufficient room to circulate in,
and, by applying to the wide furface prefented them by
the extenfive infide of fuch a large veffel, may be con-
denfed into drops. Thefe huge receivers are commonly
in the form of hollow globes, and are called ballons.
To give thefe vapours ftill more room, ballons have
been contrived with two open gullets in each, diametri¬
cally oppofite to one another; whereof one admits the
neck of the retort, and the other is received by one of
the gullets of a fecond ballon of the fame form, which is
joined in like manner to a third, and fo on. By this ar¬
tifice the fpace may be enlarged at pleafure. Thefe bal¬
lons with two neck's are called adopters. '
Operations on bodies that are abfolutely fixed, as me¬
tals, ftones, fand, &c. require only fuch veffels as are
capable of containing thofe bodies and fefifting the force
of fire. Thefe veffels are little hollow pots, of diffe¬
rent dimenfions, which are called crucibles. Crucibles
can hardly be made of any thing but earth ; they ought
to have a cover of the fame material fitted to Ihut them
clofe. The beft earth we know is that whereof thofe
pots are made'in which butter is brought from Bretagne:
Thefe pots themfelves are exceeding good crucibles; and
they are almoft the only ones that are capable of holding
glafs of lead in fufion, without being penetrated by it.
For the roafting of ores, that is, freeing them by
the help of fire from their fulphureous and arfenical
parts, little cups made of the fame, material with cruci¬
bles are ufed ; but they are made flat, ftiallow, and wi¬
der above than below, that thefe volatile matters may the
more freely exhale. Thefe veffels are called tejis, or
fcorifiers: They are fcarce ufed but in the docimaftic
art, that is, in making fmall affays of ores.
The TheQry of con ft rutting the Furnaces moft
commonly ufed in Chemiftry.
Skill in coridufting and applying fire properly, and
determining its different idegrees, is of very great confe-
quence to the fuccefs of chemical operations.
As it is exceeding difficult to govern and moderate the
adfion of fire, when the veffels in which any operation is
performed are immediately expofed to it, chemifts have
contrived to convey heat to their veffels, in nice opera¬
tions, through different mediums, which they place oc-
cafionly between thofe veffels and the fire.
Thofe
C H E M
Thofe intermediate fubfta^ces in which they plunge
their veflels are called baths. They are either fluid or
folid : The fluid baths are water, or its vapours. When
the diftilling veflel is fet in water, the bath is called
balneum marise, or. the water-bath; and the greateft de¬
gree of heat of which it is fufceptible is that of boiling wa¬
ter. When the veflel is expofed only to the vapours which
exhale from water, this forms the vapour-bath: the
heat of which is nearly the fame with that of the balne¬
um maria. Thefe baths are ufeful for diftilling eflential
oils, ardent fpirits, fweet-fcented'waters; in a word, all
fuch fubftances as cannot bear a greater heat without
prejudice either to their odour, or to fome of their o-
ther qualities.
Baths may alfo be made of any other fluids, fuch as
oils, mercury, fcc. which are capable of receiving and
communicating much more heat ; but they are very fel-
dom ufed. When a more confiderable degree of heat is
required, a bath is prepared of any folid matter reduced
to a fine powder, fuch as fand, allies, filings of iron, i6v.-
The heat of thefe baths may be pulhed fo far as to make
the-bottom of the veflel become faintly red. By plun¬
ging a thermometer into the bath, by the fide of the vef-
fel, it is eafy to obferve the precife degree of heat ap¬
plied to the fubftance on which you are working. It is
neceflary that the thermometers employed on this occa-
fion be'conftrufted on good principles, and fo contrived
as to be eafily compared with thofe of the moft celebrated
natural phiiofojihers. Thofe of the illuftrious Reaumur
are moft ufed and beft known, fo that it would not be
amifs to give them the preference. When a greater heat
is required than any of thofe baths-can give, the veflels
muft be fet immediately- on live-coals, or in a flaming
fire : this is called working with a naked fire ; and in
this cafe it is much more difficult than in the other to
determine the degrees of heat.
There are feveral ways of applying a naked fire. When
the heat or flame is refledied upon the upper part of the
veflel which is expofed to the fire, this is called a rever¬
berated-heat. A melting heat is that which is ftrong e-
nough to fufe moft bodies. A forging heat is that of a
fire which is forcibly excited by the conftant blaft of a
pair of bellows, or more.
There is alfo another fort of fire which ferves very
commodioufly for many operations, becaufe it does not
require to be fed or frequently mended : This is afford¬
ed by a lamp with one or more wicks, and may be called
a lamp-heat. It is fcarce ever employed but to heat
baths, in operations which require a gentle and long con¬
tinued warmth : if it hath any fault, it is that of growing
gradually hotter.
All thefe different ways of applying fire require fur¬
naces of different conftrudions : We (hall therefore de-
fcribe fuch as are of principal and moft neceflary ufe.
' Furnaces muft be divided into different parts or ftories,
each of which has its particular ufe and name.
The lower part of the furnace defigned for receiving
the alhes, and giving paffage to the air, is called the alh-
hole. The alh-hole is terminated above by a grate, the
ufe of which is to fupport the coals and wood, which are
to be burnt thereon : This part is called the fire-place.
I S T R Y. Ill
The fire-place is in like manner terminated above by fe¬
veral iron bars, which lie quite a-cro^s it from right to
left, in lines parallel to each other : The ufe of thefe
bars is to fuftain the veffels in which the operations are
to be performed. The fpace above thefe bars to the top
of the furnace is the upper ftory, and may be called the
laboratory of the furnace. Laftly, fome furnace are
quite covered above, by means of a kind of vaulted roof
called the dome.
Furnaces have moreover feveral apertures: one of thefe
is at the ^fh-hole, which gives paflage to the air, and
through y/hich the afhes that fall through the grate are
raked out; this aperture iS called the afti-hole door : an¬
other is at the fire-place, through which the fire is fup-
plied with fuel, as occafion requires ; this is called the
mouth or door of the fire-place, or the ftoke-hole : there
is a third in the upper ftory, through which the neck of
the veflel paffes ; and a fourth in the dome, for carrying
off the fuliginofities of combuftible matters, which is call¬
ed the Chimney.
To conclude, there are feveral other openings in the
feveral parts of the furnace, {he ufe whereof is to admit
the air into thofe places, and alfo, as they can be eafily
Ihut, to incite or flacken the adivity of the fire, and fo to
regulate it; which has procured them the title of re-
g'Jiers. All the other openings of the furnace fhould be
made to Ihut very clqfe, the better to aflift in governing
the fire ; by which means they likewife do the office of
regifters.
In order to our forming a juft and general idea of the
conftrudtion of furnaces, and of the difpofition of the fe¬
veral apertures in them, with a view to increafe ordimi-
nilh the a&ivity of the fire, it will be proper to lay down,
as our ground-work, certain principles of natural philo-
fophy, the truth of which is demonllrated by experience.
And firft, every bodyjcnows that combuftible matters
will not burn or confume unlefs they have a free commu¬
nication with the air ; infomuch that if they be deprived
thereof, even when burning moft rapidly, they will be
extinguiftied at once : that confequently combuftion is
greatly promoted by the frequent acceflion of frefti air;
and that a ftream of air, directed fo as to pafs with im-
petuolity through burning fuel, excites the fire to the
greateft poflible adlivity.
Secondly, It is certain that the air which touches or
comes near ignited bodies is heated, rarefied, and ren¬
dered lighter than the air about.it; that is; further di-
ftant from the centre of heat ; and confeque'ntly that this
air fo heated and become lighter is neceffarily determined'
thereby to afcend and mount aloft, in order to make
room for that which is lefs heated and not fo light,.'
which by its weight and elafticity tends to occupy the
place quitted by the other. Another confequence hereof
is^ that if fire be kindled in a place inclofed every where
but above and below, a current of air will be formed in
that place, running in a diredion from the bottom to the
top ; fo that if any light bodies be applied to the open¬
ing below, .they will be carried up towards the fire ; but,
on the contrary, if they be held at the opening above,
they will be impelled by a force which will drive them up
and carry them awaj from the fire.
Thirdly,
112 C H E M
Thirdly, and laftly, it is a truth demonftrated in hy¬
draulics, that the velocity of a given quantity of any fluid,
determined to flow in any direction whatever, is fo much
the- greater, the narrower the channel is to which that
fluid is confined ; and confequently that the velocity of
a fluid will be increafed by making it run from a wider
through a narrower pafiage.
Thefe principles being eftablifhed, it is eafy to apply
them to the conftruftion of furnaces. Firft, if a fire be
kindled in the fire-place of a furnace, which is open on
all fides, it burns nearly as if it were in the open air. It
has with the furrounding air a free communication ; fo
that frelh air is continually admitted to facilitate the en¬
tire combuftion of the inflammable matters employed as
fuel. But there being nothing to determine that air to
pafs with rapidity through the fire in this cafe, it does
not at all augment the atfivity thereof, but fuffers it to
wade away quietly.
Secondly, If the afli-hole or dome of a furnace in
which a fire is burning be flmt quite clofe, then there is
no longer any free communication between the air and
the fire : if the afli-hole be fhut. the air is debarred from
having free accefs to the fire ; if the dome'be ftopt, the
egrefs of the air rarefied by the fire is prevented ; and
confequently the fire muft in either cafe burn very faintly
and flowly, gradually die away, and at laft go quite out.
Thirdly, If all the openings of the furnace be wholly
doled, it is evident that the fire will be very quickly ex-
tinguiflied.
Fourthly, If only the lateral openings of the fire-place
be (hut, leaving the afli-hole and upper part of the fur¬
nace open ; it is plain that the air entering by the afli-
hole will neceflarily be determined to go out at top, and
that confequently a current of air will be formed, which
will pafs through the fire, and make it burn brilkly and
vigoroufly.
Fifthly, If both the afli-hole and the upper flory of the
furnace be of fome lengthy and form canals either cylin-
diic or prifmatic, then the air being kept in the fame di-
redtion through a longer fpace, the courfe of its dream
•will be both dronger and better determined, and confe¬
quently the fire will be more animated by it.
Sixthly, and ladly, if the afli hole and the upper part
of the furnace, indead of being cylindric or prifmatic
canak, have the form of truncated cones or pyramids,
danding on their bafes, and fo ordered that the upper
opening of the afli-hole adjoining to the fire-place may
be wider than the bafe of the fuperior cone or pyramid;
then the dream of air, being forced to pafs inceflantly
from a larger channel through a fmaller, mud be con-
fiderably accelerated, and procure to the fire the great-
ed aftivity which it can receive from the make of a fur
nace.
The materials fitted for building furnaces are, i.
Bricks, joined together with potters clay mixed with
fand, and moidened with water. 2.. Potters clay mingled
with potfherds, moidened with water, and baked in a vi¬
olent fire. 3. Iron; of which all furnaces may be
made; wi,th*this precaution, that the infide be provided
with a great many prominent points, as fadenings for a
:coat of earth, with which the internal parts of the furnace
I S T . R Y.
mud neceflarily be covered to defend it from the aftion of
the fire.
The reverberating furnace is one of thofe that are
mod employed in chemidry : it is proper for didillations
by the retort, arid fliould be condrudted in the following
manner.
Fird, The ufe of the afli-hole being, as was faid, to
give paflage to the air, and to receive the allies, no bad
confequence can attend its being made pretty high : It
may have from twelve to twenty or twenty-four inches in
heighth. Its aperture ftiould be wide enough to admit
billets of wood when a great fire is to be made.
Secondly, The afli-hole mud be terminated at its up¬
per part by an- iron grate, the bars of which fliould be
very fubdantial, that they may refid the adtion of the
fire : this grate is the bottom of the fire-place, and de-
dined to fupport the coals. In the lateral part of the
fire-place, and nearly about the fame height with the
grate, there fliould be a hole of fuch a fize that it may
eafily admit charcoal, as well as little tongs and (hovels
fyr managing the fire. This aperture or mouth of the
fire-place ftiould be perpendicularly over the mouth of the
afli-hole.
Thirdly, from fix to eight or ten inches high above
the grate, over the afli-hole, little apertures mud be
made in the walls of the furnace, of eight or ten lines in
diameter, an inch from one another, and thofe in one
fide mud be diametrically oppofite to thofe in the other.
The ufe of thefe holes is to receive bars of iron for the
retort to red on; which ftiould be, as was faid, at diffe¬
rent heights, in order to accommodate retorts of dif¬
ferent fizes. At the upper extremity of this part of the
furnace, which reaches from the iron bars to the top,
the heighth whereof fliould be fomewhat lefs than the
width of the furnace, mud be cut a femi-circular aper¬
ture for the neck of the retort to come through. This
hole muft by no means be over the doors of the fire¬
place and afli-hole; for then, as it gives paflage to the
neck of the retort, it muft of courfe be oppofite to the
receiver, and in that cafe the receiver itfelf would ftand
over againft thofe two apertures; which would foe at¬
tended with this double inconvenience, that the receiver
would not only grow, very hot, but greatly embarrafs the
operator, whofe free accefs to the fire-place and afli-hole
would be thereby obftrufted. It is proper therefore,
that the femi-circular put we are fpeaking of be fo placed,
that, when the greateft ballons are luted to the retort,
they may leave an open paffage to the fire-place or afti-
hole
Fourthly, in order cover in the laboratory of the re¬
verberating furnace, there mud be a roof made for it in
the form of a cupola, or concave hemifphere, having the
fame diameter as the furnace This dome fliould have
a femi-circular cut fin its rim anfwering to that above-
direded to be made in the upper extremity of the fur¬
nace, fo that, when adjufted to each other, the two to¬
gether may form a circular hole for the neck of the re¬
tort to pafs through. At the top of this dome there
muft alfo be a circular hole of three or four inches dia¬
meter, carrying a fliort tapering funnel of the fame dia¬
meter, find three inches high, which will ferve for a
chimney
C H E M I
chimney to carry of? all fuliginofities, and accelerate the
current of the air. This pafl'age may be (hut at pleafure
with a flat cover. Moreover, as it is neceflary that the
dome flipuld be taken oflP and put on with eafe, it fhould
have two ears or handles for that purpofe: a portative
or moveable furnace fhould alfo have a pair of handles
fixed oppofite to each other between the afh hole and the
fire pl>:ce.
Sixthly and daftly, a conical canal muft be provided of
about three foot long, and fufficiently wide at its lower
end to admit the funnel of the aperture at the top of the
dome. This conical tube is to be applied to the dome
when the fire is required to be extremely addive : it ta¬
pers gradually from its bale upwards, and breaks off as
if truncated at top, where it fhould be about two indies
wide.'
Befides the apertures already mentioned as neceffary
to a reverberating furnace, there muft alfo be many o-
ther fmaller holes made in its afll-hole, fire-place, labo¬
ratory, and dome, which muft all be fo cdhtrived as to
be eafily openfed and fhut with floppies of earth : thefe
holes are the regifters of the furnace, and fierce to regu¬
late the adlivity.of the'fire according to the principles
before laid down
When the adtion of the fire is required to be exadlly
unifqrm add very briflt, it is neceffary to flop carefully
with moift earth all the little.chinks in the jundlure of the
dome with the furnace,. between the neck of the retort
and the circular hole through which it pafles, and which
it never fills exadlly, and -laftly-the holes which receive
the iron bars that fuftain the retort. .
It is proper to have in a laboratory feveral reverbera¬
ting furnaces of different magnitudes ; becaufe they muft
be proportioned to the fi^e of the retorts employed. The
retort ought to fill the furnace, fb as to leave only
the diftance of an inch between it and the infide of the
furnace.
Yet when the retort is to be expofed to.a moft violent
fire, and efpecially when it is required that the heat fhall
adt with equal force on all parts of -the furnace, and as
ftrongly on its vault as on its bottom, a greater diftance
muft be left between the retort and the infide, of the
furnace ; for then the furnace may be filled with coals,
even to the upper part of the dome. If moreover fome
pieces of wood be put into the afh hole, the conical ca¬
nal fitted cn to the funnel of the dome, and all ,the a-
pertures of the furnace exadlly clofed, except the afh¬
hole and the chimney, the greateft heat will then be
excited that this furryce can produce.
The furnace now defcribed may alfo be employed in
many other chemical operations. If the dome be laid a-
(ide, an alembic may very well be placed therein: but
then the fpace, whh h wdl be left between the body of
the alembic and the top of.tbe upper part of the furnace,
muft be carefully filled up with Windfor-loam moiftened ;
for without that precaution the heat would foon reach
the very head, which ought to be kept as cool as poflible,
in order to pronjote the condenfatibn of the vapours.
On this occafion therefore it will be proper to leave no
•holes open in the fire-place, but the lateral ones; of
Nol. II. No. 34. 3
S T R Y. 113
which alfo thofe over againft the receiver muft be’flop¬
ped.
A pot or broad-brimmed earthen pan may be placed
over this furnace, and being fo fitted to it as.to clofe the
upper'part thereof accurately, and filled with fand, may
ferve for a fand-heat to diftill with.
The bars defigned to fupport diftilling veflels being ta¬
ken out, a crucible may Hand therein, and many opera¬
tions be performed that do not require the utmoft violence
of fire. In a word, this furnace is one of the moft com¬
modious that can be, and more extenfively ufeful than
any other.
The melting furnace is defigned for applying the greateft
force of heat to the moft fixed bodies, fuch as metals
and earths. It is never empl'oyqd in diftilling: it is of
no ufe but for calcination and fufion; and confequently
need not fidmit any veffels but crucibles.
The afh-hole of this furnace differs from that of the
reverberating furnace only in this, that it muft be high¬
er, in order to raife the fire-place to a level with the
artift’s hand; becaufe in that all the operations of this
furnace are performed. The afh-hole therefore muft be
about three foot high : and this height procures it more¬
over the advantage of a good draught of air. For - the
fame reafon, and in confequence of the principles we
laid dow^, it fhould be fo built that its width leffening
infenfibly from the bottom to the top, it may be nar¬
rower where it opens into the fire place than any where
below.
The afh-hole is terminated at its upper end, like that
of the reverberating furnace, by a grate which ferves for
the bottom of the fire-place, and ought to be very fub-
ftantial that it may refift the violence of the fire. The
infide of this furnace is commonly an elliptic curve;
becaufe it is demonftrated by mathematicians, that fur-
faces having that curvature refled the rays of the fun, or
of fire, in fuch a manner, that, meeting rn a point or a
line, they, produce there % violent heat. But to anfwer
this purpofe, thofe furfaces muft be finely polifhed ; au
advantage hardly procureabl^ to the internal furface of
this furnace, which can be. made of nothing but earth :
befides, if’it were poffible to give ft a polifh, the violent
adion of the fire that muft be employed in this furnace
would prefently deftroy it. Yet the elliptical figure muft
not be entirely difregarded : for, if care be taken to keep
the internal furface of the furnace as fmooth as poflible,
it will certainly refled the heat pretty ftrongly, and col-
led'it about the center.
The fire-place of this furnace ought to have but four1
apertures.
Firft, that of the lower grate, which communicates
with the afh-hole.
Secondly, a door in its fore-fide, "through which may
be introduced coals, crucibles, and tongs for managing
them : this aperture fhould be made to fhut exadly with
a plate of iron, having its infide coated with earth, and
turning on two hinges fixed to the furnace.
Thirdly, over this door a hole flaming downwards to¬
wards t he place where the crucible is to ft.and. The ufe of
this hole is to give the operator an opportunity of ex-
2 F amining
ii4 C H E M
amining the condition of the matters contained in his cru¬
cible, without opening the door of the fire-place: this
hole Ihould be made to open and Ihut eafily, by means
of a Hopple of earth.
Fourthly, a circular aperture of about three inches wide
in the upper part or vault of the furnace, which fnouid
gradually leffen Jand terminate, like that of the dome of
the reverberating furnace, in a (hort conical funnel of
abount three inches long, and fitted to enter the conical
pipe before defcribed, which is applied when the a&ivity
of the fire is- to be increafed.
When this furnace is to be ufed, and a crucible to
be placed in it, care mull be taken to fet on the grate a
cake of baked earth fpmewhat broader than the foot of
the crucible. The-ufe of this Hand is to fupport the
crucible, and raife it above the grate, for which purpofe
it (hould be two inches thick. Were it not for this
precaution, the bottom of the crucible, which would Hand
immediately on the grate, could never be thoroughly
heated, becaufe it would be always expofed to the dream
of cold air which enters by the aih-hole. Care {hould
alfo be taken to heat this earthen bottom red-hot-bp
fore it be placed in the furnace, in order to free it from
any humidity, which might otherwife happen to be dri¬
ven again!! the crucible during the operation, and oc-
cafion its breaking.
Wc -omitted to take notice, infpeakingof the afh hole,
that, befides its door, it {hould have about the middle of
its height a finall hoje, capable of receiving the noftl
of a good perpetual bellows, which is to be introduced
into it and worked, after the door is exadly ihut, when
it is thought proper to excite the activity of the fire to
the utmoit violence.
The forge is only a mafs of bricks of about three
foot high, along whofe upper furface is directed the nofe
or pipe of a pair of large perpetual bellows, fo placed
.that the operator mayeafiiy blow the fire with onh hand.
The coals are laid on the hearth of the forge near the
nofe of the bellows ; they are confined, if necelfary, to
prevent their being carried away by the wind of the bel¬
lows, within.a fpaceinclofed by bricks; and then by pull¬
ing the bellows the fire is continually kept up in its greattd
activity. The forge is of ufe when there is occafion to
apply a great degree of heat fuddenly to any fubftance,
or when it is neceifarythat the operator be at liberty to
handle frequently the matters which he propofes to fufe
or calcine.
The cupelling furnace is that in which gold and filver
are purified, by the means of lead, from all alloy of o
ther metallic fubfhmces. This furnace muft give a heat
ftrong enough to vitrify lead, and therewith all the alloy
which the perfeift metals may contain. This furnace is
to be built in the following manner.
Firfi, of thick iron-plates, or of fome fuch compofi-
tion of earth as we recommended for the conftruftion of
furnaces, muft be formed a hollow quadrangular prifm,
whofe fides may be about a foot broad, and from ten to
eleven inches high ; and extending from thence upwards
may Converge towards the top, fo as to form a pyramid
truncated at the height of feven or eight inches, and
terminated by an aperture of the width of feven or eight
I S T R Y.
inches every way. The lower part of the prifm is ter¬
minated and clofed by a plate of the fame materials of
which the furnace is conftru&ed.
Secondly, in-the fore-fide or front of this prifm
there is an opening of three .or four inches in height
by five or fix inches in breadth : this opening, which
{hould be very near the bottom, is the door 5f the
afii hole. Immediately over this opening is placed an
iron grate, the bars of which are quadrangular prifms
of half an inch fquare, laid parallel to each other,
and about eight or nine inches afunder, and fo difpofed
that two of their angles are laterally oppofite, the two o-
thers looking one direftly upwards, and the other down¬
wards. As in this lituation the bars of the grate pre-
fent to the fire-place very oblique furfaces, the aihes
and very final! coals do not accumulate between the r,, or
hinder the free entrance of the air from the afh-hole.
This grate terminates the aih-hele at its upper part, and
ferves for the bottom of the fire-place.
Thirdly, three inches, or three and a half, above the
grate, there is in the fore fide of the furnace another
opening terminated by an arch for its upper part, which
confequently has the figure of a femi-circle: it ought to
be four inches wide at bottom, and three inches and an
half high at its middle. This opening is the door of the
fire-place; yet it is not intended for the fame ufes as the
door of the fire-place in other furnaces : the purpofe
for which it is adually defirned {hall be explained when
we come to {hew how the furnace is to be ufed. An
inch above the door of the fire-place, ftili in the forefide
of the furnace, ai e two holes of about an inch diameter,
and at the diftance of three inches and a half from each
other, to which anfwer two other holes of the fame iize,
made in the hinder part, direftly oppofite to thefe.
There is, moreover, a fifth hole of the. fame width a-
bout an inch above the door of the fire-place. The de-
ftgn of all thefe holes {hall be explained when we.defcrihe
the manner in which thefe furnaces are to be ufed.
Fourthly, the fore-part of the furnace is bound by
three iron braces, one of which is fixed juft below the
door of the afh hole ; the fecond .occupies the whole
fpace between the alh-hole door and the door of the fire¬
place, and has two holes in it, anfwering to thofe which
we direfted to be made in the furnace itfelf about this
place; and the third is placed immediately over the door
of the fire-place. Theie braces muft extend from one
corner of the front of the^furnace to the other, and be
faftened thereto with iron pins, in fuch a manner that
their fides next to’ the doors may not lie quite clofe to
the body of the furnace, but form a kind of grooves
for the iron plates to Hide in, that are defigned to fiiut
the two doors of the furnace when it is neceftary. Each
of tfiefe iron plates {hould have a handle, by which it
may be conveniently moved; and to each door there
{hould be two plates, which meeting each other, and
joining exa&ly in the middle of the door-place, may {hut
it very clofe. Each of the two plates belonging to the
door of the fire-place ought to have a hole in its upper
part; one of thefe holes ihould be a flit of about two
lines wide, and half an inch long ; the other may be a
fenii-circular opening of one inch ia height and two in
breadth..
C H E M I
breadth. Thefe holes fhould be placed fo that neither
of them may~open into the fire-place when the two
plates are joined together.in the middle of the door to
flun it clofe.
► Fifthly, to terminate the furnace above,there mufl
be a pyramid, formed of the fame materials with the fur¬
nace, hollow, quadrangular, three inches high, on a bafe
of feven inches, which bafe muft exadly fit the upper o-
pening of the furnace? the top of this pyramidal cover
mull end in a tube of three inches in diameter and two in
height, which muft-be almoft cylindrical, and yet a
little inclining to the conical form This tube ferves,
as in the furnaces already dfferibed, to carry the conical
funnel, which is fitted to the upper pair when a fire of
extraordinary a&ivity is wanted. •
The furnace thus conftru£ted is fit to ferve all the.pur-
pofes for which it is defigned ; yfet, before it can be ufed,
another piece muft be provided, which, though it does
r.ot properly belong to the furnace, is neverthelefs necef-.
fary in all the operations performed by it; and that is a
piece contrived to contain the cupels, or other veffels
which "are to be expofed. to the fire in this furnace. It
is called a muffle, and is made in the following manner.
On an oblong fquure, of four inches in breadth, and
■ fix or feven in length, a concave femi-cylinder is ere<5Ied,
in the form of a vault, which makes a femi-circular ca¬
nal, open at both ends. One of thefe is almoft entirely
clofed, except that near the bottom two-frmdl femi-cir¬
cular holes are left. In each of its fides likewife two
i'uch holes are made, and the other end Is left quite open.
The muffle is intended to bear and communicate the
fierceft heat; and therefore it muft be made thin, and of
an earth that will refift the violence of lire, fuch as that
of which crucibles are made. The muffle being thus con-
ftrudted, and then well baked, is fit for ufe.
When it is to be ufed, it muft be put into the furnace
by the upper opening, and fet upon'two iron bars, intro¬
duced through the holes made for that purpofe below the
door of the fire-place. The mu$le muft be placed on
thefe bars in the fire-place, in fiich a manner that its o-
pen end fhall (land next to and direflly againft the door
of the fire-place, and may be joined to it with lute.
Then the cupels are ranged in it, and the furnace is filled
up, to the height of two or three inches above the muf¬
fle, with fmall coals not bigger than a walnut, to the end
that they may lie clofe round the muffle, and procure it
an equal heat on every fide. The chief ufe of the muf¬
fle is to prevent the coals and afhes from falling into the
cupels, w hich would be very prejudicial to the operations
carnying on in them : for the lead would not vitrify as it
oughr, beeaufe the immediate contaft of the coals would
continually reftore its phlogifton ; or elfe the gl'afs of lead,
which ought to penetrate and pafs through the cupels,
would be rendered incapable of fo doing ; becaufe the
alhes mixing therewith would give it fuch a confiftence
*and tenacity as would deftroy that property, or at leaft
confiderably lelTen ir. The openings, therefore,.which
are left in the lower part of the muffle, fliould' not be fo
high as to admit coals or afhes to get into the cupels-;
the ufe of them is to procure an eafier pafiage for the
he.at and the air to thofe veffels. The muffle is left quite
S T R Y. r 15
open in its fore-part, that the operator may be at liberty
to examine what paffes in the cupels, to ftir their con¬
tents, to remove them from one place to another, to con¬
vey new matters into them, &c. and alfo to promote the
free accefs of the air, which muft concur with the fire
towards the evaporation neceflary to the vitrification of
lead ; which air, if frifh were not often enough admit¬
ted, would be incapable of producing, that effeft; becaule
it would foon be loaded with fuch a quantity of vapours
th.it it could not take up any more.
Tne government of the fire in this furnace is founded
on the general principles above laid down for all furnaces.
Yet as there are fome little differences, and as it is very
effential to the fuccefs of the operations for which this
furnace is intended, that the artift fhould be abiblutely
mafter of his degree of heat, \ye fhall in few words fhew
how that may be rmfed or lowered.
When the furnace is filled with coals and kindled, if
. the door of the afh-hole be fet wide open, and tliat of the
fire-place fhut very clofe, the force of the fire is increa-
fed; and if, moreover,,the pyramidal cover be put bn the
top, and the conical funnel added to it, the fire will be¬
come ftill more fierce.
Seeing the matters contained in this furnace are en-
compaffed with fire on all fides, except in the fore part
oppofite to the door of the fire place, and as there are
occafions which require that the force of the fire fhould
be applied to this part alfo, an iron box, of the fhape
and fize of the door, hath been contrived to anfwer that
purpofe. This box is filled with lighted coals, and ap¬
plied immediately to the door-place, by which means the
heat there is confiderably augmented. This help may be
made ufe of at the beginning of the operation, in order to
accelerate it, and bring the heat fooner to the defired de-
-gtee ; or in cafe a very fierce heat be required ; or at a
time when the.air being hot and moift will not make the
fire burn with'the necefftr.y vigour.
The heat may be leffened; by removing the jron box,
and fhuttj’ng the door of the fire-place quite clofe. - It
may be ftiil Further and gradually diminifhed, by taking
off the conical funnel from the top ; by flnming the-dooc
of the fire-place with one of its plates only/'that which
has the leaft, or that which has the gr^ateft aperture in
it; by taking off the pyramidal cover ; by fhutting the
afh-hole door wholly or in part; and laftly; by fetting
the door, of the fire-place wide'open: but, in this laft
cafe, the Cold air penetrates into the cavity of the muffle,
and refrigerates the cupels more than is almoft ever ne-
cefiary. If it be obferved, during the operation^ that
the muffle; grow's cold in any particular part, it is a figo
, there is a vacuity left, by the coals in that place : in this.
■ cafe an iron wire muft be thruft into the furnace, through;
the hole which is over the door of the fire place,, and the
coals ftirred therewith, fo as to make them fall into their,
places-and fill up the vacant interftices.
It is pioper to obferve, that, befides what has been
faid'concerning the ways of increafing the activity of the
fire in the cupelling furnace, feveral other caules alfo may
concur to procure to the matters contained in the muffle
a greater degree of heat : for example, the fmaller the
muffle tsk the wider and more, numerous the holes in it
are.;:.
u6 C H E M
are ; the nearer to its bottom, or further end, the cupels
are placed, the. more will the matters therein contained
be affe&ed with heat.
Befides the operations to be performed by the cupel,
this furnace is very ufeful, and even ne'ceflary, for many
chemical experiments ; fuch, for inftance, as thofe re¬
lating to fundry vitrifications and enamelling. As it is
pretty low, the belt way is to place it, when it is to be
ufed, on a bafe of brick-work that may raife it to a level
with the operator’s hand.
A lamp-furnace is exceeding ufeful for all operations'
that require only a moderate, but long continued degree
of heat. The furnace for working with a lamp heat is
very fimple : it confifts only of a hollow cylinder, from
fifteen to eighteen inches high, and five or fix in diameter,
having at its bottom an aperture large efiough for a lamp
to be introduced and . withdrawn with eafe. The lamp
mufl have three or four wicks, to the end that by light¬
ing more or fewer of them a greater or lels degree of
heat may be produced. The body of the furnace muft
moreover have feveral fmall holes in it, in order to fup-
ply the flame of the lampwith air enough to keep it alive.
On the top of this furnace hands a bafon five or fix
inches deep, which ought to fill the cavity of the cylin¬
der exafily, and to be fupported at its circumference by
a rim which may entirely cover and clofe the furnace:
The ufe of this bafon is to contain the fand 'through
which the lamp-heat is ufually conveyed.
Befides this, there muft be akind of cover or dome made
of the fame material with the furnace, and of the fame
diameter with the fand-bath, without any pther opening
than a hole, nearly circular, cut in its lower extremity.
This dome is a fort of reverberatory, which ferves to
confine the heat and direft it towards the body of the re¬
tort; for it is ufed only when fomething is to be di
Hilled in a veflel of this fafhion ; and then the hole at
its bottom ferves for a paflage to the neck of the retort.
This dome fhould hanre an ear or handle, for the conve-
niency of putting it on and taking it off with eafe.
Of Lutes.
.Chemical veflels, efpecially fuch as are made of
glafs, and the earthen veffels commonly called Hone-
ware, are very fubjedl: to break when expofed to Hidden
heat or cold; whence it comes that they often crack when
- they begin to heat, and alfo when being very hot they
happen to be cooled, either by frefii coals throwm into
the furnace, or by the acce.fs of cold air. There is no
way to prevent the former of thefe accidents, but by
taking the pains to warm your veflel very flowly, and by
wlmoH infehfible degrees. The fecond may be avoided
oy coating the body of the veflel with a pafle or lute,
which being dried will defend it againfl the attacks of
cold.
The fitteft Huff for coating veflels is a compofition of
fat earth, Windfor-loam, fine fand, filings of iron, or
powdered glafs, and chopped cow’s hair, mixed and
made into a pafle with water. This lute ferves alfo to
defend glafs veflels againfl the violence of the fire, and
to prevent their melting eafily.
In alm.ofl all diftillations it is of great confequence,
I S T R Y.
as hath been faid, that the neck of the diflilling veflel
be exaftly joined with that of the receiver into which
it is introduced, in order to prevent the vapours from e-
fcaping into the air and fo being loft: And thisjunclion
is effefted by means of a lute.
A few flips of paper, applied round the neck of the
veflels with common fize, will be fufficient to keep in
fuch vapours as are aqueous, or not very fpirituous.
If the vapours are more acrid and more fpirituous, re-
courfe may be had to flips of bladder long fteeped in wa¬
ter, which, containing a fort of natural glue, clofe the
jumftures of the veflels very well.
If it be required to confine vapours of a Hill more pe¬
netrating nature, it will be proper to employ a lute that
qiiickly grows very hard*; particularly a pafle made with
quick-lime and any fort of jelly, whether vegetable or
animal ; fuch as the white of an egg, ftiff fize, &c. This
is an excellent lute, and not eafily penetrated. It is alfo
ufed to. flop any cracks or fradtures that happen to glafs
veflels. But it is not capable of refifting the vapours of
mineral acid fpirits, efpecially when they are ftrong and
fmoking : For that purpofe it is neceffary to incorporate
the other ingredients thoroughly with fat earth foftened
with water ; and even then it frequently happens that
this lute is penetrated by acid vapours, efpecially thofe
of the fpirit of fait, which of all others are confined
with the grsateft difficulty.
In fuch cafes its place may be fupplied with another,
which is called' fat lute, becaufe it is aftually worked up
with fat liquors. This lute is compofed of a very fine
cretaceous earth, called tobacco-pipe clay, moiftehed
with equal parts of the drying oil of lint-feed, and a
varnifh made of amber and gum copal. It muft have
the confiftence of a ftiff pafte. When the joints of the
veffels are clofed up with this lute, they may, for great-,
er fecurity, be covered over with flips of linen fmeared
with the lute made of quick-lime and the white of an
egg.
Chemical vcffels' are liable to be broken in an opera¬
tion by other caufes befides the Hidden application of
heat or cold. It frequently .happens that the vapours of
the matters, expofed to the aiftion of fire, ruffi out with
Hich impetuofity, and are fo elaftic, that finding no paf-
fage through the lute with which the joints of the .veffels
are clofed, they burft the veffels themfelves, fometimes
with explofion and danger to the operator.
To p'revent this inconvenience, it is neceffary, that in
every receiver there be a fmall hole, which being flopped
only with a little lute may eafily be opened and ffiut again
as occafion requires. It ferves for a vent-hole to let out
the vapours, when the receiver begins to be too much
crowded with them. Nothing but practice can teach the
artift when it is requifite to open this vent. If he hits
the proper time, the vapours commonly ruffi out with ra¬
pidity, and a confiderable biffing noife ; and the vent
fhould be flopped again as foon as the hifling begins to
grow faint. The lute employed to flop this fmall hole
ought always to be kept fo du&ile, that by taking the fi¬
gure of the hole exaftly it may entirely flop it. Befides,
if it ffiould harden upon the glafs, it would flick fo faft*
that it would be very difficult to remove it without break¬
ing
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C H E M
ing the vefT:l. This danger is eafily avoided, by ma¬
king irfe of the fat lute, whicli continues pliant for a
long time, when it is not expofed to an exceflive heat
This way of (topping the vent-hole of the receiver has
yet another advantage : For if the hole be of a proper
width, as a line and half, or two lines, in diameter,
then when the vapours are accumulated in too great a
quantity, and begin to make a great effort againft the
(ides of the receiver, they pufh up the (topple, force it
out, and make their way through the vent hole : So that
by this means the breaking of the veffels may always be
certainly prevented. But great care mud be taken that
the vapours be not fuffered to efcape in this manner,
except when abfolute neceflity requires it; for it is gene¬
rally the very (trongeft and mod fubtile part of a liquor
which is thus didipated and lod.
Heat being the chief caufe that puts the eladicity of
the vapours in adtion, and prevents their condenfing into
a liquor, it is of great confequence in didillation that the
receiver be kept as cool as poffible. With this view a
thick plank (hould be placed between the receiver and
the-body of the furnace, to intercept the heat of the lat¬
ter, and prevent its reaching the former As’the vapours
themfelves rife very hot from the diddling veffel, they
foon communicate their heat to the receiver, and efpeci -
ally to its upper part, againd which they (trike did. For
this reafon it is proper, that linen cloths dipt in very
cold water be laid over the receiver, ancf frequently (hift-
ed. By this means the vapours will be confiderably
cooled,-?heir eladicity weakened, and their condenfation
promoted.
By what hath been faid in this fird part, concerning
the properties of the principal agents in chemidry, the
conltrudtion of the mod neceffary veffels and furnaces,
and the manner of ufing them, we are fufficiently
prepared for proceeding direftly to the operations,
without being obliged to make frequent and long
flops, in order to gite the neceffary explanations on
thofe heads.
Neverthelefs, we (hall take every proper occafion to
extend f-e theory here laid down, and to improve it by
the addition of feveral particulars, which will find their
places in our treatife of chemical operations.
Explanation of PLATE LXIV.
Fig. i. A copper alembic A, The'cucurbit or bo¬
dy. B, the neck. C, The head. D, The beak.
I S T R Y. "
nofe, or fpout. E, The refrigeratory, or
F, Its cock G, The receiver.
Fig. 2. Aglafs alembic. A, The Cucurbit. B, The
head. C, The gutter within the head. D, The
beak.
Fig. 3. A long-necked glafs alembic. A, The body
of the matrafs. B, l ire neck. C, The head.
Fig. 4 A glafs alembic of, one piece. A, The cu¬
curbit. B, The head. C, The aperture in the
head D, Its dopple. E, The mouth of the cu¬
curbit.
Fig $■ A pelican. A The cucurbit. B, The l ead.
C, The aperture in the head, with its 'dopple.
D D, The two curved fpouts.
Fig. 6. A ronv of aludels.
Fig. 7. A retort A, Its bowl. B, Its neck.
Fig. 8. An Englifh retort.
Fig. 9. A reverberating furnace A, The afh-hole
door. B, The fire place door. .C C C C, Regi-
ders D, The dome, or reverberatory. E, The co¬
nical funnel. F, The retort in the furnace. G, The
receiver. H H, Iron bars to fudain the retort.
Fig. 10. ‘ The conical furnace by i<f If
Fig. 11. Back view of a muffle. A, The bottom
of the muffle. B, Its arch. C C C, Lateral a-
pertures.
Fig. 12. Fore view of a muffle.
Fig. 12. A melting jurnace. A A, The bafe of the
furnace. B, The afh-hole. C D, The grate for the
fire. E, The fire place. « F G H, Curvature of the
infide of the upper part of the fire-place. I, The
(haft, or chimney.
Plate LXV. Fig. 1. A cupelling furnace. A, The
aih hole. B B, Its diding doors. C, The fire¬
place. D D, Its diding doors E F, Small aper¬
tures in the diders. G G, Holes for bars to bear
the muffles. H H H, Iron braces in the fore-part of
the furnace, which form grooves for the doors of the
fire-place and alh hole to dide in. I, The upper py¬
ramidal part of the furnace. K, An aperture therein
for managing the coals. L, The opening at top.
M. The pyramidal cover. N, The chimney, or end
of the (haft, on which the conical funnel may be fit¬
ted. OOOO Handles for moving the diding-
doors. P P, Ears of the pyramidal-covers.
PA11T II. PRACTICE of CHEMISTRY.
Of the Vitriolic Acid.
To extratt Vitriol from the Pyrites.
Take any quantity you pleafe of iron pyrites ; leave
them (or fome time expofed to the air: They will crack,
fplit, lofe their brightnefs, and fall into powder. Put
this powder into a glafs cucurbit, and pour upon it twice
Vol. II. No. 35. » 3
its weight of hot water; (lir the whole with a (lick, and'"
the liquor will grow turbid. Pour it while it is yet
warm into a glafs funnel lined with brown filtering pa¬
per ; and having placed your funnel over another glafs
cucurbit, let the liquor drain into it. Pour more hot
water on the powdered pyrites, filter as befqre," and fo
go on, every time leffening the quantity of water, till
that which comes off the pyrites appears to have no a-
ftriogent vitriolic talk. .
2 G Put
ii8 CHE M
Pat all thefe waters tdgether into a gkfs vefTfcl that
widens'upwards'; fet it oa a fand bath, and heat the li¬
quor till a conlidetable frhoke arifes ; "but take care not
to make it boil. Continue the fame degree of fire till
the furface of the liquor begins to look dim, as if fonie
daft had fallen into it ; then ceafe evaporating, and re¬
move the Veffel into a cool plade : In the fpace ; of four
and twenty hours there will be formed therein a quantity
of cryftals, of a green colour and a rhomboidal figure :
Thefe are vitriol of Mars, or copperas. Decant the re¬
maining liquor ; add thereto twice its weight of water;
fiber* evaporate, and cryilallize as before ; repeat thefe
operations till the liquor will yield no more cryftals, and
keep by themfefves the cryftals obtained at each eryltal-
lifation.
In large works for extracting vitriol from the pyrites,
they proceed thus. They collect a great quantity of py¬
rites on a piece of ground expofed to the air, and pile
them up in heaps of about three foot high. There they
leave them expofed to the adtion of the air, fun, and
rain, f6r three years together ; taking care to turn them
every fix months, in order to facilite the dftorefeence
of thofe which at firft lay undermoft. The rain-water
which has walked thofe pyrites is conveyed by proper
channels into a ciftern ; and when a fufficient quantity
thereof is gathered, they evaporate it to a pellicle in
large leaden boilers, -having firft put into it a quantity of
iron, fome part of which is diflblved by the liquor, be
caufe it contains a vitriolic acid that is not fully faturated
therewith. When it is fufficiently evaporated, they
draw it off into large leaden or wooden coolers, and
there leave it to Ihoot into cryftals. In thefe laft veffels
feveral flicks, are placed, crofting each other in all man¬
ner of directions, in order to multiply the furfeces on
which the cryftals may fallen.
To extrail Sulphur from the Pyrites, and other fulphu-
reous Minerals*
Reduce to a eoarfe powder any quantity of yellow
pyrites, or other mineral containing fulphur. Put this
powder into an earthen or glafs retort, having a long
wide neck, and fo large a body that the matter may fill
but two thirds of it. Set the retort in a fand-bath fixed
over a reverberating furnace : Fit to it a receiver half
fall of water, and fo placed that the nofe of the retort
may be about an inch under the water: Give a gradual
fire, taking care you do not make it fo ftrong as to melt
the matter. Keep the retort moderately red for one
hour, or an hour and half, and then let the veffels
cool.
Almoft all the fulphur, feparated by this operation
from its matrix, will be found at the extremity of the
neck of the retort, being fixed there by the water. You
may get rt out Cither by mslting it with fuch a; gentle
he, t as will not fet it on fire, or by breaking- the neck of
the retort.
To ext rail Alum from aluminous Minerals.
Take fuch minerals as are known or fufpeCled to con-
tain.alum. Exp fi: them to the air, that they may efilo-
rtfcc. If they remain th,eie a year without, any fcpiible
I S T R Y.
change, calcine them, and then leave them expofed fo
the air, till a bit thereof being put on the tOngue imparts
an aftringent aluminous taiie.
When your matters, are thus prepared, put them in,to
a leaden or glafs veffel; pour upon them thrice then-
weight of hot water; boil the liquor; filter if; and re¬
peat thef^operations till the earth be fo edulcorated diat
the water which comes off it hath no tafle. Mix ail
thefe foiutions together, and let them ftand four an i
twenty hours, that the grofs and earthy parts may fettle
to the bottom ; or elfe filter the liquor: then evaporate
till it will bear a new-laid egg. Now let it cool, and
ftand quiet four and twenty hours: in that time fome
cryftals will flioot, which are molt commonly vitriolic;
for alum is rarely obtained by the firft cryflaHjlaiion.
Remove thefe vitiiolic cryftals: if any cryftals of alum
be found among!! them, thefe muft be diffolved anew,
and fet to cryftalhfe a feeond time in order to their puri¬
fication ; becaufe they partake of the nature as well as
of the colour of vitriol. By this method extract ail the
alum that the liquor will yield.
If you get no cryflais of alum by this rmans, boil
your liquor again, and add to it a twentieth part of its
weight of a iirorig alkaline lixivium, or a third part of
its weight of putrefied urine, or a fmall quantity of
quick-lime. Experience and repeated trials muft tea^h
you which of tliefe three fubftances is to be preferred,
according to the particular nature of the mineral on which
you are to operate. Keep your liquor boiling, and if
there be any alum in it, there will appear a white precipi¬
tate ; in that cafe let it cool and fettle. When the white
precipitate is entirely fallen, decant the clear, and leave
the cryftals of alum to (hoot at leifure, till the liquor will
yield no more ; it will then be exceeding thick.
Alum is obtained from feveral forts of minerals. In
fome parts of Italy, and ifl fuadry other places, it eftlo-
refces naturally on the furface of the earth. There it is
fwept together with brooms, and thrown into pits full of
water. This water is impregnated therewith' till it caa
diffolve no more. Then it is filtered, and fet to evapo¬
rate in large leaden veffels; and when it is fufficiently e-
vaporated, and ready to fhoot into cryftals, it is drawn
off into wooden coolers, and there left for the fait to
cryftailjfe. ■
In aluminous foils there are often found fprings ftrongly
impregnated with alum; fo that to obtain it the wat-r
•need only be evaporated.
In the country about Rome there is a very hard ftone,
ydiich is hewn out of the quarry, juft like other ftones
for builamgt this fisme yields a great deal of alum. In
order to extract it, the ftones are calcined for twelve or
fourteen hours; after which they ate expofed to the air
in heaps, and carefully watered three or four times a day
for forty days together. In that time they begin to ef-
floreice, and to throw out a reddifh matter on their fur-
- face. Then they are boiled in water,-which diffolves all
the. alum they contain, and being duly evaporated gives it
back in. cryfUIs. This is the alum called Roman alum.
Several fotts of pyrites alfo. yield-a great deal of alum'.
The Englilh have a ftone of this kind, which in colour is
very, like a flue. This hone, contains much fulphur.',
which
. C H E M ]
which they get rid of by roafting it. After this they
deep the calcined ftone in water, vj ich diilblves the alum
it contains, and to this foluiion they add a certain quan
tity of a lye made of the alhes of fea-weeds.
To ext rad the Vitriolic Acid from Green Vitriol.
Take any quantity of green vitriol ; put it in an
nnglazed earthen veffel, and heat it gradually. Vapours
will foon begin to rife. Increafe the fire a little, and it
will liquify by means of the water contained in it, and
acquire what we called an aqueous fiuor. Continue the
calcination, and it v ill become lefs and lefs fluid, grow
thick, and turn of a greyifli colour Now raift your fire,
and keep it up till the. fait recover its folidity, acquire an
orange colour, and begin to grow red where it imme¬
diately touches the fides of the velftl. Then take it out
and reduce it to powder.
Put the vitriol thus calcined and pulverifed into a
good earthen retort, of which one half at lead mud re¬
main empty. Set the retort in a reverberatory furnace : '
Fit thereto a large glafs receiver, and, having luted the
joint well, give fiie by degrees. You will fooh fee
white clouds rife into the receiver, which will render it
opaque and heat it. Continue the fame degree of fire
till thefe clouds difappear: They will be fucceeded by a
liquor which will trickle down the fides of the receiver
in veins. Still keep up the fire to the fame degree as
long as thefe veins appear. When they begin to abate,
encreafe the fire, and pufii it to the utmoft extremity :
Upon this there will come over a black, thick liquor: It
will even be found congealed, and prove the icy oil cf
vitriol, if care hath been taken to change the receiver,
keep the velfels perfedtly clofe, and give a fufficient de¬
gree of heat. Proceed thus till nothing more comes o-
ver, or at lead very little. Let the veffds cool, unlute
them, pour the contents of the receiver into a bottle, and
feal it hermetically.
To decompofi Sulphur, and ext rad its Add, ly burn-
ing it.
Take any quantity of the-pureft fulphur ; fill therewith
a crucible pr other earthen diih ; heat it till it mehs • then
fet it on fire, and when its whole furfiace is lighted, place
it under a large glafs head, fo that the flame ofthe ful¬
phur do not touch either its fides or bottom; that the
air have free accefs, in order to make the fulphur burn
clear ; that the head incline a little cpward the fide on
. which its beak is, that as the vapours condenfe rherein
the liquor may run off with cafe. To the beak of this
veffel fit a receiver: The fumes of the lighted fulphur
will be condenfed, and gather into drops in the head,
out of which they will run into the receiver, Theie,
when the fulphur has done burning, you will find art acid
liquor, which is the fpirit of fulphur.
To concentrate the Vitriolic Acid.
Take the vitriolic acid you intend to concentrate,
that is, to dephlegmat and make ftronger : Pour it into
a good'glafs retort of fuch a fize that your quantity of
acid may but.half fill' it: Set this retort in th'e fand-
bath of a- reverberating furnace; fit it 'to a receiver
S T R Y. U7
lute it on, and give a gradual fire. There will come
over into the receiver a clear liquor, the firft drops of
which will be hut; faintly acid: This is the molt aqueous
part.
When the drops begin, to follow one another much
more flowly, raife your fire, till the liquor begin to bub¬
ble a little in the middle. Keep it thus gently boiling,
till one half or, two thirds thereof be come over into the
receiver. Then let your, veflcls cool ; unlute them ;
what remains in the retort pour into a cryflal bottle, and
flop it exactly with a glafs ftopple rubbed with emery.
To decompofe vitriolated Tartar by means of the Phlo-
gijlon; or tti compcfe Sulphur by combining the Vi¬
triolic' Acid With the Phlbgijion.
Take equal parts of vkriolated tartar, and very dry
fait of tartar, feparately reduced to powder; add aa
eighth part of their weight of charcoal dud; and mix
the whole together very accurately. Throw this mix¬
ture into a ryd hot crucible, placed in a furnace; filled
with burning cpals. . Cover it very clofe, and keep it
very hot, till the mixture melt, which may be-known
by uncovering the crucible from time to time. There
will then appear a bluiflj flame, -accompaifled with a pun¬
gent fmell of fulphur.
Take the crucible out of the fire; difiblve its con*
tents in Lot water; filter the folution through brown
paper Supported bjf a glafs funnel,; drop into the filter*
ed liquor by little and little any acid whatever. As you
add the grid, the liquor will grow more and mare tur-
.bid, and let fall a grey precipitate.. Continue dropping
in more acid till the liquor will yield no more precipi¬
tate. Filter it a fecond time to feparate.’t from the pre¬
cipitate : What remains on the filter is a true inflam¬
mable fulphur, which you may either melt or fub.--
lime'into flowers.
, Of /&>"Nitrous Acirr.
To extre/d> nitre out of nitrous earths and femes. Tie,
purijicati.on: cf fait pet re. ^ Mother of nitre. Mag-
nefia.
Take any quantity of nitrous earths or flones; re¬
dder them to powder; and therewith mix a third part
of* the' allies of green wood and1 quick-firne. Put this
mixture into a barrel or vat, and pour on it hot water to
about-twice the weight of the whole mafs Let it llaud
thus for twenty four hourq, flirring it from time to time
Wiclt a flick. Then filter the liquor through brown pa¬
per, or pals it through a flannel bag, till it come clear:
it will then have a yellowilh colfcur. Boil this liquor,
fifed 'evapeirate till yqu perceive that a drop of it let fill
on any dbld bodycoagulates. Then flop the evaporation,
and’let yotfr liquor in a cool place. In the fpace of four
arid twenty hours cryflals will be formed in it, the figure
of which is that of an hexagonal prifm, . having its oppo-
fite planes generally equal, and terminated at each ex¬
tremity by a pyramid of the fame number of fides. Thefe
'cryflals will be of a brownilh colour, and deflagrate on. a
li ve coal.
Decant the liquor from thefe Cryflals; mix' it with
twice.;
ISO C H E M I
twice its weight of hot water 4 evaporate and cryftallife
as before. Repeat the fame operation till the liquor will
yield no more cry Hals: it will then be very thick, and
goes by the qame of mother of nitre.
Earths and Hones that have been impregnated with a-
nimal or.vegetable juices fufceptible of putrefaction, and
have bS^en longexpofed to the air, but Iheltered from the
fun and rain, are thofe which yield the greateli quantity of
nitre. But all forts of earths and Hones are not equally
fit to produce it. None is ever found in flints or fands
of a cryfialline nature
Some earths and Hones abound fo with nitre, that it ef-
florefces fpontaneoufly on their furface. in the form of a
cryfialline down This nitre may be collected with
brooms, and accordingly has the name of falt-petre
fweepings. Some of this fort is brought from India
The procefs by which our falt-petre makers extraft
nitre in quantities, out of rubbifh and nitrous earths, is
very nearly the fame with that here fet down : fo that we
{hall not enter into a particular account of it. We (hail
only take notice of one thing, which it is of fdme confe
quence to know; namely, that there is no nitrous earth
which does not contain fea fait alfo. The greatefi quan¬
tities of tins fait are to be found in thofe earths which
have been drenched with urine or other animal excre¬
ments Now, as the rubbifh of old houfes in great ci¬
ties is in this clafs, it comes to pafs, that when the fait
petre workers evaporate a nitrous lixivium drawn from
that rubbifh, as foon as the evaporation is brought to a
certain pitch, -a great many little dryfials of fea-falt
form in the liquor, and fjll to the bottom ot the veffel.
The falt-petre workers in France call thefe faline par¬
ticles the grain, and take great care to feparate them
from the liquor, (which as long as it continues hot keeps
the falt-petre diffolved) before they fet it to cryfiallife.
This faCt feems a little lingular confidering that fea-falt
diffoives in water more eafily than falt-petre, and cry
fiallifes with more, difficulty
In order to difcover the caufe of this phenomenon, we
tnufi recoiled, firfi, that water can keep but a deter
minate quantity of any fait in folution, and that if water
fully faturated with a fait be evaporated, a quantity of
fait will cryfiallife in proportion to the quantity of water
evaporated. Secondly, that thofe fait1 which are the
mofi foluble in water, particularly thofe which run in
the air, will diffolve in cold and in boiling water equal¬
ly : whereas much greater quantities of the other falls
will diffiolve in hot and boiling water than in cold water.
Thefe things being admitted, when we know that fea-
falt is one of the firfi fort, and fait petre of the fecond,
the reafdn why fea-falt precipitates in the preparation of
falt-petre appears at once. For,.
When the folution of falt-petre and fea fait comes to be
evaporated to fuch a degree that it contains as much fea
-fait as it poffibly can, this fait muft begin to cryftallife, and
continue to do fo gradually as the evaporation advances
But becaufe at the fame time it does not contain as much
fait peireas it can hold, feeing it is capable of diflblving a
much greater quantity thereof when it is boiling hot than
when it is cold, this laft named fait will not cryftallife
fo foon. If the evaporation were continued till the cafe
S T R Y.
of the {»lt-petre came to be the fame with that of the
fea fait, then the falt-petre alfo would begin to cryftallife
gradually in proportion to the water evaporated, and the
two falts would continue cryftallifing promifcuonfly toge¬
ther : but it is never carried fo far; nor is it ever necelfary;
for as the water, cools it becomes more and more inca¬
pable of holding in fol»tion the fame quantity of falt-petre
as when it was boiling hot.
And then comes the very reverfe, with regard to the
cryftallifing of the two falts; for then the falt-petre
{hoots, and not the fea-ialt. The reafon of this fadf al¬
fo is founded on what has juft been faid The fea fait,
of which cold water will diffoTve as much as boiling wa¬
ter, and which owed its cryftallifing before only to the
evaporation, now ceafes to cryftallife as foon as the eva¬
poration deafes; while the fait petre. which the water
kept diffolved only becaufe it was boiling hot, is forced
to cryftallife merely by the cooling of the water
When the folution of falt-.petre has yielded as man/
cryftals of that fait as it can yield by cooling, it is again
evaporated, and being then fuffered to cool yields more
cryftals And thus they continue evaporating and cry-
ftallihng till the liquor will afford no more cryftals.
It is plain, that as the falt-petre cryj^allifes, the pro¬
portion of fea-falt to the diffolving liquor increafes ; and
as a certain quantity of water evaporates alfo during
the time employed in cryftalUfing the falt-petre, a quan¬
tity of fea-falt, proportioned to the water fo evaporating,
muft cryftallife in that time: and this is the reafon why
falt-petre is adulterated with a mixture of fea-falt. It
likewife follows, that the laft cryftals of nitre, obtained
from a folution of fait petre and fea-falt, contain much
more fea-falt than the firft.
From all that has been faid concerning the cryft ; lifa-
tion of falt-petre and fea-falt, it is eafy to deduce the
proper way of purifying the former «f thefe two fairs
from a mixture of the latter. For this purpofe the falt-
petre to be refined need only be diffolved in fair water.
The proportion between the two falts in this fecond fo¬
lution is very different from what it was in tfie former;
for it contains no more fea-falt than what had cryftal-
lifed along with the falt-petre under favour of the evapo¬
ration, the reft having been left diffolved in the liquor
that refufed to yield any more nitrous cryftals.
As there is therefore a much greater quantity of falt-
petre than of fea-falt in this fecond folution, it is eafy
to evaporate it to fuch a degree that a great deal of falt-
petre ffiali cryftallife, while much more of the water
muft neceffarily be evaporated before any of the fea-falt
will cryftallife.
However, the falt-petre is not vet entirely freed from
all mixture of fea fait by this firft purification; for the
the cryftals obtained {rom this liquor, in which fea-falt
is diffolved, are ftill incrufted, and, as it were, infedted
therewith : hence it comes, that, to refine the falt-petre
thoroughly, thefe cryftallifations muft be repeated four
or five times.
The falt-petre men commonly content themfelves with
cryftallifing it thrice, and call the produce falt-petre of
the firft, fecond. or third ffioot, according to the num¬
ber of cryftallifations it has undergone. But their beft
refined
CHE M I
refined fa!t p.etre, even that of the third fliooting, is nor
yet fytFiCienfly pure for chemical experiments that require
much accuracy: fo that it mult be further purified, but
fiill by the fitme method.
The nitrous acid is not pure in the earths and /tones
from which it is extracted. It is combined partly with
the' very earth in which it is formed, and partly with the
volatile alkali produced by the putrefadtion of-the vege¬
table or animal matters that concurred to its generation.
A fixed alkali and quick-lime are added to thedixivium
of a nitrous earth, in order to decompofe the nitrous
falts formed in that earth, and to feparate the acid from
the volatile alkali and the abforbent earth with which it
is united: thence conies that-copious fediment which ap¬
pears in the lye at the beginning of the evaporation.
Thefe matters form with that acid a true nitre, much
more capable than the original nitrous falts of cry-
ftallifation, detonation, and the other properties which are
eflential thereto. The bafis of nitre is therefore a fixed
■ alkali mixed with a little lime.
The mother of nitre, which will yield no morejcryfials,
is brown and thick: by evaporation, over a fire it is fur'
ther infpiflated, and becomes a dry, folid ,body; which
however being left to kfelf fodn gives., ;and runs into a
liquor. This water Hill contains a good deal of nitre,
fea-falt, and the acids of thefe falts united with an ab
forbent earth. It contains moreover a great deal of a
fat, vifcid matter, which prevents its cryfiailifing.
All faline folutions in general, after having yielded a
certain quantity of cryftals, grow thick, and refufe to
part with any more, though th«y Hill contain much fait.
They are all called motber-’wattrs, as well as that, which
hath yielded nitre. The mother-waters of different (alts
may prove the fubje&s of curious and ufeful enquiries.
If a fixed alkali be mixed with the mother of nitre, a
copious white precipitate immediately falls, which being
colledted and dried is called nregnejia. This precipitate
is nothing but the abforbent earth that was united with
the nitrous acid, together with a good deal of the lime
that'was added, and was alfo united with that acid,
from which they are now feparated by the fixed alkali,
according to the ufual laws of affinities or eleftive at-
traftions. *
The vitriolic acid poured upon mother of nitre caufes
many acid vapours to rife, which are a compound of the
nitrous and marine- acids, that is, nn aqua regia. On
this occafion alfo there falls a large quantity of a white.!
powder, which is Hill called magnefta\ yet it differs
from the former in that it is not, like it, a pure abfor¬
bent earth, but combined with the vitriolic acid.
An aqua regis may alfo be drawn from nitrous earths
by the force of fire only, without the help of ^ny ad-
ditamefff.
To decompofe Nitre hy means of the Phlogiflen.
Nitre fisted by Charcoal. 1 Clyffus of Nitre. Sal
Polychreltum.
Take the purefi falt-petre in powder5 put it into a
large Crucible, which it mav but half fill; fet the crucible
in a common furnace, and fm round it with coals. When
it is red-hot the nitre will melt, and become as fluid as
Vol. II. No. 35. 3
S T R Y. 121
water. Then throw iiito the crucible a finall quantity
o'f charcoal dull : the nitre am} the cjiarcqal will imme¬
diately, deflagrate with vielenpe; and a great cominotidn
will be raifed-, accornpanied with a conficierabls, hi fling,
and abundance of black fmoke. As. the charcoal waffes,
the detonation will'a^ate, and ceafe entirely as foon as
the coal is quite cpnfumed
Then throw into 'thp crucible the fame quantity of
charcoal-duff as before, and the fame phenomen’a will be
repeated Let this eqal alfo be confumed : then add more,
and go on in the fame manner till you can excite no fur¬
ther deflagration , always obferving to let the burning
coal be entirely confumed before you add any frefli.
\Vhen no deflagration enfues, the matter coptamedin the
cruqble will have loft much of its fluidity.
Nitre will not take fife, unlefs the inflammable matter
added to,it be a^foally burning, or the nitre itfelf fed hot,
and fo thoroughfy ignited as immediately to kindle it.
Therefore, if you would procure the detonation of nitre
with charcoal, and make ufe of cold charcbal; as in the
prpeefs, the nitre in the crucible mull be red hot;'arid
in perfect fufion: but you may alfo ufe live coals, and
then the nitre need not be red hot.
The matter remaining in the,crucib]e after the opera¬
tion, is a very Hrong fixed alkali. Being expoied to the
air, it quickly extratfls-the moiffufe thereof,-and j funs
into a liquor. It is called alkalizated nitret or to: di-
flinguiffi it from nitre alkalizated by otlief inflammable
matters, nitre fixed by charcoal.
The nitrous acid is not only diifipated during the de¬
flagration of the nitre, but is even deftroyed, and per¬
fectly decompofed. The finoke that rifes duririg the
operation has not the leafl odour of an acid.
Li order to colleCt the vapours difeharged by the de¬
flagration of nitre,, fit to a tubulated earthen retort UV6 or
three large adopters : fet the retort in a furnace ; and
under it make a fire fuffkient to keep its bottom mode¬
rately red. Then take a friiall quantity, two-or three
pinches for example, of a mixture of'three parts of mtre
with one of charco^l-dufl, arid drop it into the ffetort
through its tube, which muH be uppermoH/and immedi¬
ately Hopped clofe. A detonation inHantly enfues, and
the vapours that rife from the inflammed mixture of nitre
and charcpal, paffirig out through the'peck of the retort
into the adopters,, circulate therein for a while, and at
lafl condenfe. into a liquor.1
When the detonation is over, and the vapours ripn-
denfed, or nearly fo, drop into the retort another ecfual
quantity of the mixture - and repeat this till, you find
there; is liquor enough in the fecipients to be examined
with eafe and accuracy. This liquor is almofi infipid,
and Ihews no tokens of acidity; of at moH but very
flight ones. It is called c'tyfus of nitre.
Nitre is alfo decompofed and takes fire by the means
of fulphur; but the circumHances and the refult differ
widely from thofe' produced therewith by charcoal or
any oth^r inflammable body.
Nitre deflagrates with fulphur on account of the phlo-
giflon which the latter contains. If one part of fulphur
be mixed with two ot three parts of nitre, and the mix¬
ture thrown by little and little into a red-hot crucible,
2 H upon
i22 (THEM
upon every projedtion there arifes a detonation accom¬
panied with a vivid flame.
The vapours difcharged on this occafion have the
mingled fmell of a fulphureous fpirit and fpirit of nitre;
and if they he colledted by means of a tubulated retort,
and fuch an apparatus of veflels as was ufed in the pre¬
ceding experiment, the liquor contained in the recipients
is found to be an adtual mixture of the acid of fulphur,
the fulphureous fpirit, and the acid of nitre; the firfl: be¬
ing of greater quantity than the other two, and the fe-
cond greater than the laft.
Nor is the remainder after detonation a fixed alkali,
as in the former experiments ; but a neutral fait, confid¬
ing of the acid of fulphur combined with the alkali of
nitre ; a fort of vitriolated tartar, known in medicine by
the name of fal polycbrejlum.
To*dccompofe Nitre by means of the Vitriolic Acid.
The Smoking Spirit of Nitre. Sal de duobus.
The Purification of Spirit of Nitre.
Take equal parts of well purified nitre and green vi¬
triol: dry the nitre thoroughly, and bruife it to a fine
powder. Calcine the vitriol to rednefs : reduce it like-
wife to a very fine powder; and mingle thefe two fub-
ftances well together. Put the mixture into an earthen
long neck, or a good glafs retort coated, of fuch a fize
that it may be but half full.
Set this veflfel in a reverberating furnace covered with
its dome; apply a large glafs receiver, having a fmall
hole in its body, flopped with a little lute. Let this re¬
ceiver be accurately luted to the retort with the fat lute,
and the joint covered with a flip of canvas fmeared with
Jute made of quick-lime and the white of an egg. Heat
the veffels very gradually. The receiver will foon be
filled with very denfe red vapours, and drops will begin
to diflill from the nofe of the retort.
Continue the diftillation, increafing the fire a little
■when you obferve the drops to follow each other but
(lowly, fo that above two* thirds of a minute paffes be¬
tween them; and, in order to let out the redundant va¬
pours, open the fmall hole in the receiver from time to
time. Towards the end of the operation raife the fire
fo as to make the retort red. When.you find that, even
when the retort is red-hot, nothing more comes over,
unlute the receiver, and without delay pour the liquor
it contains into a cryftal bottle, and clofe it with a cry-
flal flopple rubbed in its neck with emery. This liquor
will be of a, reddifh yellow colour, fmoking exceedingly,
and the bottle containing it will be conflamly filled with
red fumes like thofe obferved in the receiver.
By the proeefs here delivered, a very flrong, perfe&ly
dephlegmated, and vaflly fmoking fpirit of nitre is ob¬
tained. ,
When the operation is over, you will find a red mafs
at the bottom of the retort, cafl as it were in a mould.
This is a neutral fait of the nature of vitriolated tartar,
refulting from the union of the acid of the vitriol with
the alkaline bafis of the nitre.
The ferruginous bafis of the vitriol, which is mixed
with this fait, gives it the red colour. To feparate it
therefrom, you muft pulverife it, difiblve it in boiling
I S T 11 Y.
water, and filter the folution feveral times through brown
paper ; becaufe the ferruginous earth of the vitriol is fo
fine, that fome of it will paftf through the firft time.
When the folution is very clear, and depofites no iedi-
ment, let it be fet to Ihoot, and it will yield cryftals of
vitriolated tartar ; to which chemifts have given the pe¬
culiar title of fal de duobus.
Nitre may alfo be decompofed, and its acid obtained,
by the interpofition of any of the other vitriols, alums,
gypfums, boles, clays ; in (hort, by means of any com¬
pound in which the vitriolic acid is found, provided it
have not a fixed alkali for its bafis.
The diflillers of aqua fortis, who make large quanti¬
ties at a time, and who ufe the leaft chargeable methods,
do their"bufinefs by the means of earths impregnated with
the vitriolic acid ; fuch as clays and boles. With thefe
earths they accurately mix the nitre from which they in¬
tend to draw their fpirit: tins mixture they put into large
oblong earthen pots, having a very (hort curved neck,
which enters a recipient of the fame matter, and form.
Thefe veflels they place in two rows oppofite to each o-
ther in long furnaces, and cover them'over with bricks
cemented with Windfor-loam, which ferves for a rever¬
beratory: then they light the fire in the furnace, making
it at firft very fmall, only to warm the veffels; after
which they throw in wood, and raife the fire till the pots
grow quite red-hot, in which degree they keep it up till
the diftillation is entirely finifhed.
Moft experiments require the fpirit of nitre to be ab-
folutely pure ; and if it be intended for fuch, it muft be
perfectly cleanfed from the vitriolic taint.
. This is eafily eflFefted by mixing your fpirit with very
pure nitre, and diftiiling it a fecond time. The vitriolic
acid, with which this fpirit of nitre is adulterated,
coming in contaft with a great quantity of undecompofed
nitre, unites with its alkaline bafis, and expels a propor¬
tionable quantity of the nitrous acid.
Of the Marine Acid.
' To extraft Sea-fdt from Sea-water, and from Brine-
fprings. Epfom Salt.
Filter the falt-water from which you intend to ex-
trad the fait ; evaporate it by boiling, till you fee on its
furface a dark pellicle : this confifts wholly of little cry¬
ftals of fait juft beginning to (hoot : now (lacken the (ire,
that the brine may evaporate more (lowly, and without
any agitation. The cryftals, which at firft were very
fmall, will become larger, and form hollow truncated
pyramids, the apices whereof will point downwards, and
their bafes be even with the furface of the liquor.
Thefe pyramidal cryftals are only colledions of fmall
cubical cryftals concreted into this form. When they
have acquired a certain magnitude they fall to the bottom
of the liquor. When they come to be in fuch heaps as
almoft to reach the furface of the liquor, decant it from
them, and continue the evaporation till no more cryftals
of fea-falt will (hoot.
The acid of fea-falt is fcarce ever found, either in fea-
water or in the earth, otherwife than united with a fixed
alkali
C H E M
alkali of a particular kind, which is its natural bafis; and
confequently it is in the form of a neutral fait. This
fait is plentifully dilfolved in the waters of the ocean,
and when obtained therefrom bears the name of fea-falt.
It is alft> found in the earth in vaft cryllalline mafi’es, and
is then called fal-gem ; fo that fea-falt and fal-gem are
but one and the fame fort of fait, differing very little
from each other, except as to the places where they are
found.
In the earth are alfo found fprings and fountains,
whofe waters are ftrong brines, a great deal of fea-falt
being diffolved in them. Thefe fprings either rife di-
redtly from the fea, or run through fome mines of fal-
gem, of which they take up a quantity in their paffage.
As the fame, or at leaft nearly the fame quantity of
fea-falt will continue diffolved in cold water as boiling
water will take up, it cannot fhoot, as'nitre does, by the
mere cooling of the water in which it is diffolved : it
cryftallifes only by the means of evaporation, which con¬
tinually leffens the proportion of the water to the fait;
fo that it is always capable of containing juft fo much the
lefs fea-falt the more there is cryftallifed.
The brine fhould not boil after you perceive the pel¬
licle of little cryftals beginning to form on its furface ;
for the calmnefs of the liquor allows them to form more
regularly, and become larger. Nor after this flrould the
. evaporation be hurried on too faft; for a faline cruft
would form on the liquor, which, by preventing the va¬
pours from being carried off, would obftruft the cryftal-
lifation.
If the evaporation be continued after the liquor ceafes
to yield any cryftals of fea-falt, other cryftals will be
obtained of an oblong four-fided form, which have a bit¬
ter tafte, and are almoft always-moift. This fort of fait
is known by the name of Epfom fait, which it owes to a
fait fpring in England, from the water of which it was
firft extraded. This fait, or rather faline compound, is
a congeries of Glauber’s fait and fea-falt, in a manner
confounded together, and mixed with fome of the mo¬
ther of fea-falt, in which is contained a kind of bitu¬
minous matter. Thefe two neutral fairs, which confti-
tute the Epfom fait, may be eafily feparated from each
other, by means of cryftallifation only. Epfom fait is
purgative and bitter ; and therefore named _/«/ catharti
cum amarum, or bitter purging falts.
There are different methods ufed in great works for
obtaining fea-falt out off water in which it is diffolved.
The fimpleft and eafieft is that pradifed in France, and
in all thofe countries which are not colder. Qn the fea-
fhore they lay out a fort of broad (hallow pits, pans, or
rather ponds, which the fea fills with the tide of flood.
When the ponds are thus filled, they ftop their commu¬
nication with the fea, and leave the wafer to evaporate
by the heat of the fun ; by which means all the fait con¬
tained in it neceflarily cryftallifes. TheE pits are called
fait ponds. - Salt can be made in this v/ay in the fummer-
time only, at leaft in France, and other countries of the
fame temperature ; for during the winter, when the fun
has lefs power,, and rains are frequent, this method is
not praflicable.
For this reafon, as it often rains in the province of
I S T R Y. 123;
Normandy, the inhabitants take another way to extrafh
fait from fea-water. The labourers employed for this
purpofe raife heaps of fand on the (hore, fo that the tide
waters and drenches them when it flows, and leaves the
fand dry when it ebbs. During the interval between
two tides of flood the lun and the air eafily carry off the
moifture that was left, and fo the fand remains impreg¬
nated with all the fait that was contained in the evapo¬
rated water. Thus they let it acquire as much fait as it
can by feveral returns of flood, and then wafh it out with
frefti water, which they evaporate over a fire in leaden
boilers.
To obtain the fait from brine-fprings, the water need
only be evaporated : but as feveral of thefe fprings con¬
tain too little fait to pay the charges that would be iir-j.
curred, if the evaporation were effesfled by the force of
fire only, the manufaflurers have fallen upon a lefs ex-
penfive method of getting rid of the greafeft part of the
water, and preparing the brine for cryftallifation, in much
lefs time, and with much lefs fire, than would otherwife
have been neceffary.
The method confifts in making the water fall from a
certain height on a great many fmall fpars of wood,
which divide it into particles like rain. This is perform¬
ed under (beds open to all the winds, which pafs freely
through this artificial flrower. By this means the water
prefents to the air a great extent of furface, being in¬
deed reduced almoft entirely to .furface, and the evapo¬
ration is carried on with great cafe and expedition. The
water is raifed by pumps to the height from which it is
intended to fall.
Experiments concerning, the decompcftion of Sea-falt,
by means of the phlogifton. KunckelV Phofphcrus.
“ Of pure urine that has fermented five or fix days-
take a quantity in proportion to the quantity of phofpho-
rus you intend to make : it requires about one third part
of a hogftiead to make a dram of phofphorus; Evaporate
it in iron pans, till it become clotted, hard, black, and
nearly like chimney foot; at which time it will be re¬
duced to about a fixtieth part of its original weight be¬
fore evaporation.
“ When the urine is brought to this condition, put it
in feveral portions into fo many iron pots, under whi:h
you, muft keep a pretty bride fire fo as- to make their bot¬
toms red, and ftir it inceffantly till the volatile fait and
the fetid oil be almoft wholly difiipated, till the matter
ceafe to emit any fmoke, and till it fmell like peach-
bloffoms. Then put-out the fire, and pour on the mat¬
ter, which will now be reduced to a powder,- fomewhat
more than twice its weight of warm water. Stir it about
in this water; and leave it to fo .k therein for twenty-
four hours. Pour off the water by inclina'ion ; dry the
drenched matter; and pulverife it. The previous cal¬
cination carries off from the matter about a third of its
weight, and thelixiviation waftres out half the remainder.
“ With what remains thus calcined,. waftted, and
dried, mix half its weight of gravel, or yellow free-
ftone rafped, having fifted out and thrown away all the
fineft particles. River-fand is not proper on this occa-
fion, becaufe it flies in a hot fire. Then add to this
mixture:
124 c H E M
mixture a fixteenth part of its weight of charcoal, made
,of beech, or of any other wpod except oak, becaufe that
alfa flies, Maiftep the wh$)e with as much water as will
bring it-ta a ftiff by , wor]cing and kneading it with
•your.hjwds ::,Now iptrodupe it into ypur retort, taking
care; not to daub its. neck. The retort muft be of the
belt earth, and of fuch a fize, that when your matter is
in it,; a full-third thereof lhall tlill be empty.
“ Place your retort, thus charged, in a reverberating
furnace, fo proportioned, that, there may be an interval
•of t wo inches all round between the fides of the 'furnace
sand the bowl pf the retort, even where it contrails to
-form the neck, winch mould Hand inclined at an angle
of lixty degrees . Stop all the apertures of the furnace,
.except the doprs of.the. fire place and, aflj:hole. • '
“ Fit on to the retort a large glafs balfpn two thiids
full of water,, and lute.them together, as in diffilfib^ the
Imokmg fpirit of, nitre. In, the hinder part of this bal¬
lon, a little above,the furface of the yyatcr, a fmall hole
muff be bared. This bole is todt? popped, witha fmall
peg of birch-wood, which mull flip in ane! out very ea-
Idy, and have a fmall knob to, prevent its falling into the
• ballon. This,-peg is.to.be^pulied.p^,. fromtipne to.time,
that by applymg the hand to the,bdlp, jt may be‘known*
whether the air larufitd by the heat of the retort, iifues,.
-out with tooriuuc'11:®1't0P Htde
. “ If> die air rttihea out . with too, njpeh rapidhy, and
.with a bifling noile, the dqoc of.the'aflidjore muft be bn-
ttrely fhutj in order aodfiackeii the fir?. If it do not
firjke pretty furartly agamtl the hand, that dpor mull be'
opened wider j: and large.coals thrown into the fire-place
to quicken the fire immediately.
“ The operation ufaally Jails four and twenty hours;
and the, following figns^fhew that it will fucceed, provi¬
ded the retort reflif the ^re-;
“ -You mud begin ^the operation with putting forpe un-;
lighted charcoal in the a.Ii hole, and a little lighted char¬
coal at the door thereof, pi order to warm the retort ve¬
ry flowly. When,tge :Wbole is kindled, pulh it into the
•alh hole, and dole .the door therepf with a tile. This
-rnodtrate heat brings; over .the .phlegm of the mixture.
The fame degree of heat.mud be kept up four hours,
after which forne coals may be laid on the grate of the fire¬
place, which the fire underqeath, will kindle by degrees.
With this fecond heat brought nearer the retort, the bal¬
lon grows wuirm, and is filled with white vapours which
have the fmell of fetid oil In four hours after, this vef-
fd will grow;cool and clear ; and then you mud open the
door of the afh-hole one inch, t row frefli coals into the
-fire- place every- ,three minutes,, and every time fhut the
door of it, left ,tho cold air from without fliould fli ike a-
gaind the bo tom of the retort and crack it
“ When the fire has ' een kept“up to this .degree for
about two hours, the infide of the ballon begins to be
netted over with a volatile fait of a Angular nature, which
cannot be driven up but by a very violent fire, and
which fmells pretty drong of peach-kernels. Care mud
be t iken that this concrete fait do not dop the little hole
in the ballon : for in that cafe it would burft, the re¬
port being then red-hot, and the air exceedingly rarefied.
The. water in the ballon, being heated by the vicinity of
I S T R Y.
the furnace, exhales vapours which diffolve this fprigged
fait, and the ballon clears up in half an hour after it has
ceafed rifing.
‘‘ In about three hours from the firft appearance of
this fait, the ballon is again filled with new vapours,
which fmell like fa! ammoniac thrown upon burning coals.
They condenfe on rhefides of the receiver into a fait which
is not branched* like the former, hut appears in long per¬
pendicular dreaks, which the vapours of the water do not
diffolve. Thefe white vapours, are the fore-runners of
the phofphorus; and a little before they ceafe to rife they
lofe their fird fmell of fal ammoniac, and acquire the o-
dour of garfick.
“ As they afeend with .great rapidity,, the little hole
mhd be frequently opened, to obferve whether the bif¬
fing be-; not tod' itrdng - for in that cafe it would be ne-
ceffary to {hut the door of. the alh-bole quite clofe.
Thefe White vapours continue two hours. When you
find they ceale rifing, make a fmall paflage through the
dome, by'Opening foftie of its regiders, that tlie flame
may'jud begm to draw,- Keep up the fire in tfais mean
ftFFthe fird4ivolatile phofphorus begin to appear.
! This appears-in about three', hours after the white
va^duff fi/d-ibegin to Vife. In order to difeover-it, pull
Out'the*little birchen peg once every minute, and rub it
ag’ainA fome hot part of he furnace, where it will leave
a trail of Kght, if there.be any phofpborus upon it
“ : Sqoh a'ftef' you - obferve this fign, there will iflue
out thrbhgfi thefittle* hole-Ctf the ballon a dream of blu-
ifli light, 'WBreh^cdritlnues'-of a greater or fltorter extent
to the end of the operation. This:dream or fpout of
light does not burn If you hold your finger againd it
for twenty of thirty fecond^,- the light will adhere to it;
and if you rub that finger over your hand, the light will
befmbar it, and render it luminous.
“ But from time to time this dreamer darts out to
the length of feven of eight inches, fnapping and emit¬
ting fparks, of fire; and then it burns ail combudible bo¬
dies that come in its- way. When you obferVe this,
you mud manage the fire very warily,- and Unit the door
of the a£h-hole quite clofe, yet without ceafing to throw
coals into the fire place every two minutes.
“ The volatile phofphdrus continues two hours ; after
which the little fpout of light contrails to the length of a
line or two : Arid ndw is the time for pulhing your fire to
the utmod : Immediately fet the door of the afti hole wide
open, throw billets of wood into it. uhdop all the re¬
giders of the reverberatory, fupply the fire-place with
large coals every minute : In Ihort, for fix or feveh hours
all the infide of the furnace mud be kept of a white heat,
fo that the retort Avail hot be didinguiflvable.
‘‘/In this fierce extremity of heat the true phofphorus
didills like an oil, or like melted wax : One part thereof
floats on the water in the recipient, the other falls to the
bottom. At lad the operation is known to be quite o-
ver when the upper part of the ballon, in which the vo¬
latile phofphorus appears condenfed in a blackiflr film,
begins to grow red : For this fhews that the phofphorus
is burnt where the red fpot appears You mud now dop
all the regiders, and flmt all the doors of the furnace, in
order to fmotber the fire; and then clofe up the little hole
C H E M
in the ballon with fat lute orbees-wax. In this condition
the whole muft be left for two days-, becaufe the ve/Tels
mult not be feparated till they are perfectly cold, lell
the phofphorus fhould take fire.
“ As foon as the fire is out, the ballon, which is then
in the dark, prefents a moft agreeable objeft: All the
empty part thereof above the water feems filled with a
• beautiful blue light; which continues for feven or eight
hours, or as long as the ballon keeps warm, never dif-
appearing till it is cooled.
“ When the furnace is quite cold, take out the vef-
fels, and feparate them from each other as neatly as pof-
fible. With a linen cloth wipe away all the black ftulf
you find in the mouth of the ballon ; for if that filth
fhould mix with the phofphorus, it Would hinder it from
being tranfparent when moulded. This muft be done
with great expedition : After which pour into the ballon
two or three quarts of cold water, to accelerate the pre¬
cipitation of the phofphorus that fwims at top. Then
agitate the water in the ballon, to rinfe out all the phof¬
phorus that may ftick to the fides ; pour out all the wa¬
ter thus fliaken and turbid, into a very dean earthen
pan,- and let it ftand till it grows clear. Then decant
this firft ufelefs water, and on the blackilh fediment left
at the bottom of the pan pour fome boiling water to melt
the phofphorus ; which thereupon unites with the fuli¬
ginous matter, or volatile phofphorus, that precipitated
with it, both together forming a mafs of the colour of
flate. When this water in which you have melted the
phofphorus is cool enough, take out the phofphorus,
throw it into cold water, and therein.break it into little
bits in order to mould it.
“ Then take a matras, having a long neek fomewhat
wider next the body than at its mouth: Gut off half
the body, fo- as to make a funnel of the neck-part, the
fmaller end of which muft be flopped with a cork. The
.firft mould being thus prepared, plunge it endwife,■ with
its mouth uppermoft, in a veflel full of boiling water,
and fill it with that water. Into this funnel throw the
little bits of your flate-like mafs, which will melt again
in this hot water, and fall fo melted to the bottom of the
.tube. Stir this melted matter with an iron wire, to pro¬
mote the feparation of the phofphorus from the fuligi¬
nous matter with which it is fouled, and which, being
lefs ponderous than the phofphorus, will gradually rife a-
bove it towards the upper part of the cylinder.
“ Keep the water in the velfel as hot as at firft, till
on taking out the tube you fee the phofphorus clean and
tranfparent. Let the clear tube cool a little, and then
fet it in cold water, where the phofphorus will congeal as
it cools. When it is perfe&Iy congealed, pull out the
cork, and with a fmall rod near as big as the tube, pulh
the cylinder of phofphorus towards the mouth of the fun¬
nel, where the feculency lies. Cut off the black part of
the cylinder, and keep it apart: For when you have got
a quantity thereof, you may melt it over again in the
fame manner, and feparate the clean phofphoms which
it ft ill contains. As to the reft of the cylinder which
is clean and tranfparent, if you intend to mould it into,
fmaller cylinders, you may cut it in flices, and melt it
Vol.II. No. 35. 3
I S T R Y. 125
again by the help of boiling water in glafs tubes of fmal-
er dimenfions.”
It is proper to obferve, in the firft place, that one of
the moft ufual caufes of mifcarriage in this operation is a
defedt of the requifite qualities in the retort employed.
It is abfolutely neceflary to have that velfel made of the
beft earth, and fo well made that it fhall be capable of
refilling the utmoft violence of fire, continued for a very
long time.
We lhall, in the fecond place, obferve withM. Hellot,
“ that, before you fet your retort in the furnace, it is
proper to make an elfay of your matter, to fee if there
be reafon to hope for fuccefs. For this purpofe put a-
bout an ounce thereof into a fmall crucible, and heat it
till the veflel be red. The mixture, after having fmo-
ked, ought to chop and crack without puffing up, or e-
ven rifing in the leaft. From thefe cracks will iflue un¬
dulated flames, white and bluilh, darting upwards with
rapidity. This is the firft volatile phofphorus, which
occafions all the danger of the operation. When thefe
firft flalhes are over, increafe the heat of your matter by
laying a large live coal upon the crucible. You will then
fee the fecond phofphorus, like a luminous, fteady va¬
pour, of a colour inclining to violet, covering the whole
fufface of the matter : It continues for a very long time,
and diffiifes a fmell of garlick, which is the diftinguiftiing
odour of the phofphorus you are feeking.
“ When this luminous vapour is entirely gone, pour
the red-hot matter out of the crucible upon an iron plate.
If you do not find one drop of fait in fufion, but that,
on the contrary, the whole falls readily into powder, it
is a proof that your matter was fufficiently lixiviated,
and that it contains no more fixed fait, or fea-falt, if
you will, than is requifite. If you find on the plate a
drop of fait coagulated, it fhews that there is too much
left in it, and that there is danger of your mifcarrying in
the operation ; becaufe the redundant fait would corrode
and eat through the retort. In this cafe your matter
muft be walhed again, and then fufficiently dried.”
The furnace muft be fo conftrufted, that within a nar¬
row compafs it may give a heat at leaft equal to that of a
glafs-houfe furnace, or rather greater, efpecialiy during
the laft feven or eight hours of the operation. M. Hel¬
lot, in his Memoir, gives an exadt defcription of fuch a
furnace.
“ As certain accidents may happen in the courfeof the
operation, fome precautions are to be taken again!! them.
For inftance, if the ballon fticfuld break while the phof¬
phorus isdiftilling, and any of it Ihould fall on combufti-
ble bodies, it would fet them on fire, and probably burn
the laboratory, becaufe it is not to be diftinguiftied with¬
out the greateft difficulty. The furnace muft therefore
be eredled under fome vault, or upon a bed of brick-work,
raifed under fome-- chimney that draws well : Nor muft
any furniture or utenfil of wood be left near it. If a
little flaming phofphorus fhould fall on a man’s legs or
hands, in lefs than three minutes it would burn its* way
to the very bone. In fuch a cafe nothing but urine will
flop its progrefs. s
“ If the retort crack while the phofphorus is diftilling,
2 I there
126 C H E M
there is an unfuceefsful end of your operation. It is eafy
to perceive this by the ftink of garlick which you will
fmell about the furnace; and moreover, the flame that
ifliies through the apertures of the reverberatory will
be of a beautiful violet colour. The; aeid of fea fait
always gives this colour to the flame of fuch matters
as are burnt along with it. But if the retort break be¬
fore the pholphorus hath made its appearance, its con¬
tents may be faved by throwing a number of cold bricks
into the fire-place, and upon them a little water to quench
the fire at once.” All thefe ufeful obfervations we owe
alfo to M. Hellot.
The phofphoms here defcribed was firft difcovered by'
a citizen of Hamburg named Brandt, who worked upon
urine in fearch of the philofopher’s ftone. Afterwards
two other ikilful cliemifts, who knew nothing anore of
the procefs than that phofphorus was obtained from urine,
or in general from the human body, likewife endeavour¬
ed to. difcover it; and each of them feparately did adtu-
ally make the difcovery. Thefe two chemifts were
Kunckel and Boyle.
The former perfeded the difcovery, and found out a
method of making it in confiderable quantities at a time ;
which obcafioned it to be called Kunckel's phofphorus.
The other, who was an Englifh gentleman, had not time
to bring his difcovery to perfection, and contented him-
felf with lodging a voucher of his having difcovered it in
the hands of the fecretary of the Royal Society of
London, who gave him a certificate thereof.
“ Though Brandt, who had befor?this fold his fecret
to a chemill: named Krafft, fold it afterwards to feveral
other perfofis, and even at a very low rate : and though
Mr Boyle publdhed the procefs for making it; yet it is
extremely probable that both of them kept in their own
hands the mafter-key ; I mean, the particular marage-
merit necefjary. to make the operation fucceed: For till
Kunckel found it out, no other chemifl: ever made any
confiderable quantity thereof, except Mr Godfrey Han-
witz,: an EngHfii chemill, to whom Mr Boyle revealed
the whole myflery.
“ And thus it came to pafs, that, after Kuncke! and
Boyle died. M Godfrey Hank wit z was the only chemill
that could fupply Europe therewith ; on which account
it is likewife very well known by the name of Englijh
phofphorus
Almofl all the chemifts confider phofphorus as a fub-
fiance confifHng of the acid of fea fait combined with
the J)hlogifton, in the fame manner as fulphur confifts of
the vitriolic acid combined with the phlogifton. This
opinion is founded on the following principles.
Fir ft, urine abounds with fea-falr, and contains alfo
a great deal of phlogifton : now thefe are the ingredients
of which they conjecture phofporus to be compofed.
Secondly, phofphorus has many of the properties of
fulphur; fuch as being foluble in oils; melting with a
gentle heat; being very corabuftible ; burning without
any foot ; giving a vivid and bluifti flame; and laftly,
leaving an acid liquor when burnt: fenfible proofs that
it differs from fulphur in nothing but the nature of its
acid.
I S T R Y.
Thirdly, this acid of phofphorus, being mixed with a
folution of filver in fpirit of nitre, precipitates the filver;
and this precipitate is a true lilna cornea, -Which appears
to be more volatile even than the comrhon fort. This
fact proves more inconteftably that the acid of phofpho¬
rus is of the fame nature with that of fea-falt.
Fourthly, M. Stahl obferves, that if fea-falt be call
on live coals, they inftantly burn with great adivity;
that they emit a vivid flame, and are much fooner con¬
firmed . than if.none, of this fait had touched them;
that fea-falt in fubftance, which will bear the violence of
fire a confiderable time when fufed in a crucible, without
fuftaining any fenfible diminution, yet evaporates very
quickly, and is reduced to white flowers, by the im¬
mediate contad of burning coals; and laftly, that the
flame which rifes on this occafion is of a blue colour in¬
clining to violet, efpecially if it be not thrown diredly
on the coals themfeives, but kept in fufion amidft burn¬
ing coals, in a crucible fo placed that the vapour of the
fait may join with the inflamed phlogifton as it riles from
the coals.
Thefe experiments of Mr Stahl’s prove, that the phlo¬
gifton ads upon the acid of fea-falt, even while it is com¬
bined with its alkaline bafts. The flame that appears on
this occafion may be confidered as an imperfed phofpho¬
rus : and indeed its colour is exadly like that of phof¬
phorus.
All the fads above related evince, that the acid of
phofphorus is akin to that of fea-falt; or rather, that it
is the very fame. But there other fads which prove,
that this acid undergoes fome change at leaft, fome pe¬
culiar preparation, before it enters into the compofition
of a true phofphorus ; and that, when extricated there¬
from by burning, it is not a pure acid of fea-falt, but is
ftill adulterated with a mixture of fome other fubftance,
which makes it confiderably different from that acid.
For thefe obfervations we are obliged to M. Mafggraff.
M. Marggraff hath alfo publilhed a procefs for ma¬
king phdfphorus, and allures us, that by means thereof
we may obtain in lefs time, with lefs heat, lefs trouble,
and Ids expence, a greater quantity of pholphorus than
by any other method. His operation is this:
He takes two pounds of fal ammoniac in powder,
which he mixes accurately with four pounds of minium.
This mixture he puts into a glafs retoi t, and with a gra¬
duated life draws off a very lharp, volatile, urinous fpirit.
We obferved in Part I. that fome metallic fubftances
have the property of decompofing fal ammoniac, and fe-
paratfng its volatile alkali. Minium, which is a calx of
lead, is one of thofe metallic fubftances. In this expe¬
riment it decompofes the fal ammoniac, and feparates its
volatile alkali: what remains in the retort is a combi¬
nation of the minium with the acid of fal ammoniac,
which is well known to be the fame with the marine acid.;
and confequently the refidue of this operation is a fort of
plumbum cbrneum.
The quantity thereof is four pounds eight ounces. Of
this he mixes three pounds with nine or ten pounds of
urine, that has flood putrefying for two months, evapo¬
rated to the coafiftence of honey. Thefe he mixes
by
C H E M
by little and little in an iron pan over the fire, ftirring
the mixture from time to time. Then he adds half a
pound of charcoal duft, and evaporates the matter, kept
continually ftirring, till the whole be brought to a bkck
powder. He next diffills the mixture in a glafs retort
with degrees of fire, which he raifes towards the end fo
as to make the retort red-hot, in order to expel all
the urinous fpirit, fuperfluous oil, and ammoniacaT fait.
The diftillation being tinifhed, there remains nothing. in
' the retort but a very friablevh/o? mortuum.
This remainder he puiverifes again, and throws a
pinch of it on live coals to difcover whether or no the
matter be rightly prepared for yielding phofphorus.
If it be’ fo, it prefently emits an arfenical odour, and a
blue undulating flame, which pafles over the furface of
the coals like a wave.
Being thus aflured of the fuccefs of his operation, he
puts one half of his matter, in three equal parts, into
three fmall earthen German retorts, capable of holding
about eighteen ounces of water a-piece Thqfe three
retorts, none of which is above three quarters full, he
places together in one reverberatory furnace, built much
like thofe we have defcribed, except that it is fo eon--
ftrufted as to hold the three retorts difpoied in one line.
To each retort he lutes a recipient fomething more than,
half fnll of water, ordering the whole in fuch a manner,
that the nofes of bis retorts almolt touch the furface of
the water.
He begins the diftillation with warming the retorts
flowly, for about an hour, by a. gentle heat. When that
time is eiapfed he raifes the fire gradually, fo that in
half an hour more the coals begin to touch the bottoms
of the retorts. He continues throwing coals into the
furnace by little and little, till they rile half way the
height of the retorts; and in this he employs another
half hour. Laftly, in the next half hour he raifes the
coals above the bowels of the retorts.
Then the phofphorus begins to afcend in clouds: on
this he inftamly increafes the heat of the fire as much
as pdffible, filling the furface quite up with coals, and
making the retorts very red. This degree of fire caufes
the phofphorus to diftill in drops which fall to the bottom
of the water. He keeps up this intenfe* heat for an
hour and half, at the end of which the operation is finifh-
ed; fo that it lafts but four hours and a half in all: In
the fame manner he diftills the fecond moiety of his
mixture in three other fuch retorts.
He purifies and moulds his phofphorus much in the
fame manner as M. Hellot does. From die quantity of
ingredients above-mentioned, he obtains two ounces and
a half fine cryftalline moulded phofphorus.
The acid of phofphorus feems to be more fixed than
any other: and therefore if you would feparate it by
burning from the phlogifton with which it is united,
there is no occafion for fuch an apparatus of veffels
as is employed for obtaining the fpint of fulphur. For
this acid will remain at the bottom of the veffel in which
you burn your phofphrus: indeed, if it be. urged by the
force of fire, its moft fubtile part evaporates, and the re¬
mainder .appears in the form of a vitrified matter.
This acid effervefces with fixed and volatile alkalis.
I S T R Y. 127
and therewith forms neutral falts; but very different
from fea-falt, and from fal ammoniac. That which has
a fixed alkali for its bafis does not crackle when thrown
on burning coals; but fwells and vitrifies like borax.
That which has a volatile alkali for its bafis fhoots into
long pointed cryftals ; and, being urged by fire in a re¬
tort, lets go its volatile alkali, a vitrified matter re¬
maining behind.
We fhall conclude this article with an account of cer¬
tain properties of phofporus which have not yet been
mentioned.
Phofphorus diffolves by lying expofed to the air.
What water cannot effed, fays M..Hellot, or at leaft
requires eight or ten years to bring about, the moifture
of the air accomplifhes in ted or twelve days; whether it
be that the phofphorus takes fire in the air, and the in¬
flammable part evaporating, almoft entirely, leaves the
acid of the phofphorus naked, which like all other acids,
when exceedingly concentrated, is very greedy of moi¬
fture; or elfe that the moifture of the air, being water
divided into infinitely fine particles, is fo fubtile as to find
its way through the pores of the phofphorus, into which
the groffer partitles of common water can by no means
infinuate themfelves.
Phofphorus heated by the vicinity of fire, or by being
any way rubbed, foon takes fire and burns fiercely. It
is foluble in all oils, and in anher, giving to thofe liquors
the property of appearing luminous, when the bottle conJ‘
taining the foktion is opened. Being boiled in water, it
likewife communicates thereto this luminous quality.
The late Mr Groffe obferved, that phofphorus being
diffolved in eflential oils cryftallifes therein. Thefe cry¬
ftals take fire in the air, either when thrown into a dry
velfel, or wrapt up in a piece of paper. If they be dip¬
ped in fpirit of wine, and taken out immediately, they do
not afterwards take fire in the air : they fmoke a little,
and for a very Ihort time, but hardly wafte at all.
Though feme of them were left in a fpoon for a fort¬
night, they did not feem to have loft any thing of theif
bulk : but when tl\e fpoon was warmed a little they took
fire, juft like common phofphorus that had never been
diffolved and cryftatlifed in an effential oil.
M. Marggraff, having put a dram of phofphorus with
an ounce of highly concentrated fpirit of nitre into a glafs
retort, obferved, that, without the help of fire, the acid
diffolved the phofphorus ; ‘that part of the acid came over
into the recipient which Was luted to the retort; that at
the fame time the phofphorus took fire, burnt furioufly,
and burft the vcffds with- of this
kind happens when any of the other acids, though con¬
centrated, are applied to phofphorus.
TV decompofe Sea fait hy means of the Vitriolic Acid.
Glauber's Salt. ‘The P ur if cation and Concentration
of Spirit of Salt.
Put the-fea-falt from which you mean to extraeft the
acid into an unglaxed earthen pipkin, and fet it amidft
live coals. The fait will decrepitate, grow dry, and fall
into a powder. Put this decrepitated fait into a tubu¬
lated glafs retort, leaving two thirds thereof empty.
Set the retort in a reverberating furnace ; apply a re¬
ceiver
128 C H E M
ceiver like that iifed in difrilling the fmoking fpirit of
nitre, and lute it on in the fame manner, or rather more
exactly if poiTible. Then through the hole in the upper
convexity of the retort pour a quantity of highly concen¬
trated oil of vitriol, equal in weight to about a third part
of your fait, and immediately (hut the hole very clofe
with a glafs (topple, fir(t rubbed therein with emery fo as
to fit it exactly.
As foon as the oil of vitriol touches the fait, the re¬
tort and receiver will be filled with abundance of white
vapours ; and foon after, without lighting any fire in the
furnace, drops.of a yellow liquor will diftill from the
nofe of the retort. Let the diftillation proceed in this
manner without fire, as long as you perceive any drops
come ; afterwards kindle a very fmall fire under the re¬
tort, and continue diflilling and railing the fire by very
flow degrees, and with great caution, to the end of the
diftillation ; which will be finiflred before you have oc-
cafion to make the retort red-hot. Unlute the veflels,
and without delay pour the liquor, which is a very
fmoking Ipirit of fait, out of the receiver into a cryftal
Bottle, like that direfted for the fmoking fpirit of nitre.
When the operation is finilhed, we find a white, fa-
line mafs at the bottom of the retort as in a mould. If
this mafs be difiblved in water, and the folution cryftal-
lized, it yields a confiderable quantity of fea-falt that
hath not been decompofed, and a neutral fait confiding
of the vitriolic acid united with the alkaline bafis of that
part which hath been decompofed. This neutral fait,
which bears the name of Glauber its inventor, differs from
vitriolated tartar, or the Sal de duobtts, w'hich remains
after diftilling the nitrous acid, efpecially in that it is
more fufible, more foluble in water, and hath its cryftals
differently figured. But as in thefe two falts the acid is
the fame, the differences that appear between them muft
be attributed to the peculiar nature of the bafis of fea-
falt.
Spirit of fait drawn by the procefs above defcribed is
tainted with a fmall mixture of the vitriolic acid, carried
up by the force of fire before irlrad time to combine with
the alkali of the fea-falt; which happens likewife to the
nitrous acid procured in the fame manner. If you defire
to have it pure, and abfolutejy free from the acid of vi¬
triol, it muft be diftilled a fecond time from fea-falt, as
the acid of nitre was before dtredted to be diftilled again
from frefh nitre, in order to purify it from any vitriolic
taint.
To dccompofe Sea-falt by means of the Nitrous Acid.
Aqua regis. Quadrangular Nitre.
Take dried fea-falt: bruife it to powder: put it in¬
to a glafs retort, leaving one half of the veflel empty.
Pour upon it a third of its weight of good fpirit of nitre.
Place your retort in the fand-bath of a reverberating fur¬
nace ; put on the dome ; lute to the retort a receiver
having a fmall hole in it, and heat the veflels very flowly.
There will come over into the receiver fome vapours,
and an acid liquor. Licreafe the fire gradually till no¬
thing more rifes. Then unlute the veffels, and pour the
liquor out of the receiver into a cryftal bottle, flopped
like others containing acid fpirits.
I S T R Y.
The nitrous acid hath a greater affinity than the ma¬
rine acid with fixed alkalis. When therefore fpirit of
nitre and fea-falt are mixed together, the fame confe-
quences will follow as when the vitriolic acid is mixed
with that fait; that is, the nitrous acid will, like the
vitriolic, decompofe it, by diflodging its acid from its
alkaline bafis, and affuming its place. But as the ni¬
trous acid is confiderably weaker, and much lighter, than
the vitriolic acid, a good deal of it rifes along with the
acid of fea-falt during the operation. The liquor found
in the receiver is therefore a true aqua regis.
If decrepitated fait, and a right fmoking fpirit of nitre,
be employed in this procefs, the aqua regis obtained will
be very ftrong.
The operation being finifhed, there is left in the retort
a faline mafs, containing fea-falt not decompofed, and a
new fpecies of nitre, which having for its bafis the alkali
of fea-falt, that is, an alkali of a peculiar nature, differs
from the common nitre, i. In the figure of its cryftals ;
which are folids of four ficfes, formed like lozenges :
2. In that it cryftallizes with more difficulty, retains
more water in its cryftals, attra&s the moifture of the
air, and diffolves in water with the fame circumftances.
as fea fait,
0/ B O R A X.
To dtcompofe Borax by the means of Acids, and to fe-
parate from it the Sedative Salt by Sublimation and
by Cryjlallifation.
Reduce to a fine powder the borax from which you
intend to extradl: the ledative fait. Put this powder into
a wide-necked glafs retort. Pour upon it an eighth part
of its weight of common water, to moiften the powder ;
and then add concentrated oil of vitriol, to the weight
of fomewhat more than a fourth part of the weight of the
borax. Set the retort in a reverberatory, make a mode¬
rate fire at firft, and augment it gradually till the retort
become red-hot.
A little phlegm will firft come'over, and then, with the
laft moifture that the heat expels, the fedative fait will
rife; by which means fome of it will be diffolved in this
laft phlegm, and pafs therewith into the receiver; but moft
of it will adhere in the form of faline flowers to the
fore-part of the neck of the retort, juft where it is clear
of the groove of the furnace. There they colled! into
a heap, which the fucceeding flowers pufti infenfibly for¬
ward till they (lightly (top the paffage. Thofe which
rife after the neck is thus flopped flick to the after part
of it which is hot, vitrify in fome meafure, and form a
circle of fufed fait. In this ftate the flowers of the feda¬
tive fait feem to iffue out of the circle, as from their
bafis : They appear like very thin, light, (hining fcales, *
and muft be brufhed off with a feather.
At the bottom of the retort will be left a faline mafs :
Diffolve this in a fufficient quantity of hot water ; filter
the folution, in order to free it from a brown earth which
it depofites ; fet the liquor to evaporate, and cryftals of
fedative fait will form in it.
Though borax is of great ufe in many chemical ope¬
rations, efpecially in the fufion of metals, as we (hall
hare
C H E M I
have occafion to fee, yet, till of late years, chemills
were quite ignorant of its nature, as they (Hll are of its
origin ; concerning Which we know nothing with certain¬
ty, but that it comes rough from the Ealt Indies, and is
jnirified by the Dutch.
Of Operations on Metals.
Of Go L D.
To feparats Gold, by Amalgamation <witb Mercury,
from the Earths and Stones with which it is found
mixed.
Pulverise the earths and (tones containing gold. Put
the powder into a little wooden tray j dip this tray in water,
gently (baking it and its contents. The' water will grow
muddy, by taking up the earthy parts of the ore. Continue
walking it in this manner till the water ceafe to appear
turbid. Upon the ore thus walked pour (bong vinegar,
having firft diflqlved therein, by the help of heat, about
a tenth part of its weight of alum. The powder mud
be quite drenched and covered with this liquor, and fo
left to (land for twice twenty-four hours.
Decant the vinegar, and wa(h your powder with warm
water, till the lad that comes off hath no tadg : then
dry it, and put it into an iron mortar, with four times
its weight of quick-filver: triturate the whole with a
heavy wooden pedle, till all the powder be of a black-
i(h colour : then pour in a little water, and continue rub¬
bing for fome time longer.^ More earthy and heteroge¬
neous particles will be feparated from the metalline parts
by means of this water, which will look dirty: it mud
then be decanted, and more fair water added. Repeat
this feveral times; then dry what remains in the mortar
with a fponge, and by the help of a gentle heat; you
will find it an almalgam of the mercury with the gold.
Put this almalgam into a chamoy bag: tie a knot on
its neck, and fqueeze it hard between your fingers, over
.fome wide-mouthed veffel; there will iffue through
the pores of the leather numberlefs little jets of mercury,
forming a fort of (hower, that will colle<d into large
globules in the veffel placed underneath. When you
can force out no more mercury by this means, open the
bag, and in it you will find the amalgam freed from the
fuperflupus mercury •, the gold retaining only about as
much thereof as nearly equals itfelf in weight.
Put this amalgam into a glafs retort: fet this retort
in the fand-bath of a reverberating furnace; cover it
quite over with fand; apply a glafs receiver half full of
of water, fo that the nofe of the retort may be under
the water. The receiver need not bqdmed to the retort.
Give a gradual heat, and raife the fire till drops of the
fublimed mercury appear in the neck of the retort, and
fall into the water with a hiding noife. If you hear a-
ny noife in the retort, flacken your fire a little. Laftly,
when you obferve, that, though you raife the fire dill
higher than before, nothing more will come over, take
out your retort, break it, and there you will find the
gold, which mud be melted in a crucible with borax.
To dijfolve Gold in Aqua regis, and by that means to
feparate it from Silver.
Take gold that is perfectly pure, or alloyed with
Vol. II. No. 3J. 3
S T R Y. 129
(ilver only. Reduce it to little thin plates, by ham¬
mering it on an anvil. If it ^be not fufficiently tough,
neal it till it be red in a moderate, clear fire, quite free
from fmoking coals, and then let it cool gradually,
which will reftore its du&ility.
When the plates are thin enough, make them red-hot
once more, and cut them into fniall bits with a pair of
fheers. Put thefe bits into a tall, narrow-mouthed cu¬
curbit, and pour on them twice their weight of good aqua
regis, made of one part fal-ammoniac, or fpirit of fait,
and four parts fpirit of nitre. Set the cucurbit in a fand-
bath moderately heated, (lopping its orifice (lightly with
a paper coffin, to prevent any dirt from falling in. The
aqua regis will prefently begin to fmoke. Round the
little bits of gold will be formed an infinite number of
fmall bubbles, which will rife to the furfac'e of the
liqnor. The gold will totally diffolve, if it be pure,
and the folution will be of a beautiful yellow colour: if
the gold be alloyed with a fmall quantity of filter, the
latter will remain at the bottom of the veffel in the form
of a white powder. If the gold be alloyed with much
filver, when the gold is diffolved the filver will retain
the form'of the little metalline plates put into the veffel.:
Wheft the diffolution is completed, gently pour off the
liquor into another low, wide-mouthed, glafs cncurbit,
taking care that none of the (Uver, which lies at the
bottom in the form of a powder efcape with the liquor.. Go
this powder of filver pour as much frdh aqua regis as
will cover it entirely ; and repeat this till you are fure
that nothing more can be taken up by it. Laftly, ha*
ving decanted tht aqua .regis from the filver, ,walh the
filver with a little fpirit of fait weakened with water, and
add this fpirit of fait to the aqua regis in which your
gold is diffolved. Then to the body containing thefe li¬
quors fit a head and a receiver, and diilill with a gentle
heat, till the matter contained in the cucurbit become
dry.
Mix together equal parts of common brimftone, and
a very ftrong fixed alkali ; for inltance, nitre fixed by
charcoal. Put them in a crucible, and melt the mixture,
(lirring it from time to time with a fmall rod. There
is no occafion to make the fire very bride, becaufe the
fulphur facilitates the fufion of the fixed alkali. Soane
fulphureous vapours will rife from the crucible: the
two fubftances will mix,intimately together, and form
a reddidr compound. Then throw into the Qrucible fome
little pieces of gold beat into thin plates, fo that the
whole do not exceed in weight one third part of the li¬
ver of fulphur : raife the fire a little. As foon as the
liver of fulphur is perfectly melted, it will begin to dif¬
folve the gold with ebullition; and will even emit fome
(ladies of fire. In the fpace of a few minutes the gold
will be entirely diffolved, . efpecially if it was cut and
flatted into fmall thin leaves.
The procefs here delivered is taken from M. Stahl.
The defign of his inquiries, was to difeover how Mofes
could burn the golden calf, which the Ifraelites had fet
up and worfhipped while he was on the mount; how he
could afterwards reduce that calf to powder, throw it
into the water which the people ufed, and make all who
bad apoftatized drink thereof, as related 'in the book of
2 K Exodus,
130 C H E M
Exodus ; and he concludes, that Mofes muft have per¬
formed this operation by means of liver of fulphur.
JTo feparate Gold from all other metallic Subfauces by
means of Antimony.
Having put the gold you intend to purify into a
crucible, fet it in a melting furnace, cover it, and make
the gold flow. When the metal is in fufion, caft upon it,
by a little at a time, twice its weight of pure crude an¬
timony in powder, and after each piojoetion cover the
crucible again immediately: this done keep the matter
in fufion for a few minutes. When you perceive that
the metallic mixture is perfedlly melted, and that its fur-
face begins to fparkle, pour it out into a hollow iron cone,
previoufly heated, and fmeared on the infide with tallow.
Immediately itrike with a hammer the floor on which the
cone (lands; and when all is cold, or at lead fuflkiently,
fixed, invert the cone and (trike it: the whole metallic
mafs will fall out, and the under part thereof, which
was at the point of the cone, will be a regulus more or
lefs yellow as the gold was more or lefs pure. On (Iri-
king the metallic mafs, the reguius will freely part from
the fulphureous cruft at top.
Return this regulus into the crucible, and melt it.
Eefs fire will do now than was required before. Add
the fame quantity of antimony, and proceed as at firft.
Repeat the fame operation a third time, if your gold be
very impure.
Then put your regulus into a good crucible, much
larger than is neceflary to hold it. Set your crucible' in
a melting furnace, and heat the matter but juft enough
to make it flow, with a fmooth, brilliant furface. ^ When .
you find it thus conditioned, point towards it the'nofe of
a long-fnouted pair of bellows, and therewith keep
gently and eonftantly blowing. There will arife from
the crucible a confiderable fmoke, which will abate greatly
when you, ceafe to blow, and increafe as foon as you be¬
gin again. You muft raife the fire gradually as you ap¬
proach towards the end of the operation. If the fu^face
of the metal lofe its brilliant polifti, and feem covered
with a hard cruft, it is a fign the fire is too weak; in
which cafe it muft be increafed, till the furface recover
its (hining appearance* At laft, when no more fmoke
rifes, and the furface of the gold looks neat and green-
ifh, caft on it, by little and little, fome pulverized nitre,
or a mixture of nitre and borax. The matter will fwell
up. Continue thus adding more nitre gradually, till no
commotion is thereby produced in the crucible ; and then
let the wholfe cool. If you find, when the gold is cold,
that it is not tough enough, melt it over again; when it
begins to melt caft it in the fame falts as before ; and
repeat this till it be perfeflly du&ile.
To fsparate Silver from its Ore, by means of Scori-
f cation with Lead.
Beat to powder in an iron mortar the ore from which
you mean to feparate the filver, having firft roafted it
well in order to free it from all the fulphur and arfenic
that it may contain. Weigh it exaftly: then weigh out
by itfelf dght times as much granulated lead. Put one
fc'-T of this lead into a vJA, and fpread it equally there-
I S T R, Y.
on : upon this lead lay your ore, and cover it quite over
with the remaining half of the lead.
Place the teft thus -loaded under the further end of the
muffle in a cupelling furnace. Light your fire, and in¬
creafe it by degrees. If you look through One of the a-
pertures in the door of the furnace, you will perceive the
ore, covered with calcined lead, fwim upon the melted
lead. Prefently afterwards it will grow foft, melt, and
be thrown towards the fides of the veflel, the furface of
the lead appearing in the midft thereof bright and (hining
like a luminous difc : the lead will then begin to boil,
and emit fumes. As foon as this happens, the fire mult
be a little checked, fo that the ebullition of the lead
may almoft entirely ceafe for about a quarter of an hour.
After this it muft be excited to the degree it was at be¬
fore, fo that the lead may begin again to boil and
fmoke. Its (binning furface will gradually leflen, and
be covered with fcoria. Stir the whole with an iron
hook, and draw in towards the middle what you ob-
ferve towards the-fides of the veflel; to the end that,, if
any part of the ore (hould dill remain undiflblved by the
lead, it may be mixed therewith.
When you perceive that the matter is in perfedt fufion,
that the greateft. part of what (licks to the iron hook,
when you dip it in the melted matter, feparates from it
again, and drops back into the veflel ; and that the ex¬
tremity of this inftrument, when grown cold, appears
varniftied over with a thin, fmooth, finning cruft ; you
may look on thefe as marks that the bufinefs is done;
and the more uniform and evenly the colour of- the cruft
is, the more perfedl may you judge the. fcorification
to be.
Matters being brought to this pafs, take the teft with
a pairof tongs from under the muffle, and pour its whole
contents into an iron cone, firft heated and greafed with
tallow. This whole operation lafts about three quarters
of an hour. When all is cold, the blow of a hammer
will part the reguius from the fcoria ; and as it is not
pofiible, how perfedt foever the fcorification be, to avoid
leaving a little lead containing filver in the fcoria, it is
proper to pulverife this fcoria, and feparate therefrom
whatever extends under the hammer, in order to add it.
to the regulus.
The refining of Silver by the Cupel.
Take a cupel capable of containing one third more
matter than you have to put into it t fet it under the
muffle of a furnace like that defcribed in our theoretical
elements, as peculiarly appropriated to this fort of ope*
ration. Fill the furnace with charcoal ; light it ; make
the cupel red-hot, and keep it fo till all its moifture be
evaporated ; that is, for about a good quarter of an
hour, if the cupel be made wholly of the allies of burnt
bones ; and for a whole hour, if there he any waflied
wood-afh in its compofition.
Reduce the regulus which remained after the pre¬
ceding operation to little thin plates, flatting them with-
a. fmall hammer, and feparating them carefully from all
the adherent fcoria. Wrap thefe in a bit of paper, and
with a fi-nall pair of tongs put them gently into the cupel.
When the paper is ccniumed, the regulus will foon melt.
C H E M
and the fcoria, which will be gradually produced by the
lead as it turns to litharge, will be driven to the fides of
the cupel, and immediately abforbed thereby. At the
fame time the cupel will aflame a yellow, brown, or
bl'ackilh colour,' according to the quantity and nature of
the fcoria imbibed by it.
When you fee the matter in the Cupel in a violent e-
bullition, and emitting much fmoke, lower the fire by
the methods formerly preferibed. Keep up fuch a de¬
gree of heat only that the fmoke which alcends from the
matter may not rife very high, and that you may be able
to diftinguilh the colour which the cupel acquires from
the fcoria.
Increafe the fire by degrees, as more and more li¬
tharge is formed and abforbed. If the regulus examined
by this affay contain no filver, you will fee it turn wholly
into fcoria, and at laft difappear. When it contains fil¬
ver, and the quantity of lea^ is much diminilhed, you
will perceive little vivid irifes, or beautiful rain-bow co¬
lours, (hooting fwiftly along its furface, and crofling each
other in many different directions. At lafl, when all
the lead is deftroyed, the thin dark (kin, that is conti¬
nually protruded by the lead while it is turning into li¬
tharge, and which hitherto covered the filver, fuddenly
difappears ; and, if at this moment the lire happen not
to be ftrong enough to keep the filver in fulion, the fur-
face of that metal will at once dart out a dazzling fplen-
dor ; but, if the fire be ftrong enough to keep the filver
in fufion, though freed from all mixture of lead, this
change of colour, which is called its fulguration, will
not be fo perceptible, and the filver will appear like a
bead of fire.
Thefe phenomena Ihew that 4he operation is finilhed.
But the cupel mult ftill be left a minute or two under
the muffle, and then drawn flowly out with the iron hook
towards the door of the furnace. When the filver is fo
cooled as to be but-moderately red,, you may take the
cupel from under the muffle with your, little tongs, and
in the middle of its cavity you-wiil find an exceeding
white bead of filver, the lower part whereof will be un¬
equal, and full of little pits.
To purify Silver by Nitre.
Granulate the filver you intend to purify, or re¬
duce it to thin plates ; put it into a good crucible ; add
thereto a fourth part in weight of very dry pulverifed
nitre, mixed with half the weight of the nitre of calcined
wine-lees, and about a fixth part-of the-fame weight of
common glafs in powder. Cover this crucible with an¬
other crucible inverted ; which muft be of luch a fize
that its mouth may enter a little way into that of the
lower one, and have its bottom pierced with a hole of
about two lines in diameter. Lute the two crucibles to¬
gether with clay and- Windfor-loam. When the lute is
dry, place the crucibles in a melting furnace. Fill the
furnace with charcoal, taking care however that they do
not rife above the upper crucible.
Kindle the fire, and make your veflels of a middling
red heat. When they are fo, take up with the tongs a
live coal, and hold it over the hole of the upper crucible;
If you immediately perceive a vivid fplendor round the
I S T R Y. 131
coal, and at the fame time hear a gentle hilling noife, it
is a fign that the fire is of a proper ftrength ; and it muft:
be kept up at the fame degree till this phenomenon ceafe.
Then increafe the fire to the degree requilite to keep
pure filver in fufion ; and immediately take your veflels
out of the furnace. You will find the filver at the bot¬
tom of the lower crucible covered with a mafs of alkaline
fcoria of a greenilh colour. If the metal be not rendered,
perfectly pure and dudtile by this operation, it muft be
repeated a fecocd time.
To dijfolve Silver in Aqua Fortis, and thereby feparate
it from every ot her metalline Subjlance.
The filver you intend to diflblve being beaten into
thin plates, put it into a glafs cucurbit; pour on it twice
its weight of good precipitated aqua fortis ; cover the
cucurbit with a paper, and fet it on a fand-bath mo¬
derately heated. The aqua fortis will begin to diflblve
the filver as foon as it comes to be a little warm. Red
vapours will rife ; and from the upper furfaces of the
filvet there will feem to iflue ftreams of little bubbles,
afcending to the top of die liquor, between which and
the filver they will form, as it were, a number of fine
chains : This is a fign that the diflblutiOn proceeds duly,
and that the.degree of heat is fuch as it .aught to be. If
the liquor appear to boil and be agitated, a great many
red vapours rifing at the fame time, it is a fign that the
heat is too great, and Ihould be lelfened till it be re¬
duced to the proper degree indicated above : having ob¬
tained that, keep it equally up till no more bubbles or
red vapours appear.
If your filver be alloyed with gold, the gold will be
found, when the diflblution is (inilhed, at the bottom'of
the veflel in the form of a powder. The folution mull
now be decanted while it is yet warm : on the powder
pour half as much frelh aqua fortis as before, and make
it boil ; again defiant this fecond aqua fortis, and repeat
the lame a third time ; then with fa ip water walh the rer
maiding powder well: It will be of a brown colour in¬
clining to red.
To feparate Silver from the Nitrous Acid by D filial ::n-.
Cryjlals of Silver. The Infernal Slone.
Into a large, low, glafs body, put the folution of fil¬
ver from which you inte&d to feparate the filver by di-
ftillation. To this body fit a tubulated head provided
with its ftopple. Sct-this alembic in a fand bath, fo that
the body may be almoft covered with fand : apply a re¬
ceiver, and diftill with-a moderate heat, fo that the drops
may fucceed each other at the diftance of fome fltionds.
If 'the receiver grow very hot, check the fire. When
red vapours begin to appear, pour' into the alembic,
through the hole in its head, a frelh quantity of your fo¬
lution of filver, firft made very hot. Continue diflilling
in this manner, and repeating the addition of frefn li¬
quor, till all your folution be put into the alembic.
When you have no more frelh folution to put in, and
when, the phlegm being all come over, red vapours
begin again to appear, convey into the alembic half a
dram or a dram of tallow, and-diftill to drinefs y which
132 C H E M
being done, increafe your fire fo as to make tbe veffel
containing tbe fand-bath red-hot. In the'alembic you
will find a cals of filver, which muft be melted in a cru¬
cible with feme foap anti calcined wine-lees.
If the diflillation be flopped when part of the phlegm
is drawn ofi:, and the liquor be then fuffered to cool,
many cryitals will fhoot therein, which are a neutral fait
conflituted of the nitrous acid and filver. If the diftil-
lation be carried further, and flopped when near its con-
clufion, the liquor Being then fnffered to cool will wholly
coagulate into a blackiih mafs called the infernal fione.
To feparate Silver from the nitrous Acid by Precipita¬
tion. Luna Cornea. Luna‘Cornea reduced.
Into your folution of filver pour about a-fourth part
in weight of fpirit of fait, folution of fea-falt, or folution
of fal ammoniac. The liquor will inflantly become tur¬
bid and milky. Add* twice or thrice its weight of fair
water, and let it {land fome fome hours to fettle. It
win depofite a white powder. Decant the dear liquor,
and on the precipitate poar frefh aqua fortis, or fpirit of
fait, and warm the whole on a fahd bath with a gentle
heat for fome time. Pour off this fecond liquor, and
boil your precipitate in pure water; (hifting it feveral
times, till the precipitate and the Water be both quite
inllpid. Filter me whole, and dry tjie precipitate, which
will be a luna cornea, and muft be reduced in the fol¬
lowing manner.
Smear the infide of a good crucible well with foap.
Put your luna cornea into it ; cover it with half its
weight of fait of tartar, thoroughly dried and pulverifed;
prefs the whole hard down; pour thereon as much oil, or
melted tallow, as the powder is capable of imbibing ; fet
the crucible thus charged, and clofe covered, in a melt¬
ing furnace, and, for the firft quartet of an hour, kindle
no more fire than is neceflary to make the crucible mo¬
derately red ; after that raife it fo as to melt the filver
and the fait, throwing into the crucible from time to
• time little bits of tallow. When it ceafes to fmoke, let
the Whole cool ; or pour it into a hollow iron cone,
warmed and tallowed.
To dijfohe Silver, and feparate it from Gold, by Ce¬
mentation.
Mix thoroughly together fine brick-duft four parts,
vitriol calcined to rednefs one part, and fea-falt or ni¬
tre one part. Moiften this powder with a little water.
With this cement cover the bottom of a crucible half an
inch thick; on this firft bed lay a thin plate of the mafs
of gold and filver you intend to cement, and which you
muft previouTly take care to beat intoduch thin plates.
Cover this plate with a fecond layer of cement, of the
fame thicknefs as the former; on this fecond bed lay an¬
other plate of your metal; cover it in like manner with
cement; and fo proceed till the crucible be filled to with¬
in half an inch of its brim. Fill up the remaining fpace
with cement, and clofe the crucible with a cover, luted
with a pafte made of Windfor-loam and water: Set your
crucible thus charged in a furnace, whofe fire-place is
deep enough to let it be entirely furrounded with coals,
quite up to its mouth. Light fome coals in the furnace.
I S T R Y.
taking care not to make the fire very brifk at firft; in¬
creafe it by degrees, but only fo far as to make the cru¬
cible moderately red ; keep up the fire in tins degree for
eighteen or twenty hours : Then let the fire go out; o-
pen the crucible when it is cold, and feparate the cement
from your plates of gold. Boil the gold repeatedly Hn
fair water, till the water come off quite infipid.
Of Copper.
To feparate Copper from its Ore.
Beat your copper ore to a fine powder, having firft
freed it as, accurately as poffible, by wafhing and roaft-
ing, from all ftony, earthy, fulphureaus, and arfenieal
parts Mix your-ore thus pulverifed, with thrice its
weight of the black flux,- put the mixture into a cruci¬
ble ; edver it with common fait to the thicknefs of half
an inch, and prefs the whole, down with your finger;
With all this the crucible muff be but half full. Set it
in a melting furnace; kindle the fire by degrees, and
raife it infenfibly till you hear the fea-falt crackle. When
the decrepitation is over, make the crucible moderately
red-hot for half a quarter of an hour Then give a con-
fiderable degree of heat, exciting the fire with a pair of
good perpetual bellows, fo that the crudible may become
very fed-hot, and be perfedtly ignited. Keep the fire
up to this degree for about a quartef of an hour; then
take out the crucible, and with a hammer (hike a few
blows on the floor on which you fet it. Break it when
cold. If the operation hath been rightly and fuccefsfully
performed, you will find at the bottom of the veflel a hard
regulus, of a bright yellow colour, and femi-malleable ;
and over it a fcoria of a yellowifh brown colour, hard,
and fhining, from which you may feparatc the regulus
with a hammer.
To purify black Copper, and render it malleable.
Break into fmall bits the black copper you intend
to purify ; mix therewith a third part in weight of
granulated lead, and put the whole into a cupel fet un¬
der the muffle in a cupelling furnace, and previoufly heat¬
ed quite red. As food as the metals are in the cupel
raife the fire confiderably, making ufe, if it be needful,
of a pair of perpetual bellows, to melt the copper fpeedi-
ly. When it is thoroughly meltec}, lower the fire a little,
and continue it juft high enough to keep the metalline
mafs in petfeift fufion. The melted matter will then
boil, and throw up fome.fcoriae, which will be abforbed
by the cupel.
When moft of the lead is confumed, r^ife the fire a-
. gain till the face of the copper become bright and fhining,
thereby fhewing that all its alloy is feparated. As foon
as your copper comes to this ftate, cover k with char¬
coal duft conveyed into the cupel with an iron laddie:
Then take the cupel out of the furnace, and let it cool.
To deprive Copper of its Pblogijlon by Calcination.
Put your copper in filings into a teft, and fet it un¬
der the muffle of a cupelling furnace; light the fire, and
keep up fuch a degree of heat as may make the whole
quite
C H E M
quite red, but not enough to melt the copper. The fur-
^face of the copper will gradually lofe its metalline fplen-
dor, and put on the appearance pf a reddifh'earth. From
time to time ftir the filings with a little rod of copper or
iron, and leave your metal expofed to the fame degree of
fire till it be aly/ays calcined.
To refufeitate the Calx of Copper, and reduce it to Cop¬
per, by rejloring its Phlogijion.
Mix the calx of copper with thrice as much of the
black flux ; put the mixture into a good crucible, fo as
to fill two thirds thereof, and over it put a layer of fea-
falt a finger thick. Cover the crucible, and fet it in a
melting furnace ; heat it gradually, and. keep it mode¬
rately red till the decrepitation of the fea-falt be over.
Then raife the fire confiderably "by means of a good pair
of perpetual bellows; fatisfy yourfelf that the ma^tter is
in perfect fufion, by dipping into the crucible an iron
wire ; continue the fire in this degree for half a quarter
of an hour. When the crucible is cold, you will find at
its bottbm a button of very fine copper, which will eafdy
feparate from the faline fco'ria at top.
To dijfohe Copper in the Mineral Acids*
On a fand-bath, in a very gentle Jieat, fet a matras
containing, fome copper filings ; pour on them twice their
weight of oil of vitriol. That acid will prefently attack
the copper. , Vapours will rife, and iflue out of the neck
of the matras. . A vaft number of bubbles will afcend
from the furface of the metal to the top of the liquor,
and the liquor will acquire a beautiful blue colour. When
the copper is diflblved, put in a little and a'little more,
till you perceive the. acid no longer ads upon it. Then
decant the liquor, and let it (land quiet in a, cool place.
In a Ihort time great numbers of beautiful blue cryftals
^will fhoot in it. Thefe cryftals are called vitriol of
copper, or blue vitriol. They diflblve eafily in water.
0/ I R O N .
To feparate Iron from its Ore.
Pound into a coarfe powder the martial ftones dr
earths-out of which you defign to ext rad the iron:
Hoaft this powder in a teft under the muffle for fome mi¬
nutes, and let your fire be briflc. Then let it cool,
beat it very fine, and roaft it a fe^ond time, keeping it
under the mhffle till it emit no more fme!l.
TKen mix with this powder a flux compofed of three
parts of nitre fixed with tartar, one part of fufile glafs,
and half a part of borax and charcoal-duft. The dofe
of this reducing flux mull be thrice the weight of the
Put this mixture into a good crucible ; cover it with
about half a finger thick or fea-falt; over, the crucible
put its cover, and lute it on with Windfor-loam made
into a pafte with water. Having thus prepared your
crucible, fet it in a melting fdrnace, which you muft fill
up with charcoal. Light the fire, and let it kindle by
gentle degrees, till the crucible become red-hot. When
the decrepitation of the fea-falt is over, raife your fire to
Von. II. "No. 35. *3
I s T R Y. I3]
the higheft by the blaft of a pair of perpetual bellows, or
rather feveral. Keep up this intenfe degree of heat for
three quarters of an hour, or a whole hour, taking care
that during all this time the furnace be kept conftantly
filling up with frelh coals as the former confume. Then
take your crucible out of the fnrnace; ftrike the pave¬
ment on which you fet it feveral times with a hammer,
and let it ftand to cool: Break it, and you will find
therein a regulus of iron covered with flag.
In fmelting-houfes iron ore is fufed amidit chafboal, the
phlogifton of which combines with the martial earth, and
gives it the metalline form. The iron thus melted runs
down to the bottom of the furnace, from whence it is let
out into large moulds, in which it takes the ftiape of ob¬
long blocks, called pigs of iron. This iron is ftill very
impure, and quite unmallea'ble. Its want of dutfility
after the firft melting arifes partly from hence, that, not-
withftanding the previous roafting which the ore under¬
went, there ftill remains, after this firft fufion, a confi-
derable quantity of fulphur or arfenic combined with the
metal.
A certain quantity of quick lime, or of ftones that
will burn to lime, is frequently mixed with iron ore on'
putting it jnto the fmelting furnace. The lime being an
abforbeiit earth, very apt to unite with fulphur and ari't-
nic, is of ule to feparate thofe minerals from the iron.
"• It is alfo of ufe to mix fome fuch matters with the
ore, when the ftones or earths which naturally accom¬
pany it are wery fnfible ; for, as the iron is of difficult
fufion, it may happen that the earthy matters mixed with
the. iron fhall melt as eafily as the metal, or perhaps more
eafily. In fuch a cafe there is no feparation of the
earthy from the metalline part, both- of which melt and
predipitate together promifcuoufiy : Now quick-lime, be¬
ing extremely refradtory, ferves on this occafiofi to check
the melting of thole matters which are too fulible.
Yet quick-lime, notwithftanding its refradlory quality,
may fometimes be of ufe as a flux for iron: This is the
cafe when the ore happens to be combined with fubftan-
ces which, beingunited with lime, render it fufible : Such
are all arfenical matters, and even fome earthy matters,
which, being combined with quick-lime, make a fufibie
compound.
When tire ore of an iron mine is found difficult to re¬
duce, it is ufually negledted even though it be rich ; be-
caufe iron being very common, people chufe to work
thofe mines only whofe.ores are fmelted with the mofi
eafe, and require the leaf! confumption of wood.
. Yet refraftorj ores are not to be altogether rejedted,
when another iron ore of a different quality is founc^near
them. For it often happens, that two feveral iron ores,
which being worked feparately are very difficult to ma¬
nage, and yield at laft but bad iron, become very tradia-
ble, -and yield excellent iron, when fmelted together:
And accordingly fuch mixtures are often made at iron¬
works
The iron obtained from ores by the firft fufion may be
divided into two forts. The one, when cold, refills the
hammer, doth not eafily break, and is in fome meafure ex-
tenlible on the anvil; but if ftruck with a hammer, when
red-hot, flies into many-pieces: This fort of iron hath
2 L always
134 , C H E M
always a mixture of fulphur in it. The other fort, on
the contrary, is brittle when cold, but fomewhat du£Hle
when red-hot. This iron is not fulphurated, is natural¬
ly of a good quality, and its brittlenefs arifes from its me¬
talline parts not being fufficiently compared together.
Iron abounds fo much, and is fo univerfally diffufed
through the earth, that it is difficult to find a body in
which there is none at all: And this hath led feveral che-
mifts into the error of thinking, that they had tranfmuted
into iron feveral forts of earths in which they fufpedted
no iron, by combining them with an inflammable matter ;
whereas, in fa<5t, all they did was to give the metalline
form to a true martial earth which happened to be mix¬
ed with other earths.
To render Pig-iron and brittle Iron malleable.
Into an earthen veffel widening upwards, put fome
charcoal-duft, and thereon lay the pig-iron which you
propofe to render dudtile ; cover it all over with a quan¬
tity of charcoal; excite the fire violently with a pair, or
more, of perpetual bellows till the iron melt. If it do
not readily flow and form a great deal of flag on its fur-
face, add fome flux, fuch as a very fufible fand.
When the matter is in fufion, keep flirting it from
time to time, .that all the parts thereof may be equally
afted on by the air and the fire. On the furface of the
melted iron fcorite will be formed, which mufl be taken off
as they appear. At the fame time you will fee a great
many fparkles darted up from the furface of -the metal,
which will form a fort of fiery ffiower. By degrees, as
the iron grows purer, the number of thefe fparkles di-
minifhes, though they never vaniffi entirely. When but
few fparkles appear, remove the coals which cover the
iron, and let the flag run out of the veffel; whereupon
the metal will grow'folid in a moment. Take it out
while it is ftili red hot, and give it a few ftrokes with a
hammer, to try if it be duflile. If it be not yet mallea¬
ble, repeat the operation a fecond time, in the fame man¬
ner as before. Laftly, when it is thus fufficiently puri¬
fied by the fire, work it for a long time on the anvil,
extending it different ways, and making it red-hot as of¬
ten as there is occafion. Iron thus brought to the ne-
ceffary degree of duftility, fo fts to yield to the hammer,
and fuffer itfelf to be extended every way, either hot or
cold, without breaking to bits, or even cracking in the
leafl, is very good and very pure If it cannot be brought
to this degree by the method here preferibed, it is a
proof, that the ore from which this iron was extradled,
ought to be mixed with other ores ; but-it frequentl re¬
quires a great number of trials to obtain an exadt know¬
ledge of the quality and proportion • of thofe other otes
with which it is to be mixed.
To convert Iron into Steel.
Take fmall bars of the belt iron ; that is, of fuch as is
malleable both hot and cold; fet them on their ends in
a cylindrical earthen veflel, whofe depth is equal to the
length of the bars, and in fuch a manner that they may
be an inch diftant from each other, and from the fides
of the crucible. Fill the veffel with a cement compound¬
ed of two parts of charcoal, on part of bones burnt in a
I S T R Y.
clofe veffel till they become very black, and one half
part of the affies of green wood ; having firft pulverifed
and thoroughly mixed the whole together. Take care
to lift up the iron bars a little, to the end that the ce¬
ment may cover the bottom of the veffel, and fo that
there be about the depth of half an inch thereof under
every bar : Cover the crucible and lute on the cover.
Set the crucible thus prepared in a furnace, fo contri¬
ved, that the crucible may be furrounded with coals from
top to bottom : For eight or ten hours keep up fuch a
degree of fire that the veffel may be moderately red; af¬
ter this take it out of the furnace ; plunge your little
iron bars into cold water, and you will find them con*
verted into fteel.
The principal difference between iron and fteel confifts
in this, that the latter is combined with a greater quan¬
tity of phlogifton than the former.
It appears by this experiment, that, to make iron unite
with an inflammable matter, it is neceffary it ffiould be
in fufion ; it is fufficient that it be fo red-hot as to be
opened and foftened by the fire.
Every kind of charcoal is fit to be an ingredient in the
compofition of the cement employed to make fled, pro¬
vided it contain no vitriolic acid. However, it hath
been obferved, that animal coals produce a fpeedier ef-
feft than others : for which reafon it is proper to mix
fomething of that kind with charcoal-duft, as above di-
reded.
The following figns ffiew that the operation hath fuc-
ceeded, and that the iron is changed into good fteel.
This metal being quenched in cold water as propofed
above, acquires fuch an extraordinary degree of hard-
nefs, that it will by no means yield to any impreffion of
the file or hammer, and will fooner break in pieces than
ftretch upon the anvil. And here it is proper to obferve,
that the hardnefs of fteel varies with the manner in which
it is quenched. The general rule is, that the hotter
the fteel is when quenched, and the colder the water is
in which you quench it, the harder it becomes. It may
be deprived of the temper thus acquired, by making it
red-hot, and letting it cool flowly ; for it is thereby •
foftened, rendered malleable, and the file will bite upon
it. For this reafon the artifans who work in fleel begin
with untempering it, that they may with more eafe ffiape
it into the tool thfey intend to make. They afterwards,
new-temper the tool when finiffied, and by this fecond
temper the fteel recovers the fame degree of hardnefs it
had acquired by the firft temper.
The colour of fteel is not fo white as that of iron, but
darker, and the grains, facets, or fibres, which appear
on breaking it, are finer than thofe obferved in iron.
If the bars of iron thus cemented, in order to convert
them into fteel, be too thick, or not kept long enough in
cementation, they will not be turned into fteel through¬
out their whole thicknefs : their furfaces only will be
fteel to a certain depth, and the centre will be mere iron ;
becaufe the phlogifton will not have thoroughly pene¬
trated them. On breaking a bar of this fort, the differ¬
ence in colour and grain between the fteel and the iron is
very vifible.
It is eafy to deprive fteel of the fuperabundant quantity
of
Y.
135
C H E M I
of phloglfton which conftitutes it fteel, and thereby re¬
duce it to iron. For this purpofe it need only be kept
red-hot for fome time, obferving that no matter ap¬
proach it all the while that is capable of refunding to it
the phlogilbn which the fire carries off. The fame
end is dill fooner obtained by cementing it with mea¬
gre hungry matters, capable of abforbing the phlo-
gidon ; fuch as bones calcined to whitenefs, and creta¬
ceous earths.
The Calcination of Iron. Sundry Saffrons of Mars.
Take filings of iron, what quantity you pleafe ; put
them into a broad unglazed earthen veflel, fet under the
muffle of a cupelling furnace : make it red-hot; dir the
filings frequently; and keep up the fame degree of fire
till the iron be wholly turned into a red powder.
Iron eafily lofes its phlogidon by the aftion of fire.
The calx that remains after its calcination is exceeding
red ; which makes this be thought the natural colour of
the earth of that metal. It hath accordingly been ob-
ferved, that all the earths and dones which either are
naturally red, or acquire that colour by calcination, are
ferruginous. .
The yellowifh red colour which every calx of iron
hath, in whatever manner it be prepared, hath procured
the name of ericas, ox faffr on, to every preparation of,
this kind. That made in the manner above directed is
called in medicine crocus mart is aftr ingens.
The rud produced on the furface of iron, is a fort of
calx of iron made by the way of diffolution. The moi-
fture of the air aids upon the metal, didolves it, and
robs it of fome of its phlogidon. TJiis rud is called in
medicine crocus mtsrtis ageriens ; becaufe it is thought
that the faline parts, by means whereof the humidity
diffolves the iron, remain united with the metal after its
diffolution, and give it an aperitive virtue. The apo¬
thecaries prepare this fort of faffron of mars by expohng
iron filings to the dew till they be turned entirely to rud ;
whh h is then cnWtA faffron of mars by denu.
Another faffron of mars is alfo prepared in a much
ffiorter manner, by.mixing filings of iron with pulverifed
fulphur, and moidening the mixture, which after fome
time ferments and grows hot. It is then fet on the fire ;
the fulphur burns away, and the mafs is kept dirring till
it become a red matter. This faffron is nothing but iron
diffolved by the acid of fulphur, which is known to be
of the fame nature with that of vitriol ; and confequently
this faffron of mars is no way different from vitriol cal¬
cined to rednefs.
Iron diffolved by the mineral Acids.
Put any mineral acid whatever into a matras with
feme water ; fet the matras on a fand-bath gently heat¬
ed ; drop into the veffel fome filings of iron : the phe¬
nomena which ufually accompany metalline diffolutions
will immediately appear. Add more filings, till you ob-
ferve the acid hath lod all fenlible aAion upon them :
then remove your matras from the fand-bath.; you will
find in it a folution of iron.
S T R
Of Tin.
To extraCt Tin from its Ore.
Bkeai? your tin ore into a coarfe powder, and by!
wadiing carefully, feparate from it all the heterogeneous
matters and ores of a different kind that may be n'xed
therewith Then dry it, and road it in a drong decree
of fire, till no more arfehical vapour rife from it. When
the ore is roaded, reduce it to a fine powder, and mix
it thoroughly with twice its weight of the black flux well
dried, a fourth part of its weight of clean iron filings,
together with as much borax and pitch : put the mixture
into a crucible ; over all put fea-falt to the thicknefs of
four fingers, and cover the crucible clofe.
Set the crucible thus prepared in a melting furnace :
apply at firff a moderate and flow degree of fire, till the
flame of the pitch, which will^fcape through the joint of
the cover, difappear entirely. Then fuddenly raife your
fire, and urge it with rapidity to the degree neceffary for
melting the whole mixture. As foon as the whole is in
, fufion, take the crucible out of the furnace, and feparate:
the regulus from the fcoria
AH tin ores contain a confiderable quantity of arfenic,.
and no fulphur at all, or at mod very little Hence,
though tin be the lighted of all metals, its ore is never-
thelefs much heavier than any other ; arfenic being much
heavier than fulphur, of which the ores of every other
kind always contain a pretty large proportion. This ore-
is moreover very hard, and is not brought to a fine pow¬
der with fo much eafe as the red.
Thefe properties of tin ore furnifh us with the means-
of feparating it eafily by lotion, not only from earthy
and dony parts, but even from the other ores which may
be mixed with it. And this is of the. greater advantage
on two accounts, viz. becaufe tin cannot endure, with¬
out the dedruftion of a great part thereof, .the degree of
fire neceffary to fcorify the refradlory matters which ac¬
company its ore ; and again, becaufe this metal unites fo
eafily with iron and copper, the ores of which are pretty
commonly blended with tin ore, that after the reduftion
it would be found adulterated with a mixture of thefe:
two metals, if they were not feparated from it before the:
fufiqn-.
Into an unvarnilhed earthen dilh put the quantity of
tin you intend to calcine ; melt it, and keep dirring it
from time to time. Its furface will be covered wi h a:
, greyilh white powder : Continue the calcination till all.
your tin be converted: into-fuch a powder, which is the
calx of'tin.
The diffolution of Tin by Acids.
Put into a glafs veffel what quantity you pleafe of
fine tin cut into little bits. Pour on it thrice as much
aqua regis, compounded of two parts aqua /er/A weak¬
ened with an equal quantity of very pure water, and one
part fpirit of fait. An ebullition will arife, and the tin
will be very rapidly diffolved; efpeciallyif the quantities-
of metal and of aqua regis be confiderable.
13(5 CHE M :
To extrafl Lead from its Ore.
Having roafted your lead-ore, reduce it to a fine
powder; mix it with twice its weight of the black flux,
and one fourth of its weight of clean iron filings and bo¬
rax ; put the whole into a crucible capable of containing
at lead thrice as much; over all put fea-falt four fin¬
gers thick; cover the crucible; lute the jundture ; dry
the whole with a gentle heat, and fet it in a melting
furnace.
Make the crucible moderately red: yop will hear the
fea-falt decrepitate, and after the decrepitation a fmall
biffing in the crucible. Keep up the fame degree of fire
till that be over.
Then throw in as many coals as are neceffary to com¬
plete the operation endrely, and raife the fire fuddenly,
fo as to bring the whole mixture into perfedt fufion.
Keep up this degree of fire for a quarter of an hour,
which is time fufficient for the precipitation of the re-
gulus.
When the operation is finifned, which may be known
by the quietnefs of the matter in the crucible, and by a
bright vivid flame that will rife from it, take the crucible
out3 of the furnace, and feparate the regulus from the
fcoria.
To feparate Lead from Copper.
With luting earth and charcoal dull: make a flat veflel,
widening upwards, and large enough to contain your me¬
talline mafs. Set it ffielving downwards from the back
towards the fore-part; and in the fore-part, at the bot¬
tom, make a little gutter communicating with another
vefiel of the fame nature, placed near the former and a
little lower. Let the mouth of the gutter withinfide
the upper veflel be narrowed, by means of a fmall iron
plate fixed acrofs it, while the loam is yet foft; fo as to
leave a very fmall appertnre in the lower part of this ca¬
nal fufficient to difcharge the lead as it melts. Dry the
whole by placing lighted coals round it.
When this apparatus is dry, put your mixed mafs of
copper and lead into the upper veflel : both in that, and
in the other veflel, light a very gentle fire of wood or
charcoal, fo as not to exceed the degree of heat necefla-
ry to melt lead. In fuch a degree of heat toe lead con¬
tained in the mixed mafs will melt, and^you will fee it
run out of the upper veflel into the lower; at the bot¬
tom of which it will unite into a regulus. When in this
degree of heat no more lead flows, increafe the fire a
little, fo as to make the veflel moderately red.
When no more will run, colledt the lead contained
in the lower veflel. Melt it over again in an iron ladle,
with a degree of fire fufficient to make the ladle red;
throw into it a little tallow or pitch, and while it burns
keep flirting the metal, in order to reduce any part of it
that may be calcined. Remove the pellicle or thin crufl
which will form on the furface; fqueeze out all the lead
it contains, and then put it to the mars of copper-left in
the upper veflel. Check the fire, and in the fame man¬
ner take off a fecond flcin that will form on the furface
of the lead. Laftly, when the metal is ready to fix,
take off the flcin that will then appear on it. The lead
[ S T R Y.
remaining after this will be very pure, and free from all
alloy of copper.
With regard to the copper itfelf, you will find it in
the upper veflel covered with a thin coat of lead, and if
the lead mixed with it was in the proportion of a fourth
or a fifth part only, and the fire applied was gentle and
flow, it will retain nearly the fame form after the opera¬
tion that the mixed fnafs had before.
The Calcination of Lead.
Take what quantity of lead you pleafe ; melt it in
one or more unglazed earthen pans : a dark grey powder
will be found on its furface. Keep ftirring the metal in-,
ceffantly till it be wholly converted into fuch a powder,
which is the calx of lead.
In the calcination of all metals, and particularly in this
of lead, there appears a IThgular phenomenon which is
not eafily accounted for. It is this : though thefe mat¬
ters lofe a great deal of their fubftance, either by the
diffipation of 'their phlogifton, pr becaufe fome of the.
metal perhaps exhales in vapours, yet, when the cal¬
cination is over, their calxes are found to be encreafed
in weight, and this increafe is very confiderable. An
hundred pounds of lead, for example, converted into mi¬
nium, which is nothing but a calx of lead brought to a
red colour by continuing the calcination, are found to
gain ten pounds weight; fo that for an hundred pounds
of lead we have one hundred and ten pounds of minium :
a prodigious and almofl incredible augmentation, if it be
confidered that, far from adding any thing to the lead,
we have on the contrary diffipated part of it.
To prepare Glafs of Lead.
Take two parts of litharge, and one part of pure
cryftalline fand ; mingle them together as exadtly as pof-
lible, adding a little nitre and fea-falt: put this mixture
into a crucible of the moft folid and molt compaifl earth.
Shut the crucible frith a cover that may perfe&ly clofe it.
Set the crucible thus prepared in a melting furnace ;
fill the furqace with coals'; light the fire gradually, fo
that the whole may be flowly heated : Then raife the
fire fo as to make the crucible very red, and bring the
matter it contains into fufion ; keep it thus melted for a
quarter of an hour.
Then take the crucible out of the furnace, and break
it: In the bottom thereof you will moft commonly find
a fmall button of lead, and over it a tranfparent glafs of
a yellow colour nearly refembling that of amber. Se¬
parate this glafs from the little button of metal, and
from the faline matters which you will find above it.
Lead diJJ'olved hy the Nitrous Acid.
Put into a matras fome aqua fortis precipitated like
that ufed to diflblve filver; weaken it by mixing there¬
with an equal quantity of common water; fet the ma¬
tras in a hot fand-bath; throw into it, little by little,
fmall bits of lead, till you fee that no more will diflblve.
Aqua fortis thus lowered will diffolve about a fourth of
its weight of lead.
There is gradually formed upon the lead, as it dif-
folves, firft a grey powder, and afterwards a white cruft,
which
H
M
I
R
Y.
137
which at laft hinder the folvent from affing on the re'
maining part of the metal ; and therefore the liquor
(hould be made to boil, and the veflel (hould be fhaken
to remove thofe impediments, by which means all the
lead will be diffolved.
Of Mercury.
To extrail Mercury from its Ore, or to revivify it
from Cinabar.
Pulverize the cinabar from which you would ex-
tradt the mercury; with this powder mix an equal part
of clean iron filings; put the mixture into a retort of
glafs or iron, leaving at lealt one third part thereof
empty. Set the retort thus prepared in a fand-bath, fo
that its body may be quite buried in the fand, and its
neck decline confiderably downwards : fit on a receiver
half filled with water, and let the nofe of the retort en¬
ter about fialf an inch into the water.
Heat the veflel fo as to make the retort moderately
red. The mercury will rife in vapours, which will con-
denfe into little drops, and fall into the water in the re¬
ceiver. When you fee that nothing more comes over
with this degree of heat, increafe it, in order to raife
what mercury may ftill be left. When all the mercury
is thus brought over, take off the receiver, pour out the
water contained in it, and colledt the mercury.
Mercury is never mineralized in the bowels of the
earth by any thing bat fulphur: with which’ it forms a
compound of a brownilh red colour, known by the name
of Cinabar.
The oldeft and richeft mine of mercury is that of Al-
maden in Spain. It is a fingular property of that mine,
that though the mercury found in it is combined with
fulphur, and in the form of cinabar, yet no additament
is required to procure the feparation of thefe two; the
earthy and itony matter, with which the particles of the
■ ore are incorporated, being itfelf an excellent abforbent
of fulphur.
In the quick-filver works carried on at this mine they
make no ufe of retorts. They place lumps of the ore
oman iron grate, which Hands immediately over the fur¬
nace. The furnaces which ferve for this operation are
clofed at the top by a fort of dome, behind which Hands
the lhaft of a chimney that communicates with the fire¬
place, and gives vent to the fmoke. Thefe furnaces
have in their fore-fide fixteen apertures, to each of which
is luted an aludel in a horizontal pofition, communica¬
ting with a long row of other aludels placed likewife in
an horizontal direftion; which aludels fo connefted to¬
gether form one long pipe or canal, the further end
whereof opens into a chamber deftined to receive and
condenfe all the mercurial vapours. Thefe rows of alu¬
dels are fupported from end to end by a terrafs, which
runs from the body of the building, wherein the furnaces
are eretted, to that where the chambers are built that
perform the offi6e of receivers.
This a very ingenious contrivance, and faves much la¬
bour, expence, and trouble, that would be unavoidable
if retorts were employed.
Vol. II. No. 35. 3
That part of the furnace which contains the lumps of
ore, ferves for the body of the retort; the row of alu¬
dels for its neck; and the little, chambers in which thefe
canals terminate are actual receivers. The terrals of
of communication, which reaches from the one building
to the other, is formed of two inclined planes, the low¬
er edges of which, meeting in the middle of the ter-
rafs, rife from thence infenfibly ; the one quite to the.
building where the furnaces are, and the other to tha^
which forms the recipient chambers. By this means,
when any mercury efcapes through the joints of the alu¬
dels, it naturally runs down along thefe inclinea planes,
and fo is collefted in the middle of the terrafs, where
the inferior fides of the planes meeting together form a
fort of canal, out of which it is.eafily taken up.
To give Mercury, by the aclion of Fire, the appear¬
ance of a Metalline Calx.
Put mercury into feveral little glafs matraffes with
long and narrow necks. Stop the matraffes with a
little paper, to prevent any dirt from falling into them.
S»t them all in one fand-bath, fo that they may be fur-
rounded with fand as high as two thirds of their length.
Apply the ftrongeft degree of heat that mercury can bear
without fubliming : continue this heat without interrup¬
tion, till all the mercury be turned to a red powder.
The operation lafts about three months.
Mercury thus converted to a red powder is known in
chemillry and medicine by the name of mercury precipi¬
tated per fe.
To dijfolve Mercury in the Vitriolic Acid, Turbith
mineral.
Put mercury into a glafs retort, and pour on it thrice
its weight of good oil of vitriol. Set the, retort in a
fand-bath ; fit on a recipient; warm the bath by degrees
till the liquor juft fimmer. With this heat the mercury
will begin to diffolve. Continue the fire in this degree
till all the mercury be diffolved.
The vitriolic acid diflblves mercury pretty well: but
for this purpofe the acid muft be Very hot, or even boil ;
and then top it is a very long time before the diffolution
is completed. We have dire&ed the operation to be per¬
formed in a retort; becaufe this folution is ufualiy em¬
ployed to make another preparation called turbith mi¬
neral, which requires that as much as poffible of the-
acid folvent be abftra&ed by diftillation. Having there¬
fore diffolved your mercury in the vitriolic acid, if you
will now prepare the turbith, you muft, by continuing
to heat the retort, drive over all theiiquor into the re¬
ceiver, and diftill till nothing remains but a white pow¬
dery matter; then break the retort ; pulverife its con¬
tents in a glafs mortar, and thereon pour common water,
which will immediately turn the white matter of a lemon-
colour ; wafti this yellow matter in five or fix warm wa¬
ters, and it will be what is called in medicine turbith
mineral; that is, a combination of the vitriolic acid with
mercury, five or fix grains whereof is a violent purga¬
tive, and a’fo an emetic; qualities which it poffeffes \a
2 M ' common
138 C H E M
common with the vegetable turbith, whofe name it hath
therefore taken.
To combine Mercury •with fulphur. JEthiops Mineral.
Mix a dram of fulphur with three drams of quick-
filver, by triturating the whole in a glafs mortar with a
glafs peftle. By degrees, as you triturate, the mercury
will difappear, and the matter will acquire a black colour.
Continue the triture till you cannot perceive the leaft
particle of running mercury. The black matter you will
then have in the mortar is known in medicine by the
name of tethiops mineral. An sethiops may alfo be made
by fire in the following manner.
In a fliallow unglazed earthen pan melt one part of
flowers of fulphur: add three parts of running mercury,
making it fall into the pan in the form-of fmall rain, by
fqueezing it through chamoy leather. Keep ftirring the
mixture with the fhank of a tobacco-pipe all the while
the mercury is falling: you will fee the matter grow
thick and acquire a black colour. When the whole is
thoroughly mixed, let fire to it with a match, and let
as much of the fulphux burn away as will flame.
To fublime the combination of Mercury and Sulphur
into Cinabar.
Grind to powder sthiops mineral prepared by fire.
Put it into a cucurbit; fit thereto a head ; place it in a
fand-bath, and begin with applying fuch a degree of heat
as is requifite to fublime fulphur. A black matter will
rife, and adhere to the fides of the veflel. When no¬
thing more will rife with this degree of heat, raife the
fire fo as to make the fand and the bottom of the cucur¬
bit red; and then the remaining matter will fublime in
the form of a brownifh red mafs, which is true cinabar.
To dijfolve Mercury in the Nitrous acid. Sundry
Mercurial Precipitates.
Put into a matras the quantity of mercury you intend
to diflblve : pour on it an equal quantity of good fpirit of
nitre, and fet the matras in a fand-bath moderately heat¬
ed. The mercury will diffolve with the phenomena that
ufually attend the diflblutions of metals in this acid.
When the dilfolution is completed, let the liquor cool.
You will know that the acid is perfe&ly faturated, if
there remain at the bottom of the veflel, notwithftanding
the heat, a little globule of mercury that will not dif¬
folve.
Mercury diflblves in the nitrous acid with much more
facility, and in much greater quantity, than in the vitrio¬
lic ; fo that it is not neceflary, on this occafion, to make
the liquor boil. This folution when cold yields cryftals,
which are a nitrous mercurial fait. If you defire to have
a clear limpid folution of mercury, you mull employ an
aquafortis that is not tainted with vitriolic or marine a-
cid: for, the affinity of thefe two acids with mercury
being greater than that of the nitrous acid, they preci¬
pitate it in the form of a white powder, when they are
mixed with the folvent.
Mercury thus precipitated in a white powder, out of
a folution thereof in the Ipirit of nitre, is ufed in medi-
I S T R Y.
cine. To obtain this precipitate, which is known by the
name of the •white precipitate, fea-falt, diflblved in wa¬
ter, together with a little fal ammoniac is ufed; and the
precipitate is waffled feveral times in pure water, with¬
out which precaution it would be corrofive, on account
of the great quantity of the marine acid which it would
contain. ^
The preparation known by the name of red precipi¬
tate, is alfo obtained from our folution of mercury in fpi¬
rit of nitre. It is made by abffxa&ing all the moifture
of the folution, either by diftillation in a retort, or by
evaporation in a glafs bafon fet on a fand-bath. When
it begins to grow dry, it appears like a white ponderous
mafs Then the fire is made ftrong enough to drive off
almoft all the nitrous acid, which, being now concen¬
trated, rifes in the form of red vapours. If thefe va¬
pours be catched in a receiver, they condenfe'into a li¬
quor, which is a very ftrong and vaftly fmoking fpirit of
nitre.
By degrees, as the nitrous acid is forced up by the
fire, the mercurial mafs lofes its white colour, and be¬
comes firft yellow, and at laft very red. When it is be¬
come entirely of this laft colour, the operation is finiftied.
The red mafs remaining is a mercury that contains but
very little acid, in comparifon of what it did while it was
white : and indeed the firft white mafs is fuch a violent
corrofive, that it cannot be ufed in medicine ; whereas,
when it is become red, it makes an excellent efcharotic,
which thofe who know how to ufe it properly apply with
very great fuccefs, particularly to venereal ulcers.
To combine Mercury <with the Acid of Sea-fal't. Corro-
Jive Sublimate.
Evaporate a folution of mercury in the nitrous acid
till there remain only a white powder, as mentioned in
our obfervations on the preceding procefs. With this
powder mix as much green vitriol'calcined to whitenefs,
and decrepitated fea-falt, as there was mercury in the fo¬
lution. Triturate the whole carefully in a glafs mortar.
Put this mixture into a matras, fo that two thirds thereof
may remain empty, having firft cut off the neck to half
its length ; or inftead thereof you may ufe an apothecary’s
phial. Set your veflel in a fand-bath, and put fand
round it as high as the contents reach. Apply a mo¬
derate fire at firft, and raife it by flow degrees. Vapours
will begin to afcend. Continue the fire in the fame de¬
gree till they ceafe. Then ftop the mouth of the veflel
with paper, and increafe the fire till the bottom of the
fand-bath be red-hot. With this degree of heat a fub-
limate will rife, and adhere to the infide and upper part
of the veflel, in the form of white, femi-tranfparent cry¬
ftals. Keep up the fire to the fame degree till nothing,
more fublimes. Then let the veflel cool; break it,
and take out what is fublimed, which is corrofive fubli-
mate.
Sweet Sublimate.
Take four parts of corrofive fublimate ; pulverife it
in a glafs or marble mortar ; add by little and little three
parts of mercury revivified from cinabar 4 triturate the
whole carefully, till the mercury be perfedly killed, fo
that
C H E M I
that no globule thereof can be perceived. The matter
will then be grey. Put this powder into an apothecary’s
phial, or into a matras, whofe neck is not above four or
five inches long, leaving two thirds thereof empty. Set
the veffel in a fand-bath, and put fand round it to one
third of its height. Apply a moderate fire at firft ; and
afterwards raife it gradually till you perceive that the
mixture fublimes. Keep it up to this degree till nothing
more will rife, and then break the veflel. Rejeift, as
ufelefs, a fmall quantity of earth which you will find at
the bottom ; feparate alfo what adheres to the neck of
the veffel, and carefully colleft the matter in the middle,
which will be white. Pulverife it; fublime it a fecond
time, in the fame manner as before ; and in the fame
manner feparate the earthy matter left at the bottom of
the veffel, and what you find fublimed into the neck.
Pulverife. and fublime a third time, the white matter
you laft found in the middle. The white matter of this
third fublimation is the fvjeet fublimate, called alfo a-
quila alba.
The Panacea of Mercury.
Pulverise fome fweet fublimate, and fublime it in
the fame manner as you did thrice before. Repeat this
nine times. After thefe fublimations it will make no im-
preffion on the tongue. Then pouf on it aromatic fpirit
of wine, and fet the whole in digeftion for eight days.
After that decant the fpirit of wine, and dry what re¬
mains, which is the panacea of mercury.
Of Antimony.
To feparate Antimony from its Ore by Fufion.
Having drilled fome fmall holes, of about two lines
diameter, in the bottom of a crucible, put into it your
antimonial ore broken into little bits, about the fize of a
hazel nut; lute on its cover ; fet the crucible thus pre¬
pared in the mouth of another crucible, and clofe the
joints with lute.
At the diftance of half a foot from this compound vef¬
fel place bricks all round, fo as to form a furnace ; the
fides of which mult rife as high as the brim of the upper-
mod crucible.
Let the bottom of this furnace be filled with alhes, up
to the top of the lower crucible, and the red of the fur¬
nace with lighted coals. Blow the fire, if it be necef-
fiary, with bellows, till the upper crucible become red.
Keep it up in this degree for about a quarter of an hour.
Then take your veffels out of the furnace, and you will
find the antimony colledted in the bottom of the lower
crucible, having run through the holes of the upper one.
The common Regulus of Antimony.
Reduce crude antimony to powder. Mix it with
three fourths of its weight of white tartar, and half its
weight of refined falt-petre, both pulverifed. Into a large
crucible, made red-hot in the fire, throw a fpoonfull of
your mixture, and cover it There will be a very con-
fiderable detonation. When it is over, throw in a fe¬
cond fpoonfull of your mixture, and cover the crucible
S T R Y. I39
as before : this will produce a fecond detonation. Go
on thus, till you have thrown in all your mixture.
When the w"hole has thus fulminated, increafe the
fire fo as to bring the matter into fufion ; that being done,
take the crucible out of the furnace, and immediately
pour its contents into an iron cone heated and greafed
with tallow. Strike the floor and the cone fome gentle
blows with a hammer, to make the regulus precipitate ;
and when the matter is fixed and cold, invert the cone,
and turn it out. You will fee it confifl: of two diftinft
fubftances ; the uppermoft of which is a faline fcoria,
and the undermoft the reguline part. Strike this mafs a
blow with a hammer, in the place where thefe fubftances
join, and you will by this means feparafe the fcoria from
the regulus ; the latter of which will have the form of a
metallic cone, on whofe bafe you will obferve the figna-
ture of a bright liar.
Regulus of Antimony precipitated by Metals.
Pu r one part of fmall iron nails into a crucible, and
fet it amidfl: burning coals, in a melting furnace. When
the iron is thoroughly red-hot, and begins to grow white,
add thereto little by little, and at feveral times, two
parts of crude antimony in powder. The antimony will
immediately flow and unite with the iron. When the
antimony is entirely, melted, add thereto, at feveral
times, the fourth of its weight of pulverifed nitre : a
detonation will enfue, and the whole mixture will be in
fufion.
After you have kept the matter in this condition for
fome minutes, pour it into an iron cone, firft heated and
tallowed. Strike the fides of the cone with a hammer,
that the regulus may fall to the borfpm ; and, when all
is cold, feparate it from the fcoria by a blew with a ham¬
mer. Melt this firfl: regulus'again in another crucible,
adding a fourth part of its weight of crude antimony.
Keep the crucible clofe fliut, and give no more heat than
is neceffary to melt the matter. When it is in perfedt
fufion, add to it at feveral times, as you did before, the
fixth part of its weight of pulverifed nitre ; and, in half
a quarter of an hour after this, pour the whole into a cone
as you did the firft time.
Laftly, Melt your regulus over again a third or even
a fourth time, always adding a little nitre, which will
detonate as before. If after all thefe fufions you pour
the regulus into an iron cone, you will find it very beau¬
tiful, and .the ftar well formed : it will be covered with,
a femi-tranfparent, lemon-coloured fcoria. This fcoria:
is extremely acrid and cauftic.
The Calcination of Antimony .
Take an unglazed earthen veflel, wider at top than
at bottom ; put into it two or three ounces of crude an¬
timony finely pulverifed. Set this veffel over a weak
charcoal-fire, and increafe the heat till you. fee the anti¬
mony begin to fmoke a little. Continue the fire in this
degree, and keep inceffantly ftirring the antimony with
the ftiank of a tobacco-pipe all the while it is upon the
fire.
The powder of antimony, which, before calcination,
was of a brilliant colour inclining to black, will become
dull,.
14® C H E M
dull, and look like an earth. When it comes to have
this appearance, raife your fire till the v-iTel be red-hot,
and keep it up in this degree till the matter ceafe entirely
to fmoke.
Calx of Antimony reduced to a Regulus.
Mix the calx of antimony, which you intend to re¬
duce, with an equal quantity of black foap. This mix¬
ture will make a thin pafte. Put it little by little into a
crucible, previoully made red-hot amidli live coals.
Thus'let the foap burn, till it ceafe to emit an oily fmoke.
Then cover the crucible ; make the fire ftrong enough to
melt the matter, and you will hear it efltervefce and boil.
When this noife is over, let the crucible cool, and then
b^eak it: you will find in it a beautiful fcdria,'marked
with circles of feveral colours ; and under that a button
of regulus, which is not yet quite pure, and muft: be pu¬
rified in the following-manner.
Pound this regulus, and mix it with half its weight
of.an.antimonial calx as perfedUy defulphurated as pof-
fible. Put it into a crucible, and cover itV melt the
whole, fo that the fur face of the melted matter may be
fmooth and uniform. Let the crucible cool, and then
break it; you will find in it a beautiful button of very
pure regulus, covered with a fcoria, having the appear¬
ance of an opaque glafs, or a kind of greyilh enamel,
moulded on the finely radiated furface of the regulus.
Antimony calcined with Nitre. Liver of .Antimony.
Pulverise and mix perfectly together equal parts of
nitre and antimony : put the mixture into an iron mor¬
tar, and cover it with a tile, which however muft not
Ihut it quite clofe. With a live coal fet fire to the mat¬
ter in the mortar, and immediately withdraw it. The
mixture will flame, with great detonation ; which being
over, and the mortar cooled, invert it, and ftrike its
bottom to make all the matter fall out. Then, by a
blow with a hammer, feparate the fcoria from the ftnhing
part, which is the liver of antimony.
Another Calcination of Antimony with Nitre. Diapho¬
retic Antimony.
Mix one part of antimony with three parts of nitre ;
projedl this mixture by fpoonfulls into a crucible kept
red hot in a furnace. Each projeftion will be attended
with a detonation. Continue doing this till you have
ufed all your mixture : then raife the fire, and keep it
up for two hours ; after which throw your matter into a
pan full of hot water. Let it lie fteeping in water kept
hot for a whole day. Then pour off the liquor : waih
the white powder you find at bottom in warm water;
and repeat the ablutions till the powder Income infipid.
Dry it, and you have diaphoretic antimony.
Calx of Antimony vitrified.
Take any quantity you pleafe of calx of antimony,
made without addition^ pin it into a good crucible,
which fet in a melting furnace : kindle the fire gradually,
and leave the crucible uncovered at the beginning.
A quarter of an hour after the matter is red-hot, co¬
ver the crucible, and excite the fire vigoroufly till the
I S T R Y.
calx melt. You may know when it is thoroughly melted,
by dipping into the crucible an iron wire, to the end of
which a little knob of glafs will adhere, if the matter be
in perfect fufion. Keep it in fufion for a quarter of an
hour, or rather longer if your crucible can bear it. Then
take it out of the furnace, and immediately pour out the
melted matter on a fmooth ftone, made very hot for the
purpofe : it will prefently fix into a yellow glafs.
Kermes Mineral.
Break any quantity you will of Hungarian antimony
into little bits : put .it into a good earthen coffee-pot :
pour on it twice its weight of rain-water, and a fourth
part of its weight of well filtered liquor of nitre fixed by
charcoal. Boil the whole brifkly for two hours, and
then filter the liquor. As it cools it will acquire a red
colour, grow turbid, and leave a red powder on the
filter.
Return your antimony into the coffee-pot. Pour on
it as much rain-water as before, and three fourths of the
former quantity of the liquor of fixed nitre. Boil it a-
gain for two hours, and then filter the liquor. It wifi
again depofite a red fediment. Return your antimony,
into the coffee pot: pour on it the fame quantity of rain¬
water, and half the firft quantity of the liquor of fixed
nitre. Boil it again for two hours, and filter the liquor
as formerly. Wafti all thefe fediments with warm water,
till they become infipid ; then dry them, and you have
the kermes mineral.
Regulus of Antimony dijfolved in the Mineral Acidt.
Compound an aqua regis by mixing together four
meafures of fpirit of nitre, and one meafure of fpirit of
fait: on a fand-bath moderately heated place a matras,
into which pour fixteen times as much of this aqua regis
as you have regulus to diffolve. Break your regulus in
little bits ; and throw them fucceflively one after another
into the matras, obferving not to add a new one till that
put in before is entirely diffolved : continue this till your
regulus be all ufed. By degrees, as the diffolution ad¬
vances, the liquor will acquire a beautiful golden co¬
lour ; which however will infenfibfy 4lifappear, as the
white fumes that continually afcend from it evaporate.
Regulus of Antimony combined with the Acid of Sea-falt.
Butter of Antimony. Cinabar of Antimony.
Pulverise and mix thoroughly fix parts of regulus
of antimony, and fixteen parts of corrofive fublimate. Put
this mixture into a glafs retort that hath a wide ftiort neck,
and let one half of its body at leaft be left empty. Set it
in a reverberatory furnace, and having fitted a recipient
thereto and luted the joint, make a very fmall fire at firft:
to heat it flowly. Increafe it afterwards by degrees, till
you fee a liquor afcend from the retort that grows thick
as it cools. Keep up the fire to this degree as long as
■ you fee any of this matter come over.
When no more arifes with this degree of fire, unlute
your veffels, take off the receiver, and in its place fub-
ftitute another filled with water. Then increafe your
fire by degrees till the retort be red-hot. Some run¬
ning
C H E M ]
ning mercury Will fall into the water, which you may
dry and keep for ufe; it being very pure.
Soon after mixing the regulus with the corrofive fub-
limate, the matter fometimes grows qpnfiderably hot :
T his is occafioned by the marine acid’s beginning to aft
on the reguline part, and to defert its mercury.
The butter of antimony rifes with a very moderate
heat; becaufe the acid of fea-falt hath the property of
volatilizing, and carrying up along with it, the metallic
fubftances with which it is combined : And for this rea-
fon a very gentle heat only is required at the beginning
of the operation. .
It is abfolutely neceflary that the neck of the retort
be wide and fhort: for otherwife, if the butter of antimo¬
ny fhould fix and bp accumulated therein, it might (fop
up the paflage entirely, and occafion the burfting of the
vdfels. By this operation we obtain eight parts and
three quarters of fine butter of antimony, and ten parts
of runnng mercury; there being left in the retort one
part and a half of a rarefied matter, black, white, and
red This is probably the mod earthy and mod impure
part of the regulus of antimony.
If crude antimony, indead of regulus of antimony,
be mixed with corrofive fublimate, a butter of antimony
will be obtained in the fame manner ; but, indead of
having a running mercury after the butter, you will find
a cinabar fublimed into the neck and upper concavity of
the retort.
The reafon of this difference is eafily conceived : for,
when the regulus is ufed, the mercury being deferred by
its acid, finds no other fubdance to unite with, and fo rifes
in the form of quick-filver ; but when crude antimony is
employed indead of its regulus, as the reguline part
thereof cannot combine with the acid without quitting
its fulphur, fo this fulphur, being at liberty, unites with
the mercury, which is fo likewife, and therewith forms
a cinabar; which from its origin is named cinabar of an¬
timony.
Butter of Antimony decompounded by means of Water
only. The Pulvis Algafoth, or Mercurius Vitae.
Melt with a gentle heat as much butter of antimony
as you pleafe. When it is melted, pour it into a large
quantity of warm water. The water will immediately
grow turbid, but whitifh, and let fall a great quantity
of white powder. When all the precipitate is fettled,
decant the water : pouj- on fredi warm water; and ha¬
ving thus edulcorated it by feveral ablutions, dry it, and •
you have the pulvis Algaroth, or mercurius vita.
. Bezoar Mineral.
Melt butter of antimony over warm afhes, and put
it into a phial or matras. Gradually pour on it good
fpirit of nitre, till the matter be entirely diffolved. This
ufually requires as much fpirit of nitre as there is butter
of antimony. During the diflblution fumes will rife,
which mud be carefully avoided. Pour your folution,
which will be clear and of a reddifh colour, into a glafs
cucurbit, or a pan of done ware ; fet it in a fand-bath,
and evaporate to dryness with a moderate heat. There
will be left a white mafs, weighing a fourth part lefs
Vol. II. No. 36. 3
: S T R Y. I4t
than the whole quantity ufed, both of butter and the fpirit
of nitre. Let it cool, and again pour on it as much
fpirit of nitre as you ufed the fird time. Place the vel-
fel again in the fand-bath, and evaporate the moidure as
before. You will have a white mafs that hath neither
gained nor lod in weight. On this pour, for the third
time, the fame quantity of fpirit of nitre as you did the
fird time. Again evaporate the moidure to perfeft dry-
nefs : then increafe your fire, and calcine the matter for
half an hour. You will have left a dry, friable, light,
white matter, of an agreeable acid tafte ; which w'iil fall
into a coarfe powder, and mud be kept in a phial care¬
fully (lopt. This is Bezoar nvtneral: it is neither caudic
nor emetic, and has only a fudorific virtue. It obtained
the name it bears, becaufe, like the animal bezoar, it
was imagined to have the property of redding poifon.
Flowers of Antimony.
Take an unglazed earthen pot, having an aperture in
its fide, with a dopple to (hut it clofe. "Set this pot in a
furnace, the cavity whereof it may fit as exaftly as poffi-
ble; and fill up with lute the fpace, if any, left between the
vedel and the furnace. Over this vefiel fix three aludels
with a blind-head at the top; and light a fire in the fur¬
nace under the pot.
When the bottom of the pot is thoroughly red, throw
into the lateral aperture a fmall fpoonful of powdered an¬
timony. Stir the matter immediately with an iron fpatu-
la made a little bending, in order to fpread it over the
bottom of the veflei, and then dop the hole. The
flowers will rife and adhere to the infides of the aludels.
Keep up the fire fo that the bottom of the pot may al¬
ways continue red ; and, when nothing more fublimes,
put in a like quantity of antimony, and operate as be¬
fore. In this manner go on fubliming your antimony,
till you have as many flowers as you want. Then let the
fire go out; and when the vefiels are cold, unlute them.
You will find flowers adhering all round the infides of
the aludels and the head, which you may colleft with a
feather.
Regulus of Antimony converted into Flowers.
Pulverise your regulus of antimony: put the pow¬
der into an unglazed earthen port: three or four fingers
breadth above the powder, fit into the pot a little cover,
made of the fame earth and having a fmall hole in its
middle, fo that it may with cafe be placed in -the pot
and taken out when there is occafion : cover the mouth
of the pot with a common lid; fet it in a furnace, and
kindle a fire under it fufficient to make the bottom of the
pot red and to melt the regulus. When it hath been
thus kept in fufion for about an hour, let the fire go out
and the whole cool. Then remove the two covers.
You will find adhering to the furface of the regulus,
which will be in a mafs at the bottom of the pot, white
flowers refembling fnow, intermixed with beautiful, bril¬
liant, filver coloured needles. Take them out, and you
will find them make about one part in (ixty-two of the
whole regulus employed.
Put the covers again in their, places,, and proceed in
the fame manner-as before : When the vefiels are
2 N cold,
142 C II E M
cold, you will find half as many more flowers as you got
the firfl time.
Proceed thus till you have converted all your regulus
into flowers. This will require a confiderable number of
fublimations, which, as you advance, will always yield
you a greater portion of flowers ; refpe<5t, however, being
had to the quantity of regulus remaining in the pot.
Of Bismuth.
To ext raft Bifmutb from its Ore.
Break the ore of bifmuth into fmall pieces, and
therewith fill a crucible either of earth or iron. Set the
the crucible in a furnace, and light fuch a fire that the
bits of ore may become moderately red. Stir the ore
from time to time; and if you perceive it crackle and
fly, keep the crucible covered. At the bottom ybu will
find a button of bifmuth.
Bifmuth diffohed hy Afids. Magiftery of Bifmuth-
Sympathetic Ink.
Into a matras put bifmuth broken into little bits:
pour on it, by little and little, twice as much aqua for-
iis. This acid will attack the fembmetal brifkly, and
diflblve it entirely, with heat, effervefcence, vapours, and
puffing up. The folution will be clear and limpid.
If you would have a magiftery of bifmuth beautifully
white, you muft perform the diflblution with an aqua
fortis that is not tainted with any mixture of the vitrio¬
lic acid ; for this gives the precipitate a dirty white co¬
lour, inclining to grey.
Bifmuth may alfo be precipitated by the means of fix¬
ed or volatile alkalis ; but the precipitate is not of fo
fine a white as when procured by the means of pure wa¬
ter only.
A folution of bifmuth prepared with the proper quan¬
tity of aqua fortis, that is, with two parts of the acid
to one of the femi metal, coalefces into Iktle cryftals al-
jnoft as foon as made.
Aquafortis not only atts on bifmuth when feparated
from its ore, and reduced to a regulus, but attacks it e-
ven in its ore> and likewife diflblves at the fame time fome
portion of the ore itfelf. With this folution of the ore
of bifmuth Mr Hellot makes a very curious fympathetic
ink differing from all that were known before.
Mr Hellot prepares the liquor in the following man¬
ner : “ He bruifes the ore of bifmuth to a coarfe pow¬
der. On two ounces of this powder he pours a mixture
of five ounces of common water with five ounces of aqua
fortis. He does not heat the veffel till the firft ebullitions
are over. He then fets^it in a gentle fand-heat, and lets
it digeft there till he fees no more air-bubbles rife. When
none appear in this heat, he increafes it fo as to make
the folvent boil flightly for a full quarter of an hour. It
takes up a tindhire nearly of the colour of brown beer.
The ore that gives the aqua fcrtistti\% colour is the beft.
He then lets the folution cool, laying the matras on its
fide, that .hes-may decant the liquor more conveniently
when all is precipitated that is not taken up by the fol¬
vent.
I S T R Y.
“ The fecond veffel, into which the liquor is firft de¬
canted, he alfo lays declining, that a new precipitation
of the undiffolved matters may be obtained ; after which
he pours the liquor into a third veffel. This liquor muft
not be filtered, if you would have the reft of the procefs
fucceed perfectly; becaufe the aqua fortis would diffolve
fome of the paper, and that would fpoil the colour of
your liquor.
“ When this folution, which Mr Hellot calls the im¬
pregnation, is thoroughly clarified by being decanted
three or four times, he,puts it into a glafs bafon with two
ounces of very pure lea-fait. The fine white fait made
by the fun fucceeded beft with Mr Hellot. If that cannot
be had, common bay-falt purified by folution, filtration,
and cryftallifation, may be ufed inftead of it. But as it
is rare to meet with any of the fort that is not a little
tainted wfith iron, the white bay fait is to be-preferred.
The glafs bafon fle fets in a gentle fand-hear, and keeps
it there till the mixture be reduced by evaporation to an
almoft dry faline mafs.
“ If you defire to fave the aqua regis, the impregna¬
tion muft be put into a retort, and diftilled with the gen¬
tle heat of a fand-bath. But there is an inconvenience,
as Mr Hellot obferves, in employing a retort; which is,
that, as the faline mafs cannot be ftirred while it coagu¬
lates in the retort, it is reduced to a compadt cake of
coloured fait, which prefents but one Angle furface to
the water in which it muft be, diffolved; fo that the dif-
folution thereof takes up fometimes no lefs than five or
fix days. In the bafon, on the contrary, the faline mafs
is eafily brought to a granulated fait, by ftirring it with
a glafs rod; and, when thus granulated, it has a great
deal more furface ; it diflblves more eafily, and yields
its ti'nbture toSjvater in four hours time. Indeed one is
more expofed to the vapours of the folvent, which would,
be dangerous, if the operation were to be often perform¬
ed, without proper precautions.
“ When the bafon, or little veffel containing the
mixture of the impregnation and fea fait, is heated, the
liquor, which was of an orange-coloured red, becomes a
crimfen red; and, when all the phlegm of the folvent is
evaporated, it acquires a beautiful emerald colour. By
degrees it •'thickens, and turns of the colour of a mafs
of verdegris. It muft then be carefully ftirred with the
glafs rod, in order to granulate the fait, which muft not
be kept over the fire till it be perfeftly dry: becaufe you
run a rifle of lofing irrecoverably the colour you are
feeking. You may be fure you have loft it, if by too
much heat the fait that was of a green colour turn to a
dirty yellow. If it be once brought to this ftate, it will
continue without changing when cold : but if care be ta¬
ken to remove it from the fire while it is ftill green, you
will fee it gradually grow pale, and become of a beauti¬
ful rofe-coloui as it cools.
“ Mr Hellot feparates it from this veffel, and throws
it into another containing diftilled rain-water : and this
fecond .veffel be keeps in gentle digeftion, till he obferves
that the powder which falls to the bottom is perfetfly
white. If, after three or four hours digefting, this
powder ftill continues tinged with a rofe colour, it is a
proof that water enough was not added to diffolve all the
C H E M
fait impregnated with the tinfture of the folution. In
this cafe, the firfl tinged liquor mud be poured off, and
frefh water added in proportion to the quantity of tinged
fait that is fuppofed to remain mixed with the preci¬
pitate.
“ When the ore is pure, and doth not contain a great
deal of fufible done, commonly called flMor, or quartz,
an ounce of it generally yields tinfture enough for eight
or nine ounces of water, and the liquor is of a beautiful
colour, like that of the lilach or pipe-tree bloffom. In
order to prove the effedt of this tindture, you mud write
with this lilach-coloured liquor on good well-gummed
paper, that does not link : or you may ule it to lhade the
leaves of fome tree or plant, having fird drawn the out¬
lines thereof lightly with China ink or with a black lead
pencil. Let this coloured drawing, or writing, dry in a
warm air. You will perceive no colour while it is cold;
but, if it be gently warmed before the fire, you will fee
the writing, or the drawing, gradually acquire a bjue or
greenilh blue colour, which is vifible as long as the paper
continues a little warm, and difappears entirely when it
cpols.” ' '
The Angularity of this fympathetic inkponfids in its
property of difappearing entirely, and becoming invifible,
though it be not touched with any thing whatever : and
this didinguilhes it from all others ; which, when once
rendered vifible by the application of proper means, do
not again difappear, or at lead not without touching
the drokes on the paper with fome other liquor,
0/ Z I N C.
To extraH Zinc from its Ore, or from Calamine.
Take eight parts of calamine reduced to a powder;
' mix this powder accurately with one part of fine char¬
coal dud, previoufly calcined in ^ crucible to free it from
all moidure : put this mixture into a done retort coated
with lute, leaving a third part of it empty : fet your re¬
tort in a reverberatory furnace, capable of giving a very
fierce heat.- To the retort apply a receiver, with a little
water in it. Kindle the fire, and raife it by degrees till
the heat be drong enough to melt copper. With this de¬
gree of fire the zinc being metallifed will feparate from
the mixture, and fublime into the neck of the retort, in
the form of metallic drops. Break the retort when it is
cold, and colledt the zinc.
Mod of the zinc we have comes from an ore of diffi¬
cult fufion that is worked at Goflar, and yields, at one
and the fame time, lead, zinc, and another metallic
matter called cadmia fornacum, which alfo contains
much zinc.
The furnace ufed for fmelting this ore is clofed on its
fore-fide with thin plates or tables of done, not above
an inch thick. This done is greyiffi, and bears a vio¬
lent fire.
In this furnace the ore is melted amidd charcoal, by
the help of bellows. Each melting takes twelve hours,
during which time the zinc flowing with the lead is re-
folved into flowers and vapours, great part of which ad¬
heres to the ddes of the furnace in the form of a very
I s T R Y. 143,
hard crud of earth. The workmen take care to remove
this crud from time to time ; for it would otherwife grow
fo thick at lad, as to leffen the cavity of the furnace very
confiderably.
There’adheres moreover to the fore-part of the fur¬
nace, which is formed, as we faid before, of thin plates
of done, a metallic matter, which is the zinc, and is
carefully collected at the end of each melting, by re¬
moving from this part all the live coals. A quantity of
fmall coal is laid unlighted at the bottom ; and on this
fmall-coal, by driking the done-plates gently with a ham¬
mer, the zinc is made to fall out of the other matter,
known by the Latin name of cadmia fornacum, among
which it appears fixed in a radiated form. To this other
matter we may properly enough givethe name of furnace-
calamine. The zinc fall? in the form of a melted metal,
all on fire, and in a bright flame. It would foon be en¬
tirely burnt and reduced to flowrers, if it were not extin-
guiflied, and eafily cooled and fixed, by being hid under
the ifnlighted fmall-coal placed below on purpofe to re¬
ceive it.
The zinc adheres to the fore-pact of the furnape pre¬
ferably to any other, becaufe that being the thinned, is
therefore the cooled : and, in order further to promote
its fixing on this part, they take care to keep the thin
done-plates cool during the operation, by throwing wa¬
ter on. them.
Hence it appears that zinc is not extra&ed from its ore
by fufion'vknd the precipitation of a regulus, like other
metallic fubdances. This is owing to the great volati¬
lity of our femi-metal, which cannot, without fubliming,
bear the degree of fire neceffary to melt its ore. It is at
the fame time fo combudible, that a great part of it rifes,
in flowers which have not the metalline form.
To fublime Zinc into Planners.
Take averydeefi, large crucible : place this crucible
in a furnace, To that it may dand inclining in an angle of
forty-five degrees nearly. Throw fome zinc into it, and
kindle a fire in the furnace fomewhat dronger than wduld
be neceffary to keep lead in fufion.. The zinc will melt..
Stir it with an iron wire, and there will appear on its fur-
face a very bright white flame : two inches above this
flame a thick fmoke will be formed, and with this fmoke
exceeding white flowers will rife, and remain fome timp
adhering to the fides of the crucible, in the form of a very
fine light down. When the flame dackens, dir your
melted matter again with the iron wire: you will fee the
flame renewed, and the flowers begin again to appear in
greater abundance. Go on thus till you obferve that the
matter will not flame, nor any more flowers rife.
To combine Zinc •with Copper. Brafs. Prince's Me¬
tal, See.
Pound one part and an half of calamine, and an e-
qual quantity of charcoal: mingle thefe two powders to¬
gether, and moiden them with a little water. Put this-
mixture into a large crucible, or fome other earthen vef-
fel that will bear a melting beat. Amongd and over
this mixture put one part of very pure copper in thin
plates, and then put frelh charcoal-dud over all: clofe
the.
144 , C H E M 1
the crucible ; Tet it in a melting furnace ; put coals all.
round it, and let them kindle gradually. Raife-the fire
fo as to make the crucible very red-hot. When you ob-
ferve' that the flame hath acquired a purple or blueilh-
green colour, uncover the crucible, and dip into it an
iron wire, to examine whether or no the copper be in
fufion under the charcoal-dufl. If you find it is, mo¬
derate the force of the fire a little, and let your crucible
remain in the furnace for a few minutes. Then take it
out and let it cool: you will find your copper of a gold
Colour,, increafed in weight a fourth, or perhaps a third
part, and yet very malleable.
The lapis calaminaris is not the only fubflance with
which copper may be converted into brafs : all other
Ores containing zinc, the furnace-calamine that fublimes
where fuch ores are worked, tutty, zinc in fubftance,
may be fubftituted for it, and, like it, will’ make very
fine brafs ; but, in order to fucceed, fundry precautions
are neceffary.
This procefs is a fort of cementation ; for the calamine
doth not melt; only the zinc is converted into vapours,
and then combines with the copper. On this the fuccels
of the operation partly depends, as it is the means of the
cqpper’s preferving its purity and malleability; becaufe
the other metallic fubftances that may be united.with the
ore of zinc, or with the zinc itfelf, not having the fame
volatility, cannot be reduced to vapours. If you are ap-
prifed that the calamine, or other ore of zinc ufed on
this occafion, is contaminated with a mixture of any o-
ther metallic matter, you mull mingle luting earth with
the charcoal-duft and the matter containing the zinc ;
make it into a fliff pa/te with water ; of this make a bed
at the bottom of your crucible, and ram it hard down;
lay the copper-plates thereon, cover them with charcoal-
dull, and then proceed as before. By this means, when
the copper melts, it cannot fall to the bottom of the cru¬
cible, nor mix with the ore ; but is borne up by the mix¬
ture, and cannot combine with any thing but the zinc,
that rifes in vapours, and, palling through the lute, fixes
in the copper.
Lapis Calaminaris, or other ore of zinc, may be alfo
purified before it be ufed for making brafs; efpecially if
adulterated with lead ore, which is often the cafe. For
this purpofe the ore mult he foalted in a fire ftrong e-
npugh to give a fmall degree of fufion to the leaden mat¬
terwhich will thereby be reduced into larger, heavier,
and tougher maffes. The molt fubtile particles are dif-
fipated in the torrefatfion, together with fome of the ca¬
lamine. The calamine, on the contrary, is by roafting
made more tender, lighter, and much more friable. When
it is in this condition, put it into a walking tray or fas ;
dip the tray in a velfel full of water, and bruife the mat¬
ter it contains. The water will carry off the lightelt
powder, which is the calamine, and leave nothing at the
bottom of the tray but the heavielt fubltance; that is,
the leaden matter, which is to be reje&ed as ufelefs.
The powder of the calamine will fettle at the bottom of
the velfel, where, after pouring off the water, it may be
found, and ufed as above directed.
In this operation the charcoal-duft ferves to prevent'
■both the copper and the zinc from being calcined : and
: S T R Y.
for this reafon, when you work on a great quantity of
materials at once, it is not neceflary to ufe fo much
charcoal dull, in proportion, as when you work but on
a fmall quantity ; becaufe, the greater the mafs of metaC
the lefs eafily will it calcine.
Though the copper melts in this operation, yet it is
far from being neceflary to apply fuch a llrong fire as
copper ufually requires to melt it: for the accellion of the
zinc, on this occalion, communicates to it a great de¬
gree of fuAbility. The increafe of its weight is alfo
owing to the quantity of zinc combined with it. Cop¬
per acquires (till another advantage by its aflbeiation with
this femi-metal; for it remains longer in the fire without
calcining.
Brafs well prepared ought to be malleable when cold.
But in whatever manner it be made, and whatever pro¬
portion of zinc there be in it, it is conftantly found quite
unmalleable when red-hot.
Brafs melted in a crucible, with a fierce heat, takes
fire almoft like zinc, and from its furface many white
flowers afeend, dancing about in flakes like the flowers'
of zinc. They are indeed the flpwers of zinc, and the
flame of brafs urged by a ftrong fire is no other than the
flame of the zinc that is united with the copper, and then
burns. If brafs be thus kept long in fufion, it will lofe
almoft all the zinc it contains. It will alfo lofe much
of its weight, and its colour will be nearly that of cop¬
per. It is therefore necelfary, towards performing this
operation aright, to feize the moment when the copper
is fufficiently impregnated with zinc, when it hath ac¬
quired the moft weight and the fineft colour, with the
leaft detriment to its du<ftility, that is poflible, and that
inftant to put out the fire ; becaufe, if the copper be left
longer in fufion, it will only lofe the zinc already united
with it. Skill acquired by much pra&ice, and an ac¬
quaintance with the particular calamine employed, are
neceflary to guide the artift furely through this operation;
for there are very confiderable differences between the
fundry ores of zinc. Some of them contain lead, and in
others there is iron. When thefe heterogeneous metals
come to be mixed with the copper, they do indeed aug¬
ment its weight, but they render it at the fame time pale,
and make it very harfh. Some calamines require to be
roafted before they can be ufed for this purpofe, and in
the torrefa<ftion emit vapours of a volatile alkali, fuc-
ceeded by vapours of a fulphureous fpirit : others ex¬
hale no vapours while roafting, and may be employed
without any antecedent preparation. Thefe different
qualities muft evidently produce great differences in the
operation.
Brafs may alfo be made, as prince’s metal and other
imitations of gold are a&nally made, by ufing zinc in
fubftance, inftead of the ores that contain it. But thefe
compofitions have not, when cold, the dudility of brafs
prepared with lapis calaminaris, becaufe zinc is feldom
pure, or free from a mixture of lead. Perhaps alfo the
different manner in which the zinc unites with the copper
may contribute to this variation.
To obviate this inconvenience, the zinc muft be refined
from all alloy of lead. The property of being indiffo-
luble by fulphur, which this femi-metal pofleffes, points
C H E M
>out a very prafticable method o£ doing it. The zinc muft
be melted in a crucible, and ftirred briildy with a ftron^
iron wire, while tallow and mineral fulphur are alter¬
nately projefted upon it; but fo that the quantity of
fulphur may greatly exceed that of the tallow. If the
fulphur do not burn entirely away, but form a kind of
fcoria on the furface of* the zinc, it is a fign that your
femi-metal contains lead. In this cafe you muft continqe
throwing in more fulphur; and keep ftirrmg the zinc in-
celfantly, till you perceive that the fuiphur ceafes to u-
nite any more with a metallic fubftance, but burns free¬
ly on the furface of the zinc. The femi-metal is then
refined; becaufe the fulphur, which cannot diffolve it,
unites very readily with the lead, or other metallic fub¬
ftance, contained in it
If zinc thus refined be mixed with pure copper, in the
proportion of a fourth or a third part, and the mixture be
kep in fufion andconftantly ftirringforfome time, the brafs
produced will be as duftile, when cold, as that made by
cementation with the hpis calaminaris.
With regard to prince’s metal, and other imitations
of gold, they are made either with copper or brafs re¬
combined with more zinc. As it is neceffary. for gi¬
ving them a fine golden colour, to mix with them other
proportions of zinc than that required to make brafs on- ,
ly, they are generally much lefs dudtile.
Zinc dijfolved in the Mineral Acids. .
Weaken concentrated oil of vitriol by mixing with
it ah equal quantity of water. Into a matras put the
zinc you intend to diffolve, firft broken- to fmall pieces.
Pour on it fix times its weight of the vitriolic acid, low¬
ered as above dire died, and fet the matras in a fand-bath
gently heated. The zinc will diflblve entirely, without
any fediment. The neutral metallic fait refulting from
this difiblution Ihoots into cryftals, which go by the
name ot ■'white vitriol, or vitriol of zinc.
. Zinc is diffolved by the nitrous and marine acids, much
in the fame manner as by the vitriolic ; except that the
marine acid does not touch a black, fpungy, rarefied
matter, which it feparates from the zinc. M. Heliot
found ilpon trial that this matter is not jnercury, and
that it cannot be reduced to a metallic fubftance.
A folution of zinc in the marine acid, being diftilled
to drynefs, yields a fublimate on applying a violent heat
to it.
All the acids diflblve with eafe ; not only zinc, but its
flowers alfo; and that nearly in the fame quantity, and
.with almoft all the fame phenomena.
Of Arsenic.
To extra ft Arfenic from its Matrices. Zaffre or Smalt.
Powder fome cobalt, white pyrites, or other arfeni-
cal matters. Put this powder into a retort with a fliort
wide neck, leaving a full third thereof empty. Set your
retort in a reverberating furnace; lute on a receiver;
heat your veflel by degrees, and increafe the fire till
you fee a powder fublime into the neck of the retort.
Keep up the fire in this degree as long as the fublimation
continueswhen this begins to flacken, raife your fire,
- Vol. II. No. 36.’ 3
I S T R Y. 145
and make it as ftrong. as the veflels will bear. When
nothing more afcends," let it go out. On unluting the
velfels, you will find in the receiver a little arfenic in
the form of a fine light farina. The neck of the retort
will be full of white flowers, not quite fo fine, fome of
which will appear like little cryftals ; and if a good deal
of arfenic be fublimed, a ponderous’matter, like a white,
femi tranfparent glafs, will be found adhering to that part
of the neck of the retort whiah is next its body.
When all the arfenic the cobalt will yield is thus fe-
parated, the earthy fixed matter left behind is mixed
with divers fufible matters and vitrified, and produces a
glafs of beautiful blue colour. It is calledThis
glafs is to be prepared in the following manner.
Take four parts of fine fufible fand, an equal quantity
of any fixed alkali perfectly depurated, and one part of
cobalt from which the arfenic hath been fublimed by tor-
rcfaftion. Pulveriie thefe different fubftances very finely,
and mix them thoroughly together; put the mixture in¬
to a good crucible, cover it, and fet it in a melting furnace.
Make a ftrong fire, and keep it up conftantly in the fame
degree for fome hours. Then dip an iron wire into the
crucible; to the end of which a glaffy matter will ftick,
in the form of threads, if the fufibn and vitrification be
perfect. In this cafe take the crucible out of the fire;
cool it by throwing water on it, and then break it. You
will find in it a glafs, which will be of an exceeding
deep blue, and almoft black, if the operation hath fuc-
ceeded. This glafs, when reduced to a fine powder, ac¬
quires a much brighter and more lively blue colour.
If you find after the operation that the glafs hath too
little colour, the fufion muft be repeated a fecond time,
with twice or thrice the quantity of cobalt. If, on the
contrary, the glafs be too dark, lefs cobalt muft be-
ufed.
In order to make the effayof a particular cobalt, with
a view to know wha!t quantity of blue glafs it will yield,
it is not neceffary to perform the operation in the manner
here fet down ; a great deal of time and trouble may be
faved by melting one part of cobalt with two or three
parts of borax. This fait is very fufible, and turnsj
when melted, into a fubftance which, for a time, poffef-
fes all the properties Of glafs. In this trial the glafs of
borax will be nearly of the fame colour as the true glafs,
or fmalt, made with the fame cobalt;
The ores of bifmuth, as well as cobalt, yield a mat¬
ter that colours glafs blue; nay, the fmalt made with
thofe ores is more beautiful than that procured from the
ore of'pure arfenic. Some cobalts yield both arfenic and
bifmuth. When fuch cobalts are ufed, ft is common to
find at the bottom of the crucible a little button of metallic
matter, which is called regulus of cobalt. This rega¬
ins is a fort of bifmuth, generally adulterated with a
mixture of ferruginous and arfenical parts.
The heavieft and moft fixed flowers of arfenic, procu¬
red from cobalt, have likewife the property of giving a
blue colour to glafs. But this colour is faint : it is ow¬
ing to a portion of the colouring matter carried up along
with the arfenic. Thefe flowers may be made an ingre¬
dient in the compofition of blue glafs, not only becaufe
of the colouring principle they contain, but alfo becaufe
2 O they
146 C H E M
they greatly promote fufion; arfenic being one of the
moft efficacious fluxes known.
In ffiort, all thofe blue glafles, or fmalts, contain a
certain quantity of arfenic ; for a portion of this femi-
metal always remains united with the fixed matter of the
cobalt, though roafted for a long time, and in a very
hot fire. The portion of arfenic that is thus fixed vitri¬
fies with the colouring matter, and enters into the cotn-
pofition of the fmalt.
The blue glafs made with the fixed part of cobalt hath
feveral names, according to the condition in which it is.
When it hath undergone the firft imperfedt degree of
fufion only, it is called zaffre. It takes the name of
fmalt when perfectly vitrified: and this again being pul-
verifed is called psauder blue ; or, if finely levigated,
blue enamel •, becaufe it is ufed in enamelling, as well as
in painting earthen ware and porcelain.
To feparate Arfenic from Sulphur.
Powe-er the yellow or red arfenic which you intend
to feparate from its fulphur. Moiften this powder with
a fixed alkali refolved into a liquor. Dry the mixture
gently; put it into a very tall glafs cucurbit, and fit on
a blind-head. Set this cucurbit in a fand-bath; warm
the veflels gently, and increafe the fire by degrees, till
you perceive that no more arfenic fublimes. The arfe-
uic, which before was yellow and red, riftfs into the
head partly on white flowers, and partly in a compaft,
white, femi-tranfparent matter, which looks as if it were
vitrified. The fulphur combined with the fixed alkali
remains at the bottom of the cucurbit.
To give Arfenic the Metalline Form. Regulus of Ar¬
fenic.
Take two parts of white arfenic in fine powder, one
part of the black flux, half a part of borax, and as much
clean iron filings. Rub the whole together, in order to
mix them thoroughly. Put this mixture into a good cru¬
cible, and over it put fea-falt three fingers thick. Co¬
ver the crucible ; fet it in a melting furnace ; and begin
■with a gentle fire to heat the crucible equally.
When arfenical vapours begin to afcend from the cru¬
cible, raife the fire immediately fo as to melt the mix¬
ture. Examine whether or no the,matter .be thoroughly
melted, by introducing an iron wire into the crucible ;
and if the fufion be perfedt, take the crucible out of the
furnace. Let it cool; break it; and you will find in it
a regulus of a white and livid metallic colour, very
brittle, fcarcely. hard, but rather friable.
To difil the Nitrous Acid bp the Interpoftion of Arfe¬
nic. 2?iW Aqua Fortis.
Pulverise finely any quantity you pleafe of refined
falt-petre. Mix it accurately with an equal weight of
white cryltalline arfenic well pulverifed, or-elfe with very
white and very fine flowers of arfenic. Put this mixture
into a glafs retort, leaving one half of it empty. Set
vc^ir retort in a reverberating furnace ; apply a receiver,
having a fmall hole'drilled in it, and containing a little
I S T R Y.
filtered rain-water; lute the receiver to the retort with
ftiff lute. Begin with putting two or three fmall live
coals in the affi-hole of the furnace, and replace them
with others when they are ready to go out. Go on thus
warming your veflels by infenfible degrees, and put no.
coals in the fire-place, till the retort begin to be very
warm. You will foon fee the receiver filled with vapours
of a dark red, inclining to a ruflet colour. With a bit
of lute flop the little hole of the receiver. The vapours
will be condenfed in the water of this veflel, and give it
a very fine blue colour, that will grow deeper and deep¬
er aS the diftillation advances. If your falt-petre was
not very dry, fome drops of acid will alfo come over,
and falling from the nofe of the retort mix with the wa¬
ter in the receiver. Continue your diflillation, increa-
fing the fire little by little as it advances, but ex¬
ceeding flowly, till you fee that when the retort is
red-hot nothing more comes off; and then let your vef-
fels cool.
When the veffels are cold, unlute the receiver, and as
expeditioufly as you can pour the blue aqua fort is it con¬
tains into a cryftal bottle", which you .mull feal hermeti¬
cally, becaufe this colour difappears in a Ihort time when
the liquor takes air. You will find in the retort a white
faline mafs moulded in its bottom, and fome flowers of
arfenic fublimed to its upper cavity, and into its neck.
Pulverife the faline mafs, and diffolve it in warm wa¬
ter. Filter the folution, in order to feparate fome arfe¬
nical parts that will be left on the filter. Let the filter¬
ed liquor evaporate of itfelf in the open air ; when it is
fufficiently evaporated, cryftals will ffioot in it reprefent-
ing quadrangular prifms terminated at each extremity by
pyramids that are alfq quadrangular. Thefe cryftals will
. be in confufed heaps at the bottom of the veffel : Over
them will be other cryftkls in the form of needles; a fa¬
line vegetation creeping along the fides of the veffel; and
the furface of the liquor will be obfeured by a thin dufty
pellicle.
To alkalifate Nitre by Arfenic.
Melt in a crucible the nitre you intend to alkalifate.
When it is melted, and moderately red, projedt upon it
two or three pinches of pulverifed arfenic. A confider-
able effervefcence and ebullition will immediately be pro¬
duced in the Crucible, attended with a noife like that
which nitre makes when it detonates with an inflammable
matter. At the fame time a thick fmoke will rife, which
at firft will fmell like garlick, the odour peculiar to arfe¬
nic ; it will alfo fmell afterwards like fpirit of nitre.
Wrhen the effervefcence in the crucible is over, throw
again upon the nitre as much pulverifed arfenic as you
did the firft time ; and all the fame phenomena will be
repeated. Continue thus throwing in arfenic in fmall
parcels, till it produce no more effervefcence; taking
cafe to ftir the matter at every projection with an iron
wire, the better to mix the whole together. Then
increafe your fire, and melt what remains. Keep it
thus in fufion for a quarter of an hour, and then take
the crucible out of the fire. It will contain a nitre al-
kalifed by arfenic.
C H E M
Of Vegetables.
Of the S>ulfiances obtained from Vegetables by
Exjprefiion only.
To exprefs and depurate the Juice of a Plant, contain¬
ing its EJfential Salt. The Cryfiallifation of that Salt.
Before fun-rife, gather a good quantity of the plant,
from which you defign to exprefs the juice, in order to
obtain its fait. Wafh it well in running water, to clear
it of earth, infers, and other adventitious matters.
Bruife it in a marble mortar; put it into a bag of new,
ftrong, thick linen cloth; tie the bag tight, and com¬
mit it to a prefs. By preffing it ftrongly you will fqueeze
out a great quantity of green, thick juice, which will
have the fame tafte as the nlant. Dilute this juice with
fix times as much pure rain water, and filter it repeated¬
ly through a woolen bag, till it pafs clear and limpid.
Evaporate the filtered juice with a gentle heat, till it be
almofl: as thick as before it was mixed with water. Put
this infpiflated juice into a jar, or other veffel of earth
or glafs; on its furface pour olive oil to the depth of a
line, and fet it in a cellar. Seven or eight months after
this pour off gently the liquor contained in the veffel, the
infide of which you will find covered with a cryftallifed
fait. Separate the cryftals gently; wafh them quickly
with a little fair cold water, and dry them: this is the
eflential oil of the plant.
Every plant is not equally difpofed to yield its elfen-
tial fait by the method here propofed. Succulent vege¬
tables only, whofe juices are aqueous and not too vif-
cous, are fit for this purpofe. Such, for example, as
forrel, brook-lime, fuccory, fumitory, water-crefles,
plantain, <bc. An effential fait cannot be procured from
thofe that yield thick, vifcid, mucilaginous juices, fuch
as the feeds of fle,' wort, unlefs their juices be previoufly
attenuated by fermentation, and that vifcofity deftroyed
which obftru&s the cryftallifation of this fait.
Nor can the effential fait be obtained in any quantity
from vegetable matters abounding in oil. Molt kernels
and feeds are of this fort: they all contain a great quanti¬
ty of fat oil, which fo entangles and clogs this fait, that
the particles thereof cannot fhoot away from the tena¬
cious juices into cryllals.
The fame is to be faid of dry aromatic plants ; becaufe
they contain much effential oil, or refinous matters that
produce the fame effeft. It is true, the effential fait it-
felf contains a certain portion of oil; for it is no other
than the acid of the plant incorporated and cryftallifed
with part of its oil and of its earth : but then the oil
muft not be in too great a quantity; becaufe it fheaths
the acid, renders it clammy, as it were, and hinders if
from extricating itfelf fo as to be able to exert its quali¬
ties, and appear in the form of fait.
The juice of plants obtained by expreflion is very thick';
becaufe it contains many particles of the bruifed plant
that are unavoidably fqueezed out along with it. in
order to clear it of thefe fuperfluons parts it is proper to
filter it.: but as that would be difficult, on account of the
S T R Y. 147
thicknefs of the juice, it muft be thinned, by diluting it
wifh a quantity of water, fufficient to give it the requi-
fite degree of fluidity.
Inftead of thus diluting the expreffed juice, the plant
may be ground with water before it is put into the prefs :
it will by this means furniffi a more fluid juice, that will
ealily pafs through the filter. This method may be em¬
ployed with fuccefs on dry plants, or fuch as are not
very fucculent. For this operation rain-water is to be
preferred to any other; becaufe it is the pureft.
The juice of the plant, when diluted with the quanti¬
ty of water fufficient to facilitate its filtration, is too a-
queous to let the fait it contains unite into cryftals: It
muft therefore be evaporated till it hath recovered a
fomewhat thicker confidence. The heat applied for that
purpofe muft be gentle; left the acid and oily parts that
are to form- the fait, be fpoiled or diflipated, as they
are not very fixed.
The oil poured on the liquor prevents its fermenting,
putrefying, or growing mouldy, during, the long fpace of
time required for the cryftallifation of the effential fait.
Thefe fairs are excellent medicines, being endued
with the fame virtues as the plants from which they
were obtained.
To draau the Oils out of Kernels, Seeds,' and Fruits, by
Exp re ft on.
Pound in a marble mortar, or grind in a mill, the
kernels, feeds, or fruits, out of which you intend to ex¬
prefs the oil. If your matters be meagre, and grind to
meal, fufpend that meal in the fteam of boiling water, in
order to moiften it a little, and then dry it.
Tie up your matters thus prepared in a new, ftrong,
thick canvafs bag, and put it into a prefs, between two
iron plates previoufly heated in boiling water: fqueeze
it ftrongly, and you will fee the oil run in ftreams into
the receiving veffel.
To draw the Efential Oil of certain Fruits by
Exprefon.
Take the rind of a citron, lemon, orange, Bergamot-
pear, or otlier fruit of that kind; cut it in flices, and
doubling the flices fqueeze them between your fingers
over againft a poliffied glafs fet upright, with its lower
end in a veffel of earth or porcelain. Every time you
fqueeze the peel in a new ply, there will fquirt out of
it feveral fine jets of liquor, which, meeting with the
furface of the glafsj will be condenfed into drops, and
trickle down in fmall ftreams into the recipient. This
liquor is the effential oil of the fruit.
Of the Subfiances -obtained from Vegetables
by Trituration.
To make the Ext rails of a Plant hy Trituration.
Bruise the vegetable fubftance of which you intend
to make the extra&s ; or, if it be hard and dry, grind it
to-a powder: put the matter thus prepared, together
with feven or eight times as much rain-water, into an
earthen veffel; and into this veffel fit a churning ftaff, fo
that
t43 C H E M
that it may be continually whirled round with a rdtatory
motion, by means of'a cord, a wheel, and a winch.
Ply this machine for ten or twelve hours ; and then filter
the liquor through two linen cloths fpread on a hair-
fieve. Let your filtered liquor ftand quiet for twelve
hours more : Then pour it off by inclination from the
fediment you will find at bottom; and filter it a fecond
time through a flannel bag.
Pour frelh water, but in a fmaller quantity, on the
mafs left after trituration with the machine. Triturate
it again for four or five hours. Treat the liquor of this
fecond triture juft as you did that of the firft, and mix
them both together. Diftribute all the liquor you now
have among a fufficient number of (hallow earthen plates,
and evaporate it by a gentle heat, fuch as that of the
fun, or of a vapour-bath, to the confiftence of an ex-
tradf, or even to drynefs, as you think proper.
To extratt from Seeds and Kernels, by Trituration, the
Matter of Emvlfons.
Blanch the kernels of which you defire to make an
cmulfion ; put them into a marble mortar ; add a ve¬
ry little water ; and pound them with a wooden peftle.
Continue pounding and triturating till the matter become
like a white pafte. From time to time pour on it, by
little and little, more fair water warmed, (fill continuing
the trituration ; by which' means the pafte will grow
thinner. Go on thus* lift every particle of your kernels
be crulhed to pap. Then add, ftill rubbing the mix¬
ture, enough of water to make the whole an aiftual fluid;
and you will have a liquor of a dead-white colour, re-
fembfing milk. Strain it through a clean linen cloth :
it will leave on the filter fome coarfe parts, which muft
be returned to thofe left in the mortar. Again triturate
and rub the remainder of the kernels, with (he addition
of water as before. This fecond liquor will not be fo
white nor fo rich as the former : filter it in the fame
manner, and again grind with water the folid parts re-
m fining. In this manner proceed, repeatedly rubbing
and adding frefli water, till it appear no longer milky,
but come off clear. The white milky waters thus ob¬
tained go by the name of an emulfion.
All the matters, from which a fat oil is obtainable
by expreflion, produce emulfions when triturated with"
water.
An emulfibn confifts chiefly of two fubftances. One
of thefe is mucilaginous, and foluble in water. This
fubftance by itfelf would not give a milky appearance to
the emulfion, which, with it alone, would be limpid.
The other is a fat oil, which of itfelf is not foluble in
water ; but being divided by the means of trituration in¬
to very fmall globules, it is difperfed through the whole
liquor, and fufpended therein by the aid of the mucila¬
ginous part. It is'this oily part that gives the emulfion
its dead-white milky colour ; becaufe it is not actually
diflblved in the water, but only diffufed through it.
If oil be mixed with water in a phial, and the mixture
ftrongly (haken for fome time, with a rapid and continued
motion, the oil will be divided into a vaft number of lit¬
tle globules, which intervening between the parts of the
water will deftroy its tranfparency, and give it a dead-
I S T R Y.
white colour, like th^t of our emu!non. But, as the
oil is not fo minutely divided by this means as by tritu¬
rating the .matters containing it; and again, there being
no mucilage in this liquor, as there is in emulfions, the
oil foon feparates from the water when it is left at reft,
re-unites into round globules, and thefe joining together
. riff to the furface of the liquor, which then recovers its
tranfparency.
The cafe is not exadtly the fame with emulfions ; but
fomething like it happens to them alfo. If they be left
to ftand quiet in a long bottle, the liquor, which at firft
appeared homogeneous,' feparates into two manifeftly
different parts. The upper part retains its dead-white
colour, but is thicker and more opaque ; while the lower
part becomes perfeftly. tranfparent. This is the begin¬
ning of an entire feparation of the oily from the aqueous
parts. The former, being the lighter, afcend and gain
the upper part of the liquor; while the lower, being
freed from that which ebftrufted its tranflucence, re¬
covers its proper limpidity: but the oily parts do not re¬
unite into maffes large enough to form one homogeneous
whole, with the appearance and limpidnefs of oil ; their
being minutely divided and entangled in the mucilage im¬
peding their natural tendency.
Emulfions firft begin to Ipoil, as they grow old, not by
turning rancid and acrimonious like the fat oils drawn by
expreflion, but by turning four ; which is owing to the
great quantity of mucilage they contain. As there is a
fat oil in their compofition, they have the fame virtues
with that fort of oil: but they are moreover incraffating,
cooling, and emollient; qualities which render them ex¬
tremely ufeful in acute and inflammatory diforders. They
grow four in a very (hort time, efpecially in the heat
of fummer ; nay, they fometimes do fo in two hours :
and therefore they ought to be prepared from time to
time as they are to be ufed.
The matter that is left when all the fubftance of the
emulfion is extra&ed, and from whi -h the water comes
off clear and limpid, is fcarce any thing but tffe earthy
part of the feed or kernel that was triturated ; wr ich,
however, ftill retains a portion of tenacious and grofs
oil, adhering to it fo firmly as not to be feparable by
water.
The chyle and milk of animals referable an emulfion
in feveral refpedts, and particularly in their dead-white
colour ; which arifes, in the fame manner, from the very
minute particles of oil contained in them, and diftributed
through an aqueous gelatinous fluid, but not diffolved
. therein. In general, whenever any oil of any kind hap¬
pens to be lodged in this manner between the parts of an
aqueous liquor, it always makes the whole of an opaque
white : for oil will not mix with water, fo as to produce
a liquor that (hall appear homogeneous and tranfparent,
unlefs it be intimately diffolved in the water; which
cannot be effefted but by means of an union previoufly
contraAed between it and fome faline matter ; as is the
cafe of mucilages, certain faponaceous matters, and fome
other combinations of which we (hall have occafion to
treat in the fequel.
The methods we have hitherto propofed, for extraft-
ing from vegetable fubftances all that they will yield
without
C H E M 1
without the affiftance of fire, are not capable of analyfing
thofe fubftances accurately; fince by expreflion and tri¬
turation we obtain only the liquid parts, impregnated
indeed with almolt all .the principles of plants, -which
however are ftill-combined with each other, \ind barely
feparated from the groffeft earthy, and pily parts. We
mud therefore neceffarily have recourfe to a more effec¬
tual expedient for carrying our analyfis further. This
expedient confifts in making them undergo the adlion of
fire, fucceffively graduated, from the gentleft to the mod
violent heat.
But, before we enter on this analyfis of vegetables, it
is proper to defcribe the different operations that may be
performed on oils, the only pure principle we have been
able to obtain without the help of fire.
Of Operations, on Fat Oils.
To attenuate Fat Oils, and change their Nature, by
expofmg them to the Jft ion of Fire, and dijlilling
- them. > ,
Mix thoroughly three or four pounds, of any fat oil
whatever with twice its weight of lime flaked m the air.
Put this mixture into a large earthen retort, leaving a
third par-t of it empty. Set it in a reverberating furnace,
and lute- on a receiver. Heat the veffel with a very
gentle fire. A little flame will rife firft, and will foon be
followed by an oil that will fall in drops from the nofe
of the retort. Continue the diftill'ation very flowly, till
you perceive the oil that comes over begin to be not
quife fo fluid as before, but rather a little thicker.
Then unlute your receiver, and put another in its
place. Continue the diftillatidn, increafing your fire by
degrees. The oil that comes over will grow thicker and
thicker, its fluidity will decreafe, and it will acquire a
dark-brown colour, which at laft will become blackifli.
The oil will then be very thick. Pufh the operation till
nothing more will come off, though the retort be red-
hot. During the whole time this diftillation lafts, there
,.rifes a good deal of water in company with the oil. Keep
the fecond thick oil by itfelf.
• Mix the oil that came over firfl: in this operation with
an equal part of frefti lime flaked in the air. Put the
mixture into an earthen or glafs retort, of a fize fo pro¬
portioned to the quantity, that a third part thereof may
remain empty. Diftill'as before. The fame phenomena
will appear : a clear oil will firfl: come over, and be fuc-
ceeded by one a little thicker. Then fhift your receiver,
and diftill off all the reft of the oil with an increafed fire.
The firft oil obtained by this fecond diftillation will be
clearer and thinner than that of the firft diftillation ; and
the fecond oil will riot be fo thick nor of fo deep a colour
as before.
Diftill over again in the fame manner the thin oil of
this fecond diftillation, and go on thus repeatedly di-
ftilling, till the firft clear oil come over with a degree of
heat not exceeding that of boiling water. Then, inftead
of mixing your oil with lime, put it with fome water in¬
to a glafs retort, or into a body with its head fitted on,
and diftill it, keeping the water juft in a fimmer. Your
Vox.. II. No. 36. 3
: S T R Y. 149
oil will be more and more attenuated, and, after being
thus diftilled twice or thrice with water, will be fo lim¬
pid, fo thin, andfo clear, that you will fcarce be able to
diftinguilh it from water itfelf.
To combine Fat Oils with Acids.
Put any fat oil whatevqr into a glafs bafon, and fet
it in a fand-bath very moderately heated. Pour on this
oil an equal quantity of concentrated oil of vitriol, which
will immediately diffolve it with-violence ; a confiderable
ebullition and effervefcence will arife, attended with great
heat, and a prodigious quantity of black thick vapours,
in which may be eafily perceived the fmell of burnt oil,
together with that of a fulphureous acid. The mixture
will become of a deep-red, black, and thick. Stir it with
a fmall flick, till you obferve that all is quiet.
To combine Fat Oils with Fixed Alkalis. Hard and
Soft Soap. The DecOmpoftion of Soap.
Take a lixivium of Alicant kelp made morecauftic by
lime, as we ftiall fhew when we come to fpeak of alkalis.
Evaporate this lye till it be capable of bearing a new-laid
egg. Divide it into two parts ; and to one of thefe put
juft water enough to weaken it fo that a new laid egg
will not fwim in it, but fall to the bottom. With the lye
thus weakened, mix an equal quantity of frefh-drawn
olive oil. Stir and agitate the mixture well till it be¬
come very white. Set it over a gentle fire, and continue
ftirring it inceffantly, that the two ingredients of which
it is compounded may gradually combine together, as
part of the water evaporates. When you perceive they
begin to unite, pour into the mixture thrice .as much of
the firft ftrong lye as-you took of olive oil. Continue the
codlion with a gentle fire, always ftirring the matter, till.
it become fo thick that a drop of it fixes, as it cools, in¬
to the confiftence that foap ought to have. By diffolving
a little -of this foap in water, you will difcover whether
or no it contains more oil than ought to be in the com-
pofition. If it diffolve therein wholly and perfedtly,,
without the appearance of the leaft little drop of oil float¬
ing on the water, it is a fign that it doth not-contain too
much oil. If, on the contrary, you perceive any of
thefe little globules, you muft pour into the veffel con¬
taining your matter a little more of the ftrong lye, to
abforb the redundant oil. If there be too much of the
alkali, it may be difcovered by the tafte. If the foap
leave on your tongue the fenfatiqn of an alkaline fait,
and produce an urinous favour, it is a fign that there is
too much fait in proportion to the oil. In this cafe a lit¬
tle oil muft be added to the mixture, to faturate .the fu-
perabundant alkali. An excefs in the quantity of alkali
difcovers itfelf likewife by the foap’s growing moift in the
air, on being expofed to it for fome time.
Fixed alkalis, even when refolved into a liquor, that
is, when loaded with much water, unite eafily with fat
oils, as appears from the experiment juft recited, and re¬
quire but a moderate heat to perfedt that union. This
combination may even be completely effedted without the
aid of fire, and by the heat of the fun only, provided
fufficient time be allowed for that purpofe. It only re¬
quires the mixture of the oil and alkali to be kept-five or
2 P fix
150 C H E M
fix days in digeftion, and ftirred from time to time. A
lixivium of pure alkali, not acuated by lime, m^y alfo be
ufed to make foap : but it is obferved, that the combina¬
tion fucceeds better, and that the alkali unites fooner
and more perfectly with the oil, when it is fharpened by
lime.
The oil is firft mixed with a weaker and more aqueous
lye, to the end that the combination may not take place
too haftily, but that all the particles of the two' fub-
ftances to be compounded together may unite equally.
But as foon as the alkali begins to diflblve the oil gra¬
dually and quietly, the diffolution may then be accele¬
rated ; and that is done by adding the remaining lye,
which is ftronger and lefs diluted than the other.
Soap made with olive oil is white, hard, and hath not
a very difagreeable fmell : but as that oil is dear, others,
even the fat and oils of animals, are fometimes fubfti-
tuted for it. The foaps made with moft of thefe other
matters are neither fo hard, nor fo white, as that made
of olive oil : they are called foft foaps.
Oils thus aflbciated with fixed alkalis are by that
means rendered foluble in water ; becaufe the alkaline
falts, having a great affinity with water, communicate
part thereof to the oils with which they are now incor¬
porated. Yet the oil is not for all that rendered tho¬
roughly mifcible with water, or perfedtly foluble therein ;
for the water in which foap is diflblved hath always a
milky call: now there is no other criterion of a perfeft
folution but tranfparency.
Alkalis alfo lofe part of their affinity with water, by
the union they thus contraA with oils : for, when the
combination is properly made, they no longer attraft the
moifture of the air, nor doth water diffiolve them in fuch
quantities as before. The compofition of foap is plainly
a faturation of an alkali with an oil ; and, in order to
make perfect foap, we are forced, as was faid in the pro-
cels, to grope, in a manner, by repeated trials, for this
point of faturation ; juft as when we prepare A neutral
fait by faturating an alkali with an acid. The union
which the oil contradls with the alkali makes it lofe, in
part, the readinefs with which it naturally takes fire ;
becaufe the fait is not inflammable : the water alfo,
which enters, in pretty cdnfiderable quantities, into the
compofition of foap, contributes a good deal to hinder
the accenfion of the oil.
Soap may be decompounded either by diftilling it, or
by mixing it with fome fubftance that hath a greater affi¬
nity than oil with alkalis.
If we decompound it by diftillation, a phlegm, or
tranfparent fpirit, of a fomewhat yellowilh colour, firft
comes over. This liquor is the aqueous part of the foap,
quickened by a little of its alkali, which gives it an acrid
tafte. It is followed by a red oil, which at firft is pretty
thin and limpid, but thickens as the diftillation advances,
grows black, and has a very difagreeable empyreumatic
. fmell. This oil is foluble in fpirit of wine.
When the diftillation is finilhed, that is, when the
retort being kept red-hot for fome time will difcharge no
more, there is left in it a faline mafs ; which is the al¬
kali of the foap, crufted over with fome of the moft fixed
parts of the oil, that are charred to a coal,. This lalt
I S T II Y.
may be reftored to the fame degree of purity it had before
its combination with the oil, by calcining it in a crucible
with a naked fire, that may confume this burnt part of
the oil, and reduce it to alhes.
It is plain, that the oil contained in foap is afFedled.by
diftillation, much in the fame manner as that which we
mixed with lime and diftilled.
Mr Geoffroy, by analyfing foap with care, difcovered
that two ounces thereof contain ninety-fix grains of fait
of kelp, freed from all oil and moifture ; or two drams
and forty-eight grains of that fait, as it is ufed in manu-
fa&uring foap ; that is, containing water enough to make
it cryftallife ; one ounce three drams twenty grains of o-
live oil; and about two drams four grains of water.
As acids have a greater affinity chan any other fub¬
ftance with alkalis, they may be very effedually employed
to decompound foap.
If you propofe to decompound foap by means thereof,
you muft firft diflblve it in a fufficient quantity of water.
Mr Geoffroy, who made this experiment likewife, dif-
folved two ounces thereof in about three gallons of warm
water, and to the folution added oil of vitriol, which he
let fall into it drop by drop. Every time a drop of acid
falls into it, a coagulum is formed in the liquor. The
vefiel in which the folution is contained muft then Be
Ihaken, that the acid may equally attack all the alkali
diffufed in it When no new coagulation is produced
by a drop of the acid, it is a fign you have added e-
nough. The liquor then begins to grow clear: and if
another quart of water be added, in order to facilitate
the feparation of the oily particles, you will fee them rife
and unite together on the furface of the liquor.
This is a pure, clear, true olive oil, hath its tafte*
its fmell, and, like it, is fluid in warm weather, and be¬
comes fixed by cold. Yet it differs in fome refpedls
from that which never hath been united with an alkali in
order to form a foap; for it burns more vividly and
more rapidly, and is folut>Ie in fpirit of wine. We ihall
account for thefe differences when we come to treat of
ardent fpirits.
Not only the vitriolic acid, but all others, even thofe
obtained from vegetables, are capable of decompounding,
foap, and feparating the oil from the alkali. In the li¬
quor wherein foap is thus decompounded, is found a neu¬
tral fait, confifting of the acid made ufe of, united with
the alkali of the foap. If’the vitriolic acid be ufed, you
will have a Glauber’s fait; a quadrangular nitre, if the
nitrous acid be ufed ; and fo of the reft.
The facility With which, acids decompound foap is the
reafon that no water, but what is very pure, will diflblve
it, or is fit to be ufed in waffling with it.
Water that doth not diflblve foap well is ufually called
hard water. Such waters contain a certain quantity of
faline matters, waffled out of the earths through which
they pafs. The hardnefs of water is generally occa-
fioned by felenitic particles..
The hardtrefs of moft well-waters is owing to a confi-
derable quantity of felenitic gypfum with which the foil
abounds. The felenites are neutral falts confifting. of the
vitriolic acid united with an earthy bafis. If, therefore*
foap be put into water in which a lak of this kind is dif-
iblved*.
CHE M
folved, it is evident that the vitriolic acid in the felenites,
having a greater affinity with the fixed alkali of the foap
than with its own earthy balls, will quit the latter to u-
nite with the former ; and thus the foap will be decom¬
pounded inftead of being difiblved. Accordingly we fee,
that, when we attempt to difiblve foap in our well-water,
the furface of the liquor is ip a fhort time covered with a
fat oily pellicle. However, this decompofition of foap
is not complete ; at leaft but a fmall part of it is per-
fedtly decompounded ; becaufe the great quantity of fe¬
lenites, with which the water is impregnated, hinders
the foap from mixing fo thoroughly with it, as is requi-
fite to produce a total decompofition thereof.
All mineral waters are likewife hard, with regard to
foap ; for, as mod; of them owe their virtues to the efflo-
refcencies they have walhed off, from pyrites that have
grown hot and begun to be decompofed, they are im¬
pregnated w^th the faline matters produced by pyrites in
that date ; that is, with aluminousj vitriolic, and ful-
phureous fubdances, which have the fame effect on foap
"as the felenites hath.
Mineral waters containing neutral falts only, fuch as
fea-falt, Epfom fait, Glauber’s fait, are neverthelefs
hard with regard to foap, though the acids of thofe falts,
being united with fixed alkalis, are incapable of decom¬
pounding it. The reafon is, that thofe neutral fails are
more foluble in water than foap is ; fo much indeed as
even to exclude it: becaufe each of the two principles
that compofe them hath a very great affinity with water;
■whereas only one of the principles of foap, namely, its
alkali, hath that affinity ; the other, viz. the oily prin¬
ciple, having none at all. Thus water impregnated with
an acid, or with any neutral fait, is hard with regard to
foap, and incapable of diffolving it; and hence it fol¬
lows, that foap is a fort of touchdone for trying the pu¬
rity, of water.
Wine diffolves foap ; but imperfedly, becaufe it con¬
tains an acid or tattarous part. Spirit of wine alfo dif¬
folves it: but neither is this diffolution perfedt; becaufe
it contains too little water : for its fpirituous part can
diffblve nothing but the oil,of the foap ; and the alkali is
not at all, or at lead in a very fmall quantity, foluble in
this mendruum. The true folvent of fopp is therefore
a liquor that is partly fpirituous, partly aqueous', and
not acid.
Brandy has thefe qualities : and accordingly it is the
folvent that unites bed with foap, diflblves the greated
quantity,, and makes the mod limpid folution thereof.
Yet even this folution hath fomething of a milky cad,
occafioned by its not being entirely free from, an acid, or
the tartarous principle. This fault may be eafily cor-
redted, by mixing with it a little alkali to abforb the
acid. A dram of crydallifed fait of kelp mixed with
three ounces and a half of good brandy, renders it ca¬
pable of diffolving an,ounce and two drams of good hard
ibap into a perfectly limpid liquor.
Some years ago it was difcovered that foap might be
ufed with great fuccefs in medicine, and that it poffefles
the property of diffolving the' dony concretions that form
in feveral parts of the body, particularly in the kidneys
I S T R Y. I5i
and bladder Soap is the bafis of the compofition known
by the name of Mrs Stephen's remedy ; and in this one
ingredient its whole virtue refides.
From what hath been faid on the nature of this com¬
pound, as well as on the caufe and phenomena of its dif¬
folution, it plainly appears to be of the lad confequence,
in adminidering it to a patient, that his conditution be
confidered, and a proper regimen ordered. All acids
diould be abfolutely forbid him; as we know they hinder
the foap from dilfolving, and decompound it: and if the
patient have any acidities in the fird paffages, matters ca¬
pable of neutralifing them diould be prefcribed him ; as
prepared crabs eyes, and other abforbents known in me¬
dicine : In fuch cafes thofe with which the foap is com¬
pounded in Mrs Stephen’s remedy may be of ufe.
To combine Fat Oils ’with Sulphur.
Put any fat oil whatever into an earthen veffel; add
to it about a fourth part of its weight of flower of ful-
phur, and fet the veffel in a furnace, with lighted coals
under it. When the oil hath acquired a certain degree
of heat, the fulphur will melt, and you will fee it fall
immediately to the bottom of the oil, in the form of a
very red fluid. The two fubdances will remain thus fe-
parated, without mixing together, while the heat is no
greater than is neceffary to keep the fulphur in fufion.
Increafe it therefore ; but flowly, and with circtimfpec-
tion, led the matter take fire. When the oil begins to
fmoke, the two liquors will begin to mix and look tur¬
bid : at lad they will unite fo as to appear one homoge¬
neous whole. If you keep up the heat, fc that the mix¬
ture diall always continue fmoking and ready to boil,
you may add more fulphur, which will perfedly incor¬
porate with it: and thus may a pretty confiderable quan¬
tity thereof be introduced into this compofition.'
To combine Fat Oils •with Lead, and the Catxes of Lead.
The Bafis of Piafsrs. The Deeompoftion of this
Combination.
Into an earthen veffel put granulated lead, litharge,
cerufe, or minium ; and pour thereon twice its weight of
any fat oil whatever. If you fet the veffel over a Briffc
fire, the lead at bottom will melt before the oil begin to
boil. When it boils, dir the matter with a dick : the
lead, or the calx of lead, will gradually difappear, and
at lad be totally diffolved by.the oil, to which it will give
a very^thick .Qonfidence.
Fat oils diffolve not only lead, but its calxes alfo:
nay, they diffolve the latter more reacv.y than lead in
fubdance ; probably becaufe they are more divided. The
refult of a combination of thefe matters is a thick, tena¬
cious mafs, that grows in fome degree hard in the cold,
and foft by heat. This compofition is known in phar¬
macy by the name oi plajler. It is made up with feve¬
ral drugs into pladers, which partake of the virtues of
thofe drugs ; fkat it is the bafis of almod all pladers.
Lead itfelf is feldom ufed to make pladers : cerufe,
litharge, or minium, are preferred to it; becaufe thefe
matters unite more readily with oils.
Of
152 C H E M
Of the Subftances obtained from Vegetables with
a Degree of heat not exceeding that of boil¬
ing Water-
To obtain from Plants, by cl filling them 'with the
mean Degree of heat between freezing and boiling
Water, a Liquor impregnated with their Principle
cf Odour.
In the morning, before fun-rife, gather the plant
from which you defign to extra# its odoriferous water.
Chufe the plant in its full vigour, perfedlly found, and
free from all adventitious matters, except dew. Put
this plant, without fqueezing it, into the body of a tin¬
ned copper alembic, and fet it in a water bath. Fit on
its head, and to the nofe thereof lute a glafs receiver with
wet bladder.
Warm the bath to the mean degree between freezing
and boiling water. You will fee a liquor diftill and fall
drop by drop into the receiver. Continue the diftilla-
tion with this degree of heat, till no more drops fall
from the nofe of the alembic. Then unlute the velfels;
and if you have not as much liquor as you want, take
out of the cucurbit the plant already diftilled, and
put a frefh one in its place. Diftill as before, and go
on thus till you have a fufficient quantity of pdorife^
rous liquor. Put it into a bottle; ftopit-clofe; and fet ■
it in a cool place.
The liquor obtained from plants, with the degree of
heat here preferibed, confifts of the dew. that was on the
plant, and fome of the phlegm of the plant itfelf, toge¬
ther with its odorous principle. Mr Boerhaave, who
examined this odoriferous part of plants with great care,
calls it the fpiritus reflor. The nature of this fpirit is
not yet thoroughly afeertained ; becaufe it is'fo very vo¬
latile, that it cannot eafily be fubjefted t6 the experi¬
ments. that are neceflary to analife it, and to difeover all
its properties. If the bottle containing the liquor, which
may be confidered as the vehicle of this fpirit, be not
exceeding carefully flopped, it flies quite off: fo that in a
few days nothing will be found but an infipid inodorous
water.
Great part of the virtue of plants refides in this their
principle of odour; and to it mult be aferihed the molt
lingular and the molt wonderful effedts we every day fee
produced by them. Every body knows that a great
number of odorous plants affedt, in a particular manner, •
by their feent only, the brain and -the genus nervofum,
of fuch efpecially whofe nerves are very fenfible, and fuf-
ceptible of the tlighteft impreflion; fuch as hypochon¬
driacal of melancholy men, and hyfterical women. The
fmell of the tuberofe, for inftance, is capaible of throw¬
ing fuch perfons into fits, fo as to make them drop down
and fwoon away. The fmell of rue again, which is equally
ftrortg and penetrating, but of a different kind, is a fpe-
cific remedy againft the ill effedts of the tuberofe; and
brings thofe perfons to life again, with as quick and as
furprifing an efficacy as that by which they were reduced
to a ftate not unlike death. This is Mr Boerhaave’s ob-
fervation.
I S T R Y.
Tire odorous exhalations of plants muft be confidered
as a continual emanation of their fpiritus reflor \ but as
growing plants are in a condition to repair, every in-
ftant, the Ioffes they fuftain by this means, as well as by
tranfpiration, it is not furprifing that they are not foon
exhaufted while they continue in vigour. Thofe, on the
contrary, which we diftill, having, no fuch refource,
are very foon entirely exhaufted of this principle.
The feparation of the fpiritus reflor from plants re¬
quires but a very gentle-heat, equally diftant from the
freezing point, and from the heat of boiling water. Ac¬
cordingly the heat of the fun in fummer is fufficient to
diflipate it almoft entirely. This {hews why it is dange¬
rous to ftay long in fields, or woods, where many noxi¬
ous plants grow. The virtues of plants refiding chiefly in
their exhalations, which the heat of the fun increafes
confiderably, a fort of atmofphere is formed round them,
and carried by the air and the wind to very great di-
ftances.
For the fame reafon the air of a country may be ren¬
dered falutary and medicinal, by the exhalations of
wholefome plants growing therein. From the facility
with which the odorous principle of plants evaporates,
we learn what care ought to be taken in drying thofe in¬
tended for medical ufes, fo as to preferve their virtues.
They ntu,ft by no means be expofed to the fun, or laid
in a warm place: a cool, dry place, into which the rays
of the fun never penetrate, ,js the propereft for drying
plants with as little lofs of theft ^.virtue as poflible.
- Though there is reafon to believe that every vegetable
matter hath a fpiritus reftor, feeing each hath its parti¬
cular feent, yet this principle is not very perceptible in
any but thofe which have a very manifeff odour: and ac¬
cordingly it' is extradted chiefly from aromatic .plants, or
the moft odoriferous parts of plants.
To extrafl the Fat Oils of Plants by the Decoflion in
boiling Water. Cacao-Butter.
Pound or bruife in a marWe mortar your vegetable
fubftances abounding with the fat oil which you intend
to extra# by deco#ion: tie them up in a linen cloth:
put this packet into a pan, with feven or eight times as
much water., and make the water boil. The oil will be
feparated by the ebullition, and float on the furface of
the water. Skimiit off carefully with a ladle, and con¬
tinue boiling till no more oil appear.,
The heat of boiling water is capable of feparating the
fat oils from vegetable matters that contain any: but this
is to be effe#ed by a#ua] decoftion only, and not by di-
ftillation; becaufe thefe oils will not rife in an alembic
with the heat of boiling water. We are therefore ne-
ceflitated to colle# them from the furface of the water,
as above direffed.
The water ufed in this co#ion generally becomes milky,
like an emulfion. Neverthelefs this way of obtaining the
fat oils is not generally pra#ifed ; becaufe the heat, to
which they are expofed in the operation, occafions their
being lefs mild than they generally are: but it is an
excellent method, and indeed the only one that can be
employed, for extrafting from particular vegetables cer¬
tain concrete oily matters, in the form of butteror wax ; ‘
which
C H E M
which matters are no other than fat oils in a fixed ftate.
The cacao yields, by this means, a very mild butter;
and in the fame manner is a wax obtained from a certain
fix rub in America.
To extraft the Effential Oils of Plants hy diftillation
•with the heat of boiling •water. Dijlilled •waters.
Put into a cucurbit the plant from which you defign
to extract the effential oil. Add as much water as will
fill two thirds of your veflel, and dilfolve therein half an
ounce of fea-falt for every quart of water you ufe. To
this body fit on an alembic-head, and to the nofe there¬
of lute a receiver with lized paper or wet bladder. Set
it in a furnace, and let the whole digeft together, in a
very gentle warmth, for twenty-four hours.
This being done, light a wood-fire under your vefTe.l,
briflc enough-to make the water in it boil immediately. Then
flacken your fire, and leave it juft ftrong enough to keep
the water fimmering. There will come over into the re¬
ceiver a liquor of a whitifh colour, fomewhat milky ; on
the furface of which, or at the bottom, will be-found an
oil, which is the effential oil of the vegetable you put in¬
to the cucurbit.* Continue your diftillation with the fame
degree of heat, till you perceive the liquor come off
clear, and unaccompanied with an oil.
When the diftillation is finilhed, unlute the receiver ;
and, if the effential oil be of that fort that is lighter than
water, fill the veffel up to the top with water. On this
occafion a long-neckdd matras Ihould be ufed for a re¬
ceiver; that the oil which floats on the water may col-
leift together in its neck, ^nd rife up to its mouth. Then
in the neck of this veffel put the end of a thread of cot¬
ton twine, fo that the depending part without the veffel
may be longet than that in the oil, and the extremity
thereof hang within the mouth of a little phial, juft big
enough to contain your quantity of oil. The oil will rife
along the yarn as in a fiphon, filter through it, and fall
drop by drop into the little phial-. When all the oil is
thus come over, flop your little bottle very dole, with
a cork coated over with a mixture of wax and a little
pitch.
If your oil be ponderous, and of the fort that finks in
water, pour the whole contents of the receiver into a
glafs funnel, the pipe of which muft terminate in a very
fmall aperture that may be flopped with your fore-finger.
All the oil will be colledled in the lower part of the funnel:
then remove your finger, and let the oil run out into a
little bottle through another fmall funnel. When you
fee the water ready to come, flop the pipe of the funnel,
and«cork the bottle containing your oil.
To extrail the EJfential Oils of Plants by Dijlillation
per defcenfum.
Reduce to a powder, or a pafte, the vegetable fub-
ftances from which you intend to extraft the effential
oil by the method propofed. Lay this matter about half
an inch thick on a fine, clofe, linen cloth. If it be dry
and hard, expofe the cloth containing it to the fleam of
boiling water, till the matter become moift and foft.
Then lay the cloth, with its contents, over the mouth
You. II. No. 36. 3
I S T R Y. ,53
of a very tall cylindrical glafs vefi'd, which is to do the
office of a receiver in this diftiilation ; and, by means of
a piece of fmall pack-thread, fallen down the extremities
of the cloth,' by winding the thread feveral times over
them and round the vefl'el; in, fuch a manner, however,
that the cloth be not tight, but may yield to a fmail
weight, and fink about five or fix lines deep into the
veffel over which it is faftened. Set this recipient in a
larger veffel, containing fo much cold water as will reach
half way up the cylindrical veffel, which, having little
in it but air, muft be ballafted with as much lead as will
fink it to the bottom of the water
On the cloth, containing the fubftance to be d'ftilled, fet
a flat pan of iron or copper, about five or fix lines deep,
that may juft fit the mouth of the glafs veffel over which
the cloth is faftened, fo as to fhut it quite clofe. Fill
tin's pan with hot allies, and on thefe lay fome live coals.
Soon after this you will fee vapours defcend from the
cloth, which will fill the recipient, and drops of liquor
will be formed on the under fide of the cloth, from whence
they will fall into the veffel. Keep up an equal gentle
heat, till you preceive nothing mote difcharged. Then
uncover the recipient: you will find in it two diftinft li •
quors ; one of which is the phlegm, and the-oth.t the
effential oil of the fubftance diftilled.
Infufions, Decoctions, and Extrails of Plants.
Make fome water boiling-hot, and then take it off
the fire. When it ceafes to bpil, pour it on the plant of
which you defire to have the infufion ; taking care there
be enough of it to cover the plant entirely. . Cover the
veffel, and let your plant lie in the hot water for the-
ft. ice of half an hour, or longer if it be of a firm ciofe
texture. Then pour off the water by inclination: it will
have partly acquired the colour, the fmell, the tafte,
and the virtues of the plant. This liquor is called an
infufon.
To make the decoftion of a vegetable fubftance, put
it into an earthen pan, or into a tinned copper veffel,
with a quantity of water fufficient to bear being boiled
for feveral hours without leaving any part of the plant
dry. Boil your plant more or lefs according to its na¬
ture ; and then pour off the water by inclination. This
water is impregnated with feveral of the principles of the
plant.
If the infufions and decodtions of plants be filtered,
and evaporated in a gentle heat, they become extradls,
that may be kept for whole years, efpecially if they be
evaporated to a thick confiftence ; and better ftill if they
be evaporated to drynefs.
Of Operations on EJfential Oils.
The Keilif cation of Effential Oils.
Put into a cucurbit the effential . oil you propofe to
rediify. Set the cucurbit in a balneum marict; fit to it
a head of tin, or of copper tinned, together with its re¬
frigeratory ; and lute on a receiver. Make the water in
the bath boil, and keep up this degree of heat till no¬
thing more will come over. When the diftillation is fi-
2 Q_ niflied.
154 c H E M
riifhed, you will find in the receiver a refllfied effential
oil, which will be clearer, thinner, and better fcented
than before it was thus before re-diflilled ; and in the
bottom of the cucurbit will be left a matter of a deeper
■colour, more tenacious, more refmous, and of a lefs
grateful fmell.
Eflential oils, even the pureft, the bell prepared, and
the thinneft, fuffer great changes, and are much impair¬
ed by growing old: they gradually turn thick and refin-
ous; their fweet, grateful fcent is loft, and fucceeded by
a more difagreeable fmell, fomewhat like that of turpen¬
tine. The caufe of thefe changes is, that their fineft and
moft volatile part, that which contains moft of the odor¬
ous principle, is diflipated and feparated from that which
contains leaft of it; which therefore grows thicker, and
comes fo much the nearer to the nature of a refin, as. the
quantity of acid, that was diftributed through the whole
oil before the diflipation of the more volatile part, is, af¬
ter fuch diffipation, united and concentrated in the hea-
vieft part; the acid in oils being much lefs volatile than
the odorous part, -to which alone they owe their levity.
Hence it appears what precautions are to be ufed for
preferving eflential oils as long as poflible without fpoil-
kig. * They rnuft be kept in a bottle perfedtly well flop¬
ped, and always in a cool place, becaufe heat quickly
diffipates the volatile parts. Some authors diredt the bot¬
tle to be kept under water.
To fire Oils by combining them with highly concentrated
Acids: infianced in Oil of.Turpentine.
Mix together in a glafs equal parts of concentrated
oil of vitriol, and highly fmoking frefh-drawn fpirit of
jiitre: pour this mixture at feveral times, but fuddenly,
on three parts of oil of turpentine, fet for that purpofe
in a glafs bafon.. By a part here muft.be underftood a
dram at leaft. ' A moft violent commotion, accompanied
with fmoke, will immediately be raifed in the liquors,
and the whole will take fire in an inftant, flame, and be
confumed.
There is not in chemiftry a phenomenon more extra¬
ordinary, and more furprifing, than the firing of oils by
mixing them with acids. It could never have been
fufpedted, that a mixture of two cold liquors would pro¬
duce a fudden, violent, bright, and lafting flame, like
that we are at prefent confidering.
To combine EJfential Oils with Mineral Sulphur.
Batfam of Sulphur.
Put into a matras one part of flowers of fulphur ;
pour on them fix parts of the eflential oil of turpentine,
for inftance ; fet the matras in a fand-bath, and heat it
gradually till the oil boil. The fulphur, which at firft
lay at the bottom of the matras, v/ill begin to melt, and
appear to diflblve in the oil. When it hath boiled
in .this manner for about an hour, take the matras from
the fire, and let tfie liquor cool. A great deal of the
fulphur that was diflblved therein will feparate from it as
it cools, and fall to the bottom of the veflel in the form
of needles, much like a fait ftiooting in water.
When the liquor is perfectly cold, decant it from the
fulphur that lies at the bottom of the veflel: to that
I S T R Y.
fulphur put frefh oil of turpentine, and proceed as be¬
fore : the fulphur will again difappear, and be diflblved
in the oil; but when the mixture is cold you will find
new cryftals of fulphur depofited at the bottom. De¬
cant once more this oil from the cryftals, and pour on
frelh oil to diflblve them: continue the fame method, and
you will find, that about fixteen parts of eflential oil are
required to keep one part of fulphur diflblved when cold.
This combination is called balfamum fulphuris terebin-
thinatum, if made with oil of turpentine ; anifatum, if
with oil of anifa-feeds; and fo of others.
To cotnbine EJfiential Oils with fixed Alkalis.
Starkey's, Soap.
Take fait of tartar, or any other alkali, thoroughly
calcined. Heat it in a crucible till it be red, and in that
condition throw it into a hot iron mortar: rub it quick¬
ly with a very hot iron peftle; and as foon as it is pow¬
dered, pour on it, little'by little, nearly an equal quan¬
tity of oil of turpentine. The bil will enter into the
fait, and unite intimately with it, fo as to form a hard
'pafte. Continue rubbing this compofition with a peftle,
in order to complete the union of the two fubftances ;
and, as your oil of turpentine difappears, add more,
which will unite in the fame manner, and give a fofter
confiftence to the foapy mafs. You may add ftill more
oil, according to the confiftence you intend to give your
foap.
Starkey, the firft chemift who found the means of
making foap with an eflential oil, and by whofe name this
kind of foap is therefore called, made ufe of a much more
tedious method than that propofed in our»procefs. He
began with mixing a very fmall quantity of oil with'his
fait, and waited till all the oil united therewith of its own-
accord, fo as to difappear entirely, before he added any¬
more ; and. thus protratfted his operation exceedingly,,
though in the main it was the fame with ours. The me¬
thod here propofed is more expeditious, and was invent¬
ed by Dr Geoffrey.
Starkey’s foap diflblves in water much as common
foap does, without any feparation of the oil: and by this-
mark it is known to be well made. It may alfo be de¬
compounded, either by diftillation, or by mixing it with
an acid : and its decompofition, in either of thefe ways,
is attended with nearly the fame phenomena as the de¬
compofition of common foap.
Of the Subftances obtained from Vegetables by
means, of a graduated Heat, from that of boil¬
ing Water, to the ftrongefl that can be applied,
to them in clofe Vejfels.
To analife Vegetable Subfiances that yield neither a
Fat nor an EJfential Oil. Infianced in Guai'acum-
wood.
Take thin fhavings of Guaiacum-wood, and put them
into a glafs or ftone retort, leaving one half thereof
empty. Set your retort in a reverberating furnace, and lute
on a large glafs feceiver having a fmall hole drilled in it,
fuch as is ufed for diftilling the mineral acids. Put a
C H E M I
liVe coal or two in the farnace, to warm the veffels gen¬
tly and flowly.
With a degree of heat below that of boiling water,
yon will fee drops of a clear infipid phlegm fall into the
receiver. If you raife the fire a little, this water will
come llightly acid, and begin to have a pungent fmell.
With a degree of fire fomewhat flronger, a water will
continue to rife which will be ftill more acid, fmell
ftronger, and become yellowifii. When the heat comes
to exceed that of boiling water, the'phlegm that rifes
will be very acid, high coloured, have a ftrong pungent
fmell, like that of matters long fnioked with Wood in a
chimney, and will be accompanied with. a red, light oil,
that will float on the liquor in the receiver.
And now it is neceflary, that the operation be carried
on very cautioufly, and vent frequently given to the rare¬
fied air by opening the fmall hole in the receiver ; fuch
an incredible quantity thereof ruftiing out of the wood,
with this degree of heat, as may burfl: the vefi’ds to
pieces, if not difcharged'frpm time to time.
When this red, light oil is come over, and the air
ceafes to rulh out with impetuofny, raife your fire gradu¬
ally, till the retort begin to redden. The receiver will
be filled with denfe vapours; and together with the wa¬
tery liquor, which will then be extremely acid, there
will rife a black, thick, ponderous oil, which will fall
to the bottom of the receiver and lie under the liquor;
Then give the utmoft degree of heat ; that is, the
greateft your furnace will allow, and your veflels bear.
With this exceflive heat a little more oil will rife, which
will be very ponderous, as thick and black as pitch ; and
'the veflels will continue full of vapours that will not
condenfe.
At laft, when you have kept the retort exceeding red
for a long time in this extremity of heat, fo that it be¬
gins to melt if ft be of glafs, and you perceive nothing
more come over, let the tire'go out and the veflel cool.
Then take off your receiver : from the black oil at bot¬
tom decant the acid liquor with the red oil floating
on it, and pour them both into a glafs funnel, lined with
brown filtering paper, and placed over a bottle. The
acid liquor will pafs through the filter into the bottle,
and the oil v^ill be left behind, which mull be kept by it-
felf in a feparate bottle. Laftly, into another funnel,
prepared as the former, pour the thick oil remaining
with a little of the acid liquor at the bottom of the re¬
ceiver. This liquor will filter off in the fame manner,
and thus be feparated from the heavy oil.
In the retort you will find your Guaiacum fhavings not
in the leaft altered as to their figure, but light, friable,,
very black, fcentlefs and taftelefs, eafily taking fire, and
confuming witflouTHame or fmoke: in fliort you will
find them charred to a pe'rfeA coal.
Hi t h e a t o we have examined the fubftances that may
be obtained from vegetables, either without the help of
fire,, or with a degree -of heat not exceeding that of boil¬
ing water. The analyfis of plants can be carried no
further without a greater degree of heat: for, when the
principle of odour and the elfential oil of an aromatic
S T R Y. 155
plant are wholly extracted by the preceding procefles, if
the dirtillation be afterward continued without increafing
the heat, nothing more will be obtained but a little acid;
W'hich will foon ceafe, as a fmall part only of the quan¬
tity contained in the plant will be elevated; the reft be¬
ing either too ponderous, or too much entangled with
the other principles of the body, to rife with fo fmall a
degree of heat.
In order therefore to carry on the decompofition of a
plant, from which you have*, by the methods before pro-
pofed, extradted all the principles it is capable of yield¬
ing when fo treated ; or, in order to analife a vegetable
matter, \yhich affords neither an exprefled nor an eflen-
tial oil, it muft bediftilled in a retort with a naked fire, as
dire&ed in the procefs, and be made to undergo all the
degrees of heat fueceflively, from that of boiling water
to the higheft that can be raifed in a reverberating furnace-
A heat inferior to that of boiling water, with which
we muft begin in order to warm the vefleLgradually,,
brings nothing over, but an infipid water, deftitu.te of all
acidity. By increafing it nearly to the degree of boiling
water, the diftilled water comes to be flightly acid.
When the heat is made a little ftronger than that
which is neceflary for^he elevation of an efi’ential oil, the
acidity of the water that comes off is much more confi-
derable. It hath now both colour and fmdl, ihd there
rifes with it a red, light oil, that floats on the liquor in
the receiver. This is not an eflential oil; it hath none
of the odour of the plant. Though fo light as to float
on water, yet it will not rife with the degree of heat that
raifes eflential oils, even thofe that much furpafs it in
gravity, and. will not fwim on water as they do. This
proves, that the eafe or difficulty with which a particu¬
lar degree of heat raifes any fubftance in diftilktion
doth not depend altogether on its gravity : its dilatabi-
lity, or the volatile nature of the matters with wdrich it
is fo clofely united as not to be feparated from them by
diftillation, mayj>robably contribute greatly to produce
this effedt.
It is very furprifing, that a fubftance fo hard,, fo com-
padt, fo dry in appearance, as Guaiacum-wood, fiiould
yield fuch a large quantity of water by diftillation; and
it is equally fo, that it fhould difcharge fo much air; and-
with fo much impetuofity, as nothing but experience could
render credible.
It hath been remarked, that the heavieft and moft com-
padt woods yield the moft air in diftillation: and accor¬
dingly Guaiacum-wood, as exceeding almoft all others
in hardnefs and weight, difcharges a vaft quantity of air
when analifed.
The thick, burnt, empyreumatic oil, that comes over
kft in this diftillation, is heavier than water; on ac¬
count, probably, of the great quantity of acid with
which it is replete. The two kinds of oil obtained,
in this analyfis may be redlified, by diftilling them,
a fecond time, or rather fi;veral times; by which means
they will become lighter and more fluid. In, general, all
thick, heavy oils conftantly owe thefe qualities to an acid,
united with them ; arid it is by being freed from fome of
that acid in diftillation, that they always acquire a great-
C H E M
er degree bf lightnefs and fluidity from that operation.
The anaiyfis of a vegetable fubftance, (hews what may
be obtained from them -when diirilled in dofe veffeis,
with a graduated heat, from that of boiling water, to
that which converts the mixt to a perfect coal; viz.
phlegm, an acid, a light oil, much air, and a thick oil.
But this anaiyfis is far from being a complete one : it
may be carried much farther, and made more perfeft.
None of the principles obtained by this anaiyfis are
pure, fimple, and thoroughly feparated from the reft.
They are ftill in fome meafure blended all together:
their reparation is but begun; a^d each requires a fecond
and more accurate anaiyfis,' to reduce it to the greateft
degree of purity of which it is capable. The oil and
the acid chiefly merit fo much pains.
A great deal of the acid of the plant remain^, com¬
bined with the two forts of oil here obtained ; which
we have reafon to .think differ no otherwife from one
another, "than as there is more or lefs acid united with,
'each. The beft way of freeing tfhefe oils from their re¬
dundant acid is to diftill them frequently from alkalis and
abforbents.
The acid is in the fame cirbumftances nearly as the oil.
The firft that rifes is mortified with much water, to
which it owes a good deal of its volatility. That which
comes over laft is much more concentraied, and confe-
quently heavier;' yet it is ftill very aqueous. It might
be freed in a great meafure from this adventitious water,
and fo rendered much ftronger ; which would give us a
better opportunity to difcover its nature and properties,
of which we know but very Httle.
Water is pot the only heterogeneous fubftance that
difguifes'the vegetable acid: a pretty confiderable quan¬
tity of the oil of the plant is alfo combined with it, and
contaminates its purity. The proof ot this is, that when
thefe acids are kept, in the fame condition in which they
firft come over, for any length of time, in a glafs veffel,
they gradually depofite, on the bottom and fides of the
veffel, an oily incruftation, which grows thicker and
thicker the longer it ftands; and, as this oily mat¬
ter feparates from it, the acid liquor appears lefs un&u-
ous and faponaceous.
A very good way to feparate this oil more effedtually
from the acid is to combine the whole with abforbents,
and abftraft the oil again by diftillation. By this means
a very fenfible quantity of oil may be feparated that was
not perceived before.
The air, that is difcharged with impetuofity in the o-
peration, and mull be let out, is loaded with many par¬
ticles of acid and oil reduced to vapours, which it carries
off; and by this means the quantity of the principles
extracted from the mixt cannot be accurately determined:
nor are the vapours, of which the veffels remain full af¬
ter the operation, any other than particles- of acid and oil,
which the violence of the fire hath rarefied exceedingly,
and which doyiiot eafily condenfe.
If we diftill in this manner a vegetable aromatic fub¬
ftance, which of courfe contains an effential oil, provided
it hath not been previoufly extradled by the appropriated
procefs, this effential oil will rife firft, as foon as the diftil-
ling veffel acquires the heat of boiling water; but its
1 S. ' T R Y.
fcent will not be near fo fweet or grateful, as if it were
diftiiled in the manner before directed as propereft for it.
On the contrary, it will have an empyreumatic fmell:
becanfe in this way it is impollible to avoid fcorching,
and half-burning fome of the matter diftiiled ; efpecially
that part of it which touches the fides of the retort.
Moreover, the very fame equable degree of heat can
hardly be kept up with a naked fire. The efferitial oil
therefore, though it rifes firft, will not be pure, but con¬
taminated with a mixture of the empyreumatic oil that
firft comes over, and will be confounded therewith.
Mofl vegetable fubftances, when diftiiled with a ftrong
fire, yield the fame principles with that which we have
chofen for an inftance. Entire plants of this kind, thole
from which the odorous principle, the effential oil, or
the fat oil, hath been drawn, thofe of which extra&s
have been made by infufion or decoftion, or the extracts
themfelves; all fuch matter being diftiiled yield a phlegm,
an acid, a thin oil, air, and a thick oil; and the pro-
duds of their feveral analyfes- differ from each other, on¬
ly on account of the different quantity or proportion that
each contains of the principles here enumerated.
But there are many other plants, which, befides thefe
fubftances, yield alfo a confiderable quantity of a vola¬
tile alkaline fait. This property is poffefted chiefly by
that tribe of plants which is diftinguifhed by having cru¬
ciform flowers; among which there are fome that, being
analifed, greatly refemble animal-matters. We fhall now
analife one of thefe; muftard-feed, for inftance.
To analife a Vegetable Subjlance •which yields the
fame Principles as are obtained from Animal-mat¬
ters : inflanced in Muflard-feed. v
With an apparatus like that of the preceding -pro¬
cefs, and with the fame fire, diftill muftard-feed. With
a degree of heatr inferior to that of boiling water, there
will come over a phlegm fomewhat coloured, and im¬
pregnated with a volatile alkaline fait. With a degree
of heat, greater than that of.boiling water, the fame
kind-of phlegm, impregnated with the fame fait, will
continue to come over; but it will be much higher co¬
loured, and will be accompanied with a light oil. At
this time a confiderable quantity of air is difcharged;
with regard to which the fame precautions muft be taken
as in diftilling Guaiacum.
If the fire be gradually raifed, there will come over a
black thick oil, lighter however than water; and at the
fame time vapours will rife, and, condenfing the fides
of the receiver, form into fprings or ramifications. This
is a volatile alkaline fait, in a concrete form, like that of#
animals, as we fhall hereafter fee. Thefe vapours are
much whiter than thofe of Guajacum.
When you have thus drawn off, with a very ftrong
fire, all the volatile alkali and thick oil contained in the
fubjetft, there will be nothing left in the retort but a fort
of coal, from which a fmall quantity of phofphorus may
be obtained, provide^ the retort you employ for that
purpofe be good enough to Hand a very violent heat.
Muftard-feed furnifhes us with an inftance of a ve¬
getable, from which we obtain, by analifing it, the
very fame principles that animal-matters yield. Inftead
C H E M 1
of getting an acid from it, we obtain only a volatile alkali.
We fliall pot here fpeak of tbe mariner of feparating
and depurating the principles obtained by this procefs ;
but referve it for the analyfis of animals, which is abfo-
lutely the fame. ^Ve (hall content ourfelves with obfer-
ving, that the firft volatile alkali, which rifes at the be¬
ginning of the operation together with the phlegm, in a
degree of heat below that of boiling watet, differs from
that which doth not come over till towards the end of the
diftillation, when the. laft thick oil afcends. The differ¬
ent times, and different degrees of heat, in which thefe
two alkalis rife, lhew that the former exifts actually and
perfedly in the plant; but that the lafter is generated
duringthe diftillation, and is the product ofvthe fire, which
combines together the materials whereof it is compofed.
Vegetables, that thus yield a volatile a'lkali with a
heat lefs than that of boiling water, irritate the organ of
fmelling, affecting it with a fenfation of acrimony; and
the effluvia, which rife from them when bruifed, make
the eyes linart fo as to draw tears from them in abun¬
dance. Several of thefe matters, being -only bruifed,
effervefce with acid?: effe&s producible only by a very
volatile, alkaline principle.
This is that alkali, the lighted of all the principles
that can be extradted from bodies, which rifes firff in our
diftillation along with the phlegm, and with a' degree of
heat much inferior to that of boiling water. As the
phlegm with which it rifes is very Copious, it is diffol-
ved thereby; which is the reafon it doth not appear in
a concrete form. To this water it gives a flight yellow-
ifh tinge, becaufe it is impure and oily. The faline al¬
kaline properties of this liquor have procured it the title
of a volatile fpirit. This volatile alkali, which exifts
naturally and perfedlly formed in muftard-feed, onions,,
garlick, creffes, and other fuch vegetables, conftitutes a
difference between them and animal fubftances, which
contain only the materials requifite to form a volatile al¬
kali, but none ready formed, unlefs they have undergone
the putrid fermentation.
The fecond volatile alkali, which rifes in our diftilla'-
tion, but not without averyftrong degree of fire, and at
thb fame time with the laft thick oik feems to be a pro-
dudlion of the.fire ; for, if it were already formed in the
mixt, as the other is, it would rife with the fame heat,
and at the fame time, being equally volatile.
Of the Subfinnces obtained from'Vegetables by
Combuftion.
To procure a fired Caufiic Alkaline Salt from a Ve¬
getable Sub/lance, by burning it in the open Air.
Take any. vegetable matter whatever ; fet it on fire,
^nd let it burn in the open air till it be wholly reduced
to alhes. On thefe afiies pour a quantity of boiling wa¬
ter fufficient to drench them thoroughly. Filter the li¬
quor, in order to feparate the earthy parts; and evaporate
your lye to drynefs, ftirring it inceflantly ; and you will
have a yellowifh-white fait.
Put this fait in a crueible ; fet it in a melting furnace,
and make a moderate fire, fo as not to fufe the fait. It
Vol. H. No. 36. 3
S T K Y. 157
will turn fit ft of a blue-grey colour:, qfterwards-ef a blue*
green, and'at laft reddilh. put on the dome of the fur¬
nace'; fill it with coals; make your fire ftrong enough
to melt the fait, and keep it in fufion for an hour, or an
hour and half. Then pour it into a heated metal mor¬
tar ; pound it while it is red-hot ; put it as foon as pcf-
fible into a glafs bottle, firft made very hot and dry,
and /hut it up clofe with a glafs ftopple rubbed with eme¬
ry. By this means you will have the pure fixed alkali of
the vegetable fubftance you burnt.
Burning a vegetable fubftance in the open air is a kind
of violent and rapid analyfis made by fire, which fepa-
•rates, cefolves^ and decompofes feveral of its principles.
When any wood or plant is laid on a quick fire, there
afcends from it immediately an aqueous fmoke, which
confifts of little more tlvn phlegm; but this frhoke foon
becomes thicker and blacker ; it is then pungent, draws
tears from one’s eyes, and excites a cough if drawn into
the lungs with the breath. Thefe effedls atife from its
being replete with the acid, and.fome of the oil, of the
vegetable converted into vapours. Soon after this the
fmoke grows exceeding black and thick; it is now ft.11
more acrid, and the plant turns black. Its ftrongeft a-
cid and laft thick oil are now difcharged with impetuo-
fity. ‘
This rarefied oil being heated red-hot fuddenly takes
fire and flames. -The vegetable burns and deflagrates
rapidly, till all its oil is confumed. Then the flame
ceafes; and nothing remains but a coal, like that found
in a retort after all the principles of a plant have been ex-
trafted by the force of fire. Bat this coal having a free
communication with the air, which is abfolutelyneceffary
to keep a'combuftible burning, continues to be red, fparkles,
and waftes till all its phlogjfton is diflipated and deftroyed.
After this nothing remains but the earth and fixed fait of
the vegetable; which,, mixed together, form-what we
call the afhes. Water, which is the natural folvent of
falts, takes up eVfery thing of that kind that is contained
in the alhps ; fo that by lixiviating thenij as direded,
all the 'fait is extracted, and nothing left but the pure
earth of the mixt which is thus decompofed.
The phenomena, obferved in the burning of a vegetable
fubftance, and the produdion thereby of a fixed alkali,
feem to prove that this fait is the wqik of the fire; that
it did not exift in the plant before it was burnr; that the
plant only contained materials adapted to form this fait;
and that this fait is no other than^a combination of fome
of the acid, united with a portion of earth, by means of
the igneous motion.
The alkali obtained from the allies of burnt plants is
not pcrfedly pure : it is contaminated with a fmall mix¬
ture of fatty matters, which were probably defended
thereby againft the adion of the fire, and which render
it fomewhat faponaceous. In order to free it from this
extraneous matter, and to render it very cauftic, it muft
be calcined a long time in a crucible, but'without melt-
vingitat firft; becaufe it is with this fait as with moft me¬
tallic matters, which are fooner and more eafily deprived
of their phlogifton by being calcined without melting,
provided theybe comminuted into fmall particles, than
when, they are in fufion ; all melted'matters having but
15B C IT E M
a'fmall furface expofed to the air, by the contadt of
which the evaporation of any thing whatever is exceed¬
ingly promoted.
To procure the fixed Salt of a Plant, by burning it
after the manner of Tachenius.
Into an iron pot put the plant whofe fait you defire
to obtain in the manner of Tachenius, and fet it over a
fire, ftrong enough to make its bpttom red-hot; at fhe'
fame time cover your plant with a plate of iron, that may
lie immediately upon it in the pot. The plant will grow
black, and fmoke confiderably; but .will not flame, be-
caufe it hath not a fullicient communication with the
air. The black fmoke only will efcape through the in-
terftice left between the fide of the pot and the rim of
the plate; which, for that pur^ofe, ftiould be made fo
as not to fit exaftly into the pot. From time to time
take up the iron plate, ftir the plant, and cover it again
immediately, to prevent its taking fire, or to fmother it
if it fliould happen to flame : go on thus till the black
fmoke ceafe.
Then take off the iron plate: the upper part of the
half-burnt plant will take fire as foon as the air is ad¬
mitted, confume gradually, and be reduced to a white
afli. Stir your, matter with an iron wire, that the un-
dermoft parts, which are ftill black, may be fucceflively
brought uppermoft, take fire, and bui^i to white afhes.
Go on thus as long as you perceive the leaft blacknefs
remaining. After this, leave your afhes fome time longer
on the fire; but ftir them frequently, to the end that,
if any black particles Ihould ftill be left, they may be
entirely confumed.
Your afhes being thus prepared, lixiviate them with
feven times their quantity of water, made to fimmer o-
ver the fire, and keep ftirring it with an iron ladle.
Then filter the liquor, and evaporate it to drynefs in an
iron pot, ftirring it inceffantly towards the end, left the
matter, when it grows ftiff, fhould adhere too clofely
to the veffel. When all the humidity is evaporated, you
will have a fait of a darkifh colour and alkaline nature;
which you may melt in a crucible, and mould into cakes.
This is the fixed fait of plants, prepared in the manner
of Tachenius.
To render Fixed Alkalis very caujlic by means of Lime.
The Cauftic Stone.
Take a lump of newly burnt quick-lime, that hath
not yet begun to flake in the air : put it into a ftone pan,
and cover it with twice its weight of the unwafhed afhes
of fome plant that are full of the fait you defign to ren¬
der cauftic. Pour on them a great quantity of hot wa¬
ter ; let them fteep in it five or fix hours, and then boil
them gently. Filter the liquor through a thick canvas
bag, or through brown filtering paper fupported by a
linen cloth.
Evaporate the filtered liquor in a copper bafon fet over
the fire ; and there will remain a fait, which muft be put
into a crucible fet in the fire. It will melt, and boil for
fome time ; after which it will be ftill, and look like an
oil, or melted fat. When it comes to this condition,
pour it out on a very hot copper plate, and cut it into
I S T R Y.
oblong tapering flips, before it grow hard by cooling*
Put thefe flips, while they are ftill hot, into a very dry
glafs bottle, • and feal it hermetically. This is the caufitc
ftone, or common caufiic.
The Analyfis of Soot.
Take wood-foot from a chimney under which no ani¬
mal matter hath been dreffed or burnt: put it into a glafs
retort fet in a reverberating furnace ; lute on a receiver,
and begin to diftill with a degree of heat fomewhat lefs
than that of boiling water. A confiderable quantity of
limpid phlegm will come over. Keep the fire in the fame
degree as long as any of this phlegm rifes, but increafe
it when the drops begin to come flow; and then there
will afcend a good deal of a milky water. When this
water ceafes to run, change the receiver, and increafe
your fire a little : a yellow volatile fait will rife, and
ftick to the fides of the receiver. The fire ought now tb
be very fierce, and, if fo, will force up at the fame time
a very thick black oil. Let the vefleis cool: you will
find a faline matter rifen into the neck of the retort,
which could not pafs over into the receiver : in the bot¬
tom of the retort will be a caput mortuurn, or black
charred fubftance, the upper part of which will be cruft-
ed over with a faline mattqr, like that in the neck of the
retort.
As we are at prefent inquiring into the nature of ve¬
getables only, it is evidently neceflary that we chufe a
foot produced by burning vegetables alone. Soot, though
dry in appearance, contains neverthelefs much humidity,
as appears from this analyfis ; feeing there comes over at
firft a confiderable quantity of phlegm, that doth not feem
to be impregnated with any principle, except perhaps an
extremely fubtile, faline, and oily matter, that commu¬
nicates to it a difagreeable fmell, from which it cannot
by any means be. entirely freed.
The volatile alkali obtained from foot is, in a double
refpedt, the produft of the fire. In the firft place, though
it derives its origin wholly from wood, or other vege¬
tables, which, when diftilled in clofe veflels, yield no
volatile alkali at all, yet it produces fuch a fait when a-
nalyfed in the prefent manner : whence it muft be in¬
ferred, that the principles of thofe vegetables are meta-
morphofed into a volatile alkali, by being burnt in the
open air, and fublimed in the form of foot. Secondly,
though foot, when analyfed, yields a great deal of this
fait, yet this fait doth not formally pre-exift therein ;
for it doth not rife- till after the phlegm, nor without a
very confiderable degree of heat: therefore foot contains
only the materials neceffary to form this fait ; therefore
the perfect combination of this fait requires that the force
of fire be applied a fecond time ; therefore it is, as was
faid, doubly the product of the fire.
The faline matter which we find fublimed into the
neck of the retort, and which alfo forms the cruft that
covers the caput mortuum of the foot, appears by all
chemical trials to be an ammoniacal fait; that is, a neu¬
tral fait, confifting of an acid and a volatile alkali. This
ammoniacal fait rifes only into the neck of the retort,
and doth not come over into the receiver; becaufe it is
but femi-volatile. We 'ftiall treat more at large of the
produftion
C H E M
produttion of a volatile alkali, and of this ammoniacal
fait, when we come to the analyfis of animals, and the
article of fal ammoniac.
'The Analyfis of fome particular Subftances be-
■ longing to the Vegetable Kingdom.
Analyfis of the natural Balfams : infanced in Tur¬
pentine.
Into a cucurbit put as much rain-water as will fill
about a fourth part of its cavity, and pour into it the
turpentine you intend to analyfe. Cover the cucurbit'
with its head, and lute it on with flips of fized paper
or wet bladder. Set your alembic in a fand-heat; lute
on a long-necked receiver ; and give a gradual fire till
the water in the cucurbit boil. There will come over
into the receiver a good deal of phlegm, which, by little
and little, will become more and more acid ; and at the
fame time there will rife a great quantity of an aethereal
oil, extremely light, fluid, and as limpid and colourlefs
as water.
When you obferve that no more oil comes off, unlute
your veffels ; and in the receiver you will find an acidu¬
lated water, and the aethereal oik floating on it. Thefe
two liquors may be eafily feparated from each other, by
means of a glafs funnel.
In the cucurbit will be left fome of the water you put
in, together with the remainder of your turpentine ;
which, when cold, inftead of being fluid, as it was before
diftillation, will be folid, and of the confidence of a relin,
and is then called rofn.
Put this refiduum into a glafs retort, and diftill it in a
reverberatory with a naked fire, gradually increafed ac¬
cording to the general rule for all diftillations. At firft,
with a degree of heat a little greater than that of boiling
water, you will fee two liquors come over into the reci¬
pient ; one of which will be aqueous and acid, the other
will be a tranfparent, limpid, yellowilh oil, floating on
the acid liquor.
Continue your diftillation, increafing your fire from
time to time, by flow degrees. Thefe two liquors will
continue to come ofif together ; and the nearer the ope¬
ration draws to its end, the more acid will the aqueous
liquor become, and the thicker and deeper coloured will
the oil grow. At laft the oil will be very thick, and of
a deep reddifli-yellow colour. When nothing more a-
fcends, unlute your veflels : in the retort you will find
only a very fmall quantity of a charred, light, friable
fubftance.
All natural balfams, as well as turpentine, are oily,
aromatic matters, which flow in great quantities from
the trees containing them, either fpontaneoufly, or thro’
incifions made on purpofe. As thefe matters have a
ftrong fcent, it is not furprifing that they ftiould greatly
abound with effential oils. They may even be confi-
dered as eflential oils, that naturally, and of their own
accord, feparate from the vegetables in which they exift.
Natural balfams, and efl’ential oils grown thick with
age, are exactly oae and the fame tiling. Accordingly
I S T R Y. 159
we fee that fire and diftillation produce th6 fame effefls
on both. The re&ification of an eflential oil, thickened
by keeping, is nothing but a decompofition thereof, by
feparating, with the heat of boiling water, all' thole
parts that are light enough to rife with that degree of
heat, from what is fo loaded with acid as to remain fixed
therein.
The newer natural balfams are, .the thinner they are,
and the more eflential oil do they yield ; and this eflen-
tial oil, like all others, grows thick in time, and at laft:
turns again to an aftual balfam.
Thefe balfams, by being long expofed to the heat of
the^fun, acquire fuch a confiftence as to become folid.
They then take another name, and are called ref ns.
Refins yield much lefs eflential oil when diftilled, than
balfams do. Hence it follows, that refins are to balfams,
what balfams are to eflential oils.
The Analyfs of Ref ns : infanced in Benjamin. The
Flowers and Oil of Benjamin.
Into a pretty deep earthen pot, having a border or
rim round its mouth, put the benjamin you intend to a-
nalyfe. Cover the pot with a large conical cap of very
thick white paper, and tie it on under the rim. Set your
pot in a fand-bath, and warm it gently till the benjamin
melt. Continue the heat in this degree for an hour and
half. Then untie the paper cap and take it off, (baking
it as little as pcffible. You will find all the infide of the
cap covered with a great quantity of beautiful, white,
(hining flowers, in the form of little needles. Brufti them
off gently with a feather, put them into a bottle, and
ftopi it clofe.
As foon as you take off the firft cap, cover your pot
immediately with a fecond like the former. In this man¬
ner go on till you perceive the flowers begin to grow
yellowifh ; and then it is proper to defift.
The matter left in the pot will be blackilh and friable
when cold. Pulverife it; mix it with fand ; and diftill
it in a glafs retort with a graduated heat. There will
come over a light oil, of a fragrant fcent, but in very
fmall .quantity; a little of an acid liquor, and a great
quantity of a red thick oil. There will be left in the
retort a charred, fpungy fubftance.
Of the Nature and Properties of Camphor.
We do not propofe to give an analyfis of this lingular
Body; becaufe hitherto there is no procefs known in
chemiftry by which, it can be decompofed. We (bail'
therefore content ourfelves with reciting its principal pro¬
perties, and making a few reflexions on its nature.
Camphor is an oily concrete fubftance ; a kind of re¬
fin, brought to us from the ifland of Borneo, but chiefly
from japan. This fubftance refembles refins, in being
inflammable, and burning much as they do ; it is not fo
luble in water, but diftcives entirely and perfeXly in fpi-
rit of wine; it is eafily feparated again from this merr-
ftruum, as all other oily matters are, by the addition of
water; it diflblves both in expreffed and in diftilled oils ;
it hath a very ftrong aromatic fmell. Thefe are the
chief
160 C H E Tvl
chief properties which camphor ^oiTeHes in common'with
refins : but in other relpefts it diiFers totally from them ;
efpecially in the following particulars.
Camphor, takes fire and flames with vafily more eafe
than any other refin. It is fo very volatile, that it va-
nifhes entirely in the air, without any other heat than
that of the atmofphere. In diflillation it rifes. entire,
without any decompofition, or even the leafl: alteration.
It diiToIves in concentrated mineral acids ; but with cir-
cumftances very different from thofe that attend other
oily or refinous fubflances. The diilbltition is accompa¬
nied with no effervefcence, no fenfible heat; and confe-
quently can produce no inflammation. Acids do not
burn, blacken, or thicken it, as they do other oily mat-
-ters ; on the contrary, it becbmes; fluid, and runs with
them into a liquor that looks like oil.
Camphor doth not, like other, oily matters, acquire a
difpofuion to diffplve in water by the union it contracts
with acids ; though its union with them feems to be more
intimate than that of many oily matters with the fame a-
cids.. On the contrary, if a combination of camphor and
an acid be diluted with water, thefe two fubftances in-
flantly feparate from each other : the acid unites with
the water, and the. camphor, being entirely difengaged
from it, fwims on the fur face of the liquor. Neither
volatile alkalis, nor the mod cauftjc fixed alkalis, can
be brought into union with it; for it always eludes their
power.
NotwithfLrnding thefe wide, differences between cam¬
phor and all other oily and. xefinoua. fubftances.* the rule,
that acids thicken oils, feem^ to be fo univerfai, and fo
conftantly obferved by nature, that we cannot help think¬
ing this fubftance, like all the reft, is an oil thickened
by an acid. But what oil i wh,at acid ? and how are
they united ? This is a fubje£t for very curious inqui¬
ries. . , ,, , , ; ‘ ■
With a yellqw oil drawn from wine, and an acid vi¬
nous fpirit, Mr Hellot made a kind of artificial cam¬
phor; a fubftance having the odour, favour, and inflam¬
mability of camphor; an ..camphor. True
camphor hath the levity, the volatility, and the inflam¬
mability of aether.. Can it be a fubftance of the fame
nature with tether, a kind of folid aether, an aether in a
concrete form ;
77;? Analysis of Bitumens : injlanced in Amber. The
Volatile Salt and Oil of Amber.
Into a glafs retort put fome fmall bits of amber, fo
as to fill but two thirds of the veffel. Set your retort .in
a furnace covered with its dome ; fit on a large glafs re¬
ceiver ; and beginning with a very gentle heat, diftill
with degrees of fire. Some phlegm will firft come off,
which will gradually grow more acid, and be fucceeded
by a volatile fait, figured like fine needles, that will ftick
to the fides of the receiver.
Keep the fire up to this degree, in order to drive over
all the fait. When you perceive that little or none
rifes, change the receiver, and increafe your fire a little.
A light, clear, limpid oil will afcend. As the diftilla-
tion advances, this oil will grow higher coloured, lefs
I S T R Y.
limpid, and thicker ; till at lad it will be opaque, black,
and have the confiftence of turpentine.
When you perceive that, though the retort be red-hot,
nothing more comes off, let the fire go out. You will
have in the retort a black, light, fpungy coal. If you
have taken care to drift the receiver, from time to time,
during the diftillation of your oil, you will have fundry
feparate portions thereof, each of which will have a dif¬
ferent degree of tenuity or thicknefs, according as k
came over at the beginning, or towards the end of the di-
jftillation.
The fubftance of which we have here given the ana-
iyfis, together with all others of the fame, that is, of the
bituminous kind, is, by moft chemills and naturalifls, claffed
with minerals : and lb far they are right, that we actual¬
ly get thefe mixts, like other minerals, out of the bowels
of the earth, and never procure them immediately from
any vegetable or animal compound. Yet we have our
reafons for aCting otherwife, and for thinking that we
could not, in this work, place them better, than imme¬
diately after thofe vegetable fubftances which we call re-
fins.
Several motives determine us to proceed in this man¬
ner. The analyfis of bitumens demonftrates, that, with
regard to the principles of which they confift, they are
totally different from every other kind of mineral ; and
that, on the contrary,' they, greatly referable vegetable
refins in almoft- every refpeCt. In ftiort, though‘they
are not immediately procured from vegetables, there is
the greateft reafon for believing that they were originally
of the vegetable kingdom, and that they are no other
than refinous and oily parts of trees, or plants, which by
lying long in the earth, and there contracting an union
with the mineral acids, have acquired the qualities that
diftinguilh them from refins.
Mineralogifts know very well that we find, every
where in the earth, many vegetable fubftances, that have
lain very long buried under it, and frequently at a con-
fiderable depth. It is. not uncommon to find, under
ground, vaft beds of folWe trees, which feem to be the
remains of immenfe forefts : and bitumens, particularly
amber, are often found among this fubterraneons wood.
Thefe confiderations, joined to proofs drawn from their
analyfis, make this opinion more than probable:7 nor are
we Angular in maintaining it, as it is adopted by many
able modern chemifts.
The analyfis of amber, above defcribed, may.fefve as
a general fpecimen of the decompofition of other bitu¬
mens : with this fingle difference, that amber is the only
one among them which yields the volatile fait aforefaid;
and this determined us to examine it preferably to any o-
ther. As for the reft, they all yield a phlegm, an acid
liquor, and an oil; which is thin at firft, but grows
thicker and thicker as the diftillation draws towards an
end. It muft be underftood, however, that thefe acids
and thefe oils may differ, according to the nature of the
bitumens from which they are drawn ; juft as the phlegm,
the acid, and the oil, refulting from the decompofition
of refins, differ in quantity and quality, according to the
nature of the refins from which they are procured.
The
CHEMISTRY. 161
The principal differences obferved between refins and
bitumens are thefe: the latter are lefs foluble in fpirit of
v/ine ; have a peculiar fcent, which cannot be accurately
defcribed, and of which the fenfe of fmelling only can
judge; and their acid is ftronger and more fixed. This
Jaft property is one of the motives which induce us to
think, that befides the vegetable acid, originally combi¬
ned with the refinous or oily matter now become a bitu¬
men, a certain quantity of mineral acid hath, in a courfe
of time,- been fuperadded to conftimte this mixt. We
fiiall prefently fee that the f^ft is certainly fo, in the cafe
of amber at leaft.
The Analyfis of B'ees-wax.
Melt the wax you intend to analyfe, and mix with it
as.much fine fand as will make it into a ftiff pafte. Put
this pafte in little bits into a retort, and diftil as ufual,
with a graduated fire, beginning with a very gentle heat.
An acid phlegm will come oVer, and be followed by a
liquor which at firft will look like an oil, but will foon
congeal in the receiver, and have the appearance of a
butter or greafe. Continue the diftillation, increafing
the fire by infenfible degrees, till nothing more will
come off. Then feparate the butterkfrom the acid phlegm
in the receiver, mix it with frefh fand, and diftil it again
juft as you did the wax before. Some acid phlegm will
ftill come off, and an oil will afcend, which will not fix
in the receiver, though it be (till thick. Continue the
diftillation, with a fire fo governed that the drops may
fucceedeach other at the diftauce of fix or feven feconds
of time. Do not increafe it, till you perceive the drops
fall more flowly ; and then increafe it no more than is
neceffary to make the drops follow each other as above
direfted. When the diftillation is finifhed, you will find
in the receiver the oil come wholly over, and a little a-
cid phlegm. Separate the oil from this liquor; and, if
you defire to have it more fluid, rediftil it a third time
in the fame manner.
The Saccharine Juices of Plants analyfed: infanced
'' in Honey.
Put into a ftone cucurbit the honey'you intend to di¬
ftil ; fet it in a moderate fand-heat, and evaporate the
greateft part of its humidity, till you perceive the phlegm
to be acid. Then t^ke out the matter remaining in the
cucurbit, put it into a retort, leaving a full third thereof
empty, and diftil in a reverberatory with degrees of fire.
An acid amber-coloured liquor will come over. As the
operation advances, this liquor will continually become
deeper coloured and more acid, and at the fame time a
little black oil will afcend. When the diftillation is over,
' you will find in the retort a pretty large charred mafs,
which being burnt in the open air, and lixiviated, affords
a fixed alkali.
Sugar, manna, and the faccharine juices of fruits and
plants, are of the fame nature as honey, yield the fame
principles, and in the fame proportions. All thefe fub-
ftances muft be confidered as native foaps; becaufe they
confift of an oil rendered mifcible with water, by means
ef a faline fubftance. They differ from the common ar¬
tificial foaps in" feveral refpe&s,; but chiefly in this, that
V-OL * II. No.. 36. 3
their faline part is an acid, whereas that of common
foap is an alkali. The natural foaps are not for that
reafon the lefs perfect: on‘ the contrary, they diffolve
in water without deftroying its tranfparency, and with¬
out giving it a milky colour ; which proves, that acids
are not lefs proper than alakalis, or rather that they are
more proper additaments, for bringing oils into a fapo-
naceous ftate.
Gummy Subfances analyfed: injlanced in Gum Arabic.
Distil gum arabic in a retort with degrees of fire.
A limpid, fcentlefs, and taftelefs phlegm will firft come
over ; and then a ruflet coloured acid liquor, a little vo¬
latile alkali, and an oil, which will firft be thin and after¬
wards grow thick. In the retort will be left a good
deal of a charred fubftance, which, being burnt and lix¬
iviated, will give a fixed alkali.
Gums have at firft fight fome refemblance of refins ;
which hath occafioned many refinous matters to be called
gums, though very improperly : for they are two diftindt
foits of fubftances, of natures abfolutely different frorn
each other. It hath been fhewn, that refins have an a-
romatic odour ; that they are indiffoluble in water, and
foluble in fpirit of wine; that they are only an effential
oil grown thick. Gums, on the contrary, have no o-
dour, are foluble in water, indiffoluble in fpirit of wine,
and, by being analyfed as in the procefs, are converted
almoft wholly into a phlegm\and an acid. The fmall
portion of oil contained in them is fo thoroughly united
with their acid, that it diffolves perfectly in water, and
the folution is clear and limpid. In this refpect gums
refemble honey, and the other vegetable juices analogous
to it. They are all fluid originally ; that is, when they
begin to ooze out of their trees. At that time they per-
fe&ly refemble mucilages, or rather they are adtual mu¬
cilages, which grow thick and hard in time by the eva¬
poration of a great part of their moifture: juft as refins
are true oils, which, lofing their moft fluid parts by e-
vaporation, at laft become folid. Infufions or flight de-
codtions of mucilaginous plants, when evaporated to dry-
nefs, become adhial gums.
Some trees abound both in oil and in mucilage : thefe -
two fubftances often mix and flow from the tree blended
together. Thus they both grow dry and hard together
in one mafs, which of courfe is at the fame time both
gummy and refinous : and accordingly fuch mixts are
named gum reftns.
Of Operations on Fermented Vegetable
Substances.
Of the Produtf of Spiritiwus Fermentation.
To make Wine of Vegetable Subfances that are fufccpti-
ble of Spirituous Fermentation.
Let a liquor fufceptible of, and prepared for, the
fpirituous fermentation, be put into a calk. Set this calk
in a temperately warm cellar, and cover the bung-hole
with a bit of linen cloth only. In more or lefs lime,
according to the nature of the liquor to be ferment'd,
2 S aad
16i C H E M
and to the degree of heat in the air, the liquor will be¬
gin to fwell, and be rarefied. There will arife an intef-
tine motion, attended with a fmall hilling and effervef-
cence, throwing up bubbles to the furface, and difchar-
ging vapours ; while the grofs, vifcous, and thick parts,
being driven up by the fermenting motion, and rendered
lighter by little bubbles of air adhering to them, will rife to
the top, and there form a kind of foft fjmngy.cruft,-which
will cover the liquor all over. The fermenting motion
ftill continuing, this cruft will,- from time to time, be lift¬
ed up and cracked by vapours making their efcape through
it; but thofe fiffures will prefently clofe again, till, the
fermentation gradually going off, and at laft entirely cea-
fing, the cruft will fall in pieces to the bottom of the
liquor, which will infenfibly grow clear, Then ftcp the
calk clofe with its bung, and fet it in a"cooler place.
Matters that are fufceptible of the fpirituous fermen¬
tation are feldom fo perfeftly prepared for it by nature
as they require to be. If we except the juices.that flow
naturally from certain trees, but oftener from incifions
made on purpofe in them, all other fubftances require
fome previous-preparation.
Boerhaave divides the fubftances that are fit for fpi¬
rituous fermentation into five claffes. In the firft he
places all the meally feeds, the legumens, and the ker¬
nels of almoft all fruits. The fecond clafs includes the
juices of all fruits that do not tend to putrefaftion. In
the third clafs ftand the juices of all the parts of-plants
which tend rather to acidity than to putrefadlion ; and
confequently thofe which yield much volatile alkali are
to be excluded. The fourth clafs comprehends the
juices or faps that fpontaneoufly diftil from feveral trees
and plants, or flow from them when wrounded. He
forms his fifth and laft clafs of the faponaceous, Saccha¬
rine, and concrete or thick j uices of vegetables. Refinous
or purely gummy matters are excluded, as not being fer¬
mentable.
Thefe five claffes may be reduced into two; one com¬
prehending all the juices, and another all the meally parts
of vegetables that are fufceptiblp of fermentation. The
juices want nothing to fit them for fermentation, but to
be exprsffed out of the fubftances containing them, and
to be diluted with a Sufficient quantity of water. If
they be very thick, the beft way is to add fo much water
as (hall render the mixed liquor juft capable of bearing
a new-laid egg. With refpeft to farinaceous fubftan-
ce?, as they are almoft all either oily or mucilaginous,
they require a little more.management. The method of
brewing malt liquors will furnifh us with examples of
fuch management. See Brewing.
Befides the preparations relating chiefly to malt li¬
quors, there are many other things to be obferved rela¬
ting to fpirituous fermentation in general, and to all mat¬
ters fafceptible of that fermentation. For example; all
grain? and fruits defigned for that fermentation muft be
pcrftfi’v ripe ; for otherwife they will not ferment with¬
out difficulty, and will produce little or no inflammable
fpint. Such matters as are too auftere, too acrid, or
aftringent, are for the fame reafon unfit for fpirituous
fermentation ; as well as thofe which abound too much
in oil. '
I S T R Y.
In order to make the fermentation Succeed perfeftly,
fo as to produce the beft wine that the fermented liquor
is capable of affording, it is neceffary to let it ftand quiet
without ftirring it, left the cruft that forms on its fur-
face fhould be broken to little fragments, and mix with
the liquor. This cruft is a kind'of cover, which hinders
the {pirituous parts from exhaling as faft as they^are
formed. The free accefs of the air is another condition
neceffary to fermentation : and for this reafon the veffel
that contains the fermenting liquor muft not be clofe
flopped ; the bung-hole is only to be covered with a li-’
nen cloth, to hinder dirt and infefls from falling into it.
Nor muft the bung-hole be too large, left too much of
the fpirituous parts fhould efcape and be loft.
Laftly, a juft degree of warmth is one of the condi¬
tions moft neceffary for fermentation : for in very cold
weather there is no fermentation at all; and too much
heat precipitates it in fuch a manner that the whole li¬
quor becomes turbid, and many fermenting and ferment¬
ed particles are diflipated.
If, notwithftanding the exaffeft obfervance of every
particular requifite to excite a fuccefsful fermentation,
the liquor cannot, without difficulty, be brought to ef-
fervefee, which fcarce ever happens but to malt-liquor,
it may be accelerated by mixing therewith fome matter
that is very fufceptible hf fermentation, or affnally fer¬
menting. Such matters are called ferments. The cruft
that forms on the furface of fermenting liquors is a moft
efficacious ferment, and on that account very much ufed.
It fometimes happens, that there is occafron to check
the fermentation excited in the liquor, before it ceafes of
itfelf. To effe<ft this, fuch means muft he ufed as are
diredtly oppofite to thofe mentioned above for promoting
fermentation. The fame end is obtained by mixing with
the liquor a quantity of alkali, fufficient to abforb the
acid contained therein : but this method is feldom made
ufe of, becaufe it fpoiis the liquor; which, after being
thus treated, is incapable of any fpirituous fermentation,
but on the contrary will certainly putrefy.
Spirituous fermentation may alfo be flopped by mixing
with the liquor a great quantity of fome mineral acid.
But this likewife alters its nature ; becaufe thefe acids,
being fixed, always remain confounded therewith, and
never feparate from it.
The beft method yet found out for checking this fer¬
mentation, without injury to the fermenting liquor, is to
impregnate it with the fumes of burning fulphur. Thefe
fumes are known to be acid, and it is that quality in them
which fufpends the fermentation. But at the fame rime
this acid is extremely volatile ; fo that it feparates fpon¬
taneoufly from the liquor, after fome time, and leaves it
in a condition to continue itsffermentation.
For this reafon, when a wine is defired that fhall be
but half fermented, and ffiall partly retain the fweet tafte
it had in the ftate of muft, (the proper name for the un-
fermented juice of the grape), it is put into calks in which
fulphur hath been previoufly burnt, and the vapours
thereof confined by flopping the bung-hole. Thefe are
called matched whies. If the fame operation be per¬
formed on mu ft, its fermentation will be abfolutely pre¬
vented : it will retain all its faccharine tafte, and is then
called
C H E M
called fium. As the fulphureous acid evaporates fpon-
taneoufly, in no long fpace, it is neceflary to fumigate
matched wines or ftums from time to time, when they are
intended to be kept long without fermenting.
To dra'w an Ardent Spirit from Subjiances that have
undergone the Spirituous Fermentation. The Analy-
jis of Wine.
Fill a large copper cucurbit half full of wine. Fit
on its head and refrigeratory. Lute on a receiver with
wet bladder, and diftlll with a gentle fire ; yet fo that
the drops which fall from the nofe of the alembic may
fucceed one another pretty quick, and form a fort of
fniall continued ftream. Go on thus till yqu perceive
that the liquor which , comes over cea'fes to be inflamma¬
ble ; and then defift. You will find in the receiver a
clear liquor, fome\Vhat inclining to an amber-colour, of a
pleafant quick fmell, and which being thrown into the
fire inftantly flames. The quantity thereof will be nearly
a fourth part of the wine you put into the alembic ; and
this is what is called brandy ; that is, the ardent fpirit
of wine loaded with much phlegm.
In order to rectify it, and reduce it to fpirit of wine,
put it into a long-necked matras, capable of holding
double the quantity. Fit a head to the matras, and lute
on a receiver : place your matras over a pot half full of
water : fet this pot over a moderate fire ; and with this
vapour-bath diftil your fpirit, which will rife pure.
Continue this degree of heat till nothing more will come
over. You will find in the receiver a very clear colour-
lefs fpirit of wine, of a quick but agreeable fmell, which
will catch fire at once by the bare contaft of any flaming
fubflance.
To dephlegmate Spirit of Wine by the Means of Fixed
Alkalis:
Into a glafs cuourbit pour the fpirit of wine you in¬
tend to dephlegmate, and add to it about a third part of
its weight of fixed alkali, newly calcined, perfectly dry,
heated, and pulverifed. Shake the vefiel, that the two
matters may be mixed and blended together. The fait
will gradually grow moift, and, if the fpirit of wine be
very aqueous, melt into a liquor,- that will always lie at
the bottom of the veffel, without uniting with the fpirit
of wine which will fwim at top.
When you perceive that the alkali attrads no new
moifture, and that no more of it melts, decant your fpi¬
rit of wine from the liquor beneath it, and. add to your
fpirit frelh fait thoroughly dried as before. This fait
alfo will imbibe a little moilture ; but it will not grow li¬
quid, becaufe the alkali, with which it was mixed before,,
hath left too little phlegm to melt this. Decant it from
this fait as at firft, and continue to mix and flrake it in
the fame manner with frefli fait, till you obferve that the
fait remains as dry after as it was before mixing it with
the ipirit of wine. Then dillil your Ipirit in a-fmall a-
lembic with a gentle heat, and you will have it as much
dephlegmated as it can be.
I S T R Y. 1
Spirit of Wine combined 'with different Sub¬
jiances.
To combine Spirit of Wine with the Vitriolic Add.
This Combination decompounded. JEther.
Into an Englifh glafs retort put two pounds of fpirit
of wine perfedlly dephlegmated, and pour on it at once
two pounds of highly concentrated oil of vitriol: ihake
the retort gently feveral times, in order to mix the two
liquors. This will produce an ebullition, and confider-
able heat; vapours will afcend, with a pretty loud hilling
noife, which will difltufe a very aromatic fmell, and the
mixture will be of a deeper or lighter red colour, ac¬
cording as the fpirit of wine was more or lefs oily. Set
the retort on a fand-bath made nearly as hot as the li¬
quor ; lute on a tubulated ballon, and diftil the mixture
with a fire ftrong enough to keep the liquor always boil¬
ing ; a very aromatic fpirit of wine will firft come over
into the ballon, after which the aether will rife. When
about five or fix ounces of it are come off, you will fee in
the upper concavity of the retort a vaft number of little
points in a veined form, which will appear fixed, and
which are neverthelefs fo many little drops of aether,
rolling over one another, and trickling down into the re¬
ceiver. Thefe little points continue to appear and fuc¬
ceed each other to the end of the operation. Keep up
the fame degree of fire, till upon opening the little hole
in the ballon you perceive that the vapours, which in-
ftantly fill the receiver, have the fuffocating fmell of vo¬
latile fpirit of fulphur.
Then unlute the ballon, pour the liquor it contains
into a cryftal bottle, and (top it clofe : there will be a-
boiit eighteen ounces of it. Lute on your receiver again,
and continue the diftillation with a greater degree of fire.
There will come over an aqueous, acid liquor, fmeliing
ftrong of a fulphureous fpirit, which is not inflammable.
It will be accompanied with undulating vapours ; which
being condenfed will form an oil, moft commonly yel¬
low, one part of which will float on the furface of the
liquor, and another will fink to the bottom..
Towards the end of the diftillation of this acid liquor,
and of the yellow oil of which it is the vehicle, that part
of the mixture, which is left in the retort and grown
black, will begin to rife in froth. Then fupprefs your-
fire at once,: flop the diftillation, and change your re¬
ceiver once more. When the veflels are grown pretty
cool, finilh your diftillation with a lamp-heat kept up for
twelve or fifteen days, which in all that time will raife
but a very little fulphureous fpirit. Then break your
retort, in which you will find a black, folid mafs, like a
bitumen. It will have an acid tafte, arifing from a re¬
mainder of the acid imperfedtly combined with oil.
This artificial bitumen may be freed from its redundant
acid, by wafhing it in fevcral waters. Then put it into
a glafs retort, and diftil! it with a ftrong reverberated
fire. You will obtain a reddifh oil that will fwim on wa¬
ter,. much like the oil obtained by ddtilling the natural
bitumens.
i«4 C H E M
bitumens. This oil alfo will be accompanied with an a-
queous acid liquor. In the retort will be left a charred
matter, which, being put into an ignited crucible in the
fire, burns for fome time, and, when well calcified, leaves
a white earth.
The liquors that rife firft in this diftillation, and which
we direfled to be kept by themfelves, are a mixture con¬
fiding, i. of a highly dephlegmated fpirit of wine, of a
mod fragrant fmell ; 2. of aether, which the fpirit of
wine wherewith it is united renders mifcible with water ;
3. of a portion of oil, which commonly rifes with the
aether towards the end of the operation ; 4. and fome-
times of a little fulphureous acid, if the receiver be not
changed foon enough.
In order to feparate the aether from thefe other fub-
dances, put the whole into an Englifh retort, with a lit¬
tle oil of tartar per deliquium to abforb the fulphureous
acid, and didil very flowly in a fand-bath heated by a
lamp, till near half the liquor be come over. Then ceafe
diddling ; put the liquor in the receiver into a phial with
fome water, and (hake it; you will fee it rife with ra¬
pidity to the upper part of the phial, and float on the fur-
face of the water : this is the aether.
Spirit of Wine combined 'with Spirit of Nitre.
Sweet Spirit of Nitre.
Into an Engldh retort of crydal glafs put fome high¬
ly re&ified fpirit of wine; and, by means of a glafs fun¬
nel with a long pipe, let fall injp your fpirit of wine a
few drops of the fmoking fpirit .of nitre. There will
arife in the retort an effervefcence attended with heat,
red vapours, and a hiding noife like that of a live coal
quenched in water. Shake the veflel a little, that the
liquors may mix thoroughly, and that the heat may be
equally communicated to the whole. Then add more
fpirit of nitre, but in a very fmall quantity, and with the
fame precautions as before. Continue thus adding fpirit
of nitre, by little and little at a time, till you have put
into the retort a quantity equal to a third part of your
fpirit of wine. Let this puxture dand quiet, in a cool
place, for ten or twelve hours; then fet it to diged in a
very gentle warmth for eight or ten days, having fird
luted on a receiver to the retort.
During this time a fmall quantity of liquor will come
over into the receiver, which mud be poured back into
the retort. Then didill with a fomewhat dronger de¬
gree of heat, but' dill very gently, till nothing be left in
die retort but a thick matter. In the receiver you
will find a fpirituous liquor, of a quick grateful fmell,
which will excite a very fmart fenfation on the tongue,
but without any corrofive acrimony. This is the fweet
fpirit of nitre.
Spirit of Wine combined with the Acid of Sea fait.
Dulcified Spirit of Salt.
Mix together, little by little, in a glafs retort, two
parts of fpirit of wine with one part of fpirit of fait. Set
this mixtnre to diged for a month in a gentle heat, and
dedill it, till nothing remain in the retort but a thick
matter.
The'acid of fea-falt is much lefs difpofed to unite with
I S T R Y.
inflammable matters than the other two mineral acids;
and therefore, though it be ever fo highly concentrated
when mixed with fpirit of wine, it never produces effer-
Vefcence comparable to that which is produced by the
fpirit of nitre. Neither the proportion nor drength of
the fpirit of fait, requifite to prepare the fweet fpirit of
fait, are unanimoufly agreed upon by authors. Some
diretfl equal parts of the two liquors; while others pre-
fcribe from two to four or five parts of fpirit of wine to
one part of fpirit of fait. Some ufe only common fpint
of fait; others require the fmoking fpirit diddled by
means of fpirk of vitriol. Laftly, fome order the mix¬
ture to be diddled, after fome days digedion ; and o-
thers content themfelves with barely digeding it. The
whole depends on the degree of drength which the fweet
fpirit of fait i^ intended to have. This compofition, as
well as the fweet fpirit of nitre, is edeemed in medicine
to be very aperitive and diuretic.
When the mixture of fpirit of fait and fpirit of wine
is diddled, there comes over but one liquor, which ap¬
pears homogeneous. This is the . fweet fpirit of fait.
The nature of the marine acid is not changed in this
combination : the acid is only weakened and rendered
more mild; but in other refpe&s it retains its chara&er-
idie properties. *
Oils, or Oily matters, that are foluhle in Spirit of
Wine, feparated from Vegetables, and dijfolved by
means of that Menjlruum. Tinctures ; Elixirs;
Varnifhes. Aromatic Jlrong waters.
Put into a matras the fubdances from which you in¬
tend to extradk a tinfture, having fird pounded them, or
pulverifed them if they are capable of it. Pour upon
them fpirit of wine to the depth of three fingers breadth.
Cover the matras with a piece -of wet bladder, and tie it
on with packthread. Make a little hole in this bit of
bladder with a pin, leaving it in the hole to keep it dop-
ped. Set .the matras in a fand-bath very gently heated.
If the fpirit of wine diflblve any part of the body, it will
accordingly acquire a deeper or lighter colour. Con¬
tinue the digedion till you perceive that the fpirit of
wine gains no more colour. From time to time pull out
the pin, to give vent to the vapours, or rarefied air,
which might otherwife burd the matras. Decant your
fpirit of wine, and keep it in a bottle well corked. Pour'
on fome frelh fpirit in its dead: diged as before ; and
go on in this manner, pouring on anc^ off frefli fpirit of
wine, till the lad come off colourlefs.
Spirit of wine impregnated with fuch parts of any ve¬
getable fubdance as it is capable of diffolving, is common¬
ly called a tintture. Several tin&ures mixed together,
or a timflure drawn from fundry vegetable fubdances at
the fame time, and in the fame veflel, take the name of
an elixir. Tinftures of elixirs impregnated with refm-
ous matters only, are true varnijhes. All thefe prepara¬
tions are made in the fame manner ; to wit, as direffed
in our procefs. We fhall only add here, that if the fub¬
dances from which a tinfture or elixir is to be made-
contain too much moidure, it is proper to free them
from it by gentle deficcation ; efpecialiyif you defign that
rite tin&ure fliould be well impregnated with the oily and
C ' H E M I
refinous parts : for their excefs of moifture uniting with
the fpirit of wine would weaken it,- and render it unable
to aft on thofe matters, which it cannot dilfolve when it
is aqueous.
If your tinftures or elixirs be not fo ftr&ng or fo fatu
rated as you defire, you’may by diftiilation abftraft part
of the fpirit of wine which they contain, and by that
means give them fuch a degree of thicknefs as you judge
proper. But the fpirit of wine thus drawn off conftantly'
carries along with it a good deal of the aromatic prin¬
ciple. It is a truly aromatic Jlrong ’water. This fpi
rit of* wine alfo carries up with it a portion' of thin oil,
which is fo much the more confiderable as the degree
of heat employed is greater: and this is the reafon "hy
it beipames of a milky colour when mixed with ■ ater.
If you intend to make an aromatic ftrong water only,
you need not previoufiy extraff a tinflure from the ve¬
getable fubftance with which you mean to prepare your
water: you need only put it in a cucurbit, pour fpint of
wine upon it, and diftil with a gentle heat. By this-
means you will obtain a fpirit of wine impregnated with
all the odour of the plant.
0/ T A R t A R.
Tartar analyfed by dijiillation, The Spirit,' Oil, and
Alkaline Salt of Tartar. .
Into a (lone retort, or a glafs one coated with lute,
put fome white tar-tar broken into fmall bits ; obferving
that* one half; or at lead a full third, of the veffel be
left empty. Set your retort in a reverberating furnace.
Fit on a large ballon, having a fmall hole drilled in it :
lute it exaffly with fat lute, and fecure the joint with a
linen cloth fmeared with lute made of quick-lime and
the white of an egg. Apply at firft an exceeding gentle
heat, which''will raife a limpid, fouriih, pungent water,
having but little fmeil, and a b'itterifh tafte.
When this firft phlegm ceafes to come off, increafe
your fire a little, And make the degree of heat nearly equal
to that of boiling water. A thin, limped oil will rife, ac¬
companied with white vapours, and with a prodigious
quantity of air, which will ifliie out with fuch impetuo-
fity, th^t if you do not open the little hole in the re¬
ceiver time enough to give it vent, it will burft the vef-
fels with explofion. An acid liquor will rife at the fame
ti^ne. Continue the diftillation, increafing the heat by
infenfiMe degrees, and frequently unflopping the little
hole of the receiver, till the elaftic vapours ceafe to iffue,
and the'oil to diflil.
Then raife your fire more boldly. The acid fpirit
will continue to rife, and will be accompanied with a
black, fetid, empyreumatic, ponderous, and very thick
oil. Urge th<- fire to the utmofi extremity, fo that the
retort may be of a perfedt red heat This violent fire
will raife a ’ little volatile alkali, befides a portion of oil
as thick as pitch When the diftillation is finifhed, you
will find in the retort a black, faline, chafrfd matter,
which grows hot when wetted, attracts the moifture of
the air, runs per deliquium, and hath all the proper¬
ties of a fixed alkali.
Vo:L. II. ■No. 37.
S T . R Y, 165
The mafs, being,expofed to a naked fire in the open
air, burns, confumes, and is reduced to a white afh,
which is a fiery, cauftic, fixed alkali.
The lees of wine referable tartar, in as much as they
contain, and yield when analifed. the fame principles ;
but they differ from it in this, that they contain, more¬
over, a greater quantity of earth, of phlegm, and a
little ardent fpirit, which are only mixed, but not united,
with its tartarous acid.
The Depuration of Tartar. Cream and Cryfals of
Tartar.
Reduce to a fine powder the tartar you intend to
purify, and boil it in twenty five or thirty times as much
water. Filter the boiling liquor through a flannel bag,
and then gently evaporate fome part of it-: there will
foon form on its furface a faline cruft, which is the
cream of tartar Let your liquor cool, and there will
adhere'to the fides of the veffel a great quantity of a
cryftallifed faline matter, which is crjflal of tartar.
Cryjlal of Tartar combined 'with feveral fub-
Jiances. '
Cryftal of’Tartar combined •with Abforbent Earths. So¬
luble Tartars.
Boil an abforbent earth, .fuch as chalk, in a pan with
water ; and, when you perceive the earth thoroughly di¬
vided and equally diftributed through the water, throw
into the pan, from time to time, fome pulverifed cryftal
of tartar, which will excite a confiderable effervefcence.
Continue theft projections, till you obferve no efFervef-
cence excited thereby. All the abforbent earth, which
obfeured the tranlparency of the water, and gave it an
opaque white .colour, will gradually difappear as the
cryftal of tartar combines with it ; and when the com¬
bination is perfected, the liquor will be clear and lim¬
pid. Then filter it, and there will be left on the filter
but a very fmall quantity of earth Evaporate all the
filtered liquor with a gentle heat 5 and then fet it in acooh
place to fhoot. Cryftals will form therein, having the
figure of flat quadrangular prifms, with almoft always
one, fometimes two, of the angles of the prifm fhaved
down, as it were; and then the furfaces at each end are
oblique anfwering to thofe depreffed angles. Thefe cry¬
ftals are a neutral fait which readily diflblves in water;
a true Joluble 'tartar.
Cryfal of Tartar combined ’with fi ed Alkalis. The
Vegetable Salt. Saignette's Salt. The decompofi-
tion of Soluble Tartars.
In eight parts qf water diftblve one part of a very
pure alkaline fait, perfectly freed from the phlqgifton by
calcination. Heat this lixivium in a ftone pan fet on a
fand-bath, and from time to time throw into it a little
powdered cream or cryftal of tartar. Each projection
wiH excite a great effervefeence, attended -with many
bubbles, which will rife to a confiderabie height one
over the other. Stir the liquor when the effsrvefcence
ceafes, and you'will fte ;t i cgin again.
3
When
166 C H E M
When no effervefcence appears upon ftirring the liquor,
add a little more cream of tartar, and the fame pheno¬
mena will be renewed. .Go on thus till you have obtain¬
ed the point of perfedt faturation.
Then filter your liquor. If the alkali you made ufe
of was the fait of Soda, evaporate your liquor quickly
to a pellicle, and there will (hoot in it crylials of nine-
fides refembling a coffia; the bottom part thereof being
concave, and ftreaked with a grest many parallel lines;
and this is Saigneltc's fait. If you have employed any
other alkali but foda, or the bafis of fea-falt, evaporate
your liquor flowly to the confidence of a fyrup : let it
ftand quiet, and there will form in it cryftals having the
figure of flatted parallelepipeds; and this is the vegetable
fait, or tartarifed tartar.
All foluble tartars are eafily decompounded, bymeans
of a certain degree of heat. They yield in diftillation
the fame principles as tartar; and the alkali that remains,
when they are perfedtly calcined, confifts of that which
the tartar naturally affords, and of the alkaline matter
with which it was converted into a neutral fait.
Cryjlal of Tartar combined nvitb Iron. Chalybeated
Tartar. Tincture of Steel ’with Tartar. Soluble
Chalybeated Tartar.
Mix four ounces of iron in filings with one pound of
white tartar finely pulverifed, Boil the mixture in a-
bout twelve times as much water as you took of tartar.
When the faline part of the tartar is diffolved, filter the
liquor boiling-hot through a flannel bag, and then fet it
in a cool place. In a very little time cryftals of a ruflet
colour will fhoot therein. Decant the liquor from thefe
cryftals ; evaporate it to a pellicle, and fet it again to
firyftallife. Go on in this manner till it will (hoot no
more. Colledt all the fait you have thus obtained, and
keep- it under the name of cbalybeated tartar.
To make the tih<5ture of fteel with tartar, mix toge¬
ther fix ounces of clean iron filings, and one pound of
white tartar in powder.. Put this mixture into a large
iron kettle, and pour thereon as much rain-water as will
moiften it. Make a pafte of this matter, and leave it
> thus in a mafs for twenty-four hosts. Then pour on it
twelve pounds of raip-water, and boil the whole for
twelve hours at leaft, ftirring the mixture frequently,
and adding from time to time fome hot water, to fupply
the place of what evaporates. When you have thus
boiled the liquor, let it ftand quiet for fome time, and
then pour it off from the fediment at bottom. Filter,
and evaporate to the confiftence of a fyfup ; and you
have the tirflure of Mars "with tartar. The difpen-
fatories generally order an ounce of reftified fpirit of wine
to be poured on this'tin&ure, in order to preferve it,
and to keep it from growing mouldy, as it is very apt
to do.
Soluble chalybeated tartar is prepared by mixing four
ounces of tartarifed tartar with one pound of the tinfture
of Mars with tartar, and evaporating them together
in an iron veffel to drynefs; aft * which it is kept
in a well flopped phial to prevent its growing moift in
the air.
[ S T R Y.
Cryjlal of Tartar combined with the rtgulin; part of
Antimosiy. Stibiated or Emetic .tartar.
Pulverise and mix together equal parts of the
glafs and of the liver of antimony. Put this mixture,
with the fame quantity of pulverifed cream of tartar, in¬
to a veffel capable of containing as much water as will
diffolve the cream of tartar. Boil the whole for twelve
hours, from time to time adding warm water, to re¬
place what is diflipated by evaporation. Having thus
boiled your liquor, filter it while boiling hot; evaporate
to drynefs ; and you will have a faline matter, which is
emetic tartar.
Of the Produfl of Acetous Fermentation.
Subfiances fufceptible of the Acetous Fermentation
turned into Vinegar.
The wine, the cyder, or the malt-liquor, you intend
to convert into vinegar, being firft thoroughly mixed
with its lees, and with the tartar it may have depoiited,
put your liquor into a fat ufed before either for making
or for holding vinegar. This veffel muft not be quite
full, and the external air muft have accefs to the liquor
contained in it. Set it where the air may have a degree
of warmth anfwering nearly to the twentieth degree a-
bove o in Mr de Reaumur's thermometer. Stir the li¬
quor from time to time. There will arife in it a new
fermentative motion, accompanied with heat: its vinous
odour will gradually change, and turn to a four fmell,
which will become ftronger and ftronger till the fermen¬
tation be finiflied and ceafe of itfelf. Then flop your
veffel clofe; the liquor it contains will be found con¬
verted into vinegar.
AH fubftances that have undergone the fpirituous fer¬
mentation are capable of being- changed into an acid by
pafling through this fecond fermentation, or this fecond
ftage of fermentation. Spirituous liquors, fuch as wine,
cyder, beer, being expofed to a hot air, grow four in a
very (hort time. Nay, thefe liquors, though kept with
all poffible care, in very cloff veffels, and in a cool place,
degenerate at laft, change their natures, and infenfibly
turn four. Thus the produft of fpirituous fermentation
naturally and fpontaneoully degenerates to an acid.
For this reafon it is of great importance, in making
wine, or any other vinous liquor, to ftop the fermenta¬
tion entirely, if you defire the wine (hould contain as
much fpirit as polfible. It is even more advantageous to
check the fermentation a little before it come to the
height than afterwards: becaufe the fermentation, tho’
flackened and in appearance totally ceafed,ftill continues
in the veffels; but in a manner fo much the lefs percep¬
tible as it proceeds more flowly. Thus thofe liquors,
in which the fermentation is not quite finiflied, but check¬
ed, continue for fome time to gain more fpirit; whereas,
on the contrary, they degenerate and gradually turn four,
if you let the fpirituous fermentation go on till it be .en-r
tirely finiftied.
The produflion of the fecond fermentation, which we
are now to confider, is an acid of fo much the greater
ftren£th*»
C H E M
ftrength, the Wronger and more generous the fpirituous
liquor in which it is excited originally was. The
ftrength of this acid, commonly called vinegar, depends
likewife in a great meafure on the methods ufed in fer¬
menting the vinous liquor, in order to convert it into vi¬
negar: for if it be fermented in broad, flat veflels, and
left to grow four of itfelfl, the fpirituous parts will be
diflipated, and the liquor be four indeed, but vapid and
effete.
The vinegar-makers, to increafe the flrength of their
vinegar, ufe certain methods of which they make a my-
ftery, keeping them very fecret. However, Mr. Boer-
haave give us, from fome authors, the following defcrip-
tion of a procefs for making vinegar:
“ Take two large oaken vats or hoglheads, and in
each of thefe place a wooden grate or hurdle, at the di-
ftance of a foot from the bottom. Set the veffel upright,
and on the grates place a moderately clofe layer of green
twigs, or frelh cuttings of the vine. Then fill up the
veffel with the foot-ftalks of grapes, commonly called
the rape, to' within a foot of the top of the veflel, which
muft be left quite open,
“ Having thus prepared the two veffels, pour into
them the wine to be converted into vinegar, fo as to fill
one of them quite up, and the other but half full. Leave
them thus for twenty-four hours, and then fill up the
half-filled veffel with liquor from that which is quite full,
and which will now in its turn be left only half full. Four
and twenty hours afterwards repeat the fame operation,
and go on thus, keeping the veflels alternately full and
half full during every twenty-four hours, till the vine¬
gar be made. On the fecond or third day there will a-
rife, in the half-filled veffel, a fermentative motion, ac¬
companied with a fenfible heat, which will gradually in¬
creafe from day to day. On the contrary, the ferment¬
ing motion is almoit imperceptible in the full veffel; and
as the two veflels are alternately full and half full, the
fermentation is by that means, in fome meafure, inter¬
rupted, and is only renewed every other day, in each
veffel.
“ When this motion appears to be entirely ceafed,
even in the half-filled veffel, it is a fign that the fer¬
mentation is finiflied; and therefore the vinegar is then
to be put into common calks clofe flopped, and kept in
a-cool place.
“ A greater or lefs degree of warmth accelerates or
checks this, as well as the fpirituous fermentation. In
France it is finiflied in about fifteen days, during the fum-
mer; but if the heat of the air be very great, and ex¬
ceed the twenty-fifth degree of Mr de Reaumur’s ther¬
mometer, the half-filled veffel muft be filled up every
twelve hours ; becaufe if the fermentation be not fo
checked in that time, it will become fo violent, and
the liquor will be fo heated, that marry of the fpirituous
parts, on which the ftrength of the vinegar depends, will
be diflipated ; fo that nothing will remain, after the fer¬
mentation, but a vapid wafh, four indeed, but effete.
The better to prevent the diflipation of the fp'irituous
parts, it is a proper and ufual precaution to clofe the
mouth of the half-filled veffel, in which the liquor fer¬
ments, with a cover made alfo of oak wood. As to the
[ S T R Y. 167
full veflel, it is always left open, that the air may aft
freely on the liquor it contains : for it is not liable to
the fame inconveniences, becaufe it ferments but very
flowly.”
The vine-cuttings and grape-flalks, which the vinegar-
makers put into their veffels, ferve to increafe the ftrength
of the liquor. Thefe matters contain a very manifeft
and perceptible acid. They aifo ferve as a ferment;
that is, they difpofe the wine to become eager more ex-
peditioufly and more vigoroufly. They are the better
and the more efficacious for having been once ufed, be¬
caufe they are thereby thoroughly drenched with the
fermented acid: and therefore the vinegar-makers lay
them by for preparing other vinegar, after wafhing them
nimbly in running water, in order to free them from a
vifcid oily matter which fettles on them during the fer¬
mentation. This matter muft by all means be removed;
becaufe it is difpofed to grow mouldy ahd rot; fo that
it cannot but be prejudicial to any liquor in which you
put it.
As the acetous fermentation differs from the fpirituous
in its produftion, fo it doth in many circumftances at¬
tending it. 1. Motion and agitation are not prejudicial
to the acetous fermentation, as they are to the fpirituous;
on the eontrary, moderate ftirring, provided it be not
continual, is of fervice to it. 2. This fermentation is
accompanied w^th remarkable heat; whereas the warmth
of the fpirituous fermentation is fcarce fenfible, 3. We
do not believe there ever was an inftance of the vapour
that rifes from a liquor in acetous fermentation proving
noxious, and producing either diforders or fudden death,
as the vapour of fermenting wine doth. 4. Vinegar de-
pofites a vifcid oily matter, as hath juft been obferved,
very different from the lees and tartar of win?. Vinegar
never depofites any tartar; even though new wine, that
hath not yet depofited its tartar, fliould be ufed in ma¬
king it.
To concentrate Vinegar ly Frofi.
Expose to the air, in frofty weather, the vinegar you;
defire to concentrate. Icicles will form in it; but the
whole liquor will not freeze. Take out thofe icicles :
and if you defire a further concentration of your vinegar ’
by this method, the liquor which did not freeze the firft
time muft be expofed to a ftronger froft. More icicles
will form therein, which muft likewife be feparated, and
kept by themfelves. The liquor which doth not freeze
this fecond time will be a very ftrong concentrated;
vinegar.
Vinegar analyfed by Dijlillation.
Into a glafs or ftone cucurbit put the vinegar to be
diftilled; fit to it a glafs head; place your alembic in the
fand-bath of a diftilling furnace, and lute on a receiver.
Apply a very gentle heat at firft. A clear, limpid, light
liquor will-rife, and fall in diftinft drops, like water, from
the nofe of the alembic.
Continue diftrlling this firft liquor, till the vinegar con¬
tained in the cucurbit be diminifhed about a fourth part.
Then fhift your receiver, and increafe the fire a little. A
clear liquor will ftill come over, but heavier and more
163 C II E M
acid than the former. Diftiiin this manner till you hafe
•drawn off into your fecond receiver two thirds of the li¬
quor that was left in the cucurbit,
A thick matter will now remain, at the bottom of the
•ftill: put it into a retort; lute pn a receiver ; fet your
retort in a reverberating furnace, and diftil with degrees
of fire. There will come over a limpid liquor, very acid
and" (harp, yet ponderous, and requiring a great degree
of fire to raife it; on which account it makes the receiver
, very hot. It hath-a ftrong empyreumatic fmell When
the difiillation begins to flacken, increafe your fire. There
will rife an oil of a fetid, quick fmell. Atlaft. when no¬
thing more will rife with the (Irongeft fire, break the re¬
tort, and in it you wilj find a black charred matter :
burn it, and from the afties lixiviated with water you
will obtain a fixed alkali.
The Acid of Vinegar combined 'with different
Subjlances.
The Acid of Vinegar combined 'with Alkaline Subjlances.
Foliated Salt of Tartar, or regenerated Tartar. De-
compofition of that Salt.
Into a glafs cucurbit put fome very pure and well dried
fait of tartar ; and pour on it fome good diflilled vine¬
gar, by little and little at a time. An effkrvefcence will
arife. . Pour on more vinegar, till you attain the point of
faturation. Then fit a head to the cucurbit; fet it in a
fand bath; and, having luted on a receiver, diftil with a
gentle heat, and very flowly; till nothing remain but a
dry matter. On this refiduum drop a little of the fame
vinegar;, and if any efFervefcence appears, add more
vinegar till you attain the point of faturation, and diftil
again "as before. If you obferve no efFervefcence, the
operation was rightly performed.
It is not eafy to hit the exadt point of faturation in
preparing.this neutral fait; becaufe the oily parts, with
which the acid of vinegar is loaded, hinder it from aft-
ing fo, brilkly and readily as it would do, if it were as
pure as the mineral acids: and for this reafon it often
happens, that, when we have neatly attained the point
of faturation, the addition of an acid makes no fenfible
efFervefcence, though the alkali be not yet entirely fa
turated ; which deceives the operator, and makes him
conclude erroneoufly that he hath attained the true point
of faturation.
But he eafily perceives his miftake, when, after having
feparated from this faline compound all its fuperfluous
moifture by diftillation, he drops frefti vinegar upon it:
for then the fairs being more concentrated and confe-
quently more aftive, produce an efFervefcence, which
would not have been fenfible if this laft portion of acid,
inftead of coming into immediate contaft with the dned
alkali, could not have mixed therewith till difFufed
through, and* in a manner fufFocated by that phlegm from
which the acid of the vinegar before neutralifed was gra¬
dually feparated by its combining with the alkali ; that
phlegm keeping in folution both the netvral fait already
formed, and the alkali not yet faturated. And for this
reafon it is neceffary to try, after the firft ddiccation of
[ S T R Y.
this fait, which is called regenerated tartar, whether or
no the juft point .of faturation hath been attained.
From what hath been faid, concerning the deficcation
of this neutral fait, it is plain, that the ufe of it is only to
free the fait from the great quantity of fuperfluous moi¬
fture wherein it is diftblved : which proves; 'hat the acid
of vinegar, like all other acids diffolved in much water,
is feparated from molt of this redundant phlegm by being
combined with a fixed alkali. And hence we muft con¬
clude, that the acid of vinegar, contained in regenerated '
tartar deficcated, is vaftly ftronger and more concentrated
than it was before.
Though the acid of vinegar is freed, by combining with
a fixed alkali, from a great quantity of fuperlluous
phlegm, yet the oily parts with which it is entangled ftill
cleave to it: thefe parts are not feparated from it by its
converfion into a neutral fait, but,-without quitting ir,
combine alfo with the fixed alkali ; and this gives rege¬
nerated tartar a faponaceous quality, and feveral other
peculiar properties
Regenerated tartar, when dried, is of a brown co¬
lour. It is femi-volatile ; melts with* a very gentle heat,
and then refembles an undtuous liquor ; which* indicates
its containing an oil : when caft upon live coals, it
flames; and, when diftilled with a ftrong heat, yields
an adlual oil ; all which evidently proves the exiftence of
that oil.
This fait is. Ibluble in fpirit of wine ; a quality which
it probably owes alfo to its oil. It requires about fix
parts of fpirit of wine to diflblve it ; and the diffolurion
fucceeds very well in a matras, with the help of a gentle
warmth. If the .fpirit of wine be abftrafted from this fo¬
lution, by diftiling with a fmall fire, it remains at the
bottom of the cucurbit, in the form of- a dry fubftance.
compofed of leaves lying one upon another ; which hath *
procured it the . name of terra foliata tartari, or foliated
fait of tartar.
It is not abfolutely neceflary that regenerated tartar
be dilFolved in fpirit of wine to make the foliated fait;
for it may be procured in this form only by evaporating
the water in which it is diflolved. Rut the operation
fu’cceeds better with fpirit of wine; probably becaufe
the fuccefs thereof depends on ufing an exceeding gentle
warmth : now fpirit of wine evaporates with much lefs
heat than water
Regenerated tartar may alfo be cryftallifed. If you
defire to have it in this form, combine the acid with the
alkali to the point of faturation ; evaporate the liquor
flowly to the confiftence of a fyrup, and fet it in a cool
place; where it will {hoot into clufters of cryftals lying
one upon another like feathers.
Vinegar perfe&ly diflblves abforbent matters alfo, and
particularly thofe of the animal kingdom ; fuch as corals,
crabs eyes, pearls, In order to a dilFolution of fuch
matters, you muft pulverife them, put them into'.a ma¬
tras, and pour on them fpirit of vinegar to the depth of
four fingers breadth : an efFervefcence will arife : when
that is over, fet the mixture to digeft two or three days
in a fand-bath ; then decant the liquor, filter it, and e-
vaporate it to drynefs with a very gentle heat. The
flatter which remains is called fait of coral, of pearls.
C H E M
of crabs-eyes, See. according to the fubftances diffolved.
If, - inftead of evaporating the liquor, a fixed alkali be
mixed therewith, the abforbqpt matter, that was dif¬
folved by the acid, will precipitate in the form of a
white powder, which is called the magijlery of coral, of
pearls, &c.
The Acid of Vinegar corrtbined •with copper. Verdegris.
Cry flats of Copper This Combination decompounded.
Spirit of Verdegris.
Into a large matras put verdegris in powder. Pour
-on vt diftilled vinegar to the depth of four fingers breadth.
Se’ the matras in a moderate fand heat, and leave the
wh le in digeftion, (baking it-from time to time. The
vi .jar will acquire a very deep blue-green colour.
Wntn the liquor is fufficiently coloured, pour it off by
inclination. Put fome frefh vinegar into the matras ;
digeft as before ; and decant the liquor again when it is
furficiently coloured. Proceed in this manner till the
vinegar will extradt no more colour. There will remain
in the matras a confiderable quantity of undiflblved mat¬
ter. The vinegar thus impregnated with verdegris is
called of copper.
Mix thefe feveral tindlures, and evaporate them with
a gentle heat to a pellicle. Then fet the liquor in a cool
place : in the fpace of a few days a great many cryftals
of a mod beautiful green colour will (hoot therein, and
ftick to the (ides of the veflel. Pour off the liquor from
the cryftals; evaporate it again to a pellicle, and fet it
by to cryftallife. Continue thefe evaporations and cry-
flailifations, till no more cryftals will (hoot in the liquor.
Thefe are called cryftals of copper, and are ufed in paint¬
ing, To this combination of the acid of vinegar with
copper the, painters and dealers have given them the title
of diftilled verdegris.
Vefdegris is prepared at Montpellier. To make it
they take very clean plates of copper, which they lay,
one over another, with hulks of grapes between, and
after a certain time take them out. Their furfaces are
then covered all over with a very beautiful green cruft,
which.is^verdegris. This verdegris is nothing but cop¬
per corroded by the acid of tartar, analogous to the acid
of vinegar, which abounds in the wines of Languedoc,
and efpecially in the rape, hulks, and ftones of grapes
that have a very auftere tafte Verdegris is a fort of ruft
of-copper, or copper corroded and opened by the acid of
wine, but not yet converted entirely into a neutral fait:
for it is not foluble in watfir, nor does it cryftallife.
This arifes from its nor being united with a fufficient
quantity of acid. The defign of the operation here de-
fen'ied is to furnilh the verdegris with the quantity of
ac; i equifite to make it a true metallic fait; for which
purpofe diftilled vinegar is very tit.
'Cryftals of copper may be obtained, without employing
verdegris, by making ufe of copper itfelf diffolved by the
acid of vinegar, according to the method prattifed with
refpedt to lead as (hall be (hewn hereafter. But verde¬
gris is generally ufed, becaufe it di(Tolve» fooneft ; it be¬
ing a copper already half difiblved by an acid correfpon-
dent to that of vinegar
Cryftals of copper are decompounded by the a&ion of
Vol. II. No.37. * 3
I S T R Y. 169
fire alone, without any additament; becaufe the acid of
vinegar adheres but loofely to copper. In order to de¬
compound this fait, and extradt its acid, it muft be put
into a retort, and diftilled in a reverberatory furnace with
degrees of fire. An inlipid phlegm rifes firft, which is
the water retained by the fait in cryftallifing. This
phlegm is fucceeded by an acid liquor, which rifes in the
form of white vapours that fill the receiver. Towards
the end of the diftillation the fire muft be violently urged,
in order to raife the ftrongeft and moft fixed acid. At
laft there remains in the retort a black matter, which is
nothing but copper, that may be reduced by melting it
in a crucible with one part of faltpetre and two parts of
tartar. A fimilar acid, but more oily, and in a much
fmalier quantity, may be obtained from verdegris by di¬
ftillation.
The acid, which in this diftillation comes over after
the firft phlegm, is an exceeding ftrong and concentrated
vinegar. It is known by the title of fpirit of verdegris.
The Acid of Vinegar combined •with head. Cerufe.
Salt or Sugar of Lead. This Combination decom¬
pounded.
Into the glafs head of a cucurbit put thin plates of
lead, and fecure them fo that they may not fall out when
the head is put upon the cucurbit. Fit on this head to
a wide-mouthed, cucurbit containing fome vinegar. Set
it in a fand-bath ; lute on a receiver, and diftil with a
gentle heat for ten or twrelve hours. Then take off the
head : in it you will find the leaden plates covered, and,
in a manner, crufted over with a white matter. This
being bruftied off with a hare’s foot is what we call ce¬
rufe. The leaden plates thus cleanfed may be employed
again for the fame purpofe, till they be wholly converted
into cerufe by repeated diftillations. During the opera¬
tion there will come over into the receiver a liquor fome-
what turbid and whitifh. This is a diftilled vinegar in
which fome lead is diffolved.
Reduce a quantity of cerufe into pow'der ; put it into
a matras ; pour on it twelve or fifteen times as much di¬
ftilled vinegar ; fet the matras in a fand-bath ; leave the
matter in digeftion for a day, (baking it from time to
time: then decant your liquor, and keep it apart. Pour
frefti vinegar on what is left in the matras, and digeft as
before. Proceed thus till you have diffolved one half,
or two thirds, of the cerufe.
Evaporate to a pellicle the liquors you poured off from
the cerufe, and fet them in a cool place. Greyifh cryftals
will (hoot therein. Decant the liquor from the cryftals-;
evaporate it again to.a pellicle, and fet it by to cryftallife.
Proceed thus evaporating and cryftallifing, as long as any
cryftals will (hoot. Diffolve your crvftals in diftilled
vinegar, and evaporate the folution, which will then (hoot
into whiter and purer cryftals. This is the fait, or fugar ■
of lead.
Lead is. eafily diffolved by the acid of vinegar. If it
be barely expofed to the vapour of that acid, its furface
is corroded, and converted into a kind of calx or white
rurt, much ufed in painting, and known by the name of
cerufe, or •white lead. But this preparation of lead is
not combined with a fufficient quantity of acid to convert
2 U it
170 C H E M
it into a fait : it is no more than lead divided and opened
by the acid of vinegar ; a matter which is to lead what
verdegris is to copper. And therefore if you defire to
combine cerufe with the quantity of acid neceffary to con-r
vert it into a'true neutral fait, you mull treat it in the
fame manner as we .did verdegris in order to procure cry?
ftais of copper; that is, you mull: diflblve it in diftilled
vinegar, as the procefs diredts.
The fait of lead is not very white when it firll Ihoots ;
and for this reafon it is diffolved again in diftilled vinegar,
and cryftaliifed a fecond time. If fait of lead be repeat¬
edly dilfolved in diltilled vinegar, and the liquor evapo¬
rated, it will grew thick ; but Hill cannot be defecated
without great difficulty. If the fame operation be oftener
repeated, this quality will be thereby more and more in-
creafed ; till at laft it will remain on the fire like an oil
or melted wax : it coagulates as it cools, and then looks,
at firft fight, like a metallic mafs, fomewhat refembling
filver. This matter runs with a very gentle heat, almoft
as eafily as wax.
The fait of lead hath a faccharine tafte, which hath
procured it the name alfo of fugar of lead. For this rea¬
fon, when wine begins to turn four, the fure Way to cure
it of that difagreeable tafte, is to fubftitute a fweet one
which is not difagreeable to the tafte, by mixing there¬
with cerufe, litharge, or fome fuch preparation of lead ;
for the acid of the wine diffolves the lead, and therewith
forms a fugar of lead, which remains mixed with the
Vine, and hath a tafte which, joined with that of the
wine, is not unpleafant. But, as lead is one of the moft
dangerous poifons we know, this method ought, never to
be praftifed ; and whoever ufes fuch a pernicious drug
deferves to be moft feverely punifhed. Yet fome thing
very like this happens every day, and muft needs have
very bad confequences ; while there is nobody to blame,
and thofe to whom the thing may prove fatal can have no
miftruft of it.
Salt of lead may be decompounded by diftillation with¬
out additament. In order to perform this, you muft put
the fait of lead into a glafs or (tone retort, leaving a full
third thereof empty, and diftil in a reverberating furnace
with degrees of fire. A fpirit rifes, which fills the re¬
ceiver with clouds. When nothing more will come over
with a fire that makes the retort red-hot, let the veffels
cool, and then unlute them. You will find in the re¬
ceiver an a’uftere liquor, which is inflammable ; or, at
leaft, an inflammable fpirit may be obtained from it, if
about one half thereof be drawn oflt by diftillaticn in a
glafs alembic. The retort in which the fait of lead was
decompounded contains, at the end of the operation, a
blackiffi matter : this is lead, which will refume its me¬
tallic form on being melted in a crucible; becaufe the
acid by which it was diflblved, and from which it hath
been feparated, being of a very oily nature, hath left in
it a fufficient quantity of phlogifton.
What is moft remarkable in this decompofitton of fait
of lead, is the inflammable fpirit which it yields, though
the vinegar which entered into the compofition of the fait
feemed to contain none at all.
I s T R Y.
Of the Putrid Fermentation of Vegetable Sub-
fiances.
The Put ref action 6f Vegetables.
Fill a hogffiead with green plants, and tread them
down a little ; or, if the vegetables be dry and hard fub-
ftances, divide them into minute parts, and fteep them a
little in water to moiften them : then leave them, or the
green plants, in the veflel, uncovered and expofed to the
open air. By degrees a heat will arife in the center of
the veflel, which will continue increafing daily, at laft
grow very ftrong, and be communicated to tfie whole
mafs. As long as the heat is moderate, the plants will,
retain their natural fmell and tafte. As the heat in-
creafes, both thefe will gradually alter, and at laft be¬
come very difagreeable, much like thofe of putrid animal
fubftances. The plants will then be tender as if they
had been boiled ; or even be reduced to a kind of pap,
more or lefs liquid according to the quantity of moifture
they contained before.
Almoft all vegetable matters are fufceptible of putre-
fadtion ; but fome of them rot fooner, and others more
(lowly. As putrefaction is only a fpecies of fermentation,
the efFedt whereof is to change entirely the ftate of the
acid, by combining it with a portion of the earth and oil
of the mixt, which are fo attenuated that from this union
there refults a new faline fubftance in which no acid is
difcernible ; which on the contrary hath the properties of
an alkali, but rendered volatile ; it is plain, that, the
nearer the acid of a plant fet to putrefy is to this (late,
the foober will the putrefaClion of that plant be com¬
pleted. Accordingly all plants that contain a volatile,
alkali ready formed, or from which it can be obtained
by diftillation, are the moft difpofed to putrefaction.
Thofe plants, in which the acid is very manifeft and
fenfible, are lefs apt to putrefy ; becaufe all their acid
muft undergo the change above fpecified. But vegetable
matters, whofe acid is entangled and clogged by fe'veral
of their other principles, muft be ftill longer elaborated
before they can be reduced to the condition into which
complete putrefaction brings all vegetables. The earthy
and oily parts, in which the acids of thefe fubftances are
fheathed, muft be attenuated and divided by a previous
fermentation, which, of thofe parts fubtilifed and united
with the acid, forms an ardent fpirit, wherein the acid is
more perceptible than in the almoft infipid or faccharine
juices out of which it is produced. The acid contained
in the ardent fpirit muft be ftill further difengaged, before
it can enter into the combination of a volatile alkali :
confequently the ardent fpirit muft undergo a fort of de-
compofition ; its acid muft be rendered more fenfible,
and be brought to the fame condition as the acid of plants
in which it manifefts all its properties.
Hence' it appears that the fpirituous and acetous fer¬
mentations are only preparatives which nature makes ufe
of for bringing certain vegetable matters to putrefaction.
Thefe fermentations therefore muft be confidered as ad¬
vances:
C H E M I
vances towards that putrefaflion in which they terminate,
or rather as the fir l ftages of putrefaftion itfelf.
Putrefied Vegetable Subjiances analyfed.
Put the putrefied plants you mean to analyfe into a
glafs cucurbit, and fet it in a fand-bath. Fit to it a head ;
lute on a receiver ; diftil with a gentle fire, and a limpid
fetid liquor will come over. Continue the diftillatjon till
the matter contained in the retort be almoft dry.
Then unlute your veffels, and keep the liquor you find
in the receiver by itfelf. Put the matter remaining in
the cucurbit into a retort, and difHl with a graduated
heat. There will rife white vapours ; a pretty confi-
derable quantity of liquor nearly like that of the former
diftillation; a volatile fait in a concrete form ; and a
black oil, which towards the end will be very thick. In
the retort there will remain a black charred matter,
which being burnt in the open air will fall into afhes,
from which no fixed alkali can be extracfted.
By means of a funnel feparatc your oil from the aque¬
ous liquor. Difiii tms I&fuOV with a gentle heat. You
will by this means obtain a volatile fak like that of ani-
’■mals ; of which you may alfo get fome, by the fame
means, from the liquor which came over in the firft di-
flillation.
This analyfis fhews the changes which putrefaftion
produces in vegetable matters. Scarce any of their prin¬
ciples are now to be difcerned. They now yield no
aromatic liquor ; no eflential oil; no acid ; and confe-
•quently no eflential fait, ardent fpirit, or fixed alkali:
in a word, whatever their natures were before putrefac¬
tion, they are all alike when they have once undergone
this fermentative’motion in its full extent. Nothing can
then be obtained from them but phlegm, a volatile alkali,
a fetid oil, and an infipid earth.
Almpft allthefe changes are owing to the tranfmutation
of the acid, which is depraved by putrefadipn, and com-
bined with a portion of the oil and fubtilifed earth of the
mixt; fo that the refult of their union is a volatile al¬
kali. Now, as the fixed alkali, found in the afltes of
unputrefied plants, is only the mbft fixed part of their
earth and of their acid, clofely united together by the ig¬
neous motion, it is not furprifing, that, when all the a-
dd, with a part of the earth, is ftibtilifed and volatilifed
by putrefadion, no fixed alkali can be found in the
alhes of putrefied vegetables. The alteration which the
acid fuffers by the putrefadive motion is, in our opinion,
the g'-eatell it can undergo, without being entirely de-
ftroyed and decomppfed,. fo as to be no longer a fait.
Of Operations on Animal Substances.
Of Mi l k.
Milk feparated into Butter, Curd, and Whey : injlanced
in Cow’s-Milk,
Put new cow’s milk into a flat earthen pan, and fet
it in a temperate heat. In ten or twelve hours time there
will gather on its furface a thick matter, of a fomewhat'
S T R Y. m
yellovvifli whit; : this is called cream. Gently Mm off
this cream with a fpoon, letting the milk you take* up
with it run off. Put all this cream into another vcffe!,
and keep it. The milk thus fkimmed will not be quite fo
thick as before ; nor will it be of fuch a dead white, but
have a little blueifh call. If all the cream be not fepa¬
rated from it, more will gather on its furface after fome
time, which mull be taken off as the former. In two or
three days the flammed milk will coagulate into a foft
mafs called curd, and then it taftes and fmells four.
Cut this curd acrofs in feveral places. It will imme¬
diately difcharge a large quantity of ferum. Put the
whole into a clean linen cloth; hang it up, and under¬
neath it fet a veffel to receive the ferum as it drops.
When the aqueous part hath done dripping, there will
remain in the filter a white fubftance fomewhat harder
than the curdled milk. This fubffance is called cheefe,
and the ferum feparated from it is known by the name of
•whey.
The milk of animals that feed only on vegetables is,
of all animal matters, the leaft removed from the vegeta¬
ble nature. The truth of this will be demonffrated by
the experiments we fhall produce by and by, for the fur¬
ther analyfis of milk.
Moft chemifts juftly confider milk as of the fune na¬
ture with chyle. Indeed there is great reafon to think,
that, except fome fmall differences to be afterwards ta¬
ken notice of, thefe two matters are nearly the fame.
They are both of a dead white colour, like that of an
emulfion ; which proves that, like emulfions, they con-
fift of an oily matter divided, diffufed and fufpended,
but not perfedly diffolved, in an aqueous liquor.
It is not furprifing that thefe liquors fliould refemble
emulfions; for they are produced in the fame marine!
and may very juftly be called animal emuljfons. For
how are vegetable fubftances converted into chyle and
milk in an animal body? They are bruifed, divided, and
triturated by maftication and digeftion, as perfeftly, at
leaft, as the matters pounded in a mortar to make an e-
mulfion ; and muft thereby undergo the fame changes as
thofe matters ; that is, their oily parts, being attenuated
by thofe motions, muft be mixed with and lodged be¬
tween the aqueous parts, but not diflblved therein • be-
caufe they do not, in the bodies of animals, meet with
faline matters, fuificiently difentangled and adive, to u-
nite intimately with them, and by that means render them
foluble in water.
Neverthelefs, chyle and milk, though produced in the
fame manner as emulfions, and very much refembling them,
differ greatly from them in fome refpeds ; owing chiefly
to the time they remain in the bodies of animals, their be¬
ing heated while there, the elaborations they undergo
therein, and the animal juices commixed with them.
New milk hath a mild agreeable tafte, without any fa-
line pungency nor hath any chemical* trial difcovered in
it either an acid or an nlkali. Yet ir is certain, that the
juices of plants, out of which milk is formed, contain
many faline matters, and .efpecially-acids: accordingly
milk alfo contains the fame; but the acids are fo fheathed
and combined, that they are not perceplible. The cafe-
172 CHE M
is the iame with all the other liquors intended to confti-
tute part of an aniiiul body 5 there i$ no perceptible acid
in any of them.
Hence it may be iqffrred^ that one of the- 'principal
changes'which vegetables .undergo, in order to their be¬
ing converted into an animal fuollance, coniifts in this,
that their acids are combined, entangled, and (heathed
in (irch a manner, that they become imperceptible, and
exert none of their properties.
Milk left to itfelf, without the help of diftillation, or
any additament whavever, undergoes a fort of decompo-
iltioh. It runs into a kind of fpontaneous analyfis ;
which doth not indeed reduce it to its firfl principles,
yet feparates it into three,diftinCl fubftances, as the pro-
cefsfhews; namely, into, cream, or the buttery-fat part,
into curd or cheefe, and into ferum or whey: which
Ihews. that thofe three fubfhnces of which milk confifts,
are only mixed and blended together, but not intimately
united. .
The frit parts, bein,g the lighted, rife gradually to
the fur face of the liquor as they feparate from the reft:
and this forms the cream.
CrCahi, as lltimmed from ,the furface of milk, is not
however the pure buttery or Fat part ; it is ftill mixed
with many particles of cheefe and whey, which muft be
feparated in order to reduce it into butter. The moft
limple, and at the fame time the beft method of effecting
this, is daily pradifed by the country people. It confifts
-in beating or churning the cream, in a veifel contrived for
that purpofe, with the flat fide of a circular piece of
wood, in the centfe of which a ftaflr is fixed. One would
think that the motion, imprefled one the cream by this
iniirument, fhould rather ferve to blend more intimately
the particles of butter, cheefe, and whey, of which it con¬
fifts, than to feparate them from each other; as this
motion feems perfedlly adapted to divide and attenuate
thofe particles. But, if we confi.ler what pafles on this
occafion, we Ihall foon perceive that the motion by which
"butter is churned is nothing like triture: for churning is
no othery properly fpeaking, than a continually repeated
compreflion, the effect whereof is to fqueeze out from a-
mongft the buttery particles thofe of cheefe and whey
mixed therewith ; by which means the particles of butter
are brought into contad with each other, unite, and ad¬
here together.
Milk, whether fltimmed or no, grows four of itfelf,
and curdles in a few days. When it is, newly curdled,
the cheefe and whey feem to be united, and to make but
one mafs : but thefe two matters feparate fpontaneoufly
from each other, with the greateft cafe, and in a very
Ihort time.
The acidity, which milk naturally contrads in the
fpace of a few days, muft be confidered as the effed of
a fermenting motion, which difcovers in that liquor an
acid that was not perceptible before. This, properly
fpeaking, is an acetous fermentation, which milk pafles
through m its way to putrefadion ; and it foon follows,
efpecially if the milk be expofed to a hot air.
If, inftead of leaving milk to grow four and curdle of
itfelf, an acid be mixed therewith, while it is yet fweet
and newly milked, it immediately coagulates ; which
I S T R Y.
gives reafdn to think, that its curdling naturally is the
effed of the acid, which difcovers itfelf therein as it
grows ftale.
The-coagulation of milk may alfo be confiderably ac¬
celerated, by fetting it in a fand-bath gently heated"; or
by mixing therewith a little of what,' in the language of
the dairy, is called rawwi; which is nothing but fome
curated and half-digefted milk taken from the ftomach of
a calf: or both thefe rftethods may be employed at once,
which will produce the effed flill more expsditioufly.
It is not difficult to find out the caufe of thefe effeds.
The runnet, which is milk already curdled and grown
four is an adual ferment to fweet milk, difpofing it to
turn four much more readily : for though milk, when
thus haftily curdled by the runnet, hath not a manifeftly
acid tafte, yet it is certain that this acid begins to exert
itfelf. The proof thereof is, that, being expofed to the
fame degree of heat with milk equally new, that is not
mixed with this feVment, it turns four much Iboner. As
to the eff .-d of heat in coagulating milk, there is nothing
extraordinary in it: we know how much it promotes'
and accelerates all fermentative motion. The whole of
this per fed! y agrees with what we faid before concerning
fermentation.
Fixed alkalis alfo coagulate milk ; but at the fame
time they fepafate the whey from the cheefe, which
floats on the liquor in cloats. They give the milk a
ruffet colour inclining to red; which may arife from their
attacking the fat part.
The ftparation of milk into butter, cheefe, and whey,
is a kind of imperfed analyfis thereof, or rather the be¬
ginning of one. In order to render it complete, we
muft examine each of thefe fubftances feparately, and
find the principles of which they confift. This we ftxall .
endeavour to do in the following procefs.
Butter analyfed by Dif iliation.
Into a glafs retort put the quantity of frefli butter
you intend to diftil. Set the retort in a reverberatory ;
apply a receiver ; and let your fire be very gentle at firft.
The butter will melt, and there will come over fome
drops of clear water, which will have the peculiar fmell
of frdh butter, and fhew fome tokens of acidity. If the
fire be increafed a. little, the butter will feem to boil : a
froth will gather on its furface, and* the phlegm, fttll’
continuing to run, will gradually come to fmelf juft like
butter clarefied.in order to be preferved. Its acidity will
be ftronger and more manifeft than that of the firft drops
that came over.
Soon after this, by encreafing the fire a little more,
there will rife aq oil, having nearly the fame degree of
fluidity as fat oils ; but it will grow thicker as the diffil-
lation advances, and at laft will fix in the receiver when
it cools. It will bq accompanied with fome drops of li¬
quor, the acidity whereof will always increafe, while its
quantity decreafes, as the diftillation advances.
While this thick oil is diftilling, the butter contained
in the retort, which at firft feemed to boil, will be calm
and fmooth, without the leaft appearance of ebullition j
though the heaf be then much greater than when it boil¬
ed. Continue the diftiilation, conftantly increafing the
fire
C H E M
fire by degrees as you find it neceflary for the elevation of
the thick oil. This oil, or rather this kind of butter,
will be St laft of a rufiet colour. There will rife along
with it fome white vapours exceeding lharp and pungent.
When you obferve that nothing more comes over,
though the retort be quite red-hot, let the veflels cool,
and unlute them. You will find in the receiver an aque¬
ous acid liquor, a fluid oil, and a kind of fixed browfr
butter. Break the retort, and you will find, therein a
kind of charred matter ; the furface of which, where it
touched the glafs, will be of a fliining black, and have a
fine polifh.
The analyfis of butter proves, that this fubftance,
which is an oily matter in a concrete form, owes its con-
fiftence to the acid only, w«fi which the oily part is
combined: that is, it follows the general rule frequently
mentioned above in treating of other oily compounds ;
the confiftence whereof we Ihewed to be fo much the
firmer, the more acid they contain. The firft portions
of oil that come ov^r in the diftillation of butter are
fluid, becaufe a pretty confiderable quantity of acid rofe
before them, which, being mixed with the phlegm, gives
it the acidity we took notice of.
This oil, being freed from its acid, and by that means
rendered fluid, rifes firft ; becaufe it is by the fame means
rendered lighter. The kind of- butter that comes over
afterwards, though it be fixed, is neverthelefs far from
having the fame confiftence as it had before diftillation ;
becaufe it lofes much of its acid in the operation. This
acid is what rifes in the form of white' vapours. Thele
vapours are at leaft as pungent and irritating as the ful-
phureous acid or volatile alkalis: but their fraell is dif¬
ferent : it hath. a refemblance, or rather is the fame,
with that which rifes from butter when it is burnt and
browned in an open veflel. But, when concentrated
and collefted in chafe veflels, as in the diftillation of
butter, they are vaftly ftronger : they irritate the throat
fo as to inflame it; they are' exceeding lharp and pun¬
gent to the fmell, and are fo hurtful to the eyes that
they quickly inflame, them, as in an ophthaimy, and
and make them Ihed abundance of tears. The great vo¬
latility of this acid is entirely owing to a portion of the
phlogifton of the butter with which it is ftill combined.
We took notice in the procefs, that butter feems to
boil with a t^ry moderate heat at the beginning of the
diftillation, and that in the courfe of the operation the
ebullition ceafes entirely, though the heat be then great¬
ly mcreafed; which is contrary to the general rule.
The reafon is, that butter, though a feeraingly homoge¬
neous mafs, contains neverthelefs fome particles of cheefe
and whey. The particles of whey, being much the
lighted, endeavour, on the firft application of heat, to
extricate themfelves from among!! the particles of butter,
aad to rife in diftillation. Thus they form the drops of
acidulated phlegm which come over at firft, and, in ftrug-
gling to get free, lift up the buttery parts, or actually
boil, which occafions the ebullition obfervable at the be¬
ginning of the procefs. When they are once feparated,
the melted butter remains calm and fmooth, without boil¬
ing. If you want to make it boil, you muft apply a much
greater degree of heat; which you cannot do in clofe
Vol. II. No. 37. 3
1ST R Y. 173
veflels, without fpoiling the whole operation : becaufe
the degree of heat neceflary for that purpofe would force
up the butter in fubftance, which would rulh over into
the receiver, without any decompofuion. Indeed if the
veflels were luted, they would be in danger of burlting.
As to the cafeous parts, which are mixed with frefh
butter, they alfo feparate at the beginning of the diftil¬
lation when the butter is melted, and gather on its fur-
face in a fcum. Thefe particles of cheefe and whey,
which are heterogeneous to butter, help to make it fpoii
the fooner. And for this reafon, thofe who want to
keep butter a long time, without the ufe of fait, melt it,
and thereby evaporate the aqueous parts. The lighteft
portion of the particles of cheefe rifes to the furface, and
is flammed off; the reft remains at the bottom of the
veflel, from which the butter is ealily feparated, by de¬
canting it while it is yet fluid.
Butter may alfo be diftilled, by incorporating it with
fome additament which will yield no principle itfelf, nor
retain any of thofe of the butter. It may be diftilled in
this manner with the additament of fine fand : the ope¬
ration fucceeds very well, is fooner finilhed, and more
eafily conduced.
If you defire to convert the butter wholly into oil,
you muft take the fixed matter you find in the receiver,
and diftil it once more, or oftener, according to the de¬
gree of fluidity you want to give it. The cafe is the
fame with this , matter as with all other thick oils, which,
the .oftener they are diftilled, grow always the more
fluid, becaufe in every diftillation they are feparated from
part of the acid, to which alone they owe their confift¬
ence.
The Curd of Milk analyfed hy Dijlillation.
Into a glafs retort put fome new curd, having firft
drained it thoroughly of all its whey, and even fqueezed
it in a linen cloth to exprefs all its moifture. Diftil it as
you did butter. There will come over at firft an acidu¬
lated phlegm, fmelling like cheefe or whey. As the
diftillation advances, the acidity of this phlegm will in-
creafe.
When it begins to run but very flowly, raife your
fire. There will come over a yellow oil, fomewhat em-
pyreumatic. Continue the diftillation, ftill increafing
the fire by degrees as occafion requires. The oil and a-
cid phlegm will continue to rife ; the phlegm growing
gradually more acid, and the oil deeper coloured and
more empyreumatic. At laft, when the retort is almoft
red-hot, there comes off a fecond black oil, of the con¬
fiftence of turpentine, very empyreurfiatic, and fo heavy
as to fink in water. In the retort will be left a confi¬
derable quantity of charred matter.
Cheefe curd barely drained, till no more whey will
drip from it, is not entirely freed thereof; and for
this reafon we diredied it to be prefled in a linen cloth,
before it be put into the retort to be diftilled. Without
this precaution, the remaining whey ulould rife in a con¬
fiderable quantity on the firft application of heat; and, in-
ftead of analyfing the curd only, we Ihould at the fame time
analyfe the whey alfo. This is tc be u iderft od of green
curd and new-made cheefe; - for, if it be fuffered to grow
2 X old.
174 CHE M
old, it will at length dry of itfelf: but then we fliould
not obtain from it the fame principles by diftillation; as
it corrupts and begins to grow putrid after fome time,
efpecially if it be not mixed with fome feafoning to pre-
ferve it.
The firft phlegm that rifes in this diftillation, as in
that of butter, is a portion of the whey that was left in
the cheefe, notwithftanding its being well preffed. This
phlegm grows gradually more acid, being the vehicle
of the acids of the cheefe, which are forced up along
with it by the fire.
The acid obtained from this matter is lefs in quantity,
and weaker, than that of butter : and accordingly the
oil diftilled from cheefe is not fixed like that of butter.
Yet it is remarkable that the laft empyreumatic oil,
which is as thick as turpentine, is heavier than water:
a property which it probably derives from the quantity
of acid it retains.
The quantity of charred matter, which remains in the
retort after the difiillation of cheefe, is much greater
than that left by butter: which proves that the former
contains a much greater quantity of earth.
Whey anatyfed.
Evaporate two or three quarts of whey almoft to
drynefs in a balneum marine\ and diftil the extract or re-
fiduum in a retort fet in a reverberating furnace, with
degrees of.fire, according to the general rule. At firfl
fome phlegm will come over ; then a lemon-coloured a-
cid fpirit; and afterwards a pretty thick-oil. There
will remain in the retort a charred matter, Which being
expofed to the air grows moift. Lixiviate it with rain
water, and evaporate the lixivium; it will yield you cry-
ftals of fea-falt. Dry the charred matter, and burn* it
in tire open air with a ftrong fire, till it bfe reduced into
allies. A lixivium of thefe alhes will fhew fome tokens
of a fixed alkali.
It will appear, on examining the three analyfes of the
the fubftances whereof milk confifts, that none -of them
yields a volatile alkali: which is worthy of notice ; as it
is the only animal matter from which fuch a fait can¬
not be obtained. It is true, the milk of animals
that feed on vegetables may be confidered as an finter-
mediate liquor between vegetable and animal fubftan¬
ces; as an imperfect animal-juice, which- ftill retains
much of the vegetable nature: and we actually find,
that milk almoft always hath, at leaft in part, the
properties of thofe plants with which the animals that
yield it are fed. Yet, as it cannot be formed in the
body of the animal, without mixing with feveral of its
juices that are entirely perfected, and become purely ani¬
mal, it muft appear ftrange that the analyfis thereof
fhould not afford the leaft veftige of that principle,
which all other animal-matters yield in the greateft
plenty.
The reafon of this may be found in the ufe to which
milk is deftined. It is intended for the nourifhment oi
animals of the fame fpecies with thofe. in whofe bodies
it is produced. Confequentty it ought as much as pol-
fible to referable the juices of the food which is proper
fox thofe animals. Now,, as animals that live only on
I S T R Y.
vegetables could not be properly nourifhed by animal
matters, for which nature itfelf hath even given them an
averfion, it is not furprifing that the milk of fuch animals
fhould be free from any mixture of fuch things as are un-
fuitable to the young ones whom it is defigned to nourifh.
There is reafon therefore to think, that nature hath dif-
pofed the organs in which the feefetion of milk is per¬
formed, fo as to feparate it entirely from all the animal
juices firft mixed with it: and this is the principal dif¬
ference between milk and chyle; the latter being necef-
farily blended with the faliva, the gaftric and pancreatic
juices, the bile and lymph, of the animals in which it is
formed. Hence it may be concluded, that, if a quanti¬
ty of chyle could be collefted fufficient to enable us to a-
nalyfe it, the analyfis thereof would differ from that of
milk, in this chiefly, that it would yield a great deal of
volatile alkali, of which milk, as hath been faid,- yields
none at all.
The fame thing probably takes place in carnivorous
animals. It is'certain, that thofe animals chufe to eat
the flefh of fuch- Others only as feed upon vegetables; arid
that nothing but extreme hunger, and the abfolute want
of more agreeable food, will force them to eat the flefh
of other carnivorous animals. Wolves, which greedily
devour fheep, goats, &c. feldom eat foxes, cats, pole¬
cats, &c. though thefe animals are not ftrong enough to
refift them. Foxes, cats, and birds of prey, that make fuch
terrible havock among wild-fowl, and other forts of game,
do not devour one another. This being laid down, there
is reafon to think, that the milk of carnivorous animals is
fomething of the nature of t.he flefh of thofe animals
that feed on vegetables, and which they chufe to eat,
and not of the nature of their own flefh ; as the milk
of animals that feed on vegetables is analogous to the
juices of vegetables, and when analyfed yields no volatile
alkali, though every other part of their body does.
But whatever be the nature of milk, and of whatever
ingredients it be formed, it always contains the three fe¬
veral fubftances above mentioned; namely, the fat, or
buttery part, properly fo called, the cheefy, and the fe-
rous part, the laft of which we are now to examine. It
is, properly fpeaking, the phlegm of the milk, and con¬
fifts almoft: entirely of water. For this reafon it is pro¬
per to lefFen the quantity thereof confiderably by evapo¬
ration, fo that its other principles, being concentrated
and brought nearer together, may become much more
fenfible. There is no danger of loftng any effential
part of the whey in the evaporation, if it be performed
in the balneum maria with fuch a gentle heat as may
carry off the aqueous parts only: this greatly ftior-
tens the analyfis, which will be exceeding long and
tedious if all the, water be diftilled off in clofe vef-
fels.
As whey is chiefly the aqueous part of milk, as
faid above, it rnuft contain all the principles thereof that
are foluble in \yater; that is, its faline and faponaceous
parts. And accordingly the analyfis thereof ftiews that
it contains an oil, rendered perfectly faponaceous by an
acid; that is, made perfe&ly mifcible with water. This
quality of the oil contained in whey appears from the
perfect tranfpareiicy of that liquor, which we know is
C H E M
the mark of a complete diffolution. In the diftillation
of whey, the faponaceous matter contained therein is de-
compofed; -the laline part rifes firft, as being the lighted;
this is the acid taken notice of in the procefs; after
which the oil, now feparated from the principle which
rendered it mifcible with water, comes over in its natu¬
ral form, and doth not afterwards mix with the aqueous
part.
Befides the faponacedus matter, whey contains alfo
another faline fubftance; namely, fea falt: this is ob¬
tained by lixiviating the mortuum left in the re¬
tort, which, becaufe of its fixednefs, cannot rife with
the other principles in’diftillation. To this fait it is
owing that what remains in the retort after diftillation
grows moift in the air ; for we know that fea-falt tho¬
roughly, dried hath this property.
The fixed alkaline fait, obtained from the caput mor¬
tuum burnt to ailies, proves that milk dill retains fome-
thing of the vegetable nature: for the following analyfis
will drew us that matters purely animal yield none at
all.
Of the Subftances- 'which compofe an Animal
' Body.
Blood analyfed. Injlanced in Bullock’s Bloody
In a balneum 7naria evaporate all the moidure of
the blood that the.heat of .boiling water will carry off.
There will remain an almod dry matter. Put this dried
blood into a glafs retort, and didil with degrees of heat,
till nothing more will come over, even when the retort
is quite red-hot, and ready to melt. A browniih
phlegm ubll rife at fird : this will foon be impregnated
with a little volatile alkali, and then will ,come over a
yellow oil, a very pungent volatile fpirit, a volatile fait
in a concrete form, which will adhere to the fides of the
receiver; and, at lad, a black oil, as thick as pitch.
There will be left in the retort a charred matter, which
being burnt yields no fixed alkali.
Blood, which is carried by the circulation into all the
parts of the animal body, and furndhes. the matter of all
the fecretions, mud be confidered as a liquor confiding
of almod all the fluids neceflary to the animal machine:
fo that the analyfis thereof is a fort of general though im¬
perfect ahalyfis' of an animal.
Blood drawn from the body of an animal, and fet by
in a veflel, coagulates as it grows cold; and fomerimes
afterwards the coagulum difcharges a yellowifli
or lymph ; and in the midfl thereof fwims the red part,
which continues curdled. Thefe two fubdances, when
analyfed, yield nearly the fame principles; and in that
refpedt feem to differ little from each other. Though
the feruin of blood be naturally in a fluid form, yet, it
hath alfo a' great tendency to coagulate; and a certain
degree of heat applied to it, either by water or by a na¬
ked fire, will curdle it. Spirit of wine mixed with this
liquor produces on it the fame effeCl as heat.
Blood, while circulating in the body of a healthy ani¬
mal, and when newly taken from it, hath a mild tafle,
which difcovers nothing like either an acid or an alkali;
nor doth_ it '{he# kny fign of either th« one or the other
[ S - T R Y. 175
in chemical trials. When taded with attention, it be¬
trays fontething like a favour of fea-falt; becaufe it
adually contains a little thereof, which is found in the
charred matter left in the retort after the didillation,
when carefully examined.
We fhewed that milk alfo contains a little of this fait.
It enters the bodies of animals with the food they eat,
which contains more or lefs thereof according to its na¬
ture. It plainly fuffers no alteration by undergoing the
digedions, and palling through the drainers, of the ani¬
mal body. The cafe is the fame with the other neutral
falts which have a fixed alkali for their bafis: we find
them unchanged in the juices of animals into whofe bodies
they have been introduced. They are incapable of com¬
bining, as acids do, with the oilly parts; and fo are
diflblved by the aqueous fluids, of which nature makes
ufe to free herfelf froifi thofe falts, and difcharge them
out of the body.
Blood, like all other animal-matters, is, properly fpeak-
ing, fufceptible of no fermehtation but that of putrefac¬
tion. Yet it turns fomewhat four before it putrefies.
This fmall degree of acetous fermentation is mod fen-
fible in flefli; and efpecially in the flefli of young, animals*
fuch as calves, lambs, chickens, &c."
The -quantity of pure water, which.blood, in its na¬
tural date, contains, is very confiderable, and makes.al¬
mod feven eighths thereof; If it be diddled, without
being fird-dried, the operation will be much-longer;
becaufe k will be neceflary to draw off all this iniipid
phlegm with a gentle fire. There is no reafon to appre¬
hend that, by drying blood in open veffels as directed,
any of its other principles will be carried off with its
phlegm: for it contains no other fubdance that is vola¬
tile enough to rife with the warmth of a balneum maria.
This may be proved by putting fqme. undried blood into-
a glafs cucurbit, fitting thereto a head and receiver, and-
diddling, in a balneum maria, all that the heat of the
bath, not exceeding the heat of boiling water, will raife i
for, when nothing more will come over, you will find in
the receiver an infipid phlegm only, icarce differing from
pure water, except in having a faint fmell like that of
blood; wherein it refembles all the phlegms that rife
fird in didillation, which always retain fomething of the
fmell of the matters from which they were drawn. That
part of the blood, which remains in the cucurbit after
this fird didillation, being put into a retort, and didd¬
led with a dronger fire, yields exactly the fame prin¬
ciples,. and in the fame proportion, as blood dried in-
open veffels in the balneum maria: fo that, if this
phlegm of blood contains any principles, the quantity
thereof is fo fmall as to be fcarce perceptible.
The volatile alkali that rifes with the oil, when blood
is diflilled in, a retort with a degree of heat greater than
that of boiling water, is either the produ&ion of the
fire, pr arifes from the decompofition of an ammoniacal
fait of which it made a part. For we fhall fee, when
we come to treat of this faline fubdahce, that it is fo
extremely volatile as to exceed, in that refpeft, almod
all other bodies that we know.: and therefore if this* vo¬
latile alkali pre-exided formerly in the blood, uncom-
bined with any other matter capable, in fome meafure,
of
i76 C H F, M
of fixing ir, it Would rife at firlt almoft fpontaneoufly,
or at lead on the firft application of the gentled heat.
We have an inftance of this in blood, or any other ani¬
mal-matter, that is perfeftly putrefied; whiducontaining
a volatile alkali, either formed or extricated by putre-
fa&ion, lets go this principle when diftilled, even before
the firrt phlegm: and, for this reafon, when putrefied
blood is to be analyfed, it mud by no means be dried,
like frefh blood, before didillation; for all the volatile
alkali would by that means be diflipated and lod at
once.
Though blood and other animal matters afford no
fixed alkali, but, on the contrary, yield much volatile
alkali, it doth not therefore follow that all the acid.
Which thofe fubdances contained before they were ana¬
lyfed, is employed in the production of a volatile al¬
kali,
Flejh analyfed. Infianced in Beef.
Into an alembic of retort, placed in a fand-bath, put
fome lean beaf, from Which you have carefully feparated
all the fat. Didil till nothing more will rife. In this
fird didillation a phlegm will come over, weighing at
lead half the mafs-of the diddled flefh. In the retort
you will find a matter almod dry, which you mud after-
■wavds didil with a naked fire in a reverberating furnace,
taking the ufual precautions. There will come over at
firft a little phlegm replete with volatile alkali; then a
volatile alkali in a dry form* which will dick to the
fi'des of theveffel; and alfb a thick oil. After the di-
fcillation there will be left in the retort a black,, fhining,
light coal. Burn it to afhes in the open air, and lixivi¬
ate thofe afhes: the water of the lixivium will have no
alkaline property, but will fhew fome tokens of its con¬
taining a little fearfalt.
The flefh of an animal, as appears from the procefs,
yields much the fame principles with its blood: and it
cannot be* otherwife ; becaufe it is formed altogether of
materials furnifhed by the blood.
Boner analyfed. Injlanced in Ox-Bones.
Gut into pieces the bones of a leg of. beef, carefully
feparating all the marrow. Put them into a retort, and
didil them in a reverberating furnace as ufual. A phlegm
will come over fird; then a volatile fpirit, which will
become dronger and dronger ; afterwards a volatile fait
in a dry form, with fome oil; and, ladly, a black oil,
with a little more volatile fait. There will be left in
the retort a charred matter, from which a little fea-fait
may be extracted. Reduce this charred matter to afhes,
by burning it in the open air. Thefe afhes will give
fome flight tokens of a fixed alkali.
The analyfis of bones proves, that they confid of the
fame principhs with flefh and blood; and the fame may
be laid in general of all matters that are truly animal,
that actually conditute any part of an animal.
Animal Fat Analyfed. ■ Infianced in Mutton-Suet.
Put as much mutton-fuet as you pleafe into a glafs
retort, only taking care that the veil'd be but half full;
and didd with degrees of fire as ufual. A phlegm fmel-
I $ T R Y.
ling of the fuet will rife fird, and foon grow very add.
•After this fome drops of oil will come over, and be fol-*
lowed by a matter like oil, in appearance, when it comes
over; but it will fix in the receiver, and acquire a con¬
fidence fomewhat fofter than fuet. This kind of butter
of fuet will continue to rife to the end of the didillation ;
and there will be left in the retort a fmall quantity of
charred matter.
Eggs analyfed. Injlanced in Pullet's Eggs.
Put fome hens eggs in water, and boil them till they
be hard. Then feparate the yolks from the whites.
Cut the whites into little bits; put them into a glafs cu¬
curbit ; fit on a head and receiver ; didil in a balneum
mariee with degrees of fire, raffing it towards the end to
the dronged heat which that bath can give; that is, to
the heat of boiling water. There will come over an a-
queous liquor, or infipid phlegm; the quantity whereof
will be very confiderable, feeing it will make about nine
tenths of the whole mafs of the whites of the eggs Con¬
tinue your didillation, and keep the water in the bath
condantly boiling, till not a drop more of liquor will a-
fcend from the alembic. Then unlute your veffels. In
the cucurbit you will find your whites of eggs confider-
ably flirunk in their bulk. They will look like little bits
of brown glafs, and be hard and brittle.
Put this refiduum into a glafs retort, and didil, as
ufual, in a reverberating furnace with degrees of heat.
There will come over a volatile oily fpirit, a yellow oil,
a volatile fait in a dry form, and, at lad, a black thick
oil. There will be left in the retort a charred matter.
Reduce alfo into the fmalled pieces you can the hard
yolks of the eggs which you feparated from the whites.
Set them in a pan over a gentle fire : dir them with a
dick till they turn a little brown, and difcharge a fub-
dance like melted marrow. Then put them into a new,
drong, canvafs bag, and prefs them between two iron
plates well heated'; whereby you will obtain a confider¬
able quantity of a yellow oil
Let what remains in the bag be diddled in a retort fet
in a reverberating furnace: it will give you the fame
principles as you got from the whites.
Of the two perfe&ly didindl fubdances that conditute
the egg, the yolk contains the embryo of the chick, and
is dedined to hatch it : the white is to ferve for thfc
nourifhment of the chick when it is formed.
Thefe two matters, though they contain the very fame
principles, yet differ confiderably from each other; and
chiefly in this, that their principles are not in the fame
proportions.
The white of an egg contains fo much phlegm, that it
feems to confid almod totally thereof. All the aqueous
liquor, obtained by diddling it in the balneum maria1,
is, properly fpeaking, nothing but pure water; for go
chemical trial can difeover in it either an acid or a vola¬
tile alkali; or any very perceptilbq oily part. And yet
it mud contain fome oil, becaufe the liquor that rifes
lad is a little bitterifli to the tafte, and fmells fomewhat
of empyreuma. But the principles from which it derives
thefe properties are in loo fmall quantities to be didindt-
CHEMISTRY. 175
If, inftead of diftilling -the hard white of an egg, with
a view to dr6w off the great quantity of water it contains,
you'leave it fome time in an air that,is not too dry, the
greateft part of its moifture feparates fpontaneoufly, and
becomes very fenlible. In all probability-this is the ef-.
feft of a beginning putrefa&ion, which attenuates this
fubftance, and breaks its contexture. The liquor thus
difcharged by the white of an egg thoroughly diffolves
the gum-refins, and particularly myrrh. If you defire to
diflblve myrrh in this manner, cut a hard-boiled egg,in
halves; take out the yolk ; put the powdered gum-refin
into the cavity left by the yolk; join the two halves of
the white; faften them together with a thread, and hang
\ them up in a cellar. In a few days time the myrrh will
be diflblved by the moifture that iffues from the white of
the egg, and will drop into the veffel placed underneath
to receive it. This liquor is improperly called oil ef
myrrh per deliquium.
All the properties of the whites of eggs, as well as the
principles obtained by analyfing them, are the fame with
thofe of the lymphatic part of the blood; fo that there
is a great refemblance between thefe two fubftances.
As to the yolk, it is plain from its analyfis, that pil is
the predominant principle thereof. If the yolk of an
egg be mixed with water, the oil with' which it is replete,
' and which is by nature very minutely divided, difFufes
eafily through the whole liquor, and remains fufpend-
ed therein by means of its vifcofity. The liqpor at the
fame time becomes milk-white like an emulfion, and is in
faft a true animal emulfion.
In order to obtain the oil of $ggs by expreffion with
the more eafe, care muft be taken to chufe eggs that are
feven or eight-days old; bepaufe they are then a little
lefs vifcous. Neverthelefs their vifcofity is ftill fo great,
that they will not eafily yield their oil by expreflion : and
therefore, in Order to attenuate and deftroy entirely this
vifcofity, they muft be torrefied before they are put to be
prefled.
The oil of eggs, like all other oily animal matters,
feems analogous to the fat oils of vegetables. It hath all
the properties that charadlerife'thofe oils. Its colour is
yellow, and it fmells and taftes a little of the empyreuma,
occafioned by torrefying the yolks. It is rendered fome-
what lefs difagreeable by being expofed to the dew for
thirty or forty nights, if care be taken to ftir it often in
the mean time.
. To conclude: all the principles both in the yolk and
the white of an egg are the fame as .thofe found in
blood* flefti, and all other matters that are perfectly
animal.
Of the Excrements of Animals.
Dung analyfed. Infianccd in human Excrements.
Mr Homberg’s Pkofphorus.
Take any quantity you pleafe of human excrement,
<and diftil it in a glafs alembic fet in the balneum mariee.
You will obtain an aqueous, clear, infipid'liquor; which
will neverthelefs bave a. difagreeable o'dbhr. Having
urged the diftillation as far as is pofllhle \vfth the heat of
Von. II. No. 37. 3
this bath, unlute your yeflels, and you will find at the
bottom of the, cucurbit a dry matter, making about an
eighth part only of what you put into it. Put this re-
fiduum into a glafs retort, and diftil in a reverberating
furnace, with degrees of heat. You will obtain a vola¬
tile fpirit, and a volatile fait, with a fetid oil ; and a
charred matter will be left in the retort.
This fubftance, confifting of matters fubjeft to putre-
faftion, hath conftantly a fetid fmell, like that of all pu¬
trid matters ; having been for fome time confined in a
warm, moift place, which we know promotes putrefac¬
tion, and even quickly produces it. Yet the analyfis
thereof proves that it is not putrefied, or at leaft not en¬
tirely fo: for all putrefied matters contain a volatile al¬
kali-perfedly formed and extricated ; and, as this prin¬
ciple rifts with lefs heat than that of boiling water, it al¬
ways comes over firft in diftillation. Now we have feen
that, with the heat of boiling water, it parts with no¬
thing but an infipid phlegm, containing no volatile alkali :
a fure proof that the fecal matter is.not completely pu¬
trefied.
One of the methods by which Mr Homberg endeavour¬
ed to obtain from excrement a clear oil, without any bad
fmell, was to feparate its earthy and grofs parts, by fil¬
tering it before he diftilled it. “ For this purpofe he
diluted excrement newly difcharged with hot water, u-
fing a quart of water to an ounce of feces. Then he let the
mixture ftand to cool, and the grofs parts falling to the
bottom, he poured off the water by inclination. This
liquor he filtered through brown paper, and evaporated
to a pellicle over a gentle fire. There ftiot in it long
cryftals of four, five, and fix fides, which Mr Homberg
thinks may be called the eflentiai fait of excrement.
They refemble falt-petre, in fome meafure, and defla¬
grate in the fire much like it; with this difference, th.it
their flame is red, and they burn flowly; whereas the
flame of falt-petre is white and very vivid : probably, fays
Mr Horfiberg, becaufe thete is too much of an oily mat¬
ter in the one, and lefs in the other.
“ Mr Homberg diftilled this fait in a glafs retort with
degrees of fire, and at laft with a very violent one. At
firft there came over an aqueous liquor,, fliarp^and acid,
which was followed by a brown fetid oil, fmeiling very
ftrong of empyreuma. This diftillation he attempted
four feveral times; arid each time the matter in the retott
took fire, juft when the oil began to come off.”
7’he fait which Mr Homberg obtained from excrement
is very remarkable. Its nitrous chara&er is by no means
ambiguous: its deflagrating on live coals convinced Mr
Homberg of its being a true nitre. But its conftantly
taking fire in the retort, as oft as diftilled, is a ftife
proof that it is a nitrous fait: for nitre only hath the
property of thus taking fire in clofe veffels, and making
other combuftible matters burn along with it."
The procefs, by which Mr Romberg at Jaft obtained
from excrement a clear oil without any bad fmell, is
curlbhs, and worthy of a place here, on account of the
views and occafions of reflection which it may open.
“ Mr Homberg having tried in vain, by diftilling ex¬
crement a great many different ways, to obtain from it
fuch an oil as he wanted, refolved to employ fermenta-
2, Y tion,
il6 C H E M
tion> the cfFeifi; whereof is to change the difpofition of
the principles of mixta. With this view he dried forae
excrement in the water-bath, and, having pulverifed it,
poured thereon-fix times its weight of phlegm that had
been feparated from it by diftillation, and put the whole
into alargeglafs cucurbit, covered with an inverted vef-
feJ that fitted exactly into it, and was clofe luted. This
veflel he fet in & balneum marine for fix weeks, keeping
up fitch a gentle heat as would not burn one’s hand ; af¬
ter which he uncovered the cucurbit, and having fitted
thereto a head and a receiver, diflilled off all the aque¬
ous nioifture in the with a very gentle
heat. .. It had now loft almoft all its bad iinell, which
was changed into a faint one. It came over fomewhat
turbid, whereas it was very clear when pht into the cu-
eurhit. Mr Homberg found this water to have a-cofme-
tic virtue: he gave fome of it to perfons whofe complexi¬
on, neckv and arms, we re quite fpoiled, being turned
brewo, dry, rough, and like a goofe flein: they wafhed
with it once a day, and, by continuing the ufe of this
water, their fkln became veryToft and white.
“ The dry matter leftun the cucurbit after the firft
diftillation, had not the leaft fmell of feces: on the con¬
trary, it had an agreeable aromatic odour; and the .vef-
fel in which Mr Homberg. had digefted it, being left o-
pen in a corner of his laboratory, acquired in time a
ftrong fmell of ambergris. It is furprifing, as Mr Hom¬
berg juftly obferves, that digeftion alone ihould change
the abominable fmell of excrement ihto an odour as agree¬
able as that of ambergris.
This dry matter he powdered coarfely, and put
two ounces thereof at once into a glafs retort that would
hold about apound’or a pound and a half of water. This
he diflilled in a fand-bath with a‘very gentle heat. A
fmall quantity of an aqueous liquor came over fiHi, and
then an oil as colourlefs as fpring-water. Mr Homberg
continued the fame gentle degree of heat till the drops
began to come off a little redifh and then he changed
the receiver, {topping that which contained the clear oil
very ckffe with a cork. Having carried on the diftilla-
tion with a fire gradually augmented, there came over a
confiderable quantity of red oil; and there remained
in the retort a charred matter which burnt very readily.”
Theclear oil, without any ill fmell, which Mr Hom¬
berg obtained from the fecal matter by this procefs, was
the very thing he was in fearch of, and which he had
been affured would convert mercury into fine fixed filver *,
yet he ingenucufly owns, that, whatever way he applied
-it. he could never produce any change in that metallic
fubflancei We (hall now proceed to the other drfeoverks
made by Mr Homfeefg on this oceafion.
In his attempt to obtain a clear oil from excrement, he
diddled it with different additaments, and amongft the
red With vitriol and alum. He found that .the matters
left in the retort, when he made ufe of thefe falls, be¬
ing expofed to the open air, took fire of themfelves ; that
they kindled combudible matters ; in a word, that they
were a true phofphorus, of a fpecies different from all
then known. Purfuing tbefe'fird hints, he fought and
found the means of preparing this plxofghorus by a way
[ S T R Y.
much more expeditious, certain, and eafy. His procefs
is this.
“ Take four ounces of feces newly excreted : mix
therewith an equal weight of roch-alum eoarfely pow¬
dered : put the whole into a little iron ; an that will hold
about a quart of water, and fet it over a gentle Pre un¬
der a chimney. The mixture will melt, and become as
liquid as water. Let it boil with a gentle fire, condantly
dirring it, breaking it into little crumbs, and feraping
off with a fpatula whatever dicks to the bottom or (ides
of the pan, till it be perfectly dry. T he pan mud from
lime to time be removed from the fire that it may not
grow red hot; and the matter mud be dirred, even
while it is off the fire, to prevent too much of it from
dicking to the pan. When the matter is perfeHly dried,
and in little clots, let it cool, and powder it in a metal
mortar. Then put it again into the pan, fet it over the
fire, and dir it continually. It will again grow a little
moid, and adhere together in clots, which mud be con¬
tinually roaded and bruifed till they be perfectly dry ;
after which they mud be differed to cool, and then be
pulverifed. This powder mud be returned a third time
to the pan, fet on the fire, roaded, and perfeHly dried :
after which it mud be reduced to a fine powder, and
kept in a paper in a dry place. This is the fird or pre¬
paratory operation. '
“ Take two or three drams of this powder. Put it
into a little matras, the belly of which will hold an
ounce, or an ounce and half of water, and having a neck
about fix or feven inches long. Order it fo that your
powder ftiail take up no more than about a third part of
the matras. Stop the neck of the matras flightly with
paper : then take a crucible'four or five inches deep : in
the bottom of the crucible put three or four fpoonfJls of
fand : fet the matras on this fand, and in the middle of
the crucible, fo as not to touch its iides. Then fill up-
the crucible with fand, fo that the belly of the matras may
be quite buried therein, This done, place your crucible
with th: matras in the mid-d of a little earthen furnace,
commonly called a Jlove, about eight or ten inches wide
above, and fix inches deep from the mouth to the grate.
Round the crucible put lighted coals about half way up,
and when it hath dood thus half an hour, fill up with
coals to the very top of the crucible. Keep up this fire
a full half hour longer, or till you fee the infide of the
matras begin to be red. Then increafe your fire, by
railing your coals above the crucible. Continue this
ftrong heat for a full hour, and then let the fire go out.
“ At the beginning of this operation denfe fumes will
rife out of ihe matras, through the Hopple of paper.
Thefe fumes iffae fometimes in fuch abundance as to
pufh out the dopple ; which you mud then replace, and
dacken the fire. The fumes ceafe when the infide of the
matras begins tot grow red ; and then you may increafe
the fire without any fear of fpoiling your operation.
“ When the crucible is fo cold that it may be fafely
taken out of the furnace with one’s hand, you mud gra¬
dually draw the matras out of the fand. that it may cool
dowly, and then dop it clofe with a cork.
“ If the matter at. the bottom of the matras appear to
he
C H E M I
be in powder when fhaken, it is a fign the .operation hath
fucceeded r but if it be in a cake, and doth riot fall into
powder on (baking the matras, it (hews that your matter
was not fufHciently \roafted and dried in the iron pan du¬
ring the preparatory operation.”
Mr Lemeri hath (hewn, that excrement is not the only
matter capable of producing this phofphorus with alum ;
but that, on the contrary, almoft all animal and even ve¬
getable matters are fit for this combination ; that though
Mr Homberg mixed alum in equal quantities only with
the fecal matter, it may be ufed in a much greater pro¬
portion^ and, in certain cafes, will fucceed the better ;
that, according to the nature of the fubfhmces to be
worked on, the quantity of that fait may be more or lefs
increafed ; and that whatever is added, more than the
dofe requifite for each mat'er, ferve? only to leffen the
virtue of the phofphorus, or even deftroys it entirely;
that the degree of (ire applied muft be different according
to the nature of thofe matters; and, daftly, that falts
containing exadtly the fame acid with that 'if alum, or
the acid of thofe (alts feparated from its bafis and reduced
into fpirit, do not anfwer in the prefent operation : which
(hews, fays Mr Lemeri, that many fulphureous matters
may be fubftituted for excrement in this operation ; but
that there are no falts, or very few, if any, that will
fucceed in the place of alum.
T his pbofphoru', made either by Mr Homberg’s or
by Mr Lemeri’s method, (hints both by day and by
night. Befides emitting light, it takes fire foon after it
is expofed to the air, and kindles all combuftible matters
with which it comes in contadl:; -and this without being
rubbed or heated.
Meff. Homberg and Lemeri have given the moft pro¬
bable and rhe moft natural explanation of the caufe of
the accenfion and other phenomena of this phofphorus.
What they fay amounts in fhort to what follows.
Alum is known to be a neutral fait, confiding of the
vitriolic acid and a calcareous earth. When this fait is
calcined with the fecal matter, or other fubftances a-
bounding in oil, the volatile principles of thefe fubftances,
fuch as their phlegm, their fairs, and their oils, exhale
in the fame manner as if they were diftilled ; and there
is nothing left in the niatras, when thofe principles are
diflipated, but a charred matter, like that which1 is found
in retorts wherein fuch mixts have been decompofed by
diftdlation.
This remainder therefore is nothing but a mixture of
alum and charcoal. Now, as the acid of this fait, which
is the vitriolic, hath a greater affinity with the phlogifton
than with any other fubftance, it will quit its bafis to
unite with the phlogifton of the coal, and be converted
by that union into a fulphur. And this is the very cafe,
of which we have certain proofs in the operation for pre-
paiing,this phofphorus; for when, after the volatile
principles of the oily matter are drawn off, the fire is
increafed, in order to combine cicely together the fixed
parts that remain in the matras, thatAs, the alum and
the charred matter, we perceive at the mouth of the ma¬
tras a fmall blue fulphureous flame, and a pungent fmell
of burning fulphur. Nay, when the operation is finilh-
S T II Y. 177
ed, we find a real fulphur (licking in the neck of the ma¬
tras ; and, while the phofphorus is burning, it hath
plainly a ftrong fulphureous fmell. It is therefore cer¬
tain, that this phofphorus contains an actual fulphur ;
that is, a matter difpofed to take fire with the greateft
eafe. But though fulphur be very inflammable, it never
takes fire of itfelf, withour being either in contaft with
fome matter that is adhrally ignited, or elfe being expofed
to a confiderable degree of heat. Let us fee then what
may be the caufe of its accenfion, when it is a condiment
part of this phofphorus.
We mentioned juft now, that the acid of the alum quits
its bafis, in order to form a fulphur by combining with
the phlogifton of the coal. This bafis we know to be an
earth capable of being converted into lime ; and that it
is actually converted into quick-lime by the calcination
neceffary to produce the phofphorus. We know that
new made lime hath the property of uniting with water
fo readily, that it thereby contra&s a very great degree
of heat. Now when this phofphorus, which is partly
conftituted of the bafis of the alum converted into quick¬
lime, is expofed to the air, the lime inftantly attrafls
the moifture of which the air is always full, and by this
means, probably, grows fo hot as to fire the fulphor
with which it is mixed. Perhaps alfo the acid of the
alum is not totally changed into fulphur: fome part
thereof may be only half-difengaged from its bafis, and
in that condition be capable of attrafling ftrongly the hu*
midity of the air, of growing very hot likewife by im¬
bibing the moifture, and fo of contributing to the accen-.
(ion of the phofphorus.
There is alfo room to think that all the phlogifton of
the charred matter is not employed inf the produdlioh of
fulphur in this phofporus, but that fome part of- it re¬
mains in the ftate of a true coal. The black colour of
the unkiridled phofplicrus, and the red fparkles it emits
while burning, fufficteridy prove this.
Human Urine analyfed.
Put fome human urine into a glafs aleriibic; fet it in
a water-bath, and diftil till there remain only about a
fortieth part of What you put in ; or elfe evaporate the
urine in a pan fet in the balneum marine till it be reduced
to the fame quantity. With this heat nothing wil! Ex¬
hale but an infipid phlegm, fmejling however like urine;
The refiduum will, as the evaporation advances, become
of a darker and darker ruffet, and at laft acquire an al-
moft black colour. Mingle diis reliduum with thrice its
weight of fand, and diftil it in a retort fet in a reverbe¬
rating furnace, with the ufual precautions. At fij-ft there
will come over a little more infipid phlegm like the fop-
mer. When the matter is almoft dry, a volatile fpirit
will rife. After this fpirit, white vapours will appear on
increafing the fire ; a yeHow oily liquor will eome off,
trickling down in veins ; and together with this liquor a
concrete volatile fait, which will (lick tq the-fides of the
receiver. At laft there will come over a deep-coloured
fetid oil. In the retort there will remain a faline earthy
refiduum, which being -lixiviated will yield fome fea-
falt.
0/
78
C H E M
Of the Volatile Alkali.
Volatile Alkalis rettified and depurated.
Mix together the fpirit, the volatile fait, the phlegm,
and the oil, obtained from any fubltance whatever. Put
the whole into a large wide-mouthed glafs body, and
thereto fit a head with a larg/ beak. Set this alembic
in a water-bath, lute on a receiver, and diftil with a very
gentle heat. There will afcend a fpirit ftrqngly impreg¬
nated with volatile alkali, and a volatile fait in a concrete
form, which mull be kept by itfelf. Then increafe your
heat to the degree of boiling water ; whereupon there
will rife a fecond volatile fpirit, fomewhat more ponder¬
ous than the former, with a light oil that will fwim on
its furface, and a little concrete volatile fait. Proceed
till nothing more will rife with this degree of heat. Keep
by itfelf what came over into the-receiver. At the bot¬
tom of the cucurbit you will find a thick fetid oil.
Into fuch another diddling vefiel put the fpirit and fait
that rofe firft in this diftillation, and diftil them in the
balneum tnariar with a heat ftill gentler than before. . A
whiter, purer, volatile fait will fublime. Continue the
diftillation till an aqueous moifture rife, which will begin
to di/Tolve the fait. At the bottom of the VefTel will be
left a phlegm, with a little oil floating on it. Keep your
fait in a bottle well flopped.
Volatile Alkalis combined •with Acids. Sundry Ammo-
niacal Salts. Sal Ammoniac.
On a volatile fpirit or fait pour gradually any acid
whatever. An effervefcence will arife, and be more or
lefs violent according to the nature of the acid. Go on
adding more acid in the fame manner, till no effervefcence
be thereby excited, or at leaft till it be very final!. The
liquor will now contain a femi-volatile neutral fait, called
an ammoniacal fait; which may be obtained in a dry
form by cryftallifing as ufual, or by fubliming it in clofe
veflels, after the fuperfluous moifture hath been drawn off.
Volatile alkalis have the fame properties with fixed al¬
kalis, fixity only excepted : fo that a volatile alkali muft
produce an effervefcence when mixed with acids, and
form therewith neutral falls, differing from each other
in nothing but the nature of the acid in their compo-
fition.
It muft be obferved, that the point of faturation js very
difficult to hit on this occafion; owing probably to the
volatility of the alkali, which, being much lighter than
the acid, tends always to poffefs the uppermoft part of the
mixture, while the acid finks to the bottom : whence it
comes to pafs, /that the lower part of the liquor is fome-
times overcharged with acid, while the upper part is ftill
very alkaline. But it is moft eligible that the alkali
ftiould predominate in the mixture ; becaufe the excefs
of this principle eafily flies off while the moifture is eva¬
porating in order to the cryftallifaticn or fublimation of
the ammoniacal fait; which being only femi-volatile, re-
filts the heat longer, and remains perfedUy neutral.
If the vitriolic acid be combined with a volatile alkali,
and the mixture diftilled in a retort to draw off the fu-
I S T R Y.
perfiuous moifture, a liquor comes over into the receiver
which fmells ftrong of a fulphureous acid. Now, as the
acid of vitriol never becomes fulphureous, but when it is
combined with an inflammable matter, this experiment
is one of thofe which demonftrate that volatile alkalis
contain a very fenfible quantity of inflammable matter.
This fame liquor taftes of an ammoniacal fait ^ which
proves that it carries up with it fome of the neutral fait
contained in the mixture. The reft of this fait, which
is called Glauber's feeret fal ammoniac, or vitriolic fal
ammoniac, fublimes into the neck of the retort. It is
very pungent on the tongue ; it crackles a little when
thrown on a red-hot ftiovel, and then flies off in vapours.
The ammoniacal fait formed by the acid of nitre ex¬
hibits much the fame phenomena ; but it requires greater
care in drying and fubliming it, becaufe it hath the pro¬
perty of detonating all alone, without the addition of any
other inflammable matter : and it will infallibly do fo, if
too ftrong a fire be applied towards the end of the opera¬
tion, when it begins to be very dry. This property of
detonating by itfelf it derives from the inflammable mat¬
ter contained in the volatile alkali which ferves for its ba-
fis : and this is another demonftrative proof of the exift-
ence of fuch an inflammable matter in the volatile alkali.
This fait is called nitrous ammoniacal fait.
With the vegetable acids, that of vinegar for inftance,
is formed an ammoniacal fait of a lingular nature, and
which can fcarce be Brought to a dry form.
A volatile alkali, combined to the point of faturation
with the acid of fea-falt, forms another neutral fait,
which takes a concrete form either by fublimation or cry-
ftallifation. The cryftals of this fait are fo very foft
and fine, that a parcel of it looks like cotton or wool.
This is the fait properly called fal ammoniac. It is of
great ufe in chemiftry and in manufaffures ; but that
which is daily confumed in great quantities is not made
in the manner above mentioned. It would come ex¬
tremely dear, if we had no other way of procuring it,
but by forming it thus with the acid of fea-falt and a vo¬
latile alkali. This fait, or at leaft the materials of which
it is formed, may be found in the fuliginofities and foots
of moft animal, and of fome vegetable fubftances. The
greateft part of what we ufe comes from Egypt, where
vaft quantities thereof are made.
The method of preparing fal ammoniac in Egypt was
not known among us till Meff. Lemaire and Granger.
Their memoirs inform us, that chimney-foot alone, with¬
out any additament, is the. matter from which they ob¬
tain their fal ammoniac; that thofe chimneys under
which nothing is burnt but cow’s-dung, furnilh the beft
foot. Six and twenty pounds of that foot yieldvufually
fix pounds of fal ammoniac.
“ The operation takes up about fifty, or two and fifty
hours. The veffels in which they put the foot are bal¬
lons of very thin glafs, terminating in a neck of fifteen
or fixteen lines long, qnd an inch in diameter : but they
are not all of the fame fize. The leaft contain twelve
pounds of foot, and the greateft fifty; but they fill them
only three quarters full, in order to leave'room for the
fublimation of the fait.
“ The furnace, in which they place thefe ballons,
• confifts
C H E M
ranfifls of four walls built in a quadrangular form. The
two front-walls are ten, and the lides nine foot long:
but they are all five foot high, and ten inches thick.
Within the quadrangle formed by thefe( walls., three
archqs run lengthwife from end to end thereof, at the
diftance of ten inches afunder. The mouth of this fur
nace is in the middle of one of its fronts, and of an
oval form ; two foot four inches high, and fixteen inches
wide.
“ The ballons lie in the fpaces between the arches of
the furnace, which ferve inltead of a grate to fupport
them. Four of them are ufually placed in each inter¬
val ; which makes fixteen for one furnace. They are
fee at the diftian'ce of about half a foot from each other,
and fecured in their places with brick and earth. But
they leave about four inches on the upper part of .the
ballon uncovered, with a view to promote the fublima-
tion, 3s they alfo do fix inches of the inferior part, that
the heat may the better adt on the matters to be fublimed.
Things being thus prepared, theyfirft make a fire with
draw, which .they continue for an hour. Afterwards
they throw in cow’s dung made up in fquare cakes like
bricks. (The want of wood in this-country is the reafon
that they generally make ufe of this fuel.) Thefe cakes
of dung add to the violence of the fire, which they con¬
tinue in this manner for nineteen hours ; after which they
increafe it confiderably for fifteen hours more ; and then
they flacken it by little and little.
“ When the matter Contained in the veflels begins to
grow hot, that is, after fik or feven hours baking, it e-
mits a very thick and ill-fcented fmoke, which continues
for fifteen hours. Four hours after that, the fal ammo¬
niac is obferved to rife in white flowers, which adhere to
the it,fide of the neck of the vefiel ; and thofe who have
the direction of the operation take care from.time to time
to pafs an iron rod into the neck of the ballon, in order
to preferve a pafiage through the faline vault, for giving
vent to fome blueilh vapours, which conftantly ifl’ue out
of the veflel during the whole operation.”
From this hiftory of the preparation of fal ammoniac
it appears, that foot, and particularly the foot of animal
matters, either contains abundance of this fait perfedtly
formed, and waiting only for fublimation to fepa/^te it
therefrom, or at lead that it contains the prpper ma¬
terials for formjng it; and that during the operation,
which is a kind of didillation of foot, thefe materials
combine together and fublime.
We fiiewed, in our analyfis of foot, that this fubdance
yields by didillation a great deal of volatile alkali; and
this is an ingredient which makes at lead one half,of fal
ammoniac. As to the other principle of this fa.lt, the
marine acid, this alfo mud needs exid in foot: but it is
not fo eafy to conceive how it (hould come there.
It is verjf true that vegetable and animal fubdanees,
the only ones that produce foot in burning, contain fome
portion of fea-falt: but then this fait is very fixed,
and feems unfit to rife with the acid, the oil, and the
-fubtile earth, of which the volatile alkali is formed.
.Therefore we mud fuppofe either that its elevation is
.procured by the force of the fire, aided by the volatility
Vol. II. No. 3,7. 3
I S T R Y. 179
of the matters that exhale in burning; or that, being
decompofed by the violence of the combudioh, its acid
alone rifes with-the other principles aberve mentioned.
1 he latter feems probable enough : for though in the
common operations of chemiflry the bare force ot fire doth
not feem luificient to decompole fea-lalt; yet the example
oHea-plants, which, before burning, contain this fait in
abundance, and whofe allies contain ficarce any at all,
but are replete with its fixed part, that is, with its al¬
kaline bafis, feems to prove, that; when this fait is inti¬
mately mixed with inflammable matters, it may be de-
Aroyed by burning 5 fo that its acid lhall defert its bafis,
and fly off with the foqt. *
Before the exaft method of procuring fal ammoniac
was known, it was generally imagined that the manufaq-‘
turers mixed fea-fak, and even urine,-with the foot;
becaufe thefe two fubdances contain the principles of
which this fait confifts. But,* befides that the contrary
now -certainly appears from the above .mentioned me¬
moirs, it hath been fhewn by Mr Duhamel, who hath'
publiflied leveral memoirs and experiments concerning
the compofition and decompofition of fal ammoniac, from
which we have partly taken what we have already faid
on this fubjedt; it hath been Ihewn, in the fird of thefe
memoirs, that the addition of fea-falt to the foot, from
which fal ammoniac is to be extraded, contributes no¬
thing to its produdion, and cannot increafe its quantity.
That alone, therefore, which was originally contained
in the matters that produced the foot, enters as a prin¬
ciple into the compofition of fal ammoniac.
Sal ammoniac is foraetimes found perfedly formed in
the neighbourhood of vulcanos. This fait is probably
produced from the fuliginofities of vegetable or animal
matters confumed by the fire of. the vulcano.
Sal ammoniac is often impure, ,,becaufe it carries up
with it, in fublimation, fome of the black charred mat¬
ter which ought to be' left at the bottom of the veffel:
but it is ealily purified. For-this purpofe you need only
diflblfe it in water, filter ihe dilution, then evaporate
ana ciydallize-; by which means you will have a very
white and very pure fal ammoniac. You may if you
pleaie, fublime it again in a cucurbit and blind head,
with a ire not too brifk.' Some of k will rife in the form
of a light white powder;: called flowers of [al ammoni-
cc. Thefe flow'ers are no other than true fal ammoniac,
which hath differed no decompofition ; becaufe the bare
adion of fire is not capable of feparating the acid and the
volatile alkali, of which this neutral fajtconfifls. When
you intend to decompofb it, you mud ufe the means to
be mentioned hereafter.
Though fal Ammoniac be only femi-volatile, ancj re¬
quires a Confiderable heat to fublime it, yet it hath the
property of <jarryifig up with it matters that are very fixed
and ponderous ; fuch as metallic fubdances, and fome
kinds of earths. For medicinal ufes we fublime there¬
with iron, lapis haematites, the copper in blue vitriol
&c.' and then it takes different names, as martial /5W>-
ers of fal ammoniac, ens veneris, and other fuch de¬
nominations, which it borrows from the matters fubli-
n;ed with it.
2Z S.at
Ido C H E M
Sal Ammoniac decompounded by acids.
Into a large tubulated retort put a fmail quantity of
fal ammoniac in powder: fet your retort in a furnace,
and lute on a large ballon, as in the diftillation of the fr.in¬
king acids of nitre and fea-falt. Through the hole'in
your retort pour a quantity of oil of vitriol or fpirit
of nitre equal in weight to your fal ammoniac. An ef-
fefvefcence will inftantly follow. The mixture will fwell,
and difcharge white vapours which will come over into
the receiver. Stop the whole in the retort immediately,
and let the firft vapours pafs over, together with home
drops of liquor, which will diftil without fire. Then
put a few coals into the furnace, and continue the diftd-
lation with a very gentle heat ; which however muft be
increafed little by little till nothing more will c me over.
When the operation is finifhed, you will find in the re¬
ceiver a fpirit of fait if you made ufe of oil of vitriol: or
an aqua regis, if the fpirit of nitre was employed: and
in the retort will be left a faline mafs, which will be ei¬
ther a glauber’s fecret fal ammoniac, or a nitrous fal
ammoniac, according to the nature of ’the acid ufed to
decompound the fal ammoniac.
Sal ammoniac decompounded by fixed Alkalis. Vola-
tile fait. The Febrifuge of Sylvius.
Into a glafs alembic or retort put fal ammoniac and
fait of tartar pulverifed and mixed together in equal
quantities. Set your veflel in a proper furnace, and im¬
mediately lute on a large receiver. A little volatile fpi¬
rit will afcend ; and a volatile alkali, in a concrete form,
very white and beautiful, will fublime into the head, and
come over into the receiver, in quantity near two thirds
or three fourths of the fal ammoniac ufed. Continue the
di ft illation, increafing the fire by degrees till nothing more
will fublime. Then unlute the vefiels. Put up your
volatile fait immediately into a wide mouthed bottle, and
flop it clofe with a eryftal ftopple. At the bottom of
the retort or cucurbit you will find a faline mafs, which,
being diffolved and cryftallifed, will form a fait nearly
cubical, having the tafte and other properties of fea-falt.
This is the fal febrifugum filvii.
Sal Ammoniac decompounded by abfqrbent Earths and
Lime. Fixed Sal Ammoniac.
Let one part of fal ammoniac and three parts of lime
I S T R Y.
flaked in the air be pulverifed feparately, and exnediti-
oufiy mixed together. Put this mixture immediately
into a glafs retoit, fo large tnat half of it may remain
empty. Apply thereto a capacious receiver, with a
ft nail hole in it to give vent to. the vapours, if needful.
Let your retort ftand in the furnace about a quarter of
an hour, without any fire under it. While it ftands thus,
a great quantity of invifible vapours wid rife, condenle
into drops, and form liquor in the receiver. *Then put
two or three live coals-in your furnace, and gradually
increafe the fire till no more liquor will rife. Now un¬
lute your veflels, taking all poftible care to avoid the va¬
pours, and quickly pour the liquor out of the receiver
into a bottle, which you muft flop with a cryftal rtopple,
rubbed with emery. There will remain, at the bottom
of the retort, a white mafs, confifting of the lime em¬
ployed in the diftillation, together wit the acid of the
fal ammoniac: this is called fixed fal ammoniac.
Volatile Alkalis combined 'with oily matters. A Vo¬
latile Oily Aromatic fait.
Pulverise and mix together equal parts of fal am¬
moniac and fait of tartar : put the mixture into a gl'afa
or ftone cucurbit: pour on it good fpirit of wine till it
rife half an inch above the matter. Mix the whole with:
a wooden fpatula ; apply a head and a receiver, and di-
llil in a land-bath, gently heated, for two or three hours.
A Volatile fait will rife into the head ; and then the fpirit
of wine will diftil into 'the receiver, carrying with it a
portion of the volatile fait.
When nothing more will come over, let your velfela
cool ; then unlute them, feparate the volatile fait, and
\veigh it diretfly. Return it into a glafs cucurbit, and
for every ounce thereof add a dram and a half of elfen-
tial oil, drawn from one or more forts of aromatic
plants. Stir the whole with a wooden fpatula, that the
eflence may incorporate thoroughly with the volatile fait.
Cover the cucurbit with a head, fit on a receiver, and,
having luted it exaftly, diftil in a fand-bath, as before,
with a very gende heat. All the volatile fait will riie,.
and ftick to the head. Let the fire go opt, and when
the veflels are cooled take your fait out af the head.
It will have an odour compounded of its own proper
fmell, and the fmelf of the efience with which it is com¬
bined. This is an aromatic oily fait. Put it into a
bottle flopped clofe with a cryftal ftopple.
A TABLE,
CHE (
CHEMOSIS, a difeafe of the eyes, proceeding from an
inflammation, when the wh te of the eye iweils above
the black, and overtops it to fuch a degree, that there
appears a fort of gap between them.
Others define it to be an elevation of the membrane
which furrounds the eye, and is called the white ; be¬
ing an afTeflion of the eye, like white fklh.
CHENOPODIUM, in botany, a genus of the pentan-
dria digynia clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves ;
it has no corolla ; and there is but one lenticular feed.
There are 18 fpecies, 13 of which are natives of Bri¬
tain, viz. the bonus henricus, common Englilh mcr
cury, or all-good ; the urbicum, or upright blite ; the
rubrum, or flrarp leaved goofe foot; the murale, com¬
mon goofe-foot, or fow-bane; the hybridum, or maple¬
leaved blite the album, or common orache ; the vi-
ride, or green blite ; the ferotinum. or late-flowered
biite; the glaucum, or oak leaved blite; the vulva-
ria, or {linking orache; the polyfpermum, round¬
leaved blite, or all feed ; the maritimum, fea blite, or
white glafs-wort; and the fruticoium, flirub (tone-crop,
or glafs-wort. The leaves of the vulvaria, or {linking
orache, are faid to be an excellent anti hyfteric.
CHEPELIO, an ifland in the bay of Panama, and pro¬
vince of Darien, in South America, fituated about
three leagues from the city of Panama, which it fup
plies with provifions : W. long. Si0, N lat. 90.
CHEPSTOW, a market-town in Monmouthftiire, fi¬
tuated on the river Wye, near its mouth, about ten
miles fouth of Monmouth : W. long, a9 40', N. lat.
Si° 4°'-
CHEQ, or Cherif, the prince of Mecca, who is, as it
were, high prieft of the law, and fovereign pontiff of
all the Mahometans, of whatever fe<51 or country they
be. See Caliph.
The grand fignior, fophies, moguls, khans of Tar¬
tary, &c. fetid him yearly prefents, efpecially tapeftry
to cover Mahomet’s tomb withal, together with a
fumptuous tent for-himfelf, and vaft fums of money to
provide for all the pilgrims during the feventeen days
of their devotion.
CHERBtJRG, a port-town of France, in the province
of Normandy, fituated on a bay of the EngHih channel,
oppofite to Hampfliire, in England: W. long. i° 40',
N. lat. 490 45
CHEREM, in Jewifli antiquity, the fecond and greater
fort of excommunication among the Jews.
The cherem deprived the excommunicated perfon
of almoft all the advantages of civil fociqty : he could
have no commerce with any one, could neither buy nor
fell, except fuch thing? as were abfolutely neceflary
for life ; nor relbrt to the fchools, nor enter the fy-
nagogues ; and no one was permitted to eat or drink
with him.
The fentence of cherem was to be pronounced by
ten perfons, or at leaft in the prefence of ten : but the
excommunicated perfons might be abfolved by three
judges, or e^en by one, provided he were a dottor of
the law. The form of this excommunication was
loaded with a multitude of curfes and imprecations,
taken from different parts of the feripture.
181 ) CHE
CliERESOUL, the capital of Curoiflan, in- Afiatic
Turky, and the feat of the beglerbeg, or viceroy, of
the province : E. long. 450, N. lat. 36°.
CilERLERIA, in botany, a genus of the decapdria tri-
gynia clafs. The calix confifts of live leaves ; it has
five petals lefs than the leaves of the calix, and five
bifid neftaria ; the antherte are alternately barren : and
the capfule has three cells and as many valves. There
is but one fpecies, viz. tiiefedoides, a native of Swit¬
zerland.
CHERLESQUIOR, in Turkifli affairs, denotes a lieu¬
tenant-general of the Grand Signior’s armies.
CHERMES, in zoology, a genus of infedls belonging
to the order of infedta hemiptera. The roftrum is fi-
tuate on the breaft ; the feelers are longer than the
breaft ; the four wings are defle&ed ; the breaft is
gibbous; and the feet are of the jumping kind.
There are 17 fpecies, and the trivial names are taken
from the plants which they frequent, as the chermes
graminis, or grafs-bug ; the chermes ulmi, or elm-
bug, <fyc.
CHERRY TREE, in botany. See Prunus.
Cmf.rry-isle, in geography, an ifland fituated in the
north or frozen ocean, between Norway and Green¬
land : E. long. 200, N. lat. 75°.
CHERSO, the capital of an ifland of the fame name, in
the gulf of Venice, and fubjeift to the Venetians :
E. long 150, N lat 450 25'
CHERSONESUS, among geographers, the fame with
a peninfula. See Peninsula
CHERTSEY, a market town of Surry, about feven
miles weft of Kingfton : W. long. 3c/, N. lat,
_510 2s'.
CHERUB, or Cherubin, a celeftial fpirit, which in
the hierarchy is placed next to the feraphim. See
Hiera’rch Y.
The feverabdeferiptions which the feripture gives us
of cherubins, differ from one another ; but all agree
in reprefenting a figure compofed of various creatures,.
as a man, an ox, an eagle, and a lion.
CHERVIL, in botany. See Ch^erophyllum.
CHERWEL, a river, which, arifing in Northampton-
Ihire, runs fouthwards by Banbury, and unites its wa¬
ters with thole of the Ills, near Oxford.
CHESHAM, a market-town of Buckinghamlhire, about
nine miles fouth-eaft of Ailelbury: W. long. 35', N.
lat. 11° 36'.
CHESHIRE, a maritime county of England, bounded
by Staffordfhire on the eaft, and by the Irifli fea on
the weft : its chief commodities are fait and cheefe,
thelaft of which is much efteemed all over Britain.
CHESNUT-TREE, in botany. See Fagus.
CHESS, an ingenious game, performed with different
pieces of wood, on a board divided into fixt'y-four
fquares or houfes ; in which chance has fo fmall a
{hare, that it may be doubted whether a perfon ever
loft but by his own fault.
Each gamefter has eight dignified pieces, viz. a
king, a queen, two bifliops, two knights, and two
rooks ; alfo eight pawns : all which, for diftinflion fike,
are painted of two different colours, as white and black.
CHE ( i
As to their difpofition on the board, the white king
is to be placed on the fourth black houfe from the
corner of the board, in the lirft and lower rank; and
the black king is to be placed on the fourth white houfe
on the oppofite or adverfary’s end of the board. The
•queens are to be placed next to the kings, on houfes of
their own colour. Next to the king and queen, on
each hand, place.the two bifhops ; next to them, the
the two knights; and laft of all, on the corners of
the board, the two rooks. As to the pawns, they are
placed without drftin&ion, on the fecond rank of the
houfe, one before each of the dignified pieces.
Having thus difpofed the men, the onfet is com¬
monly begun by the pawns, which march rtraight for¬
ward in their own file, one houfe at a time, except
the firft move, when it can advance two houfes, but
never moves backwards: the manner of their taking
the adverfary’s men, is fide-ways, in the next houfe
forwards; where having captivated the enemy, they
move forward as before. The rook goes forward or
crofs-ways through the whole file, and back again.
The knight flops backward and forward to the next,
houfe, fave .one, of a dilferent colour, with a {Idling
march, or a dope, and thus kills his enemies that fail
inlais way, or guards his friends that may be expofed
on that fide. The bifhop w'alks always in the fame
colour of the field that he is placed in at firfl, forward
and backward, aflope, or diagonally, as far as he
lifts. The queen’s walk is more univerfal, as fhe
takes all the fteps of the before-mentioned pieces, ex¬
cepting that of the knight; and as to the king’s mo¬
tion, it is one houfe at a time, and that either for¬
ward, backward, (loping, or fide ways.
As to the value of the different pieces, next to the
king is the queen, after her the rooks, then the bi-
fhops, and laft of the dignified nieces comes the knight.
The difference of the worth of pawns, is not fo great
as that of noblemen ; only, it muft be obferved, that
the king’s bilhop’s pawn is the beft in the field, and
therefore the fitilful gamefter will be careful of him.
It ought alfo to be obferved, that whereas any man
may be taken, when he falls within the reach of any
of the adverfary’s pieces, it is otherwife with the king,
who, in fuch a cafe, is only to be fainted with the
word check, warning him of his danger, out of which
it is abfolutely neceflary that he move; and, if it fo
htppen that he cannot move without expofing himfelf
tolhe like inconveniency, it is check-mate, and the
game is loft.
CHEST, in commerce, a kind of meafure, containing
an uncertain quantity of feveral commodities.
A cheft of fugar, v. g. contains from ten to fifteen
hundred weight; a cheft of glafs, from two hundred
to three hundred feet; of C^ftile foap, from two and
an half to three hundredweight; of indigo, from
one and an half to two hundred weight, five fcore to
the hundred.
Chest, or Thorax, in anatomy. See p. 277.
CHESTER- the capital city of Chefhire, fituated fix*
teen miles'u>uth of Liverpool: W. long. 30, N. lat.
*2 ) CHE
j;° 1 S'. It is a bifhop’s fee, and gives the title of
earl to the prince of Wales.
Wi?w-Chester, the capital of a county of the fame
name in Penfilvania, in North America, fituated on the
river Delawar, fouth of Philadelphia : W. long. 740,
N. lat. 40° 15/. Its harbour is fine and capacious,
admitting veflels of any burden.
CHESTERFIELD, a market-town of Derbyftiire, fif¬
teen miles north of Derby, W. long. i° 25', N. lat.
530 20 . It gives the title of earl to a branch of the
noble family of Stanhope.
CHEVALER, in the menage, is faid of a horfe when
in paffaging upon a walk or trot, his off fore-leg
croiTes or overlaps the near fore-leg every fecond mo¬
tion.
CHEVALIER, in a general fenfe, fignifies a knight,
or horfeman.
CHEVAUX DE FRISE, in fortification, a large joift,
or piece of timber, about a foot in diameter, and ten
or twelve in length, into the fides whereof are driven
a great number of wooden pins, about fix foot long,
armed with iron points, and crofling one another. See
Fortification.
CHEVERON, in heraldry. See Chevron.
CHEVIL. SccKevil.
CHEVIOT, orTiviOT-HiLLS, run from north to fouth
through Curriberland, and were formerly the borders
or boundaries between England and Scotland, where
many a bloody battle has been fought between fhe^two
nations, one of which' is recorded in the 'ballad of
Chevy chafe..
CHEVISANCE, inlaw, denotes an agreement or com-
pofition, as an end or order fet down between a credi¬
tor and his debitor, &c.
In our ftitfiues, this word is moft commonly ufed
for an unlawful bargain, or contrad.
CHEVRON, or Cheveron, in heraldry, one of the
honourable ordinaries of a fliield, reprefenting two
rafters of an houfe, joined together as they ought to
Hand ; it was anciently the form of the prieftefles head
attire: fome'fay, it is a fymbol of protedlion; others,
of conftancy; others, that it reprefents knights fpears,
<&c. It contains the fifth part of the field, and is fi¬
gured as in Plate LV. fig.
A chevron is faid to be abafed, when its point does
not approach ehe head of the chief, nor reach farther
than the middle of the coat; mutilated, when it does
not touch the extremes of the coat; cloven, when the
upper pieces are taken'off, fo that the "pieces oply
touch at one of the angles ; broken, when one branch
is feparated into two pieces ; couched, when the point
is turned towards one fide of the efcutcheon; divided,
when the branches are of feveral metals, or when me¬
tal is oppofed to colour ; inverted, wlpen the point is
turned towards the point of the coat, and its branches
towards the chief.
Per Chevron, in heraldry, is when the field is divided
only by two (ingle lines, riling from the two bafe
points, and meeting in the point above, as the chevron
does.
CHEVRONED,
C II I ( 183 ) CHI
. CHEVRONED, is when the coat is filled with an. e-
qual number of chevrons, of colour and metal.
CHEVRONEL, a diminutive of chevron, and as fuch
only containing half a chevron.
CHEVRONNE, or Chevronny, fignifies the dividing
of the fhield feverai times chevron-wife.
CHEWING-BALLS, a kind of balls made of afa-
foetida, liver of antimony, bay-wood, juniper-wood,
and pellitory of Spain ; which being dried in the fun,
and wrapped in a linen-cloth, are tied to the bit of the
bridle for the horfe to chew: they create an appetite
and it is faid, that balls of Venice treacle may be ufed
in the fame manner with good fuccefs.
CHIAMPA, the fouth divifion of Cochin-china, a coun¬
try of the Eaft-Indies.
CHIAN earth, in pharmacy,-one of the medicinal earths
of the ancients, the name of which is preferved in the
catalogues of the materia medic^fhut of which nothing
more than the name has been known for many ages in
thelhops.
It is a very denfe and compaft earth, and is fent
hither in fmall flat pieces from the ifland oLChios, in
which it is found in great plenty at this time. It (lands
recommended to us as an aflringent. They tell us,
it is the greatefl of all cofmetics, and that it gives a
whitenefs and fmoothnefs to the Ikin, and prevents
wrinkles, beyond any of the other fubilances that have
been celebrated for the fame purpofes.
CHI APA, the capital of a province of the fame name in
Mexico, fituated about 390 miles ealt of Acapulco :
W. long. 98°, N. lat. 160 30'.
CHIARASCO, a fortified to\vn of Peidmont in Italy,
fituated on the river Tanaro, twenty miles fouth-eaft
of Turin, and fubjeifl to the king of Sardinia: E.long.
7° 4S'> N. lat. 4.40 40'.
CHIARENZA, a port-town of tll^noith-wefl: coafl of
the Morea, oppofite to the ifland Zant, in the Medi¬
terranean, and fubjedt to the Turks: E.long. 21° 15',
N. lat 370 35'.
CHIAROSCURO, among painters. SccClaro-ob-
S C U R O.
CHICHESTER, the capital city of Suflex, fituated
fifty-two miles fouth-weft of London, and twelve
miles call of Portfinouth : W. long, yo', and N. lat.
50° 50'. It is a biftxop’s fee, and fends two members
to parliament.
New Chichester, a^port-town of Penfilvania, fituated
on the river Delawar, below Chefter. See Chesteb{.
CHICK, or Chicken, in zoology, denotes the young
of the gallinaceous order of birds, efpecially the com¬
mon hen. See Phasianus.
Chicken-/';*. See Small-Vox, and Medicine.
CHicK-oum/, in botany. See Alsine.
CHICKLING /^i*, in botany, a name given to the la-
thyrus. See Lathyrus.
CHICUITO, or Cuyo, a province of South America,
bounded by the province of La Plata on the north-
ea(l, and by Chili on the weft.
CHIDLEY, or Chimley, a market-town of Devon-
ftiire, about eighteen miles north-weft of Exeter: W.
long. 40, N. lat. 510.
Vol. II. No. 37. 3'
CHIEF, a term fignifying the head or principal part-of
a thing or perfon. Thus we fay, the chief of a par¬
ty, the chief a family, &c.
Chief, in heraldry, is that which takes up al! the upper
part of the efcutcheon from fide to fide, and reprefents
a man’s head. See Plate LXV. fig. 4.
It is to take up juft the th> 1 part of-the efcutcheon,
as all other honourable ordinaries do, efpecially if they
are alone on the (hield ; but if there be feverai of
them, they muft be leflened in proportion to their num-
' ber, and the fame holds when they are cantoned, at¬
tended and bordered upon by fome other figures ; then
the painter or engraver may be allowed to bring them
into a fmaller compafs, to the end that all that is re-
prefented about the ordinaries may appear with fome
proportion and fymmetry. Chiefs are very much va¬
ried, for they may be convert, fupported, crenelle
, furmounted, abaife, rempli, dentille, engrefle, ca
nelle, danche, nebule, fleurdelezee, fieuronne, vair
echequete, lozange, burelle, pane, frettc, giror.nc
chaperonne, chappe, mantele, emmanche, chaufie
veftu or reveftu. See Couvert, Supported,
/« Chief, imports fomething borne in the chief part or
top of the efcutcheon.
Chief lord, the feudal lord, or lord of an honour on
whom others depend.
CntET-ju/llce of the king's bench and common pleas.
See Justice.
CHIEFTAIN, denotes the captain, or chief, of any
clafs, family, or body of men: thus, the chieftains,
or chiefs, of the highland dans, were the principal
noblemen or gentlemen of their refpeflive elans.
CHIERI, a fortified towfl of Peidmont in Italy, fitua¬
ted eight miles eaft ofTurin: E.long. 7° 45', N.lat.
CHILBLAINS,
CHILD-feL
in medicine. See Pernio.
See Midwifery.
Child-//>/A 5
CHILDERMAS-^r)’, or Innocent’/-^)-, an anivet-
fary held by the church, on the 28th of December, in
commemoration of the children at Bethlehem, mafla-
cred by order of Herod.
CHILI, a province of fouth America, bounded by Peru
on the north, by the province of La Plata on the eaft,
by Patagonia on the fouth, and by the Pacific ocean on
the weft ; lying between 250 and 450 S. lat. and be-
. tween 750 and 85° W. long. But fome comprehend
Patagonia in Chili, extending it to cape Horn, in 5 70
30' S. lat.
CHILIAD, denotes a thoufand of any tilings, ran¬
ged in feverai divifions, each -whereof contains that
number.
CHILIARCHA, ot Chiliarchus, in antiquity, a mi¬
litary officer, who had the command of a thoufand
men.
CHILIASTS, in church-hiftbry. See Millen arians.
CHILMINAR, Chelminar, or Tchelminar, the
mod beautiful piece of archite&ure remaining of all an¬
tiquity, being the ruins of the famous palace of Per-
ftpoi-s, to which Alexander the Great, in a drunken
fit, fet fire, at the indication of Thais die couitezanr
3 A the
CHI ( 184 ) CHI
the word comes from the Perfian tchehle minar, that
is to fay, forty towers.
Don Garcias de Silva Figueroa, Pietro della,Valle,
Sir John Chardin, and Le Brun, have been very par¬
ticular in defcribing thefe ruins.
There appear, fay they, the remains of near four-
fcore columns, the fragments of which are at lead fix
feet high ; but there are only nineteen can be called
entire, with another detached from the reft, about an
hundred and fifty paces : a rock of hard black marble
ferves as a foundation to the edifice: the firft plan of
the houfe is afcended to by ninety-five fteps, all cut in
the rock ; the gate of the palace is about twenty feet
wide, with the figure of an elephant on one fide, and
that of a rhinoceros on the other, thirty feet high, and
, both of poliftied marble : near thefe animals there are
two columnsj and not far from thence the figure of a
- pegafus. After palling this gate, are found fragments
of magnificent columns in white marble, the fmalleft
of which are fifteen cubits high, the largeft eighteen,
having forty flutings three full inches wide each ; from
whence we may judge of their thicknef? and other pro¬
portions. Near the gate is feen an infcription on a
fquare piece of black marble, containing about twelve
lines; the charafters are of an extraordinary figure,
refembling triangles, or pyramids: befides this, there
are other infcriptions, the charaflers of which refera¬
ble the Hebrew, Chaldaic, or Syriac; others the A-
rabic or Perfian ; and others, in fine, the Greek cha-
ra&ers. Dr Hyde, who hath explained the Greek
infcription, by fupplying fome words that are effaced,
obferves, that the infcriptions are engraved very ne¬
gligently, and perhaps by fome foldiers ; or, if they
are the work of an engraver, he thinks that he was
from Palmyra,. and confequently that they are in the
Phoenician tongue : he adds, that as they are in praife
of Alexander, they were probably done in the time of
that conqueror.
CHILTERN, a chain of chalky hills, running from eaft
to weft through Buckinghamlhire.
CHIALERA, in geography, a port town of Turky in
Europe, fimated at the entrance of the guIph of Ve¬
nice, in the province of Epirus, about thirty-two
miles north of the city Corfu, near which are the
mountains of Chimaera, which divide Epirus from
Theflaly: E. long. 20° 40', and N. lat. 40° 20 .
CHIMAY, the name of a great lake, lying in the pro¬
vince of Acham, between the Eaft-Indies and China.
CHIMERA, a fabulous monfter, which the poets feign
to have the head of a lion, the body* of a goat, and
the tail of a dragon; and add, that this odd beaft was
killed by Bellerophon. The foundation of the fable
was, that in Lycia there was a burning mountain, or
vulcano, of this name; that the top of this mountain
was feldom without lions, nor the middle, which had
very good grafs, without goats ; that lerpents bred at
the bottom, which was marfhy • and that Bellerophon
rendered the mountain habitable.
By a chimera, among the philofophers, is under-
ftood a mere creature of the imagination, gompofed of
fuch contradiflions and abfurdities as cannot polfibly
any where exift but in thought.
CHIMES of a clock, a kind of a periodical mufic, pro¬
duced at equal intervals of time, by means of a parti¬
cular apparatus added to a clock.
CHIMNEY, in archite&ure, a particular part of a houfe,
where the fire is made, having a tube or funnel to car¬
ry away the fmoke. See Archjtecture.
CHINA, including Chinefe Tartary, a large empire, fi-
tuated between 950 and 135° E. long, and between
2iQ and 550 N. lat. being accounted two thoufand
miles in length, and one thoufand five hundred in
breadth; it is bounded by Ruffian Tartary on the
north, by the Pacific ocean on {he eaft and fouth,
and by Tonquin, Tibet, and the territories of Ruffia
on the weft. It is ufually divided into fixteen pro¬
vinces, which will be defcribed in their alphabetical
order. In thefe provinces there are computed to be
one hundred and fifty-five capital cities, one thoufand
three hundred and twelve of the fecond rank, two
thoufand three hundred and fifty feven fortified towns,
and upwards of ten millions of families, which may a-
mount to about fifty millions of people.
The principal commodities of this country are filk,
tea, China ware, Japan-ware, and gold duft; of all
which the maritime ftates of Europe import great
quantities, fending them lilver in return.
CniNA-ro<3/, in pharmacy, a medicinal root, brought both
from the Eaft and Weft-Indies, thence diftinguilhed.
into oriental and occidental; it is the root of a fpecies
of fmilax. See Smilax.
ChinA-ivare. See Porcelain.
CHINCA, a port-town of Peru, in South America, fi-
tuated in an-extenfive valley, on a river of the fame
name, about fixty miles fouth of Lima : W. long.
76°, and S. lat. 130.
CHIN COUGH, a convulfive kind of cough, which
children are chiefly fubjeft to. See Medicine.
CHINESE, in general, denotes any thing belonging to'
China. See Chjna.
It is obferved by fome, that the Chinefe language
has no analogy with any other Janguagedn the world :
it only confifts of three hundred and thirty words,
which are all monofyllables, at leaft they are pro¬
nounced fo fhort that there is no diftinguiftiing above
one fyllable or found in them; but the fame word, as
pronounced with ftronger or weaker tone, has diffe¬
rent fignifications; accordingly, when the language is
accurately fpoke, it makes a fort of mufic, which has
a real melody, that conftitutes the effence and diftin-
guifhing charadfer of the Chinefe tongue.
As to the Chinefe charadfers, they are as Angular
as the language; the Chinefe have not, like us, any
alphabet, containing the elements, or, as it were, the
principles of their words: inftead of an alphabet they
ufe a kind of hieroglyphics, whereof they have above
eighty thoufand.
As the Chinefe pretend to an antiquity both with
regard to their nation and arts, far beyond that of any
other cation, it will not perhaps be unacceptable to
give
CHI (
give a fliort view of thefe pretenfions, principally extract¬
ed from their own writers. But, when any thing is
quoted from the Chinefe hiftory, it is abfolutely neceiTa-
ry to attend, i. To the times purely fabalous and my¬
thological ; 2. To the doubtful and uncertain times;
and, 3. To the hiftorical times, when the Chinefe hifto-
ry, fupported by indifputable monumems, begins to pro¬
ceed on fure grounds.
1. Some afcribe to Tiene-hoang, a book in eight chap¬
ters, which contains the origin of letters. They add,
that the characters ufed by the Sane hoang were natural,
without any determinate form, that they were nothing but
gold and preciqus Itones.
Lieou-jou, author of Ouai-ki,* fays, that Tiene-hoang
gave names to the' ten KANE, and to the twelve TCHI,
to determine the place of the year: this is meant of the
cyclic characters.
Tiene-hoang fignifies emperor of heaven. They call
him alfo Tiene ling, the intelligent heaven; Tfeejun,
the fon who nourifhes and adorns all things; and finally
Tchong-tiene-hoang-kune, the fupreme king of the mid¬
dle heaven, <bc. This Tiene-hoang fucceeded Pouane-
cou.
The Ouai-ki fays,' that Ti-hoang (emperor of the
earth), the fucceffor of Tiene-hoang, divided the day
and the night, and appointed thirty days to make one
moon. The book Tong li, quoted in Lopi, adds fur¬
ther, that this emperor fixed the winter-folflice to - the
eleventh moon. A proof that the Chinefe year was ori¬
ginally very incorreCf, and that the courfe of it was re¬
gulated only by that of the feafons, is, that for a long
time, to exprefs a year, they faid a change of the
leaves.
This Ti-hoang, fay they, was father of Tiene-hoang,'
and of Gine-hoang who follows.
They give Gine-hoang (fovereign of men) nine bro¬
thers, and pretend, that they divided the government a-
rnong them. They were nine brothers (fays Yuene-
leoa-fane) who divided the earth among them, and built
cities, which they furrounded with walls. It was under
this prince (fays Lopi), that there firft began to be a
diflinCHon between the fovereigrt and the fubjeCf; they
drank, they eat, and the two fexes united.
After thefe three emperors which we have juft now
named, they place the period named Ou-long'[\hz, five
Long, or, dragons) compofed of five different families.
Bur they do not tell us their names, nor-the duration of
their reigns. In thefe times (fays an author) men dwelt
in the bottom of caves, or perched upon trees as it were
in nefts. This faCt contradicts the invention of building
cities, and furrounding them with walls, which they
place under the reign of Gine-hoang ; but we will meet
with many fuch contradictions in the fequel.
They fay nothing of the third Ki. Of the fourth,
named Ho le, and compofed of three families, they fay,
that the Ho-lo taught men to retire into the hollows of
rocks. This is all they fay of it. Neither do they fay any
thing of the fifth Ki, named Liene-tong, and compofed
of fix families; of the fixth Ki, named Su-ming, and
compofed of four families.
It is a folly to dwell upon the epocha of thefe fix Ki;
185. ) CHI
nothing is more abfurd. Lopi cites an author who ge-
neroufly gives them 1,100,750 years duration; Lopi;
fays himlelf, that the five firft Ki after Gine hoang make
in all 90,000 years.
The feventh Ki is named Sune-fei, and comprehends
twenty-two families. But they fay nothing under all
thefe reigns that has any relation to the arts or feiences.
Only under the twenty-fecond and laft, named Tfee-che-
chi, they fay, that it was not till then men ceafed to
dwell in caves. Is it not a palpable abfurdity, that after
lb many ages, and- under kings of whom they relate fo
many wonders, they had not yet found out the art of
building huts to fhelter them from the winds and rains !
The eighth Ki, named Tne-ti, contains thirteen fami¬
lies or dynafties. Tchine-fang-chi, the firft of this pe¬
riod, reigned afper Tfee-che-chi, and founded the firft
family. They fay, that at the beginning men covered
their bodies with leaves and herbs; ferpents and beafts
were very numerous; the waters which had overflowed,
were not yet returned into their channels; and the mi-
fery of mankind was extreme. Tchine-fang taught men
to prepare Ikins, to take off the hair with rollers of wood,
and ufe them againft the winds and froft which incom¬
moded them very much. He taught them alfo to make
a kind of web of their hair, to ferve them as a covering
to their heads againft the rain. They obeyed him with
joy ; he called his fubjeCts people eloihed ’with /kins ; he
reigned 350 ye^rs. To Tchine-fang-chi fucceeded Chou-
chane-chi, then Haitkouei-chi, of whom they fay nothing
which has any relation to our fubjeCt.
The fourth prince, who alfo fucceeded Hai-kouei-chi,.
was named Hoene-tune; he founded the fourth dynafty,
(for each of thefe princes which we have juft now' men¬
tioned, was the founder of a family or dynafty.) In the
hiftory of this king, Lopi quotes Lao-chene-tfee, who
fpeaks thus:
“ The ancient kings wore their hair dilhevelled, with¬
out any ornament upon their heads. They had neither
feeptre nor crown, and they governed their people in.
peace. Being of a beneficent difpofition, they cheriflred
all things, and put no perfon to death. Always giving,
and never'receiving any thing, their fubjedfs, without
dreading their power as raafters, revered their virtue in
their hearts. Then heaven and earth obferved a moft
beautiful order, and every thing flourifhed in a furprifing;
manner. The birds built their nefts fo low, that they
might be reached-with the hand; all the animal creation
tamely fubmitted to the will of man. Then the juft-
medium was obferved, and harmony reigned over all.
They did not reckon the year by the days. There was no
diftindlion between within and without, between mine,
and thine. In this manner reigned Hoene-tune. But.
when mankind had degenerated from this happy ftate,.
birds and beafts, infefts and ferpents, all together, and.
as it were in concert, made war againft them.”
To this dynafty of Hoene-tune, fucceeded that of.
Tong-hou-chi, containg f/ven kings which are not named..
To this fifth dynafty fucceeded the fixth, whofe founder,
was Hoang-tane-chi.
The 7th, the dynafty of Ki-tong-chi *,
The 8th, the dynafty of Ki-y-chi *..
The-
C H I
( i8<5 ) C H I
The 9*h, the dynafty of Ki-kia'Chi *.
The ioth, the dyr.alty of Hi-ouei-chi *.
The 11th', the dynafty o? Yeou-tfao-chi.
The 12th, the dynahy of Soui gine.
The 13'th and laft, the dynafty of Yong-tching-chi.
Of thefe feven kings, or. founders- of dynafties, which
remain to be coRfidered to complete the number of dy-
nafties included in this eighth period, nothing is faid of
thofe marked * that has any relation to our fubjefh
As to Yeou-tfao-chi, founder of the eleventh dynafty,
whofe reign, fay they, lafted more than 300 years, and
whofe family, they add, continued more than 100 ge¬
nerations during the fpace of 12 or 18,000 years : here
is'what’we find recorded.
Bane-1fee fays, that, in the firft ages of the world, a-
nimals multiplied very faft ; and that men being but few,
they Could not fubdue the beafts and ferpents.
Yene-tfee lays alfo, that the anc:ents, either perched
on trees, or ftretched in hollow caves, poffelfed the uni-
verfe,- (Tiene-hia, that is to fay, China). Thefe good
kings (continues he) breathed nothing but charity with¬
out any, lhadow of hatred. They gave much, and took
nothing. The people did not go to pay their court to
them, but all the world fubmitted to thfjr virtues.
Lopi and Ouai-ki fay almoft in the fame words, that,
in the moft remote antiquity, men fheltered themfelves
in the hollows of rocks, that they dwelt in deferts,' and
lived in fociety with all the other creatures. They had
no thought of doing any injury to the'beads, and tire
beafts did not think of hurting them. But in the fuc-
cCeding ages they became too wife, which made the ani¬
mals rebel; armed with claws, teeth, horns, and venom,
they affauked man, and man was not able to refill them.
Yeou tfao reigned then. He was the'firft who built
houfes of wood, in the form of birds nefts; he perfua-
•ded men to retire into them to avoid the wild beafts.
They did not know as yet how to cultivate the earth,
they lived on herbs and fruits. They drank the blood
■of animals, they devoured their fkfh quite raw, they
fwallowe’d the hair and the feathers. This is what they
fay of Yeou-tfao chi: after him comes Soui gine, founder
-of the~i2th dynafty. 4
Soui-gine chi is efteemed the inventor of (ire.
On the fummit.of the mountain Pou-tcheou, fays an
author, are to be feen the walls of Juftice. The fun
and the moon cannot approach them; there is no diffe¬
rence of feafons there, nor viciffuudes of days and nights.
This is the kingdom of light on the confines of Si-
ouang taou. A faint (a great man) went to make a tour
beyond the bounds of the fun and moon: he beheld a
tree, and upon that tree a bird, who made fire come out
of it by; picking it. He was furprifed at this ; he took a
branch of this tree, and from thence ftruck fire ; from
whence they called this great perfonage Soui-gine.
Other authors fay alfo, that Soui-gine made fire with
a certain kind- of wood, and taught men to drefs their
vi&uals. By this means all difeafes, and all diforders of
the ftomach and bowels were prevented. In this he
followed the djrefHon of heaven, i and from thence was
named Soui-gine.
They fay further, that, in the days of Soui-gine,
there was much water upon the earth, and that this
prince taught men the art of fifhing. He muft, of con-
fequence, have invented nets or lines, which invention
is after this aferibed to Fou-hi.
One Long-ma, or Dragon-horie, brought him a kind
of table, and the tortoife letters. Soui-gine is the firft:
to whom they apply this event, hut the fame thing will
be faid in the feque! of feveral others.
Soui-gine was the firft who gave names to plants and
animals; and thefe names (fay they) were fo expreffive,
the# the nature of every thing was known by its name.
Fie invented weights and meafures for the regulation of
commerce, which had been unknown before him.
Anciently (fays an author) men married at fifty, and
women at thirty years of age: Soui-gine fhortened this
period, and appointed that young men fhonld marry at
thirty, and girls at twenty.
Laftly, the Liki fays, that it was Soui-gine who firft
taught men urbanity and politenefs.
It now remains to fpeak of Yong-tching-chi* the
founder of the thirteenth and laft dynafty-of this period.
In his time, they ufed (lender cords on which they
tied various knots, and this ferved them inftead of wri¬
ting. But, after the invention of letters, how could they
return again to the ufe'of thefe cords, which is-fo limi¬
ted and imperfed ? This evidently implies a contra-
diction ?
We Come now to the ninth Ki or period, named
Chene-tong. This ninth period will bring us down to
the times ofFouhi. It comprehends twenty-one kings,
whofe names are as follow :
1. Sfe hoang, or Tfan hie,
2. Pe-hoang-chi,
3. Tchong hoang-chi,
4. Tai-ting-chi,
5. Kouene liene,
6. Tene-chi,
7. Tai chi,
8. Tching hoei-clii,
9. Li lou, or Hoei-chi,
10. Sohoang chi,
11. Nuei-touane chi,
Liu-pou-ouei fays plainly, that Sfe-hoang made letters.
This Sfe-hoang, is called alfo Tfang hie. Some hifto-
rians place him under Hoang-ti, whofe minifter they
make him; while others make him a fovereign prince,
and much anterior to Hoang-ti.
The firft inventor of letters was Tfang-hie, then the
king Vou-hoai made them be engraved on the coin, and
Fou-hi ufed them in the public ads for the government
of the empire. But obferve, that thefe three emperors
were even before Chini-nong ; how can it be faid then,
that letters were not invented till under Hoang-ti ? Such
is the reafoning of Lopi, who was quite confounded with
thefe fabulous times.
To this criticifra it may be anfwered. You have told
us, that letters had been invented in the reign of Soui-
gine, the 12th king of the eighth period; how then can
you pretend to give the honour of this invention to
12. Hiene-yuene,
13. He fou, -r
14. Kai-tiene,
15. Tfune liu chi,
16. Tcho jong,
17. Hao-yng,
18. Yeou tfao-chi,
19. Tchu-fiang-chi,
20^ Yne khang-chi,
21. Vou hoai-chi.
CHI ( 187 ) CHI
Tfang-hie, who, according to your own teftimony, did
not flourifti till the ninth period? However this may
be, Sfee-hoan (fay fome romancers) knew to form let¬
ters the moment he was b^rn. He was endowed with
great wifdom, <bc. After he had received the Ho-tcu,
he vilited the fouth, went upon mount Yang-yu, and
flopped on the bank of the river Lo. A divine tortoife
carrying blue letters upon his ftiell, delivered them to
him : then Sfee-hoang penetrated all the changes of hea¬
ven and earth ; above he obferved the various configu¬
rations Of the flats ; below he examined all the mark's
he had feen upon the tortoife ; he viewed the plumage
of birds, he took notice of the mountains, and of the
rivers which flow from them, and of all this he compo-
fed letters. Some very learned Chinefe “think, that this
was the ancient kind of writing named Ko-teou chu,
which continued (fay they) to the reign of the emperor
Suene-ou.mg, that is, to the year 827 before J. C.
But Cong-yng-ta very well obferves, that though the
external figures of the letters have changed feveral times
in fome things, the fix rules on which Tfang-hie formed
them, have never fuffered any change.
Then (continues Lopi) there was a difference between
the fovereign and the fubjeft, relation between the fa¬
ther and the fon, diftindhon between the precious and
the vile ; laws appeared, rites and mufic reigned. Pu-
nifhments were inflidfed with vigour. Thus Sfee-hoang
laid the foundations of good government, he appointed
officers for each affair, the fmalleft did not efcape him ;
and thus'heaven and earth arrived at their full perfedtion.
They fay nothing of the fucceffor of Sfee-hoang which
has any relation to our fubjedt; but they fay, that, under
the reign of Tchong-hoang-chi, the third king of this pe¬
riod, they ftill ufed flender cords for'writing.
From this prince we come at once to Hiene-yuene, the
12th in order of this period, becaufe nothing is faid of
his predecefibrs.
We find a great many things under the reign of this
prince, becaufe he is the fame with Hoang-ti, or at leaft
they have confounded thefe two princes together.
They afcribe to Hiene-yuene the invention of cars.
He joined two pieces of wood together, the one placed
upright, and the other acrofs, to the honour of the Mofl
High. It is from this he is called Hieneyuene. The
piece of wood placed acrofs is called hiene, and that
which is pkced upright is called yuene. Hiene-yuene
ftruck copper money, and made ufe of the balance to de¬
termine the weight of things. By this means he ruled
the world in peace. Ho fignifies merchandife in general.
Formerly they wrote fimply ^7, which fignifies exchange.
Thefe me'rchandifes (fay they) confifted in metal, king,
in precious ftones, yu, in ivory, tchi, in fitins, />/, in
coined money, tfuene, and in fluffs, pou, &c.
They then-denominated money (as is done Hill) by the
name of the reigrfng family. That of Hiene-yuene was
one inch feven lines, and weighed twelve tchu, [the tchu
is the ,20th part of a and a jo weighs 1200 little
grains of millet]. They then ingraved letters on their
money (as is ftill done at prefent.) It is for this reafon
that vgn tfeg, letters, fignifies alfo a piece of money,
which is called likewife kini, and tfueng, and tao.
Voi. II. No. 38. 3
Tcho-jong (16th emperor of the 9th period) hearing,
at Cane-tcheou, the finging of birds, compoled a mulie
of union,- whole harmony penetrated every where, touch¬
ed the intelligent fpirit, and calmed the heart of man,
in fuch a manner, that the external fenfes were found,
the humours in equilibria, and the life very long. He
called this Inufic TJie ouene, that is to fay, temperance,
grace, and beauty.
But the defign, and in fome fort the only aim of
the ancient mufic of the Chinefe, according to their au¬
thors, was the harmony of the virtues, the moderation
of the paflions, elegance of manners, and, in a word, e-
very thing that can contribute to the perfedfion of a good
and wife government, Ac. For they were perfuaded
that mufic was capable of working all thefe miracles. It
is difficult for us to believe them in this, efpecially when
.we confider the mufic which' is at prefent ufed among
them. But we appeal to the Greeks, who related as a-
ftonifhing efFedts from this agreeable invention, whilft
the modern Greeks, like mofl part of the Orientals,
have no mufic but a wretched and contemptible mono¬
tony.
The 17th king of the 9th period is named Hao-yng.
In his time they cut down the branches of trees to kill
hearts with. Men were few. Nothing but vaft forefts
were every where to be feen, and thefe frightful woods
were filled with wild beads. How contradidlory is this,
and how incompatible with the times in which this prince
is faid to have reigned i
The 18th king of the 9th period is called Yeou-t/ao-
chi. We have feen in the preceeding period, a prince
of the fame name. The Ouai-ki places this king at the
beginning of the laft ki, and gives him for fucceflbr Soui-
gine. At this rate, nine entire periods, or ki, muft
have elapfed before men knew how to build huts, or had
the ufe of fire. Lopi follows another method: he has
ranged Yeou-tfao-chi and Soui-gine in the preceeding pe¬
riod ; and although the king we are now fpeaking of
bears the fame name, he fpeaks of him quite differently.
The 19th king of the 9th period is named Tchu'-fiang-.
chi.
They fay, that he commanded Sfee-kouei to make a
kind of guitar with five firings named fg, to remedy the
diforders of the univerfe, and preferve every thing that
had life.
The 20th king of the 9th period is named Yng-khang-
chi.
In his time, the waters did not flow, the rivers did
not purfue their ufual courfe, which occafioned a great
number of difeafes.
Yne-khang inflituted the dances called Ta-vou (grand
dances), with a view to preferve health : for, as Lopi
fays, when the body is not in motion, the humours have
not a free courfe; matter is amaffed in fome parr, from
whence come difeafes, which all proceed from fome ob-
ftrudtion.
The Chinefe alfo imagine, that a man’s virtues may
be known by his manner of touching the lute and draw¬
ing the bow, Ac.
Thus the Chinefe make dances as well as mufic
have a reference to good government; and the Liki fay,
3 B that
C H I
that we may judge t)f a reign by the dances which are
ufed in it. . /
The .21 ft and laft king of the 9th period is named Vou-
hoai-cbi; bin they 'relate nothing of this prince which is
worthy of notice.
2. This is all that the fabulous times contain. If thefe
times cannot enable us to fix the real epocha of various
Inventions, (as the Chinefe are fo full of contradidhons
about the time of thefe different difcoveries), we fee at
leaft from them, that the origin of arts has been much
the fame among them as among other nations. We are
now come down to Fou-hi, who is confidered by the
Chinefe hiftorians as the founder of their monarchy.
What they fay of this prince and his fucceffors, has fome
more folidity in it than what we have hitherto feen.
F 'O U - H I.
The Ouai ki, quoted in the Chinefe -annals, thus de-
fcribes themanners of mankind in thefe days “ In the
beginning, men differed nothing from other animals in
their way of life. As they wandered up and down in the
woods, and women were in common, it happened that
children never knew their fathers, but only their mothers.
They abandoned themfelves to lull without fhame, and
• had not the leaft idea of the laws of decency. T hey
thought of nothing but fleeping and fnoring, and then
getting up and yawning. When hunger preffed them,
they fought for fomcthing to eat; and when they wefe
glutted, they threw the reft away. They eat the very
feathers and hair of animals, and drapk their blood.
They clothed themfelves with fkins quite hairy. The
emperor Fou-hi began by teaching them to make lines
for catching fifh, and fnares for taking birds. It was
for this, that this prince was named Fou hi-chi. He
taught them further to feed domeftic animals, and to
fatten them for flaughter ; for which they gave him the
firname of Pea-bi-chi.”
It feems evident, that the ancient Chinefe had at firft
no other habitation than caves, the hollows of rocks, and
natural dens. T hey were then infe&ed with a kind of
infe£! or reptile called iafig; and when they met, they
aiked one another. Are you troubled with iangs ? To
this day they make ufe of this expreflion, in afking after
any perfon’s health; Ceuii-iang? What difeafe have
you ? How do you do ? Vou-iang, I am without iang;
that is to fay, I am hearty, in perfect health, without
any ailment.
It would be fuperfluous to relate here, what the Chi¬
nefe fay, in their annals, of the invention of chara<5ters,
and of coua, after what hath been faid by F. Couplet
and fo many others on that fubjeft. We fhall only add,
that the treatife Hit-fee bears, that, at the beginning
nations were governed by means of certain knots which
they made on flender cords: that afterwards the faint in¬
troduced writing in their place, to affift the manda¬
rins in performing all their offices, and the people in ex¬
amining their conduft ; and that it was by the fym-
bol ' Kouai, that he conduced himfelf in the ex¬
ecution of his work.
CHI
Lopi, whom we have fo often quoted already, fays,
that bou-hi extracted from the fymbol of fix lines every
lfiat concerned good government. For example,
-- Li gave him the hint of making lines for hunting
and (1 thing, and thefe lines were a new occafion of in¬
venting fluffs for garments. Lopi adds, that it is a mif-
take to imagine, that, in the times of Fou-hi, they liill
ufed cords tied and knotted, and that books were not
introduced till under Hoang-ti.
Fou-hi taught men to rear the fix domeftic ainimals,
not only for food, but alfo for viftims, in the facrinces
which they offered to Chine, and to Ki. They pretend
that Fou-hi regulated the rites Kiao-ch^ne.
Fou-hi alfo inftituted marriage ; before this the inter-
courfe of the fexes was indifcriminate ; he fettled the
ceremonies with winch marriages were to be contracted,
in order to render this great foundation of fociety re-
fpeiftable. He commanded the women to wear a differ¬
ent drefs from that of the men, and prohibited a man’s
marrying a woman of the fame name, whether a relation
or not, a law which is adtually ftill in force.
Fou-hi appointed feveral minifters and officers to affift
him in the government of the empire.
One of thefe officers made the letters, another drew up
the calendar, a third built the houfes, a fourth praCtifed
medicine, a fifth cultivated the ground, a fixth was the
mafter of the woods and waters.
They pretend that Fou-hi applied himfelf very much
to aftronomy. Tire Tcheou-pi fouane fays, that he di¬
vided the heavens into.degrees. - Lopi takes notice, that
properly the heavens have no degrees, but that this term
is ufed with relation to the path of the fun in the courfe
of a year.
The period of fixty years is reckoned due to Fou-hi.
The Tfiene-piene fays plainly, that this prince made a
calendar to fix the year, and that he is the author of
Kia-tfe. The Sane-fene fays the fame thing ; and the
Hane-li-tchi fays, that Fou-hi made the firft calendar by
the Kia-tfe ; but the Chi-pene afcribes this to Hoang-ti.
This is one of thefe contradi&ions fo common in the Chi¬
nefe hiftorians.
The fame Fou-hi, they fay, made arms, and ordained
puniihments. Thefe arms were of wood, thole of Chin-
nong were of ftone,. and Tchi-yeou made fome of metal.
Fou-hi drained off the waters, and furrounded the ci¬
ties'with walls. In the mean time, as Chin-nong is e-
fteemed the firft who made walls of ftone, we mull fup-
pofe that thofe raifed by Fou-hi were only of earth or
brick.
Fou-hi gave rules to mufic. Thofe who afcribe this
fine art to Hoang-ti are deceived (or vice verfa.) Af¬
ter Fou-hi had invented fiffiing, he made a long for the
fifhers. It was from his example that Chin nong made
one for the labourers.
Fou-hi took of the wood of Tong ; he made it hol¬
low; and of it made a kine (a lyre, or what you pieafe
to tranflate It) feven feet two inches long; the firings
were of filk, to the number of 27 ; he commanded this
inftrument to be named Li. Others fay it had but 25
firing?.
( 188 )
.CHI (i
firings, others ib, and others only 5 ; (which of them
{hall we believe?) Befides, others make this indrument
only three,feet fix inches fix lines in length.
Fou-hi made this infirument, fay fome, to ward off
inchantments, and banilh impurity of heart.
He took of the wood of Jang, and made alfo a guitar
of 36, or rather of 50 firings. This inftrument ferved
to adorn the perfon with virtues, and to regulate the
heart, &cc. Laftly, he made a third inftrument of ba¬
ked earth ; after which, fay they, ceremonies and mufic
were in high efteem.
The money which Fou-hi introduced, was of copper,
round within to imitate heaven, and fquare without to
rtfemble the earth.
He himfelf made trial of many medicinal plants. (This
is moft commonly faid of Chin-nong: but it is pretend¬
ed, that Chin-nong finifhed what Fou-hi had begun.)
This is ail we read of Fou-hi. Several contradidhons
will be remarked in mcft of thefe traditions, efpecially
when we come to fee. in the fequcl, that almoft all thefe
inventions are afcribed to the- fuccelfors of Fou-hi.
From hence may be judged what regard is due to the
beginnings of the Chinefe hiftory.
We have {{ill fome reigns to examine, before we have
done with the fabulous and uncertain times.
They fay of Koung-koung, that he employed iron in
making hangers and hatchets.
They afcribe to Niu oua (who is the Eve of the Chi¬
nefe) feveral inftruments of f.iufic. The inftruments
feng and hoang ferved her, fay they, to communicate
with the eight winds. By means of kouene, or double
flutes, flie united all founds into one, and made concord
between the fun, moon, and Itars. This is called f>*r-
fett harmony. Niu-oua had a guitar ( Je) of five firings;
fhe made another of 50 firings, whofe found was fo af¬
fecting, that it could not be borne ; wherefore fhe redu¬
ced thefe 50 firings to 25, to diminiih its force.
The emperor Chin-nong is very famous among the
Chinefe, by the great difcoveries which, they fay, he
made in medicine, agriculture, and even in the military
art, fince they believe, that, in the times of Han, they
had a book of this prince on the military art.
A fondnefs for the marvellous has made fome fay, that,
at three years of age, he knew every thing that concern¬
ed agriculture. The very name Chin-nong, in the Chi¬
nefe language, fignifies, the fpirit of hnjbandry^ Chin-
nong took very hard wood, of which he made the coul¬
ter of the plough, and fofter wood of which he made
the handle. Be taught men to cultivate the earth.
They aicribe to him the invention of wine. He fowed
the five kinds of grains on the fouth of Mount Ki, and
taught the people to make them their food.,'
Chin-nong commanded that they ftior.ld be diligent in
gathering the fruits which the earth produced. He taught
every thing relative to hemp, to the mulberry tree, and
the art of making cloth and fluffs of filk. They owe al¬
fo to Chimnong the potters and the founders art ; othets,
however, afcribe pottery to Hoang-ti, and the art of
melting metals to Tchi-yeou.
Chin-nong invented fairs in the middle of the day.
This was the origin of commerce and mutual exchange.'
89 ) CHI
He made life of money to facilitate trade. He inftitu-
ted fcitivals.
Ghin-nong diftinguifhed plants, determined their vari¬
ous properties, and applied them flultully in the cnre of
difeafes. They fay, that, in one day, he made trial
of 70 kinds of poifons, fpoke of 400 difeafes, and
taught. 365 remedies. This makes the fubjeft of a
book, intitied, Pouenetfao, which they afcribe to
him, and which contains four chapters. Others al¬
ledge, and with reafon, that this book is not ancient.
rjThey fay, with as little truth, that Chin-nong made
books in graved on fquare plates.
Chin-nong commanded Tfiou-ho-ki to commit to wri¬
ting every thing relative to the colour of fick perfons,
and what concerned the pulfe, to teach hotv to examine
its motions if they were regular andjharmonious, and, for
this end, how to feel it from time to time, and acquaint
the patient.
Chin-nong compofed ballads or fongs on the fertility of
the country. He made a very beautiful lyre, and a gui¬
tar adorned with precious ftones, to form the grand har¬
mony, to bridle concupifcence, to elevate virtue to
the intelligent fpirit, and bring men back to the celeftial
verity.
Chin-nong afcended a car drawn by five dragons. He
v/as the firfi that me'■ ured the figure of the earth, and
determined the four leas. He found 900,060 lys is well,
and 850,000 is north and fouth. He divided all this vafi
fpace into kingdoms.
Among the fucceflbrs of Chin-nong they place Hoang-
ti, and the rebel Tchi yeou, whom they make the in¬
ventor of arms of iron, and feveral kinds of puniffunents.
Tchi-yeou had the power of raifing mills and darknefs
extremely thick. Hoang-ti knew not how to attack
and overcome him. He accomplilhed it, however, by
forming a car, on which he placed a figure whofe arm
of itfelf always turned to the fouth, in,order to point out
the four regions. Hoang-ti ufed the lance and buckler.
Tchi-yeou ordered fabres, lances, and crofs-bows to
be made. They afcribe to Hoang-ti the kia-tfe, or cy¬
cle of 60 years ; or at leal! Ta-nao made it by his di-
redlion.
The Mandarin Tfang-kiai was charged to compofe
hiftory. Yong-tcheng made a fphete which reprelented
the celeftial orbs, and difcovered the polar ftar.
Li-cheou regulated numbers, and invented an inftru-
me*t for computation, like to, or the fame with that
which is ftill in ufe in China and India; and of which
Martini, in his DecadeS, and la Loubere, in his voyage
to Siam, have given us the defign and defcription.
Ling-lune, a native of Yuene-yu, in the Weft of Ta-
hia, (that is, Khoralfan), took reeds in the valley of
Hiai-ki ; he cut two of an equal length, and blew into
them : this gave orxafion to the invention of bells. He
adjufied twelve of thefe reeds to imitate the fong of fong-
hoang, the royal bird, (one of the fabulous birds of the
Chinefe). He divided thefe reeds into twelve/a ,• fix
ferved to imitate the fong of the male, and fix that of
the female.. Finally, this man brought mufic to per-
feftion, and explained the order and arrangement of dif¬
ferent founds. By.means of thefe lu-lu, he governed:
the
CHI ( 190 ) CHI
the Khi of the Yne and of Yang, he determined the
change of the four feafons, and gave calculations for a-
ftronomy, geometry, and arithmetic,
Yong yuene, by order, of Hoang-ti, made twelve bells
of copper, which correfponded to the moons, and fer-
ved to adjuft the five tones, and fix the feafons, &c.
fables.
Hoang ti invented a kind of diadem or tiara, called
Mient. He ordered a blue and yellow robe to be made
for himfelf, in imitation of the colours of heaven and
earth. Having viewed the bird hoei, and confidered the
variety of its colours, as well as thofe of the flowers,
he made garments be dyed of different colours, to make
a diflindion between the great and fmall, the rich and
poor.
Nin-fong and Tche-tfiang invented mortars for pound¬
ing rice; kettles or caldrons: they invented the art of
building bridges, and of making Ihoes ; they made coffins
for the dead; and men reaped great advantages from all
thefe inventions. Hoei invented the bow, Y-meou
arrows ; Khy-pe invented the drum, which made a noife
like thunder, trumpets and horns, which imitated the
voice of the dragon..
Kong kou and Hoa-liu, by order of the Emperor
Hoang ti, hollowed a tree of which they made a ftiip;
of the branches of the fame t:re they made oars;
and by this means they were able to penetrate into pla¬
ces which feemed inaccefiiWe, and where men had ne¬
ver .been.
For the tranfportation of merchandife by land, they
alfo invented chariots under this reign, and trained oxen
and horfes to draw them.
Hoang-ti alfo turned his thoughts to buildings, and
gave models of them. He built a temple, called Me¬
kong, in which he facrificed to Chang-ii, or to the
Supreme Being.
With a view to facilitate commerce, Hoang-ti flruck
money, ca\\e& kine-tao, knife of metal, becaufe dt had
the fliape of the blade of a knife
Hoang-ti having obferved that men died before the
time fixed by nature, of difeafes which* carried them off,
he commanded Yu-fou, Ki-pe, and Lei-kong, three fa¬
mous phyficians of thefe times, to affiff him to determine
what remedies were proper for each difeafe.
Si-ling-chi, the chief confort of that emperor, con¬
tributed on her part to the good of the ftate, and taught
the people the art of rearing filk-worms, of fpinning their
cods, and making fluffs of them.
The Ouai-ki takes notice, that Hoang-ti command¬
ed China to be meafured, and divided into provinces
or tcheou. Each tcheou was compofed of ten che,
each che was compofed of ten tou, and each tou
contained ten/e, or ten cities. Thefe ten/e, or cities,
had each fiveTy, or ftreets, &c.
The empire of Hoang-ti, which, according to this
hiftorian, feems to have been confiderable, extended on
eeaft to the fea, on the weft to Khong tong. It was
bounded on the fouth byKiang,- and on the north by the
country of Hoene-jo.
They fay nothing that has any relation to the arts un¬
der the three princes who follow Hoang-ti ; that is to
fay, under the reigns of Chao-hao, who reigned 84
years ; of Tchouene-hio, .who reigned 78 years; and of
Cao fine, who reigned 70 years. They obferve only,
that Chao-hao made them beat the watches with a drum:
this fuppofes that they had then fome inftrument for mar¬
king the hours. The Se-ki adds, that this emperor
levelled the highways, in order to render the mountains
acceflible, and that he cleared the channels of rivers.
He made alfo a new kind of mufic, called Ta yuene, to
unite men and genii, and reconcile high and low.
3. After having overcome the fatigue of fo many fabu¬
lous traditions,' we now come to the hiftorical times. But
before we enter upon them, it will not be improper to
make fome reflections which are abfolutely neceflary to
fhew how little regard is due to this fort of traditions.
Thefe reflections are thought to be fo much the more im¬
portant, as they will help to undeceive a great many
people of the miftake they are in about the Chinefe anti-
cjuities.
The Chinefe monarchy begun by three princes, diftin-
guifhed by the title of Sane-hoang, that is to fay the
three Augufti. Thefe three Augufti, according to the
moft generally received opinion, are Fou hi, Chine-neng,
and Hoang-ti. The five emperors, fucceflbrs of the
Sane-hoang, are djftinguifiied by the title of Ou-ti, that
is to fay, the five emperors. The five emperors are,
Chao-hao, Tchouene-hio, Tico, Tao, and Chune. This
divifion has been followed by Cong-ngane-coue, the
great grandfon of Confucius, in the eighth generation,
and one of the moft celebrated writers of the dynafly of
Hane. It has been adopted alfo by Hoang-fou-mi, and
by moft part of the beft writers. The proofs of this
opinion are taken partly from the book Tcheou.li, an
ancient record, or ftate of the empire, which many afcjibe
to* the famous Tcheou-cong, minifter and brother of
Vou-vang, who was the founder of the imperial dynafty
of Tcheou, eleven hundred and fome odd years be¬
fore the Chriftian sera; partly from the commentaries
of Tfo-kieou-mine on the-Tchune-tfieou of Confucius’s
mafter. In thefe works, mention is made of the books,
Sane-fene, and Ou-tiene, which, they fay, are the
hiftories of the three Hoang, and of the five Ti: now,
the two firft chapters of Chou-king, which contain an
extract of the hiftories of Yao and of Chune, bore the
title of Tiene-yao and Tiene-Chune •, from whence it was
concluded, that Yao and Chune were two of the five Ti;
confequently Fou-hi, Ching-nong, and Hoang-ti, were
what are called the three Hoang; and Chao-hao,
Tchouene-hio, Tico, Yao, and Chune, were the fiveTi.
Thefe may perhaps be thought but feeble proofs to
fupport an hiftorical faCt of this kind; but thofe who
are of a contrary opinion, bring nothing to induce us to
believe them, rather than Cong-ngane-coue and Hoang-
fou mi.
Hou-chouang-hou, in a preface before the Tfiene-
piene of Kine-gine-chane confefles, that we find in the
Tcheou-li, the exiftence of the book of three Hoang,
and that of five Ti: but he adds, that we do not find
there the names of thefe eight monarchs ; that, under the
Tfin, they fpoke of T*ene hoang, ofTi-hoang, and of
Gine hoang; that Cong-ngane-coue, in his preface to
Chou-
CHI ( TOT 5 CHI
Cijou-king, gives Fou hi. Chine nong, Hoang-ti, for
thethree'Hoang, and that be takes Chao hao, Tchouene-
hioi Tio, Yao, and Chune for the five Ti; hot that we
inow not on what foundation he does this, fince Con¬
fucius, in the Kia' yu, diiHnguifhes by the title of 77,
all the kings after Fou hi. The fame thing is proved
by fome paffages of Tfo-chi and of Liu-pou-ouei; from
whence they conclude, that Fou-hi, Chine nong, and
Hoang ti are not the three Hoang, and that there are no
other Hoang but heaven, earth, and mass.
Tchine-huene retrenches Hoang-ti from the number
of the Sane hoang, and puts in his place ]Sfiu-oua, whom
he ranges between Fou-hi and Chine nong. Others
ftrike out Niu-oua, and put Tcho-yong in the place of
Hoang-ti/ Niu-pua was the filler of Fou hi, and Fou-hi,
they fay, reigned 115 years. At what age mull this
"princefs have mounted the throne, for they make her fuc-
ceed her brother ?
The famous Se ma-tfiene, to whom the Chinefe, from
their high elleem of him, have given the name of Tai jfs-
tong, or father of hijlory, will have Hoang-ti, Tchouene-
hio, Cao-fine, Yao, and Chune to be the five Ti; and
he gave thefe princes for their predeceflbrs Soui-gine chi,
Fou-hi, and Chine nong, Vvho, according to him, were
the three Hoang. This opinion, fince his time, has
been embraced by feveral other writers, who depended
upon his authority more than upon proofs which he
could not produce.
Confucius fays in his Kia yu, that,the princes who had
governed-the empire began at Fou hi to take the name
of 77 or Emperor. The fame philofopher fays further,
in the treatife Hi-tfee, or commentary upon the Y-king,
that anciently Fou hi governed China, that Chine nong
fucceeded him, that after them Ho.ng-ti, Yao, and
Chune were feated on the throne. From fo decifive a
teftimony, Hou-ou-fang, and feveral others with him, have
not doubted, that .thefe five princes named by Confucius
were the Ou ti, or five emperors. As to the Sane-
hoang, they admitted Tiene hoang chi, Ti hoang chi,
Gine-hoang chi, as three . chiefs of the people who had
governed the empire before Fou-hi.
As it is from Tao-fle, that the feveral authors we
have now quoted, have borrowed their idea of this chi¬
merical divilion of the eight firft Chinefe emperors, into
' three Hoang and five Ti, it is neceflary to relate what
thefe religious think themfelves. They have opinions
peculiar to themfelves about thefe firft ages of the mo¬
narchy. They believe, that at the firft there were three
Augufti, Sane-hoang; then five emperors, Ou ti; next
three kings, Sane-vang; and laftly, five Pa, Ou-pa^
that is to fay, five chiefs of Regulos.
This order fo regularly obferved of three and then
five, which is repeated twice, Ihews plainly, that all this
has no foundation in truth, but that it is a lyftem invent¬
ed at pleafure. Wherefore Tou-chong-chu, who lived
under the Hane, explained this in an allegorical manner.
The three Hoang were, according to him, the three
powers, (heaven, earth, and*man); The five Ti were
the five duties (the duties of king and fubjeft, of father
and children, of huiband and wife, of elder and younger
brothers, of friends); the three Vang were the three
Vol. II. No. 38. 3
lights, (fun, moon, and ftar$); finally, the five Pa
were the five mountains, four of which are fituated at
the four cardinal points of the empire, and the fifth at
the centre. Thus Tong-tchong-chu allegorized this
this pretended fucceflion of kings. But Lopi, who re¬
lates this explanation, adds, it was not his own. This
is a point of criticifm of little importance to us ; let them,
if theypleafe, afcribe it to fome other than Tong-tchong-
chu ; we have ftill ground to fay, that it came from fome
writer who lived in an age not far from that of Tong-
tchong-chu. This is enough for our prefent purpofe,
fince we fee from hence the little regard they then paid
to this divifion, which they.confidered as chimerical. It
would be in vain to attempt to reconcile all thefe contra-
didlions. All thefe imaginary reigns are in the manner of
the Tao-fle, who have darkened the origin of the Chi¬
nefe monarchy by their fables and mythology. The ten
Ki or periods are of their inventing; they gave them
between two and three millions of years duration. But
before thefe ten periods, they place three dynafties, viz.
the dynafty of Thiene-hoang-chi, that of Ti-hoang-chi,
and finally, that of Gine hoang-chi. If we attend to the;
fignification of thefe names, they muft be interpreted
thus : the Sovereign of heaven, the Sovereign of earth,
the Sovereign of men. We fee from hence, that the al
legorical explanatiori of Tong-tchong chu, which made
the three Hoang fignify the three powers, that is, hea¬
ven, earth, and man, is not without probability.
Thefe three Hoang fucceeded to Pouane-cou, other-
wife Hoene tune, die chaos, the origin of the world,
which'feveral of the Tao fle take for the firft man, or
the firft king who governed China.
The dynafty of Thipne hoang-chi had thirteen kings,
who reigned, fay they, 18,000 years ; then came the
dynafty of Ti-hoang chi, whofe kings, to themumber
of eleven, make up a like duration of i8,ooo^years.
Finally, to Ti-hoang-chi fucceeded the Gine-hoang-chi,
whofe dynafty, compofed of nine kings, furnifties a fpace
of 45,600 years. Thefe three fums added, give us pre-
cifely 8 i,6'oo years. But if we add to thefe three dy¬
nafties, thofe which are comprehended in each of the ten
Ki, and which amount, according to fome calculations,
to more than 2 30 ; we (hall find that the pretenfions of
the Chinefe very much exceed thofe of the Chaldeans
and Egyptians. For if we believe the calculations of va¬
rious authors, from Pouane-cou to the death Of Confu¬
cius, which happened in the year 479 before J. C. there
is elapfed 276,000 years, or 2,276,000, or 2-"59,86o,
or even 3,276,000 ; or, finally, <vhich is a great deal
more, 96,961,740 years : for we find all thefe different
calculations.
It is vifible enough, that thefe extravagant numbers
can be nothing elfe but aftronomical periods, contrived
to give the conjunction of the planets in Certain conftella-
tions, or calculations which have fome relation to the
ideas of the Tao ffe, concerning the perpetual deftruc-
tions and reproductions of worlds. In faft, fome have
endeavoured to make thefe numbers agree with the pe¬
riod of rFcbao‘cang'tfie> a famous philofopher in the davs
of Song, who had undertaken to determine the period
of the duration of the world ; for the fyftem of the de-
3 C ItruCUop
CHI ( i;
ftm&ion and reproduftlon of worlds was very current,
not only in the left of Ju or of the learned, but alfo a-
inong the Bonzes, Ho-chang or the religious of Fo, and
among the Tao-fTe or followers of Lao-Kiune,- that is to
fay, among the three great fefts, who have the moft in¬
fluence in the empire. Tchao-cang tfie eftabliihtd then
a great period of 129.000 years, called TCuene, com-
pol'ed of twelve equal parts, called /w/’, or con 'tunttions,
which were each of 10,800 years. In the firft con-
junftion, faid he, heaven was formed by little and little,
by the motion which the Tai-ki, or the Supreme Being,
iinpreffed upon matter which was formeily at perfeft re!L
During the fecond conjunftion, the earth w.ts produced
in the lame manner. At the middle of the third con¬
junftion, man and all other beings began to fpring up, in
the manner that plants and trees are produced in the
iflands, which afterwards preferye their feveral kinds
by their feeds. At the middle of the eleventh con¬
junftion, all things fltall be deflroyed, and the world
fliali fall back again into its primitive chaos, from whence
it fhall not arife till after the twelfth conjunftion is ex¬
pired.
It is not difficult at prefent to conceive, that the Tao-
fle had invented that prodigious number of reigns before
Fou-ht, for no other reafon, but to fill up that interval,
which, according to them, had ekpfed from the produc¬
tion of man, to the beginning of the Chinefe monarchy,
that is to fay, to the reign of Fou hi. The fame calcu¬
lator determined the half of Yueoe, or of his great pe¬
riod of 129,000, years, at the reign of Yao.
Thefe Tao-fle, as was faid already, laid down thefe
ten ages or ten Ki as an indifputable principle ; each Ki
comprehended feveral dynafties, whofe duration they
determined as they thought fit, and as their calculation
required: but if they were at liberty to increafe or di-
mtnifh the duration of the ten Ki, it was not the fame
as to their number, which was in fome fort a fundamen¬
tal principle of their feft, from which they were not al¬
lowed to depart.
Some miffionaries, to whom this doctrine of Tao-fle
was not unknown, imagined, that they difcerned in thefe
ten Ki, the ten generations before Noah ; and.as the
writers cited by Lopi, and by Cong-ing-ta, lay, that of
thefe ten Ki, fix were before Fou he, and four after him ;
thefe fame miflionaries have imagined, that Fou-hi was
Enoch It muft be owned, in the mean time, that
Tchine-huene and feveral others do not obferve the fame
order; that they place Cliine-nong in the ninth Ki, Ho¬
ang ti in the tenth, 6c. By this computation Hoang-ti
v aild be Noah, and Fou-hi Methufelah, which contra-
d.fts their hypothefis.
The opinion which confiders the ten Ki of the Chinefe
as the ten generations which preceded "Noah, is very
ingenious, and not improbable. Towards the end of the
reign of Tcheou, about 300 years before the Chriftian
xra, fome Jews travelled into China, who might have
made the writings of Mofes known there, and, of con-
fequence, the ten generations which preceded the de¬
luge : befides, this knowledge was common to the
Chaldear s, who might have penetrated into China before
the Jews.
>2 ) CHI
CHINEY, a city of the Auflrian Netherlands, on the
confines of the biffiopric of Liege, about twelve milts
fouth-eafl of Namur: E. long. 5°, N. lat. 50° 20'.
CHINON, a town of France in the province of the Or¬
ica nois, about twenty three miles fouth-wefl of Tours j
E. long. 20', and N. lat. 470 15'.
CMO, Chios, X10, or Scio, an Afiatic ifland, lying
near the coaft of Ionia, in Natolia or Lefier Afia, a-
bout one hundred miles weft of Smyrna. It is called
by the Turks Sakifaduci, and is about one hundred
miles in circumference; being chiefly inhabited by
Chriflians of the Greek church, who are faid to have
three hundred churches in the ifland.
Chio is alfo the capital of the above ifland, fituated on
the eaft coaft : E. long. 27°, and N. lat. 38°.
CHIONANTHUS, or snow-drop tree, in botany, a
genus of the diandria-monogynia clafs. Thecaiix divi¬
ded into four ovalfegments ; ’and the drupa contains but
one feed. Y here are two fpecies, viz. the virginica
and zeylonica, both natives of the-Indies.
CHIOZZO, or Chioggio, a town on an ifland of the
fame name, in the gnlph of Venice, by which there is
a paflige into the Lagunes, fituated about twelve
miles fouth of the city of Venice.
CHIPPENHAM, a borough-town in Wiltfhire, about
twenty-two miles north-weft of Salifbury : W. long.
2° 12', and N. lat. 510 25 . It fends two members
to parliament.
CHIPPING, or Much-Wiccomb, a borough-town of
Buckinghamfhire, about ten miles fouth of Ailefbury 1
W. long. 42', and N. lat. 510 35'. It fends two
members to parliament.
CHIROGRAI'HY, a writing under one’s own hand.
CHIROM ANCY, a fpeeies of divination, drawn from
the different lines and lineaments of a perfon’s hand ;
by which means, it is pretended, the inclinations may
be difcovered.
CHIKONIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla is rotated; the piftil-
lum declines ; the ftaminx are inferted into the tube
of the corolla; the antheras are fpiral; and the peri-
carpi ura is bilocular. There are eight fpecies, none
of them natives of Britain.
CBIRONOMY, in antiquity, the art of reprefenting
any paft tranfaftion by the geftures of the body,
more- efpeeially by the motions of the hands: this
made a part of liberal education; it had the approba¬
tion of Socrates, and was ranked by. Plato among the
political virtues.
CHIROTONF, among ecclefiaftica! writers, denotes
the impofitioh of hands ufed in conferring prieftiy or¬
ders. ' .
However, it is proper to remark, that chirotony 0-
riginajly was a method of elefting magiftrates, by
holding up the hands.
CHIRVAN, a province of Perfia, lying on the weftern
coaft of the Cafpian fea.
CHIRURGERY. See Surgery.
CHISLEY-LAND, in agriculture, a foil of a middle
nature between fandy and clayey land, with a large
admixture of pebbles.
CKIS3EL,
G H O (i
CHISSEL, an inftrufnent ranch uftd in carpentiy, ma-
fonry, joinery, fculpture, <bc. and diftinguiihed ac¬
cording to the breadth of the blade into half-inch chif-
fels, quarter-inch chiflels, <be. They have alfo dif¬
ferent names according to the different lifes to,which
they are applied; as, t.The former, ufed by carpen¬
ters, <bc. jufl after the work is fcribed : it is (truck
with a mallet. 2. The paring-chiflel, which is ufed
in paring off the irregularities made by the former:
this is preffed with the workman’s (boulder. 3 . The
fkew-former cleanfes acute angles with the point of its
narrow edge. 4. The mortice chiffel, ufed in cutting
deep fquare holes in wood, for mortices: it is narrow,
but thick and ftrong, to endure hard blows. 5. Sock-
et-chiffels, having their fhank made with a hollow
focket at top, to receive a ftrong wooden fprig fitted
into it with a fhoulder. 6. Ripping duffel, having a
blunt edge, with no bafii, ufed in tearing two 'pieces
of woop.afunder. And, 7. the gouge. See Gouge.
CHITAU, in the materia medica, a kind of lignum-
aloes,'of a reddifh colour. See Lignum-aloes.
CHIVALRY, in law, is a tenure of fervice, whereby
the tenant is bound to perform fome noble or military
office to his lord ; and is either regal, when held only
of the king ; or common, fuch as may be held of a
common perfon as well as the king: the former is
properly called ferjeanty, and the latter efeuage.
A flatuteof Charles II. abolifhes all tenures by chi¬
valry, in capite, <bc. and ordains that all tenures fhall
be condrued to be free and common foccage.
CHIVES, in botany. See Anthers.•
CillUSI, a city of Italy, in the dutchy of Tufcany, fi-
tuated on the confines of the pope’s territories, about
thirty-five miles fuuth-eaft of Sienna: E. long. 130,
and N. lat. 330.
CHLAMYS, in antiquity, a military habit worn by the
ancients over the tunica. It belonged to the patrici¬
ans, and was the fame in the time of war that the
toga was in the time of peace. This fort of gown was
called pida, fiom the rich embroidery with figures in-
Phrygian-work ; and purpurea, becaufe the ground¬
work was purple. The chlamydes of the emperors
were all purple, adorned with a golden or embroider¬
ed border.
CHLOKIS, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of Loxia. See Loxia.
CHLOROSIS, in medicine, a difeafe commonly called
the green-ficknefs, incident to young, girls. See Me¬
dicine.
CHOCOLATE, in commerce, a kind of pafle, or cake,
prepared of certain ingredients, the bafis of which is
the cacao-nut.
The Indians, in their firft making of chocolate, ufed
to roafl the cacao in earthen pots ; and having after¬
wards cleared it of the hulks, and bruifed it between
two hones, they made it into cakes with their hands.
The Spaniards improved this method : when the cacao
is properly roafted, and well cleaned, they pound it in
a mortar, to reduce it into a coarfe mafs which they
afterwards grind on a (lone, till it be of the utmofl fine-
nefs t the palle being fufficiently ground, is put quite
93 ) C H O
hot into tin moulds, in which it congeals in a very
. little time. The form of thefe moulds is arbitrary;
the cylindrical ones, holding two or three pounds, are
the moft proper, becaufe the bigger the cakes are, the
longer they will keep. Obferye, that thefe cakes are
very liable to take any good or bad feent, and there¬
fore they muft be carefully wrapt up in paper, and
kept in a dry place. Complaints are made, that the
Spaniards mix with the cacao nuts too great a quan¬
tity of cloves and cinnamon, befides other drugs with¬
out number, as mufk, ambergrife, <bc. The grocers
of Paris ufe few or none -of thefe ingredients ; they
only chufe the bed nuts, which are called Caracca,
from the place from whence they are brought, and
with thefe they mix a very fmall quantity of cinnamon,
the frefheft vanilla, and the fined fugar, but very fel-
dom any cloves. Among us in England, the chocolate
is made of the fimple cacao, excepting that fometimes
fugar, and fometimes vanilla is added.
Chocolate ready made, and cacao pade, are prohi¬
bited to be imported from any part beyond the feas.
If made and fold in Great Britain, it pays inland-duty
is. 6d. per It>. avoirdupoife : it mud be inclofed in
papers containing one pound each, and produced at
the excife-ofhce, to be damped. Upon three days no¬
tice given to the officer of excife, private families may
make chocolate for their own ufe, provided no lefs-
than half an hundred weight of nuts be made at one
time.
CHOENIX, a dry. meafure, containing a forty-eighth
part of a medimnus, or fix bufiiels. Hence the cele¬
brated proverb of Pythagoras, Super chcenice ne fe¬
el eas.
CHOIR, that part of the church or cathedral where
choiiiders ling divine fervice : it is feparated from the
chancel, where the communion is celebrated ; and alfo
from the nave of the church, where the people are
placed : the patron is faid to be obliged to repair the
choir of the church.
CHOLEDOCHUS, ia anatomy. See Vol. i. p 26c
CHOLER. See Bile. V
CHOLERA morbus, in medicine. See Medicine.
CHONDRILLA, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia;
polygamia tequalis clals. The calix is caliculated;
the receptacle is naked ; the pappus is Ample, and fur-
nilhed with a dipes ; and the fiofeules are numerous.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the janesa, a native of
Germany.
CHONDROPTERYGII, in ichthyology, 'a term for¬
merly applied to the order of iilhes, now called am¬
phibia names by Linnaeus. See Amphifia.
CHOPIN, or Chop in e, a liquid meafure, ufed both mr
Scotland and France, and equal to half their pint..
See Pint, and Measure.
CHORASSAN, a province of Perfia, on the north-ead,
adjoining to Ufbec Tartary; this was the ancient
Badhia, and the native country of the late Kouli Kan..
CHORD, in geometry, a right line drawn from one part
of an arch of a circle to the other. Hence,
Chord of an arch is a right line joining the extremes,
of that arch. Sec Trigonometry..
ClEORTW^
C H O ( 194
Ch.orbs, or Cords, in mufic, are firings, by the vi¬
bration of which the fenfation of found is excited, and
by the divifions of which the feveral degrees of tune
are determined.
Chord is alfo ufed in mufic for the note or tone to be
touched or founded : in this fenfe the fifth is faid'to
confift of five Chords or .founds.
CHORDAPSUS, in medicine, a difeafe of the inteflines,
when to the touch they feel like flretched cords : k is
ithe fame with the iliac pafiion.
CHORDEE, in medicine and forgery, a fymptom at¬
tending a gonorrhoea, confiding in a violent pain un¬
der the frenum, and along the du<ft of the urethra,
during the erection of the penis, which is incurvated
downwards. Thefe ereflions are frequent and invo¬
luntary. See Medicine.
CHOREUS, in ancient poetry. See Trochee.
CHORGES, or Gorges, a town of Dauphiny, in
France, about fix miles eafl: of Gap : E, long. 6°,
and N. lat. 440 36'.
CHORIAMBUS, in ancient poetry, a foot confiding of
four fyllables, whereof the fird and lad are long, and
the two middle ones are fhort; or, which is the fame
thing, it is made up of a trochaeus and iambus : fuch
is the word nobflatas.
CHORION, in anatomy, the exterior membrane which
inveds the foetus in the uterus.
CHOROBATA, or Chorobates, a kind of water-
level among the ancients, of the figure of the letter T,
according to Vitruvius’s defcription.
CHOROGRAPHY, the art of making a map of fome
country or province.
CHORUS, in dramatic poetry, one or more perfons
prefent on the dage during the reprefentation, and fup-
pofed to be by danders without any fhare in the aftion.
Tragedy in its origin was no more than a fingle cho-
'-rus, who trod the dage alone, and without any a&ors,
fmging dithyrambics or hymns in honour of Bacchus.
Thefpis, to relieve the chorus, added an a&or, who
rehearfed the adventures of fome of their heroes; and
iEfchylus, finding a fingle perfon too dry an entertain¬
ment, added a fecond, at the fame time reducing the
finging of the chorus, to make more room for the re¬
citation. But when once tragedy began to be formed,
the recitative, which at fird was intended only as an
acceffory part to give the chorus a breathing time, be¬
came a principal part of the tragedy. At length,
however, the chorus became Inferted and incorporated
into the aftion : fometimes it was to fpeak, and then
their chief, whom they called corryphssus, fpoke in
behalf of the red : the finging was performed by the
whole company ; fo that when the coryphseus ftruck
into a fong, {Im chorus immediately joined him.
The chorus fometimes alfo joined the acftors in the
courfe of the reprefentation, with their plaints and la¬
mentations on account of any unhappy accider.rs that
befel them : but the proper fundlion, and that for
which it feemed chiefly retained, was to Ihew the in¬
tervals of the a As : while the aftors were behind the
,'fcenes, the chorus engaged the fpedlators ; their fongs
) C H O
ufually turned on what was exhibited, and were not
to contain any thing but what was fuited to the fub-
je(5t, and had a natural conneftion with it ; fo that the
chorus concurred with the adtors for advancing the
adlion.. In the modern tragedies the chorus is laid a-
fide, and the fiddles fupply its place. Mr Dacier looks
on this retrenchment as of ill confequence, and thinks
it robs tragedy of a great part of its luftre ; he there¬
fore judges it neceflary to re eflablilh it, not only on
account of the regularity of the piece, but alfo to cor-
redt, by prudent and virtuous reflexions, any extra¬
vagancies that might fall from the mouths of the adtors,
when under any violent paffion.
Mr Dacier obferved alfo, that there was a chorus,
or grex, in the ancient comedy; but this is fupprdfed
in the new comedy; becaufe it was ufed to reprove
vices by attacking particular perfons ; as the chorus
of the tragedy was laicFafide to give the greater pro¬
bability to thofe kind of intrigues which require fe-
crecy.
Chorus, in mufic, is when, at certain periods of a fong,
the whole company are to join the finger in repeating
certain couplets, or verfes.
CHOTZIM, a frontier-town of Moldavia, on the con¬
fines of Poland, fituated on the river Niefter, and fub-
jedt to the Turks : E. long. 27°, and N. lat. 48°.
CHOUG, a town of Syria, upon the road from Aleppo
to Sayde, called by fome travellers Shoggle.
CHOUGH, in ornithology. See Corvus.
CHREMNITZ, the principal of the mine-towns in Up¬
per Hungary, fituated about fixty-eight miles north-
eafl of Prefburg, and fubjedt to the houfe of Auftria*
E. long. 19°, and N. Jat. 48° 4?'.
CHREMPS, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
CHRISM, oil confecrated by the bifbop, and ufed in the
Romiftr and Greek churches in the adminillration of
baptifm, confirmation, ordination, and extreme unc¬
tion.
Ordir of CHRIST, a military order, founded by Dio-
nyfius I. king of Portugal, to animate bis nobles a-
gainft the Moors.
The arms of this order are gules, a patriarchal crofs,
charged with another crofs argent: they had their re-
fidence at firft at Caflromarin, afterwards they re¬
moved to the city of Thomar, as bei.ng nearer to the
Moors of Andalufia and Eftremadura.
Christ is alfo the name of a military order in Livonia,
inflituted in 1207, by Albert bilhop of Riga. The
end of this inflitution was to defend the new Chriftians,
who were converted every day in Livonia, but were
perfecuted by the heathens. They wore on their
cloaks a fword with a crofs over it, whence they were
alfo denominated brothers of the fword.
Christ burgh, a town of Poland, near the lake Drau-
fen, and about three Poliflr miles from Marienburgh.
Christ church, a borough town of Hampfliire, thir¬
ty miles fouth-weft of Wincefter, near the lea-coaft :
W. long. 20, N. lat. 50° 40'. It fends two mem¬
bers to parliament.
Christin botany. See Rhamnus.
Mofi
C H R ( I;
Mojf Christian king, one of the titles of the king
of France.
The French antiquaries trace the origin of this ap¬
pellation up to Gregory the Great, who, writing a
letter to Charles Martlet, occafionally gave him that
title, which his fucceffors have fince retained.
- Christian religion, that inftituted by Jefus Chrill.
See Religion.
CHRISTIANS, thofe who profefs to believe the Chri-
ftian religion. See Religion.
Christians of St John, a fed! of Chriflians very nu¬
merous in Balfara and the'neighbouring towns: they
formerly inhabited along the river Jordan, where St
John baptized, and it was from thence they had their
name. They hold an anniVerfary feaft of five days,
during which they all go to the bilhop, who baptizes
them with the baptifm of St John. Their baptifm is alfo
performed on rivers, and that only on Sundays ; they
have no notion of the third p£rfon in the Trinity, nor
have they any canonical book, but abundance full of
charms, tic. Their bifhoprics defcend by inheritance,
as our edates <io> though-they have the ceremony of
an eledtion.
Christians 9/'<S7 a fort of Chriftians in a
peninfula of India, on this fide of the gulf: they in¬
habit chiefly at Cranganpr, and the neighbouring
country: thefe admit of no images, and receive only
the crofs, to which they pay a,great veneration: they
affirm, that the fouls of the faints do not fee God till
after the day of judgment: they acknowledge but three
facrameBts, viz. baptifm, orders, and the eucharift :
they make no ufe of holy oils in the adminiftration of
baptifm, but after the ceremony anoint the infant with
an undtion compofed of oil and walnuts, without any
benediftion. In the eucharifl, they confecrate with
little cakes made of oil and fait, and inftead of wine
make ufe of.water in which'raifins have been infufed.
CIJRISTIANA, a town of Norway, in the province
of Aggerhuys, fituated on a bay oftheiea, .a hundred
miles north of Gottenburgh: E. long. io° if, N.lat.
59° 3°'-'
CHRISTIANOPLE, a port-town of Sweden, fituated
on the Baltic fea, in the territory of Bleking, and
province South Gothland, about thirteen miles north-
eaft of Carlefcroon : E. long, ry0 4c/, and N. lat.
570.
CHRISTIANSBURGH, a Danifli fadtory upon the
gold-coaff of Africa, near Acra.
CHRISTIANSTADT, a to vn of Sweden, fituated on
the river Helles, in the territory of Bleking, and pro¬
vince of South Gothland, forty-five miles wdt of
Carlefcroon: E. long. i4040,> N. lat 56° 30'.
CHRISTMAS, a feftival of the Chriftian church, ob-
ferved on the 25th of December, in memory of the
nativity of Jefus Chrift.
CHRISTOPHER-^fr^, in botany. See Christo¬
ph ori an a.
CHRISTOPHERS, or St Christophers, one of the
Caribbee iflands, to which Columbus gave his Chri¬
ftian name: W.long. 62°, N. lat. 710 30'.
It is about twenty miles long, and feven broad j
Vol. II. No. 38. 3
)S ) C H R
and has a high mountain in the middle, from whence
fome rivulets run down.. Its produce is chiefly fugar,
- cotton,’ ginger, and indigo. It is a Britiih colony,
and lies about fixty miles weft of Antego.
CHRISTOPHORIANA, in botany. See Act;ea.
CHROASTACES, in natural hiftory. a genus of pellu¬
cid gems, comprehending all thofe of variable colours,
as viewed in different lights; of which kinds are the
' opal and the afteria, or oculus cati. See Opal, and
Asteria..
CHROMA, in mufic, a note or charadter of time, ufu-
ally termed a quaver.
Chroma is alfo a graceful way of finging, or playing
with quavers and trilloes.
CHROMATIC, in the ancient mufic, the fecond of the
three kinds into which the confonant intervals were
fubdivided into their concinnous parts. The other
two kinds are enharmonic and diatonic.
Chromatic, in painting, a term ufed to fignify the
colouring, which makes the third part in the art of
painting.
CHROMIS, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
CHRONIC, or Chronical, among phyficians, an ap¬
pellation given to difeafes that continue a long time, in
contradiftindlion to thofe that foon terminate, and are
called acute. See Medicine.
CHRONICLE, in matters of literature, a fpecies or-
kind of hiftory, difpofed according to the order of
time, and agreeing in moft refpedls with annals. See
Annals.
Books p/'Chronicles, in the canon of feripture, two
facred books, called by the Greeks paralipomena, that
is, remains, additions, or fupplements, as containing
many circumftances omitted in the other, hiftoricai
books.
CHRONOGRAM, a fpdeies of falfe wit, confiding in
this, that a certain date or epocha is exprefled by
numeral letters of one or more verfes: fuch is that
which makes the motto of a medal ftruck by Guftavus
Adolphus, in 1632.
ChrlftVs DVX, ergo trIVMphVs.
CHRONOLOGY, the fcience or doftrine of time, in
fo far as it regards hiftory, whether civil or ecclefia-
ftical.
The bufinefs of chronology, is to afeertain and-
adjuft the various epochas, aeras, and other periods
mentioned in hiftory; fo that the revolutions of em¬
pires and kingdoms, and other remarkable events, may
be truly ftated. For the principles of chronology, fee
Astronomy, Of the divifion of time.
CHRONOMETER, in general, denotes any inftrument
or machine, ufed in meafuring time ; fuch are dials,
clocks, watches, tic. See Clock, Dial, tic.
CHRONOSCOPE, denotes much the fame with chro¬
nometer. See the preceding article.
CHROSTASIMA, in natural hiftory, a genus of pel¬
lucid gems, comprehending all thofe which appear of
one Ample and permanent colour in all lights : fuch
are the diamond, carbuncle, ruby, garnet, amethyft,
fapphire, beryl, emerald, and the topaz. See Dia¬
mond, Carbuncle, tic.
3 D
CHRY-
C H R ( 196 ) C II U
CHRYSAETUS, in ornithology. See Falco.
CHRYSALIS, in natural hiftory, a ftate of reft and
, feeming infenfibility which butterflies, moths, and fe-
verai other kinds of infedts, muft pafs through before
they arrive at their winged or moft perfedt ftate. See
Natural History.
CHRYSANTHEMOIDES, in botany. See Osteo-
spermum.
CHRYSANTHEMUM, in botany, a genus of plants
belonging to the fyngenefia polygamia fuperflua clafs.
The receptacle is naked, it has no pappus ; the calix
is hemifpherical and .imbricated ; and the fcales on the
margin are membranaceous. There are nineteen fpe-
cies, two of which are natives of Britain, viz. the
fegetum, or corn mary-gold ; and the leucanthemum,
or ox-eye daify,
CHRYSOBALANUS, in botany, a genus of the ico-
fandria monogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of live
petals ; the calix has five teeth ; and the drupa' con¬
tains a nut with five furrows. There is but one fpe-
cies, viz. the icaco, a native of America.
CHRYSOBERYL, a kind of beryl with a tindlure of
yellow. See Beryl.
CHRYSOCOLLA, in natural hiftory, afpecies of green
ochres. See Qchra.
CHRYSOCOMA, in botany, a genus of plants belong¬
ing-to the fyngenefia polygamia aequafis clafs. The
receptacle is naked; the pappus is fimpie ; the calix is
imbricated and hemifpherical; and the ftylus is hardly
longer than the , flofcules. There are nine fpecies,
none of which are natives of Britain.
CRYSOGONUM, or Moth-mullein, in botany, a
genus of plants belonging to the fyngenefia polygamia
nece/Taria clafs. The receptacle is paleaceous; the
pappus is monophyllous, and three-teethed ; the calix
confifts of five leaves; and the feeds are caliculated,
and invalved in four leaves.. Thsre is but one fpecies,
a native of Virginia.
CHRYSOLITE, in natural hiftory, a gem which the
ancients knew under the name of the topa?; and the
true chryfolite of the ancients, which had its name
from its fine gold yellow colour, is now univerlally
called topaz by modern jewellers See Topaz.
Chrysolite-pctjle, a kind of glafs made in imitation
of natural chryfolite, by mixing two ounces of prepa¬
red cryftal, with ten ounces of red-lead, adding twelve
grains of crocus martis made with vinegar; and then
Raking the whole for twenty-four hours, or longer, in
a well luted cucurbit.
CHRYTOMELA, in zoology, a genus of infers, be¬
longing to the order of coleoptera. The antennae are
ft) aped like bracelets, and thicker on the outfide ; and
- neither the breaft not the elytra are marginated There
are no lefs than 122 fpecies, principally diftinguifhed,
by differences in their colour.
CHRYSOPHYTLUM, in botany, a genus of the pen-
tandria monogynia clafs. The corolla is bell-fhaped,
and divided into ten fegments, which alternately ipread
wider ; and the berry contains ten feeds. There are
but two fpecies, both natives of America.
CHRYSORRASUS, or Chrysoprasius, the tenth
of the precious ftones, mentioned in the Revelations,
as forming the foundation of the heavenly Jerufalern.
The chryfoprafius is a fpecies of prafius, of a pale
but pure green colour, with an admixture of yellow.
CHRY'SOSPLENIUM, in botany, a genus of the de-
candria digynia clafs. The calix is divided into four
or five coloured fegments ; it has no corolla; and the
capfule has two beaks, and one cell containing many
feeds. The fpecies are two, viz. the alternifolium,
or alternate leaved golden faxifrage; and the oppofiti-
folium, or common golden-faxifrage; both natives of
Britain.
CHRYSTAL, or Crystal. See Crystal.
CHUB, or Chubb, in ichthyology. See Cyprinus.
CHURCH, has different fignifications, according to the
* different fubjefts to which it is applied, r. It is un-
derftood.of the/colledlive body of Chriftians, or ail
thole over vhe face of the whole earth who profefs to
believe iff Chrift, and acknowledge him to be the Sa¬
viour of mankind. This is what the ancient writers
call the catholic .or univerfal church. Sometimes the
word church is confidered in a more extenfive fenfe,
and divided into feveral branches; as the church mili¬
tant, is the affembly of the faithful on earth; the
church triumphant, that of the faithful already in
glory ; to which the Papifts add the church patient,,
which, according to their dodtrines, is that of the:
faithful in purgatory.
2. Church is applied to any particular congrega¬
tion of Chrh'Hans, who affociate together and concur
in the participation of all the inftitutions of Jeftis Chrift,
with their proper paftors and minifters. Thus we
read of the church of Antioch, the church of Alex¬
andria, the church of-Theffalonica-, and the like.
3. Church denotes a- particular fedt of Chriftians
diftinguiflted by particular dodlrines and ceremonies.
In this fenfe, we fpeak of the Romifh church, the
Greek church, the reformed church, the church of
England, fee.
The Latin or weftern church, comprehends all the
churches of Italy, France, Spain, Africa, the north,
and all other countries whither the Romans carried
their language. G. Britain, part of the Netherlands, of
Germany, and of the North, have been feparated frotn
hence ever fince the time of Henry VIII. and confti-
tute what we call the reformed church, and what the
Romanifts call the weftern fchifm.
The Greek or eaftern church, comprehends the
churches of all the countries anciently fubjedt to the
Greek or eaftern empire, and through which their
language was carried ; that is, all the fpace extepded
from Greece to Mefopotamia and Perfia, and thence
into Egypt, This church has been divided from the
Roman, ever fince the time of the emperor Phocas.
The Gallican eburdh, denotes the church of France,
under the government and dir^dlion of their refpedtive
bifiiops and paftois. This churcff has always enjoyed
-certain franebifes and immunities, not as grants from
popes, but as derived to her from her firft original,
an‘d which file has taken care never to relifiquifh. Thefe
liberties depend upon two maxims ; the firft, that the
pope
c H U ( 197 ) C H Y
pope has no authority or right to commr.nd or order
any thing either in general or in particular, in which
the temporalities and civil rights of the Jcingdom are
concerned; the fecond, that not with ftanding the pope’s
fupremacy is owned in cafes purely fpiritual, yet, in
France, his power is limited and regulated by the
decrees and canons of ancient councils received in that
realm.
4. The word church is u/ed to fignify the body of
eccl.efiaftics-, or- the clergy, in contradillindlion to the
laity. See Clergy.
y. Church is ufed for the jtlace where a particular
congregration or fociety of Chriftians affemble for the
celebration of divine fervice. In this fenfe, churches
are varioufly denominated, according to the rank, de¬
gree, difcipline, 6y\ .as metropolitan church, patri¬
archal church, cathedral church, parochial church,
collegiate church, drc. See Metropolis, Patri¬
arch, £}c.
CnuRCH-ra'in?/, the fame with church wardens.
Church-stretto.n, a market-town of Shropfhire, a-
bout twelve miles fouth of Shrewfbury : W. long. 20
50', N. lat. $2° 35'.
C h u r C n-nuardens, formerly called church-reeves ..are of¬
ficers chofen yearly, in Eafter week, by the mini her
4 and parifhoners of every pari(h, to look after the
church, church-yard, church-revenues, <hc. alfo to
obferve the behaviour of the parifhoners in relation
to fuch mifdemeanors as appertain to the cenfure or
jurifdi&ion of the ecclefiaftical court.
They are to be choftn by the joint confent of the
minider and his parifhoners ; and by cuftom, the mi-
rider may chufe one, and the parifhoners another;
or, if there be a cudcm for it, the parifhoners may e-
le<d both, though it is againd the canon. They were
(worn into their office by the archdfacon ; and if he
refufes to fwear a church-warden, a mandamus may
iffue out to compel him: for as the church-wardens
have a trud repofed in them by the pariffi, as tempo¬
ral officers, the pariffioners are the proper judges of
their abilities to ferve, and not the archdeacon who
fwears thpm.
The church wardens are a corporation to.fue, and
be fued, for the goods of the church: they are to
take care of the repairs of the church ; and if they e-
red or add any thing new to the fame, tlyey mud have
the confent of the pariffioners, orvedry; and if in
' the church, the licenfe of the ordinary : they have,
with confent of the minider, the placing of the parifho¬
ners in the feats of the. body of the church, appoint¬
ing gallery keepers, 6c. referving to the ordinary a
power to corred the fame. In London, the church-
wiardens have this authority in themfelves : there alfo
they are bound to fix firfc-cocks, keep engines, &c. in
their pariffies, under the penalty of 101.
. Befides their ordinary power, the church-wardens
have the care of the benefice during its vacancy: they
ere-to join v/ith the overfeers of the poor in making
lates for their relief, fetting up trades for employ¬
ing them, placing out poor apprentices, fettling poor
perfons, 6c. It is their duty to colled the charity-
money upon briefs read in churches; they are to fign
the certificates of thofe perfons who receive the facra-
ment, to qualify them to bear offices, 6c.
CHURCHING of ’women after child-birth, an office
in the liturgy, containing a thankfgiving to be ufed by
women after being delivered from the great pain and
peril of child-birth.
CHURN-OWL, in ornithology. See Caprimulgus.
Churn-worm, in zoology. See Gryllotalpa.
CHUSAN, or Cheuxan, an ifland on the eadern coaft
of China, near the' province of Chekiam : E. long.
124°, N. lat. 3oq'40/.
CHUSISTAN, a province in the fouth-wed part of
Pepfia, bounded by the gulph of Perfia on the fouth,
and by the province of Eyraca Agem on the north.
CHUTON, Chuttqn, a market-town of Somerfet-
fhire, about feven miles north-ead of Wells: W. long,
2* 36', N. lat. 5,0 25'.
CHYLE, in the animal oeconomy, a milky fluid, fecret-
ed from the aliments by means of digedion
T he principks of the chyle feem to be fulphureous,
mucilaginous, faline, and aqueous. It is a kind of
natural emulfion, both with regard to the colour, the
ingredients, and the manner of preparation. There
is this difference between the artificial and natural e-
mulfion, that the latter is far more pure, and is pre¬
pared with much greater apparatus, not by the fudden
expreffion of part-of the liquid, but by a gentle and
fucceffive percolation. The chyle is made fooner or
later, according to the difference of the temperaments,
ftrength, aliments and cudoms: therefore how many
hours chylification requires, cannot be certainly deter¬
mined. When the chyle enters the villous ofcula of
the laAeals, it is not a fluid extrafted merely from .
the aliment and drink, but a mixture of fluids ; that
is, the faliva and thinner mucus of the mouth, and
the two fluids of the cefophagus, one proceeding
from the villous membrane of the tube itfelf, the other
from its glands. To. thefe may be added the gluti¬
nous fluid of the domach, the pancreatic juice, the
fluid of payer’s glands, which are very numerous in
the fmall intedines. Hence ihe reafon appears, vhy¬
men may live upon bread and water, why the oriental
nations ofe rice in the room of all kinds of pulfe, and
why acids, fpirituous liquors, faline things, and many
vegetable juices, herbs, roots, acrid and aromatic fub-
dances, are the lead fit to generate chyle.
CHY LIFICATION, the formation of the chyle, or
the a<51 whereby the food is changed into chyle.
Chylification commences by comminuting the ali¬
ment in the mouth, mixing it with faliva, and chew¬
ing it with the teeth; by thefe means the food is re¬
duced into a kind of pulp, which, being received into
the domach, mixes with the juices thereof; and thus
diluted, begins to ferment or putrify, and, affuming a
very different form from what it had before, grows
either acid or rancid. Here it meets with a juice fe-
parated from the blood by the glands of that part,,
whefe excretory dudts open into the cavity of the
Itomach ;
C I B ( 198
'ftomach: by the commixture of thefe liquors, whe¬
ther of faliva or the juice of the llomach, a proper
xncnftruum is compofed, by which the parts of the
aliment are ftill more and more divided by its inflnua-
ting into their pores, and acquire ftill a greater like-
nefs to the animal fluids. The ftomach, by means of
its mufcular fibres, contra&ing itfelf, does gradually
dicharge its contents by the pylorus into the duode¬
num ; in which gut, after a fmall femicircular defcent,
it meets with the pancreatic juice and bile; both
•which joining it, renders feme part of the aliment
more fluid, by ftill difuniting the grofler part from the
more pure, and here the chylifadtfon is made perfeft.
The bile which abounds with lixivial falts, and apt to
entangle with the grofler parts of the concoifted ali¬
ment, ftimulates the guts, and cleanfes their cavities
of the mucous matter feparated from the blood by the
glands of the guts, and lodged in their cavities ;
which not only moiftens the infide of the guts, but de¬
fends the mouth of the lafteal veflels from being in¬
jured by alien bodies which often pafs that way.
The contents of the inteftines move ftill on, by
means of the periftaitic motion of the guts; whilft
thpfe thinner parts, fitted to the pores of the ladleal
veffels, are abforbed by them: the thicker move ftill
more flowly on, and by the many ffops they continual-
' ly meet with by the connivant valves, all the chyle or
thin parts are at length entirely abforbed : the remains
being merely exorementitious, are only fit to be pro¬
truded by ftool,
In the palfage through the fmall inteftines, the finer
part of the mafs, which we call the chyle (as has been
already obferved) enters the orifices of the ladleal vef
fels of the firft kind, wherewith the whole mefentery
is intermixed, which either alone, or together with
the meferaic veins, difcharge themfelves into the
glands, at the bafis of the mefentery.
Then the chyle is taken up by the lacfteals of the
fecOnd kind, and is conveyed into glands between the
two tendons of the diaphragm, called Pecquet’s refer-
varory; whence it is carried to the heart by the tho¬
racic dud, and the fubclavian vein : and here it firft
mixes with the blood, and in time beqomes aflimilated
thereto.
CHYTOSIS, among phyficians, the ad of reducing the
aliment in the ftomach to chyle.
CHYME, or Chymus, in the common fignification of
the word, denotes every kind of humour which is in-
craffated by concodion, under which notion it compre¬
hends all the humours fit or unfit for preferring and
nourifhing the body, whether good or bad. It fre¬
quently imports the fineft part of the chyle, when Se¬
parated from the faeces, and contained in the ladeal
and thoracic dud.
CHYMISTRY, or Chemistry. See Chemistry.
CHYMOLOGI, an appellation given to fuch natnralifts
as have employed their time in inveftigating the pro¬
perties of plants from their tafte and fmell.
CHYMOSIS, in medicine, the ad of making or preparing
chyme. See Chyme.
ChiYMOsis is alfo a diftortion of the eye-lids, arifing
) C I c
from an inflammation ; alfo an inflammation of the
cornea tunica in the eye.
CIALIS, the name of the capital of a kingdom of that
name in independant Tartary, fituated on the road
from Sama cahd to China.
CIBDELOPLACIA, in natural hiftory, a genus of
fpars debafed by a very large admixtiire of earth : they
are opaque, formed of thin crufts, covering vegetables
and other bodies, by way of incruftations.
Of this genus we have the following fpecies : 1.
A greyifh-white one, with a rough furface. 2. A
whitifhbrown one: both thefe are friable. 3. A
hard, pale-brown kind, which is the oftecolla of the
fliops. 4. The whitifti-grey kind, with a fmooth fur-
face : this is the unicornu foflile and ceratites of au¬
thors. 5. The whitifti-brown coralloide kind.
CIBDELOSTRACIA, in natural hiftory, terrene fpars,^
deftitute of all brightnefs and tranfparence, formed in-’*
to thin plates, and ufually found coating over the fides
of fiflures, and other cavities of ftone, with congeries
. of them of great extent, and of plain or botroyide fur-
faces.
Of thefe there are ufually reckoned feven kinds :
the firft is the hard, brownifh-white cibdeloftracium,
found 'in Germany : the fecond is the hard, whitifh
cibdeloftracium, with thin crufts, and a fmoother fur--
face, found alfo in the Harts-foreft in Germany : the
third is the hard, pale-brown cibdeloftracium, with
numerous very thin crufts, found in fubterranean ca¬
verns in many parts of England as well as Germany:
the fourth is the white, light, and friable cibdeloftra¬
cium, found alfo in Germany, but very rarely in any
part of England : the fifth is the light, hard, pale-
brown cibdeloftracium, with a fmooth furface, found
in almoft all parts of the world : the fixth is the whi-
tifti, friable, cruftaceous cibdeloftracium, with a rough¬
er furface, frequent in Germany and England; and
the feventh is the browniftr-white, friable cibdeloftra¬
cium, with a dufty furface, found jn feveral parts of
Ireland, as well as Germany.
CICADIA, in zoology, a genus of infefts belonging to
the order of hemiptera. The beak is infletfted; the
antennae are fetaceous ; the four wings are membrana¬
ceous and defleded ; and the feet, in moft of the fpe¬
cies, are of the jaimping kind. The fpecies are fifty-
one. The larvae of feveral of this genus evacuate
great quantities of a frothy matter upon the branches
and leaves of plants, in the midfyof which the^con-
ftantly refide.
CICATR1CULA, among natural hiftorians, denotes a
fmall whitiflr fpeck in the yolk of an egg, fuppofed to'
be the firft rudiments of the future chick.
CICATRIX, in furgery, a little feam or elevation of
callous flefh rifling on the fldn, and remaining there
after the healing of a wound of ultfer. It is common¬
ly called a fear. See Surgery.
CICATRIZANTS, in pharmacy, medicines which aflift
nature to form a cicatrix. Such are arminian bole,
powder of tutty, dificcativum rubrum, ‘
Cicatrrzams are otherwife called efcharotics, epulo-
tics, incarnatives, agglutinants, drc.
CICELY.
C I L (i
CICELY.. SeeMYRRHis.
CICER, or Chick-pea, in botany, a genus of the
diadelphia decandria clafs. The calix is divided into
five fegments, of the fame length with the corolla,
the four uppermolt fegments lying upon the vexillum ;
and the legumen or pod is turgid, rhomboidal, and
contains two feeds. There is but ohe fpecies, viz.
the arietinum, a native of Spain.
CICERBITA, in botany. See Sonchus.
CICHORIUM, or Succory, in botany, a genus of
the fyngenefia polygamia aequalis clafs. The recepta¬
cle is palmaceous ; the calix is caliculatedand the
pappus has five teeth on its margin. The fpecies are
three, only one of which, viz. the intybus, or wild
ctchory, is a native of Britain. The leaves and root
are detergent, .aperient, and attenuating.
CICINDELIA, m zoology, a genus of infeAs belonging
to the order of cofeoptera. The antennte are feta-
ceous; the jaws are prominent, and furniflied with
teeth ; the eyes are a little prominent; and the breaft
is roundifti and marginated. There are fourteen
fpecies.
CICONIA, in ornithology. See Ardea.
CICUTA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia
clafs. The fruit is furrowed and ovated. The fpe¬
cies are three, only one of which, viz. the virofa, or
long-leaved water-hemlock, is a native of Britain.
Cicuta is alfo a fynonime of the conium. See Co-
NIUM.
CICUTARIA, in botany, a fynonime of the aethufa,
phellandrium, &c.
CIDARIS, in antiquity, the mitre ufed by the JeWifh
high-priefts. The Rabbins fay, that the bonnet*ufed
by priefis in general was'made of a piece of linen-
cloth fixteen yards long, which covered their heads
like a helmet or a turbant: and they allow no other
difference between the high-prieft’s bonnet, and^that
of other priefts, tfian this, that one is flatter and
more in the form of a turbant; whereas that worn by
ordinary'priefts, rofe fomething more in a. point.
Cidaris, in conchyliology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of echjnus. See Echinus.
CIFALU, or Cefaledi, a port-town of Sicily, thirty-
fix miles eaft of Palermo: E. long. 130 32', N. lat.
38° 30'.
CILIA, the Eye-lashes, in anatomy. See Vol. I.
• p. 291.:
CILIARE, or Ligamentum Ciliare, in anatomy.
See Vol. I. p. 290.
CILIARIS, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 291.
CILIATED/ea/", among botanical writers, one fur-
rounded all the way with parallel filaments, fomewhat
like the hairs of the eye-lids.
CILICIUM, in Hebrew antiquity, a fort of habit made
- coarfe fluff, formerly in ufe among the Jews in
times of mourning and diflrefs. It is the fame with
what the Septuagint and Hebrew verfions call fack-
cloth.
CILLEY; the capital of a territory of the fame name in
Stiria, and the circle of Auflria in Germany: E. Ion.
.15° 35'» N. lat. 46° 35'.
Vol. II. No. 38. 3
?9. ) C I N
CIMA, or Sima, in architedlure, the fame with cyma-
tium or ogee. See Ogee.
CIMEX, or Bug, in zoology, a genus of infefts be¬
longing to the order of hemiptera. Linnaeus enume ■
rates no lefs than 121 fpecies. The ledtularius, or com¬
mon houfe-bug, is a well known infedh The methods
of expelling them are various ; -as, oil of turpentine,
the fmoke of corn-mint, of narrow-leaved wild crefs, of
herb-robert, of the reddifh agaric, of muflard, of Gui-
ney pepper, of peats or turf, i&c. But cleanlincfs
is the only remedy againfl vermin of every kind.
CIMOLIA terra, in natural hiflory, a fpecies of white
marie, which is ponderous and friable, and makes a
confiderable effervefcence with aqua fortis.
CINALOA, a province of Mexico, in North America,
lying on the Pacific Ocean, oppofite to the fouth end
of California.
CINAN, a city of China, the metropolis of the pro¬
vince of Zantung, fituated in 37.0 N. lat. and 30' eaft
of Pekin.
CINCHONA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla is bell-fhaped ; and the
capfule ist below the flower, and opens at the bafe.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the officinalis, a native
of Peru. The Peruvian bark, which is the bark of
this tree, is brought to us in pieces of different fizes,
fometimes rolled up into fhort thick quills, and fome-
times flat: the outfide is browniih, and generally co¬
vered in part with a whitifh mofs ; the iniide is of a
yellowifh, reddifh, or rufty irom colour. It has a
lightly aromatic fmell, fomewhat mufty, yet not dif-
agreeable ; a bitterifh, aftringent tafte, which dwells
long upon the tongue, accompanied with a degree of
aromatic warmth. The friiall, thin, flat pieces are by
fome accounted the beft ; by others, the quill fort,
with the roughed coat, efpecially if of a bright cinna¬
mon colour on the infide ; though the large flat pieces,
whether r/mgh or fmooth, of a lighter or darker co¬
lour, are often of equal goodnefs. The beft bark is
that which is ftrongeft in fmell and tafte : this likewife
proves friable betwixt the teeth, and does not fepa-
rate into fibres ; it breaks, not fliivery, but clofe and
fmooth.
The virtues of this bark, as a febrifuge, were dif-
covered by the Indiani-about the year 1500 : Europe
did not become acquainted with it till 1649 : nor was
it received into general pradlice till feveral years after
this ; fome ill confequences enfuing from its impru¬
dent ufe, having brought it for a time into difrepute.
At prefent, it is looked upon as the moft effectual re¬
medy in intermittent fevers of almoft every kind, and
fafe in all ages and conftitutions ; provided it be ju-
dicioufly and feafonably adminiftered, and due regard
be had to the circumftances of the difeafe. The mo¬
dern praftice, previous to the ufe this medicine, u-
fually gives an emetic at the beginning of a paroxyfm :
in fome cafes a cathartic, and in plethoric habits ve-
nasfe&ion, are premifed : thefe render the bark not on¬
ly more fafe, but likewife more certain and fpeedy in
its operation : where thefe evacuations are negleded,
or not fuificiently plentiful, the difeafe, if of long
3 E Handing,
GIN ( 200
{landing, fcarce yields to the cortex ; or if it appears
at length fubdued, yet the patient does not recover his
firengdi, and fpon fuffers a relapfe. The ufe of the
bark is begun at the end of a paroxyfm, and repeated,
in the quantity of half a dram (more or lefs, 'according
to the circumdances of the patient) every third or
fourth hour during the intermiffion : where the fever
is of the bilious kind, and accompanied with great
heat, a little nitre is joined : in all cafes, moderate
exercife generally promotes its effedh At firft, it u-
fualiy loofens the belly, and fometimes operates as if
a cathartic had been taken ; and by this means fup-
plies the omiffion of evacuations before its exhibition :
if the purging continues, the medicine does not anfwer
the purpofes intended by it: in fuch cafe, a little opi¬
um is added, which .effectually fuppreffes the flux : if
after this the patient continues too coftive, recourfe is
had to glyflers. The loofenefs, however, ought not
tolbe flopt too foofl : on the contrary, where the bark
does not itfelf produce this effedt, it is neceffary, as
Dr Mead informs us, to join to it a little rhubarb, fo
as to occafion for a time two ftools a day; by this
means the difeafe is more effectually cured, and lei's
fubjeCt to be followed by a dropfy, or ill habit of bo¬
dy : after a dram or two of rhubarb have been taken,
it is to be difcontinued, and the bark exhibited by it¬
felf! After the fever has been removed, the medicine
is continued for fome time longer, to prevent a relapfe ;
and evacuations, unlefs abfolutely neceffary, abftained
from. The difeafe is neverthelefs feldom completely
cured before fome very confiderable evacuation, either
by ftool, urine;, or perfpiration, enfues : if this does
not fucceed fpontaneoufly, cathartics, diuretics, or
diaphoretics, are given in conjunction with the bark ;
otherwife the patient continues weak, and without ap¬
petite, till either the difeafe returns, or changes into
one of a different kind.
In fymptofnatic agues, heCtic and purulent fevers,
cacochymic habits, and where the hypochondres are
fwelled and diftended, this medicine is improper, and
for the moff part prejudicial. Its manifeft aftringency
forbids its ufe in obftruCtions of the abdominal vifcera,
or fuppreflion of any critical evacuation ; until the ob-
ftrnChori is firft removed, or tlje evacuation had its due
courfe.
In acute, inflammatory, or malignant fevers, the
bark does hot feem to have any good effeCl, Never¬
thelefs, in the decline of long nervous fevers, or after
a remiffion, when from bad habit, old age, fatigue, or
the like, the patient is extremely weak, and the pulfe
low, the cortex proves a medicine of excellent fer-
vice ; provided that there is no extravafation, that the
teffels remain entire, and pus is not already formed.
Peruvian bark has likewife been found eminently fer-
viceable in gangrenes and mortifications, proceeding
either from an internal or external caufe. In all the
cafes of this kind, where it proved fuccefsful, it oc-
cafioned a kind fuppuration, which degenerated When
the ufe of the medicine was difcontinued, and again
turned kindly upon refuming it. Some have been <
) GIN
hence induced to try the cortex in variolous cafes,
where either the puffules did not rightly fuppurate, or
petechiae (hewed a difpofition to a gangrene ; and here
Jikewife it anfwered expectation : the empty veficles
filled with matter, watery fanies changed into thick
white pus, the petechiae became gradually of a pale
colour, and at length difappeared, and the pox began
to turn fooner than was expected.
The bark has been applied likewife, and not with-
out„fuccefs, to the cure of periodic head-achs, hyiteric
and hypochondriac fits, and other diforders, which
have regular intermiflions. By its affringency and a-
romatic quality, it ftrengthens the whole nervous fy-
ftem, and proves ufeful in weaknefs of the flomach,
and fundry chronical diforders, proceeding from too
great laxity of the fibres. In obffinate uterine fluxes,
and old gleets, bark joined with chalybeates has no¬
table effects.
The virtues of Peruvian bark refide chiefly in a re-
finous fubffance, and hence are extracted in perfection
by rectified fpirit. By Itrong coCtion in water, the re-
fin is melted out, and mingled with the water ; which
whillt hot appears tranfparent, but in cooling grovys
turbid, and depofites great part of the refin to the
bottom. Water elevates in diftillation the aromatic
part of the bark; pure fpirit brings over nothing.
Hence an aqueous extract proves not only lefs in quan¬
tity, but likewife inferior in quality to one made with
rectified fpirit. Proof-fpirit extracts the virtues of
this drug in tolerable perfection, in the coldj heat
enables it to take up more than it can retain when
cold. Spirit of fal ammoniac, prepared with fixt al¬
kaline falts, gains very little from the cortex, either
with or without heat : the fpirit prepared with quick¬
lime, and the dulcified fpirit, in a few hours become
ftrongly impregnated with its fmell and Jafte.
The officinal preparations of bark are an extraCI re¬
fin, fpirituous tinClure, tiaCture in volatile fpirit, and
compound tinCture. It is an ingredient alfo in the
ftomachic tinCture.
The fulffances ufually joined with bark in pre-
fcription feem calculated either to promote its efficacy,,
or merely for reducing- it into the intended form j
without much regard to its agreeablenefs, and the con-
veniency of taking it : this is neverthelefs a point of
great confequence, as its tafte, and the quantity which
is neceffary, make the patient too frequently loath it,
before enough has been taken to produce the defired
effeCl. If defigned to be given in the folid form of a
bolus, electuary, <bc. it (hould be made up, not, as is
cuffomary, with fyrups, but with mucilages: with the
former, it flicks about the mouth and fauces, whence
its tafte remains for a confiderable time ; with the lat¬
ter, it paffes freely, fcarce leaving any tafte in the
mouth. Aromatics do not prevent the tafte of the
bark from difcovering itfelf; extraCt of liquorice very
effectually conceals it. The extract of logwood alio,
joined to that of bark, and a proper quantity of mu¬
cilage, form a very elegant and agreeable compofition.
iNCLUS-i in ornithology. SccTringa.
CINCTURE,
C I N (2
CINCTURE, or Ceinture, in architecture, a ring,
lift, or orlo at the top and bottom of the ftiaft of a
column, feparating the (haft at one end from the bafe,
and at the other from the capital. See Architec¬
ture.
CINERARIAj in ornithology. See Motacilla.
CINNAEiAR, in natural hiftory, is either native or fac¬
titious. The^native cinnabar is an ore of quick-filver,
moderately compact, very heavy, and of an elegant,
ftriated red colour. In this ore the quick-filver is
blended in different proportions with fulphur. It is
fo rich an ore, as to be no other than mercury im¬
pregnated with a fmall quantity of fulphur, juft enough
to redupe it to that ftate, being commonly more than
fix parts of mercury to one of fulphur ; and even the
pooreft cinnabar yields one half mercury: it is of a
very bright, glittering appearance, when frefh broken,
and is ufually found lodged in a blui(h, indurated clay,
though fometimes in a greenifh talcy ftone.
For the method of feparating mercury from cinna¬
bar, fee Mercury.
Faflitious Cinnabar, a mixture of mercury and ful¬
phur fublimed, and thus reduced into a fine red glebe.
The beft is of a high colour, and full of fibres, like
needles.
The receipt for making it, according to the late
college-difpenfatory, is as follows. Take of purified
quick-filver, twenty-five ounces; of fulphur, feven
ounces ; melt the fuiphur, and ftir the quick-filver in¬
to it while fluid ; if it take fire, let it be immediately
extinguifhed, by covering it with another vefl'el.
When cold, let it be rubbed into a fine powder. Let
this powder be put into a fubliming veffel, and fetting
it ever a gentle ffr'e, raife it by degrees till the whole
is fublimed into a red, ftriated, heavy mafs, which
perfedly refembles native cinnabar. This, as well
as the native cinnabar, is excellent in epilepfies, and
in all complaints of the head and nerves. But the
factious is rather to be preferred, as it doth not ex¬
cite naufeas, vomitings, and other diforders which a-
rife from vitriolic and perhaps arfenical particles
blended by nature among fome of the maffes of the
native mineral.
Cinnabar is likewife ufed by painters: as a colour,
and is rendered more beautiful, by grinding it with
gum-water and a little faffron.
CINNAMON-TREE, in botany. See Laurus.
Cinnamon-water is made by diftrlling the bark firft
infufed in fpirit of wine, brandy, or white-wine.
CAtr-CiNNAMON is thi bark of a tree growing in Bra¬
zil, which is often fubftituted for real cloves.
White Cinnamon, called alfo Winter’s bark", is the
bark of a tree frequent in the iflands of St Domingo,.
Guadalupe, be. of a fharp biting tafte like pepper.
Some ufe it inftead of nutmeg ; and in medicine it is
efteemed a ftomachic and antifcorbutic..
CINOLOA, or Cinaloa, the capital of the province
of Cinaloa, in North America, about thirty miles eaft
of the bay of California : W. long. 1130, and N. lat.
250. See Cinaloa..
>1 ) C I R
CINQUEFOIL, quinque/olium, in botany. See Pow
TENTILLA.
CINQUE PORTS, an appellation given to five port-
towns, fituated on the coaft of Kent and Suffex, over-
againft France, and famous in Englifh hiftory.
The cinque ports are Haftings, Dover, Hithe,
Romney, and Sandwich ; which have had large pri¬
vileges granted them, on account of their former great
importance, being then not only the keys of the king¬
dom, but confiderable for their maritime ftrength :
thus, we are told, that they were obliged to provide
eighty fhips at their own charge for forty days, as of¬
ten as the king ftiould have occafion in his wars.
Ginque-port is alfo a particular kind of fiftnng-net
much ufed in ftanding water, fo called on account of
the five entrances into it.
CINTRA, a cape and mountain of Portugal, in the pro¬
vince of Eftremadura, ufually called the rock of- Lif-
bon, fituated on the north fide of the entrance of the
river Tagus : W. long. io° 15', N. lat. 390.
CINYRA, or Cinnor, in Jewifh antiquity, generally
tranflated cithara, lyra, be. a mufical inftrument ufed
before the flood, and invented by Jubah the fon of
Lamech.
CION, or Cyou, among gardeners, denotes a young
fprig, or fprout *f a tree.
CIPHER, or Cypher, one of the Arabic charadters, or
figures, ufed in computation, formed thus, o. See
Arithmetic.
Cipher is alfo a kind of enigmatic chara&er, compofed
of feveral letters interwoven, which are generally the
initial letters of the perfons names for whom the ci¬
phers are intended.
Cipher denotes likewife certain fecret charadlers dif-
guifed-and varied, ufed in writing letters that contain
fpme fecret, not to be underftood but by thofe be¬
tween whom the cipher is agreed on.
CIPPUS, in antiquity, a low column, with an inferip-
tion, eredted on the high roads, or. other places, to
ftiew the way to travellers-,, to ferve as a boundary, to
mark the grave of a deceafed perfon, be.
CIRG7EA, ovEnc HANTERS NIGHTSHADE, in bota-'
ny, a genus of the diandria monogynia clafis. The co¬
rolla confifts of two petals; the corolla has likewife
two leaves; and the capfule contains but one feed.
The ipecies are three, two of which are natives of
Britain, viz% the lutitiana, or enchanters-nightfliade;
and the alpina, or mountain enchanters-nightfliade.
CIRCASSIA, a country fituated between 40° and yo°
E. long, and between 450 and 50° N. lat.
It is bounded by Ruflia on the Jnorfh, by Aftracan
and the Cafpkin fea on the'eaft, by Georgia and Da-
geftan on the fouth, ard by the river Don and the
Palus Meotis on the weft.
The Circaffian Tartars form a kind of republic, but
fometimes put themfelves under the protedlion of Per-
fia, and fometimes of Ruflia, or the Turks. They
live moftly in tents, removing from place to place for
the benefit of paftur,;ge; and are chiefly remarkable,
for the beauty of their children, the feragjios of Turky
andi
C I II ( 2 <
•and Perfia being ufually fupplied with boys and young
• virgins from this and the neighbouring country of
Georgia.
CIRCENSIAN games, a general term under which
was comprehended all combats exhibited in the Roman
circus, in imitation of the Olympic games in Greece.
Molt of the feafts of the Romans were accompanied
with Circenfian games; and the magiftrates, and other
officers of the republic, frequently prefented the
people with them, in order to procure their favour.
The grand games were held five days, commencing
on the i yth of September. There were fix kinds of
games exhibited : the firft was wreftling, and fighting
with fwords, with ftaves, and with pikes; the fecond
was racing; the third, leaping; the fourth, quoits,
arrows, and ceftus; all which were on foot; the fifth
was horfe-courfing: the fixth courfes of chariots.
CIRCIA, in ornithology, a fpecies> of anas, called in
engliffi the fummer-teal. and all over of a dulky yel-
lowiffi brown, with black feet.
CIRCINALIS, in botany, a name ufed by fome for a-
diantum, maiden-hair. See Adiantum.
CIRCLE, in geometry, a plane figure comprehendred by
a fingle curve line, called its circumference, to which
right lines drawn from a point in the middle, called
the centre, are equal to each other. To find the a-
rea of a circle, fee Practical Geometry.
Circles of the fphere. See Geography and A-
STRONOMY.
Circles of latitude. See Geog'raphy. ,
Circles of longitude. See Geography.
Horary Circles, in dialling, are the lines which ffiew
the hours on dials, though thefe be not drawn circu¬
lar, but nearly ftreight. See Dialling.
Circle, on the globe. See Geography.
Po/ar Circle. See Geography.
Circle, in logic, or logical Circle, is when the
fame terms are proved in orbem by the fame terms;
and the parts of the fyllogifm alternately by each other,
both diredHy and indirectly.
Circles of the empire, fuch provinces and principali¬
ties of the German empire as have a right to be pre-
fent at diets. Maximilian I. divided the empire into
fix, and fpme years after into ten circles. This laft di-
vifion was confirmed by Charles V. The circles, as
they Hand in the- Imperial Matricola, are as follows,
Auftria, Burgundy,, tht Lower Rhine, Bavaria, Up¬
per Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Upper Rhine, Weft-
phalia, and the Lower Saxony.
CIRCOLO MEZZO, in the Italian mufic, denotes a
diminution of four quavers or femiquavers, which re-
'prefent a femicircle, proceeding by conjoint degrees.
CIRCUIT, in law, fignifies a longer courfe of proceed¬
ings than is needful to recover the thing fued for.
Circuit, alfo fignifies the journey, or progrefe, which the
judgestake twice every year, through the feveral coun¬
ties of England and Wales, to hold courts and admini-
fterjuftice, where recourfe cannot be had to’the king’s
courts at Wefiminfler : hence England is divided into
•fix circuits, viz. the Home circuit, Norfolk circuit,
D2 ) C I R
Midland circuit, Oxford circuit, Weftern circuit, and
Northern circuit.
In Wales there are but two circuits, North and
South Wales: two judges are alligned by the king’s
commiffion to every circuit.
CIRCUIT court, in Scots law, the judges of the fupreme
criminal court, or court of judiciary,, are divided into
three feparate courts, confiding of two judges each;
and the kingdom into as many didxiAs. In certain
boroughs of every didridt, each of thefe courts by ro1
tation are obliged to hold two courts in the year, in
fpring and autumn ; which are called circuit courts. See
Scots Law, Of the fupreme judget and courts of
Scotland.
CIRCULAR, in a general fenfe, any thing that is de-
fcribed or moved in a round, as the circumference of
a circle, or furface of a globe.
Circular numbers, called alfo fpherical ones, ac¬
cording to fome, are fuch whofe powers terminate in
the roots themfelves.
Thus, for indance, 5 and 6, all whofe powers do
end in 5 and 6, as the fquare of 5 is 25, the fquare
of 6 is 36, 'be.
CiRduLAR sailing is the method of failing by the
arch of a great circle. See Navigation.
CIRCULATION, the aft of moying round, or in a
circle : thus we fay, the -circulation of the blood,
be.
Circulation of the blood, the natural motion of the
blood in a living animal, whereby that fluid is alter¬
nately carried from the heart into all parts of the bo¬
dy, by the-arteries, from whence it is brought back
to the heart again by the'veins.
This motipn is chiefly caufed by the the dilatation
and contradtion of thE organ, and is the principle on
which life depends; for when it ce'afes in any part, it
dies; when it is diminilhed, the operations are weak;
and, when it ceales totally, life is extinguiffied.
All the veins difeharge themfelves into the ventricles
of the heart; from hence all the arteries'arife : the
blood expelled out of the right ventricle mud be car¬
ried, through the pulmonary artery, into the lungs ;
from which it mud be returned, ,by the pulmonary
veins, to the left ventricle; from the left ventricle the
. blood, thus imported, -is, by the condridlion of that
part, again expelled into the aorta, and by it didribu-
ted all over the red of the body, and thence is return¬
ed again to the right ventricle by the cava, which com¬
pletes the circulation.
This circulation becomes adtually vifible, with the
affidance of a microfcope, efperially in fiffi, frogs, be.
wherein the inofculation, or union of the extremities
of the arteries with thofe of the veins, together with
the globules of the blood flowing from the one into
the other, may be plainly feen.
The auricles of the heart being large hollow muf-
cles, furniflied with a double feriesof drong fibres,
proceeding with a contrary direction to the oppofite
tendons, the one adhering to the right ventricle, the
other to the finus venofus ; as alfo with innumerable
veins
C I R ( 203 ) C I R
veins and arteries : by the contraftile force of thefe men ovale, and the trunk of the pulmonary artery, a
auricles, the blood wilj^ be vigoroufly exprefled and
driven into the right ventricle, which, upon this con-
tradtion, is rendered flaccid, empty, and difpofed to
admit it.
Now, if the right ventricle, thus full of blood, by
the contradlion of its fibres, prefs the blood towards the
aperture again, the v«nous blood at the fame time pour¬
ing in, will drive it back again into the cavity, and mix
it more intimately, till, rifing up againfl: the parietes, it
raife the valvulas tricufpides, which are fo connedted
to the flelhy columns extended on the oppofite fide, as
that, when laid quite down, they cannot clofe the pa¬
rietes of the right ventricle; thefe it thrufts towards
the right auricle, till being there joined, they ftop the
paffage very clofely, and prevent any return.
By the fame means, the fame blood rifes into the
three femilunar valves, placed in the extremity of the
other mouth, and lying open to the pulmonary artery;
thefe it (huts clofe againft the fides- of the artery, and
leaves a paffage into the artery alone : the blood car¬
ried by this artery into the lungs, and diilributed by
its branches through the whole (ubftance thereof, is
firft admitted into the extremities of the pulmonary
vein, called aneria venofa ; whence palling into four
large vefftls, which unite together, it is brought to the
left finus venofus, or trunk of the pulmonary vein, by
the force of whofe mufculous ftrudture it is driven
into the left ventricle, which, on this occafion, is re¬
laxed, and by that means prepared to receive it.
Hence, as before, it is driven into the left ventricle,
which is relaxed by the fame means; and by the val-
vulat mitrales opening, admit it into the left ventricle,
and hinder its flux. into the pulmonary vein : from
hence it is forced into the aorta, at whofe orifice there
are three femilunar waives, which alfo-prevent a reflux,
by clofing the fame.
The motion of the blood in living animals is attend¬
ed with the following phenomena: 1. Both the venous
finufes are filled, and grow turgid at the fame time.
2. Both auricles grow flaccid at the fame time, and
both are filled at the fame time with blood, impelled
by the cantraftile force of its correfpondent mufcular
venous finus. 3. Each ventricle contrafls and empties
itfelf of blood at the fame time; and the two great arte¬
ries are filled and dilated at the fame time. 4. As foon
as the blood, by this contraftion, is expelled, both ven¬
tricles being empty, the heart grows larger and broad¬
er. 5. Upon which the mufcular fibres of both' venous
finufes contract, and exprefs the blood contained in
them into the ventricle of the heart. 6. In the
mean time the venous finufes are again filled as be¬
fore, and the auricles, tec. return into their former
habitude. 7. This alteration continues till the animal
begins to langudh under the approach of death, at
which time the auricles and venous finufes make feve-
ral palpitations, for one contra&ion of the ventricle.
In a foetus, the apparatus for the circulation of the
blood is fomewhat-different from that in adults. The
feptum, which feparates the two auricles of the heart,
'Is pierced through with an aperture, called the fora-
Vol. II. No. 38. 3
little after it has left the heart, fends out a tube into
the defcending aorta, called the communicating canal.
The foetus being born, the foramen ovale clofes by
degrees, and the canal of communication dries up, and
becomes a fimple ligament.
As to the velocity of the circulating blood, and the
time wherein the circulation is completed, feveral com¬
putations have been made. By DrKeil’s account, the
blood is driven out of the heart into the aorta with a velo¬
city which would carry it twenty-five feet in a minute:
but this velocity is continually abated in the progrefs
of the blood, in the numerous fedlions or branches of
the arteries, fo that before it arrive at the extremities
of the body, its motion is greatly diminifhed. The
fpace of time'wherein the whole mafs of blood ordina¬
rily circulates, is varioufly determined. Some ftate it
thus : Suppofing the heart to make two thoufand pulfes
in an hour, and that at every pulfe there is expelled
an ounce of blood ; as the whole mafs of blood is not
ordinarily computed to exceed twenty-four pounds, it
muff be circulated feven or eight times over in the
fpace of an hour.
The circulation of the blood was firft difeovered in
England, in the year 1728, by Dr Harvey.
Circulations/'/^# fap of vegetables. See Vol. I.
p. 4J.
Circulation, in chemifiry, is an operation whereby
the fame vapour, raifed by fire, falls back, to be re¬
turned and diftilled feveral times.
Circulation s/'rasw#/. See Commerce, and Mo¬
ney.
CIRCULUS, in chemiftry, an iron inftrument in form
of a ring, which being" heated red hot, and applied to
the necks of retorts and other glafs veffels, till they
grow hot, a few drops of cold water thrown upon
them, or a cold blalf, will make the necks fly regu¬
larly and evenly off.
Another method of doing this, is to tie a thread,
firfl: dipt in oil of turpentine, round the place where
you would have it break ; and then fetting fire to the
thread, and afterwards fprinkling the place with cold
water, the glafs will crack exadtly where the thread
was tied.
CIRCUMAJENTES Muscult, or OsLiqui Mus-
culi, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p 290.
CIRCUMAMBIENT, an appellation given to a thing
that furrounds another on all fides; chiefly ufed in
fpeaking of the air.
CIRCUMCISION, the ad of cutting off the prepuce ;
a ceremony in the Jewifh and Mahommetan religions,
wherein they cut off the forelkin of their males, who
are to profefs the one or the other law.
Among the Jews, the time for performing this rite was
the eighth day, that is, fix full days after the child was
born : the law of Mofes ordained nothing with refped
to the perfon by whom, the inilrument with which, or
the manner howj the ceremony was to be performed •
the inftrument was generally a knife of (lone* The child
is ufually circumcifed at home, where the father, or
godfather, holds him in his arms, while the operator
3 F takes
C I R ( 204 ) C I R
takes hold of the prepuce with one hand, and with the
other cuts it off; a third perfon holds a porringer,
with fand in it, to c^tch the blood ; then the operator
applies his mouth to the part, and having fucked the
blood, fpits it into a bowl of wine, and tirrows a ftyp-
tic powder upon the wound. This ceremony was ufu-
ally accompanied with great rejoicings and feafting,
and it was at this time that the child was named in
prefence of the company. The Jews invented feveral
fuperftitious culloms at this ceremony, fuch as placing
three {tools, one for the circumcifdr, the fecond for
the perfon who holds the child, and the third for E-
iijah, who, the-y fay, affifts invifibly at the ceremony,
<&c.
The Jews diftinguifhed their profelytes into two
forts, according as they became circu'mcifed, or not:
thofe who fubmitted to this rite were looked upon as
.children of Abraham, and obliged to keep the laws of
Mofe's ; the uncircumcifed were only bound to obferve
the precepts of Noah, and were called noachidse.
This ceremony, however, was not confined to the
Jews: Herodotus and Philo Judseus oblerve, that it
obtained alfo among the Egyptians and Ethiopians.
Herodotus fays, that the cuftom was very ancient a-
mong each people, fo that there was no determining
which of them borrowed it from the other. The
fame hiftorian relates, that the inhabitants of Colchis
alfo ufed circumcilion; whence he concludes, that
they were originally Egyptians.
The Turks never circumcife till the feventh or
eighth year, as having no notion of its being necef-
fary to falvation. The Perfians circumcife their boys
at thirteen, and their girls from nine to fifteen. Thofe
of Madagafcar cut the flefli at three feveral times;
and the mod zealous of the relations prefent, catches
hold of the preputium, and fwallows it.
Circumcifion is pradifed on women by cutting off
the forelkin of the clitoris, which bears a near refem-
blance and analogy to the preputium of the male penis.
We are told that the Egyptian captive women were
circumcifed; and alfo the fubjeds of Prefter John.
Circumcision is alfo the name of a feaft, celebrated
on the firft of January, in commemoration of the cir¬
cumcifion of our Saviour.
CIRCUMDUCTIONj in Scots law. When parties in
a fuit are allowed a proof of addigeamus after the time
limited by the judge for taking that proof is elapfed,
either party may apply for circumdudion of the time
of proving ; the effed of which is, that no proof can
afterwards be brought, and the courfe mud be deter¬
mined as it dood when circumdudion was obtained.
See Scots Law, title Pobation.
CIRCUMFERENCE, in a general fenfe, denotes the
line or lines bounding a plane figure. However, it is
generally ufed in a more limited fenfe, for the curve
line which bounds a circle, and otherwife called a pe¬
riphery; the boundary of a right-lined figure being ex-
preffed by the term perimeter.
CIRCUMFERENTOR, an indrument ufed by furvey-
brs, for taking angles. See Practical Geome¬
try.
CIRCUMFLEX, in grammar, one of the accents. See
Accent.
CIRCUMGYRATION, denotes the whirling motion of
any body 'round a center: fuch is that of the planets
round the fun.
CIRCUMLOCUTION, a paraphradical method of ex-
preffing one’s thoughts, or faying that in many words
which might have been faid in few.
CIRCUMPOLAR Jiars, an appellation given to thofe
dars. which by reafon of their vicinity to the pole
move round it without fetting.
CIRCUMSCRIBED, in geometry, is faid of a figure
which is drawn round another figure, fo that all its
fides or planes touch the infcribed figure.
CIRCUMSCRIPTION, in natural philofophy, the ter¬
mination, bounds, or limits of any natural body.
CIRCUMSTANCE, a particularity which, though not
effential to any action, yet doth fome way effett it.
CIRCUMSTANTIBUS, in law, a term ufed for Apply¬
ing and making up the number of jurors (in cafe any
impanelled appear not, or appearing are challenged
by any party) by adding to them fo many of the per-
fons prefent as will make up the number, in cafe they
are properly qualified.
CIRCUMVALLATION, o\ line of Circumvalla-
tion, in the art of war, is a trench bordered with a
parapet, thrown up quite round the befieger’s camp,
by way of fecurity againd any army that may attempt
to relieve the place, as well as to prevent defertion.
CIRCUMVOLUTION, in architeflure, denotes the
torus of the fpiral line of the ionic volute.
CIRCUS, in antiquity, a great building of a round or
oval figure, eredted by the ancients, to exhibit fliews
to the people.
The Roman circus was a large oblong edifice, arched
at one end, encompaffed with porticoes, and furnidied
with two rows of feats, placed afcending over each o-
ther. In the middle was a kind of foot-bank, or e-
minence, with obelilks, datues, and pods at each end.
This ferved them for the courfes of their bigse and
quadrigse.
Thofe that have meafured the circus fay, that it
was 2187 feet long, and 960 broad; fo that it was
the greated building in Rome: fome fay it would con¬
tain 150,000 people, others 260,000, or 300,000.
Circus, in zoology, See Falco.
CIRENCESTER, a borough-town of Gloucederfhire,
fituated on the river Churn, fifteen miles fouth-ead of
Glouceder : W. long. 2°, noth lat. 51° q2/ It fends
two members to parliament.
CIRLUS, in ornithology. See Emberiza.
CIRRI, among botanids, fine drings or thread like
filaments, by which fome plants faden themfelves to
walls, trees, &c. fuch are thofe of ivy.
Cirri, in ichthyology, certain oblong and foft appen¬
dages, not unlike little worms, hanging from the un¬
der jaws or mouths of fome fiflies: thefe cirri, com¬
monly tranflated beards, afford marks to didinguilh
the different fpecies of the fifties on which they are
found.
CIRSIUM, in botany. See Serratula.
CIRSOCELE,
C I R ( 2<
CIR.SOCELE, a fpecies of hernia. See Medicine
and Surgery.
CISALPINE, any thing on this fide the Alps. Thus
the Romans divided Gaul into cifalpine and tranfalpine.
CISLEU, in Hebrew chronology, the ninth month of
their ecclefiaftical, and the third of the civil year, an-
fwering nearly to our November.
CISMAR, a town of lower Saxony, in Germany, at a
little diftance from the Baltic fea.
CISSAMPELOS, in botany, a genus of the dioecia
monadelphia clafs. The calix of the male has four
leaves; the corolla is wanting; the nedtarium is rota¬
ted ; and. the ftamina are four connefted together.
The calix of the female confilts of one ligulated round-
ilh-leaf; it has no corolla; the ftyli are three; and
the fruit is a berry containing one feed. There are
three fpecies, all natives of America
CISSOID, in geometry, a curve of the fecond order,
firll invented by Diodes, whence it is called the cif-
foid of Diodes. See Fluxions.
CISSUS, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria monogy-
nia clafs. The berry contains but one feed, and is fur-
rounded by the corolla and calix, which are both di¬
vided into four fegments. The Ipecies are five, all na7
lives of the Indies.
CISTERCIANS, in church-hiftory, a religious order
founded in the eleventh century by St Robert, a bene-
di&ine. They became fo powerful, that they govern¬
ed almofl; all Europe, both in fpirituals and tempo¬
rals. Cardinal de Vitri defcribing their obfervances,
fays, they neither wore fkins nor Hurts; nor ever eat
s. flelh, except in fickmfs ; and abftained from filh, eggs,
milk, and cheefe: they ky upon ftraw-beds, in their
tunics and cowls: they rofe at midnight to prayers :
they fpent the day in labour, reading and prayer:
and in art their exercifes- obferved a continual filenCe.
The habit of the CiHercian monks is a white robe,
in the nature of a caffock, with a black fcapulary
and hood, and is girt with a wooden girdle. The
nuns wear a whi^e tunic, and a black fcapulary and
girdle.
CISTERN, denotes a fubterraneous refervoir of rain¬
water; or a veffel ferving as a receptacle for rain or
other water, for the neceffary ufes of a family.
There are likewife lead-cifterns, jar-cilterns, i&ft.
See Plumbery and Jar.
Authors mention a ciftern of Conftantinople, the
vaults of which are fupported by two rows of pillars,
212 in each row, each pillar being two feet in diame¬
ter. They are planted circularly, and in radii tend¬
ing to that of the center.
CISTUS, in botany, a genus of the polyandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla confifts of five petals, and
the calix of five leaves, two of ahem being lefs
than the other two. The fpecies are 37, and only
five of them natives of Britain, viz. the guttulus,
or annual ciftus ; the helianthemum, or dwarf ciftus,
or fun-flower; the fiirreianus, or narrow-leaved ciftus;
the polii-folius, or mountain dwarf ciftus ; and the hir-
futus. or hoary dwarf ciftus.
CITADEL, a place fortified with four, five, or fix ba-
5 ) CIV
ftions, built on a convenient ground near a city, that
it may command it in cafe of a rebellion.
CITATION, in ecclefiaftical courts, is the fame with
fummons in civil courts. See Summons.
Citation is alfo a quotation of fome law, authority,
or pafiage of a book.
CITHARA, in antiquity, a mufical inftrument, the
precife ftru&ure of which is not known; fome think
it refembled the Greek delta A; and others, the
lhape of a half moon. At firft it had only three'
firings, but the number was at different times increa-
fed to eight, to nine, and laftly to twenty-four. It
was ufed in entertainments and private houfes, and
played upon with a plectrum or quill, like the lyre.'
CITHAREXYLON, in botany, a genus of the didy-
namia angiofpermia clafsT The calix is -bell-lhaped,
and has five teeth ; the corolla is tunnel ftiaped; and
the berry contains two feeds. There are two fpecies,
both natives of America.
CITHARISTA, or Citharoedus, one who played on
the cithara.
CITILLE, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
mus. See Mus.
CITIZEN, a native or inhabitant of a city, veiled with
the freedom and liberties of it.
A citizen of Rome was diftinguilhed from a ftranger,
becaufe he belonged to no certain commonwealth fub-
je<5t to the Romans. A citizen is either by birth or
election; and fons may derive the right from their
fathers.' To make a good Roman-citizen, it was ne-
ceffary to be an inhabitant of Rome, to be inrolled in
one of the tribes, and to be capable of dignities.
Thofe to whom were granted the rights and privileges
of Roman citizens, were only honorary citizens. It
was not lawful to fcourge a citizen of Rome.
CITRINELLA, in ornithology. See Emberiza.
CITRINUS, in natural hiftory, a kind of fprig cryftal,
of a fine yellow colour, which being fet in rings is of¬
ten miftaken for a topaz.
CITRON-TREE, in botany. See Citrus.
CITRULLUS, in botany. See Cucurbita.
CITRUS, in botany, a genus of the polyadelphia ico*
fandria clafs. The calix is divided-into five fegments ~
the petals are five, and oblong ; and the fruit, is a ber¬
ry, confiding of nine cells. The fperies are three, viz.
the medica, or lemon-tree, a native of Alia ; the au-
rantiunr, or orange-tree, a native of the Indies ; and}
the trifoliata, a native of Japan.
CITTADELLA, the capital of the ifland of Minorca,
about twenty-three miles weft of Port-mahon : E.
long. 30 30/, N. fat. 40°r.
CITTADELLAPIEVE, a town of Italy, in the terri¬
tories of the pope, near the lake of Perufa.
GIVEN,CHEU, a city of China, the fecond metropolis
of the province of Fokien, in 25® N. iat. and 20 9'
eaft of Pekin.
GIVES, the Englilh name of a fpecies of onion, grow¬
ing in tufts, and feldom exceeding fix inches in height
they never produce any bulbs, and are much ufed1 in
Tallads in fpring.
CIVET, a foft undtucus matter produced in the manner
C L A ( 205 )
of mtsfic, in bags growing from the lower part of the
belly of a civet-cat. See Castor.
Cive r-CAT, the Englifh name of the animal which
produces the civet. See Castor.
CIVIC Crown, was a crown given by the ancient Ro¬
mans to any foldier who had faved the life of a citizen
in any engagement.
CIVIDAD de las Palmas, the capital of all the Canary
iflands, fituated in the ifland of Canary.
Civid ad-real, a city of Spain, in the province of New
Calhle : it is the capital of La Mancha, fituated on
the river Guadiana, fixty miles fouth of Toledo : W.
long. 4q 20N. lat. 390.
CIVIL, in a general fenfe, fomething that regards the
policy, public good, or peace of the citizens, or fub-
je&s of the ftate ; in which fenfe we fay, civil govern¬
ment, civil law, civil right, civil war, eirc.
Civil, in a legal fenfe, is alfo applied to the ordinary
procedure in an adtion, relating to fome pecuniary
-matter or intereft, in which fenfe it is oppofed to cri¬
minal.
Civil death, any thing that cuts off a man from civil
fociety, as a condemnation to the gallies, perpetual ba-
nifhment, condemnation to death", outlawry, and ex¬
communication.
Civil law, is properly the peculiar law of each ftate,
country, or city: but w'hat we ufually mean by the
civil law, is a body of laws compofed out of the beft
R.oman and Grecian laws, compiled from the laws.pf
nature and nations, and, for the moft part, received
and obferved throughout all the Roman dominions for
above 1200 years; See Law.
Civil war, a war between people of the fame ftate, or
the citizens of the fame city.
Civil year is the legal year, or annual account of time,
which every government appoints to be ufed within its
own dominions, and is fo called in contradiftindion to
the natural year, which i- meafured exadly by the re¬
volution of the heavenly bodies.
CIVILIAN, in general, denotes fomething belonging to
the civil law ; but more efpecially the dodors and pro-
feftbrs thereof are called civilians.
CIV ITA-C ASTELL AN A, a city of Italy, in St Pe¬
ter’s patrimony, fituated near the river Tiber, twenty-
five miles north of Rome: E. long. 130, N. lat.
420 ij'.
Civita Vecchi,a, a port town and fortrefs of Italy,
in St Peter’s patrimony, fituated on a bay of the Me¬
diterranean, thirty miles north-weft of Rome : E. long.
12° 30', N. lat. 420.
It is the ftation of the galleys belonging to the pope,
who has lately declared it a free port.
CLACK, among country-men. To clack wool, is to
cut off the ftieep’s mark, which makes the weight lefs,
and yields lefs cuftom to the king.
•CLACKMANNAN, the capital of Clackmannanfhire,*
jn Scotland, fituated on the northern ftiore of the
Forth, about twenty five miles north-weft of Edin¬
burgh : W. long. 30 40', N. lat. 56° 15'.
The county of Clackmannan is joined with that of
C L A
Kinrofs, which each in their turn chufe 4 member to
reprefent them in parliament.
CLAGENFURT, or Clagenfort, the capital of
Carinthia, in the circle of Auftria in Germany, 120
miles fouth-weft of Vienna: E. long. 140, N. lat.
47°-
CLAIM, in law, a challenge of intereft in any thing that
is in poffeflion of another.
CLAKIS, in ornithology, a fynonime of the anas ber-
nicla. See Anas
CLAMP in a /hip, denotes a piece of timber applied to
a maft or yard, to prevent the wood from burfting ;
and alfo a thick plank lying fore and aft under the
beams of the firft orlop, or fecond deck, and is the
fame that the rifing timbers are to the deck.
Clamp is likewife the term for a pile of unburnt bricks
built up for burning. Thefe clamps are built much
after the fame manner as arches are built in kilns, viz.
with a vacuity betwixt each brick’s breadth for the fire
to afcend by; but with this difference, that inftead of
arching, they trufs over, or over-fpan; that is, the
end of one brick is laid about half way over the end
of another, and fo till both fides meet within half a
brick’s length, and then a binding brick at the top fi-
nilhes the arch
Clamp-nails, fuch nails as are ufed to faften on clamps
in the building or repairing of fhips.
CLAMPING, in joinery, is the fitting a piece of board
with the grain, to another piece of board crofs the
grain; Thus the ends of tables are commonly clamp¬
ed, to prevent their warping.
CLANDESTINA, in botany. See Lathrjea.
CLANDESTINE, any thing done without the know¬
ledge of the parties concerned, or without the proper
folemnities. Thus a marriage is faid to be clandeftine,
when performed without the publication of bans, the
confent of parents, <bc.
CLANGULA, in ornithology. See Anas.
CLAP, in medicine, the firft ftage of the venereal dif-
eafe, more ufually called a gonorrhoea. See Medi¬
cine
CLARAMONT-powder, a kind of earth, called TVr-
ra cle Baira, from the place where it is found : it is
famous at Venice, for its efficacy in flopping haemor¬
rhages of all kinds, arid in curing malignant fevers.
Precept e/-CLARE CONSTAT, in Scots law, the
warrant of a fuperior for entering and infefting the
heir of his former vaffal, without the interpofition of
an inqueft. See Scots Law, title, Succefion in he¬
ritable Rights.
CLARE, a market-town of Suffolk, thirteen miles
fouth. of Bury: E long. 35', N. lat 5?° 15'. It
gives the title of earl to the duke of Newcaftle.
Clare is alfo the capital of a county of the fame name
in the province of Connaught, in Ireland, fituated a-
bout feventeen miles north-weft of Limerick: W. long.
90, N. lat. y2° 40'.
CLARENCIEUX, the fecond king at arms, fo called
from the duke of Clarence, to whom he firft belonged ;
for Lionel third fon to Edward III. having by his
wife
C L A (sc
wife the honour of Clare, in the county of Thomond,
was- afterwards declared duke of Clarence ; which'
dukedom afterwards efcheatlng to Edward IV. he
made this earl a king at arms. His office is to mar-
Ihal and difpbfe of the funerals of all the lower nobi¬
lity, as baronets, knights, efquires,'on the fouth fide
of the Trent ; whence he is fometimes called Surrey,
or South-roy, in contradiftin&ion to Norroy..
CLARENDON. The conlhtutions of Clarendon, are
certain ecclefiaftical laws drawn up at Clarendon, near
Salifbury. They were fixteen in number, all tending
to reltrain the power of the clergy, and readily affent-
ed to by all the bifhops and barons, the archbiffiop
Becket excepted, who oppofed them at firll, but was
afterwards prevailed upon to fign them. The.pope
Alexpnder III. declared againft and annulled moft of
them.
CLARENZA, the capital of a duchy of the fame name
in the Morea : it is a fea-port town,' fituated on the
Mediterranean, twenty-fix miles louth of Petras : E.
long. :i° 40', N. lat. 370 40/.
CLARET, a name given by the French to fuch of their
red wines as are not of a deep or high colour. See
Wine.
CLARICKORD, or Manichord, a. mufical inftru
ment in form of a Ipinnet
. It has Forty-nine or fifty flops, and feventy firings,
which bear on five bridges, the firft whereof is the high-
eft, the reft diminifhing in proportion. Some of the
firings are in unifon, their numher being greater than
that of thq flops. There are feveral little mortoifes
for paffing the jacks, armed with brafs-hooks, which
flop and raife the chords inftead of the feather ufed in
virginals and fpinnets; but what diftinguiffies it moft
is, that the chords are covered with pieces of cloth,
which render the found fweeter, and deaden it fo, that
it cannot be heard at any confiderable diflance : whence
it comes to be particularly in ufe among the nuns, who
learn to play, and are unwilling to difturb the filence
of the dormitory.
CLARIFICATION, in chemiftry, the a<ft of clearing -
and fining any fluid fr^im all heterogeneous mattef or
feculencies. See Chemistry.
CLARION, a kind of trumpet, whofe tube is narrower,
and its tone acuter and ffiriller than that of the com¬
mon' trumpet. It is faid that the clarion, now ufed
among the Moors and Portyguefe, who borrrowed it
from the Moors, ferved anciently for a treble to fe¬
veral tumpets, which founded tenor and bafs.
Clarion, in heraldry, a bearing as reprefented in Plate
LXV. fig. 5. he bears ruby, three clarions topaz, be-
‘ ing the arms Sf the earl of Bath, by the name of
Granville: -Guillim is of opinion, that thefe three
clarions are a kind of old-fafhioned trumpets ; but o-
thyrs fay, that they rather refemble the rudder of a
fhip ;• others, a reft for a lance.
CLARO-OBSCURO, or Clair-obscure, in paint¬
ing, the art of diftributing to advantage the lights and
fhadows of a piece, both with regard to the eafing of
the eye, and the effe<5t of the whole piece.
-Claro-obscuro, or Chiaro-scuro, is alfo ufed to
Vol. II. No. 38. 3
>7 ) C L A
fignify a defign confifting only of two colours, moft
ufually black and white, but fometimes black and yel¬
low ; or it is a defign waflied only with one colour,
the fliadows being of a dufky brown colour, and the
lights heightened up with white.
The word is alfo applied to two prints of two co¬
lours, taken off at twice, whereof there are volumes
in the cabinets of the curious in prints.
CLARY, in botany. See Salvia.
Clary-water, a fpirit drawn from an infufion of the
herb clary in fpirit of wine, being a very pleafant and
excellent cordial.
‘CLASMIUM, in natural hiftory, conftitutes a diftinift
genus of gypfums by itfelf, being more foft, dull, and
opake, than other kinds : it neither gives fire with
fteel, nor ferments with aqua fortis; but calcines rea¬
dily in the fire, and affords a very valuable plafter.
CLASS, an appellation given to the moft general fubdi-
vifions of any thing : thus, animal is fubdivided into
the clafles quadrupeds, birds, fifties, 6^. which are
again fubdivided into feriefes or orders ; and theft laft:
into genera. See Natural History, and Bo¬
tany.
Class is alfo uftd in fthools, in a fyno^nnous fenfe
with•fornr, for a number of boys all learning the fame
thing.
CLASSIC, or Classical, an epithet chiefly applied
to authors read-in the clafles at fchools.
This term feems to owe its origin to Tullius Servius,
who, in order to make an eftimate of every perfon’s
eftate, divided the Roman people into fix bands,
which he called claffes. The eftate of the firft clafs
was not to be-under 200 1. and theft by way of emi¬
nence were called clajftci, dailies : hence authors of
the firft rank came to be called daffies, all the reft be¬
ing faid to be infra claf 'zm : thus Ariftotle is a claf-
fic author in philofophy; Aquinus, in fchool-divfi
nity, <bc.
CLATHRUS, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
fungi'clafs. This fungus is roundifh, and full of can-
.celli. The fpecies are four, none of them natives of
Britain.
-CLATTE, in heraldry, an appellation given to irregu¬
lar lines, not reducible to thoft commonly uftd. See
Line.
CLAVARIA, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
fungi clafs. It is fmooth and oblong. The fpecies
are eight, feven of which are natives of Britain, viz.
the piftillaris, or Ample clavaria ; the ophiogloflbides,
or bftek clavaria ; the digitata, or fingered clavaria •
the hypoxylon, or flat clavaria; the. coralloides, or
yellow clavaria ; the faftigiata, or ftinking clavaria *,
and the mufeoides, or pointed clavaria.
CLAVES INSULAE, a term ufed in the ifle of Man ;
where all weighty and ambiguous caufts are referred
to a jury of twelve, who are called claves inful a, the
,ke3's of the ifland.
CLAVICLE'S, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. jyj.
CLAVIS properly fignifies a key, and is fometimes ufed
in Englifh to denote an explanation of fome obfeure
pafiages in any book or writing.
3 G
CLAUSE,
C L E ( 208 ) C L E
CLAUSE, in grammar, denotes a member of a period,
or fentence.
Clause fignifies alfo an article, or particular ftipulation
in a contradl, a charge or condition in a teftament, 6c.
CLAUSENBURG, a large city of Tranfilvania, fitu-
ated on the river Samos, about fifty-five miles north-
weft of Hermanftat: E.long. N. lat.47°if .
CLAVUS, in antiquity, an ornament upon the robes of
the Roman fenators and knights, which was more or
lefs bioad, according to the dignity of the perfon :
hence the diftinftion of tunica augufti-clavia and lati-
clavia.
Clavus, in medicine and furgery, is ufed in feveral fig-
nifications : 1. Clavus hyftericus, is a {hooting pain
in the head, between the pericranium and cranium,
which affeas fuch as have the green-ficknefs. 2. Cla¬
vus oculorum, according to Celfus, is a callous tuber¬
cle on the white of the eye, taking, its denomination
from its figure. 3. Clavus imports indurated tuber¬
cles of the uterus. 4. Clavus imports a chirurgical-
inftrument of gold, mentioned'by Amatus Lufttanus,
defigncd to be introduced into an exulcerated palate,
for the better articulation of the voice. 5. Clavus is
a callus or corn on the foot.
CLAW, among zoologifts, denotes the (harp-pointed
nails with which the feet of ceitain quadrupeds and
birds are furnifhed.
Crab’s Claws, in pharmacy, See Crab’s claws.
CLAY, in natural hiftory, a genus of earths, the cha-
racters of which are thefe : they are firmly coherent,
weighty, and compaft ; ftiff, vifcid, and dudtile to a
great degree, while moift ; fmooth to the touch, not
eafily breaking between the fingers, nor readily diffu-
fible in water, and when mixed not readily fubfiding
from it .
CLAYTONIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandna
monogynia clafs. The calix confifts of two^valves ;
the corolla has five petals ; the ftigma is trifid ; and
the capfule has three valves, and contains three feeds.
The fpecies are two, none of them natives of Britain.
Cape CLEAR, a promontory in a little ifland on the
fouth-weft coaft of Ireland.
CLEAVERS, in botany. See Gallium.
CLEBURY, a market-town of Shropfture, about 25
miles fouth-eaft of Shrewftmry : W. long. 20 30 , and
N. lat, 520 27'.
CLECHE, in heraldry, a kind of crofs, charged with
another crofs of the fame figure, but of the colour of
the field. See Plate LXV. fig. 6.
CLEDGE, among miners, denotes the upper ftratum of
fuller’s earth. - .
CLEF, or Cliff, in mufic, a mark fet at the begm-
ning’of the lines of a fong, which (hews the tone or
key in which the piece is to begin; or it is a letter
marked on any line, which explains the reft.
CLEIDOMASTOIDEUS, in anatomy. See Vol. I.
CLEM A, in antiquity, a twig of the vine, which ferved
as the badge of a centurion’s office.
CLEMATIS, in botany, a genus of the polyandria po-
lygynia clafs. It has no calix ; the petals are four ;
and the feeds are caudated. There are twelve fpecies,
none of them natives of Britain.
CLEOME, in botany, a genus of plants belonging to
the tetradynamia filiquofa clafs. It has three nectari¬
ferous glands, one at each finus of the calix, excepting
the loweft; the filiqua or pod has two valves and one
cell. There are fifteen fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain.
CLEPSYURA, a water-clock, or inftrument to meafure
time by the fall of a certain quantity of water.
CLERGY, a general name given to the body of ecclefi-
afties of the Chriftian church, in cohtradiftinflion to
the laity.
The diftindtionf of Chriftians into clergy and laity,
was derived from the Jewiffi church, and adopted into
the Chriftian by the apoftles themfelves : whenever a-
ny number of converts were made, as foon as they
were capable of being formed into a congregation or
church, a bifhop or prelbyter, with a deacon, were or¬
dained to minifter to them. Of the biffiops, priefts,
and deacons, the clergy originally confifted ; but in
the third century, many inferior orders were appoint¬
ed, as fubfervient to the office of deacon, fuch as fub-
deacons, acolythifts, readers, 6c.
Benefit of Clergy, is an ancient privilege, whereby
one in orders claimed to be delivered to his ordinary,
to purge himfelf of felony: this purgation was to be
by his own oath, affirming his innocency, and the oath
of twelve compurgators, as to their belief of it, before
a jury of twelve clerks : if the clerk failed in his pur¬
gation, he was deprived of his charafter, whereby he '
became a mere layman ; or he was to be kept in pri-
fon till a pardon was obtained : but if he puiged him¬
felf, he was fet at liberty.
CLERK, a word originally ufed to denote a learned
man, or man of letters; whence the term became ap¬
propriated to church-men, who were from thence cal¬
led clerks, or clergymen ; the nobility and gentry be¬
ing ufually bred up to the exercife of arms, and none
left but the ecclefiaftics to cultivate the fciences.
Clerk is alfo applied to fuch as by their courfe of life,
exercife their pens in any court or office, of which
there are various kinds: thus,
Clerk of the bails, an officer in the court of king’s
bench, whofe bufmefs it is to file all bail-pieces taken
in that court, where he always attends.
Clerk of the check, an officer belonging the king’s
court, fo called, becaufe he has the check and con-
troulment of the yeomen that belong to the king,
queen, or prince. He likewife, by himfelf or depu¬
ty, fets the watch in the court. There is alio an of¬
ficer in the navy of the fame name, belonging to the
king’s yards
Clerk of the cro<wn, an officer, in the king’s bench,
who frames, reads, and records all indiftments againft
offenders, there arraigned or indhfted of any public
crime. He is likewife termed cltik of the crown-of¬
fice, in which capacity he exhibits informations by or¬
der of the court, for divers offences.
Clerk
C L E ( 209 ) C L E
Clerk of the crown, in chancery, an officer whofe bu-
finefs it is conftantly to attend the lord-chancellor, in
perfon or by deputy, to write and prepare for the great
leal fpecial matters of ftate by commiffion, both ordi¬
nary and extraordinary, viz. commilfions of lieutenan¬
cy, of juffices of aflize, oyer and terminer, goal-deli¬
very, and of the peaee ; all general pardons, granted
either at the king’s coronation, or in parliament: the
writs of parliament, with the names of the knights,
citizens, and burgefles, are alfo returned into his of¬
fice. He alfo makes out fpecial pardons, and writs of
execution on bonds of ftatute-ftaple forfeited.
Clerk of the deliveries, an officer of the tower, whofe
function is to take indentures for all ftores and ammu¬
nition iflued from thence.
Clerk of the errors, in the court of .common pleas, an
officer who tranfcribes and certifies into the king’s
bench, the tenor of the record of the adion oh which
the writ of error, made out by the curfitor, is brought
there to be determined. In the king’s bench, the
clerk of the errors tranfcribes and certifies the records
of caufes, by bill, in that court, into the exchequer^
And the bufinefs of the clerk of the errors in the. ex¬
chequer, is to tranfcribe the records certified thither
out of the king’s bench, and to prepare them for judg¬
ment in the exchequer-chamber.
Clerk of the efoins, in the court of common pleas,
ke^ps the eflbin-roll, or enteis eflbins : he alfo pro¬
vides parchment, cuts it into rolls, marks the number
on them, delivers out all the rolls to every officer,
and receives them again when written. See Essoin.
Clerk of the eft r eats, an officer in the exchequer, who
every term receives the eftreats out of the lord-treafu-
rer’s remembrancer’s office, and writes them out, to
be levied for the crown.
Clerk of the green cloth. See Green-cloth.
Clerk of the hamper, or hanaper, an officer in chan¬
cery, whofe bufinefs is to receive all money due to
the king for the feals of charters, letters patent, com-
miflions, and writs; alfo the fees due to the officers
for enrolling and examining them.
Clerk-comptroller of the king's houfehold, an officer of
the king’s court, authorifed to ^allow or difallow the
charges of purfuivants, meffengers of the green cloth,
<bc. to infped and controul all defeds of any of the
inferior officers; and to fit in the counting-houfe with
the lord-ftewardland other officers of the houfehold,
for regulating fuch matters.
Clerk of the king's ftlver, an officer of the common
pleas, to whom every fine is brought, after it has paf-
fed the office of the cuitos brevium; and who enters
the effed of writs of covenant, into a book kept for
that purpofe, according to which all the fines of that
term are recorded in the rolls of the court.
Clerk of the market, an officer of the king’s houfe, to
whom is given the charge of the king’s meafures and
weights, the ftandards of thofe that ought to be ufed
all over England.
Clerk of the nichils, or nihils, an officer of the exche¬
quer, who makes a roll.of all fuch fums as are nichil-
led by the Iheriffs upon their elheats of green wax,
and delivers them in to the remembrancer of the trea-
fury, to have execution done upon them for the king.
See Nihil.
Clerk of the outlawries, an officer of the common
pleas, and deputy to the attorney-general, for making
out all writs of capias utlagatum, after outlawry, to
•which there muff be the king’s attorney’s.name.
ChTlKK. of the paper-office, an officer belonging to the
king’s bench, whofe bufinefs is to make up the paper-
books of fpecial pleadings in that court.
Clerk of the peace, tin officer belonging to the feffions
of the pe^ce, whofe bufinefs is to read indidments,
inrol the proceedings, and draw the proceis : he like-
wife certifies into the king’s bench, tranferipts of in¬
didments, outlawries, attainders and convidions had
before the juftices of peace, within the time limited
by ftatute, under a certain penalty. This office is in
the gift of the quftos rotulorum, and may be executed
by deputy.
Clerk of the pells, an officer that belongs to the ex¬
chequer, whofe bufinefs is to enter every teller’s bill
into a parchment roll calleA/e///V receptorutn, and to
make another roll of payments called pellis exi-
tuuvt.
Clerk of the petty bag,, an officer of the court of
. chancery, whereof there are three, the mafter of the-
rolls being the chief: their bufinefs is to record the
return of all inquifitions out of every ffiire, to make
out patents of cuftomers, gaugers, comptrollers, <bc.
liberates upon extents of ftarutes-ffaple, conge d'elires
for biffiops, fummons of the nobility, clergy, and
burgefles to parliament, and commiflions direded t»
knights and others, of every fnire, for aflefling- fub-
fidies and taxes.
Clerk of the pipe, an officer of the exchequer, who
having the accounts of all debts due to the king_ de¬
livered out of the remembrancer’s office, charges them
in a great roll folded up like a pipe. He writes out
warrants to ffieriffs, to levy the faid debts on the>
goods and chattels of the debtors : and if they have
no good, then he draws them down, to the treafurer’s
remembrancer, to write eftreats againft their lands.
Clzkk of the pleas, an officer of the exchequer, in
whofe office all the officers of the court, having fpe¬
cial privilege, ought to fue, or be fued, in any adion.
In this office alfo adions at law may be profecuted by
other perfons, but the plaintiff ought to be tenant or
debtor to the king, or fome way accountable to him.
The under clerks are attorneys in all fuits.
Clerks oj'the privy-feal, four officers that attend the
lord privy-feal, for writing and making out all things
that are fent by warrant from the fignet to the privy-
feal, and to be palled the great-feal; and likewife to
make out privy-feals, upon fpecial occafions of his
majefty’s affairs, as for loan of money, or the like.
Clerk of the rolls, an officer of the chancery, whofe
bufinefs is to make fearches after, and copies of deeds,
officers, dre,
Clerk of the fignet, an officer continually attending,
upon his majefty’s principal fecretary, who has the:
cuftody of the privy-figuet, as well for fealing the:
lang’s private letters, as thofe grants .which pafs the
king’s hand by bill figned. There are four of thefe
officers, who have their diet at the fecretary?s table.
Clerk, or Writer, to the fignet, in Scots law. See
Scots Law, title 3.
Six Clerks, officers in chancery, next in degree be¬
low the twelve matters, whofe bdfinefs is to inrol
commiffior.s, pardons, patents, warrants, drc. which
pafs the great feal: they were anciently clerici* and
forfeited their places if they married. Thefe are-alfo
attorneys for parties in fuits depending in the court of
chancery.
Clerk of the treafury, an officer belonging to the court
of common pleas, who has the charge of keeping the re¬
cords of the court, makes out all records of nifi prius,
and likewife all exemplifications of records being in
the treafury. He has the fees due for all fearches;
and has under him an under-keeper, who always keeps
one key of the treafury door.
Clerk of the warrants, an officer of the common pleas,
whofe bufinefs is to enter all warrants of attorney for
plaintiffs and defendants in fuit; and to inroll deeds
of bargain and fale, that are acknowledged in court,
or before a judge. His office is likewife to eftreat
into the exchequer all iffues, fines, eftreats, and a-
met cements, which grow due to the crown in that
court.
CLERMONT, a city and biihop’s fee of France, in the
territory of Auvergne, and province of. Lyonois, about
feventy-five miles weft of Lyons: E. long. 30 20
and N.lat. 450 42'.
CLERODENDRUM, in botany, a genus of the di-
dynamia-angiofpermia clafs. The calix is bell-fhaped,
and divided into five fegments ; the tube of the corolla
is filiform; the limbus is divided into five equal parts;
the ftatninaare very long; and the berry contains but
one feed. The fpecies are two, both natives of the
Indies.
CLEROMANCY, a fort of divination performed fiy
throwing lots, whichVere generally black and white
beans, little clods of earth, or pebbles ; alfo dice, or fuch
■ like things, diftinguiflied by certain characters. They
caft the lots into a veflel, and having made fupplica-
tion to the gods to direA them, drew them out, and,
according to the charaAers, conjeAured what fhould
happen to them.
CLETHRA, in botany, a genus of the decandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix is divided into five fegments ;
the petals are five; the ftigma is trifid; and the cap-
fule has three cells and three valves. There is but
on fpecies, viz. the alnifolia, a native of Carolina.
CLEVES, or Clef, the capital of the dutchy of Cleve,
in the circle of Weftphalia in Germany, fituated near
theweftern fhore of the river Rhine: E. long. 50 36',
and N.lat. Ci° 40'. It is fubjeA to the king of Pruffia.
CLEVELAND, a dittriA in the north-riding of York
(hire, from which the noble fartiily of Fitzroy takes the
title of duke.
CLIENT, among the Romans, a citizen who put him-
felf under the proteAion of fome great man, who, in
refpeA of that relation, was called patron.
) C L I
This patron aflifted his client with his proteAion, in-
•tereft, and goods ; and the client gave his vote for his
patron, when he fought any office for himfelf or h;s
friends. Clients owed refpeA to their patrons, as
thefe owed them their proteAion.
The right of patronage was appointed by Romulus,
to unite the rich and poor together in fuch a manner,
as that one might live without contempt, and the other
without envy ; but the condition of a client, in courfe
of time, became little elfe but a moderate flavery.
Client is now ufed for a party in a lawfuit, who has
turned over his caufe into the hands of a counfelloror
follicitor.
CLIFFORTIA, in botany, a genus of the dioecia poly-
andria clafs. The calix of the male confitts of three
leaves; it has no corolla; and the ftamina are about
thirty. The calix of the female confifts lilkewife
of three leaves; and the corolla is wanting; the ftyli
are two ; and-the capfule is bilocular, and contains
one feed. The fpecies are four, all natives of ^Ethiopia,
CLIMACTERIC, among phyficians, a critical year in
a perfon’s life, in which he is fuppofed to ftand in
great danger, of death.
According to fome, every feventh year is a climaAe-
ric; but others allow only thofe years produced by
multiplying 7 by the odd number 3, 5, 7, and 9, to
be climaAerical. Thefe years, they fay, bring with
them fome remarkable change with refpeA to health,
life, or fortune; the grand climaAeric is the fixty-
third year ; but fome, making two, add to this the
eighty-firft : the other remarkable climaAerics are the
feventb, twenty-firft, thirty-fifth, forty ninth, and
fifty fixth.
CLIMATE, in geography, a fpace upon the furface of
the terreftrial globe, contained between twfc parallels,
and fo far diftant from each other, that the longeft
day in one differs half an hour from the longeft day in
the other parallel. See Geography.
CLIMAX, or Gradatton, in rhetoric, a figure where¬
in the word or fexpreflion which ends the firft member
of a period begins the fecond, and fo on ; fo that eve¬
ry member will make a diftinA fentence, taking its
■ rife from the next foregoing, till the argument and pe¬
riod be beautifully finifhed; as in the following grada¬
tion of Dr Tillotfon. “ After we have praAifed good
aAions a while, they become eafy ; and when they are
eafy, we begin to take pleafure in them; and when
they pleafe us, we do them frequently ; and by fre¬
quency of aAs, a thing grows into a habit; and con¬
firmed habit is a fecond kind of nature; and fo far
as any thing is natural, fo far it is neceflary; and we
• can hardly do otherwife ; nay, we do it many times,
when we do not think of it.”
CLINCH, in the fea-language, that part of a cable
which is bended about the ring of the anchor, and
then {eized, or made fall.
CLINCHING, in the fea-language, a kind of flight
caulking ufed at fea, in a profpeA of foul weather, a-
bout the polls : it confifts in driving a little oakum in¬
to their feams, to prevent the water’s coming in at
them. •
CLINIC,
C L O (
CLINIC, a term applied by the ancient church-hifto-
rians, to thofe who received baptifm on their death¬
bed.
Clinic medicine, was particularly ufed for the method
of vifiting and treating fick perfons in bed, for the
more exadt difcovery of all the fymptoms of their dif-
eafe.
CLINOIDES, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 158.
CLINOPODIUM, in botany, a genus of the didynamia
gymnofpermia clafs. ' The involucrum is hoary. The
fpecies are three, only one of which is a native of Bri¬
tain, viz. the vulgare, or great wild bafil.
CLIO, in zoology, a genus of infedts belonging to the
order of vermes mollufc^ the body is oblong, and fit¬
ted for fwimming; and it has two membranaceous
wings placed oppofite to each other. The fpecies are
three, principally diftinguifhed by the (hape of their
vagina, and are all natives of the ocean.
CLIPEUS, in natural hiftory, a name given to the flat
deprefled centroniae, from their refembling a fhield.
See Centronia.
CLITORIA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia de-
candria clafs. The vexillum is large, open, plaited,
and covers the alae. The fpecies are five, all natives
of the Indies.
CLITORIS, in anatomy. . See Vol. I. p. 276.
CLOACA, in Roman antiquity, the common fewer, by
which the filth of the city of Rome was carried a-
way.
CLOCK, a-kind of movement, or machine, ferving to
meafure time.
The invention of clocks is attributed to Pacificus,
archdeacon of Verona, who lived in the time ofLotha
rius: others aferibe it to Boetius, about the year y 10 :
be that as it will, it is certain, that the art of making
clocks, fuch’as are now in ufe, was either firft invent¬
ed, or at leaft retrieved in Germany, about ago years
ago; and the invention of pendulum clocks, fo late as
the laft age, is difputed between Huygens and Gali¬
leo. For the principles of Clock and IVatcb Work, fee
Watch.
CLOGHER, a city and bilhop’s fee of Ireland, in the
county of Tyrone, and province of Ulfter, fituated
twelve miles weft of Armagh : W. long. 70 30', and
N. lat. 540 16'.
•CLOISTER, an habitation furrounded with walls, and
inhabited by religious.
In a more general fenfe, it is ufed for a monaftery
of religious of either fex. In the firft fenfe, it is the
principal part of a regular monaftery, being a fquare
furrounded with walls or buildings. It is commonly
placed between the church, the chapter-houfe, and re¬
fectory, underneath the dormitory.
CLOSE, in heraldry. When any bird is drawn in a
coat of arms with its wings clofe down about it, (i, e.
not difplayed), and in a Handing pofture, they blazon
it by this word clofe ; but if it be flying, they caff it
volant. See Volant.
CLOT-bird. See Fringilla.
CLOTH, in commerce, a manufacture made of wool,
wove in the loom.
Vol. II. No. 39.
Cloths.are-of divers qualities, fine or courfe. The
goodnefs of cloth, according to fome, confifts in the
following particulars. 1. That the wool be of a
good quality, and well drefied. 2. It muft be e-
qually fpun, carefully obferving that the thread of
the' warp be finer ‘and better twifted than that of
the woof. 3. The cloth muft be well wrought, and
beaten on the loom, fo as to be every where equally
compaCt. 4. The wool muft not be finer at one end of
the piece than in the reft. y. The lifts muft be fuflici-
ently ftrong, of the fame length with the ftufF, and muft
confift of'good wool, hair, or oftrich-feathers; or,
what is ftill better, of Daniftt dog’s hair. 6. The
cloth muft be free from knots, and pthef imperfections.
7. It muft be well fcoured with fuller’s earth, well
fulled with the beft white foap, and afterwards waftt-
ed in clear water. 8. The hair or nap muft be well
drawn out with the teazel, without being too much
opened. 9. It muft be (horn clofe without making it
thread-bare. 10. It muft be well dried, n. It muft
not be tenter-ftretched, to force it to its juft dimert-
fions. 12. It muft be prefled cpld, not hot prefl'ed,
the latter being very injurious to woolen cloth.
Manufacturing of white cloths which are intended for
dying.
The beft wool for the manufacturing of cloths are
thofe England and Spam, efpecially thofe of Lincoln-
. fhire and Segovia. To ufe thofe wools to the beft advan¬
tage, they muft be fcoured, by putting them into a li¬
quor fomewhat more than lukewarifl, compofed of
three parts fair water, and one of urine. After the
wool has continued long enough in the liquor to foak,
and (diflblve the greafe, it is drained and well waflied
in running water. When it feels dry, and has no
fmell but the natural one of the Iheep, it is faid to be
duly fcoured.
After this it is hung to dry in the fliade, the heat
of the fun making it harfti and inflexible : when dry,
it is beat with rods upon hurdles of wood, or on
cords, to cleanfe it from dull, and the grofler filth ;
the more it is thus beat and cleanfed, the fofter it be¬
comes, and the better for fpinning. After beating, it
muft be well picked, to free it from the reft of the
filth that had efcaped the rods.
It is now in a proper condition to -be oiled, and
carded on large iron cards, placed flopewife. Olive
oil is efteemed the beft for this purpofe: one fifth of
which ftiould be ufed for the wool intended for the
woof, and a ninth for that defigned for the warp.
After the wool has been well oiled, it is given to the
fpinners, who firft card it on the knee with fmall fine
cards, and then fpin it on the wheel, obferving to
make the thread of the warp fmaller by one third
than that of the Woof, and much compaCter twifted.
The thread thus fpun, reeled, and made into llceins,
that defigned for the woof is wound on little tubes,
pieces of paper, or nifties, fo difpofed, as that they
may be eafily put in the eye of the fliuttle, That for
the warp is wound on a kind of large wooden bobbins,
to difpofe it for warping. When warped, it is ftifFen-
ed with fize, the beft of which is’ that made of ftireds
3 H of
3
C L O (• 212
of parchment, and when dry, is given to the weavers,
who mount it on the loom.
The warp thus mounted, the weavers, who are two
to each loom, one on each fide, tread alternately on
the treddle, firft on the right ftep, and then on the
left, which raifes and lowers the threads of the warp
equally; between which they throw tranfverfely the
{buttle from the one to the other: and every time
that the {buttle is thus thrown, and a thread of the
woof inferted within the warp, they ftrike it conjunft-
ly with the fame frame, wherein is faftened the comb
or reed, between whofe teeth the threads of the warp
are paffed, repeating the ftroke as often as is ne-
ceffary.
The weavers having continued their work till the
whole warp is filled with the woof, the cloth is fi-
niflied; it is then taken off the loom by unrolling it
from the beam whereon it had been rolled in propor¬
tion as it was wove; and now given to be cleanfed of
the knots, ends of threads, ftraws, and other filth,
which is done with iron nippers.
In this condition it is carried to the fullery, to be
fcoured with urine, or a kind of potter’s clay, well
fleeped in water, put along with the cloth in the
trough wherein it is fulled. The cloth being again
cleared from the earth or urine, is returned to the
former hands to. have the leffer filth, fmall draws,
taken off as before : then it is returned to the fuller to
be beat and fulled with hot water, wherein a fuitable
quantity of foap has been diffolved; after fulling, it
is taken out to be fmoothed, or pulled by the lids
lengthwife, to take out the wrinkles, crevices, eb'c.
The fmoothing is repeated every two hours, till the
fulling be finifhed, and the cloth brought to its pro¬
per breadth : after which it is wafiied in clear water,
to purge it of the foap, and given wet to the carders
to raife the hair or nap on the right fide with the
thidle or weed. After this preparation the cloth-
worker takes the cloth, and gives it its fird cut or
{hearing : then the carders refume it, and after wet¬
ting, give it as many more courfes with the teazle, as
the quality of the duff requires, always obferving to
begin agatnd the grain of the hair, and to end with
it ; as alfo to begin with a fmoother thidle, proceed¬
ing dill with one {harper and {harper, as far as the
fixth degree.
After thefe operations, the cloth being dried, is
returned to the cloth-worker, who dicers it a fe-
cond time, and returns it to the carders, who re¬
peat their operation as before, till the nap be well
ranged on the furface of the cloth, from one end of
the piece to the other.
The cloth thus wove, fcoured, napped, and {horn,
is fent to the dyer; when dyed, it is walhed in fair
water, and the worker takes it again wet as it is, lays
the nap with a brufh on the table, and hangs it on
the tenters, where it is dretched both in length and
breadth diffidently to fmooth it, fet it fquare, and
bring it to its proper dimenfions, without draining it
too much ; obferving to bruffi it afreffi, the way of
the nap, while a little moid, on the tenters.
) C L U
When quite dry, the cloth is taken off the tenters,,
and bruffied again on the table, to finiffi the laying of
the nap ; after which it is folded, and laid cold under
a prefs, to make it perft&ly fmooth and even, and
give it a glofs.
Ladly, the cloth being taken out of the prefs, and
the papers, <bc. for gloffing it removed, it is in a
condition for fale or ufe. With regard to the manu-
fadure of mixt cloths, or thofe wherein the wools are
fird dyed, and then mixt, fpun and wove of the co¬
lours intended, the procefs, except what relates to
the colour, is modly the fame with that jud repre-
fented.
CLOUD, a colledion of vapours fufpended in the atmo-
fphere. See Pneumatics.
CLOVE-TREE, in botany. See Caryophyllus.
Clove, a term ufed in weights of wool. Seven pounds
make a clove.
In Effex, eight pounds of cheefe and butter go to
the clove.
Clove-july-flower. See Caryophyllus.
CLOVER-grass, in botany. See Trifolium.
CLOYNE, a city and biffiop’s fee of Ireland., in the
county of Cork, and province of Munder, about fif¬
teen miles ead of Coik : W. long. 8°, and N. Jat.
5ic4°'-
CLUPEA, or herring, in. ichthyology, a genus belong¬
ing to the order of abdominales. The upper jaw is
furnidted with a ferrated mydache ; the branchiodege
membrane has eight rays ; a fcaly ferrated line runs
along the belly from the head to the tail; and the
belly-fins have frequently nine rays. There are it
fpecies, viz.
i. The harengus, or common herring, has no {pots,
and the under, jaw is longer than the upper one. A
herring dies immediately after it is taken out of the
water, whence the proverb arifes, As dead as a her¬
ring. The fleffi is every where in great edeem, be¬
ing fat, foft, and delicate, efpecially if it is dred as
foon as caught ; for then it is incomparably better
than on the next day. There are vad quantities of
thefe fiffi taken, faked, fmoak-dried, and confumed
all over Europe. They make a progrefs every year
from the feas near the north of Scotland, into the Bri-
tiffi channel, coming in purfuit of worms and fmall
fiffi, which at that time abound there. There is alfo
plenty near Norway and Denmark, from whence they
proceed annually as far as the coad of Normandy.
The herring-fiffiery is begun both by the Engliffi
and Dutch towards the latter end of June ; and the
Dutch alone employ no lefs than one thoufand ffiips
therein, called bnffes, from forty-live to fixty ton
each'. The bed time for catching herrings is from the
latter end of September, to the latter end of Oftober;
and the nets they make ufe of, are about twenty five
yards long, and five deep. They fometimes faden fo
many of thefe nets together, as will take in a mile in
compafs. They judge where the herrings lie by the
hovering and motion of the fea-birds, which continually
purfue them, in expectation of prey. The fiffiermen
row very gently along, letting the nets fall into the
C L XT (2
fea, and taking their courfes as near as they can againft
the tide ; that fo, when they draw their nets, they
may have the affiftance of the tide. As foon as any
boat has got its load, it makes to the fhore, and deli¬
vers its load to thofe that wafh and gut them.
Herrings are put into a tub with fait or brine, where
they lie for twenty-four hours, and are then taken out
and put into wicker bafkets and wafhed. After this,
they are fpitted on (harp wooden fpits, and hung up in
a chimney, built for that purpofe, at fuch diftances,
that the fmoke may have free accefs to them all.
Thefe places will hold ten or twelve thoufand at a
time ; and they kindle billets on the floor in order to
dry them. This done, they (hut the doors, having
before flopped up all the air-holes. This they repeat
every quarter of an hour, infomuch that a Angle laft of
herrings requires five hundred billets to dry them. A
laft is ten barrels, and each barrel contains about one
thoufand herrings. When they are fmoke-dried in
this manner, they are called red herrings. Salt her¬
rings, and pickled herrings, are cured after a different
manner ; the laft of which were formerly beft done by
the Dutch ; but now the Scotch gnd Englifh are be¬
come their rivals in that trade. Herring's always
fwim in fhoals, delighting to be near the fhore. They
fpawn but once a year, that is about the beginning of
November; a little before which, like moft other fifh,
they are in higheft feafon.
There are likewife herrings on the coaft of North
America, but they are not fo plenty as in Europe ;
and they never go farther fouth than the rivers of Ca¬
rolina. There are none hear Spain, Portugal, in the
Mediterranean, nor on the coaft of Africa.
2. The fprattus has 13 rays in the back-fin. It is
a native of the European feas, and has a great refem-
blance to-the herring, only it is of a lefs fize.
3. The alofa, has a forked fnout, and black fpots
on the fides. It is found in the European feas.
4. The encraficolus, or anchovy, has its upper jaw
longer than the under one, and is found in the Euro¬
pean feas. It is about three inches long, and is fre¬
quently ufed as a pickle.
5. The atherinoides has a fhining line on each fide,
and fmall belly-fins. It is a native of Surinam.
6. The thrifla has 28 rays in the fin at the anus. It
is found in the Indian ocean.
7. The fima has yellow fins, thofe of the belly be¬
ing very fmall. The mouth is flat; the upper jaw is
very fhort; the body is of a fhining filver colour ; and
the fins are yellow. It is a native of Afia.
8. The fternicla has no belly-fins, and the • body is
broad. It is a native of Surinam.
9. The myftus is fhaped like a fword, and the fins
at the anus are united. It is found in the Indian
ocean.
10. The tropica has a wedge-like tail, and a white,
broad, compreffed body ; and the tail is wedge-fhaped.
It is found at Afcenfion ifland.
11. The finenfis is very like the common herring,
but broader. It has no teeth, and is a native of
China.
13 ) C N E
CLUSIA, in botany, a genus of the polygamia monos'
cia clafs. The calix of the male confifts of fix leaves r
the corolla has five petals ; and the ftamina are nu¬
merous. The calix and corolla of,the female are the
fame as thofe of the male ; the nedtarium includes the
germen and united anthers:; and the capfule has five
cells, five valves, and a fluffed pulp. The fpecies are
four, all natives of America.
CLUTIA, in botany, a genus of the dicecia gynandria
clafs. The calix and corolla, both of the male and
female, confift of five leaves ; the ftyli are three ; and
the capfule has three cells and one feed.
CLYDE, a river in Scotland, which, arifing in An-
nandale, runs north-weft by Lanerk, Hamilton, and
Glafgow, and falls into the Frith of Clyde, over-againft
the ifle of Bute.
CLYMENUM, in botany. See Lathyrus.
CLYPEOLA, in botany, a genus of the tetradynamia,
filiculofa clafs. The pod is emarginated, roundifti,
entire, comprefled, and deciduous. The fpecies are
two, none of them natives of Britain.
CLYPEUS, or Clypeum, a ftiield or buckler. See
Shield.
CLYSSUS, an extradt prepared, not from one, but fe-
veral bodies mixt together : and, among the moderns,
the term is applied to feveral extradts procured from
the fame body, and then mixed together. Thus, if
from wormwood we draw the water, fpirit, oil, fait,
and tindlure, and according to the rules of art re-unite
thefe into a mafs compounded of them all, and con¬
taining the joint virtues'of all, we have a clyflus of
wormwood.
CLYSTER, is a liquid remedy, to be injedted chiefly at
the anus into the larger inteftines. It is ufually admi-
niftered by the bladder of a hog, flieep, or ox, perfo¬
rated at each end, and having at one of the apertures
an ivory pipe faftened with pack-thread. But the
French, and fometimes the Dutch, ufe a pewter fy-
ringe, by which the liquor may be drawn in with more
eafe and expeditioh than in the bladder, and likewife
more forcibly expelled into the large inteftines. This
remedy fhould never be adminiftered either too hot or
too cold, but tepid ; for either of the former will be
injurious to the bowels.
Clyfters are prepared of different ingredients, ac¬
cording to the different Intentions propofed.
Clyfters are fometimes ufed to nourifli and fupport
a patient who can fwallow little or no aliment, by rea-
fon of fome impediment in the organs of deglutition.
In which cafe they may be made of broth, milk, ale,
and deco&ions of barley and oats with wine. The
Engliftt introduced a new kind of clyfter, made of the
fmoke of tobacco, which has been ufed by feveral o-
ther nations, and appears to be of confiderable efficacy
when other clyfters prove ineffeftual,' and particularly
in the iliac paflion, in the hernia incarcerata, and for
the recovery of drowned perfons.
CNEORUM, in botany, a genus of the triandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix has three teeth ; and the cc»-
rolla has three equal petals. There is but one fpecies,
viz. the tricoccum, a native of Spain.
CNICUS»,
COB (214
CNICUS. or Saffron flower, in botany, a genus
of the fyngenefia polygamia aequalis clafs. The calix
is ovated, and imbricated with fpinous branches ; and
the corollse are equal. The fpecies are feveri, none of
them natives of Britain.
GOA, in botany. See Hippocratea.
COACH, a commodious vehicle for travelling, fo well
known as to need*no defcription. Their invention
was owing to the French about the reign of Fran¬
cis I.
COAGULATION, in a general fenfe, imports a cer¬
tain change in the ftate of any liquor, by means of
which, inlfead of retaining its fluidity, it becomes
more or left confiftent, according to the degree of co¬
agulation.
COAGULUM, is the fame with what in Englilh we
call runnet, or rather the curd formed thereby.
COAL, or Pit-coal, in natural hiftory. See Lr-
THANTH RAX.
Cannel-CoAL, in natural hiftory. See Ampelites.
/S?W/-Coal, a fort of charcoal prepared from the fpray
and bru(h-wood ftripped off from the branches of cop¬
pice-wood, fometimes bound in bavins for that purpofe,
- and fometimes charred without binding, and then it is
called coming it together.
COALITION, the re-union of the parts of a body be¬
fore feparated.
COAT, or Coat of Arms, in heraldry, a habit worn
by the ancient knights over their arms both in war and
tournaments, and dill borne by heralds at arms. It
was a kind of fur-coat, reaching as low as the ha¬
ve!,'open at the fides with fhort fleeves, fometimes
furred with ermine and hair, upon which were applied
the armories of the knights embroidered in gold and
filver, and enamelled'with beaten tin-coloured black,
green, red, and blue; whence the rule never to apply
colour on colour, nor metal on metal. The coats of
arms were frequently,open, and diverfified with bands
and fillets of feveral colours, alternately placed, as we
dill fee cloths fcarleted, watered, &c. JHence they
were called devifes, as being divided and compofed of
feveral pieces fewed together ; whence the words
falfe, pale, chevron, heni, cro/s, faltier, lozenge.
See, which have fmee become honourable pieces, or
ordinaries of the Ihield. See Cross, Bend, Che¬
vron, ire.
Coats of arms and banners were never allowed to
• be worn by any but knights and ancient nobles.
Coat, in anatomy. See Part VI.
Coat of Mail. See Mail.
COATl, in zoology, a fynonime of a fpecies of viverra
and urfus. See Viverra and Ursus.
COBALT, in chemiftry, a genus of foflils, of the order
of the afphurelata : it is a denfe, compait, and pon¬
derous mineral, very bright and Aiming, and much
refembling fome of the antimonial ores. See Anti¬
mony, and Chemistry, p. 139, 140, 141.
It is lometimes found of a deep bjueifh-black, very
heavy and hard, and of a granulated ftru&ure, look¬
ing like a piece of pure iron where frefli broken : at
other times it is found more compaft, not granulated.
) c o c
but refembling a mafs of melted lead on the furface.
Thefe are the more ordinary appearances of cobalt,
befides which there are other accidental varieties of it,
beinjl fometimes found of a florid red; or a red debafed
by mixtures of grey, black, or yellow; and in this
ftate, it either forms an unifbrm mafs, or a beautifully
ftriated and ridged one.
From this mineral are produced the feveral kinds
of arfenic, zaffre, and fmalt. See Chemistry,
p. I4S-
COBELLA, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of coluber. See Coluber.
COBITIS, -the loache, in ichthyology, a genus of fiflies
£ belonging to the order of abdominales. The eyes are
in the upper part of the head. The branchioftege
membrane has from four to five rays ; and the bpdy
is nearly of an equal thicknefs throughout. The fpe¬
cies are five, viz. the anablops, with two cirri, a de-
prefledhead, and prominent eyes. It is found on the
coafts of Surinam. 2. The bafbatula, with fix cirri,
and a comprefled fmooth head. 3. The tsenia, with
fix cirri, and a-prickle below the eye. The above two
are found in the frefti-waters of Europe. 4. Thefof-
filis, with eight cirri, and a prickle above the eye.
It is a native of Europe, y. The heteroclita,, has no
cirri; and the back-iih and that at the anus are full of
white fpots. It is a native Carolina.
COBLENTZ, a large city of Germany, in the
archbiftiopric of Triers, and circle of the Lower
Rhine, fituated at the confluence of the Rhine and
Mofelle, fifty two miles north-eaft of Triers, and
thirty fix fouth of Cologne: E. long. 70 15', N. lat.
i0° 3°'•
COBKON, a port-town of the hither India, fituated on
Coromandel-coaft, twelve miles fouth of Fort St
George: E. long. 8o°, N. lat. 12. 50'.
COBWEB, in phyfiology, the.fine net-work which fpi-
ders fpin out of their own bowels, in order to catch
their prey. See Aranea.
COCCEIRA in botany. See Theobroma.
COCC1FEROUS plants, the fame with bacciferous.
See Bacciferous.
COCCINELLA, in zoology, a genus of infefts, of the
coleoptera order. The antennae are fulclavated, and
truncated; the polypi are ftiaped like a hart; the bo¬
dy is of a hemifpherical figure ; the breaft and elytra
are marginated: and the belly is plain. The fpecies
are forty-nine, moftly diftinguiftiable by the number
and colour of the fpots on their wings, and the plants
upon which they live.—The coccinella cadli, a native
of the warmer parts of America, is the famous co¬
chineal animal, fo highly valued in every part of the
world for the incomparable beauty of its red colour,
which it equally communicates to wool, filk, linpn,
and cotton. It is bred on a plant known in Oaxaca
in New Spain, and all thofe parts where it abounds,
by the name of nopal, ornopalleca, the Indian fig-tree,
which, except in the difference of the foliage, re-
fembles the tunos, fo common in the kingdom of An-
dalufia; the leaf of the tuna being broad, flat andr
prickly, and that of the nopal, oblong, with feveral
eminences ;
C O C ( 215 ) c o c
fitnlnences; and inftead of fpines has a fine fmooth
membrane, of a permanent and lively green.
The method of planting the nopal is by making
rows of holes about half a yard deep, and about two
yards diftant from one another. In each of thefe holes,
is placed one or two leaves of the nopal, in a flat po-
fition, and then covered with earth. This leaf foon
after (hoots up into a Angle ftem, which during its
growth divides into feveral branches, and thefe fuc-
ceflively produce frefh leaves, the largeft being neared
to the flem, which is full of knots, as are alfo the
branches, and from thefe the leaves have their ori¬
gin. The ufual height of this plant is about three
, yards, which it feldom exceeds. The feafon when
the nopal difplays all its beauty and vigour, is like
that of other plants, from the fpring to the autumn,
which at Oaxaca and other parts of North America
is at the fame time as in Spain. Its blofibm is fmall,
of a bright red, and in the fhape of a bud ; from the
centre of which proceeds the tuna, a name given to its
fruit; and as this increafes the bloflbm fades, till at
length it/alls. When the tuna, or fig, is ripe, the
outward fltin becomes white; but the pulp is fo fully
impregnated with a deep red, that it tinges the urine of
thofe who eat it of a blood colour, a circumdance at¬
tended with no fmall uneafinefs to thofe who are unac¬
quainted with this particular. Few fruits, however, are
either more wholefome or pleafant.
The ground where the nopal is intended to be planted,
mud be carefully cleanfed from all kinds of weeds, as
they drain the foil of thofe juices which the nopal re-,
quires. Alfo after the cochineal is taken from the plant,
which is never done till the infers are arrived at per-
fe&ion, all the fuperfluous leaves are plucked off, that
they may be fucceeded by others the following year.
For it mud be obferved, that the cochineal which are
bred on young plants thrive much better, and are of &
"finer quality, thhn thofe produced on fuch as have dood
fome years.
The cochineal'was formerly imagined to be a fruit or
feed of fome particular plant ; an error which probably
arofe from an ignorance of the manner in which it is pro¬
pagated ; but at prefent every one is convinced of its be¬
ing an infedt, agreeably to its name, fignifying a wood-
loufe, which generally breeds in damp places, efpecially
in gardens. Thefe infedls, by rolling themfelves up, form
a little ball (bmething lefs than a pea, and in fome places
are known by the name of Baquilas de San Anton, i. e. St
Anthony’s little cows: and fuch is the figure of the co¬
chineal, except that it has not the faculty of rolling itfelf
up ; and its magnitude, when at its full growth, does
not exceed that of a tick, commoq in dogs and other
animals.
Thefe infefts breed and are nouriflied on the nopals,
where their eggs are placed among the leaves ; the juice
of the plant, which is their foie nourilhment, becomes
converted into their fubdance; when, indead of being
thin and waterilh, and, to all outwafd appearance, of
little or no ufe, is rendered a mod beautiful crimfon co¬
lour. The plant is in May or June in its mod vigo¬
rous date, and at this mod favourable feafoa the eggs
Vol. II. No. 39. 3
are depofited: and in the (hort fpace of two months,
from an animalcule, the infe<fl grows up to the fize above-
mentioned; but its infant date is expofed to a variety
of dangers; the violent blads of the north wind fweep
away the eggs from the foliage of the plant; and, what
is equally fatal to their tender conditutions, (howers,
fogs, and frods, often attack them, and dedroy the
leaves, leaving the careful cultivator this only refource,
namely, that of making fires at certain didances, and
filling the air with fmoke, which frequently preferves
them from the fatal effeds of the inclemency of the
weather.
The breeding of cochineal is alfo greatly obdrud-
ed by birds of differed kinds, which are very fond of
thefe infeds; and the fame danger is to be apprehended
from the worms, &c. which are found among the plan¬
tations of nopals: fo that unlefs condant care be taken
' to fright the birds away from the plantation, and to clear
the ground of thofe various kinds of vermin, which mul¬
tiply fo fad in it, the owner will be greatly difappointed
in his expedations.
When the infeds are at their full growth, they are
gathered and put into pots of earthen ware ; but great
attention is requifite to prevent tnem from getting out,
as, in that cafe, great numbers of them would be lod ;
though there is no danger of it, where they are at liber¬
ty on the nopal leaves, thofe being their natural habita¬
tion; and where they enjoy a plenty of delicious food j
for, though they often remove from one leaf to another,
they never quit the plant; nor is it uncommon to fee
the leaves entirely covered with them, efpecially when
they are arrived at maturity. When they have been
confined fome time in thefe pots, they are killed and put
in bags. The Indians have three different methods of
killing thefe infeds, one by hot water, another by fire,
and a third by the rays of the fun: and to thefe are ow¬
ing the feveral gradations of the colour, which in foma
is dark, and in others bright; but all require a certain
degree of heat. Thofe therefore who ufe hot water are
very careful to give it the requifite heat, and that the
quantity of water be proportioned to the number of in¬
feds. The method of killing the creatures by fire is to
put them oajhovels into an oven moderately heated for
that intention; the fine quality of the cochineal depend¬
ing on its not being over dried at the time of killing the
infeds: and it mult be owned,’ that among the feveral
ways made ufe of to deftroy'this valuable creature, that
of the rays of the fun feems to bid faired for performing
it in the mod perfed manner.
Befides the precaution requifite in killing the cochineal,
in order to preferve its quality, it is equally neceffary
to know when it is in a proper date for being removed
from the. leaves of the nopal; but as experience only can
teach the cultivator this necelfary criterion, no fixed rule
can be laid down. Accordinly in thofe provinces where
the cultivation of thefe infeds is chiefly carried on, thofe
gathered by Indians of one village differ from thofe ga¬
thered in another; and even thofe gathered by one per-
fon in the fame village, are often different from thole
gathered by another; every individual adhering to his
own method.
3 I The
C O C (2
The cochineal infeft may, in fome circumftances,
be compared to the filk worm, particularly in the
manner of depofiting its eggs. The infedts deltined,
for this particular are taken at a proper time of their
growth, and put into £ box well clofed, and lined with
a coarfe cloth that none of them be loft: and in this
confinement they lay their eggs and die. The box
is kept clofe fhut till the time of placing the eggs on
the nopal, when, if any motion is perceived, it is a
fufficient indication that the animalcule has life, tho’
the egg is fo minute as hardly to be perceived ; and
this is the feed placed on the foliage of the nopal, and
the quantity contained in the fhell of a hen’s egg is
fufficient for covering a whole plant. It is remarkable
that this infedt does not, or at leaft in any vifible
manner, injure the plant, but extradts its nourifhment
from the moft fucculent juice, which it fucks by means
of its probofcis through the fine teguments of the
leaves.
The pi-incipai countries where the cochineal infedts
are bred, are Oaxaca, Flafcala, Chulula, Nueva Gal-
licia, and Chiapa, in the kingdom of New Spain;
and Hambato, Loja, and Tucuman in Peru : but it
is only in Oaxaca, that they are gathered in large
quantities, and form a branch of commerce, the cul¬
tivation of thefe little creatures being there the chief
employment of the Indians.
COCCOTHRAUSTES, in ornithology, the trivial
name of a fpecies of loxia. See Loxia.
COCCULUS INDICUS, the name of a poifonous
berry, too frequently ufed by brewers in order to
render their malt liquors intoxicating. It is the fruit
of the menifpermum cocculus. See Menispermum.
COCCUS, in zoology, a genus belonging to the order
of hemiptera. The roftrum proceeds from the breaft;
the belly is briftly behind ; the wings of the male are
eredt; and the female has no wings. The fpecies are
twenty-two, denominated principally from the plants
they frequent.
COCCYG/EUS musculus, in anatomy. SeeVol.I.
p. 220.
COCCYX, or Coccvgis os, in anatomy. SeeVol. I.
p. 171.
COCHIN, a port-town of India, on the Malabar-coaft,
about on hundred miles fouth of Calicut: W. long.
750, and N. lat. q0' 30'. Here the Dutch have a fac¬
tory, and a very ftrong fort.
Cochn china, a kingdom of India, fituated between
104° and 109° E. long, and between io° and 170 N.
lat. being bounded by the kingdom of Tonquin on the
north, by the Indian ocean on the eaft and fouth, and
by the kingdom of Cambodia on -the weft: it is up¬
wards of four hundred miles long, and one hundred
and fifty broad, producing chiefly filk and rice.
COCHINEAL. See coccinella.
COCHLEA, the snail-shell, in zoology. See
LI M A X.
Cochlea, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 297.
COCHLEARIA, scurvy-grass, in botany, a genus
of the.tetradynamia filiculofa clafs. The pod is emar-
ginated, turgid, and fcabrous j and the valves are ob-
id ) C I R
tufe and gibbous. The fpecies are eight, fix of which
. are natives of Britain, viz. the officinalis, or common
fcurvy-grafs, the leaves of which are famous for curing
the fcurvy; the groenlandica, or Greenland feurvy-
grafs ; the anglica, or common fea feuryy grafs; the
danica, or Danifh fcurvy-grafs ; the coronopus, or
fwine-creffes ; and the armoracia,' or horfe-radifh..
COCHLITES, in natural hiftory, an appellation given
to the petrified fhells of the cochlese, or fnails.
COCK, in zoology, the Englifh name of the males of
gallinaceous birds, but more especially ufed for the
commorvdunghill-cock. See Phasianus.
Cock’s-comb, in botany. See Pninanthus.
Cock-pit, a fort of theatre upon which game-cocks
fight.
Cock-pit, in a man of war, a place on the lower floor,
or deck, abaft the main capftain, lying between the
platform and the fteward’s room, where are partitions
for the purfer, furgeon, and his mates.
Cock-swain, or Coxon, an officer on board a^man
of war, who has the care of the barge and all things
belonging to it, and muft be alfo ready with his crew
to man the boat on all occafions: he fits at the ftern
of the boat, and fleers.
COCKERMOUTH, a borough-town of Cumberland,
fituated on the river Derwent, near the Irifh fea, a-
'bout twenty five miles fouth-weft of Carlifle: W. Jon.
30 io/, and N. lat. 540 35'. It fends two members
to parliament. - t
COCKET is a feal belonging to the king’s cuftom-houfe,
or rather a fcroll of parchment fealed and delivered by
the officers of the cuftoms to merchants, as a warrant
that their merchandifes are cuftomed.
It is alfo ufed for the office where goods tranfport-
ed were firft entered, and paid their cuftom, and had
a cocket or certificate of difeharge.
COCOA, or Cacao, in botany. See Theobroma.
COCOI, in ornithology. See Arctea.
COCONATO, a town of Italy in the province of Pied¬
mont, about twenty miles eaft of Turin; it is faid to
be the birth-place of the famous Columbus, who dif-
covered America: E. long. 8°, and N. lat. 440 50'.
COCTION, a general term for all alterations made in
bodies by the application of fire or heat.
COD, in ichthyology. See Gad us.
Cod is alfb a term ufed, in fome parts of the kingdom,
for a pod. See Pod.
Cod-cape, in geography, a promontory on the coaft of
New England, near the entrance of Bofton harbour :
W. long. 69° ?o', and N lat. 420.
CODDY MODDY, the Englifh name of a fpecies of
larus. See Larus.
CODE, a colledfion of the laws and conftitutions of the
Roman emperors, made by order of Juftinian. See
Law.
CODEX, in antiquity, denotes a book or tablet, on
which the ancients wrote. It was of the bark of a
tree, of ivory, of pardhment, or of paper.
CODIA, among botanifts, fignifies the head of any
plant, but more particularly a poppy-hea^, whence its
fyrup is called diacodium.
CODICIL,
C O F (21
CODICIL is a writing by way of fupplemetU to a will,
when any thing is omitted which the teftator would
have added, or wants to be explained, altered, or
reealled.
CODLIN, an apple ufeful in the kitchen, being proper
for baking.
CODLING, an appellation given to the cod-filh, when
young. See Gadus.
COECUM, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 260.
COEFFICIENTS, in algebra. See Vol. I. p. 80.
COELESTIAL, in general, denotes any thing belong¬
ing to the heavens : thus we fay, cceleftial obfervati-
ons the coekftial globe, <bc.
COELIAC artery, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 232.
Coeliac paflion, in medicine, a kind of flux, or diar¬
rhoea, wherein the aliments, either whblly changed,
or only in part, pafs off by ftool. See Medicine.
Coeliac vein, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 245.
COELOMA, among.phylicians, a hollow ulcer feated
in the cornea tunica of the eye.
COENOBITE, in church-hiftory, a fort of monks in
the primitive Chriftian church. They were fo called
from living in common; in which they differed from
the anachorites, who retired from foeiety.
Coenobite, in a modern fenfe, is a religious who
lives in a convent or community, under certain rules.
COEUR, in heraldry, a fliort line of partition in pale,
in the centre of the efcutcheon, which extends but a
little way, much Ihort of the top and-bottom, being
met by other lines, which form an irregular partition
of the efcutcheon. See Plate LXV. fig. 7.
COEVORDEN, a town of the province of Overyflel,
ftrongly fortified by the famous Coehorn, on account
of its fituatiftn, it being the key to the provinces of
Groningen and Friesland.
CQFFEA, the Coffee-tree, in botany, a genus of
the pentandria monogynia clafs. The corolla is hypo-
crateriform; the ftamina are above the tube; the ber¬
ry is below the flower, and contains two feeds, which
are arillated. The fpecies are two, viz. the arabica,
a native of Arabia and fEthiopia ; and the occidenta-
lis, a native of America. . The berries of both fpeeies
have much the fame qualities. This fruit is ufed ra¬
ther as food than as a medicine. The medical effefts
expe&ed from it are, to affift digeftion, promote the
natural fecretions, and to prevent or remove a difpofi-
tiontofleep.
Coffee pays on importation 11. 13 s. 6Ty7d. the
hundredweight; the drawback on exportation is 11.
10s. aT-Vo-d. Upon payment of the above duty, the
coffee is to be put into warehoufes ; and upon delivery
from thence, if to. be confumed in Great Britain, is
to pay for every hundred weight 81. 8 s. if of the
Britilh plantations in America, and nl. 4s. if k
comes from any other place.
COFFERER of the king's houfehold, a principal officer
in the court, next under the comptroller, who, in the
counting-houfe, and elfewhere at other times, has a
fpecial charge and overfight of ddher officers, of the
houfe, for their good demeanor and charge in their
offices, to all which he pays their wages.
7 ) C O H
COGENDE, a city of Tartary in Afia, fituated in 74®
E. long, and 410 N. lat. remarkable for its commerce
in muflc.
GOGGLE. See Cogs.
COGGSHALL’/ Jliding rule. See Sliding rule.
COGITATION, a term ufed by feme for the aft of
thinking.
COGNATE, in Scots law, any male relation through
the mother.
COGNATION, in the civil law, a term for that line
of confanguinity which is between males and females,
both defcended from the fame father ; as agnation is
for the line of- parentage between males only defcend¬
ed from the fame ftock.
COGNI, the capital of Caramania, in the leffer Afia,
anciently called Iconium, about two hundred and fifty
miles fouth-eaft of Conflantinople: E. long. 33°, and'
N. lat. 38°.
COGNITIONIS CAUSA, in Scots law: When a cre¬
ditor charges the heir of his debitor to enter, in order
, to conftitute the debt again!! him, and the heir renoun¬
ces the fucceflion, the creditor can obtain no decreet
of conftitution of that debt againfl; the heir ; but
only a decreet fubje&ing the heredifas jacens, or the
e'flate which belonged to the debitor, to his dili¬
gence : and this is called a decreet cognitionis caufa.
See Scots Law, title, Compriftngs and adjudica¬
tions.
COGNIZANCE, in heraldry. See Crest.
Cognizance, or Connusance, in law, has divers
fignifications : fometimes it is an acknowledgment of a
fine, or.confeffion of fomething done; fometimes the-
hearing of a matter judicially, as to take cognizance
■ of a caufe ; and fometimes a particular jurifdiftion, as
cognizance of pleas is ah authority to call a caufe* or
plea out of another court, which no perfon can do but
the king, except he can ffiew a charter for it. This
cognizance is a privilege granted to a city or town, to
hold plea of all contrafts, <bc. within the liberty •
and if any one is impleaded for fuch matters in the
courts at Weftminfter, the mayor, <bc. of fuch fran-
chife may demand cognizance of the plea, and that it
be determined before them.
Cognizance is alfo ufed for a badge on a waterman’s
or ferving-man’s fleeve, which is commonly the giver’s
creft, whereby he is decerned to belong to this 4>r that,
nobleman or gentleman.
COGS, or Goggles, a kind of flat-bottomed boats u-
fed in rivers.
COHABITATION, denotes the ftate of a man and
a woman who live together like hulband and wife, with¬
out being legally married.
By the common law of Scotland, cohabitation for
year and day, or a complete twelvemonth, is deemed
equivalent to matrimony.
CO-HEIR, one who fucceeds to a fhare of an inheri
tance, to be divided among feveral.
COHESION, in philofophy, that adtion by which the
particles of the fame body adhere together, as if they
were but one. See Mechanics. *
COHORT, in Roman antiquity, the name of part of
tfye
C O I ( *
the'Uoman legion, comprehending about fix hundred
men. There were ten cohorts in a legion, thefirftof
which exceeded all the reft, both in dignity and num¬
ber of men. When the army was ranged in order of
battle, the firft cohort took up the right of the firft
line, the reft followed in their natural order, fo that
the third was in the centre of the firft line of the
legion, and the fifth on the left, the fecond between
the firft and third, and the fourth between the third
and fifth : the five remaining cohorts formed a fecond
line, in their natural order.
COIF, the badge of a ferjeant at law* who is called
ferjeant of the coif, from the lawn-coif they wear un¬
der their caps when they are created ferjeants.
The ufe of the coif was to cover the clerical ton-
fure. See Tonsure.
COIL. See Quoin.
COILON in the ancient Grecian theatres, the fame with
the cavea of the Romans. See Cave a.
COILOPHYLLUM, in botany. See Sarracena.
COIMBRA, a large city of Portugal, in the province
of Beira, fituated on the river Mondego, about nine-
lix miles north of Lilbon : W. long. 90, and N. lat.
40° 20'.
COIN denotes all manner of the feveral ftamps and fpe-
cies of money in any .nation. See Money.
Coin, in archite&ure, a kind of dye cut diagonal-wife,
after the manner of a flight of a ftair cafe, ferving at
bottom to fupport columns in a level, and at top to
correct the inclination of an entablature fupporting a
vault.
Coin is alfp ufed for a folid angle compofed of two fur
faces inclined towards each other, whether that angle
be exterior, as the coin of a wall, a tree, or in¬
terior, as the coin of a chamber or chimney. See
Quoin.
COINAGE, or Coining, the art of making money, as
performed either bs the hammer or mill.
Formerly the fabric of coins was different from
what it is at prefent. They cut a large plate of me¬
tal into feveral little fquares, the corners of which
were cut off with Iheers. After having (haped thefe
pieces, fo as to render them perfedlly conformable, in
point of weight, to the ftandard piece, they took each
piece in hand again, to make it exaftly round, by a
gentle hammering. This was called a planchet, and
was fit for immediate coining. Then engravers pre
pared, as they ftill do, a couple of fteel maffes in form
of dyes, cut and terminated by a flat furface, rounded
off at the edges. They engraved or ftamped on it the
hollow of a head, a crofs, a fcutcheon, or any other
figure, according to the cuftom of the times, with a
fhort legend. As one of thefe dyes was to remain dor¬
mant, and the other moveable, the former ended in a
fquare prifm, that it might be introduced into the
fquare hole of the block, which, being fixed very faft,
kept the dye as fteady as any vice could have done.
The planchet of metal was horizontally laid upon this
Inferior mafs, to receive the ftamp of it on one fide,
and that of the upper dye, wherewith it was covered,
cn the other. This moveable dye, having its round
8 ) * C O I
engraved furface refting upon the planchet, had at its
oppofite extremity a flat fquare, and larger furface,
upon which they gave feveral heavy blows, with a ham¬
mer of an enormous fize, till the double ftamp was fuf-
ficiently, in relievo, impreffed on each fide of the plan¬
chet. This being finilhed, was immediately fucceeded
by another, and they thus became a ftandard coin,
v'hich had the degree of finenefs, the weight and
mark, determined by the judgment of the infpeftors,
to make it good current money. The ftrong temper¬
ing which was and is ftill given to the two dyes, ren¬
dered them capable of bearing thofe repeated blows.
Coining has been confiderably improved and rendered
expeditious, by feveral ingenious machines, and by a
wile application of the fureft phyfical experiments to
the methods of fining, dying, and ftampmg the differ¬
ent metals.
The three fineft inftruments the mint-man ufes, are
the laminating engine, the machine for making the im«
preffions on the edges of coins, and the miH.
After they have taken the laminae, or plates of me¬
tal, out of the mould into which they are caft, they
do not beat them on the anvil, as was formerly done,
but they make them pafs and repafs between the fe¬
veral rollers of the laminating engine, which being gra¬
dually brought clofer and clofer to each other, pre-
fently give the lamina its uniform and exadt thicknefs.
Ihftead of dividing the lamina into Imall fquares, they
at once cut clean out of it as many planchets as it can
contain, by means of a lharp fteel trepan, of a round-
ifli figure, hollow within, and of a proportionable dia-
, meter, to Ihape and cut off the piece at one and the
fame time. After thefe planchets have been prepared
and weighed with ftandard pieces, filed or fcraped to
get off the fuperfluous part of the metal, and then
boiled and made clean, they arrive, at laft, at the ma¬
chine, (Plate LXVI. fig. 1.), which marks them
upon the edge; and finally, the mill, (fig, 2.)
which, fqueezing each of them fingly between the two
dyes, brought near each other with one blow, forces
the two furfaces or fields of the piece to fill exadfly all
the vacancies of the two figures engraved hollow.
The engine which ferves to laminate lead, gives a fuf-
ficient notion of that which ferves to flaten gold and
filver laminae between rollers of a leffer lize. See La¬
minating.
The principal pieces of the machine, (fig. 1.), to
ftamp coins on the edge, are two fteel laminse, about a
line thick. One half of the legend, or of the ring, is
engraved on the thicknefs of one of the laminae, and
the other half on the thicknefs of the other ; and thefe
two laminae are ftraight, although the planchet marked
with them be circular.
When they ftamp a plamchet, they firft put it be¬
tween the laminse in fuch a manner, as that thefe be¬
ing each of them laid flat upon a copper-plate, which
is faftened upon a very thick wooden table, and the
planchet being likewife laid flat upon the fame plate,
the edge of the planchefc-may touch the two laminae on
each fide, and in their thick part.
One of thefe laminse is immoveable, and faftened
with
t'7 Champ okee,
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r
J Cb ossxxets
-r~
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Civic Tmmplumt Obiidianaii^
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C O I (2
with fevers! fcrews ; the other Aides by means of a
dented wheel, which takes into the teeth that are on
the furface of the lamina. This Aiding lamina makes
the planchet turn in fuch a maqner, that it remains
ftamped on the edge, When it has made one turn. On¬
ly crowp and half crown pieces can bear the impref-
fion of letters on the thicknefs of their edges.
The coining engine or mill is fo handy (fig. 2.)
that a Angle man may Aamp twenty thoufand planchets
in one day : gold, filver, and copper planchets, are
all of them coined with a mill, to which the coining
fquares, (fig. 3.), commonly called dyes, are faften-
ed ; that of the face under, in a fquare box garnilhed
with male and female fcrews, to fix and keep it Heady;
and the other above, in a little box garnifiied with the .
fame fcrews, to faften the coining fquare. The plan¬
chet is laid flat on the fquare of the effigy, which is
dormant; and they immediately pull the bar of the
mill by its cords, which caufes the fcrew fet within it
• to turn. This enters into the female fcrew, which is
in the body of the mill, and turns with fo much
Arength, that by puffiing the upper fquare upon that
of the effigy, the planchet, violently prefled between
both fquares, receives the impreffion of both at one
pull, and in the twinkling of an eye.
The planchet thus Aampt and coined, goes through
a final examination of the mint wardens, from whofe
hands it goes into the world.
In the Coining of medals, the procefs is the fame, in
efFedt, with that of m?mey; the principal difference
confiding in this, that money having but a fmall re¬
lievo, receives its impreflion at a Angle Aroke of the.
engine ; 'wh'ereas for medals, the height of their re¬
lievo makes it neceflary that the Aroke be repeated fe-
veral times : to this end the piece is taken out fiom
between the dyes, heated, and returned again p which
procefs in medallions and large medals, is repeated
fifteen or twenty times before the full impreflion
be given, care muA be Taken, every time the plan¬
chet is removed, to take off the fuperfluous metal
Aretched beyond* the circumference with a file. Me¬
dallions, and medals of a high relievo, are ufually firA
caA in fand, ,by reafon of the difficulty of damping
them in the prefs, where they are put only to perfedt
them ; in regard the fand does not leave them clear,
fmooth, and accurate enough. Therefore we may fee
that medals receive their form and impreflion by de¬
grees, whereas money receives them all at once.
Brit 'tjh Coinage, both by the beauty of the engraving,
and by the invention of the impreffions on the edges,
that admirable expedient for preventing the alteration
of the fpecies, is carried to the utmod perfedtion.
It was only in the reign of king William III. that
the hammer-money ceafed to be current in England,
where till then it was Aruck in that manner, as in o-
ther nations. Before the hammer fpecies was called
in, the Englifh money was in a wretched condition,
having been file^ and clipped by natives as well as fo¬
reigners, infomuch that it was fcarce left of half the
value : the retrieving this diArefle'd date of the Eng-
Vol. II. No. 39. 3
) COL
lifli money is looked upon as one of the glories of king
William’s reign.
The BritiAi coinage is now wholly performed in the
Tower of London, where there is a corporation for it,
under the title of the mint. Formerly there were
here, as there are dill in other countries, the rights of
feinorage and braffage: but fince the eighteenth year of
king Charles the Second, there is nothing taken either
for the king, or for the expences of coining ; fo that
weight is returned for weight, to any perfon who car¬
ries their gold and filver to the Tower.
The fpecies coined in Great Britain ate edeemed
contraband goods, and not to be exported.. All fo¬
reign fpecies are allowed to be fent out of the realm,
as well as gold and filver in bars, ingots/ dud, isc.
Barbary Coinage, particularly that of Fez and Tunis,,
is under no proper regulations, as every goldfmith,
Jew, or even private perfon, undertakes it at pleafiire ;
which practice renders their money exceeding bad, and
their commerce very unfafe.
Mufcovite Coinage. In Mufcovy there is no other
coin Arucb but filver, and that only in the dues of
Mufcow, Novogrod, Twere, and Pleflcow, to which
may be added PeterA>urgh. The coinage of each of
thefe cities is let out to farm, and makes part of the
royal revenue.
Perfian Coinage. All the money made in Pcrfia is
Aruck with a hammer, as is that of the red of Afia ;
and the fame may be underAood of America, and the
cpaAs of Africa, and even Mufcovy: the king’s duty,
in Perfia, is feven and a half per cent, for all the mo¬
nies coined, which are lately reduced to filver and cop¬
per, theje being no gold coin there, except a kind op
medals, at the acceflion of a new fophi.
Spanijh Coinage is edeemed one of the lead perfeft in
Europe. It is fettled at Seville and Segovia, the only
cities where gold and filver are Aruck.
COIRE, or Chur, the capita! of the country of the
Grifons, in Switzerland, fituated on the river Rhine,
fifty-three miles fouth of Condance : E. long. 90 25',
N. lat. 46° -40/.
COITION. See Generation.
COIX, or Job’s tears, in botany, a genus of the
monoecia triandria clafs. The calix of the male is a
double-flowered glume, without any awn ; the corolla
is likewife a glume without an awn : the calix of the
female is an open, oval, one-flowered glume ; the Ay-
lus is bifid ; and the feed is cartilaginous. There is
but one fpecies, viz. the latifoiia, a native of Ja¬
maica.
COKENHAUSEN, a fortrefs of Livonia, fituated on
the river Dwina, about thirty-two miles ead of Riga :
E. long. 250, N. lat. 57°.
COLATURE. See Filtration.
COLCHESTER, a large.borough-town of Eflex, fitu¬
ated on the river Coin, twenty miles north-ead ,of
Chelmsford, on the road to Harwich : E. long. i°,
N. lat. 51® 55'. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment.
COLCHICUM, or Meadow saffron, in botany, a
3 K genus
COL (22
genus of the hexandria trigynia clafs. The corolla is
divided into fix fegments, and the tube is radicated ;
it has three inflated capfuleS united together. The
fpecies are three, only one of which, viz. the au-
Lunmale, or meadow-faffron, is a native of Britain.
COLD, in general, denotes the privation or abfence of
heat; and, confecjuently, thofe \vbo fuppofe heat to
confift in a briflc agitation of the component particles
of the hot body, define cold to be fuch a faint motion
of thefe parts, as is either altogether or nearly imper¬
ceptible to our organs of feeling : in which fenfe, cold
is a mere term of relation between the cold body and
the organs of fenfation ; and, in faft, the fame body
will be. felt either hot or cold, according as the fenfible
organ is colder or hotter than it.
Cold, in medicine, is found to be produdtive of inflam¬
matory diforders, as coughs, pleurifies, peripneumo-
nies, rheumatic pains, confumptions, 6v. See Me-
d,i CINE,
COLDENIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria te-
tragynia clafs. The calix has four leaves ; the co¬
rolla is tunnel fhaped ; the fruit confifts of four feeds.
There is but one fpecies, a native of India.
COLD-FINCH. See Motacilla.
COLDSHIRE-IRON, that which is brittle when cold.
COLE-FISH. SeeGAous.
Cole-mouse, in ornithology. See Parus.
COLEOPTERA, the name of Linnaeus’s firfl: order of
• infe&s. The infers belonging to this order have four
wings ; the upper pair, which ferve as covers to the
other two, are cruftaceous, with a ftraight ridge or
future in the middle. See Natural History.
COLE-SEED, the feed of the napus fativa, or long-
rooted, narrow-leaved rapa, called, in Englilh, na-
vew, and comprehended by Linnxus among the braf-
ficas, or cabbage-kind. See Brassica.
This plant is cultivated to great advantage in many
parts of England, on account of the' nape-oil expreffed
from its feeds. It requires a rich and ftrong foil, e-
fpecially in march or fenny lands, thofe newly re¬
covered from the fea, or indeed any other land that is
nnk and fat, whether arable or pafiure. The belt
feeds are brought from Holland, and fliould be fown
about Midfummer, the very day th*t the land is plow¬
ed : a gallon will ferve ah acre.
Befides the oil already mentioned, it is likewife cul¬
tivated for winter-food to cattle, and is a very good
preparative of land forjoarley or wheat.
COLE-WORT. See Brassica.
COLIAS, in ichthyology. See Scomber.
COLIC, in medicine, afevere pain in the lower venter,
■ fo, called, becaufe the diforder was formerly fuppofed
to be feated in the colon. See Medicine.
Colic-shell. See Syproea.
COLIR, an officer in China, who may properly be cal¬
led an infpeftor, having an eye over what paffes in
every court or tribunal of the empire.
In order to render him impartial, he is kept inde¬
pendent, by having poll: for life. The power of the
colirs is fuch, that they make even the princes of the
blood tremble.
o ) COL
COLISEUM, in ancient architefture, an oval amphi¬
theatre at Rome, built by Vefpafian, wherein were
ftatues fet up, reprefenting all the provinces of the
empire: in the middle whereof flood that of Rome,
holding a golden apple in her hand.
This ftru<5hire was fo large, that it would hold near
100,000 fpe£tators.
COLITES, in natural hiftory, a name given by fome
writers to a kind of pebble, found in the ffiape of the
human penis and teftes, and that either fe^arately, or
both together.
COLLAR, in Roman antiquity, a fort of chain put
generally round the neck of Haves that had run away,
after they were taken, with an infeription round it,
intimating their being deferters, and requiring their
being reftored to their proper owners, drc.
Collar, in a more modern fenfe, an ornament confift-
ing of a chain of gold, enamelled, frequently fet with
■ cyphers or other devices, with the badge of the order
hanging at the bottom, wore by the knights of feveral
military orders over their (boulders, on the mantle,
and its figure drawn round their armories.
Thus, the collar of the order of the garter confifls
of S S, with roles enamelled red, within a garter en¬
amelled blue, and the George at the bottom'.
Lord Mayor's Collar is more ufually called chain.
Knights of the Collar, a military order in the republic
of Venice, called alfo the order of St Mark, or the
medal.
It is the doge and the fenate that confer this order;
the knights bear no particular habit, only the collar,
which the doge puts around their neck, with a medal,
wherein is reprefented the winged lion of the republic.
Collar of a draught horfe, a part of harnefs made of
leather and canvas, and Itufifed with llraw or wool, to
be put about the horfe’s neck.
COLLARAGE, a tax or fine laid for the collars of
wine-drawing horfes.
COLLATERAL, any thing, place, country, be. fitu-
ated by the fide of another.
Collateral, in genealogy, thofe relations which pro¬
ceed from the fame Hock, but not in the fame line of
afeendants or defeendants, but being, as it were, afide
of each other.
Thus, uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces and coufins,
are collaterals, or in the fame collateral line: thofe
in a higher degree, and nearer the common root, re-
prefent a kind of paternity with regard to thofe more
remote.
COLLATERAL fuccefion, in Scots law: When a de-
. fundt, for want of heirs defeended of himfelf, is fuc-
ceeded in his eftate by a brother or fifter, or their
defeendents, the eftate is faid fo have gone to collate¬
ral heirs. See Scots Law, title, Succejfion in be¬
ret able rights.
COLLATION, in the canon law, the giving or beftow-
ing of a benefice on a clergyman by a bilhop, who has
it in his own gift or patronage.
Collation, in common law, the comparifon of pre-
fentation of a copy to its original, to fee whether or
not it be conformable ; or the report or aft of the of¬
ficer
COL (2
ficer who made the comparifon. A collated a<ft is e-
quivalent to its original, 'provided all the parties con¬
cerned were prefent at the collation.
Collation, in Scots law, that right which an heir
has of throwing the whole heritable and moveable
eftates of the deceafed into one mafs, and fhafing it e-
qualiy with the others in the fame degree of kindred,
when lie thinks fuch ihare will be .more than the value
of ^he heritage to which he had an exclufive title.
See Scots Law, title, Succejpon in moveables.
Collation is alfo vulgarly ufed for a repaft between
dinner and fupper.
COLLEAGUE, a partner or aflbciate ih the fame office
or magiftrature. See Adjunct.
COLLECTS, in an ecclefiaftical fenfe, the ffiort prayers
into which the public devotions of the church are di¬
vided.
In the primitive church, the collefts were repeated
by the biffiop alohe, after the joint prayers of the dea-
• con and congregation.
COLLECTIVE, among grammarians, a term applied
to a noun expreffing a multitude, though itfelf be on¬
ly Angular ; as an army, company, troop, <bc. called
colleftive nouns.
COLLECTOR, in general, denotes a perfon who gets
or brings together things formerly difperfed and fepa-
rated. Hence,
Collector, in matters of civil polity, is a perfon ap¬
pointed by the commiffioners of any duty, the inhabi¬
tants of a pariffi, to raife or gather any kind of
tax.
Collector, among botanifts, one who gets together as
many plants as he can, withbut itudying botany in a
fcientifical manner.
COLLEGATORY, in the civil law, a perfon who has
a legacy left him in comrrion with one or more other
perfons..
COLLEGE, an affemblage of feveral bodies or focieties,
or of feyeral perfons into one fociety.
College, hmong the Romans, ferved indifferently for
tljofe employed in the offices of religion, of govern¬
ment, the liberal, and even mechanical arts and trades;
fo that, with them, the wojd bonified what we call a
corporation or company.
Each of thcfe colleges had diftimft meeting-places
or halls; and likewife, in imitation of the date, a
treafury and common died, a regider, and one to re-
prefent them upon public occafions, and afts of go¬
vernment. Thefe colleges had the privilege of ma- ■
numitting flaves, of being legates, and making by¬
laws for their own body, provided they did not claffi
with thofe-of the.government.
There are various colleges on foot among the mo¬
derns, founded on the'model of thofe of the ancients.
Such are the three colleges of the empire, viz.
College of eleftors, or their deputies, affembled in the
diet of Ratilbon.
College of princes, the body of princes, or their de¬
puties, at the diet of Ratilbon.
College of cities, is, in like manner,' the body of de¬
puties which the imperial cities fend to the diet.
i ) COL
Collejge of cardinals, or the /tfm’i/College, a Bo¬
dy compofed of the three orders of cardinals. See'
Cardinals.
College is alfo ufed for a public place endowed with
certain revenues, where the feveral parts of learning
are taught.
- An affemblage of feveral of thefe colleges conflitute'
an univerfity. The ereAion of colleges is part of the
royal prerogative, and not to be done without the
king’s licenle. See University.
College of civilians, commonly called Doftors-com-
mons, founded by Dr Harvey, dean of the arches, for
the profeffors of the civil law refiding in the city of
London. .The judges of the arches, admiralty, and
prerogative court, with feveral other eminent civilians,
commonly refide here.
To this collfege belong thirty-four proftors, who
make themfelves parties for their clients, manage their
caufes, give licenfes for marriages, isc.
In the common, hall of Dodlors-commons are held
feveral courts, under the junldidlion of the civil law,
particularly the high court of admiralty, the court of
delegates, the arches court of Canterbury, and the
prerogative court of Canterbury, whofe terms for fit¬
ting are much like thole at Weltminfier, ev'ery one of
them holding-feveral court-days ; moft of them iixed
and known by preceding holidays, and the relt appoint¬
ed at the judge’s pleafure.
Colle-ge of phyfcians, a corporation of phyficians in
London, whofe number, by charter is not to exceed
eighty. The chief of them are called fellows, and
the next candidates, who fill up the places of fellows
as they become vacant by death, or otherwife. Next
to thefe are the- honorary fellows ; and laitly, the li¬
centiates, that is, fuch as being found capable, upon
examination, are allowed to practife phyfic.
This college has feveral great privileges granted by
charter and ads of parliament. No man can pradife
phyfic in. or within feven miles of London, without
licenfe of the college, under the penalty of 5/. Al¬
fo, perfons pradifing phyfic in other parts of England
are to have letters, tellimonial from the prefident and
three eleds, unlefs they be graduate phjfficians of Ox¬
ford or Cambridge Every member of the'college is
authorifed to pradife furgery in London or elfewhere ;
and that they may be able at all times to attend their
patients, they are freed from all pariffi-offices.
The college is governed by a prefident, four cenfors,
and twelve eledors. The cenfors have, by charter,
power to furvey, govern, and arreft all phyficians, or
others, pradifing phyfic in or within feven miles of
London ; to fine, amerce, and imprifon them at dif-
cretion; to fearch apothecaries ffiops, &c. in and a-
bout London ; to fee if their drugs, <drc. Be whole-
fome, and the compolitions according to the form pre-
fcribed by the college in their difpenfaries ; and to
burn, or otherwife deitroy, thofe that are defedive
or decayed, and not fit for ufe.
In 1696, forty-two members of the college made a
fubfcription, to fet on foot a difpenfary for the relief
of the fick poor, who are advifed gratis every day but
Sunday,.
COL ( 22
Sunday, and medicines fold at the intrinfic value :
fince this they have erefted two other difpenfanes.
College cf jtijiice, in Scots law, the fupreme civil
court of Scotland ; otherwife called Court of fejfion,
or, cf council and fcffion. See Scots Law, title,
Supreme judges and courts of Scotland.
Sion College, or the college of the London clergy,
was formerly a religions houfe, next to a fpittal or hof-
pital; and now it is a compolition of both, viz. a col¬
lege for the clergy of London, who were incorporated
in 1631, at the requeit of Dr White, under the name
of the prefident and fellows of Sion-college ; and an
hofpital of ten poor men, the firft within the gates of
the houfe, and the latter without.
This college confifls of a prefident, two deans, and
four ailiftants, who are annually'" chofen from amojig
the re&ors and vicars in London, fubjeft to the vifita-
tion of the bilhop. They have one of the fineft libraries
in England, built and (locked by Mr Simpfon, chiefly
for the clergy of the city, without excluding other
(ludents on certain terms; they have alfo a hall with
chambers for the (ludents, generally filled with the
miniflers of the neighbouring parifhes.
rejhayn-College, or College of philofophy, a col¬
lege founded by Sir Thomas Grefham, who built the
Royal exchange ; a moiety of the revenue whereof he
gave in truft to the mayor and commonalty of London,
and their fuccefibrs for ever, and the other moiety to
the company of mercers; the firft to find four able
perfons to read in the college divinity, aftronomy, mu-
jie, and geometry; and the lad, three or more able
men to read rhetoric, civil law, and phyfic; a leflure
upon each fubjedt is to be read in term-time, every
«lay, except Sundays, in Latin, in the forenoon, and
the fame in Englilh in the afternoon; only the mulic-
lefture is to be read alone in Englilh. The ledturers
have each 50 l. per annum, and a lodging in the col-
iege.
In this college formerly met the royal fociety, that
noble academy, celebrated throughout the world for
their improvements in natural knowledge. See So¬
ciety.
-College of heralds, commonly called the heralds of¬
fice, a corporation founded by charter of king Rich-
ard III. who granted them feveral privileges, as to be
free from fubfidies, tolls, offices, <bc. They had a
fecond charter from king' Henry VI. ; and a houfe
built near Dodlors commons, by the earl of Derby, in
the reign of king Henry VII. was given them by the
duke of Norfolk, in the reign of queen Mary, which
houfe is now rebuilt.
This college is fubordinate to the earl-marfhal of
England. They are afiiftants to him in his court of
chivalry, ufually held in the common hall of the col¬
lege, where they fit in their rich coats of his majefty’s
arms. See Herald.
-COLLEGIATE churches, thofe which though no bi-
(hep’s fee, yet have the retinue of the biffiop, the
canons and prebends. Such are, among us, Weft-
minder, Windfor, Rippon, Wolverhampton, South-
well, Manchefter, <bc. governed by deans and chapters.
2 ) COL
COLLET, among jewelers, denotes the horizontal face
or plane at the bottom of brilliants. See Bril¬
liant.
Collet, in glafs-making, is that part of glafs veflels
which (licks to the iron inftrument wherewith the me¬
tal was taken out of the melting pot: thefe are after-
wards ufed for making green glafs.
COLLETICS, in pharmacy, denote much the fame
wfth agglutinants or vulneraries. See Vulnerary.
COLLINSONIA, in botany, a genus of the decandria
rnonogynia clafs. The corolla is unequal, the inferior,
J:p being mukifid and capillary. It has but one feed.
There is only one fpecies, a native of Canada.
COLLIQUAMENTUM, in natural hiftory, an ex¬
treme tranfparent fluid in an egg, obfervable after two:
or three days incubation, containing the firft rudiments
of the chick. It is included in one of its own proper
membranes, diftind from the albumen. Harvey calls
it the oculus.
COLLIQU ATION, in chemiftry, is applied to animal,
vegetable, and mineral fubftances, tending towards
fufion. See Fusion.
Colliqjjation, in phyfic, a term applied to the blood,
when it lo(es its crafis or balfamic texture ; and to
the folid parts, when they wade away, by means of
the animal fl uids flowing off through the feveral glands,
and particularly thofe of the (kin, fader than they
ought: which occafions fluxes of many kinds, but
moftly profufe, greafy, and clammy fweats.
COLLIQUATIVE fever, in phyfic, a fever attended
with a diarrhoea, or profufe fweats.
COLLISION, the ftriking of one hard body againft
another ; or the fri&ion or percuffion of bodies moving
violently with different diredions, and dafhing againft
each other. See Mechanics.
COLLURIO, in ornithology. See Lanius.
COLLUSION, in law, a fecret underftanding between
two parties, v/ho plead or proceed fradulently againft'
each, to the prejudice o'f a third perfon. •
COLLUM, the fame with neck. See Neck, and
Cervix.
COLLYRIUM, in pharmacy, a topical remedy for a
difofder of the eyes; defigned to cool and repel hot,
(harp humours.
They are generally of two kinds, the one liquid,
and the other dry: liquid collyrias are compofed of
ophthalmic powders in waters, as rofe-water, plan¬
tain-water, or that of fennel, eye-bright, <bc. where¬
in tuny, white vitriol, or fome other proper powder,
is diffolved.
The dry collyrium is troches of rhafis, fugar-candy,
tutty prepared, tec. blown into the eye.
COLOCASIA, in botany. See Arum.
COLOCYNTHIS, in botany. See Cucumis.
COLOGNE, the capital of the circle of the Lower
Rhine, in Germany, fituated on the Rhine, about
forty-five miles eaft of Mseftricht; E. long. 6° 40',
N. lat. 50° 5o\ It is one of the larged and mod e-
legant cities of Germany, being the fee of an archbi-
fhop, who is one of the eleftors of the empire, and
has a yearly revenue of 130,000/.
Cologne-
COL (22
OoLOGNE-Mr/^, a kind of very light baflard ochre, of
a deep brown colour.
COLON, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 261.
Colon, in grammar, a point or Character marked thus,
(:), {hewing the preceding fentenoe to be perfect or en¬
tire ; only that lome remark, farther illuftratiqp, or
other matter eonheSed therewith, is fubjorned.
COLONEL, in military matters, the commander in
chief of a regiment, whether horfe, foot, or dragoons.
A colonel may lay any officer of his regiment in ar-
red, but muft acquaint the general with it; he is not
allowed a guard, only a centry from the quarter-
guard.
ColonEL-//'i?«/e«<7tf/, he who commands a regiment of
guards, whereof the king, prince, or other perfon of
the firft eminence, is colonel. Thefe colonel-lieute¬
nants have always a colonel’s commiffion, and are u-
lually general officers.
Colon el, the fecond officer in a regiment,
who is at the head of the captains, and commands in
the abfence of the colonel.
COLONNA, a town of Italy, in the Campagna of
Rome, eighteen miles eaftward of that city: E. long.
13 0 t 5', N. lat. 42 u.
COLONNADE, in architecture, a periftyle of a circu¬
lar figure; or a feries of columns difpofed in a circle,
and infulated within fide.
J. polyftile Colonnade, i§ that whofe numbers of co¬
lumns is too great to be taken in by the eye at a fingle
view. Such is the colonnade of the palace of St Pe¬
ter’s at Rome, confiding of 284 columns of the Do¬
ric order, each above four foot and an half diameter,
all in Tiburtine marble.
'COLONY, a company of people tranfplanted into a re¬
mote province, in order to cultivate and inhabit it.
Colonies are of three forts: the fird are thofe that
ferve to eafe and difcharge the inhabitants of a coun¬
try, where the people are become too numerous; the
fecond are thofe edabliffied by victorious princes in the
middle of vanquiffied nations, to keep them in awe
and obedience ; and the third fort are thofe edabliffied
for the promotion of trade, called colonies of com¬
merce; fuch are th.ofe edabliffied by European nations
in feveral parts of Alia, Africa, and America.
COLOPHONY, in pharmacy, black refin, or turpen¬
tine, boiled in water, and afterwards dried ; or, which
is {fill better, the caput mortuum remaining after the
didillation of the etherial oil, being further urged by
a more intenfe and long continued fire.
COLOQUINTIDA, in botany. See Cucumis.
COLORATURA, in mufic, denotes all manner of va¬
riations, trillos, diminutions, <bc. ferving to make a
fong agreeable.
COLOSSUS, a datue of a gigantic, or enormous fize.
The mod famous of this kind .was the coloflus of
Rhodes, made, in honour of Apollo, by Chares the
difciple of Lyfippus. It was eighty-fix feet high, and
its thumb fo large, that few people could fathom it.
This datue was placed acrofs the mouth of the har-
bou.r-at Rhodes, and the ffiips with full fails palled be*
.twixt its legs.
3 ) COL
COLOSTRUM, the fird milk of any animal after bring¬
ing forth young, called beedings. It is remarkable
that this milk is generally cathartic, and purges off
-the meconium;.thus ferving both as an aliment and
medicine.
An emulfion prepared with turpentine, diflblved with
the yolk of an egg, is fometimes called by this name.
COLOUR. See Optics.
Colour, in painting, is applied both to the drugs, and
to the tints produced by thofe drugs vaiioudy mixed
and applied.
The principal colours ufed by painters are red and
white lead, or cerufs ; yellow and red ochres ; feveral
kinds of earth, umbre, orpiment, lamp-black, burnt
ivory, black lead, cinnabar or Vermillion, gumboge,
lacca, blue and green affies, verdigris, bidre, bicce,
fmalt, carmine, ultra marine: each of which, with
their ufes, &c, are to be found under their proper ar¬
ticles. ,
Of thefe colours fome are ufed tempered with gum-
water, fome ground with oil, others only in frefco,
and others for miniature.
Painters reduce ail the colours they ufe under thefe
two clafies, of dark and light colours : dark colours
are black, and all others that are obfcure and earthy,
as umbre, bidre, <bc.
Under light colours are comprehended white, and
all that approach neared to it.
Painters alfo didinguiffi colours into fimple and mi¬
neral.
Under fimple colours they rank all thofe which are
extfadted from vegetables, and which will not bear the
fire ; as the yellow, made of faffron, French berries,
lacca, and other tindures extracted from flowers, ufed
by limners, illuminers, <bc.
The mineral colours are thofe which being drawn
from metals, &c. are able to bear the fire, and
therefore ufed by enamellers. Changeable and per¬
manent colours is another divifion, which, by feme, is
made of colours.
Changeable colours are fuch as depend on the fitu-
ation of the objeds with refped to the eye, as that of
a pigeon’s neck, taffeties, tic. the fird however being
attentively viewed by the microfcope, each fibre of the
feathers appears compofed of feveral little fquares, al¬
ternately red and green, fo that they are fixed co¬
lours.
Local Colours. See Local.
Water Colours. See Water.
Colour, in dying. There are, in the art of dying,
five colours, called fimple, primary, or mother co¬
lours, from the mixture of which all other colours are
formed; thefe are blue, yellow, brown, red, and
black. Of thefe colours, varioufly mixed and com¬
bined, they form the following colours, panfy, blue,
and red; from the mixture of blue and fcarlet are
formed amaranth, violet, and panfy; from the fame
mixture of blue, crimfon, and red, are formed-the
columbine, or dove-colour, purple-crimfon, amaranth,
panfy, and crimfon-violet. See Botany, Vol. L
!9-
3
Here
COL . ( 22.
Here it is to be obferved, that they give the name
- crimfon to all colours made with cochineal.
Colour, in heraldry. The colours generally ufed in
heraldry are red, blue, black, green, and purple,
which the heralds call gules, azure, fable, vert or fx-
nople, and purpure ; tenne or tawny, and fanguine,
are not fo common : as to yellow and white, called or
and argent, they are metals, not colours.
The metals and colours are fometimes expreffed in
blazon by the names of precious ftones, and fometimes
by thofe of planets or liars. See Blazoning.
Oenomaus is faid to have tirll invented the diftinc-
tion of colours, to dillinguilh the gundiliae of comba¬
tants of the Circenfian games ; the green for thofe
who reprefented the earth, and blue for thofe who re-
prefented the fea.
Colours, in the military art, include the banners, flags,
enfigns, he. of all kinds, borne in the army or fleet.
See Flag, and Standard.
Field-Cohov■ See Field.
Colours, in the Latin and Greek churches, are ufed
to dillinguilh feveral mylteries and fealls, celebrated
therein.
^ Five colours only are regularly admitted into the
Latin church; thefe are white, green, red, violet,
and black : the white is for the mylleries of our Sa¬
viour, the fealls of the virgin, thofe of the angels,
faints, and confelfors ; the red is for the mylleries
and folemnities of the holy facrament, the fealts of the
apollles and martyrs ; the green for the time between
pentecoll and advent, and from epiphany to feptuage-
lima ; the violet in advent and Chriltmas, in vigils,
rogations, he. and in votive mafles in time of war;
laltly, the black is for the dead, and the ceremonies
thereto belonging.
In the Greek church, the ufe of colours is almoll
abolilhed, as well as among us : red was, in the Greek
church, the colour for Chrillmas, and the dead, as
black among us.
To Colour grangers goods, is when a freeman allows
a foreigner to enter goods at the cullom-houfe in his
name.
COLOURING, among painters, the manner of apply¬
ing and conducing the colours of a picture; or the
mixtures of light and lhadews, formed by the various
colours employed in painting. See Painting.
Colouring See Glass.
Colouring /,*/«. See Porcelain. •
COLT, in zoology. See Equus.
Colt-evil, among farriers, a fwelling of the yard and
-ferotum, incident both to Honed horfes and geldings ;
for which, after walhing the part with lukewarm vine¬
gar, it is ufual to anoint them with juice of rue, mixed
with honey, and boiled in hog’s greafe, adding bay-
leaves and the powder of fenugreek.
Colt’s-foot, in botany. See Tussilago.
COLTIE, a term ufed by timber-merchants for a de-
ftft, or blemilh, in fome of the annular circles ol a
tree, whereby its value is much diminifhed. .
COLUBER, in zoology, a genus of ferpents belonging
to the clafs of amphibia. The characters are thefc ;
) COL
They have a number of feuta, or hard crufls, on the
belly; and fcutellae, or feales, on the tail. Linnasus
enumerates no lefs than 97 pecies under this genus,
diftinguilhed folely by the number of feuta and feu-
telke. For the fake of brevity, we lhall give the num¬
bers in figures, the firft den .ting the number of feuta,
and the fecond the number of fcutellae, thus, 140-22.
The firll fpecies is the vip^ra, 118-22. This is
the viper of the fliops, the flefh of which has been
much recommended in fcrophulous, leprous,' and o-
ther obllinate chronical diforders: but its virtue* in
thefe cafes have been too much exaggerated : the flefh
of the viper is howevef highly nutritive, and is there¬
fore properly efleemed to be a good reflorative : but,
to anfwer any good purpofe, even when given with
this intention, it ought to be ufed liberally, aftd for a
confiderable time, as food. This animal is a native of
Egypt. The body is very'fhort, and of a pale co¬
lour, with brownifh fpots ^ and the head is gibbous,
and covered with fmall feales. 2. The atropos. 131-
22, is a native of America ; the body is white, and
the eyes are brown, with a white iris. 3. The le-
beris, ito-yo, is a native of Canada, and has many
linear black rings. 4. The ammodites, 142-32, is
about fix inches long, and has an ere<fl flefhy protu¬
berance on its nofe. It is a native of the Eafl. 5.^
The berus, 146-39, or common Britifh viper, is'
found in mofl countries in Europe : It is of a dufky
blackifh colour-. 6. The cherfea, 150-34, is a native
of Sweden, and rather lefs than the afp. 7. The
prefter. i5‘2-32, is found in the northern parts of
Europe, and the whole body is black. 8. The afpis,
146-46, is a native of France, and is of a reddilh colour,
with dufl<y fpots on the back. 9. Lebetinus, 155-46,
. is a native of Afia, and is of a cloudy colour, with
red fpots on the belly, xo. The feverus, 170-42, is
likewife a native of Afia, and is alh-coloured, with
white belts, n. The llolatus, 143-76, is a native
of Afia, and is of a greyilh colour, with two white
fillets. 12. The la&eus, 203-32, is a native of the
Indies ; the colour is white, with black fpots. 13.
The naja, 193-60, is a native of the Eafl Indies ; and
is the mofl poifonous of all ferpents ; they are eat by
the ichneumon. 14. The atrox, 196-69, is a native
of Afia ; it is of alioary colour ; and the head is com-
prefled and covered with fmall feales. 15. The ni-
veus,-209-62, is white, without any fpots. It is a
native of Africa. i6r*The corallinus, 193-82, is a
native of Afia ; It is greyilh, with three brown fillets.
17. The dipfas, 152-135, is a native of America : it
is of a blueifh colour, with the margins of the feales
white. 18. The myfterizans, 192-167, is a native
of America ; the fnout is flretched out, and triangular.
Although this genus comprehends 97 fpecies, the a-
bove 18 are all whpfe bite is fuppofed to be poifonous.
The poifon is contained in a little bag at the bafe of
their long fangs. See Natural History.
The. 19th fpecies is the lutrix, 134-27 ; the back
and belly are yellow; and the fides are blueilh. It
is a native of the Indies.' 20,The calamarius, 140-22,
is of a livid colour interfperfed with dufky fpots
and
COL (2
and lines, and is found in America. 21. The limns,
12 4-46, is a native of Carolina; the head is roundifh, flat,
and gibbous ; the body is interfperfed above with black
and white ; and the belly is black. 22. The ftriatulus,
126 45,is like wife a native of Carolina: the back is dulky
and ftriated ; and the belly is pale. 23. The cerades,
1 jo-25, *s a native of Alia; the fcales 0/ the head
are round and fmall: this is the horned viper of Haf-
felquid ; but the horns are a mere impofition; the Ara¬
bians fix the fpurs of a cock or other bird upon the
head of the viper, in order to raife the admiration of
travellers. 24. The plicatilisj 131-46, is of a li¬
vid colour, with dulky fides. 25. The domicella,
118-60, is a native of Afia; it is white, with black
belts. 26. The alidras, 121-58, is a native of India,
and is all white. 27, The pun£latus, 136-43, is anative
Carolina: It is afh-coloured, variegated with yellow
fpots. 28. The buccatus, 107-72, is duiky-coloured,
with white belts, and is a native of Afia. 29. The
angulatus 117-70, is a native of Afia, and ot a grey-
iih colour, with black fillets, 30. The cseruleus,
165-24, is blueifh, with white fcales on one fide : It
is a native of America. 31. The albus, 170-20, is
entirely white, and is a native of Afia. 32. The
typhlus, 140-53, is a native of the Indies, and of a
blueifn colour. 33. The fafciatus, 128-67, is a na¬
tive of Carolina; the fcales are carinated, and the
colour is blackifh. 34. The melanocephalus, 140 62,
is a native of America; the body is very fmooth; the
colour is dulky, and the head is black. 35. The co-
bella, 150-54, is very frequent in America: it is aih-
coloured, interfperfed with white lines. 36. The re-
ginse, 137-70, is a native of the Indies; the body is
dufky, and the belly is black and white. 37. The
dollatus, 164-4;, ’s a native of Carolina; this-is a
fmall ferpent, of a whitilh 'colour, with black rings.
38. The ordinatus, 138-72, is likewife found in Ca¬
rolina : It is blueifli, and clouded with black fpots.
39. The Mexicanus, 1 34-77, is a native of America.
40. The aurora, 179-37, is a native of America: it
is livid, with a yellow back. 41. The fipedon, 144-73,
is yellowiih, and a native of North America. 42.
The maurus, 152-66, is a native of Algiers: thebody
is yellowifh above, and the belly is red. 43. The vit-
tatus, 142-78, is a native of America; the edges'of
the fcales are yellowiih, and there is a w'hite dentated
fillet under the anus. 44. The miliaris, 162-59, 's
anative of the Indies: the body is yellow, with a
white fpot in eadn fcale ; and the belly is white.
45. The asfculapii, 180-43, is a native of the Indies:
it has white and black belts. 46. The rhombeatus,
157-70, is a native of the Indies : the colour is blue-
iih, with black-fpots, 47. The cyaneus, 1'19-ifo,,
is a native of America: it is,of an azure colour, and
the belly is green. 48. The natrix, 170-60, is a na¬
tive of Europe : it is black, with a white fpot on each
fide of the neck. 49. The agilis, 184-50, is a native
of the Indies: it has yellow and white belts, 50. The
jaculatrix, 163-77, is a native of Suriram. 51. The
aulicus, iSq-'bo, is a native of America, and is of a
greyiih colour, with whitej belts. 52. The monilis.
s ) 001,
164-82, is a native America; the body is anntifated,,
with three white fpots on the collar. 53. The fulvi-
us, 218-31, is a native of Carolina: it has 22 black
rings, and as many yellow, placed alternately.
54. The pallidus, 156-96, is a native of the Indies,
and is of a pale colour, with grey and yellow fpots.
55. The lineatus, 169-84, is anative of Afia: it is
blueifh, with four linear fillets. 56. The padera,
198-56, is a native of the Indies: it is white, with
yellowifn fpots. 57. The canus, 188-70, is a native
of the Indies: it is of a hoary colour, with yellowifh
belts. 58. The getulus, 215 44, is a native of Ca¬
rolina : it is of a blackiih blue colour, with yellow li¬
near belts. 59. The fibilans, 160-100, is a native
of Afia ; and is blue, with black fillets, and a white
belly. 60. The laticaudatus, 220-42, is a native of
the Indies : it is afli-coloured, with yellow belts ; and
the tail is obtufe and compreffed. 61. The firtalii,
1 jo 114, is a native of Canada : the body is of a dir¬
ty yellow colour, with three blueifh green fillets.
. 62. The fibon, 180-85, Is a native of Africa : it is of
a yellowifh iron-colour, interfperfed with white; and
the belly is white, with yellow fpots. 68.The nebu-
latus, 185-81, is a native of America: it is clouded
with yellow and an afh colour, and the belly is varie¬
gated with yellow and white. 64. The fufcus, 149-
117, is a native of Afia; it is yellow and afh-coloured,
and there are yellow fpots behind the eyes. 65. The
faturninus, 147-120, is a native of the lntfies: it is
livid and coloured with an afh-colour, and the eyes
are v'ry large. 66. The candidus, 220-50, is a na¬
tive of the Indies: it is white, with yellow belts.
67. The fcaber, 228-44, *s a native of the Indies:
it is clouded with black and yellow, and the fcales
are curinated. 68. The carinatus, 157-115, is a na¬
tiveof the Indies: it is of a lead colour, and the edges
of the fcales are tipped with white; the bellyis white,
and the back is carinated. 69-. The ovivorus, 203 73*
is a native of America. 70. The laurita, 156-121,
is a native of Carolina: it is of a greenifh colour.
71 The conltri&or, 186 92, is a native of North A-
rnerica : it is black and fmooth; the belly is of
a palifh green -; and'the nape of the neck is
white. This fpecies is fo bold, that it even attacks men,
twilling about their legs,- and breaking their bones:
it runs very quickly; but its bite is not poifonous.
72. The exoletus, 147-132, is a native of the Indies^
It is blueifh and afh-coloured. 73. The fitula, 236-
45, is a native of Egypt : It is greyifh. 74. The
trifcalis, 195-86, is a native of the Indies: It is of
an azure colour. 75. The gUttattis, 227-60, is a
native of Carolina : It' is of a -livid colour, with red
and black fpots on the back: ’76. The lemnifcatus,
250 35, is a native of Afia : The body is very fmooth,
and variegated With white and black' rings. 77. The
annulatus, ■ 190-96, is a native of America :r It is
white, with round yellow fpots. 78. The pelias,
187-103, is a native of tlie-I-ndks : It is yellow behind
the eyes, and the reft is blackifh. 79. The tvfria*
210*83, is a nativb' of Egypt : It is wbitifh,< with
yellow fpots. 80. The jirgularis-t 1^5-102,■ is 'a-na-
tive
COL ( 226
*tiC? of Egypt: It is black, with a red neck. 81. The
pethoia, 209-90, is a native of Africa: It is of a
leaden colour. 82. The aeftivus, 155-144, is a na¬
tive of Carolina : It is blue, and very fmooth ; and
the belly is-of a palilh green. 83. The molurus,
.248-59, is a native of the Indies : This fpecies is very
like the boa; but the feuta and feales are larger.
, 84. The ahastulla, 163-150, is a native of Afia and
America : It is of a yellowifh green colout, and the
tops of the feales are black; it has likewife a'black
belt acrofs the eyes. 85. The petalarius, 212-102,
is a native of the Indies : It is yellow, with white
belts. 86. Thehaje, 207-109, is a native of Egypt.
This is a large ferpent, with oblique red belts, and
about one half of each fcale white. 87. The filifor-
mis, 165-158, is a native of the Indies : It is black,
with a white belly; and the head is thicker than the
body. 88. The pullatus, 217-108, is a native of
Afia : It has red belts, with white fpots. 89, The
hippocrepis, 282-94, is a native of America : It is
of a livid colour, with yellow fpots. 90. The mi-
nervas, 238-90, is a native of the Indies : It is of an
.azure colour, with a yellow fillet on the back.
91. Thecinereus, 200-137, is a native of fhe Indies :
It is of an alh-colour, with a white belly. 92. The
viridiffimus, 217-122, is a native of Surinam: It is
. of a line green colour. 93 The mucofus, 200-140,
is a native of the Indies : the head is blueilh.
04. The domefticus, 245-94, frequents the dwelling-
houfes of flarbary: It greatly refembles the hippo¬
crepis. 95. The cenchoa, 220-124, is a native of
America: It is yellowilh, with pale fpots and white
b.Its : The head is globular. 96. The caerulefcens,
215-170, is a native of the Indies, and is of an azure
colour. 97. The argus, is a native of Africa; but
hitherto we have had no juft defeription of it.—For
the inftindts, manner of living, 6'c. of ferpents in ge¬
neral, fee Natural History.
•COLUBRINUM lignum, or Snake-wood. See
Strychnos.
COLUMBA, pigeon, in ornithology, a genus belong¬
ing to the order of pafferes. The chara&ers of this
genus are thefe: The bill is ftrait, and defeends to¬
wards the point; the poltrils are oblong, and half co¬
vered with a foft tumid membrane ; and the tongue is
entire, i, e. not cloven. There are 40 fpecies, viz.
X. The cenas, or domeftic pigeon, is blueifh, with a
greenilh Ihining neck; on the back, towards the tail,
it is white, with a blackifh ftreak on the point of the
wings and tail. It is the ftock-dove or wood-pigeon
of Ray, and is a bird of Europe. The pigeon lays
two eggs, and hatches them every month, for eight or
nine months in the year, which, in the Ipace of four
years, amounts to about 18000 defeendants. They
always bill before copulation: Their method of feed¬
ing tfaeir young is curious; they firft macerate peaie
or other grain for feme time in their crop, and then
vomit it up into the mouths of, the young ones. I he
male and female fit upon their by turns. 2. The
hifpanica, with white mealy wax on the bill. Itisa-
ihoutedo,uble.the fize Qf the common pigeon. 3. The
) COL
d.ifypus, with rough feathered legs. 4. The guttu-
rofa, or cropper, has a power of inflating its crop till
it be as large as the animal’s body. It is a native of
Arabia Felix. 5. The cucullata has the feathers on the
back-part of the head eredt and refledted ; and the bill is
Ihort. 6. The hifpida, or rough pigeon, with the ftnall
feathers of the back and wings eredted. It is a native
of the Eaft Indies. 7. The turbita, with the fea¬
thers on' the breaft bent .backward, a fliort bill, and a
plain,vertex. 8. The laticauda, or broad-tailed pi¬
geon, has an eredt open tail confifting of many fea¬
thers. 9. The gyratrix turns itfelf round when fly¬
ing: it is a little lefs than the common pigeon.
10. The galeata, with the head and prime feathers of
the wings and tail of the fame colour, and always dif¬
ferent front the reft-of the body. 11. The turcica,
with red papillous wax. It is a bird of Arabia.
12. The tabellaria has naked eye-brows, and broad,
white, flefhy wax on the bill. Although this bird be
carried to'a very great diftance from home, it returns
with vaft fpeed; and hence the ancients employed it for
the purpofe of conveying back letters. 13. The mon-
tana has naked red orbits, a reddilh body,' and a yel¬
low belly ; the bill and feet are red. It is the moun¬
tain-partridge of Ray, and is a native of Jamaica.
1-4. The leucocephala, with the top of the head and
the orbits red, and a blueifh -body. It is a native of
North America. 15. The leucoptera, with naked
blue orbits, and the prime wing-feathers white at the
points^, and the intermediate ones yellowifh. It is the
Indian turtle of Edwards, and is a native of Afia.
{6. The guinea, with naked red orbits, a yellowifh
bill, triangular white fpots on the wings, and the
prime wing-feathers black at the points. It is a na¬
tive of Africa. 17. The coronata has black orbits^,
a large ereift creft on the, head, afnd a blueifli body. It
is almoft as large as a peacock, and is a native of Ban¬
da. iS. The ftriata, with hoary orbits, and the bo¬
dy variegated with black and afh-coloured bebs. It is
a native of the Eaft Indies. 19'. Thepalumbus, with
the prime tail-feathers red behind, the prime wing-
feathers edged with white, a white neck, and feather¬
ed legs. It is a native of Europe and Afia. 20. The
cyanocephala, with a blue head, and a white belt, be¬
low the eye. It is a native of America. 21. The
madagafearenfis, with feathered legs, a violet tail, a
greenifh blue body, and the beak and feet red. It
is found in Madagafcar. 22. The aenea, with fea¬
thered legs, greenifli legs and bill, and a brafs-colour¬
ed body. It is a native of the Molucca Ifles. 23. The
viridis, with a brafs-coloured body, a violet belly, and
red legs half covered with feathers. It is found at
Amboina. 24. The martinica, with a violet body, a
yellowifh belly, and the prime wing-feathers red on
the infide. It is found in Martinico. 25. The ja-
maicenfi-s, with bliieifh prime tail-feathers terminated
by a white line. It is found in Jamaica. 26. The
Senegalenfis, with the three outmoft prime tail-fea¬
thers white, and the negk fpotted with black. It is
found in Senegal. 27. The nicobarica has a white
tail, a black body, blue prime wing-feathers, a green-
COL ( 227 ) COM
i/h fhining back, and long feathers on the neck, it
is found in the ifland of Nicombar near Pegu. 28. The
finica is yelloyifh, and belted with black; the belly
is reddilh, the wings yellow, the prime wing-feathers
black, and a black bill. It is a native of China.
29. The indica, with a purple body, green fhoulders,
and the top of the head blueifli. It is a native of the
Eaft Indies. 30. The eanadenfis, with the prime
wing-feathers yellow at the points,, and the prime tail-
feathers alh-coloured. It is a native of Canada.
31. The afra, with the exterior prime tail-feathers
white at the points, and violet fpots on the wing-fea¬
thers. It is a native of Senegal. 32. The turtur,
with the prime tail-feathers white, a greyifh back, and
a flefh-coloured bread. It is a native of India.
33. The riforia is clay-coloured above, and has a
black crefcent on the neck. It is a native of In¬
dia 34. The pofTyriria, with a purple body, and
a yellow bill and legs. It inhabits America with¬
in the tropics. 35. The minuta is the fmallelt of all
pigeons, is of a dulky colour, with five fteel-coloured
fpots on the wings, and the outmoft prime tail-feathers
white. Ic is a native of America. 36. The migvatoria
has a wedge-fhaped tail, red naked orbits, and areddilh
bread. This fpecies is very frequent in North Ame •
rica : They live upon the feeds of the elm, oak, wheat,
(sc. and they winter in Carolina. 37. The caroli-
nenfis has a wedge-diaped tail, blue orbits, and a red-
di(h belly. It is a native of America. 38. The am-
hoinenfis has a wedge-'fhaped tail, a reddilh body,
and a greenidi neck. It is found at Amboina.
39. The capenfis has a wedge-fhaped tail, and the
prime wing-feathers red on the interior fide. It is
found at the Cape of Good Hope. 40. The margi-
nata has a wedge-dxaped tail, a red bread, *and the
points of the prime tail-feathers black and edged with
white.
COLUMBINE, in botany. See Aquilegia.
Feathered Columbine. See Thalic'jtrum.
-COLUMBUS, or Congregation of St Columbus, a
fociety of regular canons, who formerly had an hun¬
dred abbeys or monaderiesin the Britidi iflands.
COLUMELLA, in botany. See Vol. I. p.637.
COLUMN, in architedture, a round pillar, made to
fupport and adorn a building, and compofed of a bafe,
afhaft, and a capital. See Archjtecture.
Column, in the military art, a long deep file of troops
or baggage. .
The fird and fecond lines of the army as they are
encamped, make generally two -columns on a march,
filing off either from the right or left: fometimes the
army marches in four, fix, or eight columns, accor¬
ding as the ground will allow ; and each column is led
by a general officer.
COLUMNS A, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermia clafs. The calix is divided into five feg-
ments ; the upper labium of the corolla is vaulted and
entire, and gibbous at the bafe ; the antherse are con-
nedted; and the capfule is bilocular. There is but
one fpecies, viz. the fcandens, a native of Martinico.
COLURES, in adronomy and geography, two great
Vox. II. No. 39, 3
circles fuppofed to interfedl: each other at right angles
in the poles of the world, and to pafs through the
folditial and equinodlial points of the ecliptic. See
Geography, and Astronomy.
COLURI, a little ifland in the gulph of Engia, in the
Archipelago, about feven miles fouth of Athens: of
thi? ifland Ajax was fovereign: E. long. 240, N. lat.
38°.
COLUTEA, Bastard-sena, in botany, agenusof the
diadelphia decandria clafs. The pod is inflated, and
opens at the top; and the calix is bilabiated. The
fpecies are three, none of them natives of Britain.
COLYMBUS, the Diver, in ornithology, agenus be¬
longing to the order of anferes. The bill has no teeth,
is tubulated, flrait,, and tharp-pointed; the teeth are
in the faux or throat; the nodrils are linear, and at
the bafe of the bill; and the legs are unfit for walking.
There are eleven fpecies, viz. 1. The grylle, with
palmated and three-toed feet, a red body, and the co¬
vering feathers of the wings white. It flies very low,
and is a native of Greenland. 2. The troile, with,
palmated three-toed feet, a black body, a white
breafl and belly, and the fecondary prime feathers of
the wings white at the points. It is found within
the ardic circle. 3. The feptentrionalis, with palrnated
four-toed feet, and an iron-coloured fpot under the
neck; It is a native of the northern lakes of Europe.
They build their nefts upon the (bore without art, and
lay a couple eggs: they run with great quicknefs upon
the water; and prefage ftorms by flying and crying
with a miferable tone of voice. 4. The ardicus,
with palmated Four-toed feet, a hoary head, and a vio¬
let neck. It frequents the northern Teas and lakes.
5. The glacialis, with palmated four-toed feet, and a
violet head and neck. It inhabits the northern feas.
6. The immer, with palmated four-toed feet, the upper
part of the body black and undulated with white, and a
white belly. It inhabits the frozen feas. y.Thecryfta-
lus, with lobated feet, a red head, a black collar, and
white fecohdary prime wing-feathers. It is a native
of Europe. 8. The auritus, with lobated feet, a black
head, and the ears are crefted and of an iron colour.
It frequents the lakes of Europe and America. 9. The
urinator, with lobated feet, a fmooth head, and white
fpots on the wings. It is a native of the fouthern parts
of Europe. 10. The dominicus, with lobated feet,
a fmooth head, and the belly very much fpotted.
11. The padiceps, with lobated feet and a yellowilh
body. It is a native of North America.
COLYTEA, in botany. SccCercis.
COMA, or Coma-vigil, a preternatural propenfity to
fleep', when neverthelefs the patient does not fleep,
or, if he does, awakes immediately without any re¬
lief. See Medicine.
Coma somnolentum, is when the patient continues in
a profound fleep, and, when awaked, immediately re-
lapfes, without being able to keep open his eyes. See
Medicine.
COMARUM, in botany, a genus of plants of the icofan-
dria polygynia clafs. The calix is divided into ten
fedtments; the petals are five, and lefs than the calix,
3 M and
COM ( 22
and the feeds are ovated, fpongy, and perfiftent.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the paluftre, a native
of Europe.
COMB, an inftrument to clean, untangle, and drefs flax,
wool, hair, 6c.
Combs for wool are prohibited to be imported in¬
to Britain.
Comb is alfo the creft or red fleihy tuft growing upon
a cock’s head.
Lady's Comb, in botany. See Scandix.
Comb-fish, in the hiftory of fhell-fifh. See Ostrea.
COMBAT, in a general fenfe, denotes an engagement,
or a difference decided by arms. See Battle.
Combat, in our ancient law, was a formal trial of
fome doubtful caufe or quarrel by the fwords or ba¬
rtons of two champions. This form of proceeding was
very frequent not only in criminal but in civil caufes ;
being built on a prefumption, that God would never
grant the victory but to him who had the beft right.
The laft trial of this kind in England, was between
Donald lord Ray, appellant, and David Ramfay, efq;
defendant; when, after many formalities, the matter
was referred to the king’s pleafure.
-COMBATANT, in heraldry, a term for two hearts,
as lions, <bc. borne in a coat of arms in a fighting po-
rture, with their faces to each other.
COMBINATION, properly denotes an aflemblage of
Several things two by two.
Combination, in mathematics, is the variation or al¬
teration of any number of quantities, letters, or the
like, in all the different manners poffible.
COMEDY. See Epic and Dramatic Composi¬
tions.
COMET, an opake, fpherical, and folid body like a
planet, performing revolutions about the fun in ellip¬
tical orbits, which have the fun in one of the foci.
See Astronomy, p.444.
COMETARIUM, a curious machine exhibiting an idea
of the revolution of a comet about the fun. See
Plate XLVIII. fig. 2.
COMFREY, in botany^. See Symphytum.
COMITIA, in Roman antiquity, an affembly of the
people, either in the comitium or campus martius, for
the eleflion of magiftrates, or confulting on the im¬
portant affairs of the republic.
There were certain days fixed for thefe aflemblies,
called dies comitialest marked with a C in Julius Cse-
far’s calendar,
There were three kinds of comitia, viz. curiata,
centuriata, and tributa, fo diftinguifhed from the man¬
ner wherein the people voted, and gave their fuffrages,
viz. by curise, or panfhes, tribes, or centuries. The
comitia curiata, owe their original to the divifidh which
Romulus made of the people into thirty curise, which
anfwer in moft refpe&s to our parifhes. The comitia
centuriata were inftituted by Servius Tullius. Co-
mitial affemblies beH for the eledion of confuls, were
8 ) COM
called confular comitia. In like manner the other ro-
mitia were named from the officer to be created, whe¬
ther a tribune, pontif, asdile, or th^ like. The power
of calling thefe affemblies, belonged <at firft only to
the kings : but on the eftablifliment £f the democracy,
the fame privilege was allowed to moft of the chief
magiftrates, and fometimes to the pontiff.
COMITIALIS MORBUS, an appellation given to the
epilepfy, by reafon the comitia of ancient Rome were
diffoived, if any perfon in the affembly happened to be
taken with this dfftemper.
COMITIUM, in Roman antiquity, a large hall in the
forum, where the comitia were ordinarily held.
COMMA, among grammarians, a point or chara&er
marked thus (,) ferving to denote a fhort flop, and to
divide the members of a period.
Comma, in mufic, an interval equal to the difference of
the tone major or minor, and expreffed by the ratio
81 : 80.
COMMELINA, in botany, a genus of the triandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla is divided into fix feg-
ments ; it has three crofs-like ne&aria inferred by their
proper filaments. The fpecies are ten, none of them
natives of Britain.
COMMEMORATION, in a general fenfe, ihe remem¬
brance of any perfon or thing ; or the doing any thing
in honour of a perfon’s memory, or in remembrance of
any part event. Thus the eucharirt is a commemora¬
tion of the fufferings of Jefus Chrift.
COMMENDAM, in the ecclefiaftical law, the truft or
adminiftration of the revenues of a benefice, given ei¬
ther to a layman, to hold, by way of dtfojituvi, for
fix months, in order to repairs, 6c. or to an ecclefi-
aftic, or beneficed perfon, to perform the paftoral du¬
ties thereof, till once the benefice is provided with a
regular incumbent.
COMMENSURABLE, among geometricians, an ap¬
pellation given to fuch quantities as are meafured by
one and the fame common meafure.
Commensurable numbers, whether integers or frac¬
tions, are fuch as can be meafured or divided by fome
other number, without any remainder : fuch are 12
and 18, as being meafured by 6 or 3.
Commensurable in power, is faid of right lines,
when their fquares are meafured by one and the fame
fpace or fuperficies.
Commensurable surds, thofe that being reduced to
their leaft terms, become true figurative quantities of
their kind ; and are therefore as a rational quantity to
a rational one.
COMMENTARY, or Comment, in matters of litera¬
ture, <ctn illuftration of the difficult or obfcure paffages
of an author.
Commentary, or Commentaries, likewife denotes
a kind of hiftory, or memoirs of certain tranfaAions,
wherein the author had a confiderable hand: fuch are
the commentaries of Casfar.
COMMERCE,
( *29 )
\ C O M M
COMMERCE is an operation, by which the wealth,
or work, either of individuals, or of foeieties, may
be exchanged, by a fet of men called merchants, for
an equivalent, proper for fupplying every want, without
any interruption to indultry, or any check upon confump-
tion.
We (hall begin by tracing commerce to its fource, in
order to reduce it to its firft principles.
The molt Ample of all trade, is that which is carried
on by bartering the neceffary articles of fubfiftence. If
we fuppofe the earth free to the firft poflefl'er, this per-
fon who cultivates it will firlt draw from it his food, and
the furplus will be the objett of barter : he will give this
in exchange to any one who'will fupply his other wants.
This naturally fuppofes both a furplus quantity of food
produced by labour, and alfo free hands ; for he who
makes a trade of agriculture cannot fupply himfelf with
all other neceffaiies, as well as food; and he who makes
a trade of fupplying the farmers.with fuch neceffaries, in
exchange for his fuiplus of food, cannot be employed in
producing that food. The more the neceflities of man
increafe, the more free hands are required to fupply
them ; and .the more free hands are required, the more
furplus food mull be produced by additional labour, to
fupply their demand.
This is the lead complex kind of trade, and may be
carried on to a greater or lefs extent, in different coun¬
tries, according to the different degrees of the wants to
be fupplied. In a country where there is no money,
nor any thing equivalent to it, the wants of mankind will
be Confined to few objects ; to wit, the removing the
inconveniencies of hunger, third, cold, heat, danger,
and the like. A free man, who, by his indudry, can
procure all the comforts of a fimple life, will enjoy his
red, and work no more: and, in general, all increafe of
work will ceafe, fo foon as the demand for the purpofes
mentioned comes to be fatisfied. There is a plain reafon
for this. When the free hands have procured, by their
labour, wherewithal to fupply their wants, their ambi¬
tion is fatisfied : fo foon as the hulbandmen have produ¬
ced the neceffary furplus for relieving theirs, they.work
no more. Here then is a natural flop put to indudry,
confequently to bartering.
The next thing to be examined is, how bartering grows
into trade, prSperly fo called and underllood, according"
to the definition given ot it above; how trade comes to
be extended among men ; how manufactures, more orna¬
mental than ufeful, come to be edablilhed; and how men
come to fubmit to labour, in order to acquire what is not
abfolutely neceffary for them.
This, in a free fociety, is chiefly owing to the intro¬
duction of money, and a tade for fuperfluities in thofe
vino polled it.
In ancient times, money was not wanting ; but the
E R C E.
tade for fuperfluities not being in proportion to it, the
fpecie was locked up. This was the cafe in Europe
four hundred years ago. A new tade for fuperfluity has
drawn, perhaps, more money into circulation, from our
own treafures, than from the mines of the new world.
The poor opinion we entertain of the riches of our fore¬
fathers, is founded upon the modern way of edimating
wealth, by the quantity of coin in circulation, from
which we conclude, that the greated part of the fpecie
now in our hands mud have come from America.
It is more, therefore, through the tade of fuperfluity,
than in confequence of the quantity of coin, that trade
. comes to be edablifhed ; and it is only in confequence of
trade that we fee indudry carry things in our days to fo
high a pitch of refinement and dqlicacy. Let us illudrate
this, by comparing together the different operations of
barter, fale, and commerce.
When reciprocal wants are fupplied by barter, there is
not the fmalled occafion for money : this is the mod Am¬
ple of all combinations.
When wants are multiplied,' bartering becomes more
difficult; upon this money is introduced. This is the
common price of all things : it is a proper equivalent in
the hands of thofe who want, perfedtly calculated to fup¬
ply the occaffons of thofe who, by indudry, can relieve
them. This operation of buying and felling is a little
more complex than the former; but dill we have here
no idea of trade, becaufe we have not introduced the
merchant, by whofe indudr.y it is carried on.
Let this third perfon be brought into play, and the
whole operation becomes clear. What before we called
wants, is here reprefented by the confumer; what we
called indudry, by the manufacturer; what we called
money, by the merchant. The merchant here reprefents
the money, by fubdituting credit in its place; and as the
money was invented to facilitate barter, fo the merchant,
with his credit, is a new reAnement upon the ufe of mo¬
ney. This renders it dill more effectual in performing
the operations of buying and felling. This operation is
trade : it relieves both parties of the whole trouble of
tranfportation, and adjuding wants to wants, or wants to
money; the merchant reprefents by turns both the con¬
fumer, the manufacturer, and the money. To the con¬
fumer he .appears as the whole body cf manufacturers;
to the manufacturers as the whole body of confumers *
and to the one and the other clafs his credit fupplies tha
ufe of money. This is fufficient at prefent for an illu-
dration. We now return to the Ample operations of
money in the hands of the two contracting parries, the
buyer and the feller, in or*der to dhow how men come to
fubmit to labour in order to-acquire fuperfluities.
So foon as money is introduced into a country, it be¬
comes an univerfal objeCt of want to all the inhabitants
The confequence is, that die free hands of the date~
■who*
a^o COMM
who before ftopt working, becaufe all their wants were
provided for, having this new object of ambition before
their eyes, endeavour, by refinements upon their labour,
to remove the fmaller inconveniences which refult from
a fimplicity of manners. People, who formerly knew
but one fort of clothing for all feafons, willingly part
with a little money to procure for themfelves different
forts of apparel properly adapted to fummer and winter,
which the ingenuity of manufa&urers, and their defire
of getting money, may have fnggefted to their invention.
Indeed thefe refinements feem more generally owing
to the induftry and invention of the manufadfurers, (who
by their ingenuity daily contrive means of foftening or
relieving inconveniencies, which rhankind feldom perceive
to be fuch, till the way of removing them is contrived),
than to the tafte of luxury in the rich, who, to indulge
their eafe, engage the poor to becpme induftrious.
Let any man make an experiment of this nature upon
himfelf, by entering into the firft fhop. He will no
where fo quickly difcover his wants as there. Every
thing he fees appears either neceffary, or at leaf! highly
convenient; and he begins to wonder how he-could have
been fo long without that which the ingenuity of the
workman alone had invented, in order that from the no¬
velty it might excite his defire; for perhaps when it is
bought, he will never once think of it more, nor ever
apply it to the ufe for which it at firft appeared fo ne-
ceffary.
Here thends a reafon why mankind labour though not
in want. They become defirous of pofTeffing the very
inftruments of luxury, which their avarice or ambition
prompted them to invent for the ufe of others.
What has been faid reprefents trade in its infancy, or
rather the materials with which that great fabrick is
built.
We have formed an idea of the wants of mankind
multiplied even to luxury, and abundantly fupplied by
the employment of all the free hands fet apart for that
purpofe. But, if we fuppofe the workman himfelf dif-
pqiing of his Work, and purchafing with it food from the
farmer, cloaths from the clothier; and, in general, feek-
ing for the fupply of every want from the hands of the
perfon direftly employed for the purpofe of relieving it;
this will not convey an idea of trade, according to our
definition. .
Trade and commerce are an abbreviation of this long
procefs ; a fcheme invented and fet on foot by merchants,
from a principle of gain, fupported and extended among
men, from a principle of general utility to every indivi¬
dual, rich or poor, to every fociety, great or fmall.
Inftead of a pin-maker exchanging his pins with fifty
different perfons, for whofe labour he has occafion, he
fells all to the merchant for money or for credit; and,
as bccafion offers, he purchafes all his wants, either di-
reftly from thole who fupply them, or from other mer¬
chants who deal with manufacturers in the fame way his
merchant dealt with him.
Another advantage of trade is, that induftrious people
in one part of the country, may fupply cuftomers in an¬
other, though diftant. They may eftablilh themfelves
in the moil commodious places for their refipettive bufi-
E R C E.
nefs, and help one another reciprocally, without making
the diftant parts of the country fuffer for want of their
labour. They are likewife expofed to no avocation from
their work, by feeking for cuftomers.
Trade produces many excellent advantages; it marks
out to the' manufacturers when their branch is under or
over ftocked with hands. If it is underftocked, they will
find more demand than they can anfwer: if it is over-
ftocked, the fale will be flow.
Intelligent men, in every profeflion, will eafily difco¬
ver when thefe appearances are accidental, and when they
proceed from the real principles of trade.
Ports, and correfpondence by letters, are a confe-
quence of trade ; by the means of which merchants are re¬
gularly informed of every augmentation or diminution of
induftry in every branch, in every part of the country.
From this knowldge they regulate the prices they offer;
and as they are many, they ferve as a check upon one
another, from the principles of competition.
From the current prices the manufacturers are as well
informed as if they kept the correfpondence themfelves :
the ftatefman feels perfectly where hands are wanting, and
young people deftined to induftry, obey, in a manner, the
call of the public, and fall naturally in to fupply the de¬
mand.
Two great afliftances to merchants, efpecially in the
infancy of trade, are public markets for collecting the
work of fmall dealers, and large undertakings in the ma¬
nufacturing way by private hands. By thefe means the
merchants come at the knowledge of the quantity of work
in the market, as on the other hand the manufacturers
learn, by the fale of the goods, the extent of the de¬
mand for them. Thefe two things being juftly known,
the price of goods is eafily fixed.
Public feles ferve to correct the fmall inconveniencies
which proceed from the operations of trade. A fet of
manufacturers got ail together into one town, and entire¬
ly taken up with their induftry, are thereby as well in¬
formed of the rate of the market as if every one of them
carried thither his work, and upon the arrival of the
merchant, who readily takes it off their hands, he has not
the leaft advantage over them from his knowledge of the
ftate of demand. This man both buys and fells in what
is called wh.olefale; and from him retailers purchafe, who
diftribute the goods to every confumer throughout the
country. Thefe laft buy from wholefale merchants in
every branch, that proportion of every kind of merchan¬
dize whi'ch is fuitable to the demand of their borough,
city, or province.
Thus all inconveniencies are prevented, at feme ad¬
ditional coft to the confumer, wbo muft naturally re-
imburfe the whole expence. The diftance of the
manufacturer, the obfcurivy of his dwelling, the ca¬
price in felling his work, are quite removed; the re¬
tailer has all in his {hop, and the public buys at a cur¬
rent price.
Hovj the Prices of Goods are determined by 'Trade.
In the price of goods, two things muft be confidered
as really exifting, and quite different from one another ;
to
COMM
to wit, the real value of the commodity, and the profit
upon alienation.
I. The firft thing to be known of any manufafture,
when it comes to be fold, is, how much of it a perfon can
perform in a day, a week, a month, according to the
nature of the work, which may require more or lefs
time to bring it to perfection. In-making Tuch eflimates,
regard is to be had only to what, upon an average, a
workman of the country in general may perform, with¬
out fuppofing him the befl: or the word in his profeflion,
or having any peculiar advantage or difadvantage as to the
place where he works.
Hence the reafon why fome people thrive by their in-
duftry, and others not; why fome manufactures flourifh
in one place, and not in another.
II. The fecond thing to be known, is the value of the
workman’s fubfiftence, and neceffary expence, both for
fupplying his perfonal wants, and providing the inftru-
ments belonging’ to his profeflion, which muft be taken
upon an average as above; except when the nature of the
work requires the prefen^e of the workman in the place
of confumptioh : for although fome trades, and almoft eve
ry manufacture, may be carried on in places a£ a diftance,
and therefore may fall under one general regulation as to
prices; yet others there are which, by their nature, re¬
quire the prefence of the workman in the place of con-
fumption ; and in that cafe the prices muft be regulated
by circumftances relative to every particular place.
III. The third and laft thing to be known, is the va¬
lue of the materials, that is, the firft matter employed
by the workman ; and if the objeCt of his induftry be the
manufacture of another, the fame procefs of inquiry
muft be gone through with regard to the fii ft,- as with
regard to the fecond : and thus the moft complex manu¬
factures may be at laft reduced to the greateft fimplicity.
Thefe three articles being knowh, the price of manu¬
facture is determined. It cannot be lower than the a-
mount of all the three, that is, than the real value;
whatever it is higher, is the manufaCtuYer’s profit. This
will ever be in proportion to demand, and therefore will
fluctuate according to circumftanees.
Hence appears the neceflity of a great demand, in or¬
der to promote flourifhing manufactures.
By the extenfive dealings of merchants, and their con-
ftant application to the ftudy of the balance of work and
demand, all the above circumftances are known to them,
and are'made known to the induftrious, who regulate
their living artd expence according to their certain profit.
Employ a workman in a country where there is little
trade or induftry, he proportions his price always to the
urgency of your want, or your capacity to pay; but fel-
dom to his own labour. Employ anothef in a country
of- trade, he will not impofe upon you, unlefs perhaps
you be a ftranger, which fuppofes your being ignorant of
the value ;' but employ the fame workman in a work not
ufual in the country, confequently not demanded, con-
fequently not regulated as to the value, he will propor¬
tion his price as in the firft fuppofition.
We may therefore conclude from what has been faid,
that ip a country where trade has be^n eftablifhed, ma¬
nufactures muft flourifh; from the ready Tale, the regula-
Vol. II. No. 39. v 3
E R C E. 231
ted price of work, and the certain profit refulting from
induftry. Let us next inquire into the confequences of
fuch a fituation.
How foreign Trade opens to an induftrious People,
and the Confequences of it to the Merchants
who fet it on foot.
The firft confequence of the fituation defcribed in the
preceding feCtion is, that wants are eafily fupplied, for
the adequate value of the thing wanted.
The next confequence is, the opening of foreign trade
under its two denominations of pallive and aCtive. Stran¬
gers and people of diftant countries, finding the diffi¬
culty of having their wants fupplied at home, and the
eafe of having them fupplied from this country, immedi¬
ately have recourfe to it. This is paflive trade. The aCtive
is when merchants, who have executed this plan at home
with fuccefs, begin to tranfpoft the labour of their coun¬
trymen into other regions, which either produce, or are
capable of producing fuch articles of confumption, proper
to be manufactured, as are moft demanded at home; and
confequently will meet with the readieft fale, and fetch
the largeft profits.
• Here then is the opening of foreign trade, under its
two' denominations of aCtive and paftive.
What then are the confequences of this new commerce
to our merchants, who have left their homes in queft of
gain aboard ?
The firft is, that, arriving in any new country, they
find themfelves in the fame fituation, with regard to the
inhabitants, as the workman in the country of no trade
with regard to thofe who employed him ; that is, they
proportion the price of their goods to the eagernefs of
acquiring, or the capacity of paying, in the inhabitants,
but never to their real value. *
The firft profits then, upon this trade, muft be very
confiderable ; and the demand from fuch a country will
be high or lo<w, great orfnall, according to the fpirit,
not the real wants of the people : for thefe in all coun¬
tries muft firft be fupplied by the inhabitants themfelves,
before they ceafe to labour.
If the people of this not-trading country be abundant¬
ly furnifhed with commodities ufeful to the traders,’ they
will eafily part with them, at firft, for the inftruments of
luxury and eafe ; but the great profit of the traders will
infenfibly increafe the demand for the productions of the’r
new correfponcients; this will have the efFeCt of produ¬
cing a competition between themfelves, and thereby of
throwing,the demand on their fide. This is perpetually
a difadvantage in traffic: the moft unpoliffied nations in
the world quickly perceive the effects of it; and are
taught to profit by the difeovery, in fpite of the addrefs
of thofe who are the moft expert in commerce.
The traders will therefore be very fond of falling upon
every method and contrivance to infpire this people with
a tafte of refinement and delicacy. Abundance of fine
prefents, confifting of every inftrument of luxury and fu-
perfluity, the beft adapted to the genius of the people,
will be given to the prince and leading men among them!
Workmen will even be employed at home to ftudy the
3 N ufte
232 COMM
tafie of tlie Grangers, and to captivate theit defires by e-
very poffible means. The more eager they are of pre-
fents, the more laviih the traders will be in bellowing
and diverfifying them. It is an animal.put up to fatten,
the more he eats the fooner he is fit for {laughter. When
their tafte for fuperfluity is fully formed, when the re-
lifii for their former fimplicity is fophidicated, poifoned,
and obliterated, then they are furely in tire fetters of the
traders, and the deeper they go, the lefs pofiibility there
is of their getting out. The prefents then will die away,
having ferved their purpofe; and if afterwards they are
found to be continued, it will probably be to fupport the
competition againft other nations, who will incline to
ihare of the profits.
If,' on the contrary, this not-trading nation does not
abound with commodities ufeful to the traders, thefe
will make little account of trading with them, whatever
theirturn may re ; but, if we fuppofe this country inha¬
bited by a laborious people, who, having taken a tafte
for refinement from- the traders, apply themfelves to a-
griculture, in order to produce articles of fubfiftence,
they will folicit the merchants to give them part of their
manufactures in exchange for thofe ; and this trade will
undoubtedly have the effect of multiplying numbers in
the trading nation. But if food cannot be furnifiied,
nor any other branch of production found out to fupport
the correfpondence, the tafte for refinement will foon die
aw'ay, and trade will ftop in this quarter.
Had it not been for the furs in thofe countries adja¬
cent to Hudfon’s Bay, and in Canada, the Europeans
never would have thought of fupplying inftruments of
luxury to thofe nations; and if the inhabitants of thofe
regions had not taken a tafte for the inftruments of luxu¬
ry, furniihed to them by the Europeans, they never would
have become fo indefatigable nor fo dextrous hunters.
At the fame time we are not to fuppofe, that ever thefe
Americans would have come to Europe in queft of our
manufa&ures. It is therefore owing to our merchants,
that thefe nations are become in any degree fond of re¬
finement; and this tafte, in all probability, will not foon
exceed the proportion of the productions of their country.
From tbefe beginnings of foreign trade it is eafy to trace
its increafe.
One ftep towards this, is the eftablilhing correfpon-
dences in foreign countries; and thefe are more or lefs
neceflary in proportion as the country where they are e-
ftablifiied is more or lefs poliftied or acquainted with
trade. They fupply the want of ports, and point out to
the merchants what proportion the productions of'the
country bear to the demand of the inhabitants for ma¬
nufactures. This communicates an idea of commerce to
the not-trading nation, and they infenfibly begin to fix
a determined value upon their own productions, which
perhaps bore no determined value at all before.
Let us trace a little the progrefs of this refinement in
the favages, in. order to ihew how it has the effeCt of
throwing the d'emand upon the traders, and of creating
a competition among them, for the productions of the
new "country.
Experience {hews, that, in a new difcovered country,
merchants conftantly find fome article or other of its pro-
£ R C E.
duCtions, which turns out to a great account in commerce ;
and we fee that the longer iucn a trade fublifts, and the
more the inhabitants take a tafte far European manufac¬
tures, the more their own productions rife in their va¬
lue, and the lefs profit is made by trading with- them,
even ki cafes where the trade is carried on by companies ;
which is a very wife inftitution for one reafon, that it
cuts off a competition between our merchants.
This is the heft means of keeping prices low in fa¬
vour of the nation; however it may work a contrary ef¬
fect with refpeCt to individuals who muft buy from thefe
monopolies.
When companies are not eftablilhed, and when trade
is open, our merchants, by their eagernefs to profit by
the new trade, betray the fecrets of it, they enter into
competition for the purchafe of the foreign produce, and
this raifes prices, -and favours the commerce of the moft
ignorant favages.
Confequences of the Introduction of a pafllve- fo¬
reign Trade among a People who live in Sim¬
plicity and Idlenefs.
We now fuppofe the arrival of traders, all in one in-
tereft, with inftruments of luxury and refinement, at a
port in a country of great fimplicity of manners, abun¬
dantly provided by nature with great advantages for com¬
merce, and peopled by a nation capable of adopting a
tafte for fuperfluities.
The firlf tiring the merchants do is, to expofe their
goods, and point out the advantages of many things, ei
ther agreeable or ufeful to mankind in general, fuch as
wines, Ipirits, inftruments of'agricuiture, arms, and am1-
munition for hunting, nets for filhing, manufactures for
clothing, and the like. The advantages of thefe are pre-
fently perceived, and fuch commodities are eagerly fought
after.
The natives on their fide produce what they moft e-
fteem. generally fomething fuperfluous or ornamental.
The traders, after examining all circumftances, deter¬
mine the objeCt of their demand, giving the leaf! quan¬
tity poffible in return for this fuperfluity, in order to im-
prefs the inhabitants with a high notion of the value of
their own commodities ; but as this parfimony may do
more hurt than good tq their intereft, they are very ge¬
nerous in making prefents, from the principles mention¬
ed above.
When the exchange is completed, and the traders de¬
part, regret is commonly mutual; the one and the other
are forty that the fuperfluities of the country fall lhort»
A return is promifed by the traders, and aflurances
are given by the natives of a better provifion another
time.
What are the firft confequences'of this revolution?
It is evident, that, in order to fupply an equiva¬
lent for this new want, more hands mu ft be fet to woilc
than formerly. And it is evident alfo, that this augment¬
ation of induftry will not eftentially increafe numbers :
Why ? Becaufe the produce of the induftry is, in this
cafe, intended to be exported. But, if we can find out
any additional confumptioa at home, even implied by
, this_
COMM
this new trade, it will have the efted of augmenting
numbers. An example will make this plain.
Let us fuppofe the fuperfluity of this country to be the
flcins of wild hearts, not proper for food; the manufac¬
ture fought for, brandy. The brandy is fold for furs.
He who has furs, or he who can fpare time to hunt for
them, will drink brandy-in proportion : but there is no
reafon to conclude from this limple operation, that one
man more in the country muft necelfarily be fed, or that
any augmentation of agriculture muft of confequence en-
fue from this new traffic.
But let us throw in a circumftance which may apply an
additional confumption at home, and then examine the
confequences.
A poor creature who has no equivalent to offer for
food, who is miftrable, and ready to periffi for want of
fubfirtence, goes a hunting, and kills a wolf; he comes'
to a farmer with the Ikin, and fays, You are u'dl fed,
but you have no brandy, if you will give me a loaf, I
will give you this Ikio, which the ftrangers are fo fond
of, and they will give you brandy. But, fays the farm¬
er, I have no more bread than what is fufficient for my
own family. As for that, replies the other, I will come
and dig in your ground, and you and I will fettle our
account as to the fmail quantity I defire of you. The
bargain is made; the poor fellow gets his loaf, and lives
at leaft; perhaps he marries, and the farmer gets a dram.
But had it not been for this dram, that is, this new
want, which was purchafed by the induftry of this poor
fellow, by what argument oould he have induced the
farmer to part with a loaf?
Here the flnnment of chartiy is excluded. This a-
lone is a principle' of multiplication ; but as true it is,
on the other hand, that could the poor fellow have got
bread by begging, he would not probably have gone a-
hunting.
Here then it appears, that the very dawning of trade,^
in the moft unpoliffied countries, implies a multiplication.
This is enough to point out the lirft ftep, and to connedt
the fubjedt of our prefent inquiries with what has been
already difcuffed in relation to other circumftances.
So foon as all tire furs are difpofed of; and a tafte for
fuperfluity is introduced, both the traders and the natives
will be equally intererted in the advancement of induftry
in this country. Many new objedls of profit for the firil
will be difcovered, which the proper employment of the
inhabitants, in reaping the natural advantages of their s,
foil and climate, will make effedlual. The traders will
therefore endeavour to fet on foot many branches of in-
cuftry among the favages, and the allurements of bran¬
dy, arms, and clothing, will animate thefe in the purfuit
of them.
"VVhtn once this revolution is brought about; when,
thofe who formerly lived in fimplicity become induftrious
manners put one a new face.
That is to fay, wre now find two trading nations in-
flead of one, with this difference, however, that as hi¬
therto we have fuppofed the merchants all in one intereft,
the compound demand, that is, the competition of the
buyers, has been, and muft Hill continue on the fide of
E R C F. 233;
the natives. This is a great prejudice to their intereft;
but as it is not fuppofed fufficient to check their induftry,
nor to reftrain their confumption of the manufadhtres,
let us here examine a little more particularly the confe-
quences of the principle of demand in fuch a fituation ;
for although we allow, that it cgn never change fides,
yet it may admit of different modifications, and produce
different effedts, as we fhall prefently perceive.
The merchants we fuppofe all in one intereft, confe-
quently there can be no competition among them ; confe-
quently no theck can be put upon their railing their prices,
as long as the prices they demand are complied with. So
foon as they are railed to the full extent of the abilities
of the natives, or of their inclination to buy, the mer¬
chants have the choice of three things, which are all per-
fedtly in their option; and the preference to be given to
the one or the other, depends entirely upon them-
felves, and upon the circumftances we are going to point
Firft, they may fupport they high demand ; that is,
not lower their price ; which will-preferve a high ellima-
tion of the manufadtures in the opinion of the inhabitants,
and render the profits upon their trade the greateft pofli-
ble. This part they may poffibly take, if they perceive
the natives doubling their diligence, in c.rder to become
able, in time, to purchafe confiderable cargoes at a high
value; fiom which fuppofition is implied a ftrong difpo-
fition in the people to become luxurious, fince nothing
but want of ability prevents-them" from complying with
the higheft demand : but ftill another circumftance muft
concur, to engage the merchants not to lower their price.
The great proportion of the goods they leek for in re¬
turn, muft be found in the hands of a few. This will
be the cafe if llavery be eftabliffied; for then there muft
be many poor, ami few rich : and they are commonly the
rich confumers who proportion the price they offer, ra¬
ther to their delires, than to the value of the thing.
The fecond thing which may be done is, to open the
door to & great demand ; that is, to lower their prices.
This will fink the value of the manufadhires in the opinion
of the inhabitants, and render profits lefs in p/opoition,
although indeed, upon the voyage, the profits may be
greater.
This part they will take, if they perceive the inhabi¬
tants do not incline to confume great quantities of the
merchandize at a high value, either for want of abilities
or inclination ; and alfo, if the profits upon the trade de¬
pend upon a large confumption, as is the cafe in mer¬
chandize of a low value, and fuited chiefly to the occa-
fions of the lower fort. Such motives of expediency-
will be fufficient to make them negledt a high demand,
and prefer a great one ; and the m .re, when there is a
likelihood that tne confumption of low-priced goods in
the beginning may beget a tafte for others of a higher
value, and thus extend in general the tafte of fuperfluity,.
A third part to be taken, is the leaft politic, and per¬
haps the moft familiar. It is to profit by the competi¬
tion between the buyers, and encourage the' riling of de¬
mand as long as pofiible; when this comes to a flop, to.
make a kind of auftion, by firft bringing down the. prices
TO1
2 14 COM M
to the level of the highell bidders, and fo to defcend by
degrees, in proportion as demand finks. Thus we may
fay with propriety, that demand commonly becomes
great, in proportion as prices fink. By this operation,
the traders will profit as much as poffible, and fell off as
much of their goods as the profits will permit.
But this plan, in a new difcovered country, is not po¬
litic, as it both difcovers a eovetoufnefs and a want of
faith in the merchants, and alfo throws open the fecrets
of their trade to thofe who ought to be kept ignorant of
them.
Let us next fuppofe, that the; large profits of our mer¬
chants (hall be difcovered by others, who arrive at the
fame ports in a feparate intereft, and who enter into no
combination which might prevent the natural effe&s of
competition.
Let the date of demand among the natives be fuppo-
fed the fame as formerly, both as to height and great-
nefs, in confequence of the operation of the different
principles, which might have induced our merchants to
follow one or other of the plans we have been 4efcri-
bing ; we muft however ftill fuppofe, thaf they have
been careful to prcferve confiderable profits upon every
branch.
If we fuppofe the inhabitants to have increafed in
numbers, wealth, and tafte for fuperfluity, fince.the laft
voyage, demand will be found rather on the rifing/hand.
Upon the arrival of the merchants in competition with
the former, both will offer to fale : but if both ftand to
the fame prices, it is very natural to fuppofe, that the
former dealers will obtain a pseference ; as, cecteris pari¬
bus, it is always an advantage to know and to be known.
The lafl comers, therefore, have no other way left to
counter-balance this advantage, but to lower their prices.
This is a new phenomenon : here the fall oLprices is
not voluntary as formerly; nor confented to from expe¬
diency ; not owing to a failure of demand, but to the in¬
fluence of a new principle of commerce, to wit, a dou¬
ble competition, which we fhall now examine.
Of Double Competition.
When competition is muchv{Longer on one fide of
the contract than on the other, it is called jimple. This is
the fpecies of competition which is implied in the term
high demand, or when it is faid that demand raifes
prices.
Double competition is, when, in a certain degree, it
takes place on both fidds of the contradl at once, or vi¬
brates alternately from one to the other. This is whaf
reftrains prices to the adequate value of merchandize.
The great difficulty is to diftinguiffi clearly between
the , principles of demand, and thofe of competition :
here then follows the principal differences "between the
two, relatively to the effects they produce feVc rally in
the mercantile contrad of buying aqd felling, which we 1
here expi'efs fhortly by the word contrad.
Simple demand is what brings the quantity of a com¬
modity to market. Many demand, who do not buy;
many offer, who do not fell. This demand is called
great or fmall; it is faid to increafe, to augment, to
E R C E.
fwell; and is expreffed by thefe and other fynommous
terms, which mark an augmentation or. diminution'of
quantity. In this fpecies, two people never demand
the fame thing, but a part of the fame thing, or rhinos
quite alike.'
Compound demand is the principle which raifes prices,"
and never nan make them fink; becaufe fn this cafe more
than one demands the very fame thing. It is folely ap¬
plicable to the buyers, in relation to the price they offer.
This demand is called high or low, and is faid to rife,
t.o fall, to mount, to Jink, and is expreffed by thefe and
other fynonimous terms.
Simple competition, when between buyers,.'is the
fame as compound or high demand-, but differs from it in
fo far, as this may equally take place among fellers,
which compound demand cannot; and then it works a
contrary effedt: it makes prices fink, and is fynonimous
with low demand-, it is this competition which overturns
the balance of work and demand.
Double competition is what is underffood to take place
in almoft every operation of trade ; it is this which pre¬
vents their exceffive rife of prices; it is this which pre¬
vents their exceffive fall. While double competition pre¬
vails, the balance is perfett, trade and induftry flourilh.
Tne capital diftindtion, therefore, between the terms
demand and competition is, that demand is conftantly re¬
lative to the buyers; and when money is not the price,
as in barter, then it is relative to that fide upon which
the greateft competition is found.
We therefore fay, with regard to prices, demand is
high or low. With regard to the quantity of merchan¬
dize, demand is great or fmall. With regard to com¬
petition, it is always called great or- fmall, frong or
weak.
Competition is, with, equal ^propriety, applicable to
both parties in the contradt. A competition among buyers
is a proper expreffion ; a competition among fellers, who
have the merchandize, is fully as eafily underltood, tho’
it be not quite fo ftriking, for reafons which an example
will make plain.
Ypu come to a fair, where you find a great variety of
every kind of merchandize, in the poffeffion of different
merchants. Thefe, by offering their goods to fale, con-
ftitute a tacit competition; every one of them wiffies to
fell in preference to another, and at the fame time with
the beft advantage to hpnfelf.
The buyers begin, by cheapning at every {hop. The
firft price affied marks the covetohfnefs of the feller; the
firft price offered, the avarice of the buyer. From this
operation competition begins to work its effedts on both
fides, and fo becomes double. The principles which in¬
fluence this operation are now to be deduced.
It is impoffible to fuppofe the fame degree of eagernefs,
either to buy or to fell, among feveral merchants; bp-
caufe the degree of eagernefs is exadtly in proportion to
their view of profit; and as thefe muff neceffarily be in¬
fluenced and regulated by different cifcumftances, that
Suyer, who has the belt profpedt of felling again with
profit, obliges him, whofe profpedt is not fo good, to
content himfelf with lefs ; and that feller, who has
bought to the tieft advantage, obliges him, dvho has paid
' dearer
. C O M M
dearer for the merchandize, to moderate his defire of
gain.
It is from thefe principles, that competition among
buyers jind fellers mull: take place. This is what con¬
fines' the fluctuation of prices within limits which ar4e
compatible with the reafonable profits of both buyers
and fellers; for we mult conftantly fuppofe the whole
operation of buying and felling to be performed by
merchants; the buyer cannot be fuppofed to give lo
high a price as that which he expeds to receive,
when he dillributes to the confumers, nor can’ the
feller be fuppofed to accept of a lower than that which
he paid to the manufacturer.. This competitioh is pro¬
perly called double, becaufe of the difficulty to deter¬
mine upon which fide it Hands; the fame merchant may
have it in his favour upon certain articles, and againit
him upon others; it is continually In vibration, and the
arrival of every port may lefs or more pull down the
heavy fcale.
In every tranfaCtion between merchants, the profit re-
fulting from the fale muff be exactly diftinguiflxed from
the. value of the merchandize. The firft may vv.cy, the
laft never can. It is this profit alone which can be in¬
fluenced by competition; and it is for that reafon we
find fuch uniformity every where in the prices of goods
• of the fame quality.
The competition between fellers does not appear fo
ftriking, as that between buyers ; becaufe he who offers
to fale, appears only palfive in the firff operation; where¬
as the buyers prefent themfelves one after another ; they
make a demand when the merchandize is refufed to one
at a certain price, a fecond either offers more, or does
not offer all: but fo foon as another feller finds his ac¬
count in accepting the price the firft had refufed, then
the jirft enters into competition, providing his profits 'will
admit his lowering the firft price, and thus competition
takes place among the fellers, until the profits upon their
trade prevent prices from falling lower.
In all markets this competition is varying, though in-
fenfibly, on many’occafions ; but in others, the vibra¬
tions are very perceptible. Sometimes it is found ftrong-.
eft on the fide of the buyers ; and in proportion as this
grows, _the competition between the fellers diminifttes.
When the' competition 'between the former has raifed
prices to a certain ftandard, it comes to a flop; then
the competition changes fides, and takes place among the
fellers, eager to profit of the higheft price. This makes
prices fall, and according as they fall, the competition
among the buyers diminifhes. They ftill wait for the
Ihweft period. At laft it comes; and then perhaps fome
new circumftance, by giving the balance a kick, difap
points their hopes, if therefore it ever happens, that
there is but one intereft upon one fide of the contfaft, as
in the example in the former fe<ftion, where we fuppofed
the fellers united, you perceive, that the rife of the
price, occafioned by the competition of the buyers, and
even its coming to a Hop,' could not poflibly have the ef¬
fect of producing any competition on the other fide;
and therefore, if prices come afterwards to fink, the fall
muft have proceeded from the prudential confidera-
Vol.'JI. No. 40. ‘ 3
E R C E. 235
tions of adapting the price to the faculties of thofe
who, Trom the height of it, had withdrawn their de¬
mand.
From thefe principles of competition, the foreftalling
of markets is made-a crime, becaufe it diminilhcs the
competition which ought to take place between different
people, who have the fame merchandize to offer to
fale. The foreftaller buys all up, with an intention to
fell with more profit, as he has by that means taken o-
ther competitors out of the way, and appears with a
fingle intefeft on one fide of the contraft, in the face of
many competitors on the other. This perfon is punifhed
by the ftate, becaufe he has prevented the price of the
merchandice from becoming juftly proportioned to the
real value ; he has robbed the public, and enriched him-
felf; and in the punifhment he makes reftitution. Here"
occur two queftions to be refolved,. for the fake of illu-
ftration.
Can competition among buyers poflihly take place,
when the provifion made is more than fuflicient to fupply
the quantity demanded ? On the other hand, can com¬
petition take place among the fellers, when the quantity
demanded exceeds the total provifion made for it ?
We think it may in both cafes; becaufe in the one and
the other, there is a competition implied on one fide of
the contract, and the very nature of this competition im¬
plies a poflibility of its coming on the other, provided-
feparate interefts be found upon both fides. But to be
more particular :
1. Experience fltews, that however juftly the propor¬
tion between the demand and the fupply may be deter¬
mined in fatft, it is ftill next to impoflible to difcover it
• exaftly, and therefore the buyers can only regulate the
prices they offer, by what fhey may reafonably expedt to
iell for again. The fellers, on the other hand, can only
regulate the prices they expedl, by what the merchandize
has call them when brought to market. We have al¬
ready fliewn, how, under fuch circnmftances, the feveral
interefts of individuals affedl: each other, and make the
balance vibrate.
2. The proportion between the fupply and the demand
is feldom other than relative among merchants, who are
fuppofed to buy and fell, not from neceffity, .but from a
view to profit. What we mean.by relative is, that their
demand is or ftnall, according to prices; there
may be a great demand for grain at 35 s. per quarter,
and no demand at all for it at 40s.; that is, among
merchants.
It is effential to attend to the fmalleft circuraftance in
matters of this kind. The circumftance we mean, is the
difference we find in the effedt of competition, when it
takes place purely among merchants on both fides of the
contradf, and when it happens, that either the confumers
mingle themfelves with the merchant buyers, or the ma-
nufadturers, that is, the furniftiers, mingle themfelves
with the merchant-fellers. This combination we Ihall il-
luflnte, by the folution of another queftion, and then
conclude with a few refledtions upon the whole.
Can there be no cafe formed, where the competition
upon one fide may fubfift, without a poflibility of its ta-
3 O - king
2 3 6 C O M M
king place on the other, although there (liquid be fepa-
rate interelb upon both ?
The cafe is hardly fuppofable among merchants, who
buy-and fell with a view to profit; but it is abfolutely
ftippofable, and that is all, when the direct confumers are
the buyers; when the circumdances of one of the parties
is perfectly known ; and when the competition is fo ftrpng
upon one fide, as to prevent a poffibility of its becoming
double, before the whole provifion is fold off, or the de¬
mand fatisfied. Let us have recourfe to examples.
Grain arriving in a fmall quantity, at a port where
the inhabitants are (larving, produces fo great a competi¬
tion among the confumers, who are the buyers, that
their neceflity becomes evident; all the grain is generally '
bought up before prices can rife fo high as to come to a
flop; becaufe nothing but want of money, that is, an
impoffibilily of complying with the prices demanded by
the merchants, can reftrain them.: but if you fuppofe,
even here, that prices come naturally to a flop ; or that,
after fome time, they fall lower, from prudential con-
fiderations; then there is a poffibility of a competition
taking place among the fellers, from the principles above
deduced. If, on the contrary, the flop is not natural,
.but occafioned by .the interpofnion of the reagiftrate,
from humanity, or the like, there will be no competi¬
tion, becaufe then the principles of commerce are fufpend-
ed; the fellers are reftrained on one fide, and they re-
flrain the buyers on the other. Or rather, indeed, it is
the magiflrate, or compaflion, who in a manner fixes
the price, and performs the office of both buyer and
feller.
A better example dill may be found, in a competition
among fellers; where it may be fo ffrong, as to render
a commodity in a manner of no value at all, as in the
cafe of an uncommon and unexpected draught of fifli, in
a place of fmall confumption, when no preparations have
been made for "faking them. There can be then no com¬
petition among the buyers; becaufe the market cannot
laft, and they find themfelves entirely makers, to give
what price they pleafe, being fure the fellers muft accept
of it, or lofe their merchandize. In the firfl example,
humanity commonly flops the activity of the principle of-
competition; in the other it is ftopt by a certain degree
of fair-dealing, which forbids the accepting of a mer¬
chandize for nothing.
In proportion therefore as the rifing of prices can flop
demand, or the finking of prices can increa-fe it, in the
fame proportion will competition prevent either the rife
or the fall from being carried beyond a certain length :
and if fuch a cafe can be put, where the rifing of prices
cannot flop demand, nor the lowering of prices augment
it, in fuch cafes double competition has no effect; be¬
caufe thefe circumkances unite the mok feparate interdls
of buyers and lellers ,in the mercantile contradf; and when
upon one fide there is no feparate intereft, there can then
be no competition.
From what has been (aid, we may form a judgment
cf the various degrees of competition. A book not
worth a (hilling, a fifh of a few pounds weight, are often
fold for confiderable fums. The buyers here are not
merchants. When an ambaffador leaves a court in a
E R C E.
hurry, things are fold f. r lefs than the half.of their va¬
lue : he is no merchant, and his fitnation is known.
When, at a public market, there are found confumers,
who make their provifion ; or mannfiuAurers, who dif-
pofe of their goods for prefent fubfikence ; the mer¬
chants, who are refpe&ively upon the pppofite fide of the
contrail to thefe, profit of their competition ; and thole
who are refpeilively upon the fame fide with them, kand
by with patience, until they have finifiied their bufinefs.
Then matters come to he carried on between merchant
and merchant, and then profits may rife and fall, in the
proportion of quantity to .demand ; that is to fay, if the
provifion is lefs than the demand, the competition a-
mong the demanders, or the rife of the price, will be in
the compound proportion of the falling (hort of the com¬
modity, and of tf^e profpeit of felling again with profit.
It is this combination which regulates the competition,
and keeps it within bounds. 'It can affedt but the profits
upon the tranfadtion ; the intrinfic value of the commo¬
dity kands immoveable : nothing is ever fold below the
real value ; nothing is ever bought for more than it may
probably bring. We mean in general. Whereas, .fo
Toon as confumers and needy manufadlurers mingle in the
operation, all proportion is lo(l. The competition be¬
tween them is too krong for the merchants ; the balance
vibrates by jerks. In fuch markets merchants feldom
appear : the principal objedls there, are the fruits and
produdlions of the earth, and articles of the firk neceflity
for life, jiot manufadlures kridtlyfo called. A poor fel¬
low often fells, to purchafe bread to eat; not to pay
what he did eat while he was employed in the work he
difpofes of. The confumer often meafures the value of
what he is about to purchafe, by the Weight of his purfe*
and his defire to confume.
Of ivhat is called Expence, Profit, and Lofs*
The term expence, when (imply expreffed, without
any particular relation, is always underflood to be relative
to mondy. This kind is dikinguiflied under the three,
"heads of private, public, and national.
1. Private expence is, what a private perfon, or pri¬
vate fociety, lays out, either to provide articles of con¬
fumption, or fomething-more permanent, which maybe
conducive to their eafe, convenience, or advantage.
Thus we fay, a large domefiic expence', relative to one
who fpends a great income. We fay, a merchant has
been at great expence for magazines, for living, for
clerks, .<bc,. but never that he has been at any in buying
goods. In the fame way a manufadturer may expend for
building, machines, horfes, and carriages, but never for
the matter he manufadtures. When a thing is bought, in
order to be fold again, the fum employed is called mo¬
ney advanced; when it is bought not to be fold, it may
be faid to be expended.
2. Public expence is, the employment of that money,
which has been contributed by individuals, for the cur¬
rent fervice of the kate. The contribution, or gather¬
ing it together, reprefents the effedls of many articles of
private expence ; the laying it out when colledted, is pu¬
blic expence.
j. Naiianat
COMM
3. National exp^nce, is what is expended out of the
country : this is what diminifhes national wealth. The
principal diftinttion to be here attended to, is between
public expend, or the laying out of public money, and
national expence, which is the alienating the nation’s
wealth in favour of Rrangers. Thus the greateft public
expence imaginable, may be no national expence; becaufe
the money may remain at home. On the other hand,
the fmallelt public, or even private expence, may be a
national expence ; becaufe the money may go abroad.
Profit and lofs is divided into pojitive, relative, and
compound. Pofnive profit, implies no lofs to any body ;
it refuits from an augmentation of labour, indudry, or
ingenuity, and has the efFeft of fwelling or augmenting
the public good.
Pojitivs lofs, implies no profit to any body; it is what
refuits from the ceffation of the former, or of the effects
refuiting from it, andjuay be faid to diminilh the public
go.;d.
Relative prof t, is what implies a lof; to fome body ;
it marks a vibration of the balance of weal;h between
parties, but implies no addition to the general dock.
Relative lofs, is what, on the contrary, implies a profit
to fome body; it alfo marks a vibration of the balance,
but takes nothing from the general dock.
The compound is eafily underdood ; it is that fpecies
of profit and lofs which is partly relative, and partly po-
fiive,
"The general Confe.quences refulting to a trading
Nation, upon the opening of an affive foreign
Commerce.
_ A nation which remains paflive in her commerce, is
at the mercy of thole who are aftive, and mud be great¬
ly favoured, indeed, by natural advatitages, or by a con-
ftant flux of gold and filver from her mines, to be able to
fupport a correfpondence, not entirely hurtful to the aug¬
mentation of her wealth.
When we look upon the wide field which here opens
to our vieiv, we are perplexed with too great a variety
of objeds. In one part, w-e fee a decent and comely be¬
ginning of induftry; wealth flowing gently in, to recom-
pence ingenuity ; numbers both augmenting, gnd every
one becoming daily more ufeful to another ;' agriculture
proportionally extending itfelf; no violent revolutions ;
no exorbitant profits ; no infolence among the rich ; no
excelTtve mifery among the poor - multitudes employed
in producing; grejt oeconomy upon cohfumption ; and
all the indiuments of luxury, daily produced by the
hands of the diligent, going out of the country for the
fervice of drangers ; not remaining'at honif for the gra¬
tification of fenfuality. At lad the augmentations come
jnfenfibly. to a dop. Then thefe rivers of wealth, which
Were in briflt circulation through the whole world, and
which ,-eturned to this trading nation as blood returns to
the heart, only to be thrown out again by new pulfations,
begin to be obftruded in their courfe ; -and-flowing abroad
more flowly than before, come to form dagnations at
home. Thefe, impatient of redraint, foon burft out in¬
to donsedic circulation. Upon this cities fweli in magni-
E R C E. 2’jr
ficence of buildings ; the face of the country is adorned
with palaces, and becomes covered with groves ; .luxury
ftiines triumphant in every part ; inequality becomes more
ftriking to the eye ; and want and mifery appear more
deformed, from the contrail: even fortune grows more
wbimfical in her incondancy; the beggar of the o'ther
day, now rides in his coach ; and he who was born in a
bed of date, is feen to die in a goal, or in an alms-
houfe. Such are the effects of great domedic circuta- '
The flatefman looks about with amazement; he, who
was wo; * to confider himfelf as the fird man in the fo-
ciety in every refpeA, perceives himfelf, perhaps, e-
clipfed by the ludre of private wealth, which avoids his
grafp when he attempts to feize it. This makes his go¬
vernment more complex and more difficult to be carried
on ; he mud now avail himfelf of art and addrefs, as well
as of power and force. By the help of cajoling and in¬
trigues, he gets a little into debt; this lays a foundation
for public credit, which, growing- by degrees, and in its
progrefs afluming many new forms, becomes, from the
moll terser beginnings, a mod formidable monder,
llriking terror into thofe who cherilhed it in its infancy.
Upon this, as upon a triumphant war-horfe, the datef-
man gets a-dride ; he then appears formidable a-nev/;
his head turns giddy ; be is choaked with the dud he has
raffed ; and at the moment he is ready to fall, to his ut¬
ter adonifhmem and furprize, he finds a drong monied in-
tered, of his own creating, which, inftead of fwallowing
him up as he apprehended, flies to his fupport. Through
this he gets the better of all oppofition, he edablifhes
taxes, multiplies them, mortgages Iris fund of fubfid-
ence ; either becomes a bankrupt, and riles again from-
his allies ; or if he be lefs audacious, he Hands trembling
and tottering for a while on the brink of the political
precipice. From one or the other of thefe perilous fitu-
ations, he begins to difeover an endlefs path, which, af¬
ter a multitude of windings, dill returns into itfelf,
and continues an equal courfe through this vad laby¬
rinth.
It is now full time to leave off rhapfody, and return-
to reafoning and cool inquiry, concerning the more im¬
mediate and more general effe&s and revolutions pro¬
duced by the opening of a foreign trade in a nation of
induftry.
The firft and moft fenlible alteration will be an in-
creafe of demand for manufadhirers, becaufe by fupply-
ing the wants of ftrangers, the number of confumers
will now be conliderably augmented. What again will'
follow upon this, muft’depend upon circumftances.
If this revolution In the ftate of demand ftiould prove
too viqlent, the confequence of it will be to raife de¬
mand ; if it fliould prove gradual, it will increafe it.
This diftiniHon is well underftood, and the confequence
appears juft : for, if the fupply do not increafe in pro¬
portion to the demand, a competition will enfue among
the demanders-; which is the common efferi: offuch fud-
den revolutions: If, on the other hand, a gentle in¬
creafe of demand fhould be accompanied with a propor¬
tional fupply, the whole hduftrious fociety will grow in;
vigour, and in wholfome ftature, without being fenfrfclee
c-8 ‘COMM
c f any great advantage or inconvenjency ; the change of
their circumftanccs will even be imperceptible.
The immediate effeifb of the violent revolution will,
in this example, be flattering to fame, and difagreeable
to others. Wealth will be found daily to augment, from
the riling of prices, ;in many branches of indultry. This
will encourage the indulirious clalfes, and the idle con-
fumers(dt home will complain. We have already dwelt
abundantly long upon 4the effeifts refulting from this to
the lower claffes of the people, in providing them with
a certain means of fubfiftenca. Let us now examine in
what refpeft even the higher dalles will be mado likewife
to feel the good effedls of this general change, although
at firlt they may fuffer a temporary inconvenieney
frona, it.
Farmers, as has. been obferved, will have a greater
difficulty in finding fervants, who, inftead of labouring
the ground, will chufe to turn themfelves to manufactures.
This we have confidered in the light of purging the lands
.of fuperfluous mouths 4 but every corifequence in this
great chain of politics draws other coofeqtiences after it,
and as they follow one another, things ppt on diflrerent
faces, which affeCt clafies differently. The purging of
the land is but one of the firft ; here follows another. •
The defertion of the lands employed in a trifling agri¬
culture will at firft, no doubt, embarrafs the farmers ;
but in a little time every thing becomes balanced in a
trading nation, becaufe every, imlujlrious man muft
advance in profperity, in fpite of all general combinations
of circumftances.
In the cafe before us, the^relative profits upon farm¬
ing mult foon become greater than formerly, becaufe of
this additional expence which muft affeCt the whole clafs
of farmers; confequently, this additional expence, in-
ftead of turning out to be a lofs to either landlord or
farmer, will, after fome little time, turn out to the ad¬
vantage of both : becaufe the produce of,the ground, be¬
ing indifpenfably neceffary to every body, muft in every
article increafe in its value. Thus in a fhort time ac¬
counts will be nearly balanced on all hands; that is to
fay, the fame proportion of wealth will, cateris paribus,
continue the fame among the induftrious. We fay among
tire induftrious ; for thofe who are either idle, or even
negligent, will be great lofers.
A proprietor of find, inattentive to the caufes of .his
-farmer’s additional expence, may very imprudently fuffer
his rents to fall, inltead of afllfting him on a proper
occafion, in order to make them afterwards rife the
higher.
Thofe who live upon a determined income in money,
and who are nawife employed in traffic, nor in any
fcbeme of induftry, will, by the augmentation of prices,
be found in worfe circumftances than before.
In a trading nation every man muff turn his talents to
account? or he will undoubtedly be left behind in this
univerfal emulation, in which the moft induftrious, tfm
moft ingenious, and the'moft frugal will conftantly carry
off the prize. . . ;
This confideration ought to be a fpur to every body.
The richeft men in a trading nation have no fecurity a-
gainff poverty; we mean proporuonal poverty; for though
E R C. E.
they diminiffi nothing of their income, yet, by not in-
creaficg it in proportion to others, they lofe their rank in
wealth, and from the firft clafs in which they flood they
will Hide infenfibly down to a lower.
There is one confequence'of an additional beneficial
trade, which raifes demand and increafes wealth ; but if
we fuppofe no proportional augmentation of fupply, it
will prove at beft but an airy dream which lafts for a
moment, and when- the gilded fcene is paffed away,
numberlefs are the inconveniencies which are feen to
follow.
We fhall now point out the natural confequences of.
this augmentation of wealth drawn from foreign nations,
when the flatefman remain^ inattentive to increafe.the
fupply both of food and m'anufadlures, in proportion to
the augmentation of mouths, and of the demand for the
produce of induftry.
In fuch a fituation profits willjdaily fwell, and every
fcheme for reducing them within the bounds of modera¬
tion, will be looked upon as a hurtful and unpopular
meafure : be it fo; but let us examine the confe¬
quences.
We have faid', that the rife of demand for manufac¬
tures naturally increafes the value-of work : now we muft
add, that under fuch circumftances, the augmentation of
riches, in a country, either not capable of improvement
as to the foil, or where precautions have not been taken
for facilitating a multiplication of inhabitants, by the
importation of fuhftfience, will be productive of the moft
calamitous confequences.
On one fide, this wealth will effectually diminifh the -
mafs of the food before produced ; and on the other,
.will increafe the number of ufelefs confm^ers. The firft
of thefe circumftances will raife the demand for food ;
and the fecond will diminifti the number of ufeful free
hands,'and confequently raife the price of manufactures:
here are ftiortly the outlines of this progrefs.
The more rich and luxurious a people are, the more
delicate they become in their manner of living; if they
fed on bread formerly, they will now feed on meat; if
they fed on meat, they will now feed on fowl. The
fame ground which feeds a hundred with bread, and a
proportional quantity of animal food, will not maintain
an equal number of delicate livers. Food muft then be¬
come more fcarce ; demand for it rifes ; the rich are al¬
ways the ftrongeft in the market; they confume the
food, and the poor are forced to ftarve. Here the wide
, door to modern diftrefs opens; to wit, a hurtful compe¬
tition for fubfiftence. Farther, when a people become
rich, they think lefs of ceconomy; a number of ufelefs
fervants are hired, to become an additional dead weight
on confumption ; and .when their ftarving countrymeji
cannot fqpply the extravagance of the rich fo cheaply as
other nations, they either import inftruments of foreign ^
luxqry, or feek to enjoy them out of their own country,
and thereby make reftitution of their gains.
Is it not therefore evident, that if, before things come
to this pafs,- additional fubfiltence be not provided by one
method or other, the number of inhabitants muft dimi-
nifli; although riches may daily increafe by a balance of
additional matter, fuppofed to be brought into the country
in
COMM
in confequence of t’ne hitherto beneficial foreign trade.
This 'is not all. We fay farther, that the beneficial
trade will laft for a time only. For the infallible confe¬
quence of the rife of prices at home will be, that thofe
nations which at firft confumed your manufaftures, per¬
ceiving the gradual increafe of their price, will begin to
work for themfelves ; or finding out your rivals who can
fupply them cheaper, will open their doors to them.
Thefe again, percewing the great advantages gained by
your traders will begin to fupply the market ; and fince
every thing mufl: be cheaper in countries where wa do
not fupppfe the concurrence of all the circumftances men¬
tioned above, thefe nations will fupplant you, and be
cnriched~in their turn.
Here comes a new revolution. Trade is come to a
flop : what then becomes -ef all the hands which were
formerly employed in'fupplying the foreign demands ?
Were revolutions fo hidden as we are obliged to repre-
fent them, all would go to wreck ; in proportion as they
happen by quicker or flower degrees, the inconvenien-
cies are greater or fmaller.
Prices^ we have faid, are made to rife by competi¬
tion. If the competition of the ftrangers was what rai-
fed them, the diftrefs upon the manufadturers will be in
proportion to the fuddennefs of their deferring the market.
If the competition was divided between ^the flrangcrs and
the home-confumers, the inconveniencies which enfue
will be lefs; becaufe the defertion of the ftrangers wdi
be in fome meafure made up by an increafe of homp-
Consumption which will follow upon the"fall of prices.
And if, in the third cafe, the natives have been fo im¬
prudent, as not only to fupport a competition with the
ftrangers, and thereby difguft them from coming any
more to market, but even to continue tire competition
between themfelves,S the vhole tifs fuftained by the re¬
volution will be national. Wealth will’ceafe'to augment;
but the inconveniencies, in place of being felt by the ma-
nufadturers, will only affedt the ftate; thofe will conti¬
nue in affluence, extolling the generofity of their coun¬
trymen, and defpifing the poverty of the ftrangers who
had enriched them.
Domeftic luxury will here prove an expedient for pre¬
ferring from ruin the indpftrious part of a people, who
in fubfifting themfelves had enriched their country. No
change will follow in their condition ; they will go on
with a painful afliduity to labour^.and if the cenfequen-
Ces of it become now hurtful to one pt;rt .of the ftate, they
mull: at leaft be allowed to be eflentially neceflary for the
fupport of the other.
But that luxury is no neceflary concomitant of foreign
trade, in a nation where the true principles of it are un-
derftood, will appear very plain, from a contrail we are
now going to pomt out, in the example of a modern
ftate, renowned for its commerce and frugality, dj'he
country is Holland.
A fet of. induftrious and frugal people- were affembled
in a country by nature fubjedt to many iuconwnitncies,
the moving of which rieceflaiily employed abundance of
hands. Their .litnation upon the cumin-ut, thtn.poy/er
of their former mallei s, and the ambitiqn of-their neigh
hours, obliged them to keep great bodies of troops.
Vol. II. No. 40. 2
E R C E. 239
Thefe two articles added to the numbers of the commu¬
nity, without either enriching the ftate by their labour
exported, or producing food for themfelves or country¬
men.
The fcheme of a commonwealth was calculated to
draw together the induitrious; but it has been ftill more
ufeful in fubfifting them: the republican form of govern¬
ment being there greatly fubdivided, veils authority
fufficient in every part of it, to make fuitable provifion
for their own fubfiite'nce; and the tie which unites .them,
regards only matters of public concern. Had the whole
been governed by one fbvereigh,- or by one council, this
important matter never-could have-been effedluated.
It would be impoffible for the molt able minifter that
ever lived, to provide nourifflment for a country fo ex¬
tended as France, or even as England, fuppofing thefe
as fully peopled as Holland is : even although it Ihould
be admitted that a fufficient quantity of food might be
found in other countries for their fubfiltence. The en-
terprife would be too great, -abufes would multiply ; the
confequence would be, that the inhabitants would die for
want. But in Holland thetcafe is different, every little
town takes care of its own inhabitants; and this care be¬
ing theobjedt of application and profit to fo many perfons,
is accomphlhed with fuccefs.
When once it is laid dewn as a maxim in a country,
that food mult of nedeffity be got from abroad in order
to feed the inhabitants ab home, the' corn-trade becomes
confiderabk, and at the fame time certain, regular, and,
permanent. This was the cafe in Holland,: as the inha¬
bitants were induftrious, the neceflary confequence has
been, a very extraordinary mukiplication; and at the
fame time fuch an abundance of grain, that, inftead of
being in want themfelves, they often fupply their neigh¬
bours. There are many examples of England’s being
fupplied with grain from thehce, and, which is ftill more
extraordinary, from, the re-exportation of the very pro¬
duce of its own fruitful foil.
It is therefore evident, that the only way to fupport
induitry, is to provide a fupply of fubfiftence, couftamly
proportional to the demand that may be -made for it.
This is a precaution indifpenfably neceffary for prevent-,
ing htirtful competition. This is the particular care of
the Dutch : lo long as it can be efietftual, their ftate can
fear no decline; but whenever they come to be diftrefl'ui
in the market?, upon which they depend for fubfiftence,
they will link into ruin. It is by mere dint of frugality,
cheap and parfimonious living, that the navigation of this
jnduftrious people is fupported. Conftant employment,
and an accumulation of almoft imp.rceptible gains, fills
their coffers with wealth, in fpite of the large outgoings
to which their , own proper nourilhment yearly forces
them. The large profits upon induftry in other countries,
which are no proof of generofity, but a fatal effedt of a
fcanty fu-bfiftence, is far fi om dazzling their eyes. They
feldom are found in the lift of competitors at any foreign
pen ; if they have their cargo to difpofe of,, they wait
with dealure in their own veflels, ceniuming their own
pi ovTwns, and at laft accept of what others have left,
it n>ay..be.find, that many other circumftances,ccmcur ii)
favour of the Dutch, btfides the article of fubhfteuce,
' 3 F With-
240 COMM
Without difputing this matter, it may be obferved, that
if a computation be made of the hands employed in pro¬
viding fubfiftence, and of thofe who are feverally taken up
in fupplying every other want, their numbers will be
found nearly to balance one another in the moll: luxurious
countries. From this we may conclude, that the article
of food, among the lower claffes, mull bear a very high pro¬
portion to all the other articles of their confumption ; and
therefore a diminution upon the price of fubfiltence, mull
be of infinite confequence to manufacturers, who are obli¬
ged to buy it. From this confideration, let us judge of
the confequence of fuch augmentations upon the price of
grain as are familiar to us; 30 or qo per cent, feems
nothing. Now this augmentation operates upon two
COM
COMMINATORY, an appellation given to whatever
threatens punilhment, or fome penalty.
COMMINUTION, denotes the breaking, or rather
grinding, a body to very fmali particles.
COMMISSARY, in the ecclefiaftical law, an officer of
the bilhop, who exercifes fpiritual jurifdidtion in places
of a diocefe fo far from the epifcopal fee, that the
chancellor cannot call the people to the biffiop’s princi¬
pal confiflory court, without giving them too much in-
conveniency.
CommissarY*court, in Scots law, a court originally
conftituted by the bifhops for executing in their name
an ufurped jurifdiCtion, and was anciently called the
bifhops courty curia Chrijiianitatit, or confiftorial
court. This court was new-modelled by Queen Ma¬
ry at the Reformation, and continues till this day.
See Scots Law, title, Ecclcfiajiical perjons.
Commissary, in a military fenfe, is of three forts.
Commissa9.Y’general ofthemujiers, an officer appointed
to mufter the army, as often as the general thinks pro¬
per, in order to know the ftrength of each regiment
and company, to receive and infpedt the mufter-rolls,
and to keep an exa<$ ftate of the flrength of the army.
CouMiss&.KY-general of fores, an officer in the artil¬
lery, who has the charge of all the llores, for which
he is accountable to the office of ordnance.
Commi ssARY-^ewera/«/"provifions, an officer who has
the infpe<5tion of the bread and provifions of the army.
COMMISSION, in common-law, the warrant or let¬
ters patent which all perfons exercifing jurifdRtion
have to empower them to hear or determine any caufe
orfuit: as, the commiffion of the judges, fac.
QowLM\%$\of vf bankruptcy, is the commiffion tkat i/Tues
from the lord chancellor, on a perfon's becoming a
bankrupt within any of the ftatutes, dire&exl to cer¬
tain commiffioners appointed to examine into it, and
to fecure the bankrupt’s lands and effects for the fa-
tisfadUon of his creditors.
Commission of lunacy xfiazs. out of the court of {chan¬
cery, to inquire whether a perfon reprefented to be a
lunatic be fo or not.
Commission, in commerce. See Factorage.
COMMISSIONER, a perfon authorifed by commiffion,
E R C E.
thirds, at leaft, of the whole expence of a labouring
man t let any one who lives in tolerable affluence make
the application of this to himfelf, and examine how he
would, manage his affairs if, by accidents of rains or
winds, his expences were to fife 30 per cent, without-a
poffibility of reftraining them; for this is unfortunate¬
ly the cafe with all the lower claffes. From whence
it may be concluded, that the keeping food cheap, and
Hill more the preferring it at all times at an equal
ftandard, is the fountain of the wealth of Holland ; and
that any hurtful competition in this article muff beget a
diforder which will affedt the whole of the manufadta-
rers of a ftate.
COM
letters-patent, or other^lawful warrant, to examine
any matters, or execute any public office, <bc.
Belides thofe relating to judicial proceedings, there
are
Commissioners of the cufoms. See Custbms.
Commissioners of excife. See Excise.
Commissioners of the navy. See Navy.
Commissioners oF the treafury. See Trea¬
sury and Exchequer.
COMMITTEE, one or more perfons, to whom the
confideration or ordering of a matter is referred, ei¬
ther by fome court, or by the confent of parties, to
whom it belongs.
Committee of parliament, a certain number of mem¬
bers appointed by the houfe, for the examination of
a bill, making a report of an inquiry, procefs-of the
houfe, 6c. '
When a parliament is called, and the fpeaker and
members have taken the oaths, there are committees
appointed to fit on Certain days, viz. the committee
of privileges and eledlions, of religion, of trade, drc.
which are ftanding committees.
Sometimes the whole houfe refolves itfelf into a
committee; on which occafion each perfon has a fight
to fpeak and reply as often as he pleafes, which is not
the cafe when a houfe is not in a committee.
COMMIXTION, in Scots law, is a method of acqui-
ring property, by mixing or blending together different
fubftances belonging to different proprietors. If this
commixtion was made without the confent of the dif¬
ferent proprietors, and the materials cannot again be
disjoined, it draws after it the property of the mate¬
rials. See Scots Law, title, Divifon of rights.
COMMODATE, in. Scots law, is a gratuitous loan,
- wherein the property of the thing but continues with
the lender,' and only the ufe -of it given to the bor¬
rower, who muft reftore the individual thing borrowed.
See Scots Law, title. Obligations and contrails in
general.
COMMODITY, in a general fenfe, denotes all forts
of wares and merchandizes whatfoever that a perfon
deals or trades in. ~
Staple Commodities, fuch wares and merchandizes as
are
COM (2
are commonly and readily fold in a market, or export¬
ed abroad : being, for the moft part, the proper pro¬
duce or manufadture of the country.
COMMODORE, in maritime affairs, an officer of the
Britifh navy, commiffioned by the lords of the admiral¬
ty, or by an admiral, to command a fquadron of men
of war in chief.
COMMON, fomething that belongs to all alike, in
contradiftindtion to proper, peculiar, <bc.
Common council. Council.
Common law, that body of rules received as law in
England, before any flatute was enadted in parlia¬
ment to alter the fame. See Law.
Common-place book, is a regifter of what things oc-
cur, worthy to be noted, in the courfe of a man's
thinking or ftudy, fo difpofed, as that, among a number
offubjedts, any one may be eafily found. The ad¬
vantages of making a common-place book are many:
it not only makes a maai read with accuracy and at¬
tention, but induces him infenfibly to think for him-
felf, provided he confiders it not fo much as a regi¬
fter of fentiments that ftrike him in the courfe of read¬
ing, but as a-regifter of his own thoughts upon vari¬
ous fubjedts. Many valuable thoughts occur even to
men of no extraordinary genius. Thefe, without the
afliftance of a common place-book, are generally loft
i ) COM
both to himfelf and others. There are varipus me¬
thods of arranging common-place books; that of Mr
Locke is as good as any that have hitherto been con¬
trived.
The firft page of the book you intend to take down
their Common-place in, is to ferve as a kind of index
to the whole; and to contain references to every place
or matter therein : in the commodious contrivance of
which index, fo as it may admit of a fufficient copia
or variety of materials, without any confufipn, all the
fecret of the method confifls.
In order to this, the firfl page, as already mention¬
ed, or, for more room, the two firfl; pages that front
eath other, are to be divided, by parallel lines, into
25 equal parts; whereof, every fifth line to be diftin-
guifhed, by its colpur or other circumftance. Thefe
lines are to be cut perpendicularly by others, drawn
from top to bottom ; and in the feveral fpaces thereof,
^Ifthe feveral letters of the alphabet, both capital and
minufcule, are to be duly wrote.
The form of the lines and divifions, both horizon¬
tal and perpendicular, with the manner of writing the
letters therein, will be conceived from the following
fpecimen; wherein, what is to be done in the book
for all the letters of the alphabet, is here fhewn in the
firft four, J, B, C, and D.
The index of the common-place book thus formed,
matters are ready for the taking down any thing
therein.
In order to this, confider to what head the thing
you would enter is moft naturally referred ; and under
which one would be led to look for fitch a thing :
in this head, or word, regard is had to the initial let¬
ter, and the firft vowel that follows it; which are the
charafteriftic letters whereon all the ufe of the index
depends.
■ Suppofe, (<?. gr.') I would enter down a paffage that
refers to the head Beauty; B, I confider, is the initial
letter, and e the firft vowel: then, looking upon the
index for the partition B, and therein the line e,
(which is the place for all words -whcfe firft letter
is B, and firft vowel <?; as Beauty, Beneficence,
Bread, Breeding, Bletnifioes,) and finding no num¬
bers already down to dirett me'to any page of the-
the book where words of this charafteriftic have btcn
entered, I turn forward to the firft blank page I"find.
which, in a frefh book, as this is fuppofed to be, will
be page 2, and here write what I have occafion for on
the head Beauty, beginning the head in the margin,
and indenting all the other fubfervient lines, that the
head may ftand out and ftiew itfelf: this done, I en¬
ter the page where it is wrote, viz. 2, in the index,
in the fpace, B e; from which time, the clafs B e
becomes wholly in pofleffion of the 2d and 3d pages,
which are configned to letters of this charadteriftic.
Had I found any page or number already entered in
the fpace B e, \ muft have turned to the page, and
have wrote my matter in what room was left therein :
fo, if after entering the paftage on beauty, I ffiould
have occafton for benevolence, or the like, finding the
number 2 already poftefled of the fpace of this cha-
radteriftic, I begin the paftage on benevolence in the'
remainder of the page, which not containing the whole
I carry it on to page 3, which is alio- for B e-, and.
add the number 3 in the index.
Common pleas is one of the king’s courts now held:
conftamly/
COM ( 24
con'ftantly in Weftminfler hall, but in former times
■was moveable. ,
All civil caafes, as well real as perfonal,. are, or
were Formerly, tried in this court, according to the
{trift law of the land. In perfonal and mixed aftions
it has a concurrent jurifduEHon with the king’s bench,
but has no cognizance of pleas of the crown. The
aftions belonging to the court of common pleas come
thither by original, as arrefts and outlawries ; or by
privilege, or attachment for or again!! privileged,per-
fons ; or out of inferior courts, not of record, by
pom, record art, accedas ad curiam, writ of falfe
judgment, tec. The chief judge of this court is call¬
ed lord chief juftice of the common pleas, who is af¬
fixed by three other judges : the other officers of the
court are the cujlot brevium, who is the chief clerk ;
three prothonotaries, and their fecondaries; the clerk
of the warrants, clerk of the effoins, fourteen filazers,
four exigentors, a clerk of the juries, the chirogra-
pher, the clerk of the king’s filver, clerk of the treafury,
'clerk of the feal, clerk of the outlawries, clerk of the
inrolment of fines and recoveries, and clerk of the errors.
Common, in law, that foil, the ufe of which is com¬
mon to this or that town or lordffiip. There is com¬
mon of pallure for cattle, and alfo common of fiffiing,
common of ellovers, common of turbary, tec.
Common prayer is the liturgy in the church of Eng¬
land. Clergymen are to ufe the public form of pray¬
ers prefribed by the Book Of Common Prayer; and
refuting to do fo, or ufing any other public prayers,
are puniffiable by i Eliz. c. ii.
Common, in grammar, denotes the gender of nouns,
which are equally applicable to both fexes: thus pa¬
rent, a parent, is of the common gender.
Common, in geometry, is applied to an angle, line, or
the like, which belongs equally to two figures.
Common divisor, a quantity or number which exaftly
divides -two or more other quantities or numbers, with¬
out leaving any remainder.
COMMONER, or Gentleman Commoner, in the
univerfities, a lludent entered in a certain rank.
.COMMONS, or House of commons a denomination
‘ given to the lower houfe o( parliament. See Par¬
liament.
Commons, or Commonalty, likewife fignifies the
whole body of the people under the degree of a baron,
whether knights, gentlemen, burgefles, yeomen, tec.
Doctors Commons, See College o/r civilians.
Prottor of the Commons. See Proctor.
COMMONTY, in Scots law, fometimes fignifies lands
belonging to two or more common proprietors; fome¬
times a heath or muir though it fhould belong in pro¬
perty to one, if there has-been a promifcuous polfef-
fion upon it by padurage ; and the adl 1695 mentions
commonties belonging in property to the king and to
royal borroughs. See title, Obligations arijing from
confent.
COMMONWEALTH.. See Republic.
COMMUNICATION, in a general fenfe, the aft of
imparting fomething to. another.
CoMMutucATioN is alfo ufed for the connexion of one
2 ) COM
thing with another, or the paffage from one place to
another: thus a gallery is a communication between
two apartments.
Communication of idioms, in theology, the ad of
imparting the attributes of one of the natures in Jefus
Chrid to the other.
Communication of'motion, the ad whereby a body
at red is put into motion by a moving body; or, it is
the acceieratioii of motion in a body already moving.
See Mechanics, .
Lines of Communication, in military matters, tren¬
ches made to continue and prtferve a fafe correfpon-
dence between two forts or pods; or at a fiege, be¬
tween'two approaches, that they may relieve one an¬
other.
COMMUNION, in matters of religion, the being uni¬
ted in dodrine and difcipline; in which fenfe of the
word, different churches are faid to hold communion
with each other.
In the primitive chridian church, every biffiop was
obliged, after his ordination, to fend circular letters
to foreign.churches, to fignify jhat he was in commu¬
nion with them. The three grand communions into
which the Chridian church is at prefent divided, is
that of the church of Rome, the Greek church, and
the Protedant church : but .originally all Chndians
were in communion with each other, having one com¬
mon faith and difcipline.
Communion is alfo ufed for the ad of communicating
in the facrament of the eucharid, or the Lord’s dip¬
per. See Religion.
Communion service, in the liturgy of the church of
England, the office for the adminidration of the.holy
facrament, extraded from feveral ancient liturgies, as
thofe of St Bald, St Ambrofe, tec.
By the lad rubric, part of this fervice is appointed
to be read every funday and. holyday, after the morn¬
ing prayer, even though there be no communicants.
COMMUNITY, a fociety of men living in the fame
place, under the fame laws, the fame regulations, and
the fame cudoms, •
Commutation, in law, the change of a penalty or
puniffiment from a greater to a lefs; as when death is
commuted for baniffiment,
COMORIN, or Cape Comorin, the mod foutherly
promontary of the hither India, lying north-wed of
the ifland of Ceylon.
COMPACT, in phyfiology, is faid of bodies which are
of a clofe, denfe, and heavy texture, with few pores,
and very fmall.
Company, in a comffiercial fenfe, is a fociety of mer¬
chants, mechanics, or other traders, joined together,
in one common intered.
When there are only two or three joined in this
manner, it is called a partnerffiip; the term company
being redrained to focieties confiding of a confiderable
number of members affociated together by a charter
obtained from the prince.
The mechanics of all corporations, or towns incor¬
porated, are thus erected into companies, which have
charters of privileges and large immunities.
We
COM ( MS ) COM
We (hall here give fome account of the principal
companies of merchants, fome of which trade with
joint flocks, and all of them enjoy by charter many
exclufive privileges :' for however injurious thefe com¬
panies may, at this time of day, be reckoned to the na-
tionrin general, yet it is certain, that they were the
original parents of all our foreign commerce ; private
traders upon their own bottom being difcouraged from
hazarding their fortunes in foreign countries, till the
methods of traffic had been fettled by joint-flock com¬
panies : and from this very principle it is, that we
find feveral nations at prefent endeavouring to extend
their trade by the fame means. The moft ancient tra¬
ding company, in Britain, is the Hamburgh company,
originally called merchants of the (laple, and afterwards
merchant-adventurers : they were incorporated by king
Edward IV. from which time they traded with fuccefs
till the reign of queen Elizabeth, who, for a farther
encouragement of their induftry, not only confirm¬
ed, but inlarged their privileges. However, it
ought to be obferved, that this trade is now open
to private merchants, upon paying a very fmall fum to
the company. The company of this kind, next in¬
corporated, was that of the Ruffia-merchants; who
having improved their trade and commerce in thofe
remote parts, were incorporated by Edward VI. great¬
ly encouraged by queen Mary, and had their confirma¬
tion, with an enlargement of their privileges, from
Elizabeth. This company is not very confiderable at
prefent ; the trade of thofe parts being moflly carried
on by private merchants, on paying the fum of yl. to
the company.
The Eaflland-company, formerly called merchants
of Elbin, were encorporated by queen Elizabeth, and
by her greatly encouraged; but, like the former
company, it is now become inconfiderable, the trade
of Norway and Sweden being laid open by a,5t of par¬
liament.
The Turkey, or Levant-company, was llkewife in¬
corporated by the fame princefs, and its charter con¬
firmed and enlarged by king James I. who impowered
them to trade to the Levant, or eadern parts of the
Mediterranean; particularly to Smyrna, Aleppo, A-
lexandria, Grand-Cairo, and the other parts of the
Turkiffi dominions.. But this trade is now alfo laid
open to private merchants, upon paying a fmall con-
fideration.
The next in order is the Eafl-India company, firll
incorporated in the year 1600, and impowered to trade
to all countries lying eallward of the cape of Good
Hope. Towards the end of king William’s reign, an
adt of parliament paffed, granting atl private mer¬
chants, who ffiould raife a certain fum for the fupply
of the government, the privilege of trading to thefe
parts. Accordingly, a great manyfubfcribed, and were
called the new Eaft-India-company; which foon found
it necefiary to unite with the old one, and trade, with
one joint flock: fince which, time, they have been
llyled the united Eafl-India-company; and are at pre¬
fent in a flourifhfhg condition, and in poffeffion of
many confiderable forts and factories on the coafl of
Vol. II. No. 40. 3
Malabar, the- Coromandel-coafl, the bay of Bengal,
ebr.
The royal African-company was firfl eredted in the
year 1661, with an exclufive privilege to trade from
cape Blanc, on the coafl of Africa, in 20° N. lat. as
far as the cape of Good Hope. But this trade is now
laid open by a<5t of parliarnent.
The.Eaftland:company, the Greenland-company, the
Hudfon’s-bay-company, the South-fea-company, have
likewife jheir feveral charters and privileges for tra¬
ding to the places from which they take their denomi¬
nations.
Thefe are the principal trading company’s belong¬
ing to the crown of Great Britain ; and of afimilar na¬
ture are the Dutch Eafl and Weft India companies,
the French Eaft and Weft India companies, tec.
Concerning thefe companies, it may be proper to
remark, that however tjeceffary they might be in the
infancy of trade, they, are now looked upon by mod
men in the light of monopolies: hence it is, that their
privileges have from time to time been leffened, in or¬
der to eftabliffi an abfolutely free and general trade';
and experience hath ffiewn, that the trade of the na¬
tion has advanegd in proportion as monopolies have
beed laid afide. Indeed, to carry on trade with di-
ftant countries, where forces and forts are to be main¬
tained, a company with a joint flock fegnis neceffary ;
or, at leafl, certain duties ought to be paid by all
who trade thither, towards defraying the laid expen-
ces : for not toTpeak of the Eafl-India, Hudfon’s bay,
i&v. companies, the expence of maintaining whofe
forts muft be very confiderable, even the Turkey,
Hamburgh, Mufcovy, and Eaftland companies, which
do not trade with a joint flock, are neverthelefs ob¬
liged to be at confiderable charges, in making prefents
to the grand feignior and his minifters, maintaining
confuls, <bc. It would therefore be injuftice that
any ffiould trade to the places within their charters,
without paying the fame duties towards the company’s
charge, as the prefent adventurers pay; but then there
appears to be no reafon why any of the king’s fubjeds
* ffiould be barred from trading to thofe places, or for¬
ced to pay a great fine for admiffion, that are willing
to pay the 'company’s duties, and fubmit to their
regulations and orders in other refpeAs.
On the whole, as all reftridtions of trade are found
to be hurtful, nothing can be more evident than that
no company whatfoever, whether they trade in a joint
flock, or only under regulation, can be for the public
good, except it maybe eafy for all or any of his ma-
jefty’s fubjedts to be admitted into all or any of the
faid companies, at any time, and for a very inconfi¬
derable fine.
Company, in military affairs, a fmall body of foot,
commanded by a captain, who has under him a lieute¬
nant and enfign.
The1 number of centinels or private foldiers in a
compahy, may be from 50 to 80 ; and a battalion con-
fifts of thirteen fuch companies, one of which is always
grenadiers, and polled on the right: next them fland
theeldeft company, and on thcleft the fecondcompany
3 CL the
COM ( 24
the youngefl one being aFways ported in the centre.
Companies not incorporated into regiments are call¬
ed irregulars, or independent companies.
Artillery Company. See Artillery.
Company of Jhips, a fleet of merchantmen, who make
a charter-party among themfelves; the principal con¬
ditions whereof ufually are, that certain veflels fliall
be acknowledged admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-ad¬
miral ; that fuch and fuch fignals fliall be obferved;
that thofe which bear no guns, fliall pay fo much per
cent, of their cargo; and in cafe they be attacked,
that what damages are fuftained, (hall be reimburfed
by the company in general. In the Mediterranean, fuch
companies are called conferves.
Comparative anatomy, is that branch of anatomy
which confiders the fecondary objedts, or the bodies
of other animals ; ferving for the more accurate di-
ftindions of feveral parts, and fupplying the defedt of
human fubjedts.
It is otherwife called the anatomy of hearts, and
fometimes zootomy ; and ftands in contradirtindlion to
human anatomy, or that branch of the’ art which con-
liders the human body, the primary objedt of anatomy.
See Anatomy.
Comparative degree, among grammarians, that be¬
tween the pofitivd and fuperlative degrees, exprefling
any particular quality above or beneath the level of
another.
COMPARISON, in a general fenfe, the confideration
of the relation between two perfons or things, when
oppofed and fet againft each other, by which we judge
of their agreement or difference.
Inftrudtion is the principal, but not the only end of
comparifon. It may be employed with fuccefs in put¬
ting a fubjedl in a ftrong point of view. A lively idea
is formed of a man’s courage by likening it to that of
a lion ; and eloquence is exalted in our imagination by
comparing it to a river overflowing its bank, and in¬
volving all in its impetuous courfe. The fame effedt is
produced by contraft : A man in profperity becomes
more fenfible of his happpinefs, by comparing his con¬
dition with that of a perfon in want of bread. Thus
comparifon is fubfervient to poetry as well as to phi-
lofophy.
Comparifons ferve two purpofes : when addreffed
to the underftanding, their purpofe is to inftrudt; when
to the heart, their purpofe is to pleafe. Various
means contribute to the latter : firft, the fuggefting
fome unufual refemblance or contraft ; fecond, the
fetting an objedt in the ftrongeft light; third, the af-
fociating an objedt with others that are agreeable ;
fourth, the elevating an objedt; and, fifth, the de¬
prefling it. And that comparifons may give pleafure
by th'tfe various means, will be made evident by ex¬
amples, which fliall be given, after premifing fome ge¬
neral obfervations.
Objedts of different fenfes cannot be compared to¬
gether ; for fuch objedts are totally feparated from
each other, and have no circumftance in common to
admit either refemblance or contraft. Objedts of hear¬
ing may be compared together, as alfo of tafte, of
.4 ) CO M
fmell, and of touch : but the chief fund of -comparifon
are objedts of fight; becaufe, in writing or fpeaking,
things can only be compared in idea, and the ideas of
fight are more diftindt and lively than thofe of any
other fenfe.
When a nation emerging out of barbarity begins to
think of the fine arts, the beauties of language cannot
long lie concealed ; and when difcovered, they are ge¬
nerally, by the force of novelty, carried beyond all
bounds of moderation. Thus, in the earliert poems of
every nation, we find metaphors and fimiles founded on
the flighteft and moft diftant refemblances, which, lofing
their grace with their novelty, wear gr'adualiy out of re¬
pute ; and now, by the improvement of tafte, no meta¬
phor nor fimile is admitted into any polite compofition
but of the moft-ftriking kind. Toilluftrate this obferva-
tion, a fpecimen fliall be given,afterward of fuch meta¬
phors as we have been defcribing : with refpedt to fimiles
take the following fpecimen.
“ Behold, thou art fair, my love : thy hair is as a
“ flock of goats that appear from Mount Gilead: thy
“ teeth are like a flock of flieep from the wafliing, e-
“ very one bearing twins : thy lips are like a thread
“ of fcarlet : thy neck like the tower of David built
“ for an armoury, whereon hang a thoufand fliields of
“ mighty men : thy two breafts like two young roes
“ that are twins, which feed among the lilies : thy
“ eyes like the fifli pools in Helbon, by the gate of
“ Bath-rabbin : thy nofe like the tower of Lebanon,
“ looking toward Damafcus.” Song of Solo?n6n.
“ Thou art like fn6w on the heath ; thy hair like
“ the mill of Cromla, when it curls on the rocks and
“ fliines to the beam of the weft : thy breafts are like
“ two fmooth rocks feen from Branno of the ftrearas :
“ thy arms like two white pillars in the hall of the
“ mighty Fingal.” Fingal.
It has no good effeft to compare things by way of fi¬
mile that are of the fame kind ; nor to contraft things of
different kinds.
A numerous brigade haften’d : as when bands
Of pioneers with fpade and pick-ax arm’d.
Forerun the royal camp to trench a field
Or call a rampart. Milton.
The following is of things contrafted that are of dif¬
ferent kinds.
g>ueen. What, is my Richard both in ftiape and
mind
Transform’d and weak ? Hath Bolingbroke depos’d
Thine intelled ? Hath he been in thy heart ?
The lion, dying, thrufteth forth his paw,
And wounds the earth, if nothing elfe, with rage
To be o’erpower’d : and wilt thou, pupil like.
Take thy corre&ion mildly, kifs the rod,
And fawn on rage with bafe humility ?
Richard II. ail 5- fc. X.
This comparifon has fcarce any force : a man and a
lion are of different fpecies, and therefore are proper fub-
jedts for a fimile ; but there is no fuch rcfemblance be¬
tween them in general, as to produce any ftrong effedt by
contrafting particular attributes or circumftances.
A third general obfervation is, That abftradt terms
can
COM ( :
«an nsver be the fubjedt of comparifon, otherwife than
by being perfonified. Shakefpear compares adverfity to
a toad, and flander to the bite of a crocodile ; but in fuch
comparifons thefe abftradt terms muft be imagined fenfible
beings.
To have a juft notion of comparifons, they muft be
diftinguifhed into two kinds ; one common and familiar,
as where a man is compared to a lion in courage, or to
a horfe in fpeed ; the other more diftant and refined,
where two things that have in themfelves no refemblance
or oppofition, are compared with refpedt to their effedts.
There is no refemblance between a flower-plot and a
chearful fong ; and yet they may be compared with re-
fpedt to their effedts, the emotions they produce in the
mind being extremely fimilar. There is as little refem-
blancfe between fraternal concord and precious ointment;
and yet obferve how fuccefsfully they are compared with
refpedt to the impreflions they make.
“ Behold, how good and how pleafant -it is for
“ brethren to dwell together in unity. It is like the
“ precious ointment upon the head, that ran down
“ upon Aaron’s beard, and defcended to the flcirts of
“ his garment.” Pfaint 133.
For illuftrating this fort of comparifon, we lhall add
fome more examples:
“ Delightful is thy prefence, O Fingal ! it is like
“ the fun on Cromla, when the hunter mourns his
“ abfence for a feafon, and fees him between the
“ clouds.
“ Did not Oflian hear a voice ? or is it the found
“ of days that are no more ? Often, like the even-
“ ing-fun, comes the memory of former times on my
“ foul.
“ His countenance is fettled from war; and is calm
“ as the evening-beam, that from the cloud of the
“ weft looks on Cona’s filent vale.” Fingal.
We now proceed to illuftrate by particular inftances
the different means by which companfons, whether of
the one fort or the other, can afford pleafure ; and, in
fiie order above eftabliflied, we fhall begin with fuch in¬
ftances as are agreeable by fuggefting fome unufual refem¬
blance or contraft.
Sweet are the ufes of Adverfity,
Which, like the tqad, ugly and venomous.
Wears yet a precious jewel in her head.
As you like it, aft 2. fe. I.
See, how the Morning opes her golden gates,
And takes her farewel of the glorious fun ;
How well refembles it the prime of youth,
Trimm’d like a yonker prancing to his love.
Second Part Henry VI. aft. 2. fc. I.
Thus they their doubtful confultations dark
Ended, rejoicing in their matchlefs chief:
As when from mountain tops, the duflty clouds
Afcending, while the North-wind fleeps, o’erfpread
Heav’n’s chearful face, the bwring element
Scowls o’er the darken’d landfcape, fnow, and ftiower;
If chance the radiant fun with farewel fweet
Extends his ev’ning-beam, the fields revive.
45 ) COM
The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds
Atteft their joy, that hill and valley rings.
Paradife Lojl, book T-
None of the foregoing fimiles tend to illuftnite the
principal fubjeft: and therefore the chief pleafure they
afford muft arife from fuggefting refemblances that are
not obvious : for undoubtedly a beautiful fubjedl intro¬
duced to form the fimile affords a feparate pleafure, which
is felt in the fimiles mentioned, particularly in that cited
from Milton.
The next effedt of a comparifon in the order mention¬
ed, is to place an objedt in a ftrong point of view ; which
effedt is remarkable in the following fimiles.
As when two fcales are charg’d with doubtful loads,
From fide to fide the trembling balance nods,
(While fom'e laborious matron, juft and poor,
With nice exadtnefs weighs her woolly ftore),
Till pois’d aloft, the refting beam fufpends
Each equal weight; nor dds nor that defcends :
So flood the war, till l^edtor’s matchlefs might.
With fates prevailing, turn’d the fcale of fight.
Fierce as a whirlwind up the wall he flieS,
And fires his holt with loud repeated cries.
Jliad, l. xii. 521-
 Out, out, brief candle !
Life’s but a walking fhadow, a poor player.
That ftruts and frets his hour upon the ftage.
And then is heard no more.
Mqcbeaik, aft fc.
O thou Goddefs,
Thou divine nature ! how thyfelf thou blazon’d
In thefe two princely boys 1 they are as gentle
As zephyrs blowing below the violet.
Not wagging his fweet head ; and yet as rough,
(Their royal blood inchaf’d) as the rud’ft wind.
That by the top doth take the mountain-pine.
And.make him ftoop to th’ vale.
. Cymbeline, aft 4. fc. 4..
Why did not I pafs away in fecret, like the
“ flower of the rock that lifts its fair head unfeen,
“ and ftrows its withered leaves on the blaft ?”
Fingal.
As words convey but a faint and obfcure notion of great
numbers, a poet, to give a lively notion of the objeft he
dcfcribes with regard to number, does well to compare it
to what is familiar and commonly known. Thus Homer
compares the Grecian army in point of number to a fwarm
of bees : in another paffage he compares it to that pro-
fufion of leaves and flowers which appear in the fpring, or
of infe&s in a fummer’s evening : and Milton,
 As when the potent rod
Of Amram’s fon in Egypt’s evil day
Wav’d round the coaft, up call’d a pitchy cloud
Of locufts, warping on the eaftern wind,
That o’er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung
Like night, and darken'd all the land of Nile:
So numberlefs were thofe bad angels feen,
Hov’ring on wing under the cope of hell,
Twixt upper, nether, and furrounding fires.
. Paradifs Lojl, book r.
Such;
COM ( ) COM
Such comparifons have, by fome writers, been con-
fiemned for the lownefs of the images introduced : but
furely without reafon ; for, with regard to numbers,
they put the principal fubjedt in a ftrong light.
Milton has a peculiar talent in embelliihing the prin¬
cipal fubjedl by affociating it with others that are agree¬
able ; which is the third end of, a comparifon. Similes
of this kind have, befide, a feparate effedt: they diver-
lify the narration by new images that are not ftridly ne-
ceflary to the comparifon : they are fhort epifodes, which,
without drawing us from the principal fubjeft, afford
great delight by their beauty and variety.
He fcarce had ceas’d, when t-he fuperior fiend
Was moving toward the (hore ; his pond’rous (hield.
Ethereal temper, maffy, large, and round.
Behind him caft ; the broad circumference
Hung on his fhoulders like the moon, whofe orb
Through optic glafs the Tufcan artift views
At ev’ning from the top of Fefole,
Or ia Valdarno, to defcry new lands,
Rivers, or mountains, in her fpotty globe.
. Milton, b. 1.
As when a vulture on Imaus bred,
Whofe fnowy ridge the roving Tartar bounds,
Diflodging from a region fcarce of prey
To gorge the flefh of lambs, or yeanlidg kids,
On hills where flocks are fed. flies toward the fprings
Of Ganges or Hydafpes, Indian ftreams.
But in his way lights on the barren plains
Of Sericana, where Chinefes drive
With fails and wind their cany waggons light:
So on this windy fea of land, the fiend
Walk’d up and down alone, bent on his prey.
Mil:on, b 3.
Next of comparifons that aggrandife or eleva t *. The
:affe<51: us more than any o;her fort : the s eafon of which
will be evident from the following inflam .s.
As when a flame the winding valley fills,
And runs on crackling fhiubs between the hills,
Then o’er the ftubble up the mountain flies,
• Fires the high woods, and blazes to the Ikies,
This way and that, the fpreading torrent roars;
So fweeps the hero through the wafted 'flrores.
Around him wide, immenfe deftrudtion pours,
And earth is delug’d with the faQguine fhow’rs.
Iliad xx. 569.
Methinks, King Richard and myfelfi fhould meet
With no lefs terror than the elements
Of fire and water, when their thund’ring fhock.
At meeting tears the cloudy cheeks of heaven.
Richard II. a£l 3. fc. y.
“ As rufheth a foamy ftream from the dark fhady
fteep of Cromla, when thunder is rolling above,
■“ and dark brown »ight reds on the hill : lo fierce,
fo vafl, fo terrible, rufh forward the fons of Erin.
“ The chief, like a whale -of Ocean followed by all
“ its billows, pours valour forth as a ftream, rolling
“ its might along the Ihore.” Fingal, b. 1.
The laft article mentioned, is that of kffening or de¬
prefling a hated or difagreeable objedt; which is effedlu-
?Jly done by refembling it to any thing low or defpicablc.
Thus Miltoh, Jn his defcription of the rout of the rebel-
angels, happily expreffes their terror and difmay in the
following fipiile :
 As a herd
Of goats or timorous flock together throng’d.
Drove them before him thunder-ftruck, purfu’d
With terrors and with furies to the bounds
And qryftal wall of heav’n, which op’ning wide,
Row I’d inward, and a fpacious gap difclos’d
Into the wafteful deep ; the monftrous fight
Strook them with horror backward, but far worfe
Urg’d them behind; headlong themfelves they threw
Down from the verge of Heav’n.
Milt on, b. 6.
By this time the different purpofes bf comparifon,
and the various impreffions it makes on the mind, are fuf-
ficiently illuftrated by proper examples. This was an eafy
work. It is more difficult to lay down rules about the
propriety or impropriety of comparifons; in what circum-
fiances they may be introduced, and in what circumftkn-
ces they are out of place. It is evident, that a compa¬
rifon is not proper upon every occafioh : a man in his
cool and fedate moments, is not difpofed to poetical
flights, nor to facnfice truth and reality to the delufive
operations of the imagination: far lefs is he fo difpofed,
when oppreljed with care, or interefted in fome impor¬
tant tranfa&ion that occupies him totally. On the other
hand, it is obfervable, that a man, when elevated or a-
nimated by any pafiion, is difpofed to elevate or animate *
all his fubjebts : he avoids familiar names, exalts objects
by circumlocution and metaphor, and gives even life and
voluntary adlion to inanimate beings. In this warmth of
mind, the higheft poetical flights are indulged, and the
boldeft fiiniies and meiaphors reliftied. But without
foariiig fo high, the mind is frequently in a tone to re--
lift chafte and moderate ornament; fuch as comparifons
that fet the principal objeft in a ftrong point of view, or
that embeltifla and diveriify the narration. In general,
when by’ any animating paflion, whether pleaiaiTt or pain¬
ful, an impulfo is given to the imagination; we aie in
that condition difpofed to every, fort of figurative expref-
fion, and in particular to coroparifons. This in a great
meafure is evident from ihe comparifons already men¬
tioned ; and lhall'be further illuftrated by other infiances.
Love, for example, in its infancy, roufing the imagina¬
tion, promps the heart to difplay itfelf in figurative lan¬
guage, and in fimiles :
Troth's. Tell me, Apollo, for thy Daphne’s love.
What Creflid is, what Pandar, and what we ?
Her bed is India, there ftie lies, a pearl:
B’etween our Ilium, and where flie refides,
Let it be call’d the wild and wandering flood ;
Ourfelf the merchant, and this failing Pandar
Our doubtful hope, our convoy, and our bark.
Troilus and Crejficia, atti.fc. 1.
Again :
Come,- gentle Night ; come, loving black-brow’d
Night!
Give me my Romeo; and, when he ffiall die.
Take him, and cut him out in little ftars,
And he will make the face of heav’n fo fine.
That
COM ( 247 ) c 0 M
That all the world {hall be in love with Night,
And pay no worihip to the garifh fun.
Rome1) and Juliet, ail fc. 4.
But it will be a better illuftration of the prefent head,
to give examples where companions are improperly in¬
troduced. Similes are not the language of a man in his
ordinary ftate of mind, difpatching his daily and ufual
work; for that reafon, the following fpeech of a gardener
to his fiyvant, is extremely improper :
Go bind thou up yon dangling apricocks,
Which, like unruly children, malte their fire
Stoop with oppreflion of their prodigal weight :
Give fome lupportance to the bending twigs.
Go thou, and, like an executioner.
Cut off the heads of too-fall-growing fprays,
That look too lofty in our commonwealth :
All mult be even in our government.
Richard II. att ■$. fc. 1.
The fertility of Shakefpear’s vein betrays him fre¬
quently into this error.
Rooted grief, deep anguifii, terror, remorle, defpair,
and all the fevere difpinting palfions, are declared ene¬
mies, perhaps not to figurative language in general, but
undoubtedly to th» pomp and folemnity of comparifon.
Upon this account, the timile pronounced by young Rut¬
land, under terror of death from an inveterate enemy, and
praying mercy, is unnatural :
So looks the pent-up lion o’er the wretch
That trembles under his devouring paws ;
And fo he walks infulting o’er his prey,
And fo he comes to rend his limbs afunder.
Ah, gentle Clifford, kill me with thy fword,
And not with fuch a cruel threat’ning look.
Third part He?iry VI. att 1. fc. 5.
A man fpent and" difpirited. after iofing a battle, is
not ddpofed to heighten or illulirate his difeourfe by fi-
miles.
York. With this we charg’d again; but out! alas,
We bodg’d again ; as I have feen a fwan
With bootlefs labour fwim againll the tide,
And fpend her flrength with over-matching waves.
Ah ! hark, the fatal followers do purfue ;
And I am faint and cannot fly their fury.
The fands are number’d that make up my life ;
Here muft I flay, and here my life muff end.
Third part Henry VI. ail j. fc. ().
Similes thus unfeafonabiy introduced, are finely ridi¬
culed in the Rehear/al.
,f Bayes. Now here fhe muft make a fimile.
“ Smith. Where’s the neceflity of that, Mr Bayes ?
■ “ Bayer. Becaufe {he’s furprized ; that’s a general
“ rule; you muft ever make a fimile when you are
“ furprized ; ’tis a new way of writing.”
A comparifon'is not always faultlefs even where it is
properly introduced.’ A comptrifon, like other human
productions, may fall ftiort of its end; of which defedt
inftances are not rare even among good writers: and to
complete the prefent fubjedt, it will be neceffary to make
fome oblervations upon fuch faulty companions. No¬
thing, can be more erroneous than to inftitute a com¬
parifon too faint; a diftant refemblance or contraft fa-
Vol. II. No. 4°. 3
tigues the mind with ks obfeurity, inftead of amu-
fing it; and tends not to fulfil any one end of a com¬
parifon. The following fimiles feem to labour under this
defeCt.
K. Rich. Give me the crown.—Here, coufin,
feize the crown.
Here, on this fide, my hand; on that fide, thine.
Now is this golden crown like a deep well,
That owes two buckets, filling one another ;
The emptier ever dancing in the air,
The other down, unfeen and full of water;
That bucket down, and full of tears, am I,
Drinking my griefs, whilft you mount up on high.
Richard II. aft 4. fc. 3,
K. John. Oh ! coufin, thou art come to fet mine
ej e;
The tackle of my heart is crack’d and burnt;
And all the ihrouds wherewith my life ftiould fail.
Are turned to one thread, one little hair :
My heart hath one poor ftring to ftay it by,
Which holds but till thy news be uttered.
King Jihn, ad j. fc, ;o.
York, My uncles both are {lain in refeuing me :
And all my followers to the eager foe
Turn back, and fly like (hips before the wind,
Or lambs purfu’d by Hunger-ftarved wolves.
Third part Henry VI. aft l.\fc. 6.
The latter of the two fimilies is good : the former, be¬
caufe of the faintnefs of the relemblance, produces no
good effeft, and crouds the narration with an uftlefs i-
mage.
In an epic poem, or in any elevated fubjeCt, a writer
ought no avoid railing a fimile upon a low image, which
never fails to bring down the pi incipal,fubjeCt. In ge¬
neral, it is a rule, that a grand objeCt ought never to
be refemblcd to one that is diminutive, however delir
cate the refemblance may be : for it is-the peculiar cha¬
racter of a grand objeCt to fix the attention, and fwell
the mind ; in which (late, it is difagreeable to 'contract
the mind to a minute objeCt, -however elegant. The
refembling an objeCt to one that is greater, has, on the
contrary, a good effeCt, by railing or fwtiling the mind :
for one paffes with fatisfaCtion from a (mall to a great ob¬
jeCt; but cannot be drawn down, without■ reluctance,
from great to fmall. Hence the following fimiles are
faulty.
Meanwhile the troops beneath Patroclus’ care.
Invade the Trojans, and commence the war.
As wafps, provok’d by children in their play,
Pour from their manfions by the broad highway.
In fwarms the guiltlefs traveller engage.
Whet all their (lings, and call forth all their rage ;
All rife in arms, and with a general cry
Affert their waxen domes and buzzing progeny :
Thus from the tents the fervent legion fwarms,
So loud their clamours, and fo keen their arms.
Iliad, xvi. 312.
So burns the vengeful hornet (foul all o’er)
Repuls’d in vain, and thirfty {till of gore ;
(Bold fon of air and heat) on angry wings
Untanr’d, untir’d, he turns, attacks, and flings.
3 R Fir’d
COM ( 248 ) COM
Fir’d with like ardour, fierce Atrides fiew.
And fent his foul with ev’ry lance he threw.
Iliad, xvii. 642.
An error oppofite to the former, is the introducing a
refembling image, fo elevated or great as to bear no pro¬
portion to the principal fubjed. Their remarkable dif-
parity, being the moft ftriking circumftance, feizes the
mind, and never fails to deprefs the principal fubjedt by
contrail, inftead of raifing it by refemblance :_and if the
difparity be exceeding great, the fimile takes on an air
of burlefque ; nothing being more ridiculous than to
force an objedt out of its proper rank in nature, by e-
qualling it with one greatly fuperior or greatly inferior.
This will be evident from the following comparifon.
Loud as a bull makes hill and valley ring,
So roar’d the lock when it releas’d the fpring.
Odyjfey, xxi. 51.
Such a fimile upon the fimplefl of all adtions, that of o-
pening a lock, is pure burlefque.
A writer of delicacy will avoid drawing his compari-
fons from any image that is naufeous, ugly, or remarka¬
bly difagreeable ; for however ftrong the refemblance
may be, more will be loft than gained by fuch compari¬
fon. Therefore we cannot help condemning, though
with fo'me reludtancy, the following fimile, or rather me¬
taphor.
O thou fond many ! with what loud applaufe
Did’ft thou beat heav’n with bleffing Bolingbroke
Before he was what thou would’ft have him be ?
And now being trimm’d up in thine own defires,
Thou, beaftly feeder, art fo full of him.
That thou provok’ft thyfelf to caft him up.
And fo, thou common dog, didft thou difgorge
Thy glutton bofom of the royal Richard,
And now thou would’ft eat thy dead vomit up.
And howl’ft to find it.
Second part Henry IV. aft 1. fc. 6.
The ftrongeft objedtion that can lie againft a compari¬
fon is, that it confifts in words only, not in fenfe.
Such falfe coin, or baftard wit, does extremely well in
burlefque ; but is far below the dignity of the epic, or
of any ferious compofition :
The noble lifter of Poplicola,
The moon of Rome; chafte as the icicle
That’s curdled by the froft from pureft fnow,
And hangs on Dian’s temple.
Coriolanus, aft 5. fc, 3.
There is evidently no refemblance between an icicle, and
a woman, 'chafte or unchafte : but chaftity is cold in a
metaphorical fenfe, and an icicle is cold in a proper fenfe ;
and this verbal refemblance, in the hurry and gl°w °f
compoling, has been thought a fufficient foundation for
the fimile. Such phantom fimiles are mere witticifms,
which ought to have no quarter, except where purpofe-
]y introduced to.provoke laughter. Lucian, in* his dif-
fertation upon hiftory. talking of a certain author, makes
the following comparifon, which is verbal merely.
“ This author’s defcriptions are fo cold, that they
“ furpafs the Cafpian fnow, and all the ice of the
“ north.”
 But for their fpirrts and fouls
This word rebellion had froze them up
As filh are in a pond.
Second part Henry IV. oft \. fc. 3.
Pope has feveral fimiles of the fame ftamp.
And hence one mailer palfion in the breall,
Like Aaron’s ferpent fwallows up the reft.
Epijl. 2. /. 131.
And again, talking of this fame ruling or mailer paffion:
Nature its mother, Habit is its nurfe ;
Wit, fpirit, faculties, but make it worfe;
Reafon itfelf but gives it edge and pow’r ;
As heav’n’s blefs’d beam turns vinegar more fowr.
Ibid, l. 14^.
Where the fubjedt.is burlefque or ludicrous, fuch
limiles are far from being improper. Horace fays plea-
fan tly,
Quamquam tu levior cortice. L. 3, od. 9.
And Shakefpear,
In breaking oaths he’s ftronger than Hercules.
And this leads to obferve, that belides the foregoing
comparifons, which are all ferious, there is' a fpecies, the
end and purpofe of which is to excite gaiety or mirth.
Take the following examples.
FalftafF, fpeaking to his page :
“ I do here walk before thee, like a fow that.hath
“ overwhelmed all her litter but one.”
Second part Henry IV. aft 1. fc, 10.
“ I think he is not a pick-purfe, nor a horfe lleal-
" er; but for his verity in love, I do think him as
concave as a cover’d goblet, or a worm-eaten nut.”
Hs you like it, aft o,. fc. 10.
This fword a dagger had his page.
That was but little for his age;
And therefore waited on him fo,
As dwarfs upon knights-errant do.
Hudibras, canto 1.
“ Books, like men, their authors, have but one
“ way of coming into the world; but there are ten
“ thoufand to go out of it, and return no more.”
Tale of a Tub. •
“ The moft accomplilhed way of ufing books at
“ prefent is, to ferve them as fome do lords, learn
“ their titles, and then brag of their acquaintance.”
Ibid.
“ He does not confider, that fincerity in love is as
“ much out of falfoion as fweet fnuff; no body takes
“ it now.” Carelefs Hujband.
Comparison cf ideas, that operation of the mind
whereby it compares its ideas one with another, in
regard of extent, degree, time, place, or any other
circumftance, and is the ground of relations.
Comparison, in grammar, the infledtion of the compa¬
rative degree.
COMPARTITION', in architedlure, denotes the ufe-
ful. and graceful difpofition of the whole ground-plot
of an edifice, into roorvs of office, and of reception
or entertainment.
COMPARTMENT, in general, is a defign compofed
of
C O M ( 2-1
of feveral different figures, difpoftd with fymmetry,
to adorn a parterre, a ceiling,
A compartment of tiles, or bricks, is an arrange¬
ment of them, of different colours-, and varnifhed, for
the decoration of a building. Compartments, in gar¬
dening, aire an affemblage of beds, plats, borders,
walks, crc. difpofed in the mdft advantageous man¬
ner that the ground will admit of. Compartments,
in heraldry, are otherwife called partitions.
COMPASS, or mariner's Compass, an inftrument
whereby the (hip’s courfe is determined. See Navi¬
gation,
Azimuth Compass. See Navigation.
Compass i/Wr, are final! horizontal dials, fitted in brafs
or filver boxes, for the pocket, to fhew the hour of
the day, by the dlreftion of a needle, that indicates
how to place them right, by turning the dial about,
till the cock or ftyle Hand dire&ly over the needle,
and point to the northward : but thefe can never be
very exaft, becaufe of the variations of the needle it-
felf. See Dialing.
COMPASSES, ox pair 0/" Compasses, a mathemati¬
cal inftrument for defcribing circles, meafuring fi¬
gures, <bc.
The common compaffes confift of two (harp-pointed
branches, or legs, of iron, fte.el, brafs, or other me¬
tal, joined at top by a rivet, whereon they move as on
a centre.
The principal pdrfedtion of this, as of all other com-
paffes, confifts in the eafy and uniform opening and
fhutting of their legs; one of which may be taken out,
in order to make room for others.
There are now ufed compaffes of various kinds and
contrivances, accommodated to the various ufes they
are intend d for.
COMPEIGN, a city of France, fituated on the river
Oyfe, about forty-five miles north-eaft of Paris: E.
long. 3°, N. lat. 49° go'.
COMPENDIUM, in matters of literature, denotes
much the fame with epitome or abridgment. See A-
BR IDGMENT.
COMPENSATION, in a general fenfe, an adion where¬
by any thing is admitted as an equivalent to another.
Compensation. Where the fame perfon is debtor and
creditor to another, the mutual obligations, if they
are for equal fums, are extinguifhed by compenfation ;
^ if for unequal, the lefier obligation is extinguifhed, and
the greater diminiftied, as far as the concourfe of debt
and credit goes. See Scots Law, title, Extinflion
of obligations.
COMPETENCE, or Competency, inlaw, the right
or authority of a judge, for taking cognizance of any
matter.
COMPETITION, in Scots law: In efcheats, fee title,
Cafualties due to the fuperior: In confirmations by
the fuperior, in refignations, and in perfonal rights
of lands, fee title, Of tranfmiflion of rights by con¬
firmation : In inhibitions, in adjudications, amongft
aflignees, arrefters, and poinders, fee title, Inhibi¬
tions, adjudications, ajfignations, arrefiments, and
9 ) COM
poindings : Amongft creditors of a defund, fee title,
Succejfion in moveables.
COMPITALIA, or Compitalitia, in Roman anti¬
quity, feafts inftituted by Servius Tullius in honour of
the Lares. See Lares.
Thefe feafts were obferved on the 12th of January,
and 6th of March.
COMPLEMENT, in geometry, is what remains of a
quadrant of a circle, or of 90°, after any certain arch
has been taken away from it. Thus, if the arch ta¬
ken away be 40°, its complement is 50: becaufe
50+40=90. The fine of the complement of an ^arch
is called the co-fine, and that of the tangent the co¬
tangent, ' fa c;
COMPLEX, in a more general fenfe, a term fynony-
mous with compound ; though, in ftridnefs of fpeech,
there is fome difference. See Compound.
Complex terms, or ideas, in logic, are fuch as are
compounded of feveral fimple ones. See Term, and
Idea.
COMPLEXION, among phyficians, the temperament,,
habitude, and natural dipofition of the body, but more
often the colour of the face and (kin.
COMPLEXUS, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 216.
Complexus minoY, in anatomy,. See Vol. I. p. 216.
COMPLICATION, in general, denotes the. blending,,
or rather interweaving, of feveral different things to¬
gether : thus a perfon afflided with feveral diforders
at the fame time, is faid to labour under a complica¬
tion of difeafes.
COMPOUND, Compone, or Gobony, in heraldry,
-is faid of a bordure made up of angular parts, or
chequers, of two' different colours. See Plate LXV.
fig. 13.
COMPOSITE, in general, denotes fomething com¬
pounded, or made up of feveraL others united toge¬
ther. Thus,
Composite numbers, are fuch as can be meafured ex--
adly by a number exceeding unity ; as 6 by 2 or 3,
or 10 by 5, 'fac. fo that 4 is the loweft compofite
number.
Composite an/er, in architedure. See Vol. I. p.352.
COMPOSITION, in a general fenfe, the uniting or
putting together feveral things, fo as to form one
whole, called a compound.
Composition of ideas, an ad of the mind, whereby it
unites feveral fimple ideas into one conception 01 com¬
plex idea. -
When we are provided with a fufficient flock of
fimple ideas, and have by habit and ufe rendered
them familiar to our minds, they become the compo¬
nent parts of other ideas ftill more, complicated, and
form what we may call a fecond order of compound
notions. This procefs may be continued to any degree
of compofition -we pleafe, mounting from, one ftage to
another, and enlarging the number of combinations.
Composition, in grammar, the joining of two words
together; or prefixing a pardcle to another word, to
augment, diminifh, or change its fignification.
Composition, in logic, a method of reafoning, where¬
by
COM ( 250 ) COM
■ by proceed from forne general felf-evldent truth,
to other particular and fingular ones.
In difpofing and putting together our thoughts,
there are. two ways of proceeding, equally within
our choice: for we may fo propofe the truths, relating
to any part of knowledge, tfs they prefented themfelvcs
to the mind, in the manner of inveftigation ; carry¬
ing oh the ferns of proofs in a reverfe order, till they,
at lad, terminate in firft principles : or beginning with
thefe principles, we may take the contrary way, and
from them deduce, by a dired train of reafoning, all
the feveial propofitions we want to eftablifh.
This diverlity, in the manner of arranging our
thoughts, gives rife to the twofold divifion ol method
eflablilhed among logicians; the one called analytic
method, or the method of refolution, inafmuch as it
traces things back to their fource, and refolves know¬
ledge into its firll and original principles. This me¬
thod Hands in comradiHiniStion to the method of com - _
pofition; or, as it is otherwife called, the fynthetic
method : for here we proceed by gathering together
the feveral fcattered parts of knowledge, and combi¬
ning them into one fyflem, in fuch a manner, as that
the underftanding is enabled diftimfHy to follow truth
through all the different ftages-of gradation.
Com posit ion, in mufic, the art of difpofing mufical
founds into airs, fongs, either in one or more
parts, to be fung by a voice, or played on inftruments.
See Music, and Song.
Under compofition are comprehended the rules,
1. Of mdody, or the art of making a fingle part;
that is, contriving and difpofing the fimple founds, fo
'as that their fucceflion and progreuion may be agree¬
able to the ear. See Melody.
2. Of harmony, or the art of difpofing and concert¬
ing feveral fingle parts together, fo as that they
make one agreeable whole. See Harmony.
COMPOSITION, in literature, the art- of forming and
arranging fentiments, and cloathing them with language
fuitable to the nature of the fubjedt or difcourfe.
\Ve (hall firlt give u few thoughts on original compo¬
fition ; and, adly, by way of example, unfold the na¬
ture of epic and dramatic compofitions.
I. 0/2 Original Compcjition.
The mind of a mam of genius is a fertile and plea-
fant field; pleafant as Ehjium, and fertile as Tempe ;
it enjoys a perpetual Jpring Of that fprmg, origi¬
nals are the faireft flowers: imitations are of quicker
growth, but fainter bloom. Imitations are of two
kinds; one of nature, one of authors: the firft we
call origin ds, and confine the term imitation to the
fecond. We ftiall not enter into the curious inqui¬
ry of what is, or is not, ftriffly fpeaking, original,
content with what all muft allow, that fome com¬
pofitions are more fo than others; and the more
they are fo, the bett'er. Originals are, and ought
to be, great favourites, for they ate benefactors; they
extend the republic of letters, and add a new province
to its dominion: imitators only give us a fort of du¬
plicates of what we had, poffibly much better, before ;
increafing the mere drug of books, while all that makes
them valuable, knowledge and genius* are at a ftand.
The pen of an original writer, like Armida’s wand,
out of a barren wafte calls a blooming fpring : out of that
blooming fpring an is a tranfplanter of laurels,
which fometimes die on removal, always langufth in a fo¬
reign foil. . ’
But fuppofe an imitator to be moft excellent (and fucb
there are), yet ftill he but nobly builds on another’s
foundation; his debt is, at leaft, equal to his glory;
which therefore, on the balance, cannot be very great.
On the contrary, an original, though but indifferent (its
originality being fet afide), yet has fomething to boaft;
it is fomething to fay with him in Horace,
Meo y'awz pauper in (ere\
and to {hare ambition with no lefs than Cafar, who de¬
clared he had rather be the firft in a village, than the
fecond at Rome.
Still farther: an imitator Ihares his crown, if he has
one, with the chofen objeff of hts imitation; an origi¬
nal enjoys an undivided applaufe. An original may
be faid to be of a vegetable nature; it riles fponta-
neoufly from the vital root of genius ; it grows., it is
not made: imitations are often a fort of manufaflure
wrought by thofe mechanics, art oeaA labour, out of
pre-exiftent materials not their own.
Again: we read imitation with fomewhat of his lan¬
guor who liftens to a twice-told tale: our fpirits roufe
at an original; that is a perfeCl ftranger, and all throng
to learn what news from a foreign land: and though it
comes, like an Indian prince, adorned with feathers onlyy
having little of weight; yet of our attention it will rob
the more folid, if not equally new: thus every telefcope
is lifted at a new-difeovered ftar; it makes a hundred a-
ftronomert in a moment, and denies equal notice to the
fun'. But if an original, by being as excellent, as new,
adds admiration to furprize, then are we at the writer’s
mercy; on the ftrong wing of his imagination, we are
fnatched from Britain to Italy, from climate to climate,
from pleafure to pleafure ; we have no home, no thought,
of our own;. till the magician drops his pen : and then
falling down into ourfelves, we awake to flat realities,
lamenting the change, like the beggar who dreamt him-
felf a prince.
It is with thoughts, as it is with words; and with
both, as with men; they may grow old and die. Words
tarnifhed/ by palling through the mouths of the vulgar,
are laid afide as inelegant and obfolete. So thoughts,
when become too common, fhodld lofe their currency ;
and we {hould fend new metal to the mint, that is, new
meaning to theprefs. The divifion of tongues at Babel
did not more effectually debar men from making them-
felves a name (as the feripture fpeaks) than the too
great concurrence or union of tongues will do for ever.
We may as well grow good by another’s virtue, or fat
by another’s food, as famous by another’s thought.
The world will pay its debt of praife but once; and in-
ftead of applauding, explode a fecond demand, as a
cheat.
If it is laid, that moft of the Latin claflics, and all
the Greek, except, perhaps, Homer, Pindar, and Ana¬
creon,
COM ( 2
creon, are in the number of i?nitafors, yet receive our
highelt applaufe ; our anfwer is,' that they, though not
real, are accidental originals ; the works they imitated,
few excepted, are loft: they, on their father’s deceafe,
enter as lawful heirs on their eftates in fame: the fa¬
thers of our copyifts are itill in pofTeffion; and fecured in
it, in fpite of Goths, and flames, by the perpetuating
power of the prefs. Very late muft a modern imitator's
fame arrive, if it waits for their deceafe.
An enters early on reputation: fond of new
glories, founds her trumpet in triumph at its birth ; and yet
how few are awakened by it into the noble ambition of
like attempts ? Ambition is fometimes no vice in life ; it
is always a virtue in compofition. ■ High in the tower¬
ing Alps is the fountain of the Po; high in fame, and
in antiquity, is the fountain of an imitator's undertaking;
but themver, and the imitation, humbly creep along the
vale. So tew are our originals, that, if all other books
were to be burnt, the lettered world would refemble
fome metropolis in flames, where a few incOmbuftible
buildings, a fortrefs, temple, or tower, |ift their heads,
in melancholy grandeur, amid the mighty ruin. Com
pared with this conflagration, old Omar lighted up bat a
fmall bonfire, when he heated the baths of the barbarians,
for eight months together, with the famed Alexandrian
library’s ineftimable fpoils, that no prophane book might
obllruCt the triumphant progrefs of his holy Alcoran
round the globe.
But why are originals fo few ? not becaufe the writer’s
harveft is over, the great reapers of antiquity having left
nothing to be gleaned after them; nor becaufe the hu*
man mind’s teeming time is paft, or becaufe it is inca¬
pable of putting forth unprecedented births; but becaufe'
illuftrious examples engrofs, prejudice and intimidate.
They engrofs our attention, and fo prevent a due in-
fpeftion of ourfelves; they prejudice our judgment in fa¬
vour of their abilities, and fo lelfen the ienfe of opr own;
and they intimidate us with the fplendor of their renown,
and thus under diffidence bury our flrength. Nature’s
impoflibilities, and thofe of diffidence, lie wide afunder.
After all, the firft ancients had not merit in being
originals', they could not be imitutirs. Modern writers
have a cifo/A? to make; and therefore have a merit in
their power. They may foar in -the regions of liberty,
or move in the foft fetters of eafy imitation ; and imi¬
tation has as many plaufible reafons to urge, as pleafure
had to offer to Hercules. Hercules made the choice of
an hero, and fo became immortal.
Yet let not affertors of elaflic excellence imagine, that
we deny the tribute it fo well deierves. He that admires
not ancient authors, betrays a fecret he would conceal,
and tejls the world, that he does not underfland them.
Let us be as far from negle&ing, as from copying, their
admirable edmpofitions: facred be their rights, and in¬
violable their fame. Let, our underftanding feed on
theirs; they afford the nobleft nourifhment: 'but let
them nourifh, and annihilate, our own. When we read,
Jet our. imagination kindle at their, charms ; when we
write, let our judgment fhut them out of our thoughts ;
treat even Homer himfelf, as his rpyal,admirer was
treated by the cynic ; bid him ftand afide, nor fhade our
Vol. II. No. 40. 3
51 ) COM
compofition from the beams of our own genius ; for no¬
thing original can rife, nothing immortal, can rip^.n,
in any other fun.
Mufl: we, then, not imitate ancient authors;? Imi¬
tate them, by all means; but imitate aright. Ho
that imitates the divine Iliad, does not imitate Homer;
but he who takes the fame method, which Homer
took, for arriving at a capacity of accomplifhing a woik
fo great. Tread in his lieps to the foie fountain of im¬
mortality; drink where he drank, at the ttue Helicon,
that is, at the breaft of nature. Imitate; but imitate
not the compojition, but the man. For may not this pa¬
radox pafs into a maxim? viz. “-'The lefs we copy the
renowned ancients, we fhall refemble them the more.”
But pofliblyit maybe replied, that we muft ei.her imi¬
tate Homer, or depart from nature. Not fo : for fup-
pofe you was to change place, in time, with Homer;
then, if you write naturally, you might as well charge
Homer with an imitation of you. Can you be faid to
imitate Homer for writing fo, as you would have written
if Homer hadn'ever been ? As far as a regard to nature,
and found fenfe, will permit a departure from your
great predeceflbrs; fo far, ambitioufly, depart from 1
them ; the farther from them in Jimilitude, the nearer
are you to them in excellence ; you rife by it into an ori¬
ginal ; become a noble collateral, not an humble de-
feendant from them. Let us build our compofitions with
the fpirit, and in the tafle of the ancients; but not with
their materials : thus will they refemble the ftruftures of
Pericles at Athens, which Plutarch commends for ha¬
ving had an air of antiquity as foon as they were built.
All eminence, and diftindlion, lies out of the beaten road;
excurfion, and deviation, are neceffary to fiqd it; and
the more remote your path from the highway, the more
reputable; if, like poor Gulliver, you fall not into a
ditch, in your way to glory.
What glory to come near, what glory to reach,
what glory (prefumptuous thought!) to furpafs our pre¬
deceflbrs ? And is that then in nature abfolutely im-
poflible ? or is it not rather contrary to nature to*
fail in it ? Nature heifelf fets the ladder, all wantv
ing is our ambition to climb. For by the bounty of
nature we are as ftrong as our predeceffors ; and by the
favour of time (which is but another round in nature’s
fcale) we ftand on higher ground. As to the firft,
vtzxe.they more than men ? or are we lefs ? Are not our
minds call: in the fame mould with thofe before the flood ?
The flood affeded matter: mind efcapecj. As to the
fecond\ though we are moderns, the world is a-si ancient;
more ancient far, than when they, whom we moft ad,
mire, filled it with their fame. Have we not their beau¬
ties, as ftars, to guide; their defeds, as rocks, to be
fhunned; the judgment of ages on both, as a chart to
condud, and a fure helm to fteer us in our paffage to
greater perfedion than theirs ? And fltall we fee ftopt in
our rival pretenfions to fame by this juft reproof?
Stat contra, dicitque tibi tua pagina. Fur es.
Mart.
It is by a fort of noble contagion, from a general fa¬
miliarity with their writings, and not by any particular '
fordid theft, that we can be the better for thofe who
3 S went
COM (2
went before ns. Hope we, from plagiarifm, any domi¬
nion in literature; as that Rome rofe from a net! of
thieves ?
Rome was a powerful ally to many ftates; ancient au¬
thors are our powerful allies; but we mult take heed,
that they Tdo not fuccour till they inllave, after the
manner of Rome. Too formidable an idea of their fu-
periority, like a fpeftre, would fright us out of a proper
ufe of our wits ; and dwarf our underftanding, by making
a giant of theirs. Too great awe for them lays genius
under reftraint, and denies it that free fcope, that full
elbow-room, which is requifite for ftriking its moft ffia-
Iterly ftrokes. Genius is a mafter-workman, learning is
but an inftrument, and an inftrumeht, though moft va¬
luable, yet not always indifpenfable. Heaven will not
admit of a partner in the accomplilhment of fome favou¬
rite fpirits; but rejecting all human means, aflumes the
whole glory to itfelf. Have not fome, though not famed
for erudition, /* written, as almofl: to perfuade us, that
they fit one brighter, and fpared higher, for efcaping the
boafled aid of that proud ally ?
Nor is it llrange ; for what, for the mod part, mean
we by genius, but the power of accomplilhing great
things without the means generally reputed necelfary to
that end? A ginhu differs from a good underjlanding,
as a magician from a good architect; that raifes his
ftrufture by means invifible; this by the Ikilful ufe of
common tools. Hence genius has ever been fuppofed to
partake of fomething divine.
Learning, deftitute of this fuperior aid, is fond, and
proud of what has cod it much pains; is a great lover of
rules, and boader of famed examples. As beauties lefs
perfect, who owe half their charms to cautious art,
learning inveighs' againd natural undudied graces, and
fmall harmlefs inaccuracies, and lets rigid bounds to that
liberty to which genius often owes its fupreme glory ;
but the no genius its frequent ruin. For unpreferibed
beauties, and unexampled excellence, which are-cha-
j afteridics of genius, lie without the pale of learning's
authorities, and laws; which pale, genius mud leap to
come at them: but by that leap, if genius is wanting,
wp break our necks; we lofe that little credit, which pof-
fibly we might have enjoyed before. For rules, like
crutches, are a needful aid to the lame, though an im¬
pediment to the drong. A Homer cads them away;
and, like his Achilles,
Jura negat fthi nata, nihil non arregat,
by native force of mind. There is fomething in poetry
beyond* pr'ofe-reafon; there are myderies in it not to be
explained, but admired ; which render mere profe-men
infidels to their divinity. And here may be offered a fe-
cond paradox: viz. “ Genius often then deferves mbd to
be praifed, when it is mod fure to be condemned ; that
is, when its excellence, from mounting high, to weak
eyes is quite out of fight.”
If we might fpeak farther of learning and genius, we
would compare genius to virtue, and learning to riches.
As riches are mod wanted where there is lead virtue ;
fo learning where there is lead genius. As virtue with¬
out much riches can give happinefs ; fo genius without
much learning can give renown. As it is faid inTerence,
52 ) CO M
peettniani negligent inierdum maximum ejl lucrum;
fo to ncgledf of learning, genius fometirnes owes its
greater .glory. Genius, therefore, leaves but the fecond
place, among men of letters, to the learned. It is their
merit, and ambition, to fling light on the works of ge¬
nius, and point out its charms. We mod judly reverence
their informing radius for that favour; but we mud
much more admire the radiant dars pointed out by'
them.
A dar of the fird magnitude among the moderns was
Shakelpeare; among the ancients, Pindar; who, (as
VoiTius tells us) boaded of bis no-learning, calling hiro-
felf the eagle, for his flight above it. And fucli genii
as thefe may, indeed, have much reliance on their own
native powers. For genius may , be compared to the-na¬
tural drength of the body; learning to the fuperinduced
accountrements of arms : if the fird is equal to the pro-
pofed exploit, the latter rather encumbers, than aflids ;
rather retards, than promotes, the viflory. Sacer no¬
bis ineji Deus, fays Seneca. With regard to the mo¬
ral world, confcience, with regard to the- intelleftuaf,
genius, is that god within. Genius can fet us right in
compofition, without the rules of the learned; as con¬
fcience fets ns right in life, without the laws of the
land: this, fingly, can make us good, as men: that,
fingly, as writers, An, fometirnes,' make us great.
As too great admirers of the fathers of the church have
fometimes fet up their authority againd the true fenfe of
feripture ; fo too great admirers of the claflical fathers
have fometimes fet up their authority, or example, a-
<gaind reafon.
Neve minor, neu fit quint 0 preduftior a fin fabula.
So fays Horace, fo fays ancient example.' But reafon
has not fubferibed. We know but one book that can
judify our implicit acquiefcence in it : and (by the way)
on that book a noble difdain of undue deference to prior
opinion has lately call, and is dill cading, a new and in-
ellimable light.
But, fuperdition for our predecedbrs fet afide,' the
daffies are for ever our rightful and revered maders in
compofitisn ; and Our underdandings bow before them.
But wh^n ? When a mader is wanted ; which fometimes
is not the cafe. Some ate pupils of nature only, nor go
farther to fchool. From fuch we reap often a double ad¬
vantage ; they not only rival the reputation of the great
ancient authors, but alfo reduce the number of mean ones
among the ' moderns. For when they enter on fubjedls
which have been in former hands, fuch is their fuperiori-
ty, that, like a tenth wave, they overwhelm, and bury
in oblivion all that went before : and thus not only en¬
rich and adorn, but remove a load, and lefll-n the labour,
of the letter’d world.
“ But, it maybe faid, fince originals can arife from ge¬
nius only, and fince genius is fo very rare, it is fcarce worth
while to labour a point lo much, from w hich we can rea-
fonably exped fo little.” To fhow that genius is not fo
very rare as you imagine, we fliall point out drong in¬
dances of it, in a far didant quarter from that mentioned
above. The minds of the fchootmen were almod as
much cloidered as their bodies: they had but little learn¬
ing, and few books ; yet may the mod learned be druek
COM _ (2
with fome aftonHhment at their fo fingular natural faga-
city, and moft exquifite edge of thought. Who would
expedttofind Pindar and Scotus, Shakefpeare and Aqui¬
nas, of the fame party ? Both equally /hew an original,
unindebted, energy :* the vigor igrieus, and caleftis origo,.
burns in both ; and leaves us in doubt whether genius is
more evident in the fublime flights and beauteous flowers
of poetry, or in the profound penetrations, and rnarvel-
oully keen and minute diftin&ions, called the thorns of
the fchools. There might have been more able confuls
called from the plough, than ever arrived at that honour :
many a genius, probably, there has been, which could
neither write nor read. So that genius, that fupreme
lufire of literature, is lefs rare than is generally conceived.
By the praife of genius we detradt not from learning ;
we detradt not from the value of gold, by faying that
diamopd has greater ftill. He who difregards learning,
fliows that he wants its aid •, and he that overvalues it,
Iho-.vs that its aid has done him harm. Over-valued in¬
deed it cannot be, if genius as to campojition, js valued
more. Learning, we thank; genius, we revere ; that
gives us pleafure, this gives us rapture ; that informs,
tliis infpires ; and is itfelf infpired f for genius is from
heaven, learning from man : this fets us above the low,
and illiterate; that, above the learned, and polite.
Learning is fc* rowed knowledge ; genius is knowledge
innate, and qbaite our own. Therefore, as Bacon ob-
ferves, it may take a nobler name, and be called wifdom ;
in which fenfe of wifdbm, fome are born wife.
Having put in a caveat again!! the moll fatal of errors,
from the too great indulgence of genius, return we now
to that too great fupprefiion of it, which is detrimental to
compofition ; and endeavour to refcue the writer, as well
as the man, We have faid, that fome are born wife ;
but they, like thofe that are born rich,, by neglefting the
cultivation and produce of their own. polTeflions, and by
running in debt, may be beggared at laid ; and lofe their
reputations, as younger brothers bliates, not by being
born with lefs abilities than the rich heir, but at too late
an hour.
Many a great man has been Ibfl: to himfelf. and the
public, pureiy becaufe great ones were born before him.
Hermias, in his coHeclions on Homer’s blindnefs, fays,
that Homer requefting the gods to grant him a fight of
Achilles, that hero rofe, but in armour fo bright, that it
flruck Homer blind with the blaze. Let not the blazfe
of even Homer’s mufe darken us to the difcernment of
our own powers ; which may poflibly fet us above the
rank of imitators; who, though moll excellent, and
even immortal, (as fome of them are), yet are ftill but
' dii miner urn gentium, nor can expect the largeft Ihare of
incenfe, the greateft profufion of praife, on their fecon-
dary altars.
But farther ftill : a fpirit of imitation hath many ill
effeds ; we lhall confine ourfelves to three. Firfi, It
deprives the liberal and politer arts of an advantage
which the mechanic enjoy : in thefe, men are ever en¬
deavouring to go beyond their predeuefibrs ; in the for¬
mer, to follow them. And fince copies furp.ifs not their
originals, as ftreams rife not higher than their fpring,
rarely fo high ; hence, while arts mechanic are in perpe«
53 ) CO M
tual progrefs and increafe, the liberal are in retrogracfa-
tion and decay. Thefe refemble pyramids, are broad
at bottom, but leften exceedingly as they rife ; thofe re¬
femble rivers, which, from a fmall fountain-head, are
fpreading ever wider and wider, as they run. Hence it
is evident, that different portions of underftanding are
not (as fome imagine)- allotted to different periods of
time ; for we fee, in the fame period, underftanding
rifing in one fet of artifts, and declining in another.
Therefore nature Hands abfolved, and our inferiority in
compofition muft be charged on ourfelves.
Nay, fo far are we from complying with a necefiity
which nature lays us under, that, fecondly, by a fpirit of
imitation we counteradt nature, and thwart her defign.
She brings us into the world all originals. No two
faces, no two minds, are juft alike ; but all bear nature’s
evident mark of feparation on them. Born originals,
how comes it to pafs that we die copies ? That meddling
ape imitation, as foon as we come to years of indifcre-
Hon, (if we mayfo fpeak), fnatches the pen, and blots out
nature’s mark of feparation, cancels her kind intention,
deftroys all mental individuality ; the letter’d world no
longer confifts of fingulars, it is a medly, a mafs ; and
a hundred books, at bottom, are but one. Why are
monkies fuel) mafters of mimickry ? why receive they
fuch a talent at imitation ? Is it not as the Spartan Haves
received a licenfe for ebriety, that their betters mipht be
aftiamed of it ?
The third fault to be found with a fpirit of imitation
is, that with great incongruity it makes us poor and
proud : makes us think little, and Write much ; gives us
huge folios, which are little better than more reputable
culhions to promote our repofe. Have not fome leven-
fold volumes putais in mind of Ovid’s fevenfold channels
of the Nile at the conflagration ?
Oflia feptem
Pulverulenta vacant feptem fine flutnine valles.
Such leaden labours are like Lycurgus’s iron money, which
was fo much Jcfs in value than in bulk, that it required
barns for ftrong boxes, and a yoke of oxen to draw five
hundred pounds.
But notwithftanding thefe diladvantages of imitation,
imitation muft be the lot (and often an hoflourable lot it
is) of moft writers. If there is a famine of invention in
•the land, like Jofeph’s brethren, we muft travel far for
food ; w.e muft vifit the remote and rich ancients : hut an
inventive genius may fafely ftay at home ; that, like the *
widow’s crufe, is divinely replenilhed from within, and
affords us a miraculous delight. Whether our own ge¬
nius be fuch or not, we diligently Ihould inquire, that we
mny not go a-begging with gold in our purfe. For there
is a mine in man, which muft be deeply dug ere we can
conjecture its contents. Another often, fees that in us,
which we fee not ourftlves ; and may there not be that
in us which is unfeen by both ? Thar there may, chance
often difeovers,: either by a luckily chofen. theme, or a
mighty premium, or an abfolute neceflity of exertion, or
a noble ftroke of emulation from another’s glory ; as that
on Thucydides from hearing Herodotus repeat part of his
hillory at the Olympic games. Had there been no He-
.rodotus, there might have been no Thucydides, and the-
woxJd'a;
COM ( 25,
world’s admiration might have begun at Livy for excel¬
lence in that province of the pen. Demoithenes had the
fame Simulation on hearing Callifhatus ; orTully might*
have been the firfl of confummate renown at the bar
Quite clear of the difpute concerning ancient and mo¬
dern learning, we fpeak not of performance, but powers.
Tire modern powers are equal to thofe before them; mo¬
dern performance in general is deplorably fhort. How
great are the names juft mentioned? Yet who will daily
affirm, that as great may not rife up in fome future, or
even in the prefent age ? Reafons there are why talents
may not appear, none why they may not exrjl, as much
in one period as another. An evocation of vegetable
fruits.depends on rain, air, and fun ; an evocation of the
fruits of genius no lefs depends on externals. What a
marvellous crop bore it in Greece and Rome ? And
what a marvellous funfirine did it there enjoy ? What
encouragement from the nature of their governments,
and the fpirit of their people ? Virgil and Horace owed
their divine talents to Heaven; their immortal'works to
men ; thank Maecenas and Auguftus for them. Had it
not been for thefe, the genius of thofe poets had lain bu¬
ried in their alhes. Athens expepded on her theatre,
painting, fculpture, and architecture, a tax levied for>
the fupport of a. war. Caefar dropt his papers when Tul-
ly fpoke; and Philip trembled at the voice of Demofthe
nes. And has there arifen but one .Tully, one Demoft-
henes, in fo long a courfe of years ? The powerful elo
■quence of them both in one ftream, fhould never bear
us down into the melancholy perfuafion, that feveral
have not been born, though they have not emerged.
The fun as much exifts in a cloudy day, as in a clear ;
it is outward, accidental circumftances that with regard
10 genius either in nation, or age,
Colleflas fugat nubes, folenrque reducit. Virg.
As great, perhaps greater than thofe mentioned, (pre-
fumptuous as it may found) may, poffilly, arife; for,
who, hath fathomed the mind of man ? Its bounds are as
unknown, as thofe of the creation; fince the birth of
which, perhaps, not one has fo far exerted, as not to
leave his pollibilities beyond his attainments, his powers
beyond his exploits. Forming our judgments altogether
by what has been done, without knowing, or at all in¬
quiring, what poflibly might have been done, we natu¬
rally enough fall into too mean an opinion of the human
mind. If a {ketch of the divine Iliad before Homer
wrote, had been given to mankind, by fome fuperior be¬
ing, or otherwife, its execution would probably have ap¬
peared beyond the power of man. Now, to furpafs it,
we think impoffible. As the firft of thefe opinions would
evidently have been a miftake, why may not the fecond be
fo too ? Both are founded on. the fame bottom ; on our
ignorance of the poflible dimenffions of the mind .of man.
Nor are we only ignorant of the dimenfions of the hu¬
man mind in general, but even of our own. That a
man may be fcarce lefs ignorant of his own powers, than
an oyftsr of its. pearl, or a rock of its diamond ; that he
may poftefs dormant, unfufpeCted abilities, till awakened
by loud calk, or .ftung up by ftriking emergencies ; is
evident from the fuclden eruption of fome men out of
perfeCl obfcurity, into public admiration, on the ftrong
4 ) C O M
impnlfe of fome animating occafion ; not more to the
world’s great furprife, than their own. Few authors of
diftinCtion but have experienced fomething of this nature,
at the firft beamings of their yet unfufpeCted, genius on
their hitherto dark compofition. The writer ftarts at it, as
at a lucid meteor in the night; is much furprifeft ; can
fcarce believe it true. During this happy confufion, it
may be faid to him, as to-Eve at the lake.
What there thou fteji, fair creature, is thyfelf.
Milton.
Genius, in this view, is like a dear friend in our com¬
pany under difguife ; who, while we are lamenting his
abfence, drops his mafic, ftriking us at once with equal
furprife and joy. This fenfation, which we fpeak of in
a writer, might favour, and fo promote, the fable of
poetic infpiration. A poet of a'ftrong imagination, and
ftronger vanity, on feeling it, might naturally enough re-
alife the world’s mere compliment, and think himfelf
truly infpired. Which is not improbable ; for enthufi-
afm of all kinds do no lefs.
Since it is plain, that men may be ft rangers to their
own abilities; and by thinking meanly of them without
juft cauf^, may pofRfiy lofe a name, perhaps a name im¬
mortal ; we would find fome means to prevent thefe e-
vils. Whatever promotes virtue, promotes fomething
more, and carries its good influence beyond the moral
man : to prevent thefe evils we borrow two golden rules
from ethics, which are no lefs golden in compofition,
than .in life. 1. Know thyfelf; 2. Reverence thyfelf. .
ift, Know thyfelf. Ofourfelves it maybe faid, as
Martial fays of'a bad neighbour.
Nil tarn prope, proculque nohis.
Therefore dive deep into thy bofom*; learn the depth,
extent, bias, and full fort of tffy mind ; contract fuli inti¬
macy with the ftranger within thee; excite and cherifti
every fpark of intelleCtpal light and heat, however fmo¬
thered under former negligence, or icattered through the
dull, dark mafs of common thoughts; and collecting
them into a body, let-thy genius-rife (if a genius thou
haftf as the fun from chaos; and if we ffiould then fay,
like an Indian, Worjhip it, (though too bold) yet fliould
we fay little more than-the fecond rule enjoins, viz. Re¬
verence thyfelf. - -
■ That is, let not great examples, or authorities, brow¬
beat thy reafon into too great.a diffidence of thyfelf:
thyfelf fo reverence, as to prefer the native growth of thy
own mind to the richeft import from abroad ; fuch bor¬
rowed riches make us poor. FThe man who thus reve¬
rences himfelf, will foon find the world’s reverence to
follow his own. His works will ftand diftinguifhed; his
the foie property of them ; which property alone can con¬
fer the noble title of an author ; that is, of one who, to
fpeak accurately, thinks, and compofes ; while other in¬
vaders of the prefs. how voluminous, and learned fo-
ever, with due refpeCt be it fpoken, only read and
write.
This is the difference between thofe two luminaries in
literature, the well-accompliffied fcholar, and the di-
vinely-infpired enthufiaft ; the firft is, as the bright morn¬
ing ftar ; the fecond, as the rifmg fun. The writer who
negleCts thofe two rules above will never ftand alone ; he
makes
COM ( 255 ) COM
makes one of a group, and thinks in wretched unanimity
with the throng. Incumbered with the notions of others,
and impoverifhed by their abundance, he conceives not
the lead embryo of new thought; opens not the lead
vida through the gloom of ordinary writers, into the
bright walks of rare imagination, and lingular defign 'j
while the true genius is eroding all public roads into
frelh untrodden ground, he, up to the - knee's in antiqui¬
ty, is treading the facred footdeps of great examples,
with the blind veneration of a bigot fainting the papal
toe; comfortably hoping full abfol'ution for the fins of*
his own underdanding, from the powerful charm of
touching his idol’s infallibility.
Such meannefs of mind, fuch prodration of our own
powers, proceeds from too great admiration of others.
Admiration has generally a degree of two very bad in¬
gredients in it; of ignorance, and of fear; aud does
mifehief in compolition, and in life. Proud as the
world is, there is more fuperioriiy in it given, than af-
fumed : and its grandees of all kinds owe more of their
elevation to the littlenefs of others minds, than to the
greatnefs of their own. Were not prodrate fpirits their
voluntary pededals, the figure they make among man¬
kind would not dand fo high. Imitatdrs and tranfla-
tors are fomewhat of the pededal-kind, and fometimes
rather raife their original's reputation, by fhowing him
to be by them inimitable, than their own. Homer has
been tranflated into mod languages; iElian tells us, that
the Indians, (hopeful tutors !) have taught him to fpeak
their tongue. What expeft we from them ? Not Ho¬
mer’s Achilles; but fomething, which, like Patroclus,
affumes his name, and, a>. its peril, appears in his dead ;
nor expert we Homer’s UJyfTes glorioufly burding out of
his cloud into royal grandeur, but an Ulyffes under dif-
guife, and a beggat to the lad. Such is.that inimitable
father of poetry, and oracle of all the wife, whom Ly
curgus tranferibed ; and for an annual public recital of
wlrofe works Solon enarted a law; that it is much to be
feared, that his fo numerous tranflations are but as the
publifhed tedimonials of fo many nations, and ages, that
this author fo divine is untranflated dill.
But m$re,
Cynthius aurem
Vellit, .  Virr.
and demands jadice for his favourite, and ours. Great
things he has done; but he might have done greater.
What a fall is it from Homer’s numbers, free as air,
lofty and harmonious as the fpheres, into childifti (hac¬
kles, and tinkling founds! But,«in his fall, he is dill
great; 
Aror_ appears
Left than archangel ruin'd, and the excefs
Of glory obfeur d.  , Milt.
Had Milton never wrote, Pope had been lels to blame :
but when in Milton’s genius, Homer, as it were, perfo-
nally rofe to forbid Britons doing him that ignoble wrong;
it is lefs pardonable, by that effeminate decoration, to
put Achilles in petticoats a fecond time. How much
nobler had it been, if his numbers had rolled on in full
flow, through the various modulations of mafeuline melo¬
dy, into thofe grandeurs of folemn found, which are in-
Vol. II. No. 40. 3
difpenfibly demanded by the native dignity of heroic
fong ? How much nobler, if he had refided the tempta¬
tion of that Gothic daemon, which modern poefy lading,
berame mortal ? O how unlike the deathlefs, divine har¬
mony of three great names (how judly joined !) of Mil-
ton, Greece, and Rome? His verfe, but for his little
fpeck of mortality, in its extreme parts, as his hero had
in his heel; like him, had been invulnerable, and immor¬
tal. But, unfortunately, that was undipt in Helicon ;
as this in Styx. Harmony as well as eloquences efien-
tial to poefy; and a murder of his mufic is putting half
Homer to death. Blank is a term of diminution ; what
we mean by blank verfe is, verfe unfallen, uncurd ; verfe
reclaimed, reinthroned in the true language of the gods’,
who never thundered, nor differed their Homer to thun¬
der in rhime.
But fuppofing Pope’s Iliad to have been perfert in its
kind ; yet it is a tranjlation dill; which differs as much
from an original, as the moon from the fun.
But as nothing is more eafy than to write originally
wrong; originals are not here recommended, but under
the drong guard of the fird rule,—Knows thyfelf Lu¬
cian, who was an original, neglerted not this rule, if we
may judge by his reply to one who took Tome freedom
with him. He was at fird an apprentice to a datuary;
and when he was reflerted on as fuch, by being called
Prometheus, he replied, “ I am indeed the inventor of
a new work, the model of which I owe to none; and, if
I do not execute it well, I deferve to be torn by twelve
vultures, nnflead of one.”
Bacon fays, “ Men feek not to knqw their own dock,
and abilities ; but fancy their pofleflions to be greater,
and their abilities lefs, than they really are.” Which
is in effert faying, “ That we ought to exert more than
we do ; ^nd that, on exertion, our probability of fuccefs
is greater than we conceive.”
Nor have we Bacon’s opinion only, but his aflidance too,
in favour of originals. His mighty mind travelled round
the intellertual world; and, with a more than eagle’s eye,
faw, and has pointed out, blank fpaces, or dark fpots in
it, on which the hiunan mind never {hone: fome of thefe
have been enlightened fince; fome are benighted -dill.
Moreover, fo boundlefs are the bold excurfions of the
human mind, that in the vad void beyond real exidence,
it can call forth fliadowy beings, and unknown worlds,
as numerous, as bright, and perhaps as lading as the
dars ; fuch quite-original beauties we may call paradi-
faical,
Nat os Jine ftmine flares. Ovid.
When fuch an ample area for renowned adventure in ori¬
ginal attempts lies before us, (hall we be as mere leaden
'pipes, conveying to the prefent age fmall dreams of ex¬
cellence from its grand refervoir in antiquity; and thofe
too perhaps mudded in the pafs ? Originals diine like co¬
mets ; have no peer in their path ; are rivalled by none,
and the gaze of all: all other compofitions (if they Ihine
at all) fhine in cluders ; like the (hrs in the galaxy -
where, like bad neighbours, all differ from all; each
particular being diminifiied, and almod lod in the throng.
If thoughts of this nature prevailed ; if ancients and
modems were no longer confidered as maders and pupils,
3 T but
COM C 256 ) C O M
but as hard-matched rivals for renown; then moderns, by
the longevity of their labours, might one day become
ancients themfelves r and old time, that bed weigher of
raf.nts, to keep his balance even, might have the golden
weight of an Auguftan age in both his fcales: or rather,
our fcale might defcend : and that of antiquity (as a
modern match for it ftrongly fpeais) might 'kick the beam.
Why condemned Maro his admirable epic to the
flames ? Was it not becaufe his difeerning eye faw fome
length of perfection beyond it ? And what he faw, may
not others reach ? And who bid fairer than our country¬
men for that glory ? Something new may be expected
from Britons particularly ; who feem not to be more fe¬
vered from the reft of mankind by the furrounding fea,
than by the current in their veins; and of whom little
more appears to be required, in order to give us origi¬
nals, than a confiflency of character, and making their
compdlicions of a piece with their lives. May our geni-
, us ihine; and proclaim us in that noble view!
—minima emtentos nods Britann&s. Virg.
And fo it does ; for in polite compofition, in natu¬
ral and mathematical knowledge, we have great origi¬
nals already : Badon, Boyle, Newton, Shakefpeare,
Milton, have (bowed us, that all the winds cannot blow
the Britith flag farther, than an original fpirit can convey
the Britifli fame ; their names go round the world; and
what foreign genius ftnkes not as they pafs ? Why (hould
not their pofterity embark in the fame bold bottom of
new enterprife, and hope the fame fuccefs ? Hope it they
may or we muft aflert, either that thofe originals,
which we already enjoy, were written by angels, or deny
that we are men. As Simonides faid to Paufanias, rea-
fon fhould fay to the writer, <! Remember thou art a
man.” And for man Sot to grafp at all which is lauda¬
ble within his reach, is a diflionour to human nature,
and a difobedience to the divine; for as Heaven does no¬
thing in vain, its gift of talents implies an injunction of
their ufe.
Johnfon, in the ferious drama, is as much an imitator
as Shakefpeare is ah original. He was very learned, as
Sampfon was very ftrong, to his own hurt. Blind to the
nature of tragedy, he pulled down all antiquity on his
head, and buried himfelf under it ; we fee nothing of
. Johnfon, nor indeed, of his admired (but alfo murdered)
ancients; for what (hone m the hiftorian is a cloud on
the poet; and Catiline might have been a good play if
Salluft had never written.
Dryden, deftitute of Shakefpeare’s genius, had al-
moft as much learning as Johnfon, and, for the bufkin,
quite as little tafte. He was a ftranger to the pathos,
and, by numbers, expreflion, fentiment, and every .other
dramatic cheat, drove to make amends for it ; as if a
faint could make amends for the want of confcience; a
foldier, for the want of valour; ora veftal, of mode-
fly. The noble nature of tragedy difclaims, an equiva¬
lent ; like virtue, it demands the heart ; and Dryden had
none to give. Let epic poets think, the tragedian’s
point is rather to feel; fuch diftant things are a trage¬
dian and a poet, that the latter indulged, deftroys the
former. Look on Barnwell, and Effex, and fee how as
to thefe diftant characters Dryden excels, and is excel¬
led. But the ftrongeft demonftration of his no-tafte'fcr
the bulkin, are his tragedies fringed with rhyme ; which,
in epic poetry, is a fore difeafe; in the tragic, abfolute
death. To Dryden’s enormity, Pope’s was a light of¬
fence. As lacemen are foes to mourning, thefe two au¬
thors, rich in rhyme, were no great friends to thofe fo-
lemn ornaments, which the noble nature of their works
required.
Muft rhyme then, it may be faid, be banifhed ? It is
to be wiflied the nature of our language could bear its
entire expuftion ; but cur lefler poetry (lands in need of
a toleration for it; it raifes that, but finks the great; as
fpangles adorn children, but expofe men.
Among the brighteft of the moderns, Mr Addifon
muft take his place. Who does not approach his cha¬
racter with great refpeCt ? They who refufe to clofe with
the public in his praife, refufe at their peril. But, if
men will be fond of their own opinions, fome h?zard
muft be run. He had, what Dryden and Johnfon want¬
ed, a.warm, and feeling heart; bur, being of a grave
and balhful nature, through a philofophic referve, and a
fort of moral prudery, he concealed it, where he (hould
have let loofe all his fire, and have (bowed the moft ten¬
der fenfibility of heart. At his celebrated Cato, few
tears are (hed, but Cato’s own; which indeed are
truly great, but unaffeCting, except to the noble few
who love, their country better than themfelves. The
bulk of mankind want virtue enough to be touched by
them. His (Length of genius has reared up one glorious
image, more lofty, and truly golden, than that in the
plain of. Dura, for cool admiration to gaze at, and warm
patriotifm (how rare!) to worfliip; while thofe two-
thrpbbing pulfes of the drama, by which alone it is (hown
to live, terror and pity, negleCted through the whole,
leave our unmolefted hearts at perfect peace. Thus
the poet, like his hero, through miftaken excellence,
and virtue overftrained, becomes a fort of fuicide; and
tliat which is moft dramatic in the drama, dies. All
his charms of poetry are but as funeral flowers which
adorn, all his noble fentiments but as rich fpices which
embalm, the tragedy deceafed. ,
Socrates frequented the plays of Euripides; and,, what
living Socrates would decline the theatre', at the repre-
fentation of Cato > Tully’s affaflins found him in his litter,
reading the Medea of the Grecian poet, to prepare him-
felf for death. Part of Cato might be read to the fame
end. In the weight and dignity of moral reflection, Ad¬
difon refembles that poet, who was called the dramatic
pbilofopher; and is himfelf, as he fays of Cato, ambiti-
oujly fer.tentions. But as to the Angular talent fo re¬
markable in Euripides, at melting down hearts into the
tender dreams of grief and pity, there the refemblance
fails. His beauties fparkle, but do not warm; they
fparkle as ftars in a frofly night. There is,, indeed, a
conftellation in his play; .. there is . the philofopher, pa¬
triot, orator, and poet; but where is the tragedian ?
And, if that is wantings.
Cur in thsatrum Cato fever* venifii ? M4RT,.
2. Of epic and dramatic Compoftions.
Tragedy and the epic poena diftlr little in fubftantiak:
in
COM ( 257 ) CO M
m both the fame ends are propofed, v/&. inflxu&ion and
amufement; and in both the fame means are employed,
v/z. imitation of human aftions. They differ in the
manner only of imitating i epic poetry deals in narration ;
tragedy reprefents its fads as palling in our fight : in the
former, the poet introduces himfelf as an hiftorian ; in
the latter, he prefents his adors, and n^Yer himfelf.
This difference, regarding form only, may be'thought*
flight: but the effeds it occafions, are by no means fo ;
for what we fee, makes a ftronger impreffion than what
we learn from others. A narrative poem is a ftory told
by another : fads and incidents paffing upon the ifage,
come under our own obfervation ; and are befide much
enlivened by adion and gefture, expreffive of many fen-
timents beyond the reach of language.
A dramatic coxipofitiori has another property, inde¬
pendent altogether of adion ; which is, that it makes a
deeper impreffion. than narration ; in the former, perfons
exprefs their own fentiments ; in the latter, fentiments
are related at fecond hand. For that reafon, Ariftotle,
the father of critics, lays it down as a rule, That in an
epic poem the author ought to take every opportunity to
introduce his adors, and to confine the narrative part
within the narroweft bounds. Homer underftood per-
fedly the advantage of this method ; and his poems are
both of them in a great meafure dramatic. Lucan runs
to the oppofite extreme ; and is gyilty of a ftill greater
fault, in fluffing his Pharfatid with cold and languid re-
fledions, the merit of which he affumes to himfelf, and
deigns not to fhare with his perfonages.
Ariftotle, from the nature of the fable, divides tragedy
into fimple and complex : but it is of greater moment,
with refped to dramatic as well as epic poetry, to found
a diftindiori upon the different ends-attained by fuch com-
pofitions. A poem, whether dramatic or epic,, that has
nothing in view but to move the paffions, and to exhibit
pidures of virtut and vice, may be diftinguilhed by the
name of pathetic : but where a ftory is purpofely con¬
trived to illuftrate fome moral truth, by fhowing that
disorderly paffions naturally lead to external misfortunes,
fuch compofitiori may be denominated moral, gefides
making a deeper impreffion than can be done by any mo¬
ral dilcourle, it affords convidion equal to that of the
moft accurate *eafoning. To be fatisfied of this, we
need but refled, that the natural connedion which vice
hath with mifery, and virtue with happinefs, may be il-
luftrated by dating a fad as well as by urging an argu¬
ment. Let us affume, for example, the following mo¬
ral truths : That" difcord among the chiefs renders inef-
fedual all common meafures ; and that the confequences
of a flightly-founded quarrel, foftcred by pride and arro¬
gance, are not lefs fatal than thofe of the groffeft injury:
thefe truths may be inculcated, by the quarrel between
Agamemnon and Achilles at the fiege of Troy, To this
view, probable circnmflances moft be invented, fuch as
furnifh an opportunity for the turbuient paffions-to exert
themfelves in adion : at the fame time,, no accidental nor
unaccountable event ought to be admitted ; for tbeme-
ceffary or probable connedion between vice and mifery,
is not learned from any events but what are naturally oc-
cafiohed by the charaders and paffions of the perldns re-
prefented, ading in fuch and fuch circumftances. A real
event of which we fee not the caufe, may be a leffon to
us becaufe what hath happened may again happen : but
this cannot be inferred from a ftory that is known to be
a fidion.
Many are the good effeds of fuch compofitions. A
pathetic compofition, whether epic or dramatic, tends to
a habit of virtue, by exciting us to do what is right,
and reftraining from what is wrong. Its frequent pic¬
tures of human woes prcduce, belide, two effeds ex¬
tremely falutary : they improve our fympathy, and at
the fame time fortify us in bearing our own misfortunes.
A moral compofition muft obvioufly produce the fame
good effeds, becaufe by being moral it doth not ceafe to
be pathetic : it enjoys befide an excellence peculiar to it-
felf; for it not only improves the heart, as above men¬
tioned, but inljruds the head by the moral it contains.
For our part, we cannot imagine any entertainment more
fuited to a rational being, than a work thus happily il-
luftrating fome moral truth; where a number of perfons
of different charaders are engaged in an important adion,
fome retarding, others promoting, the great cataftrophe;
and where there is dignity of ftyle as well a$ of matter.
A work of this kind has our fympathy at command, and
can put in motion the whole train of the focial affedions:
our curiofity is by turns excited and gratified; and our
delight is conTurfimated at the clofe, upon finding, from
the charaders and fituations exhibited at the commence¬
ment, that every incident down to the final cataftrophe is-
natural, and that the whole in conjundion make a regu¬
lar chain of caufes and effeds.
Confidering that an epic and a dramatic poem are the
fame in fubftance, and have the fame aim or end, one
would readily imagine, that fubjeds proper for the one
miift be equally proper for the other. But confidering
their difference as to form, there will be found reafon to
corred that conjedure, at leaft in fome degree. Many
fubjeds may indeed be treated with equal advantage in
either form ; but the fubjeds are ftill more numerous for
which they are not equally qualified ; and there are fub¬
jeds proper for the one and not at all for. the other. To
give fome flight notion of the difference, as there is no
room here for enlarging upon every article, we obferve,
that dialogue is the heft qualified for expreffing fetiments,
and narrative for difplaying fads. Heroifm, magnani¬
mity, undaunted courage, and' the whole tribe of the
elevated virtues,, figure heft in adion : tender paffions,
and the whole tribe of fympathetic affedions, figure belt
in fentiment : what we feel is the moft remarkable in the
latter.; what we perform is the moft remarkable in the-
former. It clearly follows, that tender paffions are more
peculiarly the province of tragedy, grand and heroic, ac¬
tions of epic poetry.
The fubjed heft fitted for tragedy is a ftory where a-
man has himfelf been the caufe of bis misfortune. But
this man muft neither be deeply guilty, nor altogether in¬
nocent : the misfortune muft be occafioned by a fault in¬
cident to human nature, and therefore venial. Misfor¬
tunes of this kind call forth the focial affedions, .ancF
warmly intereft the fpedator. An accidental misfor¬
tune, if not extremely lingular, doth not greatly move -
aurr
COM ( 258 ) COM
«t;r pity: the perfon who fuffers, being innocent, is
freed from the greateft of all torments, that angudh of
mind which is occafioned by remorfe.
An atrocious criminal, on the other hand, who brings
misfortunes upon himfelf, excites little pity, for a dif¬
ferent reafon : his remorfe, it is true, aggravates his
diftrefs, and fwells the firlt emotions of pity; but then
our hatred of him as a criminal blending with pity, blunts
its edge confiderably. Misfortunes that are not inno¬
cent, nor highly criminal, partake the advantages of each
extreme : they are attended with remorfe to embitter the
diftrefs, which raifes our pity to a great height; and the
flight indignation we have at a venial fault, detnafts not
fenfibly from our pity. For this reafon, the happieft of
ail fubjedts for raifing pity, is where a man of integrity
falls into a great misfortune by doing an adtion’that is
innocent, but which by fome Angular means he conceives
to be criminal: his remorfe aggravates his diftrefs ; and
our compaffion, unreftrained by indignation, rifes to its
higheft pitch. Pity comes thus to be the ruling paifion
of a pathetic tragedy; and by proper reprefentation, may
be raifed to a height fcarce exceeded by any thing felt in
real life. A moral tragedy takes in a larger field ; for,
befide exercifing our pity, it raifes another paflion, lelfifh
indeed, but which deferves to be chenlhed equally with
the focial affedtions. The paifion we have in view is fear
or terror ; for when a misfortune is the natural confe-
tpience of fome wrong bias in the temper, every ipedtator
who is confcious of fuch a wrong bias in his own temper,
takes the alarm, and dreads his tailing into the lame
misfortune : and it is by this emotion of fear or terror,
frequently reiterated in a variety of moral tragedies, that
the fpedfators are put upon their guard againft the difor-
ders of paflion.
The commentators upon Ariftotle, and other critics,
have been much gravelled about the account given of tra¬
gedy by this author: “ That by means of pity and ter¬
ror, it refines or purifies in us all forts of paifion.” But
no one who has a clear conception of the end and effedfs
of a good tragedy, can have any difficulty about Arifto-
tle’s meaning: our pity is engaged for the perfons repre-
fented ; and our terror is upon our own account. Pity
indeed is here made to ftand for all the fympathetic emo¬
tions, becaufe of thefe it is the capital. There can be
no doubt, that our fympathetic emotions are refined or
improved by daily exercife ; and in what manner our o-
ther palfions are refined by terror, we have juft now
faid.
With refpddt to fubjedls of this kind, it may indeed be
a doubtful queftion, whether the condition ought not
always to be fortunate. Where a perfon of integrity is
reprefented as fuffering to the end under misfortunes
purely accidental, we depart difcontented, and with fome
•obfcure fenfe of injuftice: for feldom is man fo fubmif
five to providence, as not to revolt againft the tyranny
and vexations of blind chance; he will be inclined to fay.
This ought not to be. We give for an example the Ro¬
meo and Juliet of Shakefpeare, where the fatal cataftrophe •
occafioned by Friar Laurence’s coming to the monu¬
ment a minute too late. We are vexed at the unlucky
chance, and go away difiatisfied. Such imprelfions.
which ought not to be cherifhed, are a fufficient reafon
for excluding (lories of that kind from the theatre.
The misfortunes of a virtuous perfon, arifing from
neceffary caufes, or from a chain of unavoidable
circumftances, will be confidered in a different light :
chance affords always a gloomy profped, and in
every inftance gives an impreffion of anarchy and mifrule:
' a regular chain, on the contrary, of caufes and effects,
direded by the general laws of nature, never fails to fug¬
ged the hand of Providence ; to which we fubmit with¬
out refentment, being confcious that fubmiffion is our
duty. For that reafon, we are not difgufted with the
diftreffes of Voltaire’s Mariamne, though redoubled on
her till the'ffioment of her death, without the leaft fault
or failing oh her part: her misfortunes are owing to a
caufe extremely natural, and not unfrequent, the jea-
loufy of a barbarous hufband. The fate of Defdemona
in the Moor of Venice, affe&s us in the fame manner.
We are not fo eafily reconciled to the fate of Cordelia
in King Lear: the caufes of her misfortune are by no
means fo evident, as to exclude the gloomy notion of
chance. In fhort, a perfed charader fufFering under
misfortunes, is qualified for being the fubjed of a pathe¬
tic tragedy, provided chance be excluded. Nor is a per-
fed charader altogether inconfiftent with a moral tra¬
gedy : it may fuccefsfully be introduced as an under-part,
fuppofing the chief place to be filled with an imperfed
charader from which a moral can be drawn. This is
the cafe of Defdemona and Mariamne'juft now mention¬
ed; and ft is the cafe of Monimia and Belvidera, in Ot¬
way’s two tragedies, the Orphm, and Venice Pre
ferved. v ,
Fable operates on our paflions, by reprefenting its e-
vents as palling in our fight, and by deluding us into a
convidion of reality. Hence, in epic and dramatic com-
pofitions, it is of importance to employ means o'f every
fort that may promote the delufion, fuch as the borrow¬
ing from hiftory fome noted event, with the addition of
circumftances that may anfwer the author’s purpofe : the
principal fads are known to be true; and we are difpo-
fed to extend our belief to every circumftance. But in
chufing a fubjed that makes a figure in hiftory, greater
precaution is neceflary than where the whole is a fidion.
In the latter cafe there is full fcope for invention: the
author is under no reftraint other than that the charac¬
ters and incidents be juft copies of nature But where
the ftory is founded on truth, no circumftances muft be
added, but fuch as conned naturally with what are
known to be true; hiftory may be fupplied, but muft
not be contradided : further, the fubjed chofen muft be
diftant in time, or at leaft in place ; for the familiarity
of perfons and events nearly conneded with us, ought by
all means to be avoided. Familiarity ought more efpeci-
ally to be avoided in an epic poem, the peculiar charac¬
ter of which is dignity and elevation : modern manners
make but a poor figure in fiich a poem.
After Voltaire, no writer, it is probable, will think
of rearing an epic poem upon a recent event in the hiftory
of his own country. But an event of this kind is per¬
haps not altogether unqualified for tragedy : it was ad¬
mitted in Greece; and Shakefpear has employed it fuc-
cefsfulljr
COM (2
Cefsfully in feveral of his pieces. One advantage it pof-
feffes above fi&ion, that of more readily engaging our be¬
lief, which tends above any other particular to raife our
fympathy. The fcene of CQmedy is generally laid at
home: familiarity is no objection ; and we are pecu¬
liarly fenfible of the ridicule of our own manners.
After a proper fubjedt is chofen, the dividing it into
parts requires fome art. The conclufion of a book in an
epic poem, or of an a& in a play, cannot be altogether
arbitrary ; nor be intended for lo flight a purpofe as to
make the parts of equal length. The fuppofed paufe at
the end of every book, and the real paufe at the end of
ev. ry adt, ought always to coincide with fome paufe in
the adtion. fn this refpedl, a dramatic or^epic poem
ought to refemble a fentence or period in language, di¬
vided into members that are diftinguifhed from .each other
by proper paufes; or it ought to refemble a piece of
mufic, having a full clofe at the end, preceded by im-
perfedt clofes that contribute to the melody. Every
adt in a dramatic poem ought therefore to clofe with fome
incident that makes a paufe in the adlion ; for otherwife
there can be no pretext for interrupting the reprefenta-
tion: it would be abfurd to break off in the very heat of
adlion; againft which every one would exclaim: the ab-
furdity ftill remains, though the adtion relents, if it be
not adlually fufpended for fome time. This rule is alfo
applicable to an epic poem: though there, a deviation
from the rule is lefs remarkable; becaufe it is in the rea¬
der’s power to hide the abfurdity, by proceeding inflant-
ly to another book. The firft book of the Paradife,
Loft ends without any regular clofe, perfedt or imper-
fedt: it breaks off abruptly, where Satan, feated on his
throne, is prepared to make a fpeech to the convocated
hoft of the fallen angels; and the fecond book begins
with the fpeech. Mil ton feems to have copied the iEneid,
of whicli the two firfl books are divided much in the
fame manner. Neither is there any proper paufe at the
end of the fifth book of the .fEneid. There is no pro¬
per paufe at the end of the feventh book of Paradife
Loft, nor at the end of the eleventh.
This branch of the fubjedt fhall be clofed with a gene¬
ral rule, That adtion being the fundamental part of e-
\mry compofition whether epic'or dramatic, the fenti-
ments and tone of language ought to be fubfervient to
the adtion, fo as in every refpedt to appear natural, and
proper for the occafion. The application of this rule to
our modern plays, would reduce the bulk of them to a
fkeleton.
After carrying on together epic and dramatic compofl-
tions, we proceed to handle them feparately, and to
mention circumftances peculiar to each, beginning with
the epic kind. In a theatrical entertainment, which em¬
ploys both the eye and the ear, it would be a grofs ab¬
furdity to introduce upon the ftage fuperior beings in a
vifible fhape. There is not place for this objedlien'in an
epic poem; and Boileau, with many other critics, de¬
clares ftrongly for this fort of machinery in an epic poem.
But waving authority, which is apt to impofe upon the
judgment, let us draw what light we can from reafon.
This matter is but indiftinftly handled by critics : the
poetical privilege of animating infenfible objedts for en-
Vol. II. No. 41. 3
59 ) CO M
livening a defeription, is v.ery different from w'hat is
termed machinery, where deities, angels, devils, or o-
ther fupernatural powers, are introduced as real perfon-
ages, mixing in the adtion, and contributing to the ca-
taftrophe ; and yet thefe two things are conltantly jumb¬
led together in the reafoning. The former is founded on
a natural principle: but can the latter claim the fame au¬
thority? fo far from it, that nothing can be more unnatu¬
ral. Its effedts, at the fame time, are deplorable. Firft,
it gives an air of fidlion to the whole ; and prevents that
impreffion of reality which is requifite to intereft our af-
fedlions, and to move our paffions: this of itfelf is fuf-
ficient to explode machinery, whatever entertainment it
may afford to readers of a fantaftic tafte or irregular ima¬
gination. And, next, were it poffible, bydifguifing the
hdtion, to delude us into amotion of reality, an infuper-
able objedtion would ftill remain, which is, that the aim
or end of an epic poem can never be attained in any per-
fedlion where machinery is introduced ; for an evident
reafon, that virtuous emotions cannot be railed fuccefs-
fully but by the adlions of thofe who are endued with
paffions and affedlions like our own, that is, by human
adtions: and as for moral inftrudtion, it is clear, that
none can be drawn from beings who adt not upon the
fame principles with us. A fable in aEfop’s manner is
no objedtion to this reafoning: his lions, bulls, and goats,
are truly men under difguife: they ad and feel in every
refpedt as human beings; and the moral we draw is
founded on that fuppofition. Homer, it is true,' intro¬
duces the gods into his fable: but he was authorifed to
take that liberty by the religion of his country; it being'
an article in the Grecian creed, that the gods often inter-
pofe vifibly and bodily in human affairs. We muft how---
ever obferve, that Homer’s deities do no honour to his
poems: fidlions that tranfgrefs the - bounds of nature,
feldom have a good effedl: they may inflame the imagi¬
nation for a moment, but will not be reliffied by any
perfon of a corredt tafte. Let us add, that of whatever
ufe fuch fidtions may be to a mean genius, an 'able wri¬
ter has much finer materials of Nature’s produdeion, for
elevating his fubjedt, and making it interefting.
The marvellous is indeed fo much promoted by ma¬
chinery, that it is not wonderful to find it embraced
by the bulk of writers, and perhaps of readers. If in¬
dulged at. all, it is generally indulged to excefs. Ho¬
mer introduces his deities with no greater ceremony than
his mortals; and Virgil has ftill leis moderation : a pilot
fpent with watching cannot fall afleep and drop into the fea
by natural means: one bed cannot hold the two lovers,
Aineas and Dido, without the immediate interpofition of
fuperior powers. The ridiculous in fuel) fidlions muft ap¬
pear, even through the thickeft vail ofgravity and folemnity.
_ Angels and devils ferve equally with the Heathen dei¬
ties, as materials for figurative language, perhaps better
among Chriftians, becaufe we believe in them, and not
in the Heathen deities. But every one is fenfible, as
well as Boileau, that the invifible powers in our creed
make a much worfe figure as aftors in a modern poem,
than the invifible powers in the Heathen creed did in an¬
cient times. The reafon feems to be what follows.
The Heathen deities, in the opinion of their votaries',
re--
COM ( &6o
were beings elevated one ftep 'only above mankind, actu¬
ated by the fame paffions, and directed by the fame mo¬
tives; therefore not altogether improper to mix with
men in an Important action. In our creed, fuperior
beings are placed at fuch a mighty diftance from us, and
are of a nature fo different, that with no propriety can
they appear with us upon the fame ftage : man is a crea¬
ture fo much inferior, that he lofes all dignity when fet
in oppofition.
Thepe can be no doubt, that an hiftorical poem ad¬
mits the embellifhment of allegory, as well as of meta¬
phor, fimile, or other figure. Moral truth, in particu¬
lar, is finely illuftrated in the allegorical manner: it a-
mufes the fancy to find abftraft terms, by a fort-of magic,
converted into aftive beings; and it is delightful to trace
a general propofition in a pictured event. But allegori¬
cal beings fhould be confined within their own fphere,
and never be admitted to mix in the principal aftion,
nor to co operate in retarding or advancing the cata-
ftrophe; which Would have a dill Worfe effeft than in-
vifible powers, and we are ready to aflign the reafon. The
COM
time ought to be chofen when the principal aftion
lents.
Next, upon the peculiarities of a dramatic poem.
And the firft we fhall mention is a double plot; one of
which mud be of the nature of an epifode in an epic
poem; for it would didracd the fpecdator, indead of en¬
tertaining him, if he were forced to attend, at the fame
time, to two capital plots equally intereding. And even
fuppofing it an under-plot, of the nature of an epifode,
it feldom hath a good effeft in tragedy, of which fimpli-
city is a chief property; for an intereding fubjedt that
engages our warmed affedlions, occupies our whole at¬
tention, and leaves no room for any feparate concern.
Variety is more tolerable in comedy, which pretends on¬
ly to amufe, without totally occupying the mind. But
even here to make "a double plot agreeable, is no dight
effort of art: the under plot ought not to vary greatly
in its tone from.the principal ; for difcordant paffions are
unpleafant when jumbled together; which, by the way,
is an infuperable objedion to tragi-comedy. Upon this
account, we blame the Provoked Hufband : all the fcenes
impreffion of real evidence, effential to an epic poem, is, that bring the family of the Wrongheads into a&ion, be-
inconfident with that figurative exidence which is effen-
tial to an allegory; and therefore no method can be more
effeftual to prevent the impfeffion of reality, than to in¬
troduce allegorical beings co-operating with thofe whom
we conceive to be really exiding. The love-epifode in
the Henrtade, infufferable by the difcordant mixture
of allegory with real life, is copied from that of Rinaldo
and Armida in the Gierufalemme liberata, which hath
no merit to intitle it to be copied. An allegorical objed,
fuch as Fame in the ALneid, and the Temple of Love in
the Henriade, may find place in a defcription: but to in¬
troduce Difcord as a real perfonage, imploring the af-
fidance of Love as another real-perfonage, toenefyate the
courage of the hero, is making thefe figurative beings
ing ludicrous and farcical, agree very ill with the princi¬
pal fcenes, difplaying fevere and bitter expodulations be¬
tween lord Townly and his lady. The fame objedlion
touches not the double plot of the Carelefs Hufband;
the different fubjeds being fweetly conneded, and ha¬
ving only fo much variety as to referable ffiades of co¬
lours harmonioufly mixed. But this is not all. The
under plot ought to be conneded with that which is
principal, fo much at leaf! as to employ the fame perfons:
the under-plot ought to occupy the intervals or paufes of
the principal adion ; and both ought to be concluded to¬
gether. This is the cafe of the Merry Wives of Wind-
for.
Violent adion ought never to be reprefented on the
ad beyond ther fphere, and creating a ftrange jumble of ftage. While the dialogue rpns on, a thoufand particu-
truth and fidion. lars concur to delude us into an impreffion of reality,
What is the true notion of an epifode ? or how is it genuine fentiments, paffionate language, and perfuafive
to be diftinguifhed from the principal adtion ? Every inci- gefture: the fpedator once engaged, is willing to be de-
denf that promotes or retards the caraftrophe, muft be a ceived, lofes fight of himfelf, and without fcruple en-
part of the principal adiori. This clears the nature of joys the fpedacle as a reality. From this abfent ftate,
an epifode; which may be defined, “ An incident con- he is roufed by violent adion: he wakes as from a plea-
nhded with the principal aftion, but contributing neither
to advance nor retard it.” The defcent of ALneas into
hell doth not advance nor retard the cataftrophe ; and
therefore is an epifode. The ftory of Nifus and Eurya-
lus, producing an alteration in the affairs of the contend¬
ing parties, is a part of the principal adion. The fa¬
mily fcene in the fixth book of the Iliad is of the fame
nature: by Hedor’s retiring from the field of battle to
fing dream, and gathering his fenfes about him, finds all
to be a fidtion.
The French critics join with Horace in excluding from
the ftage the ‘fhedding blood ; but they have overlooked
the moft fubftantial objedion, that above-mentioned,
urging only that it is barbarous, and fhocking to a polite
audience. But the Greeks had no notion of fuch delica¬
cy, or rather effeminacy- witnefs the murder of Clytem-
vifit his wife, the Grecians had liberty to breathe, and neftra by her fort Oreftes, paffing behind the fcene, as n
even to prefs upon the Trojans. Such being the nature prefented by Sophocles: her voice is heard calling out
of an epifode, the unavoidable effed of it muft be, to for mercy, bitter expoftulations on his part, loud lhrieks
break in upon the unity of adion; and therefore it upon her being ftabbed, and then a deep filence. We
ought never to be indulged, unlefs to unbend the mind appeal to every perfon of feeling, whether this fcene be
after the fatigue of a long narration. This purpofe of not more horrible, than if the deed had been committed
an epifode demands the following conditions: it ought in fight of the fpedfators upon a fudden guft of paffion.
to be well connected with the principal adion: it ought If Corneille, in reprefenting the affair between Horatius
to be lively and interefting: it ought to be Ihort: and a and his fifter upon which murder enfues behind the fcene,
had
COM (
had no other view but to remove from the fpeftators a
{hocking a£tion, he certainly was in a capital miftake :
for murder ki cold blood, which in fome meafure was
the cafe as reprefented, is more /hocking to a polite au¬
dience, even where the conclufive flab is not feen, than
the fame a6t performed in their prefence, when it is oc-
cafioned by violent and unpremeditated paflion, as fud-
denly repented of as committed. We heartily agree
with Addifon, that no part of this incident ought to have
been reprefented, but referved for a narrative, with eve¬
ry alleviating circumftance in favour of the hero. This
is the only method to avoid the difficulties that unquali¬
fy this incident for reprefentation, a deliberate murder
on the one hand, and on the other a violent aftion per¬
formed on the ftage, which muft roufe the fpidlator
from his dream of reality.
A few words upon the dialogue, which ought to be
fo conducted as to be a true reprefentation of nature.
Every fmgle /peech, ffiort or long, ought to arife from
what is faid by the former fpeaker, and furniffi matter
for what comes after, till the end of the fcene. In this
view, the whole fpeeches, from firft to laft, reprefent fo
many links, all conne&ed together in one regular chain.
No atithor, ancient or modern, po/Teffes the art of dia¬
logue equal to Shakefpeare. Dryden in this particular
may juftly be placed as his oppofue: he frequently in¬
troduces three or four perfons fpeaking upon the fame
fubjedl, each throwing out his own fentiments feparately,
without regarding what Is faid by the reft; take for an
example the firft fcene of Aurenzebe: fometimes he
makes a number club in relating an event* not to a ftran-
ger, fuppofed ignorant-of it, but to one another, for the
fake merely of fpeaking: of which notable fort of dia
logue, we have a fpecimen in the firft fcene of the firft
part of the Conqueft of Granada. In the fecond part of
the fame tragedy, fcene fecond, the king, Abenamar,
and Zulema, make their feparate obfervations, like fo
many foliloquies, upon the fluduating temper of the mob:
a dialogue fo uncouth, puts one in mind of two ffiepherds
in a paftoral, excited by a prize to pronounce verfes al¬
ternately, each in praife of his own miftrefs.
The bandying fentiments in this manner, befide an un¬
natural air, has another bad effed: it ftays the courfe
of the adion, becaufe it is not produdive of any confe-
quence. In Congreve’s comedies, the adion is often
fufpended to make way for a play of wit.
No fault is more common among writers, than to pro¬
long a fpeech after the impatience of the perfon to whom
it is addre/Ted ought to prompt him or her to break in.
Confider only how the impatient ador is to behave in
the mean time. To exprefs his impatience in violent
adion without interrupting, would be unnatural; and yet
to difiemble his impatience by appearing cool where he
ought to be highly inflamed, would be no lefs unnatu¬
ral. a
Rhyme being unnatural and difguftful in dialogue, is
happily baniffied from our theatre : the only wonder is,
that it ever found admittance, efpecially among a people
accuftomed to the more manly freedom of Shakefpeare’s
dialogue. By baniffiing rhyme, we have gained fo much
261 ) COM
as never once to dream that there can be any further im--
provement. And yet, however fuitable blank verfe
may be to elevated charaders and warm paflions, it
muft appear improper and affeded in the months of
the lower fort. Why then ffiould it be a rule, that
every fcene in tragedy muft be in blank verfe ? Shake¬
fpeare, with great judgment, has followed a different
rule ; which is, to intermix profe with verfe, and only
to employ the latter where the importance or dignity
of the fubjed requires it. Familiar thoughts and or¬
dinary fads ought, to be expreffed in plain language^
and if it appear not ridiculous to hear a footman de¬
liver a fimple meffage in blank verfe, a vail muft be
drawn .over the ridiculous appearance by the farce of
cuftom. In ffiort, that variety of charaders and of fi-
tuations, which is the life of a play, requires not
only a fuitable variety in the fentiments, but alfo in
the didion.
Compositjoiv, in painting, confifts of two parts, in¬
vention and difpofition ; the firft whereof is the choice
of the objeds which are to enter into the compofition
of the fubjed the painter intends to execute, and is
either Amply hiftorical or allegorical.
Composition, in commerce, a contrad between an in-
folvent debtor and his creditors, whereby the latter
accept of a part of the debt in compenfation for the
whole, and give a general acquittance accordingly.
Composition, in printing, commonly termed compo-
fing, the arranging of feveral types, or letters, in the
compofing-ftick, in order to form aline; and of fe¬
veral lines ranged in. order in the galley, to make a
page ; and of feveral pages, to make a form. See
Printing.
COMPOST, in huffiandry and gardening, feveral forts-'
of foils, or earthy matter, mixed together, in order
to. make a manure, for affifting the natural earth in the
work of vegetation, by way of amendment or improve¬
ment. See Agriculture.
CQMPOSTELJLA, the capital of Galicia, in Spain,
remarkable for the devotion paid there by pilgrims
from all countries to the relics of St James.
COMPOUND, in a general fenfe, an appellation given*
to whatever is compofed,. or made up. of different
things : thus we fay, a compound word, compound
found, compound tafte, compound force, &c.
Compound-interest. See Interest.
Compound numbers, thofe which may be divided by
fome other number befides unity, without leaving any
remainder : fuch are 18, 20,. &c. the firft being mea-
fured by the numbers 2, 6, or 9 ; and the fecond by
the numbers 2, 4, 5, 10.
COMPREHENSION, in logic, the fame with appre-
henfion.
COMPRESSION, the aft of preffing or fqueezing fome
matter, fo as to fet its parts nearer to each other,, and!
make it pollefs lefs fpace.
COMPRINT, among bookfellers, fignifies a furrepti-
tious printing of another’s copy, in order to gain there¬
by, which is exprefsly contrary to ftatute 14 Car. II.
COMPROMISE, a treaty, or contraft, whereby two,
contending
CON ( 2<
contifnding parties eftabliA) one or more arbitrators, to
judge of and terminate their difference in an amicable
way.
COMPUNCTION, in theology, an inward grief of
mind, for. having offended God. .
COMPUTATION, in a general fenfe, the manner of
eftimating time, weights, meafure, moneys, or quan¬
tities of any kind.
CONARION, or Conoides, a name for the pineal
gland. See Vol. I. p.286.
CONATUS, a term frequently ufed in philofophy and
mathematics, defined by fome to be a quantity of mo¬
tion, not capable of being expreffed by any time, or
length ; as the conatus recedendi ah axe motui, is the
endeavour which a body, moved circularly, makes to
recede, or fly off from the centre or axis of its motion.
See Mechanics.
CONCATENATION, a term chiefly ufed in fpeaking
of the mutual dependence of fecond caufes upon each
other.
CONCAVE, an appellation ufed in fpeaking of the inner
furface of hollow bodies, but more efpecially of fphe-
rical ones.
Concave glasses, fuch as are ground hollow, and
are ufually of a fpherical figure, though they may be
of any other, as parabolical, ire. All objects feen
through concave glaffes, appear ereft and diminifhed.
.See Optics.
CONCENTRATION, in general, figmfies the bring¬
ing things nearer a center. Hence the particles of fair,
in fea-water, are faid to be concentrated ; that is,
brought nearer each other, by evaporating the watery
part. See Chemistry.
CONCENTRIC, in mathematics, fometbing that has
the fame common center with another : it Hands in
oppofition to excentric.
CONCEPTION, among phyficians, denotes the
firfl formation of an embryo in the womb of its pa¬
rent, who from that time becomes pregnant. See
Generation.
Conception, in logic. See Apprehension.
Conception, in geography, a city of Chili, in South
America, fituated on the Pacific Ocean, in 790 W.
long, and 370 S. Jat.
Conception is alfo the capital of the province of Ve-
ragua, in Mexico, about 100 miles weft of Porto
Bello: W. long. 83°, and N. lat. io°.
CONCERT, or Concerto, in mufic, a number or
company of muGcians, playing or Tinging the fame piece
of raufic or fong at the fame time. - See Music.
CONCERTATO intimates the piece of mufic to be
compofed in fuch a manner, as that all the parts may
have their recitatives, be it for two, three, four, or
more voices or inftruments.
CONCERTO gross 1, the grand chorus of a concert,
or thofe places where all the feveral parts perform or
play together.
CONCHA, in zoology, a fynonime of the Mytilus,
Solen, t&c. See thefe articles.
Concha, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p.297.
;2 ) con
CONCHOID, in geometry, the name cf a curve, given
it by its inventor Nicomedes. See Fluxions.
CONCHYLIA, a general riame for all kinds 4?f petri¬
fied ftiells, as -limpets, cochlea, nautili, conchse, le-
pades, fcc.
CONCINNOUS intervals, in mufic, are fuch as are fit
for m'ufic, next to, and in combination with concords ;
being neither very agreeable, not difagreeable in them-
felves, but having a good effeA, as by their oppofition
they heighten the more elfential principles of pleafure ;
or as by their mixture and combination with them,
they produce a variety neceffary to our being better
pleafed.
Concinnous fyfiem, in mufic. A fyftem is faid to be
concinnous, or divided edneinnoufly, when its parts,
confidered as Ample intervals, are ccncinnous ; and
are befides plaCfed in fuch an order between the ex¬
tremes, as that the fuccelfion of founds, from one ex¬
treme to the other, njay have an agreeable effett.
CONCLAVE, the place- in which the cardinals of the
Romifti church meet, and are Ihut up, in order to the
ele&ion of a pope.
The conclave is a range of fmall cells, ten feet fquare,
made of wainfeot: thele are numbered, and drawn for
by lot. They Hand in a line along the galleries and
hall of the Vatican, with a fmall Apace between each.
Every'cell has the arms of the cardinal over it. The
conclave is not fixed to any one determinate place, for
the conftitutions of the church allow the cardinals to
make choice of fuch a place for the conclave as they
think moft convenient; yet it is generally held in the
Vatican.
The conclave is very ftridtly guarded by troops :
neither the cardinals, nor any perfon ftiut up in the
conclave, are fpoke to, but at the hours allowed of,
and then in Italian or Latin ; even the provifions for
the conclave are examined, that no letters be conveyed
by that means from the minifters of foreign powers, or
other perfons who may have an intereft in the ele&ion
of the pontiff.
Conclave is alfo ufed for the affembly, or meeting, of
the cardinals Ihut up, for the elefficn of a pope.
CONCLUSIONS in logic, the confequence or judgment,
drawn from what was afferted in.the premiffes ; or the
previous judgments in reafoning, gained from com¬
bining the extreme ideas between themfelves.
CONCOCTION, in medicine, the change which the
food undergoes in the ftomach, &c. to become chyle.
See Chyle.
CONCOMITANT, fomething that accompanies or
goes along with another.
CONCORD, in grammar, that part of conftrudtion
called fyntax, in which the words of a fentence agree ;
that is, in which nouns are put in the fame gender,
number, and cafe ; and ve$s in the fame number and
perfon with nouns and pronouns.
Concord, in mufic, the relation of two founds that are
always agreeable to the ear, whether applied in fuc-
cdlion or confonance. See Music.
CONCORDANCE, a fort of didionary of the Bible,
explaining
CON ( 263 ) CON
explaining the words thereof in alphabetical order,
with the feveral books, chapters, and verfes quoted,
in which they are contained.
CONCORDIA, in geography, a town of the dutchy of
Mantua in Italy, about fifteen miles fouth eaft of the
city, of Mantua : E. long. ii° so', and N. lat. 450.
CONCRETE,, in the fchool-philofophy, an aflemblage
or compound.
Concrete, in natural philofophy and ehemiftry, figni-
fies^a body made up of different principles, or any
mixed body : thus foap is, a factious concrete, or a
body mixed together by art; and antimony is a natu¬
ral concrete, or a miked body, compounded in the
bowels of the earth. .
CONCRETION, the uniting together feveral fmall
particles of a natural body into fenfible, maffes, or
concretes, whereby it becomes fo and' fo: figured land
determined, and is endued with fuch and fiicfai pro¬
perties.
Concretion is alfo the a<ft wherebyjbft bodies are ren¬
dered hard; or an infenfible motion of the particles of
a fluid or a foftbody, whereby they come to a confid¬
ence. , It is indifferently ufed for induration, conden-
fation, congelation, and coagulation.
CONCUBINAGE, denotes fometimes a -.criminal or
prohibited commerce between the fexes; in which
fenfe it comprehends adultery, inceft, and Ample for¬
nication : but, in a. more limited fenfe, it fignifi.es the
cohabitation of a man and a woman in the way of mar¬
riage, without having paffed the ceremony thereof,. ,
CONCUBINE, a woman whom a'man takes toioohabit
with #n the manner of a wife, without being authori-
fed thereto by a legal marriage.
CONCUPISCENCE, according to divines, an irregu¬
lar appetite, or lull after carnal things, inherent in
the nature of man ever fince the fall.
CONDAMIN, in botany. See Cinchona.
CONDE, a town of the French Netherlands, in.the
province of Hainault, fituated on the river Scheld, a-
bout twelve miles weft of Mons : E. long. 30 40',
N. ,lat. 50° 35'. . ;
CONDENSATION, the aft whereby a body is render¬
ed more deofe, compadt, and heavy.
CONDENSER, a pneumatic engine, or fyringe, , where¬
by an uncommon quantity; of air may be cnouded into
a given fpace; fo that fometimes ten atmofpheres, or
ten times as much air as there is at the fame time, in
the fame fpace, without the engine, may be thrown
in by means of it, and its egrefs prevented by valves
properly cjifpofed. See Pneumatics.
CONDITION, in the civil law, a claufe of obligation
ftipulated as an article of a treaty or contraftor in a
donation of teftament, legacy, in which laft cafe
a donee does not lofe his donative, if it be charged
with, any dilhoneft or impoffihle conditions.
CONDITIONALS, fomething not abfolute but fub-
jedl to conditions. '
.CONDOM, the capital of the Condomois, in the pro¬
vince of Gafcony, in France, about fixty miles fouth-
eaft ofBourdeaux. It is a biflmp’s fee, and fituated
in go' E. long.; and 440 5' N. lat.
. VcL.II. No. 41.
CONDORMIENTES, in church hiftory, religious-fec-
taries, who hold their name from lying all together,
men and women, young and old. They arofe in the
thirteenth century near Cologne, where they are laid
to have worlhipped an image of Lucifer, and to have
received anfwers and oracles from him.
CONDUCTOR,'in furgery, an'inftrument which ferves
to conduft the knife in the operation of cutting for the
ftone, and in laying up finufes and fiftulas. See Sur¬
gery.
CONDUIT, a canal or pipe for the conveyance of wa¬
ter, ox other fluid.
Thete are feveral fubterraneous conduits through
which the waters pafs that form fprings. Artificial
conduits for water are made of lead, ftone, caft-iron*
potter’s earth, timber, cc.
CONDYLOMA, in medicine, a tubercle or callous e-
minenCe which ari/e# in the folds of the anus, or rathe/
a .fwell.ing or hardening of the wrinkles of that part.
CONDYLUS, a name given by anatomifts to a knot in
any of the joints, formed by the epiphyfis of a bone.
CONE, in ,gepui£tryV a foljd ,figure, having a -circle far
its bafe, and its top terminated in a point or vertex.
Sec Co Nip Se/tions.
Cone of rays> in optics, includes all the feyeral rays
which fall from any radiant point on the furface of a
glafs. See Optics.
CONE SSL a fort of bark of a tree which grows on the
Coromandel coaft in the Eaft-Indies. It is recom¬
mended in a letter to Dr Monro, in tlje Medical El-
fays,, as a fpecific in diarrhoeas. It is to be pounded
into a: fine powder, and made into; an eletfnary with
lyrup of oranges; and the bark Ihould be frelh, and
the ele&uary new made every day, or fecond day,, o-
therwife it lofes ks auftere but grateful bitternefs on
the palate, and its proper effetftg-on, the inteftines,
CONFECTION, in. pharmacy, fignifies in genep4, any
thing prepared with fugar : in particular, it imports
fomething preferved, efpecially dry fubftatjees. It al¬
fo fignifies a liquid or foft elefluary, of which there
are various forts direfted in difpenfatories.
CONFECTS, a denomination given to fruits, flowers,
herbs, roots, fee. when boiled or prepared with fugar
or honey, to difpofe them to keep, and render them
more agreeable to. the tafte.
CONFERVA, in botany, a genus of; the .cryptogamia
algte clafs, confifting-of. oblong, capillary fllameqts;
without any joints. There are twenty-one fpecies.
CONFESSION, in a legal fenfe, an acknowledgment
of fame truth, though in prejudice of the- perfon that
makes the declaration.
Confession, among divines, the verbal acknowledge¬
ment which a Chriftian makes of his fins.
Among the Jews it was a cuftomj on the annual
feaft of expiation, for- the.high-pried: to make confef-
fion of fins to God in the name of the whole people:
befi-dts this general confeffion, the Jews were enjoined,
if their fins were a breach of the firft table of the law,
to make confeflion of them to God ; but violations of¬
fered the fectmd-table, were to be 'acknowledged to
their brethren. The confdfions of the primitive Chri-
3 X ftians
3
CON ( 264 ) CON
ftians were all voluntary, and not impofed on them by
any laws of the church; yet private confellion was not
only allowed, but encouraged.
The Romifh church requires confeflion not only as
a duty, but has advanced it to the dignity of a facra-
ment: this confeflion is made to the pridt, and is pri¬
vate and auricular; and the pried is not to reveal
them under pain of the high eft puniftiment.
Confession of faith, a lift of the feveral articles ofbe-
lief in any church.
CONFESSIONAL, or Confessionary, a place in
churches, under the great altar, where the bodies of
deceafed faints, martyrs, and confeffors, were depo-
fited.
CONFESSOR, in the Romiflr church, a prieft who is
impowered to receive the confeflion of penitents, and
to give them abfolution.
CONFIGURATION, the outward figure which bounds
bodies, and gives them their external appearance; be¬
ing that which, in a great meafure, conftitutes the fpe-
cific difference between bodies.
CONFIRMATION by a fuperior. See Scots Law-,
title, Tranfntifion of rights by confirmation.
Confirmation of a teftament. See Scots Law,
title, Succefiion in moveables.
Confirmation, in thecflogy, the ceremony of laying
on of hands, for the conveyance, of the Holy Ghoft.
The antiquity of this ceremony is, by all ancient
writers, carried as high as the apoftles, and founded
upon their example and pradlice. In the primitive
church, it ufed to be given to Chriftians immediately
after baptifm, if the bilhop happened to be prefent at
the folemnity. Among the Greeks, and throughout
the Eaft, it ftill accompanies baptifm: but the Roma-
nifts make it a diftindt independent facrament. Seven
years is the ftated time for confirmation : however, they
are fometimes confirmed before, and fometimes after
that age. The perfon to be confirmed has a god-fa-
ther and god mother appointed him, as in baptifm.
The order of confirmation in the church of England,
does not determine the precife age of the perfons to be
confirmed.
CONFISCATION, in law, the adjudication of goods
or effedts to the public treafury; as the bodies and
effedts of criminals, traitors, <bc.
CONFLAGRATION, the general burning of a city,
or other confiderable place.
This word is commonly applied to that grand period
or cataftrophe of our world, when the face of nature
is to be changed by fire, as formerly it was by water.
CONFLUENT, among phyficians, <bc. an appellation
given to that kind of fmall-pox wherein the puftules
run into each other. See Medicine.
CONFORMATION, the particular confiftence and tex¬
ture of the parts of any body, and their difpofition to
compofe a whole.
Conformation, in medicine, that make and conftruc-
tion of the human body, which is peculiar to every in¬
dividual.
CONFORMITY, among fchoolmen, the relation of a-
greement between one thing and another; as that be¬
tween any thing and the divifion thereof, the objedt
and the underftanding, fac.
CONFUSION, in Scots law, is a method of extin-
guilhing and fufpending obligations. See Scots Law,
title, Exlinttion of obligations.
CONGE' d'lire, in ecclefraftical polity, the king’s per-
miflion royal to a dean and Chapter in the time of a
vacancy, to chufe a bifhop; or to an abbey, or pri¬
ory, of his own foundation, to chufe their abbot or
prior.
The king of England, as fovereign patron of all
archbilhoprics, bilhoprics, and other ecclefiaftical be¬
nefices, had of ancient time free appointment of all
ecclefiaftical dignities, whenfoever they chanced to be
void ; inverting them firft per bacculum & annulum,
and afterwards by his letters-patent; and in courfe of
time he made the eledtion over to others, under cer¬
tain forms and limitations, as that they fliould at
every vacation, before they chufe, demand the king’s
conge d’lire, and after the eledtion crave his royal
affent, &c.
Conge', in architedture, a mould in form of a quarter
round er a cavetto, which ferves to feparate two mem¬
bers from one another, fuch as that which joins the
ftiaft of the column to the cindture, called alfo apo-
phyge.
Conges are alfo rings or ferrels formerly ufed in the
extremities of wooden pillars, to keep them from
fplitting, afterwards imitated in ftone-work.
CONGELATION, freezing, or fuch a change produ¬
ced by cold in a fluid body, that it quits its former
ftate, and becomes congealed. See Freezing.
CONGER, in zoology. See Murjena.
CONGERIES, a conftellation or aggregate of feveral
particles or bodies united into one mafs.
CONGIUS, a liquid meafure of the ancient Romans,
containing the eighth part of the amphora, or the fourth
of the urna, Or fix fextarii. The congius in Englilh
meafure contains 2,070 676 folid inches; that is, fe-
ven pints, 4,942 folid inches.
CONGLOBATE gland, in anatomy. See Vol. I.
p. 263.
CONGLOMERATE gland, in anatomy. See Vol. I,
p. 265. bottom.
CONGLUTINATION, the gluing or faftening any two
bodies together by the intromiflion of a third, whofe
parts are undtuous and tenacious, in the nature of glue.
See Glue.
CONGO, a large country on the weftern coaft of Africa,
between io° and 20° E. long, and between the equa¬
tor and x8° S. lat. comprehending the countries of
Loango, Angola, and Benguella. It is bounded by
the kingdom of Benin on the north ; by Mataman, a
part of Caffraria, on the fouth ; and by the Atlantic
ocean, on the weft ; and is fometimes called the lower
Guinea.
CONGREGATION, an aflembly of feveral ecclefia-
ftics united, fo as-to conftitute one body; as an aflem¬
bly of cardinals, in the conftitution of the pope’s court,
met for the difpatch of fome particular bufmefs.
Thefe alfemblies, being fixteen in number, are di-
ftributed
CON (21
ftrlbuted into feveral chambers, after the manner of
our offices and courts: the firft whereof is the pope’s
congregation, whofe bufinefs it is to prepare the moft
difficult beneficiary matters to be afterward debated in
the confiffory : the fecond is the congregation of the
holy office, or the inquifition : the third is the congre¬
gation de propaganda fide: the fourth is the congre¬
gation for explaining the council of Trent: the fifth is
the congregation of the index, deputed to examine in¬
to pernicious and heretical books: the. fixth is the
congregation of immunities, eftabliffied to obviate the
difficulties that arife in the judgments of fuch fuits as
are carried on againft churchmen : the feventh is the
congregation of biffiops and regulars : the eighth is the
congregation for the examination of biffiops, &c. It
is alfo ufed for a company or fociety of religious, can¬
toned out of any order, fo as to make a fubdivifion of
the order itfelf; as the congregation of Cluny, ire.
among the Benedictines. It is likewife ufed for affem-
blies of pious perfons, in manner of fraternities.
CONGREGATIONALISTS, in church-hiltory, a fed
of proteftants who rejeCt all church-government, ex¬
cept that of a fingle congregation.
CONGRESS, in political affairs, an affembly of com-
miffibners, envoys, deputies, ire. from feveral courts
meeting to concert matters for their common good.
Congress, in a judicial fenfe, the trial made by ap¬
pointment of a judge, before furgeons and matrons,
in order to prove whether or no a man be impotent,
before fentence is paffed for the diffolution of a mar¬
riage, folicited upon fuch a complaint.
CONGRUITY, a fuitablenefs or relation of agreement
between things.
The terms congruity and propriety are not applica¬
ble to any fingle objeft: they imply a plurality, and
obvioufly fignify a particular relation between different
objefls. Thus we fay currently, that a decent garb is
fuitable or proper for a judge, model! behaviour for a
young woman, and a lofty llyle for an epic poem : and,
on the other hand, that it is unfuitable or incongruous
to fee a little woman funk in an overgrown farthingale,
a coat richly embroidered covering coarfe and dirty
linen, a mean fubjeCt in an elevated llyle, an elevated
fubjeCt in a mean llyle, a firll miniller darning his
wife’s flocking, or a reverend prelate in lawn lleeves
dancing a hornpipe.
The perception we have of this relation, which
feems peculiar to man, cannot proceed from any other
caufe, but from a fenfe of congruity or propriety;
for, fuppolmg us dellitute of that fenfe, the terms
would be to us unintelligible.
It is a matter of experience, that congruity or pro¬
priety, where-ever perceived, is agreeable ; and that
incongruity or impropriety, where-ever perceived, is
difagreeable. The only difficulty is, to afeertain what
are the particular objeCls that in conjunction fuggells
thefe relations ; for there are many objeCts that do
not: the fea, for example, viewed in conjunction with
a picture, or a man viewed in conjunction with a
mountain, fuggelt not either congruity or incongrui-
55 ) CON
ty. It feems natural to infer, what will be found true
by induction, that we never perceive congruity nor in¬
congruity but among things that are connected together
by fome relation; fuch as a man and his aCtions, a prin¬
cipal and its acceffories, a fubjeCt and its ornaments. We
are indeed fo framed by nature, as among things fo con¬
nected, to require a certain fuitablenefs or correfpon-
dence, termed congruity or propriety ; and to be difplea-
fed when we find the oppofite relation of incongruity or
impropriety.
If things connected be the fubjeCt of congruity, it is
reafonable beforehand to expeCt, that a degree of congrui¬
ty ffiould be required proportioned to the degree of the
connection. And upon examination we find this to hold in
faCt: where the relation is intimate, as between a caufe and
its effeCt, a whole and its parts, we require the llriCtell
congruity ; but where the relation is flight, or acciden¬
tal, as among things jumbled together in the fame place,
we require little or no congruity: the flriCtefl propriety
is required in behaviour and manner of living; becaufe a
man is connected with thefe by the relation of caufe and
effeCt: the relation between an edifice and the ground
it (lands upon, is of the mod intimate kind, and there¬
fore the fituation of a great houfe ought to be lofty; its
relation to neighbouring hills, rivers, plains, being tha£
of propinquity only, demands but a fmall ffiare of con¬
gruity : among members of the fame club, the congruity
ought to be confiderable, as well as among things placed
for ffiow in the fame niche : among paffengers in a flage-
coach, we require very little congruity; and lefs dill at
a public fpeCtacle.
Congruity is fo nearly allied to beauty, as commonly to
be held a fpecies of it; and yet they differ fo effentially,
as never to coincide : beauty, like colour, is placed up¬
on a fingle fubjeCt; congruity upon a plurality: further,
a thing beautiful in itfelf, may, with relation to other
things, produce the flrongeft fenfe of incongruity.
Congruity and propriety are commonly reckoned fy-
nonymous terms ; but they are diltinguilhable; and the
precife meaning of each mull be afeertained. Congruity
is the genus, of which propriety is a fpecies; for we call
nothing propriety, but that congruity or fuitablenefs,
which ought to fubfift between fenfible beings and their
thoughts, words, and actions.
In order to give a full view of thefe fecondary rela¬
tions, we ffiall trace them through fome of the moll con-
fidefable primary relations. The relation of a part to
the whole, being extremely intimate, demands the ut-
raoll degree of congruity; even the flighted deviation is
difguftfuh
Examples of congruity and incongruity are furniffied in
plenty by the relation between a fubjeCt and its ornaments.
A literary performance intended merely for amufement, is
fufceptible of muck ornament, as well as a mufic-room,
or a play-houfe; for in gaiety, the mind hath a peculiar
reliffi for ffiow and decoration. The moft gorgeous ap¬
parel, however improper in tragedy, is not .unfuitable
to opera-aCtors : the truth is, an opera, in its prefent
form, is a mighty fine thing; but as it deviates from na¬
ture in its capital circumftances, we look not for nature
nor
CON ( 2<
mr propriety in thofe which are acceflbry. On the o-
ther hand, a- ferious and important fubjeA admits not
much ornament; nor a fubjeft that of itfelf is extremely
beautiful : and a fubjeft that fills the mind with its loftt-
nefs and grandeur, appears bell in a drefs altogether plain.
To a perfon of a mean appearance, gorgeous apparel
is unfuitable ; which, befides the incongruity, has a bad
.effeiit; for by conftraft it fhows the meannefs of appear¬
ance in the Arongeft light. Sweetnefs of look and man¬
ner, requires fimplicity of drefs joined with the greateft
elegance. A (lately and majeftic air requires fumptuous
apparel, which Ought not to be gaudy, nor crouded with
little ornaments. A woman of confummate beauty can
bear to be highly adorned, and yet Ihows beft in a plain
,drefs :
 For lovelinefs
Needs not the foreign aid of ornament,
But is when unadorn’d, adorn’d the moft.
Thsmfon's Autumn, 208.
Congruity regulates not only the quantity of orna¬
ment, but alfo the kind. The ornaments that embellilh
a dancing-room ought to be all -cf them gay. No pic¬
ture is proper for a church, but what has religion for its
iubject. All the ornaments upon a Ihield ought to relate
to war ; and Virgil, with great judgment, confines the
carvings upon the fhield of Aeneas to the military hillo-
ry of the Romans : but this beauty is overlooked by Ho¬
mer ; for the bulk of the fculpture upon the Ihield of A-
chilles, is of the arts of peace in general, and of joy ani
feflivity in particular: the author of Telemachus betrays
the fame inattention, in defcribing the Ihield of that
young hero.
In judging of propriety with regard to ornaments, we
muft attend, not only to the nature of the fubjeft that is
to be adorned, but alfo to the circumftances in which it
is placed: the ornaments that are proper fora ball, will
appear ,not altogether fo decent at public worfhip; and
the fame perfon ought to drefs differently for a marriage-
feaft and For 'a burial.
Nothing is more intimately related to a man, than his
fentiments, words, and aflions ; and therefore we re¬
quire here the ftri&eft conformity. When we find what
we thus require, we have a lively fenfe of propriety :
when we find the contrary, our fenfe of impropriety is
nOt lefs lively.'1 Hence the univerfal diftafte of affecta¬
tion, which confifts in making a (hew of greater delicacy
and;refinement than is fuited either to the character or
circumftances of the perfon.
Congruity and propriety, where-ever perceived, ap¬
pear agreeable ; and every agreeable objeCt produceth in
the mind a pleafant emotion : incongruity and impropri¬
ety, on the other hand, are difagreeable ; and of eoUrfe
produce painful emotions. Thefe emotions, whether
pleafant or painful, fometimes vanifii without any confe-
quence ; but more frequently occafion other emotions,
which we proceed to exemplify.
When any flight incongruity is perceived, in an acci¬
dental combination of perfons or things, as of paffengers
in aftage-coach, or of individuals dining at an ordinary;
the painful' emotion of incongruity, after a momentary
i/'-iftence, vaniflieth without producing any effeCt. But
6 ) CON
this is not the cafe of propriety and impropriety: volun¬
tary aCts, whether words or deeds, are imputed to the
author ; when proper, we reward him with our eiteero ;
when improper, we punilh him with our contempt. Let
us. fuppofe, for example, a generous aCtion fuited to the
character of the author, which raifes in him and in every
fpeCtator the pleafant emotion of propriety :' this emotion
generates in the author both fejf-efteem and joy; the
former when he confiders his relation to the aCtion, and
the latter when he confiders the good opinion that others
will entertain of him : the fame emotion of propriety
produceth in the fpeCtators efteem for the author of the
aCtion ; and wdien they think of then^felves, it alfo pro¬
duceth, by means of contrail, an emotion of humility.
To difeover the effeCts of an unfuitable aCtion, we muff
invert each of thefe circumftances : the painful emotion
of impropriety generates in the author of the aCtion both
humility and Ihame ; the former when he confiders his
relation to the aCtion, and the latter when he confiders
what others will think of him : the fame emotion of im¬
propriety prpduceth in the fpeCtators contempt for the
author of the aCtion ; and it alfo produceth, by means of
contrail, W'hen they think of themfelves, an emotion of
felf-elteem. Here then are many different emotions, de¬
rived from the fame aCtion confidered in different views
by different perfons ; a machine provided with many
fprings, and not a little complicated. Propriety of ac¬
tion, it would feem, is a chief favourite of nature, when
fuch care and folicitude is bellowed upon it. It is not
left to our own choice ; but, like juftice, is required &t
our hands ; and, like jullice, is inforced by natural re¬
wards and punilhments : a man cannot, with impunity;
do any thing unbecoming or improper; he fuffers the
challifement of contempt inflicted by others, and of Ihame
inflicted by himfelf. An apparatus fo complicated, and
fo lingular, ought to roufe our attention : for nature
doth nothing in vain ; and we may conclude with great
certainty, that this curious branch of the human conlti-
tUtion is intended for fome valuable purpofe.
A grofs impropriety is punilhed with contempt and in¬
dignation, which are vented again!! the offender by cor-
refponding external expreflions : nor is even the flighteft
impropriety fuffered to pafs without fome degree of con¬
tempt. But there are improprieties, of the flighter kind,
that provoke laughter ; of which we have examples with¬
out end, in the blunders and abfurdities of our own fpe-
cies : fuch improprieties receive a different punilhment,
as will appear by what follows. The emotions of con¬
tempt and of laughter occafioned by an impropriety of
this kind, uniting intimately in the mind of the fpeCtator,
are expreffed externally by a peculiar fort of laugh, term¬
ed a laugh of derifton or /corn. An impropriety that
thus moves not only contempt but laughter, is diftinguiffi-
ed by the epithet of ridiculous ; and a laugh of derifion
or fcorn is the punilhment provided for it by nature.
Nor ought it to efcape obfervation, that we are fo fond
of inflicting this punilhment, as fometimes to exert it
even againff creatures of an inferior fpecies : witnels a
turkycock fwelling with pride, and llrUtting with dif-
played feathers ; a ridiculous objeCt, which in a gay mood
is apt to provoke a laugh of derifioa.
CON ( 267 ) CON
We rmift not expeft, that thefe different improprieties
are feparated by diftintft boundaries : for of improprieties,
from the flighted to the moft grofs, from the moft rifi-
bie to the moft ferious, there are degrees without end.
Hence it is, that in viewing fome unbecoming a&ions,
too tifible for anger, and too ferious for derifion, the
fpeftator feels a fort of mixt emotion, partaking both of
derifion and of anger ; which accounts for an expreflion,
common with refpedt to the impropriety of fome adjions.
That we know not whether to laugh or be angry.
It cannot fail, to be obferved, that in the cafe of a ri-
fible impropriety, which is always flight, the contempt
we have for the offender is extremely faint, though de¬
rifion, its gratification, is extremely pleafant. ' This.dif-
proportion between a paffion and its gratification, feems
not conformable to the analogy of nature. In looking a-
b’out for a folution, we muft refleft upon what is laid
down above, that an improper adtion not only moves our
contempt for the author, but alfo, by means of contraft,
fwells the good opinion we have of ourfelves. This con¬
tributes, more than any other article, to the pleafure we
-have in ridiculing follies and abfurdities ; and according¬
ly, it is well known, that they who put the greateft value
upon themfelves are the moft prone to laugh at others.
Pride, which is a vivid paffion, pleafant in itfelf, and not
lefs ,fo in its gratification, would fingly be fufficient to
Recount for the pleafure of ridicule, without boyrowing
any aid from contempt. Hence appears the reafon of a
noted obfervation, That we are the moft difpofed to ridi¬
cule the blunders and abfurdities of others, when we are
in high fpirits ; for in high fpifits, felfi-conceit difplays
ftfelf with more than ordinary vigour.
With regard to the final caufes of congruity and im¬
propriety ; one, regarding congruity, is pretty obvious,
that the fenfe of congruity, as one principle of the fine
arts, contributes in a remarkable degree to our enter¬
tainment. Congruity, indeed, with refpedt to quantity,
coincides with proportion : when the parts of a building'
are nicely adjufted to each other, it may be faid indif¬
ferently, that it is agreeable by the congruity of its parts,
or by the proportion of its parts. But propriety, which
regards voluntary agents only, can never be the fame
with proportion : a: very long nofe is difproportioned,
but agnnot be termed improper. In fome inftances, it is
true, impropriety cdincides#with difproportion in the fame
fubjedl, but never in the fame refpetft; for example,
a very little man buckled to a long toledo : confidering
the man and the fword with refpeft to fize, we perceive
a difproportion ; confidering the fword as the choice of
the man, we perceive an impropriety.
The fenfe of impropriety with. refpe<5t to rfliftakes,
blunders, and abfurdities, is happily contrived for the
good of mankind. In the fpe&ators, it is produdHte of
mirth and laughter, excellent recreation in an interval
from bufinefs.' But tiiis is a trifle in refpedt of what fol¬
lows. It is painful to be the fubjedt of ridicule ; and to
punilh with ridicule the man who is guilty of an abfurdi-
ty, tends to put him more upon his guard in time comings
Tiius even the moft innocent blunder is not committed
with impunity ; becaufe, were errors licenfed where they
Vol. II. No. .41. 3
do no hurt, inattention would grow into a habit, and be
the occafion of much hurt.
The final caufe of propriety as to moral duties, is. of
all the moft illuftrious. To have a juft notion of it,
the moral duties that refpedt others mull be diftingudhed
from thofe that refpedt ourfelves. Fidelity, gratitude,
and the forbearing injury, _are examples of fhe firft fort;
temperance, modefty, firmnefs of mind, are examples of
the other : the former are made duties by the fenfe of
juftice; the. latter by the fenfe of propriety. Here is
a finaLcaufe of the fenfe of propriety, that muft roufe
our attention. It is undoubtedly the intereft of every
man, to fuit his behaviour to the dignity of his nature,
and to the ftation allotted him by Providence; for fuch
rational condudl: contributes in every refpedt to happinefs,
by preferving health, by procuring plenty, by gaining
the efteem of others, and, which of all is the greateft
bidding, by gaining a juftly-founded felf-efteem. But in
a matter fo effentia! to our well-being, even felf-intereft
is not relied on: the powerful authority of duty is fu-
peradded to the motive of intereft. The God of nature,
in all things effential to our happinefs, hath obferved one
uniform method : to keep us fteady in our condudt, he
hath fortified us with natural laws and principles, which
prevent many aberrations, that would daily happen
were we totally furrendered to fo fallible a guide as is hu¬
man reafon. Propriety, cannot rightly be confidered in
another light, than as the natural law that regulates pur
condudl with refpedl to ourfelves ; as juftice is the natu¬
ral law that regulates our condudl with refpedl to others.
We call propriety a law, not lefs than juftice; becaufe
_ both are equally rules of condudl that ought to be obey¬
ed : propriety includes this obligation; for to fay an
adlion is proper, is, in other words, to fay, that it ought‘
to be performed; and to fay it is improper, is, in other
words, to fay that it ought to be forborn. It is . this
very charadter of ought and Jhould that makes juftice a
law to us; and the fame charadter is applicable to pro¬
priety, though perhaps more faintly than to juftice : 'but
the difference is in degree only, not in kind; and we
ought, without hefitation or reludlance,’to fubmit equally
to the government of both. .
But it muft, in the next place, be obfervdd, that to
the fenfe of propriety, as well as of juftice, are annexed
the fandtions of rewards and punifhments ; which evi¬
dently prove the one to be a law as well as the other.
. The fatisfaction a man hath in doing-his.duty, joined "with
the efteem and good will of others, is the reward that be¬
longs to both equally. The punilhments alfo, though
not the fame, are nearly allied; and differ in degree
more than in quality. Difobedience to the law of ju¬
ftice, is puniflied with remorfe; difobedience to the
law of propriety, with ftiame, which is remorfe in a low¬
er degree. Every H’anfgfeffion of the law of juftice rai-
fes indignation in the beholder; and fo doth every fla¬
grant tranfgreffion of the law of propriety. Slighter im¬
proprieties receive a milder punifhment: they are always
rebuked with fome degree of contempt, and frequently
with derifion. In general, it is true, that the rewards
and punifhments annexed to the fenfe of propriety, are
3Y flight er
CON ( 268 ) CON
(lighter in degree than thofe annexed to the fenfe of ju- protetted from the headftrong and turbulent paflion
(lice: which is wifely ordered, becaufe duty to others is of their neighbours.
(till more eflential to fociety, than duty to ourfelves; for CONI, aftrong town of Piedmont in Italy, (ituated up-
fociety could not fubft a moment, were individuals not on the river Stura, thirty two miles fouth of Turin,
in 70 30' E. long, and 440 25' N. lat.
CONIC SECTIONS.
CONIC SECTIONS are curve lines formed by the
interfeftions of a cone and plane.
If a cone be cut by a plane through the vertex, the
feftion will be a triangle ABC, Plate LXVII. fig. 1.
If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to its bafe, the
fedion will be a circle. If it be cut by a plane DEF,
fig. 1. in fuch a diredion, that the.fide AC of a triangle
pafling through the vertex, and having its bafe BC per¬
pendicular to EF, may be parallel to DP, the fedion is
a parabola ; if it be cut by a plane DR, fig. 2. meeting
AC, the fedion is an ellipfe; and if it be cut by a plane
DMO, fig. 3. which would meet AC extended beyond
A, it is an hyperbola.
If any line HG, fig. 1. be drawn in a parabola perpen¬
dicular to DP, the fquare of HG will be to the fquare of
EP, as DG to DP; for let LHK be a fedion parallel to
the bafe, and therefore a circle, the redangle LGK,
will be equal to the fquare of HG, and the redangle
BPC equal to the fquare of EP ; therefore thefe fquares
will be to each other as their redangles ; that is, as
BP to LG, that is DP to DG.
Defcription of Conic Sections on a Plane.
PARABOLA.
“ Let AB, fig. 4. be any right line, and C any point
“ without it, and DKF a ruler, which let be placed
“ in fame plane in which the right line and point are,
“ in fuch a manner that one fide of it, as DK, be applied
“ to the right line AB, and the other fide KF coincide
“ with the point C; and at F, the extremity of the fide
“ KF, let be fixed one end of the thread FNC, whofe
“ length is equal to KF, and the other extremity of it
“ at the point C, and let part of the thread, as FG, be
“ brought clofe to the fide KF by a fmall pin G; then
“ let the fquare DKF be moved from B towards A, fo
“ that all the while its fide DK be applied clofe to the
“ line BA, and in the me*an time the thread being ex-
“ tended will always be applied to the fide KF, being
“ ftopt from -going from it by means of the fmall pin ;
“ and by the motion of the fmall pin N there will be de-
“ fcribed a certain curve, which is called a femi para-
“ bala.
“ And if the fquare be brought to its firft given pofi-
“ tion, and in the fame manner be qaoved along the line
“ AB, from B towards H, the other femi-parabola will
“ be defcribed.”
The line AB is called the direArix; C, the focus ; any
line perpendicular to AB, a diameter ; the point where
it meets the curve, its vertex; and four times the di-
ftance of the vertex from the dire&rik, its latus redum^
or parameter.
ELLIPSE.
“ If any two points, as A and B, fig. 5. be taken in
“ any plane, and in them are fixed the extremities of a
“ thread, whofe length is greater than the diftance be-
“ tween the points, and the thread extended by means
“ of a fmall pin C, and if the pin be moved round from
“ any point until it return to the place from whence it
“ began to move, the thread being extended during the
“ whole time of the revolution, the figure which the
“ fmall pin by this revolution defcribes is called an £/-
“ %*•” .
The points AB are called the foci; D, the centre*
EF, the tranfverfe axis ; GH, the lefler axis; and any 0-
ther line pafling through D, a diameter.
HYPERBOLA.
“ If to the point A, fig. 6. in any plane, one end of the
“ rule AB be placed, in fuch a manner, that about that
“ point, as a center, it may freely move ; and if to the
“ other end B, of the rule AB, be fixed the extremity
T‘ of the thread BDC, whofe length is fmaller than the
“ rule AB, and the other end of the thread being fixed
“ in the point C, coinciding with the fide of the rule
“ AB, which is in the fame plane with the given point
“ A; and let part of the thread, as BD, be brought
“ clofe to the fide of the rule AB, by means of a fmall
“ pin D ; then let the rule be moved about the point A,
“ from C towards T, the thread all the while being ex-
“ tended, and the remaining part coinciding with the
“ fide of the rule being ftopt from going from it by
“ means of the fmall pin, and by the motion of the fmall
“ pin D, a certain figure is defcribed which is called
“ the fcmi-kyperbola.”
The other femi-hyperbola is defcribed in the fame way,
and the oppofite HKF, by fixing the ruler to C, and the
thread to A, and defcribing it in the fame manner. A
and C are called foci; the point G, which bifedts AC, the
center; KE, the trafverfe axis; aline drawn through the
center meeting the hyperbolas, a tranfverfe diameter; a
line drawn through the center, perpendicular tothe tranf¬
verfe axis, and cut off by the circle MN, whofe center
is E, and radius equal to CG, is called the fecond
axis.
If a line be drawn through the vertex E, equal and
parallel to the fecond.axis GP and GO be joined, they are
called affymptotes. Any line drawn through the center,
not meeting the hyperbolas, and equal in length to the
- part
CONIC S
part of a tangent parallel to it, and intercepted betwixt
the affymptotes, is called a fecond diafneter.
An ordinate to any fedtion is a line bifedted by a dia¬
meter and the abfciffa, the part of the diameter cut off
by the ordinate.
Conjugate diameters in the ellipfe and hyperbola are
fuch as mutually bifedt lines parallel to the other; and
a third proportional to two conjugate diameters is called
the latus redtum of that diameter, which is the firft in
the proportion.
In the parabola, the lines drawn from any point to
the focus are equal to perpendiculars to the diredlrix;
being both equal to the part of the thread feparated
from the ruler.
In the ellipfe, the two lines drawn from any point in
the curve to the foci are equal to each other, being equal
to the length of the thread ; they are' alfo equal to the
tranfverfe axis. In the hyperbola the difference of the
lines drawn from any point to the foci is equal, being e-
qual to the,difference of the lengths of the ruler and
thread, and is equal to the tranfverfe axis.
From thefe fundamental properties aill the others are
derived.
The ellipfe returns into itfelf. The parabola and
hyperbola may be extended without limit.
Every line perpendicular to the diredfrix of a parabola
meets it in one point, and falls afterwards within it; and
every line drawn from the focus meets it in one point,
and falls afterwards without it. And every line that paf-
fes through a parabola, not perpendicular to the diredtrix,
will meet it again, but only once.
Every line paffing through the center of an ellipfe is
bifedted by it; the tranfverfe axis is the greateft of all
thefe lines; the leffer axis the leaf!; and thefe nearer
the tranfverfe axis greater than tbofe more remote.
In the hyperbola, every line paffing through the center
is bifedted by the oppofite hyperbola, and the tranfverfe
axis is the lead of all thefe lines; alfo the fecond axis is
the lead of ad the fecond diameters. Every line drawn from
the center within the angle contained by the aflymptotes,
meets it once, and fails afterwards within it; and every*
line drawn through the center without that angle never
meets it; and a line which cuts one of the aflymptotes,
and cuts the other extended beyond the center, will meet
both the oppofite hyperbolas in one point.
If a line G M, fig. 4. be drawn from a point in a pa¬
rabola perpendicular to the axis, it will be an ordinate to
the axis, and its fquare will be equal to the rediangle un¬
der the abfciffa MI and latus redlum; for, becaufe GMC
is a right angle, GMq is equal to the difference of GCq
and CMq ; but-GC is equal toGE, which is equal to MB ;
therefore GMq is equal jo BMq—CMq ; which, becaufe
Cl and IB are equal, is (8 Euc. 2.) equal to four times the
rediangle under Ml and IB, or equal to the redtangle
under MI and the latus reclurn.
Hence it follows, that if different ordinates be drawn
to the axis, their fquares being each equal to the redt¬
angle under the abfciffa and latus redtum, will be to each
other in the proportion of the abfciffas, which is the
fame property as was ffiewn before to take place in the
E C T I O N S. adp'
parabola cut from the cone, and proves thofe curves to
be the fame.
This property is extended alfo to the ordinates of o-
ther diameters, whofe fquares are equal to the redtangle'
under the abfciffas and parameters of their refpedtive
diameters.
In the ellipfe, the fquare of the ordinate is to the redt¬
angle under the fegments of the diameter, as the fquare
of the diameter parallel to the ordinate to the fquare of
the diameter to which it is drawn, or as the lirlt diame¬
ter to its latus redtum; that is, LKq (fig. 5.) is to EKF
as EFq to GHq.
In the hyperbola, the fquare of the ordinate is to
the redtangle contained under the fegments of the dia¬
meters betwixt its vertices, as the fquare of the diameter
parallel to the ordinate to the fquare of the diameter to
which it is drawn, or as the firft diameter to its latui
reftum; that is, SXq is to EXK as MNq toKEq.
Or if an ordinate be drawn to a fecond diameter, its
fquare will be to the fum of the fquares of the fecond
diameter, and of the line intercepted betwixt the ordinate •
and centre, in the fame proportion ; that is, RZq (fig. 6.)
is to ZGq added to GMq, as KEq to MNq* Thefe are
the, mod important properties-of the conic fediions: and,,
by means of thefe, it is demonftrated, that the figures
are the fame defcribed on a plane as cut from the cone
which we have demonftrated in the cafe of the parabola.
Equations of the Conic SeCiions
Are derived from the above properties. The equa¬
tion of any curve, is an algebraic expreffion, which de¬
notes the 'relation betwixt the ordinate and abfciffa; the-
abfciffa being equal to x, and the ordinate equal toy.
If p be the parameter of a parabola, thenj* ;
which is an equation for all parabolas.
If a be the diameter of an ellipfe, p its parameter;
then/ : —xx and / —JL yEax—xx ; an
equation for all ellipfes.
If « be a tranfeverfe diameter of a hyperbola, p its
parameter; then y1 \ a x+xx :: p : a, and_/ —
— ^ax+xx.
If a be a fecond diameter of an hyperbola, then / —
aa + xx :: p : a; and/ X^a+xx; which are e-
a
quations for all hyperbolas.
As all thefe equations are expreffed by the fecond
powers of x andy, all conic fedtions are curves of the
fecond order; and converfely, the locus of every qua¬
dratic equation is a conic fediiop, and is a parabola, el¬
lipfe, or hyperbola, according as the farm of the equa¬
tion correfponds with the above ones, or v/ith fome other
deduced from lines drawn in a different manner with re-
fpedt to the fedtion.
General Properties of Conic Sections.
A Tangent to a parabola bifedts the angle contain¬
ed by the lines drawn to the focus and diredlrix; in arr '
’ ellipfe
•2 7o CONIC S
ellipre and hyperbola, it bifefts the angle contained by
the lines drawo to the foci.
In all the feflions, lines parallel to the tangent are
ordinates to the diameter palling through the point of
contadl ; and in thg ellipfe and hyperbola, the diameters
parallel to the tangent, and thofe palling through the
points of contadt, are mutually conjugate to each other.
If an ordinate be drawn from a point to a diameter and a
tangent from the fame point which meets the diameter pro¬
duced; in the parabola the part of the diameter betwixt
the ordinate and tangent will be bifedted -in the vertex;
and in the ellipfe and hyperbola, the femi-diameter will
be a mean proportion betwixt the fegments of the dia¬
meter betwixt the center and ordinate, and betwixt the
centre and tangent.
The parallelogram formed by tangents drawn through
the vertices of any conjugate diameters, in the fame el-
iipfe or hyperbola, will be equal to each other.
Properties peculiar to the ^Hyperbola.
As the hyperbola has fome curious properties arifing
from its aflymptotes, which appear at firft view almoft
incredible, we lliall briefly demonflrate them.
1. The hyperbola and its affymptotes never meet: if
not, let them meet in S, fig. 6.; then by the property of
the curve the redtangle KXE is to SXq as GEq to GMq
or EPq ; that is, as GXq to SXq; wherefore, KXE will
be equal to the fquare of GX ; but the redtangfe
KXE, together with the fquare of GE, is alfo equal to
the fquare of GX ; which is abfurd.
2. If a line be drawn through a hyperbola parallel to
its fecond axis, the redtangle, by the fegments of that
line, betwixt the point in the hyperbola and the affymp¬
totes, will be equal to the fquare of the fecond axis.
For, if SZ, fig. b- be drawn perpendicular to the fecond
axis, by the property of the curve, the fquare of MG, that
is, the fquare of PE, is to the fquare of GE, as the
fquares of ZG and the fquafe of MG together, to the
fquare of SZ or GX: and the fquares of RX and GX
are in the fame proportioq, becaufe the triangles RXG,
PEG are equiangular ; therefore the fquares ZG and
MG are equal to the fquare of RX ; from which taking
the fequal fquares of SX and ZG, there remains the
redtangle RSV, equal to the fquare of MG.
q. Hence, if right lines be drawn parallel to the fecond
axis, cutting an hyperbola and its aflymptotes, the redtan-
g!es contained betwixt the hyperbola and points where
the lines cut the affymptotes will be equal to each o-
ther; for they are feverally equal to the fquare of the
fecond axis.
4. If from any points, d and S, in a hyperbola, there
be drawn lines parallel to the affymptotes da SQjmdS£ dc,
the redtangle uflder da and dc will be equal to the reft-
angle under QS and S £; alfo the parallelograms da,
G c, and SQG£, which are equiangular, and confequent-
3y proportional to the redtangles, are equal.
For draw YW RV parallel.to the fecond axis, the
redtangle Y is equal to the redtangle RSV ; where-
f&fe, WD is to SV as RS is to d~Y. But becaufe
E C T I O N S.
the triangles RQS, AYD, and GSV c dW, are e-
quiangular, W d is to SV as cd to S3, and RS
is tO'DY as SQ__to da\ wherefore, r/c is to S3 as
SQ__to da: and the redtangle dc, da, is equal to the
redtangle QS, S b.
5. The affymptotes always approach nearer the hyper¬
bola.
For, becaufe the redtangle under SQ_and S3, or QG,
is equal to the redtangle under da and dc, or AG, and
QG is greater than a G ; therefore ad\% greater than QS.
6. The affymptotes come nearer the hyperbola- than
any affignable diftance.
Let X be any fmall line. Take any point, as d, in the
hyperbola, and draw da, dc, parallel to the affymp¬
totes; and as X is to da, fo let a G be to GQ. Draw
QS parallel to a d, meeting the hyperbola in S, then
QS will be equal to X. For the redtangle SQG will be
equal to the redtangle da G; and cpnfequently SO is to
da as AG to GQ^
If any point be taken in the affymptote below Q^ it
can eafily be fhowh that its diftance is lefs than the
line X.
Areas contained -by Conic Sections.
The area off a parabola is equal to f the area of a
circumfcribed paralellogram.
The area of an ellipfe is equal to the area of a circle
whofe diameter is a mean proportional betwixt its great¬
er and leffer axes.
If two lines, ad and QS, be drawn parallel to one of
the affymptotes of an hyperbola, the fpace ^QS bound¬
ed by thefe parallel lines, the affymptotes and the hy¬
perbola will be equal to the logarithm of aQ, whofe
module is a d, fuppofing a G equal to unity.
Curvature of Conic Sections.
The curvature of any conic fedtion, at the vertices of
its axis, is equal to the curvature of a circle whofe dia¬
meter is equal to the parameter of its axis.
If a tangent be drawn from any. other point of a conic
fedtion, the curvature of the fedtion in that point will be
equal to the curvature of a circle to which the fame line
is a tangent, and which cuts off from the diameter of
the fedtion, drawn. through the point, a part equal to
its parameter.
Ufes of Conic Sections.
Any body, projedfed from the furface of the earth,
defcribes a parabola, to which the diredtion wherein it
is projedted is a tangent; and the dillance of the diredtrix
is equal to the height from which a body mud fall to ac¬
quire the velocity wherewith it is projedted: hence the
properties of the parabola .are the foundation of gunnery.
All bodies adted on by a centra! force, which decrea-
fes as the fquare of the dillahces increafes, and impref-
fed with any projedlile motion, making any angle with
the diredtion of the central force, muff defcribe conic
fedtions, having the central force in one of the foci, and
' will
' / /' Jo...
CONIC S ]
will defcribe parabolas, ellipfes, and hyperbolas, ac¬
cording to the proportion betwixt the central and pro-
jedfile force. This is proved by diredt demonltration.
The great principle of gravitation adts in this manner;
and all the heavenly bodies defcribe conic fedtions having
the fun in one of the foci; the orbits of the planets are
ellipies, whofe tranfverfe and lefler diameters are nearly
equal ; it is uncertain whether. the comets defcribe
ellipfes with very unequal axes, and fo return after
a great number of years; or whether they defcribe
parabolas and hyperbolas, in which cafe they will ne¬
ver return.
CON
CONICTHYODONTES, or Plectronit^:, In na¬
tural hiftory, one of the three names the foflile teeth of
fifties are known by. '
CONIFEROUS trees, fuch as bear hard, dry feed-
veffels, of a conical figure, confiding of fevferal woody
parts, being mollly fcaly, adhering clofely together,
and feparating when ripe.
Of this fort is the cedar of Lebanon, fir, (sc.
CONINGSECK, the capital of a county of the fame
name, in the circle of Swabia, in Geimany, about
twenty miles north of Conltance : E. long 90 23', N.
lat. 47° yo'.
Conjoint degrees, in mufic, two notes which follow
each other immediately in the order of the fcale, as ut
and re.
Conjoint tetrachords, two tetrachords, or fourths,
where the fame chord is the higheft of one, and the
lowed of the other.
CONISSALiE, in natural hidory, a clafs of foflils, na¬
turally and cfientially compounded, not inflammable,
nor foluble in water, found in detached mafles, and
formed of crydalline matter debafed by earth.
Of this clafs there are two 01 dtrs, and of each of thefe
only one genus. Coniflalae of the fird order are found
in form of a naturally regular and uniform powder, all
the genuine particles of which are nearly of one deter¬
minate fliape, appearing regularly concreted, and not
fragments of others once larger. ConifTalae of the fe-
cond order are found in form of a rude, irregular,
and ftiapelefs powder, the particles of which are never
of any determinate particular figure, but feem broken
fragments ef fome once larger mafles.
To the former genus belong the different kinds of
fand and to the latter, the faburrae, or gritts.
CON JUG AT E diameter, or axis ej an ellip/is, the
fhorted of the two diameters, or that bifefting the
tranfverfe axis.
Conjugate hyperbolas. See Conicsections.
CONJUGATION, in grammar, a .regular didribution
of the feveral inflexions of verbs in their di|Ferent voi¬
ces, moods, tenfes, numbers and perfons, fo as to di-
dinguifh them from one another.
The Latins have four conjugations, didinguiftied by
the terminations of the infinitive are, ere, ere, and
Ire.
Vox. II. No. 41.
: C T I O N S. 271
Ufes of Conic Sections in the Solution of
Geometrical Problems.
Many problems can be folved by conic fedtions that
cannot be folved by right lines and circles. The follow¬
ing theorems, which follow from the Ampler properties
of the fedtions, will give a Ipecimen of this.
A point equally didant from a given point and a gi¬
ven line, is fituated in a given parabola.
A point, the fum of whofe didances from two given
points is given, is fituated in a given ellipfe.
A point, the difference of whofe didances from two
given points is given, is fituated in. a given hyperbola.
CON
The Englifli have fcarce any natural inflexions, de¬
riving all their variations from additional particles,
pronouns, whence there is fcarce any fuch thing as
flridt conjugations in that language.
CONIUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia
clafs of plants. The fruit is globular, crenated on
each fide, and has five Arise or dreaks. There
are three fpecies, only one of which, viz. the coni-
um maculatum, or hemlock, is a native of Britain.
Within thefe few years pad Dr Stork publiftied a trea-
tife recommending the ektradt of hemlock to be given
internally, in feveral dofes, as a kind of fpecific for
cancers, the king’s-evil, and all kinds of fchirrous
tumours. On the faith of this Angle phyfician, the
whole medical pra&itioners in Euiope dofed their pa¬
tients who laboured under difeafes of the above kinds
with hemlock, which is unquedionbly a rank poifon,
if taken to any extent. After two or three years
practice, it was at length difcovered that the hemiock
was. not pofleffed of thofe extraordinary virtues which
Dr Stork had attributed to it; and of courfe its re¬
putation began to fink, and now, like many othef
great medicines, has had its day, and is gradually
wearing out of praftice.
CONJUNCT rights. See Scots Law, title, Succef-
fion in heritable rights.
CONJUNCT, or Confident perfons. See Scot*
Law, title, Aflionr.
CONJUNCTION, in adronomy, the meeting of two
dars or planets, in the fame degree of the zodiac.
Conjunction, in grammar, an undeclinable word, or
particle, which ferves to join words and fentences to¬
gether, and thereby fhews their relation or dependence
one upon another.
CONJUNCTIVA, in anatomy. SeeVol.I. p. 291.
CONNAUGHT, the mod wederly province of Ire¬
land.
CONNARUS, in botany, a genus of the monodelphia
decandria clafs. It has but one Aylus ; the fligma is
Ample; and the capfule has two valves, and contains
one feed. There is but one fpecies, viz. the mono¬
carpus, a native of India.
CONNECTICUT, a Britifti colony of North America,
bounded by the Maffachufet colony on the north-ead-
by the fea, on the fouth ; and by New York, on the
3 Z
3
CON ( 27:
weft; being about 100 miles in length, and 80 in
breadth.
CONNECTION, or Connexion, the relation or de
pendence of one thing upon another.
CONNECTION, or Continuity, in the drama, con-
ftfts in the joining of the feveral ‘ftenes together.
The connection is faid to be obferved, when the
fcenes of an a£t fucceed one another immediately, and
are fo joined as that the ftage is never left empty.
CONNOISSEUR, a French word much ufed of late in
Englifti, to fignify a perfon well verfed in any thing:
whence it is ufed for a critic, or a perfon who is a
thorough judge of any fubjeCl.
CONNOR, a city of Ireland, in the county of Antrim,
and province of Ulfter, fituated about fix miles north
of Antrim, in 6° ?o/ W. long, and 540 jo' N. lat.
CONOCARPODENDRON, in botany. See Pro¬
tea.
CONOCARPUS, the button-tree, in botany, a
genus of the pentandria monogynia clafs. The corol¬
la confifts of four petals; the feeds are naked, folitary,
and below the flower; and the flowers are aggregated.
There are three fpecies, all natives of the Indies.
CONOID, in geometry, a folid body, generated by the
revolution of a conic feCtion about its axis. See Co¬
nic Sections.
CQNQIDES, in anatomy, a gland found in the third
ventricle of the brain, called pinealis, from its refem-
blance to a pine-apple.
CONQUEST. See Scots Law, title, SucceJJion in
heritable rights.
CONSANGUINITY, the relation fubfifting between
perfons of the fame blood, or who are fprung from the
fame root.
Consanguinity and affinity, degrees of, forbid¬
den in marriage; fee Scots Law, title, Marriage.
Confanguinity or affinity, an ohje&ion againft a judge;
fee title, Jurifdittion and judges : Againft: a witnefs ;
fee title, Probation.
CONSCIENCE, a fecret teftimony of the foul, where¬
by it gives its approbation to things that are naturally
good, and condemns thofe that are evil. See Mo¬
rals.
CONSCRIPT, in Roman antiquity, an appellation gi¬
ven to the fenators of Rome, who were called con-
fcript-fathers on account of their names being entered
all in one regifter.
CONSECRATION, the a<£l of devoting any thing to
the fervice and worfhip of God.
In England, churches have been always confecrated
with particular ceremonies, the form of which was
left to the difcretion of the bifttop.
CONSENT, in a general fenfe, denotes much the fame
with aflent. See Assent.
Consent of parts, in the animal oeconomy. See Sym¬
pathy.
CONSEQENCE, in logic, the conclufion, or what re-
fults from reafon or argument.
CONSERVATOR, an officer ordained for the fecurity
and prefervation of the privileges of feme cities and
: ) CON
communities, having a commiflion to judge of and de¬
termine the differences among them.
CONSERVATORY, a term fometimes ufed for a
green-houfe, or ice houfe.
CONSERVE, in pharmacy, a form of medicine, con¬
trived to preferve the flowers, herbs, roots, pills, or
fruits, of feveral fimples, as near as poflible to what
they are when frefh gathered.
Conferves are made by beating up the thing to be
preferved, with fugar, viz. a triple quantity thereof
to thofe that are moft moift, and a double quantity to
thofe that are leaft fo.
CONSIGNATION of money ; fee Scots Law, title,
Obligations and contrails in general: Of redemption-
money; fee title, Redeemable rights.
CONSISTENCE, in phyfics, jhat ftate of a body
wherein its component particles are fo conne&ed or en*-
tangled among themfelves, as not to feparate or recede
from each other. It differs from continuity in this,
that it implies a regard to motion or reft, which con¬
tinuity does not, it being fufficient to denominate a
thing continuous that its parts are contiguous to each
other.
CONSISTORIAL, or Commissary court. See
Scots Law, title, Eccleftajlical perfons.
CONSISTORY, at Rome, is an ecclefiaftical aflembly
held in the prefence of the pope, for the reception of
princes or their ambafladors, for the'canonization of
faints, for the promotion of cardinals, and other im¬
portant affairs.
CONSOLE, in architedlure, an ornament cut upon the
key of an arch, which has a projefture, and, on oc-
cafion, ferves to fupport little corniches, figures,
bulls, and vafes. See Architecture.
CONSOLIDA, in botany. See Ajuga.
CONSOLIDATION, in medicine, the adtion of uniting
broken bones, or the lips of wounds, by means of
conglutinating medicines.
CONSONANCE, in mufic, is ordinarily ufed in the
fame fenfe with concord, viz. for the union or agree¬
ment of two founds produced at the fame time, the
one grave and the other acute; which mingling in
the air in a certain proportion, dccafion an accord a-
greeable to the ear. See Music.
CONSONANT, a letter that cannot be founded with¬
out fome Angle or double vowel before or after it, as
b, c, d, 6 c.
CONSPIRACY, in law, fignifies an agreement between
two or more, falfely to indift, or procure to be indict¬
ed, an innocent perlbn, of felony.
CONSPIRATORS are, by ftatute, defined to be fuch
as bind themfelves by oath, covenant, or other alliance,
to aflirt one another falfely and malicioufly to indiCt
perfons, or falfely to maintain pleas.
Confpirators in treafon are thofe that plot againft
the king and the government.
CONSTABLE, Lord High Conftable, an ancient officer
of the crowns both of England and France, whofe au¬
thority was fo very exteqfive, that the office has been
laid alide in both kingdoms, except upon particular oc-
cafions.
C O N
cafions, fuch as the king’s coronation. The conftable
of France had his perfon privileged, and, during the
king’s minority, was named next to the princes of the
blood. The army obeyed him next the king: he ma¬
naged all that belonged to war, either for punifhment
of delinquents, diftribution of booty, furrender of pla¬
ces, <bc. The jurifdi&ion and fun&ions of this office
are now in the marefchals of France.
The fumflion of the conftable of England confifted
in the care of the common peace of the land, in deeds
of arms and matters of war. By a law of Richard II.
the conftable of England has the determination of
- things concerning wars and blazonry of arms, which
cannot be difcufled by the common law. The firlt
oonftable was created by the Conqueror: the office
continued hereditary till the thirteenth of Henry VIII.
when it was laid afide, as being fo powerful as to be¬
come troublefome to the king. We have ajfo con-
ftables denominated from particular places, as conftable
of the Tower, of Dover caftle, of Windfor-caftle, of
the caftle of Caernarvon, and many other of the ca-
ftles of Wales, whofe office is the fame with that of
the cafteUani, or governors of caftles.
Constable of Scotland. See Scots Law, title, Of
inferior judges.
Constables to juftices of the peace, in Scots law,
are the proper officers for executing their orders.
They have powers to fupprefs tumults, and to ap¬
prehend delinquents and thofe who can give no good
account of themfelves, and carry them to the next ju-
ftice.
CONSTANCE, a city of Swabia, in Germany, fituated
on the weftern ftiore of a lake to which it gives name,
in 90 12 E. Ion. and 47® 3^ N. lat.
It is the fee of a bifhop, who is a prince of the Ger¬
man empire
CONSTANTIN A, the capital of a province of the
fame name, in the kingdom of Algiers, in Africa:
E.long. 70, and N. lat. 3$® 0,0 .
CONSTANTINOPLE, the metropolis of the Turkiffi
empire, called by the Turks themfelves Stamboul, and
by many Europeans the Port, being one of the beft
harbours in Europe: E. long. 29° 15', and N. lat.
4!° 30'.
It is built on the weftern ffiore of the Bofphorus, in
the form of a triangle; the feraglio, or palace, oc¬
cupying that angle which runs out between the Pro¬
pontis and harbour; and underneath the palace are the
gardens, which extend to the water-fide.
CONSTELLATION, in aftronomy. SeeVol. I. p. 486.
CONSTIPATION, in medicine, ahardnefs of the belly,
with great coftivenefs.
CONSTITUENT part, in phyfiology, an eflential
part in the compofition of any thing, differing little
from what is otherwife called element or principle.
CONSTITUTION, in matters of policy, fignilies the
form of government eftabliffied in any country or king¬
dom.
Constitution alfo denotes an ordinance, decifion,
regulation, or law, made by authority of any fuperior,
ecclefiaftical or civil.
CON
dpojlolical Cohstitvtioks, acolledlion of regulations
attributed to the apoftles, and fuppofed to have been
collected by St Clement, whofe name they likewife
bear.
It is the general opinion, however, that they are
fpurious, and that St Clement had no hand in them.
They appeared firft in the IVth age, but have been
much changed and corrupted fince that time. They
are divided into eight books, confifting of a great num¬
ber of rules and precepts, relating to the duties of
Chrftians, and particularly the ceremonies and dif-
cipline of the church. Mr Whifton, in oppofition to
the general opinion, afterts them to be a part of the
facred writings, didtated by the apoftles in their meet¬
ings, and wrote down from their own mouth by St
Clement, and intended as a fupplement to the New
Teftament, or rather as a fyftem of Chriftian faith and
polity. The reafon whythe Conftitutions are fufpedt-
ed by the orthodox, and, perhaps, the reafon alfo
why their genuinenefs is defended by Mr Whifton, is,
that they feem to favour Arianifm.
Constitution, in a phyfical fenfe, fignifies the parti¬
cular temperature of the body.
CONSTRICTOR, an appellation given to feveral mu--
fcles on account of their conftringipg or doling fome
of the orifices of the body. See Anatomy,
CONSTRUCTION of equations, in Algebra. Sea
Algebra.
Construction, in grammar, the connedfing the words
of a fentence according to the rules of the language.
CONSUALIA, in Roman antiquity, a feftival inftituted
by Romulus, who, at the time of the rape of the Sa¬
bine virgins, found an altar under ground dedicated to
the god Confus, that is, Neptune. They were intro¬
duced with a magnificent cavalcade; and during the
celebration, the horfes and affes were crowned with
flowers, and a mule was facrificed to that god.
CONSUBSTANTIATION, a tenet of the Lutheran
church with regard to the manner of the change
made in the bread and wine in the euchrift.
The divines of that profeflion maintain, that after
confecration, the body and blood of our Saviour are
fubftantially prefent, together with the fubftance of'
the bread and wine, which is called confubftantiation,
or impanation.
CONSUL, the chief magiftrate of the Roman common¬
wealth. They were two in number, chofen every
year in the Campus Martius, by the people affembled in
the comitia centuriata. In the firft times of the com¬
monwealth, no man could pretend to this dignity, but
fuch as were of a patrician family; but afterwards the-
people obtained, that one of the confuls ihould bs
chofen from among them. A conful was commonly
chofen at forty-three years of age, but this was not
always obferved : beltdesr it was requifite he ffiouM
have exercifed other offices, as that of quaeftor, sedile
and praetor: and yet this condition was no better ob¬
ferved than the firft; for Pompey had never been prte-
tor nor quaeftor when he obtained the confullhipi
Their authority and power was of very great extent,
lb long as the commonwealth fubfifted. They were.
the:
( 273 )
CON ( 274 ) CON
the head of the fenate: they commanded the armies,
and were fupreme judges of the differences between
the citizens; but as they had made fome abufe of this
power, it was allowed by the Valerian law for the
party aggrieved to appeal from their tribunal to the
people, efpecially in cafes whefe the life of a citizen
was concerned. Under the emperors, conful was lit¬
tle more than an honourable title, and at laft it be¬
came abfolutely extinft in the time of Juftinian. From
the eftabliihment of the republic to the confulate of
Bafil, that is, from the year of R6me 244, to the
year of Rome 1294, t^e years are accounted by the
confuls; but after that period, the time was computed
by the years of the emperors reigns and the indidions.
Consul, at prefect, is an officer eftablifhed by virtue of
a commiffion from the king and other princes, in all
foreign countries of any confiderable trade, to facilitate
and difpatch bufinefs, and proted the merchants of the
nation. The confuls are to keep up a correfpondence
with the minifters of England refiding in the courts
whereon their confulate depends. They are to fup-
port the commerce and the intereft of the nation; to
difpofe of the films given and the prefents made to the
lords and principals of places, to obtain their protedi-
on, and prevent the infults of the natives pn the mer¬
chants of the nation.
CONSUMMATION, the end or completion of the
work. Thus we fay, the confummation of all -things,.
meaning the world.
CONSUMPTION^ in medicine, a word of very exten-
five fignification, implies all diforders that bring any
decay or wafte upon the confHtution; but is molt ufed
for the phthifis pulmonalis. See Medicine.
CONTACT, is when one line, plane, or body, is made
to touch another, and the parts that do thus touch,
are called the points or places of contad
CONTAGION, in phylic, the communicating a difeafe
from one body to another. In fome difeafes it is on¬
ly effeded by an immediate contad or touch, as the
venom of the pox;-in o hers, it is conveyed by in-
feded cloaths, as the itch ; and in others, it is tranf-
mitted through the air at a confiderable didance, by
means of (teams or effluvia expiring from the fick. as
in the plague and other peftilential diforders, in which
cafe the air is faid to be contagious.
CONTEMPLATION, an ad of the mind, whereby it
applies itfelf to confider and refled upon the works of
God, nature, fcc.
CONTEMPORARY, a perfon or thing that exifted in
the fame age with another. Thus, Socrates, Plato,
and Ariftophanes, were contemporaries.
CONTENT, in geometry, the area or quantity of
matter or (pace included in certain bounds. See Geo¬
metry.
CONTESSA, a port-town of Turkey, in Europe, in
the province of Macedonia, fituated on a bay of the
Archipelago, about 200 miles weft of Conftantinople:
E. long. 250, and N. lat. 410.
•CONTEXT, among divines and critics, that part of
fcripture or of a writing that precedes and follows the
text.
CONTI, a town of Picardy in France, about fifteen
miles fouth-weft of Amiens: E. long. 20 20', N. lat.
49° 40 -
CONTIGUITY, in geometry, is when the furface of
one body touches that of another.
CONTINENT, in general, an appellation given to
things continuled without interruption; in which fenfe
we fay, continent fever, <bc.
Continent, in geography, a great extent of land not
interrupted by feas, in contradiftindion to ifland and
peninfula, See Geography.
CONTINGENT, fomething cafual or unufual. Hence
future contingent, denotes a conditional event which
may or may not happen, according as circumftances
fall out.
Contingents are fometimes ufed by mathematicians in
the fame fenfe as tangent. See Tangent.
Continued proportion, in arithmetic, is that where
the confequent of the firft ratio is the fame with the
antecedent of the fecond; as 4 : 8 :: 8 : 16, in con¬
tradiftindion to difcrete proportion.
CONTINUITY, is defined by fome fchoolmen the im¬
mediate cohefion of parts in the fame quantum ; by
others, a mode of body, whereby its extremities be*
come one ; and by others, a date of body refulting
from'the mutual implication of its parts. There are
two kinds of continuity, mathematical and phyfical.
The firft is merely imaginary, fince it fuppofes real or
phyfical parts where there are none,
Phyfical continuity is that date of two or more par¬
ticles, in which their parts are fo mutually implicated
as to conftitute one uninterrupted quantity or conti¬
nuum.
CONTINUO, in mufic, fignifies the thorough bafs, as
baflb continuous the continual orthorough bafs, which
is fometimes marked in mufic books by the letters B. C.
CONTOI^SION, in medicine, has many fignifications.
1. It denotes the iliac paffion. 2. An incomplete dif-
location, when.a bone is in part, but not entirely, for¬
ced from its articulation. 3, A diflocation of the ver¬
tebrae, of the back fide-ways, or a crookednefs of thefe
vertebrae. And,. 4. A diforder of the head, in which
it is drawn towards one fide, either by a fpafmodic
contra&ion of,the mufcles on the fame fide, or a palfy
of the antagonift mufcles on the other.
CONTOUR, in painting, the out line, or that which
defines a figure.
- A great part of the (kill of the painter lies in mana¬
ging the contours well. Contour, with the Italian
painters, fignifies the lineaments of the face.
CONTOURNE, in heraldry, is ufed when a beaft is
reprefented (landing or running with its face to the fi-
nifterfide of the efcutcheon. they being always fuppo-
fed to look to the right, if not otherwife exprefled.
CONTOURNIATED, a term among antiquaries ap¬
plied to medals, the edges of which appear as if turned
in a lath. This fort of work feems to have had its o-
rigin in Greece, and to have been defigned to perpe¬
tuate the memories of great men, particularly thofe who
had bore away the prize at the folemn games. Such
are
CON ( :
are tho^e remaining of Homer, Solon, Euclid, Py¬
thagoras, Socrates, and feveral athletae.
CONTRABAND, in commerce, a prohibited commo¬
dity, or merchandife bought or fold, imported or ex¬
ported, in prejudice to the laws and ordinances of a
ftate, or the public prohibitions of the fovereign. Con¬
traband goods are not only liable to conffcation them-
felves, but alfo fubjedt all other allowed merchandife
found with them in the fame box, bale or parcel* to¬
gether with the horfes, waggons, <bc. which condudt
them. There are contrabands likewife, which, be-
fides the forfeiture of the goods, are attended with
feveral penalties and difabilities. ■
CONTRACT, in a general fenfe, a mutual confent of
two or more parties, who voluntarily promife a@d o-
blige themfelves to do fomething, pay a certain fum,
or the like. All donations, exchanges, leafes, fee.
are fo many different contracts.
CONTRACTILE force, that property or power inherent
in certain bodies, whereby, when extended, they are
enabled to draw themfelves up again to their former
dimenfions.
CONTRACTION, in grammar, is the reducing of two
fyllables into one, as can't for cannot, Jhonld'Ji for
fhouldeji, tec.
Contraction, in phyfics. the diminilhing the extent
or dimenfions of a body, hr the caufing its parts to ap¬
proach neaeer to each other, in which fenfe it Hands
oppofed to dilatation or expanfion.
CONTRA-FISSURE, in furgery, a kind of fradhire,
or fiffure, in the cranium, which fometimes happens
on the fide oppofite to that vUiich received the blow ;
or, at leaft, at fome diftancefrom it. See Surgery.
CONTRARIETY, an oppofition between two things,
which imports their being contrary to one another;
and ccmfills in this, that one of the terms implies a
negation of the other, either mediately or immediate¬
ly; fo that contrariety may be faid to be the con¬
trail, or oppofition of two things, one of which im¬
ports the abfence of the other, as love and hatred.
CONTRARY, a pofitive oppofite, which, fubfifting by
turns in the fame fubjeft with its oppofite, is as re¬
mote from it as poffible, expells it, and is mutually
expelled'by it. Blacknefs and whitenefs, cold and
heat, are fuch contraries.
CONTRAST. See Resemblance.
CONTRATE-w^ee/, in watch-work, that next to the
crown, the teeth and hoop whereof lie contrary to
thofe of the other wheels, from whence it takes its
name. See Watch making.
CONTRAVALLATION, or the line Contraval-
lation, in fortification, a trench guarded with a pa¬
rapet, and ufually cut round about a place by the be-
fiegers, to fecure themfelves on that fide, and to Hop
the fallies of the garrifon. See Fortification.
CONTRAVENTION, in law, a man’s failing to dif-
charge his word, obligation, duty, or the laws or
cuftoms of the place.
CONTRAYERVA, in botany. See Dorstenia.
CONTRE, in heraldry, an appellation given to feveral
bearings, on account of their cutting the Ihield con-
Vol.II. No. 41. 3
75 ) ‘CON
trary and oppofite ways: thus we meet with contre-
bend, contre-chevron, contre-pale, &c. when there
are two ordinaries of the fame hatute oppofite to each
other, fo as colour may be oppofed to metal, and me¬
tal to colour. See Counter.
CONTRITION, in theology, a forrow for our fins, re-
fulting from the reflexion of having offended God,
from the foie confidefation of his goodntfs, without
any regard to the puniihment due to the trefpafs, and
attended with a fincere refolution of reforming them.
CONTROL is properly a double regifter kept of adts,
iffues, fee. of the officers or commiffioners in the re¬
venue, army, fee. in order to perceive the true Hate
thereof, and to certify the truth, and the due keep¬
ing of the adls fubjedt to the enregifterment.
CONTROLLER, an officer appointed to control or
overfee the accounts of other officers, and, on occa-
fion, to certify whether or no things' have been con¬
trolled or examined.
In Britain we have feveral officers of this name, as
controller of the king’s houfe, controller of the navy,
controller of the cuftoms, controller of the mint, fee.
Controller of the banaper, an officer that attends the
lord chancellor daily, in term and in feal-dme, to take
all things fealed in leathern bags from the clerks of
the hanaper, and to make the number and effedt there¬
of, and enter them in a book, with all the duties be¬
longing to the king and other officers for the fame,
and fp charge the clerk of the hanaper with them.
Controller of the pipe, an officer of the exchequer*
that makes out a fummohs twice every year, to levy
the farms arid debts of the pipe. See Pipe, and Ex*
CHEQjUER.
Controllers of the pells, two officers of the exche¬
quer, who are the chamberlain’s clerks, and keep a
control of the pell of receipts, and goings out.
CONTUSION, in medicine and furgery, any hurt of
the body that is inflidted by a blunt inft'rument. See
Surgery.
CONVALLARIA, or Lilly of //5f Valley, in bo¬
tany, a genus of the hexandria monogynia clafs. The
corolla is divided into fix fegments ; and the berry is
fpotted, and has three cells. The fpecies are eight,
three of which are natives of Britain, viz, the majalis,
or may-lily ; the multiflora, or folomOn’s-feal; and
the polygonatum, or fweet fmelling folomon’s-feal.
CONVENT, in church-hiftory. See Monastery.
CONVENTICLE, a private affembly or meeting, for
the exercife of religion. The word was firft attribu¬
ted as an appellation of reproach to the religious af-
femblies of Wickliffe, in this nation, in the reigns of
Edward III. and Richard II. There were feveral fta-
tutes made in former reigns, for the fuppreffion of
conventicles ; but, by 1 William and Mary, it is or¬
dered, that diffenters may affemble for the perform¬
ance of religious worlhip, provided their doors be not
locked, barred, or bolted.
CONVENTION, a treaty, contradl, or agreement be¬
tween two or more parties.
Convention is alfo a name given to an extraordinary
affembly of parliament, or the eftates of the realm, held
4 A without
CON ( 276 ) COO
without the king’s writ; as was the convention of e-
ftates, whQ, upon the retreat of king James II. came
to a conclufion that he had abdicated the throne, and
that the right of fucceflipn devolved to king William
and queen Mary; whereupon their aflembly expired
as a convention, and was converted into a parliament.
CONVERGING, or Convergent//we/, in geometry,
are fuch as continually approach nearer one another,
or whofe diftances become ftill lefs and lefs. Thefe
are oppofed to divergent lines, the diflances of which
become continually greater: thofe lines which con¬
verge one way, diverge the other.
Converging rays, in optics, thofe rays that, ifluing
from divers points of an objedt, incline towards an¬
other, till, at laft, they meet and crofs, and then be¬
come diverging rays. See Optics.
CONVERSE, in mathematics. One propofition is call¬
ed the converfe of another, when, after a conclufion is
drawn from fomething fuppofed in the converfe propo¬
fition, that conclufion is fuppofed ; and then, that
which in the other was fuppofed, is now drawn as a con-
clufion from it: thus, when two fides of a triangle are
equal, the angles under thefe fides are equal; and, on
the converfe, if thefe angles are equal, the two fides
are equal.
CONVERSION, in a moral fenfe, implies a repentance
for a temper and conduct unworthy our nature, and
unbecoming our obligations to its Author, and a refo-
lution to adt a wifer and a better part for the future.
Conversion, in. war, a military motion whereby the
front of a battalion is turned where the flank was, in
cafe the battalion is attacked in the flank.
Conversion^' equations, in algebra. See Vol.I. p. 104.
CONVEX, an appellation given to the exterior furface
of gibbous or globular bodies, in oppofition to the hol¬
low inner furface of fuch bodies, which is called con¬
cave : thus we fay, a convex frieze, lens, mirror, fu-
perficies, 'be.
CONVEXITY, that configuration or Chape of a body,
on account of which it is denominated convex.
CONVEYANCE, in law, a deed or inflrument that
pafics land, from one perfon to another.
CONVICT, in common law, a perfon that is found
guilty of an offence by the verdidt of a jury.
CONVICTION, in theology, expreffes the firft degree
of repentance, wherein the (inner becomes fenfible of
his guilt, of the evil nature of fin, and of the danger
of his own w^vs.
CONVOCATION, an aflembly of the clergy of Eng¬
land, by their reprefentatives, to confult of ecclefiaftical
matters. It is held during.the feCHon of parliament,
and confifts of an upper and a lower houfe. In the
upper fit the bifhops, and in the lower the inferior
clergy, who are reprefented by their prodtors, confid¬
ing of all the deans, and archdeacons, of one prodtor
for every chapter, and. two for the clergy of every
diocefe, in all one hundred and forty-three divines,
viz. twenty-two deans, fifty-three archdeacons, twen¬
ty-four 'prebendaries, and forty-four prodtors of the
diocefan clergy. The lower houfe chufes its prolocu¬
tor, whofe bufinefs it is to take care that the mem¬
bers attend, to colledt their debates and votes, and to
carry their refolutions to the upper honfe. The con¬
vocation is fummoned by the king’s writ, diredted to
the archbifhop of each province, requiring him to fum-
mon all bifliops, deans, archdeacons, be.
The power of the convocation is limited by a fta-
tute of Henry VIII. They are not to make any canons
or ecclefiaftical laws, without the king’s- licence ; nor,
when permitted to make any, can they put them in ex¬
ecution, but under feveral reftridtions. They have the
examining and cenfuring all heretical and fchifmatical
books and perfons, be. but there lies an appeal to the
king in chancery, or to his delegates. The clergy ia
convocation, and their fervants, have the fame privi¬
leges as members of parliament.
CONVOLUTION, a winding motion, proper to the
trunks of fome plants, as the convolvulus, or bind¬
weed ; the clafpers of vines, bryony, be.
CONVOLVULUS, or Bind-weed, in botany, a genus
of the pentandria monogynia clafs. The corolla is
bell-lb aped, and plaited ; it has two ftigmata; and the
capfule is bilocular, each cell containing two feedat
There are forty-three fpecies, only three of which are
natives of Britain, viz. the arvenfis, or fmall bind¬
weed ; the fepium, or great bind-weed ; and thefolda-
nella, or fea bind-weed.
CONVOY, in marine affairs, one or more Chips of war,
employed to Accompany and protedl merchant Chips,
and prevent their being infulted by pirates, or the e-
nemies of the date in time of war.
Convo y, in military matters, a body of men that guard
any fupply of men, money, ammunition, or provifions,
conveyed by land into a, town,, army, or the like, in
time of war.
CONVULSION, in medicine, a preternatural and vio¬
lent contradtion of the membranous and mufcular parts
of the body. See Medicine.
CONWAY, a market-town of CarnarvonChire in North
Wales, fituated near the mouth of a river of the fame
name, fifteen miles weft of St Afaph: W. long. 3 0 jef',
and-N. kt. 530 20'.
CONYZA, or Flea-bane, in botanyj a genus of the
fyngenefia polygamia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle,
is naked; the pappus is Ample; the calix is roundiCh
and imbricated ; and the rays of the corolla are divi¬
ded into three fegments. There are nineteen fpecies,
only one of which is a native of Britain,, o/z. the
fquarrofa, or plowman’s fpikenard*
CONZA, a town of the kingdom-of Naples in Italy, fi¬
tuated on the farther Principate, on the river Offanto*
fifty miles fouth-eaft of the city of Naples: E. long.
i4°, N. lat. 410. It is the fee of an archbifliop.
COOPER, in geography, the name of a river.in Caro¬
lina in North America.
Cooper, on board a Chip, he that looks to the cades,
and all orjier veifels for. beer, water, or any other li¬
quor. He has a mate under him.
CO-ORDINATE, fomething of equal order, rank, or
degree with another. See Order;
COPAIBA
COP ( 277
COPAIBA, or lalfam of Copaiba, a liquid refinous
juice, flowing from incifions made in the trunk of the
fera, a large tree which grows in th.e Spaniflt Weft
Indies, and is ufed as a corroborating and detergent
medicine.
COPAL, in the materia medica, a refin obtained from
feveral forts of large trees in New Spain. It is brought
to us in irregular lumps; but it has never come into
ufe as a medicine, and is rarely to be met with in the
(hops.
COPENHAGEN, the capital of the kingdom of Den¬
mark, fituated on the eaftern fltore of the ifland of
Zealand, upon a fine bay of the Baltic fea, not far
from the ftrait called the Sound : E. long. 130, and
N. lat. 550 30'.
COPERNICAN, in general, fomething belonging to
Copernicus. Hence,
Copernican fyftem or hypot hefts, that fyftem of the
world, wherein the fun is fuppofed to reft in the cen¬
tre, and the planets, with the eaith, to move in el-
lipfes round him. See VolvI. p. 434.
COPERNICUS, the name of an aftronomical inftnu-
ment, invented by Mr Whifton^ to exhibit the motion
and phaenomena of the planets, both primary and fe-
condary. It is built upon the Copernican fyftem, and
for that reafon called by. his name..
COPHTS, Cophti, or Copts, a name given to/uch
of the Chriftians of Egypt as are of the left, of Jaco¬
bites.
The Cophts have a patriarch, who is fiyl'ed the pa¬
triarch of Alexandria, having eleven or twelve bifhops
under him, but no archbiftiop. The reft of the cler¬
gy, whether fecular or regular, are of the order of
St Anthony, St Paul, and St Macarius-, each of whom
have their monafteries. The Cophts have feven fa-
craments, viz. baptifm, the eucharift, confirmation,
ordination, faith, falling, and prayer.
COPHTIC, or Coptic language, is that fpoke by the
Cophts, being the ancient language of the Egyptians,
intermixed with the Greek, and the charaufters of it
being thofe of the Greek.
The ancient Coptic is now a dead language, to be
met with no where but.in books, and thofe only tranf-
lations of the fcriptures-, and of ecclefiaftical offices,
or others that have a relation thereto ; the language
now ufed over all the country being, that of the Arabic.
GOPPEL, Cop£L,or Cuppel, a chemical vefiel made,
of earth, pretty thick, and of the form, of a platter or
difti.
COPPELLING, or Cupelling, in chemiftry, is the
putting metallic fubftances into a coppel, or covered
veflel, made of bone alhes, and fet in a naked fire, to
try what gold or filver they will afford. See p. 114.
COPPER conftitutes a diftinft genus of metals, being
next to iron in fpecific gravity, but lighter than gold,
filver, or lead. See p. 80.
COPPERAS, a name given to the. faffitious green vi¬
triol. See Chemistry.
The Englilh copperas is made at Deptford, in the
following manner, from pyritac. See Pyrita;,
) COR
A heap of thefe ftones, two or three foot thick, it
laid in a bed well rammed; where being turned once
in fix months, in five or fix years, by the adtion of
the air and rain, they begin to diffolve, and yield a li¬
quor which is received in pits, and thence conveyed
into a ciftern, in a boiling houfe. The liquor at
length being pumped out of the ciftern into a lea¬
den boiler, and a quantity of iron added theretoi
in two or three days the boiling is compleated ; care
having been taken all along to fupply it with frefh
quantities of iron, and to reftore the boiling, when¬
ever it feems to abate. When boiled fufficiently, it is
drawn off into a cooler, with flicks acrofs, where it is
left 14 or 15 days to flioot. The ufes of copperas are
numerous. It is the chief ingredient in the dying of
wool, cloths, and hats, black; in making ink, in tan¬
ning and drefling leather, &£•. and from hence is pre¬
pared oil of vitriol, and a kind of Spanilb brown for
painters. In medicine it is rarely prefcribed under the:
name of copperas, but it is a true fait of iron, and of¬
ten prefcribed under that name, and ufed inftead of
the genuine preparation; our chemifts in general gi-i
ving themfelves no further trouble about the making of
that fait, than to diffolve and purify the common
copperas, and ihoot it again into cryftals.
COPPICE,, or Copse, a little wood, confifting of un¬
der-woods, or fuch as may be raifed either by fowing
or planting.
COPULATION, the aft of generation, or the congrefs
of the male and female, otherwife called coition. See
Generation.
COPY-HOLD, a tenure for which a tenant has nothing
to-ftiew but the copy of the rolls made by the fleward-
of the lords court.
It is called a bafe tenure, becaufe the tenant holds-
the land at the will of the lord. However, it is not
Amply at the will of the lord, but according to the
cuttom of the manor by which fuch eftate is defcen-
dible, and the tenants heirs may inherit it; and a copy-
holder, fo long as he does his fervices, and does not
break the cuflom, cannot be ejefted by the lord; and
if he be, he ftiall have trefpafs againft him.
Copy-holder, one.who is admitted tenant of lands or
tenements within a manor, which time out of mind,
by ufe and cuflom of the manor, have been demifable
and demifed to fuch as will take them in fee Ample
or fee-tale, for life, years, or at will, according to
the Guftom of the manor by copy of court-roll; but
is generally where the tenant has fuch eflate either in
fee or for three lives;
COQUIMBO, a port-town of Chili, irr South America,
fituated.at the mouth of a river of the fame name,
which difcharges itfelf into the pacific ocean-: W.
l°ng 75° IO,» and N. lat. 30.9
COR carol 1, in aftronomy, an extraconftellated ftar in
the northern hemifpherei fituated between the coma
berenices, and urfa major, fo called by Dr Halley in
honour of king Charles.
Cor hydra:, a fixed ftar of the firft magnitude, :n
the conflellation of hydra.
Goar.
/COR ( 2 *
Cor -leonis, or Regulus, in aflronomy, a fixed ftar
■ of the firft magnitude in the conftellation leo.
'CORACO-BRAOHMLIS, in anatomy. See Vol. I.
p. 196.
CORACOIDES, in anatomy. See Vol I. p. 177.
CORACOMANTES, in antiquity, perfons who fore¬
told events from their obfervations on crows.
CORACO-RADIAL1S, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p.
197. . ' :
CORALLINA, or Coral, in zoology, a genus be¬
longing to the order of vermes zoophyta. The trunk
is radicated, jointed, and calcarious. The- fpecies are
eight, ' diftinguifhed by the form of their branches,
and are found in the ocean adhering to (tones, bones,
(hells, tic. The corals were formerly believed to be ve¬
getable fubftances hardened by the air ; but are gene¬
rally believed to be compofed of a congeries of animals,
which are -even endued with the faculty of movdng
tpontaneoufly. Linnaeus’s order of zoophyta is com¬
pofed of animals of this kind, as the fpongia, fertula-
ria, &C. See Natural History.
CORALLODENDRON, inbotany SccErythrina.
Coral fifhery. Red coral i? found in the Mediterra¬
nean, on the fhores of Provence, from Cape de la
Couronne to that of St Tropez; about the ides of
Majorca and Minorca; on the fouth of Sicily; on the
coafts of Africa ; and, laftly, in the Ethiopic ocean,
about cape Negro. The divers fay, that the little
branches are found only in the caverns whofe fituation
is parallel to the earth’s furface, and open to the fouth.
The manner of (idling being nearly the fame where-
ever coral is fotlnd, it will fuifice to inftance the me¬
thod ufed at the baftion of France, under the direc¬
tion of the company edablifhed at Marfeifles for that-
fidiery. Seven or eight men go in a boat commanded
by the patron or proprietor, and when the net is
thrown by the cafter, the reft work the vedel, and
help to draw themet in. The net is compofed of two
rafters of wood tied crofs-wife, with leads fixed to
them : to thefe they faften a quantity of hemp twifted
loofely round, and intermingled with fome large net¬
ting. This inftrument is let down where they think
there is coral, and pulled up again, when the coral is
ftrongly intangled in the hemp and netting. For this
purpofe, fix boats are fometimes required; and if in
hauling in, the rope happens to break, the fifhermen
run the hazard of being loft. Before the (idlers go
to fee, they agree for the price of the coral, which is
fometimes more, fometimes lefs a pound; and they
engage, on pain of corporal punifhment, that neither
they nor their crew (hall embezzle any, but deliver
the whole to the proprietors. When the fiftiery is
ended, which amounts one year with another to twenty-
five quintals for each boat, it is divided into thirteen
parts, of which the proprietor hath four, the carters
two, and the other fix men one each, the thirteenth
belongs to the company for payment of the boat fur-
nifhed them.
CORAN, or Alcoran, See Alcoran.
8 ) CO II
CORAX, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpecies
•of .con us. See CORVUS.
COR^BxAN, a fcripture term of an offering which had
life, in oppofition to the minchab which had no life.
Corban is alfo a ceremony which the Mahometans per¬
form at the foot of mount Ararat, in Arabia, near
Mecca. It confifts in killing a great number of (heep,
and diftributing them among the poor.
CORBEILS, in fortification. See Basket.
CORBEL, in architedfure, a reprefentation of abalket,
fometimes feen on the heads of.th caryatides.
CORBY, a town of Germany, thirty miles cart: of Pa-
derborn, in Weftphalia: Eaft long. 90 20', N. lat.
5i° 4°'.
CORCHORUS, Jews-sallad, in botany, a genus of
the polyandria monogynia clafs. The corolla confifts
of five petals; the calix is deciduous, and confifts of
five leaves; and the capfule has many cells and valves.
The fpecies are fix, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
Cord af •wood, a certain quantity of wood for burning,
fo called becaufe formerly meafured with a cord. The
dimenfions of a ftatute cord of wood are eight feet
long, four feet high, and’four feet broad.
Cord-wood, is new wood, and fuch as, when brought
by water, comes on board a veflel, in oppofition to
that which is floated.
CORDAGE, a term ufed, in general, for all forts of
cord, whether fmall, middling, or great. See Rope.
CORDATED, an appellation frequently given by natu-
ralifts to tilings (bmewhat refembling a heart.
CORDED, in heraldry. A crofs corded fome authors
take for a crofs wound or wrenched about with cords.
Se; Cableo cros$. t
Others, with more probability, take it for a crofs
made of two pieces of cord.
CORDELERAS, mountains of fouth America, other-
wife called Andes. See Andes.
CORDELIER, in chupch-hiftony, a Francifcan or re¬
ligious ef the order of St francis.
COIIDIA, in botany, a gemis of the pentandria mono¬
gynia clafs. The corolla is tunn I-lhaped, and has
but one petal; the ftylus is dichotomous; and the
fruit is a bilocular drupa. The fpecies are five,
none of them natives of Britain.
CORDIAL, in medicine, whatever raifes the fpirits,
and gives them a fodden ftrength and chearfulnefs, as
wine, fpirits, the effluvia of flowers, fruit, and many
other fubftances.
CORDON, in fortification, a row' of (tones, made
round on the outfide, and fet between the wall of the
fortrefs which lies aflope, and the parapet which
(lands perpendicular, after fuch a manner, that this
difference may not be offenfive to the «ye : whence
the cordons ferve only as an ornament, ranging
round about the place, bein^ only ufed in fortification
of (tone-work. For' in thofe made with earth, the
void fpace is filled up with pointed (lakes.
CORDOUA, Cordova, a city of Andalufia, in Spain,
fituated
COR ( 279 ) COR
. fituated on the river Guadalquivir, feventy-two miles
north-eatt of Seville, agd feventy-five north of Mala¬
ga: W. long. 40 45', andN. lat. 370 45'.
COREA, an ifland or peninfula on the north-call cpaft
of China, between 36° and 420 N. lat.
CORDWAINEP S a term wliereby Ihoemakers are de¬
nominated in ftatutes. By a llatute of Jac. I. the ma-
Iter. and wardens of the cordwainers company,
are to appoint fearchers and triers of leather; and no
leather is to be fold before fearched, feaied., &c.
CORDYLINA, in botany. See Yucca.
CORDYLUS, -the trivial name of a fpecies of Lacerta.
See Lacerta.
COREGONUS, in ichthyology, a fynonime of a fpe¬
cies of Salmo. See Sal mo.
COREIA, in antiquity, a^feftival in honour of Profer-
pine.
COREOPSIS, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia
polygamia frullranea clafs. The receptacle is paleace¬
ous, the pappus has two double horns ; the calix is e-
re<5t, and confifts of many leaves. There are eleven
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
CORFE-CASTLE, ‘ a borough- town of Dorfetlhire, a-
bout twelve miles eaft of Dorchefter, near the fea:
W. long. 20 io/, and N.dat. 50° $()'. It fends two
members to Parliament.
CORFU, an illand fubjedt to"the Venetians, fituated in
the Mediterranean, near the entrance of the gulph of
Venice.
Corfu is alfo the capital of the above ifland : E. long.
20° 40', and N.lat. 390 40'
CORIA, a city of Eltremadura, in Spain, thirty-five
miles north of Alcantara: W. long 6° 40/, and N.
lat. 390 jj'. It is a bilhop’s fee.
CORIANDRUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
digynia clafs. The corolla is radiated; the involu-
crum univerfale confifts of one leaf, and the partiale is
dimidiated; and the fruit is fpherical. The fpecies
are two, only one of which, viz. the fativum, or co¬
riander, is a native of Britain. The feeds are ufed
as a ftomachic.
CORIARIA, MYRTL»E-suMACH,inbotany, a genus of
the dicecia decandria clafsr The calix of both male
and female confirts of five leaves, and the corolla of
each has five petals. The antherae are divided into
two parts : The female has five ftyli, and five feeds.
The fpeQes are two, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
CORINDUM, in botany. See Cardiospermum.
CORINTH, a city of European Turky, fituated near
* the ifthmus into the Morea, about fifty miles weft of
Athens, in 230 E. long.-and 370 30' N. lat.
Corinthian order, in archue&ure. See Vol. I.
P 352-
CORIS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria monogy-
nia clals. The corolla has but one irregular leaf;
the calix is prickly, and the capfule has five valves.
There is but one fpecies, a-native of Montpelier.
CORISPERMUM, in botany, a genus of the monan-
dria digynia clafs of plants, whofe corolla confifts of
Vol. II. No. 41. 3
two comprefled, crooked, pointed petals, equal in fize,
and placed oppofite one another: its fruit is a rpundilh
capfule, comprefled, bilocular, an^ having a furrowed
edge; the feeds are of an oblong figure, and ftand
Angle. There are two fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain.
CORK, or Cork-tree, in botany. SeeQuERCus.
Cork, or Corking of a faddle, the pieces to which
the bolfters are made faft ; fo called as having for¬
merly been made of cork.
Cork, in geography, the capital of a county of the fame
name, in Ireland, and province of Munfter, fituated
on the river Lee, about fifty miles fouth of Limerick :
W. long. 8° 2y/, andN. lat. 51“* 40'.
CORMANDEL-COAST, comprehends the eaftern
coaft of the hither India, bounded by Golconda on the
north, the bay of Bengal on the eaft, Madura on the
fouth, and Bifnagar on the weft : it lies between io°
and 200 N. lat.
CORMORANT,* in ornithology. See Tantalus.
CORN, in country affairs, the grain or feeds of plants,
feparated fn#n the fpica, or ear, and ufed for making
bread.
There are feveral fpecies of corn, fuch as wheat,
rye and barley, millet and rice, oats, maize and len¬
tils, peafe, and a number of other kinds, each of
which has its ufefulnefs and propriety. Corn is very
different from fruits, with refpeft to the manner of its
prefervation; and is capable of being preferved in pu¬
blic granaries, for prefling occafions, and of being kept
for feveral centuries.
The firft method is to let it remain in the fpike; the
only expedient for conveying it to the iflands and pro¬
vinces of America. The inhabitants of thofe countries
fave it in the ear, and raife it to maturity by that pre¬
caution: but this method of preferving it, is attended
with feveral inconveniencies among us ; corn is apt to
rot or fprout, if any the leaft moifture is in the heap;
the rats likewife infeft it, and our want of ftraw alfo
obliges us to feparate the grain from the ear. The
fecond is to turn and winnow it frequently ; or to pour it
through a trough or mill-hopper, from one floor to ano¬
ther ; being thus moved and aired every fifteen day;,
for the firft fix months, it will require lefs labour for
the future, if lodged in a dry place : but if, through
negletft, mites ftiould be allowed to Aide into the
heap, they will foon reduce the corn to a heap
of dull: this muft be avoided by moving the corn a-
new, and rubbing the places adjacent with oils and
herbs, whofe ftrong odour may chace them away; for
which garlic and dwarf-elder are very effectual: they
may likewife be expofed to the open fun, which im¬
mediately kills them, When the corn has been pre¬
ferved from all impurities for the fpace of two years,
and has exhaled all its fires, it may be kept for fifty
or even a hundred years, by lodging it in pits, covered
with ftrong planks, clofely joined together: but the
fafer way is to cover the heap with quick-lime, which
ftiould be diffolved by fprinkling it over with a imall
quantity of water; this caufes the grains to (hoot to
4 B thp
COR ( 280 ) COR
the depth of two or three fingers, aud inclofes them
with an incruftation, through which neither air nor
infe&s can penetrate.
Corn not exceeding the under mentioned prices
have the following bounties per quarter, viz.
Price per qr.;l Bounty per qr.
1. s. I' s; d.
Wheat 2 8 5 0
Rye . 1 12 I ' • 3 6
Barley and Malt r 4 j .26
Oat-meal o 15 j| 26
In France corn of the growth of the kingdom is rec¬
koned a contraband commodity.
Corn-mill, a water-engine for grinding of corn. See
Mechanics.
Corn, in medicine and furgery, a hard tubercle like
a flat wart, gfowing in feveral parts of the feet,
efpecially upon the joints of the toes. See Medi¬
cine.
CORNACHINE-/>4H!<aVr, the fame with what is fome-
times called the earl of Warwick’s powder, and pulvis
de tribus. It is prepared thus : Take four ounces of
fcammony; calcined hartfhorn prepared, three ounces;
grind them together into a powder. It is given as a
purge.
CORNAGE, an ancient tenure, the fervice whereof was
to blow a horn when any invafion of the Scots was
perceived.
This tenure was very frequent in the northern coun¬
ties near the Pifls wall.
CORNEA tunica, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 289.
CORNEL-/m’, in botany. SeeCoaNus.
CORNELIAN. See Carnelian.
CORNER, in a general fenfe, the fame with angle.
See Angle.
CORNET, in the military art of the ancients, an in-
ftrument much in the nature of a trumpet, which when
it only founded, the enfigns were to march alone,
without the foldiers ; whereas, when the trumpet on¬
ly founded, the foldiers were to move without the
enfigns. The cornets and buccirase founded the charge
and retreat, and the comets and trumpets founded du¬
ring'-the courfe of the battle.
C(5rnet, in the military art of the_ moderns, the third
commiffidn-officer in a troop of horfe or dragoons.
This is a very honourable poll: he commands in
the lieutenant’s abfence ; his principal duty being'to
carry the ftandard, near the middle of the firft rank of
the fquadron.
CORNERS, the name by which Linnseus calls a kind
of tin ore, found in black columns, with irregular fides,
and terminating in prifms.
CORNICHE, Cornish, or Cornice, in architeaure.
See Architecture.
Corniche is alfo ufed, in general, for all little projec-
tures in mafonry or joinery, even where there ate no
columns, as the corniche of a chimney, beaufet, dr.
CoRN.icHE-r/«£, of a piece of ordnance, is that next
from the muzzle-ring, backward.
CORNICULARIUS, in Roman antiquity, an officer of
the army, appointed to affifl: the military tribune in
quality of lieutenant.
CORNIX, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of cofvus. See Corvus.
CORNU. See Horn.
Q.o^\s ammanis, in natural hiftory, foffile fhells, called
alfo ferpent-flones, or fnake-Itones.
They are found of all fizes, from the breadth of a
fixpence, to more than two feet in diameter ; fome
of them rounded; others greatly comprefled, and
lodged in different flrata of ftones and clays ; fome a-
gain are fmooth, and others ridged in different man¬
ners, their Itrise and ridges being either ftraight, irre
gularly crooked, or undulated.
Cornu ccrvi. See Hartshorn.
CORNUCOPIA, or Horn of plenty, among paint¬
ers, 6v. is reprefented under the figure of a large horn,
out of which iffue fruits, flowers, '<bc. Upon medals
the cornucopia is given to all deities, genii, and he¬
roes, to mark the felicity and abundance of all the
wealth procured by the goodnefs of the former, or the
care and valour of the latter.
Cornucopia, in botany, a genus of the triandria di-
gynia ciafs. The involucrum confifts of one tunnel-
ffiaped crenated leaf, containing many flowers ; and
tha calices are double-valved; There is but one fpe¬
cies, viz. the cucullatum, a native of Smyrna.
CORNUS, or Cornel-tree, in botany," a genus of
the tetrandria monogynia ciafs. The involucrum con-
fifts moftly of four leaves; the petals are four, and a-
bove the fruit, which is a bilocular gluma. There
are five fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
CORNUTIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermia ciafs. The calix has five teeth ; the fta-
mina are longer than the corolla ; the ftylus is very
long ; and the berry contains but one feed.
CORNWAL, the'moft wefterly county of England,
which gives the title of duke to the prince of Wales.
It fends forty-four members to parliament.
COROLLA, among botanifts, the moft confpicuous part
of a flower, furrounding the organs of generation, and
compdfed of one or more flower-leaves, moft com¬
monly called petals, to diftinguifh them from the
leaves of the plant; according as there is one, two, or
three of theft petals, the corolla is faid to be mono-
petalous, drpetalous, tripetalous, &c.
COROLLARY is a confequence draWn from fomething
already advanced or demonftrated.
COROLLULA, a term1 ufed by botanifts, to exprefs
the little partial flowers, which together make up the
compound ones.
CORONA,'among anatomifts, denotes that edge of the
glans penis where the preputium begins. See Ana¬
tomy.
Corona, among botanifts. See Pappus.
Corona borealis, the Northern cxcfwN, in a-
ftronomy. See Vol. I. p. 486.
Corona itnpcrialis, in zoology, a fynonime of a fpe¬
cies of conus. See Conus.
Corona mperialis, in botany, SeeFiuTiLLARiA.
Corona
COR (2
Corona/#//'/, in botany. See Helianthus.
Coron/e jus. See Jus.
CORONAL, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 152.
CORONx\LE os, in anatomy, the fame with the os
frontis. See Vol. I. p. 152.
CORONARIA, in botany. See Agrostema.
CORONARY veffels, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
Part III. and IV.
CORONEOLA, in botany. See Lysimachia.
CORONER, an ancient officer of this kingdom, fo call¬
ed becaufe he is wholly employed for the king and
crown.
The office of coroners efpecially concerns the pleas
of the crown ; and they are confervators of the peace
in the county where ele<5led, being ufually two for
each county. Their authority is judicial and minif-
terial: judicial, wffiere a perfon comek to . a violent
death; to take and enter appeals of murder, pronounce
judgment on outlawries, &c. and to inquire into the'
lands, goods, and efcape of murders, treafure-trove,
wreck of. the fea, deodands, &c. The miniderial
power is when coroners execute the king’s writs, on
exception taken to the iheriff, as being party in a fuit,
of kin to either of the parties, or on the default of the
fheriff, <6‘c. The authority of the coroner does not
terminate on the demife of the king, as that of judges,
&c. does, who act by the king’s commiffion. On
default of ffieriffis,. coroners are to impannel juries, and
to return ilfues on juries not appearing, &c.
CORONET. See Crown.
Coronet, or Cronet of a horfe,, the lowed part of
the poftern, which runs round the coffin, and is di-
Itinguifhed by the hair joining and covering the upper
part of the hoof.
CORONILLA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia
decandria clafs. The calix is bilabiated, and the ve-
xillum is hardly longer than the alse. There are 11
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
CORONOPUS, in botany. . See Plantag.o.
CORPORA cavernofa, in anatomy. See Vol. I.
P- 272- . *9t
Corpora olivaria, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 287.
Corpora pyramidalia, in anatomy. See Vol. I.
p. 287.
Corpora Jlriata. in anatomy. See Vol. I. p.286.
CORPORAL, an inferior ofdcer under a ferjeant, in a
company of foot, who ha^ charge over one of the di-
vifions, places and relieves centinels, and keeps good
order in the corps de garde : he alfo receives the wo. d
from the inferior rounds, whicli paffies by; his corps de
garde. 1 his officer carries a fufee, and is commonly
an old .foldier : there are generally three corporals in
each company.
Corporal of a (hip, an officer who has the charge of
fetting and relieving the watches- and Gentries, and
who 'ees that the foldie.rs and Tailors keep-their arms
neat and clean : he teaches them how to ufe their
arms, and has a mate under him.
CORPORATION, a body politic, or incorporate, fo
called, btcaufe the perfons or. members are joined in¬
to one body, and are qualified to take and grant,
81 ) COR
Corporations are either fpiritual or temporal : fpi-
ritual, as biffiops, deans, archdeacons, parfons, vi¬
cars, <&c. Temporal, as mayor, commonalty, bailiff,
burgeffes, tec. And fome corporations are of a mixed
nature, compofed of fpiritual and temporal perfons,
fuch as heads of colleges and hofpitals, tec. All cor¬
porations are faid to be ecclefiaftical or lay : ecclefi-
aftical are either regular, as abbeys, priories, chapters,
tec. or fecular, as bifhoprics, deanries, archdeacon¬
ries, tec. lay, as thofe of cities, towns, companies,
or communities of commerce, ifS.-
CORPOREAL, thofe qualities which denominate a bo¬
dy. See Quality, Body, and Incorporeal.
CORPULENCY, in medicine, the Hate of a perfon too
much loaded with flefli or fat.
CORPUS callofium, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 285.
Corpus cavernofum, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 272.
Corpus re//Vi/An?. ' See Reticulare.
Corpus ChriJH, a feftival of the church, kept on the
next Thurfday after Trinity-funday, inftituted in ho¬
nour of the euchariff; to which alfo one of the colleges
in Oxford is dedicated.
CORPUSCLE, in phyfics, a minute particle, or phy-
fical atom, being fuch as a natural body is made lip of..
By this word is not meant the elementary particles,
nor the hypoftatical principles of chemifts j but fucli-
particles, whether of a fimple or compound nature,
w.hofe parts will not be diffolved nor diflipated by or¬
dinary degrees of heat.
CORPUSCULAR ph'tlofophy, that way of philofo-
phifing which endeavours to explain things, and to ac¬
count for the phenomena of nature by the motion! fi¬
gure, reft, pofition, tec. of the corpufcles, or the mi¬
nute particles of matter.
Mr Boyle funis up the chief principles of the cor-
pufcular hypothefis, which now flouriffies under the me¬
chanical philofophy, in thefe particulars :
,1. They ibppofe that there is but one cathplic or
univerfal matter, which is an extended, impenetrable,
and divifible fubftance, common to all bodies, and ca¬
pable of all forms. 2. That this matter, in order to
form the vaft variety of natural bodies, muft have mo¬
tion in fome or all its affignable parts ; and that 'this
motion was given to matter by Gqd the Creator of all
things, and has all manner of direftions and tehdenhies.
3. Matter muft alfo be aftually divided into parts, and
each of thefe primitive particles, fragments, or atoms
of matter, muft have its proper magnitude or fize, as-
alfo its peculiar figure or fliape. 4. They fuppofe al¬
fo, that thefe differently fized and ffiaped particles may
have as different orders and pofitions, whereof great:
variety may arife in the compofition of bodies.
CORRECTION, in printing, the pointing out or dif-
covering the faults in a printed fheet, in order to be
amended by the compofitor before it be printed off.
See Printing'.
CORRECTOR, in general, denotes fomething that
mends the faults or bad qualities of others.
Corrector of the ftaple, a clerk belonging to the fta-
ple, whofe bufinefs is to write down and record the
bargains that merchants make there.
Corrector.
COR ( 2I
Co rrector, in medicine and pharmacy, an ingredient
in a compofition, which guards againft or abates the
force of another.
CORRELATIVE, fomething oppofed to another in a
certain relation. Thus, father and fon are correla¬
tives. Light and darknefs, motion and reft, are cor¬
relative and oppofite terms.
CORRIGIOLA, in botany. See Illecebrum.
CORROBORANTS, or Corroborative medicines.
See Strengtheners.
CORROSION, in a general fenfe, the addon of gnaw¬
ing away, by degrees, the continuity of the parts of
bodies.
Corrosion, in chemiftry, an adlion of bodies,' by
means of proper menftruums, that produces new com¬
binations, and a change of their form, without con¬
verting them to fluidity. See Chemistry.
CORRUGATOR, in anatomy. See Vol I. p. 291.
CORROSIVES, in furgery, are medicines which cor¬
rode whatever part of the body they are applied to:
fuch are burnt* alum, white precipitate of mercury,
white vitriol, red precipitate of mercury, butter of
antimony, lapis infernalis, <bc.
CORRUPTION, the deftruddon, extindlion, or, at
leaft, ceflation for a time, of the proper mode of ex-
iftence of any natural body. See Putrefaction.
Corruption cf blood, inlaw, an infedlion accruing to
a man’s ftate, attainted of felony and treafon, and to
his iflue ; for as he lofes all to the prince, <bc. his
iffue cannot be heirs to him, or to any bther anceftor
by him : and if he were noble, his heirs are rendered
ignoble.
CORSA, in architedture. See Plat-^w*/.
CORSAIR, a pirate, or perfon who fcours the fea for
plunder, with an armed veflel, without commiflion
from any prince or power. A corfair differs from a
privateer, in that the latter adls under a commiffion,
and only attacks the veffels of thofe at war with the
ftate whence he had his commiffion.
CORSELET, a little cuirafs; or, according to others,
an armour or coat made to cover the whole body,
anciently worn by the pike-men, ufually placed in the
front and flanks of the battle, for the better refilling
the enemy’s affaults, and guarding the foldiers placed
behind them.
CORSICA, an ifland in the Mediterranean, between
8° and io° E. long, and between 410 and 430 N.
lat. about one hundred miles fouth of Genoa, and fub-
je£l to that republic; though the natives for many
years difputed their right. This ifland is now in the
hands of the French, after a glorious ftruggle for li¬
berty under general Paoli.
CORTEX, or Cortex Peruvianus. See Cin¬
chona.
Cortex cerebri. See Vol. p. 285.
CORTONA, a city of Tufcany, in Italy, about thirty-
five miles fouth-eaft of Sienna : E. long. 136, and
N. lat. 430 15'. /
'CORTUSA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo-
nogynia dafs. The cbrolla is rotated, with an open
2 ) COR
limbus; -and the capfule has two valves. There are
two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain. ’
CORUNNA, or Groyne, a port-town of Gallicia in
Spain, fituated on a fine bay of the Atlantic ocean, a-
bout thirty-two miles, north of Compoftella: W. long.
90, and N. lat. 430.
COR-US, in Jewifli antiquity. See Homer.
Corus, in our old writers, denotes eight buftxels, or a
quarter.
Corus is alfo a wind, fo called by the Jews, rifing in
• the fummer in the weft ; and is that at prefent called
„ the north eaft-wind.
CORUSCATION, a glittering, or gleam of light iffu-
ing from any thing "it is chiefly ufed for a flalh of ‘
lightening darting from the clouds in time of thunder.
CORVUS, the Raven, or CRow-kind, in ornithology,
a genus of birds, of the order of picss, the diftin-
guiftiifig charadteriftics of which are thefe : The beak
is convex and culrrated; the noftrils are covered with
briftly feathers; the tongue is forked and cartilaginous;
and the feet are of the walking kind. The fpecies are
nineteen, viz. 1. The hottentottus, is of a greenilh
black colour, with long myftaches, and an equal tail.
It is found at the Cape of Good Hope. 2. The co¬
rax, or raven of Englifti authors, is black, with a
bl/ieilh back, and a roundifli tail. It is a native of
Europe, and feeds upon carrion: it is much’given to
the'ft, and may be taught to utter articulate fotinds.
3. The corone, or carrion-crow, is of a black blueifli
colour, with the prime wing-feathers ftiarp, and a
round tail: it lives upon carrion and fruits, and is a
native of Europe. 4. The frugilegus, or rook, is
black, with an alh-coloured forehead, atid a roundifli
tail. The rooks affemble in flocks, and infeft the
corn-fields : many of them fleep together in the fame
tree, by which means they are eafily taken, j. The
cornix, or royfton-crow, is afti-coloured, with the
throat, wings, and tail black. It feeds upon worms,
fnails, frogs, caterpillars, 6. The monedula,
or jack-daw, is of a dulky colour, with a hoary hind-
head ; and the wysgs, tail, and forehead black. It is
a native of Europe. They flock together in winter,
fleep, and build their nefts in old turrets and walls.
7. The glandularius, or jay, has blueifli wings, with
tranfverle black and white lines ; and the body is va¬
riegated with an iron-colour. It is a native of Europe,
and feeds upon nuts, corn, and fometimes fmall birds.
8. The criftatus, or blue-crefted jay, has the covert
feathers of the wings marked with tranfverfe black
lines, a blueifli body, and a black collar. It is a na¬
tive of North America. 9. The cayanus, is of a vio¬
let colour above, and white below, with a black front
and throat, and the point of the tail white: the fea¬
thers of the hind head are eredl and rigid. It is a
native of Cayenne. 10. The caryocatadles, is brown,
'and fpotted with white ; the wings and tail are black;
the prime tail-feathers are white at the points, but the
intermediate ones have a worn appearance. It is a na¬
tive of Europ*e, and feeds upon nuts. it. The bali-
caffius is of a greenifti black colour, with a forked tail.
It
COR ( 2
It is found on the Philippine ifles. 12. . The afer, is
of a violet blackifh colour, and has a wedge-like tail.
It is a nat *e of Africa. 13. The pica, or magpye,
is variegated with black and white, and its tail is Iha-
ped like a wedge. They build their nefts in trees in
a very artificial manner; the outfide confilts of thorns
both above and below, leaving only a hole for their
entrance. They lay five or fix eggs, which are pale
and fpotted: they feed upon fmall birds, and
carefully lay up fuperfluous food till they become hungry
again. They may be learned to talk pretty diftin&ly.
14.^ The fenegalenfis, is of a blackifh violet colour,
with black legs, and a wedge-fhaped tail. It is a na¬
tive of Senegal. 15. The brachyurus, is green be¬
low, with yellow lines on the head, and white fpots on
the wings. It is found in the Molucca ifles. 16. The
canadenfis, is of a dufky colour, with a yellow fore
head, and white below : it has a roundiflr tail, and is
a native of Canada. 17. The pyrrhocorax, is black-
iftr, with a yellow, beak, and black legs. 18. The
graculus, is of a blackifli violet colour, with a yellow
back and legs 19. Theeremita, is greenifh, with a
yellowifli head, a fmall creft on the back part of the
head, and a red beak and legs. The three lall are
natives of Switzerland.
Corvus, the Raven, in aftronomy. See Vol. I. p.
487-
Corvus, in Roman antiquity, a military engine, or ra¬
ther gallery, moveable at pleafure by means of pullies,
chiefly ufed in boarding the enemy’s ftiips, to cover
the men.
CORYBANTES, in antiquity, priefts of the goddefs
Cybele, who, infpired with a facred fury, danced up
and down, tolling their heads, and beating on cymbals
or brazen drums. They inhabited mount Ida, in the
ifland of Crete, where they nourifhed the infant Ju¬
piter, keeping a continual rattling with their cymbals,
that his father Saturn, who had refolved to devour
all his male offspring, might not hear the child’s cries.
CORYB ANTICA, in Grecian antiquity, a feffival kept
in honour of the Corybantes.
CORYCOMACHIA, among the ancients, was a fort
of exercife in which they pulhed forwards a ball, fu-
fpended from the ceiling, aijd at its return either
caught it with their hands, orfuffered it to meet their
body. Ofibafius informs us it was recommended for
extenuating too grofs bodies.
CORYDALIS, in botany. See Fumaria.
CORYLUS, the Hazle, in botany, a genus of the
monoecia polyandria clafs. The calix of the male
confifts of one trifid leaf, and contains but one flower;
h has no corolla, but eight (lamina : the calix of the
female confifts of two lacerated leaves ; it has no co¬
rolla ; the ftyli are two; and the nut is oval. There
are two fpecies, viz. the avellana, a native of Bri¬
tain ; and the colurna, a native of Bizantium.
CORYMBIUM, in botany, a genus of plants belonging
to the fyngenefia monogynia clafs. The calix confifts
of two leaves lhaped like a prifm, and containing one
.flower; the corolla has but one regular petal; and
Vox.. II. No. 42. 3
83 ) G O S
the fruit contains one downy feed. There is but one
fpecies, a native of Africa.
CORYMBUS, in botany. See Vol. I. p. 637.
CORYPHA, in botany, a genus belonging to the order
of palmse flabellifolise. The corolla confifts of three-
petals; it has fix ftamina, and one pifiillum; and the
fruit is a drupa containing one feed. There is but one
fpecies, a native of India.
CORYPHiENA, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to
the order of thoracici. The head is.declined and trun¬
cated ; the branchioftege membrane has fix rays; and
the back fin runs the whole length of the back. There
are twelve fpecies, moft of them found in foreign feas.
CORYZA, in medicine, a catarrh of the nofe. See
Catarrh.
CORZOLA, orCuRscouA, an ifland in the gulf of
Venice, divided from Ragufa in Dalmatia, by a nar¬
row ftrait: E. long. 180, and N. lat. 420 35'.
COS, the Whet-stone, in natural hiftory, a genus
of vitrefcent (tones, confiding of fragments of an inde¬
terminate figure, fub opaque, and granulated.
Of this genus there are feveral fpecies, feme confid¬
ing of rougher, and others of fmoother, or even of al¬
together impalpable particles ; and ufed not only for
whet-ftones, but alfo for mill-ftpnes, and other the
like purpofes.
CO-SEC ANT, in geometry, the fecant of an arch
which is the complement of another to 90° See Geo¬
metry.
COSENZA, the capital of the hither Calabria, in the
kingdom of Naples : E. long. 160 35/, N. lat. 390 15'.
It is an archbifhop’s fee.
CO-SINE, in trigonometry, the fine of an arch, which
is the complement of another to 90°. See Geome¬
try.
COSMETIC, ip phyfic, any medicine or preparation
which renders the (kin foft and white, or helps to
beautify and improve the complexion; as lip-falves,
cold creams, cerufs, £}c.
COSMICAL, a term in aftronomy, exprelling one of
the poetical rifings of a ftar: thus a ftar is faid to rile
cofmically, when it rifes with the fun, or with that
point of the ecliptic in which the fun is at that time :
and the cofmical fetting is when a ftar fets in the weft
at the fame time that the fun rifes in the eaft.
COSMOGRAPHY, a defeription of the feveral parts
of the vifible world ; or thq. art of delineating the fe¬
veral bodies according to their magnitudes, motions,
relations, &c.
Cofmography confifts of two parts, aftronomy and
geography. See Astronomy, and Geography.
COSSACKS, people inhabiting the banks of the rivers
Neiper and Don, near the Black-fea and frontiers of
Xurky. Their country is commonly, called the U-
kraine, and is moftly fubjedl to Ruflia.
COSSET, among farmers, a colt, calf, lamb, &c.
brought up by hand, without the dam.
COSTAL, an appellation given by anatomifts to feveral
parts belonging to the (Ides : thus we meet with coftal
mufejes, vertebras, fyc.
4 C
COSTA-
C O T
COSTA RICA, a province of Mexico, bounded by the
North fea on the north-eaft, and by the Pacific ocean
on the fouth-wert. Its chief town is New-Carthage.
COSTARUM deprejfores, in anatomy. See Vol. I.
p. 215.
COSTIVENESS, in medicine, a preternatural deten¬
tion of the faeces, with an unufual drynefs and hard
nefs thereof, and thence a fuppreffion-of their evacu¬
ation. See Medicine.
COSTMARY, the Englifh name of a fpecies of tanzy.
See Tanacetum.
COSTRANGULA, in botany. See Scrophularia.
COSTUME, a term among painters : thus a painter
muft obferve the coftume ; that is, he mull make eve¬
ry perfon and thing fuftain its proper charadter, and
rot only obferve the ftory, but the circumftances, the
fcene of adtion, the country or place, and make the
habits, arms, manners, proportions, and the like, to
correfpond.
COSTUS, in botany, a genus of the monandria mono-
gynia clafs. The interior part of the corolla is infla¬
ted and ringent ; the inferior lip being trifid. There
is but one fpecies, viz. the arabicus, a native of both
the Indies. The root of the coflus is faid to atte¬
nuate acid humours, and to promote expedtoration,
perfpiration, and urine; but is now rarely to be met
with in the (hops.
CO-TANGENT, the tangent of an arch, which is the
complement of another to 90°. See Geometry.
COTHURNIX, in ornithology. SeeTsTRAO.
COTICE, or Cotise, in heraldry, is the fourth part '
of the bend; and with us feldom if ever borne but in
couples, with a bend between them. See Bend.
The bend thus bordered, is faid to be cotifed; as,
he bears fable, on a bend cotifed argent, three cin-
queioils. See Plate LXV. fig. 11.
COTINUS, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
of rhus. See Rhus.
COTONASTER, in botany. See Cratjegus.
COTRONA, a town of the further Calabria, in the
kingdom of Naples, fituated on the Mediterranean, a-
bout fifteen miles fouth-eaft of St Severino : E. long.
170 40', and N. lat. 58° jo/. It is the fee of a bi-
fliop.
COTTON, in commerce, a foft downy fubftance found
on the bombax, or'cotton tree. See Bombax.
Cotton is feparated from the feeds of the plant by a
mill, and then fpun and prepared for all forts of fine
works, as dockings, waiftcoats, quilts, tapeftry; cur¬
tains, ere. With it they likewife make muflin, and
for^etimes it is mixed with wool, fometimes with filk,
and even with gold itfelf.
The fined fort comes ffom Bengal and the coad of
Coromand'el.
Cotton makes a very confiderable article in com¬
merce, and is didinguilhed into cotton-wool, and cot¬
ton thread, The fird is brought modly from'Cyprus,
St John d’Acre, and Smyrna: the*mod edeemed is
white, long, and foft. Thofe who buy it in bales
fiiould fee that it has not been wet, moidure being ve¬
ry prejudicial to it. The price of the fined is ufually
C O T
from fix to feven piaders the quintal of forty-four
ocos.
Of cotton thread, that of Damas, -called cotton
d’ounce, and that of Jerufalem, called bazas, are the
mod edeemed; as alfo that of the Antilles idands.
It is to be chofen white, fine, very dry, and evenly
fpun. The'other cotton-threads are the half bazas,
the rames, the beledin, and gondezel; the payas and
montafiri. the geneguins, the baquins, the. jodeladars,
of which there are two forts. Thofe of India,, known
by the name of Tutucorin, Java, Bengal, and Surat,
are of four or five forts, didinguilhed' by the letters
A, B, C, tic. They are fold in bags, with a de¬
duction of one pound and a half on each of thofe of Tu¬
tucorin, which are the deared, and two pounds on
each bag of the other forts. For thofe of Fielebas,
Smyrna, Aleppo, and Jerufalem, the deduction at
Amderdam is eight in the hundred for the tare, and
two in the hundred for weight, and on the value one
per cent, for prompt payment.
Cotton of Siam, is a kind of fiiky cotton in the An¬
tilles, fo called becaufe the grain was brought from
Siam. It is of an extraordinary finenefs, even furpaf-
fing filk in foftnefs. They make hofe of it there pre¬
ferable to filk ones; for their ludre and beauty. They
fell from ten to twelve and fifteen crowns a pair, but
there are very few made, uniefs for curiofity.
The manner of packing Cotton, as praftifed in the An¬
tilles. The bags ar.e made of coarfe cloth, of which
they take three ells and a half each : the breadth is
one ell three inches. When the bag has been well
foaked in water, they hang it up, extending the mouth
of it to crofs pieces of timber nailed to pods fixed in
the ground feven or eight feet high. He who packs
it goes into the bag, which is fix feet nine inches
deep, or thereabouts, and prefles down the cotton,
which another hands him, with hands and feet;, ob-
ferving to tread it equally every where, and putting, in
but little at a time. The bed time of packing is in
rainy moid weather, provided the cotton be under co¬
ver. The bag fhould contain from. 300 to 320 pounds.
The tare abated in the Antilles is three in the hundred.
Cotton being a production applicable to a great variety
of manufactures, it cannot be too much cultivated in
our own plantations that will admit of it.
Cotton-wool, not of the Britilh plantations, pays
on importation -j-^Jd. the pound, and draws back on
exportation ^2ld. Cotton yarn the pound, not of the
Ead Indies, pays 2-—d. and draws back 2
100 100
Cotton- yarn the pound of the Ead Indies pays
4-r§|d. and draws back 4-r^Jd'.
Cotton. See Santolina.
Phitofophic Cotton, a name given to the flowers of
zinc, on account of their white colour, and refem-
blance to cotton.
CoTTON-’WEED. See Gn A FH A L IU M .
COTTUS, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to the
order of thoracici. The head is broader than the
body, and the gill-membrane has fix rays. There are
fix
( 284 )
C O V
fix fpecies, viz. the cataphradus, qaadricornis, grun-
niens^ fcaber, fcorpius, and gobio..
COTULA, in.botany, a genus of the fyngenefia poly-
gamia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle is naked; the
pappus is marginated; and the corollulas of the dilk
are divided into four fegments ; the fpecies are fix,
none of thena natives of Britain.
Cotula, or CoxYtA, in antiquity, a liquid meafure a-
mong the Greeks, equal to the hemina of the Romans,
containing half afextafy, or fouracetabula: hence it ap¬
pears that it contained ten ounces of wine, and nine of
oil.
COTURNIX, in ornithology. See Tetrao.
COTYLEDON, in botany, a genus of the decandria
pentagynia clafs. The calix is divided into five feg¬
ments ; the corolla confifts of one petal; there are
five nectariferous fcales at the bafe of the germen;
and it has five capfules. Th<^/pecies are eight, only
one of which is a nativeof Britain,, viz. the^umbili-
cusH or navel-wort.
COTYLEDONES, in anatomy, are certain glandular
. bodies, adhering to the chorion of fome animals.
COUGH, in medicine. See Medicine.
Cough, in painting, a term ufed for each lay or im-
prefiion of colour, either in oil or water, wherewith
tire painter covers his canvas, wall, wainfcot, or o-
ther matter to be painted.
Cough-grass, in botany. SeeTRiricuM.
COUCHANT, in heraldry, is underltood of a lion, or
other bead, when lying down, but with his head rai-
fed, which diftinguifties the pollute of couchant from
dormant, wherein he is fuppofed quite llretched out
and afleep. See Plate LXV. fig. 9.
COUCHE', in heraldry, denotes any thing lying along :
thus, chevron couche, is a chevron lying Tideways,
with the two ends on each fide of the Ihield, which
flaould'properly reft on the bafe.
Couching of a cataratt, in furgery. See Surgery.
COVENANT, a cdntradt or agreement, made, between
two or more^perfons, to perform fomething.
COVENTRY, a city and bilhop’s fee in Warwick (hire,
fituated 80 miles north weft of London, and ro miles
north of Warwick: W. long, i0^', and'N. lat. 520
2J/-
Coventry-bells, in botany. See Campanula.
COVERDEN, a town of the united provinces, (ituated
in that of Overyffel, near the confines of Weftphalia:
E. long. 6° 45', and N. lat. 520 jc/.
CO-VERSED sine., in geometry, the remaining part
of the diameter of a circle, after the verfed fine is ta¬
ken from it. See Geometry.
Covert way, or Corridor, in fortification, a fpace
of ground, level with the field on the edge of the
ditch, three or four fathoms broad, ranging quite
round the half moons, and other works toward the
the country. It has a parapet railed on a level, to¬
gether with its banquets and glacis. See Fortifi¬
cation.
COVERTURE, in law, is applied to the Hate and con- .
dition of a married woman, who is under the power
of her hulband, and therefore called fevnnt convert..
c o u
COVINGj in building, is when houfes are built pro-
jedting Over the ground plot, and the turned projefture
arched with timber, lathed and plaiftered.
COULTER, in hulbandry, an iron-inftrument, fixed in
the beam of a plough, and ferving to cut the edge of
each furrow. See Agriculture.
COUNCIL, or Counsel, in a general fenfe, an affem-
bly of divers confiderable perfons to concert meafures
relating to the ftate,
Aulic Council. See Aulic.
Cabinet Council. See Privy-council.
Common Council, in the city of London, is a court
wherein are made all bye-laws which bind the citizens.
It confifts, like the parliament, of two houfes; an up¬
per, compofed of the lord mayor and aldermen; and a
lower, of a number of common-council men, chofen by
the feveral wards, as reprefentatives of the body of
the citizens. ■*
Privy Council, the primutn mobile of the civil govern¬
ment of Great Britain, bearing part of that great
weight in the government which otherwife would be
too heavy upon the king.
It is compofed of eminent perlbns, the number of
whom is at the fovereign’s pleafure, who are bound by
oath to advifetheking to;he beft of their judgment, with
all the fidelity and fecrecy that becomes their ftation.
The king may declare to,, or conceal from, his privy-
council whatever he thinks fit; and has a feledt council
out of their number, commonly called the cabinet coun¬
cil, with whom his majefty determines fuch matters as
are moft important, and requires the utmoft fecrecy.
Privy-counfellors, though but gentlemen, have pre¬
cedence of all the knights and younger fons of barons
and vifeounts, and are ftyled right honourable.
Council"^ war, an aflembly of the principal o/Ticers
of an army or fleet, occafionally called by the general
or admiral to concert meafures for their condudt with,
regard to fieges, retreats, engagements, <bc.
Council, in church hiftory, an aflembly of prelates
and dodtors, met for the regulating matters relating to,
the dodtrine or difeipiine of the church.
National Council, is an aflembly of prelates of a na¬
tion under their primate or patriarch.
Oecumenical or general Council, is an aflembly which
reprefents the whole body of the univerfal church.
The Romanifts reckon eighteeen.of them; Bullinger,
in his treatife de Conciliis, fix; Dr Prideaux, feven ;
and bifliop Beveridge has increafed the number to
eight, which, he fays, are all the general councils
which have ever been held fince the time of the firft
Chriftian emperor. They are as follows: i.The
council of Nice, held in the reign of Conftantine the
Great, on account of the herefy of Arius. 2. The
council of Conftantinople, called under the reign and
by the command of Tbeodofius the Great, for much,
the fame,end that the former.council was Turnrrio,ued.
3. T:;e council of Ephefus, convened by Theodofius.
the younger, at the fuit of Neftorius. 4. The coun-'
cil of Calcedon, held in the reign of Martianus, which,
approved of the Eutychian herefy. 5. The fecond
council of Conftamipople, aflembled by the emperor
Juftiniaa*
( *8J )
c o u
Judinian, condemned the three chapters taken out of
the book of Theodorus of Mopfueftia, having firft de¬
cided that it was lawful to anathematize the dead.
Some anthors tell us, that they likewife condemned"
the feveral errors of Origen about the Trinity, the
plurality of worlds, and pre-exiftence of fouls. 6. The
third council of Conflantinople, held by the'command
of Conftantinus Pogonatus the emperor, in which they
receiveduhe definitions of the five firft general councils,
and particularly that again!! Origen and Theodorus of
Mopfueftia. y. The fecond Nicene council. 8. The
fourth council of Conftantinople, aflembled when
Lewis II. was emperor of the weft. The regulations
which they made are contained in twenty-feven canons,
'the heads of which are fet down by M. du Pin, to
whom the reader is referred.
COUNSELLOR, in general, a perfon who advifes an¬
other : thus we fay, a counfellor at law, a privy coun-
fellor, &c.
Counsellor, at /aw, a perfon retained by a client to
pleadhis caufe in a public court of judicature.'
COUNT, a nobleman who poffefTes a domain eredted in¬
to a county. The dignity is a medium between that
of a duke and a baron.
Counts were originally lords of the court, or of the
emperor’s retinue, and had their name comites a co-
mitando.
Count-wheel, in the ftriking part of a Clock, awheel
which moves round once in twelve or twenty-foui-
hours. It is fometimes called the locking wheel.
-COUNTER, a term which enters into the compofition
of diverfe words of our language, and generally im¬
plies oppofition ; but wdien applied to deeds, means, an
exadlcopy kept of the contrary party, and fomejimes
figned by both parties.
Counter alley, in gardening. See Alley.
Counter approaches, in fortification, lines and
trenches made by the befieged in Order to attack the
works of the befiegers, or to hinder their approaches.
Counter barry, or Contre barre', in heraldry,
is the fame as our bendy finifter per bend counter-
changed. See Barry.
Counter battery, is a battery raifed to play upon
another to difmount the^tms.
Counter-changed, in heraldry, is when any field or
charge is divided or parted by any line or lines of par¬
tition, confifting all, interchangeably of the fame tinc¬
tures. See plate LXV. fig. 12.
Counter-charge, a reciprocal charge'or recrimina¬
tion brought againft an accufer.
Counter-chevroned, a chield chevrony, parted by
one or more partition lines.
Counter-componed, in heraldry, is when the fi-
* gtire is compounded of two panes, as in Plate LXV.
^    . ,
Counter-drawing, in painting, is the copying a de-
lign, or painting, by means of a fine linen-cloth, an
oiled paper, or other tranfparent matter, where the
, ftrokes appearing through are followed with a pencil,
with or without colour. Sometimes it is done on
glafs, and with frames or nets divided into fqua-res
G O U
with filk or with thread, and alfo by means of inftru-
ments invented for the purpofe, as the parallelo¬
gram.
Counter-ermine, in heraldry, is the contrary of er¬
mine, being a black field with white fpots. See
Plate LXV. fig. 14.
CouNTERFEiTS, in law, are perfons that obtain any *
money or goods by counterfeit letters or falfe to¬
kens, who being convidted before juftices of aflize or
of the peace, &c. are to fuffer fuch punilhment as
Ihall be thought fit to be infiidled under death, as
imprifonment, pillory,
Counter-faced, or Conter-face', in heraldry, is
the fame that we call barry per pale counterchanged;
but then the number of panes into which the field is
divided is always fpecified. See Barry.
Counter foil, or Counter-stock, in the exchequer,
that part of a tally whSch is kept by an officer of the
courts,
Counter-forts, fpurs or buttrefles ferving as props to
a wall fubjedt to bulge or be thrown down.
Counter-fugue, in mufic, is when the fugues go con¬
trary to one Another. See Fugue.
Counter guard, in fortification, is a work raifed be¬
fore the point of a baftion, confifting of two long faces
parallel to the faces of the baftion, making a faliiant
angle: they are fometimes of other fhap'es, or other-
wife fituated.
CoUNTER-LtGHT, or CoNTER-JOUR, alight Oppofite tO
any thing, which makes it appear to difadvantage. A
fingle counter-light is fulficient to take away all the
beauty of a fine painting.
Counter-march, in military affairs, a change of tfie
face or wings of a battalion, by which means thofe
that were in the front come to be in the rear.
It alfo fignifies returning, or marching back again.
Counter-mine, in war, a well and gallery drove and
funk till it meet the enemy’s mine, to prevent its ef-
fedt.
Counter-paled, contre pale, in heraldry, is when
the efcUtcheon is divided into twelve pales parted per
fefle, the two colours being counter-changed; fo that
the upper aje of one colour, and the lower of an¬
other.
Counter-part, in mufic, denotes one part to be ap¬
plied to another. Thus the bafs is faid to be a count¬
er-part to the treble.
Counter-passant, is when two lions are in a coat of
arms, and the one feems to go quite the contrary way
from the other.
Counter-poiSt, in mufic, the art of compofiqg har¬
mony, or of difpofing feveral parts in fuch a manner
as to make an agreeable whole or a concert.
Counter-pointed, contre pointe, in heraldry, is when
two chevrons in one efcutcheon meet in the points, the
one rifing as ufual from the bafe, and the other invert¬
ed falling from the chief; fo that they are counter to
one another in the points. They may alfo be counter-
pointed when they are founded upon the fides of the
fhield, and the points1 meet that way, called counter-,
pointed in fefle.
( 286 )
Counter-
Counter. -potent, contre-potence, in heraldry, is rec¬
koned a fur as well as vair and ermine, but compofed
of fuch pieces as repre ent the tops of crutches, called
in French pottnces, and in old Englilh patents.
Counter-proof, in rolling-prefs printings a print taken
off front another frelh printed; which by being paffed
through the prefs, gives the figure of the former, but
inverted. To counter-prove, is alfo to pafs a defign
in black lead,,or red chalk, through the prefs, after
having moi'lened with a fipgnge both that and the paper
on which the counter-proof is to be taken.
Counter-quartered, contre-ecartele, in heraldry,
denotes the elcutcheon, after being quartered, to have
each quarter again divided into two.
Counter-salient, is when two hearts are borne in a
coat leaping from each other diredtiy the contrary
way.
Counter scarp, in fortification, is properly the exte¬
rior talus or flop of the ditch*; but it is often taken for
the covered way and the glacis. In this fenfe we fay,
the enemy have lodged themfelves on the- counter-
fcarp.
Angie of the Counter-scarp, is that made by the two
udes of the counter-fcarp meeting before the middle
of the curtin.
Counter-signing, the figning the writing of a fupe-
riot in quality of fecretary. Thus charters are figned
by the king, and counter-figned by a fecretary of ftate
or lord chancellor.
Counter-swallqw-tail, in fortification, an out¬
work in form of a Angle tenaille, wider at the gorge
than the head.
Counter tenor, called by the French hemt contre,
one of the middle parts of mufic oppofite to the tenor.
See Tenor.
Counter-time, in the menage, is the defence or refift-
ance of a horfe that interrupts his cadence, and the
meafure of his menage, occafioned either' by a bad
horfeman, or by the malice of the’horfe.
Counterts alfo the name of a counting-board in aflrop,
and of a piece of metal with a rtamp on it, ufed in
playing’kt cards.
Counter of A horfe, that part of a horfe’s forehand
which lies between the fhoulders and under the neck.
Counters in a Jhip, are two. i. The hollow arch¬
ing from the gallery to the lower part of the ftraight
piece of the ftern, is called the upper counter. 2. The
lower counter is between the.tranfom and the lower
part of the gallery.
Counter is alfo the name of two prifons in the city of
* London, viz. the Poultry and Woodftreet.
COUNTING. See AcccJunting.
COUNTY, in geography, originally fignified the terri¬
tory of a count or earl, but now it is ufed in the fame
fenfe with (hire. See Shire.
County court, a court of juftice, held every month
in each county, by the iheriflf or his deputy.
COUPED, in heraldry, is ufed to exprefs the head, or
any limb, of an animal, cut off from the trunk,
fmooth ; diftinguifliing it from that which is called e-
Vol. II. No. 42. 3
) c o u
raffed, that is, forcibly torn off, and therefore is rag¬
ged and uneven.
Couped is alfo ufed to fignify fuch croffes, bars, bends,
chevrons, &c. as do not touch the fides of the efciit-
cheons, but are, as it were, cut off from them.
COUPER, the name of two towns of Scotland, the one
fituated about twelve miles north-eaft of Perth, in
the (hire of Angus, W. long. 30, and N. lat j6° jo7;
and the other in the county of Fife, about ten miles
well of St Andrews : W. long. 20 46', and N. lat.
56° 20'.
COUPLE-.CLOSS, in heraldry, the fourth part df a
chevron, never borne but in pairs, except there be a
chevron between them, faith Guillim, though Bloom
gives art inftance to the contrary.
COUPLET, a divifion of a hymn, ode, fong, foe. where¬
in an equal number, or equal meafure of verfes is found
in each part; which divilions, in odes, are called
ftrophes.
COURBARIL, in botany. See Hymenjea.
COURIER, a meffenger fetu port, or exprefs, to carry
difpatches.
COURLAND, a ddtchy fituated between 210 and 26°
of E. long, and between ;6° 30', and 570 go' N.
lat. It is bounded by the river Dwina, which divides
it from Livonia, on the north ; by Lithuania, on the
eaft ; by Samogitia, on the fouth ; and by the Baltic
fea on the weft; being 130 miles long, and 30 broad.
COURSING, among fportfmen, is of three forts, viz.
at the deer, at the hare, and at the fox. Thefe
courfings are with greyhounds ; for the deer there are
two forts of courfings, the one with the paddock, the
other either in the forert or purlieu. See Pad-
dock, foe.
In courfing the hare, the beft v/ay is to find one fit¬
ting, and when flie is firft ftarted, to give her ground,
or law, which is generally twelve-fcore yards. In
courfing a fox, you are to Hand clofe, and on a clear
wind.
COURT, in a law fenfe, the place where judges diftri-
bute juftice, or exercife jurifdidion : alfo the affembly
of judges, jury, foe. in that place.
Courts are divided into fuperior and inferior, and in¬
to courts of record and bafe courts : again, courts are
either fuch as are held in the king’s name, as all the
ordinary courts ; or where the .precepts are iffued in
the name of the judge, as the admiral’s court.
The fuperior courts are thofe of the king’s-bench,
the common-pleas, the exchequer, and the court of
chancery. See King’s-Bench, Common-pleas,
Exchequer, and Chancer.y.
A court of record is that which has a power to hold
plea, according to the courfe .of the common law, of
real, perfonal, and mixt adtions ; where the debt or
damage is forty ftiillings, or above, as the court of
King’s-Bench, foe.
Court of admiralty. See Admiralty. *
Q,o\3v.t of arches. See ArChes.
Court-baron, a court that every lord of a manor has
within his own precintfs. This court muft be held
4 D by
C O U f 288 'i C R
.by prefcription, and is of two kinds, viz. by common
law, and by cuftom : the former is where the barons or
freeholders, being fuitors, are the judges ; the other
is that where the lord, ,or his iteward, is the judge.
Court of chivalry, or the marfhal's Court, that
whereof the judges are the lord high conftable, and the
earl marlhal of England.
This court is the fountain of martial law; and the
earl marfhal is not only one of the judges, but is to /ee
execution done.
Court of confcience, a court in the cities of London,
Weftminfter, and fome other places, that determines
matters in all cafes where the debt or damage is un¬
der forty Ihillings.
Court of delegates, a court where delegates are ap¬
pointed by the king’s commiflton, under the great feal,
upon an appeal to him from the fentence of an arch-
bifnop, fee. in ecclefialtical caufes ; or of the court
of admiralty, in any marine caufe.
Court of kufiings, a court of tecord held at Guildhall,
for the city of London, before th^. lord mayor and
aldermen, Iheriffs and recorder, where all pleas, real,
perfonal, and mixt, are determined; where all lands,
tenements, fee. within the faid city, or its bounds,
are pleadable in two huftings ; the one called the huft-
ings of plea of lands, and the other the huftings of
common pleas. The court of huftings is the higheft
court within the city, in which writs of exigent may
be taken out, and outlawries awarded, wherein judg¬
ment is given by the recorder.
There are alfo other courts called wardmotes, or
meeting of the wards ; and courts of holymote, or af-
femblies of the guilds and fraternities.
Court leet, a court ordained for the punilhment of
offences under high treafon againft the crown.
Court-martial, a court appointed.for the puniftiing
offences in officers, foldiers, and failors, the powers
of which are regulated by the mutiny-bill.
Court of requefls, was a court of equity, of the fame
nature with the chancery, but inferior to it.
COURTESY, or Curtesy of England, a certain te¬
nure whereby a man marrying an heirefs feized of lands
of fee Ample, or fee tail general, or feized as heir of
the tail fpecial, and getteth a child by her that cometh
alive into the world, though both it and his wife die
forthwith ; yet, if ffie were in poffeffion, he ffiall keep
the land during his life, and is called tenant per legem
Anglia, or tenant by the courtefy of England ; be-
caufe this privilege is not allowed in any country ex¬
cept Scotland, where it is called curialitas Scotia.
COURTISAN, a woman whaproftitutes herfelf for hire,
efpecially to people of fuperior rank.
COURTRAY, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, fi-
tuated on the river Lyf, about twenty-three miles
fouth-weft of Ghent, and fourteen eaft of Ypres : E.
long. 30 10', and N. lat. 50° 48'.
COUSIN, i term of relation between the children of
brothers and fifters, who in the firft generation are
called coufin-germans, in the fecond generation fe-
cond coufins, fee. If fprung from the relations of the
father’s fide, they are denominated paternal coufins;
if on the mother’s, maternal.
COUSU, in heraldry, figniiles a piece of another colour
or metal placed on the ordinary, as if it were fewed
on, as the word imports. This is generally of colour
upon colour, or metal upon metal, contrary to the ge¬
neral rule of heraldry.
COVERT, in heraldry, denotes fomething like a piece
of hanging, or a pavillion falling over the top of a
chief or other ordinary, fo as not to hide, but only to
be a covering to it.
COW, in zoology. See Bos.
<SV*7-Cow, in zoology. See Trichecus.
Cow-itch, in botany. See Phaseolus.
Cow’s-lip, in botany. See Primula.
Cow’s-lip of Jerufalem See Pulmonaria.
COWARD, in heraldry, a term given to a lion borne
in an efcutcheon with his tail doubled or turned in
between his legs.
COWES, a town and harbour on the northern coaft of
the ifle of Wight, fituated about eight miles fouth of
Plymouth : W. long. i° 25 , and N. lat. 50° 45'.
COWL, or Coul, a habit worn by the Bernardines
and Benediflines, of which there are two kinds ; one
white, very large, worn in ceremonies ; the other
black, worn on ordinary occafions, in the ftreets, fee.
Friar s Cowl, in botany. See Arisarum.
COXWOLD, a market-town in the north riding of
Yorkffiire, about fourteen miles north of the cjty of
York: W. long 50', and N. lat. 540 20'.
COZUMEL, an ifland near the weftern coaft of Jucatan,
where Cortez landed and refreffied his troops, before
entering upon the conqueft of Mexico : W. long. 89°,
and N. lat. 130.
CRAB, in zoology. See Cancer.
Crab’s claws, in the materia medica, are the tips of
the claws of the common crab broken off at the verge
of the black part, fo much of the extremity of the
claws only being allowed to be ufed in medicine as is
tinged with this colour. The blacknefs, however, is
only fuperlicial; they*are of a greyiffi white within,
and when levigated furniffi a tolerable white pow¬
der.
Crab’s claws are of the number of the alkaline ab-
forbents, but they are fuperior to the generality of
them in fome degree, as they are found on a che¬
mical analyfis to contain a volatile urinous fait.
Crab’s eyes, in pharmacy, are a ftrong concretion
in the head of the cray-fiffi. They are rounded on
one fide, and depreffed and finuated on the other, con-
fiderably heavy, moderately hard, and without fmell.
We have them from Holland, Mufcovy, Poland, Den¬
mark, Sweden, and many other places.
Crab’s eyes are much ufed both in the ffiop-medicines
and extemporaneous preferiptions, being accounted not
only abforbent and drying, but alfo difeuffive and diu¬
retic.
Crab, an engine of wood, with three claws, placed on
the ground like a capftan, and ufed at launching or
heaving Ihips into the dock.
CRABRO,
C R A ( 289 ) C R A
CRABRO, in zoology, See Tenthredo.
CRACOA, in botany. SeeViciA.
CRACKER, in ornithology, See Anas.
CRACOW,,by fome accounted the capital city of Po¬
land, is fituated in the province of little Poland, and
palatinate of Cracow, in a fine plane near the banks of
the Viftula. It has an univerfity, and is the fee of a
bifhop, and the feat of the fupreme courts of Suffice :
it Hands about 140 miles fouth-well of Warfaw, in 190
jc/ of E. long, and 50® N. lat.
CRADLE, a well known machine in which infants are
rocked to fleep.
It denotes alfo that part of the Hock of a crofs bow
where the bullet is put.
Cradle, in furgery, a cafe in which a broken leg is
laid after being fet.
Cradle, among Ihipwrights, a timber frame made a-
long the outfide of a Ihip by the bilge, for the conveni¬
ence of launching her with eafe and fafety.
CRAFT, in the fea language, fignifies all manner of
nets, lines, hooks, fee. uftd in filhing. Hence all
fuch little^effels as ketches, hoys, and fmacks, isc.
ufed in the filhing trade, are called fmall craft.
CRAIL, or Care il, a parliament town of Scotland,
fituated on the fea-coaft of the county of Fife, about
feven milesibutK-eaft of StAndrews: W.long. 2° 2d
and N. lat. 56° 17'.
CRAMBE, wild sea-cabbage, in botany, a genus of
the tetradynamia filiquofa clafs. The four long fila¬
ments are forked at the points, and the antherae are
fixed upon one of them; the berry is dry, globular,
and deciduous. The fpecies are three, only one of
which, viz. the maritima, or fea-cole wort, is a native
of Britain.
CRAMP, in medicine, a convulfive contraftion of a muf-
culat part of the body.
Cramp fish. See Torpedo.
Cramp iron, or Cramps, a piece of iron bent at each
end, which ferves to faften together pieces of wood,
Hones, or other things.
CRAMPER, in ichthyology. See Cyprinus.
CRAMPONE'E, in heraldry, an epithet given to a
crofs which has at each end a cramp or fquare piece
coming from it; that from the arm in chief towards the
finiHer angle, that from the arm on tha' fide down¬
wards, that from the arm in bafe towards the dexter
fide, and that from the dexter arm upwards. See
Plate LXVI. fig. 5.
CRANAGE, the liberty of ufing a crane at a wharf,
and alfo the money paid for drawing up wares out of'
a fliip, <bc. with a crane.
CRANE, in ornithology. See Ardea.
Crane, in mechanics, a machirre ufed in building and
commerce for raifing large Hones and other weights.
See Mechanics.
Crane’s bill, among furgeons, a kind of forceps, fo
called from its figure.
Crane’s bill, in botany. See Geranium.
Crane-fly, in zoology. See Tipula.
CRANGANOR, a Dutch factory on the M^abar-coaH,
in the hither India, about thirty miles north of Cochin -
E. long. 75 0 5', and N. lat. io°.
CRANIOLARIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia
angiofpermia clafs. The perianthium confifls of four
leaves, and the fpatha of one; and the tube of the co¬
rolla is very long. There are two fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
CRANIUM, in anatomy. SeeVol.I. p. 151.
CRANNY, in glafs-making, an iron-inflrument, where¬
with the necks of glafies are formed.
CRAPE, in commerce, a kind of fluff, made in the
manner of gauze, with raw filk, gummed and twifled
on the mill.
CRAPULA, among phyficians. See Surfeit.
CRASIS, among phyficians, is ufed to fignify fuch a
due mixture of qualities in a human body, as confli-
tutes a Hate of health.
CRASSAMENTUM, in phyfic, the thick red or fi¬
brous part of the blood, otherwife called cruor, in
contradiflindtion to the ferum or aqueouc part.
CRASSULA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
pentagynia clafs. The calix confifls of five leaves, and
the corolla of five petals; there, are five nectariferous
glands at the bafe of the germen ; and it has five cap-
fules. There are 17 fpecies, none of them natives of
Britain.
CRAT/EGUS, in botany, a genus of the icofandria
digynia clafs. The calix has five fegments, and the
corolla five petals ; the berry is below the flower, and
contains two feeds. There are nine Ipecies,_ three of
which are natives of Britain, viz. the aria, or white
bean-tree; the torminalis, fervice-tree, or forb; and
the oxyacantha, white-thorn, or hawthorn.
CRATCHES, in the menage, a fwelling on the paflern,
under the fet lock, and fometimes under the hoof ; for
which reafon it is diflinguifhed into the finew cratches,,
which affedt the finew, and thofe upon the cronet,
called quitter-bones.
CRATER, in aflronomy. SeeVol. I. p. 487.
CRATEVA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria mono^
gynia clafs.
CRATO, a town of Alentejo, in Portugal, fituated a-
bout feven miles fouth of Portalegre: W. long. 8°i.
and N. lat. 38° yo'.
CRAVEN, in geography, a divifion of the wefl riding,
of Yorkfhire, fituated on the river Are.
CRAX, in ornithology, a genus of birds, belonging to
the order of gallinae. The bafe of the beak of each
mandible is covered with wax ; and the feathers of the
head are curled. There are five fpecies, u/z. i.The
alecator, or Indian hen of Sloane, is about the fize of
a common hen : It is black, with a white belly. ■ A
yellow wax covers about one half of each mandible:
The tongue is entire; the temples are bare, and black;
the tail is roundifh, and confifls of 14 prime feathers;
and it has no fpur. It is found in the warm parts of
America. 2. The rubra, or Peruvian hen, is red,,
with a blueifh head: It is a native of Peru. 3. The
mitu, or Brafilian pheafant, is black, with a dufky
belly, and red wax: It is a native of Guinea and Bra-
zilL
C R E ( 200 ) C R E
zW. 4. The globicera, has a yellow protuberance be¬
tween the noflrils, and is of a blueifh black colour: It
is likewife a native of Brazil. 5. The pauxi, or
Mexican pheafant of Briffonius, is of a blueifh colour,
with blue wax, and the tip of the tail and belly white :
It is a native of Mexico.
CRAYON, a name for all coloured ftones, earths,
or other minerals ufed in deftgning or painting in paftel.
Crayons may be made of any colour, and adapted for
the faces of men, women, landfcapes, clouds, fun-
beams, buildings, and fliadows, in the following man¬
ner : Take platter of Paris, or alabatter calcined, and
of the colour of which you intend to make your cray¬
ons, a fufficient quantity: grind them firft afunder,
and then together, and with a little water make them
into a patte: theil roll them with your hand upon the
grinding ftone into long pieces, and let them dry mo¬
derately in the air: when they are to be ufed, fcrape
them to a point like a common pencil.
CREAM, the fat part of the milk that fwims upon the
furface.
Cream of tartar. See Chemistry. *
CREAT, in she menage, an ufher to a riding matter;
or, a gentleman bred in the academy, with intent to
make himfelf capable of teaching the art of riding the
great horfe.
CREATION, the producing fomething out of nothing,
which ftridtly and properly is the effedt of the power
of God alone, all other creations being only transform¬
ations, or change of ttiape.
CREDENTIALS, letters of recommendation, and
power, efpecially fuch as are given to ambaffadors, or
public minifters, by the prince or ftate that fends them
to foreign courts.
CREDIBILITY, a fpecies of evidence, lefs indeed
than abfolute certainty or demonftration. but greater
than mere poffibility : it is nearly allied to probability,
and feems to be a mean between poffibility and demon¬
ftration.
CREDIT, in commerce, a mutual trutt or loan of mer¬
chandize, or money, on the reputation of the probity
and fufficiency of a dealer. See Commerce.
CREDITON, a market-Jown in Devonffiire, conttder-
able for a good woolen manufactory: it is fituated a-
bout nine miles north-wett of Exeter, in 30 50' W.
long, and 509 5c/ N. lat.
CREDITOR, a.perfon to whom any fum of money is
due, either by obligation, promife, or otherwife.
CREED, a brief fummary of the articles of a Chriftian’s
belief.
The moft ancient form of creeds is that which goes
under the name of the apoftolic creed; befides this,
there are feveral other ancient forms and fcattered
remains of creeds to be met with in the primitive re¬
cords of the church. The firft is a form of apoftoli-
cal dodtrine, collected by Origen; the fecond is a
fragment of a creed preferved by Tertullian; the third
vemains of a creed, is in the works of Cyprian; the
fourth, a creed compofed by Gregory Thaumaturgus,
for the ufe of his own church ; the firtb, the creed of
iLucian the martyr; the fixtb, the 'creed of the apo-
ftolical conftitutions. Befides thefe f9attered remains
of the ancient creeds, there are extant fome perfect
forms, as thofe of Jerufalem, Casfarea, Antioch, fac.
The moft univerfal creeds are. the apoftolical, the
Athanafian, and the Nicene creeds.
CREEK, the part of a haven where any thing is landed
from the fea.
CREEPER, in ornithology. See Certhia.
CREMA, a city'and bifhop’s fee of Italy, capital of a
dittriCt of the Milanefe, called from it Cremafco: it
Hands almoft in the middle between Milan and Man¬
tua, in xo° 15' E. long, and 450 20' N. lat.
CREMASTER, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 272.
CREMONA, a city of Italy, and capital of a dittriCf of
the Mifanele, called from it the Cremonefe, is fifuated
forty-five miles fouth-eaft of Milan, in 10s 3c/. E.
long, and 450 N. lat.
CRENATED, in botany. See Vol. L-p 646.
CRENCLES, in a fhip, fmall ropes, fpliced into-the
bolt-ropes of the fails of the main-matt and fore-matt.
They are faftened to the bow-line bridles ; and are al-
fo to hold by, when a bonnet is ffiaken off.
CRENELLE', or Imbattled, in heraldry, is ufed
when any honourable ordinary is drawn, like ^he bat¬
tlements on a wail to defend men from the enemies
(hot. See Plate LXVL fig. 6.
CRENOPHYLAX, in antiquity, a magiftrate at Athens,
who had the infpeCHon of fountains.
CREPANCE, in the menage, a chop, or cratch, in a
horfe’s leg, given by the fpunges of the ffioes of one
of the hinder feet croffing and fttiking againft the o-
ther hinder foot. This cratch degenerates into an
ulcer.
CREPIS, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia polyga-
mia asqualis clafs. The receptacle is naked; the calix
is caliculated, with deciduous fcales; and the pappus
is plumofej and furniffied with a ftipes. The fpecies are
fourteen, three of which are natives of Britain, viz.
the tedfarum, or fmooth fuccory hawk-weed ; the bi¬
ennis, or rough fuccory hawk-weed ; and the fcetida,
of (linking hawk-weed.
CREPUNDIA, in antiquity, a term ufed to exprefs
fuch things .as were expofed along with children, as
rings, jewels, tec', ferving as tokens whereby they af¬
terwards might be known.
CRESCENT, the new moon, which, as it begins to
recede from the fun, fliews a little rim of light, ter¬
minating in points, called horns., that are ftill encrea-
fing, till it is in oppofition to the fun, at which time
it is full moon, or quite round.
Crescent, in heraldry, a bearing in form of a new
moon. See Plate LXV. fig. 10.
It is ufed either as an honourable bearing, or as the
difference to diftinguifh between elder and younger-fa-
mdies; this being generally affigned to the fecond fon,
and thofe that defcend from him. The figure of the
crefcent is the Turkifti fymbol, with its points looking
towards the top of the chief, whicffis its moft ordir.a-'
ry reprefentation, called crefcent montant. Crefcents
are faid to be adoffed, when their backs are turned to¬
wards each other; a crefcent is faid to be inverted,
when
C R E (291
■when its points look towards the bottom; turned
crefcents have their points looking to the dexter fide
of the fhield; cornuted Crefcents, to the finifter fide;
and affronted crefcents, contrary to the adoffed, have
their points turned to <ach other.
Crescent, a term among farriers. Thus a horfe is
daid to have crefcents when that part of the coffin-
bone, which is moft advanced, falls down and prefles
the foie outwards, and the middle of her hoof above
{brinks, and becomes flat, by reafon of the hollownefs
beneath it.
CRESCENTIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia
angiofpermia clafs. The calix is fplit into two equal
parts; the corolla is gibbous ; and the berry is unilo¬
cular, and- contains many feeds. There is but one
fpecies, a native of Jamaica.
CRESS, or Cresses, in botany. See Sisymbrium.
/«*//>» Cress. See Tropjeolum.
CRESSY, a port-town of Picardy in France, about for¬
ty-four miles fouth of Calais, and twenty-feven north-
wefbof Abbeville, remarkable on account of the victo¬
ry obtained there over the French, by Edward III.
of England, in the year 1346: E, long 20, N. lat.
50° 20'.
CREST, in armoury, the top-part of the armour, for
the head, mounting over the helmet, in manner of a
comb, or tuft of a cock, deriving its name from crijia,
a cock’s comb.
The creft was for the moft part made of feathers,
or the hair of horfes tails or mains. The foldiers
took great pride in adorning them.
Crest,*in heraldry, the uppermoft part of an armoury,
or that part of the cafk or helmet nekt to the mantle.
Guillim fays, the creft, or cognizance, claims the
higheft place, being feated on the moft eminent part
of the helmet; yet fo as to admit of an interpofition
of fome efcrol, wreathe, chapeau, crown, &c.
The creft is efteemed a greater mark of nobility
th*n the armory; being borne at tournaments, to which
none were admitted till fuch time as they had given
proof of their nobility: fometimes it ferves to diftin-
guifh the fevfral branches of a family ; and it has fer-
ved, on occafion, as a diftinguiffiing badge of fa&ions :
fometimes the creft is taken for the device ; but more
ufually is formed of fome piece of the arms. Families
that exchange arms do not change their creft.
Crest, among carvers, an imagery, or carved work, to
7 adorn the head or top of- any thing, like our modern
corniche.
Crest-/v//<?«, a fault of an horfe, when the upper part
of his neck, called the creft, hangs to one fide : this
they cure by placing it upright, clipping away the
fpare {kin, and applying plafters to keep it in a proper
pofition.
CRESTED, fomething furnifhed with a creft. See
Crest,
CRETA, or Chalk, in natural-hiftory See Chalk.
CREUX, a French term ufed among artifts, and lite¬
rally fignifies a hollow cavity or pit, out of which
fomething has been fcooped or dug: whence it is ufed
Vol. II. No. 42. 3
) C R I
to fignify that kind of fculpture, where the lines and
figures are cut and formed within the face or plan of
the plate or matter engraved; and thus it (lands in
oppofition to relievo, where the lines and figures are
emboffed, and rife prominent above the face of the
matter engraved on.
CREW, the company of failors belonging to a ffiip,
boat, or other vcffel.
CREX, in ornithology. See Rallus.
CRIBBAGE, a game at cards, to be learnt only by
prafHce. .
CRIBRATION, in pharmacy, the pafling any fubftance
through a fieve, or fcarch, in order to feparatq the
finer particles from the grofler.
CRIBROSUM os, in anatomy, called alfo os ethmoides.
See Vol. I. p. 157.
CRICETUf?,* in zoology. See Mus.
CRICK, among farriers, is when a horfe cannot turn
his neck any manner of way, but holds it fore right,
infomuch that he cannot take his meat from the ground
without great pain
CRICKET, in zoology. See Gryllus.
Mote Cricket. See Gryllotalpa.
CRICKLADE, a borough-town of Wiltfhire, fituated
on the river Ifis, about twenty-fix miles fouth-weft
of Oxford : W. long. i° 5 5/, and N. lat. 510 35'.
CRICO-ARYTANOIDiEUS, in anatomy. See Vol. I.
p. .300.
CRICOIDES, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 300.
CRICO-THYROIDJEUS, in anatomy. See Vol.
p. 300.
CRIM, or Grim Tartary, a peninfula in the Black
fea, between 330 and 370 E. long, and between 440
and 46’ N. lat. It is joined to Little Tartary by a
narrow ifthmus.
CRIME, the tranfgreffion of a law, either natural or di¬
vine, civil or ecclefiaftic.
CRIMSON, one of the feven red colours of the dyers.
See Dying.
CRINONES, among phyficians, fmall worms that breed
in the (kin, called alfo dracunculi.
CRINUM, in botany, a genus of the hexandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla is tunnel-(haped, and con-
fifts of one leaf, divided into fix fegments; and the
germen is at the bottom of the corolla. There are
four fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
CRISIS, in medicine, is ufed in different fenfes, both
by the ancient and modern phyficians. With fome it
means frequently no' more than the excretion of any
noxious fubftance from the body. Others take the
word for a fecretion of the noxious humours made in
a fever. • Others ufe it for the critical motion itfelf;
and Galen defines a crifis in fevers, a fudden and'in-
ftantaneous change, either for the better or the worfe,
produiftive of recovery or death.
GRISTLE, in furgery, a term for certain excrefcences a-
bout the anus and pudenda. See Vol. I. p 157.
Cr^stA galli, in anatomy. See Vol. I p. 157.
Crista galLi, or CockV comb. See Rhi nan thus.
Crista pavOnis, in botany. See Poinciana. .
4 E CRITERIUM,
C R I ( 292
CMTERIUM, a ftandard by which propofnioas and
opinions are compared, in order to difcover their truth
or falfehood.
CRITHE, in furgery, commonly called the ftye, is
tubercle that grows in different parts of the eye Eds.
CRITHMUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
digynia clafs. The fruit is oval and Comprefied.
There are two fpecies, one of which, viz. the mari-
timum, or fampife, is a native of Britain; the leaves
are faid to be ftomachic, aperient, and diuretic.
CRITICAL dayt and fymptoms, among phyfieians, are
certain days and fymptoms in the courfe of acute dif-
eafes', which indicate the patient’s ftate, and deter¬
mine him either to recover or grow worfe. See Me¬
dicine.
CRITICISM, the art of judging with propriety con¬
cerning any obje<5t or combination of objefts. But, in
a more limited fenfe, the fcience of criticifm is confi¬
ned to the fine arts. .The principles of the fine arts
are bell: unfolded by ftudying the fenfitive part of our
nature, and byjearning what objedts are naturally a-
greeable, and what are naturally difagreeable. The
man who afpires to be a critic in thefe arts, mull
pierce ftill deeper : he mult clearly perceive what ob-
jedts are lofty, what low, what are proper or improper,
what are manly, and what are mean or trivial. Hence
a foundation forjudging of tafte, and for reafoning up¬
on it: where it is conformable to principles, we can
pronounce with certainty, that it is corredt; other-
wife, that it is incorredl, and perhaps whimfical.
Thus the fine arts, like morals, become a rational
fcience; and, like morals, may be cultivated to a
high degree of refinement.
Manifold are the advantages of criticifm, when thus
ftudied as a rational fcience. In the firft place, a
thorough acquaintance with the principles of the fine
arts, redoubles the entertainment thefe arts afford. To
the man who refigns himfelf entirely to fentiment or
feeling, without interpofing any fort of judgment,
poetry, mufic, painting, are mere paftime ; in the prime
of life, indeed, they are delightful, being fupported
by the force of novelty, and the heat of imagination :
_-but they lofe their relilli gradually with their novelty ;
and are generally-neglefted in the maturity of life,
which dilpofes to more ferious and more important oc¬
cupations. To thofe who deal in criticifm as a regu¬
lar feience, governed by jult principles, and giving
fcope to judgment as well as to fancy, the fine arts
are a favouraite entertainment; and in old age main¬
tain that relifh which they produce in the morning of
life.
In the next place, a philofophical inquiry into the
principles of the fine arts, inures the refledbng mind
to the moft enticing fort of logic : the pradtice of
reafoning upon fubjefts fo agreeable tends to a habit;
and a habit ftrengthening the reafoning faculties, pre¬
pares the mind for entering into fubjedts more difficult
and abftradt. To have, in this refpedf, a juft con¬
ception of the importance of criticifm,. we need but
refledt upon the common method of education; which,
after feme years fpent in acquiring languages, hurries
) C R I
us, without the leaft preparatory difeipline, into the
moft profound philofophy : a more effedtual method
to alienate the tender mind from abftradl fcience, is
beyond the reach of invention ; and accordingly, witli
refpedt to fuch fpeculations, the bulk of our youth
contradt a fort of hobgoblin terror, which is feldom,
if ever fubdued. Thofe who apply to the arts, are
trained in a very different manner : they are led, ftep
by ftep, from the eafier parts of the operation, to
what are rribre difficult; and are not permitted to
make a new motion, till they be perfedled in thofe
which regularly precede it. The fcience of criticifm
appears then t-o be a middle link, connedting the dif¬
ferent parts of education into a regular chain'. This
fcience furniffieth an inviting opportunity to exercile
the judgment: we delight to reafon upon fubjedls that
are equally pleafant and familiar; we proceed gradu¬
ally from the fimpler to the more invqlved cafes: and
in a due courfe of difeipline, cuftom, which improves
all our faculties, .bellows acutenefs upon thofe of rea¬
fon, fufficient to unravel all the intricacies of philo¬
fophy.
Nor ought it to be overlooked, that the reafonings
employed upon the fine arts are of the fame kind with
thofe which regulate our condudt. Mathematical and
metaphyfical reafonings have no tendency to improve
focial intercourfe ; nor are they applicable to the com¬
mon affairs of life: but a juft tafte in the fine arts, de¬
rived from rational principles, furniffies elegant fub-
jedts for converfation, and prepares us finely lor adt-
ing in the focial ftate with dignity and propriety.
The fcience of rational criticifm tends to improve
the heart not lefs than the underftanding. It tends,
in the fiift place, to moderate the. felfiffi affedtions: by
fweetening and harmonizing the temper, it is a ftrong
antidote to the turbulence of paffion and violence of pur-
fuit: it procures to a man fo much mental enjoyment,
that in order to be occupied, he is not tempted in
youth to precipitate into hunting, gaming, driqking ;
nor in middle-age, to deliver himfelf over to ambition;
nor in old-age, to avarice. Pride and envy, two dif-
guftful paffions, find in the conftitution no enemy more
formidable than a delicate and difeerning tafte : the
man upon whom nature and culture have beftowed
this bleffing, feels great delight in the virtuous difpo-
fitions and adtions of others : he loves to cheriffi them,
and to publiffi them to the world: faults and failings,
it is true, are to him not lefs obvious ; but thefe he
avoids, or removes out of fight, becaufe they give him
pain. On the other hand, a man void of taile, upop
wheun the moft linking beauties make but a faint im-
preffion, has no joy but in gratifying his pride or envy
by the difeovery of errors and blemiffies. In a word,
there may be other paffions, which, for a feafon, di--
fturb the peace of fociety more than thofe mentioned ;
but no other paffion is fo unwearied an antagonift to
the fweets of.focial intercourfe : thefe paffions, tend¬
ing affiduoully to their gratification, put a man perpe¬
tually in oppofition to others ; and difpofe him more
to reliffi bad than good qualities, even in a companion.
How different that difpofition of mind, where every
virtue
C R O ( 293 ) C R O
virtue in a companion or neighbour, is, by refinement
of taite, fet in its ftrongeft light; and defeds or b!e-
mifhes, natural to all, are fuppreffed, or kept out of
In the next place, delicacy of tafte tends not lefs
to invigorate the focial affections, than to moderate
thofe that are felfifh. To be convinced of tins ten¬
dency, we need only refled, that delicacy of tafte ne-
cefTanly heightens our fenfibihty of pain and pleafure,
and of courfe our fympathy, which is the capital
branch of every focial paflion. Sympathy in particu¬
lar invites a communication of joys andforrows, hopes
and fears : fuch exercife, foothing and fatisfactory in
itfelf, is neceffarily produdive of mutual good-will
and affedion.
One other advantage of rational criticifm is refer-
ved to the laft place, being of all the moft important;
which is, that it is a great fupport to morality. No
occupation attaches a man more to his duty than
that'of cultivating a tafte in the fine arts : a juft re-
lifh of what is beautiful, proper, elegant, and orna¬
mental, in writing or painting, in architedure or gar¬
dening, is a fine preparation for the fame juft relifh of
thefe qualities in charader and behaviour. To the
man who has acquired a tafte fo acute and accomplifh-
ed, every adion wrong or improper, muft be highly
difguftful: if, in any inftance, the overbearing power
of paffion fway him from his duty, he returns to it up¬
on the firft refledion, with redoubled refolution never
to be fwayed a fecond time : he has now an addition;:!
motive to virtue, a convidion derived from experience,
that happinefs depends on regularity and order, and
that a difregard to juftice or propriety never fails to
be punilhed with fhame and remorfe.
For the rules of criticilm, applicable to the fine arts,
and derived from human nature, fee Architecture,
Beauty, Congruity, Comparison, Gran¬
deur, <bc.
CROATIA, a frontier province of Germany, bounded
by Sclavonia on the north and eaft, by Bofnia on the
fouth, and by Carniola on the weft. It is fubjed to
the houfe of Auftria.
CROCCEUS, or. Hoameo, a large river of China,
which, after a courfe of two thotlfand miles, falls into
the bay of Nankin : it is fometimes call d the Yellow
river, on account of the flimemf this colour with which
its waters are tinged.
CROCINUM, among phyficians, denotes, the oil of
faffron, faid to be of a heating quality, and to procure
deep.
CROCODES, an appellation given to paftils or troches,
whereof crocus, or faffron, is the principal ingre¬
dient.
CROCODILE, in zoology. SeeLACERTA.
CROCUS, or Saffron, in botany, a genus of the tri-
andria monbgynia clafs. T he corolla is divided into fix
equal parts ; and it has three ered ftigmata. There
is but one fpecies, a native of Britain. The antherse,
or cluves, picked off and preffed together into cakes,
goes by the name of faffron, which is an elegant and
ufeful aromatic, and is defervedly accounted one of the.
higheft cordials.
Crocus, in chemiftry, denotes any metal calcined to a
red or deep yellow colour. See Chemistry.
Crocus Metallorum, an emetic preparation of an¬
timony and nitre. See Chemistry.
CROFT, a little clofe adjoining to a dwelling-houfe, and
enclofed for pafture or arable land, or any other par¬
ticular ufe.
CROISADE, Crusade, or Cruzado, a name given
to the expeditions of the Chriftians againftthe infidels.,
for the conqueft cf Paleftine ; fo called, becaufe thofe
who engaged in the undertaking wore a crofs on their
cloaths, and bore one on their ftandard.
This expedition was alfo called the holy war, to
which people flocked in great numbers out of pure de¬
votion, the pope’s bulls and the preaching of the priefts
of thofe days making it a point of confidence. The
feveral nations engaged in- the holy war were diftin ■
guilhed by the different colours of their crofles : the
Englilh wore white, the French red, the Flemifli
green, the Germans black, and the Italians yellow.
From this enterprife feveral orders of knighthood took
their rife. They reckon eight croifades for the con¬
queft of the holy land ; the firft begun in the year
1095, at the felicitation of the Greek emperor and
the patriarch of Jerufalem.
CROISES, orCaoizES, in Englifti antiquity, pilgrims
bound for the holy land, or fuch as had been there ;
fo called from a badge they wore in imitation of a
crofs. The knights of St John of Jerufalem, created
for the defence and proteftion of pilgrims, were parti¬
cularly called erodes.
CROISIERS, a religious order founded in honour oF
the invention or difeovery of the crofs by the emprefs
Helena.
They are difperfed in feveral parts of Europe, par¬
ticularly in the Low Countries, France, and Bohe¬
mia, thofe in Italy being at prefent fuppreffed. Thele-
religious follow the rule of St Augultine. They had
in England the name.of crouched friers.
CROMARTY, the capital of the ftiire of Cromarty, in
Scotland,-with an excellent and fafe harbour capable
of containing the greateft fleets : W. long.. 30 40', and
N. lat. 570 54'.
CRONENBURG, a fortrefs of Denmark, fituated in
the ifland of Zealand, at the entrance of the Sound,,
where the Danes take toll of Ihipa bound for the Baltic :
E. long. 120 5', and N. lat. 56°.
CRONSLOT, or Crown-Castle, a caftle and. har¬
bour in a little ifland of the fame name, at the mouth
of the river Neva, and entrance of the gulf of Fin¬
land,, in Ruffia, about twelve miles weft of Peterf-
burgh : E.long. 30°, and N. lat. 6o°. Here is a fta-
tio-i for the Ruffian men of war, and a yard for build¬
ing and refitting them.
CRONSTAT, a town of Tranfilvania, fituated near the:
frontiers of Moldavia, about fifty miles north-eaft of
Hermanftat, and fubjeeft to the houfe of Auftria : E„
long. 250, and N. lat. 47'.
CROPPER,,
C R O ( 294 ) C R O
CROPPER, in ornithology. See Columba.
CROSIER, or Crozier, a ftiepherd’s crook; a fym-
bol of paftoral authority, confifting of a gold or filver
ftaff, crooked at the top, carried occafionally before
bifhops and abbots, and held in the hand when they
give the folemn benedidtions. The cuftom of bearing
a paftoral ftaff before bilhops is very ancient. Regular
abbots are allowed to officiate with a mitre and crofier.
Among the Greeks none but a patriarch had a right
to the crbfier.
Crosier, in aftronomy, four ftars in the fouthern he-
mifphere, in the form of a crofs, ferving thofe who
fail in fouth latitudes to find the antardtic pole
CROSLET, in heraldry, is when a crofe is croffed a
gain at a fmall diftance from each of the ends. Upton
fays it is not fo often borne by itfelf in arms, as other
crOffes are, but often in diminutives, that is, in fmall
crofters fcattered about the field. See Plate LXVI.
% 7- *
CROSS, in antiquity, a fpecies of punifliment, or rather
the inftrument wherewith it was inflidted, confifting
of two pieces of wood^.croffing each other.
This punifhment was only inflidted on malefadtors
- and flaves, and thence called fervile fupplicium. The
moft ufual method was to nail the criminal’s hands and
feet to this machine, in an eredt pofture ; though there
are inftances of criminals fo nailed with their head
downward. ' '
Invention of the Cross, a feftival obferved on May 3,
by the Latin church, in memory of the emprefs He¬
lena’s (thfe mother of Conftantine) finding the true crofs
of Chrift on mount Calvary, where ftie caufed eredt a
church for the prefervation of it.
Exaltation of the Cross, a grand feftival folemnized on
September 14, in commemoration of Heraclius’s re-
ftoring to mount Calvary the true crofs, that had been
carried off by Cofroes king of Perfia, upon taking the
city of Jerufalem.
Order of Cross, am order of ladies inftituted in
1668, by the emprefs Eleanora de Gonzagua, wife of
the emperor Leopold, on o’ccafion of the miraculous
recovery of a little golden crofs,, wherein w.ere inclofed
two pieces of the true crofs, out of the'afttes of a part
of the palace that had been hurnt down : though the
fire burnt the cafe wherein it was enclofed, and melted
the cryftal, it appears that the wood had not received
the leaft damage.
Cross, in heraldry, an ordinary compofed of fourfold
lines, whereof two are perpendicular, and the other
two tranfverfe ; for fo we muft conceive of them,
though they are not drawn throughout, but meet, by
couples, in four right angles, near about the feffe-point
of the efcutcheon. The content of a crofs is not al¬
ways the fame ; for when it is not charged, it has only
the"fifth part of the field; but if it be charged, then
it muft contain the third part thereof.
This bearing was bellowed on fuch as had perform¬
ed, or at leaft undertaken fome fervice for Chiift
and the Chriftian profeftion; and is therefore held by
feveral authors the moft honourable charge in all he¬
raldry. What brought it into fuch frequent ufe was
the ancient expeditions into the holy land, the crofs
being the enfigns of that war.
In thefe wars, the Scots carried St Andrew’s crofs;
the French, a crofs argent ; the Englilh, a crofs or;
the Germans, fable ; the Italians, azure; the Spa¬
niards, gules.
Cross bar-shot, a bullet with an iron-bar paffing
through it, and {landing fix or eight inches o^t at both
fides : it is ufed at fea, for deftroying the enemy’s
rigging-
Cross bill, in ornithology. See Loxia.
Cross-wort, in botany. SccValantia.
CROSSELET, a little or diminutive crofs, ufed in he¬
raldry, where the ftiield’ is frequently feen covered
with croffelets ; alfo feffes and other honourable ordi¬
naries, charged or accompanied with croffelets. Croffes
frequently terminate in croffelets. See Plate LXVI.
fig- 7-
CROTALARIA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia
decandria clafs. The pod is fwollen, inflated, and
pedicellated. There are eleven fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
CROTALOPHORUS, in zoology. See Crota-
LUS.
CROTALUS, or Rattle-snake, in zoology, a ge¬
nus belonging to the order of amphibia ferpentes, the
charaiflers of which are thefe : The belly is furniflied
with fcuta, and the tail has both fcuta and fcales ; but
the principal charatteriftic of this genus, is the rattle
at the end of the tail. The rattles confift of feveral
articulated criiftaceous, or rather horny bags, which
make a confiderable rattling noife when the creature
moves, and ferves to warn people of their approach.
There are five fpecies, and the bite of every one of
them is fo highly poifonous, that it generally kills in
a ftiort time. 1. The horridus, or American rattle-
fnake, has 167 fcuta, and 23 fcutellie. It is generally
of an orange, tawny, or blackifh colour on the back,
and the belly is afti-coloured : they are from four to
fix inches in length ; fome are as thick as a man’s leg :
Dr Tyfon diffedted one which was four feet five inches
long, and the body fix and a half inches in diameter.
They devour birds, fquirrels, hares, &c. 2. The
miliaris has 13 fcuta, and 31 fcutellje. It is afli-co-
loured, interfperfed with black fpots, and is a native of
Carolina. 3. The dryinas has 165 fcuta, and 30
fcutellae. It is whitifh, with a few yellow fpots, and
is a native of America. 4. The duriffus has 172 fcuta,
and 21 fcutellae. It is variegated with white and yellow
colours, and is likewife found in America. 5. The
mutUs has 217 fcuta, and 34 fcutellae. It has a chain
„of rhomboidal black fpots on the back, a black line
behind the eyes, and is a native of Surinam.
CROTCHET, in mufic. one of the notes or charadters
of time, marked thus f equal to half a minum, and
double of a quaver.
G^otchets are alfo marks or charadters, ferving to in-
clofe a word or fentence w! ich is diftinguiftied from" the
reft, being generally in this form [•], or this (•-).
CROTON, in botany, a genus of plants of the mortoe-
cia polyandria clafs. The calix of the male is cylin-
■ , - drical.
C R O
drical, aiid has five teeth ; the corolla has five petals;
and the llamina are from 10 to 15. The calix of the
female conlifts of many leaves ; it has no corolla; but
has three bifid ftyli; and the capfule has three cells,
and contains one feed. There are 21 fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
CROTOY, a town of France, fituated in the province of
Picardy, at the mouth of the river Somme : E. long.
i° 30', andN. lat. jo° ly'.
CROUP of a horfe, in the menage, the extremity of the
reins above the hipsf
CROUPADE, in the menage, a leap, in which the horfe
pulls up his hind legs, as if he drew them up to his
belly.
CROW, or Carrion-crow, in ornithology. See
Corvus.
Royfton Q,v.o\v. See Corvus.
Crow, in mechanics, a kind of iron lever,, with a claw
at one end, and a lharp point at the other; ufed for
heaving or purchafing great weights.
Crow’s bill, among furgeons, a kind of forceps,’for
drawing bullets and other foreign bodies out of
wounds. t
Crow-flowers, in botany. See Lychnis
Crow’s feet, in the military art, ma’fines of iron, ha¬
ving four points, each about three or four inches long,
fo made, that whatever way they fall, there is flill a
point up : they are thrown upon breaches, or in pafles
, where the enemy’s cavalry are to march, proving very
troublefome by running into the horfe’s feet and laming
them.
Crow’s feet, in a fhip, fmall lines or ropes, fometimes
eight or ten, reeved through the deadmens eyes ; and
fcarce of any other ufe than to make a (hew of fmall
rigging. They are ufually placed at the bottom of
the back-ftays of the fore top-maft, mizen-top-maft,
and gallant-top- maft.
Crow’s foot, in botany. See Ranunculus.
CROWLAND, a market-town of Lincolnlhire: W.
long. 1 o', and N. lat. 520 40/.
CROWN, an ornament worn on the head by kings, fo-
vereign princes, and noblemen, as a mark of their dig¬
nity.
In fcripture there is frequent mention of crowns,
and the ufe of them feems to have been very common
among the Hebrews. The high prieft wore a crown,
which was a fillet of gold placed upon the forehead,
and tied with a ribbon of hyacinth colour, or azure
blue. It feems alfo as if private priefts, and even
common Ifraelites, wore alfo a fort of crown, fince
God commands Ezekiel not to take off his crown,
nor affume the marks of one in mourning. This
crown was no more than a ribbon or filler, with which
the Jews and feveral people in the eaft girt their heads.
And indeed the firft crowns were no more than a ban¬
delet drawn round the head, and tied behind, as we
ftill fee it reprefented on medals round the heads of Ju¬
piter, the Ptolemies, and kings of Syria. After¬
wards they confifted of two bandelets: by degrees
they took branches of trees of divers kinds ; at length
they added flowers, infomuch that Claudius'- Saturni-
Vol. II. No. 41. 3
C R O
nus fays, there was not any plant whereof crowns had
not been made. The woods and groves were fearched
to find different crowns for the feveral deities; and
they w’ere ufed not only on the ftatues and images of
the gods, by the priefts in facrificing, and by kings
and emperors, but alfo on altars, temples, doors of
houfes, facred veflels, vi&ims, (hips, fyc.
The Roman emperors had four kinds of crowns,
ftill feen on medals, viz. a crown of laurel, a radial
or radiating crown, a crown adorned with pearls and
precious (tones, and the fourth a kind of bonnet or
cap, fomething like the mortier.
The Romans had alfo various kinds of crowns,
which they diftributed as rewards of military atchieve-
ments; as, 1. The oval crown, made of myrtle, and
beftowed upon generals, who were entitled to the ho¬
nours of the leffer triumph, called ovation. 2. The
naval or roftral crown, compofed of a circle of gold,
with ornaments reprefenting beaks of (hips, and given
to the captain who firft grappled, or the foldier who
firft boarded, an enemy’s (hip, 3. The crown called
in Latin vallaris, or caftrenfis, a circle of gold rai-
fed with jewels or palifades; the reward of him who
firft forced the enemy’s entrenchments. 4. The mu¬
ral crown, a circle of cold indented and embattled ;
given to him who firft mounted the wall of a befieged
place, and there lodged a ftandard. 5. The civic
crown, made of the branch of a green oak, and given
him who had faved the life of a citizen. 6. The tri¬
umphal crown, confifting at firft of wreaths of laurel,
but afterwards made of gold ; proper to fuch generals
as had the honour of a triumph, y. The crown call¬
ed obfidionalis, or graminea, made of grafs growing
on the place ; the reward of a general who had de¬
livered a Roman army from a fiege. §. The crown
of laurel, given by the Greeks to their athlette; and
by the Romans to thofe who had negociated or con¬
firmed a peace with an enemy : this was the, leaft ho¬
nourable of all. We meet alfo with the corona aurea,
often beftowed on foldiers, without any other additional
term ; the radial crown, given to princes at their tranf-
lation among the gods; athletic crowns, and crowns
of laurel, deftined to crown vidtims at the public games,
poets, orators, &c. All thefe crowns were marks of
nobility to the wearers; and upon competitions with
rivals for rank and dignities, often determined the
preference in their favour. See Plate LXVI. fig. 8.
n°. 1. 2. 3. <bc.
The Imperial Crown is a bonnet or tiara, with a femi-
circle of gold, fupporting a globe with a crofs at top.
See Plate LXVI. fig. 9. n°. 1.
The Britijh Crown is adorned with fpur crofles, be¬
tween which there are four fleurs de lis: it is covered
with four diadems, which meet at a little globe fup¬
porting a crofs. Ibid. n0. 2.
The French Crown, is a circle of eight fleurs de lis,
encompafled with fix diadems, bearing at top a double
fleurs de lis, which is the creft of France. )bid. n°. 3.
The Spanijh Crown is adorned with large indented
leaves, and covered with diadems terminating in a
globe, furmounted with a crofs. Ibid. n°. 4.
4 TJk;
( 295 )
C R U
The crowns of almofl: all other kings are adorned
with large leaves, bordered with four, fix, or eight
diadems, with,a globe and crofs at top.
The Pa[>al Crown is compofed of a tiara, and a triple
crown encompaffing it, with two pendants like the bi-
Ihop’s mitres. Thefe crowns reprefent the pretended
triple capacity of the pope, as high prieft, fupreme
judge, and foie legiflator of Chriftians. Ibid.vP. y.
An elefloral Crown, or coronet, is a fcarlet cap turned
up with ermine, and clofed with a femicircle of gold,
all covered with pearls, with a globe at top, furmount*
ed with a golden crofs. Ibid. n°. 6.
Crowns.®/' Britijh princes of the blood, i. The
prince of Wales’s crown confifts alternately of croffes
and fleurs de lis, with one arch, in the middle of which
is a ball and crofs, as in the royal diadem. 2. That
of all the younger fons and brothers of the king, con¬
fifts likewife of crofles and fleurs de lis alternately, but
without any arch, or being furmounted with a globe
and crofs at top. 3 That of the other princes of the
blood confifts alternately of crofles and leaves, like
thofe in the coronet of dukes, <bc. Ibid. fig. 10.
n°. 1. 2. 3.
Crowns of noblemen are, a duke’s, compofed of leaves
of fm.illage, or parfley : that of a marquis, of flowers
and pearls placed alternately: an earl’s has no flowers
about the circle, like the duke and marquis, but only
points rifing, and a pearl on everyone of them : a vif-
count has neither flowers nor points raifed above the
. circle, like the other fuperior degrees, but only pearls
placed on the circle itfelf without any limited number:
a baron’s has only fix pearls on the golden border,
not raifed, to diftinguifti him from the earl’s; and the
number of them limited, to fhew he is inferior to
the vifcount. Ibid. fig. ii.n0. 1. 2. <bc.
Crown, in commerce, a general name for coins both fo¬
reign and domeftic, which are of, or very near, the
value of five {hillings fterling.
Crown-office, an office belonging to the king’s
bench court, of which the king’s coroner or attorney
is commonly mafter. In this office, the attorney ge¬
net al and clerk of the crown feverally exhibit informa¬
tions for crimes and mifdemeanors at common law, as
in the cafe of batteries, confpiracies, libelling, fyc.
on which the offender is liable to pay a fine to the
king.
Crown-glass, denotes the fineft fort of window-glafs.
See Glass.
Crown-wheel of a nuatch, the upper wheel next the
balance, which by its motion drives the balance, and
in royal-pendulums is called the fwing-wheel
Crown imperial, in botany. See Fritillaria.
CROYDON, a market-town in Surrey, about ten miles
fouth of London.
CRUCIAL incision, in furgery, an incifion made in
form of a crofs.
CRUCIANELLA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of one turnnel-
ftiaped petal, with a filiform tube ; the calix has three
leaves j and the feeds are two, fituate between the
C R U
calix and corolla. The fpecies are five, none of them
natives of Britain.
CRUCIATA, in botany. See Valentia.
CRUCIBLE, a chemical veflel made of earth, and fo
tempered and backed as to endure the greateft fire.
They are ufed to melt metals, and to flux minerals,
ores, <bc.
The figure of a crucible is commonly that of an ob-
tufe conoid, with its bafe at the top, and obtufe apex
at the bottom; whence this conical figure may be va¬
ried, till it comes to the hollow fegment of a fphere.
The crucibles moft generally ufed are thofe of Hefle
and Auftria.
CRUCIFIX, a crofs upon which the body of Chrift is
faftened in effigy, ufed by the Roman-catholics to ex¬
cite in their minds a ftrong idea of our Saviour’s paf-
fion.
They efteem it an eflential circumftance of the reli¬
gious worftiip performed at the altar; and on Good
Friday they perform the ceremony of adoring it,
which is done in thefe words, 0 crux ave, fpes unica;
Hail, thou crofs, our only hope. The officiating prieft
uncovers the crucifix, elevates it with both his hands,
and fays, Ecce lignum crucis; Behold the wood of the
crofs. The people anfwer, in quo falus mundi pe-
pendit; on which the Saviour of the world fuffered
death. Then the whole congregation bow with great
reverence, and devoutly kifs the holy wood.
CRUCIFIXION, a capital punifliment by nailing the
criminal to a crofs. See Cross.
CPUCIFORM, in general, fomething difpofed crofs-
wife; but more efpecially ufed by botanifts, for flowers
confifting of four petals difpofed in the form of a
crofs.
CRUDE, an epithet given to fomething that has not
pafled the fire, or had a proper degree of codion.
CRUDITY, among phyficians, is applied to undigefted
fubftances in the ftomach; to humours in the body
which are unconcoded, and not prepared for expulfion;
and to the excrements.
CRUISE, in the fea-language, fignifies to fail back and
fore within a certain fpace of the fea, as well to annoy
the enemy, as to proted our own trading veflels.
CRUMENTATA, among zoologifts, animals furniftied
with a pouch, or bag, wherein to receive their young
in time of danger.
CRUOR, fometimes fignifies the blood in general; fome-
times only the venous blood ; and fometimes extrava-
fated, or coagulated blood.
CRUPPER, in the menage, the buttocks of a horfe,
the rump; alfo a thong of leather put under a
horfe’s tail, and drawn up by thongs to the buckle
behind the faddle, fo as to keep him from calling the
faddle forwards on his neck.
CR.URA cl 1 toridis, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 276.
Crura medullas oblongata. See Vol. I. p. 287.
CRURiEUS, or Crureus musculus, in anatomy.
See Vol. I. p. 207.
CRURAL, in anatomy, an epithet given to the artery
which conveys the blood to the crura, or legs, and to
■* the
( 296 )
CRY ( 297 ) CUB
the vein by which this blood returns towards the heart.
See Anatomy, Part III. IV.
CRUS, in anatomy, all that part of the body contained
between the buttocks and the toes. See Anatomy,
Part I.
CRUSCA, an Italian term fignifying bran, ism ufe a-
mongft us to denote that celebrated academy called
della crufca, eftablilhed at Florence, for purifying
and perfecting the Tufcan language.
CRUSTA villosa, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 258.
Crusta lactea, in medicine, the fame with achor,
being fcabby eruptions with which the heads of children
are often troubled. See Medicine.
CRUSTACEOUS, an appellation given to animals co¬
vered with (hells made-up of leveral pieces, in contia-
diftinCtion to thofe confining of a fingle piece.
CRUX, or St Croix, one of the Caribbee-iflands, fitu-
tuated about fixty miles fouth-eaft of Porto-Rico, and
fubjeCt to France: W. long. 64°, and N. lat. 170 30'.
Crusado, in commerce, a Portuguefecoin, (truck under
Alphonfus V. about the year 1457, at the time when
pope Calixtus fent thither the bull for a croifade a-
gainft the infidels.
' This coin has a crofs on one fide, and the arms of
Portugal on the other.
CRYMODES, among phyficians, a kind of fever attend¬
ed with a (hivering cold and inflammation of the inter¬
nal parts of the body.
CRYPTOGAMIA, in botany. See the Scheme, p. 635.
and Plate LIII. fig. 24. alfo p. 636.
CRYPTOGRAPHY, the art of writing in cipher, or
with fympathetic ink. See Cipher and Ink.
CRYSTAL, the name ofa very large clafs offoflils ; hard,,
pellucid, and naturally colourlefs; of regularly an¬
gular figures, compofed of fimple, not filamentous
plates; not flexible nor elafticj giving fire with fteel;
not fermenting in acid menltrua, and calcining in a
ftrong fire.
The orders of pure cryftal are three; the firft is
perfedf columnar cryftals, with double pyramids, com¬
pofed of eighteen planes, in an hexangular column,
terminated by an hexangular pyramid at each end: the
fecond order is that of perfeft cryftals, with double
pyramids, without a column, compofed either of
twelve or of fixteen planes, in two hexangular pyra¬
mids, joined clofely, bafe to bafe, without the inter¬
vention of any column : the third order is that of im¬
perfect; cryftals, with fingle pyramids, compofed either
of twelve or ten planes, in an hexangular or pentangular
column, affixed irregularly, at one end, to fome fo-
lid body, and terminated, at the other, by an hexan¬
gular or pentangular pyramid.
Thefe are all the general forms into which cryftal,
when pure, is found concreted : but under thefe there
are aimoft infinite varieties in the number of angles,
and the length, thicknefs, and other accidents of the
columns and pyramids.
When cryftal is blended with metalline particles at
the time of its formation, it aflumes a variety of fi¬
gures wholly different from thefe, conftituting a fourth
order, under the name of metalline cryftals: when that
metal is lead, the cryftal affumes the form of a cube 7
when it is tin, of a quadrilateral pyramid, with a broad
bafe; when iron, the cryftal is found concreted in
rhomboidal cryftals : thefe cryftals are very common
about mines; but the common fpars, which are liable
to be influenced in the fame manner by the metals,
and to appear in the very fame form, are to be care¬
fully diftinguiftied from them. There is one very eafy
left for this purpofe, which is, that all fpars are fub-
jecft to be diftblved by aqua fortis, and eflfervefce vio¬
lently only on its touching it : but it has no fuch ef-
fedls on cryftal.
The pebble cryftal is common enough in all parts of
the world ; but that which is formed of hexangular -
columns, affixed to a folid bafe at one end, and termi¬
nated by a hexangular column at the other, is infinitely
more fo : this is what we call fprig or rock cryftal,
and is the fpecies defcribed by moft authors under the
name of cryftal of the (hops, or that kept for medi¬
cinal ufe.
It is to be chofen the cleared, pureft, and moffc
tranfparenfthat can be had : it (hould be proved to be
no fpar, by means of aquafortis, or by drawing a point
of it along a pane of glafs, which it cuts in the manner
of a diamond. It is found in vaft abundance in many
parts of England and Ireland ; and in Germany it is
yet more frequent. It is found about Briftol of ame-
thyftine tinge ; in Silefia and Bohemia it is ftained to
the colour of the ruby,, fapphire, emerald, and topaz,
in which cafe jewellers make great advantage of it,
felling it under the name of accidental fapphire, fac.
Crystal is alfo ufed for a fadlitious body, caft in glafs-
houfes, called cryftal glafs ; being, in fa<ft, no more
than glafs carried, in the compofition and manufa&ure,
to a greater perfection than the common glafs.
The beft kind of glafs-cryftal is that called Venice
cryftal, made at Moran, near Venice. See Glass.
Crystals, in chemiftry, falls or other matters (hot,
or congealed, in the manner of cfyftal. See Che¬
mistry.
Crystalline humour, in anatomy. See VoL I.
p. 289.
CRYSTALLIZATION, in chemiftry. See Che¬
mistry
CRYSTALLOMANCY, in antiquity, a kind of divi¬
nation, performed by means of a mirror, wherein the
figures of the things requiied are faid to have been re-
prefented.
CUB, a bear’s whelp. Among hunters, a fox and
martern of the firft year, are called cubs. See Ur-
sus.
CUBA, an ifland of North America, fituated in the At¬
lantic ocean, between 74° and 87° of W. long, and\
between 2.00 and 230 N. lat. being eight hundred
miles and upwards in length from eift to weft, and ge¬
nerally about feventy miles broad. It lies about fifty
miles weft of Hifpaniola, and feventy-five north of Ja¬
maica.
CUBAGUA, an American ifland, fituated between the
ifland of Margaretta and Terra Firma, and fubjeCLto
Spain.: W. long. 64°, and N. lat. xo° ij'.
CUBE,
cue ( 298 ) C U L
CUBE, in geometry, a folid body, confifting of fix e-
qual fquare fides. See Geometry.
CUBEBS, in the materia medica, a fmall dried fruit,
refembling a grain of pepper, but often fomewhat
longer, brought into Europe from the ifland of Java.
In aromatic warmth and pungency, they are far infe¬
rior to pepper.
CUBIC, or Cubical equation, in algebra. See Al¬
gebra.
CUBIT, in the menfuration of theanciems, along mea-
fure, equal to the length of a man’s arm, from the
elbow to the tip of the fingers.
Dr Arbuthnot makes the Englifh cubit equal to 18
inches ; the Roman cubit equal to 1 foot 5, 406 inches;
and the cubit of the feripture equal to 1 foot, 9, 888
inches.
CUCKOW, in ornithology. See Cuculus.
Cuckow-spit, the fame with froth-fpit. See Froth-
spit.
Cuckow spit-insect. See Cicada.
CUCUBALUS, in botany, a genus of the decandria
trigynia clafs._- The calix is inflated ; the corolla has
five petals with ungues^ and the capfule has three
cells. There are 13 fpecies, five of which are natives
of Britain, viz. the bacciferus, or berry-bearing chiek-
weed; the beken, or white corn, campion ; the vifeo-
fus, or Dover campion; the elites, or Spanifh catch-
fly.; and the acaulis, or mofs campion.
'CUCULUS, the Cuckow, in ornithology, a genus be¬
longing to the order of picae. The .bill is fomewhat
cylindrical; the edges of the noftrils are a little pro¬
minent • the tongue is arrow-fhaped, plain, and not
divided, and the toes are of the climbing,kind, i. e.
two before and two behind. It is about the fize of a
pigeon. The cuckow is a migrating bird ; it comes to
Britain about the end of April, hatches its young, and
difappears about St John’s day. The cuckow neither
builds a neft, nor fits upon its eggs; but takes poffef-
fion of a neft built by fmall birds of the fparrow kind,
in which it generally lays but one egg, which is hatch¬
ed by the fmall bird along with its own eggs ; during
the time of hatching, the cuckow fits upon hedges or
trees, and almoft conftantly fings. If the cmkow’s
egg be firft hatched, fhe immediately throws out and
deftroys the eggs of the fmall bird; but if the fmall
bird’s eggs be firft hatched, the cuckow allows the
young to live till its own egg is hatched, and then de¬
ftroys the young belonging to the fmall bird. The
fmall bird feeds and brings up the young cuckow with
as much care arid attention as if it were its own, till
it be able to procure its own food, when, fome fay, it
ungratefully kills and eats its nurfe. The cuckow feeds
upon caterpillars and fmall birds; but is never tranf-
formed into a hawk, as is vulgarly fuppofed. It is
a native of Europe. Linnteus enumerates no lefs than
22 fpecies, which inhabit different parts of the globe,
and are chiefly diftinguifhed by thg fhape of the tail
and variations in colour.
’CUCUMBER, in botany. See Cucumis.
CUCUMIS, or Cucumber, in botany, a genus of the
mqnoecia. fyngenefia clafs. The calix of the male has
five teeth ; the corolla is divided into five fegments;
and the filaments are three : The calix and corolla of
the female are the fame with thofe of the male ; the
piftiilum is trifid ; and the feeds of the apple are fliort
and flender. There are 11 fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
CUCURBIT, in chemiftry. See Chemistry, Vol. II.
p. 109.
CUCURBITA, the gourd, in botany, a genus of the
monoecia fyngenefia clafs. The' calix has five teeth ;
the corolla is divided into five fegments; and the fila¬
ments are three : The calix and corolla of the female
are the fame with thofe of the male ; the piftillum is
quinquefid ; and the feeds of the apple are turned at
the edges. The fpecies are five, none of them natives
of Britain.
CUD fometimes means the infide of the throat in beafts,
and fometimes the food that they keep there and
chew over again : from whence, to chew the cud,
fignifies, to ponder, think, or ruminate upon a thing.
CUDWEED, in botany. See Gnaphalium.
CUENCA, a city and bilhop’s fee of New Caftile, in
Spain, about eighty-five miles eaft of Madrid :. W.
long. 20 40', and N. lat. 40° 12 .
CUIRASSE, a piece of defenfive armour, made of iron
plate, well hamfriered, ferving to cover the body, from
the neck to the girdle, both before and behind.
Whence,
CUIRASSIERS, cavalry armed with cuiraffes, as moft
of the Germans are: the French have a regiment of
cuiraffiers ; but we have had none in the Britifti army
fince the revolution.
CULDEES, in church-hiftory, a fort of monkifh priefts,
formerly inhabiting Scotland and Ireland. Being re-
markable'for the religious exercifes of preaching and
praying, they were called, by way of eminence, cul-
tores Dei; from whence is derived the word culdees.
They made choice of one of their own fraternity to be
their fpiritual head, who was afterwards called the
Scots bilhop.
CULEUS, in Roman antiquity, the largeft meafure of
capacity for things liquid,, containing twenty amphorae,
or forty urnse. It contained one hundred forty-three
gallons, three pints, Englifh wine-meafure; and was
11.095 folid inches.
CULEX, in zoology, a genus of infefts belonging to the
order of diptera: The mouth is armed with fetaceous
prickles inclofed in a flexile fheath. There are feVen
fpecies, principally diftinguifhed by their colour,
CULIACAN, the capital of a province of the fame name
in Mexico, oppofite to the fouthern end of California:
W. long. 11 30, and N. lat. 240.
CULLIAGE, a baibarousand immoral praftice, where¬
by the lords of manors anciently affumed a right to the
firft night of their vaffals brides.
CULLEN, a parliament town in Scotland, fituated on
the fea-coaft of Banfftiire : W. long. 20 12 , and N.
lat. 570 38'.
CULM, or Culm us, among botanifts. See Vol. I.
p. 641.
CULMI-
CUP ( *99 ) CUR
CULMINATION, in aftronomy, the paflage of any
heavenly body over the meridian, or its greateft alti¬
tude for that day.
CULMORE, a town of Ireland, in the county of Lon¬
donderry, and province of Ulfter, about five miles
north of Londonderry : W. long. 70 40', and N. lat
CULMUS. See Culm.
CULPRIT, a formal reply of a proper officer in court,
in behalf of the king, after a criminal has pleaded not
guilty, affirming him to be guilty, without which the
iffiue to be tried is not joined.
The term culprit is a contradtion of the Latin cul-
pqbilis, and the French priji; importing that he is
ready to prove the criminal guilty.
CULROSS, a parliament town of Scotland, fituated on
the river Forth, about twenty-three miles north-weft
of Edinburgh : W. long. 30 34', and N. lat. 56° 8'.
CULVERIN, -in the military art, a large cannon, or
piece of artillery; for the kinds, weight, and propor¬
tions of which, fee Cannon.
CULVERTAILED, among ffiip-wrights, fignifies the
faftening, or letting, of one timber into another, fo
that they cannot flip out, as the catlings into the beams
of a ffiip.
CUMBERLAND, one of the moft northerly counties
of England, feparated from Scotland by the frith and
river of Solway.' It gives the title of duke to his royal
highnefs William duke of Cumberland, tic.
CUMINOIDES, in botany. SeeLapoECiA.
CUMINUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria di-
gynia clafs. The fruit is oval and ftriated; it has
four umbellulae, and tRe involucrum confifts of four
fegments. There is but one fpecies, a native of E-
gypt. The feeds are carminative and ftomachic.
CUNEIFORM, in general, an appellation given to
whatever refembles a wedge.
Cuneiform bone, in ^natomy. See Vol. I. p. 180.
CUNEUS, the wedge, in mechanics. See Mecha-
CUNICULUS, in zoology. See Lepus.
CUNILA, in botany, a genus of the diandria monogynia
clafs; of which there are three fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
CUNNINGHAM, one-of the four bailiwicks of Scot¬
land, and one of the three into which the (hire of Aire
is fubdivided. It lies north-eaft of Kyle. Its chief
town is Irwin.
CUP, among botanifts, the fame with calyx. See Ca¬
lyx.
CUPANIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo¬
nogynia clafs. The calix confifts of three leaves ; the
ftylus is trifid ; the capfule has three valves ; and the
feeds are fix. There is but one fpecies, a native of
America.
CUPOLA, in archite&ure, a fpherical vault; or the
round top of the dome of a church, in form of a cup
inverted.
CUPPEL, or Coppel, inchemiftry. See Coppel.
CUPPING, in furgery, the operation of applying cup-
Vol. II. No. 42. 3
ping-glafles for the difcharge of blood, and other hu¬
mours, by the Ikin. See Surgery.
CUPRESSUS, the Cypress-tree, a genus of the
monoecia monodelphia clafs. The calix of the male
is a fcale of the amentum ; it has no corolla ; and the
antl^erce have no filaments : The calix of the female is
a ftrobilus, and the fquama contains a Angle flower ;
it has no corolla ; the ftylus is a concave point; and
the nut is angular. The fpecies are four, none of'
them natives of Britain.
CUPRUM, or Copper. See Chemistry, Vol. II.
p. 80.
CURASSOW, or Curacao, one of the lefler Antille
iflands, fubjedt to the Dutch, and fituated in 68° 30'
W. long, and 120 go' N. lat.
CURATE, properly figniiies the parfon or vicar of a
pariffij who has the charge or cure of the pariffioners
fouls. See Cure.
Cu rate, alfo fignifies a perfon fubftituted by the in¬
cumbent, to ferve his cure in his ftead.
CURATOR, among civilians, a perfon regularly ap¬
pointed to manage the affairs of minors, or perfons
mad, deaf, dumb, tic- See Law.
CURB, in the menage, a chain of iron, made faft to
the upper part of the branches of the bridle, in a hole
called the eye, and running over the horfe’s beard.
It confifts of thefe three parts; the hook, fixed to the
eye of the branch; the chain of SS’s, or links; and
the two rings, or mailes. Large curbs, provided they
be round, are always moft gentle: but care is to be
taken, that it reft in its proper place, a little above
the beard, otherwife the bit-mouth will no have the
effedt that may be expected from it.
Engliffi watering bits have no curbs; the Turkiffi
bits, called genettes, have a ring that ferves inftead
of a curb. See Genettes.
CURCULIO, in zoology, a genus of infedts belonging
to the order of coleoptera. The feelers are fubclava-
ted, and reft upon the fnout, which is prominent and
horny. There are no lefs than ninety-five fpecies,
principally diftinguiffied by their colour.
CURCUMA, or Turmeric, in botany, a genus of
the monandria monogynia clafs. It has four barren
ftamina, and only the fifth is fertile. There are two
fpecies, both natives of India. See Vol. I. p. 633.
CURDISTAN, a province of Perfia, having Turcoma-
nia, or Armenia, on the north, and Eyraca-Arabic,
or Chaldea, on the fouth.
CURDLING, the coagulating any fluid body, efpecially
milk.
It is faid, that at Florence they curdle their milk
for the making of cheefe with artichoke-flowers, in¬
ftead of the rennet ufed among us for that purpofe.
CURFEW, or Courfew, a fignal given in cities ta¬
ken in war, tic. to the inhabitants to go to bed.
Pafquin fays, it was fo called, as being intended to
advertife the people to fecure themfelves from the
robberies and debaucheries of the night.
The moft: eminent curfew in England was that efta-
blifhed by William the Conqueror, who appointed,
4 G under
CUR (
und^r fevere penalties, that, at the ringing of a bell
at eight o’clock in the evening, every one Ihould put
out their lights and fires, and go to bed: whence, to
this day, a bell rung about that time is called a cur¬
few-bell.
CURIA, in Roman antiquity, a certain divifion, or por¬
tion of a tribe. Romulus divided the people into thir¬
ty curias, or wards, whereof there, were ten in every
tribe, that each might keep the ceremonies of their
feafts and facrifices in the temple, or holy place, ap¬
pointed for every curia. The priefl: of the curia was
called curio.
Curia, in the Engl ilh law,'generally fignifies a court;
and has been taken for the cuftomary tenants, who do
their fuit and fervice at the court of the lord. See
Court.
CURIISTG, a term ufed for the preferring filh, flefh, and
other animal fubfiances, by means of certain additions
of things, to prevent putrefaftion. One great method
of doing this, is by fmoking the bodies with the fmoke
of wood, or rubbing them with fajt, nitre,
CURLEW, in ornithology. See Scolopax.
CURNOCK, a rneafure of corn, containing four bulhels,
or half a quarter.
CURRANS, or Currants, the fruit of a fpecies of
grofiularia. See Grossularia.
The white and red fort are moftly ufed; for the
black, and chiefly the leaves, uponfirft coming out, are
in ufe to flavour Englifli fpirits, and counterfeit French
brandy. Currants greatly afiuage drought, cool and
fortify the ftomach, and help digeftion.
Currants alfo fignify a fmaller kind of grapes brought
principally from Zant.and Cephalonia. They are ga¬
thered off the buihes, and laid to dry in the fun,
and fo put up in large butts. They are opening and
pedoral, but are more ufed in the kitchen, than in
medicine.
Currants, the hundred weight pay on exportation
i 1. 23. i-j^d. and drawback on exportation 11. os.
7 i^od. ^ imported in Venetian (hips, they pay the
112 lb. i 1. 3 s. 7t3cM. and draw back 11. is. SV^d.
In otheyr foreign bottoms they pay 11. ys. 4t9/o
and draw back i 1. 5 s. 6-n£s'd.
CURRENT, in hydrography, a ft re am or flux of wa¬
ter in any dire&ion. In the fea, they are either na¬
tural, occafioned by the diurnal motion of the earth
round its axis, or accidental, caufed by the waters be¬
ing driven againft promontories, or into gulfs and
{freights,. where, wanting room to fpread, they are
driven back, and thus difturb the ordinary flux of the
fea. Dr Halley makes it highly probable that in the
Downs, ‘there are under-currents, by which as much
water is carried out as is brought in. by the upper-cur¬
rents.
Currents, in navigation, are certain fettings of the
ftream, by which {hips are compelled to alter their
eourfe or velocity, or both, and fubrnit to the motion
ivnpreffed upon them by the current. See Naviga¬
tion.
CURRIERS, ihofe who drefs and colour leather after
it comes from the tan yard. See Tanning.
00 ) C U S
CURRUCU, in ornithology. See Motacilla.
CURRYING, the method of preparing leather with oil,
tallow, See Tanning.
CURTATE dijianee, in aftronomy, the diftance of a
a planet from the fun to that point where a perpendi¬
cular let fall from the planet meets with the ecliptic.
CURTATION, in aftronomy, is the interval between
a planet’s diftance from the fun, and the curtate di-
ftance.
CURTIN, Curtain, or Courtin, in fortification,
is that part of the rampart of a place which is be¬
twixt the flanks of two baftions, bordered with a pa¬
rapet five feet high, behind which the foldiers' Hand
to fire upon the covered way and into the moat.
CURVATOR coccygis, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p.
220.
CURVATURE of a ' line, is the peculiar manner of
its bending or flexure by which it becomes a curve of
fuch and fuch peculiar properties.
CURVE, in geometry, a line which running on conti¬
nually in all diredlions, may be cut by one right line
in,more points thanone. See Conic Sections, and
Fluctions.
CURVET, or Corvet, in the menage* an air in which
the horfe’s kgs are raifed higher than in the demi volt;
being a kind of leap up, and a little forwards, where¬
in the horfe raifes both his fore-legs at once, equally
advanced, (when he is going ftraight forward, and not
in a circle), and as his fore-legs are falling, he imme¬
diately raifes his hind-legs, equally advanced, and not
one before the other : fo that all his four legs are in
the air at once;, and as he fets them down, he marks
but twice with them.
CURVILINEAR, or Curvilineal, is faid of figures
boundedEy curves, or crooked lines.
CURVIROSTRA, in ornithology. See Loxia.
CURULE chair, in Roman antiquity, a chair adorned
with ivory, wherein the great magiftrates of Rome
had a right to fit and be carried.
The curule magiftrates were the asdlles, the praetors,
cenfors, and confuls. This chair was fitted in a kind
of chariot, whence it had its name. The fenators
who had borne the offices of aediles, praetors, <bc.
. were carried to the fenate-houfe in this chair, as were
alfo thofe who triumphed, and fuch as went to admi-
nifter juftice, e5rc. See A£dile, fac.
CURZOLA, an ifland in the gulf of Venice, upon the
coaft of Dalmatia, about twelve miles from the ifland
of Lefiina.
CUSCO, the capital city of Peru, during the reigns of
the Incas: it isftill a fine city, aid the fiee of a bi-
fhop, and Hands about 350 miles eaft of Lima, in 70*
W. long, and 130 S. lat.
CUSCUTA, or D Odder, a genus of the tetrandria digy-
nia clafs. The calix confifts of four fegments; the co¬
rolla has but one petal ; and the capfule is bilocular.
The are twm fpecies, one of which is a native of
Britain, viz. the Europcea, dodder, hell-weed, or
devil’sguts.
CUSPIDATED, in botany, are fuch plants whofe
leaves are pointed like a fpear.
CUSTOM,
C U Z ( 3'
CUSTOM, a very comprehenfive term, denoting the
manners, ceremonies and fafhions of a people, which
having turned into a habit, and paffed into ufe, obtains
the force of laws ; in which fenfe it implies fuch ufa-
ges, as, though voluntary at firft, are yet, by pradtice,
become neceflary.
Cutlom is hence, both by lawyers and civilians, de¬
fined lex nan fcripta, a law, or right, not written,
eflablifhed by long ufage, and the confent of our an-
celtors; in which fenfe it (lands oppofed to the lex
fcripta, or the written law.
Customs, in commerce, the tribute or toll, paid by
merchants to the king, for goods exported or import¬
ed : they are otherwife culled duties. See Duty.
Custom house, an office eftablilhed by the king’s au¬
thority in-the maritime cities, or port-towns, for the
receipt and management of the cuftoms and duties of
importation and exportation, impofed on merchandifes,
and regulated by books of rates
CUSTOS brevium, the principal clerk belonging to the
court of common pleas, whofe bufinefs it is to receive
and keep all the writs made returnable in that court,
filing every return by itfelf; and, at the end of each
term, to receive of the prothonotaries all the records
of the nifi prius, called the pofteas.
Gustos rotulorum, an officer who has the cnflody of the
rolls and records, of the fefiions of peace,, and alfo-of
the commiffion of the peace irfelf.
He ufually is fome perfonmf quality, and always a
juft-ice of the peace, of the quorum, in the county
• where he is appointed.
Custos fpiritualium, he that exercifes the fpiritual ju-
rifdiftion of a diocefe, during the vacancy of any dee,
which, by the canon law, belongs to the dean and
chapter ; but at prefect, in England, to the archbiftrop
of the province, by prefcription.
Gustos temperaliurn was the perfon.to whom a vacant
fee or abbey was given by the king, as fupreme lord.
His office was, as fteward of the goods and profits, to
give an account to the efeheator, who did the like to
the exchequer.
CUTAMBULI, certain worms, either under the fkin,
or upon it, which, by their creeping, caufe an uneafy
fenfation. It is alfo applied to wandering fcorbutic
• pains.
CUT-A-FEATHER, in the fea-language. If a fhip
has too broad a bow, it is common to fay, Jhe-'will
not cut a feather •, that is, fhe will not pafs through
the water fo fwift, as to make it foam or froth.
CUTANEOUS, in general, an Appellation given to
; whatever belongs to. the cutis or fkin.
CUTICLE, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 285.
CUTICULAR- the fame with cutaneous.
CUTIS, the Sriu, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 254.
CUTTER of the tallies, an officer of the exchequer,
whole bufinefs is to provide wood for the tallies, to
cur or notch the fum paid upon them; and then to
caft them into court, to be written upon. See Tally.
CUTTLE-FISH. See Sepia.
CUZT, the moft eaftern province of thekingdom of Fez,
in Africa.
DI ) C Y D
CYANUS, in botany. See Centaurja,
CYATHUS, in Roman antiquity, a liquid meafure,
containing four ligulas, or half a pint Englifh wine-
meafure, being 469-f folid inches.
CYCLAMEN, or Sow-bread, in botany, a genus of
the pentandria monogynia clafs. The corolla is rota¬
ted and reflected; the tube is very ffiort, with a pro¬
minent faux ; and the fierry is covered with a capfule.
There are two fpecies, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain. The root is a powerful aperient and abfttrgent.
CYCLE. See Vol. I. P. 491.
Cycle of the moon. See Vol. I. p. 491.
Cycle of the Roman indiflion. See Vol. I. p. 491.
CYCLISCUS, in furgery, an inftrument in the form of
a half moon, ufed in fcrAping the fkull, in cafe of
fradtures of that part.
CYCLOID, a curve on which the dodtrine of pendulums
and time meafuring inftruments in a great meafure de¬
pend ; Mr Huygens demonftrated, that from whatever
point or height a heavy body, ofcillating on a fixed-
centre, begins to defeend, while it continues to move,
in a cycloid, the time of its falls or ofcillations wilt
be equal to each other. It is likewife demonftrable,
that it is the curve of quickeft defeent, i. e. a body
falling in it, from any given point above, to another,
not exadtly under it, will come to this point in a lefs
time than, in any other curve palling through thofe two
points.
CYCLOMETRY, a term fometimes ufed for the rr.er.-
furation of circles.
CYCLOPAEDIA, or Encyclopaedia, denotes the
circle or compafs of arts arid feiences. A cyc'lopxd:a,
fay the authors of the French Encyclopedia, ougho
ro explain, as much as poffible, the 6rder and con-
nedtion of human knowledge. See Dictionary.
CYCLOPTERUS, the Lump-fish, in ichthyology, a
genus belonging to the order of amphibia nantes. The:
head is obtufe, and furniffied with faw-teeth; there
are four rays in the gills; and the belly-fins are con-
nedbed together in an orbicular form. There are three
fpecies.
CYDER, an excellent drink made of the juice of apples,
It conduces greatly toihe goodnefs of the cyder, to let
the apples lie a week or two in heaps, before they are
prelled. After ftraining the liquor through a fieve, let it
ftand a day or two in an open tun, covered only with a-
cloth, or boards, to keep out the duft, that the more
grofs parts may fubfide. Then draw it off in pails in¬
to veffels, wherein it is intended to be kept, obferving;
to leave an eighth part of them empty. Set thefe vef-
els in your coldeft cellars, with the bung open, or
covered only with a loofe cover, both that the volatile
fteams may have free vent, and that the muft may he-
kept cool, otherwife it is apt ta ferment too much.
Having fermemad in this manner for fifteen or twenty,
days, the yeflel may be ftopped up clofe; and, in two, .
or three months time, die -cyder will he fit for drink ¬
ing. But if you expedt cyder in perfedtion, fo as to
flower in the glafs, it muft be glued as they .call it,
and drawn off into bottles, after fit has been a fliort.
time in the calk : this is done by pouring into each y$f-
C Y N ( 302 ) C Y N
Tel a pint of the infufion of fixty or feventy grains of
the moft tranfparent ifing-glafs, or fifh-glue, in a little
white-wine and river or rain water, flirred well toge¬
ther, after being (trained through a linen cloth. When
this vifcous fubltance is put into the cadi, it fpreads it-
felf over the furface like a net, and carries all the dregs
to the bottom with it.
Ginger added to cyder, not only corredts its windi-
nefs, but makes it more brilk; and a few drops of
currant juice, befides tinging, adds a pleafant quick-
nefs to it. Honey, or fugar, mixed with fome fpices,
and added to flat cyder, will very much revive it.
Some commend boiling of cyder-juice, which fhould
be done as foon as it is prefled, fcumming it continu¬
ally, and obferving to let it boil no longer than till it
acquires the colour of fmall beer : when cold, put it
into a cade, leaving a fmall vent ; and when it begins
to bubble up out of the vent, bottle it for ufe.
CYDONIA, in botany. See Crateva.
CYGNUS, in ornithology. See Anas.
Cygnus, in aftronomy. See Vol. I. p. 486.
CYLINDER, in geometry, a folid body, fuppofed to
be generated by the rotation of a parallelogram.
Rolling, or loaded Cylinder. See Me c h a n 1 c s .
CYLINDROID, in geometry, a folid body, approach¬
ing to the rigure of a cylinder, but differing from it in
fome refpeft, as having the bafes elliptical, but paral
lei and equal.
CYLINDRUS, in natural hiflory. See Voluta.
CYMA, in botany, the tender (talks which herbs fend
forth in the beginning of the fpring, particularly thgfe
of the cabbage-kind.
CYMATIUM, in architefture, a member or moulding,
of the corniche, the profile of which is waved, that
is, concave at top, and convex at bottom. See Ar-
CHITECTURE.
CYMBAL, a mufical inftrument in ufe among the an¬
cients. The cymbal was round, made of brafs-, like
our kettle-drums, and, as fome think, in their form,
but fmaller, and of different ufe.
CY'MBALARIA, in botany. See Antirrhinum.
CYMBARIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermia clafs of plants The calix is divided into
many parts; and the capfule is unilocular. There is
but one fpecies.
CYNAlDUS, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
CYNANCHE, among phyficians, denotes an inflamma¬
tion of the larynx.
CYNANCHUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
digynia clafs. The nedtarium is cylindrical, and has
five teeth. There are five fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
CYNANTHROPIA, in medicine, the diftemper occafi-
oned by the bite of a mad dog. See Medicine.
CYNAPIUM, in botany. See Ethusa.
CYNARA, the Artichoak, in botany, a genus of the
fyngenefia polygamia aequalis clafs. The calix is di¬
lated and imbricated, with flefliy feales fharp at the
points. There are four fpecies, none of them natives
-of Britain. The ufe of the artichoke as a food is well
known.
CYNICS, a feci of ancient philofophers, who valued
themfelves upon their contempt of riches and (late,
arts and fciences, and every thing, in ihort, except
virtue or morality.
The cynic philofophers owe their origin and inftitu-
tion to Antifthenes of Athens, a_difciple of Socrates,
who, being afleed of what ufe his philofophy had been
to him, replied, “ It enables me to live with myfelf.”
Diogenes was the moft famous of his difciples, in
whofe life the fyftem of this philofophy appears in its
greateft perfedlion: he led a molt wretched life, a tub
having ferved him for a lodging, which he rolled be¬
fore him where ever he went; yet he was, neverthelefs,
not the more humble orf account of his ragged cloak,
bag. and tub; for, one day, entering Plato’s houfe,
at a time that there was a fplendid entertainment there
for feveral perfons of diltindtion, he jumped up upon a
very rich couch, in all his dirt, faying, “ I trample on
the pride of Plato.” “ Yes (replied Plato,) but with
great pride, Diogenes.” He had the utmoft contempt
for all the human race, for he walked the ftreets of A-
thens, at noon-day; with a lighted lantern in his hand,
telling the people, “ He was in fearch of a man.”
Amongfl many excellent maxims of morality, he held
fome very pernicious opinions ; for he ufed to fay,
that the uninterrupted good fortune of Harpalus,
who generally pafled for a thief and a robber, was a
teftimony againft the gods. He regarded chaftity and
modefty as weaknefles; hence Laertius obferves of
him, that he did every thing openly, whether it be¬
longed to Ceres or Venus, though he adds that Dio¬
genes only ran to an excefs of impudence to put others
out of conceit with it: but impudence was the charac-
terillic of thefe philofophers, who argued, that what
was right to be done, might be done at all times, and
in all places. The chief principle of this fed, in com¬
mon with the ftoics, was, that we (hould follow nature;
butthey differed from the ftoics in their explanation of
that maxim, the cynics being of opinion that a man
followed nature, that gratified his natural motions and
appetites; while the ftoics underftood right reafon,
by the word nature.
Cynic spasm, a kind of convulfion, wherein the patient
imitates the bowlings of dogs.
CYNIPS, in zoology, a genus of infeds belonging to the
order of hymenoptera. The mouth confifts of two
jaws, without any probdfeis; and the (ling in the tail
is fpiral, and generally hid. There are nineteen fpecies,
diftinguiflied by their colour, and the plants they in¬
habit.
CYNOCEPHALUS, in zoology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of fimia. See Si mi a.
CYNOGLOSSUM, in botany, a genus of the pentan¬
dria monogynia clafs. The corolla is tunnel (haped ;
the feeds are deprefled, and the ftylus is fixed to the
interior fide of them. There are eight fpecies, only
one of which is a native of Britain, viz. the officinale,
or hound’s-tongue; the root is faid to be pedoral and
narcotic.
CY'NOMETRA, in botany, a genus of the decandria
monogyuia clafs. The calix confifts of fourfegments,
the
C. Y P
the oppofite ones being broader ; and the legumen is
flefhy, lunated, and contains but one feed. There are
two fpeci's, both natives of India.
CYNOMORIUMj in botany, a genus of the monoecia
monandria clafs. The calix of the female is an im¬
bricated amentum, and neither male nor female has a.
corolla; the female has one ftyius, and pne round
feed. There is but one fpecies, a native of Jamaica.'
CYNOSURUS, in botany, a genus of the triandria dy-
ginia clafs. The calix is a double valve, and incluijes
many flowers. There are ten fpecies, four of which
are natives of Britain-, viz. the criftatus, or crefted
dog-tail grafs; the echinatus, or rough dog-tail grafs;
the cseruleus,- or blue dog-tail grafs ; and the paniceus,
or bearded dog-tail grafs.
CYPERUS, in botany, a genus of the triandria mono-
gynia clafs. The gluma is paleaceous and imbricated;
it has no corolla, and but one naked feed. There are
twenty fpecies,-only one of which is a native of Bri¬
tain, viz. the longus, fweet cyperus, or Englilh ga-
lingale ; the root is carminative and attenuant.
CYPHOMA, Cyphos, ovCyphosis, an incurvation of
the fpine, forming a crookednefs in the back.
CYPRASA, in zoology, a genus of infedts belonging to
the order of vermes teftacea. It is an animal of the
limax or fnail-kind; the Ihell is one involated, fubova-
ted, obtufe, fmooth valve. The aperture on each fide
is linear, longitudinal, and teethed. There are forty-
four fpecies, diftinguiftied by the form of their ftiells;
CYPRESS. See Cupressus.
CYPRINUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fiflies belong¬
ing to the order of abdominales. The mouth is tooth-
lefs ; there afe three rays in the gills ; the body is
fmooth, and white; and the belly-fins have frequently
nine rays. There are thirty-one fpecies, principally di-
ftinguilhed by the number of rays in the vent-fin. •
CYPRIPEDIUM, in botany, a genus of the gynandria
diandria clafs. The nedlarium is ventricofe, inflated,
and hollow. There are two fpecies, one of them,
viz. the calceolus, or ladies flipper, a native of Britain.
CYPRUS, an ifland fituated in the moft eaflerly.part of
the Levant, or Mediterranean fea, between *33° and
c z o
36° E. long, and between 34° and 30° N.Jat.
Knights of Cyprus, an order inflituted by £uy de
Lufignan, titular king of Jerufalem, to whom Rich-r
ard I. of EngLnd, after conquering this ifland, made
over his right.
CYRENAICS, a fed of ancient philofophers, fo called
from their founder, Ariftippus of Cyrene, a difciple of
Socrates.
The great principle of their dodrine was, that the
fupreme good of man in this life is pleafure; whereby
they not only meant a privation of pain, and a tranquillity
of mind, but an aflemblage of all mental and lenfual
pleafures, particularly the laft.
CYST, the bag, or tunic, including all incyfted tumors,
as the fcirrhus, atheroma, lleotoma, meliceres, he.
CYSTIC, a name given to two arteries and two veins.
See Vol. I. p. 245.
Cystic duct. See Vol. I. p. 263.
CYTISUS, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia de-
candria clafs. The calix is bilabiated ; and the legu¬
men is attenuated at the bafe. There are eleven Ipe-
cies, none of them natives of Britain.
CZACKATHURN, a town of Germany, in thedutchy
af Stiria, and circle of Auftria, fituated near the con¬
flux of the rivers Muer and Save, about fifty miles
fouth-eafi: of Gratz: E. long. 17°, and N. lat. 46°
50'.
CZAR, a title of honour aflumed by the great dukes,
or, as they are now flyled, emperors of RufHa.
Beckman makes no doubt but they took this title,
by corruption, from Casfar, emperor; and accordingly
they bear an eagle, as the fymbol of their empire, and
the word Oesar in their arms.
CZASLAW, a town of Bohemia, about thirty-five
miles fouth-eaft of Prague : E. long. 150 8', and N.
lat. 490 50'.
CZERNLGOF, the capital of the province of Czerni-
gof, in Rulfia, near the frontiers of Poland : E. long.
31°, 30/, and N.Jat. 520 3c/.
CZONGRODT, a town of Hungary, fituated on the
river Thiefle, about thirty miles north of Segedint
E. long. 200 45/, and N. lat. 46° 36,.
( 3«3 )
D
D A C
DAB, in iclythyology, the Englifli name of a fpecies
of pleuronedtes. See Pleuronectes.
DACA, a city of the province of Bengal, in the Eafl-
Indies, fituated on a branch of the river Gange?: E.
long. 89° and N. lat. 23° 30'.
DA CAPO, in mufic, fignifies from the head or begin¬
ning ; intimating, that the air is to be begun again,
and ended with the firft part.
DACE, the Englih name of a fpecies of cyprinus. See
Cyprinus.
Vol. II. No. 42.
D A C
DACOLITHUS, in ichthyology. See Coeitis.
DACTYL, in poetry, a metrical foot confifting of a
long and two fliort fyllables, as carmina, evident^
excellence.
The daftyl and Ipondee are the only feet or mea-
fiires ufed in hexameter verfes. See Hexameter,
DACTYLIS, in botany, a genus of the triandria di-
gynia clafs of plants. The calix confifls of two ob¬
tufe valves, the one being fomewhat larger than the
other. The fpecies are two, viz. the cynofuroides.
3
DAL ( 304 ) DAN
or fmooth cock’s-foot grafs; and the glomeratus, or
rough cock’s-foot grafs ; both natives of Britain.
Dactylus. in zoology. See Pholas.
DADUCHI, in antiquity, priefts of the goddefs Ceres,
fo called, becaufe at the feafts and facrifices of that
goddefs, they ran about the temple, carrying a lighted
torch, which they delivered from hand to hand, till it
had pa<Ted through them all. This they did in me¬
mory of Ceres’s fearching for her daughter Proferpine,
by the light of a torch, which (he kindled in mount
Akna.
DiEMON, a name given by the ancients to certain fpi-
rits, or genii, which appeared to men, either to do
them fervice, or to hurt them. The Platonifts dittin-
guifh between gods, dsemons, and heroes. The gods
are thofe whom Cicero calls Dii majorum gentium.
The daemons are thofe whom we call angels. Chri-
ftians, by the word daemon, underftand only evil fpi-
rits, or devils.
DEMONIAC, a word applied to a perfon fuppofed to
be pofleffed with an evil fpirit, or daemon. See D«-
MON.
Demoniacs, in church-hiflory, a branch of the ana-
baptifts, whofe didinguilhing tenet is, that the devils
lhall be faved at the end of the world.
DAGO, or Dagerwort, the capital of an ifland of
the fame name in the Baltic, near the coaft of Livonia,
fubjettto Ruffia: E. long. 2i°;o', and N.lat.
DAHGESTAN, a country of Alia, bounded by Circailia
•n the north, by the Cafpian fea on the Eaft, by
Chirvein a province of Perfia on the fouth, and by
Georgia on the weft. Its chief towns are Tarku and
Derbent, both fituated on the Cafpian fea.
DAHOME, a kingdom of Africa, on the Guihea
coaft.
DAISY. SccBellis.
Daisy. See Leucanthemum.
0jr-e>-e Daisy. See Buphthalmum.
DALEA, in botany. SccPsoralea.
DALEBURGH, the capital of the province of Dalia,
in Sweden, fituated on the weftern fide of the Wener-
lake, fifty miles north-eaft of Gottenbutg; E. long.
130, and N. lat. 590.
D ALECARLIA, a province of Sweden, abounding with
iron and-copper mines.
DALECHAMP1A, in botany, a genus of the monoe-
cia monodelphia clafs. It has no corolla either in the
male or .female ; and the feeds are roundilh and foli-
tary. There is but one fpecies, viz. the fcandens, a
n i’ive of America.
DALKEITH, a town of Scotland, in the county of Lo¬
thian, fix miles fouth-eaft of Edinburgh : W. long. 20
40', and N. lat. 55° 50'.
DALIA, a province of Sweden, bounded on the north
by Dalecarlia, on the eaft by Wermeland and the
Wener-lakc, on the fouth by Gothland, and on the
weft bv Norway.
DALMATIA, a frontier province of Europe, moftly
fubjefi to the Turks, but fonie towns on the fea-coaft
to the Venetians : it is bounded by Bofnia on the
north, by Servia on the eaft, by Albania on the fouth.
and by Morlachia and the gulph of Venice on the
weft.
DAMA, in zoology. SeeCcRvus.
DAMAGE, in law, is generally underftood of a hurt,
or hindrance attending- a perfon’s eftate.
DAM ALA, a fea port town of the Morea in (Greece, at
the entry of the gulf of Engea.
DAMAN, a port-town of the hither India, in the pro¬
vince of Guzurat or Cambay, fituated on the weft
coaft, about eighty miles fouth of Surat, in 72° 2c/
E. long, and 20° N. lat. It is fubjedt to the Portu-
guefe. -
DAMASCUS, or Scham, the capital city of the fouth
part of Syria, fituated ninety miles north-eaft of Jeru-
falem, in a pleafant, extenfive, and fruitful plain ; E,
long 370 20/, and N. lat. 330 1$,
DAMASK, a filk-ftuff, with a raifed pattern, fo as that
the’ right fide of the damalk is that which hath the
flowers raifed or fattined.
DAMASKEENING, or Damasking, the art or ope¬
ration of beautifying iron, fteel, tire, by making in-
cifions therein, and filling them up with gold and fil-
ver.wire; chiefly ufed for adorning fword-blades,
guards and gripes, Locks of piftols, <bc.
DAMASONIUM, in botany. SeeAmsoNA.
DAMBEA, the capital of Abyflinia, or Ethiopia, fitu¬
ated at the head of a lake, to which it gives name: E.
long. 340, and N. lat. 150.
DAMELOPRE, a kind of bilander, ufed in Holland for
conveying merchandize from one canal to another; be¬
ing very commodious for pafling under the bridges.
DAMIANISTS, in church-hiftory, a branch of the an¬
cient acephali-feveritae. They agreed with the catho¬
lics in admitting the IVth council, but difowned any
diftindtions of peribns in the Godhead ; and profefled
one Angle nature, incapable of any difference; and
yet they called God, the Father, Son, and Holy
Ghoft.
DAM1ETTA, a port-town of Egypt, fituated on the
eaftern mouth of the river Nile, four miles from the
fea, and 100 miles north of Grand Cairo ^ E, long.
320, and N. lat. 310.
DAMNATA Terra, among chemifts, the fame with
caput mortuum. See Caput.
DAMPS, in natural hiftory, noxious fteams and exha¬
lations, frequently found in mines, pits, wells, and
other fubterraneous places. See Pneumatics.
DAMSEL, from the French damoifel, or dameifeau, an
appellation anciently given to all young people of ei¬
ther fex, that were of noble or genteel extradlion, as
the fonsand daughters of princes, knights, and barons :
thus we read of Damfel Pepin, Damfel Louis le Gros^
Damfel Richard prince of Wales.
From the fons of kings this appellation firft pafled to
thofe of great Ibrds and barons, and at length to thofe
af gentlemen, who were not yet knights.
At prefent, damfel is applied to all maids or girls,
not yet married, provided they be not of the vulgar.
DAN'AE, in antiquity, a coin fomewhat more than an
obolus, ufed to be put into the mouths of the dead, to
pay their paffage over the river Acheron.
DANCE,
DAN ( 305 ) D A R
DANCE, an agreeable motion of the body, adjufted
by art to the meafures or tune of inftruments, or of
the voice.
Athenseus concludes, that in the early ages of anti¬
quity, they accounted dancing an exercife becoming
perfons of honour and wifdom ; and that, as fuch, it
had been efteemed by the greateft men in all ages.
Thus, Homer calls Merion a fine dancer; and fays,
that the graceful mein and great agility which he had
acquired by that exercife, dilHnguifhed him above the
reft in the armies of either Greeks or Trojans. Dan¬
cing was in very great efteem among the Greeks, even
the Lacedemonians encouraged it : but, at Rome, we
find the cuftom was quite otherwife ; for there, to ufe
the words of Cicero, no man dances unlefs he is mad
or drunk: Cicero reproaches Gabinius with having
danced : and we read, that Domitian excluded feveral
members from the fenate for having danced.
Dancing in general, was by the ancients divided into
cubiftic, fpheriftic, and orcheftic : the cubiftic dance
was performed with certain wrefllings and contorfions
of the body; the fpheriftic with a fort of ball, or
bowl play; but the orcheftic was moft ufual, and what
indeed was dancing properly fo called.
Dancing is ufually an effedt and indication of joy;
though Mr Palleprat aftures us, that there are nations
in South America, who dance to fhew their forrow.
It has been in ufe among all nations, civilized and bar¬
barous; though held in efteem among feme, and in
contempt among others. It has often been, and ftill
is, fometimes made an adt of religion. Thus David
danced before the ark to honour God, and exprefs his
excefs of joy for its return into Sion. Among the pa¬
gans it made a part of the worfhip paid to the gods,
it being ufual to dance round the altars and ftatues ;
and at Rome, the falii, who were priefts of Mars,
danced through the ftreets in honour of that God.
The poets made the gods themfelves dance. The
• Chriftians are not free from this fuperftition; for in
popifh countries certain feftivals, particularly thofe of
the facrament, and paftion of our Lord, are celebrated
with dancing.
DANGETTE, in heraldry, is when the outline of any
bordure, or ordinary, is indented very largely, the
largenefs of the indentures being the only thing that
diftinguifties it from indented.
DANDELION, in botany. See Leontodon.
DANEGELT, a tax or tribute on every hide of land,
impofed on our anceftors the Saxons by the Dane?, on
tbeir frequent invafions, as the arbitrary terms of
peace and departure.
DARNAMAS, the name of the beft fort of cotton that
comes from Smyrna, fo called from a plain near that
city.
DANTELLE, in heraldry. See Dancette.
DANTIA, in botany. See Isnardia.
DANTZICK, the capital of regal Pruflia, in the king¬
dom of Poland, fituated on the weftern (hore of the
river Wefel, or Viftula, which a little below falls in¬
to the Baltic fea : E. long. 190, and N. lat. 540. It
js an excellent harbour, and has the bell foreign trade*
within the Baltic.
DANUBE, one of the largeft rivers in Europe, which*
taking its rife in the Black Foreft in Swabia, runs
eaftward through Bavaria, Auftria, Hungary, and
Turby in Europe; difeharging itfelf by feveral chan¬
nels into the Pontus Euxinus, or Black Sea.
DAPHNE, in botany, a genus ef the odlandria mono-
gynia clafs. It has nocalix ; the corolla confifts of
four fegments ; and the berry contains but one feed.
There are 11 fpecies, two of which are natives of Bri¬
tain, v/z. the laureola, or fpurge laurel; and the me-
zereum, or fpurge olive. The hureola is a llrong ca¬
thartic.
DAPPLE BAY, in the menage : when bay horfes have
marks of a dark bay, they are called dapple-bays.
Dapple-black ; when a black horfe has got fpots or
marks, more black or Ihining than the reft of his Ikin,
he is called a dapple-black.
DARAPTI, among logicians, one of the modes of fyl-
logifms of the third figure, whofe premifes are univer-
fal affirmatives, and the conclufion is a particular affir¬
mative: thus,
Dar- Every body is divifible ;
ap- Every body is a fubftance;
Ti., Therefore, fome fubftance is divifible..
DARBY, the capital of Darbyffiire, fituated on the ri¬
ver Darwent: W. long. i° ay', and N. lat. 53°.
DARDANELLS, two caftles at the entrance of the
Hellefpont, where all (hips going to Conftantinople
are examined: E. long, s?0, and N. lat. 40° y'.
DARIEN, a province of Terra Firma, in South Ame¬
rica, being the narrow ifthmus which joins North and
South America.
DARII, in logic, one of the modes of fyllogifm of the
firft figure, wherein the major propofition is an uniyer-
fal affirmative, and the minor and conclufion particular
affirmatives: thus,
Da- Every thing that is moved, is moved by an¬
other ;
ri- Some body is moved ;
1. Therefore, fome body is moved by an¬
other.
DARKING, a market-town of Surrey, fkuated ten
miles eaft of Gu lford: W. long. 20', and N. lat*
yt° 18'.
DARLINGTON, a market-town of the county of Dur¬
ham, fituated twenty miles fouth of the city of Dur¬
ham : W. long. i° iy', and N. lat. y4° go..
DARMSTAT, the capital of Hefie-Darmftat, in the
circle of the upper Rhine in Germany, fituated on a
river of the fame name, fourteen miles fouth of Franc-
fort, and thirteen fouth-eaft of Mentz: E. long. 8Q -
sy7, and N. lat. 490 45'.
DARNEL, in botany. See Lolium.
DARTFORD, a market-town of Kent, in the Dover
road, fourteen miles fouth-eaft of London: E. long.
16', and N. kt. 510 25'.
DARTMOUTH, a borough and port town of Devon-
ftiire, fituated on the Englifti channel, twenty-fix miles
fought
DAS (306
foutli of Exeter, which fends two members to parlia¬
ment: W. long. 40, and N. lat. 50° 25'.
DARWENT, a river, which,' rifing in the Peak of Dar-
byihire, runs from north to fouth through that county,
and falls into the Trent. r
DASYPUS, the Armadillo,in zoology, a genus of qua¬
drupeds belonging to the order of bruta. The dafypus
has neither fore-teeth nor dog-teeth ; it is covered with
a hard boneyfhell, intdrfe&ed with diftindt moveable
zones or belts: This (hell covers the head, the neck, the
back, the flanks, and extends even to the extremity of
the tail.; the only parts to which it does not extend,
are the throat, the breaft, and the belly, which are co¬
vered with a whitifh ikin of a coarfe grain, refembling
that of a hen after the feathers are pulled off. The
(hell does not confift of one entire piece, like that of
the tortoife, but is divided into feparate belts connedted
to each other by membranes, which enable the animal
to move it, and even to roll itfelf up like a hedge-hog.
The number of thefe belts does .not depend on the age
of the animal, as fome have imagined, but is uniformly
the fame at all times, and ferves to diftinguifh the dif¬
ferent fpecies. All the fpecies of this animal were o-
riginally natives of America: they were entirely un¬
known to the ancients ; and modern travellers mention
them as peculiar to Mexico, Brafil, and the fouthern
parts of America; though fome indeed have confound¬
ed them with two fpecies of manis, or /hell-lizard,
which are found in the Eaft Indies : Others report that
they are' natives of Africa, becaufe fome of them have
been tranfported' from Brafil to the coaft of Guinea,
where-a few have fince been propagated : but they were
never heard of in Europe, Afia, or Africa, till after
' the difeovery of America. — They are all endowed with
the faculty of extending* and contraftihg their bodies,
and of roiling themfelves up like a ball, but not into
fo compleat a fphere as the hedge-hog. They are very
inoffenfive animals, excepting when they get into gar¬
dens, where they devour the melons, potatoes, and
other roots. They walk quickly; but can hardly be
faid to run or leap ; fo that they feldom efcape the
purfuit either of men or dogs. But nature has not
left them altogether’defencelefs. They dig deep holes
in the earth ; and feldom go very far from their fub-
terraneous habitations: Upon any alarm, they imme¬
diately go into their holes; but, when at too great a
diftance, they require but a few moments to make one.
The hunters can hardly catch them by the tail before
they fink their body in the ground, where they flick fo
clofe, that the tail frequently comes away and leaves
the body in the earth ; which obliges the hunters,
when they want to take them alive and immutilated, to
dilate the fides of the hole. When they are taken, and
find that there is no refource, they inftantly roll them¬
felves up, and will not extend their bodies, unlefs they
are held near a fire. When in deep holes, there is no
other method of making them come out, but by foretng
in fmoke or water. They keep in their holes through
•the day, and feldom go abroad in queft of fubfiftence
but in the night. The hunters ufually chafe them with
Jmall dogs, which eafily come up with them. When
) DAT
the dogs are near, the creatures inftantly roll, themfelves
up, and in this condition the hunters carry them off.
However, if they be near a precipice, they often efcape
both the dogs and hunters : they roll themfelves up,
and tumble down like a ball, without breaking their
fliell; or receiving any injury. The dafypus is a very
fruitful animal; the female generally brings forth four .
young ones every month'; which is the reafon why the
fpecies is fo numerous, notwithftanding they are fo
much fought after on account of the fweetnefs of their
fielh. The Indians likewife make balkets, boxes, 6c.
of the ftiells which cover their heads.
Linntsus enumerates fix fpecies of dafypus, princi¬
pally diftinguilhed by-the number of their moveable
belts.
1*. The novemcinftus, or dafypus, with nine move-
able belts, (fee Plate LXVIII. fig. 1.) The head is long
and narrow; the muzzle extends a good way beyond
the under lip; the mouth is large; the eyes are fmall,
and placed on the fides of the head ; the ears are long,
and placed near each other; the tail is long and coni¬
cal, and terminates in a (harp point. It has five toes
on the hind-feet, and only four on the fore-feet; the
claws are long, and of a yellowiftr colour. ' The length
of the body, from the point of the muzzle, to the ori¬
gin of the tail, is about eleven inches ; and the length
of the tail, about nine and a half.
2. Theunicindlus, or dafypus, with eighteen move-
able belts : the other, fpecies have two large immove¬
able pieces of fliell, one on the (boulders, and another
on the buttocks : this fpecies has but one, which is on
the (boulders, from that to the tail confiding entirely
of moveable belts. The length of the body, from the
point of the muzzle, to the origin of the tail, is about
nine inches, and the tail about five.
3. The tricinftus, or dafypus, with three moveable
belts. The head is oblong, and covered with an en¬
tire piece of fliell ; the ears are (hort and roundifli ;
it has five toes on all the feet, and the two middle
claws of the fore feet are remarkably larger than the
reft ; the tail is (hort, being about two inches in length;
and the body is .about one foot long.
4. The quadricinftns, or dafypus, with four move-
able belts: Linnaeus is miftaken with regard to the
trivial name and fpecific charadler of this animal; it
ought to be called the fexcindtus, or dafypus, with fix
moveable belts; for, according to Briffonius, Bouffon,
and moft other natural hiftorians, none of the fpecies of
this genus have four moveable belts. It has five toes
on every foot.
5. The feptemcindius, or dafypus, with feven move-
able belt?: Here Linnaeus is in another error of the
fame kind; for this animal has eight moveable belts.
It has four toes on the fore-feet, and five on the hind-
feet.
6. The dafypus with 12 moveable belts. This is
the largeft fpecies, being about two feet in length.
DATA, among mathematicians, a term for fuch things
or quantities as are given or known, ih order to find
other things thereby that are unknown. Euclid ufes
the word data (of which he hath a particular tradl)
for
D A V (307
for fuch fpaces, lines, and angles as are given iti magni¬
tude, or to which we can aflign others equal.
DATE, in law, is the defcription of the day, month,
year of our Lord, and year of the reign of the king,
in which a deed or other writing was made.
Date, the fruit of the phoenix, or great palm-tree. See
Phoenix.
DATISI, in logic, a mode of fyllogifms in the third fi¬
gure, wherein the major is an univerfal affirmative, and
the minor and conclufion particular affirmative propo-
fitions. For example.
Da- All who ferve God are kings;
ti- Some who ferve God are poor;
si. Therefore, fome who are poor are kings.
DATIVE, among grammarians, the third cafe in the
declenfion of nouns, expreffing the relation of a thing
to whofe profit or lofs fome other thing is referred. It
is called dative, becaufe ufually governed by a verb,
implying fomethihg to be given to fome perfoh. In
Engliffi, the dative is expreffed by the figns to or for.
DATURA, the Thorn-apple, in botany, a genus of
the pentandria monogynia clafs. The corolla is plaited
and tunnel-ffiaped ; the calix is tubulous, angular, and
deciduous; and the capfule confills of four valves.
There are fix fpecies, all natives of warm climates.
The thorn-apple is a narcotic poifon : It has lately
been recommended in cafes of madnefs by Dr Stork,
but without anfwering any ufeful purpofe.
DAUCUS,-the Carrot, in botany, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria digynia clafs. The co-
rollse are fubradiated, and all hermaphrodite; and the
feeds are rough and hairy. There are five fpecies,
only one of which, viz. the carota, wild-carrot, or
bird’s-neft, is a native of Britain. The feeds are faid
to be diuretic and carminative.
DxWENTRY, a market-town of Northamptonffiire, fi-
. tuated about ten miles north of Northampton: W.
long. i° 15', and N. lat. 520 12'.
DAVIDISTS, in church-hiftory, a fed of Chriftian he¬
retics in the XVIth century; . fo called from David
George, their leader, who began by giving out that he
was the Meffiah, and was fent into the world in order •
to people the kingdom of heaven, which was quite
empty of inhabitants, for want of virtuous and good
men: he rejeded marriage, and denied the refur-
redion.
DAVIDS, or St David’s, a city and biffiop’s fee of
Pembrokeffiire, fituated near the Irilh channel, about
twenty miles north-weft of Pembroke: W. long. 50
20', and N. lat. 52°.
St David’s is alfo the name of a town and fort fituated
on the coaft of Coromandel, in the hither India, about
eighty miles fouth of Fort St George: E. long. 790
40', and N. lat. n° 45'.
DAVIS’s STRAITS run north-weft from Cape Fare¬
well, in 6o° N. lat. to Baffin’s bay, in 8oQ N. lat.
feparating Greenland from North America.
DAVIT, in a ffiip, that ffiort piece of timber with a
notch at one end, wherein, by a ftrap, hangs the filh-
block.
The ufe of this block is to help up the fluke of the
Vol. II. No. 43. 3
) D E A
anchor, and to faften it at the {hip’s bow or loof. The
davit is fliiftable from one fide of the Ihip to-the other,
as there is occafion.
DAUPHIN, a title given to the eldeft fon of France,
and heir prefumptive of the crown, on account of the
province of Dauphiny, which, in 1343, was given to
Philip of Valois, on this condition, by Humbert dau¬
phin of the Viennois..
DaupHiN-FORT, a fort built by the 'French, on the
eaftern coaft of the ifland of Madagafcar, E. long 48°,
and S. lat. 240.
DAUPHINE, or Dauphiny, a province^of France,
bounded by Burgundy on the north, by Piedmont on
the eaft, by Provence on the fouth, and by the river
Rhone, which feparates it from Languedoc and the
Lyonois, on the weft.
DAY. See Vol. I. P. 491.
Days of grace, are thofe granted by the court at the
prayer of the defendant, or plaintiff, in whofe delay
it is.
Days of grace, in commerce, are a cuftdmary number
of days allowed for the payment of a bill of exchange,
&c. after the fame becomes due.
Three days of grace are allowed in Britain ; ten in
France and Dantzic ; eight at Naples; fix at Venice,
Amfterdam, Rotterdam, and Antwerp ; four at Franc-
fort ; five at Leipfic ; twelve at Hamburg; fix in Por¬
tugal ; fourteen in Spain ; thirty in Genoa, <bc.
Day’s-man, in the north of England, an arbitrator or
perfon chofen to determine an affair in difpute.
Intercalary Days. See Vol. I. p. 489.
DEACON, one of the three facred orders of the Chri-
ftian church.
As to the office of deacons, the moft common and
ordinary was to be attendant on the biftiops and pref-
byters in the fervice of the altar, to take care of the
holy table and all the ornaments and utenfils belonging
to it; and, in the next place, to receive the offerings
of the people, and to prefent them to the prieft; at
the fame time reciting the names of thofe that offered.
In fome churches, though not in all, the deacons read
the gofpel both before and at the communion- fervice ;
but their moft peculiar office was to affift the biffiop and
prelbyters in the adminiftration of the eucharift, at
which their bufinefs was to diftribute the elements to
the people who were prefent, and carry them‘to thofe
who \vere abfent. That they were never allowed to
confecrate them at the altar, appears from the teftimo-
nies of Hilary, Jerom, and the author of the conftitu-
tions. They were permitted, however, to adminifter
folely the facrament of baptifm in fome cafes. An¬
other part of the office of deacons, was to be a fort
of monitors and dire&ors to the people in the exercife
of their public devotions in the church ; for which pur¬
pofe they made ufe of certain known forms of words,
to give notice when each part of the fervice began.
Whence they are fometimes called \eirokerukes,~\ the
the holy cryers of the church.
Deacons had, by licence and authority from the bi-
fhop, a power to preach, to reconcile penitents and
grant them abfolution, and to reprefent their biffiops
4 I ip
D E A ( 308 ) D E A
jn general councils. Their office out of the church
was to take care of the neceffitous, fuch as orplfhns,
widows, prifoners, and all the poor and fick who had
any title to be maintained out of the public revenues
of the church ; to inquire into the morals and conver-
fation of the people, and to make their report thereof
to the bifhop. Whence, on account of the variety of
bufinefs, it was ufual to have feveral deacons in the
fame church.
In the Romifh church, it is the deacons office to
incenfe the officiating prieft or prelate ; to lay the cor¬
poral on the altar ; to receive the paten or cup from
the fubdeacon, and prefent them to the perfon offi¬
ciating ; to incenfe the choir ; to receive the pax from
the officiating prelate, and carry it to the fubdeacon;
and at the pontifical mafs, when the biffiop gives the
bleffing, to put the mitre on his head, and to take off
the archbiffiop’s pall, and lay it on the altar. In'Eng-
land, the form of ordaining deacons, declares that it is
their office to affift the prieft in the diftribution of the
holy communion ; in which, agreeably to the practice
of the ancient church, they are confined to the admi-
niftering the wine to the communicants. A deacon,
with us, is not capable of any ecclefxaftical promotion,
yet he may be'a chaplain to a family, curate to a bene-
iaced clergyman, or lecturer to a pariffi chufch. He
may be ordained at twenty-three years of age, anno
currente ; but it is exprefsly provided, that the biffiop
ffiall not ordain the fame perfon a prieft and deacon in
the fame day. Deacons, according to St Paul, ffiould
be chafte, fincere, and blamelefs ; neither great drink¬
ers, nor given to filthy lucre; they ffiould hold the
myftery of the faith in a pure confcience, and ffiould
be well approved before they are admitted to the mi-
niftry.
DEACONESS, a female deacon, an order of women,
who had their diftindf offices and fervices in the pri¬
mitive church. This office appears as ancient as the
apoftolical age ; for St Paul calls Phebe a fervant of
the church of Cenchrea. The original word is \_dia-
kono3~\, anfwerable to the Latin word mtnijlra. Ter-
tullian calls them vidtue, widows, becaufe they were
commonly chofen out of the widows of the church ;
and, for the fame reafon, Epiphanius, when the coun¬
cil of Laodicea, calls them \_prejbutidas~], elderly
women, becaufe none but fuch were ordinarily taken
into this office. For, indeed, by fome ancient laws,
thefe four qualifications were required in every one
that was to be admitted into this order. 1. That ffie
ftiould be a widow. 2. That ffie ffiould be a widow
that had born children. 3. A widow that was but once
married. 4. One of a confiderable age, forty, fifty,
or fixty years old. Though all thefe rules admitted
of exceptions. Concerning their ordination, whether
it was always performed by impofition of hands, the
learned are much divided in their fentiments. Baro¬
nins and Valefius think they were not, and make no
other account of them than as mefe lay-perfons. But
the author of the conftitutions, fpeaking of their ordi¬
nation, requires the biffiop to ufe impofition of hands,
with a form of prayer which is there recited. We
are not, however, to imagine, that this ordination gave
them any power to execute any part of the facerdota!
• office. They were only to perform feme inferior fer¬
vices of the church, and thofe chiefly relating to the
women for whofe fakes they were ordained. One part
of their office was to affift the, minifter at the baptizing
of women, to undrefs them for immerfion, and to drefs
them again, that the whole ceremony might be per¬
formed with all the decency becoming fo facred an ac¬
tion. Another part of their office was to be private
catechifts to the women-catechumens who were pre¬
paring for baptifm. They were likewife to vifit and
attend women that were fick and in diftrefs; to minifter
to the martyrs and confeffors in prifon; to attend the
womens gate in the church ; and, laftly, to affign all
women their places in the church, regulate their beha¬
viour, and prefide over the reft of the widows, whence
in fome canons they .are ftyled [prokathemenaf\ go-
verneffes. This or.der, which fince the tenth or
twelfth.century has been wholly laid afide, was not
aboliffied every where at once, but continued in the
Greek church longer than in the Latin, and in fome of
the Latin churches longer than in others.
DEAD MAN’s HEAD, in geography, a cape or pro¬
montory near Tregony in Cornwall, between St Mawes
and Fowey.
Dead-mens-eyes, in the fea-language, a kind of
blocks with many holes in them, but no’ ffieevers,
whereby the ffirowds are faftened to the chains : the
crow feet reeve alfo through thefe holes; and, in fome
ffiips, the main-ftays are fet tight in them ; but then
they have only one hole, through which the lanyards
are parted feveral times.
Dead-nettle. See Lamium.
Dead-reckoning, in navigation, the calculation made
of a ffiip’s place by means of the compafs and log;,
the firft ferving to point out the courfe ffie fails on,
and the other the diftance run. See Navigation.
Dead’s part, in Scots law, that proportion of the
funds of a marriage, which, upon the diflblution of
it, goes to the executor of the deceafed huffiand or wife,
as the defund or dead’s part. See Scots Law,
title 28.
Dea.d-sea, in geography, a lake of Judea, into which
the river Jordan difeharges itfelf; being about feventy
miles long, and twenty broad. ,,
Dead-tops, a difeafe incident to young trees, and cu¬
red by cutting off the dead parts clofe to the next good
twig or ffioot, and claying them over as in grafting.
Dead-water, at fea, the eddy-water juft aftern of a
ffiip, fo called, becaufe it does not pafs away fo fwift
as the water running by her fides does. They fay
that a ffiip makes much dead water, when ftie has a
great eddy following her ftern.
DEADLY carrot. SccThapsia.
Deadly nightshade. See Atropa.
DEADS, among miners, denotes the earth or other
fertile fubftances which inclofe the ore on every fide.
Hence, breaking up the deads, is the temoving thefe
fubftances for the conveniency of carrying on their
work.
DEAFNESS,
DEB ( 3c
DEAFNESS, the ftate of a perfon 'who either wants the
fenfe of hearing, or has it greatly impaired. See
Dumb.
DEAL, a thin kind of fir-planks, of great ufe in car¬
pentry : they are formed by fawing the trunk of a tree
into a great many longitudinal divifions, of more or
lefs thicknefs, according to the purpofes they are in¬
tended to ferve.
Deals are rendered much harder, by throwing them
into fait water as foon as they are fawed, keeping them
there three or four days, and afterwards drying them
in the air or fun ; but neither this nor any other me¬
thod yet known, will preferve them from Ihrinking.
Deals called Burgendorp deals, the hundred con¬
taining fix fcore, pay on importation 3 1. 8 s. 8-f^g-d.
and draw back 3 1. 3 s. the rate 12I. Meabro deals,
fix fcore, pay 11. 2 s. lo-j^d. and draw back il. is.
the rate 4I. Norway deals, fix fcore, pay 11. 8 s.
7-id. and draw back 11. 6s. 3d. the rate yl. Spruce
deals, fix fcore, pay 4I. 5 s. lo^d. and draw back
3I. 18s. 9 d. the rate 15I. Deals from Ruflia, and
all other countries not particularly rated, exceeding
twenty foot in length, pay 4I. 5s. 10-^0%-d. and
drawdack3l. 18s. 9d. the rate 15I. Deals from
Sweden, or any other country, of twenty feet in
length or under, not otherwife rated, the 120, pay
11. 8 s. y^d. and draw back 11. 6 s. 3,d. the rate 5 1.
Deal, in geography, a port-town of the county of Kent,
between which and the Goodwin-fands, the (hipping
ufually rides in the Downs, in going out or coming
home : it is about fixty-feven miles eaftward^of Lon¬
don : E. long. i° 3c/, andN. lat. 510 16'.
DEAN, an ecclefiaftical dignitary in cathedral and col¬
legiate churches, and head of the chapter.
Dean and Chapter, are the biftiop’s council to affift
him in the affairs of religion, and to aflent to every grant
which the bifhop (hall make to bind his fucceffors. As
a deanry is a fpiritual dignity, a man cannot be a dean
and prebendary of the fame church.
Dean of guild, in Scots law, a magiftrate of a royal
borough, who has the cognizance of mercantile caufes,
and the infpe&ion of buildings within borough. See
Scots Law, title 4.
DEATH is generally confidered as the feparation of the
foul and body; in which fenfe it (lands oppofed to life,
which confifts in the union thereof.
The laiu Death-bed, in Scots law, the privilege
which that law allows to an heir of reducing all deeds
refpefting the heretable eftate of his predeceffor, grant¬
ed by him while on death bed, in prejudice of the
lawful heir. All deeds are liable to reduftiori ex ca-
file lefti, that are granted by a perfon within fixty
days of his death, if he had then contrafted the dif-
eafe of which he died, and had not afterwards reco¬
vered, fo as to have gone to kirk or market unfup-
ported. See Scots Law, title 27.
DEBENHAM, a market-town of Suffolk, about twen¬
ty miles call of Bury: E. long. i° 20', and N. lat.
52° 20'.
DEBENTURE, a term of trade ufed at the cuftom-
houfe for a kind of certificate figned by the officers of
) DEB
the cuftoms, which intitles a merchant exporting goods
to the receipt of a bounty or draw-back. All mer-
chandifes that are defigned to be taken on board for
that voyage being entered and (hipped, and the (hip
being regularly cleared out, and failed out of port on
her intended voyage, debentures may be made out
from the exporter’s entries, in order to obtain the
drawbacks, allowances, bounties, or premiums ; which
debentures for foreign goods are to be paid within one
month after demand. And in making out thefe de¬
bentures, it mud be obferved, that every piece of vel¬
lum, parchment, or paper, containing any debenture
for drawing back cuftoms or duties, mud, before wri¬
ting, be damped, and pay a duty of 8 d.
The forms of debentures vary, according to the
merchandife exported. In the execution of deben¬
tures for tobacco, it mud be particularly obferved,
1. That debentures for the fame quantity, may be
made in one or more parchments. 2. That the expor¬
ter’s oath mud be printed, fpecifying whether he afts for
himfelf or by commiffion. If exported to any other
foreign ptfrts than Ireland, the word Ireland mud be
added to the oath after Great Britain. 4. That as
no tobacco may be confumed on board (hips of war in
Europe, but what has paid full duties, and been ma-
nufadtured in Great Britain, no drawback is to be al¬
lowed for tobacco exported in any man of war. 5. That
the eight pounds per hoglhead of q 50 pounds, or more
allowed for draught at importation, mud not be de¬
duced on-exportation. 6. That debentures for to¬
bacco exported to Ireland, mud not be paid till a cer¬
tificate be produced, tedifying the landing thereof.
7. That no perfons may fwear to the exportation, but
fuch as are permitted to fwear to debentures for other
goods. In debentures for all other foreign goods, no
perfon may be admitted to fwear to the exportation,
but the true exporter, either as a proprietor, or who
being employed by commiflion, is concerned in the
direftion of the voyage. All kinds of debentures be¬
fore delivered or paid to the exporters, are entered
into a feparate book kept for that purpofe by the col¬
lector and comptroller of the cudoms.
Debita fundi, in Scots Law. A debt is faid to be a de-
bitum fundi, when it is recoverable either by a perfo-
nal aCtion againd the debtor himfelf, or by a real ac¬
tion againd his lands.
Debita fruftuum, in Scots law. Funds are debita
fruttuum not fundi; fo are not recoverable out of the
lands themfelves, but out of the fruits of the lands
out of which they are payable. See Scots Law,.
title 17.
DEBILITY, among phyficians, a relaxation of the fo-
lids, occafioning oftentimes weakneffes and faintings.
DEBRECHEI^f, a town of Upper Hungary, about fe-
venty-feven miles ead of Buda : E. long. 21° \<f
N. lat. 470 45';
DEBRUIZED, in heraldry, a term peculiar to the
Englilh, by which is intimated the grievous redraint of
any animal, debarred of its natural freedom, by any
of the ordinaries being laid over it.
DEBT, in law, any thing due to another, whether it be
money.
DEC ( 310
money, goods, or fervices; or the a&ion brought for
recovering the fame.
DEBTOR, a perfon who owes any thing to another ; in
conflxadiftind'tion to creditor, which is he to whom the
debt is owing.
Dfbtor, in merchants accounts. See Book-keeping.
DECAGON, in geometry, a plane figure with ten fides
and ten angles.
DECALOGUE, the ten precepts or commandments
delivered by God to Mofes, after engraving them on
two tables of (lone.
The Jews, by way of excellence, call thefe com¬
mandments the ten nuords, from whence they had af¬
terwards the name of decalogue : but it is to be ob-
ferved, that they joined the firft and fecond into one,
and divided the.lafi: into two: they underftand that a-
gainft dealing, to relate to the dealing of men, or
kidnapping ; alledging, that the dealing one anothers
goods or property, is forbidden in the lad command¬
ment.
The emperor Julian obje&ed to the decalogue, that
the precepts it contained (thofe only excepted which
concern the worlhip of falfe gods, and the obfervation
of the fabbath) were already fo familiar to all nations,
and fo univerfally received, that they were unworthy,
for that very reafon, to be delivered, by fo great a
legidator, to fo peculiar a people. The church of
Rome has druck the fecond commandment quite out
of the decalogue, and to make their number complete,
hath fplit the tenth intp two. The reafon of which
may be eafily conceived.
DECAN, a province of the Hither India, bounded by
the province of Cambaya, or Guzurat, on the north;
by Golconda and Berar, on the ead ; by Vifapour, on
the fouth ; and by the Indian ocean on the wed;
DECANDRIA, in the Linnaean fydem of botany. See
Botany, the Scheme, p. 635. andPlate LIII. fig 10.
DECANTATION, among chemids, be. the gently
pouring off a liquor from its faeces, by inclining the
lip or canthus of the veflelj whence the name.
DECANUS, in Roman antiquity, an officer who pre-
fided over other ten officers, and was head of the con-
tuberinum, or ferjeant of a file of foldiers.
DECAPROTI, decemprimi, in Roman antiquity, offi¬
cers for gathering the tributes and taxes.
The decaproti were alfo obliged to pay for the dead,
or to anfwer to the emperor for the quota parts of
fuch as died, out of their own edates.
DECASTYLE, in the ancient architedlure, a building
with an ordnance of ten columns in front, as the tem¬
ple of Jupiter Olympius was.
DECEIT, in law, a fubtle trick, or device, to which
may be added all manner of craft and collufion, or
underhand pratfice, ufed to defraud another, by any
means whatever.
DECEMBER, the lad month of the year, confiding of
thirty-one days, and fo called as being the tenth month
in the Roman year, which commenced with March.
DECEMPEDA, in antiquity, a rule or rod divided
into ten feet, each of which was fubdivided into inches,
and thofe into digits, ufed in meafuring of land, and,
) DEC
by architefls, in giving the proper dimenfions and pro¬
portions to the par& of their buildings.
DECEMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, ten magidrates cho-
fen annually at Rome, to govern the commonwealth
indead of confuls, with an abfolute power to draw up
and make laws for the people.
One of the decemviri had all the enfigns and ho¬
nours of the fun&ion, and the red had the like in their
turn, during the year of their decemvirate. In them
was veded all the legiflative authority ever enjoyed by
the kings, or, after them, by the confuls. It was
the decemviri drew up the laws of the Twelve Tables,
thence called leges decemvirales, which were the whole
of the Roman law, for a confiderable time.
DECENNALIA, ancient Roman fedivals celebrated by
the emperors, every tenth year of their reign, with
facrifices, games, and largeffes for the people. The
emperor Augudus fir-d indituted thefe folemnities, in
which he was imitated by his fuccelfors.
DECIDUOUS, an appellation chiefly ufed in refpeft of
plants : thus, the calix or cup of a flower is faid to be
deciduous, when it falls along with tire flower-petals ;
and, on the contrary, it is called permanent, when it
remains after they are fallen. Again, deciduous leaves
are thofe which fall in autumn, in contradidinftion to
thofe of the ever-greens, which remain all the winter.
DECIL, in adronomy, an afpedt or pofnion of two pla¬
nets, when they are didant from each other a tenth
part of the zodiac. '
DECIMAL arithmetic, the art of computing by de¬
cimal fractions.
Decimal fraction, in arithmetic. See Vol. I. p. 395.
DECIMATION, a puniffiment inflidled by the Romans,
on fuch foldiers as quitted their pod, or behaved
themfelves cowardly in the field. The names of all
the guilty were put into an urn or helmet, and as
many were drawn out as made the tenth part of the
whole number, and thefe were put to the fword; and
the others faved.
DECIPHERING, the art of finding the alphabet of a
cypher. See Cypher.
Every language has, befides the form of its charac¬
ters, fomething peculiar'in the place, order, combina¬
tion, frequency, and number of the letters; to all
which particular regard is to be had in deciphering.
In all languages, however, the following rules ought
to be obferved: 1. One word is to be compared with
another, that their refemblance and difference may be
known. 2. No word can be without a vowel. 3, A
word of one letter is always a vowel, or a cohfonant
with an apoftrophe. 4. The vowels recur much more
frequently than the coijfonants. 5. Double vowels
may be at the beginning of a word, but not double
confonants. 6. Double charafters at the beginning of
a word are always vowels. 7/ Short words of two
or three letters have two or three, or one or two con¬
fonants. 8 The vowels are therefore moft eafily
learned from the ffiort words which are to be firft
confidered by the decipherer. 9. If double charac¬
ters are preceded by a Angle letter, the letter is a
vowel. 10. In languages abounding with diphthongs
1 one
DEC
one vowel is of ten joined with another. 11. The let¬
ter that precedes or follows double confonants is, if a
confonant, always one of the liquids, /, m, n, r,
12. two different charadters occur, of which the
latter is often conjoined with various letters, and the
former is never found either by itfelf, or followed by
any other letter, thofe two are yu. 13. Thefe letters
qu are always followed by a vowel. 14. One vowel
recurs more frequently than another, as do the confo¬
nants, according to the language, <bc.
DECISE, a town of the Orleanois, in France, fituated
on the river Loire, about fifteen miles fouth-eall: of
Nevers: E. Ion. 30 32', and N. lat. 46° 40'
DECK of a Jhip is a planked floor from ftem to ftern,
upon which the guns lie, and where the men walk to
and fro.
Great fhips have three decks, firft, fecond, and
third, beginning to count from the lowermoft.
Half deck reaches from the main-maft to' the ftem
of the Ihip.
Quarter-deck is that aloft fhe fteerage, reaching to
the round-houfe.
Flulh-deck is that which lies even in a right-line
fore and aft, from ftem to ftern. A rope-deck is that
made of cordages, interwoven and ftretched over a
veffel, through which it is eafy *to annoy an enemy
who comes to board her. They are little ufed but by
fmall veffels,- to defend them againft privateers.
DECKENDORF, a town of Bavaria, in Germany,
fituated on the Danube, about thirty-feven miles
fouth-eaft of Ratifbon : E. long. 130, and N. lat. 48°
4S'-
DECLAMATION, a fpeech made in public, in the
tone and manner of an oration, uniting the expref-
"fion of a£Hon to the propriety of» pronunciation, in
order to give the fentiment its full impreflion upon the
mind.
DECLARATORY aflion, in Scots law, is that by
which a purfuer only craves, that feme right or privi¬
lege fhall be declared to belong to him, without de¬
manding the payment or performance of any thing from
the defender. See Scots Law, title, 30.
.DECLENSION, in grammar, an inflexion of nouns ac¬
cording to their divers cafes, as nominative, genitive,
dative, <bc. It is a different thing in the modern lan¬
guages, which have'hot properly any cafes, from what
it is in the ancient Greek and Latin. With refpeft
to languages, when the nouns admit of changes, either
in the beginning, the middle, or ending; declenfion
is properly the expreflion of all thofe changes in a cer¬
tain order, and by certain degrees called cafes. With
regard to languages, where the nouns do not admit of
changes in the fame number, declenfion is the expref-
fien of the different ftates a noun is in, and the diffe¬
rent relations it has; which difference of relations is
marked by particles, and called articles, as a, the,
of, to, from, by, &c.
DECLINATION, in aftronomy, the diftance of any ce-
leftial objedt from the equinodtial, either northward or
fouthward. It is either true or apparent, according
Vol. II. No. 43. * 3
DEC
as the real or apparent place of the objedl is confider-
ed. See Artronomy.
Declination of a’wall or plant for dials. See Dial¬
ling.
DECLINATOR, or Declinatory, an inftrument
contrived for taking the declinations, inclinations, and
reclinations of planes.
DECLINATURE of judges, in Scots law, declining
the jurifdidtion of a judge, or refilling to acquiefce in
his judgment from any legal obligation to the judge
himfelf, the incompetency of his jurifdiction to the na¬
ture of the adtion, or upon the privilege of the ob-
jedior or decliner. See Scots Law, title 2.
DECLIVITY denotes the reverfe of acclivity. See
Acclivity.
DECOCTION, in pharmacy, the boiling fimples, or
other drugs, in order to extradt their virtues for fome
medicinal purpofe. The general fubjedts of decodfion
are animals and vegetables, and fometimes minerals,
as antimony and quickfilver. The liquors which ferve
to boil them, are water, wine, vinegar, milk, and
whey.
DECOMPOSITION, in chemiftry, the redudlion of a
body into its principles or component parts. See
Chemistry.
DECORATION, in architedture, is ufed for whatever
adorns a building, either withoutfide or within.
DECORUM, in. architedlure, is the fuitablenefs of a
building, and the feveral parts and ornaments thereof,
to the ftation and occafion.
DECOUPLE', in heraldry, the fame as uncoupled:
thus a chevron decouple, is a chevron warning fo
much of it towards the point, that the two ends ftand
at a diftance from one another, being parted and un¬
coupled.
DECOURS, in heraldry. See Decrement.
DECOY, a place made for catching wild-fowl. Hence,
Decoy-duck is a duck that flies abroad, and lights into
company with wild ones, which by her allurements
ftie draw's into the decoy.
DECREE, an order made by a fuperior power, for the
regulation of an inferior.
Decree, in the civil law, is a determination that the
emperor pronounces upon hearing a particular ca^ife
between plaintiff and defendant.
Decree, or Decreet, in Scots law, the decifive
fentence or judgment of a court of law.
Decreet-arbitral, in Scots law, the fentence or
judgment of one to whom parties voluntarily fubmit the
determination of any queftion betwixt them. See
Scots Law, title 32.
DECREMENT, in heraldry, fignifies the wane of the
moon from the full to the new. The moon in this
ftate is called moon decrefcent, or in decours ; and
when borne in coat-armour, faces to the left fide of'
the efcutcheon, as fhe does to the right fide when in
the increment. See Crescent.
DECREPITATION, in chemiftry, the aft of calcining
fait over the-fire, till it ceafe to crackle. See Che¬
mistry. .
4 K
( 411 )
it
DEE
It is alfo applied to the crackling of the falls during
the operation.
DECRETAL, in the canon-law, a letter of a pope,
determining fome point or queftion in the ecclefiafti-
cal law. The decretals compofe the fecond part of
canon law. The firlt genuine one acknowledged by all
the learned as fuch, is the letter of pope Siricius,
written in the year 385, to Himerus biihop of Tarra¬
gona in Spain, concerning fome diforders which had
crept into the churches of Spain.
DECUMANI dentes, in heraldry. See Dancette.
DECUPLE proportion, that of ten to one.
DECURIO, in Roman antiquity, a commander of ten
men in the army, or the chief of a decury.
DECURRENT leaf. See Botany, p. 641.
DECURY, ten perfons ranged under one chief, or lead¬
er, called the decurio.
The Roman cavalry was divided into decuries,
which were fubdivifions of a century, each century
containing ten decuries.
DECUSSATION, a term in geometry, optics, and a-
natomy, fignifying the crofling of any two lines, rays,
or nerves, when they meet in a point, and then go on
feparately from one another.
DECUSSORIUM, a furgeon’s inflrument, which, by
prefling gently on the dura mater, caufes an evacua¬
tion of the pus collected between the cranium and the
before mentioned membrane, through the perforation
made by the trepan.
DEDDINGTON, amarket town of Oxfordfliire, about
fifteen miles north of Oxford: W. long. i° 20', and
N. lat. 51° 5 j'.
DEDHAM, a market-town in Eflex, about thirty-five
miles north-ealt of Chelmsford : E. long. i° io’, and
N. lat. 520 j'.
DEDICATION, a folemn devoting or fetting apart
any perfon or thing to the fervice of God and the
purpofes of religion.
feajl o/" Dedication, an anniverfary feftival among
the Jews, in memory of Judas Maccabaeus, who re¬
paired and dedicated anew the temple and altar, which
had been plundered and profaned by Antiochus Epi-
phanes. It was obferved on the twenty-fifth of Cifleu,
and continued eight days.
DEE, the name of feveral rivers, as that on which Che-
fter Hands, that whereon Aberdeen Hands, fac.
DEED, in Scots laws, any fettlement, difpofition, con-
traft, or other legal writing.
DEED, an inflrument written on paper or parchment,
comprehending fome contract:, bargain or agreement
between the parties thereto, in relation to the matter
therein contained.
DEEMSTERS, or Demsters. All controverlles in
the Ifle of Man are decided without procefs, writings,
or any charges, by certain judges, chofen yearly from
among themfelves, called deemflers; there being two
of them for each divifion of the ifland : they fit judges
in all courts, either for life or property ; and with the
advice of twenty-four keys, declare what is law, in
uncommon emergencies.
DEEPING, a market-town of Lincolnfliire, aboutthirty-
D E F
five miles fouth of Lincoln: W. long. 20°, and N.
lat. 520 3j'.
DEER, in zoology. See Cervus.
DEFAMATION, the fpeaking flanderous words of an¬
other ; for which the flanderer is punifhable, according
to the nature of his offence, either by aftion upon the
cafe at common law, or by Hatute, or in the ecciefiaf-
tical court.
DEFAULT, in law, is generally taken for non appear¬
ance in court, at a day afligned ; but imports any o-
miflion of that which we ought to do, for which
judgment may be given againfl the defaulter.
DEFEASANCE. See Defeisance.
DEFECATE, orDEFiECATE, in chemiflry, aterm ap¬
plied to a body freed and purged from faeces and im¬
purities,
DEFEISANCE, in law, a condition relating to fome
certain deed, which being performed, the deed is de¬
feated and rendered void, as if it had never been
made.
DEFENCE, in fortification, all forts of works that co¬
ver and defend the opppfite pofls, as flanks, cafements,
parapets, and fauffebrays. See Fortification.
Line ^Defence, a fuppofed line drawn from the angle
of the curtin; or from any other part in the curtin,
to the flanked angle of the oppofite baflion. See For¬
tification.
DEFENDER of ths faith, a peculiar title, belonging
to the king of Great Britain, as Catholic does to the.
king of Spain, Chriflian to the king of France, <bc.
This title was firff given by pope Leo X. to king
Henry VIII. for writing againfl Luther.
DEFERENT, in anatomy, a term applied to certain
veffels in the body, that ferve for the conveyance of
humours from one part to another. See Anatomy.
Deferent, in the Ptolemaic aftronomy, a circle invent¬
ed to account for the eccentricity, perigee, and apogee
of the planets.
DEFERENTIA vasa. See Vol. I. p. 273.
DEFILE, in fortification, a ftrait narrow paflage, thro’
which a company of hoife or foot can pafs only in file,
by making a fmall front.
DEFINITE, in grammar, is applied to an article that
has a precife determinate fignification; fuch as the
article the in Englifli, le and la in French, fac. which
fix andafcertain the noun they belong to, tofome parti¬
cular, as the king, le roy; whereas in the quality of
king, de roy, the articles of and de mark nothing pre¬
cife, and are therefore indefinite.
DEFINITION, an idea of any fcience, fubjedt, <bc.
conveyed in a few words.
DEFINITIVE, a term applied to whatever terminates
a procefs, queftion, <bc, in oppofition to provifional
and interlocutory.
DEFLAGRATION, in chemiflry, the kindling or fet¬
ting fire to a fait or mineral, <bc. either alone, or mix¬
ed for that purpofe with a fulphureous one in order
to purify it. See Chemistry.
DEFLECTION of the rays of light. See Optics.
DEFLUXION, in medicine, the falling of humours
from a fuperior to an inferior part of the body.
DEFORCEMENT,
( 412 )
DEI ( 413 ) DEL
DEFORCEMENT, in Scots law, the oppofing or re¬
filling the officers of the law in the execution of their
office.- See Scots Law, titles 25 and 33..
DEFORMITY, the want of that uniformity neceflary
to conllitute the beauty of an objeft. See Beauty.
DEGENERATION, or Degenerating, in general,
denotes the growing worfe, or lofing fome valuable
qualities whereof a thing was formerly poirdTed.
DEGLUTITION, in medicine, the a£t of fwallowing
the food, performed by means of the tongue driving the
aliment into the cefophagus, which, by the contradlion
of the fphindter, protrudes the contents downwards.
DEGRADATION, the aft of depriving a perfon for
ever of a dignity or degree of honour, and taking away
the title, badge, and privileges of it.
Degradation, in painting, expreffies the leflening the
appearance of dillant objefts in a landlkip, in the fame
manner as they would appear to an eye placed at that
dillance from them.
DEGRADED CROSS, in heraldry, a crofs divided
into Heps at each end, diminiffiing as they afcend to¬
wards the centre, called by the FrenchSee
Plate LXVIII. fig. 6.
DEGREE, in geometry, adivifionof a circle, including
a three hundred and lixtieth part of its circumference.
See Astronomy, and Geography.
0/latitude. See Geography.
Degree of longitude. See Geography.
D-egrees, in mufic, are the little intervals whereof the
concords or harmonical intervals are compofed.
Degree, in univerfities, denotes a quality conferred on
the lludents or members thereof as a teftimony of their
proficiency in the arts or fciences, and intitling them
to certain privileges.
DEJECTION, in medicine, the aft of ejefting or eva¬
cuating the excrements. It is alfo applied to the ex¬
crements themfelves thus evacuated, in which fenfe it
is of the fame import with llool.
DEIFICATION, in antiquity. See Apotheosis.
DEISM, the fyllem of religion acknowledged by the
deifts.
DEISTS, in the modern fenfe of the word, are thofe
perfons in Chrillian countries, who, acknowledging all
the obligations and duties of natural religion, dilbe-
lieve the Chriltian fcheme, or revealed religion. They
are fo called from their belief in God alone, in oppofi-
tion to Chriftians. The learned Dr Clarke taking the
denomination in the moll extenfive fignification, dillin-
guilhes deills int,o four forts. 1. Such as pretend to
believe the exillence of an eternal, infinite, indepen¬
dent, intelligent Being ; and who teach, that this fu-
preme Being made the world, though they fancy he
does not at all concern himfelf in, the management of
it. 2. Thofe who believe not only the being, but al¬
fo the providence of God with refpeft to the natural
world ; but who, -not allowing any difference between
moral good and evil,- deny that God takes any notice
of the morally good or evil aftions of men ; thefe
things depending, as they imagine, on the arbitrary
conflitutions of human laws. 3. Thofe who having
right apprehenlions concerning the natural attributes of
God, and his all governing providence, and fome no¬
tion of his moral perfections alfo; yet, being prejudiced
again!! the notion of the immortality of rhe human foul,
believe that men periffi entirely at death, and that one
generation lhall perpetually fucceed 'another, without
any future reiteration or renovation of things. 4. Such
as believe the exillence of a fupreme Being, together
with his providence in the government of the world,
as alfo the obligations of natural religion ; but fo far
only as thefe things are difcoverable ^y the light of
nature alone, without believing any divine revelation.
Thefe lall are the only true deills ; but as the princi¬
ples of thefe men would naturally lead them to em¬
brace the Chrillian revelation, the learned author con¬
cludes there is now no confident fcheme of deifm in the
world.
DEITY, a term frequently ufed in a fynonymous fenfe
with God.
DELEGATES, commiffioners appointed by the king
under the great feal to hear and determine appeals from
the ecclefiallical court.
DELEGATION, a commiffion extraordinary given by
a judge to take cognizance of and determine fome caufe
which ordinarily does not come before him.
DELEGATION, in Scots law, a method of extin-
guilhing obligations by the creditor’s difeharging his
former debitor upon another becoming bound in his
place.
DELETERIOUS, an appellation given to things of a
dellruftive or poifonous nature. See Poison.
DELF, in heraldry, is by fome fuppofed to reprefent a
fquare rod or turf, and to be fo called from delving,
or digging. A delf tenne is due to him that revokes
his own challenge, or any way goes from his word;
and to fuch this is given as an abatement to the honour
of their arms, and is always placed in the middle of
the efcutcheon. However, if two or more delfs are
found in an efcutcheon, they are not then to be looked
upon as figns of an abatement, but of honour. Alfo,
if it be of metal, or charged upon, it then becomes a
charge of perfeft bearing.
DELFT, a city of the United Netherlands, in the pro¬
vince of Holland, eight miles north-eall of Rotterdam,
and thirty fouth-well of Amllerdam : E. long. 40 c'
and N. lat. 520 (> .
DELIA, in antiquity, fealls celebrated by the Athenians
in honour of Apollo,, furnamed Delius.
Delia was alfo a quinquennial fellival in the ifland of
Delos, inllituted by Thefeus at his return from Crete,,
in honour of Venus, whofe liatue, given him by Ari¬
adne, he erefted on that place, having by her affillance
met with fuccefs in his expedition.
DELIBAMENTA, in antiquity, a libation to the in¬
fernal gods, always offered by pouring downwards. '
See Libation.
Jus DELIBERANDI, in Scots law, an apparent heir
is allowed a year after his predeceffor’s. death, called.
annus, deliberandi, to deliberate whether he will enter
and reprefent him or not, during .which-time he can¬
not be purfued for the debts of his predeceffor. See-
Scots Law, title 27,
DELIBERATIVE,.
DEL ( 414 ) D E M
DELIBERATIVE, an appellation given to a kind
or branch of rhetoric, employed in proving a thing,
or convincing an affembly thereof, in order to perfuade
them to put it in execution.
To have a deliberative voice in the aflembly, is when
a perfjn has a right to give his advice and his vote
therein. In councils, the bifhops have deliberative
.voices; thofe beneath them have only confulcative
voices.
* DELICT, in Scots law, fignifies fuch fmall offences or
breaches of the peace as^are punifhable only by fine or
(hort imprifonment. See Scots Law, title 33.
DELIMA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria mono-
gynia clafs. It has no corolla; the calix confifts of
five leaves; and the berry contains two feeds. There
is but one fpecies, a native of Ceylon.
DELINEATION. See Designing.
DELINQUENT, a guilty perfon, or one who has com¬
mitted fome fault or offence, for which he is punilh-
able.
DELIQUIUM, or Animi Deliquium. SeeLiro-
THYMIA.
Deliquium, in chemiftry, fignifies the folution of any
body, when expofed to a cool and damp place, by the
humidity it attracts from the air.
DELIRIUM, in medicine, the production of ideas not
anfwerable |o external caufes, from an internal indif-
pofition of the brain. See Medicine.
DELIVERY, or Child-birth. See Midwifery.
DELLY, the capital of a province of the fame name,
and at prefent of all the Hither India: E. long. 790,
ahd N. lat. 28.
DELOS, the principal of the Cyclades ifiands, in the
Archipelago : E. long .25° yo\ and N. lat. 370 26,>
DELPHINIUM, or Lark’s-spur, in botany, a genus
of the polyandria trigynia clafs. It has no calix; the
corolla confifts of five petals ; and the nedtarium is bi¬
fid, and horned behind. There are feven fpecies, on¬
ly one of which,- viz the confolida, or- wild lark’s-
fpur, is a native of Britain.
DELPHINUS, or Dolphin, in ichthyology, a ge¬
nus belonging to the order of cete; the charafters of
- which are thefe': they have teeth in each jaw; and
a fiftula or pipe in the head. There are three fpecies,
.viz. 1. The phoccena, with a conical body, a broad
• back, and an obtufe fnout. The colour of the back
is a bl.ackilh blue, and the belly is white. The fiftil-
la, or pipe, through which they breathe and fpout up
the water, is betwixt the eyes : it has forty-fix teeth
in each jaw: it is fotftid in the Baltic and different
parts of the European ocean. The Ikin is fmooth
and foft. The external orifice of the fiftula refembles
the letter C: It has two ftrong peftoral fins, and a
cartilaginous fin on the back. The tail is bifid. The
penis of the male is not covered with a pneputium, it
lies concealed within the body, but is eafily protru¬
ded when occafion requires. In the female, the cer--
vix of the vulva is about nine Inches long, and fituate
betwixt the navel and anus. They copulate in the lum-
nner; bring forth one at a birth; they nourilh their
young with milk; and they live about thirty years.
They live feveral days out of the water, provided
they be not wounded. See Plate LXVIII. fig. 2.
It is about four feet long, and two and a half thick.
2. The delphus, or dolphin of the ancients, is of an
oblong cylindricallhape, and the fnout is fiiarp and ta¬
pering ; the teeth are Tubulated. It likewife frequents
the European ocean. 3. The orca, or leffer whale of
Ray, has the upper part of the fnout waved, and broad
ferrated teeth. The inferior jaw is much longer than
the fuperior one.
Delphinus, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the nor¬
thern hemifphere. See Astronomy.
DELSBERG, or Desberg, a town of Switzerland,
about feventeen miles fouth-weft of Bafil.
DELTOIDES,,in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 195.
DELUGE, an inundation or overflowing of the earth,
either wholly or in part, by water.
We have feveral deluges recorded in hiftory, as that
of Ogyges, which overflowed almoft all Attica; and
that of Deucalion, which drowned all Theffaly in
Greece: but the moll memorable was that called the
univerfal deluge, or Noah’s flood, which overflowed
and deftroyed the whole earth, and out of which only
Noah, and thofe with him in the ark, efcaped. See
Ark.
Many attempts have been made to account for the
deluge by means of natural caufes: but thefe attempts
have only tended to difcredit philofophy, and to render
their authors ridiculous.
DEMAIN, or Demesne, in its common acceptation,
is ufed for the lands round a manor-houfe, occupied
by the lord.
Demain, or Demesne, in law, is commonly underftood
to be the lord’s chief manor-place, with the lands
thereto belonging, which he and his anceftors have
time out of mind kept in their own manual occupa¬
tion.
DEMEMBRE', in heraldry, is faid of difmembered a-
nimals, or thofe with their limbs cut off.
DEMEMBRATION, in Scots law, fignifies either the
crime of depriving another of any member of his bo¬
dy, or the punilhment of a crime by cutting off any
member of the criminal’s body. See Scots Law,
title 33.
DEMER, a river in the Auftrian Netherlands, on which
the city of Mechlin Hands.
DEMESNE, See Demain.
DEMETRIA, a feftival celebrated by the Greeks in
honour of Ceres, wherein it was ufual for the devo¬
tees to lafli themfelves.
DEMETRIOWITZ, a city of the dutchy pf Smolenlko,
in the Ruffian empire, fkuated upon the river Ugra,
in 370 E. long, and 520 30' N. lat.
DEMI, a word ufed in compofition with other words
to fignify half.
Demi-culverin, a piece of ordnance ufually 44 inches
bore, 2700 pound weight, ten feet long, and carry¬
ing point blank 175 paces.
Demx-culveris.4 o/' the leajl Jize, is 44 inches bore.
/._Dasyfuh or AKMAnn.i^o
I
DEN
10 feet long, and 2000 pounds weight. It carries a
ball of 4 inches diameter, and of 9 pounds weight,
and its level range is 174 paces.
Demi-culverin of the largefi fort, is 4I inches bore,
lOy feet long, and weighs 3000 pounds weight. It
carries a ball 4-I inches diameter, weighing 12 pounds
11 ounces, p*int blank 178 paces.
Demi-gorge, in fortification, is that part of the
polygon which remains after the flank is raifed, and
goes from the curtin to the angle of the polygon. It
is half of the vacant fpace or entrance into a baftion.
Demi-quave-r, a note in mufic, two of which are e-
qual to a quaver.
Demi-semi-quaver, in mufic, the fliorteft note, two
of them being equal to a femi-quaver.
DEMOCRACY, the fame with a popular government,
wherein thefupreme power is lodged in the hands of the
people: fuch were Rome and Athens of old ; but as to
our modern republics, Bafil only excepted, their go¬
vernment comes nearer to ariftocracy than demo¬
cracy.
DEMONSTRABLE, a term ufed in the fchools, to
fignify that a thing may be clearly proved. Thus it
is demonftrable that the three angles of a triangle
are equal to two right ones.
DEMONSTRATION, in logic, a feries of fyllogifins,
all whofe premifes are either definitions, felf-evident
truths, or propofitions already eftablifhed. See Lo-
GIC.
DEMONSTRATIVE, in grammar, a term given to
fuch pronouns as ferve to indicate or point out a thing.
Of this number are hic<,%ha;c, hoc, among the Latins;
and this, that, thefe, thofe, in Englifli.
DEMULCENTS, among phyficians, medicines good
againll acrimonious humours. Such are the roots of
marfh-mallows,'bf white lilies, of liquorice, and of
viper grafs, the five emollient herbs, <bc.
DEMURRAGE, ki comiperce,' an allowance made to
the mailer of a flap by the merchants, for flaying in a
port longer than the time firft appointed for his' de¬
parture.
DEMURRER, in law, a flop put to any aftion upon
fome point of difficulty which mull be determined by
the court, before any further proceedings can be had
in the fuit.
DEN, a fyllable which added to the names of places
ffiews them to be fituated in valleys or near woods, as
Tenterden.
DENARIUS,-in Roman antiquity, the chief fjjver coin
among the Romans, worth in. our money about leven-
pence three farthings. As a weight, it was the
feventh part of a Roman ounce.
Denarius is alfo ufed in our law books for an EngHfh
penny.
DENBY, the capital of Denbylhire, in North Wales:
W. long. 30 30', and N. lat. 530 ly'. It fends only
one member to parliament.
DENDERMOND, a fortified town of Flanders, fitu¬
ated at the confluence of the rivers Scheld and Den-
der, twelve miles call of Ghent: E. Jong. 30 50', and
N. lat. 510 10.
Vol. II. No. 43. 3
DEN
DENDRACHATES, in natural hiflory, the name ufed
by the ancients for an extremely elegant and beautiful
fpecies of agate, the ground of which is whitiffi, va¬
riegated with veins of a brighter white. Thefe veins
are beautifully difpofed in a number of various figures,
but generally in many concentric irregular circles,
drawn round one or more points. It is common alfo,
in various parts of this flone, to find very beautiful
delineations of trees, mofles, fea-p!ants, and the like,
fo elegantly exprefled, that many have erroneoufly ta¬
ken them for real plants included in the fubftance of
the flone; whence the name dendrachates.
DENDRANATOMY, a term ufed by fome for a de-
feription of the various parts of trees, as root, trunk,
branch, bark, wood, pith, flower, fruit, 6v. See
Agriculture, Part I.
DENDROPHORIA, in antiquity, the carrying of
boughs or branches of trees, a religious ceremony fo
called, becaufe certain priefts called from thence den-
drophori, tree bearers, marched in proceffion, carrying
the branches of trees in their hands in honour of fome
god, as Bacchus, Cebele, Sylvanus, tec. The col¬
lege of the dendrophori is often mentioned in ancient
marbles; and we frequently fee in baflo relievos the
bacchanals reprefented as men carrying little flirubs or
branches of trees.
DENEB, an Arabic term fignifying tail, ufed by a-
ftronomers to denote feveral fixed flats. Thus deneb
eleet, fignifies the bright flat in the lion’s tail. Deneb
adigege, that in the fwan’s tail, <bc.
DENIER, a fmall French copper-coin, of which twelve
make a fol.
There were two kinds of deniers, the one tournois,
the other parifis, whereof the latter was worth a
fourth part more than the former.
DENIZEN, in law, an alien made a fubjedt by the
king’s letters patent, otherwife called donaifon, he-
caufe his legitimation proceeds ex donatione regis,
from the king’s gift.
DENMARK, a kingdom fituated between 8° and 130
of E. long, and between 540 and 58° of N. lat.: it
comprehends the peninfula of Jutland, and the iflands
of Zeland, Funen, <hc. To the king of Denmark
likewife belong Norway, Iceland, and the dutchy of
Holflein.
DENNIS, or St Dennis, a town of France four miles
north of Paris, where the kings of France are inter¬
red.
DENOMINATOR, in arithmetic, a term ufed in fpeak-
ing of fradtions. See Arithmetick, p.387.
Dens canis, or dog’s-tooth, in botany. See Ery-
thronium.
Dens leonis. See Leontodon.
DENSITY of bodies, is that property diredtly oppofite
to rarity, whereby they contain fuch a quantity of
matter under fuch a bulk.
Accordingly, a body is faid to have double or
triple the denfity of another body, when their bulk be¬
ing equal, the quantity of matter is in the one double
or triple the quantity of matter in the other.
Density of the air. See Pneumatics.
4 L DENTAL IUM,
( 415 )
DEO
DENTALlUM, in natural hiftory, a fhell-fifh belong¬
ing to the order of vermes tdtacea. The {hell con-
fifts of one tubulous ftrait valve, open at both ends.
There are eight fpecies, diftinguifhed by the angles,
Arise, <bc. of their {hells.
DENTARIA, or tooth-wort, in botany, a genus of
the tetradynamia filiquofa clafs. The filiqua or pod
burfts open by elaftic valves; the lligma is emargina-
ted ; and the calix is connivent. There are three
fpecies, only one of which, viz. the bulbifera, or co-
ralwort, is a native of Britain.
DENTATED leaf. See botany, p. 640.
DENTEX, in ichthyology. SccSparus.
DENTILES, or Dentils, in architedure, an orna¬
ment in corniches bearing fome .refemblance to tee'th,
particularly ufed in the jlonic and Corinthian orders.'
See Architecture, p. 352. •
DENTIFRICE, in medicine, a remedy for rubbing the
teeth, and purging them from fordes; and for clean-
fing and abAerging the gums, when replete with hu¬
mours. There are dentifrices of various kinds and
forms; fome in form of a powder compofed of corals,
pumice-ftone, fait, allum, egg-ftiells, crabs-claws,
hartftvorn, tec. others in form of an eleftuary, confift-
ing of the fame powders mixt up with honey; others
are in form of a liquor drawn by diftillations from dry¬
ing herbs, and aftringent medicines, tec.
DENTILLARIA. See Plumbago.
DENTISCALPRA, in furgery, an inftrument for fcour-
ing yellow, livid, or black teeth; to which being ap¬
plied, near the gums, it fcrapes off the foul morbid
cruft.
DENTITION, the breeding or cutting the teeth in
children. See Medicine.
DENUNCIATION, a folemn publication or promulga¬
tion of any thing.
All veflels of enemies are lawful prizes, after de¬
nunciation or proclamation of war. The defign of the
denunciation of excommunicated perfons, is that the
fentence maybe the more fully executed by the perfon’s
being more known.
Denunciation at the horn, in Scots law, is that
form by which a debtor, after the expiry of a charge to
make payment upon letters of horning, is denounced re¬
bel to the king for difobedience. No caption for ap¬
prehending and imprifoning the debtor can be obtain¬
ed upon an expired charge of horning till lie is firft de¬
nounced rebel, and the horning with the executions
of charge and denunciation regiftered. As to the o-
ther legal effects of denunciation, fee Scots Law,
title 12.
DEOBSTRUENTS, in pharmacy, fuch medicines as
open obftruAions. See Detergent.
DEODAND, in our cuftoms, implies a thing devoted
or confecrated to God, for the pacification of his
wrath, in cafe of any misfortune; as a perfon’s com'* g
to a violent end, without the fault of any reafonable
* creature; as if ajrorfe ftiould ftrike his keeper, and fo
kill him. In this cafe, the horfe is to be a deodand ;
that is, he is to be fold, and the price diftributed to
the poor, as an expiation of that dreadful event.
D E P
DEPONENT, in Latin grammar, a term applied to
verbs which have adtive fignifications, but paffive ter¬
minations or conjugations, and want one of their parti¬
ciples paflive.
Deponent, in the law of Scotland, a perfon who makes
a depofition. See Deposition.
DEPOPULATION, the aft of diminiftiing the number
of people in any country, whether by war or bad po¬
litics.
DEPORTATION, a fort of baniftiment ufed by the
Romans, whereby fome ifland or other place was al¬
lotted to a criminal for the place of his abode, with a
prohibition not to ftir out of the fame on pain of death.
DEPOSIT, among civilians, fomething that is commit¬
ted to the cuftody of a perfon, to be kept without any
reward, and to be returned again on demand.
DEPOSITARY,, in law, a perfon intrufted as keeper or
guardian of a depofit.
DEPOSITATION, in Scots law, is a contraft by which
one commits the cuftody or poffelfion of any thing to
another, to be kept for behoof of the owner, and re¬
turned on demand, or at any period fpecified in the
contraft. The owner is called the depofitor, and the
perfon to whofe cuftody the thing is committed the
depofitary. See Scots Law, title 20.
DEPOSITION, in law, the teftimony given in court
by a witnefs upon oath.
DEPRECATION, in rhetoric, a figure whereby the o-
rator invokes the aid and affiftance of fome one; or
prays for fome great evil or puniftiment to befal him
who fpeaks fallely, either himfelf or his adverfary.
DEPRECATORY, or Deprecative, in theology, a
term applied to the manner of performing fome cere¬
monies in the form of prayer.
The form of abfolution is deprecative in the Greek
church, being conceived in thefe terms, May God ab-
folve you : whereas it is in the declarative form in the
Latin church, and in fome of the reformed churches,
1 abfolve you.
DEPRESSION of the pole. See Astronomy, and
Geography.
DEPRESSOR, or Deprimens, in anatomy, a name
applied to feveral mufcles, becaufe they deprefs the
parts they are faftened to.
DEPRIVATION, in the canon-law, the depofing a
bifhop, parfon, vicar, tec. from his office and prefer¬
ment.
DEPTFORD, a town three miles eaft of London, on
the fouthern banks of the Thames ; chiefly confider-
able for its fine docks for building ffiips, and the king’s
yard.
DEPURATION. See Clarification.
DEPURATORY fever, a name given by Sydenham
to a fever which prevailed much in the years 1661,
1662, 1663, and 1664. ca^e<l i{ depuratory,
becaufe he obferved, that nature regulated all the
fymptoms in fuch a manner, as to fit the febrile mat¬
ter, prepared by proper concoftion, for expulfion in a
certain time, either by a copious fweat, or a freer
perfpiration.
DEPUTATION, a miffion of feleft perfons out of a
company
( 416 )
D E R ( 417
company or body, to a prince or aflembly, to treat of
matters in their name.
DEPUTY, a perfon fent upon fome bufinefs, by fome
community.
Deputy is alfo one that exercifes an office in another’s
right; and the forfeiture or mifdemeanor of fuch de¬
puty ffiall caufe the perfon whom he reprefents to lofe
his office.
DEPUTATUS, among the ancients, a name applied to
perfons employed in making of armour: and likewife
to briflc aftive people, whofe bufinefs was to take care
of the wounded in engagements, and carry them off the
field.
DERBENT, a city of Dagiftan, on the weftern coaft
of the Cafpian fea: E. long. ji°, and 41® 15' N.lat.
DEREHAM, a market-town of Norfolk, about fifteen
miles weft of Norwich : E. long, i0, and N. lat.
52° 40'.
DERIVATIVE, in grammar, a word which is deri¬
ved from another called its primitive. See Primi¬
tive.
Thus, manhood is derived from man, deity from
Dens, and lawyer from law.
DERMESTES, in zoology, a genus of infedts belong¬
ing to the order of coleoptera. The antennal are cla-
vated, with three of the joints thicker than the reft ;
the breaft is convex; and the head is infle&ed below
the breaft. There are thirty fpecies, diftinguiffied by
their colour, <&c.
DERNIER ressort. See Ressort.
DEROGATORY, a claufe importing derogation. A
derogatory claufe in a teftament, is a certain fentence,
cipher, or lecret chara<fter, which the teftator inferts
in his will, and of which he referves the knowledge
to himfelf alone, adding a catodition, that no will he
may make hereafter is to be reckoned valid, if this de¬
rogatory claufe is not inferted exprefsly, and word
for word. It is a precaution invented by lawyers a-
gainft latter-wills extorted by violence, or obtained by
fuggeftion.
DERPT, a town of Livonia, fituated on the river Eim-
bec : E. long. 28° to', and N. lat. 58° io'.
DERVIS, a name given to all Mahommedan monks,
though of various orders. The moft noted among them
are the Bektafhi, thelvlevelevi, the Kadri, and the
Seyah. The Bektafhi, who are allowed to marry and
live in cities and towns, are obliged, by the rules of
their order, to vifit remote lands, and to falute every
one they meet with gazel, or love-fongs, and with ef-
ma, or the invocation of the names of God, and hum¬
bly to wiffi him profperity, which they do by repeat¬
ing the word eivallah, a folemn exclamation of the
wreftl^rs, by which the conquered yields the palm to
the conqueror. The Mevelevi, fo called from Meve-
lava their founder, are ufed to turn round for two or
three hours together, with fuch fwiftnefs that you can¬
not fee their faces; they are great lovers of mufic: in
their monafteries they profefs great huihility and pover¬
ty, and when vifited make no -diftindUon of perfons ;
they firft bring their guefts coffee to drink ; and if the
) D E S
ways have been dirty, they waffi their feet and fandals..
The Kadri, with a peculiar fuperftition, emaciate their
bodies; they go quite naked, except their thighs, and
often join hands and dance, fometimes a whole day,
repeating with great vehemence, hu! hu! hul (one
of the names of God) till, like madmen, they fall
on the ground, foaming at the mouth, and running
down with fweat: the prime vizir Kupruji Achmed
Paffia, thinking this fed! unbecoming the Mahommedan
religion, ordered it to be fuppreffed; but, after his
death, it revived, and is at prefent more numerous
than ever, efpecially at Conftantinople. The Seyah
are wanderers, and though they have monafteries, yet
they often fpend their whole life in travelling; Mien;
they are fent out, their fuperiors impofe upon them
fuch a quantity of money or provifions, forbidding
them to come back till they have procured it, and fent
it to the mofiaftery; wherefore when a Seyah comes
into a town, he cries aloud in the market-place, Ta
allah fenden, &C. 0 God! give me, I pray, five thou-
fund crowns, or a thoufand meafures of rice. Ma¬
ny of thefe dervifes travel over the whole Mahom¬
medan world, entertaining the people where-ever they
come, with agreeable relations of all the curiofities
they have met with. There are dervifes in Egypr,
who live with their families, and exercife their trades,
of which kind are the dancing dervifes at Damafcus.
They are all diftinguiffied among themfelves by the
different forms and colours of their habits; thofe of
Perfia wear blue; the (binaries and wanderers wear
only rags of different colours; others carry on their
heads a plume made of the feathers of a cock; apd
thofe of Egypt wear an ©diagonal badge of a green-
iffi white alabafter at their girdles, and a high ftiff
cap, without any thing round it.
DERWENT, a river, which, taking its rife in the
north riding of Yorkffiire, runs fouth, and falls into
the Oufe.
Derwent-water, a river of Cumberland, which falls-
into the Iriffi fea below Cockermouth.
DESART, a large extent of country entirely barren,
and producing nothing. In this fenfe fome are fandy
defarts, as thofe of Lop, Xamo, Arabia, and feveral
others in Afia; in Africa, thofe of Lybia and Zara:
others are ftony, as the defart of Pliai an in Arabia
Petrea.
fhe Desart, abfolutely fo called, is that part of Ara¬
bia, .fouth of the Holy Land, where the children of
Ifrael wandered forty years.
DESCANT, in mufic, the art of compofing in feveral,
parts. See Music.
DESCENDENTS, in Scots law. The iffue of a com¬
mon parent in infinitum are called his defcendents.
DESCENSION, in aftronomy, is either right or ob¬
lique.
Right Descension is an arch of the equinoctial, in-
, tercepted between the. next eq/inodfial point and the
interfedlion of the meridian, palling through the cen¬
tre of the objedl, at its fetting, in a right fphere.
Oblique Descension, an arch of the equinodtial, in¬
tercepted;
D E S (
tercepted between the next equinoctial point and the
horizon, palling through the centre of the object, at
its fetting, in an oblique fphere.
DESCENT, in general, is the tendency of a body front
a higher to a lower place; thus all bodies, tinlefs o
therwife determined by a force fuperior to their gra¬
vity, defcend towards the centre of the earth. See
Mechanics.
Descent, or Discent, in law, an order or method
whereby lands or tenements are derived to any man
from his ancelktrs.
Descent, in genealogy, the order or fucceffion of de-
fcehdants in a line or family; or their diflance from a
common progenitor: thus we fay, one defcent, two
defcents, &c.
Descent, in heraldy, is ufed to exprefs the coming
down of any thing from above; as, a lion en defccnt,
is a lion with his head towards the bale points, and
his heels towards one of the corners of the chief, as if
he were leaping down from fome high place.
DESCRIPTION, is fuch a (trong and beautiful reprefen-
tation of a thing, as gives the reader a diltincl view and
fatisfaClory notion of it. See Narration and De¬
ft ri fit ion.
DESEADA, or Desiderada, one of the Caribbee-
iflands, fubjeCt to France, lying eaftward of Guarda-
loupe. See Caribbee.
DESERTER, in a military fenfe, a foldier who, by
running away from his regiment or company, aban¬
dons the fervice.
A deferter is, by the articles of war, punifliable by
death, and, after conviction, is hanged at the head of
the regiment he formerly belonged to, with his crime
writ on his breaft.
DESERTION, in Scots Law, when one of the married
perfons deferts or forfakes the other. Wilful defer-
tion for four years together is a ground of divorce.
See Scots Law, title 6.
DESHACHE', in heraldry, is where a bead has its
limbs feparated from its body, fo that they dill remain
on the efcutcheon, with only a fmall feparation from
their natural places.
DESIDERATUM is ufed to fignify the defirable per¬
fections in any art or fcience : thus, it is a defideratum
with the blackfmith, to render iron fufible by a gentle
heat, and yet preferve it hard enough for ordinary
ufes; with the glafsman, and looking-glafs maker, to
render glafs malleable; with the clock-maker, to bring
pendulums to be ufeful where there are irregular mo¬
tions, i6c.
DESIGN, in a general fenfe, the plan, order, reprefen-
tation, or conltruCtion of a building, book, painting,
ire.
Design, in the manufactories, exprelTes the figures
wherewith the workman enriches his duff, or filk, and
which he copies after fbme painter, or eminent
draughts-man, as In diaper, damalk, and other dower¬
ed fiik and tapedry, and the like.
In undertaking of fuch kinds of figured duffs, it is
neceffary, fays Monf. Savary, that, before the fird
ftroke of the fhuttb, the whole defign be reprefented
418 ) D E S
on the threads of the warp; we do not mean in co¬
lours, but with an infinite number of little pack¬
threads, which, being difpofed fo as to raife the
threads of the warp, let the workmen fee, from time
to time, what kind of filk is to be put in the eye of the
fliuttle for woof. This method of preparing the
work is called reading the. defign, and reading the fi¬
gure, which is performed in the following manner: a
paper is provided, confiderably broader than the duff,
and of a length proportionate to what is intended to
be reprefented thereon. This- they divide lengthwife,
by as many black lines as there are intended threads
in the warp; and crofs ihefe lines, by others drawn
breadthwife, which, with the . former, make little e-
qual fquares: on the paper thus fquared, the draughts¬
man defigns his figures, and heightens them with
colours, as he fees fit. When the defign is finifhed,
a workman reads it, while another lays it on the fim-
blot.
To read the defign, is to tell the perfon who ma¬
nages the loom, the number of fquares, or threads,
comprifed in the fpace he is reading, intimating at the
fame timer whether it is ground or figure. To put
what is read on the fimblot, is to fallen little drings
to the feveral packthreads, which are to raife the
threads named; and thus they continue to do till the
whole defign is redd. '
Every piece being compofed of feveral repetitions
of the fame defign, when the whole defign is drawn,
the drawer, to jre-begin the defign afrefh, has nothing
to do but to raife the*little^ drings, with dip-knots, to
the top of the fimblot, which he had let down to the
bottom : this he is to repeat as often as is neceffary till
<he whole be manufactured.
The ribbon-weavers have likewife a defign, but far
more Ample than that now deferibed. It is drawn on
paper with lines and fquares, reprefenting the threads
of the warp and woof. But indead of lines, whereof
the figures of the forme/confid, thefe are condituted
of points only, or dots, placed in certain of the little
fquares, formed by the interfedion of the lines. Thefe
points mark the threads of the warp that are to be
raifed, and the fpaces left blank denote the threads
that are to keep their fituation : the red is managed as
in the former. <
Design is alfo ufed, in painting, for the fird idea of a
large work, drawn roughly, and in little, with an in¬
tention to be executed and finifhed in large.
Defign, in painting, is the fimple contour, or out¬
lines of the figures intended to be reprefented, or the
lines that terminate and circumfcribe them: fuch de¬
fign is fometimes drawn in crayons, or ink, without
any lhadows at all ^ fometimes it is hatched, that is,
the lhadows are expreffed by fenfible outlines, ufually
drawn acrofs each other with the pen, crayon, or gra¬
ver. Sometimes, again, the Ihadows are done with
the crayon rubbed fio as that there do not appear any
lines : at other times, the grains or drokes of the
crayon appear, as not being rubbed : fometimes the
defign is walhed, that is, the lhadows are done with
a pencil in Indian ink, or fome other liquor ; andfome-
D E S ( 419 ) DEV
times the defign is coloured, that is, colours are laid
on much like thofe intended for the grand work.
The eflential requifites of a defign are corre&nefs,
good tafte, elegance, charadter, diverfity, exprefiion,
and perfpedtive. Corredtnefs depends on the jufinefs
of the proportions, and knowledge of anatomy. Tafte
is a certain manner of corredtnefs peculiar to one’s
felf, derived either from nature, mafters, or ftudie?,
orall of them united. Elegance gives a delicacy that
not only ftrikes perfons of judgment, but communi¬
cates an agrpeablenefs that pleafes univerfally. The
character is what is peculiar to each thing, wherein
there muft be diverfity, infomuch that every thing has
its peculiar character to diftinguilh it. The expreflion
is the reprefentation of an objedl, according to the circum-
ftances itisfuppofedtobein. Perfpedtive is the reprefen¬
tation of the parts of a painting or a figure, according to the
fituation they are in with regard to the point of fight.
The defign or draught, is a part of the greateft import
and extent in painting. It is acquired chiefly by geni¬
us and application, rules being of lefs avail here than
in any other branches of the art, as colouring, <fac.
The principal rules that regard defign are, that novices
accuftom themfelves to copy good originals at firft fight;
not to ufe fquares in drawing,' left they ftint and con¬
fine their judgment; to defign well from life, before
they pradtife perfpeftive ; to learn to adjuft the fize of
their figures to the vifual angle, and the diftance of the
eye from the model or objedt; to mark out all the parts
of their defign before they begin to ftiade ; to make
their contours in great pieces, without taking notice of
the little’mufcles, .and othei* breaks ; to make them¬
felves mafters of the rules of perfpedtive ; to obferve.
the perpendicular, parallel, aiid diftance of every ftroke;
to compare and oppofe the parts that meet and traverfe
the perpendicular, fo as to form a kind of fquare in
the mind, which is- the great and almoft the only rule
of defigning juftly ; to have a regard not only to the
model, but to the parts already defigned, there being
no finch thing as defigning with ftridt juftnefs, but by
comparing and proportioning every part to the firft.
All the other rules relate to perfpedtive. See Per¬
spective.
DESIGN, the Macedonian name of the month called
by the Athenians anthefterion.
DESISE, a town of France, fituated on the river Loire,
fifteen miles fouth-eaft of Nevers: E. long. 30 32/, N.
lat. 46° 48'.
DESPOTICAL, in general, denotes any thing that is
uncontrouled and abfolute; but is particularly ufed for
an arbitrary government, where the power of the prince
is unlimited, and his will a law to his fubjedts: fuch'
are thofe of Turky, Perfia, and moft of. the eaftern
governments ; and even thofe of Europe, if we except
the republics, our own, and the Swedilh government.
DESPOUILLP1', in heraldry,' the whole cafe, Ikin, or
flough of a beaft, with the head, feet, tail, and all
appurtenances, fo that being filled and fluffed it looks
like the entire creature.
DESSAW, a city of upper Saxony, in Germany, fitu¬
ated on the river Elbe, fixty miles north-weft of Dref-
Vox. II. No; 45. , 3
den, and fubjedl to the prince of Anhalt DelTaw : E.
long. 120 4Q/, N. lat. 510 jo'.
DESSERT, or Desart, a fervice of fruits and fweet-
meats, ufually ferved up laft to table.
DESSICCATIVE, or Desiccative, in pharmacy, an
epithet applied to fuch topical medicines as dry up the
humours flowing to a wound or ulcer.
DESTINIES, in mythology. See Par c At.
DESTINY, among philofophers and divines. SccFate.
DESTRUCTION, in general, an alteration of any
thing from its natural ftate to one contrary to nature ;
whereby it is deemed the fame with corruption. See
Corruption.
A chemical deftrudtion, or corruption's nothing but a
refolution of the whole naturally mixt body intoitspartg.
DESUDATION, in medicine, a profufe and inordinate
fweat, fucceeded by an eruption of puftules, called fu-
damina, or heat pimples.
DETACHMENT, in military affairs, a certain number
of foldiers drawn out from feveral regiments or com¬
panies equally, to be employed as the general thinks
proper, whether on an attack, at a fiege, or in'parties
to fcower the country.
DETERGENTS, in pharmacy, fuch medicines as are
not only foftening and adhefive, but alfo,-by a peculi¬
ar aflivity, conjoined with a fuitable configuration of
parts, are apt to abrade and carry along with them
fuch particles as they lay hold on in their paffage.
DETERIORATION, the impairing or Tendering a thing
worfe: it is juft the reverfe of melioration. See Me-
lioration.
DETERMINATION, in mechanics, fignifies much the
fame with the tendency or direction of a body in mo-
' tiop. See Mechanics.
Determination, among fchooj-divines, is an a<ft of
divine power, limiting the agency of fecond caufes, in
every inftance, to what the Deity predeftinated concern¬
ing them. See Predestination.
DETERSIVES, in pharmacy. See Detergents.
DETHMOLD, a town of Weftphalia, in Germany,
fifteen miles north of Paderborn : E. long. 8° 35',
N. lat. 52°.
DETINUE, in law, a writ or aftion that lies againft one
who has got goods or other things delivered to him to
keep, and afterwards refufes to deliver them.
DETONATION, in chemiftry, the noife and explofion
which any fubftance makes upon the application of fire
to it. It is alfo called fulmination. See Chemistry.
DETRANCHE', in heraldry, a line bendwife, proceed¬
ing always from the dexter fide, but not from the very
angle, diagonally athwart the Ihield.
DETTINGEN, a village of Germany, .about nine miles
eaft of Hanau, in the circle of the upper Rhine : E.
long. 8° 4$, and N. lat. 50° 8'.
DEVA, a port-town of Spain, fituated on the bay of
Bifcay, forty miles eaft of Bilboa : WV long. 20 xo',
and N. lat. 430 20
DEVENTER, a cky of the united Provinces, and pro¬
vince of Overyffel, about eight miles north of Zutphen:
E. long. 6°, and N. lat. 52° 20 .
DEVICE, among painters. See Devise.
4m
DEVIL,
D E U (42
DEVIL, an evil angel, one of thofe celeftial fpirits call
down from heaven for pretending to equal himfelf
•with God. The Ethiopians paint the devil white, to
be even with the Europeans who paint him black. There
is no mention of the word devil in the Old Teftament,
but only of the word Satan and Belial : nor do we
meet with it in any heathen authors, in the fenfe it is
taken among Chriftians, that is, as a creature revolted
from God. Their theology went no farther than to e-
vil genii, or daemons.
Some of the American idolaters have a notion of
two collateral independent beings, one of whom is
good, and the other evil; which laft they imagine has
the direction and fuperintendance of this earth, for
which reafon they chiefly worihip him : whence thofe
that give us an account of the religion of thefe favages
give out, with fome impropriety, that they worfhip
the devil. The Chaldeans, in like manner, believed
both a good principle and an evil one, which laft they
imagined was an enemy to mankind.
Ifaiah, fpeaking, according to fome commentators,
of the fall of the devil, calls him Lucifer, from his
former elevation and ftate of glory : but others explain
this paffage of Ifaiah in reference to the king of Baby¬
lon, who had been precipitated from his throne and glo¬
ry. The Arabians call Lucifer, Eblis, which fome
think is only a diminutive or corruption of the word
Diabolus.
Devil-in-a-bush, in botany. See Nigella.
Devil’s bit. SeeScABiosA.
DEVINCTION, in antiquity, a kind of love-charm,
defcribed by*Virgil in his eighth eclogue : it confifted
in tying certain knots, and repeating a formula of words.
DEVISE, or Device, in heraldry, painting, and fculp-
ture, any emblem ufed to reprefent a certain family,
perfon, adion, or quality ; with a fuitable motto, ap¬
plied in a figurative fenfe. See Motto.
Devise, in law, the ad whereby a perfon bequeaths his
lands or tenementsto another by his laft will and teftament.
DEVISES, a borough town in Wiltfhire? eighteen miles
north-weft of Salifbury : W. long. 20 6', andN. lat.
51° 25V It fends two members to parliament.
DEUNX, in Roman antiquity, eleven ounces, or im¬
parts of the libra. See Libra.
DEVOLUTION, in law, a right acquired by fuccefli-
on from one to another.
DEVONSHIRE, a county in the weft of England,
bounded by the Briftol channel, on the north ; by So-
merfetfliire and Dorfetfhire, on the eaft ; by the Eng-
liih channel, on the fouth ; and by Cornwal, on the
weft. From this county the noble family of Caven-
difh take the title of duke.
DEVOTION, a fincere ardent worftiipof the deity. See
Prayer, Adoration, Worship, fyc.
DEUTERONOMY, a canonical book of the Old Tefta¬
ment, and the laft of the pentateuch of Jvlofes. See
Bible.
DEUTEROPOTMI, in Grecian antiquity, a defigna-
tion given to fuch of the Athenians as had been thought
dead, and, after th^ celebration of the funeral rites,
unexpededly recovered. It was unlawful for the deu-
0 ) D I A
teropotmi to enter into the temple of the Eumenides,
or to be admitted to the holy rites, till after they were
purified, by being let through the lap of a woman’s
gown, that they might feem to be new born.
DEUTEROSIS, the Greek name by which the Jews
called their Mifehnah, or fecond law. See Misch-
NAH.
DEUX PONTS, a city of Germany, in the palatinate
of the Rhine, fixty miles north-eaft of Nancy: E.
long. 70 15', and N. lat. 490 2$.
DEW, a denfe moift vapour, falling on the earth in form
of a milling rain, while the fun is below the horizon.
See Pneumatics.
DEW-BORN, in country affairs, acliftemper in cattle,
being a fwelling in the body, as much as the Ikin can
hold, fo that fome beafts are in danger of burfting.
This diftemper proceeds from the greedinefs of a beaft
to feed, when put into a rank pafture : but commonly
when the grafs is full of water. In this cafe the beaft
Ihould be ftirred up and down, and made to purge well:
but the proper cure is bleeding in the tail; then take a
grated nutmeg, with an egg, and breaking the top of
the Ihell, put out fo much of the white as you may have
room to flip the nutmeg into the Ihell ; mix them to¬
gether, and then let {hell and all be^ put down the
beaft’s throat; that done, walk him up and down, and
he will foon mend.
DEXTANS, in Roman antiquity, ten ounces, or ££ of
their libra. See Libra.
DEXTER, in heraldry, an appellation given to whate¬
ver belongs to the right fide of a Ihield, or coat of
arms : thus we fay, bend-dexter, dexter point,
See Bend, Point, &tr.
DEXTROCHERE, or Destrochere, in heraldry, is
applied to the right arm painted in a fiiield, fometimes
naked, fometimes cloathed, or adorned with a brace¬
let ; and fometimes armed, or holding fome moveable,
or member ufed in the arms.
DEY, in matters of government, the fovereign prince of
Algiers, anfwering to the bay of Tunis. See Bey.
DEYNSE, a town of Flanders, nine miles fouth weft of
Ghent: E. long. 30 30', N. lat. 510.
Diabetes, in phyfic, an excelfive difcharge of urine,
which comes away crude, and exceeds the quantity of
liquids drank. See Medicine.
DIABOLUS. See Devil,
Diabolus marinus. See Raia.
Diabolus metellorum, a title given by chemifts to
jupiter or tin, becaufe, when incorporated with other
metals, it renders them uncapable of reduction, or at
lead very difficult to undergo that operation.
DIABROSIS, in medicine. See Anabrosis.
DIACARYON, in pharmacy. See Dianucum.
DIACAUSTIC curve, a fpecies of the cauftic curves
formed by refra&ion.
DIACHYLON, in pharmacy, an emollient digeftive
plaifter, compofed of mucilages or vifcid juices drawn
from certain plants.
DIACODIUM, in pharmacy, a fyrup prepared from
poppy heads. It is alfo galled the fyrupus de meconio.
As it is of confequence that all the circumftances in the
direitions.
D 1 A (421
directions for compounding this medicine, be exactly
followed, we here give the method of preparing it from
the London Difpenfatory. Take of the heads of dried
white poppies without their feeds, three pounds and
a half; of water, fix gallons. Slice the heads, and boil
them in the water,' often ftirring them that they may
not burn, till about a third only of the liquor is left,
which will be almoft all imbibed by the poppy heads:
then take all from the fire, and prefs the liquor flrong-
ly out from the heads ; in the next place, boil the li¬
quor byitfelf, to about two quarts, and ftrain it while
hot, firft through a fieve, and then through a thin flan¬
nel : fet it by for a night, that what faeces have pafled
the (trainers, may fubfide; next morning pour off the
clear liquor, and boil it with fix pounds of double re¬
fined fugar, till the whole comes to the weight of nine
pounds, or a little more, that it may become a fyrup
of a juft confiftence. This fyrup partakes of all the
virtues of the poppy.
DIACOUSTICS, called alfo diaphonics, the confi-
deration of the properties of refracted found, as it paf-
fes through different mediums.
DIADELPHIA, in the Linnaean fyftem of botany. See
Vol. I. p. 635.
DIADEM, in antiquity, a head-band, or fillet, worn
by kings as a badge of their royalty. It was made
of (ilk, thread, or wool, and tied round the temples
and forehead, the ends being tied behind, and let fall
on the neck. It was ufually white, and quite plain,
though fometimes embroidered with gold, and fet
with pearls and precious ftones. In latter times, it
came to be twilled round crowns, laurels, fcc. and
even appears to have been worn on divers parts of the
body. See Crown.
Diadem, in heraldry, is applied to certain circles, or
rims, ferving to inclofe the crowns of fovereign princes,
and to bear the globe and crofs, or the flower de luces
for their creft. The crowns of fovereigns are bound,
feme with a greater, and fome with a lefs number of
diadems. The bandage about the heads of moors on
(hields is alfo called diadem, in blazoning.
DliERESIS, in furgery, an operation ferving to divide
and feparate the part when the continuity is a hindrance
to the cure.
Diuresis, in medicine, is the confuming of the vefr
fels of an animal body, when from fome corroding
caufe certain paflages are made, which naturally ought
not to have been ; or certain natural paffages are di¬
lated beyond their ordinary dimenfions, fo that the
humours which ought to have been contained in the
veiTels extravafate or run out.
Diaeresis, in grammar, the divifion of one fyllable in¬
to two, which is ufually noted by two points over a
letter, as aulai' inftead of atria;, diflbliienda for dif-
folvenda.
DIATETi!?, in Grecian antiquity, a kind of judges,,
of which there were two forts, the cleroti and diallac-
terii. The former were public arbitrators, chofen by
lot to determine all caufes exceeding ten drachms,
within their own tribe, and from their fentence an ap¬
peal lay to the fuperior courts.
) D I A
The dialladterii, on the contrary, were private ar¬
bitrators from whofe fentence there lay no appeal, and
accordingly they always took an oath to adminifter ju-
ftice without partiality.
DIAGLYPHICE, the art of cqtting or engraving fi¬
gures on metals, fuch as feals, intaglias, matrices of
letters, &c. or coins for medals.
DIAGNOSTIC, in medicine, a term given to thofe
figns which indicate the prefent (late of a difeafe, its
nature and caufe.
DIAGONAL, in geometry, a right line drawn acrofs
a quadrilateral figure, from one angle to another, by
fome called the diameter, and by others the diametral
of the figure. See Geometry.
DIAGRAM, in geometry, a fcheme for explaining and
demonftrating the properties of any figure, whether
triangle, fquare, circle, &c. See Geometr.y.
Diagram, among ancient muficians. See Scale.
DIAHEXAPLA, or Diahexapte, among farriers, a
compound medicine, fo called from its containing fix
ingredients, viz. birthwort and gentian roots, juniper-
berries, bay-berries, myrrh, and ivory (havings. It
is commended for colds, confumptions, purfinefs, and
many other diforders in horfes.
DIAL. A dial is a pkne, upon, which lines are defcri-
bed in. fuch , a manner, that the" (hadow of a wire, or
of the upper edge of another plane, erefted perpendi¬
cularly on the former, may (hew the true time of the
day.
The edge of the plane by which the time of the day
is found, is called the (tile of the dial, which muft be
parallel to the earth’s axis; and the line on which
the faid plane is erefted, is called the fubftile.
The angle included between the fubftile and ftik, is
called the elevation, or height of the ftile.
Thofe dials whofe planes are parallel to the plane
of the horizon, are called horizontal dials ; and thofe
dials whofe planes are perpendicular to the plane of the
horiaon, are called vertical, or ereft dials.
Thofe ereift dials, whofe planes dire&ly front the
north or fouth, aretalled dirett north or fouth dials ;
and all other eredt dials are callecf decliners, be-
caufe their planes are turned away from the north or
fouth.
Thofe dials whofe planes are neither parallel nor
perpendicular to the plane of the horizon, are called
inclining, or reclining dials, according as their planes
make acute or obtufe angles with the horizon; and if
their planes are alfo turned afide from facing the
fouth or north, they are called declining-inclining, or
declining-reclining dials.
The interfedlion of the plane of the dial, with that
of the meridian, pafling through the ftile, is called
the meridian of the dial, or the hour-line of XII.
Thofe meridians, whpfe planes pafs through the
ftile, and make angles of 15, 30, 45, 60, 75:, and 90-
degrees with th^ meridian of the place (which marks
the hour-line of XII.) are called hour circles ; and
their interfedlions with the plane of the dial are cal¬
led hour-lines.
In all declining dials, the fubftile makes an angle
witE
D I A
with the hoar line of XII; and this angle is called the
dillance of the fubltile from the meridian.
The declining plane’s difference of longitude, is the
angle formed at the interfeftion of the ftile and plane of
the dial, by two meridians ; one of which pafles through
the hour-line of XII. and the other through the fub-
llile.
This much being premifed concerning dials in general,
we fnall now proceed to explain the different methods
of their conftrudion.
If the whole earth aPcp, IPlateLXIX. fig. i.) were it
tranfparent, and hollow, like a fphere of glafs, and had
its equator divided into 24 equal parts by fo many meri¬
dian femicircles, a, b, c, d, e,f,g, &c. one of which is
the geographical meridian of any given place, as London
(which is fuppofed to be at the point a\) and if the
hours of XII were marked at the equator, both upon
that meridian and. the oppofite one, and all the reft of
the hours in order on the reft of the meridians, thofe
meridians would be the hour-circles of London: then, if
the Iphere had an opake axis, as P E p, terminating .in
the poles P and p, the fhadow of the axis would fall
upon every particular meridian and hour, when the .fun
came to the plane of the oppofite meridian, and would
confequently fhew the time at Lhndon, and at all other
places on the meridian ,of London.
If this fphere was cut through the middle by a folid
plane ABCD, in the rational horizon of London, one
half of the axis E P would be above the plane, and the
other half below it; and if ftraight lines were drawn
from the centre of the plane, to thofe points where its
circumference is cut by the hour-circles of the fphere,
thofe lines would be the hour-lines of a horizontal dial
for London : for the Ihadow of the axis would fall up¬
on each particular hour-line of the dial, when it fell up-
pn the like hour-circle of the fphere.
If the plane which cuts the fphere be upright, as
AFCG, fig. 2. touching the given place (London) at F,
and direftly facing the meridian of London, it will then
become the plane of an ereft direct fouth dial: and if
right lines be drawn from its center E, to thofe points
of its circumference where the hour-circles of the fphere
cut it, thefe will be the hour-lines of a vertical or diredt
fouth dial for London, to which the hours are to be fet
as in the figure (contrary to thofe on a horizontal dial),
and the lower half F /> of the axis will call a Ihadow on
the hour of the day in this dial, at the fame time that it
would fall upon the like hour-circle of the fphere, if the
dial-plane was not in the way.
If the plane (ftill facing the meridian) be made to in¬
cline, or recline, any given number of degrees, the hour-
circles of the fphere will ftill cut the edge of the plane in
thofe points to which the hour-lines muft be drawn
ftraight from the center; and the axis of the fphere will
call a Ihadow on thefe lines at the refpedtive hoars The
like will ftill hold, if the plane be made to decline by
any given number of degrees from the meridian toward
the eaft or weft: provided the declination be lefs than 90
degrees, or the reclination be lefs. than the co-latitude of
the place: and the axis of the fphere will be a gnomon,
or ftile, for the dial. But it cannot be a gnomon, when
D I A
the-declination is quite 90 degrees, nor when the reclina¬
tion is equal to the co-latitude; becaufe in thefe two
cafes, the axis has no elevation above the plane of the
dial.
And thus it appears, that the plane of every dial repre-
fents the plane of forae great circle upon the earth; and
the gnomon the earth’s axis, whether it be a fmall wire,
as in the above figures, or the edge of a thin plate, as in
the common horizontal dials.
The whole earth, as to its bulk, is but a point, if
compared to its diftance from the fun: and therefore, if
a fmall fphere of glafs be placed upon any part of the
earth’s furface, fo that its axis be parallel to the axis
of the earth, and the fphere have fuch lines upon it, and
fuch planes within it, as above defcribed ; it will fhew
the hours of the day as tr-uly as if it were placed at the
earth’s center, and the fhell of the earth were as tranf¬
parent as glafs.
But becaufe it is impoflible to have a hollow fphere oY
glafs perfectly true, blown round a folid plane; or if it
. was, we could not get at the plane within the glafs to
fet it in any given pofitionwe make ufe of a wire-fphere
to explain the principles of dialing, by joining 24 femi-
circles together at the poles, and putting a’ thin flat plate
of brafs within it. "
A common globe, of 12 inches diameter, has gener^Iy
24 meridian femicircles drawn upon it. If fuch a globe
be elevated to the latitude of any given place, and turn%
ed about until one of thefe meridians cut the horizon in the
north point, where the hour of XLI is fuppofed to be
marked, the reft of the meridians will cut the horizon at
< the refpedtive diftarices of all the other hours from XII.
Then if thefe points of diftance be marked on the horizon,
and the globe be taken out of the horizon, and a flat
board or plate be put into its place, even with the fur-
face of the horizon; and if ftraight lines be drawn from
the center of the board, to thofe points of diftance, on the
horizon which were cut by the 24 meridian femicircles,
thefe lines will be the hour-lines of a horizontal dial for
that latitude, the edge of whofe gnomon muft be in the
very fame fituation that the axis of the globe was, be¬
fore it was taken out of the horizon : that is, the gno¬
mon muft make an angle with the plain of the dial, equal
to the latitude of the place for which the dial is made.
If the pole of' the globe be elevated to the co-latitude
of the given place, and any meridian be brought to the
north point of the horizon, the reft of the meridians will
cut the horizon in the refpe<5Hve diftances of all the hours
from XII, for a direfl fouth dial, whofe gnomon muft
be an angle with the plane of the dial, equal to the co¬
latitude of the place; and the hours muft be fet the con¬
trary way on this dial to what they are on the horizon¬
tal.
But if your globe have more than 24 meridian femi¬
circles upon k, you muft take the following method for
making horizontal and fouth dials.
Elevate the pole to the latitude of your place, and
turn the globe until any particular meridian (fuppofe
the firft) comes to the north point of the horizon, and
the oppofite meridian will cut the horizon in the fouth.
Then, fet the hour-index to the uppermott XII on its
circle;
( 422 )
D I A (4:
circle; which done, turn the globe we Award until’15
degrees of the equator pafs under the brafen meridian,
and then the hour-index will be at I (for the fun
moves 15 degrees every hour) and the firft meridian will
cut the horizon in the number of degrees from the
north point, that I is diftant from XII. Turn on,
until other 15 degrees of the equator pafs under the bra¬
fen meridian, and the hour-index will then be at II, and
the firft meridian will cut the horizon in the number of
degrees that II is diftant from XII: and fo, by making
15 degrees of the equator pafs under the brafen meridian
for every hour, the firft meridian of the globe will cut the
horizon in the diftances of all the hours from XII to VI,
which is diftant juft 90 degrees ; and then you need go no
farther, forthe diftances of XI, X, IX, VIII, VII, and VI,
in the forenoon, are the fame from XII, as the diftances of
I, II, III, IIII, V, and VI, in the afternoon: and
thefe hour-lines continued through the center, will give
the oppofite hour-lines on the other half of 'the dial.
.Thus,1 to make a horizontal dial for the latitude of
London, which is 5 degrees north, elevate the north
pole of the globe 51-i degrees above the north point of
» the horizon, and then turn the globe, until the firft me¬
ridian (which is that of London on ,the Englilh ter-
reftrial globe) cuts the north point of the horizon, and
fet the hour-index to XII at noon.
Then turning the globe weft ward until the index points
fucoefiively to I, II, III, IIII, V, and VI, in the after¬
noon, or until if, 30, 45, 60, 7/, and 90 degrees of
the equator pafs under the brafen meridian, you will find
that the firft meridian of the globe cuts the horizon in the
following numbers of degrees from the north towards the
eaft, viz. 114, 244. 38-rr> 53t» 71 r> an^ 90; which
are the refpedtive diftances of the above hours from XII
upon the plane of the horizon.
To transfer thefe, and the reft of the hours, to a ho¬
rizontal, plane, draw_ the parallel right lines a c and d b,
'(Plate LXIX. fig.3.) upon that plane, as far from each other
as is equal to the intended thicknefs of the gnomon or
ftile of the dial, and the fpace included between them
will be the meridian or twelve o’clock line on ^he dial.
Crofs this meridian at right angles with the fix o’clock
line g h, and fetting one foot of your compaftes in the
interfedtion a, as a center, defcrife the quadrant g e with
any convenient radius or opening of the compafles : then,
fetting one foot in the interfedion b, as a center, with
the fame radius defcribe the quadrant f and divide
each quadrant into 90 equal parts or degrees, as in the
figure.
Becaufe the hour-lines are lefs diftant from each other
about noon, than in any other part of the dial, it is belt
to has«£ the centers of thefe quadrants at a little diftance
from the center of the dial-plane, on the fide oppofite
to XII, in order to enlarge the hour-diftances there¬
abouts, under the fame angles on the plane. Thus, the
center of the plane is at C, but the centers 6f the qua¬
drants are at a and b.
Lay a ruler over the point b (and keeping it there for
the center of all the afternoon hours in the quadrant j b~)
draw the hour-line of I through 1 i-^degrees in the qua¬
drant ; the hour-line of II, through 24^ degrees; of\
Vol. II.%No. 43. 3
13 ) D I A
III, through 38TIr degrees; IIII, through and V,
through 7iTV: and becaufe the fun rifes about four in
the morning, on the longeft days at London, continue
the hour-lines of IIII and V in the afternoon through
the center b to the oppofite fide of the dial.—done,
lay the ruler to the center a of the quadrant e g, and
through the like divifions or degrees of that quadrant,
viz. it-?-, 24^, sSA'j S3i> and yi-jx, draw the fore¬
noon hour-lines of XI, X, IX, VIII, and VII; and be-
’ caufe the fun fets not before eight in the evening on the
longeft days, continue the hour-lines of VII and VIII in
the forenoon, through the center a, to VII and VIII in
the afternoon; and all the hour-lines will be finilhed on
this dial; to which the hours may be fet, as in the
figure.
Laftly, through yi-J degrees of either quadrant, and
from its center, draw the right line a g for the hypo-
thenufe or axis of the gnomon a g i; and from g, let fall
the perpendicular ^upon the meridian line a i, and
there will be a triangle made, whole lides are a g, g i,
and i a. If a plate fimilar to this triangle be made as
thick as the diftance between the lines a c and b d, and
fet upright between them, touching at a and b, its hypo-
thenufe a g will be parallel to the axis of the world,
when the dial is truly let; and will caft a lhadow on
the .hour of the day.
N. B. The trouble of dividing the two quadrants
may be faved, if you have a, fcale with a line of chords
upon it, fuch as that on the top of Plate LXX. : for if
you extend the compaffes from oto 60-degrees of the line
of chords, and with that extent, as a radius, defcribe
the two quadrants upon their refpeftive centers, the a-
,bove diftances may be taken with the cornpaffes upon the
line, and fet off upon the quadrants.
To make an end aired fouth dial, Plate LXIX. fig. 4.
Elevate the pole to the co-latitiTde of your place, and
proceed in all refpebts as above taught for the horizontal
dial, from VI in the morning to VI' in the afternoon,
only the hours muft be reverled, as in the figure; and
the hypothenufe a ^ of the gnomon agf, muft make an
angle with the dial-plane equal to the co-latitude of the
place. As the fun can ftiine no longer on this dial than
from fix in the morning until fix in the evening, there is
no occafion for having any more than twelve hours upon
it.
To make an ered dial, declining from the fouth to¬
wards the eajl or wejl. Elevate the pole to the latitude
of your place, and fcrew the quadrant of altitude to the.
zenith. Then, if your dial declines towards the eaft
(which we Ihall fuppofe it to do at prefent) count ip the
horizon the degrees of declination, from the eaft point to¬
wards the north, and bring the-lower end of the quadrant
to that degree of declination at which the reckoning ends.
This done, bring any particular meridian of your globe
(as fuppofe the firft meridian) dire&Iy under the gradua¬
ted edge of the upper part of the brazen meridian, and fet
the hour-index to XII at noon. Then, keeping the qua¬
drant of altitude at the degree of declination in the hori¬
zon, turn the globe eaftward on its axis, and obferve the
degrees cut by the firft meridian in the quadrant of alti¬
tude (counted from the Zenith) as the hour index comes
4 N to
D I A (42
to XT, X, IX, be. in the forenoon, or as 15, 30, 4J,
be. degrees of the equator pafs under the brazen meridi¬
an at thefe hours refpedtively ; and the degrees then cut
in the quadrant by the firft meridian, are the refpeftive
diftances of the forenoon hours from XII on the plane of
the dial.' Then, for the afternoon hours, turn the
quadrant of altitude round the zenith until it comes to the
degree in the horizon oppofite to that where it was placed
before : namely, as far from the weft point of the horizon
towards the fouth, as it was fet at firft from the eaft point
towards the north ; and turn the globe weftward on its
axis, until the firft meridian comes to the brazen meridian
again, and the hour-index to XII: then, continue to turn
the globe weftward, and as the index points to the after¬
noon hours I, II, III, be. or as 15, 30, 45, be. de¬
grees of the equator pafs under the brazen meridian, the
firft meridian will cut the quadrant of altitude in the re-
fpeftive number of degrees from the zenith that each of
thefe hours is from XII on the dial. And note, that
when the firft meridian goes off the quadrant at the hori¬
zon in the forenoon, the hour-index {hews the time when
the fun will come upon this dial : and when it goes off
the quadrant in the afternoon, the index will point to the
time when the fun goes off the dial.
Having thus found all the hour-diftances from XII, lay
them down upon your dial plane, either by dividing a fe-
micircle into two quadrants of 90 degrees each (beginning
at the hour-line of XII) or by the line of chords, as a-
bove directed.
In all declining dials, the line on which the ftile or
gnomon ftands (commonly called the fubjiile-line) makes
an angle with the twelve o’clock line, and falls among the
forenoon hour-lines, if the dial declines towards the eaft;
and among the afternoon hour-lines, when the dial de¬
clines towards the weft ; that is, to the left hand from the
twelve o’clock line in the former cafe, and to the right
hand from it in the latter.
To find the diftance of the fubftile from the twelve
o’clock line ; if your dial declines from the fouth toward
the eaft, count the degrees of that declination in the ho¬
rizon from the eaft point toward the north, and bring the
lower end of the quadrant of altitude to that degree of de¬
clination where the reckoning ends : then, turn the globe
until the firft meridian cuts the horizon in the like number
of degrees, counted from the fouth point toward the eaft;
and the quadrant and firft meridian will then crofs one a-
nother at right angles, and the number of degrees of the
quadrant, which are intercepted between the firft meridi¬
an and the zenith, is equal to the diftance of the fubftile
line from the twelve o’clock line ; and the number of de¬
grees of the firft meridian, which are intercepted between
the quadrant and the north pole, is equal to the elevation
of the ftile above the plane of the dial.
If the dial declines weftward from the fouth, count that
declination from the eaft point of the horizon towards the
fouth, and bring the quadrant of altitude to the degree in
the horizon at which the reckoning ends ; both for finding
the forenoon hours, and diftance of the fubftile from the
meridian: and for the afternoon hours, bring the qua¬
drant to the oppofite degree in the horizon, namely, as far
from the weft towards the north, and then proceed in all
refpetts as above. * -
4) D I A
Thus, we have finiihed our declining dial ; and in fo
doing, we made four dials, viz.
1. A north dial, declining eaftward by the fame num¬
ber of degrees. 2. A north dial, declining the fame num¬
ber weft. 3. A fouth dial, declining eaft. And, 4, a
fouth dial declining weft. Only, placing the proper num¬
ber of hours, and the ftile or gnomon refpedtively, upon
each plane. For (as above mentioned) in the fouth-weft
plane, the fubftiiar-line falls among the afternoon hours ;
and in the fouth eaft, of the fame declination, among the
forenoon hours, at equal diftances from XII. and fo, in
all the morning hours on the weft decliner, will belike the
afternoon hours on the eaft decliner : the fouth-eaft de¬
cliner will produce the north-weft decliner ; and the fouth-
weft decliner, the north eaft decliner, by only extending the
hour-lines, ftile andfubftile, quite through the center.:
the axis of the ftile (or edge that cafts the fhadow on the
hour of the day) being in all dials whatever parallel to
the axis of the world, and confequently pointing towards
the north pole of the heaven in north latitudes, and to¬
ward the fouth pole in fouth latitudes.
But becaufe every one who would like to make a dial,
may perhaps not be provided with a globe to affifthim, and
may probably not underftand the method of doing it by
logarithmic calculation ; we {hall ihew how to perform it
by the plain jjialling lines, or fcale of latitudes and hours;
fuch as thofe on the top of Plate LXX. and which may be
had on feales commonly fold by the mathematical inltru-
ment makers.
This is the eafieft of all mechanical methods, and by
much the beft, when the lines are truly divided : and not
only the half hours and quarters may be laid down by all
of them, but every fifth minute by moft, and every fingle
minute by thofe where the line of hours is a foot in
length.
Havingdrawn your double meridian line ab, cd, (Plate
LXIX. fig. 5.) on the plane intended for a horizontal dial,
and crofted it at right angles by the fix o’clock line f e
(as in fig. 31.) take the latitude of your place with the
compaffes, in the fcale of latitudes, and fet that extent
from c to e, and from a to f, on the fix o’clock line : then,
taking the whole fix hours between the points of the com-
pafles in the fcale of hours, with that extent fet one foot
in the point c, and let the other foot fall where it will up¬
on the meridian line c as at </. Do the fame fromy*
to b, and draw the right lines e d and fb, each of which
will be equal in length to the whole fcale of hours. This
done, fetting one foot of the compafles in the beginning
of the fcale at XII, and extending the other to each hour
on the fcale, lay off thefe extents from d to e for the af--
afternoon hours, and from b to-yfor thofe of the forenoon :
this will divide the lines de and b f in the fame manner as
the hour-fcale is divided at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 ; on which
the quarters may alfo be laid down, if required. Then*
laying a ruler on the point c, draw the firft five hours in
the afternoon, from that point, through the dots at the
numeral figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, on the line de ; and conti¬
nue the lines of MI and V through the center e to the
other fide of the dial, for the like hours of the morning:
which done, lay the ruler on the point a, and draw the
laft five hours in the forenoon through the dots 5, 4, 3,
D I A ( 425 ) D I A
2, 1, on the line fb’, continuing the hour-lines of VII and
VIII through the center a to the other fide of the dial, for
the like hours of the evening ; and fet the hours to their
refpe&ive lines, as in the figure. Laftly, make the gno¬
mon the fame way as taught above forthe horizontal dial,
and the whole will be finiftied.
To make an ere&'fputh dial, take the co-latitude of
your place from the fcale of latitudes, and then proceed
in all refpedts for the hour-lines, as in the horizontal dial;
only reverfing the hours, as in fig. 4. and making the
angle of the ftile’s height equal to the co-latitude.
But left the young dialift fhould have neither globe nor
wooden fcale, we fhall now fhew him how he may make a
dial without any of thefe helps. Only, if he has not a
line of chords, he muft divide a quadrant into 90 equal
parts or degrees for taking theproper angle of the ftile’s ele¬
vation ; which is eafily done.
With any opening of the compafies, as Z L, defcribe
the two femicircles LFk and L upon the centers Z
and z, where the fix o’clock line croffes the double meri¬
dian line, and divide each femicircle into 12 equal parts,
beginning at L (though, ftruftly fpeaking, only the qua¬
drants from L to the fix o’clock line need be divided;) then
conneft the divifions which are equidiftant from L, by the
parallel lines KM, IN, HO, GP, and F§K Draw VZ
for the hypothenufe of the ftile, making the angle VZE
equal to the latitude of ypur place ; and continue the line
VZ to R. Draw the line Rr parallel to the fix o’clock
line, and fet off the diffance a K from Z to Y, thediftance
b I from Z to X, c H from Z to IV, dG from Z to T,
and e F from Z to 5. Then draw the lines Ss, Tt, IVw,
Xx, and2}>, each parallel to Rr. Set off the diftance^T
from a to 11, and from /'to 1; the diftance xX from b to
10, and from gto 2 ; w/Tfrom c to 9, and from bto 3 ;
tT from d to 8, and from / to 4; /S from <? to 7, and
from » to 5. Then laying a ruler to the center Z, draw
the forenoon hour-lines through the points 11, 10, 9, 8,
7 ; and laying it to the center z, draw the afternoon lines
through the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; continuing the fore¬
noon lines of VII and VIII through the center Z, to the
oppofite fide of the dial, for the like afternoon hours ; and
the afternoon lines IIII and V through the center z, to
the oppofite fide, for the like morning hours. Set the
hours to thefe lines as in the figure, and then ere<ft the
ftile or gnomon, and the horizontal dial will be finifti-
ed.
To conftruift a fouth dial, draw the line VZ, making
an angle with the meridian Z L equal to the co-latitude
of your place ; and proceed in all refpedts as in the above
horizontal dial for the fame latitude, reverfing the hours
as in fig. 4. and making the elevation of the gnomon e-
qual to the co-latitude.
Perhaps it may not be unacceptable to explain the me¬
thod of conftrudting the dialing lines, and fome others ;
which is as follows.
With any opening of thecompaffes, (Plate LXX. fig. 1.)
as E A, according to the intended length of the fcale, de¬
fcribe the circle ADCB, and crofs it at right angles by the
diameters CE A and Z) E B. Divide the quadrant A B
firft into 9 equal parts, and then each part into 10; fo
fhall the quadrant be divided into 90 equal parts or de¬
grees. Draw the right line AFB for the chord of this
quadrant, and fetting one foot of the compaffes in the
point A, extend the other to the feveral divifions of the
quadrant, and transfer thefe divifions to the line AFB by
the arcs 10,10, 20, 20, 6v. and this will be a line of
chords, divided into 90 unequal parts; which, if tranf-
ferred from the line back again to the quadrant, will di¬
vide it equally. It is plain by the figure, that the diftance
from yZ to 60 in the line of chords, is juft equal to AE,
the radius of the circle from which that line is made ; for
if the arc 60, 60 be continued, of which yZ is the center,
it goes exadtly through the center E of the arc AB.
And therefore, in laying down any number of degrees
on a circle, by the line of chords, you muft firft open the
compaffes fo, as to take in juft 60 degrees upon that line,
as from A to bo : and then, with that extent, as a radius,
defcribe a circle, which will be exacftly of the fame fize
with that from which the line was divided : which done,
fet one foot of the compaffes in the beginning of the chord
line, as at A, and extend the other to the number of de¬
grees you want upon the line; which extent, applied to the
circle, will include the like number of degrees upon
Divide the quadrant CD into 90 equal parts, and from
each point of divifion draw right lines, as /, k, l, 6c. to
the line CE; all perpendicular to that line, and parallel to
D E, which will divide E C into a line of fines ; and al¬
though thefe are feldom put among the dialing lines on a
fcale, yet they affift in drawing the line of latitudes. For
if a ruler be laid upon the point D, and over each divifi¬
on in the line of fines, it will divide the quadrant CB in¬
to 90 unequal parts, as Ba, Bb, 6c. fhewn by the right
lines \oa, 20b, 30c, 6c. drawn along the edge of the
ruler. If the right line BC be drawn, fubtending this
quadrant, and the neareft diftances Ba, Bb, Be. 6c. be
taken in the compaffes from B, and fet upon this line in
the fame manner as direfted for the line of chords, it will
make a line of latitudes BC, equal in length to the line of
chords AB, and of an equal number of divifions, but
very unequal as to their lengths.
Draw the right line D G A, fubtending the quadrant
DA; and parallel to it, draw the right line rs, touch¬
ing the quadrant D A at the numeral figure 3. Divide
this quadrant into fix equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, 6c. and
through thefe points of divifion draw right lines from the
centre E to the line rs, which will divide it at the points
where the fix hours are to be placed, as in the figure.
If every fixth part of the quadrant be fubdivided&into.
four equal parts, right lines drawn from the centre
through thefe points of divifion, and continued to the
line r s, will divide each hour upon it into quarters.
In tig. 2. Plate LXX. we have the reprefentation
of a portable dial, which may be eafily drawn on a card
and carried in a pocket-book. The lines ad, ab, and
be oi the gnomon muft be cut quite through the card •
and as the end ab 0$ the gnomon is railed occafionally
above the plane of the dial, it turns upon the uncut line
cd as on a hinge. The line dotted AB muft be flit
quite through the card, and the thread C muft be put
through the flit, and have a knot tied behind, to keep it
from being eafily drawn out. On the other' end of this
D I A
thread is aTmall plummet D, and on the n
fmall bead for (hewing the hour of the day.
To redtify this dial, fet the thread in the (lit right a-
gainft the day of the month, and ftretch the thread from
the day of, the month over the angular point where the
curve-iines meet at XII; then (hift the bead to that point
on the thread, and^the dial will be verified.
To find the hour of the day, raife the gnonjon (no
matter how much or how little) and hold the edge of
the dial next the gnomon towards the fun, fo as the up-
permofl edge of the (hadow of the gnomon may juft co¬
ver the Jhadorjj-line ; and the bead then playing, freely
on the face of the dial, by the weight of the plummet,
will Ihew the time of the day among the hour-lines, as
it it forenoon or afternoon.
To find the time of fun-rifing and fetting, move the
thread among the hour-lines, until it either covers fome
one of them, or lies parallel betwixt any two ; and then
it will cut the time of fun-rifing among the forenoon
hours, and of fun-fetiing among the afternoon hours,
for that day of the year to which the thread is fet in
the fcale of months. (
To find the fun’s declination, ftretch the thread from
the day of the month over the angular point at XII,
and it will cut the fun’s declination, as it is north or
fouth, for that day, in the proper fcale.
To find on what days the fun enters the figns : when
the bead, as above re&lfied, moves along any of the
curve-lines which |iave the figns of the zodiac marked up¬
on them, the fun enters thofe figns on 1 the days pointed
out by the thread in the fcale of months.
The conftruiftion of this dial is very eafy, efpecially
if the reader compares it all along with fig. 3. as he
reads the following explanation of that figure.
Draw the occult line, (PlateLXX. fig. y.) AB parallel
to the top of the card, and crofs it at right angles with
the fix o’clock line E C D ■, then upon C, as a centre,
with the radius CA, defcribe the femicircle A EL, and
divide it into 12 equal parts (beginning at A) as A r,
As, &c. and from thefe points of divifion draw the
hour-lines r, s, t, u, v, E, w, and x, all parallel to the
fix o’clock line E G. If each pa^t of the femicircle be
fubdivided into four equal parts, they will give the half-
hour lines and quarters, as in fig. 2. Draw the right-
   , making the angle SAB equal to the lati-
( 4:6 ) D I A
ilddle of it a oD. Then fetting one foot of the compafles in the
point F, extend the other to A, and defcribe the arc
A z H for the tropic of : with the fame extent, fet¬
ting one foot in G, defctibe the arc AEO for the tropic
of £5. Next fetting one foot in the point h, and ex¬
tending the other to A, defcribe the arc ACJfor the be¬
ginnings of the figns %% and | ; and with the fame ex¬
tent, letting one , foot in the point /, defcribe the • arc
AN for the beginnings of the figns H and Set one
foot in the point i, and having extended the other to A,
defcribe the ate AK for the beginnings of the figns X
and lit ; and with the fame extent, fet on foot in k, and
defcribe the arc HM for the beginnings of the figns ^
and Then fetting one foot in the point D, an’d ex¬
tending the other to A, defcribe the curve A L for the
beginnings of T* and ; and the figns will be finiftied.
This done, lay a ruler from the point A over the fun’s
declination in the arch tlST\ and where the ruler cuts
the line TDC,'make marks ; and place the days of the
months right againft thefe marks, in the manner (hewn by
fig. 2. Laftly, draw®the (hadpw-lineP^parallel to the oc-
ciilt WnzAB ; make the gnomon, and fet the hours to their
refpedlive lines, as in fig. 2vand the dial will be finiftied.'
There are feveral kinds of dials, which are called
univerfal, becaufe they ferve for all latitudes. Of thefe,
the heft is MrPardi'e’s, (Plate LXX. fig. 4.) which con-
fifts of three principal parts; the firft whereof is called
the horizontal plane \A), becaufe in practice it muft be
parallel to the horizon. In this plane is fixed an upright
pin, which enters into the edge of the fecond part B D,
calkd the meridional plane; which is made of two
pieces, the lowed whereof (5) is called the quadrant, be¬
caufe it contains a quarter of a circle, .divided into 90
degrees; and it is only into tfiis part, near B, that the
pin enters. The other piece is a femicircle (D) adjuft-
ed to the quadrant, and turning in it by a groove, for
raifing or depreffing the diameter {EF) of the femicircle,
which diameter is called the axis of the inftrument. The
third piece is a circle {G), divided on both (ides into 24
equal parts, which -are the hours. This circle is put
upon the meridional plane fo, that the axis (E F) may
be perpendicular to the circle, and the point C be the
common centre of the circle, femicircle, and quadrant.
The ftraight edge of the feniicircle is chamfered on
both fides to a (harp edge, which pafles through the cen¬
tre of the circle. On one fide of the chamfered part.
line AS D ,  ^ „
tude of your place. Upon the centre A defcribe the   r—
arch RST, and fet off upon it the arcs SR and ST, the firft fix months of the year are laid down, according
each equal to 2 34r.degrees, for the fun’s greateft declina- to the fun’s declination for theif- refpedtive days, and on
tion; and divide them into 23-I- equal parts, as in fig. 2. the other other fide the laft fix months. And againft:
Through the interfeftion D of the lines ECD and ADo, the days on which the fun enters the figns, there are
draw the right line FDG at right angles to ADo. Lay ftraight lines drawn upon the’femicircle, with the cha-
a ruler to the points A and R, and draw the line ARE rafters of the figns marked upon them. There is a black
through 2 3^ degrees of fouth declination in thearcS/J;
and then laying the ruler to the points A and T, draw
the line ATG through 23i degrees of north declination
in the arc ST: fo (hall the lines ARE and ATG cut the
line FDG in the proper length for the fcale of months.
Upon the centre D, with the radius D E, defcribe the
femicircle FoG ; which divide into fix equal parts, Fm,
mn, no, &c. and from thefe points of divifion draw
the right lines mh, ni, pk, and ql, each parallel to
line drawn along the middle of the upright edge of the
quadrant, over which hangs a thread (H), with its
plummet (/), for levelling the inftrument. N. B. From
the twenty-third of September to the twentieth of March,
the upper furface of-the circle muft touch both the centre
C pf the femicircle, and the line of T and ^ ; and
from the twentieth of March to the twenty-third of Sep¬
tember, the lower furface of the circle muft touch that
centre and line.
To
D I A ( 425 ) D I A
To find the time of the day by this dial. Having fet
it on a level place in fun-fhine, and adjulted it by the
leveling fcrews k and /, until the plumb-line hangs over
the black line upon the edge of the quadrant, and paral¬
lel to the faid edge ; move the femicircle in the qua¬
drant, until the line of <YI and (where the circle
touches), comes to the latitQde of your,place in the qua¬
drant: then turn the whole meridional plane BD, with
its circle G, upon the horizontal plane A, until the edge
of the lhadow of the circle falls precifely on the day of
the month in the femicircle; and then, the meridional
plane will be-due north and fouth, the "axis EF will be
parallel to the axis of the world, and will call a lhadow
upon the true time of the day, among the hours on the
circle.
N. B. As, when the inftrument is thus reflified, the
quadrant and femicircle are in the plane of the meridian,
fo the circle is then in the plane of the equinodtial.
Therefore, as the fun is above the equinp<dial in fum-
mer (Ai northern latitudes) and below it in winter;
the axis of the femicircle will call a fhadow on the hour
of the day, on the upper furface of the circle, frctm the
twentieth of March to the twenty-third of September:
and from the twenty-third of September to the twen¬
tieth of March, the hour of the day will be determined
by the lhadow of the femicircle, upon the lower fur-
faCe of the circle. In the former cafe, the lhadow of
the circle falls upon the day of the month, on the lower
part of the diameter of the femicircle ; and in the latter
cafe, on the upper part.
The method of laying down the months and figns upon
the femicircle is as follows. Draw the right line ACB, e-
qual to the dian^ter of the femicircle ADB, and crofs it
in the middle at right angles with the line EGD, equal in
length to ADB\ then EG will be the radius of the circle
EGG, which is the fame as that of the femicircle. Upon E,
as a centre, defcribe the circle FCG, on which fet off the arcs
Ch and Ci, each equal to 23-r degrees, and divide them
accordingly into that number, for the fun’s declination.
Then, laying the edge o'f a ruler over the centre E, and
alfo over the fun’s declinatiori for every fifth day of each
month (as in the card-di^l) mark the points on the-dia¬
meter AB of the femi'cii-cle'from a to g, which are cut
by the ruler; and thehe place the days of the months
accordingly, anfwerlng to the fun’s declination. This
done, fetting one foot of the compalfes in C, and extend¬
ing the other to a org, defcribe the femicircle abodefg ;
which divide into fix equal parts, and through the points
of divifion draw right lines* parallel to CD, for the be¬
ginning bf the fines (of which one half are on one fide of
the femicircle, and the other half on the other) and fet
the chara&ers of the figns to their proper lines, as in the
figure.
Having (hewn how to make fun-dials by the alMance
of a good globe, or of a dialing-fcale, we lliall now pro¬
ceed to the method of conftrudting dials arithmetically ;
which will be more agreeable to thofe who have learned
the elements of trigonometry, becaufe globes and fcales
can never be fo accurate as the logarithms in finding the
angular diftances of the hours. Yet, as a globe may be
Vol. Hit No. 43. 3
found exaft enough fot fome, other requifites in dialing,
we ihall take it in occafionally.
The conftrudHon of fun-dials on all planes whatever,
may be included in one general rule : Intelligible, if that
of a hbrizontal dial for any given latitude be well under-
ftood. For there is no plane, however obliquely fitua-
ted with refpedt to any given place, but what is parallel
to the horizon of fome other place; and therefore, if
we can find that other place by a problem on the terre-
ftrial globe, or by a trigonometrical calculation, and
conftrudl: a horizontal dial for it; that dial, applied to
the plane where it is to ferve, will be a true dial for that
place. Thus, an eredt diredt fouth dial in 5x4. degrees
north latitude, would be a horizontal dial on the fame meri¬
dian, 90 degrees fouthward of 514 degrees north latitude; -
which falls ip with 38-I- degrees of fouth latitude. But
if the upright plane declines from facing the fouth at the
given place, it would dill be a horizontal plane 90 de¬
grees from that place* but for a different longitude,
which would alter the reckoning of the hours accord¬
ingly.
CASE!.
1. Let us fuppofe, that an upright plane at London
declines 36 degrees weftward from facing the fouth; and
that it is required to find a place on the globe, to whofe
horizon the faid plane is parallel; and alfo the difference
of longitude between London and that place.
Redify the globe to the latitude of London, and bring
London to the zenith under the brafs meridian, then that
point of the globe which lies in the hopizon at the given
degree of inclination (counted weftward from the fouth
point of the horizon) is the place at which the above-
mentioned .plane would be horizontal. Now, to find
the latitude and longitude of that place, keep your eye
upon the place, and turn the’globe eaftward, until it
comes under the graduated.edge of the brafs metidian ;
then, the degrees of the brafs meridian that Hands di-
redly over the place, is its latitude; and the number
of-degrees in the equator, which are intercepted be¬
tween the meridian of London and the brafs meridian,
is the place’s difference of longitude.
Thus, as the latitude of London is 5 t-J degrees north,
and the declination of the place is 36 degrees weft ; ele¬
vate the north pole 514 degrees above the horizon, and
turn the globe until London comes to the zenith, or un¬
der the graduated edge of the meridian ; then count 36
degrees on the horizon weftward from the fouth point,
and make a mark on that place of the globe over which
the reckoning ends, and bringing the mark under the gra¬
duated edge of the brafs meridian, it will be found to be
under 304- degrees in fouth latitude : keeping it there,
count in the equator the number of degrees between the
meridian of London and the brafen meridian (which
now becomes the meridian of the required place) and
you will find it to be 424- Therefore an upright plane
at London, declining 36 degrees weftward from the
fouth, would be a horizontal plane at that place, whofe
latitude is 304- degrees fouth of the equator, and longitude
42<F degrees weft of the meridian of London.
4 O
Which
D I A ( ^
Which difference of longitude being converted into
time, is 2 hours 51 minutes.
The vertical dial declining weftward 36 degrees at
London, is therefore to be drawn in all refpefts as a
horizontal dial for fouth latitude 30I degrees; fave on¬
ly, that the reckoning of the hours is to anticipate the
reckoning on the horizontal dial, by 2 hours 51 minutes :
for fo much fooner will the fun come to the meridian of
London, than to the meridian of any place whofe lon¬
gitude is 42^ degrees weft from London.
2. But to be more exadt than the globe will fhew us,
we fhall ufe a little trigonometry.
Let NE S JV (Plate LXX. fig. 6.) be the horizon of
London, whafe zenith is Z, and P the north pole of
the fphere; and let Z h bs. the pofition of a vertical plane
at Z, declining weftward from S (the fouth) by an angle
of 36 degrees ; on which plane an eredt dial for London
at Z is to be defcribed. Make the femidiameter Z D
perpendicular to Z h, and it will cut the horizon in D,
36 degrees weft of the fouth S. Then a pjane, in the
tangent H D, touching the fphere in D, will be parallel
to the plane Z b ; and the axis of the fphere will be e-
qually inclined to both thefe planes.
Let IVbe the equinodfial, whofe elevation above
the horizon of Z (London) is 383- degrees ; and PRD
be the meridian of the place D, cutting the equinodfial
in R. Then it is evident, that the arc Z3 is the lati¬
tude of the place D (where the plane Z h would be ho¬
rizontal) and the arc R §>_ is the difference of longitude
of the planes Zh and D H.
In the fpherical triangle IVDR, the arc WD is given,
for it is the complement of the plane’s declination from S
to fouth; which complement is 540 (viz. 90°—36° :)
the angle at R, in which the meridian of the place D
cuts the eouator, is a right angle; and the angle RWD
meafures the elevation of the equinodtial above the hori¬
zon of Z, namely, 38* degrees. Say therefore, as ra¬
dius is to the co-fine of the plane’s declination from the
fouth, fois the co-fine of the latitude of Z to the fine of RD
the latitude of D : which is of a different denomination
from the latitude of Z, becaufe Z and D are on different
fides of the equator.
As radius 10.00000
To co-fine 36° 0 — R^_ 9.90796
So co-fine 510 30' =^Z 9.79413
To fine 30° 14'= Z># (9.702'! 1) = the lat. of Z),
whofe horizon is parallel to the vertical plane Z ^ at
Z.
N. B. When radius is made the firft term, it may be
omitted, and then, by fubtracHng it mentally from the
fum of the other two, the operation will be fhortened.
Thus, in the prefentcafe.
To the logarithmic fine of WR— * 540 O 9.90796
Add the logarithmic fineof I2Z) = f 38° 30' 9.79415
Their fum—radius ------- 9 70211
* The co-fine of 36. o. or of
f The co-line of jr. 30. or of J^Z.
26 ) D I A
give the fame folution as above. And we fhall keep to
this method in the following part of this article.
To find the difference of longitude of the places D
and Z, fay, as radius is to the co-fine of 38-r degrees,
the height of the equinodlial at Z, fo is the co-tangent of
36 degrees, the plane’s declination, to the co tangent of
the difference of longitudes. Thus,
To the logarithmic fine of * 510 30' 9-89354
Add the logarithmic tang of f 540 0 10.13874
Their fum — radius 10.013228
is the neareft tangent of 470 8/ WR; which is the
co-tangent of 42° 52/ = R^,, the difference of longi¬
tude fought. Which difference, being reduced to time,
is two hours 514- minutes.
3. And thus having found the exaff latitude and lon¬
gitude of the place D, to whofe horizon the vertical
plane at Z is parallel, we fhall proceed to the conftru<fti-
on of a horizontal dial for the place D, whofe latitude is
30° I4/ fouth ; but anticipating the time at Z) by 2 hours
51 minutes (neglecting the \ minute in practice) becaufe
D is fo far weftward in longitude from the meridian of
London; and this will be a true vertical dial at London,
declining weftward 36 degrees.
Affume any right line ZCZ, (Plate LXX fig. 7.) for the
fubftile of the diale, and make the angle KCP equal to
the latitude of the place (viz. 30° I4/) To whofe hori¬
zon the plane of the dial is parallel; then CRP will be
the axis of the ftile, or edge that caffs the fhadow on the
hours of the day, in the dial. This done, draw the con¬
tingent line Eg>_, cutting the fubftilar line at right angles
in K; and from K make KR perpendicular to the axis
CRP. Then KG (—KR) being made wdius, that is,
equal to the chord of 600 or tangent of 450 on a good
feftor, take 420 52/ (the difference of longitude of the
places Z and D) from the tangents, and having fet
it from K to M. draw CM for the hour-line of XII.
Take KN, equal to the tangent of an angle lefs by 150
degrees than A'/IZ; that is, the tangent 27° 52'; and
through the point AT draw CN for the hour-line of I.
The tangent of 12° 52' (which is 150 lefs than 270 S2/)
fet off the fame way, will give a point between Kand TV,
through which the hour-line of II is to be drawn. The
tangent of 20 S' (the difference between 450 and 420
52') placed on the other fide of CL, will determine the
point through which the hour-line of III is to be drawn:
to which 20 8', if the tangent of 150 be added, it will
make 170 8'; and this fet off from K towards <9_on the
line EQ_, will give a point for the hour-line of IIII: and
fo of the reft.—The forenoon hour lines are drawn the
fame way, by the continual addition of the tangents 150,
30°, 450, ebc.-to 420 52; (=che tangent of KM) for
the hours of XI, X, IX, <bc. as far as neceffary ; that
is, until there be five hours on each fide of the fubftile.
The fixth .hour, accounted from that hour or part of the
hour on which the fubftile falls, will be always in aline per¬
pendicular to the fubftile, and drawn through the center <7.
4-
■* The co-fine of 38. 30. or of IVDR.
f The co-tangent of 36. o, or of D1V*
D I A (4
4. In all ere<fl dials, CM, the hour-line of XII, is per¬
pendicular to the horizon of the place for which the dial
is to ferve : for that line is the interfeftion of a vertical
plane with the plane of the meridian of the place, both
which are perpendicular to the plane of the horizon : and
any line MO, or ho, perpendicular to CM, will be a ho¬
rizontal line on the plane of the dial, along which line
the hours may be numbered ; and CM being fet perpen¬
dicular to the horizon, the dial will have its true pofi-
tion,
5. If the plane of the dial had declined by an equal
angle toward the eaft, its defcription would have differed
only in this, that the hour-line of XII would have fallen
on the other fide of the fubftile CL, and the line HO
would have a fubcontrary pofition to what it has in this
figure.
6. And thefe two dials, with the upper points of their
ftiles turned toward the north pole, will ferve for other
two plares parallel to them; the one declining from the
north toward the eaft, and the other from the north to¬
ward the weft, by the fame quantity of angle. The
like holds true of all dials in general, whatever be
their declination and obliquity of their planes to the
horifon.
CASE II.
7. If the plane of the dial not only declines, but alfo re-
clins, or inclines. Suppofe its declination from fronting the
fouth S, (Plate LXXI. fig. 1.) be equal to thearc<SZ) on the
horizon-; and its reclination be equal to the AxcDd of the
vertical circle DZ : then it is plain, that if the quadrant
of altitude Z.iD on the globe cuts the point D- in the
horizon, and the reclination is counted upon the quadrant
from D to d; the interfeftion of the hour circle PRd,
with the equino&ial W§>E, will determine Rd, the lati¬
tude of the place d, whofe horizon is parallel to the gi¬
ven plane at Z ; and R§>~ will be the difference in longi¬
tude of the planes at d and Z.
Trigonometrically thus: let a great circle pafs through
the three points W, d, fi ; and in the triangle WDd, right-
angled at D, the fides WD and Dd are given; and thence
the angle DHrd is found, and lb is the hypothenufe IVd.
Again, the difference, or the fum, of D!Vd and DIVR,
the elevation of the equinoCHal above the horizon of Z,
gives the angle dWR ; and the hypothenufe of the triangle
WRd was juft now found; whence the fides Rd and i¥R
are found, the former being the latitude of the place d,
and the latter the complement of R§>_, the difference of
longitude fought.
Thqs, if the latitude of the place Zbe 52° ic/ north ;
the declination SD of the plane Zh (which would be ho¬
rizontal at dQ.be jb°, and the reclination be 15°, or e-
qual to the arc Dd; the fouth latitude of the place d,
that is, the arc Rd, will be 150 9'; and R§>_, the diffe¬
rence of longitude, 36° 2'. From thefe data, therefore,
let the dial (fig. 2.) be delcribed, as in the former ex¬
ample.
27 ) D I A
9. There are feveral other things requifite in the prac--
tice of dialing; the chief of which fhall be given in the
form of arithmetical rules, fimple and eafy to thofe who’
have learned the elements of trigonometry. For in prac¬
tical arts of this kind, arithmetick fhould be ufed as far as
it can go; and fcales never trufted to, except in the final
conftruftion, where they are abfolutely neceffary in laying
down the calculated hour-diftances on the plain of the
dial.
Rule I. To find the angles which the hour-lines on any
dial make with the fuhfiile.
To the logarithmic fine of the given latitude, or of the
ftile’s elevation above the plane of the dial, add the loga¬
rithmic tangent of the hour # diftance from the mfjridian,
or from the f fubftile; and the fum minus radius will be
the logarithmic tangent of the angle fought.
For, in fig. 7. Plate LXX. KC is to KM in the ratio
compounded of the ratio of KC to KG (=A’7?) and of
KG to KM-, which, making CK the radius xo.oooooo,'
or 10,0000, or 10, or 1, are the ratio of io,ocoooo,.
or of 10,0000, or of 10, or of 1, to KG y. KM.
Thus, in a horizontal dial, for latitude 510 30', to
find the angular diftance of XI in the forenoon, or I in
the afternoon, from XII.
To the logarithmic fine of 51° 30' 9-89354 J
Add the logarithmic tang, of 15 g 0 9.42805
The fum — radius is ----- 9,32159=^2.
logarithmic tangent of 11 0 , or of the angle which the
hour-line of XI or I makes with the hour of XII.
And by computing in this manner, with the fine of
the latitude, and the tangents of 30, 45,-60, and 75°,
for the hours of II, III, IIII, and V in the afternoon 4
or of X, IX, VIII, and VII in the forenoon ; you will
find their angular diftances from XIT to be 24° 18',
38° 53° 35' and 710 6'; which are all that there is
occafion to compute for. And thefe diftances may be
fet off from XII by a line of chords; or rather, by ta¬
king 1000 from a fcale of equal parts, and fetting that
extent as a radius from C to XII; and then, taking 209.
of the fame parts (which, in the tables, are the natural
tangent of 110 50') and fetting them from XII to XI
and to I, on the line ho, which is perpendicular to CXII:
and fo for the reft of the hour-lines, which, in the table of
natural tangents, againft the above diftances, are 451*
782, 1355, and 2920, of fuch equal parts from XII, as
the radius C XII contains 1000. And laftly, fet off
1257 (the natural tangent of 510 3c/) for the angle of
the ftile’s height, which is equal to the latitude of the -
place;
Rul e H. The latitude of the place, the fun's declina¬
tion, and his hour-diftance from the meridian, be¬
ing given-, to find (1.) his altitude-, (2.) hit azi¬
muth..
1. Le&
# That is, of 15, 30, 45,,60, 75°, for the fours oc I, II, III, IIII, V in the afternoon;’ and XI, X, IX, VIII,,
VII in the afternoon. . f In all horizontal dials, and erect north or fouth dials, the fubftile arid meridian;
are the fame : but in all declining dials, the fulftile line makes an angle with the meridian. T In v\ Inch calc,
the radius CK is fuppoled to be divided into jcpoooo equal parts-
D I A
( 4=8 )
D I A
and
1. Let d, (Plate LXXI. fig. 1.) be the fun’s place, dR,
his declination; and in the triangle PZd, Pd the fum,
or the difference, of dR, and the quadrant PR, being
giren by the fuppofition, as alfo the complement of the
latitude PZ, and the angle dPZ, which meafures the
horary diftance of d from the meridian ; we fhall (by
Cafe 4. of Kelli's oblique fpliericTrigonometry) find the
bafe Zd, which is the fun’s chance from the zenith, or
the complement of his altitude.
And (2.) As fine Zd: fine/V : : dPZ : dZP, or
of its fppplement DZS, the azimuthal diftance from the
fouth.
Or, the pra&ical rule may be as follows.
Write A for the fign of the fun’s altitude, I. and /
for the’fifte and co-fine of the latitude, D and d for the
fine artd co-fine of the fun’s declination, and H for the
fine of the horary diftance from VI.
Ther^the relation oi H to A will have three varie¬
ties.
1. When the declination is toward the elevated pole,
and the hour of the day is between XII and VI; it is
A-LD+ HId, and H — £=££
2. When the hour is after VI, it is A—LD—Hid
LD+A
U
3. When the declination is toward the deprefled pole,
we have A—Hl d— L D, and
Id
Which theorems will be found ufeful, and expeditious
enough for folving thofe problems in geography and dial¬
ing, which depend on the relation of the fun’s altitude to
the hour of. the day.
EXAMPLE I.
Suppofe the latitude of the place to be 514. degrees
north : the time five hours diftant from XII, that is, an
hour after VI in the morning, or before VI in the eve¬
ning ; and the fun’s declination 20° north. Required the
fun's altitude?
Then to log. L= log. fin. 510 30' 1.893J4*
add log. Z) = log. fin. 200 o i.534°5
Their fum 1.42759 gives
Z,Z>= logarithm of 0.267664, in the natural fines.
And, to log.// = log. fin. f 150 o 1.41300
,, C log./= log. fin. % 38° o' i-794I5
add 1 log. ^ = log.fin. * 70° o' 1.97300
Their fum 1.18015 gives
///^= logarithm of 0.151408, in the natural fines.
And thefe two numbers (0.267664 and 0.151408)
make 0.419072 = A; which, in the table, is the neareft
natural fine of 240 47', the fun’s altitude fought.
The fame hour-diftance being affumed on the other fide
of. VI, then LD - Hid is 0.116256, the fine of 6°
4o'4; which is the fun’s altitude at V in the morning, or
VII in the evening, when his north declination is 20°.
But when the declination is 20° fouth (or towards the de-
preffed pole) the difference///rf — L Z) becomes nega¬
tive, and thereby fhews that, an hour before VI in the
morning, or paft VI in the evening, the fun’s center is
6° 4o'4 below the horizon.
EXAMPLE II.
From the fame data to find the fun’s azimuth.
If H, L and D are given, then (by par. 2. of Rule II.)
from H having found the altitude and its complement Z d;
and the arc P d (the diftance from the pole) being given ;
fay, As the co-fine of the altitude is to the fine of the
diftance from the pole, fo is the fine of the hour-diftance
from the meridian to the fine of the azimuth diftance from
the meridian.
Let the latitude be 510 30' north, the declination 15 0
9' fouth, and the time II h. 24. m. in the afternoon,
when the fun begins to illuminate a vertical wall, and it is
required to find the pofition of the wall.
Then, by the foregoing theorems, the complement of
the altitude will be 8i° 32'4» and P d the diftance from
the pole being 109° <f y and the horary diftance from the
meridian, or the angle ^Z, 36°.
To'log. fin. 74° 51' - - - - 1.98464
Addlog. fin. 36° o' - - - _ 1.76922
And from the fum 1.75386
Take the log. fin. 8x° 32'-* - - 1.99525
Remains i.7586i=log. fin.
350, the azimuth diftance fought.
When the altitude is given, find from thence the hour,
and proceed as above.
This praxis is of Angular ufe on many occafions ; in
finding the declination of vertical planes more exadly than
in the common way, efpecially if the tranfits of the fun’s
center is obferved by applying a ruler with fights, either
plain or telefcopical, to the wall or plane, whofe declina¬
tion is required.—-In drawing a meridian line, and finding
the magnetic variation •—In finding the bearings of places
in terreftrial furveys; the tranfits of the fun oyer any
place, or his horizontal diftance/rom it being obferved,
together with the altitude and hour.—And thence deter¬
mining fmall differences of longitude.—In obferving the
variation at fea, fa'c.
Of the double horizontal dial; and the Babylonian and
Italian dials.
To the gnotnonic \>ro]e(lioi\, there isfometimes added a
fiereographic projedtion of the hour-circles, and the pa¬
rallels of the fun’s declination, on the fame horizontal
plane ; the upright fide of the gnomon being floped into
an edge, Handing perpendicularly over the center of the
proje&ion : fothat the dial, being in its due pofition, the
fhadow
* Here we conftder the radius as unity, and not 10,0000a, by which, inftead of the index 9, we have—1, as above;
irh is of no farther ufe, than making the work a little eafier. - f The diftance of one hour from VI.
; The co-latitude of the place. * The co-declination of the fun.
TT^pr
Plarfe. T > X X .
■. t/t f . S/f/r
~7Z^r
I1,-!.' .'.x | 4
5
2. /j
/
/ 7
c
I \ \
vv
D I A ( 42.9 ) D I A
fliadow'of that perpendicular edge is a vertical circle paf-
fing through the fun, in the ftereographic projection.
The months being duly marked on this dial, the fun’s
declination, and the length of the day at any time, are
had by infpedtion (as alfo his altitude, by means of a fcale
of tangents.) But its chief property is, that it may be
placed true, whenever the fu,n (hines, without the help of
any other inftrument.
Let (Plate LXXI. fig. 1.) be the fun’s place in the
ftereographic projection, x dy z the parallel of the fun’s
declination. Z a vertical circle through the fun’s center,
Pd the hour-circle ; and it is evident, that the diameter
NS of this projection being placed duly«orth andfouth,
thefe three circles will pafs through the point d. And
therefore, to give the dial its due pofition, we have only
to turn its gnomon toward the fun, on a horizontal plane,
until the hour on the common gnomOnic projection coin¬
cides with that marked by the hour-circle P d, which paf-
fes through the interfeCtion of the (hadow Z d with the
circle of the fun’s prefent declination.
The Babylonian and Italian dials reckon the hours,
not from the meridian, as with us, but from the fun’s ri¬
ling and fetting. Thus, in Italy, an hour before fun-fet
is reckoned the 23d hour ; two hours before fun-fet, the
2 2d hour ; and fo of the reft. And the ftiadow that
marks them on the hour-lines, is that of the point of'a
ftiie. This occafions a perpetual variation between their
dials and clocks, which they muft correct from time to
time, before it arifes to any fenfible quantity, by fetting
their clocks fo much fafter or flower. And in Italy,
they begin their day, and regulate their clocks, not from
fun-fet, but from about mid-twilight, when the Ave Ma¬
ria is faid; which corrects the difference that would 0-
therwife be between the clock and the dial.
The improvements which have been made in all forts of
inftruments and machines for meafunng time, have ren¬
dered fuch dials of little account. Yet, as the theory
of them is ingenious, and they are really, in fome re-
fpe&s, the beft contrived of any for vulgar ufe, a gene¬
ral idea of their defcription may not be unacceptable.
Let fig. 5. reprefent an eredt fouth wall, on which a
Babylonian dial is to be drawn, fhewing the hours from
fun-rifing ; the latitude of the place, whole horizon is
parallel to the wall, being equal to the angle AYTL Make,
as for a common dial, KG—KR (which is perpendicular
to CR') the radius of the equinodtial and draw RS
perpendicular to CK for the ftiie of the dial ; the fha
Jow of whofe point R is to mark the hours, when S R
is fet upright on the plane of the dial.
Then it is evident, that, in the contingent line JEQ,
the fparts K 1, K2, &c. being taken equal to the ‘
tangents of the hour-diftances from the meridian, to the
radius KG, one, two, three, 6:c. hours after fun-rifing,
on the equinodtial day ; the ftiadow of the point R will
be found, at thefe times; refpedtively in the points, 1, 2,
3, tie.
Draw, for the like hours after fun-rifing, when the fun
is ifl the tropic of Capricorn y<J V, the like common lines
CD, CE, CF, <bc. and at thefe hours the ihadow of the
point R will be found in thofe lines refpedtively. Find
the fun’s altitudes above the plane of the dial at thefe
Vol. II. No.-44.
hours, and with their co-tangents ,SV, Se, S f, fee. to
radius S R, deferibe arcs interfedting the hour-lines in the
points d, e, f, fee. fo (hall the right lines id, 2 <?, 3/j
fee. be the lines of I, II, III, fee. hours after fun-
rifing.
The conftrudtion is the fame in every other cafe, due
regard being had to the difference of longitude of the
place at which the dial would be horizontal, and the place
for which it is to ferve : And likewife, taking care to
draw no lines but what are neceflary; which may be done
partly by the rules already given for determining the time
that the fun fhines on any plane ; and partly from this,
that on the tropical days, the hyperbola deferibed by the
fhadow of the point R limits the extent of all the hour¬
lines.
Of the right placing of dials, and having a true meridi ¬
an line for the regulating of clocks ctid wiatches.
The plane on which the dial is to reft being duly pre¬
pared, and every thing neceflary for fixing it, you may
find the hour tolerably exadt by a large equinodtial ring-
dial, and fet your watch to it. And then the dial may
be fixed by the watch at your leifure.
If you would be more exadt, take the fun’s altitude
by a good quadrant, noting the precife time of obferva-
tion by a clock or watch.. Then compute the time for
the altitude obferved, and fet the watch to agree with
that time, according to the fun. A Hadley's quadrant
is very convenient for this purpofe ; for, by it you may
take the angle between the fun and his image reflected
from a bafon of water ; the half of which angle, fub-
tradting the refradtion, is the altitude required. This is
beft done in fummer, and the nearer the fun is to the
prime vertical (the eaft or weft azimuth) when the obfer-
vation is made, fo much the better.
Or, in fummer, take two equal altitudes of the fun in
the fame day; one any time between 7 and 10 in the
morning, the other between 2 and 5 in the afternoon ;
noting the moments of thefe two obfervations by a clock
or watch : and if the watch ftiews the obfervatiohs to be
at equal diftances from noon, it agrees exadtly with the
fun : if not, the watch muft be corredted by half the
difference of the forenoon and afternoon intervals ; and
then the dial may be fet true by the watch.
Thus, for example,- fuppole you had taken the fun’s
altitude when it was 20 minutes part VIII in the mor¬
ning by the watch ; and found, by obferving in the after¬
noon, that the fun had the fame altitude 10 minutes be¬
fore IIII ; then it is plain, that the watch was 5 minutes
too faft for the fun : for 5 minutes after XII is the mid¬
dle time between VIII h. 20 m. in the morning, and
III h. 50 m. in the afternoon ; and therefore, to make
the Watch agree with the fun, it muft be fet back five
minutes.
A good meridian line, for regulating clocks or watch-
et), may be had by the following method.
Make a round hole, almoft a quarter of an inch dia¬
meter, in a thin plate of metal; and fix the plate in the
top of a fputh window, in fuch a manner, that it may
recline from the zenith at an angle equal to the co-lati¬
tude of your place, as nearly as you can gpefs : for then
3 4 ^ the
D I A
( 43° )
D I A
- the plate will face the fun directly at noon on the equi-
nodtial days. Let the fun fhine freely through the hole
into the room; and hang a plumb-line to the deling of the
room, at leal! five or fix feet from the window, in fuch a
place as that the fun’s rays, tranfmitted through the hole,
may fall upon the line when it is noon by the clock ; and
having marked the faid place on the cieling, take away
the line.
Having adjufted a Aiding bar to a dove-tail groove,
in a piece of wood about 18 inches long, and fixed a
hook into the middle of the bar, nail the wood to the above-
mentioned place on the cieling, parallel to the fide of the
room in which the window is ; the groove and bar being
towards the floor. Then, hang the plumb-line upon the
hook in the bar, the weight or plummet reaching almoft
to the floor ; and the whole will be prepared for farther
and proper adjuAment.
This done, find the true folar time by either of the
two laft methods, and thereby regulate your clock. Then,
at the moment of next noon by the clock, when the fun
Atines, move the Aiding-bar in the groove, until the" flia-
dow of the plumb-line bifedts the image of the fun (made
by his rays tranfmitted through the hole) on the floor.
wall, or on a white fcreen placed on the north fide of north pole of the heavens.
round horizontal board, in which there is a compafs and
magnetic needle, for placing the meridian Aile toward
the fouth. The pillar has a joint with a quadrant upon
it, divided into 90 degrees (fuppofed to be hid from fight
under the dial in the figure) for fetting it to the latitude
of any given place ; the fame way as already defcribed in
the dial on the crofs.
The equator of the globe is divided into 24 equal
parts, and the hours are laid down upon it at thefe parts.
The time of the day may be known by thefe hours, when
the fun fliines upon the globe.
To redify and ufe this dial, fet it on a level table, or
foie of the window, where the fun fliines, placing the
meridian Aile due fouth, by means of the needle ; which
will be, when the needle points as far from the north
fleur-de-lis toward the weA, as it declines weAward, at
your place. Then bend the pillar in the joint, till the
black line on the pillar comes to the latitude of your place
in the quadrant.
The machine being thus rectified, the plane of its di¬
al-part will be parallel to the equator, the wire or axis
that fupports the globe will be parallel to the earth’s ax¬
is, and the north pole of the globe will point toward the
. the line ; the plummet or weight at the end of the line
hanging freely in a pail of water placed below it on the
floor.—But becaufe this may not be quite corredi for the
firfl time, on account that the plummet will not fettle im¬
mediately, even in water ; it may be farther corredted on
the following days, by the above method, with the fun
and clock ; and fo brought to a verjrgreat exadtnefs.
N. B. The rays tranfmitted through the hole, will caA
but a faint image of the fun, even on a white fcreen, un-
lefs the room be fu darkened that no funfliine may be al¬
lowed to enter, but what comes through the fmall hole
in the plate. And always, for fome time before the ob-
fervation is made, the plummet ought to be immerfed in
a jar of water, where it may hang freely ; by which
means the line will foon become Aeady, which otherwife
would be apt to continue fwinging.
Sin univerfal dial, Jhewing the hours of the day by a ter-
rejlrial globe, and by the fh ad onus offever at gnomons,
at the fame time : together nuith all the places of the
earth which are then enlightened by the fun ; and thofe
to which the fun is then riftng, or on the meridian, or
felting.
This dial (fee Plate LXXII.) is made of a thick
fquare piece of wood, or hollow metal. The fides are
cut into femicircular hollows, in which the hours are
placed ; the Aile of each hollow coming out from the
bottom thereof, as far as the ends of the hollows projedt. '
The corners are cut out into angles, in the infidds of
which the hours are alfo marked; and the edge of the
end of each fide of the angle ferves as a Aile for cafling
a fltadow on the hours marked on the other fide,
The fame hour will then be fltewn in feveral of the
hollows, by the ends of the fliadows of their refpedtive
Ailes : the axis of the globe will caA a fltadow on the
fame hour of the day, in the equinodtial dial, in the
centre of which it is placed, from the 20th of March to
the 23d of September; and, if the meridian of your
place on the globe be fet even with the meridian Aile, all
the parts of the globe that the fun fliines upon, will'an-
fwer to thofe places of the real earth which are then en¬
lightened by the fun. The places where the fhade is juA
coming upon the globe, anfwer to all thofe places of the
earth to which the fun is then fetting; as the places where
it is going off, and the light coming on, anfwer to all
the places of the earth where the fun is then rifing. And
laAly, if the hour of VI be marked on the equator in
the meridian of your placd (as it is marked on the meri¬
dian of London in the figure) the divifion of the light
and (hade on the globe will fliew the time of the day.
The northern Aile of the dial (oppoljte to the fouthern
or meridian one) is hid from fight in the figure, by the
axis of the globe. The hours in the hollow to which
that Aile belongs, are ^Ifo fuppofed to be hid by the ob¬
lique view of the figure : but they are the fame as the
hours in the front-hollow. Thofe alfo in the right and
left hand femicircular hollows are fhoAly hid from fight;
and fo alfo are all thofe on the fides next the eye of the
four acute angles.
The conAru<Etion of this dial is as follows : (See Plate
LXXI. fig. 4.)
•On a thick fquare piece of wood, or metal, draw the
lines a c and bd, as far from each other as you intend
for the thicknefs of the Aile abed", and in the fame
In the middle of the uppermoA fide, or plane, there is manner, draw the like thicknefs of the other three Ailes,
an equinodtial dial; in the centre whereof an upright efgh, iklm, nn&nopq, ajl Aanding outright as from
wire is fixt, for caAing afliadow on the hours of that di- the centre.
al, and fupporting a fmall terreArial globe on its top. With any convenient opening of the compafles, as a A
The whole dial Aands on a pillar, in the middle of a (fo as to leave proper Arength of fluff when Kin equal
D I A ( .
to a A) fet one foot in a, as a centre, and with the o-
ther foot defcribe the quadrantaJ arc Then, with¬
out altering the compares** fet one foot in £ as a centre,
and with the other foot defcribe the quadrant d B. All
the other quadrants in the figure muft be defcribed in the
fame manner, and with the fame opening of the compaf-
fes, on their centres e, i, k •, and «, o: and each
quadrant di.vided into fix equal parts, for fo many hours,
as in the figure; each of which parts mult be fubdivided
into 4, for the half hours and quarters.
At equal diftances from each corner, draw the right
lines Ip and Kp, Lq and Mq, Nr and Or, P s and
to form the foiir angular hollows IpK, Lq M,
Nr 0znA P s §>_•, making the diftances between the
tips of thefe hollows, as IK, L M, NO, and P
each equal to the radius of the quadrants; and leaving
fufficient room within.the angular points p q r and a., for
the equino&ial dial in the middle.
To divide the infides of thefe angles properly, for the
hour-fpaces thereon; take the following method.
Set one foot of the compaffes in the point I, as a cen¬
tre, and open the other to K; and with that opening
defcribe the arc Kt: then, without altering the com-
paffes, fet one foot in K, and with the other foot de¬
fcribe the arc It. Divide each of thefe arcs, from I
and K to their interfeftion at t, into four equal parts ;
and from tlvir centres / and K, through the points of di
vifion, draw the right lines /j, 74, /y, 76, 7y ; and K2,
K1, K12, AT 1 x ; and they will meet the fides Kp and
■Ip of the angle IpK where the hours thereon muft be
placed. And thefe hour-fpaces in the arcs muft be fub¬
divided into four equal parts, for the half hours and
quarters. — Do the like for the other three angles, and
draw the dotted lines, and fet the hours in the infides
where thofe lines meet them, as in the figure: and the
like hour-lines will be parallel to each other in all the
quadrants and in all the angles.
Mark points, for all thefe hours on the upper fide;
and cut out all the angular hollows, and the quadrantal
ones quite through the places where their four gnomons
muft ftand; and lay down the hours on their infides, as
in Plate LXXII. and then fet in their gnomons, which
muft be as broad as the dial is thick; and this breadth
and thicknefs muft be large enough to keep the lhadows
of the gnomons from ever falling quite out at the fides of
the hollows, even when the fun’s declination is at the
greateft.
Laftly, draw the equinoftial dial in the middle, all
the hours of which are equidiftant from each other : and
the dial will be finifhed.
As the fun goes round, the broad end of the fhadow
of the ftile will fhew the hours in the quadrant
Ac, from fun-rife till VI in the morning; the fhadow
from the end M will ftiew the hours on the fide Lq
from V to IX in the morning; the fiiadow of the ftile egfh
in the quadrant Dg (in the the long days) will Ihow the
hours from fun-rife till VI in the morning ; and the fiia¬
dow of the end iV will ftiew the morning hours, on the
fide Or, from III to VII.
Juft as the fliadow of the ’northern' ftile alcd goes oflf
the quadrant Ac, the ftiadow of the fouthern ftile ,klm
31 ) D I A
begins to fall within the quadrant FI, at VI in the morn¬
ing ; and (hews the time, in that quadrant, from VI till
XII at noon; and from noon till VI in the evening in
the quadrant inE. And the ftiadow of the end 0, ftiews
the time from XI in the forenoon till III in the afternoon,
on the fide rN\ as the ftiadow of the end P ftiews the
time from IX in the morning till I o’clock in the after¬
noon, on the fide Qs.
At noon, when the ftiadow of the eaftern ftile efgh goes
off the quadrant hC (in which it fliewed the time from VI
in the morning till noon, as it did in the quadrant
from fun rife till VI in the morning) the ftiadow of the
weftern. ftile nopq begins to enter the quadrant Hp‘, and
, ftiews the hours thereon from XII at noon till VI in the
evening ; and after that till fun fet, in the quadrant qG :
and the end J^cafts a ftiadow on the fide Ps from V in the
evening till IX at night, if the fun be not fet before that
time.
The ftiadow of the end 7 fliews the time on the fide Kp
from III till VII in the afternoon; and the fliadow of
the ftile abed ftiews the time from VI in the evening till
the fun fets.
The ftiadow of the upright central wire, that fupports
the globe at top, ftiews the time of the day, in the
middle or equinoftial dial, all the fummer half year,
when the fun is on the north fide of the equator.
DIALECT, an appellation given to the language of a
province, in fo far as it differs from that of the whole
kingdom. The term, however, is more particularly
ufed in fpeaking of the ancient Greek, whereof there
were four dialers, the Attic, Ionic, TEoiic, and Do¬
ric, each of which was a perfect language in its kind,,
that took place in certain countries, and had peculiar
beauties.
DIALOGISM, in rhetoric, is ufed for the foliloquy of
perfons deliberating with themfelves. See Solilo-
quv.
DIALOGUE, in matters of literature, a converfation
between two or more perfons, either by writing or by
word of mouth.
Dialogue appears to be the moft ancient form of
writing, and is greatly recommended by feveral au¬
thors. The archbiftiop of Cambray, at the head of"
his paftoral inftrudHon, gives an account of the advan¬
tages of dialogue.
DIALTH7EA, in pharmacy, an unguent much ufed as
. a refolvent, fo called from althaea, or marfti-mallows,
w'hich is the principal ingredient in it. See Althaea.
DIALYSIS, in grammar, a mark or eharaffer, confifting.
of two points, ••, placed over two vowels of a word,,
in order to feparate them, becaufe otherwife they
would make a diphthong, as Mofaic, ire. See Di;e-
RE SIS.
DIAMETER, in geometry, a right line palling through
the center of a circle, and terminated at each fide by
the circumference thereof. See Geometry.
DIAMOND, in natural hiftory, a genus of precious
ftones, of a fine, pellucid fubltance, of great hardnefs,..
never fouled by any admixture of earthy or any other
coarfe matter, fufceptible of elegant tinges from metal<-
iixm:
D I A ( 432
line particles, giving fire with fleel, not fermenting
with acid mendruums, fcarcely calcinable by any de¬
cree of lire, and of one fimple and permanent appear¬
ance in all lights.
This is the mod valuable and hardeft of all gems;
and though found of different fhapes, and fometimes ac¬
cidentally tinged to feveral colours, yet ever carries the V
fame diflinguilhing characters, and is very evidently in
ail thofe '(fates the fame body. It is, when pure, per¬
fectly clear and pellucid as,the pure'ff water, and is e-
minently diftinguifhed from all other fubflances, by its
vivid fplendor, and the brightnefs of its reflections.
It is extremely various in fhape and fize, being found
in the greatefl quantity very fmall, and the larger ones
extremely feldom met with ; the largeft diamond cer¬
tainly known ever to have been found is thatm the pof-
feflion of the Great Mogul, which weighs 279 carats,
and is computed to be worth 779,244!.
The diamond has certainly one proper and determi¬
nate figure, into which it naturally muff concrete, h
when fn a (fate of reft and impeded by no other ac¬
cident in its formation: the true figure then is an
equilateral oClohedron; and where ever it has concre- 7
ted in a perfeCt manner, and without any interrupting
accidents, it has always formed itfelf into this figure ; L
and often in this its feveral furfaces are as bright as if
polifhed by art: but, as in common fait, though its.
figure be pyramidal, yet very eafy acddents can de- I
termine it into cubes and parallellopipeds ; fo the dia¬
mond has often, in the ftate of formation, been thrown
into two other figures, both alfo feeming regular ones;
the one a prifmatic columnar one of fix angles fome-
what emulating the figure of cryftal, the other an ob¬
long quadrilateral column with two truncated ends:
v thefe feem the only regular figures of this gem ; but
befides thefe, it is everyday found in numberlefs other
misfhapen forms, often roundifh, emulating the fhape
of pebbles, but full of fmall flat planes or faces ; fre- ]
quently oblong, very often flat, and as often tapering,
either from one end to the other, or elfe from the •
middle to both ends. A diamond bears the force of
the ftrongeft fire, except the concentrated folar rays,
without hurt; and even that infinitely fierceft of all
fires does it no injury, unlefs directed to its weaker parts. ]
It is a common thing for diamonds to be too thick
or deep for the extent of their furface, and there is
a certain proportion of depth, beyond which the gem
fhould not be allowed : in this cafe two diamonds are
often made, by the regularly dividing one : this,'when
the mafs is of an angular figure, is done by cutting
it through with a wire, wetted with oil, and covered
with diamond-powder; but in the flat or more com¬
mon maffis, it is done much more expeditioufly by
finding the grain of the ftone, and introducing the
point of a fine flat chiftel between them.. This is not
the only ufe of the fplitting ; for when a diamond has
a flaw or blemifh in it, which greatly debafes its-value,
the plates may be feparated at a proper breadth, and
the flaw removed ; in which cafe the thinner cruft,
ftruck off, is of value in proportion to its fize, and
the remainder, being now freed from its flaw, is of
2 ) D I A
much more value than it was at firft. The places
whence we have the diamonds are the Eaft-Indies, in
the ifland of Borneo, anc^ in the kingdoms of Vifa-
pour, Golconda, Bengal; and the Brazils in the Weft-
Indies. They are not unfrequentiy found yellowifh,
blueifh, and reddifh, but more rarely greenifh.
Valuation of Diamonds, among jewellers, is thus cal¬
culated : they funpofe the value of a rough diamond
to be 2 1. per carat; then to find the value of thofe
of greater weight, they multiply the fquare of their
weight by 2, and this laft produft is the value of the
diamonds in their rough ftate : thus, the value of a
rough diamond weighing 4 carats, is equal 4X4
X2=x6X2=32l. and fo in other cafes. Again, to
find the value of wrought diamonds, they fuppofe half
their weight loft in the manufacturing them, and there¬
fore multiply the fquare of double their weight by 2 ;
thus the value of a wrought- diamond, weighing 3 car-
rats, is equal 6X6X2=36X2=72!.
TJs/d'-DiAjdOND is that quite flat underneath, with its
upper part cut in divers little fiices, ufually triangles,
the uppermoft of which terminate in a point.
fable-Diamond is that which has a large fquare face at
top, encompafled with four leffer.
Brilliant Diamond is that cut in faces both at top and
bottom ; and whofe table, or principal face at top, is
flat.
Diamond, in the glafs-trade, an inftrument ufed for
fquaring the large plates or pieces ; and, among gla¬
ziers, for cuting their glafs.
Thefe fort of diamonds are differently fitted up ;
that ufed for large pieces, as looking-glaffes, &c. is
fet in an iron ferril, about two inches long, and a quar¬
ter of an inch in diameter; the cavity of the ferril
being filled up with lead, to keep the diamond firm :
there is alfo a handle of box, or ebony, fitted to the
ferril, for holding it by.
Diamond, in heraldry, a term ufed for exprefling the
black colour in the atchievements of peerage.
Guillim does not approve of blazoning the coats of
peers by precious ftones inftead of metals and colours ;
but the Englifh practice allows it. Morgan fays the
diamond is an emblem of fortitude.
DIANA1 arbor, or Arbor luna:, in chemiftry, the
beautiful cryftallizations of filver, diffolved in aqua
fortis, to which fome quickfilver is added: and fo cal¬
led from their refembling the trunk, branches, leaves,
eb'c. of a tree. 'See Chemistry.
DIANDRIA, in the Linnaean fyftem of botany. See
Bo,tany, p.635.
DIANO, a town of the Genoefe, about three miles from
the fea. The country about.produces great numbers
of olives.
DIANTHERA, in botany, a genus of the diandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla is ringent; and the
capfule has two elaftic valves. There are two fpecies,
both natives of America.
DIANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the decandria di-
gynia clafs.A The calix is cylindrical, and confifts of
one leaf, with four fcales at the bafe ; the corolla con-
fifts of five clawed petals; and the capfule is'cylindrical,
and
Bate IXXE
I) I A ( 433 ) D I A
and has but one cell. There are feventeeh fpecies, five
of which are natives of Britain, viz. the grmeria, or
Deptford pink ; the prolifer, or limewort; the del-
toides, of maiden pinks; theglaucus, or mountain pink;
and the arenarius, or ftone pink.
DIAPASON, in mufic, a mufical interval, by which
molt authors, whobave wrote upon the theory of mu¬
fic, ufeto exprefs the odtave of the Greeks. See Oc¬
tave.
Diapason, among the mufical inftrumentmakers, a kind
of rule or fcale, whereby they adjuft the pipes of their
organs, and cut the holes in their flutes, hautboys, e^re.
in due proportion, for performing the tones, femitones,
and concords juft.
Dapason diaex, in mujjc, a kind of compound con¬
cord, whereof there are two forts ; the greater, which
is in the proportion of 10:3; and the leffer, in that
of 16 : 5. •
Diapason diapente, in mufic, a compound confo-
nance in a tr pie ratio, as 3 :■$. This interval, fays
Martianus Capella, confifts of nine tones and a femi-
tone, nineteen femitones, and thirty eight diefes. It
is a fymphony made when the voice proceeds from the
firft to the twelfth found.
Diapason diAtessaron, in mufic, a compound con¬
cord, founded on the proportion of 8:3. To this in¬
terval Martianus Capella allows eight tones and a fe-
mitone, feventeen femitones, and thirty-four diefes.
This is when the voice proceeds from its firft to its
eleventh found. The moderns would rather call it the
eleventh.
Diapason ditone, in mufic, a compound concord,
whofe terms are as 10: 4, or 5 : 2.
D iapason SEMiDi^pNE,in mufic, a compound concord,
whofe terms are in the proportion of 12:5.
DIAPEDESIS, in medicine, a tranfudation of the flu¬
ids through the fides of the vefiels that contain them,
occafioned by the blood’s becoming too much attenua¬
ted, or the pores becoming too parent.
DIAPENSIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria-
monogynia clafs. The calix confifts'of five leaves, im¬
bricated with three fmaller ones ; the ftamina arife
from the tube of the corolla ; and the capfule has
three cells; there are three fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
DIAPENTE, in the ancient mufic, an interval marking
the fecond of the concords ; and with the diateflaron,
an oftave. This is what in the modern mufic is called
a fifth.
DIAPHANOUS, an appellation given to all tranfparent
bodies, or fuch as tranfmit the rays of light. See
Optics.
DIAPHOENICUM, in pharmacy, a fort of medicine
or eledtuary chiefly made of dates. It purges ferofi-
ties, and excites the menfes. It is alfo ufed in drop-
fies, lethargies, apoplexies, and palfies.
DIAPHORESIS, in medicine, an elimination of the hu¬
mours in any part of the body through the pores of
the fidn. Sc^ Perspiration.
DIAPHORETICS, among phyficians, all medicines
which promote perfpiration.
Vol. II. No, 44. 2
DIAPHRAGM, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 213.
DIAPORESIS, in rhetoric, a figure of oratory, ex¬
prefling the uncertainty of the fpeaker how he ftiall pro¬
ceed in his ,difcourfe.
DIARIJEC, or Diarbeck, the capital of a province of
the fame name, anfwering to the ancient Mefopotamia:
it is fituated on the river Tigris, near its fource, in
420 E. long, and 370 30' N. lat.
DIARRHOEA, or Looseness, in medicine, is a fre¬
quent and copious evacuation of liquid excrement, by
ftbol. See Medicine.
DIARTHROSIS, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 148.
DIARY, amongstraders, denotes a day-book containing
the proceedings of one day.
DIACHISM, among muficians, denotes the difference
between the comma and enharmonic diefis, commonly
called the leffer comma.
DIASCORDIUM, in pharmacy, a celebrated compofi-
tion, fo called from fcordium, one of its ingredients.
It is otherwife termed confettio fracafiorii, and is
thus directed by the college.
Take of cinnamon and caflia-wood, of each half an
ounce; of true fcordium, one ounce; of Cretan dit¬
tany, tormentil, biftort, galbanum, and gum-arabic,
of each half an ounce; of ftorax, four drams and an
half; of opium, and feeds of forrel, of each one dram
and an half; of gentian, half an ounce; of American
bole, one ounce and an half; of Lemnian fealed earth,
half an ounce; of long pepper and ginger, of each
two drams ; of clarified honey, two pounds and an
half; of fugar of rofes, one pound ; of generous ca¬
nary, eight ounces; make into an eleftuary. It is ex¬
cellent in all kinds of fluxes, and a great ftrengthener
both of the ftomach and bowels.
DIASEBESTEN, in pharmacy, a foft purgative eleftu-
ary,' whereof febeftens are the principal ingredients.
The other ingredients are prunes, tamarinds, juices of
iris, anguria and mercurialis, penidies, Ample diapru-
num, violet feeds, and diagrydium. It is good in re¬
mitting and continued fevers, tec.
DIASENNA, in pharmacy, the name of a medicine in
which fenna is the principal ingredient.
The other ingredients are fugar-candy,-cinnamon,
lapis lazuli, filk, cloves, galanga minor, black pepper,
nardus indica, feed of bafilicum, flowers of cloves,
cardamoms, faffron, ginger, zedoary, tec.
This eleftuaryis taken againft melancholy and fpleen,
and againft difeafes arifing from an atrabilis.
DIASTOLE, among phyficians, fignifies the dilatation
of the heart, auricles and arteries ; and Hands oppofed
to the fyftole, or contraction of the fame parts. See
Cl RCULATION.
Diastole, in grammar, a figure of profody, whereby
a fyllable naturally ftiort is made long: fuch is the firft
fyllable of Priamides, in the following verfe of Vir-
8*1,
Atque hie Priamides ! nihil 0 tibi, amice, reliflum.
DIASYRMUS, in rhetoric, a kind of hyperbole, being
an exaggeration of fome low ridiculous thing. «
DIATESSARON, among ancient muficians, a concord,
or harmonical interval, compofed of a greater tone, a
4 lefs
DIG ( 434 ) DIG
lefs tone, and one greater femi-tone : its proportion in
numbers is as 4 : 3.
Diatessaron, in pharmacy, the name of a compofi-
tion fo called, from the four ingredients it compre¬
hends : it is prepared thus.
lake of gentian root, bay-berries, myrrh, and
roots of birthwort, of each two ounces; of honey,
two pounds; mix them into an eledtuary. This, with
the addition of the (havings of ivory, two ounces, is
entitled diapente, or a compofition of five ingredi¬
ents.
DIATONIC, an epithet given to mufic, as it proceeds
by tones and femi-tones, both afeending and defeend-
ing. See Music.
DIATRAGACANTH, in pharmacy, a name applied
to certain powders, whereof gum tragacar^h is the
principal ingredient; of which there are two kinds,
the cold and the hot: the cold is diredted thus : take
of gum tragacanth, two ounces ; of gum arabic,
an ounce and two drams; of (larch, half an ounce; of
liquorice, and the feeds of melons and white poppies,
of each two drams; of fugar-candy, three ounces J
mix them into a powder. This is frequently pre-
feribed in hedlical heats, in choleric conftitutions, in di-
flempers of the bread, in dranguries, heat of urine,
and the pungency of venereal gleets.
Powder of hot diatragacanth is compofed of gum
tragacanth, cinnamon, hyfibp, almonds, linfeed, fe¬
nugreek, liquorice, and ginger. It is good againd
adhmas, to promote expedtoration, drengthen the do-
mach, and affid digeflion.
DIAUGOPHRAGMIA, in natural hidory, a genus of
fofiils of the order of feptariae, wliofe partitions, or
fepta, confid of fpar with an admixture of crydal.
Of this genus there are three fpecigs. 1. A red kind,
with brownidi-yellow partitions. 2. A browpifli yel¬
low kind, with wbitifh partitions. 3. A bluifii-white
kind, with draw-coloured partitions.
DICE, among gamders, certain cubical pieces of bone
or ivory, marked with dots on each cf their faces,
from one to fix, according to the number of faces.
Sharpers have feveral ways of falfifying dice. 1. By
flicking a hog’s bridle in them, fo as to make them
run high or low, as they pleale. 2. By drilling
and loading them with quickfiiver ; which cheat is
found out by holding them gently by two diagonal
corners ; for if falfe, the heavy fides will turn always
down. 3. By filling and rounding them. But all thefe
ways fall far (hort of the art of the dice-makers ; fome
of whom are fo dextrous this way, that your (harping
gamfiers will give any money for them.
Dice formerly paid 5 s. every pair imported, with
an additional duty of 4 s. 9T4ud. for every 20 s. value
upon oath; but are now prohibited to* be import¬
ed.
DICHOTOMY, a term ufed by adronomers for that
phafis, or appearance of the moon, wherein (he is bi-
i'etded, or (hews jud half her diflt. In this fituation
the moon is faid to be in a quadrate afpeft, or to be
in her quadrature.
Dichotomy, in botany. ' See Botany, p. 641.
DICHOTOPHYLLUM, it botany. See Cerato-
PHYLLUM.
DICKER, in old writers, denotes the quantity of ten
hides of (kins, whereof twenty made a lad : alfo ten
pair of gloves, ten bars of iron, and the like, are
fometimes expreffed by the term dicker.
DICTAMUS, dittany, in botany, a genus of the
decandria monogynia clafs. The calix confids of five
leaves, and the corolla of five open petals; the fila¬
ments have many glandular points ; and the five cap-
fules are united. There is but one fpecies, viz. the
oblus, a native of Italy. The root is faid to be a-
lexipharmic, but is not regarded in pra&ice.
DICTATOR, in the policy of the ancient Romans, a
magidrate inveded with fovereign and even arbi¬
trary power.
He had power of life and death ; alfo to raife and
dilband troops, make war or peace, and that without
the confent either of the fenate or people, or being
accountable for his proceedings. He was ele&ed by
one of the confuls' in the night-time, on the frontiers
of the icommopwealth, and. nowhere elfe ; and the
ordinary duration of his office was only for fix months,
during which time all other magidracies ceafed, the
tribuneffiip excepted. Whenever he appeared in public,
he was attended by twenty-four liidors, or double the
number allowed a conful. However, not with (landing
all thi$ power, he could not go out of Italy, or even
ride on horfeback during a march, without leave from
the people.
This office was accounted the fafeguard of the com¬
monwealth for four hundred years together, tjll Sylla
and Caefar, by afiuming the title of perpetqal duflators,
converted it into tyranny, and rendered the very name
odious.
DICTION, the phrafe, elocution, or ftyle of a writer
or fpeaker. See Composition,
DICTIONARY, in its original acceptation, is the ar¬
ranging all the words of a language according to the
order of the alphabet, and annexing a definition or ex¬
planation to each word. When arts and fciences be¬
gan to be improved and extended, the multiplicity of
technical terms rendered it neceflary to compdediflion-
aries either of fcience in general, or of particular fcien¬
ces, according to the^views of the compiler. For fur¬
ther particulars concerning diftionarks of this kind,
fee the Preface.
Dictionary of tbs Engl if} language. The only at¬
tempt which has hitherto been made towards forming
a regular didlionary of the Englifh language, is that
of the learned Dr Samuel Johnfon. . But although it
is executed in a raafferly manner, yet as it cannot be
expected that an undertaking of this nature could be
brought to perfe£Bon by one man, we (hall venture to
fugged a few cireumftances which, if dueiy attended
to, may perhaps be of fome utility.
The defign of every didionary of language, is to
explain, in the mod accurate manner, the meaning, of
every word, and to (how the various ways in which
it can be combined with others, in as far as this tends
to alter its meaning. The diclionary which does
this
$
DIG ( 435 ) DIG
this in the moft accurate manner, is the mofl complete.
Therefore the principal ftudy of a lexicographer ought
to be, to difeoyera method which will be heft adapted for
that purpofe. Dr Johnfon, with great labour, has col-
ledted the various meanings of every word, and quo¬
ted the authorities: But, would it not have been an
improvement if he had given an accurate definition of the
precife meaning of every word ; pointed out the way in
which it ought to be employed with the greateft pro¬
priety ; (hewed the various deviations from that original
meaning, which cuftom had fo far eftablilhed as to ren¬
der allowable ; and fixed the precife limits beyond which
it could not be employed without becoming a vicious ex-
preflion ? With this view, it would have been necelfary
to exhibit the nice diftin&ions that take place between
words which are nearly fynonymous. Without this,
mapy words can only be defined in fuch a manner, as
that they mull be confidered as exactly fynonymous.
We omit giving any quotations from Johnfon to point
out thefe defedts; but lhall content ourfelves with giving
a few examples, to (hew how, according to our idea, a
didlionary- of the Eoglifh language ought to be compi¬
led.
IMMEDIATELY. <,dv. of Urn.
1. Inftantly, without delay. Always employed to denote
future time, and never part. Thus, we may fay,.
1 ’Will come immediately ; but not, l am immedi¬
ately come from fuch a place. See Presently.
2. Without the intervention.of any caufe or event; as
eppofed to mediately.
PRESENTLY, adj. of time.
1, Inftantly, without delay. Ex.adly fynonymous with
immediately ; being never with propriety employed.
to denote any thing but future time.
2. Formerly it was employed to exprefs prefent timer
Thus, The houfe prefently pojfejfed by fuch a one,
was often ufed; but this , is rfbw become a vicious
expreflion, and we ought to fay. The houfe.pojfejfedat
prefent. It differs from immediately, in this, that
even in the moft.corrupt phrafes it never can de¬
note paft time.
FORM, fuhft. The external appearance of any ob-
jedt, when confidered only with refpedl to fhape or
figure. This term therefore, in the literal fenfe,
can only be applied to the objedts of the fight and
touch ; and is nearly fynonymous with figure; but
they differ in fome refpedts. Form may be employ¬
ed to denote more rude and unfiniflied (hapes;
figure, thofe which are more perfedt and regular.
Form, can never be employed without denoting mat¬
ter ; whereas figuze may be employed in the ab-
firadt: Thus, we fay a fquare or a triangular fi¬
gure-, but not a- Iquare or triangular form. And
in the fame manner we fay, the figure of a houfe :
but we niuft denote, the fubftance which forms that
figure, if we-ufe die word form-, as,, a cloud of the
form of a houfe, fac. See Figure.
2. In contraft to irregularity, or confufton. As
beauty cannot exift Without order, it is by a figure
of fpeech employed to denote beauty, order, (&c.
As form regards only the external appearance of
bodies, without regard to their internal qualities,
it is, by a figure of fpeech, employed in contraft to
thefe qualities, to denote empty (hew, without ef-
fential qualities. In this fenfe it is often taken
when applied to religious ceremonies, &c.
4. As form is employed to denote the external appear¬
ance of bodies; fo, in a figurative fenfe, it is applied
to reafoning, denoting the particular mode or man¬
ner in which th s is condudted; as, the fortn of a
fyllogifm. Sic.
5. In the fame manner it is employed to denote the
particular mode of procedure eftablifhed in courts of
law ; as, the forms of law, religion, &c.
6. Form is fometimes, although improperly, ufed to
denote the different circumftances of the fame body;
as, water in a fluid or a folid fortn. But as this
phrafe regards the internal qualities rather than the
external figure, it is improper, and ought to be,*
water in a fluid, or a folid fate.
7. But when bodies of different kinds are compared
with one another, this term may be employed to
denote other circumftances than fhape or figure;
for we may fay, a juice exfuding from a tree in
in the form of wax or refir. ; although, in this cafe,
the confiftence, colour, e5rc. and not the external
arrangement of parts, conftitutes the refemblance.
8. From the regular appearance of a number of per-
fons arranged in one long feat, fuch perfons fo
arranged are fometimes called inform ; as, a form
of fludents, &c, And,
9. By an eafy tranfition, the feat itfelf has alfo ac¬
quired that name.
GREAT, adj. A relative term, denoting largenefs
of quantity, number, &c, ferving to augment the
value of thofe terms with which.it is combined, and
oppofed to fmall or little. The principal circuni-
ftances in which this term can be employed, are the
following:
r . When merely inanimate, abjefts are confidered with
regard to quantity, great is with propriety employ¬
ed, to denote that the quantity is coniiderable • as,
a great mountain, a great houfe, &c. and it is
here contrafted with fmall. When great is thus
employed, we; have no. other word that is exa&Iy
fynonymous.
2. When inanimate obje&s are confidered with regard
to their extent, this term E fometimes employed,
although with lefs propriety; as, a great plain, a
great field, See. and in this fenfe it is nearly fynony¬
mous with ; and they are often ufed indiferi-
minately, but with fome difference of meaning : for,
as large is a term chiefly employed to denote extent
of fuperfkies, and as great more particularly re¬
gards the quantity of matter; therefore, when large
is applied to any objedt which is not merely fuper-
ficial? it denotes that it is the extent of furface that
is there meant to be confidercd, without regard to
the other dimenfions; whereas when the termgreat
is employed, it has a reference to the whole con¬
tents. If, therefore, we fay, a large houfe, or a
large river, we exprefs that the houfe. the river,
have
DIG (436
•have a furface of great extent, without having any
neceflary connection with the fize in other refpeCts.
But if we fay, a great houfe, or a great river, it
at once denotes that they have not only a large fur-
face, but are alfo of great fize in every refpeCt.
3. Great, when applied to the human fpecies, never
denotes the fize or largenefs of body, but is applied
folely to the qualities of the mind. Thus, when
we fay, that Socrates was a great man, we do not
mean that he was a man of great fize, but that he
was a man who excelled in the endowments of the
mind. The terms which denote largenefs of fize
in the human body are, big, bulky, huge, 8cc.
4. Great is fometimes applied to the human fpecies,
as denoting high rank. In this cafe it is oftener u-
fed in the plural number than otherwife. Thus we
fay limply, the great, meaning the whole body of
men in high ftation, as oppofed to mean. It Ihould
feldom be employed in this fenfe, as it tends to
confound dignity of rank with elevation of mind.
5. As this is a general term of augmentation, it may
be joined with all nouns which denote, quantity,
quality, number, excellence,'Or defefts; or fuch as
imply praife, blame, anger, contempt, or any o-
ther affeCtion of the mind.
6. It is employed to denote every Hep of afeending or
defeending confanguinity ; as, great-grandfather,
great-grandfon. See.
HIGH. adj. Exalted in a perpendicular direction at
a diltance from the furface of the earth. Oppofed to
low.
1. High is a term altogether indefinite, and is em¬
ployed to exprefs the degree of elevation of any in¬
animate body. Thus, we fay, a high mountain,
a high houfe, Jleeple, tower, pillar, &c. nor is
there any other word that can here be confidered as
fynonymous; lofty being employed only to denote
a very eminent degree of elevation.
2. To exprefs the perpendicular elevation of vegeta¬
bles, either high or tall may be employed, as being
in this cafe nearly fynonymous, we may therefore
fay, a high or tall tree, a high or tall majl. See.
but with this difference between thefe two expref-
fions, that tall can be more properly applied to
thofe that are much elevated and of fmall dimen-
fions ; and high, to fuch as are more bulky, and of
greater fize.
3. The perpendicular height of man can never be ex-
preffed by the word high; tall being here the pro¬
per expreffion. And although high is fometimes
ufed to exprefs the height of other animals, yet it
feems to be an improper expreflion. See Tall.
4. High, when applied to the hjiman fpecies, always
refers to the mind ; and denotes haughtinefs, ftate-
linefr, pride. See. ; and, when combined with the
expreflions of any energy of the mind, it denotes
that in a higher degree. In this fenfe, it is oppo¬
fed to meannefs, ahjefinefs, and humility.
5. As this is an indefinite term, tending to denote a-
ny thing that is elevated above us, it may be com¬
bined with almoft every noun which admits of this
) DIG.
elevation. And as objects high above us are always
out of our reach, it is in a metaphorical fenfe ufed
to denote any thing that feems to be above the or¬
dinary condition of mankind ; or thofe qualities or
endowments of mind that are not eafiiy acquired ;
as, dignity or elevation of fenthnent, dignity of
rank, acutenefs in reafoning on difficult fubjefts ;
pride, haughftnefs, or any other quality which
feems beyond the ordinary level of mankind ; dear-
nefs of price. See.
6. In the fame manner we employ this term to time ;
which having a metaphorical refemblance to a river,
flowing on with an unceafing current through all
fucceflive ages, any thing of remote antiquity is de¬
noted by the term high.
7. Like wife thofe degrees of latitude far removed from
the line, where the pole becomes more elevated.
8. And to feme, particular crimes, as being at¬
tended with peculiar degrees of guilt; as, high trea-
TALL. adj. Something elevated to a confiderable
degree in a perpendicular 'direction. Oppofed to
low.
1. This term is chiefly employed to exprefs the height
of man, and other animals; and is applied to de¬
note the height of the body only, without having
any reference tp the mind. When applied to man,
no other word can be fubftituted in its Head: when
applied to other animals, high is fometimes confi¬
dered as nearly fynonymous. See High.
2. It is likewife employed to denote the perpendicular
height of vegetables; and in this cale it is nearly
fynonymous with high. See High.
3. It can in no cafe be employed to exprefs the height
of merely inanimatembjedts ; as we can never fay a
tall feeple, tower, or pillar, but a high Jleeple,
See. For the diftin&ions in thefe cafes, fee High.
LONG, adj. A relative term, denoting the diftance
between the extremes of any body, which is extend¬
ed more in one of its geometrical dimenfions than
another. Oppofed to Jhort.
1. This term may be applied to all inanimate objedls,
of whatever kind, whofe dimenfions in one way ex¬
ceeds the other, and when not in an ereft pollute,
whatever be the other circumftances attending them;
whether it relates to fuperficies alone, or to folid bo¬
dies; whether thefe be bounded or open, ftraight or
crooked, flexible or rigid, or in any other circum¬
ftances whatever .; thus we fay a long or Jhort line,
a long or Jhort ridge, Jlreet, ditch, rope, chain, JlaJf,
Sec. But it is to be obferved, that ^though long\s,m
the ftrift fenfe only, oppofed to Jhort; yet as it ex-
preffes the extenficn of matter in one of its geome¬
trical proportions, it is often contrafted by thofe
words which exprefs the other proportions when we
mean only to deferibe the feveral proportions; as, a
table long and broad: and as thefe feveral dimenfi¬
ons are expreffed by different words, according to the
various forms, modifications, and circumftances, in
which bodies are found ; therefore it is in this fenfe
contrafted by a great diverfity of terms; as, a long
DIG ( 437 ) DIG
and broad, or ’wide, narrow, or Jlrait Jireet or lane,
a long and thick, or fmall rope, chain, Jlaff, &c.
For the diftindions in thefe cafes, fee Broad,
Wide, <bc.
2. Obje&s neceffarily fixed in an eredt pofition can
never have this term applied to them ; and therefore
we cannot fay a long, but a high tower or Jleeple.
And for the fame reafon, while trees are growing
and fixed in an ereft pofition, we cannot apply this
Term to them; but when they are felled and laid up¬
on the ground, it is quite proper and neceffary.
Thus, we do not {vp along, but a tall or high tree,
while it is growing; but we fay a long, not a tall
log of wood : an/i in the fame manner we fay a tall
majl, when it is fixed in the Ihip ; but a long maft,
while it lies upon the beech. See Tall and High.
3. Thofe vegetables which are of a tender pliant na¬
ture, or fo weak as not to be able to retain a fixt po¬
fition, being confidered as of a middle nature Be¬
tween eredt and proftrate bodies, admit of either
of the terms long, tall, or high ; as, a long or tall
rujh or willow wand, or a long, tall, or high Jlalk
of corn. See High and Tall.
4. Theparts of vegetables, when-confidered as diftindl
from the whole, even when growing and eredt, af-
fume the term long : for we no not fay a tall, but a
long Jhoot of a tree ; and a tree with a long Jlem,
in preference to a tree with a high fern.
5. For. the fame reafon, a ftaff, and pole, even when
fixed in a perpendicular diredtion, afi'ume the word
long, in preference to tall or high.
6. With regard to animals, the general rule is applied,
-without any exceptions; tall, and not long, being
employed to denote the height of the human body,
when in an eredt pofture; and long and not tall, to
denote its length when in an incumbent fituation.
Long, applied to all other animals which do not walk
eredt, always denotes their greatelt length in a hori¬
zontal pofition from head to tail.
7. In a figurative fenfe, it denotes, with regard to
time, any thing at a great diftance from us.
8. As alfo, any thing that takes up much time before
it is finilhed ; as, a long difeourfe, a protrafied note
in mafic. See.
BROAD, adj. The-diftance between the two neareft
fides of any body, whofe geometrical dimenfions are
larger in one* diredtion than in another ; and has a
reference to fuperficies only, and never to the folid
contents. Oppofed to narrow.
1. Broad, in the ftridteft acceptation, is applied to de¬
note thofe bodies only whofe fides are altogether,
open and unconfined; as, a bread'table, a broad
wheel. See. and in thefe cafes it is invariably con-
trafted by tile word narrow; nor is there any other
word which in thefe cafes can be confidered as fyno-
nymous with it, or ufed in its ftead.
2. When any objedt is in fome fort bounded on the
fides, although not quite clofedup, as a road, ftreet,
ditch, <bc. either broad or wide may be employed,
but with fome difference of lignification ; broad be-
Vol, IL No. 44. 3 4
ing moft properly ufed for thofe that are more open,
and wide to thofe which are more confined; nor can
this term be ever applied to fuch objedts as are clofe
bounded all around, as a houfe, church, &c. wide
being here employed. For the mord accurate di-
ftindtions in thefe cafes, fee the article Wide.
WIDE. adj. A term employed to denote relative ex¬
tent in certain circumftances. Oppofed to narrow and
Jlrait.
1. This term is in its proper fenfe applied only to de¬
note the fpace contained within any body clofed all
round on every fide, as a houfe, gait, <bc. and dif¬
fers from broad in this, that it never relates to the
fuperficies of folid objedts, but is employed to ex-
prefs the capacioufnefs of any body which contain-
eth vacant fpace; nor can capacioufnefs in this fenfe
be expreffed by any other word but wide.
2. As many bodies may be confidered either
with refpedt to their capacioufnefs, or fuperfi-
cial extent; in all thefe cafes, either the term broad
or wide may be ufed ; as, a broad or wide ftreet
or ditch, <bc. but with a greater or lefs degree of
propriety, according to the circumftances of the ob¬
jedt, or the idea we wiflt to convey. In a ftreet where
the houfes are low, and the boundaries open, or in a
ditch of fmall depth and large fuperficies, as this
largenefs of fuperficies bears the principal pro¬
portion, broad would be more proper; but if the
houfes are of great height, or the ditch of great
depth, and capacioufnefs is the principal property
that affedts t^ie niind, we would naturally fiy a wide
ftreet or ditch; and the fame may be faid of all fi-
milar cafes: but there are fome cafes in which both
thefe terms are applied, with a greater difference of
meaning; thus we fay, a broad, or a wide gate;
but as the gate is employed to denote either the a-
perture in the wall, or the matter which clofes that
aperture, tbefe terms are each of them ufed to de¬
note that particular quality to which they are gene¬
rally applied : and as the opening itfelf can never be
confidered as a fuperficies, the term wide, in this
cafe, denotes the diftance between the fides of the
aperture; while, on the contrary, denotes the
extent of matter fitted to clofe that aperture; nor
can thefe two terms in any cafe be fubftituted for
one another.
3. As a figurative expreffion, it is ufed as a cant phrafe
foramiftake; as, you are wide of the mark-, that
is, not near the truth.
NARROW, adj. A relative term, denoting a propor¬
tional fmallnefs of diftance between the fides of the
fuperficies of plain bodies. Oppofed to broad.
1. As this is only applied to fuperficies, it is exadlly
contrafted by broad, and is applied in all cafes where
the term broad can be ufed, (fee Broad-) ; -and in
no other cafe but as a contraft to it, except the fol¬
lowing.
2. It fometimes is employed to deferibe the fmallnefs
of fpace circumfcribed between certain boundaries,,
as oppofed to wide, and nearly fynonymous with<
4 R firaiti;
DIG ( 438 ) DIG
jlrctit; as we fay a wide or a narrow houfe, church.
See. For the neceffary dirtindlions here, fee the ar¬
ticle Strait.
3. In a figurative fenfe it denotes parfwtony, poverty,
confinedfentimsnts. See.
STRAIT, adj. A relative term, denoting the extent
of fpace in certa n circumftances. Oppofed to wide,
fee Wide.
1. This term is employed, in its proper fenfe, to de¬
note only fpace, as contained between furrounding
bodies in fuch circumftances as to denote fome de¬
gree of confinement; and is exaftly oppofed to •uf/Vif;
as, a wide ox aJirait gate, &c.. See Wide.
2. So neceffary is it that the idea of confinement Ihould
be connedled with this word, that in all thofe cafes
where the fpace contained is large, as in a church
or houfe, we cannot exprefs a fmaller proportional
width by this term. And as we have no other.word
to exprefs fpace in thefe circumftances, we have been
obliged to force the word narrow from its natural
fignification, and make it exprefs this. See Nar¬
row.
3. In fome particular cafes narrow or Jlrait may be
employed to the fame objeft; as, a narrow or a
Jlrait lane : but here firait is never employed but
where an idea of confinement is fuggefted, and where
it is exafily contrafted to wide , nor can narrow
be employed but in fuch circumftances whexe broad
would be. a perfedt contrail to it. Therefore thefe
two terms may be always employe^ in the lame cir¬
cumftances as thofe which contrail] them may be.
For an account of which, fee Wide.
3. The term Jlrait is likewife in a peculiar manner ufed
to denote the fmallnefs of the internal diameter of
thofe fmall bodies which are fitted to receive or con¬
tain others as, any kind of bag, tu1 e, body-cloaths,
mortoifes, and others of the fame kind ; and in all
thefe cafes this term may be employed to denote the
fmallnefs of their Jelfer diameter, and never the
term narrow. But in certain ctrcumftances the
word tight may be fubftituted for it. See Tight.
4. Strait, in a figurative fenfe, denotes any fort of
confinement of fentiment or difpolition.
TIGHT, adj. A term employed in certain circum¬
ftances to denote the internal capacity of particular
bodies. Nearly fynonymous with Jlrait.
This term is confined entirely to denote the fmallnefs
of the internal dimenfions of fuch objedls as are
formed to cover or to receive or contain other folid
bodies, and can be employed in no other cafe. And
although it agrees with Jlrait, in always denoting
confinement, and by being applicable to the. fame
fpecie's of objefts, yet it differs in the the following
refpeds : 1 . If there be any difference of the diame¬
ter of the objefts to which the term Jlrait can be
employed, it always has reference to the fmallec-
yet tight may be employed to any fort of confine¬
ment, whether it regards the length or breadth.
.2. Strait can be applied to all bodies of capacity
when of fmall diameter, without any fort of.refe-
. rence to the nature of the fubftance which it may
be capable of containing. For we can fay «
bag, a Jlrait Jleeve, a Jlrait morteifie, a Jlrait
gate. Sec, whereas tight can only be applied to
any body when it is confidered as having reference
to another body which is intended to be contained
in it and is pinched for want of room. Thus,
we fay, the Jleeve of a coat is too tight for the
arm, the mortoife is too tight for the tenon. Sec.
but we cannot fay, the bag, or ■ the gate is too
tight, becaufe thefe are fitted to receive any fort of
obje&s. And hence it happens, that, in many
cafes, the dimenfions of the fame body may be ex-
prefled by tight ox frail when confidered in diffe¬
rent circumftances. Thus, we may fay, this feeve is
too f rail, when we look at a coat when lying on the
table, and confider its proportions ; but it is not
till we have tried it. upon the arm that it is intend¬
ed to cover, that we call it tight. And we may
fay, a gate is too fruit, or too tight; but in the
firft cafe we confider it as being too confined for ad¬
mitting objects to pafs through it, and in the laft
as being too confined with relpedl to the leaves that
are to Ihut the aperture, not allowing them fpace
to move with freedom.
Thefe examples may ferve to give fome idea of the
plan of an Englilh didtionary compofed upon philo-
fophical principles: But, befides the circumftances a-
bove enumerated, there are many others which would
require particular attention in the execution of a work
of this kind. In the Englilh language, a great variety
of terms occur, which denote matter under certain gene¬
ral ft mis or circumftances, without regarding the mi¬
nute diverfities that may take place; as the word cloth,
which denotes matter as manufactured into a particular
form, including under it all the variety of fluffs manu-
fadtured in that particular way, of whatever materials,
colours, texture, or finenefs they may be. The fame
may be faid of wood, iron, yarn, and a great variety of
terms of the fame nature, fome of which cannpt affume
any plural; while others admit of it in all cafes ; ,and 0-
thers admit or refufe it according to the different cir-
cumftances in which they are confidered. In a diction¬
ary, therefore, all this variety of cafes ought to be clear¬
ly and diftindtly pointed out under each particular ar¬
ticle : this is the more neceffary, as fome of thefe words
have others formed from them, which might be readily
miftaken for their plurals, although they have a very dif¬
ferent fignification; as clouths which does not denote any
number of pieces or different kinds of cloth, but wear-
ing apparel. The following example will illuftrate this
head
WOOD. fiub. A folid fubftance of which the trunks
and branches of trees confift.
1. This term is allowed to denote the folid parts of ve¬
getables of all kinds, in whatever form or circum¬
ftances they are found. Nor does this term admit of
plural with propriety, unlefs in the circumftances
after-mentioned : for we fay,' many different kinds
of wood, in preference to many kinds of woods; ox,
we fay, oak, ajh, or elm wood ; not woods. •
2. But where we want to contrail wood of one qua¬
lity.
DIG ( 439 ) DIG
lity or country with that of another, it admits of
a plural; for we fay, •white •woods are in general
fofter than red; or IVeJi-Indian woods are in ge¬
neral of greater fpecific gravity than the European
•woods: But unlefs where the colour, or fome quali¬
ty which diftinguifhes it from growing wood, is
mentioned, this plural ought as much as poffible to
be avoided, as it always fuggefts an idea of growing
wood.
3. Wood likewife denotes a number of trees grow¬
ing near one another; being nearly fynonymous with
foreJl\ See Forest. In this fenfe it always
admits of a plural; as, Ye woods and wilds whofe
folitary gloom, &c.
A didtionary cannot be reckoned complete without ex¬
plaining obfolete words ; and if the terms of the feveral
provincial provincial dialedb were likewife given, it would
be of great utility: nor would this take much time; be-
caufe a number of thefe -words need no other explanation
than to mark along with them the words which had come
iq their place, when there happened to be one perfedlly fy¬
nonymous : and in thefe cafes where the fame idea could
not be exprefled in modern language without a periphrafis,
it would be of ufe to explain them diftindtly ; fo that,
when a writer found hiitifelf at a lofs for a term, and ob¬
liged to fearch for one beyond the bounds of our own
language, he might take one of thefe, when he found
that it was expreflive and energetic, in preference to an¬
other drawn from a foreign language. This would at
leaft have one good effeft: it would make our language
more fixed and liable ; not to fay more accurate and pre-
cife, than by borrowing from foreign languages. The
following examples may ferve to give fome idea of the
manner of treating this part of the work.
MOE, or mo. adj. An obfolete term Hill employed
in the Scotch dialed, and by them pronounced mae :
denoting a greater number, and nearly fynonymous
with more ; but it differs in this refped, that, in
the Scotch dialed, mae and mair (Englilh, more)
are each employed in their diltind fphere, without
encroaching upon one another; viae being employ¬
ed to denote number, but never quantity or quali¬
ty; and mair, to denote, quantity and quality, but
never number : thus they fay mae, not mair applesi
men, 8cc, and they fay mair, not mae cloth,
earth, courage, See. See Mair. Both of thefe
terms are fupplied by the word more; which,
in the Englifh language, is applied indiferiminately
to denote quantity, quality, and number. See
More.
THIR pron. Obfolete; dill employed in the Scotch
dialed: the plural of//6/r ; and contralled to/Aey?,
in the fame manner as that is to this.
As there is no word in the Englilh language equiva¬
lent to this, we thus Ihew the manner in which it is
employed. In the Englilh language we fay, that
Jlone'or houfe, pointing at one at a diftance, is larger
or more commodious than this Jlone or this .houfe,
which is fuppofed to be at hand. In the fame man¬
ner, in the Scotch dialed, they fay, thefe (or as it
is pronounced, thae) Jlones are whiter than tbir
Jlones; denoting, that the former are at a didance,
and the latter at hand. And, in the fame manner,
it is invariably applied to denote any prefent objed
in the plural number, as oppofed to thefe ; as thefe
or thir apples, as at hand or at a didance ; thefe
or thir trees, &c.; but never in the lingular num¬
ber, as it is always this or that tree, hofe,
&c.
As the Englilh language is fo exceedingly irregular in
the pronunciation, the fame letter in the fame fituation
often alfuming founds totally different in different words,
it is impolftble to edablilh any general rules on this fub-
jed, which do not admit of many exceptions: therefore,
a didionary is the bed means of afeertaining and po;nt-
ing out the proper pronunciation of words. For, if the
writer fird pointed out all the different founds that the
fame letter could ever be made to exprefs, and alfigned
to every particular found which ^ach letter could be
made to affume, a particular mark, which was appropri¬
ated to denote that particular found of the letter when¬
ever it occurred ; by placing thefe particular marks above
the letters in the didionary, the found of each letter
would be pointed out in all cafes with the utmod cer¬
tainty. It would be impoffible for us to illudrate this by
examples, w'ithout fird afeertaining all the founds of each
letter; which would lead us into a difeuifion too long for
this place; and this is at prefent the more unneceffary, as
the public have been long in expedation of a didionary,
by a very able hand, in which this particular will be at¬
tended to.
We lhall only further obferve, that, befides having
the accented fyllable of every word /ra/ifr/y didinguilhed
in a didionary to affid in the pronunciation, the Eng¬
lilh language requires another effential improvement, viz.
the ufe of accents to didinguilh the meaning of words
and phrafes ; which, although it is not fo properly con¬
fined to a lexicographer, yet it is not quite without his
fphere. Thus the word as admits of two very different
founds, as well as different fignifications ; as in this ex¬
ample, “ Cicero was nearly^ eloquent <7/ Demodhenes
in which the fird as -is pronounced afs, and the lad is
pronounced az. Now, it often happens, that, in read¬
ing, the particular way in which it ought to be underdood
is not pointed out by the context, till after the word it-
felf is pronounced, which has an equal chance at lead of
being pronounced wrong ; whereas, if it were always ac¬
cented when employed in the one fenfe, and not in the
other, it would free the reader from this perplexity.
There are other cafes in which the ufe of proper accents
in writing would be of great confequence; as at the be¬
ginning of a fentence, when it was put as a quedion, or 11 fed
ironically, <bc. the want of which every one mod have
obferved. But as this does not fo properly belong to
the lexicographer as the grammarian, we lhall here take
no further notice of it.
The above examples, we hope, will be fufficient to give
the reader feme idea of the plan that we would propofe;
and enable him to determine, whether or not a didion¬
ary, executed upon this plan, would convey, to his mind
a more perfed knowledge of the Englilh language, than
thofe didionaries that have been hitherto publilhed.
DID ( 440 ) DIE
Thefe examples were given rather with a view to
ftiew the manner in which a work of this kind might
be conduced, than as perfect and unexceptionable ex¬
planations of the feveral articles there enumerated; and
therefore we did not think it neceflary to produce any
authorities, although we are fenfible that they would
be neceffary in a work of this kind.
DIDACTIC, in the fchools, fignifies the manner of
fpeaking, or writing, adapted to teach or explain the
nature of things.
DIDAPPER, in ornithology. See Colymbus.
DIDELPHIS, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds
belonging to the order of ferae, the characters of
which are thefe: they have ten foreteeth in the upper-
jaw, and eight in the under one; the dog-teeth are
tong; the tongue is fomewhat ciliated ; and they have a
pocket, formed by a duplicature of the fkin of the
belly, in which the dugs are included. There are
five fpecies, viz. 1. The marfupialis, with eight dugs
inclofed in the abdominal pocket. He is about fixteen
inches long from the fnout to the root of the tail,
which is about twelves inches long: he Eas five toes
on the fore-feet, with crooked claws and five toes on
the hind-feet, only four of them furnifliedwidi claws;
the fifth, which is a kind of thumb, is at a diflance
from the others, and has no claw; the tail is bare
from a little below the root: The ears and legs are
likewife bare; the eyes are fmall, prominent, of a
black colour, and very lively. The body is of a grey-
ifir colour, with fome fmall tufts of black and white
hairs upon the back and fides. Under the belly of
the female there is a large bag or pocket, formed
by a remarkable duplicature of the fkin, in which
the dugs are contained. This pocket tho animal can
fliut or open at pleafure, by means of a couple of
mufcles and two bones which are placed before the
os pubis, and are peculiar to the didelphis. The
interior fide of this pocket is full of fmall glands,
wh:ch fecrete ayellowifh flinking fubflance, which dif-
fufes its odour through the whole body of the animal:
but this fubflance, when dried, lofes its difagreeable
odour, and acquires a fimell like that of mufk.—This
animal is originally a native of South America. Mofl
authors affirm that they bring forth five or fix young
ones at a time. Asfoon as they are brought forth, they
creep into tire pocket of the mother, where the dugs
are fituate, and continue there fucking till they be able
to run about. When alarmed or frightened, they run
into the mother’s pocket, and ffie makes off with them
in this fituation. The didelphis is an animal of flow
motion; a man can eafily out run him; but then,
he takes to a tree, which he mounts with great fa¬
cility, and conceals himfelf among the leaves, or fu-
fpends himfelf by twilling his tail round a branch.
Although a carnivorous animal, he is fond of the fu-
gar cane, potatoes, See Plate LXVIII fig. 3.
The fecond fpecies is the philander, with four
dugs, pendulous ears, and a tail bufhy at the bafe.
3. The opoffum, with two dugs, and a lefs bufhy
tail. 4. The murina, with fix'dugs. 5. The dorfi-
gera, with the tail bufhy at the bafe, and longer than
the body. The females of this fpecies carry their
young on their backs, the young having their tails
twilled about the tail of the mother. The above four
are natives of America.
DIDUS, in ornithology, 3 genus belonging to the order
of gallinse. The bill is contracted in the middle by
two tranfverfe rugae; each mandible is infleCted at the
point; and the face is bare behind the eyes. The
body is blackiffi and cloudy; the tail is very fhort;
and the upper part of the bill is red. It is a native of
India, and is incapable of flying, becaufe the wings
are not furnifhed with feathers fufficient for that pur-
pofe.
DIDYNAMIA, in the Linnaean fyftem of botany. See
otany, p. 635.
DIE, in geography, a town of France, in the province of
Dauphiny, fituated on the river Drome, twenty-two
miles fouth of Grenoble: E, long. 5 0 20', N. lat. 44®.
SO1-
DIEGEM, a town of the Auflrian Netherlands, in the
province of Brabant, about three miles north of Bruf-
fels : E. long. 40 20, and N. lat. 510.
DIEPE, a port-town of France, fituated on the Britifh
channel, about thirty mile^north of Rouen, and oppo-
fite to port Rye in England: E. long. i° 15', and N.
lat. 490 js'.
DIEPHOLT, a city of Weftphalia in Germany, fituated
at the north end of the Dummer lake, thirty five miles
fouth of Bremen : E. long. 8°, N. lat - 53°.
It is fubjeCt to thekingqf Great Britain, as eleCtor
of Hanover.
DIERVILLA, in botany. See Lanicera.
DIES march 1 as, was the day of congrefs, or meeting
of the Englifh and Scotch, annually appointed to be
held on the marches, or borders, in order to adjull
all differences between them.
DIESIS, in mufic, is the divifion of a tone lefs than a
femi-tone; or an interval confifting of a lefs or imper-
feCl femi-tone.
Diefis is the fmalleft and foftefl change or inflexion
of the voice imaginable: it is called a faint, exprelfed
thus X, by a St Andrew’s crofs, or faltier.
DIET, in medicine, according to fome, comprehends
the whole regimen, or rule of life, with regard to the
fix non-naturals, air, meats and drinks, deep and
watching, motion and reft, pafltons of the mind, re¬
tentions and excretions.
The more accurate writers, however, reftrain the
term of diet to what regards eating and drinking, or
folid aliments and drinks. See Medicine,
Diet-drinks, a form in phyfic, including all the me¬
dicated wines, ales, and wheys, ufed in chronic cafes.
They require a courfe or continuation to anfwer any
intention of moment.
Diet 0/appearance, in Scots law, the day to which a
defender is cited to appear in court, and every other
day tb which the court (hall afterwards adjourn the
confideration of the queftion.
Diet, or Dyet, ia matters of policy, is ufed for the
general
DIF (4
general aflembly of the ftates, or circles of the .em¬
pire of Germany, and of Poland, to deliberate and
concert meafures proper to be taken for the good of
the piablic.
The general diet of the empire is ufually held at
Ratilbon : it confifts of the emperor, the nine eledlors,
and the ecclefialtical princes; viz. the archbifhops,
bifhops, abbots, and abbefles; the fecular princes,
who are dukes, marquifles, counts, vifcounts, or ba¬
rons ; and the reprefentatives of the imperial cities. It
meets on the emperor’s fummons, and any of the
princes may fend their deputies thither in their Head.
The diet makes laws, raifes taxes, determines diffe¬
rences "between the feveral princes and Hates, and can
relieve the fubjedts from the oppreflions of their fove-
reigns.
The diet of Poland, or the aflembly of the Hates,
confiHs of the fenate and deputies, or repfefentative
of every palatinate or county and city, and meet ufu¬
ally every two years, and oftener upon extraordinary
occafions, if fummoned by the king, or,'in his ab-
fence, by the archbifhop of Gnefna. The general
diet of Poland fits but fix weeks, and often breaks up
in a tumult much fooner : for one diflenting voice pre¬
vents their palling any laws, or coming to any refolu-
tions on what is propofed to them from the throne.
Switaerland has alfo a general diet, which is ufually
held every year at Baden, and reprefents the whole
Helvetic body : it feldom lafls longer than a month.
Befides this general diet, there are diets of the prote-
ftant cantons, and diets of the catholic ones ; the firfl
aflemble at Araw, and are convoked by the canton of
Zurich ; the fecond at Lucern, convoked by the can¬
ton of that name.
DIETETIC, denotes fomething belonging to diet, but
particularly that part of phyfic which treats of this
fubjeift.
DIETS, a town in the circle of the Upper Rhine in
Germany, fituated on the river Lohn, twenty miles
north of Mentz, and fubjedt to the houfe of Naflau-
Orange: E. long. 70 40', and N. lat. 50 28'’.
DIEU et mon droit, i. e. God and my right, the
motto of the royal arms of England, firfl aflumed by
king Richard I. to intimate that he did not hold his
empire in vaflalage of any mortal.
It was afterwards taken up by Edward TIL and
was continued without interruption to the time of the
late king William, who ufed the motto Je main-tien-
dray, though the former was Hill retained upon the
great feal. After him queen Anne ufed the motto
Semper eadem,- which had beep before ufed by queen
Elizabeth ; but ever fince queen Anne, Dieu et men
droit continues to be the royal motto.
DIEXAHEDRIA, in natural hiflory, a genus of pellu¬
cid and cryflalliform fpars, compofed of two pyramids,
joined bafe to bafe, without anv intermediate column :
the diexahedria are dodecahedral, or compofed of two
hexangular pyramids.
DIFFUSE, an epithet applied to fuch writings as. are
wrote in a prolix manner. Among hiflorians, Sallufl
Vol. II. No. 44. 3
ll ) . D 1 G ..
is reckoned fententious, and Livy diffufe. Thus alfb
among the orators, Demoflhenes is clofe and concife ;
Cicero, on the other hand, is diffufe.
DIFFUSION, the difperfion of the fubtile effluvia of
bodies into a kind of atmofphere all round them.
Thus the light diffufed by, the rays of the fun, iflues
all round from that amazing body of fire.
DIGASTRICUS, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 222.
DIGEST, in matters of literature, a colleflion of the
decifions of the Roman lawyers properly digefled, or
arranged under diflinft heads, by order of the em¬
peror Juflinian. It conflitutes the firfl part or volume
of the civil law.
DIGESTION, in medicine, is the diflblution of the ali¬
ments into fuch minute parts as are fit to enter the
ladteal veflels, and circulate with the mafs of blood.
Various are the fyflems and hypothefes framed by
phyficians and philofophers to account for digefliofi.
Some contend, that it is done by a kind of elixation
of the folid and groffer parts of the food in the liquid
by the heat of the Homach, and of the adjacent parts,
the liver, fpleen, «irc. Others will have it done by
attrition, as if the fiomach, by thofe repeated mo¬
tions, which are the effefls of refpiration, rubbed off
the minuter particles from the grofler matters, and a-
gitating the refl againfl each other, attenuated and
difiblved them.
Others think the bilious juice, others the fpirits,
chiefly concerned in digeflion.
Others will have the food diflblVed by a menflru-
um ; but then they are greatly divided as to the nature
and origin of this menflruum ; fome fuppofing it an acid
furnifhed by the glands of the flomach ; others, a ni-
tro-aerial fpirit, which, by penetrating the mafs of
food, breaks the connexion of the mofl folid parts :
and others, a faline juice, which divides and volati¬
lizes the parts of the food. Others, again, fuppofe
digeflion to be performed by means of a ferment or lea¬
ven, which mixing with the aliment, excites an inte-
ftine motion in the parts thereof, by which means the
parts are attenuated and diflplved. But thefe likewife
differ in their opinion of this ferment; fome taking
it to be the remains of the food lafl digefled, which,
by its continuance in the flomach,, has contradled an
acid quality and become a ferment: others take the
principles of fermentation to be contained in the ali¬
ment itfelf, which when inclofed in the ftoniach, heat¬
ed there, and put in motion, enters on its office offer-
mentation : others fuppofe the matter'of the ferment
fupplied by the glands of the flomach ; and laflly, o-
thers contend for the faliva, and make that the fer¬
ment ferving principally for the digeftion of the food.
Some fuppofe digeftion owing to gentle heat and
motion. By this heat and motion, fay they, the tex¬
ture of the nourifhment is changed in the bodies of a-
nimals ; and then the conftituent folid parts are indu¬
ed with peculiar attradive powers of certain magni¬
tudes, by which they draw, out of the fluids moving
through them, like parts in certain quantities, and
thereby preferve their forms and juft magnitudes.
4 S And,
D I L ( 442 ) DIO
And, to mention no more, Boerhaave afcribes dige-
ftion to the joint aftion of feveral.of the abo^e-men-
tioned caufes, aided by the expanfion of the air con¬
tained in the aliments.
Want Digestion, a difeafe attended with pain, and
a fenfe of weight, with eruftations and copious flatulen¬
ces from corrupt humours in the flomach.
DIGESTIVE, in medicine, fuch remedies as {length¬
en and increafe the tone of the ttomach, and aflift in
the digeftion of foods. To this clafs belong all fto-
machics and ftrengtheners, or corroborants.
DIGIT, in alironomy, the twelfth part of the diameter
of the fun or moon, is ufed to exprefs the quantity
of an eclipfe. Thus an eclipfe is faid to be of fix di¬
gits* when fix of thefe parts are hid.
Digits, or Mon ad es, in arithmetic, fignify any inte¬
ger under 10; as r, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9.
Digit is alfo a meafure taken from the breadth of the
linger. It is properly of an inch, and contains the
meafttre of four barley-corns laid breadth-wife.
DIGITALIS, or Fox-glove, in botany, a genus of
the didynamia angiofpermia clafs. The calix is divi¬
ded into five fegments ; the corolla is bell-fnaped, ven-
tricofe, and has five divifions; and the capfule is oval,
and has two cells. There are fix fpecies, only one of
which, viz. the purpurea, or purple fox-glove, is a
native of Britain. The leaves are faid to be emetic
and vulnerary, but are little ufed.
DIGITATED, among botanills. See Vol. I. p. 640.
DIGITUS, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 181.
DIGLYPH, in architedlure, a kind of imperfefl tri¬
glyph, confole, or the like, with two channels or en¬
gravings, either circular or angular.
DIGNE, a city and bilhop’s fee of Provence in France,
fifty-five miles north of Toulon : E. long. 6° 5^, and
N. lat. 440 6'.
DIGNITARY, in the canon law, a perfon who holds a
dignity, that is, a benefice which gives him fome pre¬
eminence over mere prielts and canons. Such isabi-
fhop, dean, arch-deacon, prebendary, isc.
DIGNITY, as applied to the titles of noblemen, figni-
fies honour and authority.
DIJON, the capital of the province of Burgundy, in
France, fituated on the river Ouche, 140 miles fouth-
eaft of Paris: E. long. 50 5', and N. lat. 47° ij/.
DILATATION, in phyfics, a motion of the parts of
any body, by which it is fo expanded as to occupy a
greater fpace. This expanfive motion depends upon
the elaflic power olf the body, whence it appears that
dilatation is different from rarefaction, this laft being
producecj by the means of heat,. See Mechanics.
DILATATORES, in anatomy, a name given to feve-
ral mufcles in the human body. See Anatomy,
Part II.
DILEMMA, in logic, an argument confiding of tv/o or
more propofitions, which divides the whole into all its
parts, or members, by a disjunAive propofition, and
then infers fomething concerning each part, which is
finally referred - to concerning the whole. See Lo¬
gic.
DILIGENCE, ‘in Scots law, fignifies either that care
and attention which parties are bound to give, in im¬
plementing certain contraAs or trulls, and which varies
according to the nature of the contraA; as to which,
lee Scots Law, title 7. 20. and 28.: Or it fignifies
certain forms of law, whereby the creditor endea¬
vours to operate his payment, either by affeAing
the perfon or eflate of the debtor; fee tide 18.
DILL, in botany. See Anethum.
DILLEMBURG, a city of the circle of the Upper
Rhine in Germany, about forty miles north of Franc-
fort, and fubjeA to the houfe of Naffau : E. long. 8°
S', and N lat. 50° 45'.
DILLENGEN, a city of Swabia, in Germany, fitua¬
ted on the Danube, about twenty miles north-eart of
Ulm: E. long. io° 20', and N. lat. 48° 40'.
DILLENIA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria poly-
gynia clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves, #nd the
corolla of five petals; and the capfule contains many
feeds. There is but one fpecies, a native of Malabar.
DILUTE. To dilute a body is to render it liquid ; or,
if it were liquid before, to render it more fo, by the
addition of a thinner thereto. Thefe things thus
added, are called diluents, or dilutors.
DIMENSION, in geometry, is either length, breadth,
or thicknefs; hence, a line hath one dimenfion, viz.
length ; a fuperficies two, viz. length and breadth ;
and a body, or folid, has three, viz. length, breadth,
and thicknefs.
DIMINUTIVE, in grammar, a word formed from Ibme
other, to foften or diminiih the force of it, or to figni¬
fy a thing is little in its kind. Thus, cellule is a di¬
minutive of cell, globule of globe, hillock of hill.
DIMORPHOTHECA, in botany. See Calendula.
DINANT, a town of Germany in the biihopric of Liege,
fitu'ated on the river Maefe. about twelve miles fouth
of Namur: E. long. 40 50', and N. lat. 50° iSL
DINGWEL, or Dingwal, a parliament-town of
Scotland, fituated at the weffeodofthe Cromarty-bay,
in the county of Rofs: W long. 40 15', and N. lat.
57° j6'. It claffes with Domock, Wick, and Kirk¬
wall.
DINKELSPIEL, a city of Swabia, about forty miles
north of Ulm, E. long. io° tz', and N. lat. 490.
DIOCESE, denotes a particular diftriA^ or divifion,
under the direAion and government of a bifttop.
DIOCTAHEDRIA, in natural hiftory, a genus of pel¬
lucid and cryflalliform fpars, compofed of two oAan-
- gular pyramids, joined bafe to bale, without any in¬
termediate column. Of thefe fome have long py¬
ramids, others Ihort and Iharp-pointed ones, and o-
thers fhort and obtufe pointed ones ; the two former
fpecies being found in the hartz-forefl, and the laft in
the mints of Cornwall.
DIODIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria ntonogy-
nia clafs. The corolla confifts o^f one tunnel-ftiaped
petal; and ihe capfule has two cells, containing as
many feeds. There is but one fpecies, a native of
Virginia.
DIODON, in ichthyology, a genus belonging, to the or¬
der of amphibia nantes. The jaws are bony, ftretch-
ed out, and'undivided; the aperture or mouth is a
tranfverfe
DIP ( 443 ) DIR
tranfverfe line. The body is every way befet with
fliarp moveable prickles. It has no belly-fins. There
are two fpecies, viz. j. The atringa, which is fphe-
rical, and has triangular prickles. It is a native of
India. 2. The tryftrix, which is oblong, with cy¬
lindrical prickles, and is a native of the Cape of Good
Hope.
DIOMEDEA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to tire
order of anferes. The bill is ftrait; the fuperior
mandible is crooked at the point, and the lower one
is truncated; the noftrils are oval, open, a little pro¬
minent, and placed on the fides. There are two fpe¬
cies, viz. 1. The exulans, has pennated wings, and
three toes on each foot. It is the abbatros of Ed¬
wards, and is found in the ocean betwixt the tropics,
and at the Cape of Good Hope. It flies pretty high,
feeds upon flying filh, and is about the fize of a peli¬
can. 2. The demerfa, has no quill-feathers on the
wings; and the feet have four toes, connected toge¬
ther by a membrane. It is the black penguin of Ed¬
wards, about the fize of a goofe, and is found at the
Cape of Good Hope.
DIONYSIA, in Grecian antiquity, folemnities in ho¬
nour of Bacchus, fometimes called by the general
name of orgia; and by the Romans bacchanalia, and li-
beralia. See Bacchanalia.
DIOECIA, in the Liunaeanfyllem of botany. See Vol. I.
p. 635.
DIOMED1S avis, in ornithology. See Procel-
laria.
DIOPTRICS, the fcience of refractive vifion. See
Optics.
DIOSCOREA, in botany, a genus of the dioecia hexan-
dria clafs. The calix both of the male and female
confifts of fix fegments, and they have no corolla.
The female has three ftyli; the capfule is -comprefled,
has three cells, and contains two membranaceous feeds.
There are eight fpecies, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
DIOSMA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla has five petals ; and the nec-
tarium is fhaped like a crown, is divided into five feg¬
ments, and fituate above the germen ; it has five uni¬
ted capfules; and the feeds are furnilhed with calyp-
trae. There are nine fpecies, none of them natives of
Britain.
DIOSPYROS, in botany, a genus of the polygamia di¬
oecia clafs. The calix of the hermaphrodite has four
fegments, and the corolla is unceolaied, and has four
fegments ; it lias eight ftamina, and a quadrifid'ftylus ;
and the berry contains eight feeds. The calix,
of the male are the fame with the above. There are
two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
DIOTOTHECA, in botany. See Morina.
DIPHTHONG, in grammar, a double vowel, or the
mixture of two vowels pronounced together, fo as to
make one fyllable. See Grammar.
DIPHYES, among natural hiftorians, an appellation gi¬
ven to ftones refembling the male and female parts of
generation in mankind.
DIPLOE, in anatomy, the foft meditullium, or medul¬
lary fubftance, which lies between the two laminae of
the bones of the cranium. See Anatomy, Part I.
DIPLOMA, an inftrument or licence given by colleges,
focieties, die. to a clergyman to exercife the minilte-
rial function, or to a phyfician to pradtife the profef-
fion, <&c. after pafiing examination, or admitting him
to a degree.
Diploma, in chemiftry, &c. a double veflel. To boil
in diplomate, is to fet one veflel, containing the ingre¬
dients intended to be afted upon, in another larger
veffei fuil of water, and to this laft the fire is to ^be
applied.
DIPONDIUS, in the fcripture-Janguage, is ufed by St
Luke to fignify a certain coin, which was of very lit¬
tle value: our tranflation of the paffage is, 4re not
two fparrows fold for two farthings ? In St Mat¬
thew, who relates the fame thing, we read, Are not
two fparrows fold for a farthing ?
DIPPING, among miners, fignifies the interruption, or
breaking oflf, of the veins of ore ; an accident that
gives them a great deal of trouble before they can dif-
cover the ore again.
DIPSACUS, or Teasel, in botany, a genus of the
tetrandria monogynia clafs. The common calix con-
fifts of many leaves, and the proper one is above the
fruit; and the receptacle is paleaceous. There are
three fpecies, all natives of Britain, viz. the fullo-
num, or manured teafel; the fylveftris, or wild tea-
fel ; and the pilofus, or fmall wild teafel.
DIPSAS, in zoology. See Coluber.
DIPTOTES, in grammar, are fuck nouns as have only
two cafes, as fuppetix, fuppetias. See.
DIPTYCHS, in antiquity, a public regifler, in which
were written the names of the confuls and other magi-
ftrates among the heathens ; and among the Chriftians,
they were a fort of tablets, on one of which were
written the names of the deceafed, and on the other
thole of the living patriarchs, bifhops, or tliofe
who had done any fervice to the church, for whom
prayers were offered, the deacon reading the names at
mafs.
DIRECTION, in mechanics, fignifies the line or path
of a body’s motion, along which it endeavours to-
proceed, according to the force imprefled upon it. See
Mechanics-.
DIRECTOR, in commercial polity, a pbrfon who has
the management of the affairs of a trading company :
thus we fay,, the diretfors of the India-company.
South-fea-company, &c. See Company.
The directors are confideraWe proprietors in the
flocks of their refpe&ive companies, being chofen by
plurality of votes from among, the body of proprietors.
The Dutch Eaft-India company have fixty fuch di-
reiflors; that of France, twenty-one ; the Britiili,
Eafl-India company has tWenty-four, including the
chairman, who may he re eledted for four years fuc-
ceffively. Theft: laft have falaries of i-yol. a-year
each, and the chairman 200 J. They meet at leaft
once a week, and commonly ofteucr, king fummonedk
as occafion requires.
Director, in furgery, a grooved prebe, to direfl ibe
cd-e
D I S (444
edge of the knife or fciffars, in opening finufes, or fi-
ftulae, that by this means the adjacent veffels, nerves,
and tendons may remain unhurt. See Surgery.
DIRICENT, or Directrix, a term in geometry,
Jignifyingtheline of motion, along which the defcribent
line or furface is carried in the genefis of any plane or
folid figure.
D1S, an infeparable article prefixed to divers words, the
effeft whereof is either to give them a fignification con¬
trary to what the fimple words have, as difoblige,
difobey, 5cc. or to fignify a feparation, detachment,
&c. as difpofing, dijlributing.
DISC, in antiquity, a quoit made of (tone, iron, or
copper, five or fix fingers broad, and more than a
foot long, inclining to an oval figure, which they
hurled in form of a bowl, to a vaft dillance, by the
help of a leathern thong tied round the perfon’s hand
who threw it, and put through a hole in the middle.
Homer has made Ajax and Ulyffes great artilts at this
fport.
Disc, in'allronomy, the body and face of the fun and
moon, fuch as it appears to us on the earth; or the
body or face of the earth, fuch as it appears to a fpec-
tator in the moon.
Disc, in optics, is the width of the aperture of tele-
fcopic glafles, whatever their form be, whether plain,
convex, concave, <&c.
DISCERNING, or Discernment, among logicians,
a faculty of the mind, whereby it diftinguifhes be¬
tween ideas.
DISCIPLE, one who learns any thing from another :
thus, the followers of any teacher, philofopher, &c.
are called difciples. In the Chriftian fenfe, they were
followers of Jefus Chrift, in general; but in a more
reftrained fenfe, the difciples denote thofe alone who
were the immediate followers and attendants on his
perfon, of which there were feventy or feventy-two.
The names difciple and apojile are often fynonymoufly
ufed in the gofpel-hiftory; but fometimes the apoftles
are diftinguilhed from difciples, as perfons felefted out
of the number of difciples, to be the principal minifters
of his religion; of thefe there were only twelve. The
Latins kept the feftival of the feventy or feventy-two
difciples on July 15th, and the Greeks on January 4th.
DISCIPLINE, in a general fenfe, denotes inftruftion
and government; as military difcipline, ecclefiaftical
difcipline, &c.
DISCLAMATION, in Scots law, is that cafualty
whereby a valfal forfeited his feu to his fuperior, by
difowning or declaiming him as fuch without fuffi-
cient reafon. See Scots Law, title 12.
DISCORD, in mufic, the relation of two founds which
are always and of themfelves difagreeable, whether
applied in fucceflion or conumance.
DISCOUNT, in commerce, a term among traders, mer¬
chants, and bankers It is ufed by the two former on
occafion of their buying commodities on the ufual time
of credit, with a condition that the feller fhall allow
the buyer a certain difcount at the rate of fo much per
xent. per annum, for the time for which the credit is
)
D I S
generally given, upon condition that the buyer pays
ready money for fuch commodities, inftead of taking
the time of credit.
DISCRETE, or Disjunct Proportion, is when
the ratio of two or more pairs of numbers or quanti-'
ties is the fame, but there is not the fame proportion,
between all,the four numbers. Thus if the numbers
3 : 6 : : 8 : 16 be confidered, the ratio between 3 : 6, is
the fame as that between 8 : 16, and therefore the num¬
bers are proportional; but it is only difcretely or dif
junftly, for 3 is not to 6 as 6 to 8 ; that is, the pro
portion is broken off between 8 and 3, and is not con
tinned as in the following continual proportionals
3:6: : 12 ? 24.
DISCUS, in antiquity. See Disc.
DISCUSSION, in matters of literature, fignifies the
clear treating or handling of any particular point, or
problem, fo as to lhake off the difficulties with which
it is embarafled : thus we fay, fuch appoint was well
difcuffed, when it was well treated of and cleared up.
DISCUTIENTS, in medicine, are fuch remedies, as,
by their fubtilty, diffolve a ftagnating or coagulated
fluid, and /liffipate the fame without an external folu-
tion of continuity.
DISDIAPASON, or Bisdiapason, in mufic, a com¬
pound concord, defcribed by F. Parran, in the qua¬
druple ratio of 4 : 1, or 8 : 2.
Disdiapason-diapente, a concord in a fextuple ratio
of 1:6.
Disdiapason-semi-diapente, a compound concord
in the proportion of 16:3.
Disdiapason-oitoiJe, a compound confonance in the
proportion of 10:2.
Disdiapason-semi-ditone, a compound concord in
the proportion of 24:5.
DISEASE, in medicine, that Rate of a living body,
wherein it is deprived of the exercife of any of its
functions, whether vital, natural, or animal. See
Medicine.
DISFRANCHISING, among civilians, fignifies the de¬
priving a perfon of the rights and privileges of a free
citizen or fubjedh
DISJUNCTIVE, fomething that feparates or disjoins.
Thus, or, neither, <&c. which in 'conne<Aing a dif-
courfe yet feparates the parts of it, are called disjunc¬
tive conjunctions.
DISLOCATION, in furgery. See Luxation.
DISMA, atown of Japan, feparated from Nanquefacque,
only by a narrow canal. The Dutch have a very fine
magazine there.
DISPENSARY, or Dispensatory, denotes k book
containing the method of preparing the various kinds
of medicines ufed in pharmacy. Such are thofe of
Bauderon, Quercetan, Zwelfer, Charas, Bates, Me-
fue, Sklmon, Lemery, Quincy, <kc. but the lateft
and moll efteemed ate the Edinburgh and London Dif-
penfatories.
Dispensary, or Dispensatory, is likewife a maga¬
zine or office for felling medicines at prime ccft to the
poor.
DIS-
D I S ' ( 445 ) D I S
DISPENSATION, in law, the granting a licenfe of do¬
ing fome. certain aftion that otherwife is not permitted.
DISPLAYED, in heraldry, is underftood of the politi-
on of an eagle, or any other bird, when it is ere<5t,
with its wings expanded or fpread forth. See Plate
LXVIII. fig. 8.
DISPONDEE,, in the Greek and Latin poetry, a dou¬
ble fpondee or foot, confiding of four long fyllables,
as maecenates concludentes.
DISPOSITION, in Scots law, is that deed or writing
which contains the fale of grant of any fubjed: when
applied to heritable fubjeds, it in fome cafes gets the
name of charter, which differs from a difpofition in
nothing elfe than a few immaterial forms. See Char¬
ter.
Disposition, in rhetoric, the placing words in fuch an
order as contributes mod to the beauty and fometimes
even to the drength of a difcourfe.
DISQUISITION, ft ferious and exa<3: examination into
the circumdances'of any affair, in order to difcourfe
clearly about it.
DISS, a market-town of Norfolk, on the river Waven-
cy, fixteen miles.fouth of Norwich.
DISSECTION, in anatomy, the cutting up a body,
with a view of examining the drmdure and ufe of the
parts. See Anatomy.
DISSEISIN, in law, an unlawful difpodefling a perfon
of his lands or tenements.
DISSENTERS, feparatids from the fervice and worfhip
of any edablifhed church.
DISSIPATION, in phyfics, an inf^nfible lofs or con-
fumption of the minute parts of the body; or, that
, dux whereby they fly off, and are lod.
* Circle of Dissipation, in optics, is ufed for that cir¬
cular fpace upon the retina, which is taken up by one
of the extreme pencils or rays iffuing from an objedt.
jSee Optics.
DISSOLVENT, in general, whatever diffolves or re¬
duces a folid body into fuch minute parts as to be fuf-
tained in a flflid. See Chemistry.
DISSONANCE, in mufic. See Discord.
DISSYLLABLE, among grammarians, a word confiding
only of two.fyllables : fuch are nature, fcience, &c.
DISTAFF, an indrument about which flax is tied in or¬
der to be fpun,
DISTANCE, in general, an interval between two things,
either with regard to time or place.
Accefible Distances, in geometry, are fuch as may be
meafured by the chain, <bc. See Geometry.
Distances, are fuch as cannot be meafured
by the chain, by reafon of fome river, or the like,
which obdrudts our pafling from one objedt to another.
See Geometry.
DISTASTE properly fignifies an averfion or diflike to
certain foods ; and may be either conditutional, or ow
ing to fome diforder of the domach.
DISTEMPER, among phyficians, the fame with dif-
eafe. See Disease,
Distemper, in painting, a term ufed for the working
up of colours with fomething befides water or oil. If
the colours are prepared with water, that kind of paint-
Vol. II. No. 44. * 3
ing is called limning; and if with oil, it is called paint¬
ing in oil, and (imply painting. If the colours are
% mixed with fize, whiles of eggs, or any fuch proper
glutinous or undluous matter, and not with oil, then
they fay it is done in didemper.
DISTENSION, in general, lignifies the dretching or
extending a thing to its full length or breadth.
DISTICH, a couplet of verfes nuking a complete fenfe.
Thus hexameter and pentameter verles arc difpofed in
didichs.
DISTICHIASI3, in furgery, a difeafe of the eye-lids,
when under the ordinary eye-lafhes there grows ano¬
ther extraordinary row of hair, which frequently era¬
dicates the former, and pricking the membrane of the
eye, excites pain, and brings on a defluxion.
DISTILLATION, in chemidry, the aft of drawing off
the fpiritous,' aqueous, oleaginous, or faline parts of
a mixed body frcm the groiTer and more terredrial
parts by means of fire, and collefting and condenfing
them again by cold. The end of difhllation is of two
kinds: the fird, and by far the mod general, is for the
reparation of fome acquired bodies from others with,
which they were mixed, as in the cafe of vinous and
volatile (pints, and edential oils : the other is for the
quicker and more effeftual combination of fuch bodies,
whofe mixtuYe is affided by a boiling heat, as in the
cafe of fpir. nitr. dulc. See Chemistry.
Tie method of difilling malt-nua/h, or a fermented mix¬
ture of meal and mall, for fpir it. Fill two thirds of a
dill, fird moidened bjr the deam of boiling water, with
malt-wadi; immediately clap on the head, and lute it
down; there will foon run a fpirituous inflammable li-
* quor. Thus is obtained what the malt-difliliers call
a malt low-wine ; ivhat comes over after the fpirit falls
off from being proof, is called faints. This experi¬
ment may be rendered general, with flight variation ;
for if any wine, beer, or fermented liquor from fugar,
treacle, or fruits, fac. be thus treated, it affords a
fpirit differing only according to the nature of the fub-
jeft; but none of them will afford the lead inflamma¬
ble fpirit without a previous fermentation. The requi-
fite cautions for fuccefs are, 1. That the fermentation
be well performed. 2. That it be gently diflilled, with
a foft well regulated fire. 3. That the grofler oil, apt
to rife along with the fpirit, be let out by flannel un¬
der the nofe of the worm. Thefe cautions obferved,
the low-wines will be pure and vinous.
The method of dfilling the lower wines into proof fpi¬
rit s fo'r fale. The lower wines of the lafl procefs,
diddled in a bath-heat, give a higher reftified fpirit
than before, which being let down with fair water to a
certain fize or dandard, called proof, is what the malt-
didillers underdand by proof-goods, or their reftified
malt-fpirit.
The inconvenicncies of this art, on account of the
many large veffels required, which increafe the labour
and price of the commodity, might perhaps be reme¬
died by the intrbduftion of a new art, fubfervient to
the malt-didillers, and confined to the boiling down
the malt-wort to a rob ; wherefore it were to be wifh-
ed, that thofe who were failed in this branch of diifil-
4 T latio6
D I V ( 446
lation would try whether a fpirit fuperior to that of
treacle may not be procured from the rob of malt,
prudently prepared and fermented. See Chemis¬
try.
Distinct base, in optics, is that diftance from the
pole of a convex glafs, in which objects beheld through it
appear diftinft and well defcribed ; fo that it is the fame
with the focus. See Optics.
DISTINCTION, in logic, is an affemblage of two or
more words, whereby difparate things, or their con¬
ceptions, are denoted.
DISTORTION, in jnedicine, a contradion of one fide
of the mouth, occafioned by a convulfion of the muf-
cles of one fide of the face: and it is likewife ufed to
denote any part of an animal body when it is ill pla¬
ced or ill favoured.
DISTRESS, in Scots law. When a perfop makes pay¬
ment of a debt not voluntarily, but in obedience to le¬
gal diligence, he is faid to have paid in diftrefs.
Distribution, in printing, the taking a form afun-
der, feparating the letters, and difpofing them in the
cafes again, each in its proper box. See Printing.
DISTRICT, in geography, a part of a province, dif-
tinguilhed by peculiar magiftrates, or certain privileges, •
in which fenfe it is fynonymous with hundred. See
Hundred.
DISTRINGAS, in law, a writ commanding the IherifF,
or other officer, that he diftrain a perfon for debt to
the king, 'be. or for his appearance at a certain 4ay.
Distringas juratores, a writ dire&ed to the ffie-
riff, whereby he is commanded to diffrain upon a j ury
to appear, and to return iffues on their lands, be. for
non-appearance. This writ of diftringas juratores if¬
fues for the ffieriff to have their bodies in court, be.
at the return of the writ.
DITHYR AMBUS, in ancient poetry, a hymn in ho¬
nour of Bacchus, full of tranfport and poetical rage.
DITONE, in mufic, an interval comprehending two
tones. The proportion of the founds that form the
ditone is 4: 5, and that of the femiditone is 5 : 6.
DITRIHEDRIA, in mineralogy, a genus of fpars with
twice three fides, or fix planes, being formed of two
trigonal pyramids joined bafe to bafe, without any in¬
termediate column. See Spar.
The fpecies of ditrihedria are diltinguiflred by the
different figures of thefe pyramids.
DITTANY, in botany. See Dictamnus.
DITTO, ufually written D°, in books of accounts, an
Italian word, fignifying the aforementioned.
DIVAL, in heraldry, the herb nightftiade, ufed by fuch
as blazon by flowers and herbs, inftead of colours and
metals, for fable, or black.
DIVALLIA. See Angeronalia.
DIU, a little ifland and town on the coaft of Guzurat, in
the hither India, and fubjeeft to Portugal: E. long. 69°,
N.lat. 210 I5'.
Diu is alfo a town ef Bulgaria, upon the Danube.
DIVAN,'a council-chamber, or court of jullice, among
the eaftern nations, particularly the Turks.
Divan-beghi, the fuperintendant of juftice in Perfia,
) D I V
whole place is the laft of the fix minifters of the fe~
cond tank, who are all under the athemadauler, orfirfl
minifter. To this tribunal of the divan-beghi he ap¬
peals from fentences paffed by the governors : he has a •
fixed ftipend of 50,000 crowns for adminiftring juftice:
all the ferjeants, urhers, be. of the court, are in his
fervice: he takes cognizance of the criminal caufes of
the chams', governors, and other great lords of Perfia,
when accufed of any fault. There are divan-beghis
not only at court and in the capital, but alfo in the pro¬
vinces and other cities of the empire. The alcoran
is the foie rule of his adminiftration of juftice, which
alfo he interprets at pleafure. He takes no cognizance
of civil caufes, but all differences arifing between the
officers of the king’s houfhold, and between foreign mi-
nifters, are determined by him.
DIVANDUROW, the name of feven iflands which lie
a league north of the Maldives, and twenty-four from
the coaft of Malabar, almoft oppofite to Cananor.
DIVER, in ornithology. See Colymbus.
DIVERGENT, or Diverging lines, in geometry,
are thofe which conftantly recede from each other.
Divergent rays, in optics, are thofe which going
from a point of the vifible objedt, are difperfed, and
continually depart one from another, in proportion as
they are removed from the objedt: in which fenfe it is
oppofed to convergent. See Optics.
DIVERSION, in military affairs, is, when an enemy is
attacked in one place where they are weak and unpro¬
vided, in order to draw off their forces from another
place where they have made or intend to make an it-
suption. Thus the Romans had no other way in their
power of driving Hanibal out of Italy, but by making
a diverfion in attacking Carthage.
DIVESTING, or Divestiture, in law, is ufed for
the adt of furrendering one’s effedts.
DIVIDEND, in arithmetic, the number propofed to be
divided into equal parts. See Arithmetic.
Dividend of flocks, is a fhare or proportion uf the in-
tereft of ftocks eredted on public funds, as the fouth-
fea, be. divided among and paid to the adventure:s
half yearly.
DIVINATION, the knowledge of thingsubfeure, or fu¬
ture, which cannot be attained by any natural means.
It was a received.opinion among the heathens, that
the gods were wont to converfe familiarly with fome
men, whom they .endowed with extraordinary powers,
and admitted to the knowledge of their councils and
defigns. Plato, Ariftotle, Plutarch, Cicero: and others,
dwide divination into two foils or fpecies, viz. natu¬
ral and artificial. The former was fo called, becaufe
not attained by any rules or precepts of art, but rrfnfed
or infpired into the diviner, without his taking any fur¬
ther care about it, than to purify and prepare himfelf
for the reception of the divine afflatus. Of this kind
were all thofe who delivered' orttclcs, and foretold fu¬
ture events by infptration, without obferving externals
figns or accidents. The fecondfpeciesof divination was
called artificial, becaufe it was not obtained by imme¬
diate infpiration, but was the effeft of experience and
obffrvation.
DOC. . ( 447 ) DOG
obfervation. Such was fouthfaying, as depending up¬
on human art and invention, which however was fup-
pofed not to be altogether deftitute of divine direction
and concurrence, and fuch was divination by lots. Of
this fort there were various kinds, as by facrifices, en¬
trails, flame, cakes, flour, wine, water, augury, birds,
lots, verfes, omens, <bc.
DIVINE, fomething relating to God.
DIVING, the art of defcending under water, to confide-
rable depths, and abidiq,g there a competent time; the
ufes of which are confiderable, particularly in filhing for
pearls, corals, fponges, wrecks of Ihips, <bc. See
Pneumatics.
DIVINITY, properly fignifies the nature, quality, and
eflence of God.
Divinity is alfo ufed in the fame fenfe with theo-
logy.
DIVISIBILITY, that property by which the particles
of matter in all bodies are capable of feparatien or
difunion from each other. See Mechanics.
DIVISION, in general, is the feparating a thing into
two or more parts.
Division, in arithmetic. SeeVol. I.p. 376.
Division, in algebra. SeeVol.I. p. 82.
DIVISOR, in arithmetic. See Vol. I. p. 376.
DIUL, a port-town of Afia, fituated on the Indian o-
cean, weft ward of the river Indus, and fixty miles
weft of the city of Tana: E. long. 67°, and N. lat.
25° ij'-
DIVORCE, is the legal diflblution of a marriage which
can be obtained at the fuit of the injured party, upon
the grounds of adultery or wilful defertion proved a-
gainft the other. See Scots Law, title 6.
DIURESIS, in medicine, an excretion of urine:
whence,
DIURETICS, in pharmacy, fuch fimples as increafe
the difcharge of urine.; or which are fuppofed to have
a power of removing obftruftions in the urinary paffages.
DIURNAL, in aftronomy, fomething relating to the
day; in oppofition to nodurnal, which regards the
night.
DIZIER, orSt Dizier, a city of Champaign in France,
lituated on the river Marne, about forty-five miles
north-eaft of Troyes: E. long. 50, and N. lat. 48°
32'. ■
DIZOSTOS, in botany. See Euphorbia.
DIZZINESS, in medicine. See Vertigo.
DO, in mufic, a note of the Italian fcale, correfponding
to ut of the common gamut. See Music.
DOB-CHICK, in ornithology. _See Colymbus ,
DOBLAC, a town of the Tyrolefe, in Germany, fitua¬
ted at the foot of the Alps, about two miles north of
the frontiers of the ftate of Venice.
DOCIM ASIA, in Greek antiquity, a probation of the
magift.ates and perfons employed in public bufinefs at
Athens. It was performed publicly, in the foriim.
where they were obliged to give account of themfelves
and their paft life before certain, judges. Amotg fe-
veral queftions propofed to them, we find the follow¬
ing, whether they had been dutiful to their parents,
had ferved in the wars, and had a competent eftate.
DOCK, in botany. See Lapathum.
Dock, in maritime affairs, is a pit, great pond, or
creek, by the fide of an harbour, made convenient ei¬
ther for the building or repairing of Ihips.
Dock-yards, in fiiip-building, are magazines of all
forts of naval {lores. The principal ones in England
are thofe of Chatham, Portfmouth, Plymouth, Wool¬
wich, Deptford, and Sheernefs. In time of peace,
fhips of war are laid up in thefe docks ; thofe of the
firft-rates molfly at Chatham, where, and at other
yards, they receive from time to time fuch repairs as
are neceflary- Thefe yards are generally fupplied
from the northern crowns with hemp, pitch, tar, r6-
fin, isc. but as for mafts, particularly thofe of the
larger fize, they are brought from New England.
DOCTOR, a perfon who has paffed all the degrees of
a faculty, and is impowered to teach or praftife the
fame : thus we fay, dodtor in divinity, dodtor in phy-
fic, doctor of laws.
The title of dodtor feems to have been created in
the Xllth century, inftead of viajier, and eftciblifhed
with the other fcholaftic degrees of batchelors and li¬
centiates, by Peter Lombard and Gilbert Porreus,
then the chief divines of the univerfity of Paris. Gra-
tian did the fame thing, at the fame time, in the uni¬
verfity of Bologna.
Doctor of the law, a title of honour among the Jews.
The inveftiture, if we may fo fay, 'of this order was
performed by putting a key and table book in their
hands, which is what fome authors imagine our Savi¬
our had in view, Luke xi. 52. when fpeaking of the
dodfors of the law, he' fays, “ Wo unto you, - dodfors
of the law,, for you have taken away the key of know¬
ledge : you entered not in yourfelves, and them that
were entering you hindered.”
Doctors-commons. See College of cihilidrij.
DOCUMENT, in law, fome written monument produ¬
ced in proof of any thing afferted.
DODARTIA, in botany, a genus of the didynarriia an-
giofpermia clafs. The calix has five teeth ; the in¬
ferior labium is much lefs than the fuperior; and the
capfule is roundifh, and has two ceils; There ate
two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
DODDER, in botany. See Cuscuta.
DODECAGON, in geometry, a regular polygon oon-
fifting of twelve equal fides and angles
DODECAHEDRON, in geometry, oneof the platonic:
bodies, or regular fol'ds, contained under twelve e-
qual and regular pentagons.
DODECANDRIA, in the Linnasan fyftem of botany.
See Vpl. I. p. 635:.
DODO, in ornithology. SceDious.
DODONiEA, in botany. See Ptelea.
DODRANS, in antiquity, three fourths of the as.
See As.
DOESBURG, a town of the United Netherlands, in
the province of Guelderland, fituated on the river Yf-
lel, about nine miles foutll of Zutphen : E. long. 6°,.
and N. lat. 52°.
DOG, in zoology. See Can is.
Dog’s bane, in botany. See Apocynum.
Dog,
D O L ( 44S ) . DOM
3Doo-days. See Canicular.
Dog’s fennel, in botany. See Cotula.
Dog’s mercury, in botany. See Mercurialis.
Dog’s rose. See Rosa.
Dog’s stones, in botany. See Orchis.
Dog’s tail, in botany. See Cynosurus.
Dog’s tongue, in botany. See Cynoglossum.
Dog’s tooth, in botany. See Erythronium.
DOGE, the chief magiflrate in the republics of Venice
and Genoa.
This dignity is ele&jve in,both places; at Venice it
continues for life; at Genoa, it is qnlyfor two years.
His title is Serenity : he is chief of the council, and
. mouth of the republic, he being to anfwer for her.
The Venetians do not go into mourning at his death,
being only the phantom of majefty, as all the au¬
thority is veiled in the republic; the doge only lends
his name to-the fenate ; the power is diffufed through
the whole body; though anfwers to foreign ambaffadors,
are made in the name of the doge. The money
is (Iruck in his name, but does not bear his arms.
All the magiflrates rife and falute him when he comes
ipto the council: but he rifes to none but foreign am-
balfadors. He mull not llir out of Venice, without
leave of the counfellors, <&c.
DOGGERS, a name, ufed for fifhlng veffels; whence,
in ibme of our old ftatutes, ye meet with dogger-men,
denoting the fifhermen of thofe veflels.
DOGMA, a principle, maxim, tenet, or fettled opinion,
particularly with regard to matters of faith and philo-
fophy.
DOGMATICAL, fomething belonging to a do&rine or
opinion. A dogmatical philofopher is one who aflerts
things pofitively; in oppolition to a fceptic, who
doubts of every thing.
DOGMATISTS, a fed of ancient phyficians, of which
Hippocrates was the firftauthor. They are alfo called
logici, logicians, from their ufmg the rules of logic in
fubjedts of their profeffion. They laid down definitions
anddivifions reducing difeafes to certain genera, and thofe
genera to fpecies, and furnifhing remedies for them all;
luppofing principles, drawing conclufions, and apply¬
ing thofe principles and conclufions to particular dif¬
eafes under confideration: in which, fenfe the dogma-
tifls-ftand contradillinguifhed from empirics and metho-
dills. They rejedt all medicinal virtues that they
think not reducible to manife'ft qualities : but Galen
hath long aga obferved of fuch men, that they mull
either deny plain matter of fadt, or affign but very
poor reafons and caufes of many effedls they pretend
to explain.
DOLE, in our ancient cufl'oms, fignified a part or por¬
tion, mod commonly of a meadow, where feveral
perfons have fhares. It alfo dill dignifies a didribu-
tion or dealing of alms, or a liberal gift made by a
great mart to the people.
Dole, in Scots law, fignifies a malevolent intention. It
is elfential in all crimes that it be committed intention¬
ally, or by an adt of the will; hence the rule, Crimen
rjdelo cojitrai:itur. See Scots Law, title 33.
DOLICHOS, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia de-
candria .clafs of plants, the corolla of which is papilio¬
naceous ; the vexillum is roundifh, large, emargina-
ted, and wholly refledted ; the fruit is a large, acu-
minstfed, oblong pod, compofed of two valves, and
containing two cells; the feeds are numerous, ellipti¬
cal, and frequently comprefled. There are twenty-five
fpecies, none of them na'ives of Britain.,
DOLLAR, a filver coin current in feveral parts of Ger¬
many and Holland. There are various fpecies of dol¬
lars, as the rix-dollar, the femi-dollar, the quarter-
dollar, '&c.
DOLPHIN, in ichthyology. See Delphinus.
DOM, or Don, a title of honour, invented and chiefly
ufed by the Spaniards, fignifying, fir, or lord.
This title, it feems, was firfl: given to Pelayo, in the
beginning of the VUIth century. In Portugal no per-
fon can aflume the title of don, without the permiflion
of the king, fince it is looked upon as a mark of ho¬
nour and nobility.
DOMAIN, the inheritance, eftate, or pofiefiion of any
one. See Demesne.
DOME, in architedlure, a fpherical roof,' or a roof of
a fpherical form, raifed over the middle of a building,
as a church, hall, pavillion, vellible, ftair-cafe, &c.
by way of crowning.
Dome, or Doom, fignifies alfo a fentence, judgment,
or decree.
DOMESDAY, or Doomsday-book, a very ancient
record made in the time of William the Conqueror,
which now remains in the 'exchequer, and conliils of
two volumes, a greater and a lefs; the greater con¬
tains a furvey of all the lands in moll of the counties
in England, and the lefs comprehends fome counties
that were then furveyed. The book of domefday was
begun by five juftices, afligned for that purpofe in each
county, in the year 1081, and finifhed in 1086. It
was of that authority, that the conqueror himfelf fub-
mitted, in fome cafes wherein he was concerned, to
be determined by it. Camden calls this book the tax-
book of king William; and it was farther called Mag¬
na rolla.
There is likewife a third book of Domefday, made
by command of the conqueror; and alfo a fourth, be¬
ing an abridgment of the other books.-
DOMESTIC, any man who a<fts under another, fer-
ving to compofe his family ; in which he lives, or is
fuppofed to live, as a chaplain, fecretary, <fyc. Some¬
times domeftic is applied to the wife and children, but
very feldom to fervants, fuch as footmen, lacquies,
porters, i&r.
DOMICILE, in Scots law, is the dwelling place where
a perfon lives with an intention to remain. See Scots
Law, .title 2.
DOMIFYING, in aftrology, the dividing or dillribu-
ting the heavens into twelve houfes, in order to ereft
a theme, or horofcope, by means of fix great circles,
called circles of pofition.
There are various ways of domifying: that of regio-
montanus, which is the moll common, makes the
circles
DON ( 449 ) DOR
circles of politico pafs through the interfedlions of the
meridian and the horizon: others make them pafs
through the poles of the zodiac.
DOMINATION, in theology, the fourth order of an¬
gels, or blefled fpirits, in the hierarchy, reckoning
from the feraphim.
DOMINGO, or St Domingo, the capital of the illand
of Hifpaniola, the fee of an archbilhop,'and the mod
ancient royal audience in America: W. long. 70°,
N. lat. 180 20'.
DOMINICA, one of the Caribbee-illands, fubjedt to
Britain : W. long. 6i° 20', N. lat. 160.
DOMINICAL letter. See Astronomy, p.495:.
DOMINICANS, an order of religious, called in France
Jacobins, and in England Black-friers, or preaching-
friers This order founded by St Dominic, a native
of Spain, was approved of by Innocent III. in 1215, and
confirmed by a bull of Honorius III. in 1216. The
defign of their inftitution was to preach the gofpel,
convert heretics, defend the faith, and propagate
Chriftianity. They embraced the rule of St Augultine,
to which they added ilatutes and conllitutions, which
had formerly been obferved either by the Carthulian or
Prsemonllratenfes. The principal articles enjoined
perpetual filence, abflinence from flelh at all times,
wearing of woollen, ligorous poverty, and feveral o-
ther aufterities. This order has fpread into all the
parts of the world. It has produced a great number
of martyrs, confeflbrs, bifhops ; and they reckon three
popes, fixty cardinals, 150 archbilhops, and 800 bi-
Ihops of their order, befides the mailers of the facred
palace, who have always been Dominicans. They are
inquifitors in many places.
DOMINION, in the civil law, fignifies the power to
ufe or.difpofe of a thing as we pleafe.
DOMINIUM eminent, in Scots law, that power which
•“the Hate or fovereign has over private property, by
which the proprietor may be compelled to fell it for
an adequate price where public utility requires. See
Scots Law, title 8.
DOMINIUM direftum, in Scots law, the right which a
fuperior retains in the lands, notwithftanding the feu¬
dal grant to his vaflal, See Scots Law, title 12.
DOMINIUM utile, in Scots law, the right which the_
vaflal acquires in the lands by the feudal grant from
his fuperior. See Scots Law, title 13.
DON, the name of two rivers ; one very large, which,
after dividing Alia from Europe, falls into th? Pal us
Meotis; the other in the county of Aberdeen in Scot¬
land.
DONATION, in Scots law, fignifies a voluntary gift.
Donation betwixt hulband and wife; fee Scots Law,
title 6.—When revocable ; Not prefumed in du-
bio ;—Donations mortis caufa: See title 22.
DONATISTS, Chriftian fchifmatics in Africa, who
took their name from their leader Donatus. A fecret
hatred againft Caecilian, eleded'bilhop of Carthage a-
bout the year 311, excited Donatus to form this fedl.
He accufed Caecilian of having delivered up the facred
books to the Pagans, and pretended that his eleftion
Vox, II. No. 44. 3
was void, and all his adherents heretics. He taught
that baptifm adminidered by heretics was null, that
every church but the African was become prollituted,
and that he was to be the reftorer of religion. Some
accufe the Donatills of Arianifm. Conflantius and
Honorius made laws for their banilhment, and Theo-
doiius and Honorius condemned them to grievous
mulcts.
DONATIVE, a gratuity, or prefent made to any per-
fon.
Donative among the Romans was properly a gift
made to the foldiers, as congiarium was that made to
the people.
DONATORY, in Scots law, that perfon to whom the
king bellows his right to any forfeiture that has fallen
to th crown.
DONAWERT, a city of Bavaria in Germany, forty
miles north-well of Ulm: E. long. io° 40', N. lat.
48° 40'.
DONAX, a genus of infefts belonging to the order of
vermes tellacea. It is an animal of the oyller kind ;
and the fliell has twa valves, with a very obtufe mar¬
gin in the fore-part. There are ten fpecies, princi¬
pally dillinguifhed by the figure of their Ihells.
DONCASTER a market-town of Yorklhire, thirty
miles fouth of York. See York.
DONOR, in law, the perfon who gives lands or tene¬
ments to another in tail, 'be, as he to whom fuch lands,
be. are given is the donee. m
DONZY, a town of France in the Orleannois: E. long.
30 16', N. lat. 47° 17'.
DOOR, in architecture. See Architecture, p. 336.
DORCHESTER, the capital of Dorfetflrire, fituatedon
the river Froom, fix miles north of Weymouth W-
long. 2° 3s'* and N. lat 50° 40'. It gives the title
of marquis to the noble family of Pierpoint, dukes of
Kingfton, and fends two members to parliament.
DORDONNE, a river of France, which runs through
the province of Guienne, and falls into the Garonne,
twelve miles below Bourdeaux.
DOREE, or John Doree, in ichthyology. See
Zeus.
DORIA, in botany. See Sol 1 dago.
DORIC, in general, any thing belonging to the Dori¬
ans, an ancient people of Greece, inhabiting near
mount Parnaflus.
Doric order in architecture. See Vol. I. p. 351.
Doric dialect, one of the five dialeCts, or manners of
fpeaking which were principally in ufe among the
Greeks.
It was firll ufed by the Lacedemonians, particularly
thofe of Argos ; afterwards it palled into Epirus, Ly-
bia, Sicily, and the iflands of Rhodes, Crete,
be.
Doric mode, in mufic, the firll of the authentic modes
of the ancients; its character is to be fevere, temper¬
ed with gravity and joy; and is proper Upon religious
occafions, as alfo to be ufed in war. It begins D, la,
fol, re. Plato admires the mufic of the doric mode,
and judges it proper to preferve good manners, as be-
4 u ing
DOS ( 450
ing mafculihe; and on this account allows it in his
commonwealth. The ancients had likewife their fub-
doric or hypodoric mode, which was one of the plagal
modes. Its character was to be very grave and fo-
lemn : it began with re, a fourth lower than thedoric.
DORMANT, in heraldry, is ufed for the pofture of
a lion, or any other beaft, lying along,in a fleeping-at¬
titude, with the head on the fore-paws; by which it
is diftinguifhed from the couchant, where though the
beaft be lying, yet he holds up his head.
DORMER, in architefture, fignifies a window made in
the roof of an houfe, or above the entablature, being
raifed upon the rafters.
DORMITORY, a gallery in convents or religious houfes,
divided into feveral cells, in which the religious deep
or lodge.
DORONICIS affinis, in botany. See Gerbera.
DORONICUM, leopard’s bane, in botany, a ge¬
nus of the fyrigenefia polygamia fuperflua clafs, The
receptacle is naked; the pappus is Ample ; the fcales of
the calix are equal, and longer than the difc ; and the
feeds in the radius are naked, and have no pappus.
There are three fpeoies, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
DORPT, or Dorpat, a city of Livonia, about fifty
miles fouth of Narva: E. long. 270 25', and N. lat.
58°. ’
DORSAL, an appellation given to whatever belongs to
the back. SeeDoasu#!.
Dorsal muscles. See Anat, Part. II.
DORSIFEROUS plants, among botanifts, fuch as
are of the capillary kind, without ftalks, and which
bear their feeds on the back-fide of their leaves.
DORSTENIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria
monogynia clafs. The common receptacle confifts of
one flelhy leaf, in which the folitary feeds are contain¬
ed. There are four fpecies, none of them natives of
Britain.
DORSUM, back, in anatomy, comprehends all the
pofterior part of the trunk of the body, from the neck
to the buttocks. See Anatomy.
DORT, a city of the United Provinces, fituated in that
of Holland, on an ifland in the river Maefe, about ten
miles eaft of Rotterdam: E. long. 40 40', 5ndN. lat.
5i° 47,•
DORTMONT, a city of Weftphalia in Germany, a-
bout thirty miles north-ead of Dufleldorp : E. long 6°
50', an4 N.' lat. 510 25'. It is an imperial city, and
conftitutes a fovereign (late.
DORTMANNA, in botany. See Lobelia.
DORYCNIUM, in botany. See Convolvulus.
DORYPHORl, in antiquity, an appellation given to
the life-guard men of the Roman emperors.
DOSITHEANS, in church-hiftory, a fe<ft among the
Hebrews, being one of the branches of the Samari¬
tans. See Samaritans.
They abftained from eating any creature that had
life, and were fo fuperftitious in keeping the fabbath,
that they remained in the fame place and pofture wherein
that day furprifed them, without ftirring till the next
day. They married but once, and a great number ne
) D O V
ver married. Dofitheus, their founder, being diflatif-
fied among the Jews, retired to the Samaritans,
who were reputed heretics, and invented another fed;
and to make it more authentic, lie went into a cave,
where, by too long abftinence, he killed himfelf. The
name of Dofitheans vyas alfo given to fome of the dif-
ciples of Simon Magus.
DOTTEREL, in ornithology. See Charadrius.
DOUAY, a fortified city of the French Netherlands, fi¬
tuated on the river Scrape, about fifteen miles fouth of
Lille : E. Ion. 30, andN. lat. 50° it,'.
DOUBLE fichy, or fiche', in heraldry, the denomi¬
nation of a crofs, when the extremity has two points,
in contra<Jiftindion to fiche, where the extremity is
fharpened away to one point. See Plate LXVIII.
fig. 8.
DOUBLETS, a game on dice within tables : the men,
which are only fifteen, being placed thus; upon the
lice, cinque, and quater points, there ftand three men
a-piece ; and upon the trey, duce, and ace, only two.
He that throws higheft hath the benefit of throwing
firft, and what he throws he lays down, and fo doth
the other: what the one throws, and hath’ not, the o-
ther lays down for him, but on his own account; and
thus they do till all the men are down, and then they
-bear. He that is down firft bears firft, and willdoubt-
iefs win the game, if the other throws not doublets to
overtake him; which he is fureto do, fince he advan¬
ces or bears as many as the doublets make, viz. eight
for two fours.
DOUBLING, in the military art, is the putting two
ranks or files of foldiers into one. Thus, when the word
of command double your ranks,, the fecond, fourth,
and fixth ranks march into the firft, third, and fifth, fo
that the fix ranks are reduced to three, and the inter¬
vals between the ranks become double what they were
before.
Doubling, among hunters, who fay that a hare dou¬
bles, when fhe keeps in plain fields, and winds about to
deceive the hounds.
Doubling, in the menage, a term ufed of a horfe, who
is faid to. double his reins, whenjre leaps feveral times
together, to throw his rider : thus we fay, the ramin-
gue doubles his reins, and makes pontlevis.
Doubling a cape or point, in navigation, fignifies the
coming up with it, palling by it, and leaving it behind
the finp.
Doublings, in heraldry, the linings of robes and man-
' tks of ftate, or of the mantlings in atchievments.
DOUBLON, or Dubloon, a Spinifh and Portuguefe
coin, being the double of a piftole. See Pistole.
DOUBTING, the a<ft of with-holding our alfent from
any propofition, on fufpicion that we are not thorough¬
ly apprifed of the merits thereof; or from not being
able peremptorily to decide between the reafons fcr and
agdnft it.
DOUCINE, in architedure, a moulding concave above
and convex below, ferving commonly as a cymatium
to a delicate corniche. It is likewife called gula.
DOVE, in ornithology. See Columba.
Dove, in geography, the name of a river dividing Dtr-
D O X (451
byftiire fiom StafFordlliire : alfo of a town of the Or-
leanois, in France, about twenty miles fouth eaft of
Angers.
Dove-tailing, in carpentry, is the manner of fatten¬
ing boards together by letting one piece into another,
in the form of the tail of a dove. The dove-tail is
the ftrongeft of the aflemblages or jointings, becaufe
the tenon, or piece of wood which is put into the o-
ther, goes widening to the extreme, fo that it cannot
be drawn out again, by reafon the extreme or tip is
bigger than the hole.
DOVER^ a borough and port-town of Kent, fituated on
a rock, oppofite to Calais in France, with a ftrong caf-
tle: E. long. 25', andN.lat. 510 io'.
Dover gives the title of duke to the dukes of Queenf-
bury, a branch of the noble family of Douglas; and
fends two members to parliament, ftyled barons of the
cinque ports, whereof Dover is the chief.
DOUGLAS, a port-town, and the bett harbour in the
Ifle of Man: W. long. 40 2S/, and N. lat. 54° 7'.
DOWAGER, a widow endowed, is a title applied to the
widows of princes, dukes, earls, and perfons of high
rank only,
DOWER, that portion which the law allows a widow out
of the lands of her hulband, after his deceafe.
DOWN, in geography, the capital of a county of the
fame name in the province of Ulfter, in Ireland : W.
long. 50 50', andN.lat. 540 23'.
DOWNETON, or Dunkton, a borough-town of
Wiltlhire, five miles fouth of Salifbury. It fends two
members to parliament.
DOWNHAM, a market-town of Norfolk, ten miles
fputh of Lynn, famous for its good butter ; there be¬
ing a thoufand, and fometimes two thoufand firkins
bought here every Monday, and fent up the river
Oufe to Cambridge, from whence it is conveyed to
London, in the Cambridge waggons.
DOWNS, a famous toad near Deal, in Kent, where both
the outward and homeward bound (hips frequently
make fome ftay; and fquadrons of men of war ren¬
dezvous in time of war.
It affords excellent anchorage, and is defended by
the cattles of Deal,-Dover, and Sandwich.
DOWRY, the money or fortune which the wife brings
her hufband in marriage : It is otherwife called niarita-
gium, marriage-goods, and differs from dower.
DOXOLOGY, an hymn ufed in praife of the Almigh¬
ty, dittinguifhed by the title of greater and leffer.
The letter.doxology was anciently only a fingle fen-
tence, without refponfe, running in thefs words, Glory
be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy
Gkofi, world •without end, amen. Part of the latter
claufe. As it was in the beginning, is now, and ever
(hall be, was inferted fome' time after the firft compo-
fition. Some read this ancient hymn, Glory be to the
Father, and to tfte Son with the Holy Ghojl. Others,
Glory be to tbs Father in or by the Son. and by the
Holy Ghofi, This.difference of expreflion occafioned
no difputes in the church, till the rife of the Arian he-
refy; but when the followers of Arius began to make
) I) 11 A
ufe of the latter as a dittinguifhing character of their
party, it was entirely laid afide by the catholics, and
the ufe of it was enough to bring any one under fuf-
picion of heterodoxy. The doxolcgy was ufed at the
clofe of every folemn office. The weftern church re¬
peated it at the end of every pfalm, and the eattern
church at the end of the laft pfalm. Many of their
prayers were alfo concluded with it, particularly the
folemn thankfgiving, or confecration prayer at the eu-
charift. It was alfo the ordinary conclufion of their
fermons.
The greater doxology, or angelic hymn, was like-
wife of great note in the ancient church It began
with thefe words, which the angels fung at our Savi¬
our’s birth. Glory be to God on high, &c. It was chiefly
ufed in communion fervice, and in mens private devo¬
tions. Both the doxologies have a place in the church
of England, the former being repeated after every
pfalm, and the latter ufed in the communion fer¬
vice.
DRABA, in botany, a genus of the tetradynamia filicu-
lofa clafs. The pod is entire and fomewhat oval, with
plain valves, and a parallel diffepimentum ; it has
no ftylus. There are fixfpecies, three of them natives
of Brijain, viz. the verna, or common whitlow-grafs ;
the muralis, or fpeedwell-leaved whitlow-grafs; and
the incana, or wreathen-poded whitlow-grals.
DRABS, in the falt-works, a kind of wooden boxes for
holding the fait when taken out of the boiling pan, the
bottoms of which are made (helving or inclining for¬
wards, that the briny moitture of the fait may drain
off
DRACHM, a Grecian coin of the value of feven pence
three-farthings
DRACO, the dragon, in zoology, a genus belonging
to the order of amphibia reptilia. The characters of
which arejhefe : It has four legs, a cylindrical tail,
and twomembranaceous wings, radiated like the fins of a
fiih, by which he is enabled to.fly, but not to'any
greatdiftance at a time There are-two fpecies, 1. The
volans, or flying dragon, with the wings entirely di-
ftinCt from the fore-legs ; it is found in Africa and the
Eatt Indies. 2. The prsepos, with the wings fixed to
the fore-legs; it is a native of America., They are
both harmlefs creatures, and feed upon flies, ants, and
fmall infefts.
raco volans, in meteorology, a fiery exhalation, fre-
qaeiu in marfhy and cold countries.
It is moll common in fummer, and though princi¬
pally feen playing near the banks of rivers, or in bog-
gyplaees, yet fometimes mounts up to a confideraoie
height in the air, to the no fmall terror of the amazed
beholders; its appearance being that of an oblong,
fometimes roundifh, fiery body, with a long tail. It is
entirely harmlefs, frequently (licking to the hands and
cloaths of people without injuring them in the leatt.
Draco, in attronomy, a conliellation of the itonhern
hemifphere. See AsradNOMY, p 486.
DRACOCEPHALUM, dragon’s head, in botany,,
a genus of the didynamia gymnofpermia clafs. The.
D R A ( 452 ) D R A
faux of the corolla is inflated, and the fuperior labi¬
um is concave. There are 13 fpecies, none of them
natives of Biitain.
DRACONTIC month, the time of one revolution of
the moon, from her afcending node, called caput dra-
conis, to her return thither.
DRACONTIUM, dktagons, in botany, a genus of
the gynandria polyandria clafs. The fpatha isihaped
like a boat; the fpadix is covered ; it has no calix ; the
corolla confifls of five petals; and the berry contains
many feeds There are live fpecies, all natives of the
Indies.
DRACUNCULI, in medicine, fmall long worms, which
breed in the mufcular parts of the arms and legs, called
Guinea worms. See Medicine.
DRACUNCULUS, in botany. See Arum.
Dracunculus, in ichthyology. See Callionymus.
DRAGOMAN, Drogman, or Druggerman, a name
given in the Levant to the interpreters kept by the am-
bafladors of Chriftian nations, refiding at the Porte, to
aflill them in treating of their mailer’s affairs.
DRAGON, in zoology. See Draco.
Dragon’s blood, in pharmacy, a refin brought from
the Eaft-Indies, either in oval drops, wrapped up in
flag leaves, or in large maffes compofed of fmaller
tears. The fine dragon’s blood of either fort breaks
fmooth, free from any vifible impurities, of a dark
red colour, which changes upon being powdered into
an elegant bright crimfon. It difibives in pure fpirit,
and tinges a large quantity of the menflruum of a deep
red colour; it is alfo foluble in oils. It is ufually
looked upon as a gentle aflringent, and is fometimes
preferibed againft feminal gleets, the fluor albus, and
other fluxes.
Dragon-fly. See Libella.
Dragon-shell. See Patella.
Dragons, in botany. See Dracontium.
DRAGONNE'E, in heraldry ; a lion dragonnee is where
the upper half refembles a lion, the other half going
off like the hinder part of a dragon. The fame may
be faid of any other beaft as well as a lion.
DRAGOON, in military affairs, a mufqueteer, mount¬
ed on horfeback, who fometimes fights or marches on
foot, as occafion requires.
Dragoons are divided into brigades, as the cavalry,
and each regiment into troops; each troop having a
captain, lieutenant, cornet, quarter-mailer, two fer-
jeants, three corporals, and two drums. Some regi¬
ments have hautboys : they are very ufeful on aby ex¬
pedition that requires difpatch, for they can keep pace
with the cavalry, and do the duty of infantry: they
encamp generally on the wings of the army, or at the
paffes leading to the camp; and fometimes they are
brought to cover the general’s quaners : they do duty
on the generals of horfe and dragoons, and march in
the front and rear of the army.
DRAGS, in the fea-language, are whatever hangs over
the fhip in the fea, as fhirts, coats, or the like; and
boats, when towed, or whatever elfe that, after this
manner, may hinder the (hip’s way when fne fails, are
-called drags.
DRAINS, a name given, in the fen countries, to cer¬
tain large cuts or ditchesof twenty, thirty, nay fome¬
times forty foot wide, carried through the marfhy
ground to feme river or other place capable of dif-
charging the water they carry out of the fen-lands.
See Agriculture.
DRAKE, in ornithology, the male of the duck-kind.
See Anas.
DRAMA, a poem containing feme certain a&ion, and
reprefenting a true pifture of human life, for the de¬
light and improvement of mankind.
The principal fpecies of the drama are two, come¬
dy and tragedy. Some others there are of lefs note,
as palloral, fatire, tragi-comedy, opera, tec. See
Composition.
DRAMATIC, an epithet given to pieces written for the
flage. See Composition.
DRANK, among farmers, a term ufed to denote wild
oats, which never fail to infell worn-cut lands ; fo that
when plowed land? run to thefe weeds and . billies, the
farmer knows it is high time to fallow them, or elfe to
fow them with hay-feed, and make pallure of them.
DRAPERY, in fculpture and painting, fignifies the re-
prefentation of the clothing of human figures, and alfo
hangings, tapellry, curtains, and moll other things
that are not carnations or landfcapes. See Paint¬
ing.
DRAUGHT, in trade, called alfoCuoFF or Clouch,
is a (mall allowance on weighable goods, made by the
king to the importer, or by the feller to the buyer, that
the u'eight may hold out when the goods are weighed
again.
The king allows 1 lb draught for goods weighing no
lefs than 1 Cwt. 2 lb for goods weighing between 1 and
2 Cwt. 3 lb for goods weighing between 2 and 3 Cwt.
4 lb from 3 to 10 cwt. 7 lb from 10 to 18 Cwt. 9 lb
from 18 to 30, or upwards.
Draugt hooks, are large hooks of iron, fixed on the
cheeks of a cannon-carriage, two on each fide, one
near the trunnion hole, and the other at the train, dif-
tinguilhed by the name of fore and hind draught-hooks.
Large guns have draught-hooks near the middle tran-
fum, to which are fixed the chains that ferve to keep
the fhafts of the limbers on a march. The fore and
hind hooks are ufed for drawing a gun backwards or
forwards, by men with ftrong ropes, called draught-
ropes, fixed to thefe hooks.
Draught-horse, in farming, a fort of coarfe-made
horfe, deflined for the fervice of a cart or plough.
SeeDquus.
DRAW, in the fea-language. A fhip is faid to draw fo
much water, according to the number of feet fhe finks
into it; fo that if a fhip fink into the water eighteen
feet perpendicularly, fhe is faid to draw eighteen feet
water; and according as fhe draws more or lefs, fhe is
faid to be of more or lefs draught.
Draw-back, in commerce, certain duties, either of
the cuftoms or of the excife, allowed upon the export¬
ation of fome of our own manufactures; or upon cer¬
tain foreign merchandife, that have paid duty on im¬
portation.
The
D 11 A (453
The oaths of the merchants importing and export¬
ing are required- to obtain the drawback of foreign
goods, affirming the truth of the officer’s certificate of
the entry, and the due payment of the duties: and
thefe may be made by the agent or hufband -of any
corporation or company, or by the known fervant of
any merchant ufuaily employed in making his entries
and paying his cuftoms. In regard to foreign goods
entered outward, if lefs quantity or value be fraudu¬
lently (hipped out than is expreffed in the exporter’s
certificate, the goods therein mentioned,' or their va¬
lue, are forfeited, and no drawback to be allowed for
the fame. Foreign goods exported by certificate, in
order to obtain the drawback, not ffiipped or export-
*■ ed, or re-landed in Great Britain, unlefs in cafe of
diflrefs, to fave them from periffiing, are to lofe the
benefit of the drawback, and are forfeited, or their
value, with the veflels, horfes, carriages, fac. em¬
ployed in the re-landing thereof; and the perfons em¬
ployed in the re-landing them, or Jry whofe privity
they are re-landed, or into whofe hands they ffiall
knowingly come, are to forfeit double the amount of
the drawback. Officers of the cuftoms conniving at,
or affifting in any fraud relating to certificate-goods,
befides other penalties, are to forfeit their office, and
to fuffer fix'months imprifonment, without bail or
mainprize ; as are.alfo mafters,-or perfons belonging
to the ffiips employed therein. Bonds given for the
exportation of certificate-goods to Ireland, muft not
be delivered up, nor drawback allowed for any goods,
till a certificate under the hands anffifeals of the col¬
lector or comptroller, ijc. of the cuftoms be produ¬
ced, teftifying the landing.
The computation of what is to be drawn back upon
the exportation of foreign goods, may be feen under
their refpe&ive heads.
Draw-bridge, a bridge made after the manner of a
floor, to draw up, or let down, as occafion ferves, be¬
fore the gate of a town or'caftle.
DRAWING, in general, denotes the adtion of pulling
out, or haling along: thus, we read of tooth-drawing,
wire-drawing, fyc.
Drawing, the art of reprefenting the appearances of ob¬
jects by imitation, or copying without the afliftance of
mathematical rules.
The general precepts for drawing are as follow :
i. Begin with plain geometrical figures, as lines, an-
■ gles, triangles, polygons, arches, circles, ovals, cones,
cylinders, and the like, being the foundation of all o-
ther proportions. The circle is of ufe in the feveral
orbicular forms, as the fun, moon, globes, 45c. the o-
val, in giving a juft proportion to the face and mouth;
and the fquare,confines a piChite you are to copy, 45c.
the triangle is of ufe in drawing a fide or half face;
angles and arches, in perfpedive; and the polygon, in
ground-plots, fortificatipns, 4sc. the cone, in fpires,
fteeples, tops of towers, 45c. the cylinder, in columns,
pillars, pilafters, 4sc. See Perspective.
2. Having brought your hand to be fit and ready
in general proportions, accuftom yourfelf to give eve¬
ry objeCt its due ffiade, according to its concavity or
Vol. II. No. 45. 3
D R A
convexity, and to elevate or deprefs the fame, as the
objeCt appears either nearer or farther off the light.
3. The fecond practice of drawing, coofifts in form¬
ing fruits, as apples, pears, cherries, 4sc. with their
leaves; tlie imitation of flowers, as rofes, tulips^ car¬
nations, 4sc. herbs, trees, 4sc. of different kinds.
4. The third, in the imitation of beafts, fowls, fiffi-
es, 4sc.
5. The fourth practice of drawing confifts in the
imitation of the body of man, with all its lineaments,
as head, nofe, eyes, ears, cheeks, arms, and ffiadows,
all • exactly proportioned both to the whole and to
one another.
6. The fifth is in the drapery, in the imitation of
cloathing, and artificially fetting off the outward cover¬
ings, habit, and ornaments of the body, either of cloth,
fluff, filk, or linen, in their natural and proper folds.
7. In drawing of all the forms before-mentioned, it
is requifite to be firft perfeCt in the laying down the
exaCt proportions; fecondly, in the general or outward
lines, before you proceed to ffiadowing, or trimming
the work within.
8. In mixed and uncertain forms, where the circle,
fquare, 45c. will be of no ufe, but only in the idea
thereof in your own fancy, as horfes, oxen, and the
like, you muft do it by judgment, and fo gain the
true proportions by afliduous praCHce: thus having the
fhape of the thing in your mind, firft draw it rudely
with a coal; then, with more exaftnefs, with a lead
or pencil ; then perufe it well, and mend it in thofe
parts you have erred in, according to the idea you car¬
ry in your mind. When it is mended by your own
judgment, compare, it with feme good pattern of the
fame kind, and amend it by that.
9. Having good copies to draw after, learn to re¬
duce them to other proportions, either larger or fmal-
ler ; and this by frequent practice.
10. Let a perfection in drawing be attained by di¬
ligent exercife, and the inftruction of a good mafter,
before there be any attempts as to colouring and paint¬
ing ; for the former being attained, the reft will be
eafily underftood, and gained by frequent practice.
Particular obfervations with regard to Drawing, are
as follows. 1. If you draw after a print or picture,
place it in fuch a light, that the glofs of the colours
may not interrupt your light, and that the light and'
your eye may equally and obliquely fall upon the
piece, which ffiould be placed at fuch a diftance, that,
upon opening your eye, you may view it at once : the
larger the picture is, the greater diftance off it ffiould
be placed : it ffiould alfo be right before you, and a
little reclining.
2. Draw your out-lines at firft very faint, and with
a*:oal; and let them be drawn agreeable to the pat¬
tern, before you begin to ffiadow any part of it. When
you have drawn one feature, it ffiould, in fome mea-
fure, be a direction for you to draw the other, by ob-
ferving the diftanfe from that to the next feature ; ma¬
king a fmall mark at the place with your coal, then
draw it, and fo to the next, till you have drawn the
whole figure.
4 x
3. Then
D R A ( 454 ) D II I
3. Then obferve the middle-of the pidure you would
copy, and touch upon the paper with the point of
your coal: afterwards, obferve the more confpicuous
and uppermoft figures, if there are more than one,
which you are to touch lightly in their proper places:
thus, running over the whole draught, you will fee,
as it were, the fkeleton of the piece to draw.
4. Having made out thefe fketcheS, view them dili¬
gently, if they anfwer your pattern or not ; for the
geftures of the life ought to {hew themfelves eminent¬
ly in the firfi and rudelt draughts thereof: corred and
mend whatever you perceive amifs, adding and dimi-
nifliing as it varies from the pattern ; by which me¬
thod it will be brought nearer and nearer to the life.
5. Obferve the diftance of one limb, joint, or
mufcle, from another, and the fame in all other
accidents of the figure, their length, breadth, turn
ings, <bc. ftiadow next to the light very faintly ; and
where you fee bold and free touches, be not timor¬
ous in exprefling the fame. In drawing a head by the
life, or otherwife, take care to place the features ex-
adly right upon the crofs-lines, whether it be a full
face, or three-quarter face. In fore-fliortening you
muft make the crofs-lines to fly upwards, where they
look upwards; but where the afped is downwards,
they muft be made downwards, in a circular manner.
Having drawn the out-lines true, with a coal, you are
to proceed to trace the fame lines again with a pen,
Indian ink, <bc. drawing them with more exadnefs, and
by imitating all the hatches with their exad diftances
one from another, their croflings, turnings and wind¬
ings, with more boldnefs and freedom perfed your de-
fign.
6. In drawing after a naked body, all the mufcles
are not to be fo plainly expreffed as in anatomical fi¬
gures ; but that fide whofe parts are moft apparent,
and of fignification in the performance of any adion,
muft be made to appear more or lefs, according to the
force of that adion.
7. In drawing young perfons, the mufcles mufl: not
appear manifeftly fo hard as in older and full-grown
perfons: the fame is to be obferved as to fat and flefhy
perfons, and fuch as are very delicate and beautiful ;
and in women, fcarce any mufcles at all are to be ex-
prefled, or but very little, unlefs it be in fome very
terrible adion, and then too they are to be reprefent-
ed very faintly; the like is alfo to be obferved as to
little children.
8. The motion of the whole body muft be confider-
ed in drawing of the mufcles; as in the rifing and fal¬
ling of the arms, the mufcles of the breaft do appear
more or lefs; the hips do the like according as they
are bent outward or inward ; and it is the fame chiefly
in the {boulders, fides, and neck, according to the fe-
veral adions of the body.
9. The proportion of the figure ought to be multi¬
plied by degrees, in proportion of one to two, three,
four, isc. for herein the chief fltill confifts: the dia¬
meter of the biggeft place, between the knee and the
foot, is double to the leaft ; and the largeft part of the
thigh, triple.
DRAY, a kind of cart ufed by brev/ers, for carrying
barrels of beer, or ale; alfo a fledge drawn without
wheels.
Dray, among fportfmen, denotes fquirrel-nefts, built
in the tops of trees.
DRYATON, a market-town of Shropfliire, fourteen
miles north-eaft of Shrewlbury.
DREDGE, or Dreg, among farmers, denotes oats and
barley mingled together.
DREDGERS, the term ufed in the admiralty-court for
the oifter-fifiiers.
DREIN, in the military art, a trench made to draw the
water out of a moat, which is afterwards filled with
hurdles and earth, or with fafeines or bundles of
ruflies and planks, to facilitate the paflage over the mud.
See Trench.
DRENCH, among farriers, a phyfical potion for horfes.
The ingredients for this purpofe are to be beat coarfe-
ly, and either mingled with a decodion, or with wine.
Then let all infufe about a quarter of an hour, and
give it to the horfe with a horn, after he has been
tied up two hours to the rack.
DRESDEN, the capital of Upper Saxony, in Germany,
fituated on the river Elbe, fixty-five miles north-weft
of Prague, and eighty-five fouth of Berlin : E. long.
130 36', N. lat. 510.
It is one of the largeft and ftrongeft towns in Ger¬
many, and is the ufual refidence of the eledor of
Saxony.
DREUX, a town of Orleanois, in France, feventeen
miles north of Chartres, and thirty-five weft of Paris.
DRIFT, a term ufed at fea. Thus, any thing that floats
upon the water, is faid to run a-drift.
Drift-sail, a fail ufed under water, veered out right
a-head by ftieets, as other fails are. It ferves to keep
the {hip’s head right upon the fea in a ftorm, and to
hinder her driving too faft in a current.
DRILL, in mechanics, a fmall inftrument for making
fuch holes as punches will not conveniently ferve for.
Drills are of various fizes, and are chiefly ufed by
fmiths and turners.
Drill, or Drill-box, a name given to an inftrument
for fowing land in the new method of horfe-hoeing huf-
bandry. See Ariculture.
DRINK, apart of our ordinary food in a liquid form,
ferving to dilute and moiften the dry meat.
The drinks in different countries are different. The
common drink in England is either water, mal: liquor,
wine, or mixtures of thefe.
The firft drinks of mankind were edrtainiy water
and milk, but the love of luxury and debauchery foon
introduced the art of preparing intoxicating and inebria-
•ting drinks out of vegetables. The vine gave the firft of
thefe liquors; after this, v?heat, barley, millet, oats,
rice, apples, pears, and pomegranates ; and after thofe
the juices drained from the pine, fycamore, and mapple,
were brought to this ufe: in latter times, roots, ber¬
ries, and the pith of the fugar-cane, have been employ¬
ed for the fame purpofes.
DRIVERS, among fpprtfmen, a machine for driving
pheafant-powts, confifting of good ftrong ozier-wands,
fuch
D R O ( 455 ) D R U
fuch as the bafket-makers ufe; thefe are to be fet in
a handle, and twilled or bound with fmall oziers in two
or three places.
With this inftrument, the fportfman drives whole
eyes, of young powts into his nets. See the next ar¬
ticle.
DRIVING, among fportfmen, a method of taking phea-
fant-powts. It is thus : the fportfman finds out the
haunts of thefe birds; and having fixed his nets there,
he calls them together by a pheafant-call, imitating
the voice of the dam: after this he makes a noife with
his driver, which will make them run a little way for¬
ward in a clufter; and this he is to repeat till he has
made fure of them, which an expert fportfman never
fails to do, by driving them into his nets.
Driving, in metallurgy, is faid of filver, when in the
operation of refining, the lead being burnt away, the
remaining copper rifes upon its furface in red fiery bub¬
bles.
Driving, in the fea-language, is faid of a fiiip when an
anchor being let fall will not hold her fall, nor prevent
her failing away with the tide or wind. The bell help
in this cafe is to let fall more anchors, or to veer out
more cable ; for the more cable ihe has out, the fafer
Ihe rides. When a fhip is a-hull, or a-try, they fay
Ihe drives to leeward.
DROGHEDA, a port-town of Ireland, twenty-three
miles north of Dublin.
DROGMAN. See Dragoman.
DROITWICH, a borough fix miles north of Worce-
fter, which fends two members to parliament.
DROMEDARY. See Camelus.
DRONE, in the hiftory of infedls. See Apis.
Drone-fly, a two-winged infedl, extremely like the
common drone-bee, whence alfo the name.
DROPS, in meteorology, fmall fpherical bodies which
the particles of fluids fporitaneoufly form themfelves
into when let fall from any height.
Drops, in medicine, a licpiid remedy, the dofe of which
is eftimated by a certain number of drops.
DROPSY, in medicine, an unnatural colle&ion of wa-
try humours in any part of the body. See Medicine.
DROP-WORT, in botany. See Filipendula.
Water Drop-wort, in botany See Oenanthe.
DRQSERA, Sun-dew, in botany, a genus of the pen-
tandria pentagynia clafs of plants, with a funnel-fa-
Ihioned flower, confifting of five obtufely-ovated petals :
the fruit, is an unilocular fuboval capfule, containing
a great many very fmall feeds.
DROWNING, the a£t of fuffocating, or being fuffbca-
ted/ by water.
Naturalifls and phyfici^ns furnilh us with divers well .
attefted inftances of furprifing recoveries of perfons
drowned. It is certain from repeated difieftions made
on perfons drowned, that they generally have lefs wa¬
ter in their ftomachs than if they had voluntarily drunk
a confiderable quantity: whence it does not feem ex¬
pedient to hang the drowned perfon by the heels, a
pofition that mull prove uneafy as foon as the humours
of the body fhould refume their ordinary motion. In
order to know whether the perfon has fwallowed too
much water or not, and to make him vomit it up if he
has, it is proper to put him in a tun, open at both
ends, which is to be rolled in different diredions: or
the bearded end of a feather fhould be introduced into
the cefophagus. After taking off the cloaths of the
drowned perfon, we ought, with the utrhoft ex¬
pedition, to Ihelter him from the impreflions of the
cold air, and begin to warm him, by wrapping him
up with cloaths and coverings: to do this more ef¬
fectually, he is afterwards to be put into a pretty warm
bed, applying alfo to his body hot napkins and cloths.
A hot fcorching fun, to which drowned perfons have
been expofed, and hot baths, have produced the fame
happy effeCts.
The great intention to be purfued is, to put the fo-
lid parts of the machine in aCtion, that thus they may
reftore the motion of the fluids: in order to this, the
drowned peifon Ihould be agitated-in various direc¬
tions, in a bed, in the arms of perfons of fufficient
ftrength.
Spirituous liquors Ihould be poured into his mouth,
or warm urine ; andfome perfons prefcribe a decoCtioa
of pepper and vinegar, as a gargarifm : we muft alfo at¬
tempt to irritate the internal fibres of the nofe, either
by volatile fpirits, and by the liquors ufed in apoplectic
cafes ; or by tickling the nerves of the noftrils with a
bearded feather; or by blowing, through a quill, fnuff,
or fome other more powerful fternutatory. One of
the means frequently ufed with fuccefs, is to blow
warm air, by means of a pipe, into their mouths ; or
to introduce it by a pair of bellows ; or, by injecting
warm clyfters, to irritate the inteftines: the fmoke of
tobacco conveyed into the inteftines, by means of a
tobacco pipe, is much recommended. VensefeCIion is
by no means to be negleCted; and perhaps mod fuc-
cefsfully in the jugular vein.
DRUG, a general term for goods of the druggift and
grocery kinds, efpecially for thofe ufed in medicine
and dying.
DRUGGET, in commerce, a ftuff fometimes all wool,
and fometimes half wool half thread, fometimes cord¬
ed, but ufually plain.
Thofe that have the woof of wool, and the warp
of thread, are called threaded-druggets ; and thofe
wrought with the Ihuttle on a loom of four marches,
as the ferges of Moui, Beauvois, and other like fluffs
corded, are called corded druggets. As to the plain,
they are wrought on a loom of two marches, with the
Ihuttle, in the fame manner as cloth, camlets, and o-
ther like fluffs not corded.
DRUIDS, the priefts or miniflers of religion of the an¬
cient Britons and Gauls. The druids were chofen out
of the belt families ; and were held, both by the ho¬
nours of their birth, and their ofl5.ce, in the greateff
veneration. They are faid to have underftood aftro-
logy, geometry, natural hiftory, politics, and geogra¬
phy : they had the adminiftraticm of all lacred things,
were the interpreters of religion, and the judges of all
affairs indifferently.
Whoever refufed obedience to them, was declared
impious and accurfed : they held the immortality of
the
D U B ; 456 ) DUE
the foul, and the tranfmigration of fouls. Tltey are
divided by foniie into feveral claffes, as the vaceni,
bardi, bubagis, femothii. They had a chief, or arch-
druid, in every nation : he was a fort of high-prieft,
having an abfolute authority over the reft, and was
fucceeded by the raoft conftderable among his furviVors.
The youth ufed to be inftrudted by them, retiring with
them to caves and defolate' forefts, where they were
fometimes kept twenty years. They preferved the me¬
mory and aftions of great men by their verfes; but are
faid to have facrificed men to Mercury. Caefar imagined
*'that the druids carfie from Britain into Gaul, but fe¬
veral among the modern writers are of a different opi¬
nion.
DRUM, is a martial mufical inflrument in form of a
t cylinder, hollow within, and covered at the two ends
with vellum, which is ftretched or flackened at plea-
fure by the means of fmall cords or Hiding knots :
It is beat upon with fticks. Some drums are made of
brafs, but they are commonly of wood.
Kettle Drums, are two forts of large baforts of copper
or brafs, rounded in the bottom, and covered with
vellum, or goat-fkin, which is kept faft by a circle of
iron, and feveral holes faftened to the body of the
drum, and a like number fcrews to fcrew up -and
down. They are much ufed among the horfe, as alfo
in operas, oratorios, concerts, e&tf.
Drum, or Drummer, he that beats the drum; of
whom each company of foot has one, and fometimes
two. Every regiment has a drum-major, who has the
command over the other drums. They are diftinguifh-
ed from the foldiers, by cloaths of a different fafhion :
their poft, when a battalion is drawn up, is'on the
flanks, and on a march it is betwixt the divifions.
Drum of the ear', in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 299.
DRUMLANERK, a town of Scotland, fifteen miles
north of Dumfries.
DRUNKENNESS, a well known diforder in the brain,
occafioned by drinking too freely of fpirituous liquors.
Drunkennefs appears in different fhapes, in different
conftitutions: fome it makes gay, fome fullen, and
fome furious.
DRUPE, among botanifts. See Vol. I. p. 637.
DRUSENHEIM, a town of Alface, in Germany, four
miles fouth-eaft of Hagenau.
DRYADAlA, in botany. SccDryas.
DRYADS, in the heathen theology, a fort of deities,
or nymphs, which the ancients thought inhabited
groves and woods. They differed from the Hamadry-
ades, thefe latter being attached to fome particular
tree, with which they were born, and with which
they died; whereas the Dryades were goddeffes of
trees and woods in general .-
DRY AS, in botany, a genus of the icofandria polygynia
clafs. The calix confifts of eight fegments. and the
corolla of eight petals; and the feeds are tailed and
hairy. There are two fpecies, both natives of Bri¬
tain, viz. the pentapetula, or cinquefoil avens ; and
the oftopetala, or mountain avens.
DUBLIN, the capital of the province of Leinfter, and
of all Ireland, fituated at the mouth of the river Lif-
fee, fixty miles weft of Holyhead in Wales: W. Ion.
6° 25', N. lat. 530 16'.
It is a large and beautiful city, pleafantly fituated;
having a view of the fea on one fide, and of a fine
country on the other. It is the feat of the courts of
juftice, and an archbifliop’s fee; and has a noble col¬
lege, which is an univerfity of itfelf.
DUGAL, in general, fomething belonging to a duke.
See Duke.
DUCAT, a coin current in Germany and other coun¬
tries abroad, of different values.
DUCATOGN, a filver coin, likewife frequent in feve¬
ral parts of Europe.
DUCENARIUS, in Roman antiquity, a military officer
who had the command of two hundred men.
DUCK, in ornithology. See Anas.
DUCKER. SeeCoLYMBus.
DUCKING, plunging in water, a diverfion anciently
pra&ifed among the Goths^ by way of exercife ; but
among the Celtse, Franks, and ancient Germans, it
was a fort of punifhment for perfons of fcandalous
lives.
They were fhut'up, naked to the fhift, in an iron
cage, faftened to the yard of. a fhaloop, and ducked
feveral times.
Ducking at the main-yard, among featflen, is a way
of punifhing offenders on. board a fliip; and is per¬
formed by binding the malefactor, by a rope, to the
end of the yard, from whence he is violently let down
into the fea, once, twice, or three times, according to
his offence: and if the offence be very great, he is
drawn underneath the keel of the fhip, which they
call keel-haling.
DUCKUP, at fea, is a term ufed by the fteer’s-mao,
when the main-fail, fore-fail, or fprit-fail, hinders his
feeing to fleer by a land-mark: upon which he calls
out, Duckup the clew-lines sf thefe fails, that is, hale
the fails out of the way. Alfo when a fhot is made
by a chace-piece, if the- clew of the fprit-fail hinders
the fight, they call out, Duckup, &c.
DUCT, in general, denotes any tube or canal. It is a
term much ufed by anatomifts.
Air-DvcT, among ichthyologifts, a canal reaching from
the air-bladder in fifties to their ftomach.
DUCTILITY, in phyfics, a property of certain Eodies,
whereby they are capable of being expanded, or
ftretched forth, by means of a hammer, prefs, <bc.
See Chemistry, and Mechanics.
DUDERSTAT, a town of Upper Saxony, thirty-five
miles north-eaft of Caffel.
DUEL, a Angle combat, at a time and place appointed,
in confequence of a challenge. This cuftom came o-
riginaHy from the northern nations, amon|; whom it
was ufual to decide all their controverfies by arms.
Both the accufer and the accufed gave pledges to the
judges on their refpedtive behalf; and the cuftom pre¬
vailed fo far amongfl the Germans, Danes, and Franks,
that none were excufed from it but women, fick peo¬
ple, cripples, and fuch as were under twenty-one
years of age, or above fixty. Even ecclefiaftics,
priefts, and monks, were obliged to find champions
to
D U L ( 457 ) D U M
to fight in their ftead. The punifliment of the van-
quifhed was either death, by hanging or beheading;
or, mutilation of members, according to the circum-
fta’nces of the cafe. Duels were at firft admitted not
only on criminal occafions, but on fome civil ones for
the maintenance of rights to ellates, and the like : in
latter times, however, before they were intirely abo-
lifhed, they were retrained to thefe four cafes, x.
That the crime fhould be capital. 2.,That it fhould
be certain the crime was perpetrated. 3. The accu-
fed mud, by common fame, be fuppofed guilty. And,
4. The matter not capable of proof by witnelfes. At
prefent it is ufed for a fingle combat on fome private
quarrel, and mud be premeditated, otherwife it is call¬
ed a rencounter. If a perfon be killed in a duel, both
the principals and feconds are guilty of murder, whe¬
ther the feconds Engage or not. It is alfo a very high
offence to challenge a perfon, either by word or letter,
or to be the meffenger of a challenge. The fevere
edidts made by Lewis XIV. againd duels have, in a
great meafure, put a dop to the cudom in France.
DUELLING, in Scots law. See title 33. -
DUERO, or Duro, a large river, whiah, riling in Old
Cadile in Spain, runs from ead to ^ved, croffes the
province of Leon, and, after dividing Portugal from
Spain by a foutherly courfe, turns wedward, croffes
Portugal, and falls into the Atlantic Ocean at Porto-'
Port.
DUKE is either the title of a fovereign prince, as the
duke of Savoy, Parma, fyc. the grand duke ofTuf-
cany, Mufcovy, or it is the title of honour and
nobility next below princes. The commanders of ar¬
mies in time of war, the governors of provinces and
wardens of marches in times of peace, were called
duces under the later emperors. The Goths and
Vandals divided all Gaul into dutchies and counties,
the governors of which they fometimes call duces,
and fometimes comites. In France, under the fecond
race of kings, though they retained the name and form
of ducal government, there were fcarce any dukes ex-
' cept thofe of Burgundy, Aquitain, and France. In
England, among the Saxons, the commanders of ar¬
mies, <be. were called dukes, duces, without any ad¬
dition, till Edward III. made his fon, the Black
Prince, duke of Cornwal; after whom there were
more made in the fame manner, the title defeending to
their pofterity. Duke then, at prefent, is a mere title
of dignity, without giving any domain, territory, or
jurifdiftion over the place from whence the title is ta¬
ken. A duke is created by patent, cindture of fword,
mantle of ftate, impofition of a cap and coronet of
- gold on his head, and a verge of gold put into his
hand. His title is Grace; and, in the ftyle of the
heralds, Molt high, potent, high-born, and noble
prince.
DULCIFYING, in chemiftry, is the fweetening any
matter impregnated with falts, by frequently walking
it in pure water.
DULL, in the menage. The marks of a dull horfe,
called by the French marquis de ladre, are white
fpots round the eye and on the tip of the nofe, upon
Vol. II. No. 45. 3
any general colour whatfoever. Though the vulgar
take thefe fpots for figns of ftupidity, it is certain they
are great marks of the goodnefs of a horfe; and the
horfes that have them are very fenfible and quick upon
the fpur.
DULWICH, a village near London, remarkable for its
mineral waters, which are faid to contain a bitter ca¬
thartic fait, but no iron.
DUMBLAIN, a town of Scotland, about five miles
north of Stirling.
DUMBNESS, the privation of the faculty of fpeech.
The moft general, or rather the foie caufe of dumb-
nefs, is the want of the fenfe of hearing. The ufe
of language is originally acquired by imitating articu¬
late founds. From this fource of intelligence, deaf
people are intirely excluded : they cannot acquire arti¬
culate founds by the ear : unlefs, therefore, articulation
be communicated to them by fome other medium, thefe
unhappy people muft for ever be deprived of the ufe of
language; and as language is the principal fource of
knowledge, whoever has the misfortune to want the
fenfe of hearing, muft remain in a ftate little fuperior
to that of the brute creation. Deafnefs has in all
ages been confidered as fuch a total obftrudtion to
fpeech, or written language, that an attempt to teach
the deaf toTpeak or read has been uniformly regarded
as impradticable, till Dr Wallis and fome others have
of late ftiewn, that although deaf people cannot learn
to fpeak or read by the direction of the ear, there'are
other fourees of imitation, by which the fame effedt may
be produced. The organs of hearing and of fpeech
have little or no conneftion. Perfons deprived of the
former generally poffefs the latter in fetch perfedion,
that nothing further is neceffary, in order to make
them articulate, than to teach them how to ufe thefe
organs. This indeed is no eafy talk; but experience
Ihews that it is pradicable. Mr Thomas Braid-
wood, of Edinburgh, is perhaps the firft who ever
brought this furprifing art to any degree of perfeflion.
For thefe fome years part, he has taught many people
born beaf, to fpeak diftindly, to read, to write, to
underftand figures, the principles of religion and mo¬
rality, he. This, at firft fight, may appear to be alto¬
gether incredible; but the fad is certain. Mr Braid-
wood has, at prefent, ten or a dozen of deaf pupils,
fome of them above twenty years of age, all making a
rapid and amazing progrefs in thofe ufeful branches of
education.
Mr Braidwood’s principal difficulty, after he had
difeovered this art, was to make people believe in the
pradicability of it. He advertifed in the public papers;
he exhibited his pupils to many noblemen and gentle¬
men ; ftill he found the generality of mankind unwilling
to believe him. A remarkable inftance of this incre¬
dulity occurred fome years ago. A gentleman in Eng¬
land fent a deaf girl of his to Mr Braidwood’s care.
A year or two afterwards, Mr Braidwood wrote to
the father, that his daughter Could fpeak, read, and
write diftindly. The father returned an anfwer, beg¬
ging Mr Braidwood’s excufe, as he could not believe
it; however, he defired a friend of his, who was oc-
4 Y occafionally
D U M ( 458 ) DUN
cafionally going to Edinburgh, to call at Mr Braid-
wood, and inquire into the truth of what he had
wrote him : he did fo ; converfed with Mr Braid-
wood, faw the young lady, heard her read, fpeak,
and anfwer any queftions he put to her. On his re¬
turn, he told the father the furpriling progrefs his
child had made ; but ftill the father thought the whole
an impofition : the girl herfelf wrote to her father,
but he looked upon the letter as a forgery. About
this time the father died, and the mother fent an un¬
cle and coufin of the deaf lady’s from Shrewfbury, in
order to be fatisfied of the truth. When they arri¬
ved, Mr Braidwood told the girl her uncle and coufin
were in the parlour, and defired her to go and afk
them how they did, and how her mother and other
friends did. The friends were aftoniflied, and could
hardly credit their own ears and eyes.
We have converfed with Mr Braidwood, concerning
the nature and method of teaching this wonderful art:
he feems to be very defirous of communicating and
tranfmitting his difcovery to pofterity: but fays, and,
from the nature of the thing, we believe it to be true,
that he cannot communicate it fo fully in writing as to
enable any other perfon to teach it. The firft thing in
the method is, to teach the pupil to pronounce the
Ample founds of the vowels and confonants. We
have even feen him performing this operation ; but
are unable to give a clear idea of it. He pronounces
the found of a flowly, pointing out the figure of the
letter at the fame time; makes his pupil obferve the
motion of his mouth and throat; he then puts his fin¬
ger into the pupil’s mouth, depreffes or elevates the
tongue, and makes him keep the parts in that pofi-
tion; then he lays hold of the outfide of the wind¬
pipe, and gives it fome kind of fqueeze, which it is
impoflible to defcribe: all the while he is pronouncing
a, the pupil is anxioufiy imitating him, but at firft
feems not to underftand what he would have him to
do. In this manner he proceeds, till the pupil has
learned to pronounce the founds of the letters. He
goes on in the fame manner to join a vowel and a con-
fonant, till at length the pupil is enabled both to
Ipeak and read.
It is altogether in vain for us to attempt to fay any
more concerning the mode of operation. Mr Braid¬
wood .undertakes every deaf'perfon, who is not at
the fame time foolifti or idiotical. The greateft mif-
fortune is, that this art is confined to a Angle man,
and that his pupils muft live in the houfe with him for
fome years. The expence necefiarily attending educa¬
tion of this kind, excludes all but people in opulent
circumftances from deriving any advantage from it.
Mr Braidwood fays, that the only way for preferving
the art, and communicating it to a number, is to take
people in the way of apprentices : this he is unable
to do at his own expence. What a pity, that fuch
a curious and ufeful art (hould live and die with a
fingle man ! There are many fums mortified in this
kingdom, both by government and private perfons, for
Ids important purpofes, than the prefervatiou and ex-
tenfion of the art of raifing a great number of our fel¬
low-creatures from the rank of brutes, to that of rea-
fonable beings, and ufeful members of fociety.
DUMFERMLINE, a parliament-town of Scotland, fi-
tuated in the county of Fife, fifteen miles north-weft
of Edinburgh : W. long. 30® 20 , and N. lat. 5;6° ly'.
Here was formerly a magnificent abbey and palace of
the kings of Scotland, in which the princefs Eliza¬
beth, daughter of king James VI. and mother of the
princefs Sophia, from whom the prefent royal family
are defcended, was born.
DUMFRIES, the capital of a county of the fame name,
in Scotland, lying northwards of the Solway frith:
W. long. 3® 20 , and N. lat. 54° 45'.
DUNBAR, a parliament and port-town of Scotland, a-
bout twenty-five miles eaft of Edinburgh.
DUNBARTON, the capital of a county of the fame
name in Scotland, called by fome Lenox : it is a par¬
liament town, fituated at the confluence of the rivers
Clyde and Leven; fixteen miles north-weft of Glaf-
gow.
DUNGANNON, a town of the county of Wexford, in
Ireland, fix miles eaft of Waterford.
DUNDALK, a port-to,wn of Ireland,eighteen miles north
of Drogheda.
DUNDEE, a large parliament-town of Angus, in Scot¬
land, fituated on the north fide of the frith of Tay,
fourteen miles north-weft of St Andrews : W. Ion.
2° 42', and N. lat. 56® 32'.
DUNG, in hufbandry, is of feveral forts, as that of hor-
fes, cows, fheep, hogs, pigeons, geefe, hens, See
Agriculture.
DUNGANNON, a town of Ireland, eleven miles north
of Armaugh.
DUNGING of lands. See Agriculture.
DUNKELD, a town of Perthlhire in Scotland, former¬
ly a bilhop’s fee, fituated about twelve miles north of
Perth.
DUNG MEERS; in hulbandry, places where foils and
dungs are mixed and digefted together. For this pur-
pofe it is ufual to dig a pit fufficient to hold the ftock
of foil the hufbandman is capable of making ; and to
prepare it at the bottom with ftone and clay, that it
may hold water, or the moifture of the dung ; and be-
fides, it Ihould be fo fituated that the finks and drips
of the houfes and barns may run into it. Into this pit
they call refufe fodder, litter, dung, weeds, &c. where
they lie and rot together, till the farmer have occafion
for it.
DUNKIRK, a port-town of the French Netherlands :
E. Ion. 20 28 , and N. lat. 51°.
DUNNEGAL, the capital of a county of the fame
name in Ireland, fituated on a bay, to which it like-
wife gives name : W. Ion. 8° 22', and N. lat. 54° 3j/.
DUNNINGTON, a market-town of Lincolnihire, a-
bout twenty-three miles fouth-eaft of Lincoln.
DUNS, a market-town of Scotland, twelve miles weft
of Berwick upon Tweed.
DUNSTABLE, a market-town, fifteen miles fouth of
Bedford, and thirty north-weft of London.
DUN-
D U R ( 459 ) D U U
DUNWICH, a borough of Suffolk, forty miles eaft of
Bury. It fends two members to parliament.
DUO, in mufic, a fong or compofition to be performed
in two parts only, one fung, the other played on an in-
ftrument, or by two voices.
Duo is alfo when two voices fing different parts, as ac*
companied with a third, which is a thorough bafe. It
is feldom that unifons and oftaves are.ufed in duos, ex¬
cept at the beginning and end.
DUODECIMA, in mufic, is the twelfth or the fifth
doubled. See Fifth.
DUODENUM, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 259.
DUPLE, among mathematicians, denotes the ratio of 2
to 1. Thus the ratio of 8 to 4 is duple, or as 2
to 1.
£«£-Duple ratio is juft the reverfe of the former, or
as 1 to 2. Such is 4 to 8, or 6 to 12.
DUPLICATE, among lawyers, denotes a copy of any
deed, writing, or account. It is alfo ufed for the fe-
cond letters patent, granted by the lord chancellor in a
cafe wherein he had before done the fame. Alfo a fecond
letter written and fent to the fame party and purpofe as
a former, for fear of the firft’s mifcarrying, is called a
duplicate.
Duplicate proportion, or ratio. See Algebra
and Arithmetic.
DUPLICATION, in general, fignifies the doubling of
- any thing, or multiplying of it by 2 : alfo the folding
of any thing back again on itfelf.
DUPLICATURE, among anatomifts, a term ufed to
denote the folds of any membrane, or veffel: thus we
- fay, the duplicatures of the inteftines, peritonaeum,
. tic.
DUPONDUS, in antiquity, the weight of two pounds:
alfo a piece of money equal to two afes in value.
DURA mater, in anatomy. See Vol. I. p. 284.
DURANCE, a river of France, which falls into the
Rhone, a little below Avignon.
DURANTA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermia clafs. The calix is above the fruit, and
divided into five fegments ; and the berry contains four
feeds. There are two fpecies, both natives of Ame¬
rica.
DURATION, an idea which we get by attending to the
fleeting and perpetually perifhing part of fucceflion;
the idea of fucceflion being acquired by refledting on
that train of ideas which conftantly follow one another
in our minds, as long as we are awake. The Ample
modes of duration are any different lengths of it where¬
of we have diltindt ideas, as hours, days, years, time,
eternity, tic.
Duration, as marked by certain periods amd mea-
fures, is what we moft properly call time. See
Time.
Durations/ attion, according to Ariftotle, is confi¬
ned to a natural day in tragedy; but the epopea, accord¬
ing to the fame critic, has no fixed time.
DURESSE, in law, is where a perfon is wrongfully
imprifoned, or reftrained of his liberty, contrary to
law ; or is threatened to be killed, wounded.
or beaten, till he executes a bond, or ^other wri¬
ting.
DURHAM, a city and county, in the north of England,
fituated on the river Were, fourteen miles fouth of
Newcaftle : W. Ion. i° 12', and N. lat. 540 50'. It
is the fee of a bilhop, and fends two members to par¬
liament.
DUSSELDORP, a city of Germany, fituated on the
eaftern fhore of the Rhine, twenty miles north of Co-
logn: E. Ion. 6° 20', and N.lat. 510 15'.
DUTCHY, in geography, an appellation given to the
dominions of a duke.
Dutchy-court, a court of the dutchy chamber ofLan-
cafter, held at Weftminfter, before the chancellor of
the fame, for matters concerning the lands and fran-
chifes of that dutchy.
DUTY, in general, denotes any thing that one is obli¬
ged to perform.
Duty, in polity and commerce, fignifies the impoft laid
on merchandizes, at importation or exportation, com¬
monly called the duties of cuftoms; alfo the taxes of
excife, ftamp-duties, tic. See Customs, Excise,.
tic.
The principles on which all duties and cuftoms fhould
be laid on foreign merchandizes, which are imported
into thefe kingdoms, are fuch as tend tq cement a mu¬
tual friendlhip and traffic between one nation and ano¬
ther ; and therefore due care ffiuuld be taken in the
laying of them, that they may anfwer fo good an end,
and be reciprocal in both countries: they ffiould be fo
laid as to make the exports of this nation at leaft equal
to our imports from thofe nations wherewith we trade,
fo that a balance in money ffiould not be iffued out of
Great Britain, to pay for the goods and merchandizes
of other countries: to the end that no greater number
of our landholders and manufacturers fliould be depri¬
ved of their revenues arifing from the product of the
lands, and the labour of the people, by foreign impor¬
tations, than are maintained by exportations to fuch
countries. Thefe are the national principles on which
all our treaties of commerce with other countries are
to be grounded.
DUTY, in the military art, is the exercife of thofe func¬
tions that 'belong to afoldier; with this diftinCtion,
that mounting guards and the like, where there is no
enemy direCtly to be engaged., is called duty; but their
marching to meet and fight an enemy is called going on
fervice.
DUUMVIRATE, the office or dignity of the duumvi¬
ri. See the next article.
The duumvirate lafted till the year of Rome 388,
when it was changed into a decemvirate.
DUUMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, a general appel¬
lation given to magiftrates, commiffioners, and offi¬
cers, where two were joined together in the fame
functions.
Duumviri capitales were the judges in criminal cau-
fes : from their fentence it was lawful to appeal to the
people, who only had the power of condemning a citi¬
zen to death. Thefe judges were taken from the body
of
DYE ( 46° ) DYE
-of the decuriones ; they had great power and authori¬
ty, were members of the public council, and had two
lidtors to walk before them.
Duumviri municipales, were two magidratesinfome
cities of the empire, anfwering to what the confuls
were at Rome: they were chofen out of the body of
the decuriones; their office laded commonly five years,
upon which account they were frequently termed ya;«-
qainales magijlratus. Their jurifdidtion was of great
extent: they had officers walking before them, carry¬
ing a fmall fwitch in their hands; and fome of them
affiimed the privilege of having lietors, carrying
axes and the fafees, or bundles of rods, before
them.
Duumviri navales were the commidaries of the fleet,
fird created at the requeft of M. Decius, tribune of
the people, in the time of the war with the Samnites.
The duty of their office confided in giving orders for the
fitting of Ihips, and giving their commiflions to the
marine officers, <bc.
Duumviri sacrorum were magidrates created byTar-
quinius Superbus, for the performance of the facrifice,
and keeping of the fybils books. They were chofen
from among the patricians, and held their office for
life: they were exempted from ferving in the wars,
and from the offices impofed on the other citizens,
and without them the oracles of the fybils could not be
confulted.
DUrVELAND, or Diveland, one of the iflands of
Zealand, in the United Provinces, lying eadward of
Schonen, from which it is only feparated by a narrow
channel.
DWAL, in henaldry, the herb nightffiade ufed by fuch
as blazon with flowers and herbs, indead of metals and
colours, for fable or black.
DWARF, in general, an appellation given to things
greatly inferior in fize to that which is ufual in their
feveral kinds: thus there are dwarfs of the human
fpecies, dwarf-dogs, dwarf-trees, tic.
The Romans were fo paffionately fond of dwarfs,
that they often ufed artificial methods to prevent the
growth of boys defigned for dwarfs, by inclofing them
in boxes, or by the ufe of tight bandages. In Italy,
even at prefent, they waffi young puppies every day
with aflringent liquors, in order to prevent their growth
by hardening the parts.
DWINA, the name of two large rivers, one of which
rifes in Lithuania, and, dividing Livonia from Cour-
land, falls into the Baltic fea a little below Riga : the
other gives name to the province of Dwina, in Ruflia,
difeharging itfelf into the White fea, a little below
Archangel.
DYE, in architefture, any fquare body, as the trunk or
notched part of a pededal : or it is the middle of the
pededal, or that part included between the bafe and
the corniche, fo called becaufe it is often made in the
form of a cube or dye. See Architecture.
DYER, a perfon who profefles the art of dyeing all man¬
ner of colours. See Dyeing.
Dyer’s weed, in botany. See Reseda.
DYEING, the art of giving a lafting colour to filks,
cloths, and other lubftances, whereby their beauty is
much improved, and value enhanced.
This art depends chiefly on three things, viz. i.DiC-
pofing the furface of the fluffs to receive and retain
the colours ; which is performed by walking them in dif¬
ferent lyes, digefling, beating them, <bc. in which hu¬
man urine putrified, a ffiarp fait of allies, divers foaps,
and galls of animals, are of principal ufe ; by means
whereof the vifeous gluten of the lilk-w'orms natural¬
ly adhering to their threads, is walked and cleanfed
from them, and thus they become lined gradually to
imbibe the colours. By thefe alfo the greafy foulnefs
adhering to wool and flax is fcoured off.
2. To grind the colours, as that they may enter
the body duly prepared, and preferve their brightnefs
undiminilhed.
3. The third conlifts in having beautiful colours.
According to Sir W. Petty’s .account of what is
done in particular trades by the art’of dyeing, 1. There
is a whitening of wax, and feveral forts of linen and
cotton cloths, by the fun, air, and reciprocal effufions
of water. 2. Colouring of wood and leather, by lime,
fait and liquors, as in floves, canes, and marble lea¬
thers. 3. Colouring of paper, v.iz. the marbled paper,
by diflempering the colours with ox-gall, and applying
them upon a ftiff gummed liquor. 4. Colouring, or
rather difcolouring, the colours of filks, tiffanies, be.
by brimftpne. 5. Colouring of feveral iron and copper-
works into black with oil. 6. Colouring of leather in¬
to gold-colour, or rather filver-leaves into gold by var-
niffies, and in other cafes by urine and fulphur. 7.
Dyeing of marble and alabafter, with heat and colour¬
ed oils. 8. Colouring filver into the brafs-colour, with
brimftone or urine. 9. Colouring the barrels and locks
of guns into blue and purple, with the temper of fmall-
coal heat. 10. Colouring of glafs (made of fands, flints,
be.') as alfo of cryftals and earthen warf, with the
rufls and folutions of metals, it. The colouring of
live hair, as in Poland, horfe and man’s hair: as alfo
the colouring of furs. 12. Enameling and annealing.
13. Applying colours, as in the printing of books and
puftures, and as in making of playing cards, being each
of them performed in a different way. 14. Gilding
and tinning with mercury, block-tin, falarmoniac. 15.
Colouring of metals, as copper with calamy, into brafs,
and with zinc or fpelter into a golden colour, or into a
filver one with arfenic; and of iron into a refemblance
of copper with Hungarian vitriol. 16. Making paint¬
ers colours by preparing of earth, chalk, and flates; as
in umber, ochre, cullen-earth, be. asaKboutof calces
of lead, as cerufe and minium; by lublimates of mer¬
cury, and brimftone, as in vermilion ; by tinging whole
earths varioufly, as in verdeter, and fome of the lakes ;
by concrete juices, or faeculae, as in gambogium, indi¬
go, pinks, fap-green, and lakes; as alfo by rufls, as in
verdigreafe, be. 17. The applying thefe colours by the
adhefion of ox-gall, as in the marbled paper aforefaid ;
or by gum-water, as by limning; or by clammy dry¬
ing oils, fuch as the oils of lintfeed, nuts, be. 18.
The watering of tabbies. 19. The colouring of wool,
linen, cotton, filk, hair, feathers, horn, leather, and the
threads
DYE ( ) DYE
threads and webs of them with woods, roots, herbs,
feeds, leaves, falts,Mimes, lixiviums, waters, heats, fer- ;
mentations, macerations, and other great variety of ma¬
nagement : an account of all which is a fhort hiftory
of dyeing.
The materials ufed in the art of Dyeing, are iron and
fteel,or what is produced from them in all true blacks,
called Spanilh blanks, though not in Flanders blacks,
viz. they ufe copperas, fteel-filings,. and fljppe ; they
alfo ufe pewter for Bow-dye fcarlet, viz. they diflblve
bars of pewter in aquafortis; litharge is alfo ufed by
fome, though acknowledged by few to add weight to ’
dyed filk. Antimony is much ufed to the fame pur-
pofe. Arfenic is ufed in crimfon upon pretence of gi¬
ving luftre, although thofe who pretend not to be want¬
ing in giving luftre to their filks difown its ufe. Ver-
digreafe is alfo ufed by linen-dyers in their yellow and
greehifh colours ; though, of itfelf, it ftrikes no deep¬
er colour than that of a pale ftraw. Of mineral falts
ufed in dyeing, the chief is alum ; the true ufe where¬
of feems to be ki regard to the fixation of colours.
The next mineral fait is faltpetre, not ufed by ancient
dyers, and but by few of the modern/, nor is it yet u-
fed but to brighten colours, by back boiling of them,
for which argol is more commonly ufed : lime is much
ufed in working blue vats.
Of the animal tribes are ufed cochineal, urine of la¬
bouring men kept till it be ftale and {linking, honey,
yolks of eggs, and ox gall; jthe ufe of the-urine is to
fcour, and help the ferinenting and heating of woad;
and is ufed alfo in blue-vats inftead of lime : it dif-
chargeth the yellow, and therefore is ufed to fpend
weld withal.
Dyers ufe two forts of water, viz. river and well-
water; the laft,,which is harfii, they ufe in reds and
other colours wanting reftringency, andjn dyeing ma¬
terials of the flacker contextures, as in callicoe, fuftian,
and the feveral fpedes of cotton-works ; but is not
good for blu&, and makes yellows and greens look
rufty. . River-Woter is more fat and oily, and is there¬
fore ufed in moft cafes, andmuft be had in great quan¬
tities for waftiing and rinfing their cloths after dyeing.
Water is called by dyers white liquor; but a mixture
of one part bran, and five of river-water, boiled an hour
and put into leaden cifterns to fettle, is what they call
liquor abfolutely.
Gums have been ufed by dyers about filk, viz. gum
arab'fc, tragacanth, maftic, dragon’s blood Thefe tend
little to the tinfture, any more than gum in writing-ink,
which only gives it a confidence; fo gum may give the
filk a gloflin- fs; and, laftly, to increafe the weight.
The three peculiar ingredients for black are coppe¬
ras, filings of fteel, and flippe : the reftringent binding
materials are alder-bark, pomegranate-peels, walnut-
rinds and roots oakenfapling bark, and fajv-duft of the
fame, cab-tree bark, galls, and fumac.
The falts are alum, falt-petre, fal armoniac, pot-alh-
es, and ftone lime ; among which urine may be enume¬
rated as a liquid fait.
The liquors are well and river water, urine, aquavi-
Vol. II. N° 45. 2
tas, vinegar,lemon juice, aquafortis,honey, and molafles.
Ingredients of another clafs are bran, wheaten flour>
yokes of eggs, leaven, cummih feed, fenugreek feed,
agaric, and lenna.
The fmedtics, or 'abfterfives, are fuller’s earth, foap,
linfeed-oil, and ox-gall.
The metals and minerals are- pewter, verdigreafe,
antimony, litharge, and arfenic.
. The colourings are of three forts, v/2. blue, yellow,
and red ; of which logwood, old fuftic, indigo, and
madder, are the chief.
General obfervations upon Dyeing.
1. All materials which of themfelves do give colour
are either red, yellow, or blue ; fo tiiat out of them,
and the primitive fundamental colour white, all that
great variety which we fee in dyed fluffs doth arile.
2. That few of the-colouring materials, as cochineal,
foot, wood-wax, woad, are in their outward and
firft appearance of the fame colour, which by the
flighteft dtftempers and folutions in the weakeft men-
ftrua, they dye upon doth, filk, <bc.
3. That many of them will not yield their colours
without much grinding, fteeping, boiling and ferment¬
ing, or corrofion by powerful menftrua, as redwood,
weld, woad, arnotto, <bc,
4. That many of them will of themfelves give no
colouring at all, as copperas or galls, or with much
difadvantage, unlefs the cloth or other fluff to be dyed
be as it were firft covered, or incruftated with fome 0-
ther matter, though colourlefs aforehand, as madder,
weld, brazil, with alum.
5. That fome of them, by the help ofother colour¬
lefs ingredients, do (trike different colours from what
they would of themfelves, as cochineal, brazil, <fac.
6. That fome colours, as madder, indigo, and woad,
byreiterated tinftures, will at laft become black.
7 That although green be the* mott frequent and
the moft common of natural coloups, yet there is no
fimple ingredient now ufed alone to dye green with
upon any material ; fap-green being the neareft, which
is ufed by country people.
. 8. There is no black thing in ufe which dyes black,
though both the cdal and foot of moft things burnt
orfcorc^ed be of that colour, and the blacker, by how
much the matter before being burnt was whiter, as in
ivory black.
9 The tinfture of fome dyeing fluffs will fade even
with lying, or with the air, or will (lain with water
.only, but very much with urine, vinegar, <bc.
10. Some of the dyeing materials are ufed .to bind
apd ftrengthen a colour; fome to brighten it; fome to
give luftre to the ftuff; fome to difcharge and take off
the colour, either in whole or in part; and fome out
of fraud, to made the material dyed, if coftly, hea¬
vier.
11. That fome dyeing ingredients, or drugs, by the
coarfenefs of their bodies, make the thread of the dyed
ftuff feem' coarfer; and fome, by flirinking them,
fmaller; and fome, by fmoothing them, finer.
4 Z is.
dye ( 462 ) DYE
12. Many of the fame colours are dyed,upon feveral
fluffs with feveral materials, as red-wood is ufed in
cloth, not in filks; arnotto in filks, notln clorfi, and
may be dyed at feveral prices.
13. That fcouring and waihing of fluffs to be dyed,
is done with fpecial materials, as fometimes with ox¬
galls, fometimes with fullers-earth, and fometimes
foap; this latter being, in fome cafes, pernicious,
where pot-afhes will ftain, or alter the colour.
14. Where great quantities of fluffs are to be dyed
together, or where they are to be done with any fpeed,
and where the pieces are very long, broad, thick, or
otherwife, they are to be differently handled, both in
refpedt to the veffels and ingredients.
15. In fome colours and fluffs the tingent liquor
mufl_ be-boiling, in othpr cafes blood-warm, and in
Ibme it may be cold.
16. Some tingent liquors are fitted for ufe by long
keeping, and in fome the virtues wear away by the
keeping.
17. Some'colours or fluffs are beft dyed by reite¬
rated dippings in the fame liquor, fome by conti¬
nuing longer, and others a leffer time therein.
18. In fome cafes, the matter of the veffel wherein
the liquors are heated, and the tinfture prepared, muft
be regarded, as the kettles muft be pewter for Bow-
dye.
19. There is little reckoning made how much li¬
quor is ufed in proportion to the dyeingdrugs, it being
rather adjafled to the bulk of the fluffs, as the veffels
are to their breadth; the quantity of dyeing drugs be-«
jng proportioned both to the colour, higher or lower,
and to the fluffs; as likewife the falts are to the dye¬
ing drugs. Concerning the weight that colours give
to filk, (in which it is molt taken notice of, being fold
by weight, and a commodity of great price) it is ob-
ferved, that one pound of raw filk lofeth four ounces
by waihing out the gums and the natural fordes ; that
the fame fcoured (ilk may be raifed to above thirty
ounces from the remaining twelve, if it be dyed black
with fome materials.
Of a thing very ufeful in dyeing, efpecially of black,
nothing increafes weigfft fo much as galls, by which
black (ilks are reftored to as much weight as they loft
by wafhing out their gum: nor is it counted extraordi¬
nary that blacks fhould gain about four or fix ounces
in the dyeing upon each pound. Next to the galls, old
fuftic increafes the weight about i4 in'12 ; ^madder,
about one ounce; weld, half an ounce. The blue
vats in deep blues of the fifth flail, give no confider-
able weight'; neither doth logwood, cochineal, nor
even copperas, where galls are not: flippe adds much
to the weight, and giveth a deeper black than copper¬
as itfelf, which is a good excufe for the dyers that
life it.
Dyeing of nuotll and ’woollen manufafturts.
For black in woollen manufactures, it is begun
with a ftrong deco&ion of woad and indigo, that com¬
municate a deep blue; after which the fluffs being
boiled with alum and tartar, or pot-alh, are to be
maddered with common madder, then dyed black with
Aleppo galls, copperas, and fuma’c, and finiflied by
back-boiling in weld. Woolls for tapeftry are only
to be woaded, and tlffcn put in black. For fcarlet,
wooll and woollen manufactures are dyed with ker-
mes and cochineal, with which may alfo be ufed aga¬
ric and arfemc. Crim'fon fcarlet is dyed with cochi¬
neal, maftic, aquafortis, fal armoniac, fublimate, and
. fpirit of wine. Violet fcarlet, purple, amaranth, and
panfy-fcarlets, are" given wth woad, cochineal, indigo,
braziletto, brazil, and orchal. Common reds are gi¬
ven with pure madder, without any other ingredient.
Crimfon reds, carnations, flame and peach-colours^
are given, according to their feveral hues, with co- •
chineal, maftic, without madder, or the like. Crim¬
fon-red is prepared with Roman alum, with cochineal.
Orange aurora, brick-colour, and onion-peel colour,
are dyed with woad and maddeir, mixed according to
their feveral (hades. For blues, the dark are dyed
with a ftrong tinflure of woad; the brighter with the
fame liquor, as it weakens in working. Dark browns,
minims, and tan colours, are given with woad, weak¬
er in decodion than for black, with alum and pot-
afties, after which they are maddered higher than
black : for tan-colours, a little cochineal is added.
Pearl-colours are given with galls and copperas ; fome
are begun with walnut-tree roots, and finiflied with
the former; though to make them more ufeful, they
generally dip them in a weak tindfufe of cochineal.
Greens are begun with woad, and finilhed with weld.
Pale-yellows, lemon-colour, and fulphur colour, are
given with weld alone. Olive colours of all degrees
are firft put in green, and taken down with foot, more
or lefs, according to the (hade that is required. Feu-
lemort, hair^colour, mu(k, and cinnamon colour, are
dyed with weld and madder. Nacaret, or bright o-
range, is given with weld and goats-hair boiled with
pot-a(hes.
Dveing of ftlks, is begun by boiling them in foap,
then fcouring and walking them in water, and fteeping
them in cold alum-water. For crimfon, they are
fcoured a fecond time, before they are put into the
cochineal-vat. Red crimfon is given with pure cochi¬
neal, maftic, adding galls, turmeric, arfenic, and tar¬
tar, all mixed in a copper of fair water, almoft boil¬
ing : with thefe the filk is to be boiled an hour and a
half, after which it is allowed to (land in the liquor till
next day, Violet crimfon is given with pure cochi¬
neal, arfenic, tartar, and galls; but the galls in left
proportion than in the former when taken out, it is
waflred and put in a vat of indigo. Cinnamon crimfon
is begun like the violet, but finiflied by back-boiling;
if too fright, with copperas ; and if dark, with a dip
of indigo. Light blues are given in a back of indigo.
Sky-blues are begun with oschal, and finiflied with in¬
digo. For citron colours, the (ilk is firft al.umed, then
welded with indigo. Pale ye!lows,_ after aluming, are
dyed in weld alone. Pale and brown aurora’s, after
aluming are welded ftrongly, then taken down with
rocou and diffolved with pot-aflies. Flame-colour is
begun with focou, then alumed, and afterwards dip-
D Y N (
ped in a vat or two of brazil. Carnation and rofe
colours are firll alumedy then dipt in brazil. Cinna¬
mon colour, after aluming, is dipt in brazil and brazi-
letto. Lead colour is given with fultic, or with weld,
braziletto, galls and copperas. Black filks of the
coarfer fort, are begun by Icouring them with foap, as
for other colours ; after which they are walhed out,,
wrung, and boiled an hoOr in old galls, where they are
fuffered to fland a day or two : then they are walhed
again with fair water, wrung, and put into another
vat of new galls: afterwards walhed again, and wrung,
and fimlhed in a vat of black. Fine black filks are
only put once into galls of the new and line fort, that
has only boiled an hour: then the filks are walhed,
wrung out, and dipped thrice in black, and afterwards
taken down by back-boiling with leap.
The dyeing of thread is begun by fcouring it in a
lye of good alhes : afterwaids it is wrung, nnfed out
in river water, and wrung again. A bright blue is
given with braziletto and indigo : bright green is fir ft
dyed blue, then back-boiled with braziletto and verde-
ter and laftly woaded. A dark green is given like-
the former, only darkening more before woading.
Lemon and pale yellow is given with weld mixed with
rocou. Orange ifabella, with fuftic, weld, and rocou.
lied, both bright and dark, with flame-colour, 6c.
are given with brazil, either alone, or with a Aixture
of rocou. Violet, dry-rofe, and amaranth, are given
with brazil, taken down with indigo. Feulemort and
olive colour are given with galls and copperas taken
down with weld, rocou, or fuftic. Black is given with
galls and copperas, taken down and finiihed with bra¬
ziletto wood.
DYNASTY, among ancient hiftorians, fignifies a race or
fucceflion of kings of the fame line or family: fuch
were the dynafties of Egypt.
t«3 ) D Y V
The Egyptians reckon thirty dynafties within the
fpace of 36525 years; but the generality of chrono-
logers look upon them as fabulous. And it is very
certain, that thefe dynafties are not continually fuccef-
five, but collateral.
DYSCRACY, among phyficians denotes an ill habit
or ftate of the humours, as in the feurvy, jaundice,
&c.
DYSENTERY, in medicine, a diarrhoea or flux,
wherein the ftools are' mixed with blood, and the
bowels miferably tormented with gripes. See Medi¬
cine.
DYSERT, a parliament-town of Scotland, in the coun¬
ty of Fife, fituated on the northern fliore of the
frith of Forth, about eleven "miles north of Edin¬
burgh.
DYSOREXY, among phyficians, denotes a want of ap¬
petite, proceeding from a weakly ftomach.
DYSPEPSY, a difficulty of digeftion.
DYSPNOEA, a difficulty of breathing, ufually called
afthma.
DYSURY, in medicine, a difficulty of making urine, at¬
tended with a fenfation of heat and pain. See Me¬
dicine.
DYTISCUS, water-bee tee, in zoology, a genus of
infe&s of the order of the coleoptera; the antennas of
which are llender and fetaceous, and the hind feet are
hairy, and formed for fwimming. There are twenty-
three fpecies, diftinguiffied by their ant'enns, the co¬
lour of the elytra, &c.
DYVOUR’s habit, in Scots'law, a party-coloured
habit which fradulent bankrupts, or bankrupts who
have been dealers in illicite trades, are dire&ed to
Wear, as a mark of ignominy, upon their being libe¬
rate from prifon on a ceffio bonorum. See Scots.
Law, title 32.
E
E A G
AGLE, in ornithology. See Fal-co.
Eagle, in heraldry, is accounted one of the
moft noble bearings in armoury, and, according to the
learned in this fcience, ought to be given to none but
fuch as greatly excel in the virtues of generofity and
courage, or for having done lingular fervices to their
fovereigns; in which cafes they may be allowed a whole
eagle, or an eagle naiflant, or only the head or other
parts thereof, as may be moft agreeable to their ex¬
ploits.
Eagle, in aftronomy. Vol. I; p. 487.
Eagle owl. See Bubo.
Eagle-stone. See Aitites.
M/acA Eagle, an order of knighthood, inftituted by the
EAR
eleflor of Brandenburgh, ijiiyoi, on his being crown¬
ed king of Pruflia.
The knights of this order wear an orange-coloured.;
ribband luipending a black eagle.
White Eagle, a like order in Poland, inftituted in 1325, .
by Uladiflaus V. on occafion of the marriage of his
fon Cafimir to the daughter of the great duke of Li¬
thuania.
The knights of this order wear a chain of gold9)
fufpending a-filver eagle crowned.
EAGLET, a diminutive of eagle, properly fignifying a <
young eagle. In heraldry, when there are feveral
-eagles on the fame elcutcheon, they are termed ea-
glets.
EAR,,
EAR ( ) EAR
EAR, in anatoray. See Vol. I. p. 29;. on or trembling of fome confiderable part of theearth
Ear-wig, in zoology. See Fokficula. generally attended with a terrible •noil'e like thunder,
EARING, in the fea language, is that part of the bolt-
.rope which at the four corners of the fail is left open,
in the (hape-of a ring. Thetwouppermoft parts are put
over the ends of the yard-arms, and fo the fail is
made faft to the yard; and into the lowermofi: car¬
ings, the fheets and tacks are leized or bent at the clew.
EARL, a Britilh title^of nobility, next below a marquis,
ahd above a vifcount. Earls wpre anciently called co¬
mites, becaufe they were wont cemitari regem, to wait
upon the king for council and advice. The Germans
call them graves, as landgrave, margrave, palfgrave,
rheingrave; the Saxons ealdormen, unlefs that title
might be more properly applied to aur dukes"; the
Danes, eolras ; and the Enghlh, earls. The title, ori¬
ginally, died with the man. William the conqueror
firll made it hereditary, giving it in fee to his nobles,
and allotting them for the fupport of their flate the
third penny out of the iheriff’s court, iffuing out of all
pleas of the (hire whence they had their title. But
now the matter is quite otherwife ; for whereas here¬
tofore conies and comitatus were correlatives, and there
was no comes or earl but had a county or (hire for his
earldom, of later-yfears the number of earls increafing,
and no more counties being left, divers have made
choice of fome eminent part of a county, as Lindfey,
Holland, Cleveland, <bc. fome of a lefier part, as Staf¬
ford, tec. others have chofen for their title fome emi¬
nent town, as Marlborough, Exeter, Briftol, <bc. and
fome have taken for their title the name of a fmall vil¬
lage; their own feat or park, as Qtodolphin, Claren¬
don, be. An earl is created by cindture of fword, man¬
tle of ftate put upon him by the king himfelfowcap and
a coronet put qpon his head, and a charter in his hand.
All the earls of England are denominated from fopie
Ihire, town or place, except three; two of whom, viz.
earl Rivers, and earl Paulet, take their denomination
from illuftrious families: the third is not only honorary,
.as all the relt, but alfo officiary, as the earl-marffial of
England.
EARt-™<7r/W of England, is a great officer who had
anciently feveral courts under his jurifdidhon, as the
court of chivalry, .and the court of honour. Under
him is alfo the herald’s office or college of arms. He
hath fome pte-eminence in the court of Marffialfea,
where he may fit n judgment again!! thofe who offend
■within the verge of the kmg’s court. This office is of
great antiquity in England, and anciently of greater
power than now ; and has been for feveral ages here¬
ditary in the md! noble family of Howard.
EARNEST, in Scots law, a piece of money fometimes
given by a buyer, in evidence that the fale or contrad!
is compleat#d. See tit. 22.
EARTH a' foffile, or terreflrial matter, whereof our
globe p rtly con lifts. See Vol. I. p 67.
Earth, in allronomy and geography, one of the pri-
m w planets, being th s terraqueous globe whereon
we inhabit. See Astronomy and Geography.
.E-ARTHQUAKE, in natural hiftory, a violent agitati-
4 and fometimes with an eruption of fire, water, wind,
be. See Pneumatics.
EASEL-fieces, a denomination given by painters to
fuch pieces as are contained in frames, in contradiftinc-
tion from thofe painted on cielings, be.
EASEMENT, in law; a privilege or convenience which
one neighbour has of another, whether by charter or
prefeription, without profit: fuch are a way through
his lands, a fink, or the. like. Thefe, in many cafes,
may be claimed.
EASING, in the fea-language, fignifies the flackening a
rope, or the like: thus, to eafe the bow-line or.ffieet,
is to let them go flacker ; to eafe the helm. is to let the
fliip go more large, more before the wind, or more lar¬
board.
EASLOW, a borough of Cornwal, twenty-two miles
_ fouth of Launcefton/which fends two members to par¬
liament.
EAST, one of the four cardinal points of the world; being
that point of the horizon , where the fun is feen to rile
when in the equinodtial.
EASTER, a feftival of the chriftiah church, obferved in
memory of our Saviour’s refurredlion.
The Greeks call it pafga, the Latins pafeha, an He-
brew word fignifyingapplied to the Jewifli feafl:
of the paffover. It is called carter in'the Engliffi, from
the goddefs Eoftre, worffiipped by the Saxons with pe¬
culiar ceremonies in the month of April.
The Afiatic churches kept their carter upon the ve¬
ry fame day tire Jews obferved their paffover; and o-
thers, on the firft Sunday after the firft full moon in the
new year. This controverfy was determined in the
council of Nice, when it was ordained that carter fliould
be kept upon one and the fame day, which fliould al¬
ways bea Sunday, in all chriftian Churches in the world.
For the method of finding eafter by calculation, fee
Vo). I. p. 492.
EASTERN, an appellation given to whatever relates
to the eaft: thus we fay, eaftern amplitude, eaftern
church, be.
EATON, a town of Buckinghamffiire, fituated on the
north fide of the Thames, oppofite to Windfor, and
famous for its collegial fchool, founded by king Henry
VI being a ffeminary Tor king’s college Cambridge,
the fellows of which are all from this fchool.
EAVES, in aTchiredtur-e, the margin or edge of -the
roof of an houfe; being the lowert tiles, flates, or the
like, that hang over the walls, to throw off water
to a dKlance from the wall
EBBING of she tides. See, Vo! I. p. 473.
EBDOMARIUS, in ecelefiartical writers, an officer
formeily appointed weekly to fuperintend the perform¬
ance of divine fcrvice in cathedrals, and preferibe the
duties ofeach perfon attending i.n the choir, as to read¬
ing, -finging, praying, be.
EBENUS, the Ebony trer, in botany, a-genus of
the diadelphia decandria clafs. • The Cnlix has a num¬
ber of fniall hairy teeth, as long as the coroifa; rhe
corolla
E C C ( 465 ) E C H
corolla has hardly any wings; and the pod is hairy,
and contains but one feed. There is but one fpecies,
a native of Crete.
EBIONITES, in church-hiftory, heretics of the firft
century, fo called from their leader Ebion.
They held the fame errors with the Nazarenes, u-
nited the ceremony of the Mofaic inftitution with the
precepts of the gofpel, obferved both the Jewifli fab-
bath and Chriftian Sunday, and, in celebrating the
eucharirt made ufe of unleavened bread. They ab-
ftained from the flefh of animals, and even from milk.
In relation to Jefus Chrift, fome of them held, that
he was born like other men, of Jofeph and Mary, and
acquired fandtification only by his good works. Others
of them allowed, that he was born of a virgin, but
denied that he was the Word of God, or had any ex-
iftence before his human generation. They faid, he
was indeed the only true Prophet; but yet a mere
man, who, by his virtue, had arrived at being called
Chrid, and the Son of God. They alfo fuppofed,
that Chrift and the devil were two principles, which
God had oppofed to each other. Of the New Teda-
ment they only received the gofpel* of St Matthew,
which they called the gofpel according to the He¬
brews.
EBRO, anciently Iberus, a large river of Spain, which
taking its rife in Old Cadile, runs through Bifcay and
Arragon, pafles by Saragofa, and, continuing its courfe
through Catalonia, difeharges itfelf with great rapidi-
. ty into the Mediterranean, about twenty miles below
-the city of Tortofa.
EBULLITION. See Boiling.
EBULUS, in botany. See S.ymbucus.
ECBOLIUM, in botany. See Aohatoda.
ECCHYMOSIS, in furgery, an extravafation of the
blood from a vein in the arm betwixt the fledt and flein.
ECCLESIASTES; a canonical book of the OidTeda-
ment, the defign of which is to ihew the vanity of all
fublunary things.
It was compofed by Solomon, who enumerates the
feveral objedts on which men place their happiriefs,
and then (hews the infufficiency of all worldly enjoy¬
ments.
TheTalmudids make king Hezekiah to be the author
of it; Grotius aferibes it to Zorobabel, and others to
Ifaiah ; but the generality of commentators believe this
book to be the produce of Solomon’s repentance, after
having experienced all the follies and pleafures of life.
ECCLESIASTICAL, an appellation given to whatever
belongs to the church: thus we fay, ecclefiadical po¬
lity, jurifdidiion, hidory, tfye.
ECCLESIASTICUS, an apocryphal book, generally
bound up with the feriptures, fo called, from its being
read in the church, ecclefia, as a .book of piety and
iridrbdron, but not of infallible authority.
The author of this book was a Jew, called Jtfus
the fon of Sirach. The Greeks call it the wifdom of
the fon of Sirach.
ECCOPE, in furgefy. See Amputation.
ECCOPROT1CS, in pharmacy, See Cathartics,
and-E'VACUANTs.
Vol. II. No. 46. 2
ECHAPE, in the menage, a horfe begot between a dal-
lion and a mare of different breeds and countries.
ECHAPER, in the menage, a gailicifm ufed in the aca¬
demies, implying to give a horfe head, or to put on at
full fpeed.
ECHENEIS, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to the
order of thoracici. The head is fat, naked, depref-
fed, and marked with a number of tranfverfe ridges :
it has ten rays in the branchiodege membrane; and
the body is naked. There are two fpecies, viz. 1.
the remora, with a forked tail, and eighteen drias on
the head. It is found in the Indian ocean. 2. The
peucrates, with an undivided tail, and twenty-four
ftrise on the head. It is likewife a native of the Indian
ocean.
ECHEVIN, in the French and Dutch polity, a magi-
Urate defied by the inhabitants of a city or town, to
take care of their common concerns, and the decoration
and cleanlinefs of the city.
At Paris, there is a prevot, and four echcvins; in
other towns, a mayor and echevins. At Amderdam,
there are nine echevins ; and, at Rotterdam, feven.
In France, the echevins take cognizance of rents,
taxes, and the navigation of rivers, <Z5c. In Holland,
they judge of civil and criminal caufes ; and if the cri¬
minal confeffes himfelf guilty, they.can fee their fen-
tence executed without appeal.
ECHINATE, or Echinated, an appellation given
to whatever is prickly, thereby refembiing the hedge-
hog.
ECHINITES, in natural hidory, the name by which
authors call the foffile centronia, frequently found in
our chalk-pits. See Centronia.
ECHINOPHORA, in botany, a genus of the pentan-
dria digynia clafs. The fruit has funk peduncles.
There are two fpecies, one of which, viz. the fpino-
fa, or prickly famphire, is a native of Britain.
ECHINOPS, Glove-thistle, in botany, a genus of
the fyngenefia polygamia fegregata clafs. The proper
calix is erefl, imbricated, and contains but a fingle
flower. There are three fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
ECHINUS, in zoology, a genus of infefts belonging to
the order of vermes mollufca. The body is roundiflr,
covered with a bony crud, and often befet with move-
able prickles; and the mouth is below, and confifls of
five valves. There are feventeen fpecies, all natives
of the fea.
Echinus, in archite£Iure, a member or ornament near
the bottom of the Ionic, Corinthian, and compofite
capitals.
ECHIUM, Viper’s bugloss, in botany, a genus of
the pentandria monogynia clafs. The corolla is irre¬
gular, with a naked faux. There are feven fpecies,
three ©f which are natives of Britain, viz. the vul-
gare, or viper’s buglofs ; the anglicum, or Englifli vi¬
per’s bugiofs; and the italicum, or wall-viper’s bu-
' RE¬
ECHO, a found reverberated or reflected to the ear
from fome folid body. See Pneumatics.
Echo, in archife&ure, a term applied to certain kinds
5 A of
E C T ( 466 ) E D I
of vaults and arches, moft commonly of elliptical and
parabolical figures, ufed to redouble founds, and pro¬
duce artificial echos.
ECHOMETER, among muficians, a kind of fcale or
rule, with fevera! lines thereon, ferving to meafure the
duration and length of founds, and to find their inter¬
vals and ratios.
ECLECTICS, ancient philofophers, who, without at¬
taching themfdves to any particular fed, feleded
whatever appeared to them the belt and moft rational,
from each.
Potamon of Alexandria was the firft of the ecledics :
he lived in the reigns of Auguftus and Tiberius; and
being tired with the fcepticifm of the Pyrrhonians, he
refolved upon a fcheme that would allow him to bebeve
fomething, but without being fo implicit as to fwallow
any entire hypothefis.
ECLECTOS. See Lin crus.
ECLIPSE, in aftronomy, the deprivation of the light
of the fun, or of fome heavenly body, by the inter-
pofition of another heavenly body between our fight
and it. See Vol. I. p. 476,
ECLIPTIC, in aftronomy, a great circle of the fphere,
fuppofed to be drawn through the middle of the zo¬
diac, making an angle with the equinodial of about
230 3o\ which is the fun’s greateft declination; or,
more ftridly fpeaking, it is that path or way among
the fixed liars, that the earth appears to defcribe to
an eye placed in the fun. See Astronomy, and
Geography.
ECLOGUE, in poetry, a kind of paftoral compofition,
or a fmall elegant poem, in a natural fimple ftyle.
The models in this fort of poetry are Theocritus
and Virgil.
ECOUTE', in the menage, a pace or motion of a horfe,
when he rides well upon the hands and the heels, is
compadly put upon his haunches, and hears or liftens
to the heels or fpurs, and continues duly balanced be¬
tween the heels, without throwing to either fide. This
happens when a horfe has a fine fenfe of the aids of the
hand and heel.
ECPHRACTICS. in medicine, remedies which atte¬
nuate and remove ebftrudions. See Attenuants,
and Deobsruents.
ECPIESMA, in furgery, a fort of fradure of the cra¬
nium, when the bones are much lhattered, and, pref-
fing inwardly, aflfed the membranes of the brain.
Ecpiesma, in pharmacy, fignifies the mafs remaining af¬
ter the juices of vegetables have been prelfed out: and,
in this fenfe. is the fame as magma. It fometimes fur¬
ther imports the juice prefled out.
ECPIESMUS,. in the ancient writers of medicine, a
word ufed to exprefs a diftemperature of the eye, con-
fifting in a very great prominence of the entire globe
of the eye, which is, as it were, thruft out of its
focket or orbit, by a great flux of humours, or an in¬
flammation.
ECPUCTICA, in pharmacy. See Intrassants.
ECTHESIS, in church-hiftory, a confeffion of faith, in
the form of an edid, publilhed in the year 639, by the
emperor Heraclius, with a view to pacify the troubles
occafioned by the Eutychian herefy in the eaftern
church. However, the fame prince revoked it, on
.being informed that fope Severinus had condemned it,
as favouring the Monothelites ; declaring at the fame
time, that Sergius, patriarch of Conftantinople, was
the author of it.
ECTHLIPSIS, among Latin grammarians, a figure of
profody whereby the vi at the end of a word, when the
following word begins with a vowel, is elided, or cut”
off, together with the vowel preceding it, for the fake
of the meafure of the verfe : thus they read mult' tile,
for multum ille.
ECTROPIUM, in furgery, is when the eye-lids are in¬
verted, or retraded fo as to (hew their internal or red
furface, and cannot fufficiently cover the eye.
ECTYLOTICS, in pharmacy, remedies proper for con-
fuming callofities.
ECU, or Escu, a French crown, for the value of which,
fee Money.
EDDISH, or Eadish, the latter pafture, or grafs that
comes after mowing or reaping; otherwife called ea-
grafs, or earfh, and etch
EDDY tide, or Eddy-water, among feamen, is
where the water runs back contrary to the tide; or
that which hinders the free .pafiage of the ftre-am, and
fo caufes it to return again.
Edd y-wind is that which returns, or is beat back from a
fail, mountain, or any thing'that may hinder its palfage.
EDESSA. See Orfa.
EDICT, in matters of polity, an order or inftrument,
figned and fealed by a prince, to ferve as a law to his
fubjeds. We find frequent mention of the edids of
the praetor, the ordinances of that officer in the Ro¬
man law. In the French law, the edids are of feve-
ral kinds : fome importing a new law or regulation ;
others, the eredion of new offices; eftablilhmems of
duties, rents, foe. and fometimes articles of pacifica¬
tion. In France, edids are much the fame as a pro¬
clamation is with us; but with this difference, that the
former have the authority of a law in themfelves, from
the power which iffues them forth ; whereas the latter
are only declarations of a law, to which they refer,
and have no power in themfelves
EDINBURGH, the capital city of the kingdom of
Scotland, fituated W. long. 30, and N. lat. 56°.
We ffiall not fpend time in fruitlefs inquiries into
the antiquity of this city, or the etymology of its name;
both of which feem to be fabulous and uncertain. It
is conjedured by fome to have owed its origin and
name to Edwin king of Northumberland, about the
year ,600; is taken notice of by authors in the 854
as a fmall and inconfiderable village, and only about the
middle of the 14th century as the capital of Scotland.
Edinburgh is fituated upon a fteep hill, rifing from
eaft to weft, and terminating in a high and inacceffible
rock, upon which the caftle ftands. At the eaft end,
or lower extremity of this hill, ftands the abbey of
Holyrood-houfe, or king’s palace, diftant from the
caftle. upwards of a mile; and betwixt which, along
the top of the ridge, and almoft in a ftrait line, runs
the ffiigh-ftreet of Edinburgh. On each fide, and pa¬
rallel
EDI ( ,
rallel to this ridge or hill, is aaotheri ridge of ground
lower than that in the middle, and which does not ex¬
tend fo far to the call; that on the fouth being inter¬
cepted by Salifbury-rocks, and Arthur’s-feat, a hill
of about 650 feet of perpendicular height; and that
on the north by the Calton-hiil, confiderably lower
than Arthur’s-feat: fo that the fituation of this city is
inoft fingular and romantic; the eaft or lower part of
the town lying between two high hills; and the weft
or higher part riling up towards a third hill, little in¬
ferior in height to the higheft of the other two, upon
which, as'has been*obferved, the caftle ‘is built, and
overlooks the town.
The buildings of the town terminate at the diftance
of about 200 yards from the caftle-gate; which fpace
affords a moft delightful as well as convenient and
healthful walk to the inhabitants. The profpedt from
this fpot is perhaps the fineft anywhere to be met with,
for extent, beauty, and variety.
In the valley or hollow betwixt the mid and fouth
ridge, and nearly parallel to the high-ftreet, is ano¬
ther ftreet called the Cowgate ; and the town has now
extended itfelf over moft part of that fouth ridge alfo.
Betwixt the mid and north ridge was a loch, which, till
of very late, terminated the town on that fide. From
the high-ftreet towards the loch on the north, and Cow-
gate on the fouth, run narrow crofs fireets or lanes,
called wynds and clofles, which grow fleeper and deeper
the farther weft or nearer the caftle ; fo that, were it
not for the clofenefs and great height of the build¬
ings, this city, from its fituation and plan, might na
turally be expected to be the beft aired, as well as the
cleanlieftin Europe. Thefirft, notwithftandingthefedif-
advantages, it enjoys in an eminent degree; but we can¬
not compliment it upon the latter, notwithftanding every
poflible means has been ufed by the magiftrates for
that purpofe.
The fteepnefs of the afcent makes the accefs to the
high-ftreet from the north and fouth very difficult;
and has no doubt greatly retarded the enlarge¬
ment of this city. To remedy this inconvenience
on the north, and with a view to extend the town on
that quarter, a moft elegant bridge is prefently throw¬
ing over the north loch, which will join the north
ridge to the middle of the high-ftreet, by fo eafy an
afcent as one in fixteen ; and in purfuance of this de
fign a plan of a new town to the north is fixed up¬
on, and is a&ually carrying into execution with fur-
prifing rapidity, and with an elegance and tafte that
does honour to this country.
The principal public buildings in Edinburgh may
be reduced to four, viz. St Giles’s church, the
paiace of Holyrood houfe, Herriot’s hofpital, and
tke Royal Infirmary. St Giles’s church is the
moft ancient church in Edinburgh, in fo much that it.
is not known when or by whom it was founded. It ‘
Hands on the fouth-fide of the high ftreet, about a
quarter of a mile below the caftle. It is a very large,
irregular, and heavy building, except the fteeple. which .
runs with a fquare ftalk from the middle of the ftruc-
ture, and terminates in the form of an imperial crown,
7 ) E D U
and is reckoned the fineft in Britain for elegance and
fymmetry.
The abbey of Holyrood-houfe was eredfed by David I.
anno 1128, in memory, as is faid, of his deliverance
from the horns of an enraged hart, by the interpofition
of heaven in the form of a crofs. It was firft made a
royal palace by James V. about the year 1528, who
built the north wing of the prefent front, which evi¬
dently appears older than the reft. It was completed
in the prpfent form by Charles II. in the year 1674;
and is juftly reckoned a moft magnificent and elegant
building.
Herriot’s hofpital, was founded, July 1. 1628, by the
magiftrates of Edinburgh, in virtue of a donation of
L. 43,608 : 11 : 3, bequeathed to them by George
Herriot, goldfmith and jeweller to James VI. “ for the
“ maintenance, relief, bringing up, and education of
“ fo many poor fatherlefs boys, fr&emens fons of the
“ town of Edinburgh,” as the above fum ftiould be
fufficient for. This hofpital contains at prefent about
a hundred and forty boys, who are well educated and
taken cane of. It has, , notwithftanding the large fum
laid out in building the houfe, a great annual revenue;
which, 3s it confilts moftlyof lands, muft always keep
pace with the nominal value of money. This hofpital
is finely fituated on the weft end of the fouth ridgei
almoft oppofite to the caftle; and is perhaps the moft
magnificent building of that kind in Britain.
The Royal Infirmary was founded in Auguft 1738,
by the magiftrates of Edinburgh, in virtue of a char*
ter from the crown, for the reception of poor difeafed
perfons; and by cohduft in the management of its
funds, which arofe moftly from the public contribu¬
tions, and were but very fcanty, has proved an inefti-
mable bleiling to this country. This hofpital Hands
near the eaft end of the fouth ridge; and is thought
by fome to be rather too magnificent, confidering the
purpofe for which it is defign.-d, and the narrownefs
of the original funds.
Edinburgh, as not being properly a fea-port town,
has never been remarkable for trade. The chief ad¬
vantages it enjoys arife from the fupreme courts of ju-
ftice, which are there held; and from, its college,
which has become famous over Europe, particularly
for phyfic.
EDITOR, a perfon of learning, who has the care of an
imprelfion of any work, particularly that of an ancient
author : thus Erafmus was a great editor; the louvain
dodlors, Scaliger, Petavius, F. Sirmond, bifhop Wal¬
ton, Mr Hearne, Mr Ruddiman, &c. are likewife
famous editors.
EDUCATION,, the inftrmfting children, and youth in
general, in fuch branches of knowledge and polite ex-
ercifes, as are fuitable to their genius and ftation.
Education is a vdry extenfive fubjeft, that has em¬
ployed the thoughts and pens of the greateft men :
Locke, the archbilhop of Cambray, Tanacjuil Faber
M. Croufaz. Rollin, and Rouffeau, may be confultcd ■
on this head.
The principal aim of parents fiiould be, to know
what fphere of life their children are defigned to aft
E G G ( 468 ) EGG
in; what education is really fultable to them ; what
will be the confequence of negle&ing that; and what
chance a fuperior education will give them, for their
advancement in the world. Their chief ftudy fliould
be to give their children fuch a degree of knowledge,
as will' qualify them to fill fome certain port or dation
in life: in Ihort, to fit them for an employment fuited
to their condition and capacity, fuch as will make them
happy in themfelves and ufeful to fociety.
EDULCORATION, in chemiftry, the feparating, by a
walking or folution in v/ater, the fait that any body may
be impregnated with, or thole that may be left adhering
to a body after any operation. See Chemistry.
EEL, in ichthyology, a fpecies of muraena. See Mu-
RJENA.
Eel-spear, a forked inftrument with three or four
jagged teeth, ufed for catchifig of eels : that with the
four teeth is beft, which they llrike into the mud at
the bottom of the river, and if it ftrike again!! any
eels it never fails to bring them up.
EFFARE', or Effraye', in heraldry, a term applied
to a beaft rearing on its hind-legs, as if it were fright¬
ed or provoked.
EFFECT, in a general fenfe, is that which refults from,
or is produced by, any caufe. See Cause.
Effects, in commerce, law, fac. the goods pofleffed
by any perfon, whether moveable or immoveable
EFFERDING, a town of Upper Auftria, about ten
miles weft of Lintz.
EFFERVESCENCE, in a general fenfe, fignifies a
flight degree of ebullition in liquors expofed to a due
degree of heat: but the chemifts apply it to that in-
teftine motion excited in various fluids, either by the
mixture of fluids with others of a different nature ; or
by dropping falts or powders of various kinds into
fluids. See Powders.
EFFIGY, the portrait, figure, or exadt reprefentation of
a perfon.
EFFLORESCENCE, among phyficians, the fame with
exanthema. See Exanthema.
EFFLUVIUM, in phyfiology', a term much ufed by
philofophers and phyficians, to exprefs the minute
particles which exhale from moft, if hot all, tepre-
ilrial bodies in form of infenfible vapours.
EFFUSION, in a general fenfe, the pouring out of any
thing liquid, and that with fome violence.
EFT, in zoology, the Englilh name of the common li¬
zard. See Lacertus.
EGERMOND, a market-town of Cumberland, ten
miles fouth of Cockermouth.
EGG, in phyfiology, a body formed in certain females,
in which is contained an embryo, or foetus of the
fame fpecies, under-a cortical furface or ftiell. The
exterior part of an egg is the lhell, which in a hen,
for inftance, is a white, thin, and friable cortex, in¬
cluding all the other parts. The lhell becomes more
brittle by being expofed to a dry heat. It is lined e-
very where'with a very thin but'a pretty tough mem¬
brane, which dividing at, or very'near, the obtufe end
of the egg, forms a fmall bag, where only air is contain¬
ed, In new laid eggs this folliculus appears very little,
but becomes larger when the egg is kept.
Within this are contained the albumen or white, and
the vitellus or yelk; each of which have their diffe¬
rent virtues.
The albumen is a cold, vifcuous, white liquor in
the egg, different in confiftence in its different parts.
It is obferved, that there are two diftindt albumens,
each of which are inclofed in its proper membrane;
of thefe, one is very thin and liquid, and the other
more denfe and vifcuous, and of a fomewhat whiter
colour; but, in old and ftale eggs, after fome days in¬
cubation, inclining to a yellow. As this fecond albu¬
men covers the yelk on all fides, fo it is itfelf fur-
rounded by the other external liquid. The albumen
of a fecundated-egg, is as Iweet and free from corrup¬
tion, during all the time of incubation, as it is in new-
laid eggs ; as is alfo the vitellus. As the eggs of hens
confift of two liquors feparated one from another, and
diftinguilhed by two branches of umbilical veins, one
of which goes to the vitellus, and the other to the al¬
bumen ; fo it is very probable that they are of different
natures, and confequently appointed for different pur-
pofes.
When the vitellus grows warm with incubation, it
becomes more humid, and like melting wax, or fat;
whence it takes up more fpace; for as the foetus increa-
fes, the albumen infenfibly v/aftes away, and conden-
fes: the vitellus, on the contrary, feems to lofe little
or nothing of its bulk when the foetus is perfedted,
and only appears more liquid and humid when the
abdomen of the foetus begins to be formed.
The chick in the egg is firft nourilhed by the albu¬
men ; and when this is confumed, by the vitellus, as
with milk. If we compare the chalazae to the extre¬
mities of an axis p-fling through the vitellus, which is
of a fpherical form, this fphere will be compofed of
two unequal portions, its axis not palling through its
centre; confequently, fince it is heavier than the white,
its fmaller portion muft always be uppermoft in all po-
fitions of the egg.
The yellowilh white round fpot, called cicatricuia,
is placed on the middle'of the fmaller portion of the
yelk; and therefore, from what has been faid in the
laft paragraph, muft always appear on the fuperior part
of the vitellus.
Not long before the e'xclufion of the chick, the
whole yelk is taken into its abdomen; and the Ihell,
at the obtufe end of the egg, frequently appears crack¬
ed fome time before the exclufion of the chick. The
chick is fometimes obferved to perforate the ihell with
its beak. After exclufion, the yolk is gradually wall¬
ed, being conveyed into the fmall guts by a fmall
du£h
Eggs differ very much according to the birds that
lay them, according to their colour, form, bignefs, age,
and the different way of drefling them: thofe moft u-
fed in food are hens eggs : of thefe, fuch as are new-
laid are beft.
As to the prefervation of eggs, it is obferved that
the
E I E ( 469 ) E L A
die egg is always quite full when it is firfl ia.'d by the
hen, but from that time it gradually becomes Ids and
lefs to, to its decay; and however compaft and clofe
its fhell may appear, it is neverthelefs perforated with
a multitude of fmall holes, though too minute for the^
difcernment of our eyes, the effed of which is a daily
decreafe of matter within the egg, from the time of its
being laid ; and the perfpiration is much quicker in hot
weather than in cold.
To preferve the egg frefh, there needs no more than
to preferve it full, and (lop its tranfpiration ; the me¬
thod of doing which is, by flopping up thofe pores
with matter which is not foluble in watery fluids ; and
on this principle it is, that all kinds of varnilh, prepared
with fpirit of wine, will pteferve eggs frdh for a long
time, if they are carefully rubbed all over the fhell:
tallow, or mutton fat, is alfo good for this purpole, for
fuch as are rubbed over with this will keep as long as
thofe coated over with varnifh.
Artificial method of hatching Eggs. See Hatching.
EGLANTINE, in botany. See Rosa
EGRA, a city of Bohemia, fituated on a river of the
fame name, about feventy-five miles weft of Prague:
E. long. 120 22', N. lat. 5^0° id.
EGYPT, an extenfive country of Africa, lying between
30° and 36° of eaft longitude, and between 210 and 31®
of north latitude; and bounded by the. Mediterranean
en the north; by the Red fea and Ifthmus of Suez,
which divide it from Arabia, on the eaft ; by Abyfli-
nia or Ethiopia, on the fouth; and by the defarts of
Barca and Nubia, on the weft ; being (ix hundred miles
in length from north'to fouth, and jfrom one hundred
to two hundred in breadth from eaft to weft. Egypt
is fubjedt to the grand fignior, and goverriad by a ba-
fhaw, or viceroy. It owes its fertility to the annual
overflowing of the Nile, which it begins to do in the
months of May and June, and is ufually at its height
in September, from which time the waters decreafe till
Mayor June again. By this fupply of water, Egypt
is rendered fo fruitful, as to ferve Conftantinople and
other places with corn, as it did Rome and Italy of old.
They only harrow their grain into the mud, on the re¬
tiring of the water, and in March following ufually
have a plentiful harveft; and the lands, not fown. yield
good crops of grafs for the ufe of the cattle. Accor-
. ding to Mr. .Sandys, no country in the world is better
furnifhed with grain, flelh, fifh, fugar, fruits, melons,
roots, and other garden fluff, than the lower E-
gypt.
EGYPTEN, a town of Courland, feventy miles fouth-
eaft of Mittau.
EGYPTIANS, or Gypsies, in Scots law, a band of
robbers originally from Egypt, which infefted Scot
land about the end of the 16th century.
EJ ACULATOR, a mufcle of the penis. See Vol. I.
p. 170
EICHTERNAC, a town of Luxemburg, /even miles
north weft of Treves.
EJECTA, a term ufed, by lawyers, for a woman de¬
flowered, or caft from the virtuous.
EJECTION, in the animal oeconomy, evacuation, or
Vol. II, No. 46. ’
the difeharging any thing through fume of the crfmifc-
tories, as by ftool, vomit, {3c.
Ejection, in Scots law, is the turning out the polTef-
for of any heritable fubjedt by force; and is either legal
or illegal.—Legal ejedtion is where a perfon having
' no title to poflefs, is turned out by the authority of
law: See Removing. Illegal ejedtion, is one per-
fon’s violently turning another out of poffeflion with¬
out lawful ahthority. See Law, title 29.
EIENHOVFN, a town of Dutch Brabant, fifteen miles
fouth of Boifleduc.
EIFIELD or Elfield, a town of lower Saxony, fix.
miles north-weft of Mentz.
EIGHT, or Piece of Eight. See Money.
EIMBECK, a town of lower Saxony, belonging to the-
eledtor of Hanover, twenty-five miles fouth of Hilde-
ftieitn.
EISLEBEA, a town of Upper Saxony, five miles eaft
of Mansfield, remarkable for being the birth-place of
Luther.
ELASAGNUS, dutch myrtle, in botany, a genus
of the tetrandria-monogynia clafs. It has no corolla;
the calix is bell-lhaped above the fruit, and has four
fegments ; and the drupa is bell-lhaped,.and below the.
calix. There are three fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain.
ELAEOTHESIUM, in antiquity, the anointing room,
or place where thofe who were to wreftle, or had bath¬
ed, anointed themfelves. See Gymnasium.
ELAPHEBOLIUM, in Grecian antiquity, the ninth
month of the Athenian year, anfwering to the latter
part of February and beginning of March. It con-
fifted of thirty days, and took its name from the fefti-
val elaphebolia, kept in this month, in honour of Di¬
ana the huntrefs ; on which occafion, a cake made in
the form of a deer, was offered to her.
ELASMIS, in natural hiftory, a genus of talcs, compo-t
fed of fmall plates in form of fpangles; and either fin-
gle, and not farther fiflile ; or, if complex, only fiflile
to a certain degree, and that in fomewhat thick lami-
ras.
Of thefe talcs there are feveral varieties, fome with
large and others with fmall fpangles, which differ alfo
in colour and other peculiarities,
ELASTIC, in natural philofophy, an appellation given
to all bodies endowed with the property of elafticity.
See the next article,
ELASTICITY, or Elastic force, that property of
bodies wherewith they reftore themfelves to their for¬
mer figure, after any external preffure. SCcMecha-
, n 1 c s.
ELATER, in zoology, a genus of infedts belonging to
the order of coleoptera. The feelers are fetaceous.
There are 38 fpecies, diftinguifned by their colour,
&c.
ELATERIUMj'in pharmacy, imports, in general, any
purging medicine; but is particularly applied to thofe
which operate with violence.
ELATINE, in botany,- a genus of the odtandria-tetra-
gynia clafs. The calix confifts of four leaves, and the
corolla of four petals; the capfule has four cells and
2 5 B four
four deprefTed valves. There are two fpecies, one of
which, viz. the alfinaftrum or water-wort, is a native of
Britain.
ELBE, a large river in Germany, which, rifing on the
confines of Silefia, runs through Bohemia, Saxony,
and Brandenburg ; and afterwards dividing the dutchy
of Lunenburg from that of Mecklenburg, as alfo the
dutchy of Bremen from Holitein, it falls into the Ger¬
man ocean, about feventy miles below Hamburgh.
It is navigable for great fhips higher than any river
in Europe.
ELBOW, in anatomy, the jun&ure of the cubitus and
radius ; or the outer angle made by the flexure or bend
of the arm. See Anatomy.
ELCESAITES, in church-hiftory, ancient heretics, who
made their appearance in the reign of the emperor Tra-
jan, and took their name from their leader Elcefai.
The elcefaites kept a mean between the Jews, Chrifti-
ans, and Pagans; they worlhipped but one God, ob-
ferved the Jewifh fabbath. circumcifion, and the other
ceremonies of the law. They rejedted the pentateuch,
and the prophets ; nor had they more refpedt for the
writings of the apoftles, particularly thofe of St. Paul.
ELDERS.or Seniors, in Jewifti hiftory, were perfons
the moft confiderable for age, experience, and wifdom.
Of this fort were the feventy men wi om Mofes aflbci-
ated to himfelf in the government of his people; fuch,
. likewife, afterwards were thofe who held the firft rank
in the fynagogue, as prefidents.
In the firlt aflemblies of the primitive Chriftians,
. thofe who held the firft place were called elders. The
word prelbyter, often ufed in the New Teftament, is
of the fame fignification : hence the firft councils of
Chriftians were called prefbyteriit, or councils of elders.
Elder is alfo a denomination ftill preferved in the pref-
byterian difcipline. See Presbyterian.
Elder, or Alder, in botany. See Alnus.
ELECAMPANE, in botany. See Inula.
ELECT, among ecclefiaftical writers, thofe whom God
has chofen,»or predeftinated to be faved.
ELECTION, the choice that is made of a perfon, or
thing, in preference of any other; as in the election of
an emperor, of a pope, of a bilhop, of members of
parliament, <bc.
Election, in theology, fignifies the choice which God
makes of angels and men for the objetfs of his grace
and mercy. See Grace, and Predestination .
ELECTOR, a perfon who has a right to eledt or chufe
another to an office, honour, <bc.
Eledlor is particularly, and by way of eminence,
applied to thofe princes of Germany in whom lies the
right of eledting the emperor : being all fovereign
princes, and the principal members of the empire.
The eledtoral college, confifting of all the ele&ors
of the empire, is the moft illuftrious and auguft body
in Europe. Bellarminc and Baronius atribute the in-
ftitutioh of it to pope Gregory V and the emperor O-
tho III. in the tenth century; of which opinion are
) £ L E'
the generality of hiftorians, and particularly the ci-
nonifts; however, the number of ele&ors was unfet¬
tled, at lead, till the thirteenth century. In 1356
Charles IV. by the golden bull, fixed the number of e-
ledlofs to feven ; three ecclefiaftics, viz. the archbi-
fliops ofMentz, Treves, and Cologne ; and four feCu-
lars, viz. the king of Bohemia, count Palatine of the
Rhine, duke of Saxony, and marquis of Brandenburg.
In 1648 this order was changed, the duke of Bavaria
being put in the place of the count Palatine, who having
accepted the crown of Bohemia was outlawed by the
emperor; but being at length reftored, an eighth e-
ledtdrate was eredted for the duke of Bavaria. In
1692, a ninth eledtorate was created, by the empetor
Leopold, in favour of the duke of Hanover, of the
houfe of Brunfwic Lunenburg.
There is this difference between the fecular and ec-
clefiaftic eledtors, that the firft have an adtive and paf-
five voice, that is, may chufe and be chofen ; the laft,
an adtive only. The three archbiffiops are to be thir¬
ty years old, before they can be advanced to the digni¬
ty ; the feculars, eighteen, before they can perform the
office themfelves. Thefe laft have fcach their vicars,
who officiate in their abfence.
Befides the power of chufing an emperor, the elec¬
tors have alfo-that of capitulating with, and depofing
him ; fo that, if there be one fuffrage wanting, a pro-
teft may be entered again!!; the^proceedings. By the
right of capitulation, they attribute to themfelves great
privileges, as making of war, coining, and taking care
of the public iutereft and fecurity of the ftates; and
the emperor promifes, upon oath, to receive the empire
upon thefe conditions.
The eledlors have precedence of all other princes of
the empire, even of cardinals and kings ; and are ad-
dreffed under the title of eledloral highnefs.
Their feveral fupdtions are as follow: the eledtor of
Mentz is chancellor of Germany, convokes the ftates,
and gives his vote before any of the reft. The elec¬
tor of Cologne is grand chancellor of Italy, and con-
fecrates the emperor. The eledtor of Treves is chan¬
cellor of the Gauls, and confers impofition of hands
upon the emperor. The count Palatine of the Rhine
is great treafurer of the empire, and prefects the em¬
peror with a globe at his coronation. The eledtor of
Bavaria is great mafler of the imperial palace, and car¬
ries the golden apple. The marquis of Brandenburg
is grand chamberlain, and puts the ring on the empe¬
ror’s finger. The eledtor of Saxony is grand marfhal,
and gives the fword to the emperor. The kiilg of Bo¬
hemia is grand butler, and puts Charlemaign’s crown
on the emperor’s head. Laftly, the eledtor of Hano¬
ver, now king of Great Britain, is arch-treafurer,
though firfl eredted under the title of ftandard-bearer
of the empire.
ELECTORATE, a term ufed as well to fignify the
dignity of, as the territories belonging to, any of the
.eledtors of Germany; fuch are Bavaria, Saxony, i$v.
ELEC-
C 471 )
ELECTRICITY.
THE word ELECTRICITY fignifies, in general, the bee, in his Phyfico-mechanical Experiments, publifhed
effetfs of a very fubtile fluid matter, different in in the year 1709, diftinguiflied himfelf by his experi-
its properties from every other fluid we are acquainted ments and difcoveries in eledt icity. He tirfl: difcovered
with. This fluid is capable of uniting with almoft every the eledric power of glafs, the light proceeding from it,
body, but unites more readily with fome particular bo- and the noife occafioned by it, together with a variety of
dies than with others : its md^jon is amazingly quick, is phenomena relating to ele&ric attradion and repulfion :
regulated by peculiar laws, and produces a vaft variety Indeed little was added to his oofervations, till the difco-
of Angular phenomena, the principal of which fliall be e- very of a plus and minus eledricity by Dr Watfon and
numerated in this article. Dr Franklin about the year 1746, and the farther il-
As we are entirely ignorant of the nature of the elec- luffration of that dodrine by Mr Canton,
trical fluid, it is impoflible to define it but by its princi- From the year 1730 to the 1746, the writers on
pal properties : that of repelling and attrading light bo- eledricity are fo numerous, and their experiments fo ma-
dies, is one of the moft remarkable. - The ancients were ny and various, that a volume would be iniufficient for
only acquainted with this property in amber. William their hiftory. We fftall therefore endeavour, in theyfr/?
Gilbert, a native of Colchefter, and phyfician at Lon- place, To give a fliort and conneded view of the nature
don, in his treatife De Magnete, in the year 1600, was and principles of eledricity, fo far as they have hitherto
the firll perfon who difcovered, that fulphur, wax, re- been unfolded, without mentioning the perfons to whom
finous fubftances, glafs, and precious ftones, when dried we are indebted for any particular difcovery : And, in
and rubbed a little, were endowed with the fame property the fecond place, Give a defcription of eledrical machines;
of attrading and repelling ftraws and other light fubffan- with a feledion of a few of the moft curious and ufeful
ces. Sir Francis Bacon, in his phyfiological remains, experiments, which the reader may eafily underftand af-
gives a catalogue of eledrical bodies ; but it differs in ter having made himfelf acquainted with the general prin-
nothing worth mentioning from that of Gilbert. Mr ciples.
Boyle, about the year 1670, made fome addition to the
catalogue of eledric fubftances; but all his experiments It has been aflerted, that all bodies, provided they be
on this fubjed relate only to a few circumftances attend- heated to a certain degree, and rubbed for a long time,
ing the Ample property of eledric attradion : he had ne- will difcover themfelves to be poflefled of the property
ver feen the eledric light, and little imagined what afto- of attrading and repelling light fubftances. Howe-
niftiing tffeds would be afterwards produced by this won- ver, metals of all kinds, although ever fo much heat-
derful power. ed, or rubbed, or poliftied, never difcover the leaft:
Cotemporary with Mr Boyle was Otto Guericke, bur- figns of eledrical attradion ; and confequently are ex-
gomafter of Magdeburg, and inventor of the air-pump, cepted from the general rule, as well as water and other
who was likewife one of the firft improvers of eledricity. fluids, which cannot be fubjeded to the neceflary treat-
He made his experiments wjth a globe of fulphur, which ment. Although moft; bodies, by being heated and rub-
he mounted on an axis, and whirled it in a wooden bed, difcover more or lefs of eledrical attradion; yet, as
frame, rubbing it at the fame time with his hand. He fome of them poflefs this property in a more eminent de-
firft difcovered, that a body once attraded by an excited gree, and with lefs labour, this circumflance has fuggeft-
eledric was repelled by it, and not attraded again till it ed a divifion of bodies into two clafles, according as they
had been touched by fome other body : that bodies im- ' are more or lefs fufceptible of eledricity.
merged in eledric atmoipheres are themfelves eledrified: The firft clafs comprehends thole bodies which receive
that threads fulpended within a fmali diflance of his ex- and colled the eledrical matter moft eaflly, and in great-
cited globe, were often repelled by his finger brought eft quantity, after being a little rubbed and heated : thefe
near them: that a feather, repelled by the globe, always bodies are called rUftrics, or non cenduftors : fuch as,
turned the fame face towards it, like the moon with re- 1. Diamonds of all kinds; the ruby, the fapphire*, the
fped to the earth ; and that the excitation of his globe emerald, the opal, the amethyft, the topaz, the beryl,
produced both light and found, though in a very inconfi- the granat, rock cryftal, <foc.
derable degree. A much finer eledric light was after- 2. Glafs, and all vitrified bodies, enamels of all co¬
wards obferved by Dr Wall, and an account of it was lours, porcelain, glafs of antimony, of lead,
publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfadions : Dt Wall 3. BaKams, refins of all kinds, wax, 6c.
likewife compares the light and the crackling of his ex- 4. Bituminous bodies, fulphur, amber, afphaltum,
cited amber to thunder and lightening. 6c-
Sir lfa,c Newton, in 1675, was the firft who difeo- 5. Certain animal produdions ; as filk, feathers, wool,
vered that excited glafs attraded light bodies on the fide hairs, and briftles, 6c.
oppofite to that on which it was rubbed. The fecond clafs comprehends thofe bodies which ei-
After Gilbert, Boyle, and Otto Guericke, Mr Hawkef- ther do not at all colled the eledrical matter by fridion,
or
472 ELECT
or in a very inconfidcrable degree : fuch bodies are called
ncn-ehttrics, or condudors, viz?
x. Water, and all aqueous and fpirituous liquors,
which are incapable of being thickened, and fubje&ed to
fri&ion.
■ 2. All metals, perfect and imperfect, and the greateft
part of minerals ; as, the load-ftone, antimony, zinc,
bifmuth, the agat, the jafper, marble, free-ftone,
Hate, &c.
3. All living creatures, excepting their hair. To
which may be added moft animal-fuitances; as leather,
parchment, bone, ivory, horn, (hells, fyc.
4. Trees and plants of all kinds ; thread, ropes, li¬
nen-cloth, paper, 6^.
Thefe two clafies of bodies have been called by the
name of electrics and non-eleflrics: but as the electrical
matter is not contained in the eleCtrical bodies them-
felves, but collected by them from the earth ; and as non¬
electric allow the eleCtrical matter to penetrate and flow
through them, or to fpread equally on-their furfaces,
the terms conductor and non conduttor are more.proper.
Metals and water are the only perfeCt conductors’; other
bodies conducting only ks they contain a mixture of thefe,
without more or lei's of which they will not conduCt at all:
Although conductors cannot be electrified by heat or
friCti-on,'they may be charged with electricity, or made
non-conduCtors, by an eafy operation; but then they re¬
tain this property no longer than they are kept from
communicating with other conductors. A bar of iron will
become an eleCtric or nqp-conduCtor, by being fufpended
by a fiik cord, or laid upon a piece of rolls or other non¬
conductor, and at the fame time having one end of it in
contaCt with a well rubbed glafs tube, or globe. In the
fame manner, water and metals of all kinds may be char¬
ged with electricity.
It is abfolutely necelfary, in exciting elearicity by
friition, that the glafs, or other body, be perfectly dry;
the lead moillure deftroys, or at leait diminilhes the ef¬
fect. A moilt atmofphere, a burning candle, <bc. are ex¬
tremely unfavourable in making eleCtrical experiments.
Hollow glafs globes, of about a foot diameter, and the
26th part of an anch thick, are now ufed in place of
tubes, becaufe it leflens the labour of friaion, and accu¬
mulates a greater quantity of eleCtrical matter. This
globe is turned rapidly by a large wheel like thofe ufed
by the cutlers. When the globe is rubbed, it foon ac¬
quires a con lid eT able degree of eleCtrical virtue, which is
difcovered by light bodies, at the diftance of two or three
feet, flying towards it. In approaching the globe with the
hand or face, you will 1 kewife feel the eleCtric matter
furrounding it like a gentle breeze of wind. Thefe fubtile
emanations continue to be diflfufed round the globe as
long as the friction is continued ; and, when the friaion is
Hopped, they gradually diminilh, till they are no longer
perceptible. The application of non-conduaors to the
globe does not diminilh the elearical matter: on the
contrary, the application of conduaors almoft inflantly
annihilates the whole quantity previoufly colkaed by the
friaion. But this effea is not produced, unlefs when.the
R I C I T Y.
conduaor at the fame time has a communication with the
floor or earth where the machine Hands, For, as above
obferved, if the conduaor has no communication with the
earth, it charges with elearicity, and becomes a non-
conduaor. But non-conduaors, as a piece of glafs,
fulphur, or wax, though they do not diminifli the virtue of
the globe, yet they do not acquire, like iron, &c. the
property of attraaion or repulfion. Hence it appears,
that the elearical matter paffes freely along conduaors,
and diflipates in the earth; but, on the contrary, that
non-conduaors do not receive any matter from the globe,
and are incapable of tranfmitting it. The following
experiments will make this more plain.
1. If’a piece of iron be placed on a glafs Handard, and
unconneaed with any other body, as foon as the eleari¬
cal matter is communicated to it, it attraas and repels
pieces of gold leaf or other light bodies, and preferves this
virtue even for fome minutes after its communication with
the globe is cut off. But, if a piece of glafs, rofin, or
any other non-conduaor, be placed in the fame circum-
ftances, they do not difeover any fuch effea.
2. If a perfon touches the piece of iron above men¬
tioned with his hand, ho friaion is capable of making it at-
traa or repel, or exhibit any marks of elearicity. The
fame thing happens, if a chain of any metal touch the
iron, and at the fame time has a communication with
the ground. . In both thefe cafes., the elearical matter
paffes along the iron, and diflipates in the earth.
3. In place of touching the piece of iron with the fin¬
ger, if a piece of amber, wax, or any other non-con¬
duaor be applied to it, the communication with the earth¬
being interrupted by the non-conduaor, the iron, in that
cafe, retains the elearical matter as before.
From thefe experiments we learn, that metals and o-
ther conduaors receive the eleancal matter, and tranf-
mit it to other conduaors till it diffufes and is loff in the
earth ; but that, if wax, glafs, or any other non-con¬
duaor, be applied to the conduaor, the motions of the
matter is inflantly flopt, and accumulates and charges,
the conduaor, at the fame time that the non-con-
duaot itfelf is not all affeaed. It is for this reafon that
conduaors, as filk-cords, hair-ropes, <bc. are always
employed to fufpend or fupport fuch bodies as we want
to charge with elearicity.
The following experiments will throw further light on
this fubjea.
1. If a man Hands upon a piece of rofin about five inch¬
es in diameter, and feven or eight inches thick, touching
foftly the globe, while the operator is rubbing it, his
whole body, in a few feconds, will be charged with e-.
learical matter; and the following phsenomena will take
place.
1. His loofe hand, and indeed every part of his body,
will mutually attraa and repel light bodies at the diftance
of three or four feet.
2. All conduaors which he takes in his hand, will
. become elearified in the fame manner with himfelf, pro¬
vided they touch nothing elfe, or be fupported upon non-
conduftors: and this communication, to other conduaors,
let
ELECT
Jet their fcuniber and extenfion be ever fo great, inftead of
diminifhing the eledrical virtue in the body of the man,
will rather augment its flrength and quantity.
3. If this perfon gives his hand to another lihewile
-Handing on a fimilar piece of rofin, he too will be
charged with eledlrical matter ; and the fame thing will
happen to any number of perfons, provided they Hand u-
pon rofin, and communicate with one another by an iron
chain or other conductor. But the whole company will
inflantaneoully lofe the whole of their eledfrical virtue, if
any non-eledlrified perfon touch a fingle man, or if
there be any communication between one df them and a
conducing fubflance.
4. If the firft man removes his hand from the globe,
and at the fame time keep his former ftation, he and all
the reft will preferve the power of attrading and repel¬
ling light fubftances for fome time; but it gradually di-
minilhes, till its effeds totally difappear.
5. If a non-eledrified perfon puts his hand near the firft
man’s face, he will feel a kind of atmofphere furrounding
the eledrified perfon ; if he advances his hand ftill near¬
er any part of the face, for example the nofe, both the
‘ point of the finger and the nofe will appear luminous in
the dark : Laftly, if he touches the nofe, a fpark of fife
inftantly explodes with a cracks and ftrikes both parties
equally with a Ihock more or lefs painful in proportion as
the eledrified perfon was charged; It is by the explo-
fion of this fpark, that the eledrical matter inftantly tranf-
mits itfelf from one body to another.
6. When we approach near an el^drified perfon, we
perceive an extraordinary fmell proceeding from his body,
fimilar to that of the phofphorus of urine.
II. An iron wire, 12,000 feet in length, was fufpend-
ed about five feet from the ground by filk cords ; one
end of it was conneded to the globe of an eledr^cal ma¬
chine, and at the other a lead ball was hung in order to
perceive when the matter reachedit.
1. After five or fix turns of the wheel, the matter had
palled along the whole wire, and communicated its virtue
to the ball, which inftantly attraded and repelled light
bodies.
2. As this ball was. equally eledrified with every par);
of the wire, ,it is probable that the eledric matter would
inftantly pervade a wire of a ftill greater length, provided
we had a proper apparatus for^he purpofe.
3. Several metals and other .condudors were fub-
ftituted in place of the ball, and all received the eledri-
city in the fame manner.
4. The ball and other non-condudors, when touched
with the finger, gave a luminous fpark and as fmart a
ftrock, as when the end of the wire next the globe was
touched.
5. All thefe effeds inftantly ceafed whenever any per¬
fon not eledrified touched any part of the wire, and
commenced again a few feconds after his hand was with¬
drawn.
6. The fame effeds are produced, though with more
difficulty, when hair or woolen ropes were fubftituted in
place of the filk ones: But they were entirely ftopt by
hemp-ropes, or when the filk ones were wetted.
7. When a hempen rope was fubftituted in place of
Vol. IL. No. 46. 2
ft I C I T Y. 473
the wire, the ball at the end of it was eledrified with
greater difficulty .than when it hung at the wire, efpe-
cially when the rope was'dry; but when the jrope was
wet, the matter paffed with more cafe.
8. When, in place of the wire, a dry filk cord, or
long giafs tube, were ufed, they received but a very fmall
quantity of the matter, which was not perceivable in the
giafs tube above 12 feet, nor in the cord above 25, be¬
yond the globe.
9. When the wire was cut in feveral places, and the
cut ends kept at the diftance of fomewhat lefs than a foot
from each, the eledrical matter darted through all thefe
interruptions, and appeared in the ball at the furtheft end.
A ftrong blaft made by a bellows acrofs one of the in¬
terruptions, did not obftrud the p illage of the matter;
neither did the interpofition of a piece of giafs, wax, and
other non-condudors : but all condudors, as the hand of
a man, the point of a fword, and even a moift vapour*
obftruded its courfe towards the ball.
10. When a man flood on a piece of rofin, and put a
point of a fword in one of the interruptions, he was in
ftantly filled with the matter, although neither he nor the
fword touched the wire: neither was the courfe of the
matter towards the ball obftruded by the interpofition of
the fword.
11. When a ring of^brafs wire, about three feet in
diameter, was fufpended in a vertical diredion, and the
iron wire was made to pafs nearly through its centre,
without touching any part of the circumference, the ring,
in whatever part of the wire it was tried, was fenfibly
eledrified. This fhow§ that tht eledrical matter ex¬
pands to a confiderable diftance on all fides of the elec¬
trified body.
12. The fame iron wire fulpended by filk cords was
extended 6000 feet, (juft one half of its length), in a
ftraight line ; the other half was turned back in a parallel
diredion towards the globe, leaving about nine or ten
inches of interval between the two halves of the wire :
Each extremity of the wire was fupported by a dry fillc
cord about ieven or eight feet from the globe, and the
lead bull was hung at one of them An iron chain was
then fixed with another filk cord above the globe, in or¬
der to receive the matter at one of its extremities; the
other end of the chain was fixed to a rod of giafs about
five feet long, in fuch a manner that the matter received
from the globe might be tranfmitted at pleafure to the
wire, by applying the end of the fixed chain to the giafs
rod. Matters being thus prepared, after five or fix
turns of the wheel, the chain was applied to one end of
the wire ; at the fame inftant the ball at the other end
attraded and repelled bits of gold-leaf. The fame expe¬
riment was repeated, and a finger applied to the ball, and
a fpark iffued out, and a ffiock was received at the very
inftant that the chain was applied to the other end of the
wire : A fpark likewife proceeded from the chain, which
afforded an eafy opportunity of difcovering that the two
fparks were perfedly fynchronous.
From thefe experiments it appears,
1. That the eledrical matter communicates itfelf to all
non-eledrics, or condudors, whatever be their bulk or
extenfion.
5 C
2/That
474 ELECTS
2. That the quantity of this matter diffufed is always
in proportion to the magnitude and extenfion of. the bo¬
dies into which it palfes; and that it is uniformly dif¬
fufed, no part of the body retaining more than any other
•part.
3. That, after being thus communicated to any body,
it efcapes with equal facility, as foon as it finds a commu¬
nication with the^arth.
4. That fmall interruptions in the continuity of elec¬
trified bodies do not interrupt the motion of the eledri-
<al matter.
5. That the motion of the ele&rical matter is fo ama¬
zingly fwift, that it runs over a fpace of 12,000 feet in
an undefinable inftant of time.
6. That it moves with equal rapidity either backward
or forward, upon the application of a conduftor.
7. Laflly, That an indefinitely large quantity of this
matter may be accumulated by applying the globe or tube
to conducing bodies of very large dimenfions. Of late
other methods of condenfing a large, quantity of electrical
matter into a fmall fpace have been invented, as will after¬
wards appear when we come to treat of the Leyden phial.
The attraction and repulfion of light bodies, is the
firlt thing that difeovers to us the prefence of the electri¬
cal matter. This motion is always reciprocal: If the
electrified body be lighter than^the conductor, and both
are at liberty, the motion of the former is quicker than
that of the latter; if the one be fixed, and the other at
liberty, the unfixed one conftantly goes to the one that is
fixed, and, at the fame, takes the fhorteft road. The
following experiments will illuftrate thefi motions.
1. Prefent an electrified tube to fmall pieces of
gold-leaf placed on a well-polilhed plate of copper, they
will inftantly fly towards the tube.
2 Sufpend an electrified tube by two filk cords; take a
piece of gold-leaf, and, holding it firm betwixt your fin-
gert,. bring it near the tube; and the tube will be at¬
tracted and move toward the leaf.
3. If an electrified perfon, Handing on a piece of rofin,
holds in his hand a plate of copper, upon which pieces
of gold-leaf are placed; and another perfon, who is not
electrified, holds his finger above the plate; the gold-leaf
will inftantly rife from the plate, and fly towards his fin-
ger.
4. Laftly, If two balls of gilt paper be fufpended fix
inches afunder, the one by a filk thread three feet in
length, and the other fey a fmall filver wire of the fame
length; u'hen the ball fufpended by the filk thread is e-
leCfrified by the tube, both balls advance with equal
quicknefs towards one another, though only one of them
Was electrified.
The moft favourable circumflances for exhibiting the
attraction of light bodies are the following:
1. They fhould be perfeCt conductors.
2. They ought to be of a fmall lize.
3. They fhould be fupported by a non-conduClor, and
xaifed four or five feet from the ground.
4. No other non-conduCtor fhould be nearer the bodies
than the tube with which the experiments are making;
®tberwife the attraction will be dilturbed*
I C I T Y.
■Repulfion generally fucceeds attraction ; that is, a
piece of gold-leaf is no fooner attracted by the tube than
it is repelled and driven off from it. This repulfion is
not very perceptible when the tube is flightly electrified:
.but, when the electricity is brifk, the gold-leaf never fails
to be repelled as foon as it has touched the tube. Again,
if the electricity be very flrong, the gold-leaf, though
Hrongly attracted by the tube, never touches it; the re-
pulfive power beginning to operate two or three inches
before the leaf reaches the tube : from that inftant the
leaf is electrified; and, when it begins to be repelled, it
has acquired as denfe aneleCtrical atmofphere as the tube:
it then flies off, and remains fufpended above the tube un¬
til it lofes the eleCtric virtue it had acquired, either by
the moift vapours in the air, or till it lofes it fuddenly
by touching fome conductor. Hence it appears, that at¬
traction precedes repulfion, only becaufe it is necefLry
that the pieces of gold-leaf fhould acquire as denfe an at¬
mofphere as that of the globe before they can be repelled
by it.
When the tube has repelled a piece of gold leaf, if
another tube, nearly equally electrified, be fuddenly fub~
ftituted in place of the former tube, the leaf will continue
to be repelled at an equal diftance. But if the fnbftituted'
tube be much kfs electrified than the original one, the
leaf will be attracted by that tube.
When two or more pieces of gold leaf are prefented
at the fame time to a well electrified tube, they are alt:
equally attracted and repelled ; but then they mutually
repel one another, fo that it is impoflible to make any two
of them join ; and the diftance at which they repel one-
another is equal to the diftance to which each of them-
'were repelled from the tube.
If a circular piece of gold-leaf, cut into fmall fringes’
to near the centre of the leaf, be prefented to an electri¬
fied tube, it will firft be attracted, and then trepelled : in-
the time of repulfion, all the fringes repel each other,
and diverge more or lefs in proportion to the ftrength of
electricity in the tube.
If a fmall metal veflel filled with water, and furniftred
with a capillary fiphon, having the longer leg hanging over
the outfide of the vcfiel, be touched with an electrified
iron rod; the water, which could not run out of the fi¬
phon but drop by drop, will inftantly fly out a tone jet,
and.divide itfelf into very fine threads; and thefe threads
continue fometimes fufpendedin the air, repelled from each,
other to a confiderable diftance.
From thele inftances of attraction and repulfion it ap¬
pears,
1. That light bodies are attracted by electrified fub-
ftances until they be equally electrified by communication,
and until they acquire as denfe an atmofphere as the e-
leCtrified fubftances themfelves.
2. That, from the moment they acquire this atmo¬
fphere, attraction ceafes and repulfion begins.
3. That no repulfion takes place but betwixt bodies e-
leCtrified.
4. That repulfion continues only as long as the denfity
of the two atmofpheres are equal; that it ceafes when¬
ever the one or the other is diminifhed ; that a new at-
traCrioo
ELECT
tracV'on commences, and continues til! an equality in the
atmofpheres is again reflored; and that, immediately up¬
on this, a new repulfion takes place.
5. That repulfion may fubfift betwixt two bodies which
have never mutually been attracted, provided their at-
mofpheres be equally denfe.
6. That the diftance to which bodies are repelled is
always in proportion to the (trength of the elediricity they
contain. This fa-dl firfl fuggefted the notion of an elec¬
trometer, or a machine for meafuring the different de¬
grees of electricity.
Of Elettrical Machines and Apparatus,
The improvement of eleftrical machines has kept pace
with the improvements in the fcience. While no¬
thing more than electrical attraction and repulfion was
known, every phtenomenon might be exhibited by means
of a piece of amber, fealing wax, or glafs, which the
philofopher rubbed againft his coat, and prefented to bits
of paper, feathers, and other light bodies.
To give a greater degree of friction to eleCtric fub-
ftances, Otto Guericke and Mr Hawkelbee contrived to
whirl-fulpbur and glafs in a fpherical form. The firft
conductors were nothing more than hempen-cords fup-
ported by filken lines. In place of thefe, bars of metal,
or gun-barrels, were foon fubftituted; and a rubber
was employed to fupply the place of a human hand. The
difcovery of the Leyden bottle, (to be afterwards de-
fcribed) occafioned more additions to the electrical ap¬
paratus; and the difcoveries of Dr Franklin have made
proportional additions neceffary. No philofopher can
now be fatisfied, if he be not able to fupply a conductor
from the clouds, as well as from the friction of his glafs
glob'es or tubes.
Although globes or cylinders are now of the moft ex-
tenfive ufe in eleCtrical experiments, gla s-tubes are Hill
moft convenient for feveral purpofes; they fhould be a-
bout three feet long, and as wide as a perfon can conve¬
niently grafp, (Plate LXXIII. fig. 1 a.~) The thicknefs
of the glafs is not material; perhaps the thinner they are
the better, if they can bear fnfficient friction.
The belt rubber for a fmooth glafs is the rough fide
of black oiled filk, efpecially when a little amalgam of
mercury or other metal is put upon i».
Glafs-globes are in general preferable to cylinders.
The globe ftiould have its neck inclofed in a pretty deep
brafs cap, ending in a dilated brim, of about half an
inch broad, if the globe be a large' one. It hss net been
determined what kind of glafs is the beft ; but flint is
commonly ufed. Perhaps globes of twelve or thirteen
inches diameter are the beft fize.
The beft rubbers for globesare made of red bafil fkins,-
partieularly the neck-part of tnem, where the grain is
more open, and the furface fomewhat rougher. That
the rubber may prefs the globe equally, it fhould bo put
upon a plate of metal bent to the fhape of the globe, and-
ftuffed with any thing that is pretty foft r bran is good;
and if the fluffing be a conductor, as flax, it will be bet-*
ter than if it be a non-conduCtor, as hair or wooll. It:
fhould reft upon a fpring, to favour any inequality
there may be in the form of the globe. There Ihould
R I CITY, 47S
be no ffiarp edges or angles about the rubber; for that
W'ould make the inliilation of it ineffectual. By the in-
fulation of the rubber every eleCtrical experiment may be
performed with the twofold variety of pofstive and ne¬
gative, and a conductor be made to give and take fire at
pleafure. This iniulation is beft made by means of
baked wood, in die form of a plate, five or fix inches
in diameter, (^, fig 2 ) interpofed between the metallic
part of the rubber and the ileel fpring that fupports
it. When pofitive electricity is intended to be produced,
a chain («, fig. 2.) muft .conneCt the rubber ■with
the floor; but, when negative eleCtricity is wanted, the
charn muft be removed, and hung upon the common
conductor, while another prime conductor muft be con*
neCted with the rubber; which will therefore be eleCtrL
fied negatively.
The beft method of collecting the elt Ctric fire from the
globe feems ,to be by three or four pointed wires*
(w, fig. 2.) two or three inches long, hanging lightly
upon the globe, and fufpended on an open metallic
ring.
The prime conductor fhould be fixed very fteady c
Whatever be the fize of the prime conductor, the extre¬
mity of it, or that part which is moft remote from the
globe, fliould be much larger and rounder than the reft,
(f, fig. 2 ).; for the effort of the eleCtric matter t»
fly off is always greateft at the greateft diftance f rom the
globe.
The electrician (hould be provided with Metallic
Rods (/, fig. 1.) to take fparks from his conductor for
various ules. Thefe (hould have knobs, larger or fmaller
in proportion to the curvature of-the conductor. If the
knob be too fmall, it will not difeharge the conductor at
once, but by degrees, and with a lefs fenfible effeCt;
whereas the fpark between broad.furfaces is thick and
ftrong.'
The moft formidable part of an eleCtrical apparatus
confifts in the coated glass that is ufed for the Ley¬
den experiment. The form of the plate is immaterial
with refpeCt to the {hock-; and, for different experiments*
both plates of glafs, and jars of various forms and fizes,
muft be ufed. For common ufes, the moft commodious
form is that of a jar, as wide as a perfon can conveniently
hold in his-hand by grafping, and as tall as it will Hand
without any danger of falling; perhaps about 34 inches
in diameter, and 8 inches in height. Tlie mouth ftiould
be pretty open, that it may be the more conveniently
coated on the infide, as well as the outfide, with tinfoil;
A confiderable variety of thele jars may beTeen in thea?
bove Plate, fig. 1. c, d, e,f,g, h, i, j, i.
The method of coating is much preferable to that of
putting water or brafs-lhavings into the jars, which both
makes them heavy, and tike wife incapable of being in¬
verted, which is requifite in many experiments. Brafs-
duft, however, or leaden (hot, is very convenient for
fmall phials. The tinfoil may be; put on either with
pafte, gum water, or bees-wax. To coat the infides of
veffels which have narrow, mouths,. moiften the infide
with gum-water, and then pour fome brafs-duft upon it:
Enough will (tick to make a»n exceeding good coating.
In the conltruCIioo-of an electrical battery, a
nu mber.
■A16 ELECTS!
number of fipall jars are preferable to large ones. If
one of them fhould break by an explofion or any other
accident, the lofs is lefs confidetable; befides, by means
of narrow jars, a greater force (that is, a greater quan¬
tity of coated furface) may be contained in lefs room.
The largeft jars are about , 17 inches in height, and
fhould not be more than 3 in diameter;1 and of the fame
width throughout. Thus they may be eafily coated both
within and without, and a box of a moderate fize will
-contain a prodigious force; for the jars being coated
within two inches of the top, each will contain a fquare
foot of coated glafs. The battery (Plate LXXIII. fig. 3.)
confifts of 64 jars, each 8 inches long, and 2t in dia¬
meter, coated within an inch and a half of the .top. The
coated part of each is half a fquare foot; fo that the
whole battery contains 32 fquare feet. The wire of each
jar has a piece of very fmall wire twifted about the lower
eSd of it, to touch thd infide coating in feveral places;
and it is put through a pretty large piece of cork within
the jar, to prevent any part of it from touching the fide,
which would tend to promote a fpontaneous difcharge.
Each wire is turned round, fo as to make a hole or ring
at the upper end ; and through thefe rings a pretty thick
brafs rod with knobs is put, one rod ferving for one row
of the jars. The communication between thefe rods is
made by laying a chain over them all : this chain is not
reprefented in the plate, left the figure Ihould appear con-
fufed. When only a part of the battery is to be ufed,
the chain (hould be laid over as many rods as you want
rows of jars. The bottom of the box in which all the
jars ftand is covered with tinfoil and brafs-duft; and a
' bent wire touching this tinfoil,is put through the box,
and appears on the outfide, as in the plate. To this wire
is fattened whatever is intended to communicate with the
outfide of the battery, as the piece of fmall wire in the
figure; and the difcharge is made by bringing the brafs
knob to any of the knobs of the battery.
To difcover the kind and degree of elearicity, many
forms of Electrometers have been thought of. Mr
Canton’s balls A, reprefented on a glafs {landing on the
ftool r,'(Plate EXXIII. fig. I.) ferve to difcover fmall
degrees of eledricity, to obferve the changes of it from
pofitive to negative, and to eftimate the force of a (hock
before the difcharge. Thefe balls are two pieces of
cork, or pith of elder, nicely turned in a lath to about
the fize of a finall ?ea, and fufpended „on fmall linen
threads. Thefe balls repell one another to diftances ex¬
actly proportioned to the quantity of eleftricity •contained
in the veffel or other fubftance with which they are con-
nefted ; and by this work the operator knows pretty ex-
aftiy the force of the charge, and the {hock that will be
given.
In qrder to repeat the experiment tending to {new
that the eleAric fluid is the' fame with the matter of
lightning, and to make obfervations on the eledtricity of
the atmofphere, the eleftrician fnouldtie provided with
A MACHINE FOR DRAWING ELECTRICITY FROM THE
clouds. The heft conttruftion of which is the follow
ing ; On the top of any1 building eredl a pole a, (Plate
LXXIV. fig. 2.) as tall as * man can well manage, ha¬
ving on the top of it a foiid piece of glafs, or baked
t I C I T Y.
wood, a foot in length. Let this be covered with a ti*
or copper vellel {£) lhaped like a funnel, to prevent its e*
ver being wetted; above this, let there rife a long {lender
rod c, terminating in a pointed wire, and having a fmall wire
twitted round its whole length, the better to condudt the
electricity to the funnel. From the funnel make a wire (d)
defcend along' the building, about a foot diftance from it,
and conduced through an open fafh into any room 'that
{hall be moft convenient for making the experiment. la
this room, let a proper conductor be infulaled, and con-
ne&ed with thd wire coming in at the window. This
wire and conduftor, being completely infulated, will be
eletttrified whenever there is a^confiderable quantity of
eledlricity in the air. And notice will be given whefi it
is properly charged, either by Mr Canton’s balls hung to
it, or by a fet of bells difpofed in the following manner.
Take three bells; fufpend the two outermoft from the
conductor by chains, and that in the middle by a filken
firing, while a chain conneds it with the floor; add
hang two fmall knobs of brafs by filken firings, one be¬
tween each two bells, to ferve inftead of clappers. In
confequence of this difpofition, when the two outermoft
bells, communicating with the condudor, are eledrified,
they will attrad the clappers, and be fthick by them,
The clappers being thus, loaded with eledricity, will be
repelled, and fly to difcharge themfelves upon ttie middle
bell. After this, the clappers will be again attraded
by the outermoft bells ; and thus, by ftriking the bells
alternately, a continual ringing may be kept up as long
as the operator pleafes. In the dark a continual flafhing
of light will be feen between the clappers and the bells.
But when the eledrification is very flrong, thefe flafties of
light will be fo large, that they will be tranfmitted by
the clapper from one bell to the other, without its ever
coming to adual contad with either of them, and the
ringing v/ill cohfequently ceafe.
With regard to the conftrudion of machines for elec¬
trical experiments in general, that of Dr Prieftly, repre*
fented on Plate LXXIII. fig. 2. is perhaps the belt.
The Frame confifts of two ftrong boards of ma’hogany,
(/!<*), of the fame length, parallel to one another, about
four inches afunder, and the lower one is an inch on
each fide broader than the upper: in the upper board is a
groove .reaching aimoft its whole length. One of the
pillars b, which are of baked wood, is immoveable, be¬
ing let through the upper board, and firmly fixed' in the
lower; while the other pillar Hides in the groove above-
mentioned, in order to receive globes or cylinders of diffe¬
rent fizes; but it is only wanted when an axis is ufedf
Both the pillars are perforated with boles at equal di¬
ftances from the top to the bottom; by means of which,
globes may be mounted higher or lower according to
their fize ; and they are made tall, to, admit the ufe of
two or more globes at a time, one above another. Four
of a moderate fize may be ufed, if two be fixed on one
axis; and the wheel has feveral grooves for that purpofe^'
If a globe with only one neck be ufed, as in thg~
Plate, a brafs arm, with an open focket c, is neceflary
to fupport the axis beyond the pulley ; and this part is
alfo contrived to be put higher or lower, together with
the brafs focket in which the axis Hands. The axis d
E L E C T R
is made to coree quite through the pillar, that it may
be turned by another handle without the wheel, if the
operator chufes. The frame, being fcrewed to the table,
rr.ay be placed nearer to, or farther from, the wheel,
as the length of the ftring requires in different ftates of
the weather. The Wheel is fixed in a frame by it-
felf e, by which it may have any fituation with refpedt
to -the pulley, and be turned to one fide, fo as to prevent
the firing from cutting itfelf.
The Rubber (/') confifis of a hollow piece of copper,
filled with horfe hair, and covered with a bazil-ficin. It
is fupported by a focket, which receives the cylindrical
axis, of a round and fiat piece of baked wood g, the
oppofite part of which is inferted into the focket of a
bent fteel-fpring h. Thefe parts are eafily feparated ;
fo that the rubber, or piece of wood that ferves to in-
fulate it, may be changed at. pleafure. The fpring may
be either (lipped along the groove, or moved in the con¬
trary diredtion, fo as to give it every defirable pofition
with refpedt to the globe. It is befides furnifhed with a
fcrew /, which makes it prefs harder or lighter on the
globe, as the operator chufes.
The Prime Conductor (f) is a hollow veffel of po¬
liced copper in the form of a pear, fupported by a pillar
and a firm bafis of baked wood ; and it receives the e-
ledlrica! matter by means of a long arched wire or rod of
very foft brafs /, eafily bent into any (hape, and raifed
'higher or lower as the globe requires. It is terminated
by an open ring, in which are hung fome (harp-pointed
wires vi, playing lightly on the globe when it is in mo¬
tion. The body of the ccndudtor is furnifiied with holes
and fockets for the infertion of metallic rods to convey
the fire where-ever it is wanted.
When pofitive eledtricity is required, a wire or chain,
as reprefented in the plate (»), connedts the rubber
with the table or the floor. When negative eledtricity
is wanted, that wire is connedled with a; ® her conduc¬
tor, fuch as that reprefented, in fig. i; where the
condudlor in fig. 2. is connedted with the table by
another wire or chain. If the rubber be made toler¬
ably free from points, the negative power will be as
(trong as the pofitive.
The machine, reprefented Plate LXXV. fig. 1. was
a contrivance of Dr Watfon’s, to whirl four large globes
at a time, and unite the power of them all. The con-
ffrudtion is fo fimple, that we need not give any particu¬
lar defcription of it, efpecially after having fo fully de-
fcribed that of Dr Prieftly.
Of pojilive and negative Elefiricity, and the
Leyden Phial.
Dr Watson and Dr Fraifldin firft fuggefted the no¬
tion of pofitive and negative, or plus and minus eledtri¬
city : feveral experiments led them to conclude, that e-
very body in nature, and particularly all condudting bo¬
dies, poffefled a certain quantity of eledtric matter, and
that this natural quantity might be augmented or dimi-
niflied by being placed in particular circumftances. When
a body receives a larger quantity than the natural one, it
is faid to be eledfrified plus, or pufitively ; when the natu¬
ral quantity is diminilhed, it is faid to be eledtrified mi-
VoL. li. No. 46. 2
I C I T Y. 477
nus, Or negatively. The following experiments wiJ
(hew the different circumfiances rcquifite to produce thefe
two kinds of eledtricity.
1. A perfon (landing on wax, and nibbing the tube,
and another perfon on wax drawing the fire, they wiil
both appear to be eledtrified by a perfon Handing on the
floor; that is, he wiil perceive a fpark on approaching
each of them with his knuckle.
2. But, if the perfons on wax touch one another du¬
ring the exciting of the tube, neither of them will ap¬
pear to be eledtrified.
3. If they touch one another after exciting the tube,
and drawing the fire as before, there will be a ftronger
fpark between them, than happens between either cf_
them and the perfon on the floor.
4. After fuch (trong fpark, neither of them difccver*
any eledtricity.
Thefe appearances are explained in the following man¬
ner : the eledtrical fire is fuppofed to be a common ele¬
ment, of which each of the three perfons above-mention¬
ed has his equal (hare, before any operation is begun with
the tube. A, who (lands on wax and rubs the tube,
colledts the eledtrical fire from himfelf into the glafs ; and
his communication with-all condudtors being cut off by the
wax, his body is not again immediately fupplied. B, who
(lands likewife on wax, palling his knuckle along near
the tube, receives the fire which was colledted by the
g.lafs from A ; and his communication with condudtors,
or the common (lock of eledtrical matter, being likewifo
cut off, he retains the additional quantity received. To
C, (landing on the floor, both appear to be eledtrified:
for he having only the middle quantity of eledtrical fire,
receives a fpark upon approaching B who has an over
quantity, but gives one to A who has an under quantity.
If A and B approach to touch each other, the fpark is
(Ironger, becaufe the diftance betwixt them is greater:
after fuch touch, there is no fpark between either of them
and C, becaufe the eledtrical fire in all is reduced to the
original equality. If they touch while eledtrifying, the
equality is never deftroyed, the fire only circulating.
Hence we fay, B is eledtrified pofitively, A negatively-,
or rather B is eledtrified plus, A minus : and in expe¬
rimenting, it is common to electrify bodies plus or minus
at pleafure. To eledtrify plus or minus, it is fufficient
to know, that the parts of the tube or fphere that are
rubbed, do, in the indant of the fridtion, attradt the e-
ledtrical fire, and therefore take it from the thing rub¬
bing : the fame parts immediately, as the fridtion upon
them ceafes, are difpofed to give the fire they have re¬
ceived to any body that has lefs. Thus you may circu¬
late it or accumulate it upon, or fubflradt it from any bo¬
dy, as you connedt that body with the rubber, or the
receiver, the communication in the common (lock being
cut off.
The great (hock from what is called the Leyden
phial, was firfl difcovered by Mr Cunseus, a native of
Leyden; but was never fo thoroughly underflood till Dr
Franklin publiflied his experiments with regard to it. A
glafs phial or jar, filled, till within an inch of the top,
with water, brafs dud, or other non-condudfing fubflan-
ces, was firft ufed ; but coating the veflel with tin foil.,
J D or
'478 ELECT
or brafs-duft, as mentioned above in the feflion concern¬
ing the ele&rical apparatus, was found to'anfwer better.
We fhall here give Dr Franklin’s account of this phial
nearly in his own words, together with the experiments
confirming it.
1. While the wire and infide of the bottle are eleflri-
fied pofitively or />/«/, the outfide of the bottle is elec¬
trified negatively or minus, in exaft proportion ; i. e.
whatever quantity of electrical fire is thrown into the in¬
fide, an equal quantity goes out of the outfide. Tc»
underftand this, fuppofe the natural quantity of elec¬
tricity in the whole bottle, before the operation begins, is
equal to 20; and, at every ftrcke of the tube, or turn of
the globe, fuppofe a quantity equal to 1 is thrown in ; then,
after the firft ftroke, the quantity contained in the wire
and infide of the bottle will be 21, and in the outfide 19;
afier the fecond ftroke, the infide will have 22, and the
outfide iS; and fo on, till, after 20 ftrokes, the infide
will have a quantity of electrical fire equal to 40, and
the outfide none at all ; and then the operation ends : for
no more can be thrown into the infide, when no more
can be driven out of the outfide. If more is attempted
to be thrown in, it is fpued back through the wire, or
flies out in loud cracks through the fides of the bottle.
2. The equilibrium of eledlric matter in the bottle be¬
ing thus loft, it cannot be reftored by any inward com¬
munication or contail of the parts: but this muft be done
by a communication formed without the bottle between
the infide and the outfide, by fome conductor touching or
approaching both fides at the fame time; in which cafe the
equilibrium is reftored with an inexpreffibie violence and
quicknefs : or, it may be done by touching each fide al¬
ternately, in which cafe, the equilibrium is reftored by
degrees.
3. As no more electrical fire can be thrown into the
infide of the bottle, when all is driven from the outfide;
fo, in a bottle not yet electrified, none can be thrown
into the infide, when none can get out at the outfide;
which happens, either when the glais is too thick, or
when the bottle is placed in a non conductor. Again,
when the bottle is electrified, but little of the electrical
fire can be drawn out ftom the infide by touching the
wire, unlefs an equal quantity can, at the fame time,
get in at the outfide. Thus, place an electrified bottle
on clean glafs, or dry wax, and you will not, by touch¬
ing the wire, get out the fire from the infide: place it
on a conductor, and touch the wire, then you will get it
out in a (hort time; but fooneft when you form a direct
communication as above.
4. The (hock to the nerves, or rather convulfion, is
occafioned by the fudden pafiage of the fire through the
body, in its way from the infide to the outfide of the
bottle. The fire takes the fhorteft courfe; but it does
not appear, that, in order to receive a (hock, a communi¬
cation v/ith the floor is neceffary ; for he that holds the
bottle with one band, and touches the wire with the
other, will be (hocked as much, though his (hoes be dry,
or even (landing on wax. And on the touch of the wire
(or of the prime conductor, which is the fame thing,)
the fire does not proceed from the touching finger
to the wire, but from the wire to the finger, and paffes
R I C I T Y.
through the body to the other hand, and fo into the out¬
fide of the bottle.
The following experiments will confirm this account of
the Leyden phial.
, 1. Place an eledlrified phial on wax ; a fmall cork-ball
held in your hand, fufpended by a dry filk thread, and
brought near to the wire, will firft be attracted and then
repelled : When in a repelled (late, fink your hand, that
the ball may be brought towards the outfide of the
bottle; it will be inftantly attrafted till it has parted with
its fire.
If the outfide of the bottle had a. pofitive eleflrical
atmofphere, as well as the infide and the wire, an e-
lecftrified cork would be repelled from the one as well as
the other.
2. From a bent wire flicking in the table, let a fmall
linen thread hang down within half an inch of the elec¬
trified phial; touch the wire of the phial repeatedly with
your finger; and, at every touch, you will fee the thread
inftantly attrafted by the outfide of the bottle. As foon
as you draw any fire from the infide by touching the
wire, the outfide draws in an equal quantity by the thread.
3. Fix a wire in the outfide coating of the bottle,
fo as that bending upwards its ring-end may be level
with the top or ring-end of the wire in the cork of the
bottle, and at three or four inches diftance. Then e-
ledtrify the bottle, and place it on wax. If a cork, fu¬
fpended by a filk thread, hang between thefe two wires,
it will play inceflantly from the one to the other, till the
equilibrium between the infide and the outfide of the
bottle is reftored.
4. Place a man on a cake of wax, and prefent him the
wire of the electrified phial to touch, you (landing on
the floor and holding it in your hand. As often as he
touches it, he will be electrified plus -, and any one (land¬
ing on the floor may draw aTpark from him. The fire,
in this expe tent, pafles out of the wire into him ; and,
at the fame time, out of your hand into the outfide of
the bottle. Give him the electrical phial to hold, and
touch the wire; as often as you touch it, he will be e-
ledtrified minus, and may draw a fpark from any one
(landing in the floor. The fire in this cafe pafies front
the wire to you, and. from him into the outfide of the
bottle.
5. Lay two books, or two glafles, back to back, two
two or three inches diftant, place the ele&rified phial;
on one of them, and then touch the wire; that book
will be eledlrified minus, the eleClrical fire being drawn
out of it by the outfide of the bottle. Take off the bottle,
and, holding it in your hand, touch the other with the
wire; that book will be electrified plus, the fire palling
into it from the wire, and the outfide of the bottle is at
the fame time fupplied from your hand.
The fame explofipn and fliock happens, if the eleClrified
phial is held in one hand by the hook of the wire, and the
coating touched with the other, as when held by the
coating and touched at the hook. To take the charged
phial fafely by the hook, and not at the fame time dimi-
niflh its force; it muft firft be fet down on a non-con-
duClor. The phial will be electrified as'ftrongly,. if held
by the hook, and the coating applied to the globe cr
tube,
E L E C T II
tube, as \vhen held by the coatirg and the hook applied:
but the direction of the eledhicai fire, beiag different in
the charging, will alfo be different in the explofion ; the
bottle charged through the hook will be dilcharged thro’
the hook; the bottle charged thro’the coating will be
difeharged thro’ the coating; becaufe the fire muff come
out the fame way it went in,
6. To prove this, take two bottles that were equally
charged thro’ the hooks, one in each hand ; bring their
hooks near each other, and no fpark or fhock will follow ;
becaufe each hook is difpofed to give fire, and neither to
receive it. Set one of the bottles on glafs, take it up
by the hook, and apply its coating to the hook of the o-
ther; then there will be an explofion and fhock, and
both bottles will be difeharged. [./V B. To charge a
bottle commodioufly thro’ the coating; place it on a
glafs-fland ; form a communication from the prime con-
dudfbr to the coating, and another from the hook to the
wall or floor ; when it is charged, remove the latter com¬
munication before you take hold of the bottle, otherwife
great part of the fire will efcape by it.]
Whenthe'terms of charging ox difehargin^ the phial are
ufed, it is in compliance with cuftom, and for want of
better ones; firice there is really no 7/zcre eledtrical fire in
the phial after what is called its charging than before, nor
lefs after its dtfebarging. Befides, the phial will notfuf-
fer what is called a charging,. unlefs as much fire can go
out of it one way as is thrown in by another. A phial
cannot be charged ftanding on wax or glafs, or hanging
on the prime condudor, unlefs a communication be form¬
ed between its coating and the floor. But fufpend two
or more phials on the prime condudor, one hanging to
the tail of the other, and a wire from the laft to the
floor, an equal number, of turns of the wheel will charge
them all equally, and each as ftrongly as a fingle one
would have been.
When a bottle is charged in the common way, its in-
Jids and outfide furfaces Hand ready, the one to give fire
by the hook, the other to receive it by the coating : yet
as the firft will not give out, unlefs the other can at the
fame infiant receive in; fo neither will the latter receive
in, unlefs the firft can at the fame inftant give out When
both can be done at once,- it is done with inconceivable
quicknefs and violence.
Glafs has within its fubftance the fame quantity of e-
ledrical fire at all times, and that quantity is very great
in proportion to the mafs of glafs. This quantity it ob-
ftinately retains; and will have neither more nor lefs,
thotfgh it will allow a change to be made in its parts and
fitiiation ; that is, we may take away part from one of
the fides, provided we throw an equal quantity into the
other. Yet when the iituation of the eledrical fire is
thus altered in the glafs, it will not be at reft, or in its
natural ftate, till it be reftored to its original equalif ;
and this reftitution cannot be made through the fubftance
of the glafs, but muft be done by a,conduding communi¬
cation formed without from furface to Turf ace. Thus
the whole force of the bottle, and power of giving a
fh'ock, refides in the Glass itfelf; the coatings, or con-
^uding fffeftaoc.es.in contad with the two furfaces, fer-
I C I T Y. 479
ving only to give and receive to and from the feveral parts
of the glafs; that is, to give in one fide, and take away
from the other. This was difeovered by Dr Franklin,
and proved by the following experiment: ‘ Purpofing,.
‘ (fays he,) to analize the elednfied bottle, in order to
* find wherein its ftrength lay, we placed it on glafs; and
* drew out the cork and wire, which for that purpbfehad
‘ been loofely put in. Then taking the bottle in one
‘ hand, and bringing a finger of the other near its mouth,
‘ aftrong fpark came from the water, and the Ihock was
‘ as violent as if the wire had remained in it, which fhew-
‘ ed that the force did not lie in the wire. Then to find
* if it refided in the water, being crowded into and con-
‘ denfed in it, as confined by the glafs, which had been
‘ our former opinion, we elerflrified the bottle again, and
‘ placing it on glafs drew out' the wire and cork as be-
‘ fore; then taking up the bottle, we decanted all its
‘ water into an empty bottle, which likewife flood on
‘ glafs; and taking up that other bottle, we expedted, if
‘ the force refided in the water, to find a fhock from it;
‘ but there was none. We judged then that it muft either
‘ be loft in decanting, or remain in the firft bottle. The
‘ latter we found to be true ; for that bottle on trial gave
‘ ^ke fhock, though filled up as it flood with frefh une-
‘ iedtrified water from a tea-pot To find, then, whe-
‘ ther glafs had this property merely as glafs, or whether
‘ the form contributed any thing to it; we took a pane
‘ of fafh-glafs, and laying it on the hand, placed a plate
* of lead on its upper furface; then eledtrified that plate;
‘ and bringing a finger to it, there was a fpark and
‘ fhock We then took two plates of lead of equal di-
‘ menlions, but lefs than the glafs by two inches every
‘ way, and eleftrified the glafs between them, by elec-
‘ trifying the uppermoft lead; then feparated the glafs
‘ from the lead; in doing which, what little fire might be
4 in the lead was taken out, and the glafs being touched
4 in the eleffrified parts with a finger, afforded only very
4 fmall pricking fparks, but a great number of them might
4 be taken from different places. Then dexteroufly pla-
4 cing it again between the leaden plates, and compleating
4 a circle bety/een the two furfaces, a violent fhock en-
4 fued. Which demonftrated the power to refide in
4 glafs as glafs; arid that the non-elerirics in contaftfer-
4 ed only, like the armature of a loadftohe, to unite the
* force of the feveral parts, and bring them at once to
4 any point defined: it being the property of a non-elec-
4 trie, that the whole body inftantly receives or gives
4 what eletfrical fire is giyen to or taken from any one of
4 its parts. 
4 It is amazing to obferve in bow fmall a portion of
4 glafs a great eleftrical force may he. A thin glafs.
4 bubble about an inch diameter, weighing or ly fix grains,
4 beirg half filled with water, partly gilt on the outfide,
4 and fumiftied with a wire hook, gives, when electrified,
1 as-.great .a fhock as a man can well bear. As the glafs
4 is thickeft near the orifice, I fuppofe ^the lower half,
4 which being gilt was electrified and gave the fhock, did
‘ not exceed two grains; for it appeared, u'hen broke,
4 much thinner than the upper half. If one of thefe
‘ thin bottles be electrified by the coating, and the fpark
taken
4S0 ELECT
* taken out through the giUing, !t will break the glafs
‘ inwards, at t!’e fame time that it breaks the gilding out-
‘ wards. And fince there is no more electrical fire in a
‘ bottle after charging than before, how great muft be the
* quantity in th s fmall portion of glafs! It feems as if it
8 were of its very fubftance and effence. Perhaps if that
8 due quantity of eleCtrical-fire fo obflinatdy retained by
8 glafs, could be feparated from it, it would no longer
8 be glafs; it might lofe its tranfparency, or its brittle-
nefs, or its elafticity. ^Experiments may poifibly be
8- invented'hereafter to dtfcover this.’
Of the Similarity between Lightning and Elec¬
tricity.
i . Flafhes of lightning are generally feen crooked, and
waving in the air. The eleCtric fpark has always the
fame direction when it is drawn from an irregular body
at fome diftance,- or through a fpace in which the beft
conductors are difpofed in an irregular manner, which is
always the cafe in the heterogeneous atmofphere of our
•globe.
2. Lightning (trikes the highefl and moft pointed ob¬
jects in its way preferable to others, as high hills, and
trees, towers, fpires, mafts of (hips, points of fpears,
<bc. In like manner, all pointed conductors receive or
throw off the eleCtric fluid more readily than thofe which
are terminated by flat furfaces.
3. Lightning is obferved to take the readied and bed
conductor. So does electricity in the difcharge of the
Leyden phial. For this reafon, it would be fafer, du¬
ring a thunder-dorm, to have one’s cloaths wet than dry,
as the lightning might then, in a great meafure, be
tranfmitted to the ground, by the water, on the outfide
of the body. It is found, that a wet rat cannot be
killed by the explofion of the electrical bottle, but
that a dry rat may.
4. Lightning burns. So does eleCIricity. It will
kindle hard dry rofin, fpirits unwarmed, and even wood.
It will fire gunpowder, by only ramming it hard in a
cartridge, into each end of which pointed wires are in¬
troduced, and brought within half an inch of one ano¬
ther, and difcharging a (hock through them.
5. Lightning fometimes diflblves metals. So does
eleftricity. The method in which Dr Franklin made e-
leCtricity melt metals, was by putting thin pieces of them
between two panes of glafs, bound fad together, and
fending an eledric fhock through them. Sometimes the
pieces of glafs, by which they were confined, would be
fluttered to pieces by the difcharge, and be broken into
a kind of coarfe fand, which once happened with pieces
of thick looking-glafs; but if they remained whole, the
pieces of metal would be miffing in feveral places where
it had lain between them, and inflead of it a metallic
{lain would be feen on both the glades, the (tains on the
under and upper glafs being exactly fimilar in the minuted
droke.
6. Lightning rends fome bodies. So does electricity.
The eleCtric fpark will drike a hole through a quire of
paper.—When wood, bricks, done, foe. are rent by
lightning, the fplinters will fly off on that fide where
R 1 C l T Y.
there is the lead refid,-nce. In lik* manner, when a hole
is druck through a piece of padeboard by an electrified jar,
if the furfacts of the padeboard are not confined and
cornpreffed, there will be a bur raifed all round the hcle
on both fides of the padeboard; but if one fide be con¬
fined, fo that the bur cannot be raifed on that fide, it
will all be raifed on the other fide, which way-foever the
fluid was direCIed. For the bur round the outfide of the
hole is the effeCt of the explofion, which is made every
way from the center of the eleCIric dream, and not an
effeCl of its direction.
7. Lightning has often been known to drike people
blind. And a pigeon, after a violent fhock of electricity,
by which it was intended to be killed, was druck blind
likewife.
8. In a thunder-dorm at Stretham, deferibed by Dr
Miles, the lightning dripped off fome paint which had
covered a gilded moulding of a pannel of wainfeot, with¬
out hurting the red of the paint. Dr Franklin imitated
this, by pading a flip of paper over the filleting of gold
on the cover of a book, and fending an eleCtric flafh
through it. The paper was torn off from end to end,
with fuch force, that it was broken in feveral places;
and in others there was brought away part of the grain
of the Turkey leather in which-the book Was bound.
This convinced the doCtor, that if it had been paint, it
would have been dripped off in the /ame manner with
that on the wainfeot at Stretham.
9. Lightning dedroys animal-life. Animals have
likewife been killed by the fhock of electricity. The
larged animals which Dr Franklin and his friends had
been able to kill were a hen, and a turkey which weigh¬
ed about ten pounds.
10. Magnets have been obferved to lofe their virtue, or
to have their poles reveffed, by lightning. DrFranklin did
the fame by eleClricity. By eleClricity he frequently gave
polarity to needles, and reverfed them at pleafure. A fhock
from four large jars, fent through a fine fewing needle,
gave it polarity, fo that it would traverfe when laid on
water. What is mod remarkable in thefe eleCtrical ex¬
periments upon magnets is, that if the needle, when it
was druck, lay ead and wed, the end which was enter¬
ed by the eleCtric blad pointed north ; but that if it lay
north and fouth, the end which lay towards the north
would continue to point north, whether the fire entered
at .that end or the contrary. He alfo obferved, that the
polarity was dronged when the needle was druck lying
north and fouth, and, weaked when it lay ead and wed.
He takes notice, that, in thefe experiments, the needle,-
in fome cafes, would be,finely blueor. like the fprmg of a
watch, by the eleClric flame; in which cafe the colour
given by a flafh from two jars only might be wiped off,
but that a flafh from four jars fixed it, and frequently
melted the needles. The jars which the doCtor ufed
held feven or eight gallons, and were coated and lined
with tinfoil.
To demondrate, in the completed manner poflible, the
famenefs of the eleCtric fluid with the matter of lightning.
Dr Franklin contrived to bring lightning from the hea¬
vens, by means of an eleCtfical kite, which he raifed when
a dorm of thunder was perceived to be coming on. This
kite
a\ *• \ >
E L E C , T
kite had a pointed wire iixed upon it, by which it drew
<the lightning from the clouds. This lightning defcended
by the hempen firing, and was received by a key tied to
the extremity of it; that part of the firing which was
held in the hand being of filk, that the ele&ric virtue
might flop when it came to the key. He found that the
firing would condmfl ele&ricity even when nearly dry,
but that when it was wet it would condudt it quite free¬
ly ; fo that it would flream out plentifully from the key
at the approach of a perfon’s 'finger.
At this key he charged phials, and from eleftric fire
thus obtained he kindled fpirits, dnd performed all other
electrical experiments which are ufuaily exhibited by an
excited globe or tube.
Tfpe firfl appearance of a thunder-ftorm (which gene¬
rally happens when there is little or no wind) is one
denfe cloud, or more, increafing very fall in fize,- and ri¬
ling into the higher regions of the air. The lower fur-
face is black, and nearly level; but the upper finely
arched, and well defined. Many of thefe clouds often
feem piled one upon another, all arched in the fame
manner; but they keep continually uniting, fwelling,
and extending their arches.
At the time of the. rifing of this cloud, the atmo-
fphere is generally full of a great number of fcparate
clouds, motionlefs, and of odd and whimfical fhapes.
Alf thefe, upon the appearance of the thunder-cloud,
draw towards it, and. become more uniform in their
lhapes as they approach; till, coming very near the
thunder cloud, their limbs mutually flretch towards one
another; they immediately coalefce, and together make
one uniform mafs. Thefe are called adfcititious clouds,
from their coming in, to enlarge the fize of the thunder¬
cloud. But, fometimes the thunder-cloud will fwell,
and increafe very faft without the conjundfion of any ad¬
fcititious clouds, the vapours in the atmofphere forming
themfelves into clouds where-ever it palfes. Some of
the adfcititious clouds appear like white fringes, at the
fkirts of the thunder-cloud, or under the body of it; but
they keep continually growing darker and darker, as they
approach to unite with it.
When the thunder-cloud is grown to a great fize, its
lower furface is often ragged, particular parts being de¬
tached towards the earth, but ftill connedled with the
reft. Sometimes the lower furface 1 wells into various
large protuberances, bending uniformly towards the
earth.* And fometimes one whole fide of the cloud
•will have an inclination to the earth, arid the extremity
of it will nearly touch the earth. When the eye is.un¬
der the thunder-cloud, after it is grown large, and well
formed, it is feen to fink lower, and to darken prodigi-
oufly; at the fame time that a number of fmall adfciti¬
tious clouds (the origin of which can never be perce ived)
are feen in a rapid motion, driving about in very uncer¬
tain direiftions under it.. While thefe clouds are agitated
with the moft rapid motions, the rain generally falls in
the greateft plenty; and if the agitation be exceeding
great? it commonly bails.
When the thunder-cloud is fwelling, and extending
its branches over a large tracft of couptry, the lightning
is feen to dart from one part of it to another, and often
Vot. II. No. 46. • ' 2
R I C I T Y. 481
to illuminate its whole mafs. When the cloud has ac¬
quired a fufficient extent, the lightning ftrikes between
the cloud and the earth, in two oppofite places, ihe path
of the lightning lying through the whole body of the
cloud and its branches. The longer this lightning con¬
tinues, the rarer does the cloud grow, and the lefs dark
is its appearance; till, at length, it breaks in different
places, and (hows a clear fky. When the thunder-cloud
is thus difperfed, thofe parts which occupy the upper re¬
gions of the atmofphere are equally fpread, and very
thin ; and thofe that are underneath are black, but thin
too ; and they vanifh gradually, without being driven a-
way with any wind.
That thunder-clouds were fometimes in a pofitive as
well as negative (late of eletfricity, Signior Beccaria had
difeovered, before he heard of its having been obferved
by Dr Franklin or any other perfon. The fame cloud,
in palling over his obfervatory, electrified his apparatus
fometimes pofitively, and fometimes negatively. The
electricity continued longer of the fame kind, in propor¬
tion as the thunder-cloud was fimple, and uniform in its
direction ; but when the lightning changed its place,
there commonly happened a change in the electricity of
his apparatus. It would change fuddenly after a very
violent flafti of lightning, but the change would be gra¬
dual when the lightning, was moderate, and the progrefs
of the thunder-cloud flow.
It was an immediate inference from his obfervations
of the lightning abroad, and his apparatus within, that
the quantity of eleCtric matter, in an ufual ftorm of thun¬
der, is almoft inconceivably great; confidering how ma¬
ny pointed bodies, as trees, fpires, are perpetually
drawing it off, and what a prodigious quantity is repeat-
• edly difeharged. to or from the earth.
Confidering the vaft quantity of eleClric fire that -ap¬
pears in the moft fimple thunder-ftorms, he thinks it im-
poflible that any cloud, or number of clouds, (hould ever
contain it all, fo as either t<i difeharge or receive it.
Befides, during the progrefs and increafe of the ftorm,
though the lightning frequently ftruck to the earth, the
fame clouds were the next moment ready to make a ftill
greater difeharge, and his apparatus continued to be as
much affeCted as ever. The clouds muft, confequently,
have received at one place, the moment that a difeharge
was made frrim them in another. In many cafes, the e-
leCtricity of his apparatus, and confequently of the clouds,
would inftantly change from one kind to another feveral
times; an effeCt which cannot be accounted for by any
fimple difeharge or recruit. Both muft have taken place
in a very quick fucceflion.
The extent of the clouds doth not leften this difficul¬
ty: for, be it ever fo great, ftill the quantity ought to
be leiTened by every difeharge: and befides, the points
by which the filent difeharges are made are in propotion
to the extent of the clouds. Nor is the difficulty leflen-
ed by fu; pofing that frefh clouds bring recruits ; for be¬
fides that the clouds are not ripe for the principal ftorm,
till all the clouds, to a great diftance, have actually co-
alefced, and formed one uniform mafs, thofe recruits
bear no fort of proportion to the difeharge, and what¬
ever it was, it would foon be exhaufted.
5 E Tie
482 E L E C T R
The therefore, mml: be, that the eledric matter
is continually darting from the clouds in one place, at the
fame time that it is difcharged from the earth in another.
And it is a neceffary confecjuence from the whole, that'
the clouds ferve as conductors to convey the eleCtric fluid
from thofe places of the earth which are overloaded With
it, to thofe which are exhaufted of it.
That great quantities of eledric matter do fometimes
rufh out of particular parts of the earth, and rife through
the air into the higher regions of the atmofphere, he
thinks is evident from the great quantities of fand, allies,
and other light fubftances, which have often been ca-ried
up into the air, and fcattered uniformly over a large trad
of country. No other known efficient caufe of this phe¬
nomenon can be alligned, except the wind ; and it has
been ooferved when there was no wind flirting; and the
light bodies have even been carried againft the wind. He
fuppofes, therefore, that thefe light bodies are raifed by
a large quantity of eledric matter, iffuing out of the
earth, where it was overcharged with it, and attrading
and carrying with it every fubftance that could ferve as a
condudor in its paflage. All thefe bodies, being poflefled
of an equal quantity of the eledric fluid, will be difperfed
equally in the air, and consequently over that part of the
earth wher6 the fluid was wanting, and whither they
ferve to convey it. Had thefe bodies been raifed by the
wind, they would have been difperfed at random, and in
heaps.
This comparatively rare phenomenon, he thinks, ex¬
hibits both a perfed image, and demonflration, of the
manner in which the vapours of the atmofphere are rai¬
fed to form thunder-clouds. The fame eledric matter,
•wherever it iflues, attrads to it, and carries up into the
higher regions of the air, the watery panicles that are
difperfed in the atmofphere. The eledric matter afcends
to the higher regions of the atmofphere, being folicited
by the lefs refiftance it finds'there than in the common
mafs of the earth; which, at thofe times, is generally
very dry, and confequently highly eledric. The uni¬
formity with which thunder-clouds fpread themfelves,
and fwell into arches, mufl be owing to their being af-
feded by fome caufe which, like the eledric matter, dif-
fufes itfelf uniformly where-ever it ads, and to the re-
liftance they meet with in afcending through the air. As
a proof of this, fleam, rifing from an eledrified eolipile,
diffufes itfelf with the fame uniformity, and in fimilar
arches, extending itfelf towards any conduding fub¬
ftance.
The fame caufe which firfl raifed a cloud, from va¬
pours difperfed in the atmofphere, draws it to thofe that
are already formed, and continues to form new ones^
till the whole colleded mafs extends fo far, as to reach
a part of the earth where there is a deficiency of the e-
ledric fluid. Thither too, will thofe clouds, replete
with eledric;ty, be flrongly attraded, and there will the
eledric matter difcharge itfelf upon the earth. A chan¬
nel of communication being, in this manner, found, a
frefh-fupply of eledric matter will be raifed from the o-
verloaded part, and will continue to be conveyed by the
medium of the clouds, till the equilibrium ot the fluid,
between the two places of the earth be reftored. When
I C I T Y.
the clouds are attraded in their paflage by thofe parts of
the earth where there is a deficiency of -the fluid, thofc
detached fragments are formed, and alfo thofe uniform
^pending protuberances, which, in fume cafes, are the
caufe of water-fpouts, and hurricanes.
That the eledric matter," Which forms and animates
the thunder-clouds, iflaes from places far below the fur-
face of the earth; and that it buries itfelf there, is pro¬
bable from the deep holes that have, in many places,
been made by lightning. Flalhes of lightning have, alfo,
been feen to arife from fubterraneous cavities, and from
wells. Violent inundations have accompanied thunder-
ftorms, not occafioned by rain, but by water burfling
from the bowels of the earth, from which it muft have
been diflodged by fome internal conculfion. Deep wells
have been known to fill fafter in thunder-ftorms, and o-
thers have conflantly growp turbid at the approach of
thunder.
This very rife, as well as the whole progrefs of thun¬
der-clouds, has fometimes been in a manner vifible.
Exhalations have been frequently feen to rife from parti¬
cular caverns, attended with a rumbling noife, and to af-
cend into the higher regions of the air, with all the phe¬
nomena of thunder-florms defcribed above, according to
the defcription of perfons who lived long before the con¬
nexion between eleXricity and lightning was fufpeXed.
The greateft difficulty attending this theory of the o-
rigin of thunder-ftorms relates'to the colleXion and in-
fulation of eleXric matter within the body of the earth.
With refpeX to the former, he has nothing particular to
fay. Some operations in nature are certainly attended
with a lofs of the equilibrium in the eleXric fluid, but no
perfon has yet afligned a more probable caufe of the re¬
dundancy of eleXric matter which, in faX, often abounds
in the clouds, than what we may fuppofe poflible to take
place in the bowels of the earth. And fuppofing the lofs
of the equilibrium poflible, the fame caufe that produced'
the effeX would prevent the reftoring of it; fo that not
being able to force a way, at leaft one fufficiently ready,
through the body of the earth, it would iflue at the
moft convenient vent into the higher regions of the air,
as the better paflage. His eleXrical apparatus, though
communicating with the earth, has frequently, in vio¬
lent thunder-dorms, given evident fparks to his finger.
In the enumeration of the efFeXs of thunder-ftorms, he
obferves that a wind always blows from the place from
which the thunder-cloud proceeds; that this is agreeable
to the obfervations of all mariners, and that the wind is more
or lefs violent in proportion to the fuddennefs cf the ap¬
pearance of the thunder-cloud, the rapidity of its ex-
panfion, and the velocity with which the adfcititious
clouds join it. The-fudden condenfation of fuch a pro¬
digious quantity of vapours muft difplace the air, and
repel it on all lides.
He, in fome meafure, imitated even thleeiTeX of thun¬
der, at leaft froduced a circulation of all the air in his
room, by the continued eleXrification of his chain.
Among other effeXs of lightning, he mentions the cafe
of a man rendered exceeding ft iff, p/efently after he was
ftruck dead in a. ftorm of thunder. But the moft remark¬
able circumftance, in this cafe, was the lightning (cha-
fing
ELECT
fing the befl conduftor) having (truck one particular vein,
near his neck, and followed it through its minuteft rami-
■fications: fo that the figure of it appeared through the
{kin, finer than any pencil could have drawn it.
He cautions perfons not to depend upon the neigh¬
bourhood of a higher, or, in all cafes, a better coridudt
or than their own body; fince, according to his re¬
peated obfervations, the lightningxby no means de-
fcends in one undivided track , but bodies of various kinds
conduit their (hare of it, at the fame time, in proportion
to their quantity and conduiting power.
A great number of obfervations, relating to the de-
fcent of lightning, confirm his theory of the manner of
its afcent; for, in many cafes, it throws before it the
parts of conduiting bodies, and diftributes them along
the refilling medium through which it mud force its
paffage.
Upon this principle it is, that the longed (ladies of
lightning feem to be made by its forcing into its way
part of the vapours in the air. One of the principal rea
fons why thofe flalhes make fo long a rumbling, is their
being occafioned by the vad length of a vacuum, made
by the paflage of the eledlric matter. For though the air
collapfes the moment after it has paffed, and the vibra¬
tion (on whith the found depends) comrtiences at the
fame moment, through the whole length of the track;
yet, if the flafh was directed towards the perfon who
hears the report, the vibrations excited at the nearer end
of the track will reach his ear much fooner than thofe
excited' at the more remote end ; and the -found will,
without any repercuflion or echo, continue till all the vi¬
brations have (ucceffively reached him.
He thinks that the Aurora Borealis may be this elec¬
tric matter performing its circulation, in fuch a (late of
the atmoiphere as renders it vifible, or approaching near¬
er to the earth than ufual.
Stones and bricks (truck by lightning are often vitri¬
fied. He fuppofes that fome (tones in the earth having
been druck in this manner fird gave occafion to the vulgar
opinion of the thunder-bolt.
Signior Beccaria was very fenfible that heat contri¬
butes much to the phenomena of thunder, lightning, and
rain ; but he could not find,, by any experiment, that it
tended to promote eleftricity. He therefore rather
thought that heat operated, in this cafe, by exhaling the
moidufe of the air: and thereby cutting off the commu-
nication of the eleAric fluid between one place'and an¬
other, particularly between rhe earth and the higher re¬
gions of the air, whereby its dfscts were more vifible.
Met he d of fecuring buildings and perfons fomlheef-
fRs of lightning.
Experiments made in eledtricity fird gave philofo-
phers a fufpicion that the matter of lightning was the fame
with the eleAric matter. Experiments afterwards made
on lightning obtained from the clouds by pointed rods, re¬
ceived into bottles, and fubjefted to every trial, have fince
proved this fufpicion to be ptrfeAiy well founded ; and
that what v^r properties we find in eleAricity, are alfo >
the properties of lightning,.
R I C I T Y. 483
This matter of lightning, or of eleAricity, is an ex¬
treme fubtile fluid, penetrating other bodies, and fubfid-
ing in them equally diffufed.
When by any operation of art or nature, there happens
to be a greater proportion of this fluid in one body than
in another, the body which has mod, will communicate-
to that which has lead, till the proportion becomes equal;
provided the didance between them be not too great; or,
if it is too great, till there be proper conduAors to con¬
vey it from one to the other.
If the communication be through the air without any
conduAor, a bright light is fetn between the bodies, and
a found is heard. In our (mail experiments we call this
light and found the eleAric fpark and fnap ; but in the
great operations of nature, the light is what we call light¬
ning, and the found (produced at the fame time, though
generally arriving later at our ears than the light does to
our eyes) is, with its echoes, called thunder.
If the communication of this fluid is by a .conduAor, it
maybe without either'light or found, the fubtile fluid paf-
fing in the fubdance of the conduAor.
If the conduAor be good and of fufficient bignefs, the
fluid palfes through it without hurting it. If otherwife,
it is damaged or dedroyed.
All metals, and water, are good conduAors.—Other
bodies may become conduAors by having fome quantity
of water in them, as wood, and other materials ufed in
building, but not having much water in them, they are
not good conduAors, and therefore are often damaged in
the operation by lightning.
Glafs, wax, (ilk, wool, hair, feathers, and even wood,
perfeAly dty, are non-conduAors : that is, they redd in¬
dead of facilitating the paflage of this fubtile fluid.
When this fluid has an opportunity of palling through
two conduAors,- one good and (ufficient, as of metal, the
other not fo good, it pafles in the bed, and will follow it
in any direAion.
The didance at which a body charged with this fluid
will difcharge itfelf fuddenly, driking thrpugh the air in¬
to another body that is not charged, or not fo highly char¬
ged, is different according to the quantity of the fluid, the
dimenfions and form of the bodies themfelves, and the
(late of the air between them. This didance, whate¬
ver it happens to be between any two bodies, is called
their Jit iking difiance, as till, they come within that di-
dance-of each other, no droke will be made.-
The clouds have often more of this fluid in proportion
than the earth; in which cafe as foon as they come near
enough (that is, within the. driking didance) or meet
with a conduAor, the fluid quits them and (trikes into the
earth. A cloud fully charged with this fluid, if fo high
as to be beyond the driking didance from the earth, paf-
fes quietly without making any noife or giving light; un-
lefs it meets with other clouds that havelefs.
Tall trees, and lofty buildings, a$ the towers and fpires
of churches, become fometirnes conduAors between the
clouds arul the earth; but not bging good ones, that is,
not conveying the fluid freely, they are often damaged.
Buildings that have their roofs covered with lead, or
Other metal, and fpotus of metal continued from the roof
into
.484 elect:
in to the ground to carry off the water, are never hurt by
lightning, as whenever it falls on fuch a building, it pal-
fes in the metals and not in the walls.
When other bmldings happen to be within the ftri-
kingdiltance from fuch clouds, the fluid pafles in'the walls,
whether of wood, brick or ftone, quitting the walls only
when it can find better conductors near them, as metal
rods, bolts, and hinges of windows or doors, gilding on
wainfcot, or frames of pidtures; the filvering on the backs
of looking-glafles; the wires for bells; and the bodies of
animals, as containing watry fluids. And in palling thro’
the houfe it follows the diredtidn of thefe conductors, ta¬
king as many in its way as can aflill it in its paifage, whe¬
ther in a flrait or crooked line, leaping from one to the
, other, if not far diflant from each other, only rending
the wall in the fpaces where thefe partial good conduc¬
tors are too diltant from each other.
An iron rod being placed on the outfide of a building,
from the higheft part continued down into the moift earth,
in any direction ftrait or crooked, following the form of
the roof or other parts of. the building, will receive the
lightning at its upper end, attracting it fo as to prevent its
ftriking any other part; and, affording it a good convey¬
ance into the earth, will prevent its damaging any part of
.the building.
A fmall quantity of metal is found able to conduct a
• great quantity of this fluid. A wire ho bigger than a
goofe quill has been known to conduCt (with fafety to
the building as far as the wire was continued) a quantity
of lightning that did prodigious damage both above and
below it; and probably larger rods are not neceflary, tho’
it is common to make them of half an inch, fome of three
quarters, or an inch diameter.
The rod may be fallened to the wall, chimney, <bc.
with llaples of iron.—The lightning- will not leave the
rod (a good conductor) to pals into the wall (a bad con¬
ductor) through thofe ftaples.—It would rather, if any
were in the wall, pafs out of it into the rod to get more
readily by that conductor into the earth.
If the building be very large and extenfive, two or
more rods may -be placed at difterent parts, for greater
fecurity. v
Small ragged parts of clouds fufpended in the air be¬
tween the great body of^ clouds and the e^rth (like leaf-
gold in. eleCtrical experiments), often ferve as partial con¬
ductors for the lightning, which proceeds’ from one of
them to another, and by their help comes within the Un¬
king dillance to the earth or a building. 11 therefore (trikes
through thofe conductors a building that would otherwife
be out of the ftriking diftance.
Long fharp .points communicating with the earth, and
prefented to fuch parts of clouds, drawing lilently from
them the fluid they are charged with, they are then at
traded to the cloud, and may leave the diftance fo great
as to be beyond the r^ach of ftriking.
It is therefore that we elevate the upper end of the rod
Tix or eigA feet above the higheft part of the building, ta-
pering it gradually to a fine tharp point, which is gilt to
.prevent its rufting.
Thus the pointed rod either prevents a ftroke from the
l I C I T Y.
cloud, or, if a ftroke is made, conducts it to the earth
with fafety to the building.
The lower end of the rod Ihould enter the earth fo
deep as to come at the moift part, perhaps two or three
feet; and if bent wheta under the furface fo as to go in a
horizontal line fix o( eight feet from the wall, and then
bent again downwards three or four feet, it will prevent
damage to any of the ftones of the foundation.
A perfon apprehenfive of danger from lightning, hap¬
pening during the time of thunder to be in a houfe not fb
lecured, will do well to avoid fitting near the chimney,
near a looking glafs, or any gilt pictures or wainfcot; the
fafeft place is in the middle of the room, (fo it be not under
a metal luftre fufpended by a chain), fitting in one chair
and laying the feet up in another. It is ftill faferto bring
two or three matrafles or beds into the middle of the
room, and folding them up double, place the chair upon
them; for they not being fo good conductors as the walls,
the lightning will-not chafe an interrupted courfe through
the air of the room and the bedding, when-it can go thro’
a continued better conductor, the wall But where it can
be had, ahamock orTwinging bed, fufpended by filk cords
equally diltant from the walls on every fide, and from the
cieling and floor above and below, affords the fafeft fitua-
tion a perfon can have in any room whatever; and what
indeed may be deemed quite free from danger of any
ftroke by lightning.
In order to fecure fhips from faftaining damage by
lightning, a copper road, about the thicknefs of a goofe
quill fhould be connected with the fpindles and iron work
of the tnafts continued down to the deck, and from
thence, in the moft convenient direction, till the end of
the rod be always in contact with the fea-water.
With regard to powder-mills and magazines, the ap¬
paratus to conduCt the lightning from them Ihould be
detached from the buildings themfelves, and conveyed
to the neareft water.
Of Medical Elettricity.
The firft application of electricity to the cure of dif-
eafes was made by M. Jallabert, profeffor of philofophy
at Geneva, on a lockfmith whofe right arm had been pa¬
ralytic fifteen years. He was brought to M. Jallabert on
the 26th of December 1747, and was compleatiy cured
by the 28th of February 1748. In this interval he was
frequently electrified, fparks being taken from the arm,
and fometimes the eleCtrical fhock fent through it
The report of this cure at Geneva, engaged Mr Sau-
vages of the academy in Montpelier to attempt the cure
of paralytics, in wh ch he had conliderable fuccefs.
In the year 1757, Mr Patrick Bryden, in a few days,
performed a compleat cure of a hemiplegia, and indeed an
almoft univerfal paralytic affeCtion of.two years conti¬
nuance.
Dr Hart, Dr Wilfon, Mr Lovet, Mr Weley, and
many others, relate a number of cafes v herein the palfy
was either cured or mitigited by electricity.
Dr Watfon cuied at univerfal tetanus, in the year
1762, by eleClnfy nu the patient, at proper .ntervals, for
three months.
Dr
E L E C T R
Dr Franklin and others mention fome paralytic cafes, in
■which eledricity feemed rather to make the patient worfe
than better.
Mr Wilfon cured a woman of a deafnefs of ferenteen
years ftanding*—And Mr Lovet confiders eledridty as a
fpecific in all cafes of violent pains, obftinate headachs,
.the fciatica, and the cramp. The toothach, he fays, is
generally cured by it in an inftant. He relates ,a cafe,
from Mr Floyer furgeon at Dorchelter, of a compleat
cure of a gutta ferena; and another of obftinate obftruc-
tions in two young women.
De Haen fays, that he never failed to cure St Vitus’s
dance by eledricity ; and found it of ufe in fome cafes of
deafnefs.
Hitherto eledricity has been generally applied to the
human body either in the method of drawing fparks, as it
E L E
ELECTRUM, in natural hiftory. See Amber.
ELECTUARY, in pharmacy, a form in which both
officinal and extemporaneous medicines are frequently
made.
It may be confidered as a number of bolufes united
together, but is made fomewhat fofter by an addition
of a due proportion of preferves or fyrups. 'WEen the
confidence is very foft, it is called fometimes by the
name of opiata.
The principal confideration in* prefcribing officinal
eleduaries is, that fuch things only be put together as
will not, by any oppofite qualities, "deftroy one ano¬
ther, or lofe their natural properties by lying long in
this manner ; and likewife that the whole be of a con¬
fidence that will hold ingredients of different gravities
in equal mixture.
ELEEMOSYNiE, and Eleemojsynarius. See
Alms, and Almoner.
ELEGANCE, or Elegancy, an ornament of polite-
nefs and agreeablenefs ffiewn in any difcourfe, with
fuch a choice of rich and happy expreffions, as to rife
politely above the common manners, fo as to ftrike
people of a delicate tafte.
It is obferved that elegance, though irregular, is
preferable to regularity without elegance: that is, by
being fo fcrupulous of grammatical conftrudion, we
lofe certain licences wherein the elegance of language
confifts.
ELEGIAC, in ancient poetry, anything belonging to
elegy. Set Elegy.
Elegiac verfes are alternately hexameter and penta¬
meter, as in the following verfes of Ovid. See He¬
xameter.
Fhbilis indignos, elegeia, folve capillos :
Ah nimis ex vero nunc tihi nomen erit.
Who was the inventor of elegiac poetry is not
known. Horace profeffes himfelf quite ignorant of it.
The principal writers of-elegiac verfe, among the La¬
tins, were Fropeutius, Ovi.d, ana Tibullus, the latter
whereof Quindilian efteems the beft elegiac poet; but
Pliny the younger gives the preference to the firft : the
Vol. II. No 46. 2
I C I T Y. 485
is called, or of giving ffiocks. But thefe operations are
both violent, and though the ftrong concuflion may fuit
fome cafes.it may be of differvice in others, where a mo¬
derate Ample eledrification might have been of ufe.
The great objedion to this method is the tedioufnefs
and expence of the application. But an eledrical ma¬
chine might be contrived to go by wind or water, and a
convenient room might be annexed to it; in which a floor
might be raifed upon eledrics, a perfon might fit down,
read, fleep, or even walk about during the eledrification.
It were to be wiftied, that fome phyfician of underftand-
ing and fpirit would provide himfelf with fuch a machine
and room. No harm could poffibly be apprehended from
eledricity, applied in this gentle and inlenfible manner,
and good effeds ate at leaft poffible, if not highly pro¬
bable.
E L E
chief writers of elegy among the Greeks were Calli¬
machus, Parthenius, and Euphorion.
ELEGIT, in law, a writ of execution, which lies for a
perfon who has recovered debt or damages ; or upon a
recognizance in any court, againft a defendant that is
not able to fatisfy the fame in-his goods.
ELEGY, a mournful and plaintive kind of poem. See
Elegiac.
As elegy, at its firft inftitution, was intended for
tears, it expreffed no other fentiments, it breathed no
other accents but thofe of forrow : with the negligence
natural to afflidion, it fought lefs to pleafe than to
move; and aimed at exciting pity, not admiration.
By degrees, however, elegy degenerated from its ori¬
ginal intention, and was employed upon all forts of
fubjeds, gay or fad, and efpecially upon love. O-
. vid’s book of Love, the poems of Tibullus and Pro¬
pertius, notwithftanding they are termed elegies, are
fometimes fo far from being fad, that they are fcarce
ferious. The chief fubjeds then to which elegy owes
its rife, are death and love: that elegy therefore ought
to be efteemed the molt perfed in its kind which has
fomewhat of both at once ; fuch, for inftance, where
the poet bewails the death of fome youth or damfei
falling a martyr to love.
ELEMENT, a term ufed by philofophers to denote the
original component parts of bodies, or thofe into which
they are ultimately refolvable. See Chemistry
Vol. II. p. 66.
Element, in a figurative fenfe, is ufed for the princi¬
ples and foundations of any art or fcience, as Euclid’s
Elements, ■’be..
ELEMI, ocElemy, in the materia medica, a kind of
refin, very improperly called gum elemi. There are
two forts of it kept in the Ihops; the one genuine, and
brought from Ethiopia; the other fpurious, and the
produce of America. The true kind is a yellowiffi re¬
fin, with a call of green and white ; its fmell is acrid
and pleafant, and its tafte acrid and bitter. It is very
inflammable, and readily diffolves in oil and other
fat fubftances over the fire; which two charaders a-
5 F lone
E L E ( 486 ) E L E
lone fufficiently dHHnguifh it from the gums : but this
genuine elemi is very rare in Europe.
The fpurious elemi is a whitifh refin, produced fron)
a tall tree, with pinnated leaves, not unlike thofe of
the pear-tree. It is in fome degree pellucid, and of
a fragrant fmell. It is only ufed externally, being
greatly recomhiended for refolving tumours, deterging
ulcers, wounds, e^ir.
ELENCHUS, in logic, a fophifm, or fallacious argu¬
ment, which deceives the hearer under the appearance
of truth. See Sophism.
ELEPHANT, in zoology. SccElephas.
Knights of the Elephant, an order of knighthood in
Denmark, conferred upon none but perfons of the firft
quality and merit. It is alfo called the order of St
Mary. Its inllitution is faid to have been owing to
a gentleman among the Danilh croifees having killed
an elephant, in an expedition againft the Saracens, in
1184; in memory of which king Canutus inftituted this
order, the badge of which is a totvered elephant, with
• an image of the holy virgin encircled with rays, and
hung on a watered Iky-coloured ribbon, like the George
in England.
ELEPHANTIASIS, called alfo the lepra of the Ara¬
bians, in medicine, a chronical difeafe, one of the two
fpecies of leprofy, which affedts the whole body, where
even the bones as well as the Ikin are covered with
fpots and tumours, which being red, at lall turn black.
See Medicine.
ELEPHANTINE, in Roman antiquity, an appellation •
given to the books wherein were regiftered the tranf-
adtions of the fenate and magiftrates of Rome, of the
emperors or generals of armies, and even of the pro¬
vincial magiftrates ; the births and clafles of the people,
and other things relating to the cenfus.
They are fuppofed to have been fo called as being
made of ivory; though fome will, have them to have
been written on the inteftines of elephants.
ELEPflANTOPUS, in. botany, a genu's of the fynge-
nefia polygamia fegregata clafs. The receptacle is
naked ; the corolla is divided into five fegments ; the
calix is imbricated ; and the pappus has feveral ariftae.
There are two fpecies, both natives of the Indies.
ELEPHAS, or the Elephant, in zoology, a genus
of quadrupeds belonging to the order of bruta. The
charadters are thefe: The elephant has no -fore¬
teeth in either jaw, and the dog-teeth are very long:
The probofcis, or trunk, is long, and capable of
laying hold of any thing ; and the body is fomewhat
naked.
The elephant is the largeft of all land-animals.
From the front to the origin of the tail he is generally
about 16 feet long, from the end of the trunk 25 feet,
and about 14 feet high. The circumference of the
neck is 17 feet, and the circumference of the body at
the groffeft part 25 feet 10 inches; the tail is about 6
feet long, and 2L in circumference. The circumfe¬
rence of the legs is about 6 feet. The eyes are fmall
in proportion to the fize of the animal. The muzzle
is very different from that- of any other quadruped;
it is nothing but the origin of a long trunk which hangs
between the two large tufks; the mouth appears be¬
hind the trunk, which ferves in place of an upper lip?
and the under lip terminates in a point. The tail is
fnort, and fmall in comparifon of the trunk, which
has the appearance of a long thick tail placed before.
The feet are fliort, round, clumfy, and only diftin-
guiftiable by the toes. The trunk is, properly fpeak-
ing, the nofe extended, and terminated by a couple of
noftrils. But, befides ferving as an organ of fmell,
the trunk performs all the fundions of a ftrong and
dextrous arm. The trunk of an elephant is about 8
feet long, yL feet in circumference near the mouth,
and one foot and a half near the extremity : It is a
pipe of an irregular conical figure, and widened at the
end : The fuperior fide of the trunk is convex, and
furrowed tranfverfely; and the inferior fide is flat, and
has two longitudinal rows of fmall protuberances re-
fembling the tentacula of the filk-worm and moft other
caterpillars. The upper part of the trunk correfponds
with the extremity of the nofe in other quadrupeds,
and anfwers the fame intention ; the inferior part ferves
as an upper lip, including the noftrils at the fame time;
for the trunk is a continued canal, divided into two
cavities by a longitudinal partition; thefe cavities a-«
fcend along the forepart of the upper jaw, wWre they
make a turn inward and defceod. into the palate, and
then terminate, in two feparate orifices ; they have like-
wife each a feparate orifice at the end of the trunk.
At the place where ’thefe cavities make a turn, and
before they enter into the bones of the head, there is
a moveable cartilaginous plate fituate in fuch a manner
as enables the elephant to ftmt the canal, and to pre¬
vent the water with which it occafionally fills the
trunk from entering into the paffage of the nofe where
the organs ferving for the fenfation of fmell are placed.
The elephant can move the trunk in all direftions; he
can extend or fhorten it at pleafure, without altering
the diameters of the two canals within. By this means
refpiration is not interrupted, whatever be the fituation
of the trunk; .and the water is allowed to remain till
the animal chufes to throw it out by an expiration.
Each canal is lined with a fmooth ftrong membrane,
and the furface of the trunk is covered with another
ftrong membrane or Ikin. The fubftance contained
between the exterior and interior membranes, is a com-
pofition of longitudinal and tranfverfe mufcles, which
ferve to expend and contra# the length of the trunk.
At the extremity of the trunk there is a concave pro¬
tuberance, in the bottom of which are the two paffages
of the noftrils. The inferior part of the protuberance
is thicker than the fides, and the fuperior part is-
ftretched out like a finger about five inches long;
which, together with the edges of the whole extremity
of the trunk, takes on different figuresraccording to the
neceflities of the animal. It. is by this organ that the
animal lays hold of food, or other fubftances, which
he manages with as much dexterity as a man does his
hand, taking up grains of corn, or the fmalleft piles of
grafs, and conveying them to his mouth. When he
drinks, he thrufts his trunk into the water, and fills it
by drawing in his breath, and exhaufting the air :
V When.
E L E
When the trunk is thus filled with water, he can either
throw it out to a great diftance, or drink it by put¬
ting the end of the trunk in his mouth
The two large tulks, which fome call .the horns of
the elephant, are of a yellowilh colour, and extremely
hard. The bony fubftance of which they are compofed
is known by the name of ivory, and much ufed in dif¬
ferent branches of manufa&ure.
The ears are very large, and referable thofe of an
ape. The Ikin of the elephant has but few hairs on it,
and placed at great diftartces from each other. It is full
of wrinkles, like thofe on the. palm of a man’s hand,
befides many chaped and grealy ridges. The female
has two dugs, one on each fide of the bread:. The
parts of generation are fmall in proportion to thofe of
other animals. The penis refembles that of a horie.
The female organ is fituate near the middle of the
belly, more than two feet didant from the ufual fitua-
tion in other quadrupeds: When they copulate, the
female lies down on her back.
Elephants, even in a favage date, are peaceable and
gentle creatures. They never ufe their weapons but in
defence of themfelves or companions. Their focial
difpofitions are fo drong, that they are feldom found
alone, but march always in large troops; theoldedand
mod experienced lead the van ; the younger, or lame
ones, keep in the middle ; and thofe of a fecond rate,
as to age, walk in the reaf. The females carry their
young on their tulks, embracing them at the fame time
with their trunk. They feldom march in this regular
order but when they reckon the journey dangerous,
fuch as an expedition to cultivated lands, where they
expe& to meet with refidance. On other occafions
they are lefs cautious, fome of them falling behind or
feparating from the red, but feldom fo far as to be
without the reach of affidance by alarming and af-
fembling their companions. It is only thefe wanderers
that the hunters dare attack ; for it would require a
whole army to afiail a troop of them; and even an
army would be unable to conquer them without lofing
a number of lives It is dangerous to offer them the
lead injury; for they run draight upon the offender;
and, although the weight of their body be great, their
Heps are fo large, that they eafily outrun the fwifted>
man, whom they either pierce with their tufks or feize
with their trunk, dart him in the air like a done, and
then trample him under their feet. But they never
attack any perfon, unlefs when provoked. Howe¬
ver. as they are extremely fenfible and delicate with
regard to injuries, it is always prudent to keep out of
their way. Travellers who frequent thefe countries
kindle large fires, and beat drums during the nig't,
in order to prevent their approach. After being once
attacked by men, or falling into any ambufh, they are
faid never to forget the injury, but fearch for every
opportunity of getting revenge. As they are endowed
perhaps with a more exquifite fenfation of fmell than
any other animal, owing to the great extent of their
nofe, they can fcent a man at a very great didance,'
and trace him by his footdeps.
Elephants are peculiarly fond of the banks of rivers.
E L E.
' deep valleys, and'marfhy grounds, efpecially when
well fhaded with trees. They delight in drawing
up water into their trunks, even when they do not
drink it, and amufe themfelves in dafhing the water
around. They cannot endure cold, and are equally
averl’e to an excefs of heat: In order to avoid the
fcorching heat.of the fun, they retire to the thicked
and mod ihady parts of the fored. The bulk of their
bodies is lb enormous, that they do not chufe to go
into deep waters fo frequently as fome other quadru¬
peds ; although the length of their trunk, which they
raife draight up, and by which they refpire, is a great
advantage in fwimming.
The ordinary food of elephants is roots, herbs,
leaves, the tender branches of trees, fruits, and grains:
but they abhor flelh, or fifh. When any of them
difcovers a fine padure, he immediately calls and in¬
vites his companions to come and eat with him. As
they devour a large quantity of food in a fhort time,
they are always (hifting their padure ; when they meet
with cultivated grounds, they make a prodigious defo-
latton, and deftroy more plants by their feet than they
ufe for nourifument, which is very confiderable, amoun¬
ting to i jopounds of herbage every day: bythismeans,
as they condantly graze in large troops , they lay wade
whole fields in an hour. The Indians and negroes-em-
ploy every art to prevent them from vifiting their cul¬
tivated lands, making great noife, and burning large
fires round their fields. However, thefe precautions
are not always fufficient to prevent the elephants from
vifiting them. They chafe away the domedic animals,
put the men to flight, and fometimes even throw down
their limber huts. Elephants are hardly fufceptible of
fear; the only things which can furprife them, or dop
Mieir courfe, are artificial fires, fuch as fquibs, crack¬
ers, (&■£■. the effedts of which are fo fudden andfi>
quickly repeated, that the elephants frequently turn
back'; and when one runs, all the red indantly follow
his example.
Although die focial difpofition in the elephant be ex¬
ceeding drong; yet whenever the-femalescomeinfeafon,
it immediately gives place tothedrongerand moreinte-
reding paffion of love. They obferve the greated delica¬
cy in their amours, abhorring nothing fo much as to
be feen by their companions. The troop divide them¬
felves into couples, deal off into the mod fecret places
of the fored, and. then give way to all the impulfes of
nature, which are lively and lading in proportion to the
Ipng period of abdinence; for the female.gpes with young
two years, and it is only once in three years that the
feafon of love returns. They bring forth but one at a
- time,-- which, as foon as it comes into the world, is as
large as a wild boar, and is furnidied with teeth ; how¬
ever, the large tufks do not make their appearance till
fome time after, and at the age of fix months they are
feveral inches long Elephants of this age are as large
as an ox, when in a natural dpte. But it is incredible
how they degenerate when inffaved and under the ma¬
nagement of men. Their difgud and chagrine for the
lofs of liberty feems never to depart from their minds.
In this date, though they fed, at the proper feafons,
the.
( ^7 )
E L E ( 488 ) E L E
: tiie flrongeft defires for the ftx, no art can allure
them to copulate: but the natural paffion, retrained
by an excels of modefty, burfts out into fuch violent
fits of fury and refentment, that the ftrongeft chains
are hardly fufficient to command them. This is a
linking difference betwixt the elephant and mofl other
tamed animals. It is only the individual that we can
enflave; the fpecies, in fpite of ail our endeavours, Hill
retain their original freedom and independence.
The manner of taking and taming the elephant,
therefore, merits our attention. In forells and fuch
places as are frequented by elephants, the Indians chufe
a fpot and inelofe it with llrong pallifades ; they ufe
the large!! trees as the principal (takes, to which are
fixed fmaller ones in a tranfverfe diredtion. Thefe crofs-
trees are fixed fo as to allow a man to pafs eafily
through. There is likewife a large port left for the
elephant, over which is fufpended a ftrong barrier,
which is let down as foon as he enters. In order to
decoy him into the inclofure, the hunters take along
with them a tame female in feafon, and travel about
till they conje fo near as that the cry of the female
can reach a male, whom they previoully obferve in the
foreft ; then the guide of the female makes her give the
cry peculiar to the feafon of love : the male inflantly re¬
plies, and lets out in quell of her. The guide then
makes the female proceed toward the artificial inclo¬
fure, repeating her cries from time to time as Ihe goes
along. She enters into the inclofure, the male follows
her, and the Indians immediately ftiut the port behind
him. He no fooner difcovers the hunters, and that he
is inclofed, than his pallion for the fex is converted in¬
to rage and fury. The hunters entangle him with
llrong ropes; they fetter his legs and trunk; they
bring two or three tame elephants in order to pacify
and reconcile him to his condition. In a word, they
reduce them to obedience in a few days, by a proper
application of torture, and carelfes. There arje many
other methods of catching elephants. Inflead of ma¬
king large inclofures with palliiades. like the kings of
Siam, and other monarchs, the poor Indians content
themfelves with a very fimple apparatus: they dig deep
pits in the roads frequented by elephants, covering thertr
over with branches of trees,turf, 6a\ When an elephant
falls into one of thefe pits, he is unabl<* to get out a-
gain.
The plephant, when tarped, is the moll friendly and
obedient of all animals: he is entirely attached to the
perlon who feeds and takes care of him. In a Ihort
time he underftands figns, and the found of his mailer’s
voice. He diflinguilhes the language of paffion, of
command, of fatisfadlion, and afts accordingly, hte
receives his orders with attention, and executes them
with prudence and alacrity, but without precipitation.
He eafily learns to bow his knees and lowar his bo¬
dy,, for the convenience of thofe who mount him. He
carefies his friends with his trunk. He lifts burdens
with his trunk, and affills thofe who are loading him
in laying them on his back. He .delights in Ihining
harnefs and trappings. When yoked in a cart or wag-
.gon,; he pulls equally and chearfully, unlefs he be a-
bufed by injudicious challifements. His guide is ge¬
nerally mounted on his neck, with a fmall rod of iron
fharp at the point in his hand ; he directs his motion
by pricking him on the ears and head ; but, for the
moll part, a word is fufficient.
A tame elephant will do more labour than fix hor-
fes ; but then he requires a proportional quantity of
food. They are the principal hearts of burden in ma¬
ny parts of Africa and the Eaft-Indies. They carry
facks and bundles of all kinds on their neck, back, and
talks. They never lofe or damage any thing commit¬
ted to their care : They will Hand on the edge of a
river, take bundles off their necks and tulles, lay them
carefully in a boat wherever they are defired, and try
with their trunk whether they are properly fituate; if
they be loaded with c^lks, they go in quell of Hones to
prop them and prevent them from rolling.
From the earlieft accounts in hiftory, the eaftern na¬
tions have employed elephants in war ; Alexander the
Great was the firlt European who ever mounted an e-
lephant. He carried a number of them into Greece,
which Pyrrhus employed fome years after againft the
Romans at the battle of Tarentum. Both the Greeks
and Romans foon learnt to get the better of thefe mon-
ftrous animals, they opened their ranks and allowed
them to pafs through ; neither did they- attempt
to hurt Ihem, but threw darts, &c. at their guides.
Now that fire-arms'are the principal inrtruments of war,
elephants, who are terrified at the noife and flame, in-
ftead of being ufeful, would only tend to embarrafs and
confufe an army. However, in Cochin and other parts
of Malabar, as alfo in Tonquin, Siam, and Pegu,
where fire-arms are little underftood, they are Hill ufed
in battle. The,guide fits attride upon the neek, and
the combatants fit or Rand upon the other parts of the
body.
When the elephant is properly managed, he lives ve¬
ry long even in a Hate of flavery and labour. That fome
have lived in this Hate 130 years, is pretty well authen¬
ticated. In a natural Rate, they often exceed 200
years, and propagate their fpecies till they be 120: It
is 30 year? before they come to their full growth.
[Plate LXXIV. fig. 3.]
ELEVATION, the lame with altitude or height. See
Altitude.
Elevation of the hof, in the church of Rome, that
part of the mafs where the priert raifes the hort above
his headforthe people to adore. See Mass and Hos r.
ELEVATOR, in anatomy, the name of feveral muf-
cles, fo called from their ferving to raife the parts of
the body to which they belong. See Anatom v, Part II.
ELEVATORY, in forgery, an inftrument for raifin.g de-
preffed or fra&ured parts of the foul], to be applied
after the integuments and periofteum are removea. See
Surgery.
ELEUSINIA, in Grecian antiquity, a fertival kept in
honour of Ceres, every fourth year by fome Hates, but
by others every fifth. The Athenians celebrated it
, at Eleufis, a town of Attica, whence the name.
It was celebrated with a world of ceremony, and
perfons of both fexes were initiated in it; it being
deemed
/ ' //rt/uwi
>'Ll'.rT3\ICLAT,
Mac^hote
-J7/. i
Ciorru
^lAcaimx
^ . ('>'. E n^ri KK
!TMKACJET7S /^/"HEDGEHOG
■
ELL ( 489 ) E L O
deemed Impious to negleft-doing fo.. The myfteries
were.of two forts, the lefier, and the greater; where¬
of the former were facred to Profeqnne, Ceres’s
daughter, and the latter to Ceres herfelf. According
to La&antius, they confided in a myfticai reprefentati-
on of what my thologifts teach of Ceres; though fome
of the Chriftian fathers will have the great myftery, or
fecret, which they were-forbidden by.law, upon pain of
death, to divulge, to have been tlae reprefentation or
figures of both male and female privities, which were
handed about and expofed to the company.
ELEUTHERIA, another feftival celebrated at Platxa,
by delegates from almoft all the cities of Greece, in ho¬
nour of Jupiter Eleutherius, or the afiertor of liberty.
It was inftituted in memory of the yiftory obtained
by the Grecians, in the territories of Plattea, overMar-
donius, the Perfian general, left by Xerxes with a
mighty army to fubdue Greece.
ELF, a term now almoft obfolete, formerly ufed to de¬
note a fairy, or hobgoblin, an imaginary being, the crea¬
ture of ignorances fuperftrtion, and craft. See-Fairy.
Ejlf-ar-rows, in natural hiftory, a name given to the
dints, anciently falhioned into arrow-heads, and (till
found folfile in Scotland, America, and feveral other
parts of the world; they are believed,by the vulgar
to be (hot by fairies, and that cattle are fometimes
killed by them.
ELGIN, the capital of the county of Murray, in Scot¬
land, fituated on the river Lofey, about fix miles north
of the Spey : W. long. 2 0 25', N. lat. 5 70 40.
ELIQUATION, in metallurgy, a reparation of the dif¬
ferent parts of mixed bodies, by the difterent degrees
of fire required to melt^them. See Chemistry.
ELISION, in grammar, the cutting off, or fuppreffing a
vowel at the end of a word, for the fake of (bund, or
meafure, the next word beginning with a vowel.
Elifions are pretty frequently met with in Englfth
poetry, but more frequently in the Latin, French, tec.
They chiefly confift in fuppreflions of the a, e, and /,
though an elifion fuppreffes any of the other vowels.
ELIXATION, in pharfnacy, the extra&ing the virtues
of ingredients by boiling or dewing.
ELIXIR, in medicine, a compound timfture extracted
from many efficacious ingredients. Hence the diffe¬
rence between a tin&ure and an elixir feems to be this,
that a tindture is drawn from one ingredient, fometimes
with an addition of another to open it, and to difpofe
it to yield to the menftruum ; whereas an elixir is a
tindlure extradfed from feveral ingredients at the fame
time. SeeTiNcruRE.
ELK, in zoology. See Cervus.
ELKHOLM, a port-town of Gothland, in Sweden,
twenty-four miles weft of Carelfcroon.
ELL, a meafure of length, different in different coun¬
tries; but thofe moftly ufed, are the Engliffi and Fle-
miffi ells; whereof the former is three feet nine inch¬
es, or one yard and a quarter ; and the latter only
twenty-feven inches, or three quarters of a yard. In
Scotland, the ell contains 37 ^ Engliffi inches.
ELLERENA, a town of Eftremadura, in Spain, fifty
miles fouth-eaft of Merida.
Vox. II. No. 46.
ELLIPSIS, in geometry. See Conic Sections.
Ellipsis, in grammar, a figure of fyntax, wherein one
or more words are not expreffed ; and from this defi¬
ciency, it has got the name ellipfis.
The ellipfis, properly fo called, is when the defici¬
ent word or words mull be fupplied from elfewhere;
as Hcftoris Andromache, where uxor is underftood;
that is, Andromache, Hedlor’s wife.
ELLIPTIC, or Elliptical, fomething belonging to
an ellipfis.
ELLIPOMACHROSTYLA, in natural hiftory, a ge¬
nus of imperfedt cryftals, with Angle pyramids; one
end of their column being affixed to fome folid body.
They are dodecahedral, with thinner hexangular co¬
lumns and hexangular pyramids.
Of thefe cryftalsj authors enumerate a great many
fpecies; among which are the whitiffi pellucid fprig
cryftal, a bright brown kind, a dull brown kind, and a
bright yellow kind, all which are farther diftinguiffied
according to the different lengths of their pyramids.
ELLIPOPACHYSTYLA, in natural hiftory, a genus
of imperfedt cryftals, compofed of twelve planes, in an
hexangular column, terminated by an hexangular py¬
ramid at one end, and irregularly affixed to fome other
body at the other, with ffiorter columns.
There are two fpecies of thefe cryftals, one ffiort,
bright and colourlefs, found in great plenty in New
Spain and other parts of America; the other, a ffiort,
dull, and duflty brown one, found in Germany, and
fometimes in England.
ELM, in botany. SeeUcMus.
ELNA, a town of Catalonia in Spain, but fubjed to
France, fituated ten miles fouth of Perpignan.
ELOCUTION, in rhetoric, the adapting words and
fentences to the things or fentiments to .be expreffed.
It confifts of elegance, compofition, and dignity. The
firft comprehending the purity and perfpicuity of a
language, is the foundation of elocution ; the fecond
ranges the words in proper order; and the laft adds
the ornaments of tropes and figures to give ftrength and
dignity to the whole.
ELODES, in botany. See Hypericum.
ELOGY, a praife or panegyric bellowed on any perfon
or thing, in confideration of its merit. The beauty
of elogy confifts in an expreffive brevity. Eulogiums
ffiould not have fo mudi as one epithet, properly fo
called, nor two words Enonymous ; they ffiould
ftridlly adhere to truth; fdrVxtravagant and improba¬
ble elegies rather leffen the charaAtr of the perfon or
thing they would extol.
ELOINED, in law, figjilfies reftrained or hindered from
doing fomething: thus it is faid, that if thofe within
age be eloined, fo that they cannot fue perfonally,
their next friend (hall fue for them.
ELONGATION, in aftronomy, the digreffion or recefs
of a planet from the fun, with refpedto an eye placed
on our earth. See Astronomy.
Elongation, in furgery, is an imperfeA luxation, oc-
cafioned by the ftretchiog or lengthening of the liga¬
ments of any joint.
ELOPEMENT, in law, is where a married woman de-
2 5 G parts
E M A ( 490 ) E M B
parts from her hufband, and cohabits with an adulte¬
rer ; in which cafe the hufband is not obliged to allow
her any alimony out of his eftate, nor is he chargeable
for neceflaries tor her of any kind.
ELOPS, in ichthyology,, a genus of the order of abdo-
minaies. The head is fmooth, and the teeth are in
the margin of the jaws and the palate ; there are thir¬
ty rays in the branchioflege membrane. There is but
one fpecies, viz. the favrus, with a tail armed both
above and below. It is a native of Carolina.
ELOQUENCE, the art of fpeaking well, fo as to afFetfl
and perl'uade.
Cicero defines it, the art of fpeaking with copiouf-
nefs and embellilhment.
Eloquence and rhetoric differ from each other, as
the theory from the pradfice; rhetoric being the art
which defcribes the.rules of eloquence, and eloquence
that art which ufes them to advantage.
ELSINORE, a port-town of Denmark, about twenty-
two miles north of Copenhagen, and fituated on the
Sound or the entrance into the Baltic fea.
ELVAS, a city and bifhop’s fee of Alentejo, in Portu¬
gal, fituated near the frontiers of Spanifh Eftremadu-
ra : W long. 70 35',. and N. lat. 38° 45/.
It is one of the flrongeft fortrefles in Portugal.
ELUL, in ancient chronology, the twelfth month of the
Jewifh civil year, and the fixth of the ecclefiaftical :
it confifted of only twenty-nine days, and anfwered
pretty nearly to our Auguft.
ELUTRIATION, the feparating the lighter matters
from the mixt ores of metals, by means of great quan¬
tities of fair water. See Chemistry.
ELY, a city and bilhop’s fee of Cambridgefiiire, fituated
about twelve miles north of Cambridge: Ei long. 15',
and N. lat. 520 24'.
It is a county of itfelf, including the territory a-
round, and has a judge who determines all caufes
civil and criminal within its limits.
ELYMUS, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria digynia
clafs. The involucrum confifts of two leaves ; and the
fpiculae are double. There are eight fpecies, only one
of which, viz. the arenarius, or fea lyme-grafs, is a na¬
tive of Britain.
ELYSIUM, or Elysian fields, in heathen mytho¬
logy, certain plains abounding with woods, fountains,
verdure, and every delightful obje«5l; fuppofed to be
the habitation of heroes and good men after death.
According to fome, the fable of Elyfium is of Phoe¬
nician extrafHoh, or rather founded upon the account
of paradife delivered in the Scriptures.
ELYTROIDES, or Vag 1 nale s, in anatomy. See
Vol I. p. 270.
EMANATION, the aft of flowing or proceeding from
fome fource or origin ; or, the thing that proceeds from
that aftion,
EMANCIPATION, in the Roman law, the fettjng free
a fon from the fubjeftion of his father; fo that what¬
ever moveables he acquires belong in property to him,
and not to his father as before emancipation.
Emancipation puts the fon in capacity of managing
his own affairs, and of marrying without his father's
confent. though a minor. Emancipation differs from
manumiffion, as the latter was the aft of a mafler in
favour of a flave, whereas the former was that of a fa¬
ther in favour of his fon.
There were twm kinds of emancipation ; the one ta¬
cit, which was by the fons being promoted to fome
dignity, by his coming of age, or by his marrying, in
all which cafes he became his own mafler of courfe.
The other, exprefs ; where the father declared be¬
fore a judge, that he emancipated his fon In per¬
forming this, the father was firft to fell his fon imagi-
narily to another, whom they called pattr fiduciiiriut,
father in truft, of whom being bought back again by
the natural father, he manumitted him before the
judge by a verbal declaration.
Emancipation Hill obtains in France with regard to
minors or pupils, who are hereby fet at liberty to ma¬
nage their own effefts, without the advice or direftion
of their parents or tutors.
EMARGINATED, amongft botanifls. See Vol. I.
p. 640.
EMASCULATION, the aft of caflrating or depriving
a male of thofe parts which charafterife his fex. See
Castration.
EMBALMING, is the opening a dead body, taking
out the inteftines, and filling the place with odorifer¬
ous and deficcative drugs and fpices, to prevent its pu-
trifying. The Egyptians excelled all other nations in
the art of preferving bodies from corruption ; for fome
that they have embalmed upwards of two thoufand,
years ago, remain whole to this day, and are often
brought into other countries as great curiofities. Their
manner of embalming was thus: they fcooped nut the
brains with an iron fcoop, out at the noArils, and
threw in medicaments to fill up the vacuum : they al-
fo took out the entrails, and, having filled the body
with myrrh, caflia, and other fpices, except frankin-
cenfe, proper to dry up the humours, they pickled it
in nitre, where it lay foaking for feverity days The
body was then wrapped up in bandages of fine linen
and gums, to make it flick like glue, and fo was de¬
livered to the kindred of the deceafed, entire in all its
features, the very hairs of the eye-lids being prefer-
ved. They ufedto keep the bodies of their anceftors*
thus embalmed, in little houfes magnificently adorned,
and took great pleafure in beholding them, alive as it
were, without any change in their lize,' features, or
complexion. The Egyptians alfo embalmed birds,
tjrc. The* prices for embalming were different; the
higheft was a talent, the next twenty minte, and fa
decreafing to a very fmall matter: but they who had
not wherewithal to anfwer this expenc'e, contented
themfelves with infufing, by means of a fyringe, thro*
the fundament, a certain liquor extrafted from the ce¬
dar, and leaving it there wrapped up the body in fait
of nitre: the oil thus preyed upon the inteftines, fo
that when they took it out, the inteftines came away
•with it, dried, and, not in the leaft putrified : the body
being inclofed in nitre, grew dry, and nothing remain¬
ed befides the fltin glued upon the bones.
EMBARGO, in commerce, in arreft on (hips, br mer-
chandilc.
E M B ( 493
chandife, by public authority; or a prohibition of
Hate, commonly on foreign (hips, in time of war, to
prevent their going out of port, fometimes to prevent
their coming in, and fometimes both, for a limited time.
The king may lay embargoes on (hips, or employ
thofe of his fubjeds, in time of danger, for fervice
and defence of the nation ; but they mull: not be for
the private advantage of a particular trader, or com¬
pany 5 and therefore a warrant to (lay a (ingle- (hip is
no legal embargo. No inference can be made from
embargoes which are only in wartime; and are a pro¬
hibition by advice of council, and not at profecution
of parties. If goods be laden on board, and after an
embargo or rellraint from the prince or (late cpmes
forth, and then the mafter of the (hip breaks ground,
or endeavours to fail, if any damage accrues, he muft
be refponfible for the fame ; the reafon is, becaufe his
freight is due, and muft be paid, nay though the goods
he feized as contraband.
Embargo differs from quarantine, infomuch as this laft
is always for the term of forty days, in which perfons
from foreign parts, infe&ed with the plague, are not
permitted to come on (hore. See Quarantine
EMBASSADOR, or Ambassador, a public minifter
fent from one fovereign prince, as a reprefentative of
his perfon, to another.
Embafladors are either ordinary or extraordinary.
Embaflador in ordinary, is he who conftantly refides
in the court of another prince, to maintain a good un-
derftanding, and look to the intereft of his mafter.
Till about two hundred years ago, embafladors in or¬
dinary were not heard of; all, till then, were embaf-
fadors extraordinary, that is, fuch as are fent on fome
particular occafion, and who retire as foon as the af¬
fair is difpatched.
By the law of nations, none under the quality of
a fovereign prince can fend or receive an embafiador.
At Athens, embaffadors mounted the pulpit of the pu¬
blic orators, and there opened their commiflion, ac¬
quainting the people with their errand. At Rome,
they were introduced to the fenate, and delivered their
commiflions to them.
Embafladors (hOuld never attend any public folemni-
ties, as marriages, funerals, unlefs their mafters
have fome intereft therein : nor muft they go into
mourning on any occafions of their own, becaufe they
,■ reprefent the perfons of their prince. By the civil
law, the moveable goods of an embaflador, which are
accounted an acceffion to his perfon, cannot be feized
on, neither as a pledge, nor for payment,of. a debt,
nor by order or execution of judgment, nor by the
king’s or ftate’s leave where he refides, as fome con¬
ceive ; for all actions ought to be far from an ambaf-
fador, as well that which toucheth his neceflarjes, as
his perfon : if, therefore, he hath contra&ed any debt,
he is to be called upon kindly, and ifhe refufes, then
letters of requeft are to go.to his mafter. Nor can any
of the embaflador’s domeftic fervants that are regi-
ftered in the fecretaries of ftate’s office be arrefted in
p:rfon or goods : if they are, the procefs (hall be
void, and the parties fuing out and executing it (hall
) r. M B
fuffer and be liable to fuch penalties and corporal pu*
niffiment as the lord chancellor or either of the chief
juftices (hall think fit to inflift. Yet embafladors
cannot be defended when they commit any thing a-
gainft that (late, or the perfon of the prince, with whom
they refide; and if they are guilty of treafon, felony,
use. or any other crime againft the law of nations,
they lofe the privilege of an embaflador, and may be
fubjedt to puniffiment as private aliens.
EMBASSY, the office or fundtion of an embaflador.
See the preceding article.
EMBDEN, a port-town and city of Germany, capital
of a county of the fane name, now in pofieflion of the
king of Pruflia ; it is fituated'at the mouth of the river
Ems: E. long. 6° 45', and N. lat. 530 yoV
EMBER-WEEKS, or Days, in the epifcopal church, .
are certain feafons of the year, fet apart for the im¬
ploring God’s blefling, by prayer and falling, upon
the ordinations performed in the church at fuch times.
Thefe ordination-fafts are obferved four times in the
year, viz. the Wednefday, Friday, and Saturday af¬
ter the firft Sunday in lent, after Whitfunday, after
the fourteenth of September and the thirteenth of
December, it being enjoined, by a canon of the
church, that deacons and minifters be ordained, or
made, only upon the Sundays immediately following
thefe ember-fafts.
EMBERIZA, in ornithology, a genus of birds, belong¬
ing to the order of pafleres. The bill is conical, and
the mandibles recede from each other towards the
bafe; the inferior mandible has the fides narrowed in¬
wards, but the upper one is dill narrower. There are
twenty-four fpecies, viz. The nivalis, or great pyed .
mountain-finch , of Ray, and the fnow-btrd of Ed¬
wards, has white-wings; but the outer edge of the
prime-feathers are black ; the tail is black, with three
white feathers on. each fide. They inhabit Lapland
and Hudfou’s bay, and in hard winters they come into
Sweden, when they are totally white. 2. The hyema-
lis, or fnow-fparrow of Catelby, is black above, and
the, belly is white. It is a native of North America.
3. The mtliaris, or grey emberiza, is of a greyifli co¬
lour, fpotted with black in the belly, and the orbi^
are rediffi. It is the bunting of Enghfli authors, and
a bird of Europe 4. The hortulana, or ortolan, has
black wings ; the firft three feathers on the. tail are
white on the edges, only the two lateral are black
outwardly. The orbits of the eyes are naked and yel-
^low; the head is greeniffi, and yellow towards the in¬
ferior mandible. It feeds prinbipally upon the panick-
grafs; grows very fat,, and is reckoned a delicate
morfel by certain epicures. It is a bird of Europe.
5. The citrinelia, or yellow hammer, has a blackflh
tail, only the two outward fide-feathers are marked
on the inner edge with a (harp white fpot. It is a
bird of Europe, and comes about houfes in winter:
it builds its neft on the ground in meadows, 6. The
olivacea, or olive, emberiza, is. of an olive colour a--
bove, whiter below ; the'eape of the neck is orange-
coloured, and it has a black belt acrofs the bread. It
is a native of Dominica. 7. The orix, or grenadier
o£
'E M B ( , .
of Edwards, is greyidi, with the front and belly black,
a tawny neck and rump, and a black-bill. It is a
native of Africa. 8. The quelca, has a .grey back, a
black front, and a red bill. It is a native of Africa.
9. The capenfis, or ortolon of the cape of Good Hope,
is greyiih, with a white nape of the neck, and a black
belt round the orbits .and mandibles. It inhabits the
Cape of Good Hope. 10. Theludovicia is greyiih a-
bove, and pale below ; the bread is reddifh, and
there is a black circle on the head. 11. The cia, is
reddilh, with white eye-brows, and black lines on the
head. It is a bird of Europe. 12.' The cirlus,
is a bird of Europe ; it has a greyhh back, a
fpotted bread, and yellowifh eye-brows. 13. The
faaniliaris is greyiih and fpotted; the tips of the tail-
feathers are white, and hind part of the back yellow.
It is a native of Afia. 14. The flaveola, is greyifh,
with a yellow face ; it is about the fize of a fiikin, add
is a native of warm countries. ij. The amazona is
of a tanny colour, with the crown of the head yellow,
andthebafeof the wings white underneath. Itisanative
of Surinam. 16. The orizivora, or ortolan of Caro¬
lina, is brownilh, with a tawny head, and a black
belly. It is properly a native of Cuba, but migrates
to Carolina about the autumn after the rice is reaped.
17. The fchoeniclas, or reed-fparrow, has a black
:4iead, a biackilh-grey body, and a white fpot on the
quill-feathers. It is a bird of Europe. 18. The
pfittacus, is of a tawny alh-colour, with yellow wings,
and two of the tail-feathers remarkably long. 19. The
paradifsea is brownilh, with a red bread, and two
long fharp-pointed feathers in the tail, and a black
bill. It is a native of Africa, and Iheds the long fea¬
thers of the tail every year, like the peacock. 20. The
ferena, has a red bill, a black fillet, a red vertex,
and a wedge-lhaped tail. 21. The vidua, or Indian
fparrow of Aldrovandus, is blackilh above, and white
below, with four very long feathers in the tail, and a
red bill. It is a native of India. 22. The principa¬
lis, is fpotted, with the bread, bill, and legs red.
It is a bird of Argola. 23. The regia, has a red bill,
four long equal feathers in the tail, and red legs. It
is a native of Africa. 24. The ciris, has a blueifh
head, a yellow belly, and a green back. It is a na¬
tive of North America.
EMBLEM, a kind of painted enigma, or certain figures
painted or cut, metaphorically expreffing fome adtion,
Avith reflections underneath, which in fome meafure ex¬
plain the fenfe of the device, and at the fame time
indrudt us in fome moral truth, or other matter of
knowledge.
EM ELEMENTS, among lawyers, denote the profits of
fown lands; but are fometimes ufed, more largely, for
any products that naturally arife from the ground.
EMBOLISMIC, or intercalary. See Interca¬
lary.
EMBOLUS, the moveable part of a pump, or fyringe,
called alfo the piflon, or fucker.
EMBOSSING, or Imbossing, in architecture and
Tculpture, the forming or fafhioning works in relievo,
v/hether cut with a chiifel or otherwife.
92 ) -E M E
EMBRASURE, in architecture, the enlargement made
of the aperture of a door or window, on the infide of
the wall; its ufe being to give the greater play for the
opening of the door or cafenient, or to admit the
more light.
EMBROCATION, in furgery and pharmacy, an ex¬
ternal kind of remedy, which contlds in an irrigation
of the part affeCted^ with fome proper liquor, as oils,
fpirits, ^rc. by means of a woollen or linen cloth, or
a fpunge, dipped in the fame.
EMBROIDERY, a work' in gold, or filver, or filk
thread, wrought by the needle upon cloth, duffs, or
muflin, into various figures. In embroidering duffs,
the work is performed in a kind of loom, becaufe the
more the piece is dretched, the eafier it is worked.
As to muflin, they fpread it upon a pattern ready de-
figned ; and fometimes, before it is dretched upon the
pattern, it is darched, to make it more eafy to handle.
Embroidery on the loom is lefs tedious than the other,
in which, while they work flowers', all the threads^
of the mpflin, both lengthwife and breadthwife, mud
. be continually counted ; but, on the other_hand, this
lad is much richer in points, and fufceptible of greater
variety. Cloths too much milled are fcarce fufceptible
of this ornament, and in effeCt we feldom fee them
embroidered. The thinned muflins are left for this
purpofe; and they are embroidered to the greated per¬
fection in Saxony: in other parts'of Europe, however,
theyembroider very prettily, and efpeciallyin France.
There are feveral kinds of embroidery; as, 1. Em¬
broidery on the damp, where the figures are raifed and
rounded, having cotton or parchment put under them
to fupport them. 2. Low embroidery, where the gold
and filver lie'low upon the fketch, and are ditched with
filk of the fame colour. 3. Guimped embroidery: this
is performed either in gold or filver ; they fird make a
fketch upon the cloth, then put on cut vellum, and
afterwards fow on the gold and filver with filk thread:
in this kind of embroidery they often put gold and filver
cord, tinfel, and fpangles. 4. Embroidery on both
fides, that which appears on both fides of the duff.
5. Plain embroidery, where the figures are flat and
even, without cords, fpangles, or other ornaments.
EMBRUN, orAMBRUN, a city of Dauphiny, in France,
near the confines of Piedmont : E. long. 6° 6', and
N. lat. 440 35.
EMBRIO, in phyfiology, the fird rudiments of an ani¬
mal in the womb, before the feveral members are di-
dinCtly formed; after which period it is denominated
a foetus.
EMBRYOTHLASTES, in midwifery, an indrument
contrived for breaking the bones, for the more eafy
extraction of the foetus in difficult labours.
EMBRYOTOMY, the cutting a feerus to pieces wbild
in the womb, praCtifed in cafes of neceffity, when
there is no other way of faving the mother.
EMBRYULCUS, a hook for extracting the child in
difficult labours. See Midwifery.
EMERALD, in natural hidory, a genus of precious dones,
of a green colour, and next in hardnefs to the ruby.
Our jewelers didinguifli emeralds into two kinds, the
oriental
E M E (49
oriental abd occidental: the err.-’raids of the Ea(l-In-
dies are evidently liner than thole of any other part of
the world; but our jewellers, feldom meeting with
< thefe, call the American emeralds the oriental, and u-
fually fell cryftal accidentally tinged with green, under
the name of the occidental emerald: thefe being alfo
’ the moll common, there has grown an opinion among
the lapidaries, that the emerald is no harder than the
cryftal; becaufe what they take to be emeralds, are
in general only crydals.
The genuine emerald, in its moll perfedt Hate, is
perhaps the mod beautiful of all the gems ; it is found
of various lizes,' but ufually fmall ; a great number of
them are met with of about the fixteenth part of an
inch in diameter, and they are found from this to the
fize of a walnut.
The emerald is of different figures like the diamond
and many of the other gems, being fometimes found in
a roundilh or pebble*like form, but much more fre¬
quently in a columnar one, refembling common cryllal:
the pebble-emeralds are always the hardell and bright-
eft, but are feldom found exceeding the fize of a pea :
the cryllalliform ones g’ow fever-1 together, and are
often larger: the pebble-kind are found loofe in the
earths of mountains, and fands of rivers; the co¬
lumnar are found ufually bedded in, or adhering to, a
white, opake, and coarfe cryltafiine mafs, and fome¬
times to the jafper, or the pralius
The oriental emerald is oP the hardnefs of the fap-
phire and ruby, and is fecond only to the diamond in
luftre and brightnefs : the American is of the hard¬
nefs of the garnet, and the European fomewhat fofter
than that, yet confiderably harder thin cryllal: It
lofes it colour in the fire, and becomes undiltinguilh-
able from the white fapphire.
The oriental emeralds are very fcarce, and at pre-
fent found only in the kingdom of Cambay; very few
of them have of late been imported into Europe, inlo-
much that it has been fuppofed there were no oriental
emeralds ; but within thefe ten years, fome few have
been brought from Cambay into Italy, that greatly
excel the American ones. The American, being
what our jewelers call oriental emeralds, are found
principally aboct Peru ; and the European are princi¬
pally from Silefia.
Ti? counterfeit Emeralds : Take of natural cryllal,
four ounces; of red-lead, four ounces; verdegreale, .
forty-eight grains ; crocus martis, prepared with vine¬
gar, eight grains; let the whole be finely pulverized
and lifted; put this into a crucible, leaving one inch
empty : lute it well, and put it into a potter’s furnace,
and let it Hand there as long as they do their pots.
When cold, break the crucible, and you will find
a matter of a fine emerald colour, which, after it is
cut and fet in gold, will furpafs in beauty an oriental
emerald.
EMERY in natural hillory, a rich iron ore found in
large raalles of no determinate lhape or (ize, extremely
hard, and very heavy. It is ufually of a dufity brown-
ilh red on the furface; but when broken, is of a fine
bright iron-grey, but not without feme tinge of red-
Vol. II. No. 46.
! ) E M P
nefs; and is fpangled all over with Ihfcing fpeck*,
which are fmall flakes of a foliaCeous talc, highly im¬
pregnated with iron. It is alfo fometimes very red,
and then ufually contains veins of gold. It makes no
effervefcence with any of the acid menftruums, and is
found in the ifland of Giternfey, inTufcany, and many
parts of Germany.
EMETIC, a medicine which induces vomiting.
EMINENCE, a title of honour peculiar to cardinals.
See Cardinal.
EMIR, a title of dignity among the Turks, figoifying a
prince.
This title was firft given to the caliphs; but when
theyaffumed the title offidtans, thatof emir remained
to their children ; as tha if Csefar among the Romans.
At length the title became attributed to all who were
judged to defeend from Mahomet by his daughter Fati-
mah, and who wear the green turban inftead of the white.
The Turks make an obfervation, that the emirs, be¬
fore their fortieth year, are men of the greatell gra¬
vity, learning and wifdom; but after this, if they are
not great fools, they difeover fome figns of levity and
Ilupidity. This is interpreted by the Turks as a fort
of divine impulfe in token of their birth and famflity.
The Turks alfo call the vizirs, bafliaws, or gover¬
nors of provinces, by this name.
EMISS \RY, in a political fenfe, a perfon employed by
another to found the opinions of people, Spread cer¬
tain reports, or a<3 as a fpy over other peoples ac¬
tions.
EMMENAGOGUES, in pharmacy, medicines which
promote the menfes, either by giving a greater force to
the blood in its circulation, whereby its momentum
againll the veffels is increafed; or by making it thin¬
ner, whereby it will more cafily pafs through any out¬
let.
EMMERIC, a city of Wellphalia, in Germany, fub-
jedt to Pruflia: E. long. 50 45', N. iat. 510 48'.
EMOLLIENTS, in medicine and pharmacy, are fuch
remedies as Iheath and foften the afperity of the hu¬
mours, and relax and fupple the folids at the fame
time.
EMPALEMENT, an ancient kind of pnnifliment,
which confided in thrufting a ftake up the fundament,
Empalement of a flower, the fame with calix. See
Cal ix.
EMPEROR, a title of honour among the ancient Ro¬
mans, conferred on a general who had been victorious,
and now made to fignify a fovereign prince, or fupreme
ruler of an empire.
The title of emperor adds nothing to the rights of
fovereignty; it only gi ves preheminence above other fo-
vereigns. The emperors, however, pretend, that the
imperial dignity is more eminent than the regal. It is
difputed whether emperors have the power of difpo-
fing of the regal title; however this may be, they have
fometimes taken upon them to eredt kingdoms : thus it
is that Bohemia, Prullia, and Poland, are faid to have
been raifed to that dignity. In the call, the title of
emperor is more frequent than with us ; thus the fo¬
vereign princes of China, Mogul, (bfv are called em-
2 5 H perortc
E M P ( ^94 ) ENA
perors. In the weft, the title has been a long time
reftrained to the emperors of Germany. The firft
who bore it was Charlemagne, who was crowned
by Pope Leo III. in 800. And it is to be obferved,
that there was not a foot of land or territory annexed
to the emperor’s title.
In the year 1723, the Czar of Mufcovy afTumed
the title of emperor of all the Ruftias. The kings of
France were alfo called emperors, when they reigned
with their Tons, whom they affociated in the crown:
thus Hugh.Caput was called emperor, and his fon
Robert king. The kings of England were anciently
ftyled emperors, as appears from a charter of king Ed-
gar.
The emperor of Germany is a limited monarch in
regard to the empire, though he is an abfolute fove-
reign in moft of his hereditary dominions ; the late
emperors of the Auftrian family, having hereditary
dominions, enumerated all of them in their title.
Charles VI. was ftyled emperor of the Romans, al¬
ways auguft, king Bohemiah and Hungary, archduke
of Auftria, <bc.; but the prefent emprefs inheriting
thofe countries, her confort enjoys only the title of
emperor of the Romans, duke of Lorrain and Tufca-
ny. The emperor creates dukes, marquiffes, and o-
ther noblemen; and he appoints moft of the officers,
civil and military, in the empire : he is ejpfted by the
nine ele&ors; and he fummons the general diet of
the empire.
EMPETRUM, berry bearing heath, in botany,
a genus of the dicecia triandria clafs. The calix of
both male and female confifts of three fegments,
and the corolla of three petals. The female has nine
ftyli; and the berry contains nine feeds. There are-two
fpecies, one of which, viz. the nigrum, black-berried
heath, crow or crake berries, is a native of Britain.
EMPHASIS, in rhetoric, a particular ftrefs of the voice
and action, laid on fuch parts or words of the ora¬
tion as the orator wants to enforce upon his audience.
EMPHYSEMA, in furgery, a tumour generally oc-
cafioned in a fraclure of the ribs. See Surgery, and
Medicine.
EMPIRE, a large extent of land, under the jurifdidion
or government of an emperor. See Empero r.
EMPIRIC, an appellation given to thofe phyficians who
condutf: themfelves wholly by their own experience,
without ft tidying phyfic in a regular way. Some even
ufe the term, in a (till worfe fenfe, for a quack who
prefcribes at random, without being at all acquainted
with the principles of the art.
EMPIS, in zoology, a genus of infers belonging to the
order of diptera. The beak is horny, inflefled, cen-
fifts of two valves, and is longer than the thorax.
- There are five fpecies, principally diftinguilhed by their
colour.
EMPRESS, the fpoufe of an emperor, or a woman who
governs an empire. See Emperor.
EMPROSTHOTONOS, a fpecies of convulfion, where¬
in the head bends forward. See Medicine
EMPYREMA, in medicine, a diforder wherein purulent
matte^is contained in the thorax or breaft, after an in¬
flammation and fuppuration of the lungs and pleura.
See Medicine, and Surgery.
EMPYREUM, a term ufed by divines for the higheft
heaven, where the bleffed enjoy the beatific vifion.
EMPYREUMA, among chemifts and phyficians, the
fiery tafte or offenfive Imell which brandies, and other
bodies prepared by fire, are impregnated with. See
Chemistry.
EMRODS. See Haemorrhoids.
EMULGENT, or Renal arteries. See Anato¬
my, Part III.
EMULSION, a foft liquid remedy, of a colour and
confiftence refembling milk. See Chemistry.
EMUNCTORY, in anatomy, a general term for all
thofe parts which ferve to carry off the excrementi-
tious parts of the blood and other humours of the
body. Such more efpecially are the kidneys, bladder,
and moft of the glands. See Anatomy.
ENjEMON, in medicine, an epithet often applied by
Hippocrates and Galen, to fuch topical medicines as
are appropriated to a wound newly inflidted, before
the blood be flopped.
ENiEOREMA, in medicine, that pendulous fubftance
which floats in the urine. It is alfo called fublima-
mentum and nubecuhe, from its refemblance to little
clouds.
ENALLAGE, in grammar, is when one word is fub-
ftituted for another of the fame part of fpeech: a fub-
ftantive for an adjedtive, as exercitus vtftor, for vifto-
riofus ; fcelus, for fcelefius.
ENAMEL, a kind of coloured glafs, ufed in enamelling
and painting in enamel.
Enamels have for their bafis a pure cryftal glafs or
frit, ground up with a fine calx of lead and tin prepa¬
red for the purpofe, with the addition ufually of white
fait of tartar. Thefe ingredients baked together, are
the matter of ,all enamels, which are made by adding co¬
lours of this or that kind in powder to this matter, and
melting or incorporating them together in a furnace.
For white enamel, Neri (De Arte Vitriar.) diredts
only manganefe to be added to the matter which con-
ftitutes the bafis. For azure, zaffer mixed with calx
of brafs. For green, calx of brals with fcales of
iron, or with crocus martis. For black, zaffer with
manganefe, or with crocus martis ; or manganefe with
tartar. For red, manganefe, or calx of copper and
red tartar. For purple, manganefe with calx of brafs.
For yellow, tartar and manganefe. And for violet-
coloured enamel,-manganefe with thrice-calcined brafs.
In making thefe enamels, the following general cau¬
tions are neceffary to be obferved. 1. That the pots
muft be glazed with white glafs, and muft be fuch as
will bear the fire. 2. That the matter of enamels
muft be very nicely mixed with the colours. 3. When
the enamel is good, and the colour well incorporated,
it muft be taken from the fire with a pair of tongs.
4. The general way of making the coloured enamel
is this: powder, fift, and grind all the colours very
nicely, and firft mix them, with one another, and then
with the common matter of enamels; then fet them in
pots in a furnace, and when they are well mixed and
incorporated.
ENA ( 495 ) ENA
incorporated, caft them into water'; arid when dry, fi t
them in a furnace again to meJt; and when melted,
take a proof of it. If too deep-coloured, add more
of the common matter of enamels ; and if too pale,
add more of the fcolours.
Enamels are ufed either in counterfeiting or imita¬
ting precious Hones, in painting in enamel; or by en-
amellers, jewellers, and goldfmiths, in gold, filver,
and other metals.- The twp firfl: kinds are ufuaily
prepared by the workmen themfelves, who are employ¬
ed in thefe arts. That .ufed by jewellers, is
brought to us chiefly from Venice or Holland, in little
cakes of different fizes, commonly about four inches
diameter, having the mark of the maker {truck upon
it with a puncheon. It pays the pound i s. 7 -rVty^'
on importation, and draws back is. y-y^-d. at the
rate of 4s. per pound,
ENAMELLING, the art of laying enamel upon metals,
as gold, filver, copper, ire. and of melting it at the
the fire, or of making divers curious works in it at a
lamp. It fignifies alfo to paint in enamel.
Tie method of painting in Enamel. This is performed
on plates of gold or filver, and moll commonly of cop¬
per, enamelled with the white enamel; whereon they
paint with colours which are melted in the fire, where
they take a brightnefs and luftre like that of glafs.
This painting is the molt prized of all for its peculiar
brightnefs and vivacity, which is very permanent, the
force of its colours not being effaced or fullied with
time, as in other painting, and continuing always as
frefh as when it came out of the workman’s hands.
It is ufual in miniature, it being the more difficult the
larger it is, by reafon of certain accidents it is liable
to in the operation. Enamelling fhould only be prac-
tifed on plates of gold, the other metals being lefs
pure: copper, for inflance, feales with the application,
and yields fumes; andTdver turns the yellows white.
Nor muff the plate be made flat; for in fuch cafe, the
enamel "cracks; to avoid which, they ufually forge
them a little round or oval, and not too thick. The
plate being well and evenly forged, they ufually begin
the operation by laying on a couch of white enamel (as
we obferved above) on both fides, which prevents the
metal from fwelling and bliftering ; and this firfl lay
ferves for the ground of all the other colours. The
plate being thus prepared, they begin at firft by draw¬
ing out exadtly the fubjett to be painted with red vi¬
triol, mixed with oil of fpike, marking all parts
of the defign very lightly with a fmall pencil. After
this, the colours (which are to be hefore ground with
water in a mortar of agate extremely fine, and mixed
with oil of fpike fomewhat thick) are to be laid on,
obferving the mixtures and colours that agree to the
different parts of the fubjedt; for which it is neceffary
to underftand painting in miniature. But herCj the
workman muff be very cautious of the good or bad
qualities of the oil of fpike he employs to mix his co¬
lours with, for it is very fubjedt to adulterations. See
Oil.
Great care muff likewife be taken, that the leaft duft
imaginable, come not to your colours while you are
either painting or grinding them ; for the leafi: fpeck,
when it is worked up with it, and when the work comes
to be put into the reverberatory to be red-hot, will
leave a hole, and fo deface.the work.-
When the colours are all laid, the painting muff be
gently dried over a flow fire to evaporate the oil, and
the colours afterwards melted to incorporate them
with the enamel, making the plate red-hot in a fire
like what the enamellers ufe. Afterwards that part of
the painting mult be paffed over again which the fire
hath any thing effaced, {Lengthening the fhades and
colours, and committing it again to the fire, obferving
the fame method as before, which is^to be repeated till
the work be finilhtd.
Method (^Enamelling by the lamp. Moft enamelled
works are wrought at the fire of a lamp, in which, in-
ftead of oil, they put melted horfe-greafe, which they
call caballine oil. Tire lamp, which is of copper or
white iron, confifts. of two pieces, in one of which is a
kiad of oval plate, fix inches long, and two high, in
which they put the oil and the cotton. The other
part, called the box, in which the lamp is inclofed,
ferves only to receive the oil which boils over by the
force of the fire. This lamp, or, where feveral artifts
work together, two or three more lamps are placed on
a table of proper height. Under the table, about
the middle of its height, is a double pair of organ-
bellows, which one of die workmen moves up and
down with his foot, to quicken the flame of the lamps,
which are by this means excited to an incredible de¬
gree of vehemence. Grooves made with a gauge in
the upper part of the table, and covered with parch¬
ment, convey the wind of the. bellows to' a pipe of
glafs before each lamp; and that the enamelleis may
not be incommoded with the heat of the lamp, every
pipe is covered at fix inches diftance with a little tin
plate, fixed into the table by a wooden handle. When
the works do not require a long blaft, they only ufe
a glafs pipe, into which they blow with their mouth.
It is incredible to what a degree of finenefs and de¬
licacy the threads of enamel may be .drawn at the
lamp. Thofe which-are ufed in making falfe tufts of
feathers are fo fine,.that they may be wound on the
reel like filk or thread. The fidlitious jets of all co¬
lours, ufed in embroideries, are alfo made of enamel;
and that with fo much art, that every final! piece hath
its hole to pafs the thread through wherewith it is
fewed. Thefe holes are made by blowing them into
long pieces, which they afterwards cut with a proper
tool.
It is feldom that the Venetian or Dutch enamels are
ufed alone • they commonly melt them in an iron-ladle,
with ah equal, part glafs or cryltal; and when the two
matters are in perfett fufion-, they draw it out into
threads of different fizes, according, to the nature of
the work. They take it out of the ladle while liquid,
with two pieces of broken tobacco pipes, which ihey
extend from each other, at arm’s length. -If the thread
is required ftiil longer, then another workman holds
one end, and continues to draw it out, while the.firfl:
holds the cnamd to the flame. Thofe threads, when
cold,
E N C (4
-cold, are cot into what lengths the workman thinks
fit, but commonly from ten to twelve inches; and as
they are all round, if they are required to bedlat, they
TOuil be drawn through a pair of pincers while yet hot.
They have alfo another iron inftrument in form of
pincers, to draw out the enamel by the lamp When it
is to be worked and difpofed in figures. Lalily, they
have glafs-tubes of various fizes, ferving to blow the
enamel into vario-us figures, and preferve the neceffary
vacancies therein; as aifo to fpare the fluff, and form
the contours. When the enameller is at work, he fits
before his lamp with his foot on the ftep that moves
on the bellows ; and holding in his left hand the work
to be enamelled, or the brafs or iron-wires the figures
are to be formed tin, he diredis with his right the en¬
amel thread, which he holds to the flame with a ma¬
nagement and patience equally furprifing. There are
few things they cannot make or reprefent with ena¬
mel ; and feme figures are as well finiflied, as if done
by the moft Ikilful carvers.
ENARTHROSIS, in anatomy, a fpecies of diarthrofis.
See Anatomy, Part I.
ENCiENIA, the name of three feveral feafts celebrated
by the Jews in memory of the dedication, or rather
purification, of the temple, by Judas Maccabaeus, So¬
lomon, and Zorobabel.
This term is likewife ufed in church-hiftory for the
dedication of Chriflian churches.
ENCAMPMENT, the pitching of a camp. See Camp.
ENCANTHlS,.in furgery, a tubercle ariiing either from
the caruncula laCrymalis, or from the adjacent red
Ikin ; fometimes fo large, as to obftrudl not only the
pundta lacrymalia, but alfo part of the fight, or pu¬
pil itfelf. See Surgery.
ENCAUSTIC and Encaustum, the fame with ena¬
melling and enamel. See Enamelling, andENAMEL.
ENCEINTE, in fortification, is the wall or rampart
which furrounds a place, fometimes compofed of bafli-
ons or curtains, either faced or lined with brick or
ftone, or only made of earth. The enceinte is fome¬
times only flanked by round or fquare towers, which is
called a E.oman wall.
ENCEPHALI, in medicine, worms generated in the
head, where they caufe fo great a pain, as fometimes
to occafion diftradtion.
ENCEPPE', in heraldry, denotes fettered, chained, or
girt about the middle, as is ufual with monkeys.
ENCHANTER, a perfon fuppofed to practife enchant¬
ment or fafcination. See Fascination, Witch-
CRAFT, tic.
Enchanter’s nightshade, in botany. See Cir-
CiEA.
ENCHASING, Inchasing, or Chasing, the art of
enriching and beautifying gold, filver, and other metal¬
work, by fome dtfign or figures reprefented thereon
in low relievo.
Enchafing is pradtifed only on hollow thin works, as
watch-cafes, cane heads, tweezer cafes, or the like It
is performed by punching or driving out the metal, to
form a figure, from with-infide, fo as to ftand out pro-
96 ) E N £
minent from the plane or furface of the metal. In or¬
der to this, they provide a number of fine fleel blocks,
or puncheons, of divers fizes; and the defign being
drawn on the furface of the metal, they apply the in-
fide upon the heads or tops of thefe blocks, diredtly
under the lines or parts of the figures ; then, with a
fine hammer, ftriking on the metal, fuftained by the
block, the metal yields, and the block makes an inden¬
ture or cavity on the infide, correfponding to wnich
there is a prominence on the outfide. which is to Hand
for that part of the figure.
Thus the workmen proceeds to chafe and finifli all
the parts by fucceflive application of the block and
hammer to the feveral parts of the defign. And it is
wonderful to confider with what beauty and juftnefs, by
this fimple piece of mechanifm, the artifts in this kind
will reprefent foliages, grotefques, animals, hiflories,
tic.
ENCHYSMA, in medicine, the fame with enema. See
Enema.
ENCLITIC A, in grammar, particles which are fo clofe-
ly united with other words, as to feem part of them,
as in viruvique, tie.
There are three enclitic partiples in Latin, viz. que,
tie, ve.
ENCRATITES, in church-hiftory, heretics who ap¬
peared towards the end of the lecond century: they
were called Encratites, or Continentes, becaufe they
gloried in abftaining from marriage and the ufe of
wine and animal-food.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA. See Cyclopedia, and Dicti¬
onary.
ENDECERIS, in antiquity, denotes a veffel or galley
with eleven tires of oars.
ENDEMIC, or Endemical diseases, thofe to which
the inhabitants of particular countries are fubjedt
more than others, on account of the air, water, fitua-
tion, and manner of living.
ENDIVE, in botany. See Cich o rium.
ENDLESS, fomething without an end : thus authors
mention endlefs rolls, the endlefs fcrew, tic.
ENDORSE, in heraldry, an ordinary, containing the
eighth part of a pale, which Leigh fays is only ufed
when a pale is between two of them.
ENDORSED, in heraldry, is faid of things borne back
to back, more ufually called adofse. See Adosse'.
ENDOWMENT, in law, denotes the fettling a dower
on a woman; though fometimes it is ufed figuratively,
for fettling a provifion upon a parfon, on the building
of a church ; or the fevering a lufficient portion of
tithes for a vicar, when the benefice is appropriated.
ENEMA, in medicine. See Clyster.
ENEMY, in law, an alien or foreigner, who .publicly
invades the kingdom.
ENERGUMENS, in church hiftory, perfons fuppcifed
to be poffeffed by the devil, eoucerning whom there
were many regulations among the primitive Chriflians.
They were denied baptifm, and the eucharifl.; at leaft,
this was the praftice of fome churches: and though
they were under the care of exorcifts, yet it was
thought
ENG ( 497 ) ENG
thought a becoming aft of charity to let them have the
public prayers of the church, at which they were per¬
mitted td be prefent. See Exorcism.
ENERGY, a term of Greek origin, fignifying the pow¬
er, virtue, or efficacy of a thing. It is alfo ufed, fi¬
guratively, to denote emphafis of fpeech.
ENFILADE, in the art of war, is ufed in fpeaking of
trenches, or other places, which may be fcoured by
the enemy’s (hot along their whole length. In con-
dufting the approaches at a fiege, care murt be taken
that the trenches be not enfiladed from any work of
the place. See Trenches.
ENFRANCHISEMENT, in law, the incorporating a
perfon into any fociety or body politic.
ENG ASTRIMYTHI, in Pagan theology, the Pythians,
or prieftefles of Apollo, who delivered oracles from
within, without any aftion of the mouth or lips.
The ancient philofophers, &c. are divided upon the
fubjeft of the engafirimythi. ' Hippocrates mentions it
as adifeafe. Others will have it a kind of divination.
Others attribute it to the operation or poffeffion of an
evil fpirit. And others to . art and mecbanifm. M.
Scottus maintains that the engaflrimythi of the anci¬
ents were poets, who, when the priefts could notfpeak,
fupplied the dfteft by explaining in verfe what Apol¬
lo diftated in the cavity of the bafon on the facred tri¬
pod.
ENGENDERING, a term fometimes ufed for the aft
of producing or forming any thing: thus meteors are
faid to be engendered in the middle region of the at-
mofphere, and worms in the belly. See Genera¬
tion.
ENGERS, the capital of a county of the fame name, in
Germany, fituated on the river Rhine, about feven
miles north of Coblentz.
ENGHIEN, a city of Hainalt, about fourteen miles fouth-
weft of Bruffels. ’
ENGINA, an ifland on the north-eaft of the Morea, a-
bout fifty miles eaft of Corinthv
ENGINE, in mechanics, is a compound machine, made
of one or more mechanical powers, as levers, pullies,
fcrews, <&. in order to raife, caft, or fuflain any
weight, or produce any effeft which could not be ea-
fily'effefted other wife. See Mechanics.
Engine for ext inguijhing fires. See Hydrostatics,
and Hydraulics. *
:P/Y<?-Engine, one contrived for driving piles. See
Mechanics.
^/^w-Engine, a machine to raife water by fire, or ra¬
ther by the force of water turned into fleam. See
Hydrostatics, and Hydraulics.
ENGINEER, in the military art, an able expert man,
who, by aperfeft knowledge in mathematics, delineates
upon paper, or marks upon the ground, all forts of
forts, and other works proper for offence and defence. -
He fhould underftand the art of fortification, fo as to
be able, not only to difcover the defefts of a place, but
to find a remedy proper for them; as alfo how to make
an attack upon, as well as to defend, the place. En¬
gineers are extremely neceflary for thefe purpofes:
wherefore it is' requifite that, befidts being ingenious,
Yol. II. No. 46.
they fhould be brave in proportion. When at a fiege
the engineers have narrowly furveyed the place, they are
to make their report to the general, by acquainting
him which part they judge the weakeft, and where ap¬
proaches may be made with mod fuccefs. Their bufi-
nefs is alfo to delineate the lines of circumvallation
and contravallatiop, taking all the advantages of the
ground; to mark out the trenches, places of arms,
batteries, and lodgments, taking care that none of
. their works be flanked or difcovered from the place.
After making a faithful rpport to the general of what
is a-doing, the engineers are to demand a fufficient
number of workmen and utenfils, and whatever elfe is
neceffary.
ENGLAND, the fouthern divifion of Great Britain, fi-
tuated in the Atlantic ocean, between 20 E. and 6° W.
longitude, and between 490 $5' and ss° 55 N. lati¬
tude.
There are in England, including Wales, fifty-two
counties, two archbifhoprics, twenty-four bifhoprics,
two univerfi’ties, twenty-nine cities, upwards of eight
hundred towns, and near ten thoufand parifhes; fup-
pofed to contain about 7,000,000 of people.
New England, comprehending the colonies of Maf-
fachufets. New Hampfhir.e, Conneftkut, Rhode-ifland,
and Providence-Plantation, is fituated between 67° and
730 W. longitude, and between 410 and 450 N. la¬
titude.
ENGLISH, or the English tongue, the language
fpoken by the people of England, and, with fome va¬
riation, by thofe of Scotland, as well as part of Ire¬
land, and the reft of the Britifh dominions.
The ancient language of Britain is generally allow¬
ed to have been the fame with the Gaulic, or French;
this ifland, in all probability, having been find peopled
from Gallia, as both Caefar and Tacitus affirm, and
prove by many ftrong and conclufive arguments, as by
their religion, manners, cuftoms, and the nearnefs of
their fituation. But now we have very fmall remains
of the ancient Britifh tongue^ except in Wales, Corn¬
wall, the iflands and highlands of Scotland, part of
Ireland, and fome provinces of France; which will
not appear ftrange, when what follows is confidered.
Julius Casfar, fome time before the birth of our Sa¬
viour, made a defcent upon Britain, though he may
be faid rather to have difcovered than conquered it;
but, about the year of Chrift 47, in the time of
Claudius, Aulus Plautius wasfent over with fome Ro¬
man forces, by whom two kings of the Britons, Co-
digunusandCaraftacus, were both overcome in battle:
whereupon a Roman colony was planted at Malden in
EiTex, and the fouthern parts of the ifland were redu¬
ced to the form of a Roman province: after that, the
ifland was conquered as far north as the friths of Dum¬
barton and Edinburgh, by Agricola, in the time of Do-
mitian ; whereupon, a great number of the Britons, in
the conquered part of the ifland', retired to the weft
part called Wales, carrying their language with them.
The greateft part of Britain being thus become a
Roman province, the Roman legions, who refided in
Britain for above two hundred years, undoubtedly dif-
2 5 I feminated
ENG ( 498 )
feminated the Latin tongue ; and the peopie being af¬
terwards governed by laws written in Latin, mult ne-
celTarily make a mixture of languages. This feems to
have been, the full mutation the language of Britain
fuffered.
Thus the Britilh tongue continued, for fome time,
mixed with the provincial Latin, till, the Roman legi*
ons being called home, the Scots and Pitfts took the
opportunity to attack and harrafs England: upon which,
K- Vortigen, about the year 440, called the Saxons
to his alTiltance. who came over with feveral of their
neighbours, and having repulfed the Scots and Pidts,
were rewarded for their fervices with the ifle of Tha-
net, and the whole county of Kent; but growing too
powerful, and not being contented with their allot¬
ment, dilpoflelTed the inhabitants of all the country
on this fide of the Severn : thus the Britilh tongue
was in a great meafure deftroyed, and the Saxon in¬
troduced injts Head
What the Saxon tongue was long before the con-
quell, about the year 700, we may obfervein the mod
ancient manufcripts of that language, which is a glofs
on the Evangelifls, by bifhop EdfriJ, in which the
three firfl articles of the Lord’s prayer runs thus.
“ Uren fader thic arth inheofnas, fic gehalgud thin
“ noma, fo cymeth thin ric. Sic thin willa fue is
“ heofnas, and in eortho, Or.”
In the beginning of the ninth century the Danes in¬
vaded England; and getting a footing in the northern
and eaflern part of the country, their power gradual¬
ly increafed. and they became foie mailers of it in a-
bout two hundred years. By this means the ancient
Britilh obtained a tinflure of the Danilh language : but
their government being of no long continuance, did
not make fo great an alteration in the Anglo-Saxon,
as the next revolution, when the whole land, A. D.
1067, was fubdued by William the Conqueror, duke
of Normandy in France: for the Normans, as a mo¬
nument of their conquell, endeavoured to make their
language as generally received as their commands,
and thereby rendered the Britilh language an entire
medley.
About the year 900, the Lord’s prayer, in the an¬
cient Anglo-Saxon, ran thus :
“ Thue ur fader the eart on heofenum, fi thin na-
“ ma gehalgod ; curne thin rice fi thin willa on eorthan
“ fwa, fwa on heofenum, &c.’’
About the year 1160, under Henry II. it was ren¬
dered thus by pope Adrian, an Englilhman, in rhyme:
“ Ure fader in heaven riche,
“ Thy name be halyed ever licb,
“ Thou bring us thy michell blifle:
“ Als hit in heaven y doe,
“ Evar in yearth beene it alfo, tbc.”
Dr Hicks gives us an extraordinary fpecimen of the
Englilh. as fpoken in the year.1385, upon the very
fubjedt of the Englilh tongue.
“ As it is knowe how meny maner peple beeth in
“ this lond ; ther beeth alfo fo many dyvers longages
“ and tonges Nothelefs Walfchemen and Scots that
“ beeth nought medled with other nation, holdeth wel
ENG
iyh hir firfte longage and fpeche ; but yif the Scottes,
“ that were fometime confederate and woned with the
“ Pidles, drawe fomewhat after hir fpeche ; but the
“ Flemynges, that woneth on the welie fide of Wales,
“ haveth loft her Orange fpech, and fpeketh Sexon-
“ liche n;w. Alfo Enghlhemen, they had from the-
“ bygynnynge thre maner fpeche: northerne, fou-
“ therne, and middel fpeche in the middel of the
“ lond, as they come of thre maner of peple of Ger-
“ mania : nothelefs by commyxtion and mellynge firlt
“ with Danes, and afterwards with Normans, in meny
“ the contrary Ipngage is apayred {corrupted.)
“ This apayrynge of the burth of the tuhge is bycaufe
“ of tw'eie thinges; oon is for children in icole agenO
“ the ufuage and maner of all other nation:, beeth
“ compelled for to leve hire own longage, and for to
“ conOrue hir lelforis and here thynges in French, and
“ fo they haveth fethe Normans come firlt into Enge-
“ lond. Alf gentlemen children beeth taught 10
“ fpeke Frenfche from the tyme that they beetn rok-
“ ked in here cradel, and kunneth fpcke and play
“ with a childes broche ; and uplondilfche men will
“ lykne hymfelf to gentilmen, and fondeth wit . great
“ befynefle for to Ipeak Frenfche to be told of.—Hit
“ feemeth a greet wonder how Englifchemen and her
“ own longage and tonge is fo dyverfe of Town in this
“ oonilond: and the longage of Normandie is com-
“ lynge of another lond, and hath oon maner loun
“ amonge alle men that fpeketh hit arigt in Engelond.
“ Alfo of the forefaid Saxon tonge that is deled (<//-
“ vided) a three, and is abide fcarceliche with fewe
“ uplondiflche men is greet wonder. For men of the
“ ell, with men of the wed, is, as it were, undir
“ the fame partie of hevene acordeth more in fown-
“ ynge of fpeche, than men of the north, with men
“ of the fouth. Therefore it is that Mercii, that
“ beeth men of ihyddel Engelond, as it were, par-
“ tenets of the endes, underllondeth bettre the fide
“ longages northerne and foutherne, than northerne or
“ foutherne underllondeth either other.—All the lon-
“ gaSe tbe Northumbers and fpechialliche at York,
“ is fo fcharp, llitiing and frotynge, and unfchape, that
“ we foutherne men may that longage unnethe un-
“ derflonde, &c.” Hicks's Thefaur. liter fept.
In the year 1537, the Lord’s prayer was printed as
follows: “ O oure Father which arte in heven, ha-
“ lowed be thy name : let thy kingdome come, thy
“ will be fulfiled as well in erth as it is in heven ;
“ geve us this daye in dayly bred, fyc.” Where it
may be obferved that the diftion is brought almoll to
the prefent llandard, the chief variations being only
in the orthogiaphy. By thefe jnltances, and many o-
thers that might be given, it appears, that the Englilh
Saxon language, of which the Normans defpoiled. us
in a great meafure, had its beauties, was fignificant and
emphatical, and preferable to what they impofed on us.
“ Great, verily,” fays Camden, “ was the glory of our
“ tongue before the Norman conqueft, in this, that the
“ old Englifh could exprefs, mod aptly, all the concep-
“ tions of the mind in their own tongue, without bor-
“ rowing from any.” Of this he gives feveral examples.
Having
EN G ( 490 ) ENG
Hiving thus (hewn how the ancient Britiih language
was in a manner extirpated by the Romans, Danes,
and Saxons, and fucceeded by the Saxon, and after
that the Saxon blended with the Norman French, we
(hall now mention two other caufes- of change in the
language: the fir(t of thefe isowing to the Britons
having "been a long time a trading nation, whereby of¬
fices, dignities, names of wares, and terms of traffic
are introduced, which we take with the wares from
the perfons of whom we have them, and form them a-
new, according to the genius of our own tongue;
and befides this change in the language, arifing from
commerce, Britain’s having been a confiderable time
fubjedt to the fee of Rome, in ecclefiaftical affairs,
mull unavoidably introduce fome Italian’ words among
us. Secondly, as to the particular properties of a lan
guage, our tongue has undergone no (mall mutation,
or rather has received no fmall improvement upon that
account: for, as to the Greek and Latin, the learn¬
ed have, together with the arts and fciences now ren¬
dered familiar among us, introduced abundance; nay,
almoft all the terms of art in the mathematics, philo-
fophy, phyfic, and anatomy; and we have entertained
many more from the Latin, French, <fac. for the fake
of neatnefs and elegancy: fo that, at this day, our
language, which about 1800 years ago, was the an
cient Bnti(h, or Welch, <bc. is now a mixture of
Saxon, Teutonic, Dutch, Danifh, Norman, and mo¬
dern French, embellifhed with the Greek and Latin.
Yet this, in our opinion, is fo far from being a difad-
vantage to the Englilh tongue, as now fpoke (for all
languages have undergone changes, and do continually
participate with each other) that it has fo enriched it,
as now to become the mod copious, fignificant, fluent,
courteous, and mafeuline language in Europe, if not
in the world
ENGRAFTING, or Grafting, in gardening. See
Gardening.
ENGRAILED, or Ingrailed, in heraldry, a term
derived from the French greJJy, hail; and fignifying
a thing the hail has fallen upon and broke off the
edges, leaving them ragged, or with half-rounds, or
femicircLs, (iruck out of ’.heir edges.
ENGRAVING, the art of cutting metals and precious
Hones, and reprefenting thereon figures, letters, or
whatever device, or defign, the artift fancies;
Engraving, properly a branch of feuipture, is di¬
vided into feveral other branches, according to the
matter whereon it is employed, and the manner of
■ performing it.
The original way of engraving -on wood is denomi¬
nated at prefent, with us, by cutting in wood ; that
on metals with aquafortis, is named etching; that by
the knife, burnifher, punch, and feraper, is called mez-
zotinto; that on Hones for tombs, fyc. ftone-cutting4
and that performed with the graver on metals or pre¬
cious (tones, keeps alone the primitive name of en¬
graving, being that which we (hall at prefent attend to.
Engraving on copper, is emplo.ed in reprefenting por¬
traits,, hiltories, land/kips, foliages, figures, build¬
ings, tec. either after paintings, or defigns for that
purpofe.
It is performed with the graver on a plate of cop¬
per, which, being well poliflied, is covered over thin¬
ly with virgin-wax, and -then fmoothed, while warm,,
with a feather, fo that the wax be of an equal thick-.
nefs on the plate; and on this the draught or delign,
done' in black lead, red chalk, or ungummed ink, is
laid with the face of the drawing on the wax: then
they rub the backfide, which will caufe the whole de¬
fign of the drawing to appear on the wax. The de¬
fign, thus transferred, is traced through on the cop¬
per, with a point, or needle; then heating the plate,
and taking oft* the wax, the llrokes remain to be fol¬
lowed, heightened,, <bc. accordingto the tenor of the
defign, with the graver, which muff be very Iharp and
'well pointed.
In the conduA of the graver confifts almoft all the
art, which depends not fo much upon rules as upon
pra<5lice, the habitude, difpoficion, and genius of the
artift, the principles of engraving being the fame with
thofe of painting; for if an engraver be not a perfect
mafter of defign, he can never hope to arrive at a de¬
gree of perfection in this art. In conducting the
ftrokes, or cuts, of the graver, he muft obferve the
aCtion of the fingers, and of all their parts, with their
outlines ; and remark how they advance towards, or
fall back from his fight, and then conduct his graver
according to the rifings or cavities of the mufcles, or
folds, widening the ftrokes in the light, and con¬
tracting them ia the (hades ; as alfo at the extremity
of the outlines, to which he ought to conduCt the cuts
of the graver, that the figures or objects reprefented
may not appear as if they gnawn ; and lightening his
hand, that the outlines may be perfectly found, with¬
out appearing cut or (lit; and,- although his ftrokes-
neceffarily break off where a mufcle begins, yet they
ought always to have a certain connexion with each o-
ther, fo that the firft ftroke (hould often ferve to make
the fecond, becaufe this will (hew the freedom of the
graver.
If hair be the fubjeCt, let the engraver begin his
work by making the outlines of the principal Jocks,
and (ketch them out in a carelefs manner, which may
be finiftied, at leifure, with finer and thinner ftrokes to
the very extremities.
The engraver muft avoid making very acute angles,
efpecially in reprefenting flefti, when he croffes the
-firft ftrokes with the fecond, becaufe it will form a
very difagreeable piece of tabby like lattice-work, ex¬
cept in the reprefentation of fome clouds, in tempefts,
the waves of the fea, and in reprefentations of (kins of
hairy animals, and leaves of trees. So that the me¬
dium between fquare and acute feems to be the beft
and moft agreeable to the eye. He that would repre-
fent fculpture, muft remember, that as ftatues, &c. are
moft commonly made of white marble, or ftone, whofe
colour, does not produce fach dark (hades as other
matters do, thev have no black to their eyes, nor hair
of the jiead and beard flying in the air. If the engraver
would
ENG ( 5<
woulJ prefcrve one quality and harmony in his works,
he fhould always (ketch out the principal obje&s of his
piece before any part of them are fimlhed.
The inftruments ne'ceffary for this fort of engraving
are, befides a graver, a cufhion, or fand-bag, made ot
leather, to lay the plate on, in order to give it the
neceffary turns and motions ; a burnifher made of iron,
or (feel, round at one end, and ufually (lattifh at the
other, to rub out flips and failures, foften the (trokes,
eye. ; a feraper, to pare off the furface, on occafion ;
and a rubber, of a black hat, or cloth rolled up, to
fill up the (irokes that they may appear the more vi-
fible.
In Engraving precious Jiones, they ufe either the dia¬
mond, or the emery. The diamond, which is the
hardeft of all ftones, is only cut by itfelf, or with its
own matter. The fir ft thing to be done in this branch
of engraving, is to cement two rough diamonds to the
ends of two (ticks big enough to hold them fteady in
the hand, and to rub or grind them agairift each other
till they be brought to the form defired. The dull
or powder that is rubbed off ferves afterwards to po-
liih them, which is performed with a kind of mill that
turns a wheel of foft iron. The diamond is fixed in a
brafs difh, and, thus applied to the wheel, is covered
with diamond-duft, mixt up with oil of olives ; and
when the diamond is to be cut facet-wife, they apply
firft one face, then another, to the wheel. Rubies,
fapphires, and topazes, are cut and formed the fame
way on a copper wheel, and polifhed with tripoli di¬
luted in water. As-to agate?, amethyfts, emeralds,
hyacinths, granates, rubies, and others of the fofter
ftones, they are cut on a leaden wheel, moiftened with
emery and water, and poliftied with tripoli, on a pew¬
ter wheel. Lapis-lazuli, opal, <bc. are-poliflied on a
wooden wheel. To falhion and engrave vafes of agate,
cryftal, lapis-lazuli, or the like, they make ufe of a
kind of lathe, like that ufed by pewterers to hold the
veffels, which are to be wrought with proper tools;
that of the engraver generally holds the tools, which
are turned by a wheel; and the veffel is held to them
to be cut and engraved, either in relievo or otherwife;
the tools being moiftened, from time to time, with dia¬
mond duft and oil, or at lead emery and water. To
engrave figures or devices on any of thefe ftones, when
poliflied, fuch as medals, feals, &c. they ufe a little
iron wheel, the ends of whofe axis are received within
two pieces of iron, placed upright, as in the turner’s
lathe ; and to be brought clofer, or fet further apart,
at pleafure: at one end of the axis are fitted the pro¬
per tools, being kept tight by a ferew. Laftly, The
wheel is turned by the foot, and the (tone applied by
the hand to the tool, and is flnfted and condudted as
occafion requires.
The tools are generally of iron, and fometimes of
brafs; their form is various, but it generally bears
fome refemblance to chiffels, gouges, 6c. Some have
fmall round heads, like buttons, others like ferrels, to
take the pieces out, and others flat, 6c. when the
ftone has been Engraven, it is poiiftied on wheels of
hair-brufiies and tripoli.
>o ) E N M
Engraving onflcel is chiefly employed in cutting feals,
punches, matdees, and dyes proper for (biking coins,
medals, and Counters. The method of engraving with
the inftruments, 6c. is the fame for coins as for me¬
dals and counters : Ail the difference confifts in their
greater or lefs relievo, the relievo of coins being much'
Ids confiderable than that of medals, and that of coun¬
ters ftill lefs than that of coins.
Engravers in ft&l commonly begin with punches,
which are in relievo, and ferve for making the creux,
or cavities, of the matrices and dyes : though fome¬
times they begin with the creux, or hollownefs, but
then it is only when the intended work is to be cut very
(hallow. The firft thing done, is that of defigning the
figures ; the next is the moulding them in wax, of the
fize and depth they are to lie, and from this wax the
punch is engraven. When the punch is fimflred, they
give it a very high temper, that it may the better bear
the blows of the hammer with which it is (truck to give
the impreflion to the matrix.
The fteel is made hot to foften it, that it may the
more readily take the impreflion of the punch ; and af¬
ter ftriking th£ punch on it, in this ftate, they proceed
to touch up or finifti the ftrokes and lines, where by
reafon of their ’finenefs or the too great relievo they
are any thing tjefedtive, with fteel gravers of different
kinds, duffels, flatters, being the principal inftru¬
ments ufed in graving on fteel.
The figure being thus finifhed, they proceed to en¬
grave the reft of the medal, as the mouldings of the
border, the engrailed ring, letters, 6c. with little
fteel punches, well tempered, and very (harp.
ENGUICHE', in heraldry, is faid of the great mouth
of a hunting horn, when its rim is of a different co¬
lour from that of the horn itfelf.
ENGYSCOPE, the fame with microfcope. See Mi¬
croscope.
ENHARMONIC, in the ancient mufic, one of their ge¬
nera or kinds of mufic, fo called from its fuperior ex¬
cellence ; though wherein it confided, fays Mr Mal-
com, is hard to fay: it was allowed by all to be fo
very diflicult, that few could ever pradife it.
ENHYDRUS, in natural hiftory, a genus of fiderochita
or cruftated ferrugineous bodies, formed in large* and
in great part empty cafes, inclofing a fmall quantity of
an aqueous fluid.
Of this genus there are only two fpecies : i. The
thick-fhelled enhydrus, "with black, _ reddifh-brown,
and yellow crufts. 2. The thinner (helled kind, with
yellowi(h-brown and purple crufts; neither of which
ferments with aqua fortis, or gives fire with fteel.
ENIXUM, among chemifts, a kind of neutral fait, ge¬
nerated of an acid and an alkali.
The fal enixum of Paracelfus, is the caput mortuum
of fpirits of nitre with oil of vitriol, or what remains
in the retort after the diftillation of this fpirit; being
of a white colour, and pleafing acid tafte.
ENMANCHE', in heraldry, is when lines are drawn
from the centre of the upper edge of the chief to the
fides, to about halt the breadth of the chief; figni-
/ying
ENT ( 5<
fying (leeved, or refembling a flesve, from the French
'manche.
ENNEAGON, in geometry, a polygon with nine Tides.
See Polygon
ENNEAHEDRIA, in natural hirtory, a genus of co¬
lumnar, cryftalliform, and double^pointed fpars, com-
pofed of a trigonal column, terminated at each end by
a trigonal pyramid.
Of this genus there are feveral fpecies, didinguifhed
by the length or Ihortnefs of the column and pyramids,
none of which will give lire with fteel, but all of them
ferment with aqua fortis. See Spar.
ENNEANDRIA, in botany. See Botany, p. 635.
and Plate LIU. fig. 9.
ENS, among metapbyfiaans, denotes entity, being, or
exiftence : this the fchools call ens real?, and ens po-
Jiiivum, to dillinguilh it from their ens rationis, which
is only an imaginary thing, or exifts only in the ima¬
gination.
Ens, among chemifts, imports the power, virtue, and
efficacy which certain fubltances exert upon our bo¬
dies.
Ens, in geography, a cit^ of Germany, fituated at the
confluence of the Danube and the river Ens, about
eighty miles fouth of Vienna: E. long. 140 20, N.
lat. 48° id'.
ENSEELED, in falconry, is faidof a hawk that has a
thread drawn through her upper eye-lid, and made fait
under her beak, to take away the fight.
ENSIGN, in the military art, a banner under which the
foldiers are ranged according to the different compa¬
nies or parties they belong to.
Ensign is alfo the officer that carries the colours, being
the loweft commiflioned oflircer in a company of foot,
fubordinate to the captain and lieutenant.
ENSISHEIM, a town of Germany, in the landgraviate
of Alface, about fifty miles fouth of Strafburg: E.
long. 7° 30', N. lat.'47° 50'.
ENSKIRKEN, a town of Germany, fifteen miles fouth-
well of Cologn.
ENTABLATURE, or Entablement, in architec¬
ture, is that part of an order of a column which is
over the capital, and comprehends the architrave, frieze,.
and corniche. See Architecture.
ENT ABLER, in the menage, the faultof a horfe whofe
croupe goes before his Ihoulders in working upon volts ;
which may be prevented by taking hold of the right
rein, keeping your right leg near, and removing your
left leg as far from the horfe’s (houlder as poflible.
This is always accompanied w^th another fault call¬
ed aculer. SeeAcuLER.
ENTAIL. SeeTAitziE.
ENTE', in heraldry, a method of marlhalling. more fre¬
quent abroad than with us, and figmfying grafted bp
ingrafted.
We have, indeed, one inftance of ente in the fourth
grand quarter of his majefly’s royal enfign, whofe bla¬
zon is Brunfwick and Lunenburg impaled With ancient
Saxony, ente en pointe, grafted in point,
ENTELECHIA, a word ufed by Ariltode to exprefs
Vol. II. No. 47.
>i ) E N T
the foul, and which, not Occurring in any other au¬
thor, has given the commentators upon that philofo-
pher great trouble to difcover its true meaning.
ENTEROCELE, in furgery, a tumor formed by a pro-
laplion of the intellines through the rings of the abdo¬
men, and procefles of the peritonseum, into the fcro-
tum. See Surgery. -
ENTEROLOGY, a term ufed by phyficians, for a d-f-
courfe or treatife on the contents of the head, bread,
and abdomen.
ENTEROMPHALUS, the fame with a hernia umbili-
calis, or rupture at the navel.
ENTERSOLE, in archite&ure, a kind of little ftory,
fometimes called a mezanzine, contrived, occafionally
at the top of the firlt ftory, for the conveniency of a
wardrobe <&c.
ENTHUSIASM, a tranfport of the mind, whereby
it is led to think and imagine things in a fublime,
furprifing, yet probable manner. This i& the enthu-
fiafm felt in poetry, oratory, mufic, painting, fculp-
ture, <bc.
Enthusiasm, in a religious fenfe, implies a tranfport
of the mind, whereby it fancies itfelf infpired with
fome revelation, impulfe, &c. from heaven.
ENTHUSIAST, a perfon pofleffed with enthufiafm.
See the preceding article.
ENTHYMEME, among logicians, denotes a fyllogifm,
perfedt in the mind, but imperfedt in the expreffion,
by reafon one of the propofitions is fupprefled, as be¬
ing eafily fupplied by the underftanding of thofe with
whom we difcourfe..
ENTOMON, in zoology. See Oniscus.
ENTREPAS, in the manege, a broken pace or going,
that is neither walk nor trot, but has fomewhat of an
amble.
This is a pace or gait of fuch horfes as have no
reins or back, and go' upon their ffioulders ; or, of
fuch as are fpoiled in their limbs.
Entring-ladders, in a (hip, are of two forts; one
ufed by the veffel’s fides, in a harbour, or in fair
weather, for perfons to go in and out of the (hip : the
other is made of ropes, with fmall ftavcs for fteps;
and is hung out of the gallery to enter into the boat,
or to come aboard the ffiip, when the fea runs fo high
that they dare not bring the boat to the (hip’s fide for
fear of Having it.
EN’I ROCHUS, in natural hiftory. See Isis.
ENTRY rjf an heir, in Scots law, that form of law by
which an heir veils in himfelf a proper title to hispre-
• deceflbr’s eftate. See Precept of Clare Constat.
Bill s/'ENTRY, in commerce. See Bill.
In making entries inwards, it is ufuai for merchants
to include all the goods they have on board the fame
Ihip in one bill, though fometimes they may happen to
be upwards of twenty feveral kinds; and in cafe the
goods are fliort entered, additional or poll: entries are
now allowed ; though formerly the goods, fo entered
Were forfeited. As to bills of entry outwards, or in¬
cluding goods to be exported, upon delivering them,
and paying the cuftoms, you will receive a fmaii piece
2 5 K of
E P A ( .
of parchment called a cocket, which'teftlSes your
payment thereof, and all duties for fuch goods.
If feveral forts of goods are exported at once, of
which fome are free, and others pay cuftoms ; the ex¬
porter mull have two cockets, arid therefore mud-
make two entries ; one for the goods that pay, and the
other for the goods that do not pay cudom.
Entries of goods, on which a drawback is allowed,
mud likewife contain the name of the drip in which the
goods were imported, the importer’s name, and time
of entry inwards. The entry being thus made, and an
oath taken that the cudoms for thofe .goods were paid
as the law direds, you mud carry it to the colledor
and comptrolhr, or their deputies; who, after ex¬
amining their books, will grant warrant, which mud
be given to the furveyor, fe archer, or land-waiter, for
them to certify the quantity of goods; after which the
certificate mud be brought back to the coliedor and
comptroller, or their deputies, and oath made that the
faid goods are really dripped, and not landed again in
any part of Great Britain.
ENVELOPE, in fortification, a work of earth, fome-
times in form of a fimple parapet, and at others like
a fmall rampart with a parapet: it is raifed fometimes
on the ditch, and fometimes beyond it.
ENVIRONNE', in heraldry, fignifies furrounded with
other things: thus, they fay, a lion environne with
fo many bezants. See Bezant. -
ENUMERATION, an account of feveral things, in
which mention is made of every particular article.
ENVOY, a perfon deputed to negociate fome affair with
any foreign prince or date. Tbofe fent from the
courts of France, Britain, Spain, <&c to any petty
prince or Hate, fuch as the princes of Germany, the
republics of Venice, Genoa, &c. go in quality of en¬
voys, pot embaffadors ; and fuch a charader only do
thofe perfons- bear, wh© go from any of the. principal
courts of Europe to another, when the affair they go
upon is not very folemn or important. There are en¬
voys ordinary and extraordinary, as well as embaffa¬
dors ; they are equally the fame under the protedion of
the Jaw of nations, and enjoy all the privileges of em¬
baffadors, only differing from them in this, that the
fame ceremonies are not performed to them.
ENVY, in ethics,, an unneafinefs of the mind, caufed by
the confideration of a good we defire, obtained by one
we think lefs worthy of it than ourfelves. See Pas¬
sion, and Morals.
EPACT. See Astronomy, Of the Divifton of Time.
EPANORTHOSIS, in rhetoric, a figure by which a
perfon correds, or ingenioufly revokes, what he jud
before alledged, as being too weakly expreffed, in or¬
der to add fomething dronger, and more conformable
to the paffion with which he is agitated.
The epanorthofis is didinguifited into two kinds.
The one is-when we corred Or revoke' the word, as in
the following example of the apodle, But I laboured
more abundantly .than they all: yet not 1, but the
grace of God, •which ivat ’with me, i Cor. xv. 10..
where, what, he fird attributed to his own merit, he
tchufes afterwards to call .the work of grace, 3$ being
;o2 ) E P H
the principal caufe. The fecond kind of epanorthofis,
is when we corred or revoke the fenttment, as in the
following of Cicero: Italiam ornare, quam domum
fuam, maluit: quamqiiam, Italia ornata, domus
ipfa rnihi isidetur ornatior.
EPARER, in the menage, fignifies the dinging of a horfe,
or his yerking and driking with his hind-legs.
EPAULEMENT, in fortification, a work raifed to co¬
ver fidewife, is either of earth, gabions, or fafeines
loaded with earth. The epaulements of the places of
arms for the cavalry,, at the entrance of the trenches,
are generally of fafeines mixed with earth.
EPENTHESIS, in grammar, the interpofition or in-
fertion of a letter or fyllable in the middle of a word;
as alituum, for alitum ; relligio, for reltgio; indupe-
rator, for imperator, &c.
EPERLANUS, in ichthyology. See Salmo.
EPHA, orEpHAH, in Jewifh antiquity, a meafure for
things dry, containg 1.0961 of a bufhel.
EPH/ETUM, in botany. See Ranunculus.
EPHEDRA, the sea-grape, or shrub horse tail,
in botany, a genus of the dioecia monadelphia clafs.
The calix of the amentum of the male and female is
divided into fegments; the corolla is wanting in both ;
the damina are feven ; there are two pidils, and two
feeds covered with a kind of cup-berry. There are two
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
EPHEMERY, in medicine, the name of a fpecies of
fever continuing the fpace of one day, or fometimes
more ; for the medical writers exprefs themfelves by
ephemeraJirnplex, vel plurium dierum. See Medi¬
cine.
EPHEMERA, the day fly, in zoology, a genus be¬
longing to the order of neuroptera. It has no teeth
or palpse; there are two large protuberances above the
eyes; the wings are ered, the tsvo hind ones being,
larged ; and the tail is bridly. There are eleven fpe¬
cies, didinguilhed by their colour and the number of
bridles in their tail. This fly derives its name from
the circumdance of its living but one day.
EPHEMERIDES, in literary hidory, an appellation:
given to thofe books or journals, which Ihew the mo¬
tions and places of the _pianets for every day of the
year.
• It is from-tire tables contained in thefe ephemerides:
that eclipfes, and all the variety of afpedls of the pla¬
nets, aVe found.
EPHEMERUM, in botany. See Tradescantia.
EPHIALTES, in medicine, the fame with the incubus,
or night-mare See Incubus.
EPHIPPUIM, in anatomy. See Anatomy, Part 1.
EPHOD, in Jewilh antiquity, one part of the priedly
habit; being a kind of girdle, which, brought from
behind the neck over the two {boulders, and hanging
down before, was put crofs the domach, then carried-
round the waid, and made ufe of as a girdle to the :
tunic
There were two forts of ephods, one of plain linen
for the prieds, and the other embroidered for the
high pried.
PHORI, in Grecian antiquity, magidrates eftabhflied
in
E P I ( 5°3 ) E P 1
in ancient Sparta to balance the regal power. The
authority of the ephori was very great They foine-
times expelled and even put to death the kings, and a-
bolifhed or (iifpended the power of the other magi-
(trates, calling them to account at pleafure. There
were five of them, others fay nine. They prefided in.
the public (hews and fellivals. They were entrufted
with the public treafure, made war and peace, and
were fo abfoiute, that Ariltotle makes their govern¬
ment equal to the prerogative of a monarchy. They
were efiablifhed by Lycurgus.
EPHYDRUM in botany. See Equisetum.
EPIC, or Heroic poem. *See Compos ition.
EPICEDIUM, in ancient poetry, a poem rehearfed du¬
ring the funeral folemnity of perfons of diftimftion.
EPICOENE, in grammar, a term applied to nouns,
which, under the fame gender and termination, mark
indifferently the male and female fpecies.
EPICUREAN philosophy, the dodtrine or fyftem
of philofophy maintained by Epicurus and his fol¬
lowers.
His philofophy confided of three parts, canonical,
phyfical. and etherial . The fit ft was about the ca¬
nons, or rules of judging. The cenfure which Tully
pafles upon him for his defpifing logic, will hold true
only with regard to the logic of the ftoics, which he
could not approve of, as being too full of nicety and
quirk. Epicurus was not acquainted with the analy¬
tical method of divifion and argumentation, nor was
he fo curious in modes and formation as the ftoics.
Soundnefs and fimplicity of ftnfe, affifted with fome
natural refledtions, was all his art. . His fearch after
truth proceeded only by the fenfes, to the evidence of
which he gave fo great a certainty, that he confidered
them as an infallible rule of truth, and termed them
the firft natural light of mankind.
In the fecond part of this philofophy he. laid down
atoms, fpace, and gravity, as the firft principles of all
things : he did not deny the exiftence of God, but
thought it beneath his majefty to concern himfelf with
human affairs: he held him a bleffed immortal being,
having no affairs of his own'to take care of, and a-
bove meddling with thofe of others*
As to his ethics, he made the fupreme good of man
to confift in pleafure and confequently fupreme evil in
pain. Nature itfelf, fays he, teaches us this truth,
and prompts us from our birth to procure whatever
gives us pleafure, and avoid what gives us pain. To
this end he propofes a remedy againft the fhsrpnefs of:
pain: this was to divert the. mind from it, by turn¬
ing our whole attention upon the pleafures we have
formerly enjoyed : he held that the wife man muft be
happy, as long as he is wife ; that pain, not depriving
him of his wifdom, cannot deprive’him of his hap--
pinefs.
There is nothing that has a fairer (hew of honefty
than the moral dodlrine of Epicurus. Gaffendus pre¬
tends, that the pleafure in which this philofopher.has
fixed the fovereign good, was nothing elfe but the
higheft tranquillity of mind in conjendtion with the
eioft pesfedt health of body : but Tully, Horace, and
Plutarch, as well as almoft all the fathers of die
church, give us a very different reprefentatiod: indeed
the nature of this pleafure, in which the chief hap-
pinefs is (uppofed to- be feated, is a grand problem in
the morals of Epicurus. Hence there were two kinds
of Epicureans, the rigid and the remifs : the firft were
thofe who underftood Epicurus’s notion of pleafure im
the beft fenfe, and placed all their happinefs in the
pure pleafures of the mind, refuiting from the pradlice
of virtue: the loofe or remifs Epicureans, taking,
the words of that philofopher in a grofs fenfe, placed
all their happ nefs in bodily pleafures or debauchery.
EPICYCLE, in the ancient aftronomy, a little circle
whofe centre is in the circumfirence Of a greater circle ■
or it is a fmall orb, or fphere, which being fixed in.
the deferent of a planet, is carried along with it; and
yet, by its own peculiar motion, carries the planet faft-
' ened to it round its proper centre.
It was by means of epicyales, that Ptolemy and his
followers folved the various phtenomena of the planetsv-
but more efpecially their ftations and retrogradations.
EPICYCLOID, in geometry, a curve generated by the
revolution of the periphery of a circle, along the con¬
vex or concave fide of the periphery of another circle.
EPICYEMA, among phyficians, denotes a fuperfoeta-
tion ; being a falfe conception or mole happening after
the birth of a regular foetus.
EPIDEMIA, in Grecian antiquity, ftftivals kept in ho¬
nour of Apollo and Diana, at the ftated feafons when
thefe deities, who could not be prefeut every where,
were fuppofed to vifit different places, in order to re-\
ceive, the vows of their adorers
EPIDEMIC, among phyficians, an epithet of difeafes
which at certain times are popularj attackinggreaf-
numbers at or near the fame time. See Medicine.
EPIDENDRUM, in botany, a genus of the gynandria
diandria clafs. The nediarium is oblique, reflected
and fhaped like a turban. There are thirty fpecies!.
none of them natives of Britain.
EPIDERMIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 2?c.
EPIDIDYMIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. iyj*.
EPIGASTRIC region, a part or fubdivifion of the:
abdomen; See A n a t o m y , p. 256-.
EPIGLOTTIS, in anatomy, one of the cartilages of
the larynx, or wind-pipe. See Anatomy, p.281.
EPIGRAM, in poetry, a fhort poem in verle, treating,
only of one thing, and ending.with fome lively, inge¬
nious, and natural thought or point.
EPIGRAPHE, among antiquarians, denotes the in-
fcription of a building, pointing out.the time when
the perfons by whom, the ufes, and the like, for which-
it was eredted.
EPILEPSY, in medicine, the fame with what is other-
wife'called the falling-ficknefs, from the patient’s fall¬
ing fuddenly to the ground. See Medicine.
EPILOBIUM, in botany, the willow herb,, a genus
of the odlandria monogynia clafs. The calix is divi¬
ded into four fegments, and the. corolla confifts of four
petals', the capfule is oblong, and below the flower-
and the feeds are pappous. There are feven fpecies, all
of them natives of Britain, viz. the anguftifolium’, or
role bay
E P I
rofebay willow-herb ; the hirfutum, or fmall-flowered
hairy tfiilow herb; the ramofum, great flowered wil¬
low-herb, or codlings and cream; the montanum, or
fmoolh-leaved willow herb; the tetragonum, or nar¬
row-leaved willow-herb ; the paluftre, or marih wil¬
low herb ; and the alpinum, or mountain willow-herb.
EPILOGUE, in oratory, the end or conclufion of a
difcourfe, ordinarily containing a recapitulation of the
principal'matters delivered.
Epilogue, in dramatic poetry, a fpeech addrefled to
the audience after the play is over, by one of the prin¬
cipal aftors therein, ufually containing fome reflexions
on certain incidents in the play, efpecially thofe in the
part of the perfon that fpeaks it.
EPIMEDIUM, barren-wort, in botany, a genus of
the tetrandia monogynia clafs. It has four cap-fnaped
neXaria lying upon the petals ; The corolla cpnlifts of
four petals; and the calix is caducous. There is but
one fpecies, a native, oflGermany.
EPIPHANY, a Chriftian feftival, otherwife called the
Manifeflation of Chrifl to the Gentiles, obferved on
the fixth of January, in honour of the appearance of
our Saviour to the three magi, or wife-men, who came
to adore him and bring him prefents. The feaft of
epiphany was not originally a diftinX feftival.but made
a part of that of the nativity of Chrift, which being
celebrated twelve days, the firft and laft of which were
high or chief days of folemnity, either of thefe might
properly be called epiphany, as that word fignifies the
appearance of Chrift in the world.
EPIPHONEMA, in rhetoric, a fententious exclamation
containing a lively remark placed at the end of a dif¬
courfe or narration.
EPIPHORA, in medicine, a preternatural defluxion of
the eyes, when they continually difcharge a (harp fe-
rous humour, which excoriates the cheeks. See Me¬
dicine.
EPIPHYSIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, Part I.
EPIPLOCELE, in medicine, is a kind of hernia, or
rupture, in which the omentum fubfides into the fcro-
tum.
EPIPLOOMPHALON, in medicine, an hernia umbi-
licalis, proceeding from the omentum falling into the
region of the umbilicus or navel. -
EPIPLOON See Omentum
EPISCOPACY, the quality of epifcopal government,
or that form of church-difcipline, wherein diocefian
bifhops are eftablifhtd difrinX from and fuperior to
priefts or prelbyters. See Bishop.
EPISCOPAL, fomething belonging to bifhops.
EPISCOPALIANS, in church hiftory, an appellation
given to thofe who prefer the epifcopal government and
difcipline to all others.
By the teft aX, none but epifcopalians, or members
of the church of England, are qualified to enjoy any
office civil or military.
EPISCOPUS. See Bishop.
EPISODE, in poetry, a feparate incident, ftory, or ac¬
tion, which a poet invents, and conneXs with his principal
.aXion, that his work may abound with a greater diver-
E P I
fity of events; though, in a more limited fenfe, all the
particular incidents whereof the aXion or narration is
compounded, are called epifodes. SeeCompo-siTioN.
EPISPASIIC, in medicine, a topical remedy, which
being applied to the external parts of the body, at-
traXs the humours to that part.
EPIS1ATES, in the Athenian government, was the
prefident of the proedri. SeePaoEDRi.
EPISTEMONARCH, in the ancient Greek church, an
officer of great dignity, who had the care of every
thing relating to faith, in the quality of cenfor. His
office anfwered pretty nearly to that of mafter of the
facred palace at Rome.
EPIS T LE, denotes the fame with a miflive letter; but
is now chiefly ufed in fpeaking of ancient writings, as
the epiftles of St Paul, epiftles of Cicero, epiities of
Pliny, <&c.
EPISTOLARY, fomething belonging to an epiftle. See
Epistle.
EPISTROPHE, in rhetoric, a figure, wherein that which
is fuppofed of one thiryj, is ftrongly affirmed of ano¬
ther : thus, Are tbey^Hebrews ? fo am /. Are they
If rat lit is ? fo am 1. Are they oj the feed of Abra¬
ham ? fo am I, See.
EPISTY'LE, in the ancient architeXure, a term ufed by
the Greeks for what wc call architrave, viz. a maffive
piece of ftone orSyood, laid immediately over the ca¬
pital of a column.
EPITAPH, a monumental infeription in honour or me¬
mory of a perfon defunX, or an infeription engraven
or cut on a tomb, to mark the time of a perfon’s de-
ceafe, his name, family; and, ufually, fome eulogium
of his virtues, or good qualities.
EPITASIS, in ancient poetry, the fecond part or divi-
fion of a dramatic poem, wherein the plot, entered u-
pom in the firft part, or protafis, was carried on, height¬
ened, and worked up, till it arrived at its ftate, or
height, called cataftafis.
Epitasis, in medicine, the increafe of a d'feafe, or be¬
ginning of a paroxyfm, particularly in a fever.
EPITHALAMIUM, in poetry, a nuptial fong, or com-
pofition, in praiie of the bride and bridegroom, pray¬
ing for their profperity, for a happy offspring, tec.
Among the Greeks, the married couple wei e no foon-
er bedded, than the young men and maids gathered
round the door, dancing and finging the epithalamium,
fhouting and ftamping with their feet, with intention
to drown the maid’s cries.
EPITHEM, in pharmacy, a kind of fomentation, or
remedy of a fpirituous or aromatic kind, applied exter¬
nally to the regions of the heart, liver, to ftrength-
en and comfort the fame, or to correct fome intempe¬
rature thereof. See Fomentation.
EPITHET, in poetry and rhetoric, an adjeXive exprefs-
ing fome quality of a fubftantivero which it is joined ;
or fuch an adjeXive as is annexed ta fubftantives by
way of ornament and illuftration, not to make up an
effential part of the deicription. Nothing, fays Ari-
ftotle, tires the reader more than too great a redundan¬
cy of epithets, or epithets placed improperly; and yet
nothing
( 504 •)
E U (5^5
notVing ia fo efietnial in poetry as a proper ufe of them.
The writings of the beft poets are full of them, efpe-
cially Virgil.
EPiTOME, in literary hiftory. See Abridgement.
EPITRITUS, to profody, a foot confifting of three
long fylfables and one ihort.
EPIZEUXIS, in rhetoric, a figure which repeats the
fame word, without any other intervening; fuch is
that of Virgil, Nunc, nunc, infurgite remis.
EPOCHA, in chfohology, a term or fixed point of time,
whence the fucceeding years are numbered or account¬
ed. . See Astronomy, p.487.
EPODE, in lyric poetry, the third or laft part of the
ode; the ancient ode being divided into ftrophe, anti-
ftrophe, and epode. See Ode.
EPOPOEIA,in poetry, the ftory, fable, or fubje<S treat¬
ed of in an epic poem.
EFOTIDES, in the naval architecture of the ancients,
two thick blocks of wood, one on each fide the prow
of a galley, for warding off the blows of the roltra of
the enemy’s veffels.
EPPINGEN, a town of Germany, fituated about ten
miles north of Halibron.
EPSOM, a town of Surry, about fifteen miles fouth-weft
of London ; much reforted to on account of its medi¬
cinal waters ; from which the bitter purging fait being
firft extracted, got the name of Epfom-falt. At pre
fent, however, the bitter purging fait is procured from
the bittern, remaining after the cryftallization of com¬
mon fait; and this is found to anfwer all the purpofes
of that fir ft obtained from Epfom-waters, and goes by
its name. See Chemistry.
EPULONES, in Roman antiquity, minifters who aflift-
ed at the facrifices, and had the care of the facred ban¬
quet committed to them.
EQUABLE, an appellation given to fuch motions as al¬
ways continue the fame in degree of velocity, without
being either accelerated or retarded. See Mecha¬
nics.
EQUAL, a term of relation between two or more things
of the fame magnitude, quantity, or quality.
Mathematicians fpeak of equal lines, angles, figures,
circles, ratios, folids.
EQUALITY, that agreement between two or more
things, whereby they are denominated equal.
EQUANIMITY, in ethics, denotes that even and calm
frame of mind and temper, under good or bad fortune,
whereby a man appears to be neither puffed, up nor o-
verjoyed with profperity, nor difpirited, foured, or
rendered uneafy by adverfity.
EQUATION, in algebra. See Algebra, p. 100.
Equation of time, in aftronomy and chronology, the
reduction of the apparent time or motion of the fun,
to equable, mean, or true time. See Astronomy,
P- 459-
EQUATOR, in geography, a great circle of the terref-
trial globe, equirfiftant from its poles, and dividing it
into two equal hemifpheres ; one north, and the other
fouth. See Geography.
EQUERRY, in the Britifh euftoms, an officer of ftate,
•under the mafter of the horfe.
Vol. II. No. 47. .2
) E Q. U
Tliere are five equerries, who ride abroad with his
majefty : for which purpofe they give their attendance
monthly, one at a time, and are allowed a table.
As to the equerries of the crown ftable, they have
this diftinCt appellation, as being employed in mount¬
ing, managing, and breaking the faddle horfes for his
majefty’s ule, and holding his ftirrup.
EQUES auratus, isufedfora knight batchelor, cal¬
led auratus, q. d. gilt, becaufe anciently none but
knights were allowed to beautify their armour, or 0-
ther habiliments for war, with gold.
EQUESTRIAN statue, fignifies the ftatue of a per-
fon mounted on horfeback.
Equestrian order, among the Romans, fignified their
knights, or equites; as alfo their troopers, or horfe-
men in the field ; the firft of which orders ftood.in con-
tradiftinClion to the fenators, as the laft did to the foot,
military, or infantry: each of thefe diftinCtions Was
introduced into the ftate by Romulus.
EQUIANGULAR, in geometry, an epithet given to
figures, whofe angles are all equalfuch are a fquare,
an equilateral triangle, fcc.
EQUICRURAL, in geometry. See Isosceles.
EQUIDISTANT, an appellation given to things placed
at equal diftance from fome fixed point, or place, to
which they are referred.
EQUILATERAL, in general, fomething that hath e-
qual fides, as an equilateral angle.
EQUILIBRIUM, in mechanics, is when the two ends
of a lever or balance hang fo exaCHy even and level,
that neither doth afeend or defeend, but keep in a po-
fition parallel to the horizon ; which is occafioned by
their being both charged with an equal weight.
EQUIMULTIPLES, in arithmetic and geometry, are
numbers or quantities multiplied by one and the fame
number or quantity. Hence, equimultiples are always
in the fame ratio to each other, as the fimple quanti¬
ties before multiplication : thus, if 6 and 8 are multi¬
plied by 4, the equimultiples 24 and 32 will be to each
other as d to 8.
-EQUINOCTIAL, in aftronomy, a great circle of the
celeftial globe, whofe poles are the polesof the world.
See Astronomy, and Geography.
EQUINOX, the time when the fun enters either of the
equino&ial points, where the ecliptic interfefts the e-
quinoftial. See Astronomy.
Precefwn of the Equinoxes. See Astronomy.
EQUISETUM, or horse-tail, in botany, a genus of
the cryptogamia filices clafs. The fru&ification is dif-
pofed on an oblong fpike, and of an orbicular figure.
There are feven fpecies, fix of which are natives of
Britain, viz. the fylvaticum, or wood horfe-tail; the
arvenfe, or corn horfe-tail; the paluftre, or marffi
horfe tail; the fluviatile, or river horfe-tail; the It-
mofum, or fmooth horfe-tail; and the hyemale, or
rough horfe-tail.
EQUITY, in a general fenfe, the virtue of treating all
other men according to common reafon and juftice, or
as we would be gladly treated ourfelves, when we un-
derftand aright what is our due. See Justice.
EQUIVALENT, an appellation given to things which
5 L agree
E U ( 506
agree in nature, or other circumftanccs, as force, vir¬
tue, be.
EQUIVOCAL terms or words, among logicians,
are thofe which have a doubtful or double meaning.
According to Mr Locke, the doubtfulnefs and un¬
certainty of words has its caufe more in the ideas them-
felves, than in any incapacity of the words to fignify
them ; and might be avoided, would people always ufe
the fame term to denote the fame idea, or colle&ion of
ideas : but, adds he, it is hard to find a difeourfe on
any fubjeft where this is the cafe ; a pradtice which
can only be imputed to folly, or great difhonefty ;
fince a man, in making up his accounts, might with
as much fairnefs ufe the numeral charadters fometimes
for one fometimes for another colledtion of unities.
Equivocal generation, the produdtion of animals,
without the intercourfe between the fexes, by the in¬
fluence of the fun or ftars, <bc.
This kind of generation is now quite exploded by
the learned.
EQUULEUS, or Ecuuleus, in antiquity, a kind of
rack ufed for extorting a confeffion, at firft chiefly prac-
tifed.on Haves, but afterwards made ufe of againft the
Chrillians.
The equuleus was made of wood, having holes at
certain diftances, with a ferew, by ythich the cri¬
minal was Hretched to the third, fometimes to the
foui th, or fifth holes, his arms and legs being faften-
ed on the equuleqs with cords ; and thus was hoifted
aloft, and extended in fuch a manner, that all his
bones were diflocated. In this Hate red-hot plates
were applied to his body, and he was goaded in the
fides with an inftrument called ungula.
Equuuus, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 487.
EQUUS, the Horse, in zoology, a genus of quadru¬
peds belonging to the order of belluae. This genus
comprehends the horfe, the afs, and the zebra; they
have fix ereft and parallel fore-teeth in the upper jaw,
and fix. fomewhat prominent ones in the under j^w;
the dog-teeth are folitary, and at a confiderable dif-
tance from the, reft ; and the feet confift of an undi¬
vided hoof. The hprfe is a domeftic animal, and the
figure and dimenlions of his body are fo well known,
that a general defeription is altogether unneceflary.
We fliall therefore confine ourfelyes to the natural hif-
tory of this noble animal.
The horfe, in a domeftic ftate, is a bold and fiery
animal; equally intrepid as his mafter,' he faces danger '
and death with ardour and magnanimity. He delights
in the noife and tumult of -arms, and feems to feel the
glory of vifiory,: he exults in the chafe; his eyes
fpaikle with emulation in the courfe. But though bold
and intrepid, he is docile and tradable : he knows how
to govern and check the natural vivacity and fire of his
temper. He not only yields to the hand,: but feems to
confult the inclination of his rider. Conftantly obedi¬
ent to the impreflions he receives, his motions are en¬
tirely regulated by the will of his mafter. He in fome
meafure refigns his very exiftence to the pleafure of
man. He delivers up his whole powers; he referves
) E 0. u
nothing ; he will rather die than difobey. Who could
endure to fee a charader fo noble abufed ! Who could
be guilty of fuch grofs barbarity !
This ch.arader, though natural to the animal, is in
fome meafure the effed of education. His education
commences with the lofs of liberty, and it is finilhed
by conftraint. The flavery of the horfe is fo ancient
and fo univerfal, that he is but rarely feen in a natural
ftate. Several ancient writers talk of wild horfes, and
even mention the places where they were to be found.
Herodotus takes notice of white favage horfes in Scy¬
thia ; Ariftotle fays, they are to be found in Syria;
Pliny, in the northern regions ; and Strabo, in Spain
and the Alps. Among the moderns, Leardon fays
that wild horfes are to be found in the Highlands of
Scotland, and the Orkney Ifles; Olaus, in Muftovy •
Dapper, in the ifland of Cyprus ; Leo and Marmol, in
Arabia and Africa, be. But, as Europe is almoft e-
qually inhabited, wild horfes are not to be met with in
any part of it; and thofe of America-were originally
tranfported from Europe by the Spaniards; for this
fpecies of animals did not exift in the new world. The
Spaniards carried over a great number of horfes, left
them in different iflands, be. with a view to propagate
that ufcful animal in their colonies. Thefe have mul¬
tiplied incredibly in the vaft defartaof thofe thinly peo-*
pled countries, where they roam at large, without any
reftraint. M. de Salle relates, that he faw, in the
year 1685, horfes feeding in the meadows of North
America, near the bay of St Louis, which were fo fe¬
rocious that nobody durft come near them. Oex-
melin fays, that he has feen large troops of them in
St Domingo running in the valleys ; that when any per-
fon approached, they all ftopt ; anft one of them would
advance till within a certain diftance, then fnort with
his nofe, take to his heels, and the whole troop after
him. Every author who takes notice of thefe horfes
of America, agree that they are fmaller and lefs hand-
fome than thofe of Europe. Thefe relations fuffici-
ently prove, that the horfe. when at full liberty, though
not a tierce or dangerous animal, has .no inclination to
affociate with mankind ; that all the foftnefs and dudti-
lity of his temper proceeds entirely from the culture
and polifh he receives in his domeftic education, which
in fome meafure commences as foon as he is brought
forth.
The motions of the horfe are chiefly regulated by
the bit and the fpur; the bit informs him how to di-
red his courfe, and the fpur quickens his pace. The
mouth of the horfe is endowed with Ah amazing fenfi-
bility : the flighteft motion or preffure of the bit gives,
him warning, and inftantly determines his courfe
The horfe has not only agrandeur in his general ap¬
pearance, but there is the greateft fymmetry and pro¬
portion in the different parts of his body. The regu¬
larity and proportion of the different parts of the head
gives him an air of lightnefs, whjch is well fupported
by the ftrength and beauty of his cheft. He ereds his
head, as if willing to exalt himfelf above the condition
of other, quadrupeds: his eyes are open and lively ;
E q. U
his ears are handfome, and of a proper height; his main
adorns his neck, and gives him the appearance of ftrength
and boldnefs. ■
At the age of two years, or two yeaft and a half,
the horfe is in a condition to propagate ; and the mare,
like mod other females, is ready to receive him dill
fooner. But the foals produced by fuch early embra¬
ces are generally ill made and weakly. The horfe
fiiould never be admitted to the mare till he is four or
four and a half; this is only meant with regard to
draught-horfes. Fine horfes (hould not be admitted to
the mare before they be fix years old; and Spamlh da-
lions not till feven. The mares are generally in feafon
from the beginning of April to the end of March ; but
their chief ardour for the horfe lads but about 15 or 20
days, and this critical feafon {hould always be embra¬
ced. The dalion ought to be found, well made, vi¬
gorous, and of a good breed. For fine faddle horfes,
foreign dalions, as Arabians, Turks, Barbs, and An-
daldufians, are preferable to all others. Next to thefe,
Britilh dalions are the bed ; becaufe they originally
fprang from thofe above mentioned, and are very little
degenerated. The dalions of Italy, and efpecially
the Neapolitans, are very good. The bed dalions for
draught or carriage horfes, are thofe of Naples- Den¬
mark, Holdein, and Freezeland. The dalions for fad-
dlerhorfes {hould be from 14 to 15 hands high, and for
draught-horfes at lead 15 hands. Neither ought the
colour of dalions to be overlooked; as a fine black,
grey, bay, forrel, ire. Befides thefe external qualities,
a dalion ought to have courage, mutability, fpirit, a-
gility, a feniible mouth, fure limbs, ic. Thefe precau¬
tions in the choice of a dalion are the more necedary,
becaufe he has been found by experience to communi¬
cate to his offspring almod all his good or bad qualities,
whether natural or acquired.
The mare contributes lefs to the beauty of her olf-
fpring than the dalion; but die contributes perhaps
more to their conditution and dature : for thefe reafons,
it is necedary that the mares for breed be perfectly
found, and make good nurfes. For elegant horfes, the
Spanidi and Italian mares are bed ; but, for draught-
horfes, thofe of Britain and Normandy are preferable.
However, when the dalions are good, the mares of any
country will produce fine horfes, provided they be well
made and of a good breed.
Mares go with young eleven months and fome days.
They bring forth danding ; contrary to the courfe of
mod other quadrupeds, who lie during this opf ration.
They continue to bring forth till the age of 16 or 18
years ; and both horfes and mares live between 25 and
30 years. Horfes cad their hair once a year, general
ly in the fpring, but fometimes in the autumn. At this
time they are weak, and require to be better fed and
taken care of than at any other feafon.
In Perfia, Arabia, and mod eadern counfries, they
never geld their horfes, as is done in Europe and Chi¬
na. This operation greatly diminiflies their drength,
courage, and fpirit; but it mokes them good humour¬
ed, gentle, and tradable. With regard to the time of
performing this operation, the pradice of different
E U
countries is different: fome geld their horfes when a-
year old, «nd others at 18 months. But the bed and
mod general pradice is to delay the operation till they
be two years old at lead ; becaufe, when the gelding
is delayed for two years or more, the animals reta n
more of the drength and other qualities which natu¬
rally belong to the male.
As the utility of horfes furpaffes that of all other
domedic animals, it may be of ufe to fubjoin fome
marks by which the age and other properties of horfes
may be didinguidied.
The fird teeth that appear are four, two above and
two below, which are called foal-teeth, and may be
eafily didinguifhed from the others by their whitenefs.
The red come out aftewards till they are twelve in
number, fix above and fix below. When a colt is be¬
tween two years and a half and three years old. he
cads four of thefe teeth, two above and two below.
Thefe we call nippers or gatherers, and are much
longer and larger than the Tore teeth ; with thefe he
nips off the grafs, and pulls the hay from the rack.
When thefe are complete, the "horfe will be three years
old, orfomewhat more.
When he is about four, he cads again two above and
two below, one on each fide the nippers; fo that
now there are no fore teeth remaining but the corner-
teeth ; and hence it may be concluded that he is about
four years old. The tulles appear next after rhefe,.
and are a little crooked Thofe below come out be¬
fore thofe on the upper jaw. and at four years old
they are very fmall. When all the colt-teeth are cad,
and the corner-teeth begin to (hew themielves, then
the horfe comes five.
From five to five apd a half the corner teeth'remain^
hollow within, and are not quite filled up till the horfe
is fix. At five and a half they are about a quarter of
an inch high, and when he is fullfix near halt an inch.
Everything that is to be examined at fix years old,
are the corner-teeth and the tulks That part of the
corner-teeth that had flelh in it fird turns to a brewn-
ilh fpot,. like the eye of a garden-bean. At feven the
mark or fpot becomes feint, and the tooth more even.
At eight it quite difappears, though it poflibly may re¬
main in a very fmall degree for two^r three years
more, which has deceived many. The wiger the cor¬
ner teeth are,'the older is the horfe ; and t;hey are apt
to grow foul and turn yellow. When the mark is
gone, if you touch the tufles on the upper jaw with
your finger, and find it worn away and equal with the
palate, you may certainly judge that the horfe is ten
years old at lead. Ladly, when the flanks oFa horle
are much funk, the feet broken and fpoiled, the pace:
bad, and the eye-pits very yellow, you may cer¬
tainly conclude the horfe is coafiderably advanced in
years.
When the horfe is withont blemifll, the legs and
thighs are clean, the knees drait, the.lkin and {hank
thin, and the back finew drong and well braced. The
finews and the bones {hould be fo didintd, as to make
the legs appear thin and lathy, not full and round.
The padern joints {hopld. never be large and round;;
( 5°7 )
E U
'nOT mufl: there be any fwelling near the coronet. The
hocks (houldbe lean and dry, not puffed up with wind.
With regard to the hoof, the coronet fliould be e-
qualiy thick, and the-horn fhining and greyifli, A
white horn is a fign of a bad foot, for it will wear
out in a fhort time; and likewife when the horn is thin,
it is liable to be fpoiled in {hoeing, and by travelling
hard on flony grounds. This is bed known when the
flioe is taken off; for then the verge all round the
foie will appear thin, and the horle will wince at. the
lead touch of the pincers.
A drong foot has the fibres of the hoof very didimd
running in a direid line from the coronet to the toe, like
the grain of wood. In this cafe care mud be taken to
keep the foot moid and pliable. The greated incon¬
venience attending a hard drong foot, is its being fub-
je& to rifts and tidures, which cleave the hoof quite
through fomctimes from the coronet down to the bot¬
tom.
A narrow heel is likewife a defeft ; and when it is
mot above two fingers in breadth the foot is bad. A
high heelcaufes a horfe to trip and dumble often ; and
the low one, with long yielding paderns, is very apt
to be worn quit? away on a journey. Too large a foot
in proportion to the red of the body, renders a horfe
weak and heavy.
The head of a horfe fhould be fmall, and rather
lean than flefhy. The ears fhould be fmall, erc<d,
thin, fprightly, and pointed. The forehead, or brow,
fhould be neither too broad nor too flat, and fhould
have a dar or fnip thereon. The nofe fhould rife a
little, and the \iodrils fhould be wide that he may
breath more freely. The muzzle fhould be fmall,
and the mouth neither too deep nor too (hallow. The
jaws fhould be thin, and not approach too near toge¬
ther at. the throat, nor too high upwards towards the
onfet, that the horfe may have fufficient room to carry
his head in an eafy graceful podure. The eyes fhould
he of a middle fize, bright, lively, and full of fire.
The tongue fhould be fmall, that it. may not be too
much prefTed by the bit; and it is a good fign when-
his mouth is full of white froth, for it (hews that he
will not foon be overheated.
The neckp fhould be arched towards the middle,
growing fpaller by degrees from the bread and fhoal-
defs ttKthe head. The hair of the main fhould be
long, ififall, and fine; and if it be a little frizzled, fo
much the better. The fhoulders fhould be pretty
long, the withers thin, and enlarge gradually from
thence downwards; but fo as to render his bread nei¬
ther too narrow nor too grofs. A thick-fhouldered
horfe foon tires, and trips an I durables every minute;
efpecially if he has a thick large neck at the fame
time. When the bread is fo narrow that the fore¬
thighs aimod touch, they are never good for much.
A horfe of a middle fize fhould have the didance of
five or fix inches between his fore-thighs, and there
fliould be lefs didance between his feet than his thighs
near the fhoulders when he dands upright.
The body or carcafe of a horfe fhould be of a
middling fize in proportion to his bulk, and the back
E U
fliould fink a little below the withers; but the pther
parts fhould be Arab, and no higher behind than be¬
fore. He fhould alfo be home-ribbed ; but the fhort
tibs fhould not approach too near the haunches, and
then he will have room to fetch his breath. When a
horfe’s back is fhort in proportion to his bulk, and yet
otherwife well limbed, he will hold out a journey tho’
he will travel flow. When he is tall, at the fame
time with very long legs, he is but of little value.
The wind fliould never be overlooked in the choice
of a horfe ; and it may eafily be known by his flanks,
if he is broken-winded, when he dands quiet in the
dable; becaufe he always pinches them in with a very
flow motion, and drops them fuddenly. A thick-
winded horfe fetches his breath often, and fometimes
rattles and wheezes. This maybe always difcovered
when he is put to briflc exercifes.
The temper of a horfe fhould always be obferved;
a vicious horfe generally lays his ears clofe to his pole,
fhews the whites of his eyes, and looks fullen and dog¬
ged. An angry horfe may be known by his frowning
looks ; and he generally feems to dand in a podure of
defence. When he is very vicious, he pays no regard ro
the groom that feeds him: However, fome horfes th^t
are ticklifh will lay back their year ears, and yet, be of
a good difpofition. A fearful horfe is apt to dart, and
never leaves it off till he is old and ufelefs, A fret¬
ful horfe is very unfit for a journey; and you may dif-
cover his temper as foon as he gets out of the (table.
A dull, heavy, duggifh horfe may be eafily known,
whatever tricks are ufed to roufe his fpirits.
With regard to the colour of a horfe, the bright
bay, and indeed all kinds of bays in general, are ac¬
counted a good colour. The chefnut horfe is gene¬
rally preferable to the forrel, unlefs the former hap¬
pens to be bald, or party-coloured with white legs.
Brown horfes have generally black manes and tails,
and their joints are of a rudy black. Thofe of this
colour that are dappled are much handfomer than the
red. Horfes of a fhining black, and well-marked,
without too much white, are in high edeem for their
beauty. A dar, or blaze, or white muzzle, or one
or more feet tipped with white, are thought to be ra¬
ther better than thofe that are quite black.
Of greys, the dappled are accounted bed; though
the filver grey makes a more beautiful appearance, and
often prove good. The iron grey with white manes
and tails are thought not to be fo hardy. Greys of
every kind will turn white fooner or later; but the
nutmeg grey, when the dappled parts incline to bay or
chefnut, are faid to bs good hardy horfes. Roan
horfes have a diverfity of colours mixed together;
but the white is more predominant than the red.
They are all generally hardy, and fit for the road ;
and fome are exceeding good. Thofe of a drawberry
colour mod referable the forrel-, and they are often
marked with white on the face and legs. When the
bay is blended with it, he feems to be tinftured with
claret; and fome of thefe prove to be very good.
Dun, fallow, and cream-coloured horfes have a lift
down their backs; and their manes and tales are black.
Dun
( }
E Q_ U (509
Dun horfes are feldom chofen by gentlemen, and yet
they may be very nfeful to the country farmer: The
fallow and cream-coloured are better efteemed, both
for beauty and ufe. Thofe horfes that are finely fpot-
ted with gay colours like leopards are a great rarity,
and for that reafan are only in the hands of great
men.
There is fome difference in horfes according to
the different countries where they are bred. For in-
ftance, in France, thofe of Bretagne are pretty ftrong
made, and have generally black hair, or brown bay ;
and they have good legs and feet, with a hardy mouth,
and a head fhort and flefhy ; but in general they are
pretty clumfy. The horfes of Franche Compte are
(aid to have the legs of tigers, and the belly of a hind ;
but they are fhort and thick, and of a middle fize;
being much more proper for drawing than riding.
The horfes of Gafcony are not unlike thofe of Spain ;
but they are not fo handfome, nor fo aftive, and there¬
fore they are more proper to draw carriages. The
Limofin horfes are very vicious, and are good for little
till they are fix years old. Their colour is generally
bay, or a bay brown. The horfes of Normandy are
much like thofe of Bretagne; and thofe of Poitou
have good bodies, legs, feet, and eyes ; but they are
far from being handfome.
The horfes of Germany are much better and more
handfome than thofe of the Low countries. They are
of great ufe for carriages ; but much more for the ar¬
my, and for drawing the artillery. They have a great
deal of hair, efpecially about the legs. They are not
large, but they are weH fet; and yet they have tender
feet. The Hungarian horfes are excellent for the coach,
as well 4s for riding.; but they are large, though well
proportioned, and they are of all colours, and in ge¬
neral very fwiftv
The Britifh horfes are of all kinds, they having
been brought at firft from different countries; but for
racers no country can equal them, they having been
b*red from'what are called barbs. The Danifh horfes
are low, fhort, and fquare; but they have a fine head,
and fliort hair. The horfes of the Low-countries are
very fit for the coach, and they are beft known by the
name of Flanders-mares. The Polifh horfes are like
the Danilh; only they have not fo fine a fore-hand:
their colour is generally a bright bay, and that of the
outward peel of an onion ; and they are fiery and vi¬
cious. The horfes of Switzerland are pretty much
like thofe of Germany; which is bo wonder, fince the
Germans purchafe a great number of them. The
horfes of Piedmont are fiery, of a middle fize, and of
all forts of colours; their legs are good and hand¬
fome, their eyes fine, their ears fmall, and their
mouths good; but they do not carry their heads
■well.
The horfes of Naples and Italy are generally ill
made, and lean; and yet they are good and ufeful, for
they are light and proper for racing, though not for a
long co.urfe ; they never do well in a colder climate.
The Spanifh horfes are very well made, and handfome,
as well as very adlive and nimble; they have good eyes,
handfome legs and heads, and are eafily managed :
Vol. II. No. 47.
) E Q_ U
they are alfo good for racing if they are well kept:
however, they are not fo good in northern climates as
in their own country. The Turkifh horfes are of dif¬
ferent fhapes; but they are generally fwift, though
their mouths are bad. Moft of them are white ; tho'
there are other colours; and they are large, hardy,
ftrong, and fit for the road.
The horfes of Barbary, commonly called barbs,
have ftrong hoofs, and are more proper for racing than
any others whatever : fome have fard they never grow
old, becaufe they preferve their vigour to the laft.
They are excellent flallions ; and fome of them are u-
fed as fuch in Britain: however, the Arabian horfes
are not quite fo good as the Barbary, though fome
think they are both of the fame kind ; only thofe that
are ufed to the deferts of Arabia are always in adtion.
The horfes of the gold-coaft of Guinea are very few
in number, and in other parts of that coaft there are
none at ?.H ; for many of the negroes, when they have
been firft brought over to our American plantations,
have exprefled great admiration at the fight of a horfe,
and even been afraid to come near one.
The horfes of the Cape of Good Hope were origi¬
nally brought from Perfia ; and they are generally
fmall and of a chefnut colour; for thofe that are na¬
tives of that country are all wild, and could never yet
be-tamed. The horfes of China are good, and more
particularly thofe in the province Yun Nan, for they
are very vigorous, though a little low. The horfes of
the Eluth Tartars are good and full of fire; and their
fize is much the fame as the Polilh horfes: they are
afraid of nothing, not even of lions and tigers ; but
perhaps this may be owing to ufe. In the country
of the Mogul they are very numerous, and of all 'co¬
lours : they are generally of the middle fize, tho’ there
are fome as large and as handfome as thofe in Europe.
The wild horfes of Tartary differ little from the tame ;
but they are fo fwift, that they avoid the arrows of the
moft ikilful hunters. [Plate LXXV. fig. j
For the method of training and managing horfes,
fee Horsemanship; and for their difeafes and cure,
fee Farriery.
2. The afs is likewife a domeftic animal, and eafily
diftinguiftied from the horfe at firft fight; we never
confound thefe two animals, even though they (hould
happen to be of the fame colour and ftature ; however,
when we view the different parts of the afs, whether
the external or internal, and compare them with the
correfponding parts of the horfe, the refemblance of
thefe parts is fo perfect, that we are furprifed to find
the individuals fo different and fo eafily diftinguilhable
by the eye From this circumftance, fome naturalifts
have confidered the afs and the horfe to be the fame
fpecies of animals; and that the fmall differences be¬
tween them are accidental, or owing to the influence of
climate, culture, Linnceus’s fpecific mark of the
horfe is, that the whole tail is covered with longhair-
and his fpecific mark of the afs is, that the tail has
long hair only towards the point, and a black crofs o-
ver the ihoulders. On the other hand, when we con-
fider the differences in (the temper, the manners and
difpofitions of thefe two animals, and, above all, the
2 5 M impoifi-
impoflibility of mining them fo as to produce a common
or intermediate fpecies capable of propagating ,and
tranfmitting in the fame manner as other diltintt fpe¬
cies, the notion that the horfe and the afs are the fame
fpecies will appear to be without any folid foundation.
Befides, the afs differs materially from the horfe in the
thicknefs of the head, the length of the ears, the hard-
nefs of the fk1n, and in the voice, the difpofitions, the
manner of drinking, With regard to animals, there
is perhaps but one permanent and uniform fpecific dif-
tindion in nature : amale and female of different fpecies
may copulate, may produce a third animal refemblingboth ,
but very different from either: but here nature has put a fi¬
nal (top to all further procreation: the third animal, al¬
though it be feemingly furnifhed with every thing neceffa-
ry for propagating, remains for ever barren. Now, the
horfe may be made to copulate with the afs; a mule, or
mixture of the two, is the fruit of the unnatural embrace:
but the impregnation of a mule is found by experience
to be altogether impoflible.
The afs, therefore, is a diftindt fpecies, and his race
as ancient as that of the horfe. Why then fhould this
ufeful, patient, fober animal be fo much defpifed ? We
are apt to compare him, on every occafion, with the
horfe, and from this comparifon are led to very falfe
and. unfavourable conclufions. The horfe is educated
with great care and expence ; while the poor afs, a-
bandoned to the abufe of the meaneft fervants or the
cruelty of children, inftead of deriving benefit’ from
inftrudfion, lofes in effedt his natural good qualities by
the bad treatment he fuffers. He is the fport and
buffet-block of every ruftic, who beat and overload him
without mercy or difcretion. They never confider,
that the afs would be the moft ufeful, the belt made,
and molt diltinguilhed of all animals, if there were no
horfes in the world.
The afs is as humble, patient, and tranquil, as the
horfe is bold, ardent, and impetuous. He lubmits with
firmnefs, perhaps with magnanimity, to Itrokes and
Cbaftifement ; he is temperate both as to the quantity
and quality of his food ; he contents himfelf with the
rigid and difagreeable herbage which the horfe and o-
ther animals leave to him, and difdain to eat: he is
more delicate with regard to his drink, never ufing wa¬
ter, unlefs it be perfectly pure. As his raafter does not
take the trouble of combing him, he often rolls himfelf
on the turf among thirties, ferns, Without re¬
garding what he is carrying, he lies down to roll as of¬
ten as he can, feeming to reproach his mafter for ne-
gleft and want of attention.
When very young, the afs is a gay, fprightly, nim¬
ble, and gentle animal. But he foon lofes thefe quali¬
ties, probably by the bad ufage he meets with ; and be¬
comes lazy, untraftable, and ftubborn. When under
the influence of love, he becomes perfectly furious.
The affeftion of the female for her young is ftrong:
Pliny affures ns, that when an experiment was made
to difcover the ftrength of maternal affe&ion in a rtie-afs,
flie run through the flames in order to come at her colt.
Although the afs be generally ill ufed, he difcovers
a great attachment to his marter ; he fmells him at a
) E IJ
dirtance, fearches the places and roads he ufed to fre¬
quent, and eafilydirtinguilhes him from the reft of man¬
kind. The afs has a very fine eye, an excellent fcent,
and a good ear. When overloaded, he hangs his head,
and finks his ears : when too much teafed or torment¬
ed, he opens his mouth and retra&s his lips in a difa¬
greeable manner, which gives him an air of ridicule
and derifion. If you cover his eyes, he will not move
another ftep ; if you lay him on his fide, and place his
head fo that one eye refts on the ground, and cover the
other with a cloth, he will remain in this fituation with¬
out making any attempt to get up. He walks, trots,
and gallops in the fame manner as the horfe; but all his
motions are flower. Whatever be the pace he is going
at, if you pufti him, he inftantly flops.
The cry of the horfe is known by the nameoEwf/^-
; that of the afs, by braying, which is a long, difa-
greeahle noife, confifling of alternate difcords from W
fharp to grave and from grave to ftiarp: he feldom
cries but when preffed with hunger or love: the voice
of the female is clearer and more piercing than that of
the male.
The afs is lefs fubjeft to vermin than othef animals
covered with hair; he is never troubled with lice, pro¬
bably owing to the hardnefs and dnnefs of his fldn ;
and it is probably for the fame reafon, that he is lefs
fenfible to the whip and fpur than the horfe.
The teeth of the afs fall out and grow at the fame
age and in the fame manner as thofe of the horfe; and
he has nearly the fame marks in his mouth.
Affes are capable of propagating when two years
old. The females are in feafon during the months of
May and June. The milk appears in the dugs ten
months after impregnation,; (he brings forth in the
twelfth month, and always one at a time. Seven days
after the birth, the feafon of the female returns, and
flie is again in a condition to receive the male. The
colt fliould be taken front her at the end of five or fix
months, that the growth and nouri(hment of the foetus
may not be obftru&ed. The ftailion or jask-afs fliould
be the largeft-and ftrongeft that can be found ; he
fliould be at leaft: three years old, and never ought to
exceed ten.
The afs, like the horfe, takes three or four years in
glowing, and lives till he be 25 or 30: he fleeps lefs
than the horfe, and never lies down to fleep but when
excelitvely fatigued. He is more robuft, and lefs fub-
je<ft to difeafes than the horfe.
Travellers inform us that there are two forts of affes
in Perfia; one of which is ufed for burdens, they be¬
ing flow and heavy; and the other is kept like horfes-
for the faddle, for they have fmooth hair, carry their
head well, and are much quicker in their motion;
but when they ride them, they fit nearer their but¬
tocks than when on a horfe: they are dreffed like hor¬
fes, and are taught to amble like them ; but they general-.
■ ly cleave their noftrils to give them more room for brea¬
thing, DrRuffell likewife tells us they have two forts
in Syria, one of which is like ours, and the other very
large, with remarkable long ears; but they are both
put to the fame ufe, which is., to carry burdens.
The
ERA ( .
The onager, or wild afs, has, by fome authors,
been confounded with the zebra *, but very improper¬
ly, for this lalt is a diftindt fpecies; for the onager is
not ftreafced-like this, nor is his fnape fo beautiful.
Wild-affes are faid to be very fwift of courfe; and
when they fee a man, they make a bound, and im¬
mediately fly away; infomuch, that there is no ta¬
king of them, but by traps and gins. They have
much the fame fhape as common affes; but they
are of a brighter colour, and there runs a white lift
from the head to the tail. Of the hide of thefe alfes,
and particularly of that part next the rump, they make
that excellent leather which we call fhagreen, and
which is put to fo many curious ufes.
In America theyhave no affes at all, nor yet horfes;
but they have been carried thither long ago, at (irft by the
Spaniards, and afterwards by other nations, where they
have multiplied greatly ; infomuch, that, in lome pla¬
ces, there are whole droves of" them that run wild,
and are very hard to be caught. Affes in general
carry the heavieft burdens in proportion to their bulk;
and, as their keeping cofts little or nothing, it is a
great wonder they are not put to more ufes than they
generally are among us.
The flefh of the common afs is never eaten in thefe
parts of the world ; though fome pretend their colts are
tender, and not difagreeable. [Plate LXXV-. fig. 2.3
3. The zebra.—This animal has the figure and
gracefulnefs of the horfe, joined to the fwiftnefs of the
flag. He is about 7 feet long, from the point of the'
muzzle to the origin of the tail, and about 4 feet high
The colour of his fkin is beautiful and uniform, con-
lifting of alternate parallel rings of black and white
difpofed in the moft regular manner, as reprefented in
, the plate, [LXXV. fig. 3.3 He is generally lefs than the
horie, and larger than .the afs.
'the Zebra is found no where but in the eaftern and
fouthern provinces of Africa, from ^Ethiopia to the
Cape of Good Hope, and from the Cape of Good
Hope to Congo. The Dutch have been at great pains to
tame and life them for domeftic purpofes, but with little
i fuceefs. He is hard-mouthed, and kicks wrhen any
perfon attempts to touch or come near him. He is
reftlefs and obftinate as a mule: but perhaps the wild
horfeis naturally as i.’ntraftable as the Zebra ; for, it is
probable, if he were early accuftomed to obedience and
a domeftic life, he would become as docile as the horfe.
ERANARCHA, a public officer among the ancient
Greeks, whofe buftnefs was to prefide over and diredt
the alms and provilions made for the poor. Cornelius
Nepos, in his life of Epaminondas, defcribes his office
thus : w'hen any perfon was reduced to poverty, taken
captive, or had a daughter to marry, which he could
- noteffedt for want of money, 6v. the eranarcha call¬
ed an afTembly of friends and neighbours, and tax¬
ed each according to his means and eftate, to contri¬
bute towards his relief.
ERANTHEMUM, in botany, a genus of the diandria
monogynia clafs. The calix is divided into five feg-
ments ; the tube is filiform ; and the ftigma is fimple.
There is but.one. fpecies, a native of ^Ethiopia.
; n ) E R I
ERASED, in heraldry. See Arrache.
ERECTION, in a general fenfe, the art of raifing ore-
levating any thing, as the eredlion of a perpendicular,
<bc. It is alfo ufed in a figurative fenfe, as the erec¬
tion of a biffiopric, marquifate, <bc.
ERECTOR clitoris. SeeCLiroais.
Erector penis. See Penis.
EREMIT. See Hermit.
EREMITA, in zoology. See Scarabjeus.
ERFURT, a large and beautiful city of Upper Saxony
in Germany, capital of Thuringia, and fubjedt to the
eledlor of Mentz: E. long. ii° 6', N. lat. 51°.
ERGOT, in farriery, is a ftub, like a piece of foft horn,
about the bignefs of a chefnut, placed behind and be¬
low the paftern-joint, and commonly hid under the
tuft of the fetlock.
ERICA, or Heath, in botany, a genus of the odtan-
dria monogynia clafs. The calix confifts of four
leaves, and the corolla of four fegments ; the filaments
are inferred into the receptacle ; the antherse are bifid ;
and the capfule has four cells. There are thirty-eight
fpecies, five of which are natives of Britain, viz the
vulgaris, or common heath; the cinerea, or fine-leaved
heath; the tetralix, or crofs-leaved heath; the cilia-
ris,-or rough leaved heath; and the multifiora, or fir¬
leaved heamT
ERIDANUS, in aftronomy. See Vol I. p. 487.
ERIE, a vaft lake to the weftward of-Penfilvania, in
North America, fituated between 8o° and 870 W.
long, and between 41° and 420 N lat.
ERIGERON, or Sweet flea bane, in botany, a
genus of the fyngenefia polygamia fuperflua clafs. The
receptacle is naked; the pappus is hairy; and the ra¬
dii of the corolla are linear and very narrow. There
are fixteen fpecies, two of which are natives of Britain,
viz. the acre, or blue-flowered flea-bane; and the ca-
nadenfe, or Canada flea-bane.
ERINACEUS, or Hedge-hog, in zoology, a genus
of quadrupeds belonging to the order of ferae, the
chara&ers of which are thefe: theyhave two foreteeth
in the upper--jaw, at a confiderable diftance from one
another, and two in the under jaw, lefs diftant; and
they-have two recumbent dog-teeth, one on each fide.
There are three fpecies, viz. 1. The europaeus, or.
common hedge-hog, with round ears, and crefted no-
ftriis. It is about nine inches long; the upper part of
the body is totally covered with fliarp prickles, and
the under part is covered with hair. The hedge-hog,,
even when Handing on his legs, has a very ugly afpeift.
His body is an oblong mafs, convex above, terminated
on the fore-part by a very ffiarp muzzle, and mount.ed
on four ffiort legs, of which nothing appears but the
feet, and the tail is not difcernible. His ears are
broad, round, and ffiort; and his eyes are fmall and
protuberant. The length of his body, from the point
of the muzzle to the anus, is about nine inches.
The hedge-hog has a very uncommon method of
defending himfelf from the attacks of other animals:.
being poflefied of little ftrength or agility, .he does not
attempt to fly from or affail his enemies ; but erects his
hiillits, and rolls himfelf up like a ball, expofmg no,
part-
E R I (51
-yart of his body that is not furnifhed with (harp, wea¬
pons of defence; he will not unfold himfelf, unlefs
thrown into water : the more he is frightened or ha-
-rafTed, the clofler he Ihuts himfelf up, and frequent¬
ly difcharges his urine, which has a very foetid an loth-
fome fmell. While in this ftate, moil dogs, inltead
of biting him, (land off and bark, not daring to feize
him ; or, if they attempt it once, their mouths are fo
pricked with his briftles, that they cannot be prevail¬
ed on to attempt it a fecond time. Both the male
and female are covered with briftles from the head to
the tail. Thefe briftles are of great ufe in defending
them from other animals ; but muft be very inconve-
tnient when they incline to copulate. This operation
they cannot perform in the manner of other quadru¬
peds ; but do it face to face, either Handing on end,
or the female lying on her back. The females come
* in feafon in the fpring, and bring forth their young in
the beginning of fummer. They commonly bring forth
three or four, and fometimes five, at a time. The
young ones are of a whitilh colour, and only the points
of the briftles appear above the Ikin. It is impoilible
to tame them: the mother and her young have fre¬
quently been confined together, and furnifhed with
plenty of provifions: but, inftead of nourifhing them,
fhe uniformly devoured them one after another. Males
and females have likewife been kept in one apartment,
where they lived, but never copulated. Hedge-hogs
feed upon fallen fruits., fome roots, and infers: they
are very fond of flelh-meat, whether raw or roafted.
They frequent woods, and live under the trunks of
old trees, in'the chinks of rocks, or under large ftones.
Naturalifts alledge that they go into gardens, mount
the trees, and come down with pears, apples, or
plumbs, ftuck upon their briftles. But this is a mif-
take : although kept in a garden, they never attempt
to climb trees, or flick even fallen fruit upon their
briftles, but, lay hold of their food with their mouth
They never come out of their holes in the day, but go
about in queft of food during the night. They eat
but little, and can live very long without taking any
nourifhment. They do not lay up any ftore of provi¬
fions in harveft; fuch an inftindl would be ufelefs, as
they fleep all the winter. See Plate LXXIV. fig. 6.
2. The inauris, or white hedge hog, has no exter¬
nal ears. It is a native of' America.
3. The malacenfis, has hanging ears, and is a na¬
tive of Alia
ERINGO, in botany. See Eryn-gium.
JERIOC 4ULON, in botany, a genus of the triandria
trigynia clafs. The common calix has an imbricated
capitulum ; it has three equal petals : and the ftamina
are above the germen. There are five fpecies, none
of them natives of Britain.
ERIOCEPHALUS,'in botany, a genus of the fynge-
nefia polygamia neceflaria clafs. The receptacle is
fomewhat hairy; it has no pappus; the calix confifts
of fix equal petals : and there are five flofcules in the
radius. There are two fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain.
2 ) ERR
ERIOPHORUM, in botany, a genus of the triandria
monogyma clafs. The gluma is paleaceous, and im¬
bricated on each fide; the corolla is wanting ; and
there is but one feed4 furrounded by long down.
ERITHACUS, in ornithology See Motacilla.
ERIVAN, a city of Perfia, on the frontiers of Turky,
fituated on the fouth end of a lake of the fame name :
E. long. 450, N. lat. 400 16'.
ERKELENS, a city of Weftphalia, in Germany, ten
miles north of Juliers : E. long. 6°, N. lat. yi°.
ERMIN, in zoology. See Mustela.
Ermin, in heraldry, is always argent and fable, that
is, a white field, or fur, with black fpots. Thefe
fpots are not of any determinate number, but may be
more or lefs, at. the pieafure of the painter, as the
fkins are thought not to be naturally fo fpotted ; but
ferving for lining the garments of great perfons, the
furriers were wont, in order to add to their beauty, to
few bits of the black tails of the creatures that produ¬
ced them, upon the white of their Ikin, to render them
the more confpicuous, which alteration was introduced
into armory. See Plate LXXIV. fig. 7.
Ermin, or Ears of corn, an order of knights in
France, inftituted by Francis the laft of that name,
duke of Britany.
This order was fo called on account that the collar
of it was made up of ears of corn, lying athwart one
anotherfin faltier, bound together, both above and be¬
low, each ear being crofted twice, the whole of gold.
To this collar there hung a little white beaft, called
an ermin, running.over a bank of grafs diverfified with
flowers.
ERMINE', or Cross ermine', is one compofed of four
ermin fpots, placed as reprefenteckin Plate LXXIV.
fig. 8.
It is to be obferved, that the colours in thefe arms
are not to be expreffed, becaufe neither this crofe nor
thefe arms can be of vany other colour but white and
black.
ERMINITES fhould fignify little ermines, but it is 0-
therwife for it expreftes a white field powdered with
black, only that every fuch fpot hath a little red hair
on each.
Erminites alfo fignify a yellow field powdered with
black, which the French exprefs much better by or
femee d'ermine de fable.
EROSION, among phyficians, denotes much the fame
with corrofion, only in a ftronger degree. See Cor¬
rosion, and Corrosives.
EROTIC, in general, any thing relating to the paftion
love.
ERRATIC, in general, fomething that wanders, or is
not regular: hence it is the planets are called erra¬
tic ftars.
ERRHINES, in pharmacy, medicines which, when
fnuffed up the nofe, promote a difcharge of mucus from
that part.
ERROUR, Error, a miftake of our judgment, giving
affent to that which is not true.
Mr Locke reduces the caufes of error to thefe four ;
fivft
Plate LXXYT
■ <3. Equus Zebra.
E R Y ( 513 ) E S K
■ 6r2, want of proofs ; fecondly, v.'ant of ability to ufe
them : thirdly, want of will to ufe them ; and fourth¬
ly, wrong meafuies of probability,
ERUCA, in general, denotes caterpillars of all kinds.
See Naturae History, Of infers.
Eruca, the White rocket, in botany. See Bras-
sica.
Eruca marina. See Aphrodite
ERUCAGO, in botany. See Bum as.
ERUDITION denotes an extenfive acquaintance with
books, efpecially fuch as treat of the belles lettres.
ERVI species, in botany. See Sophora.
ERUPTION, in medicine, a hidden and copious excre¬
tion of humours, as pus or blood : it fignifies alld
the fame with exanthema, any breaking out, as the
puftules of the plague, fmall-pox, meafles, <&c. See
Medicine.
ERVUM, in botany, a genus of the diaddphia decan-
dria clafs. The calix confifts of five fegments of an
equal length with the corolla. There are fix fpecies,
three of which arc natives of Britain, viz. the foloni-
enfe, or fpring tare; the tetrafipermum, or fmooth
tare ; and the hirfutum, or hairy tare.
ERINGIUM, Eringo, in botany, a genus of thepen-
tandria digynia clafs. The flowers are capitated, and
the receptacle is paleaceous. There are ten fpecies,
two of which are natives of Britain, viz. the mariti-
mum, or fea-holly eringo ; and the campeftre, or
common ejjngo. The root of the fea-holly is faid to
be aperient, diuretic, and aphrodifiac.
ERYSIMUM, in botany, a genus of tire tetradynamia
filiquofa clafs. The pod is four-fided, divided into
two cells. There are fix fpecies, four of which are
natives of Britain, viz. the officinale, or hedge-mu-
flard ; the eheirianthoides, or treacle worm-feed ; the
L-arbarea, rocket, or winter-crefTes ; and the alliara,
Jack-by the-hedge, or fawce-alone. The leaves of
the hedge-muftard are faid to promote expedtoration,
and to excite urine and other excretions.
ERYSIPELAS, in medicine, Sh eruption of a fiery or
acrid humour, from which no part of the body is ex¬
empted, though it chiefly attacks the face. See Me¬
dicine.
ERYTHRINA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia de-
candria clafs. The calix is bilabiated ; and the co¬
rolla confifls of A long lanceolated vexillum. There
are three fpecies. none of them natives of Britam.
ERYTHRINUS, in ichthyology, a fpecies of fparus.
See Sparus.
ERYTHROIDES, in anatomy, the firft of the proper
tunics or coats which cover the tefticles. See Anato¬
my, p. 170.
ERYTHRONIUM, Dog’s-tooth violet, in bota¬
ny, a genus of the hexandria monogynia clafs. The
corolla is bell-ffiaped, and confifis of fix petals; there
are two nqftariferous tubercles at the bafe of every fe-
cond petal. There is but one fpecies, a native of Ger¬
many.
ERYTHROPHTHALMUS, in ichthyology, a fpecies
of cyprinus. See Cyprinus.
Vol, II. No. 47.
ERZERUM, the capital of the province of Tureoma
nia, or Armenia: E. long. 410, N. hit. 40°. It is a
great thoroughfare from Perfia and Inoia to Conftan.i-
nople, by the way of Trebifond and the Black-fea.
ESCHAR, in furgery, the cruft or fcab occafioned by
burns or cauftic medicines.
ESCHAROTICS, in pharmacy, medicines which pro¬
duces efehars. See Eschar.
ESCHEAT, in Scots law, is that forfeiture which rs
incurred upon a perfon’s being denounced rebel. It is
either fingle or liferent: fingle efeheat is the forfei¬
ture of the rebel’s moveable eftate ; liferent efeheat is
the forfeiture of the rents of his heritable eftate, du¬
ring his life. See Scots Law, title 12.
ESCHRAKITES, in matters of religion, a fe<5t of Ma¬
hometans, who believe that man’s fovereign good con-
fifts in the contemplation of God. They avoid all
manner of vice, and appear always in good humour,
defpifing the fenfual paradife of Mahomet. The mofi:
able preachers, in the royal mofques, are of this fedt.
ESCLATTE', in heraldry, fignifies a thing forcibly
broken, or rather a ffiield that has been broken and
(battered with the ftroke of a battle-ax.
ESCUAGE, in our old cuftoms, a kind of knight fer-
vice, called fervice of the ffiield, by which the tenant
was bound to follow his lord to the wars at ffiis own
change.
ESCULENT, an appellation given to fuch plants as may
be eaten. See Botany, p. 628.
ESCULUS, in botany. See Quercus.
ESCURIAL, a palace of the king of Spain, twenty one
miles north well of Madrid ; being one of the largeft
and naoft beautiful in the world. It has eleven thou-
fand windows, fourteen tfioufand doors, one thoufand
eight hundred pillars, feventeen cloyfters or piazzas,
and twenty-two courts ; with every convenience and
ornament that ’can render a place agreeable in fo hot a
climate, as an extenfive park, groves, fountains, caf-
cades, grottos, 6v.
ESCUTCHEON, or Scutcheon, in heraldry, is de¬
rived from the French efcujfon, and that from the La¬
tin feutum, and fignifies the Afield whereon coats of
arms are reprefented.
Moft nations, of the remoteft antiquity, were wont
to have their fifields diftinguilhed by certain marks
painted on them; and to have fuch on their ftiields was
a token of honour, none being permitted to have them
till they had performed fome honourable a<5fion.
The efcutcheon, as ufed at prefent, is fquare, only
rounded off at the bottom.
ESDRAS, the h‘ame of two apocryphal books, ufually
bound up with the feriptures They were always ex¬
cluded the vJewifh canon, and are not admitted as ca¬
nonical by the papifts themfelves.
ESENS, a town of Weftphalia, twenty-five miles north
of Embden.
ESK, a river which forms part of the boundary between
England and Scotland; and, running from north-eaft
to fouth-weft, falls into the Solway frith: -it gives
name to the country of Elkdale.
a. 5 N
ESKIMAUX,
ESQ ( 514 ) ESS
ES'KIMAUX, fometimes called New ’Britain, and Ter¬
ra de Labrador, is an extenfive country of North A-
merica, htoated between 590 and 8o° W. long, and
between 50° and 64° N. lat.
It is bounded by Hudfon’s ftraits, which feparate it
from Greenland, on the north ; by the Atlantic ocean,
on the call; by the river and bay of St Laurence, on
the fouth-eaft; and by Hudfon’s bay, on the weft.
ESLINGEN, an imperial city of Swabia in Germany,
feven miles fouth-eaft of Stutgard.
ESOX, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to the order
of abdominales. The body is elongated; the head is
plainilh above ; the upper jaw is plain, and Ihorter than
the under one, which is dotted; and the branchioftege
membrane has from feven to twelve rays. There are
nine fpecies.
ESPALIERS, in gardening, are rows of trees planted
about a whole garden or plantation, or in hedges, fo
as to inclofe quarters or feparate-parts of a garden;
and are trained up regularly to a lattice of wood work
in a clofe hedge., for the defence of tender plants a-
gainft the injuries of wind and weather.
The trees chiefly planted for efpaliers, are apples,
pears, and fome plumbs. See Gardening.
ESPERIE, a city of Hungary, forty miles north of Toc-
kay : it is remarkable for its fait mines.
ESPINAL, a town of Lorrain. on the Mofelle, thirty-
five miles fouth-eaft of Nancy.
ESPLANADE, in fortification, the floping of the pa¬
rapet of the, covered way towards the campaign.
ESPLEES, in law, the general products which lands
yield, or the profit or commodity that is to be taken
or made of a thing.
ESPOUSALS, in law, fignify a contraft or promife
made between a man and a woman, to marry each
Other; and in cafes where marriage may be confum-
mated, efpoufals go before. Marriage is termed an
efpoufal de prafenti.
ESQUIRE was anciently the perfon that attended a
knig' t in time of war, and carried his (hield.
This title.has not for a long time, had any rela¬
tion to the office of the perfon, as to carry arms, Qc.
Thofe to whom the title of efquire is now of right
due, are all noblemens younger fons, and the eldeft
Tons of fuch younger fons ; the eldeft fons of knights,
and their eldeft fons ; the officers of the king’s courts,
and of his houfehold; Couniellors at law, juftices of
the peace, <bc. though thofe latter are only efquires
in reputation : befides, a juftice of the.peace holds this
title no longer than he is in commiffion, in cafe he is
not otherwife qualified to beaf it: but a ffieriff of a
county, who is a fuperior officer, retains the title of
efquire during life, in confequence of the truft once
repofed in him: the heads of Lome ancient families are
faid to be efquires by prefcription.
Esquires «/"the king, are fuch as have that title by
creation, wherein there is fome formality ufed, as the
putting about their necks a collar of SS, and beftow-
ing on.-them a pair of ulver-fpurs, Q<r.
ESS AY, a trial or experiment for proving the quality
of any thing; or an attempt to Jearn, whether or no
any invention will fucceed.
Essay, in literature, a peculiar kind of compofition, the
character whereof is to be free, eafy, and natural;
not tied to ftridt order or method, nor worked up and
finiffied like a formal fyftem.
Essay hatch is the.miner’s term for a little trench or
hole, which they dig to fearqh for ffioad or ore.
ESSECK, a town of Hungary, near the confluence of
the rivers Drave and Danube, with a bridge five miles
over : it lies about eighty miles north-weft of Bel¬
grade.
ESSEN, a town of Weftphalia, about ten miles north-
eaft of Dufleldorp.
ESSENCE, in metaphyfics, that which conftitutes the
particular nature of each genus or kind, and diftin-
guiffies it from all others; being nothing but that
abftraCf idea to which this name is affixed; fo that e-
very thing contained in it, is efiential to that particu¬
lar kind.
ESSENES, or Essenians, in Jewiffi antiquity, ©ne of
the three ancient feCts among that people. They al¬
lowed a future ftate, but denied a refurredHon from the
dead. Their way of life was very Angular: they did
not marry, but adopted the children of others, whom
they bred up in the inftitutions of their fed: they de-
fpifed riches, and had all things in common, and_never
changed their cloaths till they were entirely worn outs
When initiated, they •, ere ftriCily bound not to commu¬
nicate the myfteries of their fed! to otheis; and if any
of their members were foundguilty of enormous crimes,
they were expelled^
Pliny tells us, that they dwelt on the weft fide of the
lake of Afphaltites ; and that they were afolitary kind
of men, living without women or money, and feeoing
upon the fruit of the palm-tree: he adds, that they were
conftantly recruited by new comers, whom the forges
of ill fortune had made weary of the world ; in which
manner the fedt was kept up for feveral thoufands of
years-, without any being born among them. Therea-
fon why we find no mention made of them in the New
Teftament, may be their, reclufe and retired ■ way of
life, no lefs than their great fimplicity and honefty,,
whereby they lay open to no cenfure or reproof.
ESSENTIAL, fomething necefiarily belonging to a thing,
from which it cannot be conceived diftindt: thus the
primary qualities-of bodies, as extenfion, figure, num¬
ber, eirc. are efTential or infeparable from them in all
their changes and alterations.
Essential oil. See Chemistry, p. 93.
ESSEX, a county of England, bounded by Suffolk, on
the north ; by the German fea, on the eaft; by the ri¬
ver Thames, which divides it from Kent, on thefouth;
and by Middlefex and Hertfordlhire, on the weft.
ESSOIN, in law, an excufe for a perfon fummoned to
appear and anfwer to an adlion, on account of the lick-
nefs or other juft caufe of his abfence.
ESSOllANT, in heraldry,, denotes a bird Handing oa
the
ETC ( 5*5 > E T C
the ground with its wings expanded, as if it had been
wet, and were drying itf'elf.
ESTATE, in law, fignifies the title or interefl: that a
perfon has in lands, tenements, or other effects.
Estates, in a political fenfe, is ufed either to de¬
note the dominions of fome prince, or the general claf-
fes into w hich the people are divided.
In Britain, the eftates are the king, lords, and com¬
mons ; or rather the lords and commons, who meet the
king in parliament, for reforming abufes, and enadting
good and wholefome laws.
ELSETE\ in heraldry, denotes the heads of hearts
torn off by main force. See Arache7 and Erased.
ESTHER, a canonical book of the Old Tertament,
containing the hiltory of a Jewilh virgin, dwelling with
her uncle Mordecai at Shufhan, in the reign of Ahafu-
erus, one of the kings of Perfia.
ESTOILE'E, or Cross estoille'e, in heraldry, a
rtar with only font long rays inform of a crofs; and,
accordingly, broad in the centre, and terminating in
ftiarp points.
EST ONIA, a province fubjeft to Ruflia, on the north of
Livonia.
ESTRAY, in law, any heart not wild that is found with¬
in alordlhip, and owned by nobody.
ESTREMADURA, a province of Spain, bounded by
Leon, on the north ; by the two Cartilcs, on the eaft;
by Andalufia, on the fouth ; and by the province of
Alenrejo, in Portugal, on the weft.
Estremadura is alfo a province of Portugal, lying
nor-M of Alentejo, and weftward of Spanifh Eftrema-
dura. Lifbon is its capital, as alfo of the kingdom.
ESTREMOS, a town of Alehtejo, in Portugal, eighty-
five mdes fouth eaft of Lifbon,
ETCHING, a method of engraving on copper, in which
the lines or ftrokes, inftead of being cut with a tool or
graver, are eaten in with aquafortis.
Etching is done with more eafe and expedition than
engraving : it requires fewer inftruments, and repre-
fents moft kind of fubjetfts better and more agreeable
to nature, as landfcapes, ruins, grounds, and all fmall,
faint, loofe, remote objedts, buildings, <6c. See En¬
graving.
The method of etching is as follows : Chufe the
copperplate as diredled for engraving, and fiirnifti your-
fdf with a piece of ground, tied up in a bit of thin
filk, kept very clean, to be laid upon the plate, when
both have been warmed ; proper needles, to hatch with
on the ground; a pencil or brufh, to wipe away the
bits of ground which rife after its hatching ; a polifher ;
two or three gravers ; a pa>r of compaffes. to meafure
diftances and draw circles; a ruler, to hatch ftraight
lines ; green wax, to make the. wall round the edges
of the plate, to contain the aquafortis ; an oil-ftbne 'r
a bottle of aquafortis ; fome red lead, to colour the
back fide of the copy ; a ftift, and a hand-vice, to hold
the plate over the candle. See Needle, Graver,
Polisher, Compass, &c.
To make the ground, take three ounces of afphal-
tum, two ounces of clean rofin, half an ounce of Bur¬
gundy-pitch, three ounces of black, wax, and three
ounces of virgin-wax: let ail thefe be melted in st
clean earthern pipkin over a flow fire, ftirring it all the
time with a fmall flick ; if it burn to the bottom, it is
fpoiled. After the ingredients are well melted, and it
boils up, put it into a pan of fair water; and before it
be quite cold, take it out, and roll it into fmall lumps
to be kept from dull: this ground is what others call
the varnifh. The next thing s to clean the plate to re¬
ceive the ground : take a piece of lifting, roll it up as
big as an egg, tie it very tight, fo as to make it a rub¬
ber; and having dropped a fmall quantity of fweet oft,
and added a little powder of rotten ftone on the plate,
rub it with this ball, till it will almoft Ihew your face.
Then wipe it all off with a clean rag ; and after that,
make it quite dry with another clean rag and a little
fine whitening.
The next thing is to lay on fhe varnilh ; to do which
aright you muft take a hand-vice, and fix it at the
middle of one part of the plate, with a piece of paper
between the teeth of the hand-vice and the plate, to
prevent the marks of the teerh : then laying the plate
on a chaffing-drfh, with a fmall charcoal fire in it, till
the plate be fo hot. that, by fpitting on the back-fide,,
the wet will fly off: rub the plate with the ground ti¬
ed Up in filk, till it be covered ail over; and after that
daub the plate with a piece of cotton wrapped up in
filk, till the ground be quite fmooth, keeping the plate
a little warm all the time. The varnilh being thus
fmoothed upon the plate, it mufl be blacked in.the fol¬
lowing manner: take a thick tallow candle that burns
clear, with a fhort fnuff; and having driven two nails
into the wart, to let it reft upon, place the plate againfl:
the wall with the varnifh fide downward, and take care
not to touch the ground with your fingers : then ta¬
king the candle, apply the flame to the varnifh as dofe
as poffible, without touching the varnilh with the fnuff
of the candle, and guide the flame all over it, till it be¬
come perfeftly black. After this is done, and the plate
dry, >he defign is traced with a needle through the
varnifti; and a rim or border of wax is raifed round
the circumference of the.plate; and then the artift has
a compofition of common varnifh and lamp-black, made
very thin, wherewith he covers the parts that are not
to be bitten, by means of a hair-pencil. And he is e-
very now and then covering or uncovering this or that
P*rt of the defign, as occafion may require- the con-
du<ft of the aquafortis being the principal concern, on
which the effect of the print very much depends The
operator muft be attentive to the ground, that it does
not fail in any part,, and where it does to flop up the
place with-the above con^pofition. Theplateis defend¬
ed from the-aquafortis every where, but in the lines
or hatches cut through it with the needle, through
which the water eats into the copper to the depth re¬
quired ; remembering to keep it ftirring with a feather
all the while; which done,. it is to be poured off
again.
Single aquafortis is moft commonly ufed ; and if it
be- too ftrong, mix it with vinegar, otherwife it will
make the work very hard, and fometimes break, up
the ground: the aquafortis having done its part, the
ground
EVA (5
ground is taken off, and the plate walked and dried:
after which nothing remains for the artift, but to ex¬
amine the work with his graver, to touch it up, and
'heighten it where the aquafortis has mifled.
And, laftly, it is to be remembered, that a frelh
dip of aquafortis is never given, without lirfl: walking
out the plate in fair water, and drying it at the lire.
■ETERNITY, an attribute of God, expreffing his infi¬
nite or endlefs duration.
According to Mr Locke, we come by the idea of
eternity, by being able to repeat any part of time, as
a year, as often as we will, without ever coming to an
end.
ETHER. See AIther.
ETHICS. See Morals.
ETHIOPIA, or ./Ethiopia, a very extenfive country
of Africa, comprehending Abyllinia, Nubia, and A-
bex : it is bounded by Egypt, and the defart of Bar¬
ca, on the north; by the Red fea and Indian ocean,
on the eaft; by Anian, and the unknown parts of A-
frica, on the fouth ; and by other unknown countries
on the weft.
•ETHMOIDAL, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 152.
ETHMOIDES os, in anatomy. See Anat. p. 157.
ETNA, or mount Gibello, a vulcano, or burning
mountain of .Sicily, lituated fifty miles fouth-weft of
Meflina, and twenty weft of Catania. See Volcano.
•ETYMOLOGY, that part of grammar which conliders
and explains the origin and derivation of words, in
order to arrive at their firft and primary lignification.
See Gjrammar.
EVACUANTS, in pharmacy, are properly fuch medi¬
cines as diminilh the animal fluids, by throwing out
fome morbid or redundant humour, or fuch as thin,
attenuate, and promote the motion and circulation
thereof,
EVACUATION, in medicine, the art of diminilhing,
emptying, or attenuating the humours of the body.
See Medicine.
EVANGELIST, a general name given to thofe who
write or preach the gofpel of Jefus Chrift.
The word is of Greek origin, lignifying one who
publilhes glad tiding, or is the meflenger of good news.
According to Hooker, evangelifts v/ere prelbyters
of principal fuffictency, whom die apoftles fent abroad,
and ufed as agents in ecclefiaftical affairs, wherefoever
they faw need.
The term evangelift however is at prefent confined
to the writers of the four gofpels.
EVANID, a name given by fome authors to fuch colours
as are of no long duration, as thofe in the rainbow, in
clouds before and after fun-fet, &c.
Evanid colours are alfo called fantaftical and empha-
tical colours.
:EVANTES, in antiquity, the prieftefies of Bacchus,
thus called, by reafon, that in celebrating the orgia,
they ran about as if diftra&ed, crying, Evan, evun,
ohe evan. See Bacchanalia.
EVAPORATION, in chemiftry, the fetting a liquor in
a.,.gemle heat 10 difcharge its fuperfiuous humidity, re-
<5 ) E U G
duce it to a proper confiftence, or obtain its dry re¬
mainder. See Chemistry.
EVATES, a branch or divilion of the druids, or ancient
Celtic philofophers. Strabo divides the Britilh and
Gaulilh philofophets into three fedfs; bards, evates,
and druids. He adds, that the bards were the poets
and mulicians ; the evates, the priefts and naturalifts •
and the druids were moralifts as well as naturalifts:
But Marcellus and Hornius reduce them all to two
fedts, viz. the bards and druids.
EUBAGES, an order of priefts, or philofophers, a-
mong the ancient Celtae, or Gauls: fome will have
the cubages to be the fame with the druids and faro-
nidae of Diodorus; and others, that they were the
fame with what Strabo calls evates.
EUCHARIST, the facrament of the Lord’s fupper,
propei ly li^nifies giving thanks.
This facrament was inftituted by Chrift himfelL
and the participation of it called communion.
As to the manner of celebrating the eucharift a-
mong the ancient Chriftians, after the cuftomary obla¬
tions were/nade, the deacon brought water to the bi-
ftiops and prefbyters, ftanding round the table, to
waih their hands, according to that of the pfalmift,
“ I will wafh my hands in innocency, and fo wiil I
“ compafs thy altar, O Lord.” Then the deacon
cried out aloud, “ Mutually embrace and kifs each
“ other which being done, the whole congregation
prayed for the univerfal peace and welfare of the
church, for the tranquillity and repofe of the world,
for the profperity of the age, for wholefome weather,
and for all ranks and degrees of men. After this fol¬
lowed mutual falutations of the minifter and people ;
and then the bilhop or prefbyter having fandtified the
elements by a folemn benediction, he brake the bread,
and delivered it to the deacon, who diftributed it to the
communicants; and after that the cup. Their facra-
mental wine was ufually diluted or mixed with water.
During the time of adminiftration, they fang hymns
and pfalms; and, having concluded with prayer and
thankfgiving, the people faluted each other with a kifs
of peace, and fo the aflemb’y broke up.
EVER GREEN, in gardening, a fpecies of perennials,
which continue their verdure, leaves, &c. all the year:
fuch are hollies, phiilyrk’s, lauruftmus’s, bays, pines,
firs, cedars of Lebanon, <foc.
EVERLASTING pea. a genus of plants, otherwife
called lathyrus See Lathyrus.
EVESDROPPERS, in law, perfons who ftand under
the eves, walls, or windows of a houfe, by day or by
night, to liften after news, and carry it to others,
thereby railing ftrife and contention in the neighbour¬
hood.
EVESHAM, a borough town thirteen miles fouth-
eaft of Worcefter, which fends two members to par¬
liament.
EUGENIA, the Silver tree, in botany, a genus of
the icofandria monogynia clafs. The calix is above
the fruit, and confifts of four fegments ; the petals
are four; and the drupa is quadrangular, and contains
E V O (51
ane feed. There are five fpecies, rone of them na¬
tives of Britain.
EVIAN, a town of Savoy, fituated twenty-five miles'
north eaft of Geneva, on the fouth fide of the lake of
Geneva.
EVICTION, in law, fignifies a recovery of lands, or
tenements by law. .
EVIDENCE, that perception of truth which arifes ei¬
ther from the tefiimony of the fenfes, or from an in¬
duction of reafon. See Metaphysics, and Mo¬
rals. ,
EVIDENCE, in law, any proof, whether it be by tef-
timony of men on oath, or by writings and records fo
called, becaufe hereby the point in iffue is made evi¬
dent by a jury.
EVIL. See Morals.
A7«^h-EviL, in medicine. See Medicine.
EULOGY, in church-hiftory, a name by which the
Greeks call the panis befiednluf, or bread over which
a bleffmg is pronounced, and which is diftribufed to
thofe who are unqualified to communicate.
EUMENIDES, in antiquity. See Furies.
EoNOMIANS, in church-hiftory, Chriftian heretics,
in the fourth century. They were a branch of Arians,
and took their name from Eunomius, bilhop of Cyzi-
cus, who was intruded by iEtius, in the points which
were then controverted in the church, after having at
firft followed the profeffion of arms. Eunomius fo
well anfwered the defigns of his mafter, and declaimed
fo vehemently againft the divinity of the Word, that
the people had recouffe to the authority of the prince,
and had him banilhed; but the Arians obtained his re¬
call, and eledled him bilhop of Cyzicus. The man¬
ners and doctrines of the Eunomians were the fame
with thofe of the Arians.
EUNUCH, a caftrated perfon. See Castration.
Eunuchs, in church-hiftory, a feCt of heretics in the
third century, who were mad enough to caftrate, not
only thofe of their own perfuafion, but even all others
that they could lay hold of: they took their rife from
the example of Origen, who, mifunderftanding the
following words of our Saviour,—“ And eunuchs who
“ made themfelves eunuchs for the kingdom of hea-
“ ven,”—caftrated himfelf.
EVOLUTION, in algebra. See Algebra, p. 86.
Evolution, in the art of war, the motion made by a
body of troops, when they are obliged to change their
form and difpofition, in order V> preferve a poll, or
occupy another, to attack an enemy with, more advan¬
tage, or to be in a condition of defending themfelves
the better.
EUONYMOIDES, in botany. See Celastrus.
EUONYMUS, the Spindle-tree, in botany, a genus
of the pentandria monogynia clafs. The corolla con
fills of five petals ; the capfule is five-fided, and has
five coloured cells; and the feeds w.e calyptra. There
are two fpecies, one of which, viz., the europasus,
fpindle-tree, or prickwood, is a native of Britain.
EVORA, or Ebora, a city of Portug^1, feventy miles
fouth-eaft of Lilbon.
Vol. II. No. 47.
7 ) EUR
EUPATORIOPHALACRON, in botany. See Ver¬
ses 1 n a.
EUPATORIUM, Hemp-agrimony, in botany, a ge¬
nus of the fyngenefia polygamia ajqualis clafs. The
receptacle is naked; the pappus is plumofe ; the calix
is oblong and imbricated; and the ftylus is long and
femi bifid. There are twenty-one fpecies, only one
of which is a native of Britain, viz. the cannabinutn,
hemp-agrimony, or Dutch agrimony. The leaves are
faid to ftrengthen the ftomach.
EUPHYMISM, in rhetoric, a figure which exprelTes
things in themfelves difagreeable and Stocking, in
terms implying the contrary quality.
EUPHORBIA, in botany, a genus of the dodecandria
trigynia clafs. The corolla confifts of four or five pe¬
tals ; and the calix has but one leaf. There are lixty-
tvvo fpecies, twelve of which are natives of Britain,
viz. the peplus, or fmall purple fea-fpurge; the pe-
plus, or petty fpurge; the exigua, or dwarf-fpurge ;
the fegetalis, or corn fpurge; the heliofcopia, fiin-
fpurge, or wart-wort; the portlandica, or Portland
fpurge ; the paralias, or fea-ipurge; the verrufca, or
rough-fruited fpurge ; the platyphyllus, or broad¬
leaved fpurge; the amygdaloides, or wood-fpurgej
the characias, or red fpurge; and the hyberna, or
knotty-rooted fpurge. The fpurges are exceedingly
acrid, and are now rejected both by the Edinburgh
and London difpenfatories.
EUPHORBIUM, in pharmacy, a gum refin brought us
always in loofe, fmooth, and glofly gold-coloured
drops or granules. It is the produce of the euphor-
bium antiquorum verum, which grows to ten or twelve
feet high. Its principal ufe is externally in finapifms,
and plafters applied to the feet, which are intended to
ftimulate, but not abfolutely to raife blifters: for it is
obferved by Avifenna, that when taken internally in
large doles, it has been found to exulcerate the inte-
ftines, and bring on death itfelf, after the moft terri¬
ble fymptoms.
EUPHRASIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia
angiofpermia clafs. The calix is cylindrical, and con-
lifts of four fegments; and the capfule is oblong and
bilocular. There are fix fpecies, two of which are na¬
tives of Britain, viz. the officinalis, or eye-bright;
and the odentites, or red eye bright. The eye-bright
was formerly celebrated as an ophthalmic, but is now
totally difregarded.
EUPHRATES, the fined river in Turky in Alia, has
two fources, northward of the city of Erzerum, in 40°
N. lat. After palling through Armenia, it divides Sy¬
ria from Diarbec or Afiyria, runs through Eyraca or
Chaldea; and uniting with theTygris, it pafles by the
city of Baflbra, fifty miles below which it falls into
. the gulf of Peffia.
EUREUX, a city of Normandy in France, twenty-five
miles fouth of Rouen.
EURIPUS, a ftrait between the illand of Negropont,
and the continent of Greece, remarkable for its irre¬
gular tides.
The term eurtpus is fometimes ufed, in a more
2 5 O general
£ X A ( 518 ) E X C
general fenfe, for any ftraits where the water is much
agitated.
EUROPE, the Raft of the four grand divifions of the
earth, is fituated between 36° and 720 N. iat.; and
between jo° degrees W. long, and 65° E. long, be¬
ing about 3000 miles long from north to fouth, and
5500 miles broad from eall to weft. It is bounded by
the frozen ocean on the north, by Alia on the eaft,
by the Mediterranean, which feparates it from Afri¬
ca, on the fouth, and by the Atlantic ocean on the weft.
Europe is commonly fubdivided into three.grand di¬
vifions, north, middle, and fouth. The north or up¬
per divifion comprehends Rullia, or Mufcovy, Sweden,
Denmark, and Norway, and the iflands of Biitain,
Iceland, Greenland, and thofe of the Baltic. The
middle divifion contains Poland, Germany, and the
hereditary dominions of the boufe of Auftria, the Low
Countries, or Netherlands, and France. The fou-
them divifion comprehends Turky in Europe, the an¬
cient Greece chiefly, Switzerland, Italy, Spain and
Portugal, and the iflands of Sicily, Sardinia, Corfica,
Majorca, Minorca, Ivica, and thofe of the Archipe-
lago.
EURYTHMY, in architedlure, painting, and fculpture,
is a certain majefty, elegance, and ealinefs, appearing
in the cbmpofition of divers members, or parts of a
body, painting, or fculpture, and refulting from the
fine proportion of it.
EUSTACE, or Eu statia, one of the Caribbeeiflands,
four miles weft of St Chriftopher’s, and fubjedt to the
Dutch.
EUSTYLE, in architeflure, a fort of building in which
the pillars are placed at the moft convenient diftance
one from another, the intercolumniations being juft
two diameters and a quarter of the column, except
thofe in the middle of the face, before and behind,
which are three diameters diftant.
EUTYCHIANS, in church-hiftory, heretics in the Vth
century, who embraced the errors of the monk Eu-
tyches, maintaining that there was only one nature in
Jefus Chrift.
EUXINE, the fame with the Black Sea. See Black
Sea.
EWAGE, a toll paid for the paffage of water, and o-
therwife called aquage.
EWE, the Englifh name of a female fheep. See Ovis.
EWRY, in the Britifh cuftoms, an office in the king’s
houffiold, which has the care of the table-linen, of
laying the cloth, and ferving up water in filver ewers
after dinner.
EXACERBATION. See Paroxysm.
EXACUM, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix con fills of four leaves, and
the corolla of four fegments, wdth a roundilh tube;
the capfule is bifulcated, and has two cells containing
many feeds. ' There are two fpecies, none of them
nati-v- s of Britain.
EXA’.RESIS, in furgery, the operation of extradting or
takin-; away fomething that is hurtful to the human
. bed,!
EXAGGERATION, in rhetoric, a kind of hyperbole,.
whereby things are augmented or amplified, by faying
more than the truth, either as to good or bad.
Exaggeration, in painting, a method by which the
artift, in reprefenting things, changes them too much,
or makes them too ftrong, either in refpedt of the de-
fign or the colouring.
EXALTATION, in chemiftry, fignifies an operation
by which a fubtlance has its properties changed, and
raifed to a higher degree of dignity and virtue.
EXAMINERS, in chancery, two officers of that court,
who examine, upon oath, witneffes produced in caufes
depending there, by either the complainant or defen¬
dant, w'here the wkntfles live in London, or near it.
Sometimes parties themfelves, by particular order,
are examined. In the country, above twenty miles
from London, on the parties joining in commiffion,
witneffes are examined by commiffioners, being ufually
counfellors or attornies not concerned in the caufe.
EXANTHEMA among phyficians, denotes any kind of
efflorefcence or eruption, as the mealies, purple {pots
in the plague, or malignant fevers, &c.
EXARCH., in antiquity, an officer fent by the emperors
of the eaft into Italy, in quality of vicar, or rather
prafedt, to defend that part of Italy which was yet
under their obedience, and particularly the city of
Ravenna, againft the Lombards. The exarch refided
at Ravenna, which place, with -Rome, was all that
was left to the emperors of their Italian dominions.
The firft exarch was under Juftm the younger, in the
year 567, after Belifarius and Narfes had driven the
barbarians out of Italy. The laft was Eutychius, de¬
feated by Adolphus king of the Lombards in 752.
EXCELLENCY, a title anciently given to kings and
emperors, but now to embaffadors, and other perfons
who are not qualified for that of bighneft, and yet arc
to be elevated above the other inferior dignities.
EXCENTRIC, in geometry, a term applied to circles
and fpberes which have not the fame centre, and
confequently are not parallel; in oppofition to con¬
centric, where they are parallel, having one common
centre. .
EXCENTRICITY, in aftronomy, is the diftance of the
centre of the orbit of a planet from the centre of the
fun ; that is, the diftance between the centre of the el-
lipfis and the focus thereof. See Astronomy.
EXCEPTION, in law, denotes a flop or flay to an ac¬
tion.
EXCERPTA, in matters of literature. See Ex¬
tract.
EXCESS, in arithmetic and geometry, is the difference
between any two unequal numbers or quantities, or
that which is left after the leffer «* taken from or out
of the greater. See Arithmetic.
EXCHANGE, in a general fenfe, a contraift or agree¬
ment, whereoy one thing is given or exchanged for
' another.
Exchange, in commerce, is the receiving or paying of
money in one country for the like fome in another, by
means of bills of exchange.
The fecurity which"merchants commonly take from,
one another when they circulate their bulinefs, is a
hill
E X C (5
bill of exchange, or a note of hand : thefe are looked
npon as payment.
The punctuality of acquitting thofe obligations is
efTential ,to comrrrrce; and no fooner is a merchant’s
accepted bill protefled, than he is cohfidered as a
bankrupt. For this reafon, the laws of moft nations
have given very .extraordinary privileges to bills of ex:
change,, The fecurity of trade is elfential to every fo-
ciety ; and were the claims of merchants to linger un-
de*- the formalities of courts of law when liquidated
by bills of exchange, faith, confidence, and punctua¬
lity- would quickly difappear, and the great engine
of commerce would be totally deftroyed.
A regular bill of exchange is a mercantile contract, in
which four perfons are concerned, viz. i. The drawer,
who receives the value: 2. His debtor in a diftant
place, upon whom the bill is drawn, and who mull accept
-and pay it: 3 The perfon who gives value for the bill,
to whofe order it is to be paid: and, 4. The perfon to
whom it is ordered to be paid, creditor to the third.
By this operation, reciprocal debts, due in two di¬
ftant parts, are paid by a fort of transfer, or permutation
of debtois and creditors.
(A) in London is cieditor to (B) in Paris, value 100/.
agiin in London is debtor to (D) in Pans for a
like fum. By the operation of the bill of exchange, the
London creditor is paid by the London debtor, and the
Paris creditor is paid by the Paris debtor; confequently,
the two debts are paid, and no money is fent from Lon¬
don to Paris, nor from Paris to London.
In this example, (A) is the drawer, (B) is the act
ceptor, (C) is the purchafer of the bill, and (D) receives
the money. Two perfons here, receive the money, (A)
and (D), and two pay the money, (B) and (C); which
is juft what muft be done when two debtors and two cre¬
ditors clear accounts. .
This is the plain principle of a bill of exchange. From
which it appears, that reciprocal and equal debts only
can be acquitted by them.
When it therefore happens that the reciprocal debts of
London and Paris (to ufe the fame example) are not e-
qual. there arifes a balance on one fide. Strppofe Lon¬
don to owe Paris a balance, value 100/. How can this
be paid? Anfwer, It may either be done with or
without the intervention of a bill.
With a bill, if an exchanger, finding a demand for a
bill upon Paris for the value of too/, when Paris owes
no more to London, fends 100/. to bis correfpondent
at Paris in coin, at the expence (fuppofe) of 1/. and
then, having become creditor on Paris, he can give a bill
for the value of 100/, upon his being repaid his expence,
and paid for his rilk and trouble.
Or it may be paid without a bill, if the London debtor
fends the coin himfelf to his Paris creditor, without em¬
ploying an exchanger.
This laft example fiiews of what little ufe bills are in
the payment of balances. As far as the debts are equal,
nothing can be more ufeful than bills of exchange; but
the more they .are ufeful in this eafy way of bufinefs, the
LL profit there is to any perfcn to make a trade of ex-
19 ) E X C
change, when he is not himfelf concerned either as
debtor or creditor.
"When merchants have occafion to draw and remit bills
for the liquidation of their own debts, adlive and paffive,
in diftant parts, they meet upon change; where, to pur-
fue the former example, the creditors upon Paris, when
they want money fer bills, look out for thofe who are
debtors to it. The debtors to Paris again, when they
want bills for money, feek for thofe who are creditors
upon it.
This market is cpnftantly attended by brokers, who
relieve the .merchant of the trouble of fearching for thofe
he wants. To the broker every one-communicates his
wants, fo far as he finds it prudent; and by going about
among all the merchants, the broker difeovers the fide upr
on which the greater demand lies, for money, or for bills.
He who is the demander in any bargain, has conftant-
ly the difad vantage in dealing with him of whom he de¬
mands. This is no where fo much the cafe as in ex¬
change, and renders fecrecy very eflential to individuals
among the merchants. If the London merchants want to
pay their debts to Paris, when there is a balance againft
London, it is their intereft to conceal their debts, and
efpeciaily the necelfity they may be under to pay them;
from the fear that thofe who are creditors upon Paris
would demand too high a price for the exchange over
and above par.
On the other hand thofe who are creditors upon.Paris,,
when Paris owes a balance to Londdn, are as careful in
concealing what is owing to them by Paris, from the
fear that thofe who are debtors to Paris would avail
themfelves of the competition among the .Paris creditors,
in order to obtain bills for their money, below the value
of them, when at par. A creditor upon Paris, who is
greatly.prefled for money at London, will willingly abate
fomething of his debt, in order to get one who will give
him money for it.
From the operation carried'on among merchants upon
change, we may difeover the confequence of their fepa-
rate and jarring interefts. They are conftantly intereft-
ed in the ftate of the balance Thofe who are creditors
on Paris, fear the balance due to London; thofe who
are debtors to Paris, dread a balance due to Paris. The
intereft of the firft is to diffemble what they fear; that
of the laft, to exaggerate what they wiih. The brokers
are thofe who determine the courfe of the day: and the
moft intelligent merchants are thofe who difpatch their
bufinefs before the fadhis known.
Now, how is trade in general interefted in the que-
ftion. Who fliall outwit, and who (hall be outwitted, in
this complicated operation-of exchange among merchants ?
The intereft of trade and of the nation is principally
concerned in the proper method of paying and receiving
,the balances. It is alfo concerned in preferving a juft e-
quality of profit and lofs among all the merchants, rela¬
tive to the real ftate of the balance. Unequal competi¬
tion among men engaged in the fame purfutt, conftantly
draws along with it bad confequences to the general un¬
dertaking; and fecrecy in trade will be found, upon ex¬
amination, to be much mo re ufeful to merchants in their
private
E X C (5
private capacity, than to the trade they are carrying
on.
Merchants endeavour to fimplify their bufmefs as much
as poflible ; and commit to brokers many operations which
require no peculiar talents to execute. This of exchange
is of fuch a nature, that it is hardly poffible for a mer¬
chant to carry on the bufinefs of his bills, without their
afliftance, upon many occafions. When merchants come
upon change, they are fofull of fears and jealoufies, that
they will not open themfelves to one another, left they
Ihoulddifcover what they want to conceal. The broker is a
confidential man, in fome degree, between parties, and
"brings them together.
Befides the merchants who circulate among themfelves
their reciprocal debts and credits arifing from their im¬
portation and exportation of goods, there is another fet
of merchants who deal in exchange ; which is the im¬
portation and exportation of money and bills.
Were there never any balance on the tradeof nations,
* exchangers and brokers would find little employment: re¬
ciprocal and equal debts would eafily be tranfadled open¬
ly between the parties themfelves. No man feigns and
difiembles, except when he thinks he has an intereft in
fo doing.
But when balances come to be paid, exchange becomes
intricate; and merchants are fo much employed in par¬
ticular branches of bufinefs, that they are obliged to
leave the liquidation of their debts to a particular fet of
men, who make it turn out to the beft advantage to
themfelves.
Whenever a balance is to be paid, that payment cofts,
as we have feen, an additional expence to thofe of the
place who owe it, over and above the value of the debt.
If, therefore, this expence be a lofs to the trading
man, he muft either be repaid this lofs by thofe whom he
ferves, that is, by the nation; or the trade he carries
. on will become lefs profitable.
■o ) E X C '
Every one will agree, that the expence of high ex¬
change upon paying a balance, is a lofs to a people, no
way to be compenfated by the advantages they reap from
enriching the few individuals among them who gain by
contriving methods to pay it off: and if an argument is
neceffary to prove this propofition, it maybe drawn from
"this principle, to wit, whatever renders the profit upon
trade precarious or uncertain, is a lofs to trade in gene¬
ral : this lofs is the confequence of high exchangre ; and
although a profit does refult from it upon one branch of
trade, the exchange-bulinefs, yet that cannot compenfate
the Jofs upon every other.
We may, therefore, here repeat what we have faid
above, that the more difficulty is found in paying a balance,
the greater is the lofs to the nation.
The courfe of Exchange.
The courfe of exchange is the current price betwixt
two places, which is always fludtuating and unfettled, be¬
ing fometimes above and foitietimes below par, according
to the circumftances of trade.
When the courfe of exchange rifes above par, the
country where it rifqs may conclude for certain, that the
balance of trade runs againft them. The truth of this
will appear, if we fuppofe Britain to import from any fo¬
reign place goods to the value of 100,0001. at par, and
export only to the value of 80,000.-; in this cafe, bills
on the faid foreign place will be fearce in Britain, and
confequently will rife in value ; and after the 80,0000 1.
is paid, bills muft be procured from other places at a
high rate to pay the remainder, fo that perhaps 120,000!.
may be paid for bills to difeharge a debt of 100,000 J.
Though the courfe of exchange be in a perpetual
flux, and rifes or falls according to the circumftances of
trade, yet the exchanges of London, Holland, Ham¬
burgh, and Venice, in a great meafure regulate thofe of
■all other places in Europe.
1. Exchange •with Holland.
MONEY-TABLE.
8 Pennings, or 2 duytes,
2 Groats, or 16 pennings,
6 Stivers, or 12 pence,
20 Schillings,
20 Stivers, or 40 pence,
6 Guilders, or florins,
2iGuilders, or florins.
Par in Sterling.
f 1 groat or penny
‘ ftiver :
fchilliog :
pound Flemilh
guilder or florin
, . pound Flemifh
1 1 rixdollar
j. d.
o 0.54
o 1.09
o 6.56
10 IX.18
I 9.86
: 10 11.18
A
In Holland there are two forts of money, bank and
current. The bank is reckoned good fecurity ; demands
on the bank are readily anfwered ; and hence bank-mo¬
ney is generally rated from 3 to 6 per -cent, better than
the current. The difference between the bank and cur¬
rent money is called the agio.
Bills on Holland are always drawn in bank-money; and
■if accounts be fent over from Holland to Britain in
currcat moneys the Britifti merchant pays thefe ac¬
counts by bills, and in this cafe has the benefit of th*
agio.
Prob. I. To reduce lank money to current money.
Rule. As 100 to ioo-j-agio> fo the given guilders
to the anfwer.
Example. What will 2210 guilders in bank money
amount to in Holland currency, the agio being 3^ per
cent.?
Guild,
E X C
( S2i ) E X C
Guild.
As ico : Ja3'-! :: 2210
8 8 82j1
800 82J i 1050
4420
17680
 Guild. Jl. pen.
8]oo)i8232|so(2279 x 4 car;
16 • •'20
22 io|oo(
16 8 /
63 2
56 16 -
72 32
72 32 t
Or, by praftice,
50)2210 ,
44.2 = 2 per cent.
22.1 =1 per cent.
2.7625 — \per cent. ^
2279.0625
If the agio only be required, make the agio the mid¬
dle term, thus:
Guil. Jl. pen.
As 100 : 3f :: 2210 : 69 1 4 agio. Or,
work by practice, as above.
Prob. II. To reduce current money to lank money.
Rule. As xoo+agio to 100, fo the given guilders
to the anfwer.
Example. What will 2279 guilders 1 ftiver 4 pen-
nings, Holland currency, amount to in bank money, the
agio being 3^ per cent. ?
Guild. Guild. Guild. Jl .pen.
As 1034 : 100 :: 2-279 1 4
8 8 ^ 20
825
45581
16
16500
16
990
165
8)264(000
3)33
273490
45581
729300
800
8)583440(000
3)72930 Guild.
11)243x0(2210 bank.
In Amfterdam, Rotterdam, Middleburgh, ^c. books
and accounts are kept by fome in guilders, ftivers, and
pennings, and by others in pounds, fhillings, and pence,
Flemilh.
Vol. II. No. 47. 2
Britain gives 11. Sterling for an uncertain number of
ihillings and pence Flemilh. The par is xl. Sterling for
36.59 s. Flemifh ; that is, 11. 16 s. 7.08 d. Flemilh.
When the Flemilh rate rifes above par, Britain gains
and Holland lofes by the exchange, and vice verja.
Sterling money is changed into Flemilh, by faying,
As 11. Sterling to the given rate,
So is.the given Sterling to the Flemilh fought.
Or, the Flemilh-money may be call up by practice.
Dutch money, whether pounds, (hillings, pence Fie ■
inilh, or guilders, Itivers, pennings, may be changed into
Sterling, by faying,
As the given rate to il. Sterling,
So the given Dutch to the Sterling fought.
Example, i. A merchant in Britain drav/s on Am-
fterdam for 7821. Sterling : How many pounds Flemilh,
and how many guilders will that amount to, exchange at
34s. 8d. per pound Sterling?
L. f. d. L.
If 1 : 34 8 :: 782
Decimally.
L. s. L.
If 1 : 34 6 :: 7S2
782
416
782
832
3328
2912
12}3253t2 ^
2(0)2710(9 4
2(0)2710(9.3'
Z..1355 9 qFIem.
L. ims 9 4 Flem.
By praftice.
L. s. d.
782
10 s. =
39i
156 8
26 1
4
1355 94F/-
14 s.:
8 d.:
Or thus:
L. x. d.
782
Ttr 547 8
■To 26x4
13 55 9
Multiply the Flemilh pounds and Ihillings by 6, and
the produdt will be guilders and ftivers; and if there be
any pence, multiply them byS for pennings; or, divide
the Flemilh pence by 40, and the quot will be guilders
and the half of the remainder, if there be any, will be
ftivers, and 1 penny odd will be half a ftiver, or 8 pen¬
nings, as follows.
£. s. d.
*355 9 4 Flem. pence.
6 4lo)3253112(32
Guild. 8132 16 Jliv. Guild. 8132 16 Jliv.
2. Change 591 1. ys. Flemilh into Sterling money
exchange at 37 s. 6 d. Flemilh per l. Sterling ?
Flem.
E X C
¥lem. Ster. flem.
s. d. L. L, s.
If 37 6 : I :: 591 J
s)is
4)15
3
— 5)23650
$) 4730
•3) 946
L. t. d.
Anf. 31558 Ster.
3I5t
5)118.25
5) 23.65
015) 4-73(3i3-3’
45
23
15
80
75
50
45
( 522 ) E X C
II. Exchange with Hamburgh.
M O N E Y - T A B L E.
A
— x 6
Par in Sterling.
- X fchilling Jub =s
y I mark
1 dollar
* x rixdollar =46
" 1 ducat = 9 41-
Books and accounts are kept at the bank, and by moll
people in the city, in marks, fchilling-lubs, and phennings;
but fome keep them in pounds, fchillings, and groots
Flemilh.
The agio at Hamburgh runs between 20 and 40/>er cent.
All bills are paid in bank-money.
Hamburgh exchanges with Britain by giving an uncer¬
tain number of fchillings and groots Flemilh for the
pound Sterling. The groot or penny Flemilh here, as
alfo at Antwerp, is worth of a penny Sterling; and
fo fomething better than in Holland, where it is only
/^od. Sterling.
Flernijh.
1 groot or penny
x fcbilling
2 pence or groots
32 pence or groots
r pound.-
The par with Hamburgh, and alfo with Antwerp, is
35 s, 6|-d. Flemilh for 11. Sterling.
Examples, i. How many marks mull be received at
Hamburgh for 300I. Sterling, exchange at 35s, 2d,
Flemilh per 1. Sterling ?
L. /. d. L.
If I : 35 3 t! 300
12
Holland eKcha'nges with other nations as follows, viz.
with
Hamburgh, ©n the dollar,
France, on the crown,
Spain, on the ducat,
Portugal on the crufade,
Venice, on the ducat,
Genoa, on the pezzo,
.Eeghorn, on the piaftre,
Florence, on the crown,
Naples, on the ducat,
Rome, on the crown,
Milan, on the ducat,
Bologna, on the dollar.
Flem d.
cc 66-y
= 54
= 109#
5= JO
= 93
=T IOO
= IOO
= X 20
^ 74t
= 136
= 102
= 94#
Exchange between Britain and Antwerp, as alfo the
Auflrian Netherlands, is negociated the fame way as with
Holland, only the par is fomewhat different, as will be
defcribed in article 2d, following.
42 3
300
  M. fch.
32)126900(3965 XQ
96 ‘ ’
3°9
288
21Q
192
*8o
160
(20)
1.4 -
)320
32
-Coo)
Decimally.
E X C
Decimally.
Tlevi. s. Marks. Tletn. s.
If 20 : 7.5 :: 35.25
4 : i-5 " 35-25
i-5
17625
3525
4)52.875
( 523 ) E X C
Examp. r. What Sterling money maft be paid iy
London to receive in Paris 1978 prawns 25 fols, ex¬
change at 3 d. per crown ?
Sols. d. Cr. .fols.
If 60 : 3i-*r :: 1978 35
  60
253  
118705
253
Marks in 1 1. Sterling 13.21875
300
Marks in 300!. Sterling 3965.62500
16
3750
625
Schilling-Iubs 10.000
2. How much Sterling money will a bill of 3965
marks 10 fchilling-labs amount to, exchange at ^53. 3d.
Flemifh per 1. flerling ?
Fl.s. d. L.St. Mks. fch.
If 35 3 *- I 3965 10
12 32 2
423 7930 20 d.
*1897
423)126990(3^01. fler.
Decimally.
d.
3°, = y
if — fw
f =TT
Sols 20 = y
S — i
356115
573525
237410
6)0)3003236(5 Rent.
8)500539 3
. *2)62567 M
2|o)52i|3 13
L. 260 13 xi-J Anft
By Praflice.
Cr. fob.
1978 25, at 3if d.
5 o
7 3
o 7f
o 10*-
o 2f
4 : 1.5. :s 35.25
17625
3525
4)52.875(14.21875:
13.21875)3965.62500(390 1. fter.
3965625
III, Exchange ’with France.
MONEY-TABLE.
Par in Ster. s. d.
12 Renters') r* fol = o of§
20 fols C njake -< 1 livre =0 9^
3 livres j (^1 crown = 2 5y
At Paris, Rouen, Lyons, <&r. books and. accounts
are kept in livres, fols, and deniers; and the exchange
with Britain is on the crown, or ecij,.of 3 livres, or 60
fols Tournois. Britain gives for the crown an uncertain
number pf penqe, commonly between 39 and 34, the
par, a$ mentioned above, being 29^cl.
260 13 ni
If you work decimally, fay,
Cr. d. Ster. Cr. d. Ster,
As 1 : 31.625 :: 1978 41^ : 62567.427083*
2. How many French livres will L. 121 : 18 : 6 Ster¬
ling amount to, exchange at 32^d. per crown.?
d. Lin. L, s. d.
If 32^ : 3 :: 121 18 6.
  8 20
24 2438
29262
. _ 24
117Q48
58524
   Liv. fols den.
26'3)7?2283(367.o 5 11 Anf.
Hem. (78) = 5 fols.. 1 * .deniers.
IV.
( SH )
E X C
IV. Exchange •with Portugal.
MONEY-TABLE.
Par in Ster. s. d. f.
i ree = o o 0.27
4°° rees7 make ^ 1 cr^fade =23 •
1000 i‘ees3 i millree = 5
In Lifbon, Oporto, <bc. books and accounts are ge¬
nerally kept in rees and millrees; and the millrees are
diftinguilhed from the rees by a mark fet between them
thus, 485 xjr 372 ; that is, 485 millrees and 372 rees.
Britain, as well as other nations, exchanges with Por¬
tugal on the millree, the par, as in the table, being
674 d. Serling. The cottrfe with Britain runs from 63 d.
to 68 d. Sterling per millree.
Examp. i. How much Sterling money will pay a
bill of 827 'P 160 rees, exchange at 6^\d. Serling
J>er millree ?
Rees. d. Rees.
If 1000 : 68-|- :: 827.160
8 J07
8000
E X C
V. Exchange, •with Spain.
M O N E Y - T A B L E.
Par in Ster. s. d.
34 mervadies} T r rial =0 54
£ rials C make ■< 1 piaftre =3 7
375 mervadiesj (1 ducat = 4 n£
Jtn Madrid, Bilboa, Cadiz, Malaga, Seville, and moll
pf the principal places, books and accounts are kept in
piaftres, called alfo dollars, rials, and mervadies; and
they exchange with Britain generally on the piaftre, and
fometimes on the ducat. The courfe runs from 3 5 d. to
45; d. Sterling for a piallre or dollar of 8 rials.
Examp. i. London imports from Cadiz, goods to
the value of 2163 .piaftres and 4 rials : How much Ster¬
ling will this amount to, exchange at 38-|d. Sterling
per piaftre ?
‘ Piajl. Rials.
2163 4, at 38-| d.
  Rials.
d.
24 = Ter
12 = i
2 = is
216
108
18
I d’
I 384 each.
I i9rV
6
6|
345 i7 it
Its
d.
60 = 4
3 ~ Ttr
T = TT
i = f
L. 218 8 5^ Anf.
By Praflice.
Rees.
827.160, at 63|d.
L. 343 18 8-rg- xfnf.
2. London remits to Cadiz 3431. 18 s. S^d. How
much Spaniih money will this amount to, exchange at
38|d. Sterling per piaftre?
d. Piajl. L. s. d.
If 38! : li: 34s 18 8-^
206 790
10-3395
.861625
.43081-25
3°7
614
218.4219375
The rees being tboufandth parts of the mill rees, are
annexed to the integer, and the operation proceeds ex¬
actly as in decimals.
2. How many rees of Portugal will 5001. Sterling a-
tnount to, exchange at 5 s. 4^d. /><sr millree ?
Rees. L.
: 500
6918
83024
16
498149
83024
1328389
614)1328389(2193 piaftres.
1228
1003
614
3898
3684
2149
1842
If 64^
5J7
lOOO :
8
8000 10000
517)960000000(1856.866 Jnf.
614)2456(4 rials.
2446
VI. Exchange •with Venice.
MONEY-TABLE.
Si §?ldiZmateP 8™  ,
E X C v ( 525 ) E X C
The money of Venice is of three forts, viz. two of Bank money is reduced to current money, by allow-
bank money, and the picoli money. One of the banks ing for the agio, as was done in exchange with Holland;
deals in banco money, and the other in banco current, viz. fay, As 100 to 120, or as 10 to 12, or as y to
The bank money is 20 per cent, better thart the banco 6, fo the given bank money to the current fought. And
current, and the banco current 20/er better than current money is reduced to bank money by reverting
the picoli money. Exchanges are always negotiated by the Operation. And in like manner may picoli money
the ducat banco, the par being 4s. a-^d. Sterling, as in be reduced to current or to bank money, and the con-
the table. trary.
Though the ducat be commonly divided into 24 gros,
yet bankers and negotiators, for. facility of computation, InLegho
ufually divide it as follows, and keep their books and InRome
accounts accordingly.
100 ducats banco of Venice.
= 93 pezzos 1 In Lucca = 77 crowns
~ fort = 139-*: florins
= 68i crowns I In I
>- make
J" i fol d’or
1 ducat — yoj d. Sterling.
3 from 45 d. toyyd. Ster-
12 Deniers d-’or^j
20 Sols d’or |
The courfe of exchange
ling per ducat.
-Examp. 1. How much Sterling money is equal to
1459 ducats 18 fols 1 denier, bank money of Venice,
exchange at ya^d. Sterling/>tfr ducat?
d. Due. fdl. den. d.
52^ :: 1459 18 1 __ _ 52! rate.
Due
If I
52f
Sols.
47i
i2)77oio(6d.
210)64^17(173.
L. 320 17 6 Sterling. Anf.
2. How many ducats at Venice are equal to 385!.
12 s. 6d. Sterling, exchange at 4s. 4 d. />fr ducat ?
L. Due. L.
If .2ifl : 1 385.625
.216)385.625
21 385625
195)347062.5(1779.8 Anf.
I9S
1520
1365
1556
1365
1912
nss
1575
1560
Vox.. II. No. 48.
<*5)
VII. Exchange nuith Genoa.
MONEY-TABLE.
12 Denari') ,(1 foldi s. d.
20 Soldi 5 ma C C 1 Pezzo =4 6 Sterling.
Books and accounts are generally kept in pezzos*
foldi, and denari; but fome keep them in lires, foldi,
and denari; and 12 fuch denari make 1 foldi, and 20
loldi make 1 lire.
The pezzo of exchange is equal to 5^ lires; and,
confequently, exchange money is 51 times better than
the lire money. The courfe of exchange runs from
47 d. to 58 d. Sterlingpezzo.
Examp. How much Sterling money is equivalent to
3390 pezzos 16 foldi, of Genoa, exchange at 51-yd.
Sterling pezzo ?
Soldi, d. Pez. foldi.
3390 16
If 20 : 5i| ;
8  
  415
67816
4i5
339080
67816.
271264
 d. L. s. d.
i6o)28i4364o(i75897|r=732 18 i|
If Sterling money be given, it may be reduced or chan¬
ged into pezzos of Genoa, by reverfing the former ope¬
ration.
Exchange money is reduced t
multiplied by 5^, as follows:
Pez. foldi.
0 lire money, by being
8390
16
Si
16954 0
: = 1695 8
t = 8.47 14
Decimally.
3390.8
SIS
169550
237356
169540
Lires 19497.100
i reduced to exchange money by
Lires 19497 2
And lire money i
dividing it by 54.
Soldi of Genoa,
In Milan, .1 crown 80
In Naples, 1 ducat = 86
In Leghorn, x piaflre = 20
In Sicily, 1 crown = I2 7|-
5 VIII*
E X C
( *52
VIII. Exchangt •with Leghorn.
M ONE Y-T ABLE.
12 Denari
20 Soldi
^ make ^
i foldi s. d.
i piaftre = 46 Ster.
Books and accounts are kept in piaftres, foldi, and
denari. The piaflre here confids of 6 lires, and the
lire contains 20 foldi, and the foldi 12 denark and
confequently exchange money is 6 times better than lire
money. The courfe of exchange is from 47 d. to 58 d.
Sterling/w piaftre.
Example. What is the Sterling value of 731 pia-
llres, at 55-^. each.
731 piaftres, at jjid,
s. d.  
4 or 48 = -g- 146 4
7 = t 18 5 6
l-ir = % 4 11 4»
L. 169 o io£ dnf
6 ) E X C
The following places, viz. Switzejland, Norem-
burgh, Leipfic, Drefden, Ofnaburgh, Brunfwic, Co-
logn, Liege, Strafburgh, Cracow, Denmark, Norway,
Riga, Revil, Narva, exchange with Britain, when di-
red exchange is made, upon the rixdollar, the par being
4s. 6d. Sterling.
IX. Exchange •with America and the Weji Indies.
In North America and the Weft Indies, accounts, as
, in Britain, are kept in pounds, ihillings, and pence. In
North America they have few coins circulating among
them, and on that account have been obliged to iubftitute
a paper-currency for a medium of their commerce; which
having no intrinfic value, is fubjeded to many difadvan-
tages, and generally fuffers a great difcount. In the
Weft Indies coins are more frequent, owing to their
commerbial intercourfe with the Spanilh fettlements.
Exchange betwixt Britain and America, or the Weft
Indies, may be computed as in the following examples :
1. The neat proceeds of a caigo from Britain to Bo¬
lton amount to 8451. 17s. 6d. currency: How much is
that in fterling money, exchange at 80 per cent. ?
If 180 : 100
18 : 10 L. s. d.
Sterling money is reduced to money of Leghorn, by
reverfing the former operation; and exchange money
is reduced to lire money by multiplying by 6, and lire mo¬
ney to exchange money by dividing by 6.
100 piaftres of Leghorn are
In Naples = 134 ducats. [ In Geneva = iSjf crowns.
Soldi of Leghorn.
In Sicily, 1 crown = 133-f
In Sardinia, 1 dollar = 95^.
The above are the chief places in Europe with which
Britain exchanges diredly; the exchanges with other
places are generally made by bills on Hamburg, Hol¬
land, or Venice. We (hall here however fubjoin the par
of exchange betwixt Britain and moft of the other places
in Europe, with which we have any commercial inter¬
courfe.
Par in Sterling. L.
Rome 1 crown =
Naples, 1
Florence, 1
Milan, j
Bologna, 1
Sicily, 1
- Vienna, 1
Aulburgh, 1
Francfort, 1
Bremen, 1
Breflau, 1
Berlin, 1
Stetin, 1
Embden, 1
Bolfetma, 1
Dantzic, 13^- florins = 1
Stockholm, 3 44 dollars = 1
Ruflia, 1 rubble =
Turkey, 1 afper =
ducat =
crown —
ducat =
dollar =
crown ~
rixdollar =r
florin =
florin =
rixdollar —
rixdollar =
rixdollar =
mark =
rixdollar =
rixdollar 5=
r. d.
6 14
? 4i
5 4i
4 7
4 3
5 o
4 8.
3
3 °
3 6
3 3
4 0
1 6
3 6
3 8
o o.
o o
4 5
4 6
9 : 5 ” 845 17 6
5
9)4229 7 6
L. 469 18 7^ Sx.tr. Anf.
2. Bofton remits to Britain a bill of 469 1. 18 s. y^d.
Sterling: How much currency was paid for the bill at
Bofton, exchange at 80 per cent. ?
If 100 : 180 L. s. d.
5 : 9 :: 469 18 yf
9
5)4229 7 6
845 17 6 currency. Anf
3. How much Sterling money will 17801, Jamaica
currency amount to, exchange at 40 per cent. ?
If 140 : 100
14 : 10 L.
7 : 5 " 1780
7)8900
  s. d.
1271 8 64 Ster. Anf.
Bills of exchange from America, the rate being high,,
is an expenfive way of remitting money to Britain ; and
therefore merchants in Britain generally chufe to have
the debts due to them remitted home in fugar, rum, or
other produce.
X. Exchange ’with Ireland,
At Dublin, and all over Ireland, books and accounts
are kept in pounds, Ihillings,. and pence, as in Britain ;
and they exchange oa the xool. Sterling.
The
E X C
The par of one fhilling Sterling is one Hulling and
one penny Irilh: and fo the par of tool. Sterling is
108I. 6 s. 8 d. Irifli. The courfe of exchange runs from
6 to 15 per cent.
Examp. i. London remits to Dublin 586I. 10s. Ster¬
ling : How much Irifh money will that amount to,
exchange at 9^per cent.?
If 100 : 109^ :: 586.5
8 877
800 : 877 41055
41055
46920
E X C
To avoid paying the premium, it is an ufual praftice-
to take the bill payable at London a certain number of
days after date; and in this way of doing, 73 days is e-
quivalent to 1 per cent.
XII. Arbitration of Exchanges.
The courfe of exchange betwixt nation and nation
naturally rifes or falls according as the circumftances and
balance of trade happen to vary. Now to draw upon
and remit to foreign places, in this fluduating Hate of
exchange, in the way that will turn out moft profitable,
is the defign of arbitration. Which is either fimple or
compound.
I. Simple Arbitration.
( 527 )
800)514360.5
542.950625
^7;/r. 642 1. 19s. Irifti.
By pradice.
p. cent.
10 = Is
2=7
536-5
58.65
11.73 fob*
46.92
5.865
2.9325
.733125
9tt
56.450625 add
642.950625
In fimple arbitration the rates or prices of exchange
from one place to other two are given; whereby is'found-
the correfpondent price between the faid two places, cal¬
led the arbitrated price, or par of arbitration : and
hence is derived a method of drawing and remitting to
the bell advantage.
Eharjp. 1. If exchange from London to Amfterdam
be 33 s. <)&. per 1. Sterling; and if exchange from Lon¬
don to Paris be 326. per crown ; what mull be the rate
of exchange from Amfterdam to Paris, in order to be oni
a par with the other two ?"
Ster. Flem. Ster.
s. s. d. d.
If 20 : 33 9 :: 32
12 12
240 405
32
2. How much Sterling will 625 1. Irilh amount to, ex¬
change at io-g- per cent. ?
If nof : 100 :: 625
8 800
883 800 883)500000(566 5 o^ Ster. Anf.
XI. Exchange betwixt London and other places in
Britain.
The feveral towns in Britain exchange with London
for a fmall premium in favour of London ; fuch as, 1,
it* Per cent. The premium is more or lefs ac¬
cording to the demand for bills.
Examp. Edinburgh draws on London for 8601. ex¬
change at i-| per cent. : How much money muft be paid
at Edinburgh for the bill ?
L.
per cent.
860
8 12
2 3
1 i 6
11 166 premium.
871 16 6 paid for the hill..
810
1215
240)12560'’54 d. Flem. per crown. Anf
2. If exchange from Paris to London be 32 d. Ster¬
ling per crown ; and if exchange from Paris to Amlter-
dam be 54 d. Flemilh per crown ; what mull be the rate
of exchange between London and Amfterdam, in order
to be on a par with the other two ?
Ster. Flem. Ster.
d. d. d.
If 32. 54 :: 240:
240
216
108
 12J /. d.
32)12960(405 (33 9 Flem. per 1. Ster. A'nf.
From thefe operations it appears, that if any fum of
money be remitted, at the rates of exchange mentioned,
from any one of the three places to the fecond, and from
the fecond to the thud, and again frormthe third to the
firft, the fum fo remitted will come home entire, with¬
out increufe or diminution.
From
.£ X C ( >5^
Trorn the par of arbitration thus found, and ihe courfe
foF exchange given, is deduced a method of drawing and
remitting to advantage, as in the following example.
3. If exchange from London to Paris be 3 2 d. Ster¬
ling/><?r crown, and to Amiterdam 405 d. JFlemifh I.
Sterling; and if, by advice from Holland or France, the
•courfe of exchange between Paris and Amfterdam is fal¬
len to ?2 d Flemifh per crown; what may be gained per
cent, by drawing on Paris,. and remitting to Amlter-
dam ?
The par of arbitration between Paris and Amflerdam
in this cafe, by Ex. 1. is 54 d. Flemiih^r crown. Work
as under.
d.St. Cr. L. St. Cr.
If 32 : 1 :: too : 7 jo debit at Paris
Cr. d. FI. Cr. d. FI.
If 1 : 52 :: 750 : 39000 credit at Amfterdam.
. d. FI. L. St. d. FI. L. s. d. Ster.
11405 : 1 " 39000 :. 96 5 1 i-J to be remitted. ■
100
3 14 °l
But if the courfe of exdtange between Paris and Am-
Jlerdam, inllead of falling below, rife above the par of
arbitration, fuppofe to 56 d. Flemifticrown ; in this
cafe, if you propefe to gain by the negotiation, you muft
draw on Amfterdam, and remit to Paris. The compu¬
tation follows.
L. St. d. FI. L. St. d. FI.
If 1 : 405 :: too : 40500 debit at Amfterdam.
d. FI. Cr. d. F. Cr.
If 56 : 1 :: 40500 : 723XV cre<3't at Paris*
Cr. d. St. Cr. L. s. d. Ster. '
If 1 : 32 :: 723-1^ : 96 8 6^ to be remitted.
100
3 1 x S’y gained per cent.
In negotiations of this fort, a fund for remittance is
afforded out of the fum you receive for the draught; and
your credit at the one foreign place pays your debit at
the other.
II. Compound Arbitratien.
In compound arbitration the rate or price of exchange
between three, four, or more places, is given, in order
to find how much a remittance paffing through them all
will amount to at the laft place ; or to find, the arbitra¬
ted price, or par of arbitration, between the firft place
and the laft. And this may be done by the following
Rules. I. Diftinguifti the .given rates or.prices into
antecedents and confequents; place the antecedents in
one column, and the confequents in another on the right,
fronting one another by way of equation.
II. The firft antecedent, and the laft confequent to
•which an antecedent is required, muft always be of the
fame kind.
III. The fecond antecedent muft: be of the fame kind
3 ) E X C
with .the firft conf quenr, and the third antecedent of
the fame kind with the fecond cdnfequent, be.
IV. If to any of the numbers a fradlion be annexed,
both the antecedent and its confequent muft be multiplied
into the denominator.
V. To facilitate the operation, terms that happen to
be equal or the fame in both columns, may be dropped
or rejedled, and other terms may be abridged.
VI. Multiply the antecedents continually for a divi-
for, and the confequents continually for a dividend, 'and
the quot will be the anfwer or antecedent required.
Examp. r. If London remit iceol. Sterling to Spa'n,
by \vay of Holland, at 35s. Flemilh per 1. Sterling;
thence to France, at 58 d. Fhemiffi/><?r crown ; thence
to Venice, at 100 crowns per 60 ducats ; and thence to
Spain, at 360 mervadiCs per ducat; how many piaftres,
of 272 mervadies, will the 10001. Sterling amount to in
Spain ?
Antecedents. Confequents.
11. Sterling = 35 s. or 420d. FI.
58 d. Flemilh = 1 crOwii France
100 crowns Frances 60 ducats Venice
1 ducat Venice = 360 rhervadies Spain
272 mervadies = 1 piaftre
Flow many piaftres=iooo l. Sterling
In order to abridge the terms, divide 58 and 420 by
2, and you have the new antecedent 29, and the new
confequent 2to ; rejeft two ciphers in 100 and 1600; di¬
vide 272 and 360 by 8, and you have 34 and 45; di¬
vide 34 and 60 by 2, and you have 17 and 30; and the
whole will ftand abridged as above.
Then, 29 X17=493 divifor; and, 210X30X45
X 10=2835000 dividend; and, 493)283500o(575o-f-
piaftres. Anf.
Or, the confeque'nts may be connefted with the fign
of multiplication, and placed over a line by way of nu¬
merator ; and the antecedents, connefted in the fame
manner, may be placed under the line, by way of deno¬
minator; and then abridged, as follows :
1=210
29= 1
x~ 30
1= 45
17= 1
= 10
420X60X360XK50 210X60=360X10
58X100X272 — 29X1X272
_ 210X60X45X100 _ 210X30X45X10
~ 29X34 “ 29X17
— 2835000 .
“ 49!
And, 493)2835000(5750^ piaftres. ^ Anf.
The placing the terms by way of antecedent and con¬
fequent, and working as the rules direft, fave fo many
ftatings of the rule of three, and greatly Ihortens the o-
peration. The proportions at large for the above que-
ftion would ftand as under.
L.St. d FI.
If 1 : 420 ::
d.Fl. Cr.
If 58 : I ::
L.St. d.Fl.
1000 : 420000
d. FI. Cr.
420000 : 7241!^
( 52? )
E X C
O. Due. Cr. Due.
If 100 : 60 :: 7241^5 ‘ 4344Z?
Due. Mer. Due. Mer.
If 1 : 360 :: 4344II _ : 156413?^
Mer. Piajl. . Mer. Pifji.
If 272 : I :: 1564x37-*-’- : 5750?fr
If we fuppofe the courfe of direct exchange to Spain
tote 427 d. Sterling per p:afire, the xoool. remitted
would only amount to 564^ piaftres; and, confequent-
ly, 103 piaftres are gained by the negociaticn; that is,
about 2 per cent.
2. A banker in Amfterdam remits to London 400 1.
Flemifh ; firft to France at 56d. Flemifh/irr crown; from
France to Venice at 100 crowns per 60 ducats ; from
Venice to Hamburgh at 100 d. Flemifh per ducat; from
Hamburgh to Lifbon at 50 d. Flemifh p,?r crufade of
40b tees ; and, laftly, from Lifbon to London at 64 d.
Sterling per milree : How much Sterling money will the
remittance amount to ? and how much will be gained or
faved, fuppofing the direeft exchange from Holland to
London at 36 s. 10 d. Flemifh per 1. Sterling ?
Antecedents. Confequenis.
56 d. Flem. t= 1 crown
100 crowns = 60 ducats.
1 ducat = 100 d. Flem.
50 d. Flem. = 400 rees.
1000 rees = 64 d. Sterling.
How many d. Ster = 4001. or 96000 d. Flemilh ?
This, in the fratftional form, will ftand as follows.
60X100X400X64X96000 _ 368640 an(j
56X100X50X1000 — 7 ’
7)36S640(526624d. Ster. = 219I. S. s. 6^d. St. Anf.
To find how much the exchange from Amfterdam di-
redtly to London, at 36s. xod. FlemilhpM-1. Sterling,
will amount to, fay,
.r. d. d. FI. L. St. d. FI. L. s. d. St.
36 ip If 442 : 1 :: 96000 : 217 3 xoi
12 219 8 6£
442 Gained or fared, 24
In the above example, the par of arbitration, or the
arbitrated price, between London and Amfterdam, viz.
the number of Flemifh pence given for 1}. Sterling, may
be found thus :
Make 64 d. Sterling, the price of the milree, the firft:
antecedent ; then all the former confequents will be¬
come antecedents, and all the antecedents 'will become
confequents. Place 240, the pence in 11. Sterling, as
the lart confequent, and then .proceed as taught above,
viz.
Vol. II. No 48.
E X C
Antecedents. Confequents.
64 d'. Ster. = 1000 rees.
400 rees = 50 d. Flem.
100 d. Flem. = 1 ducat.
60 ducats = 100 crowns.
1 crown = 56 d. Flem.
How many d. Flem. = 240 d. Ster. ?
ioooX5oXrooX56X240_875 ^
64X400X100X60 — 2
2)875(437^. = 36s. 5£d. FIem..p<?rI. Ster. Anf.
Or the arbitrated price may be found from, the aafwor
to the queftion, by faying,
d. Ster. d. Flem. d. St.
If 368640 : 96000 :: 240
7 _ 7
672000
.240
2688
1344
 d. s. d. Flem.
368640)161280000(4371 — 36 5I as before.
The work may be proved by the arbitrated price thus i
Asil. Sterling to 36s. y^d. Flemilh, fo 219 1. 8 s.
64d. "Sterling to 400I. Flemilh.
The arbitrated price compared with the direfl courfe
fhows whether the-diredt or circular remittance will be
moft advantageous, and how much. Thus the banker at
Amflerdam will think it better exchange to receive 1 1.
Sterling for 36s. 5I d. Flemilh, than.for 36 s. 10 d.
Flemifh.
Exchange fignifies alfo a place in moft confiderable tra¬
ding cities, wherein the merchants, negociants, agents,
bankers, brokers, interpreters, and other perfons
concerned* in commerce, meet on certain days,
and at certain times thereof, to confer and treat toge¬
ther of matters relating to exchanges, remittances, pay¬
ments, adventures, affurances, freightments, and other
mercantile negociations, both by fea and land.
EXCHEQUER, in the Britilh jurifprudence, an ancient
court of record, in which all caufes concerning the re¬
venues and rights of the crown are heard and determi¬
ned, and where the crown-revenues are received.
It took this name froni the doth that covered the ta¬
ble of the court, which was party-coloured, or che¬
quered.
This court is faid to have been ereded by William
the conqueror, its model being taken from a like court
eftabliihed in Normandy long before that time. An¬
ciently its authority was fb great, that it was held in
the king’s palace, and the ads. thereof were not to be
examined or controlled in any other of the king’s
courts ; but, at prefect, it is the kit .of the four courts
at'Weftmmftcr,
2 5 R Is
E X C ( 53* ) E X C
In the exchequer, fome reckon {even courts, viz.
thofe of pleas, accounts, recepts, exchequer-diamber,
{which is an afl'emWy of all the judges on difficult mat¬
ters in law) errors in the exchequer, errors in the
king’s bench, and, laftly, the court of equity in the ex¬
chequer.
But the exchequer, for difpatch of bufincfs, is gene¬
rally divided into two parts; one of which is chiefly
converfant in the judicial hearing and deciding of all
caufes relating to the king’s coffers, formerly termed
the exchequer of accounts: the other is called the re¬
ceipt of the exchequer, as being principally employed in
receiving and payment of money.
Officers of the receipt may take one penny in the
pound, as their fee for fums iffued out; and they are
obliged, without delay, to receive the money brought
thither ; and the money received is to be put in chelts
under three different locks and keys, kept by three fe-
veral officers. All ffieriffs, bailiffs, drc. are to account
in the exchequer ; and in the lower part, termed the
receipt, the debtors of the king, and perfons in debt to
them, the king’s tenants, and the officers and minifters
of the court, are privileged to fue one another, or any
ftranger, and to be futd in the like adtions as are
brought in the courts of king’s bench and common-
pleas.
-The judicial part of the exchequer, is a court both
of law and equity. The court of law is held in the of¬
fice of pleas, according to the courfe of common law,
before the barons : in this court, the plaintiff ought to
be a debtor or accountant to the king; and the leading
procefs is either a writ of fubpcena, or quo minus, which
lafl goes into Wales, where no procefs out of our
courts of law ought to run, except a capias utlaga-
tum.
The court of equity is held in the exchequer-cham¬
ber before the treafurer, chancellor, and barons; but,
generally, before the barons only ; the lord chief ba¬
ron being the chief judge to hear and determine all
caufes. The proceedings in this part of the exchequer,
are by Engliffi bill and anfwer, according to the prac¬
tice of the court of chancery; with this difference, that
the plaintiff here muft likewife fet forth that he is a
debtor to the king, whether he be fo or not. It is in
this court of equity that the clergy exhibit bills for the
recovery of their tythes, <&c. Here too the attorney-
general exhibits bills for any matters concerning the
crown; and a bill may be exhibited againft the king’s
attorney by any perfon aggrieved in any caufe profecu-
ted againft him on behalf of the king, to be relieved
therein: in which cafe, the plaintiff is to attend on the
attorney-general,' with a copy of the bill, and procure
him to give in an anfwer thereto; in the making of
which he may call in any perfon interefted in the caufe,
or any officer, or others, to inftruft him, that the king
be not prejudiced thereby, and his anfwer is to be put
in without oath.
But beildes the bufinefs relating to debtors, farmers,
receivers, accountants, all penal puniftimems, rn-
trufion, and forfeitures upon popular adtions; are mat¬
ters likewife cognizable by this court; where there alfo
fits a puifne-baron, who adminifters the oaths to high-
ffieriffs, bailiffs, auditors, receivers, colledtors, compt¬
rollers, furveyors and fearchers of all the cuftoms,ebr.
The exchequer in Scotland, has the fame privileges
and jurifdidtion as that of England ; and all matters
competent to the one, are likewife competent to the
other.
Black book of Me Exchequer, a book containing a de-
fcription of the court of England in 1175, and its offi¬
cers, with their ranks, wages, privileges, perquifites,
&c. alfo the revenues of the crown, both in money and.
cattle.
EXCIPIENT, in pharmacy, denotes the ingredient,
which, in compound medicines, receives all the reft; as
the conferve in eledtuaries, the fyrup in bolufes, <bc.
EXCISE, a certain duty or impoft charged upon liquors,
as beer, ale, cyder, he. malt, and feveral other com¬
modities, within the kingdom of Great Britain, and
town of Berwick upon Tweed.
The excife is one of the moft confiderable branches
of the king’s revenue. It was formerly farmed out,
but is now managed for the king by commiflioners in
both kingdoms, who receive the whole produdtof the
excife, and pay it into the exchequer. Thefe commif-
fioners are nine in number in England/ and four in
Scotland. Theformer have a falary of 1000!. a year,
the later 5001. They are obliged by oath to take no
fee or reward but from the king bimfelf; and from
them there lies an appeal to five' other commiffioners
called commiflioners of appeals.
The duty of excife was firft granted to king Charles
II. by adt of parliament in the year 1660., during the
life of that monarch, r. It was iyd. per barrel upon
every barrel of beer or ale above 6 s. the barrel, and
per barrel for every barrel of 6 s. or under, brewed
for retail ; ijd. for every hogfhead of cyder or perry
fold by retail ; i d. for every gallon of ftrong water,
aqua vitae, he. 2. A new excife was granted for ever
by the fifth money-adl of William and Mary, being for
every barrel of beer or ale above 6s. the barrel, 9d ;
and for every barrel of 6 s or under, 3d. ; for every
hogffiead of cyder or perry, 1 s.per hogffiead. In th s.
excife, the price of the liquor is to be reckoned exclu-
five of the duty. 3. An excife was granted of 6d. a
buffiel on malt in the reign of king William, which by
fubfequent ftatutes has been continued yearly ever fince.
But fuch malt as ffiall be made for exportation, and be
fo entered and kept feparate from other malt, is ex¬
empted from the payment of this duty. 4. Another-
new excife upon home-made liquors was granted in
queen Anne’s reign ; being an additional excife upon
every barrel of beer or ale brewed for fale above 6s.
the barrel, 3d. exclufive of the duties; and for every
barrel at 6s. or under, 1 d,; for every hogffiead of cyder
or perry, jd.; for every gallon of ftrong waters 0*
aqua vitae, 1 d, This excife was not laid upon any fuch
liquors imported. 5. An excife on candles was firft'
granted in the reign of queen Anne, and continued for
ever, being a duty of 4d. a pound on wax, and a half¬
penny the pound on tallow candles, made in Great Bri¬
tain for fale or not for fale ; but makers for tdieir own life,
may compound for 1 s. a head for every perfon in their fa-
juily, An additional excife on candles was afterwards
granted
E X C
granted, being the fame with the former In every refpeft.
6. An excife upon hides and Heins tanned in Britain,
fir ft granted in queen Anne’s reign, was an excife of
feventeen diflFerent kinds, upon fo many different kinds
of hides and Heins particularly named, and upon all
others not named, per cent, ad valorem. An
additional excife was afterwards granted, being an ad¬
ditional duty of different kinds, upon fo many different
forts of hides and Heins particularly named, and on all
others not named, 15 1. per cent, on the value. 7. An
excife on home-made vellum and parchment, firft
granted by the fame aft, being 1 s. per dozen on vel¬
lum, and 6d. the dozen on parchment. And afterwards
an additional excife on vellum, he. was granted, being
an additional duty of as. the dozen on vellum, and 1 s.
the dozen on parchment. 8. An exciie on hops of
home growth was firft granted in queen Anne’s reign,
being 1 d. per pound. 9. An excife on paper, pafte-
boards, milled-boards, andfeale-boards, was firft grant¬
ed in the reign of queen Anne, being a duty of eleven-
different kinds on fo many different lorts of paper par-
ycularly named, made in Great Britain : on pafteboards,
he. 3 s. the hundred weight, and on all forts of paper
not named, \i\.per cent, on the value. An additional
duty on paper, he. was granted of eleven different
kinds, he. on pafteboard, 1 s. 6d. the hundred weight,
and on all forts of paper not named, 6\.per cent, on
the value; and on painted paper for hangings, a half¬
penny the yard fquare. 10. An excife of 1 d. per
pound on foap made in Great Britain, was granted by
the fame ad ; to which an additional excife has been
added of a halfpenny pound. 11. An excife upon
printed filks, callicoes, linens and fluffs made in Great
Britain, and printed, painted, ftained or dyed here, was
firft granted in queen Anne’s reign, being a duty of
3 d. on filks and callicoes, and i-jd. on linen and fluffs
the yard fquare, excepting filk handkerchiefs, linens
and fuftains dyed of one colour, and fluffs made of
woollen, or the greateftpart in value of woollen. And
an additional e-xcife was granted of 6d. the yard of
half-yard broad filks; 1 d. the yard fquare of filk
handkerchiefs,; 3d. the yard fquare of callicoes, and
d the yard fquare of linens and fluffs, excepting, a$
before, callicoes, he. dyed of one colour, and woollen -
fluffs. 12. An excife on ftarcli was firft grantedfor 1 d.
the pound; and afterwards an additional excife of 1 d.
the pound. 13. The excife on gilt andfilver v/ire made
JjX_Great Britain, is 8 d, the ounce on gilt wire, and 6 d,
the ounce on filver wire.
If any brewers do not make true entries of their li¬
quors brewed, once a-week at the excife-office, they
forfeit t o 1. but this is fubjeft to mitigation, fo as not
to be. lefs than double the duty; and the retailers of
beer and ale and ftrong waters, neglecting to make their
entries once a-month of what liquors they retail, are
liable to 40 s. penalty. In cafe any brewer ereCts.or
alters-any back, copper, cooler, he. or keeps a private
ftorehoufe, or if any maltfter keeps any private veffelfor
fteeping barley, without giving proper notice to the of¬
ficers of excife, fuch brewer or mahfter forfeit 501.
and. where they bribe a gauger, it is iq 1. The. officers
e x e
of excife may go on board ffiips, and fearch fbr any sx-
cifeable liquors, as officers of the cuftoms do.andfeize
commodities forfeited, he. and complaints made at the
chief office of excife are to be heard by three or more
commiflioners; but two juftices of th? peace have the
power to determine in feizures out of the limits of the
excife-office in London.
EXCLAMATION, in rhetoric, a figure that ex-,
prefles the violent and fudden breaking out, and vehe¬
mence of any paflion.
EXCOMMUNICATION, an ecclefiaftical penalty or
cenfure, whereby fuch perfons as are guilty of any no¬
torious crime or offence, are feparated from the com ¬
munion of the church, and deprived of all fpiritual ad¬
vantages.
Excommunication among the Jews, according to
Elias, a German rabbin, was diftinguiffied into three
kinds: I. Niddui, which was a feparation of but a few
days; 2. Cherem, a feparation attended with execrati¬
on and maledidtiorr; and, 3. Shammatha, which was
the laft and greater, excommunication. But Selden fays,
that niddui and fhammatha are the fame thing ;
and therefore that there were but two kinds of ex¬
communication among the Jews, viz. the greater
and the lefler. They made aifb another diftindlion in
excommunication, into total or univerfal, by which a
man was excommunicated with regard to all men; and
partial, by which a man was excommunicated in one
city, and with regard to certain pfrfons, and not
others.
It is obfervable, that not only the judges had the
power of excommunicating, but that each particular
perfon in converfation might excommunicate another,
and himfelf likewife; and this excommunication, if well
grounded, was of force; nay, if a man dreamed that-
he was excommunicated by himfelfor- by another, be
was: confidered as an excommunicated,perfon, becaufe
this dream was fuppofed to befent fromGod
As to the effefls of the, Jewiffi excommunication, the
leffer excluded the excommunicated perfori from the
fociety of men; that is, he was not to come nearer
. them than.four cubits, neither he, his wife, children^
or domeftics., according to Buxtorf. The greater ab-
folutely fequeftered the perfon from the converfation
of others ; and fometimes he was ffiut up in a final 1
chamber or prifon, where he lived alone. Baronius
and. Beza pretend, that the greater excommunication
excluded men from the ufe of facred things. Seiden,
on the contrary, affirms, that they were allowed to. be
ppefent in the temple, and partake, of .the public wor-
ffiip. Buxtorf, who is of the fame opinion, adds, that
whereas others came into the temple at the right hand,
. and went out at the left, the excommunicated were
obliged both to go in and out at the left..
Excommunication^, among the modern JeWs, is at-
tended with the raoft terrible confequences. The ex¬
communicated perfon is refufed all-human affiftance: if'
there be a corpfe in his -houfe; or a child to be circum-
cifed, none mu ft help him. He is curfed by the book
of the law, by the curfe of Joffiua againft Jericho, by
that of Elilha againft the children, by- heaven and
( 53* )
E X C (53
earth, and God is befought that a_ whirl wind may dafh
him to pieces. He is pelted with (tones if he appeaf in
the (Ireets; and if he obtains abfolution, it is upon the
molt mortifying conditions ; for he is publicly tied to
a poll: and whipped, after which he lays himfelf down
at the door of the fynagogue, and all thofe who go
out pafs over him. This was the very cafe of the
famous Jew Acofta.
In the ancient Chriftian church, the power of ex¬
communication, as well as other ax3s of ecclefiartical
difcipline, was lodged in the hands of the clergy, who
diftinguiftted it into the greater and lelTer. The leffer
excommunication, fimply called aphorijmot, feparatien
or fufpenfion, confided in excluding men from the parti¬
cipation of the eucbarift, and the prayers of the faith¬
ful. But they were not expelled the church ; for they
had the privilege of being prefent at the reading of the
fcriptures, the fermons, and the prayers of the cate¬
chumens and penitents. This excommunication was in¬
flicted for lefler crimes, fuch as negledling to attend
the fervice of the church, mifbehaviour in it, and the
like.
The greater excommunication, called panteles apho-
rifines, total feparation and anathema, confided in an
abfolute and intire exclufion from the church and the
participation of all its rites. When any perfon was
thus excommunicated, notice was given of it by circu¬
lar letters to the mod eminent churches all over the
•world, that they might all confirm this atd of difcipline,
by refufing to admit the delinquent to their communi¬
on. The confequences of this latter excommunication
was very terrible. The excommunicated perfon was
avoided in civil commerce and outward converfation.
No one was to receive him into his houfe, nor eat at
the fame table with him ; and when dead, he was de¬
nied the folemn rites of burial. It has been a quedion,
whether the ancient church ufed to add execration to
her cenfures. Grotius thinks this was done, though
very feldom, as in the cafe of Julian the apodate, for
whofe dedruftion the ancient Chridians abfolutely
prayed to God. St Chryfodom was utterly againd
this praftice, affirming that we ought not to pray a-
gaind the finner, but againd his opinions or adions.
The Romifh pontifical takes notice of thfee kinds
of excommunication. I. The minor, incurred by
thofe who have any cottrefpondence with an excommu¬
nicated perfon. 2. The major, which falls upon thofe
who difobey the commands of the holy fee, orrefufeto
fubmit to certain points of difcipline; in confequence
of which they are excluded from the church militant
and triumphant, and delivered over to the devil and
his angels. 3. Anathema, which is properly that pro¬
nounced by the pope againd heretical princes-and coun¬
tries. In former ages, thefe papal fulmmations were
mod terrible things; but at prefent, they are formi¬
dable to none but a few petty dates of Italy.
Excommunication.in the Greek church, cuts the of¬
fender off from all communion with the 318 fathers of
the fird council of Nice, and with the faints; configns
him over to the devil, and the traitor Judas; and con-
fjdemns his body to remain after death as hard as a flint
2 ) ESC
or piece of fteel, unlefs he humbles hitnfelf and makes
atonement for his fins by a fincere repentance. The
form abounds with dreadful imprecations ; and the
Greeks affert, that if a perfon dies excommunicated,
the devil enters into the lifelefs corpfe ; and therefore,
in order to prevent it, the relations of the deceafed cut
his body in pieces, and boil them in wine. It is a cuf-
tom for the patriarch of Jerufalem annually to excom¬
municate the pope and the church of Rome; on which
occafion, together with a great deal of idle ceremony,
he drives a nail into the ground with a hammer, as a
mark of malediflion.
The form»of excommunication in the church of Eng¬
land anciently ran thus: “ By the authority of God
the Father Almighty, the Son and Holy Ghoft, and of
Mary the bleffed mother of God, we excommunicate,
anathematize, and fequefler from the pale of holy mo¬
ther church,” 6v. The canfes of excommunication in
England ate, contempt of the bifhop’s court, herefy,
negletf of public worfhip and the facraments, incofiti-
nency, adultery, fimony, be. It is publiffied in the
church ; and if the offender does not fubmit in forty
days, the civil magiftrate interpofes, and the exedm-
municated perfon is imprifoned till he fubmits and ob¬
tains abfolution. Excommunication difables a perfon
from doing any judicial act, as fuing in an aftion at
law, being a witnefs, be.
Excommunication, among the Pagans, excluded the
perfon from the facrifices and the temples, and deli¬
vered him over to the furies, which was called exfie-
crare, and dirts devovere. When Marcus Craffus fet
out on his expedition againft the Parthians, Atteius,
tribune of the people, not being able to prevent him,
ran to the gate of the city through which the general
was to pafs, and fetting a chaffing-diffi in the middle of
the way with fire in it, when Crafius drew near, he
threw fome perfumes into the chaffing difh, and pro¬
nounced curfts againft Craffus with great exclamation,
and thus excommunicated him.
EXCORIATION, in medicine and furgery, the gal¬
ling or rubbing off of the cuticle, efpecially of the parts
between the thighs, and aboutthe anus.
EXCREMENT, whatever is difeharged out of the bo¬
dy of animals after digeftion, or the fibrous parts of
the aliment, mixed with the bile, faliva, and other flu¬
ids; Urine and the feces are the grofs excrements
that are difeharged out of the bladder or belly. Other
excrements are the various humours that are fecreted
from the blood, through the various drainers in the
‘body, and which ferve for feveral ufes, fuch as the fa¬
liva, fweat, bile, the pancreatic juice, lymph, the fe-
men, nails, the hair, the horns and hoofs of animals.
EXCRESCENCE, in furgery, denotes every preterna¬
tural tumour which arifes upon the fkin, either in the
form of a wart or tubercle. If they are born with a
perfon, as they frequently are, they are called navi
mnterni, or marks from the mother; but if the tumour
is large, fo as to depend from the fkin like a flefhy mafs,
it is then called a farcoma.
EXCRETION, or Secretion, in medicine, a fepara-
tien of feme fluid, mixed with the blood, by means of
the
EXE ( 533 ) E X O
tlie glands. Excretions.by which we mean thofe that e-
vacuate fuperfluous and heterogeneous humours, puri¬
fy the mafs of blood : the humours which are genera¬
ted in the blood are excreted by the glands, and are
replaced by a fufficient quantity of aliment.
EXCRETORY, in anatomy, a term applied to certain
little dufts or vefTels* deftined for the reception of a
fluid, fecreted in certain glandules, and other vilcera, for
the excretion of it in the appropriated glaces.
Letters ef Exculpation, in Scots law, a writ or
fummons iflued by authority of the court of jufticiary,
at the inltance of a panel, for citing witnefles to prove
his defences, or his obje&ions to any of the jury or
witnefles cited againft him. See tit. 33.
EXCURSION, in aftronomy, is ufed in a fynonymous
fenfe with elongation. See Elongation.
EXECRATION, in antiquity, a kind of punifliment,
confiding of direful curfes and marks of infamy : fuch
was that ufed againft Philip king of Macedon, by the
Athenians. A general afiembly of the people being
called, they made a decree, that all the flames and ima¬
ges of that king, and of all his anceftors, ftioiild be de-
molilhed, and their very names razed ; that all the fe-
ftivals, facred rites, priefts, and whatever elfe had been
inftituted in honour of him, fhould be prophaned ; that
the very places where there had been any monument
or infeription to his honour, fliould be deteftable; that
nothing (hould be fet up, or dedicated in them, which
could be done in clean places: and, J'aftly, that the
priefts, as often as they prayed for the Athenian people,
allies, armies, and fleets, {hould as many times deteft
and execrate Philip, his children, kingdom, land and fea
forces, and the whole race and name of the Macedonians.
EXECUTION, in a general fenfe, the adl of accom-
pliftiing, finifhing, or atchieving any thing.
Execution qf fummonfes or letters, in Scots law, fee
Law, tit. 12? Execution of teftaments; fee tit. 28.
Execution of civil fentences and decrees; fee tit. 32.
Execution'bf criminal fentences; fee tit. 33.
EXECUTOR, in Scots law, fignifies either the perfon
intitled to fucceed to the moveable eftate of one de-
ceafed, or who by law or fpecial appointment is in¬
truded with the adminiftrationofit. See tit. 28.
EXECUTRY, in Scots law, is the moveable eftate fall¬
ing to the executor. Under executry, or moveables, is
comprehended every thing that moves itlelf, or can be
moved; fuch as corn#, cattle, furniture, ready money.
See tit. 9. and 28.
EXEDRiE, in antiquity, a general name for fuch build-
. ings as were diftimfl from the main body of the church¬
es, and yet within the limits of the church taken in its
Jargeft fenfe. Among the exedrse the chief was the
baptiftory. See Baptistory.
EXEGESIS, a difeourfe by way of explanation or com¬
ment upon any fubjeA. In the Scotch univerfities,
there is an exercife among the ftudents in divinity,
called an exegefis, in which a queftion is ftated by the
refpondent, who is then oppofed by two or three other
fludents in their turns ; during which time the profef-
for moderates, and folvps the difficulties which the re¬
fpondent cannot overcome.
EXEMPLAR, denotes much the fame with model. See
Model.
Vol. 11.^. 48. 2
EXEMPLIFICATION of letters patent, a tranfeript
or duplicate of them, made from the inrollment there¬
of, and fealed with the great feal.
EXEMPTION, in law, a privilege to be free from Ibme
fervice or appearance: thus, barons and peers of the
realm are, on account of their dignity, exempted from
being fworn upon inquefts ; and knights, clergymen,
and others, from appearing at the fheriflf’s turn, Per-
fons of feventy years of age, apothecaries, are
alfo by law exempted from ferving on juries ; and
juftices of the- peace, attorneys, &c. from parifti-
offices.
EXERCISE, among phyficians, fuch an agitation of the
body, as produces falutary effeds in the animal (eco¬
nomy. See Medicne.
Exercise, in military affairs, is the ranging abody of
foldiers in form of battle, and making them perform
the feveral motions and military evolutions with dif¬
ferent management of their -arms, in -order to make
them expert therein.
EXERCITOR, in Scots law, he who employs a ftiip
in trade, whether he be owner, or only freights her
from the owner.
EXERGUM, among antiquarians, a little fpace around
or without the figures of a medal, left for the inferip¬
tion, cypher, device, date, <tc.
EXETER, the capital city of Devonfliire, fituated on
the river Ex, ten miles north of the Britilh channel:
W. long. 30 40', N. lat. 50° 44'.
EXFOLIATION, a term ufed by furgeons for the
fealing of a bone, or its rifing and feparating into thin
laminse or feales.
EXHALATION, a general term for all effluvia or fleams
raifed from the furface of the earth in form of vapour.
EXHIBIT, in law, is where a deed, or other writing,
being produced in a chancery fuit, to be proved by
witneffes, the examiner, or commiftioner appointed
for the examination of any fuch, certifies on the back
of the deed or writing, that the fame was fhewn to
the witnefs at the time of his examination, and by
him fworn to.
EXHORTATION, in rhetoric, differs only from fua-
fion, as being more dire&ly addreffed to the paflions.
EXIGENT, in law, a writ which lies where the de¬
fendant in a perfonal a&ion cannot be found, nor any
effedls of his within the county, by which he may be
attached or diftrained.
EXIGENTERS, four officers in the court of common-
pleas, who make all exigents and proclamations, in all
-aftions where procefs of outlawry lies. Writs of fu-
perfedeas, as well as the prothonotaries upon exigents,
were likewife drawn up in their office.
EXILE. See Banishment.
EXISTENCE, that whereby any thing has an aiftual
effence, or is faid to be. See Metaphysics.
EXIT, in a theatrical fenfe, the adtion of a player in
going off the ftage, after he has played his part.
EXLEGALITUS, among lawyers, the fame with an
outlawed perfon.
EXOCOETUS, the Flying-fish, in ichthyology, a
genus belonging to the order of abdominales. The
head is fcaly, and it has no teeth ; it has ten radii in
the branchioftege membrane ; the body is whitifii, and
5 S the
£ X O ( 554 ) EXP
the belly is angular : the pe&oral fins are very large.
Whenpurfued by any other fifh, it raifes itfelf from the
water by means of thefe long fins, and flies in the air
to a confiderable diflance, till the fins dry, and then it
falls down into the water. There are two fpecies,
viz. i. The volitans,with the bellycarinated on each
fide. It is a native of the European and American
feas. 2. The evolans, with a cylindrical belly. It
is a native of the German ocean.
EXODIARY, in the ancient Roman tragedy, was the
perfon who, after the drama or play was ended, fung
the exodium. See Exodium.
EXODIUM, in the ancient Greek drama, one of the
four parts or divifions of tragedy, being fo much of the
piece as included the cataftrophe and unravelling of the
plot, and anfwering nearly to our fourth and fifth afls.
Exodium, among the Romans, confided of certain hu¬
mourous verfes rehearfed by the exodiary at the end
of the Fabula: Atellanse.
Exodium, in the Septuagint, fignifies the end or conclu-
fion of a feaft. Particularly it is ufed for the eighth
day of the feaft of tabernacles, which, it is faid, had
a ipecial view to the commemoration of the exodus,
or departure out of Egypt.
EXODUS, a canonical book of the Old Teftament; be¬
ing the fecond of the pentateuch, or five books of Mofes.
It is fo called, from the Greek, \_exodos~\, the going
out, or departure of the children of Ifrael from the land
of Egypt; the hiftory of which is delivered in this
book, together with the many miracles wrought on
that occafion.
EX OFFICIO, among lawyers, fignifies the power a
perfon has, by virtue of his office, to do certain aids
without being applied to.
EXOMPHALUS, in furgery, called alfo omphalocele,
and hernia umbilicalis, is a preternatural tumour of the
abdomen, at the navel, from a rupture, or diftenfion of
the parts which invert that cavity. See Surgery.
EXORCISM, among ecclefiaftical writers, the expelling
devils from perfons poffefled, by means of conjura¬
tions and prayers.
Exorcifm makes a confiderable part of the fuperfti-
tion of the church of Rome, the rituals of which
forbid fhe exorcifing any perfon without the bifliop’s
leave.
The ceremony is performed at the lower end of the
church, towards the door. The exorcift firft figns
the pofleffed perfon with the fign of the crofs, makes
him kneel, and fprinkles him with holy water. Then
follow the litanies, pfalms, and prayer; after which
the exorcift aflcs the devil his name, and adjures him
by the myfteries of the Chriftian religion not to afflitft
the perfon any more: then, laying his right hand on
the daemon!ac’s head, he repeats the form of exorcifm,
which is this: “ I exorcife thee, unclean fpirit, in
“ the name of Jefus Chrift: tremble, O Satan 1
“ thou enemy of the faith, thou foe of mankind, who
<t haft brought death into the world, who haft depri-
*( ved men of life, and haft rebelled againft juftice ;
thou feducer of mankind, thou root of evil, thou
■“ fource of avarice, difcord, and envy.
The Romanifts likewife exorcife houfes and other
places, fuppofed to be haunted by unclean fpirits ;
and the ceremony is much the fame with that for per¬
fons pofl'efled.
EXORCISTS, in church hiftory, an order of men, in
the ancient church, whofe employment it was to ex¬
orcife or cart out devils. See the preceding article.
EXORDIUM, in rhetoric, is the preamble or beginning,
ferving to prepare the audience for the reft of the dif-
courfe.
Exordiums are of two kinds, either juft and formal,
or vehement and abrupt. The laft are mort fuitable
on occafions of extraordinary joy, indignation, or the
like.
EXOIIC, an apellation denoting a thing to be the pro¬
duce of foreign countries.
EXPANSION, among metaphyficians, denotes the idea
we have of lafting diftance, ail whofe parts exift toge¬
ther.
Expansion, In phyfiology, the fwelling or increafe of
the bulk of bodies when heated.
EXPECTORANTS, in pharmacy, medicines which
promote expefldration. See the next article.
EXPECTORATION, the adt of evacuating or bringing
up phlegm or other matters out of the trachea, lungs,
&c. by coughing, banking, fpitting,
EXPERIENCE, a kind of knowledge acquired by long
ufe, without any teacher. Mr Locke fays, that men
receive all the materials of knowledge from experi¬
ence and obfervation.
EXPERIMENT, in philofophy, is the trial of the re-
fult or efFe& of the applications and motions of certain
natural bodies, in order to difcover fomething of their
motions and relations, whereby to afcertain fome of
their phaenomena, or caufes.
EXPERIMENTAL philosoph Y.^that philofophy
which proceeds on experiments, which deduces the
laws of nature, and the properties and powers of bodies,
and their aftions upon each other, from fenfible expe¬
riments and obfervations. The bufinefs of experimen¬
tal philofephy is to inquire into, and to inveftigate the
•reafonsand caufes of, the various appearances and phsc-
nomena of nature ; and to make the truth or probabi¬
lity thereof obvious and evident to the fenfes, by plain,
undeniable, and adequate experiments, reprefenting the
feveral parts of the grand machinery and agency of na¬
ture. See Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Optics,
and the other branches of Natural Philosophy.
EXPIATION, a religious aft, by which Latisfaftion,
atonement, or amends, is made for the commiffion of
fome crime, the guilt done away, and the obligation
to puniftiment cancelled.
The method of expiation among the Jews was
chiefly by facrifice, whether for fins of ignorance, or
to purify themfelves from certain pollutions.
Great day ^"Expiation, an annual folemnity of the
Jews, upon the tenth day of the month Tifri, which
anfwers to our September. On this occafion the high-
prieft laid afide his breaft-plate and embroidered ephod,
as being a day of humiliation. He firft offered a bul¬
lock and a ram for his own fins, and thofe of the
priefts j
EXP (
-prlefts» then he received from the heads of the peo¬
ple two goats for a fin-offering, and a ram for a burnt-
offering, to be offered in the name of the whole mul¬
titude. It was determined by lot which of the goats
fhouid be factificed, and which fet at liberty. After
this he perfumed the fanfluary with incenfe, and fprink-
led it with blood : then, coming out, he facrificed the
goat upon which the lot had fallen. This done, the
goat which was to be fet at liberty being brought to
him, he laid his hands upon its head, confeffed his
fins, and the fins of the people, and then fent him a-
way into fome defart place: it was called azazel, or
the fcape-goat.
As to the expiations among the heathens, they
were of feveral kinds, as. facrifices, and religious
waihings.
Expiation, in a figurative fenfe, is applied by divines
to the pardon procured to mens fins, by the merits of
Chrift’s death.
EXPIRATION, in phyfic, that part of refpiration
whereby the air is expelled, or driven out of the lungs.
EXPLICITE, in the fchools, fomething clear, diltinfl,
formal, and unfolded.
EXPLOSION,'in phyfics, is propprly applied to the
going off of gun-powder and the report made thereby.
Hence, it is ufed to exprefs fuch hidden aflions of
bodies as generate air inltantaneoufly.
EXPONENT, in algebra. See Algebra.
Exponent is alfo ufed in arithmetic, in the fame fenfe
as index or logarithm.
EXPORTATION, the Ihipping and carrying out of the
the kingdom wares and commodities for other coun¬
tries. See Commerce.
EXPOSITION, in general, denotes the fetting a thing
open to public view: thus it is the Romanifts fay, the
hoft is expofed, when (hewn to the people.
Exposition, in a literary fenfe, the explaining an au¬
thor, paffage, writing, or the like, and fetting their
meaning in an obvious and clear light.
EXPOSITOR, or Expository, a title given to fmall
diflionaries, ferving to explain the hard words of a
language
EXPOSTULATION, in rhetoric, a warm addrefs to a
perfon, who has done another fome injury, reprefent-
ing the wrong in the flrongeft terms, and demanding
red refs.
EXPOSURE, in gardening, the fituation of a garden,
wall, or the like, with refpeft to the points of the
compafs, as fouth or ealt.
EXPRESS, fomething that is determinate or precife, or
in fuch formal terms as leaves no room for doubt.
Express alfo denotes a courier. See Courier.
EXPRESSED oils, in chemiftry. See Chemistry,
p. 93.
Expression, in rhetoric, the elocution, diflion, or
choice of words in a difcourfe. See Composition.
Expression, in painting, a natural and lively reprefen-
tation of the fubjeft, or of the feveral objefls intended
to be Ihewn.
The expreflion confiffs chiefly in reprefenting the
human body and all its parts, in the aflion fuitable to
555 ) EXT
it: in exhibiting in the face the feveral paffions pro¬
per to the figures, and obferving the motions they im-
prefs on the external parts.
EXPULSION, in a general fenfe, the aft of violently
driving a perfon out of any city, fociety, &c.
Expulsion, in medicine, the aft whereby any thing is
forcibly driven out of the place in which it is: thus we
fay, the expulfion of the foetus in delivery.
EXTASY, a tranfport which fufpends the ftinflion of
the fenfes, by the intenfe contemplation of fome extra¬
ordinary or fppernatural objefl.
Extasy, in medicine, a fpecies of catalepfy, when a
perfon perfeftly remembers, after the paroxyfm is over,
the ideas he conceived during the time it lafted.
EXTENSION, in philofophy, one of the common and
effential properties of body, or that by which it poffeffes
or takes up fome part of univerfa! fpace, which is call¬
ed the place of that body. See Metaphysics.
EXTENSOR, an appellation given to feveral mafcles,
from their extending or ftretching the parts to which
they belong. See Anatomy, Part II.
Old and new EXTENT, in Scots law. The old extent
was a valuation or eftiihate of the annual value of all
the lands in Scotland, taken (it is thought before the
reign of Alexander III.) for the purpofe of propor¬
tionating the public fubfidies, and afcertaining the rates
of certain feudal cafualties. By improvement, and
the alteration in the nominal value of money, this
valuation, or old extent, became, in length of time,
too low a ffandard for computing their feudal cafual¬
ties ; wherefore, about the reign of Robert I. all in-
queffs for ferving. heirs were ordained to take proof al¬
fo of the prefent value of the lands contained in the
brief. This laft was called the new extent. See
Scots Law, title 12. None of thefe extents is
the rule by which the land-tax is now proportioned in
Scotland. See Valuation, or Valued Rent.
EXTERIOR, or External. See External.
EXTERMINATION, in general, the extirpating or dc-
ftroying fomething.
Extermination, in Algebra. See Algebra, p. 104.
EXTERNAL, a term of relation applied to the furface
or outfide of a body ; or that part which appears or
prefents itfelf to the eye, touch, <bc. in contradi-
ftinftion to internal.
External is alfo ufed to fignify any thing that is with-
out-fide a man, or that is not within himfelf, particu¬
larly in his mind, in which fenfe we may fay external
objefls, he.
EXTINCTION, in general, denotes the putting out or
deftroying fomething, as a fire or flame.
EXTINGUISHMENT, in law, is a confolidation or u-
nion, as where one has due to him a yearly rent out
of lands, and afterwards purchafes the lands out of
which the rent arifes: in this cafe, both the property
and the rent being united in one poffeffor, the rent is
faid to be extinguifhed.
EXTIRPATION, the fame with extermination. See
Extermination.
EXTISPEX, in antiquity, the perfon who drew pre-
fages from viewing the intrails of animals offered in fa-
crifice.
EXT ( 556
crifice. See Sacrifice, Haruspex, and Divi¬
nation.
EXTORTION, in law, is an illegal manner of wrefling
any thing from a man either by force, menace, or au¬
thority.
EXTRACT, in pharmacy, is a folution of the purer
parts of a mixed body infpiflated, by diftillation or e-
•vaporation, nearly to the confidence of honey. See
Chemistry.
Extract, in matters of literature, is fomething copied
or colle&ed from a book or paper.
EXTRACTION, in chemidry and pharmacy, the ope¬
ration by which eflences, timdures, he. are drawn
from natural bodies. See Chemistry.
Extraction, in forgery, is the drawing any foreign
matter out of the body by the hand, or by the help of
indruments. See Surgery.
Extraction, in genealogy, implies the dock or fami¬
ly from which a perfon is defeended.
Extraction of roots, in algebra and arithmetic. See
Algebra, p. 86. and Arithmetics, p. 420.
EXTRACTOR, in midwifery, an indrument, or for¬
ceps, for extrading children by the head. See Mid¬
wifery.
EXTRAVAGANTES, thofe decretal epidles, which
were publilhed after the clementines. See Clemen¬
tines.
They were fo called becaufe, at fird, they were not
idigeded, or ranged, with the other papal conditutions,
but feemed to be, as it were, detached from the ca¬
non law. They continued to be called by the fame
name when they were afterwards inferred in the body
of the canon law. The fird extravagantes are thofe
of John XXII. fucceflbr of Clement V. the lad collec¬
tion was brought down to the year 1483, and was
called the common extravagantes, notwithdandinng
that they were likewife incorporated with the red of
the canon law.
EXTRAVASATION, in contufions, fiflures, depref-
fions, fradures, and other accidents of the cranium,
is when one or more of the blood-veffels, that are di-
ftributed on the dura mater, is broke or divided,
whereby there is fuch a difeharge of blood as greatly
opprefles the brain, and didurbs its office; frequently '
brnging ob violent pains, and other mifehiefs; and at
length death itfelf, unlefs the patient; is timely re¬
lieved. See Surgery, and Medicine.
EXTREMES, in logic, the terms expreffing the two
ideas whofe relation we inquire after in a fyllogifm.
Extreme unction. SeeUNCTioN.
EXTRINSIC, among metaphyficians, is taken in vari¬
ous fenfes: fometimes it fignifies a thing’s not belong¬
ing to the effence of another; in which fenfe, the ef¬
ficient caufe and end of a thing are faid to be extrinfic.
Sometimes it fignifies a thing’s not being contained
within the capacity of another; in which fenfe, thefe
) E Z 11
caufes are called extrinfic which introduce fomething
into a fubjed from without, as when a fire introduces
heat. Sometimes it fignifies a thing added or applied
to another; in which fenfe accidents and adherents are
faid to be extrinfic to the fubjeds to which they ad¬
here. Sometimes the vifion is faid to be extrinfic
from fome form which does not exill in that thing,
but is adjacent to it, or by fome means or other with¬
out it.
EXULCERATION, in furgery. See Ulcer.
EXUVIAE, among naturalifls, denote the call-off parts
or coverings of animals, as the Ikins of ferpents, ca¬
terpillars, and other infeds.
EYE, in anatomy. See-ANATOMY, p. 289.
Bull's Eye, in aftronomy. See Aldebaran.
Eye-glass, in the microfcope. See Microscope
and Opt i cs.
EYEMOUTH, or Aymouth, a port-town of Scotland,
about fix miles north of Berwick.
EYRAC, or Izaca-arabic, a province of Afiatic
Turky, fituated on the river Euphrates, being the an¬
cient Chaldea or Babylonia.
Eyrac, or Irac-agem, the ancient Parthia, now the
principal province of Perfia, is fituated almoft in the
centre of that kingdom, its capital city being Ifpahan,
the metropolis of the whole kingdom.
EYRE, or Eire, in law, the court of itinerant juftices.
See Justices.
EYSENACH, a city of Germany, in the circle of Up¬
per Saxony : E. long. io° 12V and N. lat. 51°.
EZEKIEL, a canonical book of the Old Tellament, re¬
ferring chiefly to the degenerate manners and corrup¬
tions of the Jews of thofe times.
It abounds with fine fentences and rich comparifons,
and difeovers a good deal of learning in profane
matters.
Ezekiel was carried captive to Babylon with Jecho-
niah, and began his prophecies in the fifth year of the
captivity. He was cotemporary with Jeremiah, who
prophefied at the fame time in Judea, He foretold
many events, particularly the deftrudion of the temple,
the fatal cataftrophe of thofe who revolted from Baby¬
lon to Egypt, and the happy return of the Jews to
their own land.
EZRA, a canonical book of the OldTeftament, compre¬
hending the hiftory of the Jews from the time of
Cyrus’s edid for their return, to the twentieth year of
Artaxerxes Longimanus. It fpecifies the number of
Jews who returned, and Cyrus’s proclamation for the
rebuilding the temple, together with the laying'its
foundation, the obftrudions it met with, and the fi-
niffiing thereof in the reign of Darius.
The illuftrious author of this book, was alfo the re-
ftorer and publiflier of the canon of the Old Tefta-
ment.
F.
( 537 )
F
FAC FAC
ABA, in botany. SeeViciA.
FABAGO, in botany. See Zy-gophillum. *
FABER, in ichthyology. See Zeus.
FABLE, a tale, or feigned narration, defigned either to
inftrudt or divert, difguifed under the allegory of an
adron, be.
Fables were the firfl: pieces of wit that made their
appearance in the world, and have been ftill highly
valued, not only in times of the greateft fimplicity, but
among the moll polite ages of the world. Jotham’s
fable o£ the trees is the oldeft that is extant, and as
• beautiful as any that have been made fince. Nathan’s
fable of the poor man is next in antiquity. We find
Aifop, in the moft diilant ages of Greece; and in the
early days of the Roman commonwealth, we read of
a mutiny appeafed by the fable of the belly and the
members. As fables had their rife in the very infancy
of learning, they never flourilhed more than when
learning was*at its greateft'height; witnefs Horace,
Boileau, and Fontaine.
Fable, is alfo ufed for the plot of an epic or dramatic
poem ; and is, according to Ariftotle, the principal
part, and, as it were, the foul of- a poem. See
Composition.
FACE, in anatomy, comprehends all that part of the
head which is not covered with the common long hair.
See Anatomy, Part I. II. and VI.
Face, in the military art, a word of command, intima¬
ting to turn about: thus, face to the right, is to turn
upon the left heel a quarter-round to the right; and,
face to the left, is to turn upon the right heel a quar¬
ter-round to the left.
FACET, or Facette, among jewellers, is the name
of the little faces or planes to be found in brilliant and
rofe diamonds.
FACTION, a cabal or party formed in a date, city, or
company.
Faction, in antiquity, a name given to the different com--
paniesof combatants in the circus. They were four, v/z.
the white, the red,- the green, and the blue ; to which
Domjtian added another of purple colour. They
■were fo denominated from ^the colour of the liveries
they wore, and were dedicated, according to M. Aur.
fcafliodorus, to the four feafons of the year, the green
being confecrated to fpring, the blue to winter, the
red to fummer, and the white to autumn. It appears
from ancient inferiptions, that each f^dtion had its pro¬
curators and phyfician ; and from hillory, that party
rage ran fo high among them, that in a diffenfion be¬
tween two fa&ions, in the time of Jullinian, almoft
forty thoufand men loft their lives in the quarrel.
•FACTITIOUS, any thing made by art, in 'oppofition to
what is the produce of nature. Thus, faflitious cin¬
nabar is oppofed to native cinnabar.
FACTOR, in commerce, is an agent pr corrcfnondent
Vol. II. No. 49.
refiding beyond the feas, or in fome remote part,
commiflioned by merchants to buy or fell goods on
their account, or afiift them in carrying on their trade.
A fattor receives froin the merchants, his confti-
tuents, in lieu of wages, a commillion Or factorage,
according to the ufage of the place where he refides,
or the bufinefs he tranfadls, this being various in dif¬
ferent countries, on the purchafes and fales of different
commodities. He ought to keep ftriftly to the tenor
of his orders ; as a deviation from them, even in the
moft minute particular, expofes him to make ample
fatisfaflion for any lofs that may accrue from his non-
obfervance of^ them. When unlimited orders are given
to fa&ors, and they are left to fell or buy oi\ the bell
conditions they can, whatever detriment occurs to
their conftituents, they are excufed, as it is to be pre¬
fumed they afted for the beft, and were governed by
the dictates of prudence. But a bare commiffion to
fell is not fufficient authority for the faftor to truft
anyperfon, wherefore he ought to receive the money
on the delivery of the goods; and, by the general
power, he may not truft beyond one, two, or three
months, fsc. the ufual time allowed for fales, other-
wife he fttall be anfwerable out of his own eftate. If
a faftor fells on the ufual truft to a petfon of good
credit, who afterwards becomes infolvent, he is dif-
charged; but not if the man’s credit was bad at the
time of fale. If a fa&or gives a man time for payment
of money contradled on fale of his principal’s goods,
and, after that time is elapfed, fell him goods of his
own for ready money, and the man becomes infolvent,
the faftor in equity ought to indemnify his principal;
but he is not compellable by the common law. A fac¬
tor fhould always be punctual in the advices of his
tranfaftions, in fales, purchafes, freights, and more
efpecially in draughts by exchange. If he purchafes
goods for another at a price limited, and afterwards
they rife, and he fraudulently takes them for his own
account, and fends them to another -part, in order to
fecure an advantage that feemingly offers, he will, on
proof, be obliged, by the cuftom of merchants, to fa-
tisfy his principal for damages. If a faftor, in confor¬
mity with a merchant’s orders, buys with his money
or on his credit, a commodity he Ihall be directed to
purchafe; and, without giving advice of the tranfac-
tion, fells it again to profit, and appropriates to him-
felf the advantage, the merchant ftiall recover it from
him, and befides have him amerced for his fraud. When
fadors have obtained a profit for their principal, they
muft be cautious how they difpofe of it; for, if they
ad without commiffion, they are refponfible: and if a
merchant remits goods to his fader, and about a
month after draws a bill on him, the fador, having ef-
fefls in his hands, accepts the bill, then the principal
breaks, and the goods are feized in the fador’s hands
2 5 T for
FAC ( 538 ) FAG
for the behalf of the creditors, it has been conceived
the failor muft anfwer the bill notwithftanding, and
come in a creditor for To mach as he was obliged, by
reafon of his acceptance, to pay. A fadtor who enters
into a charter-party with a mafter for freight, is obli¬
ged by the contradl; but if he loads aboard generally,
the principal and the lading are liable for the freight-
ment, and not the fadtor. If a fadior, having money
in his hands belonging to his principal, negledl to infure
a Ihip and goods, according to order; if the Ihipmifcar-
ry, the fadtar, by the cuftom of merchants, (hall make
good the damage , and if he make any compofition with
the infurers after infurance, without orders fo to do,
he is anfwerable for the whole infurance.
As fidelity and diligence are expedted from the fac¬
tor, fo the law requires the like from the principal: if,
therefore, a merchant remits counterfeit jewels to his
fadtor, who fells them as if true; if he receive lofs or
prejudice by imprifonment or other punifhment, the
principal (hall not only make full fatisfadtion tothefac-
tor, but to the party who bought the jewels.
What is here faid of factors, is meant of fuch as re-
fide abroad to adt for merchants, and may be applied to
fupercargoes, who go a voyage to difpofe of a cargo,
and afterwards return with another to their principals:
but it is alfo the cultom of the merchants of the high-
eft credit throughout the world, to adt mutually in the
capacity of factors for each other. The bufinefs fo exe¬
cuted is called commiflion bufinefs, and is generally
defirable by all merchants, provided they have always
effedts in their hands, as a fecurity for all the affairs
which they^tranfadt for the account of others. And
this clafs of traders of eflabliflied reputation, have cur¬
rent as well as commiffion account, conftantly between
them, and draw on, remit to, and fend commiflions to
each other only by the intercourfe of letters, which, a-
mong men of honour, are as obligatory and authorita
tive as all the bonds and ties of law.
Factor, in arithmetick. See Arithmetick, p.
371’
FACTORAGE, called alfo commilfion, is the allowance
given to fadtors by the merchant who employs them.
The gain of fadtorage is certain, however the voyage
or fale prove to the merchant: but the commiflions
vary; at Jamaica, Barbadoes, Virginia, and moft of
the weftern parts of the world, the cbmmiflion runs at
8 per cent, generally through Italy, 2-3-; in France,
Spain, and Portugal, <bc. 2 ; and in Holland and other
places near home, i- per cent.
■ FACTORY is a place where a confiderable number of
faflors refide, to negociate for their mailers or employ¬
ers. See Factor.
‘ The moft confiderable fadfories belonging to the
Britilh are thofe eftablilhed in the Eaft-Indies, Portu¬
gal, Turky, fyc.
FACTUM, in arithmetic, the produdt of two quantities
multiplied by each other.
FACULiE, in aflronomy, certain bright and Ihining
parts, which the modern aftronomers have, by means of
telefcopes, obferved upon or about the furface of the
fun : they are but very feldom feen.
FACULTY, in law, a privilege granted to a perfon> by
favour and indulgence, of doing what, by law, he ought
not to do.
For granting thefe privileges, there is a court under
the archbilhop of Canterbury, called the court of the
faculties, the chief officer whereof is ftyled mafter of the
faculties; who has a power of granting difpenfations
in divers cafes, as to marry without the bans being firft
publilhed; to eat fklh on days prohibited; to ordain a
deacon under age ; for a fon to fucceed his father in
his benefice; a clerk to hold two or more livings, cire.
Faculty, in the fchools, a term applied to the different
members of an univerfity, divided according to the arts
and fciences taught there: thus in moft univerfities
there are four faculties, viz t. Of arts, which include
humanity and philofophy. 2. Of theology; 3'. Of phy-
fic. And 4. Of civil law.
Faculty of Advocates. See Advocates.
Faculty is alfo ufed to deaote the powers of the hu-
• man mincf, viz. underftanding, will, memory, and ima¬
gination. See Metaphysics.
FiECES, in chemiftry, the grofs matter, or fediment,
that fettles at the bottom after diftilfation, fermenta¬
tion, and the like.
F;eces, in medicine, the excrements voided by ftooli
FiECULENT, in general, is applied to things abound¬
ing with feces, or dregs: thus the blood and other
humours of the human body, are fiid to be feculent^
when without that purity which is neceffary to health.
FAENSA, a city and bifhop’s fee of Italy, fituatedin the
pope’s territories, about thirty miles eaft of Bologna:
E long. 120 38a, and N. lat. 440 3c/.
FAGARA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria monogy-
nia clafs. The calix confifts of four fegments, and the
corolla of four petals ; and the capfule has four cello,
two valves,, and contains one feed. There are three
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
FAGGOT, in times of popery here, was a badge worn
on the fleeve of the upper garment of fuch perfons as
had recanted, or abjured what was then termed herefy;
being put on after the perfon had carried a faggot, by
way of penance, to fome appointed place of foiemnity.
The leaving off the wear of this badge was fometimes
interpreted a fign of apoftacy.
Fagg ots, among military men, perfons hired by officers,
whofe companies are not full, to mufter and hide the
deficiencies of the company; by which means they
cheat the king of fo much money.
FAGONIA, in botany, a genus of the decandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves, and the
corolla of five cordated petals; the capfule has five
cells with one feed in each, and ten valves. Thereare
three fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
FAGOPYRUM. See Polygonum.
FAGUS, the beech, in botany, a genus of the monoecia
polyandria clafs. The calix of the male is bell-fhaped,
and confifts of five fegments; it has no corolla, but
twelve ftamina: the caiix of the female confifts of four
teeth; it has no corolla; the ftyli are three; and the
capfule is muricated, has four cells and two feeds.
There are three fpecies, two of them natives of Bri¬
tain,v/z. thecaftanea, or chefnut-tree ; and the fylva-
tica, ©r beech-tree.
FAINTING.
F A I ( 539 ) F A L
FAINTING. See Lipothymia.
FAIR, a greater kind of market, granted to a town, by
privilege, for the more fpeedy and commodious pro¬
viding of fuch things as the place Hands in need of.
See Market.
It is incident to a fair, that perfons (hall be free
from being arrefted in it for any other debt contracted
than what was contracted in the fame; or, at leaf!,
promifed to be paid there. Thefe fairs are generally
kept once or twice a year, and, by Hatute, they ftiall
not be held longer than they ought, by the lords there¬
of, on pain of their being feized into the king’s hands,
tbr. Alfo proclamation is to be made how long they
are to continue; and ho perfon lhall fell any goods af¬
ter the time of the fair is ended, on forfeiture of double
the value, one fourth to the profecutor, and the reft
to the king. There is a toll ufually paid in fairs, on
the fale of things, and for ftallage, picage, oc. See
Tolk.
FAIRFIELD, a town of New England, in the province
of Connecticut, about an hundred miles fouth weft of
Bofton : W. long. 720, and N. lat. 410.
FAIRFORD, a market-town about nineteen miles fouth-
ealt of Glocefter.
FAIRY, in ancient traditions and romances, fignifies a
fort of deity, or imaginary genius, converfant on earth,
and diftinguilhed by a variety of fantaftical actions,
either good or bad.
The fairies are a peculiar fpecies of divinities, that
have but little relation to any of thofe of the ancient
Greeks or Romans, unlefs perhaps to the larvae ; tho’
others, with great reafon, will not have them ranked a-
mong gods, but fuppofe th$ni an intermediate kind of
beings, neither gods, angels, men, or devils. They
are of oriental extraction, and feera to have been
invented by the Perlians and Arabs, whofe religion
and hiftory abound with relations concerning them:
thefe have a particular country which they fuppofe the
fairies to inhabit, called Fairy-land.
Spencer’s Fairy Queen is an epic poem, under the
perfons and characters of fairies. In this fort of wri¬
ting the poet lofes fight of nature, and entertains the
reader’s imagination with the characters of fairies, wit¬
ches, magicians, daemons, and departed fpirits. It re¬
quires an odd turn of thought, and a peculiar call qf
fancy, with an imagination naturally fruitful and fuperr
ftitious.
This fort of poetry raifes a pleafing kind of horror
in the mind of the reader, and amufes his imagination
with the ftrangerieTs and novelty of the perfons who
are reprefented in it; but the judicious objeCt to it, as
not having probability enough to affeCt the imaginai-
tion.
Fairy circle or ring, a phaenomenon pretty fre¬
quent in the fields, <bc. fuppofed by the vulgar to be
traced by the fairies in their dances: there are two
kinds of it, one of about feven yards in diameter, con¬
taining a round bare path, a foot broad, with green grafs
in the middle of it. The other is of different bignefs,
encompaffed with a circumference of grafs. Meff.
Jeffop and Walker, in the Ehilofophical TranfaCt. a-
fcribe them to lightning, which is confirmed by thehr
being molt frequently produced after Itorras of that
kind, as well as by the colour and brittlenefs of the
grafs roots, when iirft obferved.
Lightning, like all other fires, moves round, and
burns more in the extremity than in the middle: the
fecond circle arifes from the firft, the grafs burnt up
growing very plentifully afterwards. Others maintain
that thefe circles are made by ants, which are fre¬
quently found in great numbers therein.
FAITFI, in divinity and philofophy, the firm belief of
certain truths upon the teftimony of the perfon who.
reveals them.
The grounds of a rational faith are, 1. That the
things revealed be not contrary to,, though they may
be above natural reafon. 2. That the revealer be well
acquainted with the things he reveals. 3. That he be
above all fufpicion of deceiving us.
Where thefe criterions are found, no reafonable
perfon will deny his aflent: thus, we may as well
doubt of our own exiftence, as of the truth of a reve¬
lation. coming from God, who can neither be deceived
himfelf, nor deceive others by propofing things to be
believed that are contradi&ory to the faculties he has
given us. Whatever propofitions, therefore, are be¬
yond reafon, but not contrary to it, are, when reveal¬
ed, the proper matter of faith.
Gonfejfion of Faith. See Confession.
FAITHEUL,.an appellation affumed by the Mahome*
tans. See Mahometans.
FAKENHAM, a market-town of Norfolk, about fix-
teen miles north-weft of Norwich.
FAKIR, in Pagan theology, a kind of Indian monks,
who even outdo the mortifications and feverities of the
ancient Chriftian anachorets. See Anachoret.
Some of them mangle their bodies with fcourges and
knives ; others never lie down.; and others remain all
their lives in one pofture.
There are alfo another kind of fakirs, who do not
pra&ice fuch feverities: thefe flock together in compa¬
nies, and go from village to village, prophefying andi
telling fortunes. It is faid that even perfons of for¬
tune, in India, become fakirs, and that there are
more than two millions of them.
FALCADE, in the menage, the motion of a horfe when
he throws himfelf upon his haunches two or three times,
as in very quick corvets; which is done in forming a
flop and half flop. See Stop-.
FALCATED, fomething in the form of a fickle : thus,
the moon is faid to be falcated when fli£ appears horn¬
ed. See Moon and Phase s.
FALCO, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the or¬
der of accipitres, the characters of which are thefe:
the beak is crooked, and furniflied with wax at the
bafe; the head is thick-let with feathers, and the tongue
is cloven. There are thirty-two fpecies, viz. 1.
The coronatus, or crowned eagle of Edwards, with
aih-coloured wax; the legs are covered with white
downy feathers, interfperfed with black fpots; the
bread is reddifli; and there are black belts on the fides.
It is a native of Guinea. '2. The melanaeetus, or
black.
P AL ( 540 ) PAL
Black eagle of Ray, has yellowifh-wax on the beak; the called the hobby by Englifti authors, and is a native of
kgs arehalf covered with feathers; and the body is afn-
coioured and (treaked with yellow. It is a native of Eu
rope. 3. The leucocephalus, or white-headed eagle of
Catelby, is afa coloured, with the head and tail white;
the iris of the eye is white, over which is a prominence
Covered with a yeliow-lkin ; the bill and the fear or wax
are yellow, as are likewife the legs and feet; and the ta¬
lons are black. Though it is an eagfe of fmall fize, it
yreighs nine p'ounds, is ftrong and full of fpirit, preying
on lambs, pigs, and fawns. They always make their
nells near the fea, or great rivers, and ufually upon old,
dead pine or cyprefs trees, continuing to build annuailyon
the fame tree till it falls. Tho1 he is fo formidable to all
birds ; yet he fuffers’ them to build near his royal neft
without moleftation; particularly the filhing hawk, herons,
foe. which all build on high-trees, and in fome places are fo
near one another that they appear like a rookery. It is a na¬
tive both of Europe and America. PI. 1. 4. The
oUtfragus, with yellow wax, and half-feathered legs; it is
about the fize of a peacock; the feathers are white at the
bafe, iron-coloured in the middle, and black at the points;
and the legs are yellow : it is a native of Europe. 5.
The chryfaetos, or golden eagle, has yellow wax on the
beak, and feathered legs ; the body is variegated with a
brown and iron colour; and the bafe of the tail is undu¬
lated with an afh-col®ur : it is a bird of Europe. 6. The
fulvus, with yellow wax, feathered legs, a brown back,
and a white ftreakon the tail; the face is bare betwixt
the eyes and noftrils: it is a native of Europe and Cana
da. 7. The rufticolus, with a yellow wax, yellow ring
round the eyes, and yellow legs ; the body is afh colour¬
ed undulated with white, and a white ring round the
neck: it is a native of Sweden. 8. The barbarus, with
yellow wax, and yellow legs; the body is blueilh, and
Ipotted with brown : it is a native of Barbary. 9. The
esruiefeens, with yellow wax, a yellow ring round the
eyes, and the feet yellow underneath ; the back is of . a
blackilh blue colour ; and the temples arefurrounded with
a white line. This is the fmalleft bird of the genus, and
is a native of Alia. ao. The cyaneus, with white wax,
yellow legs, a whitifh blue body, and a white ring round
the-eyes and throat. It is -the blue hawk of Edwards,
and is a native of Europe and Africa. 11. The pygar-
gus, with yellow wax and legs; the body is a(h-coloured,
with pale red fpots along the belly, and white orbits.
It is a bird of Europe. 12. The milvus, or kite, with
yellow wax on the back, a forked tail, and iron-coloured
bill, and the head of a lighter colour. It is a bird of Eu¬
rope, Afsa, andAfrica. Bellonius relates, that, about the
end of April, in lefs than fourteen days, incredible num¬
bers of them are feen flying over the Black Sea into Afia.
They feed upon offals, young-birds, <bc. Like all thefpe-
cies of this genus, they fly remarkably high, and are en¬
dowed with uncommon acutenefs of vifion. 13. The
gentilis, with yellow wax and legs ; the body is afh-
-colpured, with brown fpots ; and the taifhas four black-
ifh flreaks. It is a native of the Alps, and is peculiarly
fond of larks. 14. The fubbuteo, with yellow wax and
(legs; the back is brov/n, the nape of the neck white,
;2n!d the belly is pale, with oblong brown fpots. It is
Europe. 15. The buteo, with yellowifh wax and legs,
a brown body, and a pale belly, with brown fpots. He
feeds upon rabbits, toads, <be. and is a bird of Europe.
16. The tinnunculus, with yellow wax and legs; the
back is redder, and fpotted with black j it has brownifli
flreaks on tne breaft, and a roundifh tail. It inhabits
old buildings, and lives uponfmall birds and mice. 1 y.The
fufflator, with yellowifh wax and legs ; the body is of a
brownifh white colour; and the covers of the eyes are
bony. He has a flefhy lobe between the noftrils, which,
when angry or terrified, he inflates till his head becomes
as large as his whole body. He is a native of Surinam.
18. The cachinnans, or laughing hawk, has yellowifti
legs and wax, and white eye-brows ; the body is va¬
riegated with brown and white ; and it has a black ring
round the top of the head. It makes a laughing kind of
noife when it obferves any perfon, and is a native of A-
merica. 19. The hudfonius, has yellow wax, and yel¬
low legs, a brown back, and white eye-brows. It
is found at Hudfon’s bay. 20. The fparverius, has
yellow wax, a brown head, a red belly, and blueifh
wings. ^ It is a native of America. 21. The columbarius,
or pigeon-hawk of Catefby, weighs about fix ounces.
The bill is black at the point, and whitifh at the bafe; the
iris of the eye is yellow ; the bafe of the upper mandible
is covered with a yellow fear or wax; all the upper part
of the body, wings, and tail, are brown. The interior
vanes of the quill-feathers have large red fpots. The
tail is marked with four regular tranfverfe white lines ;
the throat, breaft, and belly are white, mixed with brown;
the fmall feathers that cover the thighs reach within half
an inch of the feet, and are white, with a tindure of red,
befet with long fpots of brown ; the legs and feet are yel¬
low. It is a very fwiftand bold hawk, preying on pigeons,
youngturkeys,6r. and is a nativeof Carolina. P
2 2.The fuperciliofus has yellow legs and wax, and yellow
eye-brows ; and the body is brown, waved with white. •
It is a native of Surinam. 23. The vefpertinus, is about
the fize of a pigeon; the body is of a blueifh brown co¬
lour; and^he bill is yellow, and brown at the point. It
is a native of Ingria, and flies both in the day and in the
night. 24. The lanarius, has yellowifh wax, and the bill
and legs, which are fhort, are blueifh. It is a native of Eu¬
rope. 2j;.Thefurcatus, or fwallowrtaiJedhawk, weighsa-
bout 14 ounces; the bill is black; the eyes are large 'and
black, with a red iris ; the head, neck, breaft, and belly are
white; the upper part of the back and wings a dark purple;
but more dufky towards the lower parts, with a tindure of
green. The wings are long in proportion to the body, and,
when extended, are four feet. The tail is dark purple mixed
with green, and remarkably forked Like fwallows, they
continue long on the wing, catching, as they fly, beetles,
flies, and other infeds. They are Laid to prey upon lizards
and ferpents, and are found in America. Pl.'j^.fig^. 26.
iialicetus, orfifhing haXvk of Catefby, Aveighs three pounds
and a quarter; it meafures, from one end of the wing to
the other, five feet and a half. The bill is black, with a
blue fear or wax ; the iris of the eye is yellow, and the
crown of the head brown, with a mixture of white fea¬
thers,; from each eye, backwards, runs a brown ftripe:
-the
Swallow Taild Hawk
he o Coiyu
PioEoisr Hawk.
*3.
Falco Coeumbarius
f -t; ■» j .1 . ( f ■ ■;
:: ' /•.; ; '• ■ t 'h ' ■
F A L (540 FAN
tli-s back,, wings, and tail, are of a dark brown; the
throat, neck, and belly white; the legs and feet are
rough and fcaly, and of a pale blue colour; the talons
are black, and nearly of an equal fize; the feathers of
the thighs are fnort, and adhere, clofe to them, contrary
to others of the hawk-kind, which nature feems to have
defigned for their more eafy penetrating the water. Their
manner of fifhing is, after hovering a while over the wa¬
ter, to precipitate into it with prodigious fwiftnefs, where
they remain for fame minutes, and feldom rife without a
£fli. The white-headed eagle, who is generally on the
watch, no fooner fpies him with his Mi, than he flies fu-
rioufly upon hirn: the hawk immediately mounts, and
fcreams out ; but the eagle always foars above him, and
compells him to let the fifli fall; the eagle inflantly dans
down upon the fifli, and feldom fails to catch it before it
'reaches the water. It is remarkable, that, whenever the
hawk catches a fifli, he calls cut, as if it were to give
warning to his enemy the eagle, who always obeys the
call when within hearing. The lower parts of the rivers
and creeks near the fea in America, abo-und with thofe eagles
and hawks, where thefe diverting contells are frequently
feen. PI. ’ll-fig. l. 2 7.Thegyrfalco,|with blue wax on the
beak, yellow legs, a brown body, marked with afli-co-
Joured ftreaks underneath, and the fides of the tail white.
It is the gyrfalco of Ray, lives upon cranes, pigeons,
&c. and is a native of Europe. 28. The aviporus, with
black wax, yellow legs, half naked, the head of an afli-
colour, and having an afli-coloured ftripe on the tail,
which is white at the end. It is the honey-buzzard of
Ray, and is a native of Europe; it feeds upon mice,
lizards, frogs, bees, and other infects. 29. The seru-
ginofus, with greenifh wax, a greyifli body; and the top
of the head, nape of the neck, and legs,are ycllowifli. It is
a native of Europe, and builds its ndt in marflies. 30. The
palumbarius, with black wax edged with yellow, yellow
legs, a brown body, and the prime feathers of the tail
are marked with pale ftreaks, and the eye-brows are
white. It is the goofe-hawk of Ray, is an inhabitant of
Europe, and an enemy to domeftic fowls. 31. The ni-
fns, with green wax, yellow legs, and a white belly un¬
dulated with grey ; the tail is marked with blackifh belts.
It is the fparrow-hawk of Ray, and a native of Europe.
It is peculiarly fond of pigeons, fparrows, and larks. 32.
The minutus, with brown wax, yellow legs, and the bo¬
dy is white underneath It is the leaf! hawk of Briffo-
nius, being about the fize of a thrulh, and is found at
Melita.
FALCONER, one who tames, manages, and looks af¬
ter falcons, or other hawks. See the next article.
TALCONRY, the art of training all manner of hawks,
but more especially the larger fort, to the exercife of
hawking. See Hawking.
When a falcon is taken, flie mull be fceled in fuch a
manner, that as the fetling flackens, file may fee what
provifion lies before her; but care ought to be taken,
not to feel her too hard. A falcon or hawk newly ta¬
ken, fliould have all new furniture, as new jefles of good
leather, mailled leafhes with buttons at the end, and
new bewets. There fliould alfo be provided a fmaM
round flick, to ftroke the hawk; becaufe the oftener
Vol. II. No 49.
this is done, the fooner and better will ihe be manned*
She mufl alfo have two good bells, that flie niay be
found when flie fcattereth. Her hood fliould be well
fafliioned, raifed and embofled againft her eyes, deep,
and yet ftrait enough beneath, that it may faften about
her head without hurting her; and her beak and talons
muft be a little copied, but not fo near as to make them
Weed.
FALKIRK, a town of Scotland: W. long. 30 48', N.
lat. 56° 20'.
FALL, the defeent of a heavy body towards the center
of the earth ; it js alfo the name of a meafure of length
ufedin Scotland, containing fix ells.
FALLACY, a deception, fraud, or falfe appearance.
The Epicureans deny .that there is any fuch thing as
a fallacy of the fenfes : for, according to them, all our
fenfatioris and perceptions, both of fenfe and phantafy,
-are true: whence they make fenfe the primary criterion
of truth.
FALLING-sickness. See Medicine.
FALLOPIAN tubes. See Anatomy, p. 275.
FALLOW, a pale red colour, like'' that of brick half
burnt: fuch is that of a fallow-deer.
Fallow field, or Fallow ground, land laid up,
or that has lain untilled for a confiderable time.
FALLOWING of land, a particular method of im¬
proving land. See Agric*ulture.
FALMOUTH, a port-town of Cornwall, in England,
fituatedin W. long. 50 3c/, N. lat. 50° 15, on a fine
bay of the Englifh channel, the entrance whereof is
guarded by two forts.
FALSE, in general, fomething contrary to truth, or not
what it ought to be ; thus we fay, a falfe witnefs, falfe
adtion, falfe weights, falfe claim, &c.
FALSHOOD, in philofophy, is the reprefenting a thing
other wife than it is.
Crimen falfi, in the civil law, is fraudulent fuborna-
tion or concealment with defign to darken or hide the
truth, and make things appear otherwife than they are.
The crimen falfi is committed, j. By words, as when
a witnefs fwears falfely, 2. By writing, as when a man
antedates a contradl, or the like. 3. By deed, as when
he fells by falfe weights and meafures.
FALX, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 284.
FAN, a machine ufed fo raife wind and cool the air by
agitating it. The cuflom which now prevails of wearing
fans, was borrowed from the Eaft, where they are al-
moft indifpenfably neceflary for keeping off the fun and
the flies. Fans are made of a thin fltin or piece of pa¬
per, taffaty, or other light fluff, cut femicircularly, and
mounted on feveral little flicks of wood, ivory, tor-
tofe-lhell, or the like. The paper, fee. is ufually paint¬
ed, and in mounting is plaited in fuch a manner, as that
tire plaits may be alternately inward and outward.
Fan is alfo an inftrument ufed in winnowing corn.
Fans for corn pay on importation, 1 s. 3 -rS%d. and
draws back on exportation, is. i-/o0&d. India fans pay
for every 100I. grofs value atthefale 261. 14s, a^-^d.
100
The draw-back on exportation is 2;1. 2 s, ulild.
100
2 5 U FA-
FAR ( 542 ) FAR
FANATICS, wild, enthufiaflic, vifionary perfons, who an ox or cow, and the herb called lion’s foot, all
pretend to revelation and infpiration. boiled together. Some apply tallow and horfe-dung,
FANCY, or Imaginatjon. See Imagination. burn the knots with a hot iron, or wafh the fore with
FANIONS, in the military art, fmall flags carried along
with the baggage.
FANO, a bifhop’s fee and port-town of Italy, fituated on
the gulph of Venice, in 140 E. long, and 440 N. lat.
FAR, in horfemanfliip, an appellation given to any part
of a horfe’s right fide: thus the far foot, far fhoulder,
fcc. is the fame with the right foot, right fhoulder, <bc.
FARCE, was originally a droll or petty fhew exhibited
by mountebanks and their buffoons in the open flreets,
to gather the people together. At prefent it is of more
dignity: it is removed from the ftreet to the theatre,
and inftead of being performed by merry-andrews to
amufe the rabble, is adted by comedians, and become
the entertainment of a polite audience. Poets have re¬
formed the wildnefs of the primitive farces, and brought
them to the tafle and manner of comedy. The diffe¬
rence between the two on our ftage is, that comedy
keeps to nature and probability, and therefore is con¬
fined to certain laws prefcribed by ancient critics ;
whereas farce difallows of all laws, or rather fets them
afide on occafion. Its end is purely to make merry ;
and it flicks at nothing which may contribute thereto,
however wild and extravagant. Hence the dialogue is
ufually low, the perfons of inferior rank, the fable or
adtion trivial or ridiculous, and nature and truth every
where heightened and exaggerated to afford the more
palpable ridicule.
FARCIN, Farcy, or Fashions, in farriery, a creep¬
ing ulcer, and the mofl loathfome, flinking, and filthy
difeafe that a horfe can be affedted with.
For the cure, firfl bleed the horfe well; then take
oiPofbay and euphorbium mixed together, and anoint
the knots with it j or bathe the place with the flale of
FARR
FARRIERY, the art of curing the difeafes of horfes.
The pradlice of this ufeful art has been hitherto al-
jnofl entirely confined to a fet of men who are totally ig¬
norant of anatomy, and the general principles of medi¬
cine. It is not therefore furprifing, that their prefcrip-
tions fhould.be equally abfurd as the reafons they give for
adminiflering them. It cannot indeed be expedted that
farriers, who are almofl univerfally illiterate men, fhould
make any real progrefs in their profeflion. They prefcribe
draughts, they rowel, cauterife, fyc. without being able
to give any other reafon for their pradfice, but becaufe
their fathers did fo before them. How can fuch men
deduce the caufe of a difeafe from its fymptoms, or form
a rational method of cure, when they are equally igno¬
rant of the caufes of difeafes and the operation of medi¬
cines ?
fait, vinegar, alum, verdigreafe, green copperas, and
gun powder, boiled in chamber-lee. Others again a-
noint the fores with a falve made of a penny-worth of
tar, two penny worth of white mercury, and two hand¬
fuls of pigeon’s dung.
FARDING-deal, thefourth part of an acre of land. See
Acre.
FARE, mofl commonly fignifies the money paid for a
voyage, or paffage by water; but, in London, it is
what perfons pay for being conveyed from one part of
the town to another in a coach or chair.
FAREHAM, a market town of Hampfhire, ten miles eafl
of Southampton.
FAREWELL cape, the mofl foutherly promontory of
Greenland, in 50° W. long, and 6o° N. lat.
Farina foecundans, among botanifls, the fuppofed
impregnating meal or dufl on the apices or antherse of
flowers. See Botany, Sedl. III.
FARINGTON, a market town of Berkfhire, twenty-five
miles north-weft of Reading.
FARM, or ferm, fignifies the chief meffuage in a vil¬
lage ; or any large meffuage, whereto belongs land,
meadow, paflure, wood, common, and which has
been ufed to let for term of life or years, under a
certain yearly rent payable by the tenant for the fame.
FARNHAM, a market-town in the county of Surry, tea
miles weft of Guilford, remarkable for its large planta¬
tions of hops.
FARO, a fea-port town of Portugal, in the province of
Algarva: W. long. 90, N.lat. 36° 50'.
FARREATION, in antiquity. See Confarreat 1 on.
FARRIER, one whofe emoloyment is to fhoe horfes*
and cure them when difeafed or lame.
I E R Y.
The miferable flate of this ufeful art, efpecially in this
country, has determined us to fele<ft, from the belt au¬
thors, fuch a fyflem of practice as feemed to be formed
on rational principles; this, we hope, will be a fufficient;
apology for being fo full upon this article.
General Dire/7 ten/ •with regard to the Management
of Horfes.
Ir ought to be laid down as a general rule, to give
horfes as few medicines as poffible ; and by no means
to comply with the ridiculous cuflom of feme, who..are
frequently bleeding, purging, and giving balls, though
their horfes be in perfect health, and have no indication
that requires fuch treatment.
Proper management in their feeding, exercife, and
dreflxng, will alone cure many diforders, and prevent
swft 5.
FARR
nroft ; for the fimpllcity of a horfe’s diet, which chiefly
confifts of grain and herbage, when good in kind, and
difpenfed with judgment, fecures him from thofe compli¬
cated diforders, which are the general effects of intempe¬
rance in the human body.
In France, Germany, and Denmark, horfes are feldom
purged; there they depend much on alteratives; the ufe
of the liver of antimony, we have from the French, which
is in general a good medicine for that purpofe, and may,
in many cafes, be fubftituted in the room of purging.
As hay is fo material an article in a horfe’s diet, great
care fhould be taken to procure the bell: when it is not
extraordinary, the dull fhould be well Ihook out before
it is put in the rack; for fuch hay is very apt to breed
vermin.
Beans afford the Qrongefl nburilhment of all grain, but
are fitteft for laborious horfes; except on particular oc-
cafions. In fome feafons they breed a kind of vermin
called the red bugs, which is thought to be dangerous ;
the belt method in fuch a cafe, is to procure them well
dried and fplit.
Bran fcalded is a kind of panada to a fick horfe; but
nothing is worfe than a too frequent ufe of it, either dry
or fcalded; for it relaxes and weakens the bowels too
much. The bots in young horfes may be owing to too
much mully bran and chaff, given with other foul feed
to make them up for fale : particular care therefore Ihould
be taken that the bran be always fweet and new.
Oats, well ripened, make a more hearty and durable
diet than barley, and are much better fuited to the con-
ftitutions of Britilh horfes. A proper quantity of cut
flraw and hay mixed with them, is fometimes very ufe-
ful to horfes troubled with bots, indigellion, ire.
Horfes who eat their litter, Ihould particularly have
cut draw and powdered chalk given them with their feed;
as it is a fign of a depraved ftomach, which wants correct¬
ing-
The falt-marfhes are good paflure for horfes who have
been furfeited, and indeed for many other diforders;
they purge more by dung and urine than any other pa-
fture, and make afterwards a firmer fldh: their water is
for the mod part brackilh, and of courfe, as well as the
the grafs, faturated with falls from the fea-water.
Afummer’s grafe is often neceflary ; more particularly
to horfes glutted with food, and which ufe little execife ;
but a month or two’s running is proper for mod : thofe e-
fpecially who have been worked hard, and have diff limbs,
fwelled legs, or wind-galls. Horfes whofe feet have
been impaired by quitters, bad fhoeing, or any other ac¬
cidents,. are alfo bed repaired at grafs. Thofe lame-
neffes particularly require turning out to grafs, where
the mufcles or tendons are contrafled or flirunk ; for by
the continual gentle excercife in the field, with the af-
fidance of a pattin (hoe on the oppofite foot, the Ihortea-
ed limb is kept on the dretch, the waded parts are re-
dored to their ufual dimenfions, and the, limb again re¬
covers its ufual tone and drength.
The fields which lie near great towns, and are much
dunged, are not proper padure for horfes ; but on obfer-
vation appear very injurious to them, if they feed there¬
on. all, the. fummer.
I E R Y. 5.43
Horfes may be kept abroad all the year, where they
have a proper dable or died, to flicker them from the
weather, and hay at all times to come to. So treated,
they are feldom fick, their limbs are always clean and
dry; and, with the allowance of corn, will hunt, and do
more bufinefs than horfes kept conflantly within doors.
If horfes, when taken from grafs, fliould grow hot
and codive, mix bran and chopt hay with their corn ;
and give them fometimes a feed of fcalded bran for a
fortnight, or longer : let their exercife and diet be mode¬
rate for fome time,, and increafe both by degrees.
When horfes are foiled in the Aable, care Ihould be
taken that the herbage is young, tender, and full of fap;
whether it be green barley, tares, clover, or any thing
elfe the feafon produces, and that it be cut frefh once
every day at lead, if not oftener.
When horfes lofe their flelh much in foiling, they fliould
in time be taken to a more folid diet; for it is not in
foiling as in grazing; where, though a horfe ’ofes his
flefli at firfl, yet, after the grafs has purged him, he foon
grows fat.
Young horfes who have not done growing, mud be in¬
dulged more in their feeding, than thofe come to their
maturity ; -but if their exercife is fo little, as to make it
neceflary to abridge their allowance of hay, a little frefli
flraw fliould condantly be put in their racks, to prevent
their nibbling the manger, and turning cribbiters ; they
fliould alfo fometimes be Arapped back, in order to cure
them of this habit.
It is obvious to every one, what care fliould be taken
of a horfe after violent exercife, that he cools not to*
fad, and drinks no cold water, &c. for which reafon we
fhall wave particular diredtions.
Mod horfes fed for fale, have the interdices of their
mufcles fo filled with fat, that their true fliapes are hard¬
ly known. For which reafon, a horfe jud come out of
the dealer’s hands, fliould at fird , be gently ufed. He
ought to lofe blood, and have his diet lowered, though not
too much: walking exercife is mod proper at fird, two
hours in a day; in a week or fortnight two hours at a
time, twice a-day; after this ufage for a month, bleed
him again, and give him two or three times a-week fcalded-
bran, which will prepare him for purging'phyfic, that may
now be given fafely, and repeated at the ufual intervals.
When a horfe comes out of a dealer’s hands, his cloath-
ing mud be abated by degrees, and care taken to put him
in a moderately warm flable ; otherwife the fudden tran-
fition would be attended with the word .confequences.
Some General Djreftiens in regard, to Bleeding, Purging,
isc.
Horfes who Aand much in Aable, and are full fed, re¬
quire bleeding now and then, efpecially when their eyes
look heavy, dull, red, and inflamed ; as alfo, when they
feel hotter than ufual, and mangle their hay.
Young horfes diould be bled when they are fhedding
their teeth, as it takes off thofe feverifli heats they are
then fubjeid to. But the cafes that chiefly require bleed¬
ing, are colds, fevers of mod kinds, falls, bruifes, hurts
of the eyes, drains, and all inflammatory diforders, tie.
It is right to bleed a horfe, when he begins to grow
544
II R
iieflvy at grafs, or at any other time when he looks heavy:
and it is generally proper to bleed before purging.
Let your horfe always be bled by meafure, that you
may know what Quantity you take away : two or three
quarts is always enough at one time ; when you repeat it,
allow for the diforder, and the horfe’s confutation.
Let the blood, when cold, be carefully examined, both
as to colour and confiftence, whether black, florid, fl-
zey, <bc. ' r • r
Purging is often neceflary in grofs full horfes, in fome
diforders of the itomach, liver, 6c. but fliould be di¬
rected with caution. Before a purge is given to any horfe,
it is neceffary fome preparation fhould be made for it, in
order to render the operatiomnore fafe and efficacious ;
thus a horfe that is full of flefli fhould firft be bled, and
at the fame time have his diet lowered for a week, efpeci-
ally thofe that have been pampered for fale ; feveralmafh-
es of fcalded bran fnould alfo previoufly be given, in or-
der to open the bowels, and unload them of any indura¬
ted excrement; which fometimes proves an obftacle to the
working of the phyfic, by creating great ficknefs and
griping.
Let it be remembered, that a horfe is purged with dif¬
ficulty; that the phyfic generally lies twenty-four hours
in the guts before it works ; and, that the traft of bow¬
els it has to pafs through, is above thirty yards; and ly¬
ing horizontally, confequently refinous and other impro¬
per drugs may^ and often do, by their violent irritations,
occafion exceflive gripings and cold fweats, (have off the
very mucus or lining of the guts, and bring on inflamma¬
tions, which often terminate in mortifications, and death.
It is remarkable too, that the ftomach and guts of a
horfe are but thin, compared to fome other animals of
the fame bulk, and therefore muft be more liable to in¬
flammation and irritation.
Horfes kept much in the ftable, who have not the pro¬
per benefit of air, and exercife, in proportion to their
food, ftiould in fpring have a mild purge or two, after k
previous preparation by bleeding, lowering their diet, and
fcalded mafhes.
Horfes that fall off ,in their ftomach, whether it pro¬
ceeds from too full feeding, or ingendering crudities and
indigefted matter, fhould have a mild purge or two.
Horfes of a hot temperament, will not bear the com¬
mon aloetic purges ; their phyfic therefore fhould be mild
and cooling.
Purging is always found very beneficial in ftubborn dry
coughs: but mild mercurials joined with them, make them
yet more efficacious.
Horfes of a watery conftitution, who are fubjeft to
fwelled legs, that run a fharp briny ichor, cannot have the
-caufes removed any way fo effectually as by purging.
The firft purge you give to a horfe ftiould be mild, in
order to know his conftitution.
It is a miftaken notion, that if a proper prepared purge
does not work to expectation, the horfe will be injured by
it; for though it does not pafs by ftool, its operation may
-be more efficacious, as an alterative to purify the blood,
,and it may pafs by urine, or other fecretions.
purging medicines are very fuccefsfully given in final!
1 E R Y.
quantities, mixed with others; and aCt then as alte¬
ratives.
If mercurial phyfic is given, care fhould be taken that
ij^be well prepared; and warmer cloathing, and greater
circumfpeCtion is then required.
Purges fhould be given early in the morning upon an
empty Itomach : about three or four hours after the horfe
has taken it, he fhould have a feed of fcalded bran ; and
a lock or two of hay may then be put into his rack. The
fame day give him two more mafhes; but fhould he re-
fufe warm meat, he may be allowed raw bran.
All his water fhould be milk warm, and have a hand-
rul of bran fqueezed in it; but if he refules to drink
white water, give it him without bran.
Early the next morning, give him another mafh ; but
if he refufes to eat it, give him as much warm water as
he will drink: let him be properly cloathed, and rode
gently about. This fhould be done two or three times a-
day, unlefs he purges violently, once or twice will then
be fufficient: at night give him a feed of oats mixed with
bran.
During the working, a horfe fhould drink plentifully ;
but, if he will not drink warm water, he muft be indul¬
ged with cold, rather than not drink at all.
We fhall here infert fome general forms of purges,
Take fuccotrine aloes ten drams, jallap and fait of tar¬
tar each two drams, grated ginger one dram, oil of
cloves thirty drops ; make them into a ball with fy-
rup of buckthorn. -
Or,
Take aloes and cream of tartar each one ounce, jallap
two drams, cloves powdered one dram, fyrup of
buckthorn a fufficient quantity.
Or,
The following, which has an eftablifhed character a
mong fportfmtn.
Take aloes, from ten drams to an ounce and an half,
myrrh and ginger powdered each half an ounce,
faffron and oil of annifeed each half a dram.
Mr Gibfon recommends the following,
Take fuccotrine aloes ten drams, myrrh finely pow¬
dered half an ounce, faffron and frefh jallap in pow¬
der of each a dram, make them into a ftiff ball
with fyrup of rofes, then add a finall fpoonful of
rectified oil of amber.
The fuccotrine aloes fhould always be preferred to the
Barbadoes or plantation aloes ; though the latter may be
given to robuft ftrong horfes, but even then ffiould always
be prepared with the fait, or cream of tartar ; which by
opening its parts, prevents its adhefion to the coats of the
ftomach, and bowels; from whence horrid gripings, and
even death itfelf has often enfued. This caution is well
worth remarking, as many a horfe hath fallen a facrifice
to the negleCt of it.
Half an ounce of Caftile foap, to a horfe of a grofs
conftimtion, may be added to any of the above; and the
proportions may be increafed for ftrong horfes.
When mercurial phyfic is intended, give two drams of ca¬
lomel over night, mixed up with half an oui.ce of a diapente
and a little honey, and the purging ball the next-morning.
FARR
* The following, when it can be afforded, is a very gen-
.tde and effe<5hial purge, particularly for fine delicate hor-
fes ; and if prepared with the Indian rhubarb, will not be
expen five.
Take of the fined fuccotrine aloes one ounce, rhu¬
barb powdered half an ounce or fix drams, ginger
grated one dram; make 'into a bail with fyrup of
rofes.
The following purging drink may be given with the
ntmoft fafety; it may be quickened, or made ftronger, by
adding an ounce more fenna, or two drams of jalap.
Take fenna two ounces, infufe it in a pint of boiling
water two hours, with three drams of fait of tartar;
pour off, and diffolve in it four ounces of dauber’s
falts, and two or three of cream of tartar.
This iaft phyfic is cooling, eafy, and quick in its ope¬
ration ; and greatly preferable in all inflammatory cafes
to any other purge, as it paffes into the blood, and ope¬
rates alfo by urine.
When horfes lofe their apetites after purging, it is ne-
ceffary to give them a warm ftomach drink, made of an
infufion of chamomile flowers, annifceds and faffron : or
the cordial ball may be given for that purpofe.
Should the purging continue too long; give an ounce
of dtofcordium in an Englifh pint 6f Port wine, and re¬
peat it once in twelve hours, if the purging continues.
Plenty of gum Arabic water fhould alfo be given ; and in
cafe of violent gripes, fat broth glyltets, or tripe liquor,
fhould be often thrown up, with an hundred drops of
laudanum in each.
The arabic folution may be thus prepared.
Take of gum arabic and tragacanth of each four
ounces, juniper-berries and carraway-feeds of each
an ounce, cloves bruifed half an ounce; fimmer
gently in a gallon of water, til] the gums are diffol-
ved : give a quart at a time in half a pail of water;
but if he will not take it freely this way, give it him
often in a horn.
When a purge, does not work, bin makes the horle
fwell, and refufe his food and’water, which is Jbmetimes
the effeft of bad drugs, or catching cold, warm diuretics
are the only remedy; of which the following are recom¬
mended.
Take a pint of white wine, nitre one ounce; mix with
it a dram of camphire, diffolved in a little re&i-
fied fpirit of wine ; then add two drams of oil of
juniper, and the fame quantity of unreftified oil of
amber, and four ounces of honey, or fyrup of
marfhmallows.
When a^horfe fwells much with phyfic, do not fuffer
him to be rode about till he has fome vent; but rather
kad him gently in hand, till fpme evacuation is obtained.
As it is obferved, that horfes more willingly take fweet
and palatable things, than thofe that are bitter and of an
ill tafte; care (hould be taken, that the latter are given in
balls; and that their drinks are always contrived to be as
little naufeous as pofiible, and fweetened either with ho¬
ney or liquorice. Thofe that are prepared with grofs
powders, are by no means fo agreeable to.ahorfe, as thofe
made by infufion ,; as the former often clam the mouth,
irritate the membranes about the palate and throat, and
Von. II. No. 49. 2
I E R Y, 545
frequently occafion the cough they are intended to pre¬
vent.
Balls Ihould be of an oval fliape,. and not exceed the
fize of a pullet’s egg; when the dofe is larger, it Ihould
be divided into two ; and they Ihould be dipt in oil, to
make them flip down the eafier.
As we have given fome general forms of purges, we
fliall obferve the fame rule in regard to glyfters, with
fome few cantions and remarks.
Let it be obferved then, that, before the adminiftring
emollient clyfters in coftive diforders, a fmall hand, well
oiled, (hould be paffed up the horfe’s fundament, in order
to bring away any hardened dung, which otherwife would
be an obftacle to the glyfter’s paffage
A bag and pipe of a proper form, is to be preferred to
a fyringe, which throws up the glyfter with fo much
force, that it often furprifes a horfe, and makes him re-
jedt it as fall as it goes in ; whereas the liquor, when
preffed gently from the bag, gives him no furprize or un-
eafinefs, but paffes eafily up into the bowels, where it
will fometimes remain a long time, and be extremely
ufeful, by cooling and relaxing them; and will fdme-
times incorporate fo with the dung, as not eafily to be
dillinguiflied from the other contents of the guts Thefe
emollient glyfters are extremely ferviaable in moft fevers,
and greatly preferable to purging bnes; which in general
'are too pungent, and ftimulate too much, efpecially if
aloes are a part of the compofition.
Nutritive glyfters are very neceflary, and often fave a
''horfe from ftarving, when his jaws are fo locked up by
convulfions that nothing can'be conveyed by the mouth.
They (hould not exceed a quart or three pints at a
time, but be often repeated : nor (hould they be too fat;
but made of (heeps heads, trotters, or any other meat-
broths, milk pottage, rice-milk drained, and many other
fuch nouri(hing things. For an emollient glyfter, take the
following.
Take marftvmallows and chamomile flowers each a
large handful, bay berries and fweet fennel feeds
bruifed each an ounce ; boil in a gallon of water to
three quarts, pour off into a pan, and diffolve in it
half a pound of treacle, and a pint of lint-feed oil,
or any common oil.
To make it more laxative, add four ounces of lenitive
electuary, or the fame quantity of cream of tartar, or
common purging falts.
Purging Gl)Jier.
Take two or three handful of marftimallows, fenna
one ounce, bitter apple half an ounce, bay berries
and annifeed bruifed each an ounce, fait of tartar
half an ounce; boil a quarter of an hour in three
quarts of water; pour off, and add four ounces of
fyrup of buckthorn, and half a pint of oil.
This giyfter will purge a horfe pretty brilkly ; and may
be given fuccefsfully, when an immediate difcharge is
wanting ; efpecially in fome fevers with inflamed lungs,
or other diforders. which require fpeedy relief
But it is neceffary to caution againft a folution of
courfe aloes for this purpofe, as it has been found, to
.gripe horfes violently, and excite feverilh, and fometimes
5 X convulflve
546 FARR
convulfive fymtoms; and indeed all pungent and ftimu-
lating medicines, as the ftronger purgatives generally are,
fliould be given in this form with great caution.
But the generality of emollient glyfters, may be pre¬
pared with much lefs trouble : as two quarts of water-
gruel, with a half a pound of treacle, a pint of oil, and
a handful of common fait, will as effeftually anfwer eve¬
ry purpofe. The following is a reftringent glyltef.
Take pomegranate-bark or oak-bark two ounces, red
rofe-leaves frelh or dry a handful, balauftines an
ounce; boil in two quarts of water, till one is near
confumed ; pour off and diffolve in it four ounces of
diafcordium ; to which may be added a pint of Port
wine.
This will anfwer in all common cafes, where reftrin-
gents are neceffary, but Ihould never be given in larger
quantities; for the longer glyfters of this kind lie in the
bowels, the more efficacious they are.
Of Colds.
By taking cold, we mean that the pores and outlets
of the fkin (which in a natural healthy ftate of body
are continually breathing out a fine fluid, like the ftream
arifing from hot water, or fmoke from fire) are fo far
fliut up, that thefe ftreams, or perfpirable matter, not
having a free paffage through them, are hindered from
going off in the ufual manner; the confequence of which
is, their recoiling on the blood, vitiating its quality, o-
verfilling the veffels, and affedting the head, glands or
kernels of the neck and throat, the lungs, and other prin¬
cipal parts.
To enumerate the various caufes of colds would be
cndlefs; the moft ufual are, riding horfes till they are
hot, and fuffering them to ftand in that condition where
the air is cold and piercing; removing a horfe from a
hot liable to a cold one, and too fuddenly changing his
cloathing; hence it is, that horfes often catch fuch fe-
vere colds, after they come out of dealers hands ; and by
not being carefully rubbed down, when they come in
hot, off journeys.
The figns of a horfe’s catching cold, are a cough, hea-
vinefs and dullnefs, which affedt him more or lefs in
proportion to the feverity of it: the- eyes are fbmetimes
moift and watery, the kernels about the ears and under
the jaws fwell, the nofe gleets, and he rattles in his
breathing; and when the cold is violent, thtf horfe will
be feveriffi, his flanks work, and he will both loath his
hot meat and refufe his water. When thefe laft fymptoms
are attended with a llimy mouth, ears, and feet cold, and
a great inward forenefs, there is danger of a bad-fever.*
But when the horfe coughs ftrong, fnorts after it, is
but little off his ftomach, pricks up his ears, and moves
brilkly in his ftall, dungs and ftales freely, his Ikin feels
kindly, and his coat does not ftare, he is in no danger,
and there will be no occafion for medicines of any kind;
but you ffiould bleed him about two quarts, keep him
warm,, and give him feeds of fealded ban, with as much
warm water as he will drink, in order to dilute his
bloqd.
If the diforder fliould increafe, the horfe feel hot, and
I E R Y.
refufe his meat, bleed him, if ftrong, two quarts mare;
and if you are not fatisfied, without giving medicines,
avoid, as you would poifon, a farrier’s drench ; (which
is generally compofed of fome hot, maufeous powders,
given in a quantity of ale; which too often encreafes the
fever, by overheating the blood, and palls the horfe’s
ftomach by its loathfomnefs :) and inftead of it, infufe
two ounces of annifeeds, with a dram of faffron, in a
pint and a half of boiling water ; pour off the clear, and
diffolve in it four ounces of honey; to which may be added
four fpoonfuls of fallad oil: this drink may be given every
night; or one of the following balls, provided there is no
fever; in which cafe, it always will be more eligible to
give two or three ounces of nitre or fait prnnella every
day in his feeds, or water, till it is removed; but ftiould
the horfe be inclined to coftivenefs, remember that his
body ftiould be kept open by emollient glyfters, or cream
of tartar diffolved in his water, to the quantity of three
or four ounces a-day.
Pe ft oral Horfe-bal],
Take ofthefreffi powders of annifeed, elicampane, car-
raway, liquorice, turmerick, and flour of brimftone,
each three ounces; juice of liquoriefe four ounces,
diffplvedin a fufficient quantity of mountain; faffron
powdered half an ounce, fallad oil and honey half
a pound, oil of annifeed one ounce: mix together
with wheat flour enough to make them into a
pafte.
Or, the following from Dr Bracken.
Take annifeed, carraway feed, and greater carda¬
moms, finely powdered, of each one ounce, flour
of brimftone two ounces, turmerick in fine powder
one ounce and a half, faffron two grams, Spaniffi
juice diffolved in water two ounces, oil of annifeed
half an ounce, liquorice powder one ounce and a
half, wheat-flower a fufficient quantity to make
into a ftiff pafte, by beating all the ingredients well
in a mortar.
Thefe balls cpnfift of warm opening ingredients ; and,,
given in fmall quantities, about the fize of a pulletVegg,.
will encourage a free perfpiration ; but in cafe of a fever,
ffiould be cautioufly continued. They are much more ef¬
ficacious, and in all cafes fuperior to the farrier’s drench¬
es, if diffolved in a pint of warm ale.
This Ample method, with good nuffing and hot niaffies,
warm water and cloathing, efpecially about the head and
throat, which promotes the running at the noftrils, will
anfwer the moft fudden colds; and when the horfe
feeds heartily, and fnorts after coughing, moderate exer-
cife every day will haften his recovery.
To a horfe loaded with fieffi, a rowel may fometimes
be neceffary, as may alfo a gentle purge or. two, to fome,
when the diftemper is gone off.
Of Fevers in general.
The fymptoms of a fever are great reftleffnefs, the
horfe ranging from one end of his rack to the other ; his
flanks beat ; his eyes are red and inflamed; his tongue
parched and dry; his breath is hot, and fmells ftrong ^
he
FARR
ie lofes liis appetite, and nibides his hay, but (does not
chew it, and is frequently fraelling to the ground ; the
whole body is hotter than ordinary, (though not parched,
as in fome inflammatory dilbrders;) he dungs often, little
atatime, ufually hard, audiofmall bits ; he fomedmes dales
with difficulty, and his urine is high-coloured ; his flanks
beat; and he feems to third, but drinks little at a time,
and often; his pulfe beats full and hard, to fifty drokes
and upwards in a minute.
The fird intention of cure is bleeding, to the quantity
pf two or three quarts, if the horfe is drong and in good
condition ; then give him a pint of the following drink,
four times a-day; or an ounce of nitre, mixed up into a
ball with honey, maybe given thrice a-day, indead of the
drink, and waffied down with three or four horns of
any fm#U liquor.
. Take of baum, fage and chamomile flowers, each a
, . handful, liquorice root diced half an ounce, fait
prunel or nitre three ounces; infufel in two quarts
of boiling water; when cold, drain off, and fqueeze
into it the juice of two or three lemons, and fweet-
en with honey.
As the.chief ingredient to be depended on in this drink
is the nitre; it may perhaps be as well given in water a-
lone ; but as a horfe’s domach is foon palled, and he re¬
quires palatable medicines, the other ingredients may in
that refpeft have their ufe. Soleyfel for this purpofe ad-
vifes two ounces of fait of tartar, and one of fal armo-
niac to be diflblved in two quarts of water, and mixed
with a pail of common water, adding a handful of bran
or barley-flour to qualify the unpleafant tade: this may
be given every day, and is a ufeful medicine.
His diet fhould be fcalded bran, given in fmall quan¬
tities; which, if he refufes,, let him have dry bran fprin-
kled with water: put a handful of picked hay into
the rack, which a horfe will often eat, when he will
touch nothing elfe; his water need not be much warmed,
but ffiould be given often, and in fmall quantities: his
cloathing ffiould be moderate; too much heat and weight
on a horfe being improper in a fever ; which fcarce ever
goes off in critical fweats (as thofe in the human body
terminate) but bydrong perfpiration.
If in a day or two he begins to eat his bran, and pick
a little hay; this method with good nurfinj* will anfwer :
but if he refufes to feed, more blood fliould be taken
away, apd the drinks continued ; to which may be added
pwo or three drams of faffron, avoiding at this time all
hotter medicines: the following glyfter ffiould be given,
which may be repeated every day, efpecially if his dung
is knotty or dry.
Take two handfuls of marffimallows, and one of cha¬
momile flowers; fennel feed an bounce ; boil in
three quarts pf water to two ; drain off, and add
four ounces of treacle, and. a pint of linfeed oil,.,
or any common oil.
Two quarts of water-gruel, fat broth, or pot liquor,
with the treacle and oil, will anfwer this purpofe ; to^
which may be added a handful of fait. Thefe fort of
glyders ate properer than thofe with purging ingre¬
dients.
The following opening drink, is very effectual in thefe
I E R Y. 547
fevers, and may be given every other day, when the gly¬
ders ffiould be omitted; but the nitre-balls or drink may
be continued, except on thofe days thefe are taken.
Take of cream of tartar and Glauber’s falls, each four
ounces; diffolve in barley water, or any other li¬
quor: an ounce or two of lenitive electuary may be
added, or a dram or two of powder of jallap, to
quicken the operation in fome horfes.
Four ouncesmf Glauber’s falls, or cream of tartar, with
the fame quantity of lenitive eleftuary, may-be given for
the fame purpofe, if the former ffiould not open the body
fufficiently.
In four or five days the horfe generally begins to pick
his hay, and has-a-feeming reliffi to food; though his
flanks will heave pretty much for a fortnight: yet the
temper of his body and return of appetite ffiew, that no¬
thing more is requifite to complete his recovery, than
walking him abroad in the air, and allowing plenty of
clean litter to red him in the dable.
This method of treating a fever is fimple, according to
the laws of nature; and is confirmed by long experience,
to be infinitely preferable to jthe hot method.
The intention here is to leffen the quantity of blood ;
promote the fecretion of urine and perpiration, and cool
and dilute the fluids in general.
There is another fort of fever that horfes are fubjeft
to, of a more complicate and irregular nature than the
former; which if not properly treated, often proves
fatal.
The figns are a flow fever with languiffiing, and great
deprellions; the horfe is fometimes inwardly hot, and
outwardly cold ; at other times hot all over, but not to
any extreme ; his eyes look moid and languid; he has a
continual moidure in his mouth, which is the reafon he
feldom cares to drink, and when he does it is but little
at a time. He feeds but little, and leaves off as foon as
he has eat a mouthful or two; he moves his jaws in a
feeble, loofe manner, with an unpleafant grating of his
teeth; his body is commonly open ; his dung foft and
moid, but feldom greafy-; his daling is often irregular,
fometimes little, at other times profufe. feldom high-co¬
loured, but rather pale, with httle or no fediment
When a horfe’s appetite declines daily, till he refufes
all meat, it is a bad fign. When the fever doth not di-
miniffi, or keep at a dand, but increafes, the cafe is
then dangerous. But when it fenfibly abates, and his
mouth grows drier, the grating of his- teeth ceafes, his
appetite mends, and he takes to lay down (which per¬
haps he has not done for a fortnight) thefe are promifing
figns. A horle in thefe fevers-always runs at the node,
but not th^ kindly white difeharge, as in the breaking of
a cold., but of a reddiffi or greenilh dufky colour, and of
a confidence like glue, and (ticks like turpentine to the
hair on the infide of the npdrils: If this turns to a gleet of
clear thin water,, the.horfe’s hide keeps open, and he
mends in his appetite; thefe are certain figns of reco¬
very. '
The various and irregular fymptoms that attend this
dow fever, require great Ikill to direft the cure, and more,
knowledge of the fymptoms of horfes difeafes, than the
generality of gentlemen are acquainted with. The ex¬
perienced;
54^ FARR
perienced farrier fhould therefore be confulted and attend¬
ed to, in regard to the fymptoms; but very feldom as to
the application of the remedy, which is generally above
their cornprehenfion ; though it may he readily felefled,
by duly attending to the obiervations here inculcated.
Firll then, a moderate quantity of blood, not exceed¬
ing three.pints, maybe taken away, and repeated in pro
portion to his ftrength, fullnefs, inward forenefs, cough,
or any tendency to inflammation After this, the fever-
drink, (p. 457- col- i- parag- 3-) maybe given, with the
addition of an ounce of Fnake-root, and three drams of
faffron and camphor dilfol. ed firft in a little fpirit of wine ;
the quantity of the nitre may be leflened, and thefe in
creafed, as the fymptoms indicate.
The diet Ihould be regular; no oats given, but fcalded,
or raw bran fprinkled ; the bell flavoured hay fhould be
given by handfuls, and often by hand, as the horfe fome-
times cannot lift up his head to the rack.
As drinking is fo abfolutely neceflary to dilute the
blood, if the horfe refufes to drink freely of warm wa¬
ter or gruel, he mull: be indulged with having the chill
only taken off, by Handing in the ftable ; nor will any
inconvenience enfue, but oftener an advantage; for the
naufeous warmth of water, forced on horfes for a time,
palls their flomachs, and takes away their appetites,
v/hich the cold water generally rellores.
Should the fever after this treatment increafe, the horfe
feed littlej Hale often, his urine being thin and pale,
and his dung fometimes loofe, and at other times hard:
fiiould the moiflure in his mouth continue, his Ikin being
fometimes dry, and at others moifl, with his coat look¬
ing Harting, and forfeited: upon thefe irregular fymp¬
toms, which denote great danger, give the following balls,
or drink; for in thefe cafes there is no time to be loH.
Take of contrayerva-root, myrrh, and foake-root
powdered, each two drams, faffron one dram, mi-
thridate or Venice treacle half an ounce; make into
a ball with honey, which fliould be given twice or
* thrice a-day, with two or three horns of an infufion
of foake-root, Iweetened with honey; to a pint and
a half of which may be added half a pint of treacle
water or vinegar, which latter is a medicine of ex¬
cellent ufe in all kinds of inflammatory and putrid
diforders, either external or internal.
Should thefe balls not prove foccefsful, add to each a
dram of camphor, and where it can be afforded, to a
horfe of value, the fame quantity of caflor*. Or the fol¬
lowing drink may be fobHituted in their Head for fome
days.
Take of contrayetva and fnake-root of each two
ounces, liquorice-root fliced one ounce, faffron two
drams ; infofe in two quarts of boiling water clofe
covered fortwo hours ; HrainofF, and add half a pint
of diflilled vinegar, four ounces of fpirit of wine,
wherein half an ounce of camphor is difiblved, and
two ounces of mithridate or Venice, treacle; give a
pint of this drink every four, fix, or eight hours.
Should the hoife be coflive, recourfe rnuH be had to
glyHers, or the opening drink: Ihould he purge, take
..care not to fopprefs it, if moderate ; but if, by continu-
-feuce, the horfe grows feeble, add diafeordium to his
-I E R Y.
drinks, inHead of the mithridate; if it increafes, give
more potent remedies.
Let it be remembered, that camphor is a very power¬
ful and efFciftual medicine in thefe kinds of putrid fevers;
being both active and attenuating, and particularly calcu¬
lated to promote the fecretions of urine and perfpiration.
Regard foould alfo be had to his Haling; which, if in
too great quantities, fo as manifeHly to 'deprefs hisfpirits,
fhould be conyouled by proper reflringents, or by pre¬
paring his drinks with lime-water. If, on the contrary,
it happens that he is too remifs this way, and Hales fo
little as to occafion a follnefs, and dwelling of the body
and legs, recourfe may be had to the following drink :
Take of fait prunella, or nitre, one ounce; juniper-
berries, and Venice turpentine, of each half an
ounce ; make into a ball with oil of amber.
Give him two or three of thefe balls, .at proper inter¬
vals, with a decodtion of marfli-mallows, fweetened with
honey.
But if, notwithHanding the method we have laid down,
a greenilh or reddilh gleet is difeharged from his noflrils,
with a frequent fneezing; if he continues to lofe his flefh,
and becomes hide bound; if he altogether forfakes his
meat, and daily grows weaker; if he dwells about the
joints, and his eyes look fixed and dead; if the kernels
under his jaws fwell, and feel U>ofe; if his tail is raided
and quivers ; if his breath fmells ficong, and a purging
enfoes with a difeharge of fastjd dark-coloured matter,
his cafe may then be looked on as defperate, and all fu¬
ture attempts to fave him will be fruitlefs
The figns of a horfe’s recovery are known by his hide
keeping open, and his fkin feeling kindly; his ears and
feet will be of a moderate warmth, and bis eyes briflt and
lively; his nofe grows clean and dry; hts apetite mends,
he lays down well, and both Hales and dungs regularly.
Be careful not to overfeed him on his recovery ; let his
diet be light, feeds fmall, and increafed by degrees as he
gets flrength ; for by overfeeding, horfes have frequent
relapfes, or great forfeits, which are always difficult of
If this fever fliould be brought to intermit, or prove of
the intermitting kind, immediately after the lit is over,
give an ounce of Jefoit’s bark, and repeat it every fix
hours, till the horfe has taken four or fix ounces; ffiould
eruptions or fwellings appear, they ought to be encoura¬
ged, for they are good fymptoms at the decline of a fe¬
ver, denote a termination of the diflemper, and that no
further medicines are wanted.
The true reafons perhaps why fo many horfes mifear-
ry in fevers, are, that their mailers, or doctors, will not
wait with patience, and let nature have fair play : that
they generally negletH bleeding fofficiently at firfl; and
are conflantly forcing down fogar fops, or other food ia
affiorn, as if a horfe mufl be Harved in a few days, if he
did not eat: then they ply him twice or thrice a-day with
hot medicines and fpirituous drinks, which (excepting a
very few cafes) mufl be extremely pernicious to a horfe,
whofe diet is naturally fimple, and whofe Homach and
blood, unaccuflomed to Aich heating medicines, mufl be
greatly injured, and without doubt are often inflamed by
fuch treatment.
Dilute
F A R R
Dilute the blood with plenty of water, or white drink;
let his diet be warm bran mafhes, and his hay fprinkled.
Should the fever rife, which will be known by the fymp-
toms above defcribed, give him an ounce of nitre thrice a-
day in his water, or made up in a ball with honey. Let
his body be' kept cool and open, with the opening drink,
given twice or thrice a-week ; or an ounce of fait of tar¬
tar may be given every day, diffolved in his water, for
that purpofe, omitting then the nitre. After a week’s
treatment in this manner, the cordial ball may be given
once or twice a-day, with an infufion of liquorice-root
fw^etened with honey ; to which may be added, when the
phlegm is tough, or cough dry and bulky, a quarter of a
pint of linfeed or fallad oil, and the fame quantity of
oxymel fquills.
The following cooling purge is very proper to give at
the decline of the diftemper, and may be repeated three
or four times.
Take two ounces of fenna; annifeed and fennel brui-
fed, each half an ounce; fait of tartar three drams;
let them infufe two hours in a pint of boiling water ;
ftrain off, and diffolve in it three ounces of Glau¬
ber’s fait, and two of cream of tartar; give for a
dofe in the morning.
This purge generally works before night very gently;
and in fevers, and all inflammatory diforders, is infinitely
preferable to any other phyfic.
Before we clofe this chapter on fevers, it may be no
improper hint to the curious, to take notice that ahorfe’s
pulfe ihould more particularly be attended to than is cuf-
tomary, as a proper eftimate may thereby be made both
of the degree and violence of the fever prefent, by ob-
ftrvingthe rapidity of the blood’s motion, and the force
that the heart and arteries labour with to propel it round.
The nigheft calculation that has been made of the quick-
nefs of the pulfe in a healthy horfe, is, that it beats a-
bout forty ftrokes in a minute; fo that in proportion to
the increafe above this number, the fever is rifing, and if
farther increafed to above fifty, the fever is very high.
How often the pulfe beats in a minute may eafily be
difcovered by meafuring the time with a ftop-watch, or
minute fand-glafs, while your hand is laid on the horfe’s
near fide, or your fingers pit any artery; thofe which run
up on each fide the neck, are- generally to be feen beating
as well as felt a little above the cheft; and one withinfide
each leg may be traced with the finger.
A due attention to the pulfe is fo important an article,
in order to form a proper judgment in fevers, that it
would appear amazing it has fo much been neglefted, if
one did not recoiled, that the generality of farriers are
fo egregioufly ignorant, that they have no manner of con¬
ception of the blood’s circulation, nor in general have
they ability enough to diftinguifh the difference between
an artery and a vein.—With fuch pretty guardians do we
intruft the healths and lives of the moft valuable of a-
nimals!
Of a PnEURisY, and Inflammation of the
Lungs, &c.
These diforders have fcarce been mentioned by any
writer in farriery before Mr Gibfon ; who, by frequent-
Vol.. II. No. 49. 3
I E R Y. 549
ly examining the carcafes of dead horfes, has found them
fubjed to the different kinds of inflammations here de¬
fcribed.
In order to diftinguifh thefe diforders from others, we
fhall defcribe the fymptoms in Mr Gibfon’s own words.
“ A pleurify then, which is an inflamation of the
pleura; and a peripneumony, which is an inflammation
of the lungs ; have fymptoms very much alike; with
this difference only, that in a pleurify a horfe fhews great
uneafinefs, and fhifts about from place to place ; the fe¬
ver, which at firft is moderate, rifes fuddcnly very high ;
in the beginning he often ftrives to lie down, but ftarts
up again immediately, and frequently turns his head to¬
wards the affeded fide, which has caufed many to mi-
ftake a pleuritic diforder for the gripes, this fign being
common to both) though with this difference: in the
gripes a horfe frequently lies down and rolls, and when
they are violent he will alfo have convulfive twitches,
his eyes being turned up, and his limbs ffretched out as
if he were dying; his ears and feet are fometimes occa-
fionally hot, and fometimes as cold as ice ; he falls into
profufe fweats, and then into cold damps; ftrives often to
llale and dung, but with great pain and difficulty ; which
fymptoms generally continue, till he has fome relief:
but in a pleurify, a horfe’s ears and feet are always
burning hot, his mouth parched and dry, his pulfe hard
and quick: even fometimes when he is nigh dying, his
fever is continued and increafing; and though in the be¬
ginning he makes many motions to lie down, yet after¬
wards he reins back as far as his collar will permit, and
makes not the leaft offer to change his pofture, but Hands
panting with fliort flops, and a difpofition to cough, till
he has relief, or drops down.
In an inflammation of the lungs, feveral of the fymp¬
toms are the fame ; only in the beginning he is lefs active,
and never offers to lie down during the whole time of his
ficknefs; his fever is flrong, breathing difficult, and at¬
tended with a fliort cough : and whereas in a pluerify a
horfe’s mouth is generally parched and dry; in an in¬
flammation of the lungs, when a horfe’s mouth is open,
a ropy flime will run out in abundance; he gleets alfo at
the nofe a reddifh or yellowifli water, which flicks like
glue to the infide of his noftrils.
In a pleurify, a horfe heaves and works violently at
his flanks, with great reftleffnefs, and for the moft part
his belly is tucked up; but in an inflammation of the
lungs, he always ffiews fullnefs, and the working of his
flanks is regular, except after drinking and fliifting his
pofture ; and his ears and feet are for the moft part cold,
and often in damp fweets.
The cure of both thefe diforders is the fame. In the
beginning a ftrong horfe may lofe three quarts of blood,
the next day two quarts more ; and if fymptoms do not
abate, the bleedings muft be repeated, a quart at a time;
for it is fpeedy, large, and quick-repeated bleedings that
are in tbefe cafes chiefly to be depended on. But if a
horfe has had any previous weaknefs, or is old, you muft
bleed him in lefs quantities, and oftener. Mr Gibfon
recommends rowels on each fide the breaft, and one on
the belly ; and a bliftering ointment to be rubbed all over
his brilket upon the foremoft ribs..
5 Y The
55° F A R R I
The diet and medicines fhould be both cooling, atte¬
nuating, relaxing, and diluting; and the horfe fhould
have warm mafhes, and plenty of water or gruel. The
following balls may be given thrice a-day.
Take of fpermaceti and nitre, of each one ounce;
oil'of annifeed, thirty drops ; honey enough to make
a ball.
A pint of barley-water, in which figs and liquorice-
root have been boiled, fhould be given after each ball; to
which the juice of lemons may be added ; and if the lungs
are greatly opprefied with a dry fhort cough, two or three
horns full of the deco&ion may be given three or four
times a-day, with four fpoonfuls of honey and linfeed
oil. A flrong decofHon of the rattle-fnake-root is alfo
much recommended in pleuritic diforders, and may be gi¬
ven to the quantity of two quarts a-day, fweetened with
honey. It remarkably attenuates the blood, and difper-
fes the inflammation, and in fome parts is deemed a fpe-
cific for this complaint.
An emollient glyfter fhould be injefled once a day, to
which may be added two ounces of nitre or. cream of
tartar.
In two or three days he will probably run at the nofe,
and begin to feed; but fhould he not, and continue hot
and fhort-breathed, you muft bleed him again, and give
the following glyfler.
Take fenna and marfhmallows, of each two ounces ;
fennel and bay-berries, each one ounce; boil in five
pints of clear water, to two quarts ; pour off the
clear, and add four ounces of purging halts, two or
three of fyrup of buckthorn, and half a pint of lin¬
feed, or any common oil.
If by thefe means he grows cooler, and his pain mode¬
rates, repeat the glyfter the next day, unlefs it worked
too much ; then intermit a day; and when he comes to
eat fcalded bran and picked hay, leave off the balls, and
continue only the decoftion, with now and then a glyfter.
But let it be obferved, that a horfe feldom gets the
better of thefe diforders, unlefs he has relief in a few
days; for if the inflammation is not checked in that time,
it ufually terminates in a gangrene, or collection of matter,
which, for want of expectoration, foon fuffocates him.
But as pleuritic diforders are apt to leave a taint on
the lungs, great care fhould be taken, of the horfe’s ex-
ercife and feeding, which fhould be light and open for
two or three weeks.
There is alfo an external pleurify, or inflammation of
the niufdes between the ribs, which, when not properly
treated, proves the foundation of that diforder called
the cbsft founder; for if the inflammation is not difper-
fed in. time, and the vifcid blood:and juices fo attenuated
by internal medicines, that a free circulation is obtained;,
fuch a ftiffnefs and inactivity will, remain on thefe parts,
as will not eafily be removed, and which is generally
known by the name of cheft-founder.
The figns of this inflammation; or external pleurify,
are a fliffnefs of the body, flioulders, and fore-legs ; at¬
tended fometimes with a fhort dry cough, and a fhrinktng.
when handled in thofe parts.
Bleeding, foft pectorals, attenuants, and gentle purges
e . r y.
are the internal remedies; and externally, the parts af-
feCted may be bathed with equal parts of fpirit of fal ar-
moniac, and ointment of marfhmallows, or oil of chamo¬
mile.
Thefe outward inflammations frequently fall into the
infide of the fore-leg, and fometimes near the fhoulder;
forming abfcefies, which terminate the diforder.
The membrane which feparates , the lungs, and more
particularly the diaphragm or midriff, is often alfo infla¬
med ; which is fcarce to be diflinguiflied from the pleuri¬
fy, only in this, that when the midriff is greatly inflamed,
the horfe will fometimes be jaw fet, and his mouth fo
much clofed that nothing can be got in; but the method
of cure is the fame.
Of a Cough, and Asthma.
The confequence often of the preceding diforders in-
judicioufly treated, are fettled habitual coughs; which
frequently degenerate into aflhmas, and broken-wind.
Nothing has more perplexed practitioners than the cure
of fettled coughs; the caufe of which, perhaps, has been
their want of attention-to the different fymptoms which
diftinguilh one cough from another ; for without ftriCl
obfervance thereof, it is impoffible to find out the true
method of cure.
Thus, if a horfe’s cough is of long (landing, attend¬
ed with lofs of appetite, wailing of fleih, and weaknefs,
it denotes a confumption ; and that the lungs are full of
knotty, hard fubftances, called tubercles, which have often
been difcovered on diffeClion..
The following figns denote when the cough proceeds
from phlegm, and flimy matter, that (lop up the veflels
of the lungs.
The horfe’s flanks have a fudden quick motion; he:
breathes thick, but not with his nodrils open, like a horfe
in a fever, or that is broken-winded; his cough is fome¬
times dry and bulky, fometimes moift, before which he
wheezes, rattles in the throat, and fometimes throws'out
of his nofe and mouth great gobs of white phlegm, efpe-
cially after drinking, or when he begins or ends his ex-
ercife, which drfcharge commonly gives great relief.
Some fuch horfes wheeze and rattle to fuch a degree,,
and are fo thick winded, that they can fcarce move on,
till they have been out fome time in the air;. though then
they will perform beyond expectation.
The above, afihmatic cafe proves often very obdinate ;
but, if it happens to a young horfe, and. the cough is not
of long danding, it is greatly relieved,, if not totally cu¬
red, by the following method.
If the horfe is full of fleih, bleed him plentifully; if
low in fleih,. more fparingly.; which may occafionally be
repeated, on very great opprelfions and difficulty of breath¬
ing, in proportionate quantities.
As mercurial medicines are found remarkably ufeful
in thefe cales, give a mercurial ball (with two drams
of calomel) over night, and a common purge next morn¬
ing : or tire following, which is recommended by Mr
Gibfon.
Take gum-galbanum, ammoniacum, and affa foetida,
of
FARR
of each two drams, fine aloes one ounce, faffron
one dram, oil of annifeeds two drams, oil of amber
one dram; with honey enough to form into a ball.
They may be repeated at proper intervals, with the
tifual eautions. In the intermediate days, and for fome
time after, one of the following balls may be given every
morning.
Take cinnabar of antimony, finely levigated, fix
ounces ; gum ammoniacum, galbanum, and afia fas-
tida, of each two ounces; garlick four ounces ;
faffron half an ounce: make into a pafte for balls,
with a proper quantity of honey.
Take of the pefloralor cordial ball one pound, bal-
fam of Peru half an ounce, balfam of fulphur anni-
fated one ounce, flowers of Benjamin half an ounce,
honey as much as is fuflicient to form them into a
pafte; give the-fize of a pigeon’s egg every morning.
Exercife in a free open air is very ferviceable, and the
diet fttould be moderate.
The following are the fymptoms of a dry cough, or
afthma.
The horfe afflicted with this cough eats heartily, hunts
and goes through his bufinefs with alacrity, appears well
coated, and has all the figns of perfect health ; yet he
coughs at particular times almoft inceffantlyj without
throwing up any thing, except that the violence of the
cough will caufe a little clear water to diftill from his
nofe. Though this cough is not periodical, yet fome of
thefe horfes cough moft in a morning, after drinking.
This may properly be ftyled a nervous afthma in a
horfe; as probably it chiefly affedls the nerves in the
membranous parts of the lungs and midriff; and is a
cafe very doubtful at leaft, if not incurable; but when
the horfe is young, the following method may be fuc-
cefsful.
Take away firft a moderate quantity of blood; then
give him two drams of calomel, mixed up with an ounce
of diapente, for two nights ; and the next morning a
purging ball. Keep ham well cloathed and littered, and
feed him with fcalded bran and warm water.
Qnce in eight or ten days this purge may be repeated,
with one mercurial ball only, given over night.
The following balls niaythen be taken,, one everyday,
about the fize of a pullet’s egg, the horfe fafting two
hours afterwards ; and fliould be continued two months,
or longer, to be of real ferviee.
Take native cinnabar,, or cinnabar of antimony, half
a pound; gum guaiacum four ounces ; myrrh, and
gum armoniac, of each two ounces; Venice foap.
half a pound : the cinnabar muft be finely levigated,
as before obferved, and the whole mixed up with
honey, or oxymel fquills.
The following alfo will be found a ufeful remedy in ob-
ftinatedry coughs. »
Take gum ammoniacum, fquills, and Venice foap, of
each four ounces, balfam of fulphur with annileeds
one ounce; beat up into a mafs, and give as the
former.
Before we clofe this fe&ion, it may be neceffary to
obfervehere, that fome young horfes are fubjeft to coughs
[FRY. 55 r
on cutting their teeth ; their eyes alfo are affe&ed from
the fame caufe. In thefe cafes, always bleed; and if the
cough is obfttnate, repeat it, and give warm maflies;,
which, in general, are alone fufficient to remove this com¬
plaint.
Of a Broken wind.
This diforder hitherto feems to have been littleunder-
ftood ; but Mr Gibfon is inclined .to think, that.the fource.
of it is frequently owing to injudicious or hafty feeding
young horfes for lale; by which means the growth of
the lungs, and all the contents within the cheft, are foin-
creafed, and in a few years fo preternaturally enlarged,
that the cavity of the cheft is not capacious enough for
them to expand themfelves in, and perform their func¬
tions.
A narrow contra&ed cheft with large lungs may fome-
times naturally be the caufe of this diforder : and it has.
been obferved, that horfes rifing eight years old are as li¬
able to this dtftemper, as, at a certain period of life, men.
fall into afthmas, cpnfumptions, and other chronic dif-
eafes.
The reafon why this diforder becomes more apparent
at this age, may be, that a - horfe. comes to his full
ftrength and maturity at this time: at fix he commonly,
finifhes his growth in height; after that time he lets,
down his belly, and fpreads, and ail his parts are.grown
to their full extent; fo that the prefiure on the lungs and.
midriff is now more increafed.
But how little weight foever thefe reafbns may have,
repeated diffeflions have given ocular proofs of a preterna¬
tural largenefs, not only of the lungs of broken-winded,
hbrfes, but of their heart and its bag, and of the mem¬
brane which divides the cheft; as well as of a remarkable;
thinnefs in the diaphragm, or midriff.
This difproportion has been obferved to be fo great,,
that the heart and lungs have been almoft of twice their
naturalfize, perfeftly found, and without any ulceration,
whatever ; or any defetft in the wind-pipe, or its glands.,
Hence it appears, that this enormous fize of the lungs,,
and the fpace they occupy, by hindering the freeadlion off
the midriff, is the chief caufe of this dilbrder; and as the'
fubftance of the lungs was found more fielhy than ufual,.
they of courfe muft lofe a great deal of their fpring and
tone.
Whoever confiders a broken-wind in this light, muff
own that it may be reckoned among the incurable diftem-
pers of horfes; and that all the boafted pretenfions to
cure are vain and" frivolous, , fince the utmoft lltill can
amount to no more than.now and tlien.palliating the fymp¬
toms, and mitigating their violence^
We ftiall therefore only lay down fuch methods as may
probably.prevent this diforder, when purfuedintime. But
if they fhould not fucceed, we fttall offer fome remedies-
and rules to mitigate its force, and to make a horfe as
ufeful as poflible under this malady.
It is ufual, before a broken wind appears, for a horfe to
have a dry obftinate cough, without any vtfible ficknefs
or lofs of appetite ; but, on the contrary, a difpofition to -
foul feeding, eating the litter, and drinking much water.
In-.
552 FARR
In order then to prevent, as much as poflible, this dif-
order, bleed him, and give him the mercurial phyfic above
prefcribed, which (hould be repeated two or three times.
The following balls are then to be taken for fome time,
which have been found extremely efficacious in removing
•obftinate coughs.
Take aurum mofaicum, finely powdered, eight ounces;
myrrh and elicampane, powdered, each four ounces ;
annifeeds and bay-berries, each an ounce; faffron,
half an ounce; make into balls with oxymel fquills.
The aurum mofaicum is made of equal parts of quick-
filver, tin, fal armoniac, and fulphur’. We give this me¬
dicine as llrongly recommended byMrGibfon; but how
far the aurum mofaicum may contribute to its efficacy, may
perhaps juftly be difputed: as a fubftitute in its room,
(therefore, for this purpofe, we recommend the fame quan¬
tity of powdered fquills, or gum ammoniacum, or equal
parts of each.
Broken-winded horfes ffiould eat fparingly of hay,
which as well as their corn may be wetted with cham¬
ber lye, or fair water; as this will make them lefs cra¬
ving after water.
The volatile falts in the urine may make it preferable
to water, and may be the reafon why garlick is found fo
efficacious in thefe cafes ; two or three cloves given at a
time in a feed, or three ounces of garlick bruifed,- and
boiled in a quart of milk and water, and given every o-
ther morning for a fortnight, having been found very fer-
viceable ; for by warming and ftimulating the folids, and
diflblving the tenacious juices, which choak up the vef-
fels of the lungs, thefe complaints are greatly relieved.
Careful feeding, and moderate exercife has greatly
relieved broken-winded horfes.
Horfes lent to grafs in order to be cured of an obfti-
mate cough, have often returned completely broken-
winded, where the pafture has been rich and fucculent,
fo that they have had their bellies conftantly full. As
the ill confequence therefore is obvious, where you have
not the conveniency of turning out your horfe for a con-
ftancy, you may foil him for a month or two with young
green barley, tares, or any other young herbage.
To purfive thick-winded horfes, Barbadoes and com¬
mon tar have often been given with fuccefs, to the quan¬
tity of two fpoonfuls mixed with the yelk of an egg, dif-
folved in warm ale, and given falling two or three times
a week, efpecially thofe days you hunt or travel.
But in order to make all thefe forts of horfes of any real
fervice to you, the grand point is to have a particular re¬
gard to their diet, obferving a juft ceconomy both in that
and their exercife; giving but a moderate quantity of
hay, corp, or water, at a time, and moiftening the for¬
mer, to prevent their requiring too much of the latter,
and never exercifing them but with moderation, as has
before been obferved. The following alterative ball may
be given once a-fortnight or three weeks ; and as it ope¬
rates very gently, and requires no confinement but thofe
days it is given (when warm meat and water are necef-
fary), it may be continued for two or three months.
Take fuccotrine aloes fix drams; myrrh, galbanum,
and ammoniacum, of each two drams; bay berries
half an ounce: make into a ball with a Ipoonful of
I E' R Y.
oil of amber, and a fufficient quantity of fyrup of
buckthorn.
Of a Consumption.
When a confumption proceeds from a defe<fl in a
horfe’s lungs, or any principal bowel ; the eyes look dull ;
the ears and feet are moftlybot; he coughs (harplyby fits;
fneezes much, and frequently groans with it; his flanks
have a quick motion ; he gleets oftej) at the nofe, and
fometimes throws out a yellowilh curdled matter; and he
has little appetite to hay, but will eat corn, after which
he generally grows hot.
As to the cure, one of the principal things is bleeding
in fmall quantities (-a pint, or pint and half, from fome
horfes is fufficient) which ffiould be repeated as often as
the breath is more than ordinarily opprefled. Pe&orals
may be given to palliate prefent fymptoms; but as
difledtions have difcovered both the glands of the lungs
and mefentery to fwelled, and often indurated, the
whole ftrefs lies on mercurial purges, and the following
ponderous alteratives, given intermediately.
Take native cinnabar, or cinnabar of antimony, one
pound, powdered very fine, and add the fame quan¬
tity of gum guaiacum and nitre; give the horfe an
ounce of this powder twice a-day, wetting his
feeds.
The fpring grafs is often extremely ferviceable, but
the fait marffies are to be preferred, and to be more
depended on than medicines; for great alterations are
thereby made in the blood and juices, and no fmall be¬
nefit arifes from open air and proper exercife.
Of an Apoplexy cr Staggers, Convulsive Dis¬
orders, Lethargy, Epilepsy, Palsy.
Farriers generally include all diftempersof the head
under two denominations, viz. ft aggers and convulftons;
wherein they always fuppofe the head primarily affe&ed.
But in treating thefe diforders, we will diftinguiffi between
thofe that are peculiar to the head, as having their fource
originally thence ; and thofe that are only concomitants
of fome other difeafe;
In an apoplexy a horfe drops down fuddenly, without
other fenfe or motion than a working at his flanks.
The previous fymptoms are, drowfinefs; watery eyes,
fomewhat full and inflamed; adifpofition to reel, feeble-
nefs, a bad appetite; the head almoft conftantly hanging,
or refting on the manger; fometimes with little or no fe¬
ver, and fcarce any alteration in the dung or urine: the
horfe is fometimes difpofed to rear up, and apt to fall
back when handled aboyt the head ; which is often the
cafe with young horfes, to which it does not prove fud¬
denly mortal; but with proper help they may fometimes
recover. If the apoplexy proceeds from wounds, or
blows on the head, or matter on the brain ; befides the
above fymptoms, the horfe will be frantick by fits, efpe¬
cially after his feeds, fo as to ftart and fly at every
thing. Thefe cafes feldom admit of a perfedt recovery;
and when horfes fall down fuddenly, and work violently
at their flanks, without any ability to rife after a plenti¬
ful bleeding, they feldom recover.
All
F A H H
A'fl that can l>e done is to empty the vefleJs as fpeediiy
nas poffibie, 'by ftriking the veins in ftverail parts at once,
bleeding to four or five quarts, and to raife up the horfe’s
bead and (boulders, fupportmg them with plenty of draw.
IF he furvives He fit, cut feveral rowels; give him night
-and morning glyfters prepared with a ftrong dtco<51ioo of
fenna and fait, or the purging glyder mentioned in the
■direftiocs ; blow once a-day up his noftrils a dram of
powder of afarabacca, which will ..promote a great dif-
charge; afterwards two or three aloetic purges (hould be
given ; and to fecure him from a relaple, by attenuating
and thinning his blood, give him an ounce of equal pans
of antimony and crocus metaflorum for a month; or,
which is preferable, the fame quantity of cinnabar of.an-
timony and gum guaiacum.
If the lit proceeds only from fulnefs of blood, high
feeding, and want of fufficient exercife, or a fizy blood
(which is often the cafe with young horfes, who though
they reel, dagger, and fometimes fuddenly fall down,
yet are eafily cured by the above method}, an opening diet
with fcalded bran and barley will be neceflary for fome
time ; and the bleeding may be repeated in fmall quantities.
As to the other dilorders of the head, fuch as lethargy
or deeping evil, epilepfy or falling-ficknefs, vertigo,
frenzy, and madnefs, convulfions, and paralytica! difor-
-ders, as they are mod of them to be treated as the apo¬
plexy and epilepfy, by bleeding and evacuations with
the alteratives there directed, we (hall wave treating of
them feparately, but mention fome particular rules to di-
dinguilh them, according to the plan we laid down, and
then offer fome general remedies for the feveral pur-
pofes.
In an epilepfy, or fading ficknefs, the horfe reds and
daggers, his eyes are fixed in his head, he has no fenfe
of what he is doing, he dales and dungs infenfibly, he
runs round and falls fuddenly; fometimes be is immove¬
able, with his legs dretched out as if be was dead, ex¬
cept only a quick motion of his heart and lungs, which
caufes a violent working of his flanks; fometimes he has
involuntary motions, and (baking of his limbs, fo drong,
that he has not only beat and (purned his litter, but the
•pavement with it; and with thefe alternate fymptoms a
horfe continued more than three hours, ?nd then he has
as furprifingly recovered ; at the going off of the fit, he
generally foams at the mouth, the foam being white and
■dry, like what comes from a healthful horie when he
champs on the bit.
But in all kinds of gripes, whether they proceed from
diforders in the guts, or retention.of urine, a horfe is of¬
ten up and down, rolls and tumbles about; and when he
goes to lie down, generaly makes feveral motions with great
Teeming carefulnefs, which (hews he has a fenfe of his
pain; and if he lays dretdied.out for anytime, it is gene¬
rally but for a fhort fpace.
Epilepfies and convulfions may arife from blows on the
head, too violent exercife, and hard draining ; and from
a fulnefs of blood, or impoveriflied blood, and furfeits;
which are fome of the caufes that denote the original dif-
order.
In lethargic diforders, the horfe generally reds his head
with his mouth in the manger, and his pole often reclined
Yol. II. No. 49.
T
S$3
to one fide ; he will (hew an inclination to eat, but gene¬
rally falls adeep with his food in his mouth, and he fre¬
quently fwallows it whole, without chewing.: emollient
glyders are extremely neceffary in this ca(e, with the
nervous balls recommended for the flaggers and convul¬
sions; drong purges are not requifite, nor mud you bleed
in too large quantities, unleis the horfe be young and
ludy. In old horfes, rowels and large evacuations are im¬
proper; but volatiles of all kinds are of ufe, when they
can be afforded: the alterative purge (p 554. col. 2.
par. 2. from the bottom) may be given, and repeated on
his amendment.
This didemper is to be cured by thefe means, if. the
horfe is not old p.n3 pad his vigour. It is a good fign if
he has a tolerable appetite, and drinks freely without
dabbering, and if he lies down, and rids up carefully,
though it be but feldom.
But if a lethargic horfe does not lie down; if he is
altogether dupid and cardefs, and takes’ no notice of any
thing that comes near him ; if he dungs and dales feldom,
and even while he deeps and dozes, 11 is a bad fign : if
he runs at the nofe thick white matter, it may relieve
him; but'if a vifeid gleet, that dicks to his codrils like
glue, turn to a profufe running of ropy, reddifli and
greenilh matter, it is an infallible fign of a great decay
of nature, and that it will prove deadly.
Young horfies from four to fix years, arc very fubje.dt
to convulfions, from bots in the fpring ; and the large
coach breed, more than the (addle They are feized with¬
out any previous notice ; and if bots and worms are dif-
covered in their dung, the caufe feems to be out of doubt;
more efpecially if they have lately come out of a dealer’s
hands.
When this convulfion proceeds from a didemperature
of the midriff, or any of the principal bowels, it is to be
didinguifhed from bots and vermin by previous fymptoms ;
the horfe falls off his domach, and grows gradually weak,
feeble, and difpirited in his work, and turns (hort-breath-
ed with the lead exercife.
The lively defeription of thatuniverfal cramp or convul¬
fion, called by fome the dag-evil, which feizes all the mufcles
of the body at once, and locks up th'e jaws, fo that it is im-
poffible almod to force them open, we (hall give in Mr
Gibfon’s own words, who fays: As foon as the horfe is
feized, his head is raifed with his nofe towards the rack,
his ears pricked up, and his tail cocked, locking with
eagernefs as an hungry horfe when hay is put down to
him, or like a high-fpirited horfe when he is put upon
his mettle ; infomuch, that thofe who are drangers to
fuch things, when they fee a horfe (land in this manner,
will fcarce believe any thing of confequence ails him;
hut they are fbon convinced, when they fee other fymp¬
toms come on apace, and that his neck grows diff,
cramped, and almod immoveable ; and if a hoife in this
condition ‘lives a few days, feverai knots will arife on
the tendinous parts thereof, and all the nviifcies both
before and behind will be fo much pulled and cramped,
and fo dretched, that he looks as if he was nailedtto the
pavement, with his legs diff, wide, and dradling;-his (kin
is drawn fo tight on all parts of the body, that it isalmod
inipoffibie to move it; and if trial be made to-make hite
2 5-Z walk,/
554 FAR R
walk, he is ready to fa:H at every ftep, unlefs he be care¬
fully fupported; his eyes are fo fixed with the i naff ion of
the mafdes, as give hin> a deadnefs in his looks; he
fnorts and fneezes often, pants continually with fhortnefs
of breath; and this fymptom increafes continually till
he drops down dead; which generally happens in a few
days, unlefs fome fudden and very effe&ual turn can be
given to the difteniper.
In all thefe cafes the horfe fhould firft be bled plenti¬
fully, unlefs he is low in flefh, old, or lately come off
any hard continued duty, then you muft be more fparing
of his blood ; afterwards give the following ball.
Take affa foetidahalf an ounce, Ru'ffia caflor powder¬
ed two drams, valerian root powdered one ounce ;
make into a ball with honey and oil of amber.
This ball may be given twice a-day at firft; and then
once, wafhed down with a decoftion of mifletoe or vale¬
rian fweetened with liquorice or honey : an ounce of affa
fcetida may be tied up in a piece of ftrong coarfe linen
rag, and put behind his grinders to champ on.
The laxative purges and emollient glyfters fhould be
given intermediately to keep the body open ; but when the
former balls have been taken a week or ten days, the fol¬
lowing may be given once a-day with the valerian de-
cottion.
Take cinnabar of antimony fix drams, affa fcetida
half an ounce, ariftolochia myrrh and bay-berries of
each two drams ; make into a ball with treacle and
oil of amber.
This is the moft effedtual method of treating thefe dif-
orders; but when they are fufpefted to arife from bots,
and worms, which is generally the cafe, mercurial medi¬
cines mod lead the. way, thus:
Take mercurius dulcis and philoniurh of each half
an ounce; make into a ball with.conferve of rofes,
and give the horfe immediately; half the quantity
may be repeated in four or five days.
The following infufion fhould then be given, to the
quantity of three or four horns, three or four times a-
tiay, till the fymptoms abate; when the above nervous
balls may be continued till they are removed.
Take penny-royal and rue of each two large handfuls,
chamomile flowers one handful, afla foetida and ca-
ftor of each half an ounce, faffron and liquorice-
root fliced of each two drams ; infufe in two quarts
of boiling water; pour off from the ingredients as
wanted.
If the caftor is omitted, add an ounce of afTa fcetida.
The following ointment may be rubbed into the cheeks,
temples, neck, fhoulders, fpines of the back and loins,
and where-ever there is the greateft contractions and fliff-
nefs.
Take nerve and marfhmallow ointment of each four
ounces, oil of amber two ounces, with a fufficient
quantity of camphorate fpirit of wine ; make'a lini¬
ment.
When the jaws are fo locked up that medicines can-.
not be given by the mouth, it is more eligible to give
them by way of glyfler; for forcing open the jaws by
violence often puts a horfe into fuch agonies, that the
.fymptoms are thereby increafed.
1 E R T.
In this cafe alfo he mufl be fupport-ed by nouri/hing
glyflers, made of milk-pottage, broths, fyc. which mult
be given to the quantity of three or four quarts a-day ;
glyfters of this kind will be retained, and abforbed into
the blood ; and there have been inftanced of horfes thus
fupported for three weeks together, who muft otherwife
have perilhed.
Mr Gthfon mentions fome extraordinary inftances of
fuccefs in cafes of this fort by thefe methods, and repeat¬
ed frictions, which are extremely ferviceable in all con-
vulfive diforders, and often prevent their being jaw-fet ;
they Ihould be applied with unwearied diligence every
two or three hours, where ever any ftiffnefs or contrac¬
tions in the mufcles appear ; for a horfe in this condition
never lies down till they are in fome meafure removed.
The ufe of rowels in thefe cafes is generally unfiiccefs-
ful, the llun being fo tenfe and tight, that they feldom
digeft kindly, and fometimes mortify ; fo that if they are
applied, they Ihould be put under the jaws, and in the
breaft.
The red-hot iron fo frequently run through the fore¬
top and mane, near the occipital bone, for this purpofe,
has often been found to have deftroyed the cervical liga¬
ment.
In paralytic diforders, where the ufe of a limb or limbs
is taken away, the internals above recommended Ihould
be given, in order to warm, invigorate, and attenuate the
blood; and the following ftimulating embrocation Ihould
be rubbed into the parts affeCled.
Take oil of turpentine four ounces, nerve ointment
and oil of bays of each two ounces, camphor rub¬
bed fine one ounce, rectified oil of amber three
ounces, tinCture of cantharides one ounce.
With this liniment the parts affeCted, Ihould be well
bathed for a confiderable time, to nytke it penetrate ; and
when the hind parts chiefly are lame, the back and loins
fhould be well rubbed with the fame. To the nervous
medicines above recommended, may, be- added fnake-
root, contrayerva, muftard-feed, horfe-raddilh root fteep-
ed in ftrong beer, or wine where it can be afforded. Take
the following for an example, which may be given to the
quantity of three pints a-day alone, or two horns fuil
may be taken after the nervous balls.
Take fnake-root, contrayerva, and valerian, of each
half an ounce; muftard-feed and horfe-raddilh root
feraped, of each two ounces ; long pepper two drams,:
infufe in three pints of ftrong wine.
When the horf^is recovering from any of the above
diforders, the following alterative purge may be repeated
two or three times, as it operates very gently.
Take fuccotrine aloes one ounce, myrrh half an
ounce, afla fcetida and gum ammpniacum of each,
two drams, faffron one dram; make into a ball with
any fyrup.
Where a retention of dung is the caufe of this difor7
der, the great gut ftiould firft be raked thoroughly with a
fmall hand, after which plenty of emollient oily glyfters
fliould be thrown up, and the opening drink given, till
the bowels are thoroughly emptied of their imprifoned
dung. Their diet fltould for fome days be opening, and
confift
F A R Ft
coofift chiefly of fc ilded bran, with flower of brimftone,
Icalded barley, <bc.
Of the S t r a n GyL e s, and V i v E s.
The ftraugles is a diftemper to which colts and
young horfes are very futjeft ; and begins with a fwel-
ling betw'een the jaw bones, which fotnetimes extends to
the mufcles of the tongue1; and is attended with fo great
heat, pain, and inflammation, that fometimes, till matter
is formed, the horfe fwallows with the utmoll difficulty.
The fymptoms are extraordinary heat and feverifhnefs,
with a painful cough, and a great inclination to drink
without being able ; fome horfes lofing their appetite en¬
tirely, others eating but little, by reafon of the pain which
chewing and fwallowing occafions: when the fwelling
• begins on the infide of the jaw bones, it is much longer
en coming to matter than when more to the middle;
when it arifes among the glands, and divides into feveral
tumours, the cure is generally tedious, as it breaks in
different places; and when it forms upwards on the wind¬
pipe and gullet, there is fometimes danger of fuffocation,
uniefs the fweljing foon breaks. But the moft dangerous
kind is, when, befides the above fymptoms, the horfe
runs at the nofe; this is by fome called the bajiard
Jtran.gles.
As this diforder feems to be critical, the moft appro¬
ved method is to affill nature in bringing the fwellings to
maturity, by keeping them conflantly moift with ointment
of marlhmallows, and covering the head and neck with a
warm hood. But as all fwellings in glandular parts fup-
purate flowly, the following poultice may be applied hot
twice a-day.
Take leaves of marlhmallows ten handfuls, tt'hite-lily
root half a pound, linfeed and fenugreek-feed brui-
fed of each four ounces; boil them in two quarts
of water till the whole is pulpy, and add four ounces
of ointment of marlhmallows, and a fufficient quan¬
tity of hogs-lard, to prevent its growing ftiff and
dry.
In five or fix days, by thefe means, the matter is ge¬
nerally formed, and makes its way through the Ikin ;
and if the difcharge is made freely and with eafe, the o-
pening need not be inlarged ; but Ihould be drelfed with
the following ointment fpread on tow, ftill continuing the
poultice over it to promote, the digeftion, and prevent a-
ny remaining hardnefs.
Take rofin and Burgundy pitch of each a pound and
a half, honey and common turpentine each eight
ounces, yellow wax four ounces, hogs-lard one
pound, verdigreafe finely powdered one ounce ; melt
the ingredients together, but do not put in the ver¬
digreafe, till removedTrom the fire; and it Ihould
be llirred in by degrees, till the whole is grown ItifF
and cool.
If thev fever and inflammation run high, and the fwel¬
ling be fo fituated as to endanger fuflfocation, a moderate
quantity of blood mull be taken away, and the remainder
diluted with plenty of water-gruel, or warm water, malh-
<s, <bc.
The running at the nofe which, often attends the ftran-
I E R Y. 55-5
gles is dangerous, efpecially if it continues after they have
ripened and broke, as the horfe will be greatly weaken¬
ed thereby. To prevent this wafie and decay, give him
every day for fome time an ounce of Jefuit’s bark; or a
Urong decodtion of guaiaCum {havings, which hath been
found extremely beneficial in reftraining thefe glandular
difcharges when too liberal, and in drying up ulcers of
all kinds in horfes.
If a bardnefs remains after the fores are healed up,
they may be anointed with the mercurial ointment; and
when the horfe has recovered his llrength, purging will
be neceflary.
The vives or ives differ from the llrangles only in
this; that the fwellings of the kernels, under the ears of
the horfe, (which are the parts at firft chiefly affeded), fel-
dom gather, or come to matter, but by degrees perfpiVe
off and difperfe by warm cloathing, anointing with the
marlhmallow ointment, and a moderate bleeding or two.
But fliould the inflammation continue notwithflanding
thefe means, a fuppuration mull: be promoted by the me¬
thods above recommended in the ftrapgles.
When thefe fwellings appear in an old or full-aged
horfe, they are figns of great malignity, and often of an
inward.decay, as well as forerunners of the glanders.
The mercurial ointment above mentioned, may be pre¬
pared thus:
Take of crude mercury or quickfilver one ounce, Ve- '
nice turpentine half an ounce ; rub together in a .
mortar till the globules, of the quickfilver are no >
longer vifible; then add two ounces of hogs lard..
Of the Dtfeafet of the Kv is.
In order to make the diforders of the eyes well under-
ftood, we ftialj confider them as arifing from different
caufes ; external injuries affedting the globe of the eye ;
and from internal caufes affedling the humours within the
globe. We (hall confider alfo the eye as naturally weak
from a bad conformation, which polfibly may often be
hereditary.
In all recent diforders of the eye from external inju¬
ries, fuch as blows, bites, &c. attended with a fwelling of
the lid, and a running from the eye, you muff firft fponge
the part often with cold fpring-water and vinegar ; and
if much fwelled, bleed immediately, and apply over it a
poultice made of the pulps of roafted. or boiled apples,
cleared from their feeds and hulks; or of conferve of
rofes and vinegar, with a little bole, and the white of an
egg. When the fwelling is abated, either of the follow¬
ing wafhes will complete the cure.
Take white vitriol half an ounce, fugar of lead two
drams ; diffolve in a pint of fpring-water ; to which
may occafionally be added, when the rheum is very
great, and -inflammation removed, half.an ounce of
tutty, or compound powder cerufs.
Let the eye and eyelid.be bathed three or- four times
a-day with a clean fponge dipped in this wafli; or it may
be applied with a feather, leaving a few drops on the
eye. When the veins under the eye have been turgid, o-
pening them with a launcer has often been found fuc-
cefsful.
JNL'-
356 FARE
Mr Gibfon, from his own experience, -recommends
the following, with which alone he has fucceedtd in moft
icommon cafes.
Take two drams of rofe-buds, infufe them in half a
pint of boiling water; when cold, pour oif the in-
fufion, and add to it twenty grains of fugar of
lead.
This is to be ufed as the former; but the quantity of
fugar of lead may occafionally be increafed.
Sometimes from the violence of the inflammation, fuc-
ceeding blows, and external injuries, the coats of the
eye fliali lofe their tranfparency, thicken, and turn white,
or pearl-colour ; in the latter cafe, the horfe has fome
glimmering of light; in the former, he is blind while the
eye continues in this ftate.
If the horfe be fleflvy and of a grofs conftitution, bleed¬
ing may be repeated, and a rowel will be neceflary: let his
diet be fcalded bran or barley ; avoiding for fome days
oats, beans, or any thing hard to chew.
The cooling opening drink, (p. 547. col. r. par. 1.)
fltould be given every other day, which will anfwer better
than aloetic purges.
If the eye-lids continue fwelled and moift, and the un¬
der fide of the eye inflamed, an ounce of honey may be
added to four ounces of the above waters *, or the part
may be well bathed with an ounce of honey of rofes, and
half a dram of fugar of lead, diflblved in three ounces
of fpring-water: to which may be added, when the eye
is very watery, a fpoonful or two of red wine, which will
help to thicken the matter and dry it up.
If a film or thick flough fliould remain, it may be ta¬
ken off, by blowing into the eye equal parts of white
vitriol and fugar-candy finely powdered.
Glafs finely powdered, mixed up with honey and a
little frefh butter, is much recommended^ by Dr Bracken
for this purpofe ; as alfo the following ointment.
Take ointment of tutty one ounce, honey’of rofes
two drams, white vitriol burnt one fcruple ;'this,
■with a feather, may be fmeared over the eye twice
.a-day.
Let it be remembered, that it has long been obferved
in pradice, .that the eye in its firfl (late of inflammation
is fo very tender, that the eye-waters prepared with tnt-
ty and other powders aggravate the diiorder ; confe-
quently, during this date, the tindures of vegetables and
folutions of falts are greatly preferable.
Wounds of the eye may be drefled with honey of ro¬
fes alone, or with a little fugar of lead mixed with it,
‘ adding thereto, after a few days, an eighth part of tinc¬
ture of myrrh ; all the preceding diredions in regard to
inflammation being attended to, efpecially bleeding,row-_
els, and gentle cooling phyfic.
When the humours of the eye are thickened, and the
diforder is within the globe, fliarp external applications
are not only ufelefs, but extremely detrimental, by the
irritation they occafion, and confequently ftiould be a-
voided.
In all cafes of this fort, whether moon-eyeS, which
are only catarads forming, or in confirmed ones attended
with a weeping ; general evacuations, with, internal alte-
jsatives, can only take place.
I £ E ¥.
Thefe generally make their appearance, when a Irotfe
is turned five, coming fix; at .which time one eye be¬
comes clouded, tire eye lids,being fwelled, and very of¬
ten fhut up; and a thin water generally runs from the
difeafed eye down the cheek, fo lharp as fometimes to ex¬
coriate the fkin ; the veins of the temple, under the eye,
and along the hofe, are turgid and full: though fome¬
times it happens that the eye runs but little.
This diforder comes and goes till the catarad is ripe;
then all pain and running difappears, and the horfe be¬
comes totally blind, which is generally in about two
years. During this time fome horfes have more frequent
returns than others^ which continue in fome a week or
more, in others three or four; returning once in two or
three months, and they are feldom fo long as five without
a relapfe.
There is another kind of moon-blindnefs, which is al¬
fo the forerunner of catarads, where no humour or weep¬
ing attends. The eye is never fluit up or clofed here, but
will now and then look thick and troubled, at which time
the horfe fees nothing. di/Hndly: when the eyes appear
funk and perifhing, the catarads are longer coming to ma¬
turity; and.it is not unufual in this cafe for one eye to
efcape.
Thele cafes generally end in blindnefs of one, if not of
both eyes; the mod promifing figns of recovery are when
the attacks come more feldom, and their continuance
' grows fliorter, and that they leave the cornea clear and
tranfparent, and the globe plump and full.
The attempts to cure catarads have hitherto been only
palliative and mitigating the fymptoms ; yet early care has
fometimes been fuccefsful. To this end the horfe fliould
be rowel’d and bled at proper intervals; except where
the eyes.appear funk and perifhing, where it is often per¬
nicious. During the violence of the fymptoms, obferve
the cooling treatment above recommended, giving him
two ounces of nitre every day mixed into a ball with ho¬
ney, and bathe the parts above the eyre with verjuice, or
vinegar, wherein rofe-leaves are infufed ; to four ounces
of which, hjilf a dram of fugar of lead may be added.
The fwelling on the lid may afterwards be bathed with a
fpongedipt in equal parts of lime and Hungary water, mixed
together: the cooling phyfic, (p. 545 col. 1. par. 4/) ftiould
be given every fourth-day, till the eye becomes clear, and re¬
covers its ufual brightnefs. The following alfo is very pro¬
per phyfic for this purpofe.
Take lenitive eleduary and cream of tartar of each
four ounces, Glauber’s falts three ounces, fyrup of
buckthorn two ounces.
When the weeping is by thefe means removed, the al¬
terative powders (See the fedion. Of Altera¬
tive Medicines) (hould be given every day, til!
two or three pounds are taken, and after an interval of
three months, the fame courfe Ihould be repeated. This
method has often been attended with good fuccefs, where
the eyes have been full, andnoway perifhed; in that cafe,
bathe or foment them with the following, twice a-day.
Take crude fal armoniac two drams, diflblve in a pint
of lime-water, and add to it four ounces of brandy,
or Hungary water.
This will ad as a ftimulus, and may help to thin and
F A R R I
rdrify the gummy juices, "knd bring new fupplies of nou-
rifement to the perithing eyes.
This courfe not fucceeding, in order more powerfully
to open the veflels of the chryftalline humour, (which in
thefe cafes is always found opake, and, when the cataract
is confirmed, entirely lofes its tranfparency,) and hinder as
much as poflible the form'ng o£ obdru&ions, mercurials
are chiefly to be depended on : thus give every other day,
for three or four mornings, .two drams of calomel, mixed
up with conferve of roles; and then ' purge off with the
common ball.
During this courfe, particular care fnould be taken of
the horfe : after repeating this, the alterative powders be¬
fore-mentioned fhould be given for fome weeks or
months, if you expeft any benefit from them ; dr they
may be heat up into a ball with liye millepedes, and an
ounce and a half given, every day: if thefe (hould not
.fucceed, and the horfe is a valuable one, the turbith courfe
recommended in the fedlion on alteratives, feems to be
the moft promifing method left. But. to hoifes that are
hot fo, an ounce of antimony, ground into an impalpable
powder, may be given every day' in bne of his feeds for
three months or longer; or a llrong decodHon of guaia-
cum fhavings may be given for fome time, to which
crude antimony may be given in the following manner.
Take guaiacum (havings one pound, crude antimony,
tied in a rag the fame quantity ; boil in two gallons
of forge-water to one, and give a quart a-day, eir
ther alone,, or mixed with his rvater.
The haws is a fwelling and fponginefs that grows in
the inner corner of the eye, fo large fometimes as to co¬
ver a part of the eye. The operation here is eafily per¬
formed by cutting part of it away; but the farriers are
apt to cut away too mtuii; the wound may be drefied
with honey of rofes; and if a fungus or fpongy flelh ari
fes, it fhould be fprinkled with burnt alum, or touched
with blue vitriol.
Of the Glanders.
The caufe and feat of the glanders has till lately been
fo imperfedtly handled, and fo little 'underllood by the
writersi of this diftemper, that it is no wonder it Ihould
-be ranked among the incurables: but a new light having
been thrown oh this whole affair by the ftudy of M..La
Forte,, the king of France’s farrier, who has been at the
pains to trace out, and difcover0 by difleClions, the fource
and caufe of this diforder ; we hope the method he has
propofed, widi feme further experiments and improve¬
ments, will foon bring to a certainty of cure (in moft'ea-
fes at leaft) a diftemper fo dangerous to our horfes, and
that hitherto has eluded the force of art.
M. de la Forte has diftinguifhed feven different kinds
of glanders, four of which are incurable.
The firft proceeds from ulcerated lungs, the purulent
matter of which comes up the trachea, and is difeharged
through the noftrils,' like a whitifh liquor, fometimes ap¬
pearing in lumps and grumes : in this diforder, though
the matter is difeharged from the noftrils, yet-the mala¬
dy is folely in the lungs.
The fecond is a wafting humour, which ufually feizes
horfes at the decline of a difeafe, caufed by too hard la-
-bour; this defluxion alfo proceeds from the lungs.
Vox. II. No 49.
E R Y. 557
The third is a malignant difeharge, which attends the
ftrangles fometimes, and falls upon the lungs, which runs
off by the noftrils.
The fourth is, when an acrimonious humour in the
farcy feizes thefe parts, where it foon makes terrible ha-
vock.
The fifth kind we (hall deferibe by and by, as arifing
from taking cold.
The fixth kind is a difeharge from the ftrangles, \yhich
fometimes vents itfelf at the noftrils.
Thefe are the various diforders which have been ob-
ferved fometimes to throw matter out from the noftrils;
let us now' deferibe the real glanders.
The matter, then, difeharged from the noftrils of a
glandered horfe, is either white, yellow, or greenifh,
fometimes ftreaked, or tinged with blood : when the dif¬
eafe is of long (landing, and the bones are fouled, the
matter turns blackifh, and becomes very foetid ; and is
always attended wdth a fw'ellmg of the kernels or glands
under ti e jaws ; in every other refpeift the horfe is gene¬
rally healthy and found, till the diftemper has been of
fome continuance.
It is always a bad fign, when the matter flicks to the
infide of the noftfils, like glue or ftiff pafte ; when the
infide of the nofe is raw, and looks of a livid or leadco-
lour; when the matter becomes bloody, and (links, and
w hen it looks of an afh-colour. But when only a limpid
fluid is fjrfl difeharged, and afterwards a whitifh matter,
the gland under the jaw not increafing, and the diforder
of no long continuance, w'e may expedt a fpeedy cure ;
for in this cafe, vvhicn arifes from taking cold, after a
horfe has been overheated, the pituitary membrane is but
(lightly inflamed, the lymph in thefmall verttlscondenfed,^
and the glands overloaded, but not yet ulcerated.
From thefe fymp'toms, and fome obfervations made both
by Bracken and Gibfon, it is plain they were not abfolute
ftrangers to the feat of this diforder, though they neglec¬
ted pnfhing their inquiries to the fountain-head, and con-
fequently were at a lofs to know how to apply the reme¬
dy to the parts affedted.
But our author, after examining by difledtion the cat-
cafes of glandered horfes, and making a ftridt ferutiny in¬
to the (late of the vifeera, aflifled for that purpofe by in¬
genious and expert anatomifls, for ten years together, af¬
firms this difeafe to be altogether local; and that the true
feat of it is in the pituitary membrane which lines the
partition along the infide of the nofe, the maxillary fi-
nufes or cavities of.the cheek-bones on each fide the nofe,
and the frontal finufds or cavities above the orbits of the
-eyes; that the vifeera, as liver, lungs, &c. of glandered
horfes are in general exceeding found ; and confequently
that the feat of this diforder is not in thofe parts, as has
been arterted by moft authors; nor indeed is it probable
it fhould: for h >w could fuch horfes preferve their appe¬
tite, their goo ^appearance, fleek and fhinjp.g coats ? in a
word, all the figns of health for many years together
•(which many glandered horfes are known to enjoy) with
fuch difleippered bowels.
But on nicely-examining the heads of fuch horfes, he
found the cavities above-mentioned more or Jefs filled with
a vifeous flimy matter, the membrane which lines both
them and the noftrils inflamed, thickened, and corroded
6 A with
558 FARR
with fjrdid ulcers, which in fome cafes had eat into the
bones.
He obferves, that when glandered horfes difcharge
matter from both noltrils, both fides of the membrane
and cavities were affe&ed; but when they ran at one no-
ftril only, that fide only was found diftempered.
It is a curious remark of our author, that the fublin-
gual glands, or the kernels fituated under the jaw bone,
which are always fwelled in this diltemper, do not dif¬
charge their lymph into the mouth, as in man, but into
the noftrils; and that he conftantly found their obftrudti-
on agreed with the difcharge; if one gland only was af¬
fected, then the horfe difeharged from one noftril only;
but if both were, then the difcharge was from both.
The feat of this diforder thus difeovered, our author
with great ingenuity has paved the way for-cure, by tre¬
panning thefe cavities, and taking out a piece of bone, by
which means the parts affeCted may be, wafhed with a pro¬
per injection, and in fine the ulcers deterged, healed, and
dried up.
But as from the obfervations fince made by this gen¬
tleman, there are different fpecies of the glanders, fo
the cure of the milder kinds may firft be attempted by
injections and fumigations : thus after taking cold, fhould
a horfe for fifteen or twenty days difcharge a limpid fluid
or whitifh matter from one or both noftrils, the glands
under the jaw rather growing harder than diminifhing,
we may expeCt it will degenerate into a true glanders.
To prevent which, after firft bleeding, and treating him
as we have directed for a cold, let an emollient injection,
prepared with a decoCtion of linfeed, marftimallows, el¬
der, chamomile flowers, and honey of rofes, or fuch
like, be thrown up as far as poflible with a ftrong fytinge,
and repeated three times a-day : fhould the running not
Jeffen or be removed in a fortnight by the ufe of this in¬
jection, a reftringent one may now be prepared with tinc¬
ture of rofes, lime-water, and the noftrils fumiga¬
ted with the powders of frankincenfe, maftich, amber,
and cinnabar, burnt on an iron heated for that purpofe;
the fume of which may eafily be conveyed through a tube
into the noftrils.
This method has been found fuccefsful when ufed in
time; but the methods of cure depend on the ftubbornnefs
of the diforder ; and when inveterate, recourfe muft be
had to the operation above deferibed.
Of /.ta Cholic so- Gripe s, and Pains in the Bowels,
from fudden accidents.
There feems to be no diftemper fo little underftood by
the common farrier, as the cholic or gripes in horfes, one
general remedy or method ferving them in all cafes;
but as this diforder may be produced by very different
caufes, the method of cure muft alfo vary, otherwife the
intended remedy, injudicioufly applied, will not only ag¬
gravate the complaint, but make it fatal. We fhall di¬
vide this diforder into three different fpecies : the flatu¬
lent or windy, the bilious or inflammatory, and the dry
gripes ; each of which we fhall diftinguifh by their
different fymptoms, and then point put the proper re¬
medies.
The flatulent or windy cholic is thus known. The
horfe is often lying down, and as fuddenly riling agaio
I E R Y.
with a fpring; he ftrikes his belly with his hinder feet,
ftamps \Vith his fore-feet, and refufes his meat; when the
gripes are violent, he will have convulfive twitches, his
eyes be turned up, and his limbs ftretched out as if dy¬
ing, his ears and feet being alternately very hot and cold;
he falls into profufe fweats, and then into cold damps ;
ftrives often to ftale, and turns his head frequently to his
flanks; he then falls down, rolls about, and often turns
on his back; this laft fymptom proceeds from a ftoppage
of urine, that almoft always attends this fort of chohc,
which may be increafed by a load^of dung preffing on the
neck of the bladder.
Thefe are the general fymptoms of cholic and gripes
. from wind, drinking cold water when hot, and when the
perfpirable matter is retained, or thrown on the bowels
by catching cold ; in all which cafes they are violently
diftended. Cribbing horfes are more particularly fubjedt
to this complaint, by reafon they are conftantly fucking
in great quantities of air.
The firft intention is to empty theftrait gut with afmall
hand dipt in oil, which frequently makes way for the con¬
fined wind to difcharge itfelf; and by eafing the neck of
the bladder, the fuppreflion of urine is taken off, and the
horfe ftales and gets eafe.
The following ball and glyfter feldom fail of giving re¬
lief in thefe cafes.
Take Stralburgh or Venice turpentine, and juniper-
berries pounded, of each half an ounce; falt-pru-
nella, or falt-petre, an ounce; oil of juniper, one
dram ; fait of tartar, two drams; make into a ball
with any fyrup ; it may be given whole, and waftied
down with a decodion of juniper-berries, or a horn
or two of ale.
If the horfe does not break wind, or ftale plentifully,
he will find no relief; therefore in an hour or two give
him another ball, and add to it a dram of fait of amber;
which may be repeated a third time, if found neceffary.
During the fit the horfe may be walked and trotted gent¬
ly, but (hould by no means be haraffed beyond his ability,,
or dragged about till he is jaded.
The following glyfter may be given, between the balls,
or alone, and repeated occafionally.
Take chamomile flowers two handfuls; anife, corian¬
der, and fennel feeds, of each an ounce ; long pep¬
per half an ounce ; boil in three quarts of water to
two; and add Daffy’s elixir, or gin, half a pint;
oil of amber half an ounce, and oil of chamomile
eight ounces.
The figns of a horfe’s recovery, are his lying quier,
without ftarting, or tumbling, and his gathering up his
legs, and ceafing to lafh out; and if he continues an hour
in this quiet pofture, -you may conclude all danger over.
The next fpecies of cholic we (hall deferibe, is the bi¬
lious or inflammatory; which befides moft of the prece¬
ding fymptoms, is attended with a fever, great heat, pant¬
ing, and drynefs of the mouth ; the horfe alfo generally
throws out a little loofe dung, with a hot fealding water,
which when it appears blackifh, or of a redifh colour, and
foetid fmell, denotes an approaching mortification.
In this cafe the horfe ftiould immediately be bled to the
quantity of three quarts ; and it ftiould be repeated, if
the fymptoms do not abate in a few hours. The emol¬
lient
FARR
lient glyfter, with two ounces of nitre diflbWed in it,
fhould be thrown up twice a-day, to cool the inflamed
bowels ; plenty of gum-arabic water fhould be taken,
and a pint of the following drink given every two or three
hours, til! feveral loofe (tools are procured ; and then it
(hould be given only night and morning till the diforder
is removed.
Take fenna three ounces, fait of tartar half an ounce;
infufe in a quart of boiling water an hour or two;
then (train off, and add two ounces of lenitive elec¬
tuary, and four of Glauber’s falts.
If this diforder is not removed by thefe means, but
the inflammation and fever increafe, attended with a dif-
charge of the flelh-coloured water above defcribed, the
event will mod probably be fatal: and the chief thing to
be depended on now, muft be a (trong decodlion of Jefu-
its bark, given to the quantity of a pint every thtee
hours, with a gill of red port-wine.
A quart of the fame may be ufed for a glyfter, with
two ounces of Venice turpentine, diflblved with the yolks
of two eggs, an ounce of diafcordium, and a pint of red
wine, and given twice a-day: if the horfe recovers, give
two or three mild rhubarb purges.
The lad we (hall defcribe is the dry gripes, or the
cholic, which arifes often from codivenefs ; it isdifcover-
ed by the horle’s frequent and fruitlefs motion to dung,
the blacknefs and hardnefs of the dung, the frequent
and quick motion of his tail, the high colour of his u-
rine, and his great reflleflhefs and uneafinefs.
In this cafe the drait gut (hould be examined and emp¬
tied with a fmall hand oiled properly for that purpofe ;
the emollient oily glyder, (p. 545. col. 2. par. 7.) (houldbe
thrown up twice a- day; and the above purging drink given,
till the bowels are unloaded, and the fymptoms removed.
The diet for a horfe in the gripes, (hould be fcalded
bran, warm water-gruel, or white water, made by dif-
folving four ounces of gum-arabic in a quart of water,
and mixing it with his other water.
From this hidory and divifion of gripes and cholics,.
with their different treatment, it appears how abfolutely
necefiary it is they fhould be well underdood, in order to
be managed (kilfully: it is plain too, that violent hot
medicines (hould in every fpecies of this diforder be guard¬
ed againd, and given with great caution and difcretion,
even in the fird kind of flatulent cholic, where indeed
they can only be wanted ; yet too often, when prepared
by the farriers with oil of turpentine, geneva, pepper,, and
brine, &c. they even increafe that diforder, by dimula-
ting the neck of the bladder, too forcibly heating the
blood, and inflaming the bowels, till a mortification is
brought on them. Thefe are, in general, the conflant
appearances of horfes that die of this diforder, whofe
bowels being examined for that purpofe, have been found
inflamed, full of red and livid fpots, fometimes quite
black, crifped with extreme heat, and rotten.
Of the Lax and Scouring, with other Diforders of
the Stomach and Bowels.
It is fometimes a nice matter to form a proper judg¬
ment. when to controul or encourage a loofenefs, but thefe.
I E R Y. 559
general rules may be a dire<Aion : If a healthy full horfe,
©n taking cold, or upon hard riding, overfeeding,
eating unwholefome food, or with a (light fever, (hould
have a moderate purging, by no means think of (lopping
it; but rather encourage it with an open diet, and plenty
of warm gruel: but if it continues long, with gripings,
the mucus of the bowels coming away, and the horfe
lofing his appetite and fle(h, it is then high time to give
him proper medicines; if he voids great quantities of
dime and greafy matter, give him the following drench,
and repeat it every other day for three limes.
Take lenitive eleftuary and cream , of tartar of each
four ounces, yellow rofin finely powdered one
ounce, and four ounces of fweet oil; mix with a
pint of water gruel.
The following alterative ball alone has been found
fuccefsful for this purpofe, when given twice a-week,
with fcalded bran and warm gruel.
Take (uccotrine aloes half an ounce, diapente one
ounce; make into a ball with the juice of Spaniflv
liquorice diltolved in water, and a fpoonful of oil of
"amber.
To this may be added two drams of myrrh, and a dram
of faffron, and (where it can be afforded) half an ounce
of rhubarb.
When the purging is attended with a fever, rhubarb
(hould firfl: be given to the quantity of half an ounce,
with an ounce and half of lenitive eledtuary; at night
after the working, give half an ounce or more of diafcor-
dium in a pint of red wine mulled with cinnamon, and
repeat it every day, and the rhubarb ball once in two or
three.
But if the didemper increafes, the horfe’s flanks and
belly look full and diftended, and he appears griped and
ih pain, let this glyfter be given, and the quantity of
diafcordivyn increafed an ounce in his night-drink
Take chamomile flowers one handful, red rofes half
a handful, pomegranate and baiauftines of each an
ounce ; boil in two quarts cf water to one ; drain off,
and diffolve in it two or three ounces of diafcor-
dium, and one of mithridate; to which may be add¬
ed a pint of port wine : repeat it once a-day.
If the flux continues violent, give announce of rock-
alum, with an ounce and a half of bole, twice a-day j
or, diffolve double this quantity with two ounce of dia-
fcordium, and the cordial ball, in two quarts of harts¬
horn drink; to which may be added a pint of port; and
give the horfe, three or four times a-day, a pint of this
drink. For this purpofe alfo a ftrong decotftion of oak-
bark may be given, with either of the above remedies,
and to the fame quantity; even by itfelf, it will be found
on trial no inconfderable remedy.
When the difcharge is attended with an acrid mucus
or (lime, the griping and pains are very fevere, the com¬
mon lining of the bowels being wafted away; in this
cafe the following glyfter (hould frequently be injedted
warm.
Take of tripe-liquor or thin ftarch two quarts, oil
of olives half a pint, the yelk of fix eggs well
broke, and two or three ounces of courfe fugar.
Some horfes having naturally weak ftomachs and.
bowels,.
5'5o FARR
bowels, throw out their aliment undigcRed; their dung
is habitually foft, and of a pale colour ; they feed poorly,
and get no flelh: to remedy this complaint, give the fol¬
lowing purge two or three times; and then the infufion
to the quantity of a pint every morning.
Takk fuccotrine aloes fix drams, rhubarb powdered
thret drams, myrrh and faffron each a dram ; make
into a ball-with fyrup of ginger,
Jnfufton.—Take zedoary, gentian, winters bark, and
orange peel, of each two ounces; pomegranate-bark
and balauftine, of each an ounce; chamomile-flowers
and centaury, each a handful; cinnamon and cloves,
each an ounce: infufe in a gallon of port or llrong
beer.
The bloody flux is a diftemper horfes are not very fub-
jeft to; however, as it fometimes dots occcur, whenever
blood is difcharged, attended with gripings, and great
pain in the bowels, if the flux is not fpeeddy reftrained,
the horfe probably may be foon loft : we recommend there¬
fore the following glyfter and drink for thav purpofe.
Take oak bark four ounces, tormentil-root two oun¬
ces, burnt hartlhorn three ounces ; boil in three
quarts of forge water to two; ftrain off, and add
two ounces of diafeordium, four ounces of ftarch,
and half a'dram of opium.
A glyfter may alfo be prepared with the fame quantity of
fat broth, ftarch and opium, in order to plaifter over the
costs of the bowels, and abate their violent irritations.
Alfo,
Take foft chalk two ounces, mithridate or diafeordi-
u.m one ounce, powder of Indian-root half a dram,
liquid laudanum fifty or fixty drops; diflblve in a
pint of hartfhorn drink, and add to it four ounces
cof cinnamon-water or red wine: give it twice a-
day.
Gum arabic diflblved in hartftiorn drink, or in common
water, ftiould be the hqrfe’s ufual drink.
When horfes are apt to be coftive, from whatever
caufe it arifes, gentle openers (hould be given ; fuch as
cream of tartar, Glauber’s fairs, and lenitive eleftuary;
four ounces of any two of thefe diflblved in warm ale,
whey, or water, given every other morning for two or
three times, will anfwer this purpofe ; efpecially if aflifted
by an oily emollient glyfter, prepared with a handful of
fait. Scalded bran or barely, with an ounce of fenugreek
and linfeed, occafionally given, will prevent this com¬
plaint : but where it is conftitutional, and proceeds from
the power and force of digeftion in the ftomach and guts,
as-fometimes happens, and the horfe is otherwife in per-
fe& health, ho inconvenience will arife from it ; and it is
qbferved that fuch horfes are able to endure great fa¬
tigue and labour.
£/'Worms and Bots.
. Authors have deferibed three different forts of
worms that affefit horfes, viz. Bots, which young horfes
are often troubled with in the fpring; the Rotundi, or
thofe refembling earth-worms; and the Afcaridis, or
phofe about the fize of the largeft fewing needle, with flat
. Jieads.
I E R Y.
The bots which breed in the ftomachs of horfes, and
are lometimes the caufe of convullions, appear to be very
large maggots, compofed of circular rings, with little
(harp prickly feet along, the fides of their bellies (like the
feet of hog-lice), which by their fharpnefs (like the
points of the fined needles) feem to be of ufe to fallen
them t6 the part where they breed and draw their
noarifhmem, and to prevent their being loofened from
fuch adhefion before they come to maturity. The eggs
from whence thefe bots are produced, are difperfed into
clufters all round the lower orifice of the ftomach, and
are laid under the inner coat or thin membrane of the
ftomach ; fo that when the animals come to form and life,
they burft through this innercoat witb-their breech and tail
ftraight outwards, and their trunks fo fixed into the muf-
cular or flelhy coat of the ftomach, that it fometimes re¬
quires a good pull to difengage them; from the blood of
this laft coat they drawjheir nouriftiment, which they
fuck like fo many leeches, every one ulcerating and pur¬
ling up the part where it fixes like a honey comb ; and
they often make fuch quick havock, as to deftroy the
horfe.
The fymptoms of worms are various. The bots that
many horfes are troubled with in the beginning of the
fummer, are always feen flicking on the (trait gut, and
are often thruft out with the dung, with a yeliowifh co¬
loured matter like melted fulphuc; they are noways
dangerous there, but are apt to make a horfe reftlefs and
uneafy, and rub his breech againft the poft|. The feafon
of their coming is ufualiy in the months of May and
June, after which they are feldom to be feen, and rare¬
ly continue in any one horfe'above a fortnight or three
weeks. Thofe that take their, lodgment in the ftomach,
are extremely dangerous by caufing convulfions ; and are
feldom difeovered by any previous ligns before they come
to life,, when they throw a horfe into violent agonies.
The other kinds are more truublefome than dangerous;
but are known by the following figns: The horfe looks
lean and jaded, his hair ftares as if he was furfeited, and
nothing he eats makes him thrive; he often ftrikes his
hind feet againft his belly, is fometimes griped, but with¬
out the violent fymptoms that attend a cholic or ftrangu-
ry; for he never rolls and tumbles, but only (hews un-
eafinefs, and generally lays himfelf down quietly on his"
belly fora little while, and then gets, up and falls a feed¬
ing ; but the fureft fign is when he voids them with his
dung. .
For the cure of bots in the ftomach, we have already
taken notice that calomel ftiould firft be given in large
quantities, and repeated at proper intervals, (fee p. 554.'-
col. 1.) iEthiops mineral, or fome of the under mentioned
forms, may be given afterwards.
But bots in the ftraitgut may be cured by giving the horfe
a fpoonful of favin, cut veryfmall, once or twice a-day in
his oats or bran, moiftened; and three or four cloves of
garlick may be added to advantage. Give alfo an a-
loetic purge between whiles; the following ftands recom¬
mended.
Take fine fuccotrine aloes, ten drams; frefh jallap,
one dram; ariftochia, or birthwort, and myrrh
- powdered#
FAR R
powdered, of each two drams; oil of favin and am¬
ber, of each one dram; lyrup of buckthorn enough
to form into a ball.
But as the fource of worms in general proceeds from
a vitiated appetite and a weak, digeftion, recourfe mud
firft be had to mercurials, and afterwards to fuch things
as are proper to ftrengthen the ftomach, promote dige-
ftion, and, by deftroying thefuppofed ova, prevent the rege¬
neration of thefe animals. Thus, two drams of calomel
may be given with half an ounce of diapente, and mixed
up with conferve of wormwood, over night; and the next
morning the above purge: thele may be repeated fix or
eight days. Or the following mercurial purge may be
given, which will be lefs troublefome, and no lefs effica¬
cious.
Take crude quickfilver two drams, Venice turpentine
half an ounce; rub the quickfilver till no gliftening
appears; then add an ounce of aloes, a dram of
grated ginger, thirty drops of oil of favin, and a
futficient quantity of fyrup of buckthorn to make a
ball.
One of thefe balls may be given every fix days, with
the ufual precautions in regard to mercurial phylic; and
thefe powders intermediately.
Take powdered-tin and iEthiops mineral of each half
an ounce : give every night in a mafh, or among
his corn.
The tarious preparations of antimony and mercury
{null be given feveral weeks together, in order to get en¬
tire riddance of thefe vermin. The vEthiops mineral
jflay be given to the quantity of half an ounce a-day ; the
the mercurius alkalifatus to two drams a day, incorpora¬
ted with a bit of cordial ball. The cinnabar powders,
as directed in the farcy, are no lefs effectual: and when
worms are bred from high feeding, or unwholefome
food; rue, garlick, tanfy, favin, box, and many other
fimples, may be given fuccefsfully; being fot that pur-
pofe mixed with their food; as alfo cut tobacco, from
half an ounce to an ounce a-day.
Cy Y e l l ow s, or Jaundice.
Horses are frequently fubjeft to this diftemper;
which is known by a dulky yellowness of the eyes; the
infide of the mouth and lips,, the tongue and bars of the
roof of the mouth, looking alfo yellow. The horfe is
dull, and refufes all manner of food ; the fever is flow,
yet both that and the yellownefs increafe together. The
dung is often hard and dry, of a pale yellow, or light
pale green. His urine is commonly of a dark dirty brown
colour; and when it haS fettled fome time on the pave¬
ment, it looks red like blood, fife ftales with fome pain
and difficulty; and if the diflemper is not checked foon,
grows delirous and frantic. The off-fide of the belly is
fometimes hard and diflended ; and in old horfes, when
the liver has been long difeafed, the oure is not praftica-
ble, and ends fatally with a wafting diarrhoeas but when
the diftemper is recent, and in young horfes, there is no
fear of a recovery, if the following directions areobferved.
Firfl of all bleed plentifully; and give the laxative
glyfter (p. 547. col. x. par. 2. from the bottom) as horfes
Vox.. II. No. 50. 2
I E R Y. 56i
are apt to be very coflive in this diftemper ; and the next
day give him this purge.
Take of Indian rhubarb powdered one ounce and a
half, fafFron two drams, fuccotrine aloes fix drams,
fyrup of buckthorn a fufficient quantity.
If the rhubarb fhould be found too expenfive, omit it,
and add the fame quantity of cream of tartar, and half
an ounce of Caftile foap, with four drams more of aloes.
This may be repeated two or three times, giving interme¬
diately the following balls and drink.
Take of ^Tthiop’s mineral half an ounce, millepedes
the fame quantity, Caftile foap one ounce ; make
into a ball, and give one every day, and wafh it
down with a pint of this deco&ion.
Take madder-root and turmerick of each four ounces,
burdock-root fliced half a pound. Monk’s rhubarb
four ounces, liquorice fliced two ounces ; boil in a
gallon of forge-water to three quarts; ftrain off,
and fweeten with honey.
Balls of Caftile foap and turmerick may be given alfo
for this purpofe, to the quantity of three or four ounces
a day, and will in mofl recent cafes fucceed.
By thefe means the diftemper generally abates in a
week, which may be difcovered by an alteration in the
horfe’s eyes and mouth ; but the medicines muft be conti¬
nued till the yellownefs is intirely removed. Should the
diftemper prove obftinate, and not fubmit to this treat¬
ment, you muft try more potent remedies, viz. mercu¬
rial phyfic, repeated two or three times at proper inter¬
vals ; and then the following balls.
Take fait of tartar two ounces, cinnabar of antimony
four ounces, live millepedes and filings of fteel of
each three'ounces, faffron half an ounce, Caftile or
Venice foap half a pound; make into balls, the
fize of a pullet’s egg, with honey ; and gi ve one, night
and morning, with a pint of the above drink.
It will be proper, on his recovery, to give two or three
nnld purges ; and if a fat full horfe, to put in a rowel.
Of the Diforders of the Kidneys and Bladder.
The figns of the kidneys being hurt or affe&ed are,
a weaknefs of the back and loins, difficulty of ftaling,
faintnefs, lofs of appetite, and deadnefs in the eyes ; the
urine is thick, foul, and fometimes bloody, efpecially af¬
ter a violent ftrain. A horfe difeafed in his kidneys can
feldom back, that is, move ftrait backwards without
pain, which is vifible as often as he is put to the trial:
the fame thing is obfervable indeed in horfes, whofe
backs have been wrung and wrenched ; but with this dif¬
ference, that in the latter there is feldom any defeat or
alteration in the urine, except that it is higher coloured.
Bleeding is the prime remedy, and that plentifully, in
order to prevent inflammation ; and the more fo, if a fe¬
ver attends a difficuljy in ftaling, for then we may fufpe<ft
the kidneys already inflamed. A rowel in the btlly has
been found ufeful ; and the following balls may be given
twice or thrice a-day, with a pint of marfhmallow-decoc¬
tion, in which half an ounce of gum arable is diffolved,
with an ounce of honey.
Take lucatellus-bulfam one ounce, fpemaceti fix
6 B drams.
562 FARR
drams, fal prunella half an ounce; mix into a ball
with honey: if the urine is bloody, add half an
ounce of Japan earth.
Should the fever continue, bleed largely, give emol¬
lient glyfters, and the cooling opening drink, (p. 547.
col. 1. par. 3.) till it abates.
If the urine paffes with difficulty and pain, notwith-
ftanding thefe means, give this ball, and repeat it twice
or thrice a-day till the horfe dales freer and without
pain, his urine become of a right confidence, and free
from any purulent fettlement.
Take balfam of copivi or Stralburgh turpentine, and
Venice foap, of each one ounce, nitre fix drams,
myrrh powdered two drams; make into a ball with
honey, and wafh it down with the marlhmallow de-
codUon.
As a fuppreffion of urine arifes fometimes from an in¬
flammation of the kidney; fo at others, from a paralytic
diforder, difabling them in their office of feparating the
urine from the blood : in this latter cafe, the bladder is
ufually empty, fo that a horfe will make no motion to
dale; and if he continues a few days in this condition,
his body will fwell to a great degree, breaking out in
blotches all over, and death will foon clofe the fcene.
If it arifes from inflammation, bleed largely, and treat
the horfe as above recommended ; but if not, give ftimu-
lating glyfters, and ftrong diuretics, fuch as the follow¬
ing balls, once in four hours: for if a horfe ftales not in
thirty hours, his danger muft be great.
Take juniper-berries powdered one ounce, fal pru¬
nella fix drams, astherial oil of turpentine half an
ounce, camphor one dram, oil of juniper two drams ;
make into a ball with honey, and give after it three
or four horns of the marlhmallow decodlion and
honey.
Or,
Take fquills powdered two or three drams, nitre half
an ounce or fix drams; make into a ball with
honey.
If the complaint is not removed by thefe means, rub
the horfe’s reins well with two parts of oil of turpentine,
and one of oil of amber ; and apply a poultice of garlick,
horfe raddilh, muftard feed, camphor, and green foap,
fpread on thick cloth, over them. Give the horfe alfo two
drams of calomel over night, and a moderate purge the
next morning. Thefe perhaps are the chief and beft re¬
medies that can be given in this generally fatal diforder.
When the ftrangury in a horfe does not arife from
wind, or dung preffing on the neck of the bladder (as
was obferved in the SefHon on Cholicks) the caufe is
from inflammation, .or too long a retention of the urine.
Such horfes make frequent motions to ftale, ftand wide
and ftraddling, are full, and have their flanks diftended.
In this cafe bleed largely ; give the following drink, and
repeat it every two hours, for two or three times, till
the horfe is relieved.
Take Venice turpentine, broke with the yolk of an
egg, one ounce, nitre or fal prunella fix drams,
half a pint of fweet oil, and a pint of white wine.
If this drink (hould not have the defined effefl, the diu*
I E R Y.
retie ball above mentioned may be given in the fame man¬
ner, omitting the myrrh.
Give the horfe plenty of the marffimallow decoftion, in
a quart of which diflblve an ounce of nitre and gum ara-
bic, and two of honey.
Horfes fubjedt to a diabetes, or profufe ftaling, if old,
or of a weak conftitution, are feldom cured; they foon lole
their flelh and appetite, grow feeble, their coat ftaring,
and they die rotten. Of a young horfe there are more
hopes; but he muft not be indulged with too much wa¬
ter, or moift food. Give him the following:
Take jefuit’s bark four ounces, biftort and tormentil-
root of each two ounces; boil in two gallons of
lime-water to the confumption of half, and give a
pint three times a-day.
As this diforder generally proceeds from too violent
exercife, over-ftraining, &c. repeated bleedings in fmall
quantities are abfolutely neceflary, till the mouths of the
veflels clofe up.
Cy Molten-grease.
Bv molten greafe is meant a fat or oily difeharge
with the dung, and arifes from a colliquation, or melt*
ing down of the fat of a horfe’s body by violent exer-
ercife in very hot weather. It is always attended with a
fever, heat, reftleflbefs, ftarting and tremblings, great
inward ficknefs, fhortnefs of breath, and fometimes with
the fymptoms of a pleurify. His dung will be extreme¬
ly greafy, and he will fall into a fcouring ; his blood will
have a thick Ikin or fat over it when cold, of a white or
yellow hue, but chiefly the latter; the congealed part or
fedimeot is commonly a mixture of fize and greafe, which
makes it fo extremely flippery, that it will not adhere to
the fingers, and the fmall portion of ferum feels alfo llip-
pery and clammy. The horfe foon lofes his flefli and fat,
which probably is diflblved and abforbed into blood ;
and tbofe that furvive this fliock, commonly grow hide¬
bound for a time, their legs fwelling both before and be¬
hind, and continue in this ftate till the blood and juices
are redtified ; and if this is not done effedtually, the far¬
cy, or fome obftinate furfeit, generally follows, very
difficult to remove.
In the firft place bleed plentifully, and repeat it for
two or three days fucceffively in fma.ller quantities; two or
three rowels ffiould alfo be immediately put.in, and'the.
codling emollient glyfters (p. 547. col. 1. par. 2. from the
bottom) daily thrown up to abate the fever, and drain off
the greafy matter from the inteftines. By the mouth give
plenty of warm water or gruel, with cream of tartar or
nitre, to dilute and attenuate the blood, which in this
cafe is greatly difpofed to run into grumes, and endanger
a total (iagnation.
When the fever is quite gone off, and the borfe has
recovered his appetite, gentle aloetic purges’ ffiould be
given once a-week, for a month or fix weeks, in order to
bring down the fwelled legs. To this end give the fol¬
lowing, which, reapeated for fome time, will entirely re¬
move this diforder.
Take of fuccotrihe aloes fix drams, of gum guaiacum
powdered
FARR
powdered half an ounce, of diaphoretic antimony
and'powder of myrrh of each two drams; make
into a ball with fyrup of buckthorn.
Thefe will feldom take a horfe from his bufinefs above
two or three days in a week; neither will he lofe his
flelh or appetite with them, but on the contrary mend in
both; which cannot be obtained by any other method
of purging, and gives this greatly the preference in ma¬
ny cafes.
Oy Surfeits, Mange, <7«r/Hide-bound.
Surfeits arife from various caufes ; but are com¬
monly the effefts of fome difeafes not attended to, or that
have been ill cured.
A horfe is faid to be furfeited, when his coat Hares,
and looks rufty and dirty, though proper means has not
been wanting to keep him clean. The llcin is full of fcales
and dander, that lies thick and meally among the hair,
and is conftantly fupplied with a frelh fuccefiion of the
fame, for want of due tranfpiration. Some horfes have
hurdles of various fizes like peas or tares; fome have ,
dry fixed fcabs all over their limbs and bodies ; others a
moifture, attended with heat and inflammation ; the hu¬
mours being fo lharp, and violently itching, that the
horfes rub fo inceflantly, as to make themfelves raw.
Some have no eruptions at all, but an unwholefome look,
and are dull, fluggifh and lazy; fome appear only lean
and hide-bound: others have flying pains and lamenefs,
refembling a rheumatifm ; fo that in the furfeits of horfes,
we have almoft all the different fpecies of the fcurvy and
other chronical diftempers.
The following method is ufually attended with fuccefs
in the dry fpecies. Firft take away about three or four
pounds of blood, and then give the following mild purge,
which will work as an alterative, and fliould be repeated
once a-week, or ten days, for fome time.
Take fuccotrine aloes fix drams or one ounce, gum
guaiacum half an ounce, diaphoretic antimony and
powder of myrrh of each two drams; make into a
ball with fyrup of buckthorn.
In the intermediate daysman ounce of the following
powder Ihbuld be given, morning and evening, in his
feeds.
Take native cinnabar, or cinnabar of antimony, finely
powdered, half a pound ; crude antimony, in fine
powder, four ounces ; gum guai-acum, alfo in pow¬
der, four ounces : make into fixteen dofes for eight
days.
This medicine muft be repeated till the horfe coats
Well, and all the fymptoms of forfeit difappear.
The wet forfeit, which is no more than a moift run¬
ning fcurvy, appears on different parts of the bgdy of a
horfe, attended fometimes with great heat and inflamma¬
tion ; the-neck oftentimes fwells lb in one night’s time,
that great quantities of a hot briny humour iffues forth,
which, if not allayed, .will be apt to colleft on the poll
or withers, and produqe the poll evil or fiftula. This
difeafe alfo frequently attacks the limbs, where'it proves
obflinate and hard to cure : and in fome horfes Ihews it-
felffpring and fall.
I E R Y. 563
In this cafe bleed plentifully, avoid externally all re-
pellers, and give cooling phyfic twice a-week; as, four
ounces of lenitive eledluary, with the fame quantity of
cream of tartar ; or the latter, with four ounces of Glau¬
ber’s falts, quicked, if thought proper, with two or three
drams of powder of jallap, diflolved in water-gruel, and
given in a morning faffing.
After three or four of thefe purges, two ounces of ni¬
tre made into a hall with honey may be given every
morning for a fortnight; and if attended with fuccefs, re¬
peated for a fortnight longer.
The powders above-mentioned may be alfo given with
the hoi fe’s corn ; or a ftrong decoftion of guaiacum fha-
vings or logwood may be given alone to the quantity of
two quarts a-day. Thefe, and indeed all alterative me¬
dicines, muff be continued for a long time, where the dif-
order proves obllinate.
The diet fhould be cool and opening, as fcalded bran
or barley; and if the horfe is hide-bound, an ounce of
fenugreek-feeds fhould be given in his feeds for a month
or longer; and, as this diforder often proceeds from
worms, give the mercurial phyfic too, and afterwards
the cinnabar powders, as above direfted; but as in ge¬
neral, it is not an original difeafe, but a fymptom only of
many, in the cure regard muft be had to the firft caufe :
thus, as it is an attendant on furfeits, fevers, worms,
the removal of this complaint muft be varioully ef-
fetfed. 7
In a mangy horfe the fkin is generally tawny, thick,
and full of wrinkles, efpecially about the mane, the
loins and tail ; and the little hair that remains in thofe
parts Hands almoft always ftrait out or briftly .• the ears
are commonly naked and without hair, the eye and eye¬
brows the fame ; and when it affedts the limbs, it gives
them the fame afpedl; yet the fkin is not raw, nor peels
off, as in the hot inflamed furfeit.
Where this diftemper is caught by infedlion, if taken
in.time it is very eafily cured: and we would recommend
a fulphur ointment as moft effedual for that purpofe,
rubbed in every day To purify and cleanfe the blood,’
give antimony and fulphur for fome weeks after. There
are a great variety of external remedies for this purpofe,
fuch as train-oil and gun-powder, tobacco fteeped in
chamber-lye, Solleyfell recommends the following.
Take burnt alum and borax in fine powder of each
two ounces, white vitriol and verdegreafe powdered
of each four ounces; put them into a clean pot, with
two pounds of honey, ftirringtill they are incorpora¬
ted : when cold, add two ounces of ftrong aqua-forti?.
But when this diforder is contrafted by low feeding,
and poverty of blood, the diet muft be mended, and the
horfe properly indulged with hay and corn. The follow¬
ing ointments are elfeitually ufed for this diforder, rub¬
bed into the parts affefted every day.
Take powdered brimftone, train-oil, and tar, of each
equal quantities ; to which may be added ginger, or
white hellebore.
Or,
Take fulphur vivum half a pound, crude fal armoniac
one ounce, hogs lard or oil a fuflicient quantity to
form into aa ointment.
Thefe
564 PARR
Thefe are both very powerful remedies for this difor-
der, and can fcarce fad of fuccefs.
Of /ita Farcin or Farcy.
The true farcy is properly a diftemper of the blood-
veffels, which generally follows the tra<fl of the veins,
and, when inveterate, thickens their coats and integuments,
fo that they become like fo many chords. We (hall not de¬
scribe the different forts of farcies, feeing they are only
degiees of one and the fame diftemper; but proceed to
paint the diftemper by its Symptoms, which are pretty
manifeft to the eye.
At firft, one or more fmall fwellings, or round buds like
grapes or berries, fpring out over the veins, and are of¬
ten exquifitely painful to the touch ; in the beginning
they are hard, but foon turn into foft blifters, which
when broke difcharge an oily or bloody ichor, and turn
into very' foul and ill-difpofed ulcers. In fome horfes it
appears on the head only; in fome on the external jugu¬
lar; in others on the plate vein, and runs downwards on
the infide of the fore-arm towards the knee, and very
often upwards towards the bri/ket: in fome the farcy
ftiews itfelf on the hind-parts, about the patterns, and a-
long the large veins on the infide of the thigh, riling up¬
wards into the groin, and towards the (heath; and forae-
times the farcy makes its appearance on the flanks, and
Spreads by’degrees towards the lower belly, where it of¬
ten becomes very troublefome.
When the farcy appears on the head only, it is ealily
cured; efpecially when it is feated in the cheeks and fore¬
head, the blood-veflels being here fmall: but it is more
difficult when it affefts the lips, the noftrils, the eyes,
the kernels under the jaws, and other foft and loofe parts,
efpecially if the neck-vein becomes chorded. When it
begins on the outlide of the ftloulder or hips, the cure is
Seldom difficult: but when the farcy arifes on the plate-
vein, and that vein fwells much, and turns corded, and
■ the glands or kernels under the arm-pit are affedled, it is
hard to cure ; but more fo when the crural veins within
fide of the thigh are corded, and befet with buds, which
affeds the kernels of the groin and the cavernous body
of the yard. When the farcy begins on the pafterns or
lower limbs, it often becomes very uncertain, unlefs a
timely ftop is put to it; for the fwelling in thofe depen¬
dant parts grows fo exceffively large in fomeconftitutions.
and the limbs fo much disfigured thereby with foul fores
and callous ulcerations, that fuch a horfe is feldom fit for
anything afterwards but the meaneft drudgery : but it is
always a promifing iign, wherever the farcy happens to be
•fituate, if it fpreads no further. It is ufual to affedt
only one fide at a time; but when itpafles over to the o-
ther, it fliews great malignancy : when it arifes on the
fpines, it is then for the moft part dangerous, and is al¬
ways more fo to horfes that are fat and full of blood,
than to thofe that are in a more moderate cafe. When
the farcy is epidemical, as fometimes happens, it rifes on
feveral parts of the body at once, forms nafty foul ul¬
cers, and makes a profufe running of greeniffi bloody
matter from both noftrils ; and foon ends in a miferable
trot.
When the farcy makes its firft appearance on the head.
TER Y.
it rifes on the cheeks and temples, and looks like a net-work ,
or fmall creeping twigs full of berries. Sometimes it inflames
the eye, and fometimes little blifters or buds run along the
fide of the nofe. It arifes often on the outfide of the
ffioulder, running along the fmall veins with heat and in¬
flammation ; and fometimes a few fmall buds appear near
the withers, and on the outfide of the hip. In all thefe
appearances, the difeafe being fuperficial, and affecting
only the fmaller veflels, is eafily conquered by the follow¬
ing method, when taken in time; for the fimpleft fare}',
if negledted, may degenerate into the word fort.
T his "diftemper, then, being of an inflammatory nature,
and in a particular manner afFedling the blood veflels, muft
neceflarily require large bleeding, particularly where thfc
horfe happens to be fat and full of Wood. This always
checks the beginning of a farcy, but is of fmall fervice
afterwards; and if a horfe is low in flefli, the lofs of too
much blood fometimes proves injurious. After bleeding,
let the horfe have four ounces of cream of tartar and le¬
nitive electuary 5 which may be given every other day for
a week, to cool the blood, and open the body; and then
give nitre three ounces a-day for three weeks or a month,
and anoint the buds and fwellings with the following oint^
ment twice a-day.
Take ointment of elder four ounces, oil of turpentine
two ounces, fugar of lead half an ounce, white vi¬
triol powdered two drams; mix together in a gally-
pot.
The buds fometimes by this method are difperfed,
leaving only little bald fpots, which the hair foon covers
again. When they break and run, if the matter be thick
and well digefted, they will foon be well: but in order
to Confirm the cure, and to difperfe fome little lumps which
often remain for fome time on the (kin without hair, give
the liver of antimony for a month ; two ounces a day for
a fortnight, and then one ounce a-day for the other fort¬
night : by following this method, a farcy which affedls
only the fmall veflels, maybe (lopped in a week or ten
days, and (bon after totally eradicated.
When the farcin affedls the larger blood-veflels, the.
cure is more difficult; but let it always be attempted
early.: therefore on the plate, thigh, or neck veins ap¬
pearing chorded, bleed immediately on the oppofite fide,
and apply the following to the chorded vein.
Take oil of turpentine in a pint bottle fix ounces, oil
of vitriol three ounces; drop the oil of vitriol into
the oil of turpentine by little at a time, otherwife
the bottle will burft; when it has done fmoaking,
drop in more oil of vitriol, and fo on till all is
mixed.
This mixture is one of the bed univerfals in a begin¬
ning farcy; but where it is feated in loofe fleftiy parts, as
flanks or belly,' equal parts of the oil of vitriol and tur¬
pentine are neceffary.
Rub the parts firft with a woollen cloth ; and then ap^
ply fome of the mixture over the buds, and where-ever
there is any fwelling, twice a day. Give the cooling
phyfic every other day, and then three ounces of nitre
every day for fome time.
When the farcy begins on the flanks, or towards the
lower belly, it often takes its rife from a Angle punflure
of
FARR
of a fliarpfpur. The pain and friarting is one fare fign
to dHtinguifh the farcy from common accidents ; the da¬
ring of the hair, which rtands up like a tuft all round
the buds or blifters, and the matter that ilfues from the
buds, which is always purulent and of a clammy greafy
confidence, are other certain jighs. After bathing with
the mixture above mentioned till the ulcers are imooth
and healing, fliould the dwelling not fubfide, to prevent
the fpreading of the buds, and to difperfe them, bathe
with either of thefe mixtures as far as the centre of the
belly; and at the fame time give a courl'e of antiraonials,
as will prefently be prefcribed.
Take ipirits of wine four ounces, oil of vitriol and
turpentine, of each two ounces, white-wine vine¬
gar, or verjuice, fix ounces.
Or the following:
Take fpirits of wine redtified four ounces, camphor
half an ounce, vinegar or verjuice fix ounces, white
vitriol, difidlved in four ounces of fpring water, one
ounce; *mix together.
/ In the lower limbs the farcy lies fometimes concealed
for a great while, and makes fo flow a progrefs, that it
is often midaken for greafe, or for a. blow or kick, and
goes by the general appellation of ahumour fettled there.
In order to didinguilh the one from the other, we (hall
bbferve that a kick, or bruife, is generally attended with
a hidden fwellihg, or a contufed wound, which for the
mod part digeds eafily : the greafe is alfo a finooth fwell
ing that breaks out above the bending of the paderns back¬
wards ; but the farcy begins on the padern joint ufually
with one bud, and runs upwards, like a knotty crab-tree.
Very Ample means havefometimes flopped it,before it has
begun to fpread; a poultice with bran and verjuice bound
round the part, and renewed once a-day, will often a-
lone fucceed; and if proud flefli fliould arife, touch it
with oil of vitriol, or aqua fortis, an hour before you
apply the poultice ; for when the didemper is local, as we
fuppofe it here, it is tp be Conquered by outward appli¬
cations.
When the didemper grows inveterate, and refids the
above method, and the vefiels continue chorded, Gibfon
recommends the following mixture.
Take linfeed oil half a pint; oil of turpentine and
falt-petre, of each three ounces ;tindhireof euphorbi-
um and hellebore, of each two drams ; the ioldiers
ointment two ounces; or oil of bays, or oil of origa¬
num, half an ounce; double aqua fortis half an
ounce : after the ebullition is over, add two ounces
of Barbadoes tar.
R ub this into the chorded veins, and where-ever there is
a fwelling, once in two or three days ; but if the orifices
are choaked up with proud flefli, or the Ikin fo much
thickened over the ulcers as to confine the matter, in ei¬
ther cafe it is necedary to make an open paffage with a
fmall hot iron, anddedroythe proud flefli, aftei which
it may be kept down by touching with eil of vitiol, aqua
fortis, or butter of antimony. A falve may alfo be pre¬
pared wvh quickfilver and aqua fortis, rubbing any.quan-
tity of the former with enough of the latter, to the con¬
fidence of a liniment; fmear the ulcers with this whene-
Vol. II. No 50. 2
I E R V. 565
ver they appear foul, and you will find i't preferable to
mod other eating medicines.
Our farriers, after opening the buds, put in ufuaHy a
fmall quantity of corrofive fublimate or arfenic, which
they call coring out the farcy; this may anfwer where
the buds are few, and not fituated near large blood-vef-
•fels, joints, or tendons: others ufe Roman vitriol, or fub¬
limate and vitriol, in equal quantities : but let it be re¬
membered, that many a horfe has been poifcnedby thefe
medicines ignorantly ufed, and in too large quantities.
The following balls are proper in every date of the
farcy; and when-the didemper has been in its infancy,
before the fltin was much defaced, has often cured it in
a week or two, by giving them only once or twice a-day:
but in an old farcy they (hould be given for two or three
months together.
Take of native .cinnabar, or cinnabar of artimonv,
eight ounces; long bithwort and gum guaiacum pow¬
dered, of each four ounces: make into a pafle with
honey, and form into balls of the fize of a large
walnut, and roll them into liquorice powder.
The tedioufnefs of this cou-rfe has encouraged the gi¬
ving of 'mercurials ; and indeed where they are direfled
with Ikill, they mud be attended withfuccefs: tbeflron^-
er preparations, as the red and white precipitates, and
turbith, being combined with (harp faline parts, may be
hazardous and injurious; but the latter given in finall
quantities have been found very fuecefsful in fuch kind
of inveterate diforders. Mr Gibfon fays, he has given
it to a dram at a doze, where the limbs have been great¬
ly {welled ; that in forty-eight hours the fores were all
dried up, and the limbs reduced; but that it made the
horfe fo violently fick for feveral days, and fcoured him
to fuch a degree, that it could not be repeated.
One would have thought that the fuccefs attending
this medicine fo fuddenly, might have encouraged Gib¬
fon to have made further trials in fmaller quantities ;
which had he done, it is more than probable he would
not have been difappointed : for the grand fecret in gi¬
ving mercurials as alteratives, is the introducing them into
the bloqd, without operating on the domach and bowels;
and to do this effeftually, they mud be given in fmall
quantities, and fo bridled as to controul their force on
the firfl pafiages; taken in this manner, they will mix
gradually with the blood and juices, and operate both ef-
fedtually and fafely.
Dr Bracken recommends the knots and chords to be
rubbed with the mercurial ointment before they break, in
'order to difperfe them ; and after breaking, todre'fs the
fores with equal parts of Venice turpentine and quickfil¬
ver : if by thefe means the mouth fliould become fore,
mat as above.—This method feems to be effectual with
proper ^care.
The following is alfo recommended by the fame gen¬
tleman :
Tak-e butter of antimony and bezoar mineral, of each
one ounce; beat up with half a pound of cordial
• ball, and give the bignefs of a walnut, or three
quarters of an ounce, every day for two or three
weeks, fading two or three hours after it.
6 C
We
566 ' FARR
We Hiall here take notice of what is called the water-
farcy, which has no refemblance to a true farcy, either
in its caufe, fymptoms, or efFeds, but has only obtained
this name through cuftom and ignorance.
This water farcy, then is of two kinds; one the pro-
duct of a feverilh difpofition, terminating on. the fkin, as
often happens in epidemical colds; the other is dropfical,
where the water is not confined to the belly and limbs,
but Ihews itfelf in feveral parts of the body by foft
fwellings yielding to the preffure of the finger. This laft
kind uiualjy proceeds'from foul feeding, or from the lat¬
ter grafs and fog, that often comes up in great plenty
with continued cold rains, and breeds a fluggilh vifcid
blood. In the former cafe, we have feen the limbs and
whole body enormoufly fwelled, and very hard, the bel¬
ly and (heath greatly diftended ; which were as furprifing-
ly reduced in four and twenty hours, by flight fcarificati-
ons within fide the leg and thigh, with a (harp penknife,
and three or four ftrokes on the (kin of the belly on each
fide the (heath ; from thefe fearifications there was a con-
fiant and furprifing large dripping of water, which foon
relieved the horfe ; when a few purges compleated his
recovery.
In the other fpecies of dropfy the curative intentions
are to difcharge the water, recover the crafis or ftrength
of the blood, and brace up the relaxed fibres throughout
the whole body. To this end, purge once a-week or ten
days; and give intermediately either of the following.
Take black hellebore fre(h gathered, two pounds ;
wafh, bruife, and boil in fix quarts of water, to
four; and then drain out the liquor, and put two
quarts of white-wine on the remaining hellebore,
and let it infufe warm forty-eight hours ; then drain
off, mix both together, and give the horfe a pint
night and morning.
Take nitre two ounces, fquills powdered three drams
or half an ounce, camphor one dram, honey enough
to form into a ball, to be given once a-day alone, or
wadted down with a horn or two of the above drink.
Before we clofe this feflion, it is proper to lay
down the fymptoms of an incurable farcy, that the own¬
ers of fuch horfes may fave themfelves unneceffary ex¬
pence and trouble in their endeavours to obtain a cure.
When a farcy, by improper applications, or by negledt,
has fpread and increafed, or after long continuance refid-
ed the medicines above recommended ; if frelh buds are
continually fprouting forth, while the old ones remain
foul and ill conditioned ; if they rife on the fpines of the
back and loins ; if the horfe grows hide bound, and runs
at the nole; if abfcefies are formed in the fielhy parts
between the interdices of the large mufcles; if his eyes
look dead and lifelefs ; if he forfakes his food, and fcours
often, and his excrements appear thin and of a blackifti
colour; if the plate or thigh vein continues large and
chorded after firing, and other proper applications : thefe
fymptoms denote the didemper to have penetrated inter¬
nally, and that it will degenerate'into an incurable con-
fumption : it is mod probable alfo, that the whole mafs
of fluids are tainted, and become irremediable by art.
I E R Y.
Of Alterative Medicines.
By alteratives, or altering medicines, are to be under*-
flood fuch as, having no immediate fentible operation, gra¬
dually gain upon the conflitution, by. changing the hu¬
mours or juices from a date of didemperature to health.
This intention in fome cafes may perhaps be effefted by
correcting the acrimony of thejuicesj and accelerating
the blood’s motion ; and in others by attenuating, or
breaking its particles, and dividing thofe cohefions which
obflruCt the capillaries or finer veflels; and fo promote
the due fecretions of the various fluids. It is certain, that
many have but an indifferent opinion of a medicine that
does not operate externally, and gratify their fenfes with
a quantity of imagined humours ejeCted from the body;
but let fuch people remember, that there are good hu¬
mours as well as bad, which are thrown off together ;
that no evacuating medicine has a po’wer of feleCting, or
feparating the bad from the good; and confequently that
they are thrown out only in a proportionate-quantity.
Thefe few hints may be fufficient to convince the judici¬
ous reader of the great advantages arifing from altera*
tiyes, and the preference due to them in mod cafes over
purgatives; unlefs it could be proved, as already mention¬
ed, that the latter could cull out and feparate from the
blood the bad humours folely, leaving the good behind ;
but this feleClive power has long been juflly exploded as
ridiculous and uncertain, fince it is plain, that all kinds
of purging medicines differ only in degree of drength,
and operate no otherwife upon different humours than as
they flimulate more or lefs.
We (hall therefore take this opportunity of recom¬
mending fome alterative medicines, which are not fo ge¬
nerally known as they ought to be; and that too on the
furefl grounds, a proper experience of their good effedls in
repeated trials. The firfl then is nitre or purified falt-
petre, which has long been in great efleem, and perhaps
is more to be depended on in all inflammatory fevers than
any other medicine whatever: but befides this extenfive
power of allaying inflammatory diforders, it is now offer¬
ed as a remedy, taken in proper quantities, as an alte¬
rative for forfeits, molten-greafe? hide-bound, greafe-
heels, <bc. And as it has been known to fucceed even in
the cure of the farcy, what other didempers in horfes,.
arifing from vitiated fluids, may it not be tried on, with a
drong probability of fuccefs ? This great advantage will
arife from the ufe of this medicine over mod others,
that, as its operation is chiefly by urine, it requires no
confinement or cloathing; but the horfe may be worked
moderately throughout the whole courfe. This medi¬
cine has been found equally efficacious (by many trials
made in one of our hofpitals) in corredting the acrimony
of the juices, and difpofing the mod obdinat? and inve¬
terate fores to heal up ; and hence probably it came re¬
commended as an alterative to our horfes.
The quantity of nitre given at a time fliould be from
two to three ounces a-day ; let it be finely powdered, and
then mix with it by little at a time as much honey as
will
FARR
will form it into a half; give it every morning farting for
a month ; or it may be given at firft for a fortnight only,
intermitting a fortnight, and then repeat it. If it be ob-
ferved that the horfe ihews an uneafinefs at the ftomach
after taking it, a horn or two of any liquor fliould be
given after it, or it may be diffolved at firll in his water,
or mixed with his corn ; though the ball, where it agrees,
is the eafiert method of giving.
When hcrfes take drinks with great reludtance, pow¬
ders muft be given in their feeds ; thus crude antimony,
or liver of antimony linely powdered, may be given to
the quantity of half an ounce, night and morning; but
in all forfeits, gum guaiacum mixed with antimony is
found more efficacious. Thus,
Take of crude antimony finely powdered, or, where
it can be afforded, cinnabar of antimony, and gum
guaiacum, of each a pound: mix together with an
oily peftle to prevent the gum’s caking: divide the
whole into thirty-two dozes, viz. an ounce each
doze; let one be given every day in the evening
feed.
Or,
Take of cinnabar of antimony, gum guaiacum, and
Cartile or Venice foap, of each half a pound, fait
of tartar four ounces; beat them up into a mafs,
and give an ounce every day. To thefe may be ad¬
ded very advantageoufly, an ounce and an half of
camphor.
iEthiops mineral given to the quantity of half an ounce
a-day, is a very good fweetener and corrector of the
blood and juices ; but it has been obferved, after having
been taken a week or ten days, to make fame horfes flab
ber, and unable to chew their hay and oats; and the
fame fymptoms have arofe, where only two drams of
crude mercury has been given, and continued about the'
fame fpace of time.
Diet Di-inks.— i. A decodtion of logwood, prepared
like-that of guaiacum, is alfo fuccefsfully given in fur-
feits.
2. Lime-water, prepared with ftavings offaffapharas and
liquorice, is a good diet-drink, to fweeten and corredt a
horfe’s blood ; and may be given with the nitre balls for
that purpofe.
3. Tar-water alfo, as has before been hinted, may in ma¬
ny cafes be well worth trial: but let it be remembered,
that all medicines of this kind ffiouid be continued a confi-
derable time in obftinate cafes.
#/■ Rowelling-.
There Teems to be no remedy fo much made ufe of,
and fo little underftood by farriers in general, as rowels ;
for which reafon we ffiall endeavour to let the whole af¬
fair in a clearer light, than hitherto it has appeared in.
Wefliall begin then by defcribing rowelling, which is
an artificial vent made between the Ikin and flelh, in or¬
der to unload and empty the veffels in general, and there¬
by relieve particular parts, when too much oppreffed by
afulnefs'or redundancy.
The general and abfurd reafoning of farriers on the
effedts and ufe of towelling, in feme meafure makes this
fedlion the mo{.e neceffary, as it is too notoiious how
I E R Y. 567
impertinently they talk on this fubjedt: for in ffiort, with
them, a rowel is to draw off all the bad and corrupt hu¬
mours from the blood by a fort of magic.
It is neceffary to obferve, that the matter generally
difeharged by a rowel, is nothing more than ah on zing
from the extremities of the veffels divided in the making
.of it; in fad! then, it is blood, which lofes its colour,,
by being ffied out of the vcffels, the warmth of the part,
and its confinement.
If this is granted, it will evidently appear, that the-
good effedts enfuing this operation, muft be owing to a
gradual depletion or emptying of the veflels in general
by which means the furcharge or load on a particular
part, is taken off and removed, and impurities or bad.
juices (generally called humours) run off with the good
in proportion to their quantity in the blood.
Thus, to lean hide-bound horfes, and thofe of a dry
hot conftitution, the difeharge, by depriving the confti-
tution of fo much blood and fluids, is daily exhaufting
the (Length of the animal ; and may be produdtive of
bad confequences, by defrauding the conftitution of a ne¬
ceffary fluid.
But in diforders from fulnefs, attended with acrimony,
or (harpnefs of the juices, and with defluxions on the
eyes, lungs, or any part of confequence; the gradual
difeharge, brought on by thefe means, will contribute to
leflen the fulnefs on the parts affefted, and give the vef¬
fels an opportunity of recovering their tone, while eva¬
cuating and alterative medicines are doing their office.
It may be neceffary, however, to obferve, that there
is a wonderful communication between the veffels of the
cellular membrane under the (kin, which remarkably ap¬
pears, by inflating thofe of (beep, calves, &c by the
butchers ; hence probably it is that fome diforders of this.
integument, are fo apparently relieved by iffues, or row¬
els, without our having any recourfe to that general de¬
pletion of the veflels, we have juft obferved, to account
for it; and hence alfo may be deduced their utility, fome-
times in draining off any extravafated fluids, which may
lodge between the interftices of the mufcles, after violent,
drains of the (houlder; alfo in difcharging fuch vitious
or (harp fluids as are thrown on the membranes, and oc-
cafion thofe flying pains and lamenefles, which we find
are often removed by this local remedy.
Of Strains in Various Parts,
It is neceflary to obfervej that in all drains, the muf-
cular or tendinous fibres are overftretched; and fome-
times ruptured, or broke. To form therefore a true
idea of thefe diforders, let us firft confider every mufcle
and tendon as compofed of fpringy elartic fibres, which
have a proper power of their oWn to contraft and extend
themfelves; or, to make their a&ion more familiar, let
us compare them to a piece of catgut, that we may the
better judge with what propriety oily medicines are diredt-
ed for their cure. Thus then, if by a violent extenfion of
this catgut, you had fo overftretched it as to deftroy its
fpringinefs or elafticity, and was inclined to recover its
loft tone; would you for that purpofe think of foaking it
in oil ? And is not the method of treating drains, or over¬
ftretched;
S'69 'FARR
ftretched mnfjlcs and tendons, fall as prepoflerous, when
you bathe or foak them in oily medicines, at a time that
they want reftringents to brace them up? Yet cuftom has
fo eftabliflied this praftice, and fallacious experience feem-
ingly fo confirmed it, that it would be a difficult talk to
convince the illiterate and prejudiced of the abfurdity,
who, by atributting effedts to wrong caufes, are led into
this error, and the oils ufurp the reputation that is due
only to rell and quiet: they feem, however, to be
aware of the ill confequences, by their adding the hot
oils, as fpike, turpentine, and origanum ; which, though
they in fome measure guard againlt the too fuppling
quality of the other oils, yet the treatment is ftill too re¬
laxing to be of real fervice.
And indeed, in all violent drains of either tendons or
mufcles, whatever opinion we may entertain of bathing and
anointing with favourite noftrums, which often fucceed in
flight cafes, where perhaps bandage alone would have
done; yet it is the latter, with proper reding the relaxed
fibres, till they have thoroughly recovered their tone, that
are the chief things to be depended on; and frequently
fome months are necedary for effe&ing the cure.
All violent drains of the ligaments, which conneft the
bones together, efpecialiy thofe of the thigh, require
time, and turning out to grafs, to a perfedt recovery.
External applications can avail but little here, the parts
affedted lying'too deep, and fo furrounded with mufcles
that medicine cannot penetrate to them. The fooner, in
thefe cafes, a horfe is turned out to grafs, the better; as
the gentle motion in the field will prevent the ligaments
and joint oil from thickening, and of courfe the joint it-
felf from growing diflf.
When a horfe’s dioulder is overdrained, he does not
put out that leg as the other; but to prevent pain, fets
the found foot hardily on the ground to fave the other;
even though he be turned fliort on the lame fide, which
motion tries him the mod of any. When trotted in hand,
indead of putting his leg forward in a right line, he
forms a circle with the lame leg’; and when he dands in
the dable, that leg is advanced before the other.
In order to cure this lamenefs, fird bleed him, and let
the whole fhoulder be well bathed three times a day with
hot verjuice or vinegar, in which may be didblved a piece
of foap ; but if the lamenefs continues without fwelling,
or inflammation, aftgr reding two or three days, let the
mufcles be well rubbed for a confiderable time, to make
them penetrate, with good opodeldoch, or either of the
following mixtures:
Take camphorated fpirit of wine, two ounces; oil of
turpentine, one ounce; this proportion will prevent
the hair coming off.
Or,
Take the bed vinegar, half a pint; fpirit of vitriol,
and camphorated fpirit of wine, of each two ounces.
When the (boulder is very much fwelled, it (hould be
fomented with woollen cloths (large enough to cover the
whole) wrung out of bot verjuice and fpirit of wine ; or
a. fomentation prepared with a drong deco&ion of worm¬
wood, bay-leaves, and rofemary, to a quart of which
;-may be added half a pint of fpirit of wine.
,A .rowel in the point of the fhoulder in this cafe often
I E R Y.
does great fervice;. efpecially if the drain has been very
violent, and the fwelling very large : but as to boring
up the (boulder with a hot iron, and afterwards inflating
it, is both a cruel and abfurd treatment; and the pegging
up the found foot, or fetting on a pattendhoe, to bring
the lame fhoulder on a dretch, is a mod prepoderous
practice, and dire&ly calculated to render a horfe in¬
curably lame; for it can only be necedary in cafes the
very oppofite to this, where the mufcles have been long
contracted, and we want to dretch them out.
Where poultices can be applied, they are at fird un¬
doubtedly very effectual, after bathing with hot vinegar or
verjuice, and are to be preferred greatlyvto cold charges,
which, by drying fo foon on the part, keep it diff and un-
eafy: let them be prepared with oat meal, rye flour, or
bran boiled up in vinegar, drong beer or red-wine lees,
with lard enough to prevent their growing diff; and when
by thefe means the inflammation and fwelling is brought
down, bathe the part twice a-day with either of the above
mixtures, opodeldoeh,. or camphorated' fpirit of wine;
and roll the part three or four inches,'both? above and be¬
low, with a drong linen roller, of about two fingers
width ; which contributes not a little to the recovery, by
bracing up the relaxed tendon ; and perhaps is more to
be depended on than the applications themfelves.
In drains ofthecoffin joint, that have not been difccfvered
in time, there will grow fuch a diffnds in the joint, that
the horfe will only touch the ground with his toe; and
the joint cannot be played with the hand; the only me¬
thod here is repeated blidering, and then firing fuperfi-
cialiy.
Strains of the hick Jtneivs are very common, and are
eafily difcovered by the fwelling, which extends fome-
times from the back-fide of the knee down to the heel,
but for the mod part the horfe fets that leg before the o-
ther. The tendon fhould be well bathed three or four
times a-day with hot vinegar; and if much fwelled, ap¬
ply the poultices above recommended; and when the
fwelling is down, bathe with the mixtures above, or with
camphorated fpirit of wine and oil of amber, in which
is diffolved as much camphor as the fpirits will take up,
and roll up the tendon with a proper bandage, or laced
docking; which lad, properly fitted to the limb, might be
wore to great advantage, not only in thefe fort of in¬
juries, but in mod others, where there is a difpofition to
the greafe, or other fwellings of the limbs, from weak
and relaxed fibres. Curriers (havings wetted with vine¬
gar have been found ufeful for this purpofe: as has aifo
tar and fpirit of wine: but where the tendons have differed
by repeated injuries of this kind, the cafe will demand
blidering, firing, and proper red.
Strains of the knees and pajlerns arife frequently from
kicks or blows ; if they are much fweiled, apply fird the
poultices; and when the fwelling is abated, bathe with
the above, or the following.
Take vinegar, one^pint; camphorated fpirits of wine,
four ounces ; white vitriol, difiblved in a little wa¬
ter, two drams.
Or,
Take the white of three or four eggs, beat them in¬
to a froth with a fpoon; to which add an ounce of
rock
FARR
rock allum, finely powdered ; fpirit of turpentine,
and wine, of each half an ounce; mix them well
together.
As great weaknefs remains in the patterns after violent
ftrains, the belt method is to turn the horfe out to grais
till he is perfeftly recovered; when this cannot be com¬
plied with, the general way is to blitter and fire.
When a horfe is lame in the JUJie, he generally treads
on his toe, and cannot fet the heel to the ground. Treat
him at firft with die vinegar and cooling rettringents ; but
-if a large fwelling, with puffinefs, enfues, foment it well
with the difcutient fomentation till it difperfes; and then-
bathe the part with any of the above medicines.
A lanienefs in the •whirl-bone and hip, is difcovered by
the horfe’s dragging his leg after him, and dropping
-backward on his heel when he trots. If the mufcles of
the hip are only injured, this kind of lamenefs is cured
eafily ; but when the ligaments of the joint are afFeded,
the cure is often very difficult, tedious, and uncertain.
In either cafe, at firtt bathe the parts well with the cool¬
ing medicines, four or .five times a-day ; in the mufcular
ttrain, this method alone may fucceed ; but in the liga¬
mentous, it is rett and time only can rettore the injured
parts to their proper tone.
Strains in the hock are to be treated by foaking the parts
with coolers and repellers; but when the ligaments are
hurt, and they are attended with great weaknefs and
pain, ufe the fomentation. If a hardnefs fhould remain
on the outfide, it may be removed by repeared Wittering ;
if within, it may be out of the power of-any external ap¬
plications to remove ; however, the joint fliould be fired
gently with fmall razes or lines pretty clofe together,
and then covered with a mercurial plaifter. To the dif-
cutiertt fomentation above mentioned may be added crude
fal armoniac, with a handful of wood-atties boiled in it.
The bliftering ointment for the above purpofes may be
found in the Seiftion of Bone-fpavin j but the fublimate
fhould be omitted.
The firing, ufed for the ftrengthening relaxed finews
or tendons, Ihould aft only on the fitin, which, by con-
trafting and hardening it all round the finews, compreffes
them more firmly like a bandage. The bow-men of old
fubmitted to this operation, in order to give ftrength to the
mufcles and tendons of their arms. A proper degree of
Ikill is very requifite to perform it effeftually on a horfe;
for a due medium ftiould be obferved, and the inftrument
neither fo ftightly applied, as to fcarify the fkin only fu-
perficially, nor fo deep as to wound or cauterize the. fi-
new or its (heath. The lines fiiould be drawn pretty
clofe together, on each fide of the joint or finew, follow¬
ing the courfe of the hair ; no crofs lines ttiould be made,
as they but disfigure the horfe afterwards, without any
real ufe. The firing inttrument, or knife, -ought to be a
little rounded on the edge, gradually thickening to the
back, that it may retain the heat for fome time, but
fliould not be applied till the flaming rednefs is partly
gone off* The cauterized parts may be bathed with
fpirit of wine at firft, and anointed afterwards with bees¬
wax and oil, which alone is fuffkient to complete the
cure.
Voi.. II. No 50. ^
I E R Y. 56?
Of T u mo u r and Imfosthu me s.
Tumours, or fwellings, arife either from external
injuries, or internal caufes.
Swellings, caufed by external accidents, as blows and
bruifes, fliould at f/rft be treated with reftringents ; thus,
let the part be bathed frequently with hot vinegar or ver¬
juice, and, where it will admit of bandage, let a flannel
wetted with the fame be rolled on : if by this method the
fwelling does not fubfide, apply, efpecially on the legs, a
poultice with red-wine lees, ftrong-beer grounds, and
oatmeal, or with vinegar, oil, and oatmeal; either of
thefe may be continued twice a-day, after bathing, till
the fwelling abates ; when, in order to difperfe it entire¬
ly, the vinegar ftiould be changed for camphorated fpirit
of wine, to four ounces of which may be added one of
fpirit of fal armoniac; or it may be bathed with a mix¬
ture of two ounces of crude fal armoniac boiled in a quart
of chamber-lye, twice a day, and rags dipped in the fame
may be rolled on.
Fomentation made by boiling worm-wood, bay-leaves,
and rofemary, and adding a proper quantity of fpirits,
are often of great fervice to thin the juices, and fit them
for tranfpiration ; efpecially if the injury has affefted the
joints.
But in bruifes, where the extravafated blood will not
by thefe means be difperfed, the fliorteft way is to open
the fltin, and let out the grumes.
Critical tumours, or fwellings, which terminate fevers,
ttiould by no means be difperfed ; except when they fall
on the pattern or coflin joint, fo as to endanger them: in
this cafe the difcutient fomentation, (p. 568. col. 1.
bottom) ftiould be applied three or four times a-day,
and a cloth or flannel frequently wrung out of the fame
ftiould be bound on, in order to keep the joint continual¬
ly breathing.
But if the fwelling fixes under the jaws, behind the
ears, on the poll, withers, or in the groins and (heath, •be.
it (hould be encouraged and forwarded by ripening poul
tices where-ever they can be applied; oatmeal boiled
foft in milk, to which a proper quantity of oil and lard
is added, may anfwer this purpofe; or the poultice re¬
commended in the Seftion of Strangles: thefe mutt be
applied twice a-day, till the matter is perceived to fluc¬
tuate under the fingers, when it ought to be let out • for
which purpofe, let the tumour be opened with a knife or
ftrong lancet, the whole length of the fwelling, if it can
be done fafely; for nothing contributes fo much to a kind
healing, as the matter’s having a free difeharge, and the
openings being big enough to drefs to the bottom.
Pledgets of tow, fpread with black or yellow bafilicoa
(or the wound ointment) and dipped in the fame, melted
down with a fifth part of oil of turpentine, (hould be ap¬
plied to the bottom of the fore, and filled up lightly with
the fame, without cramming; it may be thus drefled
once or twice a-day, if the difeharge is great, till a pro¬
per digeftion is procured, when it (hould be changed for
pledgets ipread with the red precipitate ointment, applied
in the fame manne* .
6 D
Should
570 FARR
Should the fore not digefl kindly, but run a thin wa¬
ter and look pale, foment, as often as you drefs, with the
above fomentation; and apply over your drefling the
rtreng-beer poultice, and continue this method till the
matter grows thick, and the fore florid.
The following ointments will generally anfwer your
expectations in all common cafes, and may be. prepared
without, as well as with, the verdegreafe.
TAKE~Venice turpentine and bees-wax of each a pound,
oil of olives one pound and a half, yellow rolin
twelve ounces ; when melted together, two or three
ounces of verdegreafe, finely powdered, may be
ftirred in, and kept fo till cold, to prevent its fub-
fiding.
Taxe of yellow bafilicon, or the above ointment,
without verdigreafe, four ounces; red precipitate,
finely powdered, half an ounce : mix them together
cold with a knife or fpatula.
This laft, applied early, will prevent a fungus, or
proud flefti, from (hooting out; for if you drefs too long
with the above digeflive, the fuhgus will rife faft, and
give fome trouble to fupprefs it; when it will be necef-
fary to wa(h the fore as often as you drefs, with a folu-
tion of blue vitriol in water, or to fprinkle it with burnt
alum and precipitate. If thefe (hould not be powerful e-
rough, touch with a cauftic, or wafh with the fublimate wa¬
ter, made by diflblving half an ounce of corrofive fubli-
mate in a pint of lime-water.
But this trouble may in a great meafure be prevented,
if the fore is on a part where bandages can be applied with
compre(fes of linen cloath : for even when thefe excref-
cences regerminate, as it were under the knife, and fpring
up in fpite of the cauftics above mentioned, they are to be
fubdued by moderate compreflion made on the fprouting
fibres, by thefe means.
Authors on farriery have given in general very proper
xeceipts to anfwer’every intention of this kind by medicines;
but as they have not laid down fufficient rules for their
application in thofe cafes where they are mod wanted,
the following general diredlions will not be unacceptable ;
as the difficulty in healing fome kinds of fores arifes
frequently from the unlkilful manner of drelling them.
It may be neceflary then to obferve here, once for all,
that the cures of moft fores are affefted by the fimpleft
methods, and that it is often of much more confequence
to know how to‘drefs a fore, than what to drefs it with ;
and in this confiffs indeed the chief art of this branch of
furgery ; for the mod eminent in that profeflion have long
fince difcovered, that variety of ointments and falves are
unneceflary in the cure of mod wounds and (ores, and
they have accordingly difcarded the greated part, for¬
merly in repute for that purpofe; repeated obfervations
having taught them, that after the digedion, nature is
generally difpofed to heal up the wound fad enough her-
felf, and that the furgeon’s chief care is to prevent a
luxuriancy, commonly called proud flefh; which all oint¬
ments, wherein lard or oil enters, are but too prone to
encourage, as they keep the fibres too lax and fupple ;
and which dry lint alone, early applied, as eafily pre¬
vents, by its abforbing quality, and light compreflion on
the fprouting fibies.
I E R Y.
Thus, if a hollow wound or fore is crammed with
tents, or the dreflings are applied too hard, the tender
(hoots of fleffi from the bottom are prevented pufhing up;
and the fides of the fore in time from this didenfion may
grow horny, and turn fidulous; nor has the matter by
this method a free difcharge.
On the other hand, if fores of any depth are drefled
fuperficially, the external parts being more difpofed to
heal and come together than the internal, they will fall
into contaft, or heal too foon ; and the fore, not filling up
properly from the bottom, will break out afrefli.
Hence we may judly conceive how little drefs is to be
laid on famous ointments, or family falves, unflcilfully
applied ; for unlefs this due medium is obferved, or ob¬
tained in the drefling, no hollow fore can heal up pro¬
perly.
As foon then as a good digedion is procured (which is
known by the thicknefs and whitenefs of the matter dif*
charged, and the florid red colour at the bottom of the
fore) let the dreflings be changed for the precipitate me¬
dicine; or the fore may be filled up with dry lint alone,
or dipped in lime-water whh a little honey and timdure
of myrrh, or brandy, about a fifth part of the latter to
one of the former ; a pledget of lint dipped in this mix¬
ture (hould alfo be applied to the bottom of the fore,
which (hould be filled up with others to the furface or
edges,, but not Crammed in too hard, as before obferved,
nor yet applied too loofely.
By this method, the fore would incarn, or heal up
properly, and foft fpongy flefli would be prevented, or
fupprefled in time ; whereas when ointments or falves are
too long continued, a fungus, or proud fleffi, is thereby
fo encouraged in its growth, that it requires fome time
to deftroy and eat it down again : a proper comprefs of
cloth, and a linen roller, is abfolutely neceflary both for
this purpofe, and tofecure on the dreflings, where ever they
can conveniently be applied.
Of Wounds in General.
In all frefti wounds made by cutting inffruments, there
is nothing more required than bringing the lips of the
wound into contad by future dr bandage, provided the
part will allow of it; for on wounds of the hips, or o-
ther prominent parts, and acrofs fome of the large muf-
cles, the ditches are apt to burlt on the horfe's lying down
and rifing up in the dall; in fuch cafes the lips ffiould not
be brought clofe together: one flitch is fufficient for a.
wound two inches long; but in large wounds, they (hould
be at an inch or more diftance; and if the wound is deep
in the mufcles, care (hould be taken to pafs the needles
proportionably deep, otherwife the wound will not unite
properly from the bottom.
Should the wound bleed much from an artery divided,
the firft ftep (hould be to fecure it, by palling a crooked
fieedle underneath, and tying it up with a waxed thread :
if the artery cannot be got at this way, apply a button of lint
or tow to the mouth of the bleeding veflel, dipped in a ffrong
folution of blue vitriol, ftyptic water, oil of vitriol, or hot oil
of turpentine, powdered vitriol, or colcothar, fee. and re¬
member always to apply it clofe to the mouthof the bleeding
veflels,.
FARR
▼effth, and take care that it is kept there by proper com-
prefs and bandage, tili an efchar is formed; otherwife it
will elude your expe&ations, and frequently alarm you
with frelh bleedings.
In a memoir prefented to the Royal Academy of Sci¬
ences by M. La Fofie, he gives an account of the fuccefs
he had met with in flopping the bleedings of very confi-
derable arteries in horfes, by the application of the pow¬
der of puff balls, the arteries cicatrizing by this means
only, without any fucceeding haemorrhage. This Lyco-
perdon, or puff-ball, was made ufe of for this purpofe in
human fubjedts, about 160. years ago, by Felix Wurtz,
a famous old furgeon in Germany; but he does not feem
to have a thought of trufting to it in fuch confiderable
arteries as M. LaFoffe mentions, viz. thofe of the leg
and thigh, the bleedings from which divided veffels he
liopt in a few minutes by the ufe of this powder only.
The agaric of the oak may alfo be ufed for this purpofe,
where it can be retained by a proper bandage.
Thefe applications, as indeed all flyptics, feem to aft'
by conftringing the extremity of the veffel, or choaking
it up, till a grume of blood is formed internally, which
plugs up the orifice ; and has been, found to adhere to it
fo, as to conftitute one body with the veffel.
We avoid fetting down any famous receipts for frefh
wounds, whether ointments, or Fryar’s balfams, being
well affured, that in a healthy found conftitution, nature
furnilhes the beft balfam, and performs herfelf the cure,
which is'fo often attributed to the medicine; when it is
otherwife, and the blood is deprived of its balfamic Gate,
as will appear from the afpeft of the wound, and its man¬
ner of healing, it mufl be reftified by proper internal me¬
dicines, before a good foundation for healing can be laid
by any external applications whatever.
The lips of the wound then being brought together by
the needle or bandage, it needs only to be covered with
rags dipped in brandy, or a pledget of tow fpread with
the wound ointment, (fee p. 570. col. 1. par. 3.) the di-
reftions in the preceding feftions being obferved, and the
wounded part kept as much as poffible from motion.
Punftured wounds from thorns, or any other accidents,
Ihould be treated in the fame manner; applying the beer,
or bread and milk poultice over the drefftng, till fome
figns of digeftion'appear; and fomenting the part well e-
very day. This method is alfo very fuccefsfully ufed to
thofe dwellings, which often arife on the neck from bleed¬
ing, the fores being fprinkled with precipitate, and burnt
alum powdered, to fetch out the core, or fungus, which
choaks up the orifice. The ufual method is to introduce
a piece of vitriol, or fublimate, which often brings on a
plentiful difcharge, fetches out the core, and makes a
cure; but it is often with the lofs of the vein, and it fome-
times leaves a large fwelling and impofthumation.
In gun-fhot wounds, when the ball has not penetrated
too deep, it fhould be extracted, if it can be fetched a-
way without diftutbance, together with any extraneous
bodies that might pafs in with it; the wound Ihould be
dreffed with the old digeftive of Venice or common tur¬
pentine, divided with the yolks of eggs, to which may be
added fome honey and tin&ure of myrrh. The entrance
of thefe wounds frequently requires to be enlarged, and
I E R Y. 57f
a depending orifice fiiould always be procured it poffible;,
and if the wound Ihould not diged kindly, apply the beer
poultice, and foment with the difeutient fomentation,
p. 569. col. 2. par. 3.
In fealds, or burns from gun-powder, or any other
caufe, when the Ikin remains entire, bathe the part well,
and keep it foaked with rags dipped in fpirit of wine
camphorated: fait bound thick on the part has been found
very effeftual for this purpofe : and indeed all faline and
fpirituous applications excel others, while the Ikin is yet
unbroke; but when the lldn is feparated, anoint the part,
and keep it conftantly fupple with linfeed or fallad
oil, and a plailkr fpread with bees-wax and oil ; if
the lldn is fo fcorched, that Houghs mufl be digefted out,
drefs with .the wound-ointment and oil of turpentine, and
fitiilh the cure with any drying ointment.. Should the
horle be feverilh from the pain, bleed him, give cooling;
glylters, and treat him as we have dire&ed in limple fevers,.
Cy Ulcers in General.
We lhall not here enter into a defeription of each par¬
ticular fpecies of ulcers, but only lay down fome direc¬
tions for their general treatment; by which means we lhall
avoid the ufual proxility of authors on this fubjeft, and
yet give fo general an idea of the nature of ulcers, as we^
hope will be fuflkiently inllru&tve both of the application
and of the proper remedy to each.
It may be neceffary to obferve, that we may often in
vain ptirfue the bell methods of cure by external applica¬
tions, unlefs we have recourfe to proper internal remedies;
for as all ulcers, difficult to heal, proceed from a parti¬
cular indifpolxtion of the blood and juices, before the for*s
mer can be brought into any order, the latter muff be
corrected by alteratives and fweetening medicines.
The firft intention in the cure of ulcers is bringing
them to digeft, or difcharge a thick matter ; which will,
in general, be effe&ed by the green ointment, or that
with precipitate ; but Ihould the fore not digelt kindly by
thefe means, but difcharge a gleety thin matter, and look
pale, you muft then have recourfe to warmer dreffin-gs,
fuch as balfam, or oil of turpentine, melted down with
your common digeftive, and the ftrong beer poultice over
them ; it is proper alfo in thefe kind of fores where the
circulation is languid, and the natural heat abated, to
warm the part, and quicken the motion of the blood, by
fomenting it well at the time of dreffing; which method
will thicken the matter, and roufe the native heat of the'
part, and then the former dreffings may be re-applied.
If the lips of the ulcer grow hard or callous, they
muft be pared down with a knife, and afterwards rubbed
with the cauftic.
Where foft fungous fleffi begins to rife, it ffiould care¬
fully be fuppreffed in time, otherwife the cure will go on
butllowly; if it has already fprouted above the furface,
pare it down with a knife, and rub the remainder with a
bit of cauftic; and*.to prevent its riling again, fprinkle
the fore with equal parts of burnt alum, and red preci¬
pitate ; or waffi with the fublimate water, and drefs with
dry lint even to the furface, and then roll over a comprefs
of linen as tight as can be borne ; for a proper degree of
preffure.
572 TAR]
’preflure, with mild applications, will always oblige thefe
fpongy excrefcences to fubfide, but without bandage the
ftrongeft will not fo well fucceed.
All finufes, or cavities, Ihould be lard open as foon as
difcovered, after bandages have been ineffedtually tried;
but where the cavity penetrates deep into the mufcles, and
a counter opening is imprafticable or hazardous; where,
by a continuance, the integuments of the mufcles are
conflantly dripping and melting down ; in thefe cafes in-
jeAions may be ufed, and will frequently be attended
with fuccefs. A decoAion of colcothar boiled in forge-
water ; or folution of lapis medicamentofus in lime wa¬
ter, with a fifth part of honey and tinfture of myrrh,
may be firfl: tried, injeAed, three or four ounces twice a-
diy ; or fome refin melted down with oil of turpentine,
may be ufed for this purpofe: if thefe Ihould not fucceed,
the following, which is of a (harp and cauftic nature, is
recommended on Mr Gibfon’s experience.
Take of Roman vitriol half an ounce; dilfolve in a
pint of water, then decant and pour off gently into a
large quart-bottle: add half a pint of camphorated
i'piritof wine, .the fame quantity of the bell vinegar,
and two ounces of iEgyptiacum.
This mixture is alfo very fuccefsfully applied to ulce¬
rated greafy heels, which it will both cleanfe and dry up.
Thefe finufes, or cavities, frequently degenerate into
fiJluLe, that is, grow pipey, having the infide thickened,
and lined, as it were, with a horny callous fubftanee.
In order to their cure, they muft be laid open, and the
hard fubftance all cut away ; where this is impraAicable,
fcarify them well, and truft to the precipitate medicine
made llrong, rubbing now and then with cauftic, butter
of antimony, or equal parts of quickfilver and aqua¬
fortis.
When a rotten or foul bone is an attendant on an ulcer,
the flelh is generally loofe and flabby, the difcharge oily,
thin, and (linking, and the bone difcovered to be carious,
by its feeling rough to the probe pa(fed through the
Ilefli for that purpofe. In order to a cure, the bone
muft be laid bare, that the rotten part of it be removed;
for which purpofe, deftroy the loofe fldh, and drefs with
dry lint ; or the doffils may be prelfed out of tinAure of
myrrh or euphorbium : the throwing off the fcale is ge¬
nerally a work of nature, which is effeAed in more or
lefs time, and in proportion to the depth the bone is af-
feAed ; though burning the foul bone is thought by fome
to haften its leparation.
Where the cure does not properly fucceed, mercurial
phyfic fnould be given, and repeated at proper intervals:
and to correA and mend the blood and juices, the anti-
monial an 1 alterative powders, with a decoAion of guai-
acum and lime-waters, are proper for that purpofe.
Of a Bone-Spavin.
Without entering at all into the caufe qf this diforder,
which is a bony excrefcence, or hard fwelling, growing
on the infide of the hock of a horfe’s leg, we (hall con¬
tent ourfelves with defcribing the different kinds thereof,
;by their fymptoms; and then enter on their cure.
ft fpavin, that begins on the lower part of the hock,
1. I E R Y.
is not fo dangerous as that which puts out higher, be¬
tween the two round proceffts of the leg bone ; and a
fpavin near the edge is not fo bad as that which is more
inward toward the middle, as it does not fo much affeA
the bending of the hock.
A fpavin, that comes by a kick or blow, is at firft
no true fpavin, but a bruife on the bone, or membrane
which covers it; therefore not of that confequence, as
when it proceeds from a natural caufe: and thofe that
put out on colts, and young horfes, .are not fo bad as
thofe that happen to horfes in their full ftrength and ma¬
turity; but in very old horfes they are generally incurable.
The ufual method of treating this diforder is by bli-
fters and firing, without any regard to the fituation, or
caufe whence it proceeds. Thus, if a fulnefs on the
fore-part of the hock comes upon hard riding, or any o-
ther violence, which threatens a fpavin ; in that cafe,
fuch coolers and repel lers are proper, as are recommend¬
ed in drains and bruifes. Thofe happening to colts and
young horfes are generally fuperficial, and require only
the milder applications; for it is better to wear them
down by degrees, than to remove them at once by fevere
means.
Various are the prefcriptions for the bliftering oint¬
ment; but the following, on proper experience, (lands
well recommended byMrGibfon.
Take nerve and marfti-mallow ointment, of each two
ounces ; quickfilver, one ounce, thoroughly broke
with an ounce of Venice turpentine; Spanfth flies
powdered, a dram and a half; fublimate, one dram ;
oil of origanum, two drams.
The hair is to be cut as clofe as poflible, and then the
ointment applied pretty thick over the part; this (hould
be done in the morning, and the horfe kept tied up all
day without any litter till night; when he may be untied,
in order to lie down; and a pitch or any (licking plaifter
may be laid over it, and bound on with a broad tape or
bandage to keep all clofe.
After the blifter has done running, and the fcabs be¬
gin to dry and peel off, it may be applied a fecond time,
in the fame manner as before; this fecond application ge¬
nerally taking greater effeA than the firft, and in colts
and young horfes makes a perfeA cure.
When the fpavin has been of long (landing, it will re¬
quire to be renewed, perhaps, five or fix times; but af¬
ter the fecond application, a greater diftance of time muft
be allowed, otherwife it might leave a fear, or caufe a
baldnefs; to prevent which, once a-fortnight or three
weeks is often enough ; and it may in this manner be
continued fix or feven times, without the lead blemiflr,
and will generally be attended with fuccefs.
But the fpavins that put out on older, or full-aged
horfes, are apt to be more obftinate, as being feated more
inward; and when they run among the finuofities of the
joint, they are for the mod part incurable, as they then
lie out of the reach of applications, and are arrived to a
degree of impenetrable hardnefs.
The ufual method in thefe cafes is to fire direAly, or
to ufe the (trongeft kind of cauftic blifters ; and fome-
times to fire and lay the blifter immediately_over the part;
but this way feldom fucceeds farther than putting a (lop
to
FARR
to tlie grmvth of the fpavin, and is apt to leave both ‘a
b!emifh and ftifFnefs behind; befides the great rifk run
"(by applications of thefe fiery and cauflic medicines to the
nervous and tendinous parts about the joints) of exciting
violent pain and anguiih, and de/troying the limb.
The beft and fafeft way therefore, is to make trial of
the bliftering oifitment above, and to continue it accor¬
ding to th« direftions there laid down, for fome months,
if found neceflary; the horfes in the intervals working
moderately: the hardnefs will thus be difiblved by de¬
grees, and wear away infenfibly.
Where the fpavin lies deep, and runs fo far into the
hollow of the joint, that no application can reach it, nei¬
ther firing nor medicines can avail, for the reafons above-
mentioned ; though bold ignorant fellows have fometimes
fucceeded in cafes of this fort (by men of judgment deem¬
ed incurable) by the application of cauftic ointments with
fublimate, which aft very forcibly, enter deep, and make
a large difcharge, and by that means deftroy a great part
of the fubftance, and diffolve away the remainder : Tho’,
whoever is at ail acquainted with the nature of thefe
medicines, muft know how dangerous in general their
operation is on thefe occafions; and that a proper pre¬
pared cautery made like a fleam, under the direction of
a ikilful hand, may be applied with lefs danger of inju¬
ring either tendons or ligaments. After the fubftance of
the fwelling has been properly penetrated by the inftru-
ment, it muft be kept running by the precipitate medicine,
or mild bliftering ointment. Where the fpavin lies not
deep in the joint, and the bliftering method will not fuc-
ceed, the fwelling may be fafely fired with a thin iron
forced pretty deep into the fubftance, and then fltould be
drefled, as is above dire&ed.
Of a Curb and Ring-bone.
As a fpavin rifes among the bones on the fore part of
thehock,foacurbtakesits origin from the junffuresof the
fame bones, and rifes on the hind part, forming a pretty
large tumour over the back part of the hind-leg, attended
with ftifFnefs, and fometimes with pain and lamenefs.
A curb proceeds from the fame caufes that produce
fpavins; viz. hard riding, ftrains, blows, or kicks. The
cure at firft is generally eafy enough effected by bliftering,
repeated two or three times, or oftener. If it does not
fubmit to this treatment, but grows exceflively hard, the
quickeft and fureft way is to fire with a thin iron, ma¬
king a line down the middle from top to bottom, and
drawing feveral lines in a penniform manner pretty deep ;
and then to apply a mild bliftering plaifter or ointment o-
ver it.—This method will entirely remrove it.
There is another fwelling taken notice of on the out-:
fide of the hock, which is called a j-ardon. This com¬
monly proceeds from blows and kicks of other horfes;
but frequently happens to menaged horfes, by fetting
them on their haunches: it is feldorri attended with mudh
lamenefs, unlefs it has been negle&ed, or fome little pro-
cefs of the bone be broke. It fhould firft be treated
with the coolers and repellers in (p. 574, and 575..);
but if any fwelling continues hard, and infenfible, the
beft way is to blifter or fire ; but the mild blifters alone
generally fucceed. *
Vot,, II. No. 50. 2
I E R Y. 573
The ring-bone is a hard fwelling on the lower part
of the paftern, which generally reaches half-way round
the fore-part thereof, and from its refemblance to a ring
has its denomination. It often arifes from ftrains, <bc.
and when behind, from putting young horfes too early upon
their haunches ; for in that attitude a horfe throws his
whole weight as much, if not more, upon his pafterns,
than on his hocks.
When it appears diftinAly round the paftern, and does
not run downwards toward the coronet, fo as to affedt
the coffin-joint, it is eafily cured; but if it takes its o-
rigin from fome ftrain or defeft in the joint originally, or
if a callofity is found under the round ligament that co¬
vers that joint, the cure is generally dubious, and fome¬
times imprafticable; as it is apt to turn to a quittor,
and in the end to form an ulcer upon the hoof.
The ring-bones that appear on colts and young horfes,
will often infenfibly wear off of themfelves, without the
help of any application ; but when the fubftance remains,
there needs no other remedy befides bliftering, unlefs
when by long continuance it is grown to an obftinate
hardnefs, and then it may require both bliftering and
firing.
To fire a ring-bone fuccefsfully, let the operation be
performed with a thinner inftrument than the common
one, and let the lines or razes be made not above a quarter
of an inch diftant, eroding them obliquely, fomewhat like
a chain: apply a mild blifter over all, and, when quite
dried up, the rupture-plaifter; and then turn the horfe
to grafs for fome time.
^ Of S P L e n r s.
These are hard excrefcences that grow on the fhank-
bone, and are of various fhapes and fizes. Some horfes
are more fubjedl to fplents than others; but young hor¬
fes are moft liable to thefe infirmities, which often wear
off and difappear of themfelves. Few horfes put out
fpients after they are feven or eight years old, unlefs they
meet with blows or accidents.
A fplent that arifes in the middle of the fhank-bone is
no ways dangerous; but thofe that arife on the back part
of this bone, when they g;row large and prefs againft the
back finew, always caufe lamenefs or ftifFnefs, by rub-
bing againft it: the others, except they are fituated near
the joints, feldom occafion lamenefs.
As to the cure of fplents, the beft way is not to meddle
with them, unlefs they are fo large as to disfigure a horfe,
or are fo fituated as to endanger his going lame.
Splents in their infancy, and on their firft appearance,
fhould be well bathed with vinegar, or old verjuice;
which, by ftrengthening the fibres, often put a flop to
their growth : for the membrane covering the bone, and
not the bone itfdf, is here thickened : and in fome con-
ftitutions purging, and afterwards diuretic drinks, will be
a great means to remove the humidity and moifture about
the limbs, which is what often gives rife to fuch excref¬
cences.
Various are the remedies preferibed for this diforder;
the ufual way is t^*bb the fplent with a round ftick or
the handle of a hammer, till it is almoft raw, and then
•touch-it with oil of origanum. Others lay on a pitch-
6 E plaifter,
574 FARR
plaifler, with a little fubllmate, orarfenic, to deftroy the
fubftance : fome-ufeoil of vitriol; fome tindture of can-
tharides: all which methods have at times fucceeded;
only they are apt to leave a fear with the lofs of hair.
Thofe applications that are of a more cauftic nature, of¬
ten do more hurt than good, especially when the fplent
is grown very hard, as they produce a rottennefs, which
keeps running feveral months before the ulcer can be heal¬
ed, and then leaves an ugly fear.
Mild blifters often repeated, as recommended in the fec-
tion upon the Done Spavin, fhould firftbe tried as the moft
eligible method, and will generally fucceed, even beyond
expeftation : but if they fail, and the fplent be near the
knee or joints, you mull fire and blifter in the fame man-
tier as for the bone-fpavin.
Splents on the back part of the fhank-bone are difficult
to cure, by reafbn of the back iinews covering them :
the belf way is to bore the fplent in feveral places with
an iron not very hot ; and then to fire in the common
way, not making the lines too deep, but very clofe to¬
gether.
Of the Poll-evil.
The poll-evil is an abfeefs near the poll of a horfe,
formed in the finufes between the poll-bone, and the up-
jiermoft vertebrae of the neck.
If it proceeds from blows, bruif-s, or any external vio¬
lence, at firft bathe the fwelling often with hot vinegar ;
and if the hair be fretted off with an ouzing through the
Ikin, make ufe of two parts of vinegar, and one of fpirit
©f wine; but if there be an itching, with heat and in¬
flammation, the fafeft way is to bleed, and apply poultices
with bread, milk, and elder-flowers: this method, with
the afliliance of phyfick, will frequently difperfe the
fwelling, and prevent this evil.
But when the tumour is critical, and has all the figns
of matter, the bell method then is to forward it by apply¬
ing the ripening poultices already taken notice of, till it
comes to maturity, and burfts of itfelf; or it opened with
a knife, great care fhould be taken to avo.d the tendi¬
nous ligament that runs along the neck under the mane :
when matter is on both Tides, the opening muff be made
on each fide, and the ligament remain undivided.
If the matter flows in great quantities, refembles melt-
•ed glue, and is of an oily confiftence, it will require a
fecopd incifion, efpecially if any cavities are difeovered
by the finger or probe ; thefe fhould be opened by the
knife, the orifices made depending, and the wound dref-
fed with the common digeftive of turpentine, honey, and
tinffure of myrrh, and, after digeftion, with the precipitate
ointment ; or wafh the fore with the following, made hot,
and fill up the cavity with tow foaked in it.
Take vinegar or fpirit of wine half a pint, white vi¬
triol difTolved in fpring-water half an ounce, tinc¬
ture of myrrh four ounces.
This may be made {harper by adding more vitriol ; but
if the fleflt is very luxuriant, it fhould firft be pared down
with a knife before the application ; with this wafh alone
Mr Gibfon has cured this diforder without any other
formality of dr effing, wafhing with it twice a-day, and
I E R Y.
kying over the part a quantity oftow (baked in vinegar
and the white of eggs beat together.
But the mod compendious method of cure, is found
by obfervation to be byJ'caldiag, as the farriers term it;
and is thus profecuted wheti the fore is foul, of a had
difpofition, and attended with a profufion of matter.
Take corrofive fublimate, verdegreafein fine powder,
and Roman vitriol, of each two drams ; green cop¬
peras half an ounce, honey or iFgyptiacum two
ounces,, oil of turpentine and train oil of each eight
ounces, redtified fpirit of wine four ounces; mix to¬
gether in a bottle.
The manner of Raiding is firft to clean the abfeefs
well with a piece of fponge dipped in vinegar ; then put
a fufficient quantity of the mixture into a ladle with a
fpout, and when it is made Raiding hot, pour it into the
abfeefs, and clofe the lips together with one or more
flitches. This is to remain in Rveral days; and if good
matter appears, and not in an over great quantity, it will
do well without any other dreffing, but bathing with fpi¬
rit of wine ; if the matter flows in great abundance, and
of a thin confiftence, it muft be Raided again, and re¬
peated till the matter lefiens and. thickens.
Of a Fistula, and Bruises on the Withers;
Warbles on the Back, and Sit-fasts.
Bruises on the withers frequently impofthumate, and
for want of care turn fiftulous. They arife often from
pinches of the faddle, and fhould be treated with repel-
lers : Tor this purpofe bathe the tumour well with hot
vinegar three or four times a day; if that does not Re¬
cced alone, an ounce of oil of vitriol may be.put to,a
quart of vinegar, or half an ounce of white vitriol diffoi-
ved in a little water, and added to the lame quantity.
Thefe are generally very effeftual repeliers for this pur-
poR in horfes, and will frequently prevent impofthuma-
tion : when the fwelling is attended with heat, fmarting,
and little hot watery pimples, the following mixture will
then be more proper to bathe with.
Take two ounces of crude fal ammoniac, boiled in a
quart of lime-water ; where that cannot be had, a
handful of pearl or wood-afhes may be boiled in
common water : pour off the decoflion when fettled,
and mix with it half a pint of fpirit of wine : anoint
the part afterwards with linfeed oil, or elder oint¬
ment, to foften and fmooth the fltin.
But when the fweUings are critical, the confequence of
a fever fettled on this part, you muft avoid the repelling
method, and aflift in bringing' the fwelling to matter, by
means of Rppurating poultices: experienced farriers ad-
vife, never to open thefe tumours till they break of
themfelves; for if they are opened before they are ripe,
the whole fore will be fpongy, and difeharge a bloody i-
chor, which Ron degenerates into a fordid ulcer. But
take care to enlarge the openings and pare away the lips,
that your dreffings may be applied eafily; and avoid the
ligament which runs along the neck to the withers : if a
gathering forms on the oppofite fide, open it in the fame
manner, but take care they incline downwards, for the
fake of depending orifices,, and letting the matter flow
FARR
off eadly. F.or the method of dieffing, we muft refer to
the preceding SeifHon ; and if the bones fhouJd be found
foul, they muft be dreffed with tindlureof myrrh till they
jcale offt if the fungus is very troublefome, and the dif-
charge oily, yellow and vifcid, pledgets foaked in the
following, made hot, have been found vtry effeftual,
bathing the fwelling round with fpirit 'of wine 'and vi-
negar.
Take half an Ounce of blue vitriol diffolved in a pint
of water ; oil of turpentine, and refiified fpirit of
wine, of-each four ounces ; white-wine vinegar, fix
ounces; oil of vitriol and iEgyptiacum, of each two
ounces.
When the cavities are truly fiftulous, the callofities
hiuft be cut out, where it can be done, with a knife ; and
the remainder defrayed by corrofives, viz. precipi¬
tate, burnt alum, and white vitriol, as we have already
obferved in the Sefiion on UJcers.
WarbUs are fmall hard tumours under the faddle-part
of the horfe’s back, occafioned by the heat of the faddle
in travelling, or its uneafy fituation. A hot greafy difh-
clout at firlt frequently applied, will fometimes remove
them. Camphorated fpirits of wine are alfo very effec¬
tual for this purpofe to difperfe them, to which a little
fpirit of fal armoniac may be added. The repellers a-
bove-mentioned are fuccefsfully applied in thefe cafes;
and if you are obliged to work the horfe, take care your
faddle is nicely chambered.
A ftt-fafi proceeds generally from a warble, and is
the horfe’s hide turned horny, which, if it cannot be dif-
faived and foftened by rubbing with the mercurial oint¬
ment, muft be cut out, and treated then as a frefh wound.
Of Wind-galls. Blood Bog Spavins.
A Wind-gall is a flatulent fwelling, which yields
to the preffure of the ifinger, and recovers its fliape on
the removal thereof: the tumour is vifible to the eye,
and often feated on both Tides of the back finew, above
the fetlocks, on the fore legs, but mod: frequently on the
bind-legs; though they are met with in various parts of
the body, where-ever membranes can be fo feparated, that
a quantity of air and ferofities may be included within
their duplicatures.
When they appear near the joints and tendons, they
are generally caufed by (trains, or bruifes on the finews,
or the (heath that covers them; which, by being over-
ftretched, have fome of their fibres ruptured; whence
.probably may ouze out that fluid which is commonly
found with the included air: though where thefe fwellings
fliew themfelves in the interflices of large mufcles, which
appear blown up like bladders, air alone is the chief
fluid ; and thefe may fafely be opened, and treated as a
common wound. -
On the firft appearance of wind-galls, their cure fhould
be attempted by reff ingents and bandage; for which
purpofe, let the fwelling be bathed twice: a-day with
vinegar, or verjuice alone; or let the part be fomented
with a deco&ion of oak-bark, pomegranate, and alum
boiled in verjuice, binding over it, with a roller, a woollen
cloth Ibaked in the lame. Some, for this purpofe, vtjTe
I E R Y. 5 75
red-wine lees, others carriers fliavlngS wetted with the
fame, or vinegar, bracing the part up with a firm ban¬
dage.
If this method, after a proper trial, fhould not he
found to fucceed, authors have advifed the fwelfing to be
pierced with an awl, or opened with a knife.: but mild
bliflering has in general the preference given to thefe me¬
thods ; the including fluids being thereby drawn off,
the impatfled air difperfed, and the tumour gradually di*
minifhed.
A blood-fpavin is a fwelling and dilatation of the vein
that runs along the infide of the hock, forming a little
foft fwelling in the hollow part, and is often attended
with a weaknefs and lamenefs of the hock.
The cure (hould be firft attempted with the reftringents
and bandage above recommended, which will contribute
greatly to ftrengthen all weakneffes of the joints, and
frequently will remove this diforder, if early applied:
but if by thefe means the vein is" not reduced to its ufual
dimenfions, the ikin fhould be opened, and the vein tied
with a crooked needle and wax-thread palled underneath
it, both above and below the fwelling, and the turgid
part fuffered to digeft away with the ligatures : for this
purpofe, the wound may be daily dreffed with turpentine,
honey, and fpirit of wine, incorporated together.
A bog-fpavin is an eneyfted tumour on the infide the
hough; or, according to Dr Bracken, a colleflion of
brownifh gelatinous matter, contained in a bag, or cyft,
which he thinks to be the lubricating matter of the joint
altered, the common membrane that inclofes it forming
the .cyft. This cafe he has taken the pains to illuftrate ia
a young colt of his own, where he fays, When the fpa-
vin was preffed hard on the infide the hough, there was a
fmall tumour on the outfide, which convinced him the
fluid was within-fide the joint: he accordingly cut into it,
difeharged a large quantity of this gelatinous matter, dre.f-
fed the fore with doffils dipped in oil of turpentine, put¬
ting into it, once in three or four days, a powder made
of calcined vitriol, .alnm, and bole: by this method of
dreffing, the bag floughed off, and came away, and the
cure was fuccefsfully compleated without any vifible fear.
This diforder, according to the above defeription, will
fcarcely fubmit to any other method, except firing, when
the cyft ought to be penetrated to make it effetffual; but
in all obftinare cafes that have refifted the above methods,
both the cure of this and of the fwellings called wind-galls
fhould be attempted in this manner. If, through the
pain attending the operation or dreffings, the joint fhould
fwell and inflame, foment it twice a-day, and apply aS
poultice over the dreffings till it is reduced.
Of Mallenders and Sallenders.
Mallenders are cracks in the bend of the horfe’s
knee', that^difeharge a (harp indigefted matter; they are
often the occafion of lamenefs, ftiffnefs, and the horfe’s
tumbling.
Sallenders wet the fame diftemper, fituate on the bend¬
ing of the hough, and occafion a lamenefs behind.
They are both cured by wafhing the parts with a lather
of foap warmed, or old chamber-lye ; and then apply o-:
ver
57$ "FARR
ver the cracks a ftrong mercurial ointment fpread on tow,
with which they ftiould be dreffed, night and morning,
till all the fcabs fall off: if this Ihould not fucceed, a-
noint them night and morning with a little of the follow¬
ing, and apply the above ointment over it.
Take hogs lard, two ounces ; fublimate mercury, two
drams.
Or,
Take hogs lard, two ounces; oil of vitriol, two
drams.
Take the next from Gibfon, which is to be depend¬
ed on:
^Ethiops mineral, half an ounce ; white vitriol, one
dram ; foft green foap, fix ounces.
Anoint with this often ; but firft clip away the hair, and
■clear the fcabs. On their drying up, it may be proper
to give a gentle purge or two ; or the nitre balls may be
taken advantageoufly, for a fortnight or three weeks. •
0/Lampas, Barbs, Wolves Teeth.
The la?7tpas\s an excrefcence in the roof of thehorfe’s
mouth, which is fometimes fo luxuriant, that it grows a-
bove the teeth, and hinders his feeding. The cure is in
lightly cauterifing the flelh with a hot iron, taking care
that it does not penetrate too deep, fo as to fcale off the
thin bone that lies under the upper bars; the part may
be anointed with burnt alum and honey, which is proper
for moll: fores in the mouth.
This operation is by feme thought to be entirely unne-
-ceffary; it being a general obfervation with them, that
all young borfes have their mouths more or lefs full of
what are called lampas ; and that fometimes they rife
higher than the fore teeth; but they further obferve, in
proportion as a horfe grows older, the roof flattens of it-
felf, and the teeth then appear to rife. We are obliged
to the ingenious M. La Foffe for this remark, and hope it
will be the means of abolifliing this cruel and unnecefia-
ry operation.
Barbs are fmall excrefcences under the tongue, which
may be difcovered by drawing it afide, and are cured by
cutting clofe off, and walking with brandy or fait and
water.
A horfe is faid to have ivolves-teeth, when the teeth
grow in fuch a manner, that their points prick, or wound
either the tongue, or gums, in eating. Old horfes are
moll liable to this infirmity, and whofe upper overflioot
the under teeth in a great degree.
To remedy this evil, you may either chop off the fu-
perfluous parts of the teeth with a chizzel and mallet,
or file them down, which is the better way, till you have
fufliciently walled them.
Of the Grease.
In order to treat this diforder with Tome propriety;
we lhall confider it as arifing from two different caufes ;
a fault or relaxation in the veffels, or a bad di'fpofition in
the blood and juices. We mull here cbferve, that
The blood and juices (or humours, for there are always
dome in the bell Hate of blood) are brought to the ex¬
treme parts by the arteries, and returned by the veins ;
I E R Y.
in which latter, the blood is to rife in perpendicular co*
lumns, to return the circulating fluids from the extremi¬
ties : hence fwellings in the legs of horfes may eafily be
accounted for, from a partial llagnation of the blood and
juices in the finer velfels, where the circulation is molt
languid; and efpecially when there is want of due exer-
cife, and a proper mufcular compreffion on the veffels, to
pulh forward the returning blood, and propel the inert
and half llagnating fluids through their veffels; in Ihort,
the blood in fuch cafes cannot fo readily afcend as de^
fcend, or a greater quantity is brought by the arteries
than can be returned by the veins.
The greafe then, confidered in this light, mull be
treated as a local complaint, where the parts affedled are
alone concerned, the blood and juices being yet untaint¬
ed, and in good condition; or as a diforder where they
are both complicated : but when it is an attendant on
fome other dillemper, as the farcy, yellows, dropfy, be.
fuch difeafes mull firlt be cured before the greafe can be
removed. In the former cafe, moderate exercife, pro¬
per drefling, cleanlinefs, and external application, will
anfwer the purpofe; in the latter, internals mull be cal¬
led in to our aflillance, with proper evacuations.
When a horfe’s heels are firll obferVed to fwell in the
liable, and fubfide or go down on exercife; let care be
taken to walh them very clean every time he comes in,
with foap-fuds, chamber-lye, or vinegar and water, which,
with proper rubbing, will frequently prevent, or remove
this complaint: or let them be well bathed twice a-day
with old verjuice, or the following mixture, which will
brace up the relaxed veffels; and if rags dipped in the
fame are rolled on, with a proper bandage, for a few
days, it is moll likely the fw,ellings will foon be removed
by this method only, as the bandage will fupport the vef¬
fels, till they have recovered their tone. To anfwer this
end alfo, a laced (locking made of Itrong canvas or
coarfe cloth, neatly fitted to the part, would be found
extremely ferviceable, and mighyeafily be contrived by
an ingenious mechanic.
Take redlified fpirit of wine, four ounces; diffolve
in it half an ounce of camphor;which add wine-
vinegar, or old verjuice, fix ounces; white vitriol,
diffolved in a gill of water, one ounce; mix toge¬
ther, and (hake the phial when ufed.
But if cracks or fcratches are obferved, which ouze
and run, let the hair be clipped away, as well to pre¬
vent a lodgment (which becomes flinking and offenfive by
its (lay) as to give room for walking out dirt or gravel,
which, if fuffered to remain there, would greatly aggra¬
vate the diforder.
When this is the cafe, or the heels are full of hard
fcabs, it is neceffary to begin the cure with poultices,
■made either of boiled turnips and lard, with a handful
of linfeed powdered; or oatmeal and rye flour, with a
little common turpentine and hogs lard, boiled up with
ftrong-beer grounds or red-wine lees. The digedive
ointment being applied to the fores for two or three days,
with either of thefe poultices over it, will, by foftening
them, promote a difeharge, unload the veffels, and take
down the fwelling; when they may be dried up with the
following :
Take
FARR
Take white vitriol and burnt alum, of each two
ounces; iEgyptikcum, one ounce ; lime-water, a
quart or three pints : w'aih the fores with a fponge
dipped in this, three times a-day, and apply the
common white ointment fpread on tow; to an ounce
of which may be added two drams of fugar of
lead.
This method is generally very fuccefsful, when die
diftemper is only local, and requires no internal medi¬
cines ; but if the horfe be full and grofs, his legs great¬
ly gorged, fo that the hair dares up, and is what fome
term pen-feathered, and has a large {linking difcharge
■from deep foul fores, you may expedt to meet with great
trouble, as thefe diforders are very obftinate to remove,
being often occafioned by a poor dropfical (late of blood,
-or a general bad difpofition in the blood and juices.
The cure in this cafe, if the horfe is full and flelhy,
muft be begun by bleeding, rowels, and repeated purg¬
ing; after which, diuretic medicines are frequently given
•with fuccefs. Thus,
Take four ounces of yellow rofin, one of fal prunel-
lae ; grind them together with an oiled peftle, add
a dram of oil of amber, and give a quart of forge-
water every morning, fading two hours before and
after taking, and ride moderately.
As this drink is found very difagreeable to fome hor-
<fes, I would recommend the nitre-balls in its dead, given
to the quantity of two ounces a day, for a month orlix
•weeks, mixed up with honey, or in his feeds : take the
following alfo for that purpofe.
Yellow rofin, four ounces; fait of tartar, and fal pru-
nellae, of each two ounces ; Venice foap, half a
pound ; oil of juniper, half an ounce; make into
balls of two ounce weight, and give one every mor¬
ning.
The legs, in this cafe, fliould be bathed or fomented,
in order to breathe out the dagnant juices, or. to thin
■them, fo that they may be able to circulate freely in the
common current. Forthis purpofe, foment twice a-day with
the difcutient fomentation, p. 569.col. 2. par. 3. in which
a handft^lor two of wood-alhes has been boiled; apply
then the above poultices, or the following, till the fwel-
liog has fubfided, when the fores may be dreded with the
•green ointment till they are properly digeded, and then
dried up with* the water and ointment above recom¬
mended. '
Take honey-, one potfnd; turpentine, fix ounces; in¬
corporate with a fpoon ; and add of the meal of fe¬
nugreek and linfeed, each four ounces; boil in three
quarts of red-wine lees to the confidence of a poul¬
tice ; to which add, when taken from the fire, two
ounces of camphor in powder; fpread it on thick
cloths, and apply warm to the legs, fecuring it on
with a drong roller.
If the fores are very foul, drefs them with two parts
■of the wound-ointment, and one of iEgyptiacum; and
apply the following, fpread on thick cloths, and rolled on.
Take of black foap, one pound ; honey, half a pound;
burnt alum, four ounces; verdigreafe powdered,
two ounces ; wheat-flour, a fufficient quantity.
. If the diuretic balls Ihould not fucceed, they mud be
Yol. IL No. 5a. 2
I E R Y. 577
changed for the antimonial and mercurial alteratives, al¬
ready mentioned ; but turning a horfe out in a field,
where he has a hovel or Ihed to run to at pleafure, would-
greatly contribute to quicken the cure, and indeed would
in general effedt it alone ; but if this cannot be complied
with, let him be turned out in the day-time.
If the horfe is not turned out, a large and convenient
dall is abfolutely neceflary, with good drefling and care.
The lad thing we (hall recommend, is a method to o-
blige a horfe to lie down in the dable. This undoubted¬
ly is of the utmod confequence, as it will not a little con¬
tribute to the removal and cure of this diforder ; for by
only changing the pofition of his legs, a freer circulation
would be obtained, and the fwelling taken down : where¬
as in general it is greatly aggravated by the obdinacy of
the horfe, who refufes to lie down- at all (probably from
the pain it gives him to bend his legs for that purpofe) by
which means the diffhefs and fwelling increafes, till the
over-gorged and diltended veflels are obliged to give way,
and by burfting, difcharge the fluids, which fliould cir¬
culate through them.
0/Scratches, Crowx Scabs, Rat-Tails, and
Capellets.
Scratches in the heels have fo much affinity with
the greafe, and are fo often concomitants of that diflem-
per, that the method of treating them may be fele&ed
chiefly from the preceding fc<dion ; which at fird Ihould
be by the linfeed and turnip poultice, with a little com¬
mon turpentine to foften them, and relax the veflels;
the green ointment may then be applied for a few days to
promote a difcharge, when they may be dried up with
the ointments and waflies recommended in the above fec-
tion. It is bed afterwards to keep the heels fupple, and
fqftened with currier’s dubbing, which is made of oil and
tallow. This will keep the hide from cracking, and be
as good a prefervative as it is to leather ; and by ufing it
often before exercife, will prevent the {cratches, if care
is taken to wafli the heels with warm water, when the
horfe comes in. When they prove obdinate, and the
fores are deep, ufe the following; but if any cavities or
hollow places are formed, they fliould firdiie laid open;
for no foundation can be laid for healing, till you can
drefs to the bottom.
Take Venice turpentine, four ounces; quickfilver,
one ounce; incorporate well together by rubbing
fome time, and then add honey and ffieeps fuet, of
each two ounces.
Anoint with this once or twice a day; and if the horle
is full or -flefliy, you mud bleed and purge; and if the
blood is in a bad date, the alteratives mud be given to
reftify it.
The crown-fcab is an humour that breaks out round
the coronet, which is very fliarp and itching, and attend¬
ed with a fcurfinefs : {harp waters prepared with vitriol
are generally ufed for the cure ; but the fafed way is firft
to mix marfhmallow and yellow bafilicon, or the wound
ointment, equal parts, and to fpread them on tow, and'
lay all round the coronet. A doze or two of phyfic may
be very proper, with the diuretic medicines, (par. 4. 5.
6. of the preced. col. and the alteratives above re-
6 F commended
578 FARR
commended* in rebellious cafes^ K/V. the Setfion on
Alteratives.
Rat-tails are excrefcences, whiah creep from the paf-
tern to the middle of the (hanks, and are fo called from
the refemblance they bear to the tail of a rat. Some are
moift, others dry ; the former may be treated with the
drying ointment and wafhes, p.577.col. x.par. 1.the latter
with the mercurial ointment, p. 555. col. 2. par. 6. If the
hardnefs does not fubmit to the lad medicine, it fhould
be pared off with a knife, and dreffed with turpentine,
tar and honey, to which verdigreafe or white vitriol may
occafionally be added; but before the ufe of the knife,
you may apply this ointment.
Take black foap, four ounces; quick-lime, two oun¬
ces ; vinegar enough to make an ointment.
There are particular fwellings which horfes are fubjeA
to, of a wenny nature, which grow on the heel of the
hock, and on the point of the elbow, and are called by
the French and Italians capellets: they arife often from
bruifes and other accidents; and when this is the cafe,
fhould be treated with vinegar and other repellers; but
when they grow gradually on both heels, or elbows, we
may then fufpeA the blood and juices in fault that
feme of the veffels are broke, and juices extravafated;
in this cafe, the fuppuration (hould be promoted, by rub¬
bing the part with marfhmaliow ointment, and when mat¬
ter is formed, the (kin (hould be opened with a lancet,
in fome dependent part towards one fide, to avoid a fear:
the drellings may be turpentine, honey, and tincture of
myrrh. The relaxed (kin may be bathed with equal
parts of fpirit of wine and vinegar, to which an eighth
part of oil of vitriol may be added. The contents of
thefe tumours are various, fometimes watery, at others
fuety, or like thick pafte ; which, if care be not taken to
dige(t out properly with the cyft, will frequently colledt
again ; was it not for the disfigurement, the (horteft me¬
thod would be to extirpate them with a knife, which, if
artfully executed, and the (kin properly preferved, would
leave very little deformity.
Of the Difeafes of the Feet.
©/“Narrow Heels, Binding of Me Hoof, &c.
Though narrow heels in general arife from a natural
defedt, yet they are often rendered incurable by bad (hoe¬
ing ; for fome farriers hollow the quarters fo deep and
thin, that they may be pinched in with the fingers, and
think by that method to widen them out,by aftrong broad
webbed (hoe; but this turns them narrow above, wires
their heels, and dries, or rots the frog. The bed way
in all fuch cafes is not to hollow the foot in (hoeing, and
to pare nothing out but what is rotten or foul; if the
foot be hard and dry, or inclined to be rotten, bathe it
often with chamber-lye, or boil two pounds of linfeed
bruifed in two quarts of the fame, to the confidence of
a poultice, then add fix ounces of foft green foap, and
anoint the foot with it every day, rubbing a little of it
upon the foie.
Or,
TTake bees-wax two ounces; frefh butter or lard, fix
I E R Y.
ounce; tar, one ounce ; as much linfeed, or neats-
foot oil, as will make it the confidence of a fmooth
ointment.
The hoofs, if too dry, may be anointed with the above,
or with lard only ; fome for this purpofe ufe tar, tallow,
and honey, but mod greafy and un&uous applications will
anfwer this intention; the feet alfo, if too dry, may be
duffed with bran and lard heated or worked up together
in the hand, which is very proper alfo to apply every night,
when your horfe is travelling in hot weather on roads
that are dry and hard; cow-dung likewife is a proper
duffing for the feet, but vinegar (hould cautioufly be
mixed with it; for though it is a known cooler, it is a
remarkable redringent, which in this cafe' would be ex¬
tremely prejudicial ; indead of which, a print of freffi
butter may be fird applied to the foie, and the cow-dung
laid over it.
There is another diforder the hoofs are fubjedt to,
which is their being too foft and moifi; this may be con-
ditutional, or proceed from going much in wet and mar-
(hy grounds, (landing conllantly on wet litter, or any in¬
firmity that may bring too great a moidure into the feet.
In this cafe the horfe’s hoofs may be bathed every day
with warm vinegar, verjuice, copperas-water, and fuch
like redringents ; to which may be added galls, alum,
<bc. remembring to let the horfe (land condantly dry.
We fay a horfe is hoof •bound, when the hoof is fo
tight round the inflep, that it turns the foot fomewhat
into the (hape of a bell. This is caufed fometimes by (hoe¬
ing as above, to widen the heel, and fometimes by cut¬
ting the toes down too much, which gives that (hape to
the foot, and caufec the horfe to go lame.
To remedy this diforder, Mr Gibfon recommends the
following method: let the foot be drawn down from the.
coronet almod to the toe with a drawing knife, making
feven or eight lines or razes through the hoof, almod to
the quick ; afterwards keep it charged with pitch ro-
fin, till the lines are wore out in (hoeing, which will re¬
quire fevefal months.
0/Sand Cracks and Quittors.
What is called a fand-crack, is a little cleft on the out-
fide of the hoof: if it runs in a drait line downwards, and
penetrates through the bony part of the hoof, it often
proves troublefome to cure ; but if it paffes through the
ligament that unites the hoof with the coronet, it is then
apt to breed a quittor, or falfe quarter, which is dange¬
rous i
When the crack only penetrates through the hoof, with¬
out touching the ligament, unlefs the hoof be hollow, it
may eafily be cured, by rafping. only the edges fmooth,
and applying thick pledgets of bafilicon, and bind¬
ing them down with a piece pf foft lid; if fome pre¬
cipitate be added to it, this medicine will be improved
thereby, and in general anfwers the end, without any o-
ther application But if you perceive any hollownefs
under the hoof, and that the cleft has a tendency to pe¬
netrate through the gridle or ligament, the bed method,
in that cafe, is to fire out of hand with irons that are not
made
FARR
made too hot, firft rafping very thin and wide from both
(ides of the cleft: the horl'e mull: not carry any weight for
fome time, but be turned out to grafs, or wintered in a
good farm-yard.
A quittpr is an nicer formed between the hair and
hoof, ufually the inlide quarter of a horfe’s foot; it a-
rifes often from treads and bruifes, fometirftes from
gravel, which, ty working its way upwards, lodges a-
bout the coronet: if it is only fuperficial, it may be cured
with cleanfing dreflings, bathing the coronet every day
with fpirit of wine, and drefling the fore with the preci¬
pitate medicine.
But if the matter forms itfelf a lodgment under the
hoof, there is no way then to come at the ulcer, but by
taking off part of the hoof; and if this be done artfully
and well, the cure may be affefled without danger.
When the matter happens to be lodged near the quar¬
ter, the farrier is fomettmes obliged to take off the quar¬
ter of the hoof, and the cure is then, for the mod part,
but palliative; for when the quarter grows up, it leaves
a pretty large feam, which weakens the foot; this is
what is called a falfe quarter, and a horfe with this de¬
feat feldom gets quite found.
If the matter, by its confinement, has rotted the cof¬
fin-bone, which is of fo foft and fpongy a nature, that
it foon becomes fo, you mud enlarge the opening, cut a-
way the rotten fldh, and apply the a<5tual cautery, or hot
iron pointed pyramidically, and drefs the bone with dof-
fils of lint, dipped in tin&ure of myrrh, and the wound
wjth the green or precipitate ointment. When the fore
is not enlarged by the knife, which is the bed, and lefs
painful method, pieces of fublimate are generally applied,
which bring out with them cores, or lumps of flefh ; blue
vitriol powdered, and mixed with a few drops of the oil,
is ufedalfo for this purpofe, and is faid to a& as effedhially,
and with lefs pain and danger; during the operation of thefe
medicines, the foot Ihould be kept in fome foft poultice,
and care ftiould be taken, during the whole dreffing, to
prevent proud flelh rifing, which otherwife will not only
retard the cure, but prevent a firm and found healing.
Of Wounds in the Feet, from Nails, Gravel, fac.
Accidents of this fort are very common, and fome-
times for want of early care, prove of bad confequence;
for the parts, being naturally tender, are very fufceptible
of inflammation; and when matter is once formed, if a
free difcha’rge is not procured, the bone, which is fpun-
gy, foon becomes affefted, and the whole foot is then in
danger.
When any extraneons bodies, fuch as nails, flubs,
thorns, 'be. have paffed into the horfe’s foot, you fhould
endeavour to get them out as foon as pollible; and after
wafhing the part with oil of turpentine, drefs the hole
with lint dipped in the fame,, melted down with a little
tar; the foot may be flopped up with bran aqd hogs-laM
heated together, or put it into the turnip, or any foft
poultice ; this* method is generally fuccefsful, when the.
nail, be. is entirely removed ; but if any piece, or par¬
ticle, fhould remain behind, which may be fufpe&ed by *
the degree of pain, and difeharge of matter; after par-
I E R Y. 579
ing away the foie as thin as pofflble, introduce a bit of
fponge tent, in order to enlarge the hole,-that it may be
drawn out by a fmall pair ©f forceps, or brought away
by digeflion : if this method fhould not fucceed, but the
lamenefs continues, with a difeharge of a thin bloody,
or flinking matter, you mull no longer delay opening the
wound with a drawing-knife to the bottom, and then
drefs as above directed, or with the turpentine digeflive,
divided with the yolk of an egg, and a little tindure of
myrrh ; afterwards with the precipitate medicine.
If the lamenefs proceeds from pricking in fhoeing, the
foot fhould be pared thin on the wound fide, and after
drefling with the tar and turpentine, let it be flopped with
the poultices above mentioned, or with two ounces of
common turpentine, melted down with four of lard ;
fhould this method not fucceed, follow the above direc-
tioas.
If the nail penetrates to the joint of the foot, where
matter may be formed, and by its long continuance
putrify, fo as to erode the cartilages of the joint, the
cafe is incurable.
If the nail has paffed up to the nut-bone, it is incurable,
becaufe this little bone cannot exfoliate, and becaufe the
cartilaginous part of it is deftroyed, as foon as injured.
If the nail has not paffed to the tendon, the horfe will.
do well, without a neceflity for drawing the foie ; but if
the tendon is wounded, the foie muft be carefully drawn,
becaufe a finovia and gleet is difeharged.
When gravel is the caufe, it for the moft part follows
the nail-holes, and if it gets to the quick cannot return,
unlefs it is feraped out; for the make of the hoof, which
is fpiral like an ear of corn, favours its afeent, fo that
the gravel continues working upwards towards the coro¬
net, and forms what the farriers call a quittor-bone.
The nature of this diforder points out the method of
cure, which is to be as expeditious and careful as poflible, '
in getting out the gravel; if it is found difficult to effedt
this, let the foie or hoof be pared thin, and, if neceffary,
the wound enlarged to the bottom, and then dreffed up
as ufual. Should the coffin-bone be affedted, you muft
follow the diredlions laid down in the preceding fedtion,
remembering always to bathe the hoof wiih vinegar, or
repellers, in order to allay the heat and inflammation,
which often happen on fuch occafions; and ffiould the
pain and anguifh affea the legs, treat them in the fame
manner, or charge the leg and paftern with a mixture of
wine-lees and viqegar.
Figs are fpongy fwellings on the bottom of horfes feet,
generally on the fides of the fruffi. Thefe, or any other
kind of excrefcences, fuch as warts, corns, grapes, be.
are beft removed by'the knife ; and if any part of them
be left behind, or fliould ffioot up afreffi, touch them with
the cauftic, or oil of vitriol, and drefs with iEgyptiacum ;
to which may be added, when they are %rery rebellious,
a fmall quantity of fublimate ; when the roots are quite
deftroyed, you may incarn with the precipitate medicines,
and dry up the fore with the following wafli.
Take of white vitriol, alum, and galls in powder, of
each two ounces ; diffolve them by boiling a little in
two quarts of lime-water, and keep in a bottle for
ufe, which fliculd be ffiook when ufed.
58o
F A R . R
Of the Running Thrush, Canker, and
Loss of Hoof.
The thrujh or frujh is an impofthume that fometinies
gathers in the frog; or a fcabby and ulcerous difpofition,
which fometimes caufe.s it to fall off: when the difcharge
is natural, the feet fhould be kept clean, but no drying
walhes made ufe of, it being thought as unfafe to repel
fome of thefe difeharges, as to cure fome fweaty feet.
When an impofthume, or gathering appears, the fafeft
way is to pare out the hard part of the frog, or whatever
appears rotten ; and walh the bottom of the foot two or
three times a-day with old chamber-lye ; this is the fafeft
and belt way of treating them. But when a horfe has
been negledted, and there is is a ftrong flux to the part,
it is apt to degenerate into a canker; to prevent which,
ufe the following walh.
Take fpirit of wine and vinegar of each two ounces,
tinfture of myrrh and aloes one ounce, ^Egyptia-
cum half an ounce ; mix together.
Bathe the thrulh with this, where ever there appears
a more than ordinary moifture, and lay over the ulcer a
little tow dipped in the fame. The purges and diuretics
recommended in the greafe, (howld be given at this time,
to prevent the inconveniencies that the drying up thefe dif¬
eharges frequently occafion.
A canker in the foot proceeds, for the moft part, from
thrufhes, when they prove rotten and putrid, though
many other caufes may produce this diforder. The me¬
thod ufed by farriers for the cure is generally with hot
•oils, fuch as vitriol, aqua-fortis, and butter of antimony,
which are very proper to keep down the riling flelh, and
fhould be ufed daily, till the fungus is fupprefled, when
•once in two days will be fulficient, Hrewing fine precipi¬
tate powder over the new-grown flelh, till the foie begins
to grow.
There is one great error committed often in this cure,
tftat is, in not having fulficient regard to the hoof; for
it Ihould not only be cut off, where-ever it prefles on the
tender parts, but Ihould be kept foft with linfeed oil;
and as often as it is drefled, bathe the hoof all round the
coronet with chamber-lye. Purging is very proper to
complete the cure.
The lofs of the hoof may be occafioned by whatever ac¬
cident may bring an impollhumation in the feet, whereby
the whole hoof becomes loofened, and falls off from the
bone. If the coffin-bone remains uninjured, a new hoof
may be procured by the following method.
The old hoof Ihould by no means be pulled off, unlefs
fome accident happens that requires its removal ; for it
ferves as a defence to the new one, and makes it grow
more fmooth and even ; and indeed nature will general¬
ly do this office at her own proper time.—On the re¬
moval of the hoof, a boot of leather, with a ftrong foie,
fhould be laced about the paftern, bolftering and flop¬
ping the foot with foft flax, that the tread may be eafy:
drefs the fore with the wound ointment, to which fhould
Be added the fine powders of myrrh, maftich, and oliba-
,num. If this medicine fhould not be fufficient to pre-
i ent a fungus, burnt alum or precipitate may be added to
I E R Y.
it, and the luxuriant fleffi may be daily wafhed with the
fublimate water.
Of Ruptures, Anticor, Colt-evil or Gonor¬
rhoea, and Difeafes of the Mouth.
In regard to ruptures, though they are general¬
ly divided into particular claffes, we lhall only obferve,
that by violent efforts of the horfe, or other accidents,
the guts or caul may be forced between the mufcles of the
belly at the navel, and through the rings of the mufcles
into the ferotum or cod. The fwellings are generally a-
bout the fize of a man’s fill, fometimes much larger, de-
feending to the very hock; they are frequently foft, and
yield to the preffure of the hand, when they will return
into the cavity of the belly with a rumjjling noife ; and,
in moft, the vacuity may be felt through which they
paffed.
On their firft appearance, endeavours fhould be made N
to return them by the hand ; but if the fwelling ffiould be
hard and painful, in order to relieve the ftridture, and
relax the parts, through which the gut or caul has paf¬
fed, let a large quantity of blood be immediately taken
away, and the part fomented twice or thrice a-day, ap¬
plying over it a poultice made with oatmeal, oil and
vinegar, which fhould be continued till the fwelling
grows foft and eafier, or the gut is returned. In the
mean time it would be proper to throw up emollient oily
glyfters twice a-day, and to let the horfe’s chief diet be
boiled barley, fpalded malt, or bran.
Should the fwelling afterwards return, we apprehend
the reftringent applications, ufually recommended on thefe
occafions, will avail little without a fufpenfory bandage ;
fo that an ingenious mechanic in that art is chiefly to be
relifcd on for any future affiftance ; though it has been
obferved, that with moderate feeding, and gentle exer-
cife, fome horfes have continued to be very ufeful under
this, complaint.
The anticor is a diforder not very common among our
horfes, or thofe in northern climates ; but is particular¬
ly taken notice of by the French, Spanifh, and Italian
writers ; who deferibe it a malignant fwelling in the
breaft, which extends fometimes to the very fheath under
the belly ; it is attended with a fever, great depreffions,
and weaknefs, and a total .lofs of appetite.
The cure fhould firft be attempted by lar^e and repeat¬
ed bleedings, to abate the inflammation ; emollient gly¬
fters fhould be injefted twice or thrice a-day, with an
ounce of fal prunella in each, and the cooling drink in
the Sedtion on Fevers fhould be given inwardly ; the
fwelling fhould be bathed with the marfhmallow oint¬
ment, and a ripening poultice, with onions boiled in it,
fhould be daily applied over it. If by this method, con¬
tinued four or five days, the inflammation in the throat
and gullet is removed, our attention fhould more particu¬
larly turn to encourage the fwelling at the breaft, and
bring it, if poflible, to matter: to which end, continue the
poultice, and give two ounces of Venice treacle diffolved
in a pint of beer every night; when the fwelling is grown
foft, it muft be opened with the knife, and dreffed with
turpentine digeftive, the danger now being over.
FARE
But fliould it be found impracticable to bring the fwel-
Tmg to matter, and it increafes upwards, fo as to endan¬
ger fuffocation ; authors have advifed to pierce the tu¬
mour with a hot pointed cautery in five or fix places, to
drefs with the above digeftive ; and in-order to ftimulate
and promote a greater dtfcharge, to add to it a fmali
quantity of Spanith flies and euphorbium in powder;
fomenting at the fame time, and bathing the circumjacent
parts with ointment of marshmallows. M. Gueriniere,
as well as Soleyfell, have advifed opening the /kin, when
the tumour cannot be brought to matter, in order to in¬
troduce a piece of black hellebore-root fteeped in vinegar,
and to confine it there for twenty-four hours ; this alfo is
intended as a flimuiant, and is faid to anfwer the inten¬
tion, by occafioning fometimes a fwelling as big as a man’s
head.
Befides the diforders of the mouth, which we have al¬
ready animadverted on, there are frequently obferved on
the infide the lips and palate, little fwellings or bladders
called giggf : flitting them open with a knife, or lancet,
and walhing them afterwards with fait and vinegar, is in
genera! their cure; but when they degenerate into what
are called cankers, which are known by little white fpecks,
that fpread and occafion irregular ulcers, the bell method
then is to touch them daily with a fmali flat cautery, mo-
-derately heated, till the fpreading is flopped, and to mb
the fores three or four times a-day with iEgyptiacum, and
tinfture of myrrh, fitarpened with oil, or fpirit of vitriol;
when by this drefling the floughs are feparated, they may
be wa/hed frequently with a fponge dipped in copperas,
or fublimate water, if they continue to fpread; or a tinc¬
ture made by diflblving half an ounce of burnt alum, and
two ounces of honey, in a pint of tindlure of rofes. Ei¬
ther of thefe will dry them up, and are very ufeful in
moft diforders of the mouth.
A relaxation and fwelling of the palate fometimes hap¬
pens to horfes on catching cold. To remedy this difor-
F A S
FASCES, in Roman antiquity, axes bound up together
with rods or ftaves, and carried before the Roman
magiftrates as a badge of their authority and office.
FASCETS, in the art of making glafs, are the. irons
thruft into the mouths of bottles, in order to convey
them into the annealing tower.
FASCIA, in architediure, fignifies any flat member ha¬
ving a confiderable breadth and but a fmall projedture,
as the band of an architrave, larmier, cbc.
Fascia lata, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 206.
FASCIAE, in aflronomy, certain parts on Jupiter’s body
refemblibg belts or fwaths. They are more lucid
than the reft of that planet, and are terminated by pa¬
rallel lines, fometimes broader and fometimes narrower.
FASCIALIS, in anatomy. See Sartorius.
FASCINATION, a kind of witchcraft or enchantment
fuppofed to operate by the influence either of the eye
or tongue. «
FASCINES, in fortification, faggots of fmall wood, of
about a foot diameter and fix feet lopg, bound in the
Vol. II. No. 49. -2
I E R T. 5S1
der, blow pepper on the part, or anoint It with the fame
mixed up with honey. The tindlure above-mentioned
may be ufed for this purpofe, to which may be added half
an ounce of fpirit of fial armoniac.
The colt-evil is fuppofed to arife from ftoned colts ha¬
ving full libdhy with mares, before they are able to cover
them ; whence frequently enfues an excoriation or fret¬
ting on the glands, and a fwelling on the /heath ; this
laft diforder frequently proceeds too from dirt, or filth
lodging there, and is often removed by wa/hing the part
clean with butter and beer: but when the yard itfelf is
fwelled, foment it twice a-day with marfhmallows boiled
in milk, to which may be added a little' fp'irit of wine;
anoint the excoriation with the white ointment, or wa/h
it with a fponge dipped in lime, to a pint of which may
be added two drams of fugar of lead : the yard ftiould be
fufpended up to the belly ; and if the fwelling Ihould in-
creafe wi h the inflammation, bleed, and give the cooling
pliyfic, anoint with ointment of elder, and apply the bread
and milk poultice.
If a fimple gonorrhoea or feminal gleet is obferved to
drip from the yard, (which is often the cafe in high-fed
young horfes, where a relaxation of the glands and femx-
nal veflels has been brought On by frequent emi/fions) let
the horfe be plunged every day into a river or pond ; giv^
him two or three rhubarb purges, at proper diftances;
and intermediately the following balls.
Take of balfam of copivi, or Venice turpentine, oli-
banum, and maftich powdered, of each two drams ;
bole armoniac half an ounce: mix up into a ball
with honey, and give it night and morning, till the
difcharge leffens, and then every night, till it goes
o/F
Balls prepared with rhubarb and turpentine may alfo
be given for this purpofe; two drams of the former, with
half an ounce of the latter.
FAT
middle and at both ends. They are nfed in raifing
batteries, making chandeli^s, in filling up the moat
to facilitate the paflage to the wall, in binding the
ramparts where the earth is bad, and in making para¬
pets of trenches to fcreen the men.
FASHION-pieces, in the fea-language, are two com-
pa/ling pieces of timber, into which is fixed one on
each fide the tranfom. See Transom.
FAST, or Fasting, in general, denotes the abftinence
from food; but is more particularly ufed for fuch ab¬
ftinence on a religious account.
FASTERMANS, among our Saxon anceftors, w’ere
pledges or bondfmen, who were anfwerable for each
other’s good behaviour.
FASTI, in Roman antiquity, the calendar wherein were
exprefled the feveral days of the year, with their feafts,
games, and other ceremonies.
FAT, in anatomy, an oleaginous or butyraceous matter,
fecreted from the blood, and filling up the cavity of
the adipofe cells. Fat, properly and diftinftly fo call-
6 G
F A W (5?
ed, is not fecreted from glandules, but from the little
arteries of the adipofe membrane. Authors diftinguilh
it into two kinds, which they exprefs by the words
fevum or adejis, and finguedo. According to this di-
Ifimflion, there is no fuch thing as fevum or hard fat
in the human body, its fat being all of that fort ex-
prefled by pinguedo, or foft and oily. That this ole¬
aginous matter has a circulatory motion, or an egrefs
into the veins, is very evident from the fudden con-
fumption of it in many difeafes, and from its valt di¬
minution by exercife or labour.
Fat, in the fea language, fignifies the fame with broad.
Thus a flip is faid to have a fat quarter, if the trufling
in or tuck of her quarter be deep.
F. r- is ufed alfo for feveral utenfils; as, i. A great
wooden veffel, ufed for the meafuring of malt, and
containing a quarter or eight bulhels. 2. A large
brewing veffel, ufed by bewers to run their wort in.
q. A leaden pan or veflel for the making of fait at
Droitwich.
Fat likewife denotes an uncertain meafure of capacity.
Thus a fat of ifing glafs contains from 3^ hundred
weight to 4 hundred weight; a fat of unbound books,
half a maund or four bales; of wire, from 20 to 25
hundred weight; and of yarn, from 220 to 221
bundles.
FATE, denotes an inevitable neceflky depending upon a
fuperior caufe. It is alfo ufed to exprefs a certain un¬
avoidable delignation of things, by which all agents,
both neceffary and involuntary, are fwayed and direct¬
ed to their ends.
FATES, in mythology. See Parc a:.
FATHOM, a long meafure containing fix feet, ufed
chiefly at fea for meafuring the length of cables and
cordage.
FATUUS ignis, in phyfiology, a meteor otherwife
called Will-with-a-wifp. See Will.
FAVIFORM, in general, fomething refembling a honey¬
comb. Surgeons give this appellation to certain ulcers,
which emit a fanies through little holes, efpecially in
the head.
FAVISSiE', in antiquity, were, according to Feftus and
Gellius, cifterns to keep water in: but the favilfae in
the Capitol at Rome were dry cifterns or fubterraneous
cellars, where they laid up the old ftatues, broken
vefieis, and other things ufed in the temple. Thefe
were much the fame with what, in fome of the modern
churches, are called the archives and treafury.
FAUNALIA, in Roman antiquity, three annual fefUvals
in honour of the god Faunus ; the firft of which was-
obferved on the ides of February, the fecond on the
16th of the calends of March, and the third on the
nones of December. The principal facrifices on this-
occafion were lambs and kids. Faunus was a deity of
the Romans only, being wholly unknown to the Greeks.
FAUNSj a kind of rural deities, amnng the ancient Ro¬
mans, reprefented with horns on their heads, Iharp-
pointed ears, and the reft of their bodies like goats.
FAWN, among fportfmen, a buck or doe of the firft
year; or the young one of the buck’s breed in its firft
year.
|2 ) F E I
FE, or St Fe, the capital of New Mexico : W. long.
109°, N. lat. 36°.
St Fe de bagota, the capital of the kingdom of New
Granada: W. long- 730, N. lat. 4°. It is an arch-
bifhoprick and the feat of the governor of the .pro¬
vince,
St Fe is alfo a town of Spain, in the province of Gra¬
nada, fituated on the river Xemil : W. long. 30 45',
N. lat. 370 20'.
St Fe is alio the capital of a province of the fame name,
in Terra Fitma in South America, fituated on the ri¬
ver of St Martha, 200 miles fouthbf Garthagena: W.
long. 770, N. lat. 70 25'.
FEALTY, in law, an oath taken on the admittance of
any tenant, to be true to the lord of whom he holds
his land.
FEAST, or Festival, in a religious fenfe, is a day of
feafting and thankfgiving.
Among the ancients, feafts were inftituted upon va- .
rious accounts, but efpecially in memory of fome fa¬
vourable interpofition of Providence. Thus, the Jews
had their feaft of paffover, pentecoft, and tabernacles ;
the Greeks their cerealia, pahathenaea, <bc. and the
Romans their faturnalia, ambarvalia, dsc. See Pass-
over, Cerealia, <bc.
FEATHER, in phyfiology, a general name for the
covering of birds.; it being common 'to all the animals
of this clafs to have their whole body, or at leaft the
greateft part of it, covered wdth feathers or plumage.
FEBRIFUGE, in medicine, an apellation given to fuch'
medicines as mitigate, or remove a fever.
FEBRIS, fever, in medicine. See Fever.
FEBRUARY, in chronology, the fecond month of the
year, reckoning from January, firft added to. the ca-r
lendar of Romulus by Numa Pompilius.
February derives its name from Februa, a feaft held
by the Romans in-this month, in behalf of the manes,
of the deceafed ; at which ceremony facrifices were
performed, and the laft offices were paid to the ffiades
of the defumft.
February, in a common year, confifts only of twenty-
eight days ; but in the bifiextile year, it has twenty-
nine, on account of the intercallary day, added that
year.
FECIALES, or FoECiALESj a college of priefts infti¬
tuted at Rome by Numa, confifting of twenty perfons,
fele&ed out of the heft families; Their bufinefs was
to be arbitrators of all matters relating to war and
peace, and to be the guardians of the public faith.
FEE, in Scots law, fignifies a complete feudal property.
See Scots Law, title 10. Hence, where the bare
liferent of any feudal fubjedt is meant to be conveyed-
to A, and the abfolute property to B ; that meaning js
expreffed thus, to A in liferent, and to B in fee.
FEELERS, in natural hiftory, a name ufed by fome
for the horns of infedts.
FEELING, one of the five external-fenfes, by which
we obtain the ideas of folid, hard, foft, rough, hot,
cold, wet, dry', and other tangible qualities.
FEINT, in fencing, a ffiew of making a thruft at one
par;
F E L ( 5S3 ) F E L
part, in ordfer to deceive the enemy, that you may
really ftrike him in another.
A fimple feint is a mere'motion of the wrift, without
ftirring the foot.
FELAPTON, in logic, one of the fix firft modes of
the third figure of lyllogifms; whereof the firft propo-
fition is an univerfal negative, the fecond an univerfal
affirmative, and the third a particular negative.
FELIN, a town of Livonia, about an hundred miles
north-eaft of Riga.
FELLS, the Cat, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to
the order of ferae, the charadters of which-are thefe:
The fore teeth are equal; the molares or grinders have
three points; the tongue is furnilhed with rough (harp
prickles, and pointing backwards; and the claws are
fheathed, and retraftile; This genus' comprehends
feven genera, viz.
i.TheLEO, orLioN. Thelargeftlions are from eight
to nine feet in length, and.from four to eight feet high :
thofe of a fmaller fize are generally about 54 fe£t
long, and about 34 high. His head is very thick, and
his face is befet on all fides with long bufhy yellowifh
hair ; this Aaggy hair extends from the top of the
bead to below the fhoulders, and hangs down to his
knees the belly and breaft are likewife covered with
long hair. The reft of the body is covered with very
Lhort hair, excepting a bufh at the point of the tail.
The ears are roundifh, fhort, and almoft entirely con¬
cealed under the hair of his front. The fhagginefs of
the fore-part of his body makes the hinder part have a
naked appearance. The tail is long and very ftrong;
the legs are thick and flefhy ; and the feet are fhorr;
the length of the claws-is about an inch and a quarter,
are of a whitifh colour, very crooked, and can be ex¬
tended or retraced into the membranous fheath at
pleafure: Their points are feldom blunted, as they are
never extended but when he feizes his prey.
The female, or lionnefs, has no mane, or long hair a- -
bout her head or fhoulders; in her we fee diftin&ly the
whole face, head, ears, neck, fhoulders, bread, <bc.
at! thefe parts being in fome meafure concealed urr-
der the long hair of the male, give the female a very
different appearance: befides, fhe is confiderably lefs
than the male. The hair of both male and female is
of a yellowifh colour, and whitifh on the fides and
belly.
In warm countries, quadrupeds in general are lar¬
ger and ftronger than in the cokfior temperate climates’.-
They are likewife more fierce and hardy ; all their na¬
tural qualities feem to correfpond with the ardour of
the climate. The lions nourifhed under the fcorching
fun of Africa or the Indies, are the moft ftrong, fierce,
and terrible. Thofe of mount Atlas, whofe top is
fometimes covered with fnow, are neither fo ftfong or
fo ferocious as thofe of Biledulgerid or Zaara, whofe
plains are covered with burning fand. It is in thefe
hot and barren defarts, that the lion is the dreact of
travellers, and the fcourge of -the neighbouring pro¬
vinces. But it is a happy circumftance, that the fpe-
cies is not very numerous: they even appear to dimi-
nifh cfaily. The Romans, fays Mr. Shaw, brought
many more lions out of Lybia for their public fhewsy.
than are now to be found in that country. It is like¬
wife remarked, that the lions in Turkey, Perfia, and
the Indies are lefs numerous than formerly. As this
formidable and courageous animal makes a prey of
moft other animals, and is himfelf a prey to none,
this diminution in the number of the fpecies can be
owing to nothing but an incresfe in the number of man¬
kind : for it muft be acknowledged, that the ftrength
of this king of animals is not a match for the- dexte¬
rity and addrefs of a Negro or Hottentot, who will
often dare to attack-him face to face, and with very
flight weapons.
The ingenuity of mankind augments with their nunv-.„
ber; that of otbfer animals continues always the fame<Tp
All the noxious animals, as the lion, are reduced to
a fmall number, not only becaufe mankind are become
more numerous, but likewiie becaufe they have becoms.
more ingenious, and have invented weapons which no¬
thing can refift. This fuperiority in.the numbers and in-
duftry of mankind, at the fame time that it has broke
the vigour of the lion, feems likewife to have enerva¬
ted his courage. This quality, though natural, is ex¬
alted or lowered according-to the good or bad. fuccefs
with which any animal has been accuftomed to employ
his force. In the vaft defarts of Zaara; in thqfe
which feem to feparate two very different races of men,
the -Negroes and Moors, between Senegal and the
boundaries of Mauritania; in thofe uninhabited regions
above the country of the Hottentots ; and, in general,
in all the meridional parts of Africa and Afia, where
mankind have difdained to dwell, lions' are ftill as" nu¬
merous, and as ferocious as ever. Accuftomed to
meafure their ftrength by that of all other animals
which’they encounter, the habit of conquering renders
them haughty and intrepid. Having never experienced
the ftrength of man, or the power of his arms, inftead
of difcovering any figns of fear; they difdain and fet
him at defiance. Wounds irritate, but do not terrify
them : they are not even difconeerted at the fight of
numbers. A fingle lion of the E>efart has been known,
to attack a whole caravan ; and if, after a violent and
obftinate engagement, he found himfelf weakened, he
retreats fighting, always keeping,his face to the enemy.
On the other hand, the lions which live near the vil¬
lages or huts of the Indians-or Africans, being ac¬
quainted with man and the force of his arms, are fo
daftardly as to fiy* and leave their prey at the fight of
women or children.
Thisfofteningin the temper and difpofition of the lion,
fliows that he is capable of culture, and fufeeptible, at
leaft to a certain degree, of the impreffions that he re¬
ceives : accordingly, hiftory informs us of lions yoked in
triumphal chariots, tramed to war, or the chace; and
that, faithful to their mafters, they never employed
their ftrength or courage but againft their enemies. It is,
however, certain, that a lion taken young and brought
wp among domeftic animals, will eafily be accuftorned
to live and fpbrt with them; that he is mild and ca-
reffing to his mafter, efpecially when he is young; and
that,-if his natural ferocity fometimes breaks out, it
F E L ( 5S4 ) F E L
is tardy turned againft thofe who have been kind to
Iiina. Butj as his paflions are impetuous and vehe¬
ment, it is not to be expected that the iinpreffions of
education will at all times be fufScient to balance them :
for this reafon it is dangerous to l:t him fuffer hunger
long, or to vex hint by ill-timed teazings: bad treat¬
ment not only irritates him, but he remembers it long,
and meditates revenge. On the other hand, he is ex¬
ceedingly grateful, and feldom forgets benefits recei¬
ved. He has been often obferved to difdain weak or
infignificant enemies, to defpife their infults, and to
pardon their, ofFenfiye liberties. When led into cap¬
tivity, he will difcover fymptoms of uneafinefs, with¬
out anger or peevilhnefs: on the contrary, his natural
temper foftens, he obeys his mailer, carefies the hand
that gives him food, and fometimes gives life to fuch
animals as are thrown to him alive for prey; by this a<5t
of generofity he feems to confider himfelf as for ever
bound to protedt them; he lives peacably with them, allows
them a part, and fometimes the whole of his food, and
will rather fubmit to the pangs of hunger than fill his llo-
mach with the fruit of his beneficence. We may like-
wife bbferve, that the lion is not a cruel animal; he kills
rather from neceffity than choice, never deltroying more
than he eats, and whenever his appetite is latisfied he
is mild and peaceable.
The afpedt of the lion does not detradl from th- noble
and generous qualities of his mind. His figure is refpec-
table ; his looks are determined ; his gate is (lately; and
his voice is tremenduous. In a word, the body of the
lion appears to be the belt model of llrength joined to agi¬
lity. The force of his mufcles is expreffed by his pro¬
digious leaps and bounds, often 20 feet at once; by the
brilk motion of'his tail, a frngle fweep of which is fuffi-
cient to throw a man to the ground; by the eafe with
which he moves the Ikin of his face, and particularly of
hiS forehead; and, laltly, by the faculty of eredting and
agitating the hair of his main when irrigated.
Lions are very ardent in their amours : when the fe¬
male is in feafon, (he is often followed by eight or ten
males, who roar inceffantly, and enter into furious en¬
gagements, till one of them completely overcomes the
reft, takes peaceable pofielfion of the female, and carries
her off to fomefecret recefs. The lionnefs brings forth her
young in the fpring, and produces but once every year.
All the paffions of the lion, the foft paffion of love not
excepted, are exceffive; the love of offspring is extreme:
the lionnefs is naturally weaker, lefs bold, and more gen¬
tle than the lion; but (he becomes perfedlly rapacious
and terrible when Ihe has young. Then (lie exhibits
more courage than the male; Ihe knows no danger; Ihe
attacks indifferently men and all other animals, kills them,
and carries them to her young ones, whom Ihe thus ear¬
ly inftrudls to fuck their blood and tear their flefh, She
generally brings forth in the moll lecret and inaccellible
places ; and, when afraid of a difeovery, Ihe endeavours
to conceal the traces of her feet, by returning frequently
on her Heps, or rather by effacing them with her tail;
and, when the danger is great, file carries off her young
:-and conceals them fome where elfe. But, when an adtual'
attempt is made to deprive her of her young, Hie becomes
■ perfectly furious, and defends them till Ihe be torn ta
pieces.
The lion feldom goes abroad in the middle of the
day ; he goes round in the evening and night, in queft of
prey. He is afraid of fire, never approaches the artifi¬
cial fires made by the ftiepherds for the prote&ion of their
flocks; he does not trace other animals by the feent, but
is obliged to trull to his eyes. Many hilforians have e-
ven mifreprefented him as incapable of finding out his
prey ; but that he is obliged to the jackal, an animal of
exquifite feent, in order to provide for him, and that
this animal either accompanies or goes before him for this
purpofe. The jackal is a native of Arabia, Lybia, &<:.
and, like the lion, lives upon prey ; perhaps fome¬
times he follows the lion, but it is with a view to pick up
what he leaves behind, not to provide for him ; for, be¬
ing a finall and feeble animal, he ought rather to fly than
to ferve the lion.
The lion, when hungry, will attack any animal that
prefents itfelf: but he is fo very formidable, that all en¬
deavour to avoid his rencountre; this circumltance often
obliges him to conceal himfelf, and lie in wait till fome
animal chances to pafs. He lies fquat on his belly in a
thicket; from whidvhe fprings with fuch force and velo¬
city, that he often feizes them at the fit ft bound. He
endures hunger longer than thirft ; he feldom pafles wa¬
ter without drinking, which he does by lapping like a
dog. For his ordinary fubfiftence, he requires about
15 pounds of raw flefh each day.
The roaring of the lion is fo llrong and loud, that it re-
fembles the rumbling of diftant thunder. His roaring is
his ordinary voice: but when he is irritated, his cry is
Ihorter, repeated more fuddenly, and is ftill more terri¬
ble than the roaring: belides he beats his fides with his
tail, ftamps with his feet, erefts and agitates the hair of
his head and main, moves the fkin of his face, (hows
his angry teeth, andjolls out his tongue.
The gait of the lion is ftately, grave, and flow, though
always in an oblique direction. His movements are not
equal or meafured, but confift of leaps and bounds;
which prevents him from flopping fuddenly, and makes
him often over-leap his mark. When he leaps upon his
pr?y, he makes a bound of 12 or 15 feet, fails above it,
feizes it with his fore-feet, tears the flelh with his claws,
and then devours it with his teeth.
The lien, however terrible, is hunted by large dogs,
well fupported by men on horfeback : they .diflodge him,
and oblige him to retire. But it is neceffary that both
the dogs and horfes be trained before-hand ; for al-
moft every animal frets and flies as foOn as he feels
the very fmell of a lion. His Ikin, although hard and
firm, does not refill either a ball or a javelin: however,
he is feldom killed by a tingle ftroke; and is more fre¬
quently taken by addrefs than force. They, put a live
animal above a deep pit covered with light fubftances,
and thus decoy him into the fnare.
2. The Tiger. The fize of this animal, ac¬
cording to fome authors, is larger, and, according to
others, fomewhat lefs than the lion. M. de la Lande-
magon allures us, that he has feen a tiger in theEaft-In-
dies 15 feet long, including undoubtedly the length of
the
^<7. / F-AXiCO XfAIj IAu tti s
riatr. lxxvh1 ;
y 'y. /. -C-AiiCo i
Pissing HaVil
%
Lto:x
Tigtr
/f v//''/ '
riafe JuXXDC.
. //v//, 6
‘ ^ iu:i a 1 f >.-5 ! - ■ .!‘ I *'
ki.it : .1
.*
F E L ( 585 ) F E L
tail, which, fuppofing it to be four feet, makes the
body of the tiger about 10 feet in length. The (keleton
preferved in the cabinet of the French king, indicates
that the animal was about 7 feet long from the point of
the muzzle to the origin of the tail; but then it muft be
confidered that he was caught young, and lived all his
days in confinement. The head of the tiger is large and-
roundifn ; and the ears are Ihort, and at a great diftance
from each other. The form of the body has a great re-
femblance to that of the panther. Thefkin is of a darkilh
yellow colour, flriped with long black llreaks ; the hair
is fhort, excepting on the fides of the head, where it is
about four inches long. The point of the tail Is black,
and the red of it is interfperfed with black rings. His
legs and claws refemble thofe of the lion, only the legs
are much fhorter in proportion to the fize of the animal.
The tiger is more ferocious, cruel, and favage than
the lion. Although gorged with carnage, his third for
blood is not appeafed; he feizes and tears in pieces a new
prey with equal fury an^l rapacity, the very moment af¬
ter devouring a former one; he lays wafte the country*
he inhabits; he neither dreads the afpett nor the wea¬
pons of men; puts to death whole troops of domeftic a-
nimals ; and attacks young elephants, rhinoceros’s,
and fometrmes even braves the lion himfelf. *. The tiger
feems to have no other inftinflr but a conftant third
after bload, a blind fury which knows no bounds or dif-
tindlion. and which often dimulates him to devour his
own young, and to tear the mother in pieces for endea¬
vouring to defend them. He lies in wait at the banks of
rivers, where the heat of the climate obliges the o-
ther animals to repair fqr drink. Here he feizes his prey,
or rather multiplies his maflacres . for he no fooner kills
one animal, than he flies with equal fury upon the next, with
no other view but to plunge in his head into their bodies and
drink their blood. However, when he kills alarge animal, as
a horfe or a buffalo, he fometimes does not tear out the
entrails on the fpot; but, to prevent any interruption, he
drags them off to the wood, which he executes with incre¬
dible fwiftnefs. This is a fufficient fpecimen of- the
ftrength of this rapacious animal.
Neither force, redraint, or violence can tame the ti¬
ger. He is equally irritated with good as with bad
treatment: he tears the hand which ^ourilhes him with
equal fury as that which adminilters blows: he roars,
and is enraged at the fight of every living creature. Al-
mod every natural hidorian agrees in this horrible cha¬
racter. When viewing the beautiful tiger which is at
prefent exhibiting in the city of Edinburgh, we at fird
fufpedted that his character was not fo bad or ferocious-
as reprefented by hidorians : he allowed the keeper not
only to come near him, but to droke his head and take
bis paw in his hand. However, this appeared to be on
ly a forced complaifance; he was chained fo clofe to the
floor, that he had onlyf jud room to dand: he fnarled and
roared when his mader troubled him more than he in¬
clined; and, upon throwing him a piece of flefh, his eyes
indantly fparkled with rage; he put himfelf in a podure
of defence, fet up the mod horrible roarings, and made
feveral bounds to get at the keeper as well as the fpeCta-
tors.
Vol. II. No. 51. 2
It is happy for other animals, that the fpecies of the ti¬
ger is not numerous, and that they are confined to the warm
climates. They are found in Malabar, Siam, Bengal,
the interior parts of Africa, and, in general, in all the
regions that are inhabited by the elephant and rhinoceros.
The tiger has always been a more rare animal than the
lion, and yet brings forth an equal number of young,
namely, four or five at a litter. The female is furious at
all times; but, when her young are attempted to be ta¬
ken from her, her rage is redoubled: (he braves every-
danger; (he purfuesthe ravilhers, who are obliged, when
hard preded, to drop one of the young in order to retard
her motion ; (he dopSj takes it up, and carries it into
fome fecret part of the fored; but (lie indantly returns
and purfues the hunters into their villages or boats.
The tiger moves the (kin of his face, grinds his teeth,
and roars, like the lion; but the found of his voice is
different.
3. The Panther.—It is about the fize of a large dog,
and has a great refemblance to a domedic cat. The
tongue is rough and remarkably red ; the teeth are drong
and (harp; the (kin is exceedingly beautiful being of a
yellow colour, variegated with roundilh black fpots, and
the hair is (hort.
The panther has a cruel and ferocious afpeCl; his mo¬
tions are bride and lively; his cry refembks that of an
enrageddog, but moredrong and rough. He is not fo per¬
fectly ungovernable as the tiger : but, notwithdandiog all
attempts to render him obedient and- tradable, he may
rather be faid to be fubdued than tamed; for he neyer en¬
tirely lofes his natural ferocity. Accordingly, when kept
with a view to hunting bucks, goats, or other animals,
great care is neceffary in training him, and dill greater
in conducting him. When leading out to the field, they
put him in a cage and carry him on a cart. When the
game is fprung, they open the door of the cage; he in¬
dantly fprings towards the animal, often feiz’S him in a
few bounds, throws him to the ground, and drangles him.
But, if he happens to mifs his aim, he becomes mad with
rage, and fometimes falls upon his niader, who, in order
to prevent accidents of this kind, generally carries along
with him pieces of fledi, or perhaps a lamb or a kid, which
he throws to him in order to appeafe his fury.
The panther is no where to be found but in Africa,
and the regions of the Indies.
4. The Onca or Once, is lefs than the panther; the
tail is longer; the hair is likewife longer, and of a whitifh
grey colour. The once is eafily tamed ; and is employ¬
ed in hunting in feveral parts of Alia, where dogs are
very fcarce. He has not the delicate feent of a dog;
does not trace other animals by the fmell; neither can he
run them down in a fair chafe*; but lies in wkit for their
approach, and then darts upon them unawares. He leaps
fo. nimbly, that he eafily clears a ditch or a wall feveral
feet high : befides, he often climbs trees, waits till fom.-
animal paffes, and inftantly leaps down upon them. This
method of catching their prey, is praClifed by the pan¬
ther and leopard, as well as the once.
5. The Leopard differs from the panther and the
once in the beauty of his colour, which is a lively yel¬
low, with fmaller fpots than thofe of the two latter, and
6 H ^ difpofed
F E L ( 586 ) F E L
dirpofed in groups. He is larger than the once, and lefs
than the panther. The manners and difpofition of the
leopard are nearly the fame with thofe of the panther.
He is never tamed or employed in hunting. The pan¬
ther, once, and leopard, are inhabitants of Africa and
the warmer regions of Afia. In general, thefe animals
delight in thick forefls, and frequent the banks of rivers,
and thq neighbourhood of folitaty villages, where they
lie in wait to furprife domeltic animals and the wild beads
that come in quelt of water. They feldom attack men,
even when provoked. With regard to their Ikins, they
are all valuable, and make excellent furs.
6. The Lynx is about at feet long and 15 inches high.
He has a great refemblance to the cat; but his ears are
longer, and his tail is much fhorter ; his l>air is ftreaked.with
yellow, white, and black colours. The lynx is an in¬
habitant of Mufcovy. Poland, Canada, &c. his eyes are
brilliant, his afpeft is foft, and his air is gay and fpright-
ly; like the cat, he covers his urine with earth; he
howls fomething like the wolf, and is heard at a confide-
rable diftance; he does not run like the dog or wolf, but
■walks and leaps like a cat; he purfues his prey even to
the tops of trees; neither wild-cats nor fquirrels can e-
fcapehim; he lies in wait for dags, goats, hares, <bc.
and darts fuddenly upon them; he feizes them by the
throat and fucks their blood, then opens the head and
eats the brain; after this, he frequently leaves them
and goes in qued of frefh prey ; the colour of his (kin
changes according to the feafon or the climate; the win¬
ter furs are more beautiful than thofe of fummer.
7. The Cat, is a well-known domedic animal, and
therefore requires no particular defeription. The wild¬
cat, the cat of Angora, <bc. differ only in the length of
their hair, and fome fmall varieties arifing from climate
and their manner of living.
Of all domedic animals, the chara&er of the cat is
the mod equivocal and fufpicious. He is kept, not for
any amiable qualities, but purely with a view to banifh
rats, mice, and other noxious animals from our houfes,
granaries, he. Although cats, when young, are playful
and gay, they poffefs at the fame time an innate malice
and perverfe difpofition, which increafes as they grow up,
and which education learns them to conceal, but never to
fubdue. Condantly bent upon theft and rapine, though
jn a domedic date, they are full of cunning and diffimula-
tion; they conceal all their defigns ; feize every oppor¬
tunity of doing mifehief, and then fly from punifhment.
They eafily take on the habits of fociety, but never its
manners ; for they have only the appearance of friendfhip
and attachment. This difingenuity of charadler is be¬
trayed by the obliquity of their movements, and the am¬
biguity of their looks In. a word, the cat is totally
deditute of friendfhip; he thinks and arts for himfelf a-
lone. He loves eafe, fearches for the foftefl and warm¬
ed places to repofe himfelf. The cat is likewife extreme¬
ly amorous; and, which is very Angular, the female is
more ardent than the male; die not only invites, but
fearches after and calls upon him to fatisfy the fury of her
defires; and, if the male difdains or flies from her, die
purfues, bites, and in a manner compels him. This heat
of paflion in females lads but nine or ten days, and hap¬
pens twice in the year, namely in the fpring and autumn;
however, in fome it happens thrice or four times in
the year. The female goes with young 55 or 56 days,
and generally produces four or five at a litter. As the
male has an inclination to dedroy the young, the female
takes care to conceal them from him ; and, when fhe is
apprehenfive of a difeovery, die takes them up in her
mouth one by one, and hides them in holes or inagceflible
places. When die has nurfed -a few weeks, die brings
them mice, fmall birds, he. in order to learn them to
eat flefh. But, it is worth notice, that thefe careful and
tender mothers fometimes become unnaturally cruel, and
devour their own offspring.
The cat is incapable of redraint, and confequently of
being educated to any extent. However, we are told,
that the Greeks in the ifland of Cyprus trained this ani¬
mal to catch and devour ferpents, with which that ifland
was greatly infeded. This however was not the effeifl of
obedience, but of a general tade for daughter; for he de¬
lights in watching, attacking, and dednying all kinds of
weak animals indifferently. He has no delicacy of feent,
like the dog; he hunts only by the eye : neither does he
properly purfue ; he only lies in wait, and attacks animals
by furprife : and after he has caught them, he fports with
and torments them a long time, and at lad kills them
(when his belly is full) purely to gratify his fanguinary
appetite.
The eye of the cat differs greatly from that of mod
other animals. The pupil is capable of a great degree of
contradlion and dilatation; it is narrow and contrafted
like a line during the day, round and wide in the dark ;
it is from this conformation of the eye that the cat fees
bed in the night, which gives him a great advantage in
difcjvering and feizing his prey.
Although cats live in our houfes, they can hardly be
called domedic animals ; they may rather be faid to en¬
joy full liberty ; for they never aft but.according to their*
own inclination. Befides, the greated part of them are
half wild ; they do not know their maders, and frequent
only the barns, out-houfes, he. unlefs when prefled with
hunger.
Cats have a natural antipathy at water, cold, and bad
fmells. They love to bade in the fun, and lie in warm,
places. They Ivke^jfehavean affeftion for certain aromatic,
fmells ; they are tranfported with the root of the valerian..
Cats take about eighteen months before they come to
their full growth ; but they are capable of propagation in
twelve months, and retain this faculty all their life,,
which generally extends to nine or ten years. They eat
flowly, and are peculiarly fond of fifhes They drink
frequently; their deep is light; and they often aflume
the appearance of deeping, when in reality they are me¬
ditating mifehief. They walk foftly, and without ma¬
king any noife. As their hair is always dry, it eafily!
gives out an eleftrical fire, which becomes vifible when
rubbed a-crofs in the dark. Their eyes likewife fparkle
in the dark like diamonds.
The wild, or favage cat, couples with the dcmeflic
one, and is confequently the fame fpecies, It is not un-
ufual for domedic cats, both male and female,, when di-
mulated by love, to repair to the woods in qued of thefe
FEN ( 587 ) F E R
vage cats. The only dlfFerence'between them is, that
the favage cat is ftronger, larger, and more ferocious.
The cat is a native of almoft every country in the
world ; and all the varieties in their appearance may
be reafonably enough attributed to the climates which
produce them. See figures of the principal fpecies of
the Felis, on Plate LXXVIII, LXXIX, and LXXX.
FELKIRK, a town of Auftria, in Germany, thirty-five
miles fouth-eall of Conftance.
FELLOWSHIP, or Company, in arithmetic. See
Arithmetic, p. 386.
FELO de se, inlaw, a wer.fon that lays deliberately violent
, hands on himfelf, and is the occafion of his untimely
death, whether by hanging, drowning, ftabbing, (hoot¬
ing, or any other way.
FELON, inlaw, a perfon guilty of felony. SeeFELONY.
FELONY, in law, a capital crime, next in degree to
petit treafon, and committed with an evil intention;
fuch are murder, theft, filicide, fodomy,’rape, 6r.
FELT, in commerce, a fort of ftuff deriving all its con¬
fidence merely from being fulled, or wrought with
lees and fize, Without either fpinning or weaving.
Felt is made either of wool alone, or of wool and
hair. Thole of French make, yards long, and i-f
broad, for cloaks, pay each 2I. 14 s. 1-1^5% d. on
importation; and draw back 1 1. 12s. 3d. on ex¬
porting them again.
FELTRI, a town of Italy, fubjeft to Venice, thirty-
five miks north of Padua.
FELUCCA, in fea-affairs, a little veflel with fix oars,
frequent in the Mediterranean, which has this pecu¬
liarity, that its helm may be applied either in the head
or Hern, as occafion requires.
FEMALE, a term peculiar to animals, fignifying that
fex which conceives and generates its young within it-
felf.
FEMININE, in grammar, one of the genders of nouns.
^ The feminine gtender ferves to intimate that the noun
belongs to the female. In Latin, the femine gender
is moll commonly diltinguilhed by the article as
it is in the Greek by . In the French, the article /a
commonly denotes this gender; but we have no fuch
diflinflion by articles in the Englilh language.
FEMUR, os femoris, in anatomy. Se^ Anatomy,
FEN. a place overflowed with water, pr abounding with
bogs.
FENCE, in country-affairs, a hedge, wall, ditch, bank,
or other inclofure, made around gardens, woods, corn¬
fields,
The chief reafon why wood-lands and plantations fo
feldom profper, is in a great meafure owing to the ne¬
glect of fencing them round to keep out the cattle. Tks
negleft prevails much in the 'northern parts of this
illand, though the ufe of fences is certainly more ne-
ceffary there than in the fouth, as the lands require
more Ihelter and warmth. There are feveral ways
of fencing lands, but the ufual is that of hedging it
with either white or black, thorn, crab, holly; alder,
or furze,. *
Fence month, the month wherein deer begin to fawn,
during which it is unlawful to hunt in the forell.
It commences fifteen days before mid-fummer, and
ends fifteen days after it. This month, by ancient
forellers is called defence-month.
FENCING, the art of making a proper ufe of the fword,
as well for attacking an enemy, as for defending one’s
felf.
FENNEL, in botany. See Anethum.
FEOD, the fame with fee. See Fee.
FEODAL. and Feodatory. See Feudal, and Feu¬
datory.
FEOFFMENT, in law, is a gift or grant of any ma¬
nors, meffuages, lafcds, or tenements, to another in fee ;
that is, to him and his heirs for ever, by delivery of
feifin, and poffefiion of the ellate granted.
FER/E, in zoology, an order of quadrupeds, the difHn-
guilhing characters of winch are, that all the animals
belonging to it have fix fore teeth in each jaw, and the
canine, or dog-teeth, confiderably long.
Under this order are compn. bended the following
genera, viz. the phoca, canis, felis, vivgrra, mullela,
urfus, didelphis, talpa, forex, and erinaceus. See.
Cams, Felis, &c.
FERALIA, in antiquity, a feflival obferved among, the
Romans on February 21ft, or, according to Ovid, on
the 17th of that month, in honour of the manes of their
deceafed friends and relations. During the ceremony,
which confilled in making prefents at their graves, mar¬
riages were forbidden, and the temples of the divini¬
ties Ihut up ; becaufe they fancied that, during this
feftival, the gholls fuffered no pains in hell, but were
permitted to wander about their graves, and feall up¬
on the‘meats prepared for them.
FER de fowrchette, in heraldry, a crofs having at
each end a forked iron, like that formerly tifed by foL
diers tb rell their mufquets on. It differs from the
crofs fourche, the ends of which turn forked, where¬
as this has that lort of fork fixed upon the.fquare end.
See Plate LXXX. fig. 4.
Fer de. moulin, milrinde, inke de vtoulin, in he¬
raldry, is a bearing fuppofed to reprefent the iron-ink
or ink of a mill, which fullains the moving mill (lone.
FERDEN, or Verden, a city of Germany, fubjeCt to
Hanover;.it is fituated in lower Saxony, on the river
All.er,. twenty fix miles fouth call of Bremen : E. Ion.
90, and N. lat. 5 30 24/.
FERENTARII, in Roman antiquity,' were auxiliary
troops, lightly armed; their weapons being a fword,
bow, arrows, and a fling,
FERETINO, a city and bilhop’s fee of Italy, about
fjfty miles call of Rome: E. long. 140 5', and N. lat,
41 ° ^ \
FERIfE, in Roman, antiquity, holidays, or days upon
which they abflained from work.
The Romans had two kinds of fe'ris: 1. The public,
common to all the people in general. 2. The private,
which were only kept by fome private families.
The public ferise were fourfold: 1. Stativa; ferise,
holidays which always fell out upon the fame day of
das
F E R ( 588 ) F E R
-the month, and were marked in the calendar ; of
thefe the chief were the agonaiia, carmentalia, and
lupercalia. 2. Conceptivse ferias, holidays appointed
every year upon certain or uncertain days by the ma-
giftrates or the pontiff; fuch were the latinae, paga-
nalia, compitalia, See Pagan alia, 3. Im-
perativae feriae, holidays commanded or appointed by
the authority of the conluls or praetors ; of this kind
we may reckon the ledlillernium. See Lectister-
n 1 um, 4. Nundinae, the days for fairs. See Nun-
DINJE.
:Feri^ latinje were inftituted by Tarquinius Superbus,
who having overcome the Tufcans, made a league with
the Latins, and propofed to them to build a temple in
common to Jupiter Latialis, in which both nations
might meet, and offer facrifice for their common fafety.
At this feltival a white bull was facrificed ; and each
town, both of the Latins and Romans, provided a
■ certain quantity of meat, wine, and fruits. At firft
the folemnity continued but one day ; after the expul-
fion of the kings, the fenate added a third, a fourth,
and fo on to ten days.
iFERIA, in the Romilh breviary, is applied to the feve-
ral days of the week; thus Monday is the feria fecun-
da, Tuefday the feria tertia ; though thefe days are
not working days, but holidays. The occafion of this
was, that the firft Chriftians v/ere ufed to keep the
eafter week holy, calling Sunday the prima feria,
whence the term feria was given to the days of every
week. But befides thefe, they have extraordinary fe¬
rine, viz. the three laft days of paflion-week, the two
following eafter day, and the fecond feriae of roga*
tion.
FERMAN ACH, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Ulfter, the chief town of which is Innilkilling.
"FERMENT, any body which, being applied to another,
produces fermentatton.
Ferments are either matters- already in the a<ft of
fermentation, or that foon run into this aft. Of the
firft kind are the flowers of wine, yeaft, fermenting
beer, or fermenting wine, &c. and of the fecond are
the new expreffed vegetable juices of fummer-fruit.
Among diftillers, ferments are all thofe bodies which,
when added to the liquor, only correft fome fault
therein, and, by removing fome obftacle to fermenta¬
tion, forward it by fecondary means; as alfo fuch as, be¬
ing added in time of fermentation, make the liquor
yield a larger proportion of fpirit, and give it a finer
flavour.
FERMENTATION, may be defined a fenfible internal
motion of the conftituent particles of a moift, fluid,
mixt or compound body ; by the continuance of which
motion, thefe particles are gradually removed from
their former fituation or combination, and again, after
fome vifible feparation is made, joined together in a
different order and arrangement. See Chemistry.
p. 94.
.FERMO, a port-town of Italy, fituated on the gulf of
Venice, about thirty miles fouth of Ancona. It is an
archbifhop’s-fee.
FERN,//A, in botany. See Filix, 0?munda, A-
CROSTICUM, fee.
FERNANDO, or Fernandes, an ifland in the Pacific
ocean : W. long. 83°, S. lat. 330.
FERRARA, a city and archbifhop’s fee of Italy: E.
long. 120 6', N. lat. 440 jo\
FERRE, or A? Ferre, a city of Picardy, in Fiance,
forty mdes fouth-eaft of Amiens: E. long. 30 26^
N. lat. 490 45'.
FERRET, in zoology. See Mustela.
Ferrets, among glafs-makers, the iron with which the
workmen try the melted metal, to fee if it be fit to
work.
It is alfo ufed for thofe irons which make the rings
at the mouth of bottles.
FERRETTO, in glafs-making, a fubftance which ferves
to colour glafs.
This is made by a Ample calcination of copper, but
it ferves for feveral colours: there are two ways of
making it, the fir-ft is this. Take thin plates of copper,
and lay them on a layer of powdered brimftone, in the
bottom of a crucible; over thefe lay more brimftone,
and over that another lay of the plates, and fo on al¬
ternately till the pot is full. Cover the pot, lute it
well, place it in a wind furnree, and make a ftrong fire
about it for two hours. When it is taken out and
cooled, the copper will be found fo calcined, that it
may be crumbled to pieces between the fingers, like a
friable earth. It will be of a reddilh, and, in fome
parts, of a blackilh colour. This muft be powdered
and lifted fine for ufe.
FERRO, W. long. 19. °, N. lat. 28°, the moft wefter-
ly of the Canary iflands, near the African coaft, where
the firft meridian was lately fixed in moft maps ; but
now, the geographers of almoft every kingdom make
their refpeftive capitals the firft pieridian, as we do
London.
Ferro, fome little illands fitu?ted in the northern ocean,
200 miles north-weft of the Orcades, and as many
fouth-eaft of Iceland: W. long. 70, N. lat. 63°.
FERROL, a fea-port-town of Spain, in the principality
of Galicia, fituated on a bay of the Atlantic ocean,
twenty mil|s north-eaft of the Groyne, and fifty miles
north of Compoftella, a good harbour, where the Spa-
nilh fquadrons frequently fecured themfelves in the late
war : W. long 8° 4c/, N lat. 43° .
FERRUGINOUS, any thing partaking of iron, or which
contains particles of that metal.
FERRUGO, Rust. See Rust.
FERRUM, Iron. See Iron. .
FERRY, a liberty by prefeription, or the king’s grant,
to have a boat for paffage, on a firth or river, for car¬
rying paffengers, horfes, fee. over the fame for a rea-
fonable toll.
FERTILITY, that quality which denominates a thing
fruitful or prolific,
FERULA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digy-
nia clafs. The fruit is oval, compreffed, and has three
furrows on each fide. There are .nine fpecies, none
of them natives of Britain.
FESSE
FEU ( 5S0 ) F I C
iTESSE, in heraldry, one of the nine honourable ordi¬
naries, confiftiog of a line drawn dire&ly acrofs the
fhield, from fide to fide, and containing the third part
of it, between the honour-point and the nombril.
It reprefents a broad girdle or belt of honour, which
<knights at arms were anciently girded with. See
Plate LXXX.fig. 5.
Fesse-point, is the exaG centre of the efcutcheon.
See Point.
Eess.e-ways, or in pesse, denotes any thing borne af¬
ter the manner of a fefl’e; that is, in a rank acrofs the
middle of the fhield.
Party per Fesse, implies a parting acrofs the middle of
the fhield, from fide to fide, through the feffe point.
FESTI dies, in Roman antiquity, certain days in the
year, devoted to the honour of the gods.
Numa, when he diftributed the year into twelve
months, divided the fame into the dies fefli, dies pro-
fefti, and dies intercifi. ^
The fefli were again divided into days of facrifices,
banquets, games, and ferias. See Sacrifice, Epu-
ije, Ludi, and Feri.®.
The profefti were thofe days allowed to men for the
adminiflratioh of tf r affairs, whether of a public or
private nature : thefe were divided into fafli, comitia
les, comperendini, ftati, and praeliares. See Fasti,
Comitiales,
The intercifi were days common both to gods and
men, fome parts of which were allotted to the fervice
of the one, and fome to that of the other.
FESTINO, in logic, the third mood of the fecond fi¬
gure of the fyliogifm, the firft propofition whereof is
an univerfal negative, the fecond a particular affirma¬
tive, and the third a particular negative: as in the
following example:
FES No bad man can be happy,
TI Some rich men are bad men:
NO £rgc>, fome rich'men are not happy.
FESTIVAL, the fame with feaft. See Feast.
FESTOON, in archite&ure and fculpture, an or¬
nament in form of a garland of flowers, fruits and
leaves, intermixed or twilled together.
T’ESTUCA, in botany, a genus of graffes, belonging to the
triandria digynia clafs. The calix has two valves ; and
the fpica is oblong and cylindrical. There are fixteen
fpecies, eleven of which are natives of Britain, viz. the
ovina, or fheep’s fefcue-grafs; the rubiufcula, or hard
fefcue-grafs; the rubra, or purple fefcue-grafs; the bro-
moides, or barren fefcue-grafs; themyuros,or wall fefcue-
grafs; the pratenfis, or meadow fefcue-grafs; theelatior,
or tall fefcue-grafs; the decumbens, or fmall fefcue-grafs;
the'fluitans, or flat fefcue-grafs; the loliacea, or fpiked
fefcue-grafs ; and-the fylvatica, or wood fefcue grafs.
TETIPOUR, a city of the hither India, twenty-five
miles weft of Agra : E. long. 78° 40', N. lat. 27°,
FETLOCK, in the menage, a tuft of hair growing be¬
hind the paftern joint of many horfes ; for thofe of a
low fize have fcarce any fuch tuft.
FEUD, the fame with fee. See Fee.
FEUDxlL, or Feodal, denotes any thing belonging to
a fee. See Fee.
Vol. II. No.51.
FEUDATORY, or Feooatory, a tenant -who*for-
merly held his eftate by feodal fervice.
FEU-DUTY, in Scots law, is the annual rent or duty
which a vaflal, by the tenor of his right, becomes
bound to pay to his fuperior. See Scots Law,
title n.
Feu-holding, in Scots law, is that particular tenor
by which a vaflal is taken bound to pay an annual rent
or fea-duty to his fuperior. See Scots Law, tit. 11.
FEVER, in medicine. See Medicine.
FEVERFEW, in botany. See Matricaria.
FEVERSHAM, a port-town of Kent, and one of the
cinqueports. See Cinque port.
It Hands feven miles weft of Canterbury.
FEZ, the capital of the empire of Fez and Morocco, in
Africa: W. long 6°, JM. lat. 330 30'.
It is a large and populous city, and the ufual refi-
dence of the eniperor.
FIAR, in Scots law, the perfon veiled in the feudal pro¬
perty of a fubjedl. See Fee.
FIASCONE, a city and bilhop’s fee of Italy, about
twelvq miles fouth of Orvietto.
FIAT, in law, a ftiort order or warrant figned by a
judge, for making out and allowing certain procefles.
FIBRARI^E, a clafs of fofiiis, naturally and eflentially
Ample, not inflammable nor foluble in water, and com-
pifed of parallel fibres, fome fhorter, others longer ;
their external appearance being bright, and in iome
degree tranfparent: add to this, that they never give
fire with Heel, nor ferment with, or are foluble in acid
menftrua.
FIBRE, in anatomy, a perfectly Ample body, or at leaft
as Ample as any thing in the human ftru&ure; being
fine and flender like a thread, and ferving to form o-
ther parts. Hence fome fibres are hard, as the bony
ones; and others foft, as thofe deftined for theFor-
mation of all the other parts.
The fibres are divided alfo, according to their fitu-
ation, into fuch as are ftraight, oblique, tranfverfe,
annular, and fpiral ; being found arranged in all thefe
directions, in different parts of the body.
FIBROSE, fomething confining of fibres, as the roots
of plants. See Root.
FIBULA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 184.
FICARIA, in botany. See Ranunculus.
FICEDULA, in ornithology. See Motacilla.
FICOIDEA, in botany. SeeAizoov.
FICOIDES, a name given to feveral diftimft plants, as
the mefembryanthemum mufa, and opuntia. SeeME-
SEMBRYANTHEMUM.
FICTION. See Fable.
FICUS, the Fig-tree, in botany, a genus of thepoly-
gamia polycecia clafs. The corfimon receptacle is tur¬
binated, flefhy, and conceals the flofcules. The calix
of the male confifts of three fegments ; it has no co¬
rolla, but has three ftamina: the calix of the female
confifts of five fegments; it has no corolla, and but
one piftil, and one feed. There are feven fpecies, all
of them natives of warm climates. The fruit of the
fig-tree is a foft emollient fweet, and as fuch enters in-,
to feveral compofitions.
6 1
-2
FID A,
F I F ( 59° ) F I L
FIDA, a town on the flave-coafl of Guinea: E. long.
3°, N. lat. 6°.
FIDO, in the fea language, an iron, or wooden pin, to
fplice and fatten ropes together.
Fidd-hammek, one whofe handle is a fidd, or made ta¬
per-wife.
FIDDLE. See Violin.
FIDEI Commissum, in Roman antiquity, an eftate left
in truft with one perfon, for the ufe of another. See
Trustee.
FIDICINALES, mufcles of the fingers. See Lum-
bricales.
FIEF, or Fee. See Fee.
FIELD, in agriculture, a piece of ground inclofed,
whether for tillage or pafture.
Field, in heraldry, is the the whole furface of the
Ihield, or the continent, fo called becaufe it containeth
thofe atchievements anciently acquired in the field of
battle. It is the ground on which the colours, bear¬
ings, metals, furs, charges, tic. are reprefented. A-
mong the modern heralds, field is lefs frequently ufed
in blazoning than fhield or efcutcheon. See the ar¬
ticle Shield, tic.
Field book, in furveying, that wherein the angles,
ftations, dittances, tic. are fet down.
Field-colours, in war, are fmall flags of about a foot
and half fquare, which are carried along with the
quarter-matter general, for marking out the ground for
the fquadrons and battalions.
Field-fare, in ornithology. SeeTuRDus.
Field-officers, in the art of war. See Officer.
Field-pieces, fmall cannons, from three to twelve
pounders, carried along with an army in the field.
Field-staff, a weapon carried by the gunners, about
the length of a halbert, with a fpear at the end ; ha¬
ving on each fide ears fcrewed on, like the cock of a
match-lock, where the gunners fcrewin lighted match¬
es, when they are upon command; and then the field-
ftaffs are faid to be armed.
Field works, in fortification, are thofe thrown up by
an army in befieging a fortrefs, or by the befieged to
defend the place. Such are the fortifications of camps,
highways, tic.
Elyjian Fields. SccElysian.
FIERI FACIAS, in law, a writ that lies where a per¬
fon has recovered-judgment for debt or damages in the
king’s courts againft one, by which the flieriff is com¬
manded to levy the debt and damages on the defen¬
dant’s goods and chattels.
FIFE, in mufic, is a fort of wind-inftrument, being a
fmall pipe. See Pipe.
Fife, in geography, a county of Scotland bounded by
the Frith of Tay on the north ; by the German fea on
the eaft; by the Frith of Forth on the fouth ; and by
Monteeth and Stirling on the tVeft.
Fife rails, in a (hip, are thofe that are placed on
banifters, on each fide of the top of the poop, and fo
along with hances or falls.
They reach down to the quarter-deck, and to the
iftair of the gang-way.
FIFTH, in mufic, one of the harmonical intervals or
concords. See Music.'
FIG, or fig-tree. See Ficus.
Figwort, a plant called by the botanifts fcrophularia.
See Scrophularia.
FIGURAL, Figurate, or Figurative, a term •
applied to whatever is exprefied by obfcure refem-
blances. The word is chiefly applied to the types
and mytteries of the Mofaic law; as alfo to any ex-
preflion whch is not taken in its primary and literal
fenfe.
FIGURE, in phyfics, exprefles the furface or termina¬
ting extremities of any body.
Figures, in arithmetic, are certain characters whereby
we denote any number which may be exprefltd by any
combination of the nine digits, tic. See Arith¬
metic.
Figure, among divines, is ufed for ihe myderies repre
fented under certain types.
Figure* in dancing, denotes the feveral fteps which the
dancer makes in order and cadence, confidered as they
mark certain figures on tl e'floor.
Figure, in painting and defigning, denotes the lines and
colours which fo;m the reprefentation of any animal,,
but more particularly of a human perfonage.
Figure, in compofition. See Allegory, ApoSTjRO-
phe, Hyperbole, Personification, tic.
FIGURED, in general, fomething marked with figures.
The term figured is chiefly applied to fluffs, where¬
on the figures of flowers, and the like, are either
wrought or flamped.
FILAMENT, in phyfiology and anatomy. See Fibre.
Filaments, among bmanifls, ^5$ particularly ufed for
the ftamina. See Botany, Sedt. 11.
FILBERT, orFiLBERD, the fruit of the corylus, or
hazel. See CoryluS.
FILE, among mechanics, a tool ufed in metal, tic. in
order to fmooth, polifli, or cut.
This inftrument is of iron, or forged fteel, cut in lit¬
tle furrows, with chiffels and a mallet,, this and that
way, and of this or that depth, according to the grain
or touch required. After cutting the file, it mutt be
tempered with a compofition of chimney foot, very
hard and dry, diluted, and wrought up with urine, vi¬
negar, and fait; the whole being reduced to the con-
fiftence of muftard. Tempering the files confifts in
rubbing them over with this corapofition, and covering
them in loam ; after which they are put in a charcoal
fire, and taken out by that time they have acquired a
cherry colour, which is known by a fraall rod of. the
fame fteel put in along with them. Being taken out
of the fire, they are thrown into cold fpring-water; and
when cold, they i>re cleaned with charcoal and a rag;
and being clean and dry, are kept from ruft by laying
them up in w'heat bran. Iron files require more heat¬
ing than fteel ones. Files are of different forms, fizes,.
cuts, and degrees of finenefs, according to the different
ufes and occafions for which they are made.
File, in the art of war, a row of foldiers, ftanding one
behind another, which is the depth, of the battalion
FIN ( 591
or fquaciron. The files of a bamlion of foot are ge¬
nerally three deep; as are fomeumes thofe of a fqua-
dron of horfe. The hies muli be Hraight, and paral¬
lel one to another.
FILIGRANE, or Filigree-work, any piece of gold
or filver-work that is curioufly done with grains or
drops on the'filaments or threads.
FILIPENDULA, in botany. See Spiraea.
FILIX, in botany, an order of the cryptoganria c’afs of
plants. See Botany, p. 636.
FILLET, in anatomy. See Froenum.
Fillet, or Filet, in architecture, a little fquaremem¬
ber, ornament, or moulding, ufed in divers places, and
upon divers occafions,.but generally as a crowning over
a greater moulding.
Fillet, in heraldry, a kind of ork or bordure, con¬
taining only a third or fourth, part of the breadth of
the common bordure. It is fupp jfed to be withdrawn
inwards, and is of a different colour from the field.
I-t runs quite round, near the edge, as a lace over a
cloak.
Fillet, in the menage, the loins of an horfe, which be¬
gin at the place where the hinder part of the laddie
reds.
FILLER horse, one yoked immediately to a cart.
FILLY, a term among horfe-dealers, to denote the fe-
maleor mare-colt.
FILM, a thin Ikin or pellicle. In plants, it is ufed for
that thin, woody Ikin, which feparates the feeds.in the
pods, and. keeps them apart.
FILTER, or Filtre, in chemiftry, a ftrainer com¬
monly made of bibulous or filtering paper in the form
of a funnel> through which any fluid is paffed, in or¬
der to feparate the grofs particles from it, and render
it limpid.
FIMBRLE, denotes appendages difpofed by way of
fringe round the border of any thing.
FIMBRIATED, in heraldry, an ordinary with a nar¬
row bordure or hem of another tih&ure.
FIN, in natural hiftory, a well-known part of fifties, .con-
fifting of a membrane fupported by.rays, or little bony
or cartilaginous oilkles.
FINAL, in general, whatever terminates or concludes a
thing.
Final letters, among Hebrew grammarians, five let¬
ters fo called, becaufe they have a different figure at
the end of words from what they have in any other fi-
tuation.
Final, in geography, a port town of Italy, to
Genoa, and fituated on the Mediterranean, about thir-
ty-feven miles fbuth-wefl of that city.
FINANCES, in the French polity, fignify the revenues
of the king and hate.
EINCH-kino, in ornithology, an appellation given to a .
genus of birds, known, among authors by the name of ,
fringiila. See Fringilla.
FINE, in law, has divers fignifications, it being feme-
times taken for a fum of money advanced and paid for
ihe income of lands. It is hkewife ufed. in another..
) FIR
fenfe, where a fum is paid as an amends, or by way
of punifhment for an offence committed.
FINERS of gold and fiver, are thofe who feparate^hefe
metals from coarfer ores. See Refiners.
FINERY, in the.iron works, one of the forges at which
the iron is hammered and fafhioned into what they call
a bloom, or fquare bar.
FINGERS’ in anatomy, the extreme part of the hand
divided into five members. See Anatomy, part I.
and II.
FINISTERRA, the moft weftcrly cape or promontory
of Spain, in io° ^ W. long, and 430 N. Lt. This
cape is likewife the moft wefterly part of the continent
of Europe.
FINITE, fomething bounded or limited, in contradif-
tindion to infinite. See Infinite.
FINLAND, a province of Sweden, lying northward of
the gulph of Finland, and eaftward of the Botfnick,
gulph. It is a frontier province, bounded by R.uffia
on the eaft.
FIR-tree, in botany. See Pinus.
FIRE, a general name, by which men feem to under-
ftand a certain fenfation or complex notion of light,
heat, burning, melting, <bc.
The power of fire is fo great, its effeds fo exten- ^
five, and the manner of its ading.fo wonderful, that
lome o£ the wifeft nations of old reverenced and
worfhipped it, as the fupreme deity. Some of the
chemifts alfo, after they had dikovered its fur-
prifing operations, fufpeded it to be an uncreated be¬
ing: and indeed the moft famous of them'have ac¬
knowledged it as the fource of all their knowledge ; and
hence have profefled themfelves philofophers by fire,
nor thought they could be honoured wiih a nobler ti¬
tle. Now, amongft all the: wonderful properties of
fire, there is none more extraordinary than this, that
though it is the principal caufe of almoft all the fenfi-
ble e'ffeds that continually fall under our obfervatioh,
yet it is itfe-if of fo infinitely a fiibtile.nature, that it
illudes the moft fagacious enquiries, nor ever comes
within the cognizance of our fenfes. Fire is generally
divided into three kinds or fpecies, viz, celeftial, fub-
terraneous, and culinary.
By celeftial fire is principally undcrflood that of the .
fun, without regai d to that of the fixed ftars, though
this perhaps may.be-of the fame nature.
By fubterraneous fire we underftand that which :ma-
nifefts itfelf in fiery eruptions of the earth, volcanoes,
or burning mountains•, or by any other effeifts it pro¬
duces in mines, or the more central parts of the earth.
By culinary fire we mean that employed in all che¬
mical operations,- and the common occafions of life-,
The fun’s heat appears to be the afluating principle,
of general,inftmment of all. the operations in the ani¬
mal, vegetable, atmofpfaerical, marine, and mineral
kingdoms.
Fire, confidered in itfelf, feems to exift in the <M;eat-
eft purity and perfe&ion in the celeftial regions ; at
lead we .are infenfitle.. of any^ cunfiderable fmcke ir '
yields t
FIR (
; yields : for the rays of light come to its from the fun,
Taiimixed with any of that grofs, feculent, or terreftri-
ai matter, found in culinary and fubterranean fires';
but, allowing for this difference, the effeds of the fo-
lar fire appear the fame as thofe of culinary fire.
If we to examine the effefts of fpbterraneous fires-,
*we Hull find them the fame with thofe produced
by culinary fire. Thus, burnt coals, cinders, and
melted minerals, are thrown up by Vefuvius and other
burning mountains. Warm nephritical exhalations,
natural hot fprings, fteams, vapours, fmoke, <bc.r are
found in feveral parts of the globe, riling nearly in
the fame manner as if they were produced by the heat
of a furnace. Whence it appears, that fubterraneous
fires are of the fame nature with the culinary.
As men generally affix to the word firfe, a complex
idea of burning, light, heat, melting, <bc. this idea
Ihould be analyfed, in order to fee what parts are ef-
fential, and what precarious or arbitrary.
We frequently find the effe&s of fire produced
where no vifible fire appeared. Thus the fingers are
eafily burnt by an iron heated below the degree of ig¬
nition, or fo as to be no ways vifibly red-hot or fiery ;
whence it follows, that the eye is no judge of fire.
So likewife the touch gives no pofitive notice of
any degree of fire below the natural heat of the body,
or any fo great as to' deftroy the organ.
Again, the effeds of fire are often produced without
any manifeft figns of burning, melting, &c. as in e-
vaporations, be. If this method of exclufion and re-
jeifion were purfued to its due length, we ffiould
perhaps find no criterion, infallible mark, or charac-
teriftic of fire in general, but that of a particular.mo¬
tion ftruggling among the minute parts of bodies, and
tending to throw them off at the furface. If this
Ihould prove the cafe, then fuch a motion will be the
form and effence of fire; and which, being prefent,
makes fire alfo prefent: and, when abfent, makes fire
alfo abfent: whence to produce fire, and produce this
motion in bodies, will be one and the fame thing.
The great and fundamental difference in refpedt
to the nature of fire is, whether it be originally fuch,
formed thus by the Creator himfelf at the beginning
of things ; or whether it be mechanically producible
from other bodies, by inducing fome alterations in the
particles thereof. The former opinion is mantained
by Homberg, Boerhaave, the younger Lemery, and
s’Gravefande ; the latter is chiefly fupported by the
Engliffi philofophers, lord Bacon, Mr Boyle, and Sir
Ifaac Newton.
Bacon, in the treatife De Forma^Calicli, deduces,
from a great number of particulars, that heat in bodies
is no other than motion fo and fo eircumftanced; fo
that to produce heat in a body, nothing is required but
to excite a certain motion in the parts thereof.
Boyle feconds him in an exprefs treatife of the me¬
chanical origin of heat and cold, and maintains the
fame do&rine with new obfervations and experiments;
; as a fpecimen of which, we ffiall hear give the two
^following.
is In the produdlion of heat, fays that able philofo-
592 ) FIR
pher, there appears nothing on the part either of thei-
gent or patient, but motion and its natural effe&s. When
a fonth briflily hammers a piece of iron, the metal
thereby becomes exceedingly hot ; yet tnere is nothing
-to make it fo, except the forcible motion of the ham¬
mer impreffing a vehement and varioully determined
agitation on the fmall parts of the iron, which, being
a cold body before, grows, by that foper-induced
commotion of its fmall parts, hot: firll, in a more
loofe acceptation of the word, with regard to fome o-
ther bodies,, compared with which it was cold before ;
then fenfibly hot, becaufe this agitation lurpaffes that
of the points of our fingers ; and in this inftance often¬
times the hammer and anvil continue cold after the o-
peration ; which ffiews, ^hat the heat acquired by the
iron was not communicated by either of thofe imple¬
ments, as heat; but produced in it by a motion, great
enough IVrongly to agitate the parts of fo fmall a body
as the piece of iron, without being able to have the
like effett upon fo much greater maffes of metal as the
hammer and the anvil:. though if the percuffions were
often and brilkly renewed, and the hammer were fmall,
this alfo might be heated: whence it is not neceffary
that a body itfelf be hot to give heat.
2. If a large nail be driven by a hammer into a plank
of wood, it will receive feveral ftrokes-on its head
before it grows hot; but when it is once driven to the
head, a few ftrokes fuffice to give it a confiderable
heat; for while, at every blow of the hammer, the
nail enters further into the wood, the motion produced
is chiefly progreffive, and is of the whole nail tending
one way; but when that motion ceafes, the impulfe
given by the ftroke being unable to drive the nail fur¬
ther on, or break it, muft be fpent in making a vari¬
ous, vehement, and inteftine commotion of the parts
among themfelves, wherein the nature of beat confifts.
Agreeable to this is the opinion of Sir Ifaac New¬
ton, who conceives that grofs bodies may be converted
into light, by the agitation of their particles; and light,
again, into grofs bodies, by being fixed therein.
On the other hand, M. Homberg, in his Effai da
Souffre Principe, holds, that the chemical principle,
or element fulphur, which is fuppofed one of the Ample,
primary, pre-exiftent ingredients of all natural bodies,
is real lire, and confetpently that fire is coeval with
bodies.
Dr s’Gravefande goes on much'theiame principle :
fire, according to him, enters the compofition of all
bodies, is contained in ail bodies, and maybe fepa-
rated or procured from all bodies, by rubbing them
againft each other; andthus putting their fire in motion :
but fire, he adds, is by no means generated by fuch
motion,
Mr Lemery, the younger, agrees with thefe two
authors in afferting this abfolute and ingenerable na¬
ture of fire : but he extends it farther. Not content¬
ed to confine it as an element to bodies, he endeavours
to ffiew, that it is equally diffufed through all fpace,
and that it is prefent in all places'; in the void fpaces
between bodies, as well as in the infenfible interftices
between their parts.
This
FIR ( 5!
Tliis lad fentiment falls in with that of Boerhaave
and the celebrated M. Muflchenbroek. But not-
■withftjAding what thofe able philofophers have ad¬
vanced, it is evident that fire, heat, flame, <bc. are
only the different modifications of the particles of
light, and that the particles of light themfelves de¬
pend entirely on velocity for their lucific quality ;
fence, by many experiments, we know, that the par¬
ticles of bodies become lucid, or particles of light,
by only producing in them a requifite degree of velo¬
city: thus the particles in a rod of iron, being ham¬
mered very nimbly, fhine and .become red-hot: thus
alio the violent flroke of the flint againft the Heel, in
ftriking fire, puts the particles of the fled, which it
takes off, into fuch a motion as caufes them to melt,
and become red-hot, which makes the fparks of fire
produced by each flroke : as, therefore, fire confifts in
the great velocity of the particles, fo it may be com¬
municated from one body in which it is, to another in
•which it is not, after the fame manner that one body
in motion will communicate motion to another that has
got none.
Fire differs from heat only in this, that heat is a
motion in the particles of a body, with a leffer degree
of velocity; and fire, a motion with a greater degree
of velocity, viz. fuch as is fufficient to make the par¬
ticles Ihine ; though we often call fuch a ftate as will
burn, fire, though it does not actually fliine ; and we
feldom call thofe lucid bodies fires, which only fliine,
and do not burn. Thefe are a fort of phofpbori,
which, though they have no heat, yet feem to owe
their lucidity to the motion of their parts.
There feems to be no other difference between fire
and flame, than this; that fire confifts in a glowing de¬
gree of velocity in the^parts of a body, while yet fub-
fifting together in the mafs but flame is the fame de¬
gree of velocity in the particles diflipated and flying off
in vapours: or, to ufe Sir Ifaac Newton’s expreflion,
flame is nothing elfe but a red-hot vapour. See
Flame.
Fire, in chemiftry. See Chemistry, p. 67. and no.
Vol.II.
Eleftrical Fire. See Electricity.
Walking Fire, in meteorology. See Will-with-a
wh 1 sp.
FiacE, in theology. Se'e Hell.
We read of the facred fire in the firft temple of Je-
rufalem, concerning which the Jews have a tradition
that it came down from heaven : it was kept with the
utmoft care, and it was forbidden to carry aJiy ftrange
fire into the temple. This fire is one of the five things
which the Jews confefs were wanting in the fecond
temple.
The Pagans had their facred fires, which they kept
in their temples with the moft religious care, and which
were never to be extinguifned. Numa was the firft
who built a temple to Fire as a goddefs, at Rome, and
inftituted an order of priefteffes for the prefervation of
it. SeeVESTALS.
Fire was the fupreme god of the Chalcteans ; the
magi were worfliippers of fire; and the Greeks and
Armenians ftill keep up a ceremony called the Holy
Vol. II. No. 51, 2
# FIR
Fire, upon a perfuafion that every Eafter-,day a miracu¬
lous fire defcends from heaven into the holy fepulchte,
and kindles all the lamps and candles there.
Fire-lock. See Gun, Mus^uet, 6^.
Fire-pots, in the military art, fmall earthern pots, in¬
to which is put a charged grenade, and over that pow¬
der enough till the grenade is covered ; then the pot is
covered with a piece of parchment, and two pieces of
match acrofs lighted : this pot being thrown by
a handle of matches where it is defigned, it breaks and
fires the powder, and burns all that is near it, and
likewife fires the powder in the grenade, which ought
to have no fufe, to the end its operations may be the
quicker.
Fire works. See Pyrotechnia.
Fire ship, in the navy, a veffel charged with artificial
fire-works, which having the wind of an enemy’s flrip,
grapples her, and fets her on fire..
Fire-office, an oftice of infurance from fire. See
Assurance.
WHd-l'iiE, a kind of artificial or factitious fire, which
burns even under water, and that with greater violence
than out of it. It is compofed of fulphur, naphtha,
pitch, gum, and bitumen ; and is only extinguifhable
by vinegar mixed with fand and urine, or by covering
it with raw bides. Its motion or tendency is faid to
be contrary to that of natural fire, and it always fol¬
lows the direction in which it is thrown, whether it be
downwards, fideways, or otherwife.
FIRING-iron, in farriery, an inftrument not unlike the
blade of a knife; which being made red-hot, is ap¬
plied to a horfe’s hams, or other places Handing in need
of it, as in preternatural fwellings, farcy, knots, 6r.
in order to difcufs them.
FIRKIN, an Ebglifh meafure of capacity, for things li¬
quid being the fourth part of the barrel : it contains
8 gallons of ale, foap, or herrings; and 9 gallons of
beer. See Measure and Barrel.
FIRLOT, a dry meafure ufed in Scotland. The oat-
firlot contains 21^ pints of that country; the wheat-
firlot contains about 2211 cubical inches"; and the bar-
ley-firlot, 31 ftandard pints. Hence it appears that
the Scotch wheat-firlot exceeds the Englifti buftiel by
33 cubical inches.
FIRMAMENT m the Ptolemaic aftronomy, the eighth
heaven or -fphere, with refpeCt to the fevcn fpheres of
the planets which it furrounds. It is fuppofed to have
two motions; a diurnal motion, given to it by the pri-
mum mobile, from eaft to weft, about the po'es of the ec¬
liptic ; and another oppofite motion from weft to eaft •
which laftit finilhes, according to Tycho, in 25412 years,
according to Ptolemy in 36000, and according to Co¬
pernicus in 25S00, in which time the fixed flars re¬
turn to the fam: points in which they were at the be¬
ginning. This period is commonly called the Platonic
year, or the great year.
FiRMAMENT-is alfo ufed in divers places of fcripture, to
denote the middle region of the a'r
FIRMAN is a paflport or permit granted by the great
-mogul to foreign veffels, to trade within the territories
of his jurifdiflion,
FIRMNESS, denotes the conliftence of a bodv, or that
6 K ' ftatc
FIS ( 594 ) FIS
ftate wherein its fenfible parts cohere in fuch a manner,
that the motion of one part induces a motion of the
reft.
FIRST-fruits, among the Hebrews, were obSations
of part of the fruit of the harveft, offered to God as
an acknowledgment of his fovereign dominion.
First-fruits, in the church of England, are the pro¬
fits of every fpirituhl benefice for the firft year, accor¬
ding to the valuation thereof in the king’s books.
FISC, in the civil law, the treafury of a prince. It
differs from the asrarium, which was the treafury of
the public or people: thus, when the money arifing
from the fale of condemned perfons goods was ap¬
propriated for the ufe of the public, their goods were
faid publicari; but when it was deftined for the fup-
port of the prince, they were called confifcari.
FISCAL, in the civil law, fomething relating to the pe¬
cuniary intereft of the prince or people. The officers
appointed for the management of the fife, were called
procuratores fifei, and advocati fifei; and among the
cafes enumerated in the conftitutions of the empire
where it was their bufinefs to plead, one is againft
thofe who have been condemned to pay a fine to the
fife on account of their litigioufnefs, or frivolous ap¬
peals.
FISH, in natural hiftory. See Natural History.
Breeding o/Fishes may be turned to great advantage ;
for befides furniffiing your table, obliging your friends,
and raifing money, your land will be thereby greatly
improved, fo as to yield more this way than by any o-
ther employment whatever.
When fiih are fed in large pools or ponds, either
malt boiled, or freffi grains, is the beft food; thus
carps may be railed and fed like capons, and tenefies
will feed as well. The care of feeding them is beft
committed to a gardener or the butler, who ffiould be
always at hand. In a’ ftew, any fort of grain boiled,
efpecially peas, and malt coarfe ground; alfo the grains
after brewing, while freffi and fweet: but one buffiel
of malt not brewed, will go as far as of grains. See
Fish-pond, infra.
Fish, in a ffiip, a plank or piece of timber, faftened to
a ffiip’s maft or yard, to ftrengthen it, which is done
by nailing it on with iron fpikes, and woulding or wind¬
ing ropes hard about them.
Fishes, in heraldry, are the emblems of filence and
watchfulnefs ; and are borne either upright, imbowed,
extended, endorfed refpedfing each other, furmount¬
ing one another, fretted, fsc.
In blazoning fiffies, thofe borne feeding, ffiould be
termed devouring; all fiffies borne upright and having
fins, ffiould be blazoned hauriant; and thofe borne
tranfverfe the efeutcheon, muft be termed naiant.
Fish-pon-ds, thofe made for the breeding or feeding of
fiffi.
Fiffi-ponds are no fmall improvement of watery and
boggy lands, many of which are fit for no other ufe.
In making of a pond, its head ffiould be at the loweft
part of the ground, that the trench of the flood-gate
or fluice, having a good fall, may not be too long in
emptying- The beft way of making the head fecure,.
is to drive in two or three rows of ftakes above fix feet
long, at about four feet diftance from each other, the
whole length of the pond-bead, whereof the firft row
ffiould be rammed at leaft about four feet deep. If the
bottom is falfe, the foundation may be laid with quick¬
lime ; which flacking, will make it as hard as a llone.
Some lay a layer of lime, and another of earth dug
out of ihe pond, among the piles and ftrakes; and
when thTe are Well covered, drive in others as they
fee occafion, ramming in the earth as before, till the
pond-head be of the height defigned.
The dam ffiould be rliade floping on each fide, lea¬
ving a wafte to carry off the over- abundance of water
in times of floods or rains ; and as to the depth of the
pond, the deeped part need not exceed fix teet, riling
gradually in ffioals towards the fides, for the fiffi to fun
fhgmfelves, and lay their (pawn. Gravelly and fancy
bottoms, efpecially the latter, are beft for breeding;
and a fat foil with a white fat water, as the wafltings
of hills, commons, ftreets, finks, (drc. is beft for fat¬
tening all forts of fiffi. For ftoring a pond, carp is to
be preferred for its goodnefs, quick growth, and great
increafe, as breeding five or fix times a-year. A pond
of an acre, if it be a feeding and not breeding one,
will every year feed two hundred carps of three years
old, three hundred of two years old, and four hun¬
dred of a year old. Carps delight in ponds that have
marl or clay bottoms, v/ith plenty of weeds and grafs,
whereon they feed in hot months.
Your pond ffiould be drained every three or four
years, and your fiffi forted. If it is a breeding one,
the fmaller ones are to be taken out, to ftore other
ponds with ; leaving a good flock of females, at leaft
eight or nine years old, as they never breed before that
age. In feeding ponds, it is beft to keep them pretty
near of a fize.
FISHERY, a place where great numbers of fifli are
caught.
The principal fiffieries for falmon, herring, mackrel,
pilchards, <bc. are along the coafts of Scotland, Eng¬
land, and Ireland; for cod, 6n the banks of New¬
foundland ; for whales,, about Greenland; and for
pearls, in the Eaft and Weft-Indies.
Fishery denotes alfo the commerce of fiffi, more parti¬
cularly the catching them for fale.
Were we to enter into a very minute and particular
confideration of fiffieries, as at prefent eftablifhed in
,this kingdom, this article would fvVell beyond its pro¬
per bounds ; becaufe to do juftice to a fubjedt of that
concernment to the Britiffi nation, requires a very am¬
ple and diftimft difeuflion.. We fhall, however, ob-
ferve, that fince the Divine Providence has fo eminent¬
ly ftored the coafts of Great Britain and Ireland with
the moft valuable fiffi; and fince fiffieries, if fuccefsful,
become permament nurferies for breeding expert fea-
men: it is not only a duty we owe to the Supreme Be¬
ing, not to defpife the wonderful plenty he hath afford¬
ed us, by neglefting to extend this branch of commerce
to the utmoft; but it is a duty we owe to our country,
for its natural fecurity, which depends upon the fti ength.
of our royal navy. No nation can have a navy, where
, there
FIS ( 5
rtere is not a fund of bufinefs to breed and employ
feamen, without any expence to the public ; and no
trade is fo well calculated for training up thefe ufeful
members of this fociety, as filheries.
The fituation of the Hiitifh coafts is the moft advan¬
tageous for catching full in the world: the Scottiih
iflands, particularly thofe to the north well, lie
mofl: commodious for carrying on the fifhing trade to
perfection ; for no country in Europe can pretend to
come up to Scotland in the abundance of the iineft filh,
with which its various creeks, bays, rivers, lakes, and
coaft are repleniihed. King Charles I. was fo ftnfible
of the great advantage to be derived fromfifheries, that
he began the experiment, together with a company of
merchants : but the civil wars foon occahoned that pro¬
ject to be fet afide. King Charles II. made a like at¬
tempt ; but his preffing wants made him withdraw what
money he had employed that way, whereupon the mer¬
chants that joined with him did fo too. Since the u-
nion, feveral attempts have been made to retrieve the
fifheries, and a corporation fettled to that effeCt, enti¬
tled the Royal Britifh Fifhery.
In the year 1750, the parliament of Great Britain
taking the Hate of the fifheries into confideration, an
aft was palled for the encouragement of the white-her¬
ring filhery, granting a charter, whereby a corporation
is created, to continue twenty one years, by the name
of the Society of the Free Britifh Filhery, to be un¬
der the direction of a governor, prefident, viceprefl-
dent, council, who are to continue in office the
fpace of three years, with power to make bye-laws,
<bc. and to raife .a capital of 500,000!. by way of
fubfcription. And any number of perfons, who, in
any part' of Great Britain, ffiall fuhfcribe 10,0001.
into the flock of this fociety, under the name of the
-Fiffiing Chamber, and carry on the faid fiffiery on their
own account of profit and lofs, ffiall be entitled to the
fame bounty allowed to the fociety. The bounty is
30 s. the tun, to be'paid yearly, for fourteen years,
beiides 3 per cent, for the money advanced by each
chamber. The ad contains other proper regulations
relative to the nets, marks on the herring-barrels, num¬
ber of hands, and the quantity of fait that is entitled
to the bounty, <bc. It is then by the encouragement
given by this aCt, that we now fee a laudable emula¬
tion prevailing all over the two kingdoms, and fiffiing
buffes fitted out from almoft every port, in order to re¬
pair to the Shetland iflands, where the herring-fifhery
is carried on with an ardor becoming fo important a
branch of trade. Scotland, which fuffered incredibly
from the negleCi of this valuable and natural produce-
of the Teas,"has not been backward to join in a fcheme
that tends fo evidently to its own advantage ; for the.
cities of Edinburgh and Glafgow, the towns of Mon-
trofe, Dundee, Perth, Invernefs, and fome other bo¬
roughs, have raifed the proper fum, and chambers
have been erefted in each of them; the gentlemen of
eftates adjoining to the refpeflive places above-menti¬
oned, liberally contributing with merchants, towards
the profecution of an undertaking fo vifibiy tending to
ihe good of their country in general.
5 l FIS
Cffi-FisHERY. There are two kinds of cod-fiffi, the one
green or white cod, and the other dried or cured cod;-
though it is all. the fame fiffi differently prepared ; the
former being fometimes faked and barrelled, then taken
out for ufe; and the latter, having lain fomc competent
time in fait, dried in the fun or fmoke. We ffiall
therefore fpeak of each of thefe apart; and firft of
£?>i'.'’«-c-«r/-FisHERY. The chief fifheries for green cod
are in *ii“ bay of Canada, on the great bank of New¬
foundland, and on the ills of St Peter, and the ifle of
Sable, to which places veffels refort from divers parts
both of Europe and America. They are from 100 to
150 tuns burden, and will catch between thirty and
forty thoufand cod each. The mofl effential part of
the fiffiery is, to have a iqafler who knows how to cut¬
up the cod, one who is Hulled to take off the head pro¬
perly, and above all a good falter, on which the
preferving of them, and confequently the fuccefs of the
voyage, depends. The heft feafon is from the begin¬
ning of February to the end of April; the fiffi, which
in the winter retire to the deepefl water, comiflg then
on the banks, and fattening extremely. What is
caught from March to June keeps well; but thofe ta¬
ken in July, Auguft, and September, when it-is warm,
on the banks, are apt to fpoil foon. Every fiffier fakes
but one at a time : the moft expert will take from 3 yo
to 400 in a day; but that is the moft, the weight of
the fiffi and the great coldnefs on the bank fatiguing
very much. As foon as the cod are taken, the head
is taken off; they are opened, gutted, and falted ; and
the falter flows them in the bottom of the hold, head
to tail, in beds a fathom or two fquare; laying layers
of fait and fiffi alternately, but never mixing fiffi caught
on different days. When they have lain thus three
or four days to drain off the water, they are replaced
in another part of the ffiip, and falted again ; where
they remain till the veffel is loaded. Sometimes they
are cut in thick pieces, and put up in barrels for the
conveniency of carriage.
Dry-cod Fishery. The principal fiffiery for dry cod is,
from Cape Rofe to the Bay des Exports, along the*
coaft of Placentia, in which compafs there are divers
commodious ports for the fiffi to be dried in. Thefe
though of the fame kind with the freffi cod, are much
fmaller, and therefore fitter to keep, as the fait pene¬
trates more eafily into them. The fiffiery of both is.
much alike; only this latter is mofl expenfive, as it
takes up more time, and employs more hands, and yet
fcarce half fo much fait is fpcnt in this as in the other.
The bait is herrings, of which great quantities are"
taken on the coaft of Placentia. When feveral veffels
meet and intend to fiffi in the fame port, he whofe
ffialioop firft touches ground, becomes entitled to the
quality and privileges of admiral: he has the choice
of his flation, and the refufal of all the wood on the
coaft at his arrival. As faft as the mafters arrive, they
unrig ail their veffels, leaving nothing but the ffirouds
to fuitain the mails, and in the mean time the mates-
provide a tent on ffiore, covered with branches
ot trees, and fails over them, with a fcaffdd of
great trunks of pines, twelve, fifteen, fixteen, and
often
FIS ( 5^
often twenty feet high, commonly from forty to fixty
feet long, and about one third as much in breadth.
While the fcaffold is preparing, the crew are a fiihtng;
and as fall as they catch, they bring their fi(h afhore;
open and fait them upon moveable benches; but the
main faking is performed on the fcaifold. When the
fi(h have talcen fait, they wafh and hang them to drain
on rails; when drained, they are laid on kinds of
ftages, which are fmall pieces of wood w'd a-crofs,
and covered with branches of trees, having the leaves
ftripped off for the paffage of the air. On thefe (fages,
they are difpofed, ,a filti thick, head againk tail, with
the back uppermofl:, and are turned carefully four
times every twenty four hours. When they begin to
dry, they are laid in heaps ten or twelve thick, in or¬
der to retain their warmth ; and every day the heaps
are enlarged, till they become double their firft bulk;
then two heaps are joined together, which they turn
everyday as before; laftly, they are faked again, be¬
ginning with thofe firft faked ; and being laid in huge
piles, they remain in that fituation till they are carried
on board the (hips, where they are laid on the branches
of trees difpofed for that purpofe, upon the ballad,
and round the fhip, with mats to prevent their con-
traiking any moillure.
There are four kinds of commodities drawn from
cod, viz. the zounds, the tongues, the roes, and the
oil extracted from the liver. The firk is faked at the
fifliery, together with the fiflt, and put in barrels from
6 to 700 pound. The tongues are done in like manner,
and brought in barrels from 4 to 500 pounds. The
roes are alfo faked in barrels, and ferve to cak into the
fea to draw filh together, and particularly pilchards.
The oil comes in barrels,Trom 400 to 520 pound's,
and is ufed in dreffing leather.—In Scotland, they catch
a fmall kind of cod on the coaks of Buchan, and all a-
long the Murray frith on both Tides ; as alfo in the
frith of Forth, Clyde, <&c. wich is much ekeemed.
They fait and dry them in the fun upon rocks,, and
fometimes in the chimney. They alfo cure fkait, and
-other fmaller filh in the fame manner; but mok of
thefe are for home confumption.
Ci?r*/.FisHERY. See Coral
//^rr/^-FiSHERY. See Clupea.
I?ilchurd-Fishery. The chief pilchard-fifheries are
along the coaks of Dalmatia 00 the coak of Bretagne,
and along the coaks of Cornwall and Devonlhire.
That of Dalmatia is very plentiful: that on the coaks
of Bretagne employs annually about 300 Ihips. The
pilchards caught on our coaks, though bigger, are not
fo much valued as thofe on the coaks of France, owing
principally to their not being fo thoroughly cured. They
naturally follow the light, which contributes much to
the facility of the fifliery : the feafon is from June to
September. On the coaks of France they make ufe of
the roes of the cod-filh as a bait, which thrown into
the fea, makes them rife from the bottom, and run in¬
to the nets. On our coaks there are perfons poked a-
Ihore, who, fpying by thd colour of the water where
the Ihoals are, make ligns to the boats to go among
them to cak their nets. When taken, they are brought
) F I S
on Ihore to a warehoufe, where they are laid up in
broad piles, fupported wkh backs and 1/des; and as
they are piled, they fait them with bay-fijlt, in which
lying to foak for thirty or forty days, they run out a
deal of blood, with dirty pickle and bittern: then
they walh them clean in fea-water ; and, when dry,
barrel and prefs them hard down to fqueeze out the
oil, which iffues out at a hole in the bottom of the
calk. The Cornilhmen obferve of the pilchard, that
it is the leak fiih in fize, mok in number, and greatelt
for gain, of any they take out of the fea.
.SWz»<j«-Fishery. The chief falmon filheries in Europe
are in England, Scotland, and Ireland, in the rivers,
and fea-coaks adjoining to the river mouths. The
mok dikinguilhed for falmon in Scotland are, the river
Twe-d, the Clyde, the Tay, the Dee, the Don, the
Spey, the Nefs, the Bewley, drc. in mok of which it
is very common, about the height of fummer, efpecially
if the weather happen to be very hot, to catch four or
five fcore of falmon at a draught. The chief rivers in
England for falmon are, the Tyne> Trent, the Se¬
vern, and the Thames. The filhing ufually begins about
January ; and in Scotland they are obliged to give over
about the middle of Auguk; becaufe, as it is then
fuppofed the filh come up to fpawn, it would be quite
depopulating the rivers to continue filhing any longer.
It is performed with nets, and fogietimes with a kind
of locks or wears made on purpofe, which in certain
places have iron or wooden grates fo difpofed, in an
angle, that being impelled by any force in a contrary
direction to the courfe of the river, they may give way
and open a little at the point of contadt, and immedi¬
ately Ihut again, clofing the angle. The falmon,
therefore, coming up into the rivers, are admitted into
thefe grates, which open, and fuffer them to pafs
through, but (hut again, and prevent their return.
Salmon are alfo caught with a fpear, which they dart
into him when they fee him fwimming near the furface
of the water. It is cukomary likewife to catch them
with a candle and lanthorn, or wifp of kraw fet on
fire; for the filh naturally following the light, are
kruck with the fpear, or taken in a net fpread for that
purpofe, and lifted with a fudden jerk from the-bot-
tom We make no mention of the method of catch¬
ing falmon with a line or hook, becaufe it is much the
fame with that explained under the article Trout-
Fishing.
Curing Salmon. When the falmon are taken, they o-
pen them along the back, take out the guts and gills,
and cut out the greatek part of the bones, endeavour¬
ing to make the infide as fmooth as poflible; then fait
the filh in large tubs for the purpofe,-where they lie
a confiderable time foaking in brine ; and about Octo¬
ber, they are packed clofe up in barrels, and fent to
London, or exported up the Mediterranean. They
have alfo in Scotland, a great deal of falmon falted in
the common way, which after foaking in brine a com¬
petent time, is well preffed, and theti dried in fmoke:
this is called kipper, and is chiefly made foi; home con¬
fumption, and, if properly cured and prepared, is rec¬
koned very delicious.
Sturgeon-
FIS ( 597 ) FIS
&tnrgmn-Fishery. The greate/t flnrgeon-fifhery is
in the mouth of the Volga, on the Cafpian fea, where
the Mufcovites employ a great number of hands, and
catch them in a kind of inclofure formed by huge ftakes
reprefen ting the letter Z, repeated feveral times. Thefe
fdheries are open on the lide next the fea, and clofe-
on the other; by which means the filh afceriding in its
feafon up the river, is embarrafled in thefe narrow an¬
gular retreats, and ,fo is eafily killed with a harping-
iron. Sturgeons, when frefli, eat delicioufly; and in
order to make them keep', they are failed or pickled
in large pieces, and put up in cags from thirty to fifty
pounds. But the great objeft of this fifhery is the roe,
of which the Mufcovites are extremely fond, and of
which is made the cavear, or kavia, to much efteemed
by the Italians. See Cavear.
ITWe-FisHERY. Whales are chiefiy caught in the north
fea: the large!! fort are found about Greenland, or
Spitzbergen. At the firft* difcovery of this country,
whales not being ufed to be difturbed, frequently came
into the very bays, and were accordingly killed almoft
clofe to the fhore, fo that the blubbler being cut off
was immediately boiled into oil on the fpot. The
fhips in thefe times took in nothing but the pure oil
and the fins, and all the bufinefs was executed in the
country, by which means a fiiip could bring home the
produft of many more whales than !he can according
to the'prefent method of conducing this trade. The
fifhery alfo was then fo plentiful, that they were
obliged fometimes to fend other !hips to fetch off the
oil they had made, the quantity being more than the
fifhing fhips could bring away. But time and change
of circumftances have fhifted the flotation of this
trade. The fhips coming in fuch numbers from Holland,
Denmark, Hamburgh, and other northern countries,
ill intruders upon the Englifh, who were the firft dif-
coverers of Greenland, the whales were difturbed, and
gradually, as other fifh often do, forfaking the place,
were not to be killed fo near the fhore as before; but
are now found, and have been fo ever fince, in the o-
penings and fpace among the ice, where they have
deep water; and where they go fometimes a great ma¬
ny leagues from the fhore.
Tfie whale fifhery begins in May, and continues all
June and July ; but whether the fhips have good or
bad fuccefs, they muft come away, and get clear of
the ice, by the end of Auguft ; fo that in the month '
of September at fartheft, they may be expeded home ;
but a fhip that meets with a fortunate and early fifh¬
ery in May, may return in June or July.
The manner of taking whales at prefent is as follows.
As foon as the fifhermen hear the whale blow, they
cry out. Fall! fall! and every fhip gets out its long
boat, in each of which there are fix or feven men:
they row ti:l they come pretty near the whale, then
the harpooner ftrikes it with his harpoon. This re¬
quires great dexterity; for through the bone of his
head there is ho ftriking, but near his fpout there is-a
ibft piece of flefii, into which the iron finks with eafe.
As foon as he is ftruck, they take oare to give him
rope enough, othervvife, when he goes down, as .he
Vol. II. No. jx. 2
frequently does, he would inevitably fink the boat:
this rope he draws with fuch violence, that, if it were
not well watered, it would, by its fridion again!! the
fides of the boat, be foon fet on fire. The line faften-
ed to the harpoon is fix or feven fathom long, and is
called the fore-runner ; it is made of the fineft and foft-
eft hemp, that it may flip theeafier; to this they join
a heap of lines of 90 or 100 fathoms each ; and when
there are not enough in one long boat, they borrow
from another. The man at the helm obferves which
way the rope goes, and fleers the boat accordingly,
that it may run exadly out before; for the whale runs
away with the line with fo much rapidity, that he
would overfet the boat, if it were not kept ftreight.
When the whale is ftruck, the other long boats row
before, and obferve which way the line ftands, and
fometimes pull it; if they feel it fliff, it is a fign the
whale ftill pulls in ftrength ; but if it hangs loofe, and
the boat lies equally high before and behind ufSon the
water, they pull it in gently, but take care to coil it
fo, that the whale may have it again eafily if he re¬
covers ftrength : they take care, however, not fo give
him too much line, becaule he fometimes entangles it
about a rock, and pulls out the harpoon. The fat-
whales do not fink as foon as dead, but the lean one’s
do, and come up feme days afterwards. As long as
they fee whales, they lofe no time in cutting up what
they have taken, but keep fifhing for others: when
they fee no more, or have taken enough, they begin
with taking off the fat and wbilkers in the following
manner. The whale being laftted along-fide, they lay
it on one fide, and put two ropes, one at the head,
and the other in the place of the tail, which, together
with the fins, is ftruck off as foon as he is taken, to
keep thofe extremities above water. On the off-fide
of the whale are two boats, to receive the pieces of fat,
utenfils, and men, that might otherwife fall into the wa¬
ter on that fide. Thefe precautions being taken, three
or foup men with irons at their feet, to prevent flipping,
get on the whale, and begin to cut out pieces of about
three feet thick, and eight long, which are hauled up
at the capftane or windlafs. When the fat is all got
off, they cut off the whifkers of the upper jaw with
an ax. Before they cut, they are all lafhed to keep
them firm, which alfo facilitates the cutting, and pre¬
vents them from falling into the fea : when on board,
five or fix of them are bundled together, and properly
flowed ; and after all is got off, the carcafe is turned
a-drift, and devoured by the bears, who are very fond
of it. In proportion as the large pieces of fat are cut
off, the reft of the crew are employed in flicing them
fmaller, and picking out all the lean. When this is
prepared, they flow it under the deck, where it lies till
the fat of all the whales is on board ; then cutting it
ftill finaller, they put it up in tubs in the hold, cram¬
ming them very full and clofe. Nothing now remains
but to fail homewards, where the fat is to be boiled
and melted down into train oil. See Train Oil.
It were in vain to fpeak in this place of the advan¬
tages that may. be derived to Great Britain from th-
:\vhale-fifl:i.ery. We fhall only remark, that the legifla-
6 L turc
FIS ( 598
ture think that trade of fo great importance, as to
grant a very confi ierable bounty for the encouragement
of it; for every Britiih veflel of 200 tuns or upwards,
bound to the Greenland feas on the whale-fifhery, if
- found to be duly qualified according to the afl, obtains
a licence from the commiffioners of the culbms: to pro¬
ceed on fuch vo-yage : and on the Ihip’s return, the
mailer and mate making oath that they proceeded on
fuch voyage and no other, and ufed all their endea¬
vours to take whales, &c. and that all, the whale fins,
hlubber, oil, fee. imported in their (hip, were taken
by their crew in thofe feas, there lhall be allowed 40 s.
for every ton according to the admeafurement of the
fliip.
Befides thefe filheries, there are feveral others both
on the coafts of Great Britain and in the North Seas,
which, although not much the fubjedl of merchandize,
neverthelefs employ great numbers both of Ihips and
men ^ as, 1. The oyIter-filhing at Colcheller, Fever-
fham, the Ille of Wight, in the Swales of the Med¬
way, and in all the creeks between Southampton and
Chichefter, from whence they are carried to be fed in
pits about Wevenhoe and other places. See Oyster.
2. The lobfter-filhing all along the Britiih Channel,
the Frith of E$iinjj>urgh, on the coall of Northumber¬
land, and on the coal! of Norway, from whence great
qantities are brought to London. And laltly, the
filhing of the pot-filh, fin-filh, fea-unicorn, fea horfe,
and the feal, or dog-filh; all which are found in the
fame feas with the whales, and yield blubber in a cer¬
tain degree ; befides, the horn of the unicorn is as e-
Itimable as ivory, and the Ikins of the feals are parti¬
cularly ufeful to trunkmakers.
Trow/Fishing. The baits for this purpofe are either
natural or artificial, as earth, worms, minnows, and
filling flies, both natural and artificial. Whatever
worms are ufed, they anfwer belt if kept fome time in
an earthen pot, with mofs often changed in fummer.
If you filh for trout with hand on the ground, the
hook is to be introduced into the worm a little above
the middle, coming out again a little below ; then
draw the worm above the arming of the hook, making
your firll entrance at the tail-end, that the point of the
hook may come out at the head-end. When you filh
with minnows, take the whitelt and middle fized; and
after putting the hook in at the mouth, and out at the
gills, and drawing it through about three inches, flip
it again into his mouth, fo as the point and beard may
come out at the tail. This done, tie the hook, and
tail together with a fine white thread, and. let
the body of the minnow be almolt Itreight upon the
hook.
FISSURE of the hones, in furgery, is when they are
divided either tranfverfely or longitudinally, not quite
through, but cracked after the manner of glafs, by
any external force. See Surgery.
TISTULA, m the ancient mufic, an inftrument of the
wind-kind, refembling our flute, or flageolet.
The principal wind-inllruments of the ancients, were
the tibia and fiftula. But how. they were conllituted,
) E L A
wherein they differed, or how they were played cm,
does not appear.
Fistula, in. medicine and furgery. See Medicine
and Surgery.
Fistuua, in farriery. See Farriery.
FISTULAR, or Fistulous, appellations given by
furgeons to wounds and ulcers, which.degenerate into
fi Hulas.
FIT, in medicine. See Paroxysm.
FITCHEE/, in heraldry, a term applied to a crofs,
when the lower end of it is lharpened into a point, as
in Plate LXXX. fig. 6.
Fitches, in hulbandry, a fort of pulfe, more general¬
ly known by the name of chick-pea, or cicer. See
Cicer.
FITZ, makes part of the furname of fome of the natu¬
ral fons of the kings of England, as Fitz roy; which
is purely French, and fignifies the king’s fon.
FIVE churches, a bifliop’s fee of lower Hungary, 76-
miles fouth of Buda.
FIVES, orVivEs, in farriery. See Farriery, p.
5J5- , ,
FIXATION, in cbemiflry, the rendering, any volatile
fubftance fixed, fo as not to fly off upon being expo-
fed to a great heat; hence,
FIXED bodies are thofe which bear a confiderable de¬
gree of heat without evaporating, or lofing any of
their weight.
FLACCIDITY, among phyficians, a diforder of the
folids, cured by aftringent and cardiac medicines, join¬
ed with exercife and good air.
FLAG, a general name for. colours, ftandards, ancients,
banners, enfigns, fee.
The falhion of pointed or triangular flags, as now
ufed, Rod. Toletan affures, came from the Mahome¬
tan Arabs, or Saracens, upon their feiznre of Spain,
before which time all the enfigns of war were ftretch-
ed or extended on crofs pieces of wood, like the ban¬
ners of a church. The pirates of Algiers, and through¬
out the coafls of Barbary, bear an hexonal flag.
Flag is more particularly ufed at fea; for the colours,,
ancients, ftandards, fee. borne on the top of the mails
of veffels, to notify the perfon who commands the
fliip, of what nation it is, and whether it be.equipped
for war or trade, fee Plate LXXXI.
The admiral in chief carries his flag on the main.
top, the vice-admiral on the fore-top, and the rear-
admiral on the mizzen-top.
When a council of war is to be held at fea, if it be
on board the admiral, they hang a flag in the "main
flirduds; if in the vice-admiral, in the fore-fhrouds ;
and if in the rear-admiral, in the mizzen flrrouds.
Befides the national flag, merchant-fliips frequently
bear leffer flags on the mizzen-maft,. with the arms of
the city where the mafter ordinarily refldes; and on
the fore-maft, with the arms of the place where the
perfon who freights them lives.
Flag-officers, thofe who command the feveral fqua-
drons of a fleet, fuch are the admirals, vice-admirals,
and rear-admirals.
The
FLA ( 599 ) FLA
The flag officers in our pay, are the admiral, vice- FLANDERS, a province of the Netherlands, bounded
admiral, and rear-admiral of the white, red, and blue. by the German fea and the United provinces on the
See Admiral. north; by the province of Brabant, on the eafl; by
Flag-ship, a Ihip commanded by a general or flag-offi- Hainault and Artois, on the fouth ; and by another
cer, who has a right to carry a flag, in contradiftinc- part of Artois and the German fea, on the weft; being
ticn to the fecondary veflels under the command there- about ftxty miles long, and fifty broad, and divided
of. between the Auftrians, the French, and the Dutch.
Flag-flower, in botany. See Iris. Flanders is a perfedlly champaign country, withnot
Com Flag, in botany. See Gladiolus. a rifing ground or hill in it, and watered with many
FLAGELLARIA, in botany, a genus of the hexan- fine rivers and canals. Its chief commodities are fine
dria trigynia clafs. The calix confifts of fix fegments ; lace, linen, and tapeftry.
it has no corolla ; and the berry contains but one feed. PLANttL, or Flannel, a loofe fort of woollen fluff.
There is but one fpecies, a native of the Eaft-Indies. not crofted, and woven on a loom like bays.
FLAGEOLET, or Flajeolet, a little flute, ufed FLATS, in mufic, a kind of additional notes, which,
chiefly by fhepherds and country people. It is made together with (harps, ferve to remedy the defers of
of box, or other hard wood, and fometimes of ivory, radical inftruments, wherein temperament is required.
and has fix holes befides that at the bottom, the mouth¬
piece, and that behind the neck.
FLAIL, an inftrument foi\ threfhing corn.
A flail confifts of the following parts, i. The hand-
ftalf, or piece held in the threfher’s hand. 2. The
fwiple, or that part which ftrikes out the corn. 3.The
caplins, or ftrong double leathers, made faft to the tops
of the hand ftaff and fwiple. 4. The middle-band,
being the leather thong, or fifh (kin, that ties the cap¬
lins together.
FLAMBEAU, a kind of large taper, made of hempen
wicks, by pouring melted wax on their top, and let¬
ting it run down to the bottom. This done, they lay
them to dry ; after which they roll them on a table, and
join four of them together by means of a red-hot iron ;
and then pour on more wax, till the flambeau is brought
to the fize required.
Flambeaus are of different lengths, and made either
of v/hite or yellow wax. They ferve to give light in
the ftreets at night, or on occafion of illuminations.
FLAMBOROUGH-head, in geography, a cape or
promontory of Yorkfhire, five miles eaft of Burling¬
ton : E. long. 20', N. lat. 54° 15'.
FLAME, the fmall parts of an inflammable body, that
are fet on fire, or brifkly agitated and thrown off, with
a certain vibrative motion at the furface of that body
into the open air: or, in Sir Ifaac Newton’s words, the
flame of a body is only the fmoke thereof heated red
hot; and the fmoke is only the volatile part of the bo¬
dy feparated by the fire. See Fire.
FLAMEN, in Roman antiquity, the name of an order
of priefts, inftituted by Romulus or Numa; authors,
not being agreed on this head.
They were originally only three* viz. the flamen .
dialis, .flamen martialis, and flamen quirinus. They
were chofen by the people, and inftalled by the feve-
reign pontiff.- Afterwards, their number was increafed
to fifteen; the threefirft of whom werefenators, and
called flamines maj ores; the other twelve, taken from
among the people, being denominated flamines mino--
res. '
The flamen dialis, or prieft of Jupiter, was a con-
ffderable perfon at Rome; the flamen martialis, or
prieft of Mars, was the fecohd in dignity; and the
iamen quirinalis, was the next .to him.
See Music. - "»
FLATULENCY, in medicine. See Medicine.
FLAW, in the fea-language, fignifies a fudden guft of
wind.
FLAX, in botany. See Linum.
The following particulars with regard to the man¬
ner of rafting flax has been for fome years paft warm¬
ly commended by the Truftees for fftheries, manufac¬
tures, and improvements in Scotland,
Of the choice of the Soil, and Preparing the Ground
for Flax A fkilful flax-raifer always prefers a free
open deep loam, and all grounds that produced the pre¬
ceding year a good crop of turnip* cabbage, potatoes,
barley, or broad clover; or has- been formerly laid
down rich, and kept for fome years in pafture.
A clay foil, the fecond or third crop after being :
limed, will anfwer well for flax; provided, if the
ground be ftill ftiff, that it be brought to a proper
mould, by tilling after harveft, to expofe it to the :
winter froth.
All new grounds produce a ftrong crop of flaix, and
pretty free of weeds. When a great many mole-heaps
appear upon new ground, it anfv/ers the better for flax.
after one tilling.
Flax-feed ought never to be fown on grounds that :
are either too wet or dry; but on fuch as retain a na-
tural moifture: and fuch grounds as are inclined to
weeds ought to be avoided, unlefs prepared, by a care¬
ful fummer-fallow;
If the limfeed be fown early, and the flax not al¬
lowed to ftand for feed, a crop of turnip may be gof
after the flax that very year; the fecond year a crop pf
bear or barley-may be taken ; and the third year, grafs-
feeds arefometimes fown along with the lintfeed. This-
is the method moftly pra.&ifed in and about the coun¬
ties of Lincoln and Somerlet, where great quantities
of flax and hemp are every year railed,. and where
thefe crops have long been* capital articles. There,-old
ploughed grounds are never fown with lintfeed, unlefs
the foil be very rich and clean. A certain worm, cal¬
led in Scotland the Coup-worm, abounds in new broke
up grounds, which greatly hurts every crop but flax.
In fmall indofuresfurrounded with trees or high hed¬
ges, the flax, for want of free air, is fubjeft- to
fall, before it be ripe, and the droppjags of rain and
dew from the trees prevent the flax within the reach
of the trees from growing to any perfeflion.
Of preceding crops, potatoes and hemp are the bert
preparation for flax. In the fens of Li/icoln, upon pro¬
per ground of old tillage, they fow hemp, dunging-well
the firfl year; the fecond year hemp without dung; the
third year flax without dung ; and that fame year a crop
of turnip eat on the ground by fheep ; the fourth year
hemp with a large coat of dung, and fo on for ever.
If the ground be free and open, it ftiouldbe but once
ploughed, and that as ihallow as poflible,,.not deeper
than 2-y inches. It fliould be laid flat, reduced to a
fine garden-mould by much harrowing, and all Hones
•and fods (hould be carried off.
Except a little pigeon’s dung for cold or four ground,
no other dung fliould be ufed preparatory for flax, be-
caufe it produces too many weeds, and throws
up the flax thin and poor upon the ftalk.
Before fowing, the bulky clods fhould be broken,
or carried off the ground; and ftonei, quickenings, and
every other thing that may hinder the growth of the
flax, Ihould be removed.
Of the choice of Lintfeed. The brighter in colour, and
heavier the feed is, fo much the better: that which
when bruifed appears of a light or yellowifli green, and
frefh in the heart, oily and not dry, and fmells and
taftes fweet, and not fufty, may be depended upon.
Dutch feed of the preceding year’s growth, for die
moll part, anfwers belt; hut it feldom fucceeds if kept
another year. It ripens fooner than any other foreign
feed. Philadelphia feed produces fine lint and few bolls,
becaufe fown thick, and anfwers bed in wet cold foils.
Riga feed produces coarfer lint, and the greatert quan¬
tity of feed. Scots feed, when well winned and kept,
and changed from one kind of foil to another, fome-
times anfwers pretty well; but ftiould be fown thick,
as many of its grains are bad, and fail. It fprings well,
and its flax is fooner ripe than any other; but its pro¬
duce afterwards is generally inferior to that from fo¬
reign feed.
A kind has been lately imported, called memmel-
feed, which looks well, is fliort and plump, but feldom
grows above eight inches, and on that account ought
not to be fown.
Of Sowing Lintfeed. The quantity of lintfeed fown,
fhould be proportioqed to the condition of the foil;
for if the ground be in good heart, and the feed fown
thick, the crop will be in danger of falling before it is
ready for pulling. From eleven to twelve pecks Lin¬
lithgow meafure of Dutch or Riga feed, is generally
fufficicnt for one Scots acre; and about ten pecks of
Philadelphia feed, which being the fmalleit grained,
goes farthefl Priga lintfeed, and the next year’s pro¬
duce of it, is preferred in Lincolnfhire.
The time for fowing lintfeed is from thte middle of
March to the end of April, as the ground and feafon
anfwers ; but the earlier the feed is Town, the lefs the
.crop interferes with the corn-harveft.
Late fown lintfeed may grow long, but the flax upon
i-the ftalk will be thin and poor.
After fowing, the ground ought to be harrowed till
;) FLA
the feed is well covered, and then (fuppofing the foil
as before mentioned to be free and reduced to a fine
mould) the ground ought to be rolled.
When a farmer fows a large quantity of lintfeed,
he may find it proper to fow a part earlier and part lat¬
ter, that in the future operations of weeding, pulling,
watering, and gralfing, the work may be the eafier and
more conveniently gone about.
It ought always to be fown on a dry bed.
Of Weeding Flax. It ought to be weeded when the
crop is about four inches long. If longer deferred, the
weeders w ill fo much break and crook the ftalks, that
they will never perhaps recover their ftraightnefs again;
and when the flax grows crooked, it is more liable to
be hurt in the rippling and fwingling.
Quickening-grafs fliould not be taken up ; for, being
ftrongiy rooted, the pulling of it al ways.loofens a deal of
the lint.
If there is an appearance of a fettled drought, it is
better to defer the weeding, than by that operation to
expofe the tender roots of the flax to the drought.
How foon the weeds are got out, they ought to be
carried off the field, inftead of being laid in the fur¬
rows, where they often take root again, and at any rate
obftruA the growth of the flax in the furrows.
Of Pulling Flax. 'When the crop grows fo Ihort and
branchy, as to appear more valuable for-feed than flax,
it ought not to be pulled before it be thoroughly ripe;
but if it grows long and not branchy, the feed ihould
be difregarded, and all the attention given to the flax.
In the laft cafe it ought to be pulled after the bloom
has fallen, when the ftalk begins to turn yellow, and be¬
fore the leaves fall, and the bolls turn hard and lharp-
pointed.
When the ft^Ik is fmall, and carries few bolls, the
flax is fine; but the ftalk of coarfe flax is grofs, rank,
branchy, and carries many bolls.
When flax.has fallen and lies, fuch as lies ought to
be immediately pulled, whether it has grown enough
or not, as otherwife it will rot altogether.
When parts of the fame field grow unequally, fo
thatfome parts are ready for pulling before other parts;
only what is ready {hould be pulled, and the reft fliould
be fuffered to (land till ready.
The flax-raifer ought to be at pains to pull, and keep
by itfelf, each different kind of lint which he finds in
his field ; what is both long and fine, by itfelf; what
is both long and coarfe, by itfelf; what is both fhort
and fine, by itfelf; what is both mart and coarfe, by
itfelf; and in like manner every other kind by itfelf
that is of the fame fize and quality. Tf the different
kinds be not thus kept feparate, the flax muft be much
damaged in the watering, and the other fucceeding
operations.
What is commonly called under growth, maybene-
glefted as ufelefs.
Few perfons that have feen flax pulled, are ignorant
•of the method of laying it in handfuls acrofs other:
which gives the flax fufficient air, and keeps the hand¬
fuls feparate and ready for the rippler.
Of Stacking up Flax during the ‘winter, and Winning
■the
F L A {
‘■Site ’Seed* If the flax be more valuable tlian the feed,
ft fought by no means to.be (Sacked up ; for its own
.natural juice aifilts it greatly in the watering: where¬
as, if kept long unwatered, it Jofes that juice, and the
h.-.rle adheres fo much to the boon, that it requires
longer time to water, and even the quality of the flax
becomes thereby haiiher and coarfer. Befides, the flax
flacked up over year, is in great danger from vermin
,and other accidents ; the water in fpting is not fo foft
and warm as in harveft ; and near a year is thereby loft
of the ufe of the lint: but if the flax be fo fnort and
branchy as to appear moll: valuable for feed, it ought,
after pulling, to be Itooked and dried upon the field, as
is done with corn, then flacked up for winter, rippled
in fpring, and after (heeling the feed fliould be well
cleaned from bad feeds, <bc.
Of Rippling Flax. After pulling, if the flax is to be
regarded more than the feed, it fhould be allowed to
lie feme hours upon the ground to dry a little, and fo
gain feme firmnefs, to prevent rhe fltin or hade, which
is the flax, from rubbing off in the rippling; an opera¬
tion which ought by no means to be negledred, as the
bolls, if put into the water along with the flax, breed
vermin there, and otherwife fpoil the water. The bolls
alfo prove very inconvenient in the grafSng and breaking.
In Lincolnftiite and Ireland, they think that rip¬
pling hurts the flax; and therefore, in place of rip¬
pling, they ftrike the bolls againfl: a ftone.
The handfuls for rippling ftiould not ha great, as
that endangers the lint in the rippling comb.
After rippling, the flax-raifer will perceive, that he
is able to aflbrt each fize and quality of the flax by it-
felf more exactly than he could before.
Of Watering Flax. A running ftream waftes the lint,
makes it white, and frequently carries it away. Lochs,
by the great quantity and motion of the water, alfo
■wafte and whiten the flax, though not fo much as run¬
ning flreams. Both rivers and lochs water the flax
quicker than canals.
But all flax ought to be watered in canals, which
'fltould be digged in clay ground if poflible, as that foil
retains the water bell: but if a firm retentive foil can¬
not be got, the bottom or fides of the canal, or both
the bottom and fides, may be lined with clay ; or, in-
ffead of lining the fides with clay, which might fail
down, a ditch may be dug without the canal, and filled
with clay, which will prevent both extraneous water
from entering, and the water within from running off.
A canal of forty feet long, fix broad, and four
deep, will generally water the growth of an acre of flax.
It, ought to be filled with frefli foft water from a
river or brook, if poffible two, or three weeks before
the flax is put in, and expofed all that time to the heat
of the fun. The greater way the riv^r or brook has
S run, the fofter, and therefore the better will the water
be. Springs, or fiiort runs from hills, are too cold,
unlefs the water is allowed to fland long in the canal.
Water from coal or iron, is- very bad for flax. A
little of the powder, of galls thrown intoagiafs of wa¬
ter, will immediately ,difcover if it comes from mine¬
rals of that kind, by turning it into a dark colour,
mope or lefs tinged in proportion to the quantity of
vitriol it contains.
Vox.. II. No 51. 2 '
601 ) FLA
The canal ought not to be under any iliade- wklch,
befides keeping the fun from foftening the water,
might make part of the canal cooler than other parts,
and fo water the flax unequally.
The flax-raifer will obferve, when tire water is
brought to a proper heat, that fmall plants will be
rifing quickly in it, numbers of final 1 infedls and rep¬
tiles will be generating there, and bubbles of air rifing
on the furface. If no fqch figns appear, the water
muft not be warm enough, or is otherwife unfit for flax.
Mofs-holes, when neither top deep nor too Ih-allow,
frequently anfwer well for watering flax, when the wa¬
ter is proper, as before deferibed.
The proper feafon for watering flax is, from1 the
end of July to the end of Augull.
The adavntage of watering flax as foon as poffible,
after pulling, has been already mentioned.
The flax being forted after rippling, as. before men¬
tioned, Ihould next be put in beets, never larger than
a man can grafp with both his hands, and tied verv
flack, with a band of a few flalks. Dried ruffles an",
iwer exceedingly well for binding flax, as they do not
rot in the water, and may be dried and kept for ufe again.
The beets fliould bej>ut into the canals flope-ways,
or half (landing upon end, the root-end uppermoff.
Upon the crop-ends, when uppermoft, there frequently
breeds a deal of vermin, deftrutfive of the flax, which
is eflrtdually prevented by putting the crop-end down-
moll.
The whole flax in the canal ought to be carefully
covered from the fun with divots; the grafly fide of
which fhould be next the flax, to keep it clean. If it
is not thus covered, the fun will difcolour the flax,
though quite covered with water. If the divots are
not weighty enough to keep the flax entirely under
water, a few fiones may be laid above them. But the
flax fhould not be prefled to the bottom.
When the flax is fufficiently watered, it feels foft to
the grip, and the. harle parts eafily with the boon or
which laft is then become brittle, and looks whitifli.
When thefe figns are found, the flax fhould be taken
out of the water, beet after beet; each gently rinfed
in the water, to cleanfe it of the naflinefs which has
gathered about it in the canal; and as the lint is then
very tender, and the beet Hackly tied, it muft be care¬
fully and gently handled.
Great care ought to be taken that no part is over¬
done ; and as the coarfeft waters foeneft, if different
kinds be mixed together, a part will be rotted. When
the reft is not fufficiently watered.
When lint taken out of the canal is not found fuffi-
cicntly watered, it may be laid in a heap, for twelve,
eighteen, or twenty-four hours, which will have an
effeft like more watering ; but this operation is nice,
and m^y prove dangerous in unflcilful hands.
After the flax is taken out of the canal, frefh lint
fhoul(f not be put a fecond time into it, until the
former water be run off, and the canal cleaned, and
fuppiied with freffi water.
Qf grafing Flax. Short heath is the beft field for
graffing flax, as, when wet, it fallens to the heath,
and is thereby prevented from being blown away by the
wind. The heath alfo keeps it a lijtle above the
6 M earth.
FLA ( 602
«arth, and fo expofes it the more equally to the wea¬
ther. When fuch heath is not to be got, links, or
clean old lea-ground is the next bed. Long grafs-
grounds ihould be avoided, as the grafs growing thro’
the lint frequently fpots, tenders, or rots it; and
grounds expofed to violent winds Ihould _alfo be a-
voided.
The flax, when taken out of the water, mud be
fpread very thin upon the ground ; and being then
very tender, it muft be gently handled. The thinner
it is fpread the better, as it is then the more equally ex¬
pofed to the weather. But it ought never to be fpread
during a heavy ftiower, as that would wadi and wade
the harle too much, which is then exceflively tender,
but foon after becomes firm enough to bear the rains,
which, with the open air and funlhine, cleans, foftens,
and purifies the harle to the degree wanted, and makes
it Wider from the boon. In fhort, after the flax has
got a little firmnefs by being a few hours fpread in dry
weather, the more rain and funlhine it gets the better.
If there be little danger of high winds carrying off
the flax, it will be much the better of being turned
about once a-week. If it is not to be turned, it
ought to be very thin fpread. The fprending of flax
and hemp requires a deal of ground, and enriches it
greatly.
The fliilful flax-raifer fpreads his fird row of flax
at the end of the field oppofite to the point from
from«whence the mod violent wind commonly comes,
placing the root-ends foremod; he makes the root ends
of every other row overlap the crop-ends of the form¬
er row three or four inches, and binds down the lad
row with a rope ; by which means the wind does not
) FLA
eafily get below the lint to blow it away: and as the
crop-ends are feldom fo fully watered as the root-
ends, the aforefaid overlapping has an efFedt like gi¬
ving the crop-ends more watering. Experience only
can fully teach a perfon the figns of flax being fuffi-
ciently grafled : then it is of a clearer colour than for¬
merly ; the harle is blidered up, and eafily'parts with
the boon, which is then become very brittle. The
whole fhould be fufficiently grafled before any of it-is
lifted ; for if a part be lifted fooner than the red, that
which remains is in great danger from the winds.
A dry day ought to be taken for taking up the flax ;
and if there is no appearance of high wind, it Ihould
be loofed from the heath or grafs, and left loole for
fome hours, to make it thoroughly dry.
As a great quantity of flax can fcarcely be all e-
qually watered and grafled, and as the different qua»-
lities will bed appear at lifting the flax off the grafs ;
therefore at that time each different kind fhould be
gathered together, and kept by itfdf; that is, all of
the fame colour, length, and quality.
The fmaller the beets lint is made up in, the better for
drying, and the more convenient for flacking, houfing,
tire, and in making up thefe beets, as in every other
operation upon flax, it is of great confequence that
the lint be laid together as it grew, the root-ends to¬
gether, and the crop-ends together.
Of keeping Flax after it is grajfed. Nothing needs be
faid here, but that if the flax is to be flacked, it Ihould
be fet in an airy place, upon a dry foundation, fuch as
pob middings, or the like, and well covered from the
weather; andifhoufed, the floor mud be dry, and
the houfe well aired, and water-tight.
Foil onus an Eflirnate of the Expence, Produce^ and Profit of a Scots acre of Flax,—fuppoftng the feafon
favourable, that no accidental lojfss happen, and that the farmer is neither unjkilful nor negligent.
Ground-rent, labouring the ground, and leading the flax
Lintfeed from L. 2 to L. 4 per hogfhead, the medium
3 s. 4d. per peck — — —
Clodding and fowing — — —
Weeding — — — ■— —
Pulling, rippling, putting in, and covering in the water
Taking out of the water, grafling, and flacking
Breaking, and fcutching, at 2 s. per done —
Total expence
Produce at 10 s. per done — — —
Lintfeed fold for oil at 1 s. per peck — —
The chaff of the bolls is well worth the expence
of drying the feed; as it is good food, boiled and
mixed with beer,, for horfes.
Total produce
Ballance for profit — —
A medium crop.
L. 2 10 o
x 16 8
for 11 pecks
for 30 dones.
L. 15 o c
for 30 ftones
o 16 c
L. 15 16
6 14
A great crop.
L. 3 10 c
1 10 c
for 9 pecks,
for 40 dones.
L. 10 17-
for 40 dones.
o 18 o
An extraordinary-,
crep.
L. 5 o o
168
for 8 pecks.
020
nothing.
for 60 ftones.
L. 31
L. 16 13 4
There
FLA ( 603 ) FLA
'There is nothing ftated here as •expence of the ca-
>ml in which the flax is v/atered ; becaufe that varies
much according to the conveniencies people have for
making it: and a canal once made requires for after¬
years only to be repaired and cleanfed.
It is a certain fa£t, that the greater the crop is, the
better is the quality of the fame kind of flax.
The advantage of having both a crop of flax and a
crop of turnip the fame year—or of lowing grafs-
feeds along with the lintfeed—and of reducing the
ground to a fine garden mould, free of weeds, ought
to be attended to.
For Cambrick and fine Lawn. The ground muft be a
rich light foil, rather fandy, but cannot be too rich.
It ought to be ploughed in September, or the begin¬
ning of O&ober, fifft putting a little hot rotten dung
upon it.
Second ploughing in January after a hard froft; and
when you intend to fow it, plough it a third time, or
rather hoe it, reducing the clods very fine ; but make
no furrows : the land mult be made level like a ga»den;
but never work the land when wet.
The feed fliould be fown the beginning of April,
and about double the quantity that is generally fown by
our farmers; if the land be very rich, it will require
rather more than double.
As foon as fown (if the weather be dry) it will be
neceflary to roll the ground.
The lint mufl: be weeded very clean when about
three inches high; direftly after which you muft fet
forked fticks, of about one and half inch thick (which
ought to be prepared before) every four or five feet,
according to the length of the poles you are to lay up¬
on them; they Ihould be well fixed in the ground, the
forked part to receive the pojes about fix or feven
inches above the lint; each row of poles fhould be
two, three, or four feet afander,|acoording to the length
of the brufhwood you are to lay upon them.
The poles ought to be from ten to fifteen feet longj
and ftrong enough to fupport the brulh acrofs the
poles; take the longeft bruftiwood you can get, the
more branchy the better, very thick, filling up the va¬
cancies with fmaller brufh, and any of the branches
that rife higher than eighteen or twenty inches ought
to be lopt off to make the brufti lie as level as poffible:
any fort of brulh will do except oak, as that tinges the
lint.
Your lint muft be pulled as foon- as the feed is fully
formed, which is a few days after it is out of the
bloom before the lint turn yellow.
It muft be pulled above the brulhwood, and every
handful laid upon it as foon as poflible: if it is fine
weather, leave itfouror five hours in that manner; then
carry it to a fcreen near a barn, to put it under cover
in cafe of rain; there it muft be fpread four or five
days, and always put in the barn at night, or when
it appears to rain: the bundles muft be opened in the
barn, or made hollow, to prevent it from heating.
Thefe operations muft be performed until the lint is
•perfeftly dry, and out of danger of heating ; taking
care all the tiiae to keep the roots as even as poflible.
and if poffible, keep it from rain or wet: if you cannot
prevent it from being wet, it will be better to leave it
or. the grafs till dry; becaufe when once wet, the put¬
ting it under cover before dry .will make it turn black ;
a thing which muft be prevented at all events. -»
If any of the lint upon the border, or through-the
- piece of ground, be coarfer than another, it muft be
Separated from the reft.
The utmoft care muft be taken to preferve the lint
entire, or unbroke ; for this reafon they beat off the
feed with a round mell or bittle.
The moft proper ground is fummer fallow, or after
potatoes, or lea; if poffible near a wood, to prevent
the expcnce of carrying brufti.
As foon as the feed is off, if you intend to water it
that feafon, it muft be tied in bundles about as huge
as you can grafp with your, two hands.
The water proper for it, is a very fmall rivulet 09:
foft fpring free off any metallic ore, and taking care
that no flood or foul water enters your pit; which
muft be at leaft five feet deep, about nine or ten broad
at the top, and feven or eight at the bottom, the
length will depend on the quantity of flax you have
to water. A very fmall ftripe of water, when clear,
Ihould always be running in and off from your pit
when the lint is in it;
The pit ought to be made three or four months be¬
fore it be ufed,
You muft drive poles about four inches thick, with
a hook inclining downwards, in this form 7, •all a-
long the fides of the pit, about five feet afunder. The
hooks muft be level, or rather under the furface of the
water. Along pole, the whole length of the pit, muft
be fixed into thefe hooks on each fide; and crofs poles
put under that, to keep the lint under water ; but, the
crofs poles are not ufed till the lint is put in. You
muft order it fo, that all the lint ihould be three or
four inches under water. You next bring your lint to the
fides of the pit; then put your Iheaves head to head,
caufing each overlap the other about one third, and
take as many of thefe as make a bundle of two or two
and a-half feet broad, laying the one above the other,
till it is about four or four and a half feet high ; then
you tie them together in the middle, and at each root-
end: after this, you wrap your bundle in ftraw, and
lay it in the water, putting the thin or -broad fide un-
dermoft, taking care that none of your lint touch the
earth ; after it is fully preffed under water, put in your
crofs poles to keep it under. The bundles ought to
lie in the pit a foot feparate/rom each other. This
renders it eafy to take out; for, if the bundles en¬
tangle, they will be too heavyao raife.
The time of watering depends fo much upon the
weather, and foftnefs or hardaefs of the water, that it
is impoffible to-fix any cenain time. This muft be left
to the Ikill of the farmer. If the flax be intended for
fpinning yarn foft and fit for cambrick, it ought to be
fpread upon fliort grafs for four or five days before you
put it into the water; but if for lawns, lace, or thread
it is heft to dry it outright. In either cafe, avoid as much
zs pcffible to let it get rain ; as much rain blanches and
Wu flits
¥ L A ( 604 ) FLA
rvafhes out the oil, which is neceHa'ry to preferve the
Ib'ength.
The great property of this flax is to be fine arid
long. Thick lowing raifes all plants fine and flender,
and when the ground is very rich, it forces them to
a great length. Pulling green prevents that coarfe
hardnefs which flax has when let Hand till it be full ripe,
and gives it the fine filky property. The brufiiwood,
when the flax fprings up, catches it by the middle,
, prevents it from lying down and rotting-; infallible
confeq utnees of fowing thick upon rich ground. It
likewife keeps it ftraight, nioift, and foft at the roots;
and by keeping it warm, and fhaded from the fun,
greatly promotes its -length. The keeping it from rain,
heating, taking proper care of your water, preferves the
colour, and prevents thefe bars in cloth fo much com¬
plained off by bleachers.
TLAX-dressin-G. The different methods cf that 0-
peration.
For many ages it was the praftice to feparate the
boon or core from the flax, which is the bark of the
plant, by the following fimpie hand-methods. Fir/1,
for breaking the boon ; the flalks in fmall parcels were
heat with a mallet; or,, more dexteroufly, the break
(Plate LXXXII. fig. 1. and 2.) was ufed thus: The
flax being held in the left-hand a-crofs the three un¬
der-teeth or fveords of the break (A, fig. 1. and <7,
fig. 2.), the upper-teeth (B, fig. 1. and b, fig. 2.) were
■with the right-hand quickly and often forced down
upon the flax, which was artfully fhifted and turned
with the left-hand. Next, for clearing the flax of
the broken boon ; the workman with his left-hand
held the flax over the flock (fig 3. and 4.) while with
his right-hand he (truck or threfhed the flax with thg
feutcher (fig. 5.).
Thefe methods of breaking and fcutching the flax
being flow and very laborious, a water-mill was in¬
vented in Scotland about forty years ago, which, with
Tome late improvements, makes great difpatch, and in
fkilful and careful hands gives fatisfadtion. It has
been generally conftru&ecl to break the boon by three
dented rollers, placed one above the other. The middle
one of which being forced quickly round takes the o-
ther two along with it, and one end of handfuls of the
flax being by the workman diredted in between the up¬
per and middle rollers, the flax is immediately drawn
in by the rollers ; a curved board or plate of tin be¬
hind the rollers diredts the flax to 'return again be¬
tween the middle and undermoft rollers;—and thus the
operation is repeated until the boon be fufficiently
broke. Great weights of timber'or ftone at the ends
of levers, prefs the upper and under-rollers towards
the middle one. v
The fcutching is next carried on by the mill in the
following manner: Four arms, fomething like the
hand-fcutchers before deferibed, projedt from a perpen¬
dicular axle ; a box around the axle inclofes thefe
projedtirg fcutchers ; and this box is divided among
the woirkmdn, each having fuflicient room to ftand and
handle his flax, which, through flits in the upper-part
and Tides of the box, they hold in to the ftroke of the
fcutchers; which, moving round horizontally, -ftrike
-the flax a».crofs or at right angles, and fo tlirefh out
or clear it of the boon.
The breaking of the flax by rollers is fcarcely fub-
jedt to any objedfion, but that it is dangerous to work¬
men not fufnciently on their guard, who fometimes al¬
low the rollers to take hold of their fingers, and there¬
by their whole arm is inffantly drawn in : thus many
have loft their arms. To avoid this danger, a break
upon the general principles of the hand-break before
deferibed, has been lately adapted to water machinery,
and ufed in place of rollers. The horizontal ftroke of
the fcutchers was long thought too fevere, and wafteful
of the flax ; but very careful experiments have dilco-
vefed that the wafle complained of mufl be charged to
the unfkilfulnefs or negligence of the workmen, as in
good hands the mill carries away nothing but what, if
not fo fcutched off, mufl; be taken off in the heckling
wfdi morelofs both of time and flax. But to obviate
this objedtion of the violence of thz horizontal (catch¬
ers, an imitation of hand fcutching has lately been
applied to water. The fcutchers then projedt from an
horizontal axle, and move like the arms of a checks
reel, ftriking the flax neither acrofs nor perpendicu¬
larly down, but Hoping in upon the parcel exadlly as
the flax is flruck by the hand-fcutcher. This Hoping
flroke is got by raifing the fcutching-flock fome inches
higher than the centre of the axle; and by raifing or
lowering the flock, over which the flax is held, or
ferewing it nearer to or farther from the fcutchers, the
workman can temper or humour the flroke almofl as
he pleafes.
A lint-mill with horizontal fcutchprs upon a perpen¬
dicular axle, requires a houfe of two Aeries, the rol¬
lers or break being placed in the ground flory, and
the fcutchers in the loft above; but a mill with verti¬
cal fcutchers on an horizontal axle, requires but one
ground ftory for all the machinery.
Another method of breaking and fcutching flax,
more expeditious than, the old hand-methods, and
more gentle than water-mills, has alfo been lately in¬
vented in Scotland. It is much like the break and
feutcher giving the Hoping ftroke laft defenbed, moved
by the foot. The treddle is remarkably long, and the
fcutchers are, fixed upon the rim of a fly-wheel. The
foot-break is alfo aflifled in its motion by a fly. Thefe
foot-machines are very ufeful where there are no water¬
mills, but they are far inferior to the mills in point
of expedition.— \ffee plans of the Water-mills, and
foot-machine, on the unnumbered plates betwixt the
LXXXII. and LXXXUI.J *
The next operation that flax undergoes after fcutch¬
ing, is heckling. The heckle (fig. 6. Plate LXXXII.) is
firmly fixed to a bench before the workman, who ftrikes
the flax upon the teeth of the heckle, and draws it thro’
the teeth. To perfons unacquainted with that kind of
work this mayfeem a very fimpie operation : but, in faft,
.it requires as much praffice to acquire the flight of heck¬
ling well, and without wafting the flax, as any other
operation in the whole manufacture of linen. They
ufe coarfer and wider teethed heckles, or finer, accord¬
ing
GT.
' y^a ru/ * J^/z/yZ/t r
Plate L ,XXXir.
Zkf. ^.
fZyy^zyn 0/'/As /Z^r/t/^’
F L E ( ) F L O
mg to tKc quality of the flax; generally putting the flax
thro1 two heckles, a coarfer one firft, and next thro’
a fine heckle.
Flux for cambrick and fine lawn, thread and lace, is
drdTed in a manner fomewhat different. It is not
ikutched fo thoroughly as common flax ; "which from
the fkutch proceeds to the heckle, and from that to the
fpinner: whereas this fine flax, after a rough fltutch
ing, is fcraped and cleanfed with a blunt knife upon the
workman’s-knee covered with his leather apron ; from
the knife it proceeds to the fpinner, who, with a brufh
made for the purpofe, ftraights and dreffes each paicel
juft before fhe begins to fpin it.
?"W-Flax. See Linaria.
FLEA, in zoology. See Pul ex.
Flea-bane, in botany. SeeCoNYZA.
Flea bitten, that colour of a horfe, which is white
or grey, fpotted all over with dark rediftr fpots.
FLEAM, in forgery and farriery, an inftrument for let¬
ting a man or horfe blood. A cafe of fl ams, as it is
called by fat riers, comprehends fix forts of inftruments;
two hooked ones, called drawers, and ufed for clean¬
ing wounds ; a pen knife; a fliarp pointed lancet, for
making incifions; and two fleams, one fliarp and the
other broad pointed. Thefe kft are fomewhat like the
point of a lancet, fixed in a flat handle, only no longer
than is juft'neceflary to open the vein.
FLECHE, a town of France, under the meridian of
London, twenty miles north-eaftof Angers.
FLEECE, the covering of wool, (horn off the bodies of
flieep See Wool.
’Order of the Golden Fleece, an order of knighthood
inftiruted by Philip II. duke of Burgundy. Thefe
knights at firft were twenty-four, befidesthe duke him-
felf, who referved the nomination of fix more: but
Charles V. mcreafed them to fifty He gave the guar-
dianftiip of this order to his fon Philip king of Spain,
lince which the Sp mifti monarchs are chiefs of the or¬
der. The knights had three diflerent mantles ordain¬
ed them at the grand folemnity, the collar and fleece.
FLEET, commonly implies a company of (hips of war,
belonging to any prince or date: but fometimes it de¬
notes any number of trading fliips, employed in a par¬
ticular branch of commerce.
In failing, a fleet of men of war is ufually divided
into three fquadrons; the admiral’s, the vice admiral’s,
and the reir-admiral’s.fquadron, all which, being dif-
tinguiftied by their flags and pendants, are toputthem-
felves, and, as near as may be, to keep themfelves in
their cuftomary places, viz. T he admiral, with his
fquadron, to fail in the van, that fo he may lead the
■way to, all the reft in the day-time, by the fight of his
flag in the main top-maft-head; and in the night time,
by his lights or lanterns. The vice-admiral and his
fquadron, is to fail in the centre or midd'e of the
fleet The rear-admiral, and the (hips of his fquadron,
is to bring up the rear. But fometimes-other divifiotis
are made; and thofe compofed of the lighter fliips and
the heft faildrs, are placed as wings to the van, centre,
and rear.
Fleet <s alfo a no<ed prifon in London, where perfons
Vol. II. Nb. 51. ^
are committed for contempt of the king and his laws,
particularly of his courts of jufticei or for debt, where
any perfon will not. or is unable to pay his creditors.
There are large rules and a warden belonging to the
fleet prifon, which had its name from die float or fleet
of the river or ditch, on the fide whereof it (lands.
FLENSBURGH, a port town fubjedt to Denmaik, fix-
teen miles north of the city of Slefwick.
FLESH, in anatomy, a fimikr, fibrous part of an animal
body, foft and bloody, being that whereof moft of the
other parts are compofed, and whereby they are con-
nedled together: or more properly, it is fucb parts of
the body where the blood-vefl’Js are fo fmall, as only
to retain blood enough to preferve their colour red.
FLEURY, a town of Burgundy, in France, thirty miles
north of Chalons.
FLEXIBLE, in phyfics, a term applied to bodies capa¬
ble of being bent or diverted from their natural figure
or diredlion.
FLEXOR, in anatomy, a name applied to feveral muf-
cles, which are fo called.from their office, which is to
bend the part to which they belong ; in oppofition to the
extenfors, which open or ftretch them. See Anato¬
my, part II
FLINT, in natural hiftory, a femipellucid ftone, compo¬
fed of cryftal debafed with earth, of one uniform fub-
ftance, and free from veins ; but of different degrees of
colour, according to the quantity of earth it cootains,
and naturally furrounded with a whitifli cruft.
Flint is a ftone of an extremely fine, compaft, and firm
texture, and very vaftious, both in fize and figure. It
is of all the degrees of grey, from nearly quite black,
to almoft quite white. It breaks with a fine, even,
gloffy furface ; and is moderately tranfparent, very
hard, and capable of a fine pol fti. It readily ftrikes
fire with fteel, and makes not the lead effervefcence
with aquafortis, and burns to a whitenefs. Its ufes in
glafs making, ire. are too well known to need a parti¬
cular recital.
FLOATAGES, all things floating on the top of the fea
or any water, a word much ufed in the commiflions cf
water bailiffs.
FLOOD. See Deluge.
FLORENCE, an archbiftiop’s fee and city of Italy, fitu-
ated on the river Arno, in Tufcany, forty-five miles
eaft of Leghorn: E. long. 12° 15', and N. kt. 430
30'. Florence is one of the moft elegant towns in Ita¬
ly, has an-univerfity, and is fix miles in circumference.
The ftatues, paintings, and curicfities in the grand
duke’s palace are the admiration of travellers.
FLORENTINE, a town of Champaign in France,
twenty-eight miles fouth-weft of Troyes.
FLORES, in geography, one of the Azores iflands, fub-
je£t to Portugal.
FLORID style, is that too much enriched v/ith figures
and flowers of rhetoric.
FLORIDA, in geography, a name (irft given by the
Spaniards to all that part of North America which lies
north of the gulph of Mexico. However, all that re¬
tains the name Florida, at prefent, is-the peninfula be¬
tween the Britilh colony of Georgia and cape Florida,
L O f <5o6 > FLU
viz. between 250 ami 3.0° of N. latitude, and between
8i° and 85° W. longitude.
FLORIN, is fometimes ufed for a coin, and fometimes
for a money of account.
Florin, as a coin, is of different values, according to
the different metals and different countries where it is
ftruck. The gold florins are moft of them of a very
coarfe alloy, fome of them not exceeding thirteen or
fourteen carrats, and none of them feventeen and a
half. As to filver florins, thofe of Holland are worth
about 1 s. 8 d. thofe of Genoa were worth 8^- Ster¬
ling.
Florin, as a money of account, is ufed by the Italian,
Dutch, and German merchants and bankers, but ad¬
mits of different divifions in different places. In Hol¬
land, it is on the footing of the coin of that name,
containing 20 flivers. At Frankfort and Nuremberg
it is equivalent to 3 s. Sterling, and is divided into
creutzers, and pfinnings. At Liege, it is equivalent to
2 s. 3d. At Strafburg, to is. 8d. In Savoy, to
lid. At Genoa, to 8^d. And at Geneva, to 6| d.
See Coin.
FLORIST, a perfon well fkilled in flowers, their kinds
and cultivation.
FLORY, Flowry, or Fleury, in heraldry, a crofs
that has the flowers at the end circumflex and turning
down, differing from the potence, inafmuch as the lat¬
ter ftretches out more like that which is called patee.
The crofs flory is reprefented in Plate LXXX.
fig. 7.
FLOS, Flower, in botany: See Flower.
Flos, in chemiflry, the moft fubftile part of bodies fepa-
rated from the more grofs parts by fublimation, in a
dry form. See Chemistry.
FLOTSON, or Flotsom, goods that by fhipwreck
are loft, and floating upon the fea; which, with jetfon
and lagan, are generally given to the lord admiral: but
this is the cafe only where the owners of fuch goods
are not known. And here it is to be obferved, that
jetfon fignifies any thing that is caft out of a fhip when
in danger, and afterwards is beat on the fhore by the
water, notwithftanding which the fhip perifhes Lagan
is where heavy goods are thrown overboard, before
the wreck of the fhip, and fink to the bottom of the
fea.
FLOUNDER, the Englifh name of a fpecies of pleu-
rone&es. See Pleuronectes.
FLOUR, the meal of wheat-corn, finely ground and
lifted See Meal.
FLOWER, among botanifts and gardeners, the moft
beautiful part of trees and plants, containing the or¬
gans or parts of frutfification. See Botany,.
Fr/crW Flower. See Xeranthemum.
Everlajiinx Flower.. See Gnaphalium.
Flower Fence. See Poinciana.
Flower de luce. See Iris.
£k//<*«-Flower. See Cyanus-.
.Sku-Flower, See Helianthus.
7V«w/W-Flower. SeeBiGNOMA.
/FiW-Flower. See Anemone.
Flower de lis, or Flow'er de luce, in heraldry,
a bearing reprefenting the lily, called the queen of
flowers, and the true hieroglyphic of royal majefty;
but of late it is become more common, being borne in
fome coats one, in others three, in others five, and in
fome femee, or fpread all over the efcutcheon in great
numbers.
The arms of France are, three flower de lis or, in
a field azure.
FLUDDER. See Colymbus.
FLUID, an appellation given to all bodies whofe parti¬
cles eafily yield to the leaft partial preflure, or force
imprefled.
Laws and properties of Fluids. See Hydraulics
and Hydrostatics.
FLUOR, in phyfics, a fluid ; or, more properly, the ftate
of a body that was before hard or fblid, but is now
reduced by fufion, or fire, into a ftate of fluidity.
Fluor, in mineralogy, implies a fort of mineral con¬
cretion, frequently found amongft ores and ftones, in
mines and quarries.
Fluor albus, or Whites. SeeMEDiciNE.
FLUSHING, or Vlissengen, a port town of Zea¬
land in Holland, five miles fouth of Middleburgh ::
E. long. 30 25', N. lat. 51° 30'. It is a town of
great foreign trade, and has a good fecure harbour.
FLUTE, an inftrument of mufic, the fimpleft of all
thofe of the wind kind. It is played on by blowing
it with the mouth, and the tones or notes are chan¬
ged by flopping and opening the holes difpofed for that
purpofe along its fide.
German Flute, is an inftrument entirely different from
the common flute. It is not, like that, put into the
mouth to be played, but the end is ftopt with a tam¬
pion or plug ; and the lower lip is applied to a hole
about two inches and a half, or three inches, diftant-
from the end - This inftrument is ufually about a foot
and a half long ; rather bigger at the upper end than
the lower ; and perforated with holes, befides that for
the mouth, the loweft of which is ftopt and opened by
the little finger’s prefling on a brafs or fometimes a
filver key, like thofe in hautboys, baffoons, be. Its
found is exceeding fweet and agreeable ; and ferves as
a treble in a concert.
Coarfe flutes, on importation, pay the gros, con¬
taining twelve dozen, 3 s. d. and on export¬
ation draw back 3 s. ^-/tyg-d.
Flutes, or Flutings. See Architecture.
FLUVIALIS, in botany. See Najas
FLUX, in medicine, an extraordinary iffue, or evacua¬
tion of fome humours of the body. See Medicine.
Flux, in metallurgy, whatever can caufe a body other-
wife not at all, or hardly, fulible by fire, to melt. See
Chemistry.
FLUXIONS,
( «°r )
FLUXIONS.
FLUXIONS, a method of calculation which greatly
facilitates computations in the higher parts of ma¬
thematics, Sir IfaiC Newton and Mr Leibnitz contend¬
ed for the honour of inventing it. It is probable they
had both made progrefs in the fame difcovery, unknown
to each other, before there was any publication on the
fubjetf.
In this branch of mathematics magnitudes of every
kind are fuppofed generated by motion: a line by the
motion of a point, a furface by the motion of a line, and
a folid by the motion of a furface. And fome part of a
figure is fuppofed generated by an uniform motion ; in
confequence of which the other parts may increafe uni¬
formly or with an acceletated or retarded motion, or may
decreafe in any of thefe ways; and the computations are
made by tracing the coaiparative velocities with which
the parts flow.
Fig. i. If the parallelogram ABCD be generated by
an uniform motion of the line AB toward CD while it
moves from FE towards/e, while the lineBF receives the in¬
crement fyi and the figure will be increafed by the paralle¬
logram Fe ; the line FE in this cafe undergoes no variation.
The fluxion of any magnitude at any point is the incre¬
ment that it would receive in any given time, fuppofing it
to increafe uniformly from that point; and as the mea-
fures will be the fame, whatever the time be, we are at
liberty to fuppofe it left than sny afligned time.
The firfl letters in the alphabet are ufed to reprefent
invariable quantities ; the letters x, y. z variable quanti¬
ties ; and the fame letters with points over them x, y, z,
reprefent their fluxions.
Therefore if AB=a, and BF=x ; Ff, the fluxion of
BF, will be = x, and F^, the fluxion of AF, —ax.
If the re&angle be fuppofed generat'ed by the uniform
motion of FG towards CD, at the fame time HG moves
uniformly towards AD, the point G keeping always on
the diagonal, the lines FG HG will flow unifoimly; for
while By receiver the increment Fy and HB, the incre¬
ment HK, FG will receive the increment hg andHG the
incrementand they will receive equal increments in
equal fucceifive times. But the parallelogram will flow
with an accelerated motion ; for while F flows to f and
H to K, it is increafed by the gnomon KGy; but while
F and H flow through the equal fpaces fm KL, it is in¬
creafed by the gnomen F.gvi greater than KG/; confe-
quently when fluxions of the fides of a parallelogram
are uniform,, the fluxion of the parallelogram increafes
continually.
The fluxion of the parallelogram BHGF is the two
parallelograms KG and Gy,- for though the parameter
receives an increment of the gnomen KGy while its
fides flow to y and K, the part ^G is owing to the addi¬
tional velocity wherewith the parallelogram flows during
that time; and therefore is no part of the meafure of the
fluxion, which mull be computed by fuppofing the para¬
meter to flow uniformly as it did at the beginning, with¬
out any acceleration.
Therefore if the fides of a parallelogram be x and.
y, their fluxions will be x ^; and the fluxion of the pa¬
rallelogram xy-Fyx; and if x—y, that is, if the figure be a
fquare, the fluxion of x* will be axx.
Fig. 2. Let the triangle ABC be deferibed by the
uniform motion of DE from A towards B, the point E
moving in the line DF, fo as always to touch the lines
AC, CB ; while D moves from A to F, DE is uniform¬
ly increafed, and the increafe of the triangle is uniform¬
ly accelerated. When DE is in the poiition FC, it is
a maximum. As D moves from F to B, the line FC
decreafes, and the triangle incieafes,. but with a motion
uniformly retarded.
Fig. 3. If the femicircle AFB be generated by the
uniform motion of CD fr om A towards B, while C moves
from A to G, the line CD will increafe, but with a re¬
tarded motion; the circumference alfo increafes with a
retarded motion, and the circular fpace increafes with an
accelerated motion, but not uniformly, the degrees of
acceleration growing left as CD approaches to the pofition
GF. When C moves from G to B, it decreafes with
a motion continually accelerated, the circumference in¬
creafes with a motion continually accelerated, and the
area increafes with a motion continually retarded, and
more quickly retarded as CD approaches to B.
The fluxion of a quantity which decreafes is to be con-
fidered as negative.
When a quantity does not flow uniformly, its fluxion
may be reprefente-i by a variable quantity, or a line of a
variable length ; the fluxion of fuch a line is called the
fecond fluxion of the quantity whofe fluxion that line is:
and if it be variable, a third fluxion may be deduced from
it, and higher orders from thefe in the fame manner : the
fecond fluxion is reprefented by two points, as x.
The increment a quantity receives by flowing for any
given time, contains meafiires of all the different orders
of fluxions ; for if it increafes uniformly, the whole in¬
crement is the firft fluxion; and it has no fecond fluxion.
If it increafes with a motion uniformly accelerated, the
part of the increment pccafioned by the firft motion mea-
1bres the firft fluxion, and the part occafioned by the ac¬
celeration meafiires the fecond fluxion. If the motion
he not only accelerated, but the degree of acceleration
continually increafed, the two firft fluxions are meafured
as before; and the part of the increment occafioned by
the additional degree of acceleration meafiires the third ;
and fo on. Thefe meafures require to be corre&ed, and
are only mentioned here to illuftrate thefubjedl.
DIRECT METHOD.
Wxy flowing quantify being given, to find its fluxion.
Ruix l. To find.the fluxion of any power of a quan¬
tity
•6dS FLUX
tit^, multiply the fluxion of the root by the exponent of
the power, and the produd by a power of the fame root
lefs by unity than the. given exponent.
The fluxion of x5 is Z,xtx, of xn nx* *x; for the
root of xn is x, whofe fluxion is x; which multiplied by
the exponent n, and by a power of * lefs by unity than
7iy gives the above fluxiun.
If x receive the increment x, it becomes x+x; rarfe
"both to the power of n, and x" becomes xn-{-nxn~‘Jx-\-
^—-xn—2x2+, &c.i but all the parts of the incre¬
ment, except the firft term, are owing to the accelerated
•increafe of x”, and form meafures of the higher fluxions.
The firft term only meafures the firft fluxion ; the fluxion
 ?. X . - - X
of a*+z1 is iX2ZzXa1+z,:; for put*=tf*+z\ we have
x—2zz, and the fluxion of x2, which is equal to the
propofed fluent, is4xTx, for which fubftituting the values
of x and x, we have the above fluxion.
Rule II. To find the fluxion of the produd of fe¬
deral variable quantities multiplied together, multiply the
fluxion of each by the produd of the reft of the quan¬
tities, and thefum of the produds thus ariling will be the
.fluxion fought.
Thus the fluxion of xjr, is xy+j*; that of xjz, is
xjz+xzy+jzx ; and that of xjzu, is xjzu+xjuz+xzuj
tfyzux.
Rule III. To find the fluxion of a fradion.—From
the fluxion of the numerator multiplied by the denomina¬
tor, fubtrad the fluxion of the denominator multiplied by
the numerator, and divide the remainder by the fquare of
the denominator.
Thus, the fluxion of -y is ^ ; that of ^zfy is
xX x+>'—x4->’Xx_j-x—yy
Rule IV. In complex cafes, let the particulars be
colleded from the Ample rules and combined together.
The fluxion of jjgg+V^X*-^ for
z z*
the fluxion of x* is axx, and of y is syt, by Rule I.
and therefore the fluxion of xsjl (by Rule II ) 2x*/>+
s.j'xx; from which, multiplied by z, (by Rule III.) and
fubtrading from it the fluxion of the denominator z, mul
tiplied by the numerator, and dividing the whole by the
fquare of the denominator, gives the above fluxion.
Rule IV. The fecond fluxion is derived from the
firft, in the fame manner as the firft from the flowing
quantity. _ ...
Thus the fluxion of xJ, gxV; its fecond bxx’+^x’x
.(by Rule II ); and fo onr but if x be invariable, a:=o,
and the fccand fluxion of x}z=6xv*.
jpiROB i. To determine moxim? and minima
$,V-h.ee a quantity increafes, its fluxion is pofitive; when
IONS.
it decreafes, it is negative; therefore when it is juft be¬
twixt increafing and decreafing, its fluxion is =0.
Rule. Find the fluxion, make it =ro, whence an e-
quation will refult that will give an anfwer to the queftion.
Fig. 4. Examp. To determine the dimenlions of a
cylindric meafure ABCD, open at the top, which (hall
contain a given quantity (of liquor, grain, tie.) under
the lead internal fuperficies poffible.
Let the diameter AB=x, and the altitude AT)—y;
moreover, let p (3.14159* tic.) denote the periphery of
the circle whole diameter is unity, and let c be the given
content of the cylinder. Then it will be 1 '. p x'. {px)
the circumference of the bafe; which, multiplied by the
altitude^, gives pxy for the concave fuperficies of the cy¬
linder. In like manner, the area of the bale, by multi¬
plying the fame expreflion into \ of the diameter x, will
be found ; which drawn into the altitude^, gives
4
for the folid content of the cylinder; which being
made —c, the concave furface pxy will be found ’
x
and confequently the whole furface : Where-
r , n - , • , • 4CX . Pxx . .
of the fluxion, which is —-1—— being put =0, we
(hall get —8t*-f/*5=o; and therefore x=2^ : fur¬
ther, becaufe /x3=8<r, and px1y=z^c, it follows, that
x—2^ ; whence y is alfo known, and from which it ap¬
pears, that the diameter of the bafe muft be juft the
double of the altitude.
Fig. 7. To find the longed and (horteft ordinates of
any curve, DEF, whofe equation or the relation which
the ordinates bear to the abfciffas is known.
Make AC the abfcifla x, and CE the ordinate =y;
take a valuein terms of x, and find its fluxion; which
making =0, an equation will refult whofe roots give the
value of x when y is a maximum or minimum.
To determine when it is a maximum and when a mini¬
mum, take the value of y, when x is a little more than
the root of the equation fo found, and it may be perceived
whether it increafes or decreafes.
If the equation has an even number of equal roots, y
will be neither a maximum nor minimum when its fluxion
Pros. 2. To drann a tangent to any curve.
Fig. 5. When the abfcilfa CS of a curve moves u-
niformly from A to B, the motion of the curve will be
retarded if it be concave, and accelerated if convex to¬
wards AB ; for a ftraight line TC is defcribed by ^n uni¬
form motion, and the fluxion of the curve at any point
is the fame as rhe fluxion of the tangent, becaufe it would
defcribe the tangent if it continued to move equally from
that point. Now if Sj or Ce be the fluxion of the bafe,
Cd will be the fluxion of the tangent, and de of the or¬
dinate. And becaufe the triangles TSC, ced, are equi¬
angular, de '. ce 1: CS I ST, wherefore
Rule. Find a fourth proportional to the fluxion of
. the
FLUX
t?ie ordinate valued in terms of the abfcifTa, the fluxion
of the abfcifla, and the ordinate, and it determines the
line ST, which is called the femi-tangent, and TC joined
is a tangent to the curve.
Fig. 6. Examp. To draw a right line CT, to touch
a given circle BCA in a given point C.
Let CS be perpendicular to the diameter AB, and put
AB=rf, BS=x, and SC^: Then, by the property of
the circle, y1 (CS*) =BSXAS (=xXa—x) —ax — x1 ;
whereof the fluxion being taken, in order to determine
the ratio of x and^, we get 2yy=ax—2xx ; confequently
* — 2V —■ -J—; which multiplied by/, gives'^
/ a—2x —x y
— — the fubtangent ST. Whence (O being fup-
pofed the centre) we have OS [\a—x) : CS //) :: CS
; ; ST; which we alfo know from other principles.
Prob. 3. To determine points of contrary flexure
in curves.
Fig. 7. Suppofing C to move uniformly from A to
B, the curve DEF will be convex towards AB when the
celerity of E increafes, and concave when it decreafes;
therefore at the point where it ceafes to be convex and
begins to be concave, or the oppofite way, the celerity of
E will be uniform, that is, CE will have no fecond fluxion.
Therefore,
Rule. Find the fecond fluxion of the ordinate in
terms of the abfcifla, and make it =0; and from the
equation that arifes you get a value of the abfcifla, which
determines the point of contrary flexure.
Ex. Let the nature of the curve ARS be defined by the
equation ay~a*x^+xx, (the abfcifla AF and the ordi¬
nate FG being, as ufual, reprefented by x and y refpec-
tively). Then y, exprefling the celerity of the point r,
in the line FH, will be equal to ?l7——: Whofe
fluxion, or that of f a*x ^+2x (becaufe a and x are
conftant) muft be equal to nothing ; that is, —%a^x *.v
_P2x=c :‘ Whence «*x_^=8, ^=8xv, bqx3^3, and
x=|a=AF; therefore FG (=-
j —flfa: From
which the pofition of the point G is given.
Prob. 4. To find the radii of curvature.
The curvature of a circle is uniform in every point,
that of every other curve continually varying ; and it is
meafured at any point by that of a circle whofe radius is
of fuch a length as to coincide with it in curvature in
that point.
AH curves that have the fame tangent have the fame
firfl fluxion, becaufe the fluxion of a curve and its tan¬
gent are the fame. If it moved uniformly on from the
point of contadf, it would defcribe the tangent. And
the deflexion from the tangent is owing to the acceleration
or retardation of its motion, which is meafured by its
fecond fluxion ; and confequently two curves which have
•not only the fame tangent, but the fame curvature at the
Vol. II. No. 52. 2
IONS. 609
point of contad, will have both their lirfl: and fecond
fluxions equal. It is eafily proven from thence, that
the radius of curvature is = —^r, where x, y, and z
—xy
reprefent the abfcifla, ordinate, and curve refpe&ively.
Examp. Let the given curve be the common para¬
bola, whofe equation is/ =a*x*: Then willy^a^xx *
A.
— and (making x conftant) /—=fXfrt*x*x—v =
2X*
—= Whence z * %+y1) and
4Xt ^
the radius of curvature =:a~t~4xJ  Which
V—xy/ 21/a ‘
at the vertex, where x=o, will be
INVERSE METHOD;
Frotn a given fluxion to find a fluent.
This is done by tracing back the fteps of the dired
method. The fluxion of x is x; and therefore the flu¬
ent of at is x : but as there is no direct method of finding
fluents, this branch of the art is imperfed. We can af-
fign the fluxion of every fluent, but we Cannot aflign the
fluent of a fluxion, unlefs it be fuch a one as may be
producedby fome rule in the dired method from a known
fluent.
General Rule. Divide by the fluxion of the root,
add unity to the exponent of the power, and divide by
the exponentTo increafed.
For, dividing the fluxion »x”—’x by x (the fluxion of
the root x) it becomes »x”—1; and, adding 1 to the
exponent (»—1) we have «x” ; which, divided by »,
gives xn, the true fluent of nxn—lx.
. Hence (by the fame rule) the
Fluent of 3x*x will be =x3;
■ 8x3
That of 8x*x=—;
/ jr
That of 2xfx=-^- ’
That of / 'y—^y^'
Sometimes the fluent fo Found requires to be cc-rreded.
The fluxion of x is x, and the fluxion of a-px is alfo x
becaufe a is invariable, and has therefore no fluxion*
Now when the fluent of x is required, it muft be de¬
termined, from the nature of the problem, whether any
invariable part, as a, muft be added to the variable
part x.
W hen fluents cannot be exa&ly Found, they can be ap¬
proximated by infinite feries.
Ex. Let it be required to approximate the fluent of
an infinite feries.
6 O
The
FLUXION S.
610
 ^ i
The value of *L~~X , exprefled in a feries, is -
: AB (x) :: BC (i) : GD (j) we have j/=_JL , and
r_J_x^+U_-L-3_-^ X.^+-f7—
' 2ac of* 4«c3 8«Jif ioc7 loac
—~^^Xx6-f6r. Which value being there¬
fore multiplied by xnx, and the fluent taken (by the
j~ xn+>
common method) we get   h — — X —r; +
1 6 n+iXc 2c'3 2ac »+3
^ i T ,A”+J+
qac'
~Wc «+JT
5^
X,6c7 ”
3
i6«?cs
"7~3~r — x—r- +
io« c «-f-7
Pros. i. To find the area of any curve.
Rule. Multiply the ordinate by the fluxion of the
abfcifla, and the produd gives the fluxion of the figure,
whofe fluent is the area of the figure.
Examp. i. Fig. 8. Let the curve ARMH, whofe
area you will And, be the common parabola. Let a re-
prefent the area, and a its fluxion.
In which cafe the relation of AB (x) and BR (y) be¬
ing exprefled by y* =ax (where a is the parameter) we
thence getj<=aTx1 ; and therefore a=R»HB (=^x)
= a^x^x : whence a=f X aV = | «TxT X x=j-yx (be-
caufe a^x17 =y) =j-X AB X BR : hence a parabola is
-§- of a rectangle of the fame bafe and altitude.
Examp. 2. Let the propofed curve CSDR (fig. 9.)
be of fuch a nature, that (fuppofing AB unity) the fum
•of the areas CSTBC and CDGBC anfwering to any
two propofed abfciflas AT and AG, lhall be equal to
the area CRNBC, whofe correfponding abfcifla AN is e-
cjual to ATXAG, the product, of the meafures of the
two former abfciflas.
Firft, in order to determine the equation of the curve,
(which muft be known- before the area can be found) let
the ordinates GD and NR move parallel to themfelves
towards HF ; and then having put GD = y, NR = z,
AT —a, AG — and AN:=fc, the fluxion of the area
CDGB will be reprefented by y/, and that of the area
CRNB by zu : which two expreflions muft, by the
nature of the problem, be equal to each other ; becaufe
the latter area CRNB exceeds the former CDGB by
the area CSTB, which is here confidered as a conftant
quantity: and it is evident, that two exprejlions,. that
differ only by a conftant quantity, muft always have e-
qual fluxions.
Since, therefore,^/is —zu, and uzzas, by hypothefis,
it follows,. that «and that the firft equation (by
fjbftituting for «) will becomeyr = a z/, or v—az, or
Jaftly ys — zas. that is, GD-X AG = NR X AN : there¬
fore, GD : NR •: AN : AG ; whence it appears, that
every ordinate of the curve is reciprocally as its corre-
fpor.ding abfcifla.
Now, to find the area of the curve fo determined,
putAB=j, BC:=Vand BGrzx; then, fince AG (x+x)
confequently u (=zy x) = ——bXx — xx fi- xtx —
x3x+x4x— <bc. Whence, B G D C, the area itfelf
will be = ^Xx — —  — + —, ^c. which
r 2.34 5
was to be found.
Hence it appears, that as thefe areas have the fame
properties as logarithms, this feries gives an eafy method
of computing logarithms; and the fluent may be found
by means of a table of logarithms, without the trouble
of an infinite feries: and every fluxion whofe fluent a-
grees with any known logarithmic expreflion, may be
' found the fame way. Hence the fluents of fluxions of
the following forms are deduced.
The fluent of-
=hyp. log. ofx+vV^
f ~==~^ = hyp. log. aXx-\-\/2ax+x* ;
and of —7=-==
hyp. log. of ;;
vrcEcy-1^-
Prob. 2. To determine the length of curves.
Fig. 5. Becaufe C^ is a right-angled triangle, Crf1
=Ctf2+^* ; wherefore the fluxions of the abfciffa and
ordinate being taken in the fame terms and fquared,
their fum gives the fquare of the fluxion of the curve;
whofe root being extra&ed, and the fluent taken, gives
the length of the curve.
Examp To find the length of a circle from its tan¬
gent. Make the radius AO (fig- 5.) =«, the tangent
of AC == /, and its fecant'=/, the curve = z, and its
fluxion = z ; becaufe the triangles O T C, O C S,
are fimilar, OT : OC :: OC :: OS; whence OS
:—r, and SA = «—- —= a
V a7-fi-t
-TffT > whofe
fluxion is.and, becaufe the triangles OTC,
rC-f-C’T
dfe are fimilar, TC (=/):- TO (=v(<*2+/2) :: Q.e
( =^=11—, J : C d zz -a — fluxion of the curve.
Now by converting this into an infinite feries, we have the
fluxion of the curve &c. and con¬
fequently z-/— ^j+— — — +l!- &c. =AR.
$a 5a 9a
Where, if (for example’ fake) AR be fuppofed an arch
of 30 degrees, and AO'(to render the operation more
eafy) be put = unity, we lhall have /= y'lzi.57735‘02
(becaufe O Vi = *R.(i) ::. OA . (1) : .AT (/) =
Whence,
t% .( zz/XH—ZX-y) = .19:24500
f ^ =/3X/?=j-j =.0641500
FLUX
tr (=/sXt'l=~'j = .0213833
^ =/7x/2=y^ = .0071277
/” ^ =/9X/*=j-^ = .0023759
/13 ^ =:t1IX/1=/-—j = .0007919.
/IJ ^=/I3X/*=L^j=.0002639
And therefore AR = .5773502 — ll2.|4£22 +
♦0641500  .0213833 x .0091277   .0023759
5 7 9 11
.0007919   .0002639 .0000879   .0000293
1? is i"?-". 19
+ ^0000197 __ ^000032 = .5335987: for the length
21 23
of an arch of go degrees, which multiplied by 6 gives
3.141592 + for the length of the femi-periphery of the
circle whofe radius is unity.
Other feries may be deduced from the verfed fine, fine
and fecant; and thefe are of ufe for finding fluents
which cannot be exprefled in finite terras. For,
V 2 aw—w1
 w
V az—w*
anu
0
3
’wVw'—a* J .K
T
Verfed-fine j
Right-fine J
j . to ,
is — , and
Tangent Radius Unity-
Pros. 3. To find the contents of a folid.
Let the furface of the generating plane be multiplied
by the fpace it paffes through in any time, the produtft
will give a folid which is the fluxion of the folid required :
the furface mull therefore be computed in terras of x,
which reprefents the line or axis on which it moves,
and by its motion on which the fluxion is to be meafured,
and the fluent found will give the contents or the folid.
IONS.
611
Examp. Let it be propofed to find the content of a
cone ABC, fig. 10.
Put the given altitude (AD) of the cone =^7, and the
femi-diameter (BD) ofits bafe = £, the folid =r, its fluxion
~s, and the area of a drcle, whofe radius is unity, =/>:
then the diftance(AF)ofthe circle EG, from the vertex A,
being denoted by x, he. we have, by fimilar triangles, as
a x b :: x •. EF (y) =—. Whence in this cafe, j--
( ~py1x ) ; and confequently / — ;
which, when x=* (=AD) gives ^ - (^/XBD1 X
-f A D) for the content of the whole cone ABC : which
appears from hence to be juft -y of a cylinder of the fame
bafe and altitude.
Pros, 4. To compute the furface of any folid body.
The fluxion of the furface of the folid is equal to the
periphery of the furface, by whofe motion the folid is
generated, multiplied by its velocity on the edge of the
folid, and the computation is made as in the foregoing.
Examp. Fig. 11. Let it be propofed to determine the
convex fuperficies of a cone ABC.
Then, the femi-diameter of the bafe (BD, or CD)
being put — b, the flaming line, or hypothenufe AC=c,
and FH (parallel to DC) = y, A(i;= z, the fur¬
face = w, its fluxion = w, and p = the periphery of
a circle whofe diameter is unity, we fliall, from the
fimilarity of the triangles ADC and Yimh, have
b x c xx y {nth : z (H^) =S? : whence *w {pipy z) —
; and confequently This, when i
y—b, becomes =/c£:=/>xDCXAC:= the convex fuperfi¬
cies of the whole cone ABC: which therefore is equal to a
reftangle under half the circumference of the bafe and :
the flaming line.
The method of fluxions is alfo applied to find the
centres of gravities, and ofcillation of different bodies;
to determine the paths deferibed by projectiles and bo¬
dies aCted on by central forces, with the laws of centre-
petal force in different curves; the retardates given to
motions performed in-refitting medjci; the attractions of
bodies under different forms ; the direction of wind,
which has the greateft effeCt on an engine; and to folve ;
many other curious and ufeful problems.
FLY
FLY in zoology. See Natural History.
Fly, in mechanics, a crofs with leaden weights at its ends;
or rather a. heavy wheel at right angles to the axis of a
windlafs, jack, or the like; by means .of which the
force of the power, whatever it be, is not only pre-
ferved, but equally diftributed in all parts'of the re--
volution of the machine. See Mechanics.
FRYING, the progreflive motion of a bird, or. other
winged animal, in the air.
The parts of birds chiefly, concerned in flying axe
f: l y
the wings, by which they are fuftained or wafted alcffg.
The tail, Meflrs Willughby, Ray, and many others,
imagine to be principally employed in fleering and turn-
ing.the. body in the air, as a rudder: but Boreili has
put it beyond all‘doubt, that this is the leaft ufe of it,
which is chiefly to affift the bird in its afeent and de-
feent in the air; and to obviate the vacillations of the
body and wings : for, as to turning to this or that fides
it is performed by the wings and inclinations of the
body, and but very little by the help of the tail. The
flying
F O C (6
"Eying of a bird, in effect, is •quite a differeot thing
from the ro ring of a veffel. Birds do not vibrate their
wings towards the tail, as oars are ftruck towards the
Bern, but waft them downwards; nor does the tail of
the bird cut the air at right angles, as the rudder does
the water; but is difpofed horizontally, and preferves
the fame fituation what way foever -the bird turns.
In effedl:, as a veffel is turned about on its centre of
gravity to the right, by a brilk application of the oars
to the left, fo a bird in beating the air with its right
wing alone, towards the tail, will turn its fore part to
the left. Thus pigeons changing their courfe to the
left, would labour it with their right wing, keep¬
ing the other almoft at reft. Birds of a long neck al¬
ter their courfe by the inclinations of their head and
neck, which altering the courfe of gravity, the bird
will proceed in a new diredion.
The manner of Flying is thus: the bird firft bends his
legs, and fprings with a violent leap from the ground;
then opens and expands the joints of his wings, fo as
to make a right line perpendicular to the fides of his
body : thus the wings with all the feathers therein,
conftitute one continued lamina. Being now raifed a
littlcabove the horizon, and vibrating the wings with
great force and velocity perpendicularly againd the fub-
jed air, that fluid refills thofe fucceifions, both from
its natural inadivity and elafticity, by means of which
the whole body of the bird is protruded. The re-
fiftance the air makes to the withdrawing of the wings,
and confequently the progrefs of the bird, will be fo
much the greater, as the waft or ftroke of the- fan of
the wing is longer : but as the force of the wing is
continually diminilhed by this refiftance, when the two
forces continue to be in equilibrio, the bird will
remain fufpended in the fame place ; for the bird
only afcends fo long as the arch of air the wing de-
fcribes makes a refiftance equal to the excefs of the
fpecific gravity of the bird above the air. If the air,
therefore, be fo rare as to give way with the fame ve¬
locity as it is ftruck withal, there will be no refi¬
nance, and confequently the bird can never mount.
Birds never fly upwards in a perpendicular line, but al¬
ways in a parabola.. In a dired afcent, the natural
and artificial tendency would oppofe and deftroy each
other, fo that the progrefs would be very flow. In a
dir-ed defcentthey would aid one another, fo that the
fall would be too precipitate.
Flying fish, a name given by the Englifh writers to
feveral fpecies of fifh, which, by means of their long
, fins, have a method of keeping themfelves out of wa¬
ter a long time. See Exocoetus.
-Flying pinion, is part of a clock, having a fly, or fan,
whereby to gather airr and fo bridle the rapidity of the
clock’s mqtion, when the weight defcends in the lin¬
king part.
FOAL, or Colt, the young of the horfe kind. The
word colt, among dealers, is underftood of the male
kind. See Eqtius and Horsemanship.
■FOCHEN, a town of China, capital of the province of
Fokein: E. long. 1180, N. lat..26° .20'.
12 ) TON
FOCUS, in geometry and conic fedions, is applied to
certain points in tfie parabola, ellipfis and hyperbola,
where the rays refleded from all parts of thefe curves
concur and meet. See Conic, Sections.
Focus, in optics, is the point wherein rays are colleded
after they have undergone refledion or refradion.
See Optics
FOENUGREEK, in botany. See Triconella.
FOETOR, in medicine, (linking or foetid effluvia, ari-
fing from the body, or any part thereof.
FOETUS, denotes the child while it is contained in the
mother’s womb, but particularly after it is formed, till
which time it is more properly called embryo. See
Midwifery.
FOG, or Mist, u meteor, conflfting of grofs vapours,
floating near the furface of the earth.
FOIL, among glafs-grinders, a flieet of tin, with quick--
fllver or the like, laid on the backfide of a looking-
glafs, to make it refled.
Foil, among jewellers, a thin leaf of metal placed un¬
der a precious Hone, in order to make it look tranf-
parent, and give it an agreeable different colour, ei¬
ther deep or pale: thus, if you want a ftone to be of
a pale colour, put a foil of that colour under it ; or
if you would have it deep, lay a dark one under it.
FOLIA, among botanifts, particularly fignify the leaves
of plants; thofe of flowers being exprefled by the word
petal. See Botany.
FOLIACEUM expansum, in anatomy, a term applied
to the extreme part of the Fallopian tube, next the o-
vary, which is expanded like the mouth of a trumpet,
and furrounded with a fort of fringe.
FOLIAGE, a duller or aflemblage of flowers, leaves,
branches fee.
Foliage is'particularlyufed for the reprefentations of
fuch flowers, leaves, branches, rinds, fee. whether
natural or artificial, as are ufed for enrichments on ca¬
pitals, friezes, pediments, fee.
FOLIO, in merchants books, denotes a page, or rather
both the right and left hand pages, thefe being expref-
fed by the fame figure, and correfponding to each o-
ther. See Book-keeping.
Folio, among printers and bookfellers, the largeft form
of books, when each flieet is fo printed, that it may
be bound up in two leaves only.
FOLKSTONE, a market town of Kent, fix miles weft
of Dover.
FOMAHANT, in aftronomy, a liar of the firft magni¬
tude, in the conllellation aquarius.
FOMENTATION, in medicine, the bathing any part
of the body with a convenient liquor ; which is ufual-
ly a decodlion of herbs, water, wine, or milk ; and the
applying of bags Huffed with herbs and other ingredi¬
ents, which is commonly called dry fomentation.
FONDI, a city and bilhop’s fee of Naples, in the pro¬
vince of Lavoro, about thirty-five miles north-well of
Capua: E. long. 140 20, and N. lat. 410 55'.
FONT, among ecclefiaftical writers, a large bafon, in
which water is kept for the baptizing of infants, or
other perfohs,
TON-
TOO { 6\
TOTSITAINE, a town of Hainalt, fifteen miles eaft of
Mons.
FONTAINEBLEAU, a village of the ifle of France*
about thirty miles fouth-eatt of Paris ; remarkable for
an elegant royal palace.
FQNTANELLA, in anatomy, the quadrangular aper¬
ture, between the os frontis and ofl'a fincipitis, in in¬
fants jufl: born.
FONTARABIA, a port-town of Spain, in the province
of Bifcay, tu'enty miles weft of Bayonne: W. long.
i° 35'; and N. lat. ,43° 20 .
FONTENAYLE, a town of Orleanois, in France, a-
bout forty-fix miles weft of Poirtiers.
FONTENOY, a town of Hain^lt, fituated three miles
fouth eaft of Tournay.
FONTEVRAUD, or tfraVr Fontevraud, a reli
gious order inftituted about the latter end of the Xlth
century. By the rules of'this order the nuns were to
keep filence for ever, and theirfaces to be always cover¬
ed with .their veils; and the monks wore a leathern
girdle, at which hung a knife and (heath.
FONTICULUS, or Fontanella, in forgery, an if-
foe, feton, or fmall ulcer made in various parts of the
body, in order to eliminate the latent corruption out
of it.
FONTINALIS,, in botany, -a genus-of the cryptogamia
mufci clafs. The anthera is operculated, and the ca-
lyptra is feffile. There are four*fpecies, all natives of
Britain, viz. the antipyretica, or greater water-mofs ;
the minor, or leffer water-mofs ; the fqnamofa, or fcaly
water-mofs; andthepennata, or feathered water-mofs.
FOOD implies whatever aliments are taken into-the bo¬
dy, to nourifti it. See Med.icine.
FOOL, according to Mr Locke, is a perfon who makes
falfe conclufions from right principles; whereas a mad¬
man, on the contrary, draws right conclufions from
wrong principles.
Fool’s stones, in botany. See Orchis.
FOOT* a part of the body of moft animals whereon
they ftand, walk, idle. See Natural History.
Foot, in anatomy. See Anatomy, parti.
Foot, in the Latin and Greek poetry, a metre or mea-
fore, compofed of a certain number of long and (hort
fyllables.
Thefe feet are commonly reckoned twenty-eight, of
which fome are Ample, as confiding of two or three
fyllables, and therefore called difiyllabic or trifyllabic
feet; others are compound, confifting of four fylla¬
bles, and are therefore called tetrafyliabic feet.
The diflylabic feet are four in number, viz. the
pyrrhichius, fpondeus, iambus, and trocheus. See
Pyrrhichius, <bc.
The trifyllabic feet are eight in number, viz. the
daftylus, anapaeftus, tribrachys, moloffus, amphybra-
chys, amphimacer, bacchius, and antibacchius. See
Dactyl, dw.
The tetrafyllabic are in number fixteen, viz. the
procleufmaticus, difpondeus, choriambus, antifpaftus,
diiambus, dichoreus, ionicus a majore, ionicus a mi-
nore, epitritus primus, epitritus fecundus, epitiitus
Vox. II. No. 52. 2
3 ) F O Pt
tertius, epitritus quartus, paeon primus, preon fectrn-
dus, paeon tertius, and paeon quartus. See Pro-
CLEUSMATICDS, &C.
Foot is alfoa long meafure, confiding of 12 inches.
Geometricians divide the foot into 10 digits, and
the digit into 10 lines.
Yoot fquare, is the fame meafure both in breadth and
length, containing i'44 fquare or fuperficial inches.
Cubic or Solid Foot, is the fame meafore in a!! the
three dimenfions, length, breadth, and depth or rhick-
nefs, containing 1 728 cubic inches.
Foot of a horfe, in the menage, the extremity of
the leg, from the coronet to the lower part of the
hoof.
Foot level,among artificers, an inftrument that ferves
as a foot-rule, a fquare, and a level. See Level,
Rule, and Square.
FORAMEN, in anatomy, a name given to feveral aper¬
tures or perforations in divers parts of the body ; as,
1. The external and internal foramina of the cranium
or (kull. 2. The foramina, in the upper and lower jaw.
j. Foramen lachrymale. 4. Foramen membranae tym-
pani. See Anatomy.
FORCALQUIER, a town of Provence, in France,
thirty miles north of Aix.
FORCE, in mechanics, denotes the cacfe of the change
in the ftate of a body when being at reft it begins to
move, or has a motion which is either not uniform or
not direct. See Mechanics.
Forces. See Mechanics.
Force, in law, fignifies any unlawful violence offered
to things or perfons.
FORCEPS, in forgery, tic. a pair of feiflars for cutting
off, or dividing, the fleftiy membraneous parts of the
body, as occafion requires. See Surgery.
FORE-CASTLE of a ship, that part where the fore-
maft (lands. It is divided from the reft by a bulk¬
head.
FOREIGN, fome thing extraneous, or that comes from
abroad.
FOREIGNER, the natural born fobjeft to fome foreign
prince.
Foreigners, tho’ made denizens, or naturalized, are
difabled to bear any office in the goverment, to be of
the privy-council, or members of parliament, tic.
This is by the ads of the fettlement of the crown.
Such perfons as are not freemen of a city, or corpo¬
ration, are alfo called foreigners, to diftinguiffi them
from rhe members of the fame.
FORELOCKS, in the fea language, little flat wedges
made with iron, ufed at the ends of bolts, to keep
them from flying out of their holes.
FORELORN-HOPE, in the military art, fignifies men
detached from feveral regiments, or otherwife appoint¬
ed, to make the firft attack in day of battle ; or, at a
fiege, to (form the counterfcarpe, mount the breach,
or the like.
They are fo called from the great danger they are
unavoidablyexpofed to; but the word is old,.and be¬
gins to be obfolete.
6 P
FORE-
FOR
FORE-MAST OF a ship, a large round piece of tim¬
ber, placed in her fore-part, or fore-caftle, and carry¬
ing the fore-fail and fore top-fail yards. Its length is
ufually ^ of the main-maft, and the fore top gallant
maft is -y the length of the fore-top.
Foremast-men, are thofe on board a fhip that take in
the top-fails, fling the yards, furl the fails, bowfe,
trice, and take their turn at the helm, &c.
FOREST, in general, a great wood, or a large extent
of ground covered with trees.
Forest, in law, is defined by Manwood, a certain ter¬
ritory of woody grounds, and fruitful paftures, privi¬
leged for wild hearts and fowls of forert, chace and
warren, to reft and abide under the pnateftion of the
king, for his princely delight, bounded with unre-
moveable marks, and meres, either known by matter of
record or prefcription ; replenifhed with wild hearts of
venery, or chafe,, with great coverts of vert for the
faid hearts; for prefervation and continuance whereof,
with the vert and venifon, there are certain particular
. laws, privileges, and officers.
Forefts are of that antiquity in England, that, ex¬
cepting the new foreft in Hampfliire eredled by Wil¬
liam the Conqueror, and Hampton Court eredted by
Henry VIII. it is faid that there is no record or hifto-
ry which makes any certain mention of their eredtion,
though they are mentioned by feveral writers, and in
. divers of our laws and ftatutes.
There are fixty-nine forefts in England, thirteen
chafes, and 800 parks. The four principal forefts are
New Foreft, Sherwood Foreft, Dean Foreft, and
Windfor Foreft.
Forest-towns, in geography, certain towns of Swa¬
bia, in Germany, lying along the Rhine and the con¬
fines of Switzerland, and fubjedt to the houfe of Auf-
tria. Their names are Rhinefield, Seckingen, Lau-
- fenburg, and Waldfhut.
FORE-STAFF, or Cross-staff, an inftrument ufed
at fea for taking the altitude of the fun, moon or ftars.
FORESTALLER, a perfon who is guilty of foreftal*
ling. See the next article.
FORESTALLING, in law, buying or bargaining for
any corn, cattle, vidfuals, or merchandize, in the way
as they come to fairs or markets to be fold, before they
get thither, with an intent to fell the fame again at a
. higher price.
' The punifhment for this offence, upon convidtion at
the quarter-feffions, by two or more witneffes, is, for
the firft time, two months imprifonment and the lofs of
the goods, or the value ; for the fecond offence, the
offender fhall be iraprifoned fix months, and lofe dou¬
ble the value of. the goods ; for the third offence, he
lhall fuffer imprifonment during the king’s pleafure,
forfeit all his goods and chattels, and ftand on the pil¬
lory : but the ftatute does not extend to maltfters buy¬
ing barley, or to badgers licenfed.
FORESTER, a fworn officer of the foreft, appointed
by the king’s letters-patent, to walk the foreft at all
hours, watch over the vert and venifon ; alfo to make
attachments and true prefentments of all trefpafies com¬
mitted within the foreft.
FOR
FORETHOUGHT felony, in Scots law, fignifies pre¬
meditated murder.
FORFAR, the capital of the county of Angus, in Scot¬
land: W. long. 20 32 , andN. lat. 56° 2$.
It is a parliament town, claffed with Perth, Dundee,
Coupar, and St Andrews, which all together fend one
member.
FORFEITURE, properly fignifies the effeft of tranf-
greffing fome penal law, and extends to lands or
goods.
FORFICULA, the ear-wig, in zoology, a genus of
infers belonging to the order of coleoptera. The an¬
tennas are briftly ; the elytra are dimidiated; the wings
are covered ; and the tail is forked. There are two
fpecies, viz. the auriculata, or common ear-wig, with
the tops of the elytra white ; and the minor, with
teftaceous and unfpotted elytra.
FORGE, properly fignifies a little furnace, wherein fmiths
and other artificers of iron or fteel, <bc. heat their
metals red-hot, in order to foften them and render
them more malleable and manageable on the anvil.
Forge is alfo ufed for a large furnace, wherein iron-
ore, taken out of the mine, is melted down : or it is
more properly applied to another kind of furnace,
wherein the iron-ore, melted down and feparated in a
former furnace, and then cart into fows and pigs, is
heated and fufed over again, and beaten afterwards
with large hammers, and thus rendered more foft,
pure, dudlile, and fit for ufe.
FORGER, in law, one guilty of forgery. See the next
article.
FORGERY, in a legal fenfe, is where a perfon frau¬
dulently makes and publifhes falfe writings to another’s
prejudice : or, it fignifies the writ that lies againft:
him who offends that way.
FORISFAMILIATION, in law, when a child, up¬
on receiving a portion from his father, or otherwiie
renounces his legal title to any further lhare of his fa¬
ther’s fucceflion, he is faid to be forisfamiliated. See
Scots Law, title 28
FORLI, a town of Romania, in the pope’s territories,
fifteen miles fouth-weft of Ravenna.
FORM, in phyfics, the effential or diftinguilhing modi¬
fication of the matter whereof a natural body is com-
pofed, fo as thereby to give it fuch a particular man¬
ner of exiftence ; being that which conftitutes it fuch a
particular body, and diftinguilhes it from every other
body.
Form is alfo ufed, in a moral fenfe, for the manner of
being or doing a thing according to rules : thus we
fay, a form of government, a form of argument, cc.
Form, in law, the rules eftabliftied and requifite to be
obferved in legal proceedings.
Form, in carpentry, is ufed to denote the long feats
or benches in the choirs of churches or in fchools,
for the priefts, prebends, religious, or feholars to fit
on. At fchools, the word form is frequently applied
to what is otherwife termed a clafs. See Class.
Form alfo denotes the external appearance or furface of
a body, or the difpofition of its parts, as to the length,
breadth, and thicknefs.
Form
C 614 )
FOR (615 y F o 11
Form is alfo ufecl, among mechanics, for a fort of mould
whereon any thing is falhioned. or wrought: as the
hatter’s form, the paper-maker’s form, drc.
Printer’s Form, an aiTemblage of letters, words, and
lines, ranged in order, and fo difpofed into pages by
the compofitor ; from which, by means of ink and a
prefs, the printed Iheets are drawn.
Every form is inclofed in an iron-chafe, wherein it
is firmly locked by a number of pieces of wood ;
fome long and narrow, and others of the form of
wedges. There are two forms required for every
flieet, one for each fide; and each form confifts of
more or fewer pages, according to the fize of the
■ book.
FORMAL, fomething belonging to, or conftituting the
form of a thing.- See Form.
FORMICA, or the Ant, in zoology, a genus of in¬
fers belonging to the order of hymenoptera, the cha-
ra&ers of which are thefe : There is a fmall fcale be¬
twixt the bread and belly, and the joint is fo deep that
the animal appears as if it were almod cut through the
body. The females, and the neuters or working ants
which have no fexual charafteridics, are furnidied with
a hidden ding ; and both the . males and females have
wings, but the neuters have none. There are eigh¬
teen fpecies, mod of them didinguilhed by their co¬
lours.
Thefe infe&s keep together in companies like
the bees, and ^maintain a fort of republic. Their
ned is not exaftly fquare, but longer one way than the
other ; and in it there are a fort of paths, which lead
to different magazines. Some of the ants are employ¬
ed in making the ground firm, by mixing it with a fort
of glue, for fear it diould crumble, and fall down upon
their heads. They may be fometimes feen to gather
feveral twigs, which ferve them for rafters, which they
place over the paths, to fupport the covering ; they
lay others acrofs'them, and upon them rufhes, weeds,
and dried gr.afs, which, they heap up into a double de¬
clivity, which ferves to turn off the water from their
magazines. Some of thefe fe.rve to lay up their provi-
fions in, and in others they lay their eggs.
As for the provifions, they lay up every thing that is fit
for them to eat; and you may often fee one loaded with
pippin, or grain of fruit, another with a dead flie, and
feveral together with the carcafe of a may-bug, or other
infetd. If they meet with any they cannot bring away,
they eat it upon the fpot, or at lead fo much of it, as
may reduce it to a bulk fmall enough for them to car¬
ry. They do not run about where they pleafe, at all
adventures: for fome of them are fent abroad to make
difcoveries; and if they bring back news they have met
with a pear, or a fugar-loaf, or a pot of fweatmeats,
they will run from the bottom of the garden, as, high
as the third dory of a houfe, to come at it. They all
follow each other in the fame path, without wandering
to the right or the left; but in the fields they are more
at their liberty, and are allowed to run about in fearch
of game. There is a fort of green fly, that does a
great deal of mifchief among the flov/ers, and which
curl up the leaves of peach and pear trees; and thefe
are furrounded wit,h a fort of glue, or honey, which
the ants hunt after very greedily; for they touch nei¬
ther the plant nor the flies themfelves.
Next to this, their greated pallion is to lay up hoards
of wheat, and other corn; and for fear the comfhould
fprout by the moidure of the fubterrmeous cells, they
gnaw off the end which would produce the blade. The
ants are often feen pufhing along grains of wheat, or
barley, much larger than themfelves.
In Africa, and particularly in Guiney, the ants are
exceeding troublefome, and do a great deal of mif¬
chief. They make their neds of earth in the fields,
twice as high as a man ; befides which they build large
neds in high trees, from ■which places they advance in
fuch prodigious fwarms to the houfes, that they fre¬
quently oblige the inhabitants to quit their beds in the
night-time. They will fometimes attack a living fheep,
which in a night’s time they will reduce to a perfeft
fkeleton, leaving not the lead thing except the bones.
It is common for them to ferve domedic fowls in the
fame manner, and even the rats themfelves cannot e-
fcape them. If you place a worm or a beetle where
only one or two ants are, they will immediately de¬
part, and bring with them, above an hundred; after
which they feize their prey, and march off with it in
good order. Thefe ants are of various forts, fome
great, others fmall, fome black, and others red ; the
ding of this lad is very painful, and caufes an inflam¬
mation ; the white are as tranfparent as crydal, and
have foch drong teeth, that in a night’s time they will
eat their way through a thick wooden ched, and make,
it as full of holes as if it had been penetrated by hail~
fliot.
There are alfo feveral forts of ants in the Ead In¬
dies, whofe numbers are prodigious: fome. of them
are exceeding large, and of a ruddy colour,, inclining
to black ; and fome have wings, but others have none.
They are very pernicious to the fruits of the earth,
and do a great deal of mifchief in houfes, unlefs great
care is taken to prevent them. It is remarkable, that
if one ant meets another that is loaden, it alvi'ays gives
way to let it pafs freely.
The ant lays eggs in the manner of the common
flies, and from thefe eggs are hatched a fort of fmall
maggots or worms without legs : thefe are (harp at one
end and blunt at the other; and are white, but fo
tranfparent,. that the intedines are foen through the
Ikin. Thefe, after a fliort time, change into large
white aureliae, which are what are ufually called ants
eggs. That end which is to' be the tail is the larged,
and that which is the head is fomewhat tranfparent.
The ants move thefe about at pleafure with their for¬
ceps. It is well known, that when a ned of thefe crea¬
tures is didurbed and the aurelise fcattered about, the ants
are at infinite pains to get together all that are unhurt,
and-make a ned for them again : nay, any ants will do
this, and thofe of one ned will often take care of the
aurelise of another.
The affeftion of the ant for its offspring is ama¬
zing. They carry the young worms about in their
mouths, that nothing may injure them; and when the
earth
TOR (6
tartV. ©f tlie neft is dry, they carry them down to a
greater depth, but when wet they bring them to the
iurface, that they may not be injured by the damps.
The common ant builds only with fmall fmalI pieces
-of dry earth, and there is always found a vatt quantity
either of e^gs, worms, or aurelise, at the bottom of the
neft. The aureliae are covered only with a thin ikin ;
and when carefully-opened, they fhew the worm per-
fefl, and in its feveral Hages of perfejSHoo.
The forecaft of ants in providing againlt the winter
is a miftake. They are fuppofed not to eat in the win¬
ter, but to fpend that feafon, like dormice, and many
other forts of animals, in a date of fleep. Whatcoh-
iirms this is, that they have been obferved, as the cold
draws on in the autumn, to move very heavily, and in the
vintage-time they can hardly (Hr at all; fo that the
provifion they make feems intended not for themfelves,
but for their, young.
The care thefe creatures take of their offspring is
remarkable. Whenever a hill is difturbed, all the ants
are found bufied in confuiting the fafety, notof them¬
felves,, but of the eggs or thefe larger bodies enelofing
the maggot or young ant; they carry thefe down any
way fo as to get them out of light, .and will do this
over and over as often as they are difturbed.
They carry away the eggs and vermicles together in
their confufion; but as foon as the danger is over, they
carefully feparate them, and place each fort in par¬
cels by themfelves under flicker of different kinds,
and at various depths, according to the different de¬
grees of warmth and coverture the different.ftates re¬
quire.
In the warm feafon of the year, they every morn¬
ing bring up the eggs, as they are hfually called, to
the furface, or nearly fo; and from ten in the fore¬
noon to five in the afternoon or thereabouts, all thefe
will be found juft under the furface; and if the hills be
examined toward eight in the evening, they will be
found to have carried them all down; and if rainy
weather be coming on, it will be neceffary to dig a
foot deep or more, in order to find them.
Thefe Httle creatures are very troublefome in gar¬
dens, and in pafture-Iands; as well by feeding on
the fruit, as by making up hills for their habitation.
In the hotter countries, as Italy, Spain, and the Weft
-Indies, ants are the great peft of the fields. Trees
may be preferved from them by encompafling the ftem,
for four fingers breadth, with a r@ll of wool, newly
pulled from the (beep’s belly; or by laying faw-duft
all round the ftump of it. Some anoint the tree with
tar, which has the fame effedh
The large, black, winged ants of America, to a-
void the great rains which fall there at particular fea-
fons, make to -themfelves large nefts on trees, with
a covered way for them to go up and down on the lee-
fide of the tree. Thefe nefts are ■'roundhh on the out-
fide, made of light brown earth, plaiftered fmootb.
They are larger than a bufhel; and in the infide are
.many finous caverns or lodgings communicating with
ope another. See Plate LXX}f. fig- i. A, The ants
) TOR
neft ; B, 'The tubular paffage, made of - the fame
materials.
Formica, in medicine, a callous fort of wart.
Formica-ceo, the Ant-lion, or Ant-jeater, in
zoology, an infedt fo called from its devouring great
numbers ©f ants. It is the caterpillar or worm of -a
fly much refembling the libellae or dragon-gies.
The addrefs of this infedt in catching the ant is ad¬
mirable ; it makes a hole of a conical or funnel fhape,
in the loofe fand ; and is fure to catch all the ants that
come within the verge of this hole, by throwing up
fand on them, whereby they are forcibly carried into
the power of the enemy at the bottom of the hole. .
FORMOSA, an ifland in the pacific ocean, between 119®
and 1220 of E. long, and between 2;° and 25' N. hit.
about 100 miles eaft of Canton in China. It is fub-
jedt to the Chinefe.
FORMULA, or Formulary, a rule or model, or cer¬
tain terms preferibed or decreed by authority, for the
form and manner of an adt, inftrument, proceeding,
or the like.
Formula, in church-hiftory and theology, fignifies a
-profeflion of faith.
Formula, in medicine, imports the conftitution of me¬
dicines, either Ample or compound, both with refpedt
to their prefeription and confiftence.
FORMULARY, a writing containing the form of -an
-oath, declaration, atteftation, abjuration, &c. to be
made on certain occafions.
FORNACALIA, or Fornicalia, in Roman antiqui¬
ty, a feftival inftituted by Numa in honour of For¬
nax, the goddefs of ovens; wherein certain cakes were
made, and offered in facrifice before rhe ovens.
FORNICATION, the adt of incontinency between fin-
gle perfons ; for when either of the parties is married,
fuch adt is adultery. See Adultery.
FORNIX, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 285.
FORRAGE, in the military art, denotes hay, oats,
barley, wheat, grafs, clover, &c- brought into the
camp by the troopers, for the fuftenance of their horfes.
It is the bufinefs of the quarter-mafter-general to
appoint the method of forrage, and poft proper guards
for the fecurity of the forragers.
FORRES, a parliament-town of Scotland in the coun¬
ty of Murray, about thirteen miles weft of Elgin : W.
long. 3° 20', and N. lat. 570 40'.
It is claffed with Invernefs, Fortrofe, and Nairn.'
FORT, in the military art, a fmall fortified place, en¬
vironed on all fides with a moat, rampart, and para¬
pet. Its ufe is to fecure fome high ground or the
paffage of a river, to make good an advantageous poft,
to defend the lines and quarters of a fiege, &c.
FORTALICE, in Scots law, fignified anciently a fmall
place of ftrength, originally built for the defence of the
country ; and which on that account was formerly rec¬
koned inter regalia, and did not go along with the
lands upon which it was fituated without a fpecial grant
from the crown. Now, fortalices are carried by a ge¬
neral grant of the lands ; and the word is become fy-
nonyrabus with manor-place, meffuage, d'c.
FORTIFC ATION.
( «'7 )
F O R T I F I
FGRTIFCATION, tFc art of. fortifying a town,
or other place ; or of putting them in fuch a pofture
of defence, that every one of its parts defends, and is
defended by fome other parts, by means of ramparts,
parapets, moats, ..and other bulwarks; to the end, that
a fmail number of men within, may be able to defend
themfelves for a confiderable time againd the affaults of
a numerous army without ; fo that the enemy in at¬
tacking them, muft of necefGty fufter great iofs.
Fortification is either ancient or modern, regular or
irregular. Ancient fortification, at firft, confided of
walls or defences made of trunks and other branches
of trees mixed with earth, to fecure them againft the
attacks of the enemy. This was afterwards altered to
done walls, on which were raifed -bread-works, behind
which they made ufe of their darts and arrows in fecuri-
. ty. Modern fortification is that which is flanked and de¬
fended by badions and out works, the ramparts of which
are fo folid, that they cannot be beat down but by the
continual fire of feveral batteries of cannon. Regular
fortification, is that built in a regular polygon, the
fides and angles of which are all equal, being com¬
monly about a .muflcet-fhot from each other. Irregu¬
lar fortification, on the contrary, is that where the
fides and angles are not uniform, equididant, or equal;
which is owing to the irregularity of the ground, valleys,
rivers, hills, and the like.
Section I. Of Regular Fortification.
The art of regular fortification may be didinguilhed in¬
to two parts, viz. the elementary or theoretical, and
praftical.
The elementary part confids in tracing the plans and
profiles of a fortification on paper, with fcales and com-
paffes ; and to examine the fydems propofed by different
authors, in order to difcover their advantages and dif-
advantages.
And the practical part confids in forming a projeft
of a fortification, according to the nature of the ground
and other neceffary circumdances, to trace it on the
ground, and to execute the projeff, together with all
the military buildings, fuch as magazines, dore-houfes,
bridges, fyc.
Nptwithdapding all the improvements which have been
made in the art of fortifying fince the invention of gun¬
powder, that of attacking is dill fuperior to it : engi¬
neers have tried in vain to render the advantages of a for¬
tification equal to thofe of the attack; the fuperiority of
the befiegers fire, together with the greater number of
men, obliges generally, fooner or later, the befieged to
fuhmit.
The greated improvement made in the art of attacking
V.ol. II. -No. j 2 2
CATION.
happened In the year 1697, when M. Vauban made fird
ufe of ricochet firing at the fiege of Ath, whereby the be¬
fieged placed behind the parapets were as much expofed
to the fire of the befiegers as if there had been none;
whereas before, they had bepn fecure as long as the para¬
pet v/as not demolifhed : and the word is, that there can
be no remedy found to prevent this enfilading without
falling into inconveniencies aimed as bad as\hofe which we
endeavour to avoid.
Although authors agree as to the general form in the
prefent manner of fortifying, yet they modly differ in
particular condruftions of the parts. As it would be both,
needlefs and luperfluous to treat of all the different me¬
thods hitherto propofed, we dial! content ourfelves with
explaining thofe only, which are mod edeemed by the
bed judges, and have been modly put in practice.
Confiruttion'of M. Vauban’j Methods
This method is divided into little, mean, and great;
the little is chiefly ufed in the condrufHon of citadels,
the mean in that of all forts of towns, and the great in
particular cafes only.
We (hall give the condruftion of.the mean, as being
mod ufeful, and refer the reader to the table hereafter,
for thofe dimenfions which are different in thefe feveral
fortifications.
[Tlate LXXXIII. fig. i.] Incribein a circle a polygon
of as many fides as the fortification is defigned to have
fronts; let AB be one of the fides of half an exagon,
which bifedt by the perpendicular CD: divide half AC
of it into nine equal parts, and one of thefe into ten o-
thers; then thefe divifions will ferve as a fcale to con-
drudt all the parts of the fortification, and each of them
is fuppofed to be a toife or fathom, that is fix French
feet; and therefore the whole fide AB is fuppofed to be
180 toifes.
As the dividing a line into fo many equal parts, is
troublefome and tedious ; it is more convenient to have
a fcale of equal parts by which the works may be con-
ftrudted.
If therefore, in this cafe, the radius is taken equal to
180 toifes, and the circle deferibed with that radius be¬
ing divided into.fix equal parts, or the radius being car¬
ried fix times round, you will have an exagon inferibed ;
AB being bifedted by the perpendicular CD as .before,
fet off 30 toifes from C to D, and draw the indefinite
lines ADG, BDF, in which take the parts AE, BH,
each equal to 50 toifes; from the centre E deferibe an
arc through the point H, meeting AD in G, and from
the centre H deferibe an arc through the point E, meet¬
ing BD in F; or which is the fame, make each of the
lines EG HF equal to the diftance EH; then the lines
joinining the points A,E,F,G,H,B, will be the principal
or outline of the front.
60,
If
T O R T I T
If the fame conftru&ion be performed on:-the other fides
of the polygon, you will have the principal or outline of
the whole fortification.
If, with a radius of 20 toifes, there be defcribed cir¬
cular airs,, from the angular points B,A,M,T, and lines
are drawn from the oppofite angles E, H, <be. fo as to
touch thefe arcs, their parts ab, b,c, ^. together with
thefe arcs' will reprefent the outline of the ditch.
Definition s.
1. The part FEALN, is called the baftion.
2. AE, AL, the faces of the baftion.
3. EF, LN, the flanks.
4. FG, the curtain.
5. FN, the gorge of the bafiion.
6. AG, BF, the lines of defence.
7. AB, the exterior fide of the polygon.
8. CD, the perpendicular.
9. Any line which divides a work into two equal parts,
is called the capital of that work.
10. abc, the counterfcarp of the ditch.
11. A,M, the flanked angles.
12. H,E,L, the angles of the ftioulder, or ftioulder
only.
13. G,F,N, the angles of the flank.
14. Any angle whofe point turns from the place is
called a faliant angle, fuch as A, M; and any angle
whofe point turns towards the place, re-entering angle,
fuch as b, F, N.
15. If there be drawn two lines parallel to the princi-
CATION.
pal or outline, the one at 3 toifes diftance, and the other
at 8 from’it; then the fpace yx included between the
principal one and that fartheli diftant, is called the ram-
part.
And the fpace xx, contained by the principal line, and
that next to it, and which is generally llaincd black, is
called the parapet.
16. There is a fine line drawn within four feet of the
parapet, which exprefles a ftep called banquette.
N. B. All works have a parapet of three toifes thick,
arid a rampert of 8 to 10, befides their flopes. The
rampart is elevated more or lefs above the level of the
place, from 10 to 20 feet, according to the nature of the
ground and the particular conflrudions of engineers.
The parapet is a part of the rampart elevated from -6
to feet above the reft, in order to cover the troops
which are drawn up there from the fire of the enemy in
a fiege; and the banquette is two or three feet higher-than
the rampart, or about four feet lower than the parapet;
fo that when the troops ftand' upon it, they may juft be
able to fire over the parapet.
17. The body of the place, is all that which is con¬
tained within this firll rampart; for which reafon, it is
often faid to conftruft the body of the place ; which’
means properly, the conftru&ion of the baftions and cur-
18. All the works which are conftrudled beyond the .
ditch before the body of the place are called outworks.
TABLE.
Side of Bolyg.
Perpendicul.
Faces baft.
Cap, of ravel.
IgO 140
161| 20
35 I 40
4° II 45
150 j 160 j
JLA ! JG I
I 5°
l~tf 1 »!l
90 1 j 200
iliUs
60
Gr'eat, |
In the firft vertical column are the numbers expreffing
the lengths of the exterior fides from 80 to 260.
In the fecond,.the perpendiculars anfwering to thefe
fides.
In the third, the lengths of the faces of baftions; and
in the fourth, the lengths of the capitals of the ravelins.
The forts are moftly, if not always, fquares ; for which
reafon, the perpendiculars are made one eighth of the ex¬
terior fides; becaufe if they were .more, the gorges of
the baftions would become too narrow.
The little fortification is chiefly defigned for citadels,
and are commonly pentagons; the perpendiculars are
made one feventh of the exterior fide; the mean is ufed
in all kinds of fortifications from an exagon upwards to
any number of fides : and the great is feldom ufed but in
an irregular fortification, where there are fome fides that
cannot be made lefs without much expence: or in a town
which lies near a great river, where the fide next the ri-
wer is made from 200 to 260 *°ifes; and as that fide is
lefs expofed to be attacked than any other, the perpendi¬
cular is made Ihorter, which faves much expence.
The faces of the baftions are all -fibs of the exterior
fides, or nearly fo, becaufe the fraftions are negleded^
It may be obferved in general* that in all fquares the
perpendicular is -f th of the exterior fide, and all penta¬
gons 4’th, and in all the reft upwards -|th.
I. Confiruttion of Oritlcm and retired Flanks.
Defcribe the front MPQRST as before, and divide
the flank into three equal parts, of which fuppofe Sr to
be one : from the oppofite flanked angle M draw a line
Mr, in which take the part mr ci 5 toifes ; take likewife
Rn in the line of defence MR, produced, equal to 5
toifes, and join nm, upon which as a bafe defcribe the
equilateral triangle npm, and from the angle p, oppofite
to the bafe as centre, is defcribed the circular flank nm._
And if Sr be bifeifted by the perpendicular 1, 2, and
another be ereifted upon the face ST, at S; the inter-
fettion 2 of thefe two perpendiculars, will be the centre
of the arc which forms the orillon.
The orillons are very- ufeful in covering the retired
flanks, which cannot be feen but dire&ly in the front;
and as thefe orillons are round, they cannot be fo eafily
deftroyed as they would be, if they were of any other
figure.
2. Con-
F O R T I F I
2. ConJIruflion of Ravelins or Half moons.
Fig. 2. Set off jotoifes, from the re-entering angle O
of the counterfcarp, on the capital OL of the ravelin,
or on the perpendicular produced, and from the point L
draw lines to the Ihoulders A B; whofe parts LM,LN,
terminated by the counterfcarp, will be the faces MO,
ON, the lemi-gorges of the ravelin required.
This is Mr Vauban’s method of conltru&ing ravelins,
according to forne authors; and others will have the faces
of the ravelin to terminate on thofe of the baftions with¬
in 3 toifes of the fhoulders ; which feems to be the belt
way, for the ravelins cover the flanks much better than
the others.
The ditch before the ravelin is 12 toifes, its counter¬
fcarp parallel to the faces of the ravelins, and is made in
a circular arc, before the faliant angle; as likewife all
ditches are in general.
When the ravelins are made with flanks, as in fig. 3.
the faces fhould terminate off thofe of the baftions, at
leaft .5 tbifes from the fhoulders.
The flanks are made by fetting off 10 toifes from the
extremities of the faces, from f to h, and from m to 1,
fig. 3. ahd from the points h, 1, the flanks hk, Ip, are
drawn parallel to the capital LO of the ravelin.
There are fometimes redoubts made in the ravelin, fuch
- as in fig. 2. which is done by fetting off 16 toifes from
the extremities of the faces on the femi-gorges from N to
b, and from M to a; and from the points b, a, the fa¬
ces are drawn parallel to thofe of the ravelin: the ditch
before this redoubt is 6 toifes, and its counterfcarp paral¬
lel to the faces.
3. Conflruffian of Tenailies.
A tenaille is a work made in the ditch before the cur¬
tains, the parapet of which is only 2 or 3 feet higher than
the level ground of the ravelin. There are three diffe¬
rent forts: the firft are thofe as in fig. 4. which are made
in the direction of the lines of defence, leaving a paffage
of 3 toifes between their extremities and the flanks of the
baftions, as likewife another of 2 in the middle for a
bridge of communication to the ravelin.
The fecond fort, are thofe as in fig. 5. Their faces are in
the lines of defence, and 16 toifes long, befides the paf¬
fage of 3 toifes between them and the flanks of the baf¬
tions ; their flanks are found by deferibing arcs from one
fhoulder of the tenaille as centre thro’ the other, on which
are fet off 10 toifes for the flanks defired.
And the third fort, are thofe as in fig. 6. Their faces
are 16 toifes, as in the fecond fort, and the flanks are pa¬
rallel to thofe of the baftions.
The ufe in general of tenailles, is to defend the bottom
of the ditch by a grazing fire, as likewife the level ground
of the ravelin, and efpecially the ditch before the re
doubt within the ravelin, which can be defended from no
where elfe fo well as from them.
The firft fort do not defend the ditch fo well as the
others, as being too oblique a defence; but as they are
not fubjedt to be enfiladed, .M. Vauban has generally
preferred them in the fortifying of places, as may be feen
in the citadel of Lille, at Landau, Nevv-Brifac, and in a
jp-eat many other places.
The fecond fort defend the ditch , much better than the.
CATION. 6\<j
firft, and add a low flank to thofe of the baftions; but as
thefe flanks are liable to be enfiladed, they have not been
much putin pradhee. This defedt might however be reme¬
died, by making them fo as to be covered by the extre¬
mities of the parapets of the oppolite ravelins, or by fome
other work.
As to the third fort, they have the fame advantage as
the fecond, and are likewife liable to the fame objedlions;
for which reafon they may be ufed with the fame precau¬
tions which have been mentioned in the fecond.
Tenailles are efteemed fo neceffary, that there is hard¬
ly any place fortified without them; and it is.not without
reafon ; for when the ditch is dry, the part behind the
tenailles ferves as a place of arms, from which the troops
may fally, deftroy the works of the enemy in the ditch,
oppofe their defeent, and retire with fafety ; and the com¬
munication from the body of the place to the ravelin be¬
comes eafy and fecure ; which is a great advantage; for
by that means the ravelin may make a much better de¬
fence, as it can be fupplied with troops and neceffaries at
any time. And if the ditch is wet, they ferve as har¬
bours for boats, which may carry out armed men to op¬
pofe the paffage over the ditch whenever theypleafe; and
the communication from the tenailles to the ravelin, be¬
comes likewife much eafier than it would be without
them.
4. Conf ruffian of Lunettes.
Fig. 7. Lunettes are placed on both fides of the ra¬
velin, fuch as B, to increafe the ftrength of a place;
they are conftrmfted, by bifeffing the faces of the rave¬
lin with the perpendicular LN; on which is fet off 30
toifes from the counterfcarp of the ditch, for one of -its
faces; the other face PN, is found by making the femi-
gorge TP of 25 toifes; the ditch before the lunettes is
12 toifes, the parapet 3, and the rampart 8 ; as in the
ravelin. ,
There is fometimes another work made to cover the
faliant angle of the ravelin; fuch as A, called Bonnet,
whofe faces are parallel to thofe of the ravelin, and when
producedbifedl thofe of the lunettes; the ditch before it
is 10 toifes.
There are likewife lunettes, fuch as D, in fig, 8, ,
whofe faces are drawn perpendicular to thofe of the ra¬
velin, within a third part from the, faliant angle; and
their femi:gorges are only 20 toifes.
Thefe kind of works may make a good defence, and
are no very great, expence; for as they are fo near the
ravelin, the communication with it is very eafy, and one .
cannot well be maintained till they are all three taken.
5. Conjlruffion of Tenail/ons.
Fig. 9. Produce the faces of the ravelin beyond the
counterfcarp of the ditch, at a dirtance MN of 30 toifes,
and take on the . counterfcarp of the great ditch 15 toi¬
fes from the re entering angle p to q, and draw Nq ; then
qNMp will be the tenaillon required ; its ditch is 12 toi¬
fes, that is, the fame as that of the ravelin. Sometimes
there is made a retired battery in the front of the te-
naillons, as in fig. B ; this battery is 10 toifes from the
front to which it is parallel, and 1 5 toifes long.
There are commonly retrenchments made in the te-
naiUons^facfe. as 0; their parapets are parallel to the
floats.
620 F O R T I F 1
"fionts MN, or ratlier perpendicular to the fide Nq, and
bifeft the fide qN ; the ditch before this retrenchment is
3 toil'es, and there is a banquette before the parapet
mext to the ditch of about 8 feet, called Berm; it ferves
“to prevent the earth of the parapet (which feldom has
any revetement) from falling into the ditch.
It is to be obferved, that the ravelin, before which
tenaillons are conftruSed, muft have its faliant angle
much greater than the former conftruftion makes them ;
otherwife the faliant angles of the tenaildons become too
acute; for which reafon we made the capital of this ra¬
velin 45 toifes, and the faces terminate within 3 toifes of
the fhoulders.
6. Covjlruflion of Counterguards.
Fig. 10. i t. When the counterguard is placed before
the ravelin, fet off 40 toifes on the capital of the ravelin
from the faliant angle A, to the faliant angle B, of the
counterguard ; and 10 from C to D, on the counterfcarp
©f the ditch.
When the-ccmnterguard is before the baflion, fuch as
in fig. 2, its faliant angle F is 50 toifes from the faliant
angle E of the baflion, and the breadth near the ditch of
the ravelin is 10 toifes as before.
The ditch before the counterguards is r 2 toifes, and
•its counterfcarp parallel to the faces.
Counterguards are made before the ravelin in lome
particular occafions only, but are frequently conftrufted
■before the baftions, as covering the flanks wonderfully
well. Some authors, as Blondel, and Mr Coehorn, will
have them much narrower than they are here.
7. Confruf}ion of Homeworks.
Fig. 12. Produce the capital of the ravelin beyond
the faliant angle A, at a diftance AB of about 80 toifes;
draw DBE at right angles to AB; in which take BD,
BE, each equal to 55 toifes; and on the exterior fide
DE, trace a front of a polygon in the fame manner as
that of the body of the place, making the perpendicular
BF 18 toifes, and the faces 30.
The branches Da Eb of the hornwork, when pro¬
duced, terminate on the faces of the ballions, within 5
toifes of the {boulders. The ditch of the hornwork is
12 toifes, and its counterfcarp parallel to the branches ;
and in the front terminates at -the fhoulders, in the fame
manner as the great ditch before the baftions.
The capital of the ravelin before the front of the horn¬
work is 35 toifes, and the faces-terminate on the {boul¬
ders, or rather 2 or 3 toifes beyond them : and the ditch
before the ravelin is 8 toifes.
There are fometimes retrenchments made within
the hornwork, fuch as S, S; which are confhudled by
eredling perpendiculars to the faces of the ravelins, with¬
in 25. toifes of their extremities. This retrenchment, like
all others, has a parapet turfed only with a berm of 8 feet
before it; as like wife, a ditch from 3 to 5 to:fes broad.
Fig. 13. When a hornwork is made before the bafti-
on, the diftance DL of the front from the faliant angle
of the baftion is 100 toifes, and the branches terminate
.on the faces of the adjacent ravelins within 5 toifes from
stheir extremities; all the reft is the fame as before.
8. Covfruftion of Croounovorks.
■Plate LXXXIV. fig. 1. From the faliant angle of
CATION.
the ravelin, as a centre, defcribe an arc of a circle with
a r'adius of about 120 toifes, cutting the capital of the
ravelin produced at C; from the point C, fet off the
cords CB, CF, each of them equal to 110 toifes; and on
each of which, as an exterior fide, conftrud a front of a
polygon of the fame dimenfions as in the hornwork ; that
is, the perpendicular fltould be 18 toifes, the faces 30,
and the branches terminate on the faces of the baftions,
within 25 toifes of the {boulders.
The ditch is 12 toifes, the capital of the ravelin 35,
and its ditch 8 ; that is, the fame as in the hornwork.
Sometimes the crownwork is made before the baftion,
as in fig. 2. the arc is defcribed from the faliant angle
A of the baftion, with a radius of 120 toifes, as before,
and the brandies terminate on the faces of the adjacent
ravelins within 25 toifes of their extremities; the reft
of the dimenfions and conftrudtions are the fame as before.
Hornworks, as well as crownworks, are never made
but when a large fpot of ground falls beyond the fortifi¬
cation, which might be advantageous to an enemy in a
fiege, or to cover fome gate or entrance into a town ;
9. Conjiruftion of Covert-mays and Glacis.
Although we have not hitherto mentioned the covert¬
way, neverthelefs all fortifications whatfoever have one ;
for they are efteemed to be one of the moft eflential parts
of a modern fortification; and it is certain, the taking
the covert-way, when it is in a good condition and well
defended, is generally the molt bloody atftion of the
fiege.
After having conftru&ed the body of the place, and
all the outworks which are thought neceflary, lines are
drawn parallel to the outmoft counterfcarps of the ditches,
at 6 toifes diftant from it; and the fpace mnmn, included
between that line and the counterfcarp, will be the co¬
vert-way required. -
Fig. 3. There is in every re-entering angle of the
counterfcarp a place of arms, m ; which is found by fet-
ting off 20 toifes from the re-entering angle a, on both
fides from a to b, and from a to c; and from the points
b, c, as centres, arcs are defcribed with a radius of 25
toifes, fo as to interfed each other in d; then the lines
drawn from this interfedlion to the points b, c, will be
the faces of the places of arms.
If lines are drawn, parallel to the lines which termi¬
nate the covert way, and the places of arms, at 20 toifes
diftant from them, the fpace x, x, x, between thefe
lines and thofe which terminate the covert-way, will be
the glacis.
At the extremities of the places of arms, are traver-
fes made, fuch as v, v, which ferves to inclofe them ;
thefe traverfes are 3 toifes thick, and as long as the
covert-way is broad; and a paffage is cut in the glacis
round them, -of about 6 or 8 feet, in order to have a
free communication with the reft of the covert way.
There are alfo traverfes of the fame dimenfions before
every faliant angle of the baftion and outworks, and are
in the fame direction of the faces of thofe works produ¬
ced ; and the thicknefs lies at the fame fide as the para¬
pets.
The paffages round thefe laft traverfes are likewife
from 6 to 8 feet wide.
In
JJiau*.LXXXILL
Plate UQDQUl
F O 11 T I F I
T-'n each place of arms are two fatly ports 7., z, which
are 10 or 12 feet wide, for the troops to fally out; in
time of afiege they are (hut up, with barriers or gates.
10. Ccnjirufiion of .Arrows and Detached R-doubts.
An arrow is a work made before the faliant angles of
the glacis, fuch as A, fig. 3..; it is compofed of a para¬
pet of 3 toifes thick, and 40 long; and the ditch before
•it 5 toifes, terminating in a flope at both ends. The
atom muni cation from the covert way into thefe arrows is
4 or 5 toifes wide, and there is a traverfe r at the en^
trance of 3 toifes thick, with a padage of 6 or 8 ‘feet
Tound it.
A detatched redoubt is a kind of work much like a
ravelin, with the flanks placed beyond the glacis ; fuch
as fig. B: they are made in order to occupy fome fpot~
•of ground which might be advantageous to the befiegers ;
likewife to oblige the enemy to open their trenches far¬
ther off than they would do otherwife.
Their diflance from the covert-way ought not to ex¬
ceed 120 toifes, that it may be defended by mufltet {hot
from thence. %
The gorge ab is 40 toifes, the flanks ac, bf, which
are perpendicular to the gorge 10, and the faces cd, fd
go; the ditch before it is £ toifes, ending in flopes at
both ends ; the covert-way 4 ; the branches- of the co¬
vert-way are 42 toifes long, or thereabouts; the faces
•of the places of arms y, y, which are perpendicular to
the branches, 10 ; and the other, which is parallel to
them, 14.
The communication from the cowert-way into the re-
•doubt, is 5 or 6 toifes wide ; and there is a traverfe made
juff at the entrance; and another in the middle when it is
pretty long. The parapets of this communication termi¬
nate in a flope or glacis.
If thefe redoubts are above 50 toifes diffant from the
covert-way, the befiegers carry their trenches round, and
•enter through the gorge ; by which the troops that are
in them are made prifoners of war, if they do not retire
•betimes; to prevent this, fojjne other outworks (hould be
made to fupport them.
H. Conjlntflion of Second Ditches, and Covert-ways.
Fig, 4. When tne ground is low, and water to be
found, there is often a ditch of about 10 or 12 toifes
made round the glacis; and oppofite to the places of
arms are conftrudted lunettes, beyond the ditch ; fuch
as D, whofe breadth on the counterfc^rp of the ditch is
30 toifes, from b to a, and from c to d ; and the faces
aL, dL, are parallel to thofe of the places of arms ; the
ditch before them is from 8 to ten toifes wide.
The fecorid covert-way is 4 toifes, t^ie femi-gorges of
the places of arms, m, about 15, and the faces perpendi¬
cular to the counterfcarp; the fecond glacis is from 15
to 18 toifes broad.
This fecond covert-way has traverfes every where, in
•the fame manner as the firfl.
. 12 Conftrudion of Profiles^
Plate LXXXV. fig. 1. A profile is the reprefenta-
•tion of a vertical fedion of a work; it ferves to (hew
thofe dimenlions which cannot be reprefented in plans,
and are neceffary in the building of a fortification; they
are generally conftrudted upon a fcale of 30 feet to an
Vol. II. No. 52. 2
CATION. C2i
inch. It would be needlefs to defcribe all their particu¬
lar dimenfions, fince th?y are marked in the fchemes ; we
fhall therefore lay down the principal rules only, given by
M. Vauban, on this fubjeift.
1. Every work ought to be atleaft 6 feet higher than
that before it, fo that it may command thofe before it;
that is, that the garrifon may fire from all the works at
the fame time, with great -and final! arms, at the befie¬
gers in their approaches: notwithftanding this fpecious
pretence, there are feveral authors, wsho objedt again!! it.
For they fay, if you can difcever the enemy from all the
works, they can difcover, by the fame reafcn, all the
works from their batteries; fo that they may deftroy
them without being obliged to change their fituation, and
thereby difmount aH the guns of the place before they
come near it.
But if all the works were of ithe dame height, thofe
within cannot be deftroyed, till fuch time as thofe be¬
fore them are taken ; guns might be placed in the co¬
vert-way and outworks to obflrucl the-enemy’s approach,
and when they come near the place, they might be tranf-
ported into the inner-works; and as the body of the
place would be much lower, the expence would be con-
fiderably diminifhed.
But when works are low, they are eafily enfiladed by ’
the ricochet batteries, -which is a kind of firing with a
fmall quanti y of powder, by giving the gun an elevation
of 10 or 12 degrees : this might however be partly pre¬
vented, by making the parapets near the faliant angles,
for the fpace of 8 toifes on each ‘fide, 5 or 6 feet higher
than the reft of the works.
2. The covert-way flrould be lower than the level-
ground, otherwife the body of the place muft be raifed
very high, efpecially when there are fevetal outworks ;
this is to be underftood only when the works exceed each
other in height, otherwife it need not be below the le¬
vel.
3. The bafes of all inward flopes of earth fhould be at
lea!! equal to the height, if not more.
4. The bafes of all outward flopes of earth, two thirds
of their heights.
5. The flopes of all walls or revetements fhould be
one fifth of th-eir height ; but one fixth would be fuffi-
cient in our opinion: the height of a wall is eftimated
from the bottom of the ditch, and not from the begin¬
ning of its foundation.
6. The flopes of all parapets and traverfes are one
fixth of their breadth ; that is, 3 feet towards the field,
or the infide, where the banquettes ftiould be, 3 feet
higher than the outfide.
7. When the revetement of a rampart goes quite up
to the top, 4 feet of the upper-part is a vertical wall of
3 feet thick, with a fquare ftone at the top of it, pro-
jedbng 6 inches, and a circular one below, or where
the flope begins, of 8 or 10 inches diameter ; they go
quite round the rampart, and the circular projection is
called the cordon.
Where the ftraight part of the wall ends and the flope
begins, the wall is always made 5 feet thick; and the
counterforts or buttreffes reach no higher than that place.
7. When the rampart is partly walled, and partly turf-
. 6 R ed.
62Z F O R T I F I
ed, then one fifth of the height which is turfed mud be
added to 5 feet, to get the thicknefs of the wall above.
And having the thicknefs- of any wall above, by add¬
ing one fifth of its height from the bottom of the ditch,
the fum will be the thicknefs of the wall at the bottom ;
but if a fixth part is only taken for the Hope, then a fixth
part muft be added.
For inltance, fuppofe a rampart of 30 feet high from
the bottom of the ditch, and that 10 of which are to be
turfed; then the fifth part of 10, which is 2, added to 5,
gives 7 for the wall above ; and as this wall is 20 feet
high, the fifth of which is 4, and 4 added to the thick¬
nefs 7 above, gives 11 for the thicknefs near the foun¬
dation.
Plate LXXXV. fig. 1. Reprefents, in military per-
Tpeftive, the profiles of the body of a place, the ravelin
and covert-way : which gives a clear idea of what is
meant by a profile, and from which thofe of all other
works may be eafily conceived.
Sect. II. Of Irregular Fortification.
The moll: eiTential principle in fortification, confifts in
making all- the fronts of a place equally ftrong, fo that
the enemy may find no advantage in attacking either of
the Tides; this can happen no otherwife but in a regular
fortification fituated in a plain or even ground ; but as
there are but few places which are not irregular, either in
their works or fituations, and the nature of the ground
may be fuch as makes it impradticable to build them re¬
gular, without too great expence; it is fo much the more
necelfary to fhew in what confifts the Urength or weak-
nefs of a town irregularly fortified, fo that the Weakeft
part may be made Wronger by additional outworks; as
likewife if fuch a place is to be attacked, to know which
is the ftrongeft or weakeft.
X. Confiruttion of an irregular place fituated in an
open country.
If the place to be fortified is an old town inclofed by a
wall or rampart, as it molt frequently happens, the en-
' gineer is to confider well all the different circumftances
of the figure, fituation, and nature of the ground, to re¬
gulate his plan accordingly, fo as to avoid the difadvan-
tages, and gain all the advantages poffible ; he fhould
examine, whether by cutting off fome parts of the old
wall or rampart, and taking in fome ground, the place
cannot be reduced into a regular figure, or nearly fo ; for,
if that can he done without increafing the expence confi-
derably, it fhould by no means be omitted; old towns
have often towers placed from diftance to diftance, as
Douay, Tournay, and many other places, which are ge¬
nerally made ufe of, and mended when it may be done ;
if there is a rampart without baflions or towers, it muft
be well confidered. whether baltions may not be added,,
or if it is not better to make only fome outworks ; if the
ditch about this rampart is not too wide and deep, it
would be advantageous to make detached baftions, o-
therwife ravelins and counterguards muft be conltrufted ;,
fpecial care muft be taken, to make all fides of the poly¬
gon as nearly equal as poffible, and that the length of
the lines of defence do not exceed the reach of mulket-
C A T' I O N.
fhot; but if that cannot be done, thofe fides which are
on the narroweft part (hould be made the longeft.
It it (hould happen, that fome of the fides are inaccef-
fible or of very difficult approach, either on account of
fome precipice, marffiy ground, or inundation, they may
be made much longer than the others, which are of eafy
accefs, and the flanks need not be fo large as the reft ;
by doing fo, there will be fome expences faved, which
may be ufed in making the other fides ftronger by adding
more outworks. ■
There are few fituations, but what are more advanta¬
geous in fome parts than in others ; it is therefore the
bufinefs of an engineer to diftiriguiffi them, and to ren¬
der thofe fides ftrong by art, which are not fo by na¬
ture.
If the fituarion is low and watery, lunettes or tenail-
lons, and fuch other fmall outworks fhould be conftrudted,
becaufe they are not of any great expence, and may
make a very good defence; but if one fide of the place
is only low, and running water is to be had, a fecond
ditch and covert-way with lunettes may be made, by obr
ferving, that if the firft glacis is made to Hope, fo as to
become even with the level of the water in the fecond
ditch ; or if the water can be fwelled, by means of dykes
or fluices, fo as to overflow the bell part of the firft glacis,
it fhould be done ; for by fo doing, thefe works will be
able to make a very good defence, fince the befiegers will
find it a difficult matter to lodge themfelves upon this
glacis, which cannot, be done but within a few toifes of
the firft covert-way, where the b fieged are ready to
receive them, and to deftroy their works with great ad¬
vantage ; whereas the enemy cannot fupport their work¬
men but from the fecond covert-way, which is too far
off to be of any great fervice to them.
But if the fituation is of a dry nature, without any
water about it, caponiers fhould be made in the great
ditch, from the curtains to the ravelin, and batteries
raifed in the entrance of the ditch before the ravelin,
whofe parapet muft flope off into a glacis, fo as to afford
no cover for the enemy behind them ; arrows, and de¬
tached redoubts are likewife very proper to be ufed in
fuch a cafe, and fometimes horn or crown-works, if it
fhould be thought convenient; but thefe works fhould
never be conftrufted, without an abfolute neceffity, either
to occupy a fpot of ground which might be advantageous
to the enemy, or to cover fome gate or entrance into the
town,, for they are of fo great expence, that their defence
feems not to be anfwerable to it.
Moft of the places in Flanders are fortified with horn-
works, fuch as Ipres, Tournay, Lille, and others.
If the place to be fortified is new, and the fituation
will not admit of a regular conftrudion ; particular care
muft be taken in chufing fuch a fpot of ground as is mod
advantageous, and leaft liable to any difadvantages, either
in the.building or in the maintaining of it : all hills or
rifing grounds fhould be avoided, which might command
any part of the works ; marffiy grounds, becaufe fuch
fituations are unwholefome ; or lakes and (landing waters,
for the fame reafon, excepting a lake is, or may be made
navigable: good water ffiould be had either within the
place or near.it, for it is abfolutely neceffary for men and
cattle j.
F O R T I F I
cattle ; the air fliould be wholefome, otherwife the con¬
tinual fieknefs that may reign in fuch a place might pre¬
vent people to come and live in it, and the garrifon would
not be in a condition to defend themfelves as they ought
to do ; in fhort, all the different circumftances attending
fuch an undertaking fliould be maturely confidered, before
a refolution is taken to fortify any place.
When a fituation is pitched upon, the next thing to be
conlidered is, the bignefs of the town and the number of
its outworks, which mud abfolutely depend upon the
confequence fuch a place is of to a nation ; if it is only to
guard a pafs, or entrance into a country, it need not be
io large; but if it is to be a place either to promote or
to proteft trade, it fhould be large and commodious; the
dreets fhould be wide, and the buildings regular and
convenient : as to what regards the fortification, its
condrudtion fhould depend on the nature of the fituation,
and the number of the works on the funds or expence a
prince -or a nation will be at; which however ought to
be according to the benefit ariling from fuch a place :
for, as fuch undertakings are of very great expence, an
engineer cannot be too fparing in his works; on the
contrary,'the greated oeconomy fhould be ufed, both in
regard to the number of works, and to their condrudtion.
The body of the place may have * revetements quite up
to the top, or only in part, and the red turfed ; but as
to the outworks, they fnould have half revetements, or
they may be made with turf only; as being not fo necef-
fary to prevent the place from being furprifed, and may
neverthelefs make a good-defence.
On Plate LXXXV. fig. 2. is the plan of an odtagon,
one half of which is fimilar and equal to the other half;
it being fuppofed, that the fituation would not admit of
fortification quite regular; and the exterior fides are
each igotoifes, and the works are conflruffed according
to our method; but becaufe the fides AB, EF, are
weaker than the red, as has been proved before, we have
added tenailfes, redoubts in the ravelins, and lunettes, to
render them nearly equal in drength with the others ;
and if counter guards were made before the badions A
and B, it would effeffually fecure that front. Indead
of lunettes, any other works may be made, as it may be
thought convenient and according to the nature of the
ground. If it fhould be judged neceffary to add other
outworks to the ravelins all round the place, care mud be
taken to add likewife more to the fronts AB, EF, in
order to render the advantages and difadvantages of at¬
tacking on either fide equal.
2. Conjlruttion of an irregular place, fituated on a
hill or rock.
In the condru&ion of fuch places, care mud be taken
that no neighbouring hill commands any part of the works;
the town fhould always be built on the highed part; but
if it fhould be thought more convenient to place it lower,
then the upper part mud be fortified with a fort; the
fituation fhould be made level as near as pofEble, by re¬
moving the earth from fome places to fill up others ; and
C A T I O N. 623
if it cannot well be levelled without extraordinary ex¬
pence, works mud be made on the highed patt, fo as to
command and protect the lower ; the works ought to oc¬
cupy all the upper part of the hill, but if it fhould he too
extenfive to be all inclofed, c r fo irregular as not to be
fortified without great inconvenience, the parts which fall
without fhould be fortified with fome detached works,
and a communication with the place mud be made either
above or under ground. There fhould be no cavity or
hollow roads, within cannon-fhot, roundabout the place,
where the enemy might be able to approach under cover ;
if there fhoitld happen to be a fpring, near the top of the
hill, it fhould be inclofed in the fortification, or if that
cannot be done, by fome work or other ; for there is no¬
thing more neceffary, and at .the fame time fcarcer in fu<h
fituations than water, for'which reafon there cannot be
too much care taken in providing it; feveral ciderns ar.e
to be made to receive the rain-water, and to preferve it ;
wells fhould be dug likewife, though ever fo deep, the
water of which will ferve for common ufe.
Places built on hills or rocks, fhould never be large,,
for their ufe is generally to guard paffes or inlets into a,
country, and are feldom ufefu! in traffic, and it is a dif¬
ficult matter to provide for a large garrifoh in fuch fitua-
ations, neither fhould any fuch place be built without
fome very material reafons; but when it is abfolutely
neceffary, great care and precautions fhould be taken to
render the works as perfed as the fituation will admit of,
and at the fame time to be as frugal in the expertce as
poffible.
3. Conjlruttion of irregular fortifications, fituated near
rivers, lakes, or thefea.
As the intent of building thefe kind of places is chief¬
ly to facilitate and proted trade, it is of much more im¬
portance than any other kind, efpecially in maritime
countries, where the principal drength and power depends
on it; for which reafon, we fhall treat of it more large¬
ly than any other part.
The fird thing to be confidered is their fituations,
which ought to be fuch as to afford a good harbour for
dripping, or a fafe and eafy entrance in ftormy weather ;
but as it is hardly poffible to find any, where ftips may
go in and lie fecure with all winds, care fhould be ta¬
ken to make them fafe to enter with thofe winds which
are mod dangerous: but it is not diffident that the har¬
bour is fafe againd dormy weather, they fhould likewife
be fo againd an enemy, both by land and water ; for it
often happens, that fhips are deftroyed where it was ima¬
gined they were fecure, which is of too great a confe-
quence not to be provided againd ; for which reafon,
forts or batteries mud be built in the mod convenient
places,^ to prevent the enemy’s fhips from coming too
near, fo as to be able to cannonade thefe in the harbour
or fling fliells amongfl them : and if there is any danger
of an enemy’s approach by land, high ramparts and edi¬
fices mud be built, fo as to cover them.
When a river is pretty large, and it is not convenient
for
* Revetements are chiefly made to prevent a place from being furprifed; outworks do not want to be made fo the
taking them by furprife is of no-great confequence, except in a iiege, when other cautiojas are uitd to prevent it. ’
T O Tl T I T 1
ifor ma'liing a h-srbour without great expence, the (hips
'tuay ride along the fltore, which, for that reafon, innit
be made acceiTible f6r fliips of burden; this may be
'done-by advancing the quay into the river, if the water
is too (hallow, or by digging the river fuiliciently deep
•for that purpofe.
And to prevent any enemy from coming up the river,
forts mull be built on both fides, efpecially when there are
any turnings or windings. Antwerp is fuch a place ,; for
-the Scheld is'fufficiently deep to carry (hips of great bur¬
den, which may come quite near the town-wall; and
feveral forts are builtbelow it on both ikies, fo that it would
not be an eafy matter for an enemy to come ttp the river,.
When the river is but final), fo that no fhips of bur¬
den can come through it ; it is fufficient to make it run
through fome o'f the works, where proper landing places
are contrived, from whence the goods may be carried in¬
to the place ; as at Sarrelouis, where a horn-work is built
beyond the Sarre, in the gorge of which the goods are
landed.
If the breadth of the river does net exceed 200 yards,
it commonly palfes through the middle of the town, and
-proper quays are made on each fide; in fuch a cafe, the
fortification is fo contrived as that the riverpafles through
the curtain, in order to have a baftion on each fide to
defend the coming in and going out.
When M. Vauban fortified near rivers, he made always
the exterior fide near the water much longerthan any of the
■others; fuch is Hunningen on the Rhine, and Sarrelouis
on the Sarre; but for what reafon be fortified tbefe pla¬
ces in that manner, has not been told by any author.
But it is plain, that the fides Which terminate at
the river, are the weakeft ; becaufe the befiegers
trenches being fecured by the river, they may draw
moft of their troops off, and aft therefore with
more vigour and ftrength on the other fide: befides, as
the ftrength of a fide increafes in proportion as the angle
of the polygon is greater, by making the fide next the
river longer, the angles at its extremities become wider,
and confequently the adjacent fides ftronger.
There are other advantages, befides thefe mentioned
already, which arife from the lengthening that fide ; for
; if the river is pretty deep fa as not to be fordable, that
fide is not liable to be attacked ;-and by increafiug its
length, the capacity of the place increafes much more in
proportion to the expence, than if more fides were made;
the centre of the place will be likewife nearer the river,
which makes it more convenient for tranfporting the goods
from the water-flde to any part of the town.
F O R
CAT! (0 N.
Plate LXXXV. fig. 3. To illufirate this method of M.
Vauban’s we (hall give the plan of Hunningen ; this place
was built for the fake of having a .bridge over ihe Rhine,,
for which reafon he made it only a pentagon; the fide
AB next to the .river is 200 toifes, and each of the o-
•thers.but 1.80.
About the fpace a'bc, which lies before the front AB,
is a ftone-wall, and the paflages x, x, are (hut up with
fluices, to retain the water in the ditches in dry feafons,
and to prevent an enemy from deficoying the fluict near
the point c, whereby the water would run out and leave
the ditches dry ; .the redout y was built in the little illand
■hard b}C in order to cover that iluice; without ibis'pre¬
caution the place might be infulted from the river-iide,
where the Wfcter is fhallow in dry leafons.
'Fbe hornwotk K beyond the Rhine was bui’-t to cover
tire bridge ; but as this work cannot be well defended
•crofs the river, the hornwork H was made to fupport the
•other.
Before we fintfn the defcription of this plan, we fhali
■fhew how to find the long fide AB, as being uleful in the
following work/
After having infcribed the two fides GE, GF, in a
circle, draw the diameter CD, fo as to be equally diftant
from the line joining the points E, F, that is parallel to
it; on this diameter fet off 100 toifes on each fide of the
centre, from thefe points draw two indefinite perpendicu¬
lars to the diameter; then if from the points E, F, as
centres, two arcs are aiefcribed with a radius of 1 So .toi¬
fes, their interfe&ions A and B, with the faid perpendi¬
culars, will determine the long fide AB, as likewife the
other two FB and EA. In like manner may be found
the long or fhort fide of any polygon whatfoever;
When a place near a river is to be fortified, for the
fafety of commerce, particular care fhould be taken in
leaving a good fpace between the houfes and the water-
•fide, to have a key or landing place for goods brought by
water; it Ihould alfo be contrived to have proper places
for (hips and boats to lie fecure in ftormy weather,
and in time of a fiege ; and as water-carriage
is very advantageous for tranfporting goods from one
place to another, as likewife for bringing the necef-
fary materials, not only for building the fortification, but
alfo the place itfelf, the expences will be leffened confi-
derably, when this convenience can be had ; for which
reafbn, places Ihould never be built any where elfe but
near rivers, lakes, or near thefea; excepting in extra¬
ordinary cafes, where it cannot be avoided.
FOR
FORTISSIMO, in -mufic, fometimes denoted by FFF, The common opinion is, that they are the fame with
or fff, fignifies to fing or play very loud or ftrong, the Canary iflands.
FORT-LEWIS, a fortrefs of Alface. in Germany, fi- FORTUNE, a goddefs worfhipped with great devotion
mated on the wefforn fhore of the Rhine, fubjed: to by the ancient Greeks and Romans, who believed her
France : E. long. 8°, and N. lat. 48° a6'. to prefide over human affairs, and to difiribute wealth
FORTUNATE-islands in ancient geography, certain and honour at her pleafure.
iflands, concerning the -fituation of which authors are FORUM, in Roman antiquity, a public Handing place
not agreed, famous for the golden apples of the Hef- within the city of Rom’e, where caufes were judicially
!>&rides. See HES,p£iUJ?E.s. .tried, and orations delivered tathe people.
F-OJUtMy
Tlate LXXXV
F O U { /5:
For'OM, was alfe ufed for a place of traljic, -anfwering
to our market-place: of thefe there were vail: nurrr-
• bers, as the forum pifcarium, olitorium. See. Thefe
were generally called/c-rtf venalia, in contradiilinflion
to the former, wjnch were called fora civHia.
Forum, is alfo ufed, among cafuilts, fcc. for jurifdi<9:i-
on ; thus they fey, /» Joro legit. Sec.
FOSS, or Fossa, in anatomy, a kind* of cavity in a
bone, with a large aperture, but no exit or perfo¬
ration.
Foss way, one of the four principal highways of Eng¬
land, that anciently bd through the kingdom; fup-
pofed to be made by the Romans, having a ditch upon
one fide thereof.
FOSSIL, in natural hiilory, denotes, in general, every
thing dug out of the earth, whether they be natives
thereof, as metals, ifones, felts, earths, ard other
minerals; or extraneous, repofited in the bowels of
the earth by fome extraordinary means. See Natu¬
ral History.
FOSSOMBRONE, a city and bilhop’s fee of Italy, ten
miles fouth eaft of Urbino.
FOUMART, in zoology. See Mustela.
FOUNDATION, in architedhire, is that part of a
building which is under ground. See BuiLDiNd.
The foundation is properly fo much of the mafonry
as reaches as high as the furface of the ‘ground, and
ought always to be proportioned to the load or weight
• of the building that it is to bear. Sometimes the foun¬
dation is maflive, and continued under the whole build¬
ing, as in the antique arches and aquedutffs, and fome
amphitheatres; but it is more ufually in fpaces or in¬
tervals, either to avoid expence, or becaufe the vacui¬
ties are at too great a diltance, in which latter qafe
they make ufe of infulated pillars bound together by
arches.
Palladio allows a fixth part of the height of the
whole building for the hollowing or under-digging; un- -
lefs there be cellars under ground, in which cafe he
would have it fomewhat lower ; and as to thicknefs,
double the width of the wall is no bad rule.
Foundation of Bridges, is laid after different manners.
The firftis by inclofir.g all round the fpace of ground
you would build upon, by dams made with piles fet
deep in the ground in double rows, well ftrengthened
and bound together with crofs pieces and cords, and
filling, the vacant fpaces between them with chalk or
other earthy matter. This being done, the water muft
be emptied out, 'and the foundation dug according to
tfie quality of the ground, driving down piles, if it
be neceffary, upon which the walls of the foundation
mull be laid. But this method is only pra&icable in
building on fuch rivers, where the water is neither ve-
» ry rapid, nor very deep. The fecond is done by lay¬
ing the foundation on grate-work, rafts of flout oak
well bound together, and made faff at the furface of
the water with cables or machines, and building upon
them large quarters of flone, cramped together, and
joined with good mortar, or cement, and afterwards
letting them defeend foftly by thefe,cables and ma-
Vol. II. No-ya. .2
5 ) F O U
chines perpendicularly to the bottom of the water.
This was the method pradtifed in laying the foundati-
. on of Weftminfler Bridge, the grating being made of
the bottom of a frame called by the French Caiffon,
the fides of which were fo contrived, that they might
be taken off, after a pier was finilhed. The third is
by drawing off all, or the greatell part of the water
of the river into forae other place.
FOUNDER, in a general fenfe, the perfon who lays
a foundation, or endows a church, fchool, religious-
houfe, or other charitable inflitution.
Founder alfo implies an artift who calls metals, in
various forms, for different ufes, as guns, bells, fta-
tues, printing charaifters, candleflicks, buckles, tic.
whence they are denominated gun-founders, bell-
founders, figure-founders, letter-founders, founders-of
fmall works, <&c. See Foun-dery.
Founder, in the fea language : A (hip is faid to founder,
when by an extraordinary leak, or by a great fea break¬
ing in upon her, fhe is fo filled with water, that fhe
cannot be freed of it; fo that (he can neither veer nor
fleer, but lie like a log; and not being able to fwim
long, will at lad fink.
FOUNDERY, or Foundry, the art of calling all forts
of metals into different forms. It likewife fignifies the
work-houfe or fmelting-hut* wherein thefe operations
are-performed.
Foundery of fmaIl’'worls, or caJUng in fand. The
fend ufed for calling fmall works, is, at firll, of a pret¬
ty foft, yellowilh, and clammy nature: but it be¬
ing neceffary to drew charcoal dud in the mould, it at
length becomes of a quite black colour. This fend is
worked over and over, on a board, with a roller, and a
fort of knife^ being placed over a trough to receive it,
after it is by thefe means fufficiently prepared.
This done, they take a wooden board of a length
and breadth proportional to the things to be cad, and
putting a ledge round it, they fill it with fend, a little
moidened, to make it duly cohere. Then they take
either wood or metal models of what they intend to
cad, and apply them fo to the mould, and prefs them
into the fend, as to leave their impreffion there. Along
the middle of the mould is laid half a fmall brafs cy¬
linder, as the chief canal for the metal to run through,
when melted, into the models or patterns ; and from
this chief canal are placed feveral others, which extend
to each model or pattern placed in the frame. After this
frame is finilhed, they take out the patterns, by find
loofening them all round, that the fend may not give
way.
Then they proceed to work the other half of the
mould with the feme patterns in jud fuch another frame,
only that it has pirs, which, entering into holes that
correfpond to it in the other, make the two cavities of
the pattern fall exadlly on each other.
The frame thus moulded,-is carried to the melter,
who, after extending the chief canal of the counter¬
part, and adding the crofs canals to the feveral models
in both, and drewing mill-diid over them, dries them
in a kind of oven for that purpofe.
6 S
'Bath
F O U (626
Both parts of the mould being dry, they are joined
together by means of the pins ; and to prevent their
giving way, by reafon of the melted metal palling
through the chief cylindrical canal, they are fcrewcd or
wedged up like a kind of a prefs.
While the moulds are thus preparing, the metal is
fufing in a crucible of a fize proportionate to the quan¬
tity of metal intended to be call:.
When the moulds are coolilh, the frames are un-
fcrewed, or unwedged, and the caft work taken out of the
fand, which fandis worked over again for other callings.
Foundery of Jiatues. The calling of llatues depends
on the due preparation of the pit, the core, the wax,
the outer mould, the inferior furnace to melt off’.he wax,
and the upper to fufe the metal. The pit is a hole dug
in a dry place fomething deeper than the intended fi¬
gure, and made according to the prominence of certain
parts thereof. The inlide of the pit is commonly lined
with Hone, orlirick; or when the figure is very large,
they fometimes work on the ground, and raife a pro¬
per fence to refill the impulfion of the melted metal.
The inner mould, or core, is a rude mafs to which
is given the intended attitude and contours. It is raifed
on an iron grate, llrong enough to fuftain it, and is
ftrengthened within by feveral bars of iron. It is ge¬
nerally made either of potter’s clay, mixed with hair,
and horfe dung ; or of plafter of Paris mixed with
brick-dull. The ufe of the core is to fupport the
wax, the Ihell, and leffen the weight of the metal.
The iron bars and the core are taken out of the brafs
figure through an aperture left in it for that purpofe,
which is foldsred up afterwards. It is neceffary to
leave fome of the iron bars of the core, that contribute
to the lleadinefs of the projecting part, within the
brafs figure.
The wax is a reprefentation of the intended llatue.
If it be a piece of fculpture, the wax Ihould be all of
the fculptor’s own hand, who ufually forms it on the
core ; though it may be wrought feparately in cavities,
moulded on a model, and afterwards arranged on the
ribs of iron over the grate; filling the vacant fpace in
the middle with liquid plaller and brick dull, whereby
the inner core is proportioned as the fculptor carries on
the wax.
When the wax, which is the intended thicknefs of
the metal, is finilhed, they fill fmall waxen tubes per¬
pendicular to it from top to bottom, to ferve both as
canals for the conveyance of the metal to all parts of
the work ; and as vent-holes, to give paffage to the
air, which would otherwife occafion great diforder*
when the hot metal came to encompafs it.
The work being brought thus far, mull be covered
with its (hell, which is a kind of cruft laid over the
wax, and which being of a foft matter, ealily receives
the impreffion of every part, which is afterwards com¬
municated to the metal upon its taking the place of the
wax, between the Ihell and the mould. The matter
of this outer mould is varied according as different
layers are applied. The firft is generally a compofition
of clay, and old white crucibles well ground and lift¬
ed, and mixed up with water, to the confiftence of a
) F O U
colour fit for painting : accordingly they apply it with
a pencil, laying it {even or eight times over, and let¬
ting it dry between whiles. For the fecond impreffi¬
on, they add horfe dung, and natural earth to the
former compofition. The third impreffion is only
horfe-dung and earth. Laftly, the Ihell is finilhed by
laying on feveral more impreffiouS of this laft matter,
made very thick with the hand.
The Ihell, thus fmifhed, is fecured by feveral iron
girts, bound round it, at about half a foot diftance
from each other, and fallened at the bottom to the
grate under the llatue, and at top to a circle of iron
where the^ all terminate.
If the llatue be fo big that it would not be eafy to
move the moulds with lafety, they mull be wrought oa
the fpot where it is to be call. This is performed two
ways: in the firft, a Iquare hole is dug under ground,
much bigger than the mould to be made therein, and
its infide lined with walls of free-ftone, or brick. At
the bottom is made a hole of the fame materials with
a kind of furnace, having its aperture outwards: in
this is a fire made to dry, the mould, and afterwards
melt the wax. Over this furnace is placed the grate,
and upon this the mould, <bc. formed as above.
Laftly, at one of the edges of the fquare pit, is made
another large furnace to melt the metal. In the other
way, it is fufficient to work the mould above ground,
but with the like precaution of a furnace and grate un¬
derneath. When finilhed, four walls are to be run a-
round it, and by the fide thereof a maffive made for
a melting-furnace. For the reil, the method is the
fame in both. The mould being finilhed, andinclofed
as defcribed, whether under ground or above it, a
moderate fire is lighted in the furnace under it, and
the whole covered with planks, that the wax may melt
gently down, and run out at pipes contrived for that
purpofe, at the foot of the mould, which are afters*
wards exadlly clofed with earth, fo foot) as the wax
is carried off. This done, the hole is filled up with
bricks thrown in at random, and the fire in the furnace
augmented, till fuch time as both,the bricks and mould
become red hot. After this, the fire being extinguifii-
ed, and every thing ccld again, they take out the
bricks and fill up their place with earth moiltened, and.
a little beaten to the top of the mould, in order to
make it the more firm and Heady. Thefe preparatory
meafures being duly taken, there remains nothing but;
to melt the metal, and run it into the mould. This
is the office of the furnace above defcribed, which is
commonly made in tfie form of an oven with three a-
pertures, one to put in the wood, another for a vent,,
and a third to run the metal out at. From this lall a-
perture, which is kept very clofe, v.hile the metal is
in fufion, a fmall tube is laid, whereby the melted me¬
tal is conveyed into a large earthen bafon, over the
mould, into the bottom of which all the big branches,
of the jets, or calls, which are to convey the metal:
into all the parts of the mould, are inferred.
Thefe calls, or jets, are all terminated with a kind
of plugs, which are kept clofe, that, upon opening the
furnace, the brafs, which gulhes out with; violence,,
may.
F O U ( 6:
•may not enter any of them, tiJl the bafon be full e-
nough of matter to run into them ail at once. Upon
which occafion they pull out the plugs, which are long
iron rods with a head at one end, capable of filling the
whole diameter of each tube. The whole of the fur¬
nace is opened with a long piece of iron fitted at the
end of each pole, and the mould filled in an inllant.
This completes the work in relation to the calling
part ; the rell being the fculptor’s or carver’s huftnefs,
who, taking the figure out of the mould and earth
wherewith it is encompalfed, faws off the jets with
which it appears covered over, and repairs it with
chifiels, gravers, puncheons, fyc.
Foundery of bells. The metal, it is to be obfer-
ved, is different for bells, from what it is for ftatues ;
there being no tin in the ftatue-metal: but there is a
fifth, and fometimes more, in the bell-metal. »
The dimenfions of the core and the wax for bells,
if a ring of bells efpecially, are not left to chance, but
muft be meafured on a fcale, or diapafon, which gives
the height, aperture, and thicknefs neceffary for the
feveral tones required-. See Diapason.
It is on the wax that the federal mouldings and o-
ther ornaments are formed to be reprefented in relievo,
oh the outfide of the bell.
The bufinefs of bell-foundery is reducible to three
particulars, j. The proportion of a bell. 2. The
forming of the mould; and, 3. The melting of the
metal.
The proportions of our bells differ much from thofe
of the Chinefe: in ours, the modern proportions are,
to make the diameter fifteen times the thicknefs of the
brim, and twelve times the height.
There are two kinds of preparations, r/z. the Am¬
ple and the relative : the former are thofe proportions
only that are between the feveral parts of a bell, to
render it fonorous ; the relative proportions eflablifh
a requifite harmony between feveral bells.
The particulars neceffary for making the mould of
a bell are, 1. The earth; the moft cohefive is the
heft : it muft be well ground and fifted, to prevent a-
ny chinks. 2. Brick-Hone; which mufl be ufed for
the mine, mould, or core, and for the furnace. 3.
Horfe dung, hair, and hemp, mixed with the earth,
to render the cement more binding. 4. The wax for
infcriptions, coats of arms, &c. 5. The tallow e-
qually mixed with the wax, in order to put a flight
lay of it upon the outer mould, before any letters are
applied to.it. 6. The coals to dry the mould.
For making the mould, they have a fcaffold con-
fifting of four boards, ranged upon treflels. Upon
this they carry the earth, grofsly diluted, to mix it
with horfe-dung, beating the whole with a large fpatula.
The compeffes of conflnnftion is the chief inftru-
meot for making the mould, which confift of two
different legs joined by a third piece. And laft of all,
the founders fhelves, on which are the ingravings of
the letters, cartridges, coats of arms,
They firft dig a hole of a fufficient depth to contain •
the mould of the bell, together with the cafe, or can¬
non., under ground.; and about fix laches lower than
7 ) F O U
the tefrepiain, where the work is performed. Ther-
hole mufl be wide enough for a free paflage between
the mould and walls of the hole, or between one
mould and another, when feveral bells are to be cart.
At the centre of the hole is a flake ertfted, that is
flrongly faftened in the ground. This fupports an
iron peg, on which the pivot of the fecond branch of
the conipafles turns. The ftak6 is encompafled with
a folid brick-work, perfectly round, about half a foot
high, and of the propofed bell’s diameter. This they
call a mill-ftone. The parts of the mould are, the core,
the model of the bell, and the fhell. When the outer
furface of the core is formed, they begin to raife the
core, which is made of bricks that are laid in courfeo
of equal height upon a lay of plain earth. At the lay¬
ing each brick, they bring near it the branch of the
compafles, on which the curve of tfte-core is lhaped, fo
as that there may remain between it and the curve the
diftance of a line, to be afterwards filled up, with layers
of cement. The work is continued to the top, only
leaving an opening for the coals to bake the core.
This work is covered with a layer of cement, made
of earth and horfe dung, on which they move the
. compafles of conflrudtion, to make it of an even fmooth-
nefs every where.
, The firft layer being finiflwd, they put the fire to.
the core, by filling it half with coals, through an open¬
ing that is kept (hut, during the baking, with a cake
of earth, that has been feparately baked. The firll
fire confumes the flake, and the fire is left in the core
half or fometimes a whole day; the firft layer being
thoroughly dry, they cover it with a fecond, third,
and fourth ; each being fmoothed by the board of the
compafles, and thoroughly dried before they proceed to-
another.
The core being completed, they take the compafles
to pieces, with intent to cut off the thicknefs of the mo¬
del, and the compafles are immediately put in their place
to begin a fecond piece of the mould. It confifts of a mix¬
ture of earth and hair, applied with the hand on the core,
in feveral cakes that clofe together. This work is fi-
niflied by feveral layers of a thinner cement of the
fame matter, fmoothed by the compaffes, and thorough¬
ly dried, before another is laid on. The firft layer of
the model is a mixture of wax and greafe fpread over
the whole._ After which are applied the infcriptioas,
coats of arms, befmeared with a pencil dipped in
a veflel of wax in a chafling-difh : this is done for every
letter. Before the (hell is begun, the compaffes are
taken to pieces, to cut off all the wood that fills the
place of the thicknefs to be given.to the (hell.
The firft layer is the fame earth with the reft, fifted
very fine; whilft it is tempering ih water, it is mixed
with cow’s hair, to make it cohere. The whole being
a thin cullis, is gently poured on the model, that fills
exaftly all the finuofities of the figures, and this
is repeated till the whole is two lines thick over the
model. When this layer is thoroughly dried, they
cover it with a fecond of the fame matter, but fome-
thing thicker: when this fecond layer becomes of
feme confidence, they apply the compaffes again, and-
light
( 628 ) F O U
the model and the layer of earth, through which the
F O XT
light a fire in the core, fo as to melt off the wax of
the infcriptions, &c.
After this, they go on with other layers of the file!!,
by means of the compafles. Here they add to the
cow’s hair a quantity of hemp, fpread upon the layers,
and afterwards fmoothed by the board of the compaf-
fes. The thicknefs of the {hell comes to four or five
inches lower than the mill-ftone before obferved, and
fhrrounds it -quite clofe, which prevents the extrava-
lation of the metal. The wax Ihould be taken out be¬
fore the melting of the metal.
The ear 6f the bell requires a feparate work, which
is done during the drying of-the feveral incruftations of
the cement. It has feven rings ; the feventh is called the
bridge, and unites the others, being a perpendicular fup-
port to flrengthen the curves. It has an aperture at the
top, to admit a large iron peg, bent at the bottom ;
-and this is introduced into two holes in the beam, fafl>
ened with two (trong iron keys. There ar? models
made of the rings, with mafles of beaten earth, that
are dried in the fire, in order to have the hollow of
them. Thefe rings are gently prefied upon a layer of
earth apd cow’s hair, one half of its depth ; and then
taken out, without breaking the mould. This opera¬
tion is repeated twelve times for twelve half moulds,
that two and two united may make the hollows of the
fix rings: the fame they do for the hollow of the bridge,
.and bake them all, to unite them together.
Upon the open place left for the coals to be put in,
are placed the rings that conftitute the ear. They firft
put into this open place the iron-ring to fupport the
clapper of the bell; then they make a round cake
of clay, to fill up the diameter of the thicknefs of
the core. This cake, after baking, is clapped
upon the opening, and foldered with a thin mortar
fpread over it, which binds the cover clofe to the
cote.
The hollow of the model is filled with an earth,
fufficiently moift to fix on the place, which is ftrewed
at feveral times upon the cover of the core; and they
beat it gently with a peftle, to a proper height; and a
workman fmooths the earth at top with a wooden
trowel dipped in water.
Upon this cover, to be taken off afterwards, they
affemble the hollows of the rings. When every thing
is in its proper place, they ftrengthen the outfide of the
hollows with mortar, in order to bind them with the
bridge, and keep them fleadyat the bottom, by means
of a cake of the fame mortar, which fills up the whole
aperture of the fhell. This they let dry, that it may
be removed without breaking. To make room for. the
metal, they pull off the hollows of the rings, through
which the metal is to pafs, before it enters into the va¬
cuity of the mould. The {hell being unloaded of its
ear, they range under the mill-ftone five or fix pieces
of wood, about two feet long, and thick enough to
reach almoft the lower part of the (hell; between thefe
and the mould they drive in wooden wedges with a
{mallet, to (hake the ftiell of the model whereon it refts,
fo as to be pulled up, and got out of the pit.
When this and the wax are removed, they break
metal muft run, fiom the hollow of the rings, between
the {hell and the core. They fmoke the infide of the
(hell, by burning ftraw under it, that helps to fmooth
the-furf'ace of the bell. Then they put the (hell in
the place, fo as to leave the fame interval between that
and the core; and before the hollows of the rings or
the cap are put on again, they add two vents, that are
united to the rings, and to each other, by a mafs of
baked cement. After which they put on this mafs of
the cap, the rings, and the vent, over the (hell, and
folder it with thin cement, which is dried gradually by
coverjng it with burning coals. Then they fill up the
pit with earth, beating it ftrongly all the time, round
the mould.
The furnace has a place for the fire, and another for
the metal. The fire-place has a large chimney with a
fpacious a(h-hole. The furnace which contains the
metal, is vaulted, whole bottom is made of earth,
rammed down; the reft is built with brick. It has
four apertures; the firft, through which the flame re¬
vibrates ; the fecond is clofed with a (topple that is
opened for the metal to run ; the others are to fepa¬
rate the drofs, or fcoriae, of the metal by wooden rakes:
through thefe laft apertures paffes the thick fmoke.
The ground of the furnace is built (loping, for the
metal to run down.
Foundery of great guns and mortar pieces. The me¬
thod of carting thefe pieces is little different from that
of bells : they are run maffy, without any core, being
determined by the hollow of the (hell; and they are
afterwards bored with a fteel trepan, that is worked
either "by horfes, or a water-mill.
For the metal, parts, proportions, erv. of thefe
pieces, fee Cannon.
Letter Foundery, or cajiing of printing letters. The
(irft thing requifite is to prepare good fteel-punches, on
the face of which is drawn the exa<ft (hape of the let¬
ter with pen and ink, if the letter be large, or with a
fmooth blunted point of a needle, if fmall; and then,
with proper gravers, the cutter digs deep between the
ftrokes, letting the marks (land on the punch; the
work of hollowing being generally regulated by the
depth of the counter-punch . then he files the outfide,
till it is fit for the matrice.
They have a mould to juftify the matrices by,
which confifts of an upper and under part, both which
are alike, except the ftool and fpring behind, and a
fmall roundifh wire in the upper part, for making the
nick in the (hank of the letter. Thefe two parts are
exactly fitted into each other, being a male and femalf
gage, to Aide backwards and forwards. See Gage.
Then they jtlftify the mould, by carting about twenty
famples of letters, which are fet in a compofing-hick,
with the nicks towards the right hand ; and comparing
thefe every way with the pattern-letters, fet up in the
fame manner, they find the exad meafure of the body
to be caft.
Next they prepare the matrix, which is of brafs or
copper, an inch and a half long, and of a proportion-
able thicknefs to the fize of the letter it is to conta’n.
In
F O V ( <?29 ) F O W
In tins metal is funk the face of the letter, by ftriking his thumb, and thrulls. bv the ball of his thumb, the
the letter-punch the depth of an n.. After this,
the lides and face of the matrice are juftilied, and
cleared, with files, of all bundlings that have been
made by finking the punch.
Then it is brought to the furnace, which is built up¬
right of brick with four fquare lides, and a ftoneat top,
in which is a hole for the pan to (land in.
Printing letters are made of lead, hardened with
iron or (tub-nails. To make the iron run, they mingle
an equal weight of antimony, beaten fmall in an iron
mortar, and ftub-nails together. They charge a
proper number of earthen pots, that bear the fire, with
the two ingredients, as full as they can hold, and melt
it in an open furnace, built for that purpofe.
When it bubbles, the iron is then melted, but it e-
vaporates very much. This melted comport is ladled
into an iron-pot, wherein is melted lead, that is fixed
on a furnace clofe to the former, 3 lb of melted iron
to 25 lb of lead; this they incorporate according to
art.
The carter taking the pan off the done, and haying
kindled a good fire, he fets the pan in again, and me-
• tal in it to melt.- If it be a fmall-bodied letter, or a
thin letter 'with great bodies, that he intends to cart,
his metal muft be very hot, and fometimes red hot, to
make the letter come. Then taking a ladle, of which
he has (everal forts, that will hold as much as will
make the letter and break, he lays it at the hole where
the flame burfts out: then he ties a thin leather, cut
with its narrow end againft the face, to the leather
groove of the matrice, by whipping a brown thread
twice about the leather groove, and fattening the thread
with a knot. Then be puts both pieces of the mould
together, and the matrice into the matrice-cheek; and
places the foot of the matrice on the (tool of the mould,
and the broad end of the leather on the wood of the
upper haft of the mould, but not tight up, left it hin¬
der the foot of the matrice from’finking clofe down
upon the ftool, in a train of work. Afterwards lay¬
ing a little rofin on the upper part of the mould, and
having his carting-ladle hot, he, with the boilling fide,
melts the rofin, and prefles the broad end of the leather
hard down on the wood, and fo fattens it thereto. Now
he comes to caftifig, when placing the under half of
the mould in his left hand, with the hook or jag for¬
ward, he holds the ends of its wood between the low¬
er part of the ball of his thumb and his three hinder
fingers ; then he lays the upper half of the mould up-
rni the under half, fo as die male gages may fall into
the female; and, at the fame time, the foot of the
matrice places itfelf upon the ftool, and clafping his
left hand thumb ftrongly over the upper half, he nimbly
catches hold of the bow or fpriag, with his right hand
fingers at the top of it, and his thumb under it, and
places the point of it againft the middle of the notch in
the backfide of the matrice, prefling it forwards as
well towards the mould, as downwards, by the (boul¬
der of the notch, clofe upon the ftoo!, while, at the
fame time, with his hinder fingers, as aforefaid, he
draws the under half of the mould towards the ball of
Vol. II. No. j2. ,2
upper part towards his fingers, that both the regifters
of the mould may prefs againft both fides of the ma¬
trice, and his thumb and fingers prefs both fides of the
' mould clofe together.
Then he takes the handle of his ladle in his right
band, and with the ball of it gives two or three ftrokes
outwards upon the furface of the melted metal, to clear
it of the foum; tfoen he takes up the ladle full, and ha¬
ving the mould in the left hand, turns his left fide a
little from the furnace, and brings the geat of his
ladle to the mouth of his mould; and turns the upper
’ part of his right hand towards him, to pour the metal
into it, while, at the fame inftant, he puts the mould
in his left hand forwards, to receive the metal with a
ftrong (hake, not only into the bodies of the mould,
but, while the. metal is yet hot, into the very face of
the matrice, to receive its perfect form there as well as
in the (hank. Then he takes the upper half of the
mould o(F, by placing his right thumb on. the end of
the wood next his left thumb, and his two middle
fingers at the other end of the wood : he tofles the
letter, break and all, out upon a (heet of watte paper,
laid on a bench, a little beyond his left hand, and then
is ready to caft another letter, as before, and likewife
the whole number in that matrix.
Then boys, commonly employed for this purpofe,
feparate the breaks from the (hanks, and rub them on
a (tone, and afterwards a man cuts them all of an even
height, which finiflies the fount for the ufe of the
printer. See next article.
A workman will ordinarily caft 3000 of thefe letters
in a day. The perfection of letters thus caft, confifts
in their being all feverally fquare and, ftraight on every
fide ; and all generally of the fame height, and evenly
lined, without (looping one way or other ;. neither too
big in the foot, nor the head; well grooved, fo as
the two extremes of the foot contain half the body of
the letter; and well ground, barbed, and fcrapped,
with a fenfible notch, ?5rc. See Printing,
FOUNT, or Font, among printers, a fet or quantity of
letters, and all the appendages belonging thereto, as
numeral characters, quadrates, points, Sc. caft by a
letter-founder, and forted.
FOUNTAIN, in philofophy, a fpring or fource of wa¬
ter rifing out of the earth. Among the ancients, foun¬
tains were held facred, and even worfhipped as a kind
of divinities. For the phenomena, theory, and ori¬
gin of fountains, fee Hydrostatics.
Fountain, ox Artificial Fountain, called alfo zjct
d'eau, is a contrivance by which wateris violently fpout-
ed upwards. See Hydrostatics.
FOURCHE'E, orFouRCH Y, in heraldry, an appellation
given to a crofs forked at the ends. See Plate-LXXX.
fig. 8.
FOWEY, a borough-town of Cornwall, which fends two
members to parliament: W. long. 50,, and N. lat. 50°
26 .
FOWL, among zoologifts, denotes the larger forts of birds,
whether domeftic or wild: fuch as geefe, pheafants,
partridges, turkey, ducks, <&c.
6T
FOXj
FRA ( 630 ) FRA
FOX, in zoology. See Can is.
.Fox-glqve, in botany. See QiGrTALis.
FOY, or St Far, a town in Guienne, in France, thirty-
two miles eaft of Bourdeaux ; it is ficuated under the
meridian of London, 10 44°, 50', fi. lat.
FRACTION, in arithmetic and algebra. See Arith¬
metic, p. 387. and Algebra, p. 83.
Dir/.tff*/Fractions. See Arithmetic, p./jpy.
FRACTURE, in furgery, a rupture of a bone, or a fo-
lution of continuity in a bone, when it is cruflied or
broken by fome external caufe. See Surgery.
FRiENUM, in anatomy, a term applied to fome mem¬
branous ligaments of the body.
Fr^enum lingua:. See Anatomy, p. 305.
Frjexum penis. See Anatomy, p. 274.
FRAG A, a town of Arragon, in Spain, fituated under
the meridian oLLondon: N. lat. 410 i6\
FRAGARIA, the Strawberry, in botany, a genus
of the icofandria polygynia clafs. The calix is divi¬
ded into ten fegments; the petals are live; and the
receptacle is an oval deciduous berry. There are
three fpecies, two of them natives of Britain, viz. the
vefea, or common Ilrawberry; and the fterilis, or ba-
ren ftrawberry.
FRANCE, a large kingdom of Europe, fituated be¬
tween 5° W. and 70 E long, and between 430 and
51° N. lat. being bounded by the Englhh channel and
the Auftrian Netherlands, on the north ; by Germany,
Switzerland, Savoy, and Piedmont, in Italy, on the
eaft; by the Mediterranean fea, and the Pyrenean
mountains, which feparate it from Spain, on the fouth ;
and, by the bay ofBifcay, on the weft. This king¬
dom, was formerly divided into twelve provinces ; but
at prefent it is divided into twenty-five general govern¬
ments, over every one of which is an officer, called an
intendant, appointed by the king, who has a power of
controlling the governor, and all other officers of ju-
ftice ; and prefides over the receivers-general of his ge¬
nerality.
TRANCFORT, a city of Germany, fituated on the
confines of HefTe and Franconia, on both fides of the
river Maine: E. l»n. 703o', N. lat. 50° k/.
Francfort on the Oder, a city of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and marquifate of Branden-
burgh, fituated in E. long. ij°, N. lat. 520 22’.
FRANCHE-comte, the fame with the county of Bur¬
gundy. See Burgundy.
Franche-comte, a province of France bounded by
Lorrain on the north; by Alface and Switzerland, on
the eaft; by La Brefs and Bugey, on the fouth;
by the dukedom of Burgundy, on the weft.
FRANCHISE, in a general fenfe, a privilege or exemp¬
tion from ordinary jurifdidion; as that for a corpora-
tion'to hold pleas among themfelves to fuch a value,
or the like.
FRANCISCAN monks, friars msnor, or grey fri¬
ars, religious of the order of St Francis, founded
by him in the year 1709.
The rule of the Fi ancifcans, as eftablifhed by St
Francis himfelf, is briefly this: they are to live in com¬
mon, to obferve chaftity, and to pay obedience to the
pope and their fup, riors.
Before they can be admitted into the order, they'are
obliged to fell all they have, and give it to the poor:
they are to perform a year’s noviciate, and when ad¬
mitted never to quit the order upon any account.
They ar e to fait from the feaft of All-faints, to the
Nativity. This order has produced four popes, forty-
two cardinals, and an infinite number of patriarchs.
FR ANCOLINT, a town of Italy, fituated on the river
Po, about nine miles north-eaft of Ferrara.
FRANCONIA, a circle of the German empiie, lying
between Bohemia on the eaft, aod the'deflorate of
Mentz on the weft. Its capital is Nuremburg ; and
from this county the Frank?, who conquered and
gave name to the kingdom of France, are faid to have
FRANGULA, in botany. See Rhamnus.
FRANGULiE species, in botany. SeeMAURocE-
NIA.
Frank language, or lingua franca, a kind of
jargon fpoken on the Mediterranean, and particularly
throughout the coafts and parts of the Levant, com-
pofed of Italian, Spanifh, French, vulgar Greek, and
other languages.
Frank, or Franc, an ancient coin, either of gold or fil-
ver, ftruck and current in France. The value of the
gold frank was fomewhat more than that of the gold
crown; the filver frank was a third of the gold one:
this coin is long out of ufe, though the term is ftiil re¬
tained as the name of a money of account; in which
fenfe it is equivalent to the livre, or twenty fols;
FRANKENDAL, a city of Germany, in the palati¬
nate of the Rhine, fituated on die weft fide of the ri¬
ver Rhine, in E. long. 8° 15, N. lat. 490 30/.
FRANCENIA, sea-heath, or sea-ch ickweed, a
genus of the hexandria monogynia clafs. The calix
is tunnel fhaped, and divided into five fegments; the
petals are five; the ftigma has fixdivifions; and the
capfule confifts of one cell, with three valves. There
are three fpecies, two of them natives of Britain, viz.
the Isevis, or fmooth fea-heath ; and the pulverulenta,
or broad leaved fea-heath.
FRANKENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the pala¬
tinate of the Rhine, and dutchy of Zuebruggen, fi¬
tuated twelve miles north-weft of Landau.
FRANKER, a town of the United Provinces in the pro-
vince-«f Weft Friefland, nine miles weft of Lewarden.
FRANKS, Frankis, orFRANquis, an appellation gi¬
ven by the Turks, and other nations of Afia, to all
the people of the weftern parts of Europe, to which
they give the name of Frankijian.
FRANSTAT, or Fraustat, a town of Silefia, fitua¬
ted twenty-five miles north-eaft ef Glogaw, fubjeft to
Pruffia.
FRASCATI, or Frescati, a town of Italy, in the
campania of Rome, thirteen miles eaft of that city ;
near which place is the Tufculum ot Cicero, called
Grotto Ferrate.
FRATERNITY, in the Roman - catholic countries,
fignifi.es
FRA ( *
ffgmfies a fociety for the improvement of devo¬
tion.
Of thefe there are feveral forts ; as, i. The frater¬
nity of the rofury, founded by St Dominic: it is divi¬
ded into two branches, called the common rofary, and
the perpetual rofary ; the former of whom are obliged
to confefs and communicate every firft Sunday in the
month, and the latter to repeat the rofary continually.
See Rosary.
2. The fraternity of the fcapulary, whom the blef-
fed Virgin, according to the fabbatin bull of pope
John XXII. has promifed to deliver out of hell the
lint Sunday after their death. See Scapulary.
3. The fraternity of St Francis’s girdle, are cloathed
wim a fade of a grey colour, which they tie with a
cord,; and, in proeeffions, walk bare-looted, carrying
in their hands a wooden crofs,
4. That of St AufHn’s leathern girdle, comprehends
a great many devotees.
Italy, Spain, and Portugal, are the countries where
one fees the greatelt number of thefe fraternities, fome
of which afl'ume the name of arch-fraternities. Pope
Clement VII. indituted the arch-fraternity of charity,
which diflributes bread every Sunday among the poor,
and gives portions to forty poor girls on the feaft of
St Jerom their patron. The fraternity of death, bu¬
ries fuch dead as are abandoned by their relations, and
caufes maffes to be celebrated for them.
FRATRICELLI, little brothers, in church hif-
tory, a fed! of heretics who appeared in Italy about
the year 1298, and afterwards fpread all over Europe.
They wore the habit of the Francifcan order, and pre¬
tended that ecclefiaftics ought to have no pofTeflions of
their own.
FRATRIAGE, the partition among brothers or coheirs,
coming to the fame inheritance or lucceffion.
FRATRES arvales. See Arvales.
FRATRICIDE; the crime of murdering one’s brother.
See Parricide.
FRAUD, in law, fignifies deceit in grants, or convey¬
ances of lands, &c. or in bargains and Tales of goods,
fyc. to the damage of another perfon.
FRAXINUS, the ash, in botany, a genus of trees,
belonging to the poly.gamia dioecia clafs. The calix
of the hermaphrodite is divided into four parts; it has
no corolla ; the Itamina are two; and it has but one
piflil: the female has one piftil, and one lanceolated
feed. There are three fpecies, only one of which,
viz. the excelfior or common alh, is a native of Bri¬
tain.
The wood of this tree is in> great ufe among feveral
artificers, as wheel wrights, cart-wrights, carpenters,
turners, <bc. alfo for making ploughs, harrows; axle-
trees, oars; balls, he. It is faid to be as lading for
building as oak, and often preferred before it :
though the timber of the trunk greatly excells that of
* a bough.
.FRAY, among fportfmen. A deer is faid to fray its
head, when it rubs it ag&inft a tree, to caufe the pills
of,the new horns to come off.
31 ) F II E
FREAM, a name given by farmers to plowed lands
worn out of heart, and laid fallow till it recover.
FREDENBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weflphalia, fifty miles wed of Caffel.
FREDERICA, a town of Georgia, in North America,
ficuated in W. long. 8i° 30', N. lat. 310, on the
ifland of St Simons, in the mouth of the river Alata-
FREDERICKSBURG, a cadle and palace of the king
of Dentn^'k, fituated in the ifle of Zeland, twenty
miles north-wed of Copenhagen, built upon piles in
the middle of a lake.
Fredericksburg, a fort upon the gold-coafl of Gui¬
nea, near cape Three-points, fubjeft to the Danes. Jt
lies in W. long. 20 N. lat 50.
FREDERICKSHALL, a ftrong town of Norway, in
the province of Agerhuys, fituated on the frontiers of
Sweden, thirty miles north of Frederickdat.
FREDERICKSODE, a town of Jutland, in the pro¬
vince of Reypen, fituated on the little belt in the Bal-
tick fea, twenty miles wed of Odenfee.
FREDERICKSTAT, a town of Sleiwick, or fouth
Jutland, fituated on the river Eyder, near the Ger¬
man ocean, thirty-one miles wed of Slefwick.
Frederickstat, a town of Norway, in the princi¬
pality of Agerhuys, fituated on a bay of the fea, cal¬
led the Schaggerrack, near the frontiers of Sweden:
E. long. nQ 24', N. lat, 590.
FREE, in a general fenfe, is ufed in oppofition to what¬
ever is condrained or necefiitated. When applied to
things endowed with underdanding, it more peculiarly
relates to the liberty of the will.
Free hold, fignifies lands or tenements which a perfon
holds in fee-fimple, fee-tail, or for term of life.
Free-stone, awhitilhdone, dug upin manyparts of Bri¬
tain, that works like alabader, but is more hard and
durable; being of excellent ufe in building, ebtf. It is
a kind of the grit done, but finer fanded, and afmooth-
er done; and is called free, from its being of fuch a
conditution as to cut freely in any diretdion.
Free thinker- See Deist.
FREEDOM, in general, the date or quality of being
free.
Freedom of the •willy that power or faculty of the
mind, whereby it is capable of aiding or not aiding,
chnfiog or rejeiding whatever it judges proper. Of
this every man mud be fenfihle, who finds in himfejf a
power to begin or forbear, continue or end feveral ac¬
tions, barely by a thought or preference of the mind.
FREEZE, or Frieze, in commerce, a coarfe kind of
woollen duff, or cloth, for winter wear; fo called, as
being freezed or naped on each fide.
FREEZING, in philofophy, the fame with congelation.
See Congelation and Frost.
Philofophers are by no means agreed as to the caufe
of this phenomenon. The Cartefians account for it by
the recefs or going out of the etherial matter from the-
pores of the water. The corpufcnlarians, on theother
hand, attribute it to the ingrefs of frigorific particles,
as they call them ; and Hobbes affeits, that thefe par¬
ticles
T R 'E ( 63
'tides Are nothing elfe but common air, tvhich entang-
Jlng itfelf with the particles of water, prevents their
motion. Others will have a kind of nitrous fait to be
the caufe of congelation, by infinuating itfelf between
the particles of water, and fixing them together, like
nails. And, indeed, it feems probable that cold and
freezing do arife from fome fubftance of a faline nature
floating in the air; fince all falts, and particularly ni¬
trous ones, when mixed with ice and fnow, greatly
increafe their cold, and even bulk.
Boerhave obferves, that it is extremely difficult to
exhibit to the eye the precife degree of cold wherein
ice begins to form; fince heat and cold, once given to
a body, adhere long to it before they quit it. When
the air, therefore, is in fuch a Hate as keeps Fahren¬
heit’s thermometer at 32 degrees, water will not freeze;
becaufe water being 800 times denfer than air, retains
the warmth confiderably longer than air. If any per-
fon, therefore, is curious to know in what degree of
cold water begins to freeze, let him firft fufpend a
thermometer in a free open air on all fides; and then
wetting a thin linen cloth with clear water, and hang¬
ing it likewife in the open air, it will grow fliff upon
the firft accefe of the freezing cold, and thereby fhew
when water is beginning to turn to ice. See Ther¬
mometer.
By means of freezing, wine, vinegar, and malt-li¬
quors may be reduced to a fourth part of their quan¬
tity, without any confiderable lofs of their eflential
parts; fince only the aqueous parts freeze, leaving the
vinous parts concentrated or brought into lefs compafs,
and capable of being tranfported with lefs expence,
and keeping for feveral years.
Freezing mixture. Mr Boyle fliews in his hiftory
of cold, that not only all kinds of falts, but likewife
fpirrts, fugar, and faccharum faturni, mixed with fnow,
are capable of freezing moll fluids; and the fame ef-
fed was alfo produced by the mixture of oil of vitriol,
or fpirit of nitre with fnow.
FREIGHT, or Fraight, in navigation and commerce,
the hire of a (hip, or a part thereof, for the conveyance
and carriage of goods from one port or place to ano¬
ther ; or the fum agreed on between the owner and the
merchant, for the hire and ufe of a veflel.
FRENCH, in general, fomething belonging to France:
thus we fay, the French language, French cuftoms,
polity, be.
The French language is .made up of Latin, Greek,
Teutonic, and the language fpoken by the old Gauls.
It is natural, and eafily pronounced, and therefore ufed
by; mod nations of Europe in converfing with foreign¬
ers. There are very few compound words in French,
which is acknowledged to be its difadvantage. It has
alfo few diminutives ; but as to purity, eafinefs, and
flexibility, it yields to none.
FRESCO, a method of painting in relievo on Walls, fo
as to endure the weather. s
It is performed with water-colours on frelh plafter;
or on a wall laid with mortar not yet dry. This fort
.of painting has a great advantage by its incorporating
2 ) E R I
with the mortar, and, drying along with it, becomes
very durable.
The compoft fhould be made of rubbifh Hones mixt
with well-burnt flint, or lime, and water: but the falt-
nefs of the lime mud be waflied out, by pouring water
frequently on it. But this Ihould not be done in moid
weather.
To prevent the plader from peeling, drike into the
joints of the wall dumps of horfe-nails fix inches dif-
tant from each other, Fird plader the walls pretty
thick; then let it dry for lome time, the defign and
colours being fird ready prepared. This painting is
chiefly performed on walls and vaults newly pladered
with lime and fand; and the plader is only to be put
on in proportion as the painting proceeds.
Plader the wall a fecond time, about the thicknefs
of half a crown, only fo much as you intend to work
upon; and while it is wet, work the colours therein,
which will incorporate with the plader fo as never to
waflt out.
The painting mud be worked with a free hand, and
your colours made high enough at fird, as there can be
no alteration made after the firlt painting.
In this work fcarce any thing el(e is ufed but earths,
which dill retain their colour, defending it from the
. burning and fait of the lime. The colours are white,
made of lime flacked fome time, and white marble dud,
red and yellow oker, violet red, verditer, lapis lazuli,
fmalt, black Spanifti brown, Spanilh white, be. all
which are grounded and worked up with water.
The brulhes and pencils for this work mud be long
and foft, or elfe they will rake and raze the painting:
the colours mull be full and flowing from the brufh,
and the defign or cartoon mud be perfect in the paper-
copy.
FRESH, in general, fomething that is new, pure, and
good; or, that has little or no fait in it.
FRET, or Frette, in architedture, a kind of knot or
ornament, confiding of two lids or fmall fillets varioufly
interlaced or interwoven, and running at parallel dif-
tances equal to their breadth.
Fret, in heraldry, a bearing compo/ed of fix bars,
eroded, and varioufly interlaced, as reprefented in plate
LXXX. fig. 9.
Some call it the true lover’s knot.
Fret, in mufic, fignifies altind of dop on fome indru-
ments, particularly bafs-viok and lutes. Frets confid
of drings tied round the neck of the indrurpent, at
certain didances, within which fuch and fuch notes are
to be found.
Fret-work, that adorned with frets. It is fometimes
ufed to fill up and enrich flat empty fpaces; but is mofl-
ly praftifed in roofs, which are ftetttd over with pla¬
der work.
■FREYSTAT, a town of Silefia, in Germany, E. long.
170 55,> N. laf. 50°.
FRIABLE, among naturalids, an appellation given 10
bodies that are eafily crumbled to pieces: fuch are the
free-done, pumice-done, be.
FRIAR, a term common to monks of all orders, found¬
ed
F It I c 63^ ) F It I
>ed on this, that there is a kind of fraternity, or bro¬
therhood, between the feveral religious perfons of the
fame convent or monaftery.
Friars are generally dilHnguifhed into thefe four
principal branches, viz. 1. Minors, grey friars, or
francifcans. 2. Augudines. 3. Dominicans, or black
friars. 4. White friars, or Carmelites. From thefe
four the reft of the orders defeend. See Francis¬
cans, Augustines,
FRIB.URG, the capital of a canton of the fame name
in Switzerland, fituated eighteen miles fputh welt of
Bern : E. long. 6° 55', N. lat. 46° 50'.
FRtBURGH, a city of Swabia, in Germany, twenty-
eight miles fouth of Stralburg. *
FRICENTO, a town and bilhop’s fee of Italy, forty-
three miles eaft of the city of Naples.
FRICTION, in mechanics, the rubbing of the parts of
engines and machines againft each other, by which
means a great part of their effect is deltroyed. See
Mechanics.
FRIDBURG, an imperial city of Bavaria, in Germany:
E. long. io°, and N. lat. 48° 30'.
Fridburg is alfo the name of two other towns in Get ■
many, both fituated in the circle of Upper Saxony, the
one nine miles fouth-weft of Drefden, and the other
thirty miles weft of Leipfic.
FRIEDBURG, an imperial city of,Germany, fixteen
miles north of Francfort on the main.
FRIESLAND, one of the moft northern provinces of
the united Netherlands, bounded by the German ocean
on the north, by Groningen and Overyflel on the eaft,
by the Zuider-fea andOveryfiel on the fouth, and by the
fame ocean on ifie weft: its chief town is Lewarden.
-£«/?-Friesi,and, a province of Weftphalia, in Germany,
being the north-weft part of Germany, bordering on
Groningen.
FRIEZE, Freeze, or Frise, in architedlure, a large
fiat face, or member, feparating the architrave from
the cornicbe, being that part of the entablature be¬
tween the architrave and the corniche. See Archi¬
tecture.
FRIGAT, among feamen, a Ihip of war, light built,
and that is a good failer.
A frigat has commonly two decks; whence that call¬
ed a light frigat, is a frigat with only one deck.
FRIGID, is applied to a jejune ftyle, that is unanimated
by any ornaments, and confequently without any force
or vigour.
FRIGORIFIC, in phyfiology, fmall particles of matter,
which, according to Galfendus and others, being
actually and efientiaUy cold, and penetrating other bo¬
dies, produce in them that quality which we call cold.
FRILL, in falconry. When a hawk trembles, or An¬
vers, they fay file frills.
FRINGILLA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of pafleres. The bill is conical, ftrait, and (harp-
pointed. There are no lefs than thirty fpecies com¬
prehended under this genus, diftinguilhed principally
by varieties in their colour.
1. The brown fringilla with a tawny neck, and
■white fpots on the wings and hinder part of the back.
Von. II. No 53. 2
It is the Carolina ortolan of Catelby, and is a bird of
the ifland of Cuba; only the hens pafs into Carolina
in the autumn. 2. The fringilla with black limbs,
and the wings white on both fides; the three firft fea¬
thers of the tail are without fpots, but two of the chief
are obliquely fpotted. It is the chaffinch of Engliftt
authors, and is a bird of Europe. 3. The fringilla,
with the bafe of the wings underneath of a deep yel¬
low colour. It is the brambling or mountain finch of
Engliffi authors, and is a bird of Europe. 4. The
brown fringilla, with a reddiffi bread and (boulders,
and the black wings marked with a reddiffi fpot: It is
an inhabitant of Sweden. y. The fringilla with a
blackiffi fpotted head, and a white fpot behind the eyes.
It is the greater chaffinch of Albin, and is found in
Lapland. 6. The fringilla with the limbs, wings, and
tail black, only the outermoft from the middle exter¬
nally white. It is a bird of Sweden. 7. The grey
fringilla, fpotted with black, has a fpace running from
the bill to the (ides of the neck black. It is the ffiora-
burgher, a-kin to the lark of Edwards, and is a bird
of South America. 8. The black fringilla, with a
reddiffi giofs, aad a reddiffi belly, with a white fpot
on the wings, is the American black fparrow with red
eyes, of Cateffiy. 9% The fringilla, with the quill-
feathers red forwards, and the outermoft without any
fpots ; the two outermoft are white in the middle, as
the reft are at the point. This is the goldfinch of Eng¬
liffi authors xo. The fringiHa with a red face and
tail, the belly undulated with white and black, and the
back green. It is the green goldfinch of Edwards,
and is a Chinefe bird. 11. The fringilla with purple
tail-feathers, with the hinder halves black.- It is the
amaduvad of Albin, and an inhabitant of the Eaft
Indies. The cock is all over purple; but the hen is
affi-coloured, except the bill and tail. 12. The green
fringilia with a red head, a yellow collar, and a blue
breaft. It is the red-headed green finch of Edwards.
13. The fringilla all over red, is the red fly-catcher
of Cateffiy, and is a bird of America. 14. The yel¬
low fringilla, with a black forehead and brown wings,
is the American goldfinch of Cateffiy. 15. The frin¬
gilla with a black head, a tawny breaft, and a white
ftreak on the wings and above and below the eyes, is
the Bahama finch of Cateffiy. 16. Tire fringilla with
a wedge-like tail, a reddiffi body, a red bill, and the
temples, rump and belly of a violet colour, is the red
and blue Brafilian finch of Edwards. 17. The green
fringilla, with the fupercilia, breaft and belly yellow,
but the prime feathers of the wings are white on
the outer edge. It is the Indian green finch of Ed¬
wards, and is found in Madera. 18. The fringilla
with a whitifii body and bill, and the prime feathers of
the wings and tail greeniffi. This is the Canary bird
of Engliffi authors, and is found in the Canary iftands.
19. The fringilla with the prime feathers of the wings
yellow in the middle, and the fore firft chief tail-fea¬
thers without fpots ; but they are yellow at the bafe
and black at the points. It is the fiflcin of Engliffi au¬
thors, and haunts places where juniper-buflies grow.
20. The brown frihgilla, with a flame coloured creft”
6 U fs
T II I
is the brown linnet of Klein, 21 • The brown fringilla,
with a yellowiih bill, is an European bird, as are alfo the
two former. 22. The fringilla, with the prime fea¬
thers of the wiags, and the chief feathers of the tail
black, but white on the edges. It is the greater red¬
headed-linnet of Ray, and is a bird of Europe. 24. The
fringilla, with a brown back, and a blue belly and tail,
is the blue bellied finch of Edwardr, and is found in
Africa. 25. The violet-coloured frtngilla, with the
forehead and under part of the body of a deep yellow
colour; the back, neck, prime feathers of the wings,
and upper part of the tail are of abluifh black colour;
but the forehead, bread, belly, and under part of the
neck are of a deep yellow. The bill is exceeding Ihort,
triangular, black and crooked at the point. 26. The
fringilla with the chief feathers of the tail brown, and
the outermoft marked with a wedge-like fpot ; the body
is variegated with grey and black, and the head is
black. It is the reed fpa'rrow of Englilh authors, and
is a bird of Europe. 27. The fringilla with the prime
feathers of the wings and tail brown, the body varie¬
gated with grey and black, and a (ingle white ftreak on
the wings. This is the houfe-fparrow of Englifh au¬
thors, and is an European bird. 28. The fringilla
with the prime feathers of the wings and tail brown,
the body variegated with grey and black, and a double
white ftreak on the wings. This is the mountain-fpar-
rowof Ray, and is a bird of Europe. 29. The fer¬
ruginous fringilla, with a black bead and a blue bill,
is the Chinefe fparrow of Edwards. 30. The black
fringilla, with a white belly, is the American fnow-
fparrow of Gatefby.
FRINWALT, or Fridland, a town of Brandenburg,
thirty miles north-eaft of Berlin, fituated on the weft
fide of the river Oder.
FRIO, a cape or promontory of Braftl: W. long, 440,
and S. lat. 230 39'.
FRISACH, a town of Bavaria, fixty miles fouth-eaft of
Saltzburg : E. long. 140 15', and N. lat. 47° 20'.
FRISONE, in ornkhelogy,. See Loxia.
FRIT, in the glafs-manufadture, the matter or ingredi¬
ents whereof glafs is to be made, when they have been
calcined or baked in a furnace; or it is the calcined
matter to be run into glafs. See Glass.
FRITH, in its moft ufual acceptation, fignifies an arm
of the f^a: fuch are the frith of Forth or of Edin¬
burgh, the frith of Clyde, Murray frith, <bc.
FRITILLARIA, in botany, a genus of the hexandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of fix bell-
fhaped petals, with a hollow neftarium above the un¬
guis of each petal; and the (lamina are of an equal
length with the petals. There are five fpecies, only
one of which is a native of Britain, viz. the melea-
gris or common checkered daffodil.
FRIULI, a province of Italy, fubjedl to Venice, and
bounded by Carinthia in Germany on the north, by
Carniola on the eaft, by the gulph of Venice on the
fouth, and by the Bellunefe and Feltrin on-the weft;
FRIZING of cloth, a term, in the woollen manu-
fa&ory, applied to the forming of tfie nap of a cloth,
or (tuff, into a number of little "hard burrs or promi-
F II O
nences, ■covering almoft the whole ground thereof.
Some cloths are only frized on the back fide, as
black cloths; others on the right fide, as coloured
and mixed cloth^, rateens, bays, freezes, <bc.
Fnzing may be performed two Ways ; one with the
hand, that is, by means of two workmen, who condmfl
a kind of plank that ferves for a frizing inftrument.
The other way is by a mill, worked either by water,
or a horfe, or fometiraes by men. This latter is
efteemed the better way of frizing, by reafon the mo¬
tion being uniform and regular, the little knobs of the
frizing are formed more equally and regularly.
FROBISHER’S Straits, in weft Greenland, lie a
little to the northward of Cape Farewel: W. long.
48°, and N. lat. 63u.
FRODINGHAM, a market-town of Yorkfhire, thirty
miles eaft of York.
FRODSHAM, a market-town of Chefter, fourteen,
miles north eaft of Chefter.
FROG, in zoology. SeeRANA.
FRONTEIRA, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Alentejo: W. long. 8° (3 , and N. lat. 38° 50'.
FRONTIER, the border, confine, or extremity of a
kingdom or province, which the enemies find in front,
when they would enter the fame : thus we fay, a fron^
tier town, a frontier province,
Frontiers were anciently called marches.
FRONTIS os, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 15:2.,
FRONTIGNIAC, a town of Languedoc in France, fi¬
tuated fixteen miles fouth-weft of Montpelier, and re¬
markable for producing excellent wine.
FROST, in phyfiology, fuch an exceffively cold (late of
the air as converts watery fluids into ice.
In very cold fnowy weather, not only water, but
urine, beer, ale, milk, vinegar, and even wine, are
either wholly or in part converted into ice, though
the laft but (lowly. As to the freezing of exprefleia
oils, a very intenfe cold may deprive them ofitheir
fluidity, fo as to be capable of being cut into portions
of any figure; but whether they are convertible into
real ice, is not yet determined. In Ruffia oil freezes
much harder than with us, but does not even there be¬
come perfedt ice. Common annifeed-water, and'the
like weak fpirits, are faid to be converted into an im-
perfedt ice in Mufeovy; and the ftrong fpirits into a
fubftance like that of oil. When brandy freezes, a li¬
quid part, much ftronger than common brandy, re¬
tires to the centre of the veflel.
Even (olid bodies are liable to be affedled by froft.;
timber is often apparently frozen-, and rendered ex¬
ceedingly difficult to (aw. Marie, chalk, and other-
lefs folid terreft/rial concretions, will be (battered by
ftrong and durable frofts. Metals are contradted by.
froft: thus, an iron tube, twelve foot long, upon be¬
ing expoied to the air in a frofty night, loft two lines
of its length. On the contrary, it fweils or dilates
fluids near one tenth of their bulk. Mr Boyle made
feveral experiments with metalline veftels, exceeding
thick and ftrong ; which being filled with water- dofe
(topped, and expofed to the cold, burft by the expan-
fion of the frozen fluid within them. Trees are fre¬
quently
( %4 )
F R O ( <535 ) F R U
■quently burnt up with froft, as with the molt exceffive
heat; and in very firong frofts, walnut-trees, alhes,
and even oaks, are fometimes miferably fplit and cleft,
foas to befeen through, and this with a terrible noife,
like the explofibn of fire arms.
Froft'naturally proceeds from the upper parts of bo¬
dies downwards ; but how deep it will reach in earth
or water, is not eafily known, becaufe this depth thay
vary with the degree of coldnefs in the air, by a longer
or fhorter duration of the frolt, the texture of the
earth, the nature of the juices wherewith it is impreg¬
nated, the conftitution of its more internal parts as to
heat and cold, the nature of its effluvia, lire-. Mr
Boyle, in order to afeertain this depth, after four nights
of hard froll, dug in an orchard, where the ground was
level and bare, and found the frolt had fcarce reached
three inches and a half; and in a garden nearer the
houfe, only two inches below the furface. Nine or
ten fucceffive frolty nights froze the bare ground in
the garden fix inches and a half deep; and in the orchard,
where a wall fheltered it from the fouth fun, to the
depth of eight inches and a half He alfo dug in an
orchard, near a wall, about a week afterwards, and
found the froft to have penetrated to the depth of four¬
teen inches. In a garden at Mofcow, the froft in a hard
feafon only penetrates to two feet: and the utmoft ef¬
fect that capt. James mentions the cold to have had upon
the ground of Charlton illand, was to freeze it to ten
feet deep : whence may appear the different degrees of
cold of that illand and Ruflia. And as to the freezing of
water at the above-mentioned ifland, the captain tells us,
it does hot naturally congeal above the depth of fix feet,
the reft being by accident. Water alfo, expofed to
the cold air in large veffels, always freezes firft at the
upper furface, the ice gradually increafitig and thick¬
ening downwards; for which reafon frogs retire in
frofty weather to the bottom of ditches : and it is faid,
that fiioals of filh retire in winter to thbfe depths of the
fea and rivers, where they are not to be found in fum-
mer. Water, like the earth, feems not difpofed to
receive any very intenfe degree of cold at a confidera
ble depth or diftance from the air. The vaft maffes
of ice found in the northern feas being only many
flakes and fragments, which. Aiding undereach other,
are, by the congelation of the intercepted water, ce?
mented together.
In cold countries, the froft proves often fatal to man¬
kind ; not only producing cancers, but even death itfelf.
Thofe who die of it have their hands and feet firft fei-
zed, till they grow paft feeling it; after which the reft
of their bodies is fo invaded, that they are taken with
a drowfinefs, which if indulged, they awake no rriore,
but die infenfibly. Brit there is another way whereby
it proves mortal, vrz. by freezing the abdomen and
vifeera, which on diffedtion are found to be mortified
and black.
Hoar-FnosT, a cold moift vapour, that is drawn up a
little way into the air, and in the night falls .again on
the earth, where it is congealed into icy cryftals of
various figures. Hoar-froft. therefore is nothing but
dew, turned into ice by the coldnefs of the air.
FROTH, a white, light fubftance, formed on the furface
of fluids, by vehement agitation, confiding of little
fpherules, or globules.
Froth spit, or Cuckow spit, a name given to a
white froth, or fpume, very common, in the fpring
and firft months of the fummer, on the leaves of certain
plants, particularly on thofe of the common white
field lychnis or catch-fly, thence called by fome fpat-
ling poppy.
All writers on vegetables have taken notice of this
froth, though few have underftood the caufe or origin
of it till of late; being formed by a little leaping ani¬
mal, called by fo-me the flea grafs-hopper, by applying
its anus clofe to the leaf, and difeharging thereon a.
fmall drop of a white vifeous fluid, which containing
fome air in it, is'foon elevated into a fmall bubble:
before this is well formed, it depofites fuch another
drop, and fo on, till it is every way overwhelmed with
a quantity of thefe bubbles, which form the white
froth which we fee.
FRUCTIFEROUS, fi&nifies properly any thing that
produces fruit.
FRUCTIFICATION, among,botanifts, in a mere lax
fenfe, includes the flower and fruit, with their feveral
coverings. See Botany.
FRUIT, in general, includes whatever the earth produ¬
ces for the nourilhment and fupport of man, and other
animals; as herbs, grain, hay, corn,
Fruit, more properly, fignifies the produdtibn of a tree,
or plant, for the propagation or multiplication of its
kind; in which fenfe the^word takes in all kinds of
feeds with their furniture But botanifts ufually un-
derftand by it that part of a plant wherein the feeds are
contained.
Fruit alio implies an affembiage of feeds in'a head as
in a ranunculus, drr, and all kinds of feeds, or grains,
whether inclofed in a cover, capfule, or pod; and
whether bony, flelhy, Ikinny, membranous, or the like.
See Agriculture, Part I.
FRUMENTACEOUS, a term applied by botanifts to
all fuch plants as have a conformity with wheat, in re-
fpedt of their fruits, leaves, ears, or the like.
FRUMENTARII, a kind of foldiers^or archers, under
the weftern empire
The firft time we read of thefe officers is in the
time of the emperor Adrian, who made ufe of them to
inform himfelf of whatever palled. They did not
make any particular corps diftirxft from the reft of the
forces, but there was a certain number of them in each
legion. It is fuppofed, that they were at fivft a num-*
her of young perfons .difpofed by Auguftus through¬
out the provinces, particularly on all the grand roads,
to acquaint the emperor, with all expedition, of every
thing that happened.
Afterwards they were incorporated into the troops
tbemfelves, where tb£y ftill retained their ancient
name. As their principal office was the giving intelli¬
gence, they were often joined with the curiofi, with
whom they agreed in this part of their office.
Their name of frumentarii is derived from their be¬
ing alfo a fort of purveyors to the armies, cities,
col-
T U L (6
cdlleifiing all the corn from the feveral provinces to fur-
nidi the common-wealth.
iFRUMENTATION, in Roman antiquity, a largefs of
corn beftowed on the people. This pra&ice of giving
corn to the people was very ancient among the Ro¬
mans; and frequently ufed to footh the turbulent hu¬
mour of the populace. At firft the number of thofe
to whom this largefs was given, was indeterminate, till
Auguftus fixed it at two hundred thoufand.
FRUSH, or Frog, among farriers, a fort of tender
horn which arifes in the middle of a horfe’s foie;
and, at fame diftance from the toe, divides into two
branches, running towards the heel in the form of a fork.
FRY, in zoology, fignifies the fpawn, or rather young,
offilh.
FUCUS, in botany, a genus of fubmarine plants, be¬
longing to the cryptogamia clafs.
The fucusxonfifts of a tough matter, formedrinto
a kind of leaves, which are flat and varioufly divarica¬
ted; and which have fome appearance of fructification,
in punCtated tubercles, covering oblong veficles, fup-
pofed by Linnaeus to he male flowers ; and fmooth
roundifh veficles, hollow and interwoven with fila¬
ments, which appear to him to be female flowers.
There are thirty-four fpecies of fucus, or fea wrack,
many of them to be found on our coafts.
FUEL, whatever is proper to burn or make a fire; as,
wood, turfs, peats, bituminous earths, coals, &c.
FUG ALIA.in Roman antiquity, a fealt fuppofed by fome to
be the fame with the refugium, held on the 24th of Febru¬
ary, in memory of theexpulfionof the kings, and the a-
bolifhing of the monarchial government. Others again
diftinguifii the fugalia from the regifuge. And others
think, that the Fugalia was the fame with the poplifu-
gia, or the feafl: of Fugia, the goddefs of joy, occafi-
oned by the rout of an enemy, which was the reafon
the people abandoned themfelves to riot and debauch¬
ery.'
FUGITIVE, a perfon obliged to fly his country, or
remove from a place where he had fome abode, or e-
flablifhment, on account of his crimes* debts, or other
occafions.
FUGUE, in mufic, is when different parts of a mufical
compofition follow each other; each repeating what
the firfl had performed.
FULCRUM, in mechanics, the prop or fupport by
which a lever is fuftained. See Mechanics.
TULD, a town and abbey of Germany, the abbot of
which is a prince of the empire: E. long. 90 35', N.
lat. 50° 34'.
FULICA, the coot, in ornithology, a genus of birds,
of the order of grails. It has a convex bill, with the
upper mandible fornicated over the lower at the edge ;
the lower mandible is gibbous behind the tip. The
forehead is bald, and the feet have four toes a little
lobated. There are four fpecies.
i.TheFulica with a bald forehead, a black body,
and lobated toes. It is the coot of Ray, and an in¬
habitant of Europe, and feeds upon feeds and herbs,
and runs as well as -fwims upon the water. 2. The
fulica with a bald forehead, and toes without webs.
► ) F U L
It is the water-hen, or moor-hen of Ray, and is found
in Europe. 3. The fulica with a bald forehead, a vi¬
olet-coloured body, and toes without webs, is the
purple water-hen of Edwards, and it inhabits Afia and
America. 4. The fulica with a carunculated forehead,
a variegated body, fpinous fhoulders, and toes without
webs; but the nail on the hinder toe is exceeding long.
It is the fpur-winged water-hen of Edwards, and is
an inhabitant of South America. The nail on the
hind toe is ftrait, and longer than a' man’s finger.
The pollex reils upon one joint, and the wings are
green.
FULIGINOUS, whatever proceeds from a thick, footy
fmoke, fuch as litharge and lamp black.
FULIGNO, a city of Italy, in the pope’s territories,
ten miles north of Spoletto.
FULIGO, in natural hiflory, a fpecies of pumice-done.
See Pumice.
FULLER, a workman employed in the woollen manu-
faflories, to mill or fcour cloths, ferges, and other
duffs, in order to render them more thick, compaid,
and durable. See Cloth.
Fuller’s earth, in natural hidory, a foft, greyifli,
brown, denfe, and heavy marie: when dry, it is of a
greyifli a(h-coloured brown, in all degrees from-very
pale to almofl black, and it has generally fomething of
a greenifli cad: itds very hard and firm, of a compad
texture, of a rough and fomewhat dudy furface that,
adheres dightly to the tongue: it is very foft to the
touch, not daining the hands, nor breaking eafily be¬
tween the fingers : it has a little harlhnefs between the
teeth, and melts freely in the mouth : thrown into
water, it makes no ebullition, or hiding, but fwells
gradually in bulk, and falls into a fine foft powder. It
makes no effervefcence with aqua fortis.
It is of great ufe in fcouring cloths, duffs, drc. im¬
bibing all the greafe and oil ufed in preparing, drefling,
&c. of the wool, for which reafon it is made a con¬
traband commodity, and is not to be exported under
the penalty of 1 s. for every pound weight. See
Fitll ING.
Fuller’s weed, in botany. SccDipsacus.
FULLERY, a place where cloths, are fulled. Sec
the next article.
FULLING, the art or ad of fcouring and prefling
cloths, duffs, dockings, drc. to cleanfe, thicken, and
render them more firm and drong, which is done by
means of a water mill.
Fuller’s earth is ufed with fome proportion of foap;
but foap alone would do much better, was it not dear¬
er than fuller’s earth.
Fulling of dockings, caps, &c. is performed either
with the hands or feet, or a kind of wooden machine,
either armed with wooden teeth, or thofe of horfes or
bullocks. The ingredients generally ufed on this oc-
cafion are fuller’s earth, urine, white foap and green
foap. But water foftened with chalk is far preferable.
FULMINATING, fomething that thunders, or refem-
bles thunder.
FULMINATION, in chemidry, is ufed in a fynony-
mous Fenfe with detonation.
Fulmination,
FUN ( <
palmination in the depuration of the more perfect
metals, is, when, upon infufing them with lead, a
brighter colour fucceeds a kind of fulphureous cloud,
before appearing in the metals, during the fufion.
Fulmivation, in the Romilh canon law, a fentence of
a bilhop, official, or other ecclehaftic appointed by the
pope, by which it is decreed, that fome bull fent from
the pope ffiall be executed.
FUMARIA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia hex-
andria clafs. The calix confifts of two leaves; and
the corolla is ringent. There are 11 fpecies, three of
them natives of Britain, w'z.the officinalis, or fumito¬
ry ; the capreolata, or ramping fumitory; and the cla-
viculata, or climbing fumitory.
The whole plant of the officinalis is ufed in medi¬
cine, being accounted good in the fcurvy, jaundice,
and diforders of the mefentery and fpleen.
FUMIGATION, in ahemiftry, a kind of calcination,
when metals, or other hard bodies, are corroded, or
foftened, by receiving certain fumes for that purpofe.
Fumigation, in medicine, the application of fumes to
particular parts of the body; as thofe of factitious
cinnabar, to venereal ulcers.
FUMITORY, in botany. See Fumaria.
FUNCHAL, the capital of the Madeira iflands, fubjeft
to Portugal: W. long. i6°, N. lat. 320 0,3 .
FUNCTION, the aCt of faliilling-the duties of any em¬
ployment.
Function, being alfo applied to the aflions of the bo¬
dy, is by phyficians divided into vital, animal, and na¬
tural. The vital functions are thofe neceffary to life,
and without which the individual cannot fubfift ; as
the motion of the heart/lungs, .The natural func¬
tions are fuch as it cannot fubfift any confiderable time
without them, as the digeftion of the aliment, and its
converfion into blood. Under animal functions are in¬
cluded the fenfes of touching, tailing, memory,
judgment, and voluntary motion, without any, or all
of which an animal may live, but not very com¬
fortably.
The animal functions perform the motion of the
body by the aCtion of the mufcles, and this aCtion con-
lills chiefly in the ffiortening the fleffiy fibres, which is
called contraction, the principal agents of which are
the arteries and nerves dillributed in the fleffiy fibres.
In ffiort, all parts of the body have their own func¬
tions, or actions peculiar to themlelves. Life cdnfifts
in the exercife of thefe functions, and health in the
free and ready exercife of them.
-FUND, in commerce, fignifies the flocks of the great
trading and monied companies. See Stocks.
FUNDAMENT, in anatomy. See Anus
FUNDI-BAY, that lituated between New England and
New Scotland, in which there is faid td be an excellent
fiffiery.
FUNEN, the fecond ifland for magnitude belonging to
the king of Denmark, fituated at the entrance of the
Baltic fea, and feparated from Jutland by the flrait
called the lefler Belt, and from the ifland of Zeland
by the ftrait called the great Belt. Its chief town is
Odenfee.
Vox.. II. No. 53.
;37 ) FUN
FUNERAL rites, ceremonies accompanying the in¬
terment or burial of any perfon.
Thefe rites differed ambng the ancients according to
the different genius and religion of each country. The
Egyptians, among the refl of their funeral rites, em¬
balmed their dead.
Among the ancient Greeks it was ufual fometimes,
before the interment, to put a piece of money into the
mouth of the deceafed, which was thought to be Cha¬
ron’s fare for wafting the departed foul over the infer¬
nal river. This ceremony was not ufed in thofe coun¬
tries which were fuppofed to be fituated in the neigh¬
bourhood of the infernal regions, and to lead thither
by a ready and direft road. The corpfe was likewife
furniffied with a cake, compofed of flour, honey, 6v.
which was defigned to appeafe the fury of Cerberus,
the door-keeper of hell, and to procure the ghoft a
fafe and quiet entrance.
During the time the corpfe continued in the houfe,
there flood before the door a veffel of water, the defign
of which was, that thofe concerned about the body
might purify themfelves by waffiing ; it being the opi¬
nion of the Greeks, as well as of the Jews, that pol¬
lution was contradled b’y touching a dead body.
The ceremonies by which they expreffed their forrow
for the death of their friends, were various; but it
feems to have been a conftant rule to recede as much
as poffible in habit and behaviour from their ordinarv
cufloms. For this reafon they abflained from banquets
and entertainments; they divefted themfelves of all
ornaments; they tore, cut off, or ffiaved their hair,
which they call into the funeral pile, to be confumed
with the body of their deceafed friend. Sometimes
they threw themfelves on the ground, and rolled in the
dull, or covered their head with affies ; they beat their
breafts, and even tore their fleffi with their nails, upon
the lofs of a perfon they much lamented. When per-
fons of rank, fuch as public magiftrates, or great ge¬
nerals, died, the whole city put on a face of mourn¬
ing : all public meetings were intermitted ; the fchools,
baths, ffiops, temples, and all places of concourfe were
fhut up.
Interring or laying the dead in the ground, feems to
have been the moft ancient practice among the Greeks ;
though burning came afterwards to be generally ufed'
among them. It was cuftomary to throw into the fu¬
neral pile thofe garments the deceafed ufually wore.
The pile was lighted by one of the dead perfon’s neareff
relations or friends, who made prayers and vows to the
winds to affift the flames, that the body might quickly
be reduced to affies ;■ and during the time the pile was
burning, the dead perfon’s friends flood by it, pouring
libations of wine, and calling upon the deceafed.
When Numa reformed the religion of Rome, he
ordered that the pontiffs ffiould have the care of the
funeral ceremonies ; which, m moft refpeds, were like
thofe of the Greeks already defcribed.
The funeral rites among the Hebrews., were folemn
and magnificent: when any perfon was dead, his rela¬
tions and friends rent their deaths ; which cuflom is but
Faintly imitated by the modern Jews, who only cut off a
6X bit
FUN ( 633 } F U L
bit of their garment, in token of ami&ion. It was
ufual to bend the dead perfon’s thumb into the hand,
and fatten it in that pofture with a firing ; becaufe the
thumb then having the figure of the name of God,
they thought the devil would not dare to approach it.
When they came to the burying place, they made a
fpeech to the dead in the following terms: “ Blefled
*c be God, who has formed thee, fed thee, maintain-
41 ed thee, and taken away thy life. O dead ! he knows
“ your numbers, and fltall one day reftore your life,”
Then they fpoke the elogium, or funeral oration, of
the deceafed; after which they faid a prayer, called
the righteoufnefs of judgment; then turning the face
of the deceafed towards heaven, they called out, “ Go
“ in peace.
The ancient Chrittians teftified their abhorrence of
the Paganourtom of burning the dead; and always de-
pofited the body entire in the ground: and it was ufual
to beftow the honour of embalming upon the martyrs
at leaf!, if not upon others. They prepared the body
for burial, by wafhing it with water, and drefling it
in a funeral attire. The exportation, or carrying forth
of the body, was performed by near relations, or per-
fons of fuch dignity as the circumftances of the decea¬
fed required. Pfalmody, or finging of Pfalms, was
the great ceremony ufed in all funeral proceflions a-
mong the ancient Chriftians.
In the Romifh church, when a perfon is dead, they
•wattt the body, and put a crucifix in its hand. At its
feet ftands a veffel full of holy water, and a fprinkler,
that they who come in may fprinkle both themfelves
and the deceafed. In the mean time fome priett ftands
by the corpfe, and prays for the deceafed till it is laid
in the earth. In the funeral proceffion, the exorcift
walks firft, carrying the holy water; next the crofs-
bearer, afterwards the reft of the clergy, and laft of
all the officiating prieft. They all fing the miferere,
and fome other pfalms ; and at the end of each pfalm
a requiem. We learn from Alet’s ritual, that the
faces of deceafed laymen muft be turned towards the
altar, when they are placed in the church; and thofe
of the clergy, towards the people. The corpfe is pla¬
ced in the church furrounded with lighted tapers : after
the office-for the dead, mafs is faid; then the offici-
ting prieft fprinkles the corpfe thrice with holy water,
and as often throws incenfe on it. The body being
laid in the grave, the friends and relations of the de¬
ceafed fprinkle the grave with holy water.
The funeral ceremonies of the Greek church, are
much the fame with thofe of the Latin. It needs only
be obferved, that after the f • eral fervice, they kifs
the crucifix, andfalute the mouth and forehead of the
deceafed : after which each of the company eats a bit
of,bread, and drinks a Nglafs of wine in the church,
wiffiing the foul a good repofe, and the afflifted family
all confolation.
Funeral games, a part of the ceremony of the anci¬
ent funerals.
It was cuftomary'for perfons of quality, among the
ancient Greeks and Romans, to inttitute games with
all forts of exercifes, to reader die death of thqir
friends more remarkable. This praftice was generally
received, and is frequently mentioned by ancient wri¬
ters. Patrocius’s funeral games, take up the greateft
part of one of Hbmer’s iliads; and Agamemnon’s
ghoft is introduced by the fame poet telling the ghoft
of Achilles, that he had been a fpedlator at a great
number of fuch folemnities.
The celebration of thefe games among the Greeks,
moftly confifted of horfe-races ; the prizes were of dif¬
ferent forts and value, according to the quality and
magnificence of the perfon that celebrated them. The
garlands, given to vidors on this occafion, were ufuai-
ly of parfly, which was thought to have fome particu¬
lar relation to the dead. -
Thofe games, among the Romans, confifted chiefly
of proceflions ; and fometimes of mortal combats of
gladiators around the funeral pile. They, as well as
the Greeks, had alfo a cuftom, though very ancient, of
cutting the throats of a number of captives before the
pile, as victims to appeafe the manes of the decea¬
fed. Caefar relates, that the Gauls had this cuftom.
The funeral games were abohffied by the emperor
Claudius.
Funeral oration, a difcourfe pronounced in praife of
a perfon deceafed, at the ceremony of his funeral.
FUNGIBLES, in Scots Jaw, are fuch things as are e-
ftimated by number, weight, or meafure; as, coin,
butter, ale, &c.
FUNGIT7E, in natural hiftory, a kind of foflile coral,
of a conic figure, though fometimes flatted and ftriated
longitudinally.
FUNGUS, in furgery, denotes any fpongy excrefcence..
See Surgery.
Fungus, in botany, See Botany, p.636.
FURCA, in antiquity, a piece of timber refembling a
fork, ufed by the Romans as an inftrument of puniffi-
ment.
The punifliment of the furca was of three kinds:
the firft only ignominious, when a mafter, for fmalp
offences, forced his fervant to carry a furca on his
fhoulders about the city. The fecond was penal,
when the party was led about the circus, or other
place, with the furca about his neck, and whipped all
the way. The third was capital, when the malefactor,,
having his head faftened to the furca, was whipped to
death.
FURCHE', in heraldry, a crofs forked at the ends.
FURIES, In Pagan antiquity, certain goddeffes whofe
office it was to punifit the guilty after death. Thefe
were three in number; Aledto, Megasra, and Tifi-
phone, who were defcribed with fnakes inttead of hair,
and eyes like lightening, carrying iron-chains and whips
in one hand, and in the other flaming torches ; the
latter to difcover, and' the former to punifti the guilty ;
and they were fuppo&d to be conftantly hovering over
fuch perfijns as had been guilty of any enormous crime.
Mythologifts fuppofe, that Tifiphone puniffied the
crimes which fprang from hatred or anger ; Megasra,
thofe from envy; and AleClo, thofe from an infatiable
purfuit after riches and pleafure. They were worffiip.
ped at Gafina in Afcadia* and at Carmia in Peloponne-
fus.
FUR ( *39 ) F U T
fag. They had a temple at Athens, neay the Areopa¬
gus, and their prielis were chofen from amongft the
judges of that court. At Telphufia, a city in Arcadia,
a black ewe was facrificed to them.
FURLING, in the fea language, fignifies the wrapping
up and binding any fail clofe to the yard; which is
done by hauling upon the clew lines, bunt-lines, &c.
which wraps the fail clofe together, and being bound
fad to the yard, the fail is furled.
FURLONG, a long meafure, equal to one eighth of a
mile, or forty poles.
It is alfo ufed, in fome law-books, for the eighth
part of an acre.
FURLOUGH, in the military language, a licence grant¬
ed by an officer to a foidier, to be abfent for fome time
from his duty.
FURNACE, an utenfil, or veflel, proper to contain
fireor to raife and maintain a vehement fire in, whe¬
ther of coal or wood. See Chemistry, p. no.
FURNES, a town of Flanders, ten miles ead of Dun¬
kirk: E. long. 20 25', and N. lat. 510 id.
FUROR uterinus, a diforder peculiar to women. See
Medicsne.
» FURR, in commerce, fignifies the fitin of feveral wild
beads, dreifed in alum with the hair on, and ufed as a
part of drefs by princes, magidrates, and others. The
kinds mod in ufe are, thofe of the ermine, fable, caltor^
hare, coney, &c.
FURSTENRURGH, a town and cadle of Germany,
the capital of a county of the fame name, thirty miles
north-wed of Condance: E. long. 8° yd, and N. lat.
47° jo'-
FURSTENFIELD, a town of Auftria and dutchy of
.Stiria, thirty-fix miles ead of Gratz : E.long. i6046/,
N. lat. 47° 26'.
FURTHCOMING, in law, the name of an adlion com-
. petent to any perfon who has ufed arredment in the
hands of his debtor’s creditor, for having the fabjefl:
arreded declared his property. See Scots Law,.
title 25.
FURUNCLE, or Boil, in forgery, a fmall redding
tumour, with inflammation, rednefs, and great pain,
arifing in the adipofe membrane, under the Ikin.
FURZE, in botany. See Ulex.
FUSANUS, in botany. See Euonymus.
FUSAROLE, in archite&ure, a moulding or ornament
placed immediately under the echinus, in the Doric,
Ionic, and Compofite capitals.
FUSEE, in clock-work, is that conical part drawn by
the fpring, and about which the chain or firing is wound;
for the ufe of which, fee Watch.
Fusee, or Firelock. See Musquet.
FUSIBILITY, in natural philofophy, that quality of
bodies which renders them fufible.
FUSlL, in heraldry, a bearing of a rhomboidal figure,
longer than the lozenge, and having its upper and low¬
er angles more acute and ffiarp than the other two in
the middle. It is called in Latina fpindle,
from its ffiape. See Plate LXXX. fig. 10.
FUSILIERS, or Fusileers, in the military art, are
foot-foldiers, armed withfufees, or firelocks.
FUSION, the melting of metals, minerals, ebc. by means
of fire. See Chemistry.
FUSTIAN, in commerce, a kind of cotton fluff, which
feems as it were whaled on one fide.
Right fuflians ffiould be altogether made of cotton-
yarn, both woof and warp ; but a great many are
made, of which the warp is flax, or even hemp.
There are fudians made of feveral kinds, wide,
narrow, fine, coarfe ; with ffiag or nap, and with¬
out it.
FUSTICK, or Fustock, a yellow wood, that grows
in all the Caribbee iflands, ufed in dying yellow. It
pays no duty on importation.
FUTTOCKS, in a (hip, the timbers raifed over the
keel, or the encompafiiog timbers that make her
breadth.
FUTURE, in general, denotes whatever regards futu+
rityi or the time to come.
GAB
GABARA, or Gabbara, in antiquity, the dead
bodies which the Egyptians embalmed, and kept
in their houfes, efpecially thofe of fudrof their friends
as died with the reputation of great piety and holinefs,
or as martyrs. See Em3Alming, and Mummy.
GABEL, according to the French duties or cufloms a
tax upon fait, which makes the fecond article in the
king’s revenue, and amounts to about one fourth part
of the whole revenue of the kingdom.
GABIN, a town of great Poland, forty-fix miles north-
wed of Warfaw : E. long. 20°, N. lat. 520
GABIONS, in fortification, baikets made of ozier-twigs,
G A G
of a cylindrical form, fix feet high, and four wide ;
which being filled with earth, ferve as a ffielter from
the enemies fire.,
GABLOCKS, the artificial fpurs of game-cocks.
GAD, among miners, a fmall punch of iron, with a
long wooden handle, ufed to break up the ore.
One of the miners holds this in his hind, dire&ing
the point to a proper place, while the other drives it
into the vein, by driking it with a fledge-hammer.
Gad-fly. See Oestrus.
GADUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fiffiel belonging to
the order of jugulares. The head is fmooth ; there.
are
GAG ( 6^0
are'feven cylindrical rays in the branchioftege mem¬
brane ; the body is oblong, with deciduous fcales; the
whole fins are covered with the common Ikin of the
fifii ; the rays of the back-fins are blunt, and thofe of
the breafl: are lharp. There are feventeen fpecies,
principally dillinguifiied by their cirri, and the number
of back-fins.
CAGE, in the fea-language. When one fhip is to wind¬
ward of another, (lie is faid to have the weather-gage
of her. They likewife call the number of feet that a
veflel finks in the water, the {hip’s gage : this they find
by driving a nail into a pike near the end, and putting
it down befide the rudder till the nail catch hold under
it; then as many feet as the pike is under water, is the
{hip’s gage.
Gage, among letter-founders, a piece of box, or other
hard wood, varioufly notched ; the ufe of which is to.
adjufi the dimenfions, Hopes, 6"^. of the diiferent forts
of letters. See Foundery.
Sliding-GA'G’E, a tool ufed by mathematical inftrument-
makers, for-meafuring and fetting off diftances.
Sea Gagz, an inftrument invented by Dr Hales and Dr
Defaguliers, for finding the depth of the fea, the de¬
scription whereof is this. AB (Plate LXXXVI. fig.i.
N° i ) is the gage bottle, in which is cemented the
gage-tube F/" in the brafs cap at G. The upper end
of tube F is hermetically fealed, and the open lower
end f is immerfed in mercury, marked C, on which
fwims a fmall thicknefs or furface of treacle. On the
top of the bottle is fcrewed a tube of brafs HG, pier¬
ced with feveral holes, to admit the water into the
bottle AB. The body K is a weight hanging by its
{hank L, in a focket N, with a notch on one fide at
m, in which is fixed the catch / of the fpring S, and
palling through the hole L, in the {hank of the weight
K, prevents its falling out when once hung on. On
the top, in the upper part of the brafs tube at H, is
fixed a large empty ball, or full-blown bladder I,
which muft not be fo large, but that the weight K
may be able to fink the whole under water.
The inftrument, thus conftrudfed, is ufed in the fol¬
lowing manner : The weight K being hung on, the
gage is let fall into deep water, and finks to the bot¬
tom ; the focket N is fomewhat longer than the {hank
L, and therefore, after the weight K comes to the
bottom, the gage will continue to defcend, till the
lower part of the focket ftrikes againft the weight ;
ibis gives liberty to the catch to fly out of the hole L,
and let go the weight K ; when this is done, the ball
-or bladder I, inftantly buoys up the gage to the top of
the water. While the gage is under water, the water
having free accefs to the treacle and mercury in the
bottle, will by its preffure force it up into the tube
F/, and the height to which it has been forced by
the gieateft prelfure, via. that at the bottom, will be
{hewn by the mark in the tube which the treacle leaves
behind it, and which is the only ufe of the treacle.
This (hews into what fpace the whole air in the tube
F/'is comprefied ; and confequently the height or depth
•of the water, which by its weight produced that com-
^refllon, which is the thing required.
) GAL
If the gage-tube Yf be of glafs, a fcale might be
drawn on it with the point of a diamond, {hewing, by
infpeftion, what height the water Hands above the
bottom. But the length of to inches is not fufficient
for fathoming depths at fea, fince that, when all the
air in fuch a length of tube is comprefi’ed into half
an inch, the depth of water is no more than 634 feet,
which is not half a quarter of a mile.
If, to remedy this, we make ufe of a tube fifty
inches long, which for flxengthmaybe a muflcet-barrel,
and fuppofe the air comprefled into an hundredth part
of half an inch; then by faying, as 1 : 99 :: 400 :
39600 inches, or 3300 feet ; even this is but litti?
more than half a mile, or 2640 feet. But fince it is
reafonable to fuppofe the cavities of the fea bear fome
proportion to the mountainous parts of the land, fome
of which are more than three miles above the earth’s
furface; therefore, to explore fuch great depths, the
Dodtor contrived a new form for his fea-gage, or rather
for the gage-tube in it, as follows: BCDF [ibid. N° 2.)
is a hollow metalline globemommunicating on the top
with a long tube AB, whofe capacity is a ninth part
of that globe. On the lower part at D, it has alfo a
fliort tube DE, to Hand in the mercury and treacle.
The air contained in the compound gage-tube is com-
preffed by the water as beforebut the degree of
compreffion, or height to which the treacle has been
forced, cannot there be feen through the tube; there¬
fore, to anfwer that end( a {lender rod of metal or wood,
with a knob on the top of the tube AB, will receive the
mark of the treacle, and Ihew it, Vhen taken out.
If the tube AB be 50 inches long, and of fuch a
bore that every inch in length Ihould be a cubic inch of
air, and the contents of the globe and tube together
500 cubic inches ; then, when the air is comprefled
within an hundredth part of the whole, it is evident
the treacle will not approach nearer than j inches of
the top of the tube, which will agree to the depth of
3300 feet of water as aboye. Twice this depth will
comprefs the air into half that fpace nearly, viz. 2y
inches, which correfpond to 6600 which is a mile and
a quarter. Again, half that fpace, or i-J inch, will
{hew double the former depth, viz. '13200 feet, or
2^ miles, which is probably very nearly the greateft
depth of the fea.
GAIETA, a ftrong fortified town of the kingdom of
Naples in Italy, thirty-five miles north-weft of the city
of Naples: E. long. 140 30/, and N. lat. 410 20.
GAINSBOROUGH, a market-town of Lincolnfliire,
fourteen milles north-weft of Lincoln ; which gives the
title of earl to the noble fimily of Noel.
GAIOPHRAGMIA, in natural hiftory, a genus of
feptarite, divided by feptas or partitions of earthy mat¬
ter, of which there are feveral fpecies. See Sep-
tari as.
GALACTITES, in natural hiftory, the name by which
the ancients called a fmooth, afti-coloured, indurated
kind of clay, laid to have been ufed with fuccefs for
defluxions and .ulcers of the eyes, and as an aftringent.
GALANGALS, in the materia medica, the name of a
root
GAL ( 641 ) GAL
root kept in the fliops, but now moftly out of ufe in
practice.
GALANTHUS, the Snow-drop, in botany, a genus
of the hexandria monogynia clafs. It has three con¬
cave petals, a fimple ftigma, and a neftarium compofed
of three (mail petals. There is but one fpecies, a na¬
tive of Germany.
GALATA, a great fuburb Ije^pnging to Conftantinople,
oppofite to the feraglio, on the other fide of the har¬
bour. It is here the Greeks, Armenians, Franks,
Chriftians, and Jews inhabit, and are allowed the ex-
erciie of their refpedtive worlhips.
GALATIA, the ancient name of Amafia, a province of
Leffer Afia.
GALAX, in botany, a genus of the pentandria monogy-
nia clafs. The calix confifts of ten leaves; and the
capfule has one cell and two elaftic valves. There is
but one fpecies, a native, of Virginia.
GALAXY, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 487.
GALBANUM, in pharmacy, a gum iffuing from the
ftem of an umbelliferous plant, growing in Perfia and
many parts of Africa.
It is fometimes met with in the (hops in loofe gra¬
nules, called drops or tears; and fometimes in large
maffes, formed of a number of thefe blended together ;
but in thefe mafles fome. accidental foulnefs is often
mixed with the gum* The fingle drops ufually ap¬
proach to a roundifh, oblong, pear-like form. Gal-
banum is foft like wax, and, when frefh drawn, white;
but it afterwards becomes yellowilh or reddifh : it is of
a ifrong fmell, of an acrid and bitterifh tafle ; it is
inflammable in the manner of a refin, and foluble in
water like a gum.
It attenuates and diflblves tough phlegm, and is
therefore of fervice in afthmas and inveterate coughs.
GALEGA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia decan-
dria clafs. The calix confills of equal fubulated teeth ;
and the pod has oblique- ftriae, with a feed between
each. There are eight fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain.
GALENISTS, in chtrrch-hiftory, a branch of anabap-
tifls, who are faid to have adopted feveral Arian opi¬
nions concerning the divinity of our Saviour.,
GALEOBDOLON, in botany. SccLeonurus.
GALERITA, in ichthyology, a fpecies of blennius. See
Blennius.
GALICIA, the moll north-weft province of Spain,
bounded by the ocean on the north-weft, by the pro¬
vinces of Afturias and Leon on the eaft, and by Por¬
tugal on the fouth.
Galicia, or Guadalajara, a province of Mexico,
bounded by new Mexico on the north, by the gulph
of Mexico on the eaft, by Mexico Proper on the fouth,
and by the Pacific Ocean and gulph of California, on
the weft.
GALILE, or Galilee, once a province of Judea,
now of Turky in Afia, was bounded by mount Leba¬
non on the north, by. the river Jordan and the fea of
Galilee on the eaft, by the river Chifon on the fouth,
/ and by the Mediterranean on the weft.. It was the
fcene of many of our Saviour’s miracles.
Vql. IL No* 53.
GALILEANS, a fed! of the Jews. Their founder was
one Judas, a native of Galilee, from which placi
they derived their name. Their chief, efteeming it an-
indignity for the Jews to pay tribute to ftrangers, railed
up his countrymen againft the edidt of the emperor
Auguftus, which had ordered a taxation or inrollment
of all the fubjedts of the Roman empire.
They pretended that God alone Ihould be owned as-
Mafter and Lord ; and in other refpedts we/e of the opi¬
nion of the'Pharifees; but, as they judged it unlawful
to pray for infidel princes, they feparated themfelves-
from the reft of the Jews, and performed their facrifi*
ces apart.
GALL, in the animal (economy. See Bile.
Gall-bladder. See Anatomy, p.269.
Gall, in natural hiftory, denotes any protuberance or
tumour produced by the pundture of infedls on plants
and trees of different kinds.
Thefe galls are of various forms and fizes, and no
lefs different with regard to their internal ftrudhire.
Some have only one cavity, and others a number of
fmall cells communicating with each other. Some of
them are as hard as the wood of the tree they grow
on, whilft others are foft and fpongy; the firft being
termed gall-nuts, and the latter berry-galls, or apple-
galls.
The general hiftory of galls is this : an infedt of the
fly kind is inftrudied by nature to take care for the fafe-
ty of her youn£, by lodging her eggs in a woody fub-
fiance, where they will be defended from all injuries :
fhe for this purpofe wounds the leaves or tender bran¬
ches of a tree; and the lacerated veffels* difcharging
their contents, foon form tumours about the holes thus
made. The-hole in each of thefe tumours, through
which the fly has made its way, may for the moft part
be found ; and when it is not, the maggot inhabitant
or its remains are fure to be found within, on breaking
the gall. However, it is to be obferved, that in thofe
galls which contain feveral cells, there may be infedts
found in fome of them, though there be a hole by
which the inhabitant of another cell has efcaped.
Oak galls put, in'a very fmall quantity, into a folu-
tion of vitriol in water, though but a very.weak one,
give it a purple or violet colour; which, as it grows
itronger, becomes black; and on this property depends
the art of making our writing ink, as alfo a great deal
of thofe of dying and dreffing leather, and other mat
nufadhires.
In medicine,. galls are found to be very aftfingent,
and good, under proper management, in diarrhoeas,
dyfentries, an,d haemorrhages of all kinds; they have
alfo a very eminent virtue as a febrifuge.
GALLERY, in architedfure, a covered place in a houfe,
much longer than broad, and ufuaily in the wings of
a building ; its ufe being chiefly to walk in.
Gallery, in fortification, a covered walk acrofs the
ditch of a town, made of ftrong beams, covered over
head with planks, and loaded with earth: fometimes
it is covered with raw hides to defend it from the arti¬
ficial fires of the befieged.
Gallery 'of a mine, is a narrow paffage, or branch of
6 Y a
GAL X 642 ) G A M
•a tnine carried on under ground to a work dedgned to
be blown up.
'Gallery, in a fliip, that beautiful frame, which is
made in the form of a balcony, at the ftern of a fhip
without board; into which there is a paflageout of the
admiral’s or captain’s cabbin, and is for the ornament
of the (hip.
GALLEY, in naval affairs, a low-built veffel, uling both
fails and oars, and commonly carrying only a main-
maft and fore mad, which may be (truck or lowered
at pleafure. Such veffels are much ufed in the Me¬
diterranean, efpeciallybythe king of France. SeeSnip.
GALLI, in antiquity, the prieds of the goddefs Cybele,
who were eunuchs, and took their name from Gallus,
a river in Phrygia.
When a youth was to be initiated into this order,
the cudom was to throw off his cloaths, to run crying
aloud into the midd of the troop, and then drawing a
fword to cadrate himfelf; after this, he ran about the
dreets, carrying in his hands the marks of his mutila¬
tion, which he was to throw into a houfe, and in that
houfeto put on a woman’s drefs.
GALLICIAN, any thing belonging to France : thus the
term Gallician church denotes the church of France,
or the affembly of the clergy of that kingdom.
GALLICISM, a mode of fpeech peculiar to the French
language, and contrary to the rules of grammar in
other languages.
GALLINiE, in ornithology, an order of birds. See
Natural History.
GALLINACIOUS, an appellation given to the birds of
the order of the gallinse.
GALLINULA, in ornithology. See Scolopax.
GALLION, or Galleon, in naval affairs, a fort of
(hips employed in the commerce of the Wed Indies.
The Spaniards fend annually two fleets; the one for
Mexico, which they call the flora, and the other for
Peru, which they call the gallions, Se Flota.
'GALLIOT, a fmall galley defigned only for chace, car¬
rying only one mad, and two or three pattereroes ; it
can both fail and row, and has fixteen or twenty oars.
All the feamen on board are foldiers,. and each has a
mufltet by him on quitting his oar.
■GALLIPAGO-islands, are fituated in the Pacific
Ocean on both Tides the equator, between 85° and 90°,
W. long, and about four hundred miles wed of Peru.
GALLIPOLI, a port town of European Turky, fitua-
ted at the entrance of the Propontis, or Seh of Mar¬
mora, about 100 miles fouth-wed of Condantinople:
' E. long. 28°, andN. lat.,400 qy1".
Galli/oli is alfo a port town of the kingdom of Na¬
ples, fituated on the gulph of Otranto, about twenty-
three miles wed of that city: E. long. i90', andN.
lat. 40° 2$'.
^GALLIUM, ladies-bedstraw, in botany, a genus
of the tetrandria monogynia clafs. The corolla con-
fids of one plane petal; and the feeds are two, and
round. There are 23 fpecies, n of .them natives of
Britain, viz. the verum, or yellow ladies-beddraw;
themollqgo, or wild madder; the montanum, or moun¬
tain ladies-beddraw ; the ufiginofum, or marfli .goofe-
grafs; theereclum, or fmall mountain badard madder;
the pulillum, or lead ladies-beddraw ; the paludre, or
white ladies-beddraw; the fpurium, or goofe-grafs with
fmoother feeds ; the aparine, cleavers, or goofe-grafs ;
the panfienfe, or lead goofe-grals ; and the boreale, or
croffwood madder.
GALLO, an ifland on the Pacific Ocean near the coad
of Peru, about 200 miles wed of Popayan: W. long.
8o°, and N. lat. 20 15'.
Gallo is alfo a town of Italy, ten miles fouth of An-
cbna.
Gallo, or Punto gallo, a fea-port of, Ceylon, fub-
jedt to the Dutch: E. long. 78°, and N lat. 6°.
GALLON, a meafure. of capacity both for dry and li¬
quid things, containing four quarts ; but thefe quarts,
and confequently the gallon itfelf, are different, ac¬
cording to the quality of the thing meafured: for in-
dance, the wine gallon contains 231 cubic inches, and
holds eight pounds averdupois, of pure water : the
beer and ale gallon contains 282 folid inches, and holds
ten pounds three ounces and a quarter averdupois, of
water: and the gallon for corn, meal, 272^ cu¬
bic inches, and holds nine pounds thirteen ounces of
pure water.
GALLOPAVO, in zoology. See Meleagris.
GALLOWAY, a county of Scotland, which gives the
title of earl to a branch of the noble family of Stuart.
It is divided into two diflridts ; the wedern, called
Upper Galloway, being the fame with Wigtonfliire;
and the eadern, or dewartry of Xirkudbright, called
Lower Galloway.
Galloway is alfo the capital of a county of the fame
name, in the province of Connaught, in Ireland: W.
long. 90 ia/, and N. lat. 53° 12 .
It has a good port, and is advantageoufly fituated
for foreign trade.
GALLUS, in ornithology. See Phasi anus.
GALLY, in printing, a frame into which the compofitor
empties the lines out Of his compofing dick, and in
which he ties up the page when it is compleated.
The gaily is formed of an oblong fquare board, with
a ledge on three fides, and a grove to admit a falfe bot¬
tom, called a gally-flice.
GAMBIA, a great river of Africa, which, running from
ead to wed falls into the Atlantic ocean, J40 N. lat;
and 150 W. Ion.
GAMBOGE, is a concreted vegetable juice, the pro¬
duce of two trees, both called by the Indians caraca-
pulli, and is partly of a gummy, and partly of a refinous
nature. It is brought to us either in form of orbicu¬
lar maffes, or of cylindrical rolls of various fizes ;
and is of a denfe, ccmpaft, and firm texture, and of
a beautiful yellow. It is chiefly brought to us from
Cambaja, in the Ead Indies, called alfo Cambodja,
and Cambogia; and from thence it has obtained its
names of cambadium, cambogiiam, and gambogium.
It is a very rough and drong purge ; it operates both
by vomit and dool, and both ways with much violence,
almod in the indant in which it is (wallowed; but yet
without griping. It requires caution and judgment
in adminidriug it; but thofe who know how to give it
properly.
*GAM ( 643 ) G A M
properly, find it an excellent remedy in dropfies, ca¬
chexies, jaundice, adhmas, catarrhs, and in the word
cutaneous eruptions.
GAME, in general, lignilies anydiverfion, or fport, that
is performed with regularity, and reilrained to certain
rules. See Gaming.
Games, in antiquity, were public diverfions, exhibited
on folemn occalions. Such, among the Greeks, were
the Olympic, Pythian, Idhmian, Nemean, <bc. games ;
and, among the Romans, the Appllinarian, Circenfian,
Crpitoline, be. games. See Olympic, Pythian,
ClT C.
Game, in law, fignifies birds or prey, taken or killed by
fowling, or hunting. There are feveral ftatutes for
punilhing offences committed by perfons not qualified
by law to take or deftroy the game.
GAME-COCK, a fighting cock, or one kept for fport ;
a barbarous practice, which is a difgrace to any civili¬
zed nation.
GAMELIA, in Grecian antiquity, a nuptial feaft, or
rather factifice, held in the ancient Greek families on
the day before a marriage; thus called, from a cuitom
they had of /having themfelves on this occafion, and
prefenting their hair to fume deity to whom they hath
particular obligations.
Gamelion, in the ancient chronology, was the eighth
month of the Athenian year, containing twenty-nine
days, and anfwering to the latter part of our January
and beginning of February. It was thus called, as
being, in the opinion of the xAthenians, the mod-pro¬
per feafon of the year for marriage.
GAMING, the art of playing or pra&ifing any game,
particularly thofe of hazard, as cards, dice, tables,
<bc.
Mr de Molvre, in a treatife de Menfura Sortis, has
computed the variety of chances in feveral cafes that
occur in gaming, the laws of which may be underdood
by what follows.
Suppofe/> the number of cafes in which an event
may happen, and q the number of cafes wherein it may
not happen, both fides have the degree of probability,
tvhich is to each other as p to q.
If two gameders, A and JB, engage on this footing,
that, if the cafesp happen, A fhail win ; but if q hap¬
pen, B ftiall win, and the dake be a; the chance of
A will be and that of B Af_- confequently, if
P+q
they fell the expectancies, they Ihould have that for
them refpe&ively.
If A and B play with afingle die, on this condition, that,
if Athrow two or more aces at eight throws, he fhail win ;
otherwifeB fhall win ; what is the ratio of their chances ?
Since there is but ons cafe wherein an ace may turn up, and
five wherein it may not, let a—\, and . And, again,
fince there are eight throws of the die, let «~8 ; and.you
will have a-j-Ty" — bn—nabn—i, to bn-\-nab"—1:
that is, the chance of A will be to that of B, as
663.991 to 10156525, or nearly as 2 to 3.
A and B are engaged at ffngle quoits ; and,,after
playing feme time, A wants 4 of being np, and B 6
but B is fo much the better gameder, that his,chance
againd A upon a fingle throw would be as 3 to 2 ; what
is the ratio of their chances ? Since A wants 4, and \
B 6, the game will be ended at nine throws; therer
fore, raife a-^-b to the ninth power, and it will be
a9+9a8b+i6ai bb+$4a6bi +126 aH*+126 a4b\
to 84 ei3b6+36 aab1 -\-6 ab%-\-P : call a 3, and b 2, and
you will have the ratio of chances in numbers, viz.
1759077 to 194048.
A and B play at fingle quoits, and A is the bed
gameder, fo that he can give B 2 in 3, what is the
ratio of their chances at a fingle throw t Suppote the
chances as z to 1, and raife zq-i to its cube, which
will be z3+3z1+3z+i. Npw fince A could give B
2 out of 3, A might urldertake to win three throws?
running; and, confeq’uently, the chances in this cafe
will be as z3 to 3z14-3z+i. Hence z3=3z14-3z4-x ;
or, 2z3=:z34-3z1‘—3z+t* And, therefore, z\/2 —
z j-i; and, confequently, z—YTZ—Thechances,
therefore, are —-, and 1, refpeffively.
Again, fuppofe I have two wagers depending, in the
fird of which I have 3 to 2 the bed of the lay, and
in the fecond 7 to 4, what is the probability I win
both wagers ?
1. The probability of winning the fird is tha*
is the number of chances I have to win, divided by
the number of all the chances : the probability of win¬
ning the fecond is.T4: therefore, multiplying thefe two
fractions together, the produdt will be 4t» wh'ch is
the probability of winning both wagers. Now, this
fraction being fubtraided from 1, the remainder is
which is the probability I do not win both wagers:
therefore the odds againd me are 34 to 21.
2. If I would know what the probability is of win¬
ning tUe fird, and lofing the fecond, I argue thus: the
probability of winning the fird is the probability of
lofing the fecond is T4: therefore multiplying 4 by T4,
the produdt -fr t^ie probability of my winning
the fird, and lofing the fecond ; which being fubtradt-
ed from 1, there will remain which is the proba¬
bility I do not win the fird, and at the fame time lofe
the fecond.
3. If I would know what the probability is of win-'
ning the fecond, and at the fame time lofing the fird,
I fay thus: the probability of winning the fecond is
,4 ; the probability of Jofing.the fird is j-: therefore,
multiplying thefe two fradtions together, the produdt
4|- is the probability I win the fecond, and alfo lofe
the fird.
4. If I would know what the probability is of lo¬
fing both wagers, I fay, the probability of lofing the
fird is and the probability of lofing the fecond -r4:
therefore, the probability of lofing them both is rf;
which being fubtradted from 1, there remains 44:
therefore, the odds of lofing both wagers is 47 to 8.
This way of reafoning is applicable to the happen¬
ing or failing of any events that may fall under confi-
■deraticn.
GAM
deration. Thus if I would know what the probability
is of miffing an ace four tint s together with a die, this
I confider as the failing of four different events. Now
the probability of miffing the firft is the fecond is
alfo ■§-, the third and the" fourth therefore the
probability of miffing it four times together is
X4=-rrf|-; which being fob traded from i, there will
remain -rf^ for^the probability of throwing it once or
oftener in.four times: therefore the odds of throwing
an ace in four times, is 671 to 625.
But if the flinging of an ace was undertaken in three
times, the probability of miffing it three times would
be gX|-X{-—4 r'o ’ which being fubtraded from 1, theie
will remain ^or the probability of throwing it once
or oftener in three times : therefore the odds againlt
throwing it in three times are 12 J to 91. Again, fup-
pofe we would know the probability of throwing an ace
once in four times, and no more : fince the probability of
throwing it the firft time is •§■, and of miffing it the o-
ther three times is ^X£X£, it follows that the proba¬
bility of throwing it the firft time, and miffing it the
other three fucceffive times, is •6X^X|-X|-=T1^J ; but
becaufe it is poffible to hit it every throw as well as the
firft, it follows, that the probability of throwing it
once in four throws, and miffing the other three, is
4^1?!=;-£2?; which being fubtraded from 1, there
1296 1296
will remain -r-rlf ^or l^e probability of throwing it
once, and no more, in four times. Therefore, if one
undertake to throw an ace once, and no more, in four
times, he has 500 to 796 the worft of the lay, or 5 to
8 very near.
Suppofe two events are fuch, that one of them has
twice as many chances to come up as the other, what
is the probability that the event, which has the greater
number of chances to come up, does not happen twice
before the other happens once, which is the cale of
flinging 7 with two dice before 4 once ? Since the
number of chances are as 2 to 1, the probability of
the firft happening before the fecond is y, but the pro¬
bability of its happening twice before it is but ^X-f- or
£: therefore it is 5 to 4 feven does not come up twice
before four once.
But, if it were demanded, what muft be the pro¬
portion of the facilities of the coming up of two e-
vents, to make that which has the moft chances come
up twice, before the other comes up once ? The an-
fwer is 12 to 5 very nearly: whence it follows, that
the probability of throwing the firft before the fecond
is 4-4, and the probability of throwing it twice is 44X
44, or ^41therefore, the probability of not doing
it is f4|-: therefore the odds againft it are as 145 to
144, which comes very near an equality.
Suppofe there is a heap of thirteen cards of one
colour, and another heap of thirteen cards of another
colour, what is the probability that, taking one card
at a venture out of each heap, I fhall take out the two
aces ?
The probability of taking the ace out of the firft
heap is -ry, the probability of taking the ace out of the
G A M
fecond heap is 74 ; therefore the probability of taking
out both aces is T4XT4=T49, which being fubtraded
from 1, there will remain 4-f-y-: therefore the odds a-
gainft me are i63 to 1.
In cafes where the events depend on one another, the
manner of arguing is fomewhat altered. Thus, fup-
pofe that out of one Angle heap of thirteen cards of
one colour I fhould undertake to take out firft the ace;
and, fecondly, the two : though the probability of ta¬
king out the acebeT4> and the probability of taking
out the two be likewife yf; yet, the ace being fuppo-
fed as taken out already, there will remain only twelve
cards in the heap, which will make the probability of
taking out the two to be Ty; therefore the probability
of taking out the ace, and then the t»o, will be TfX
-ri-
In' this laft queftion the two events have a dependence
on each other, which confifts in this, that one of the
events being fuppofed as having happened, the probabi¬
lity of the other’s happening is thereby altered. But
the cafe is not fo in the two heaps of cards.
If the events in queftion be « in number, and be
fuch as have the fame number a of chances by which
they may happen, and likewife the fame number b of
chances by which they may fail, raife a-\-b to the pow¬
er n. And if A and B play together, on condition
that if either one or more of the events in queftion
happen, A fliall win, and B lofe, the probability of
A’s winning will he kn . and that of B’s
a+b?
winning will be —t— ; for. when a-\-b is adually
raifed to the powers, the only term in which a does
not occur is the laft bn : therefore all the terms but
the laft are favourable to A.
Thus if »=3, raffing a-\-b to the cube
3,ab'l-\-bl, all the terms but b* will be favourable to
A ; and therefore the probability of A’s winning will
be— nra+^ ~^3 . and the proba-
aJ\rb)3 a-jpiTl5
bility of B’s winning will be—t - . But if A and B
play on condition, that if either two or more of the
events in queftion happen, A ftiall win; but in cafe
one only happen, or none, B ftiall win; the probabili¬
ty of A’s winning will be^~^... ^ ; for
w-HV1
the only two terms in which aa does not,occur, are the
two laft, viz, nab0-*-1 and ba-.
GAMMUT. in mufic, a fcale. whereon we learn to found ;
the mufical notes, ut, re, mi, fa, fol* la, in their fe-
veral orders and difpofitions. See Music.
Gang-way is the feveral paffages or ways from one part
of the (hip to the other ; and whatever is laid in any
of thofe paffages, is faid to lie in the gang-way,
GANGEA, the capital of a territory in the province of "
Chirvan,. in Perfia: E.long. 46°, N. lat. 410.
GANGES,
( 644 )
CANGES, a large river of the hither India, rifes in the
mountains which leparate India from Tartary; and,
running from the north weft mthe fouth eaft near 1500
miles through the Mogul’s dominions, difcharges it-
fe!f by feveral channels into the bay of Bengal.
GANGI, or Cooler, a town of Golconda, in the hi¬
ther India: E. long. 790, and N. lat. 160.
GANGLIO, or Ganglion, in furgery, a hard tu¬
be! cle, generally moveable, in the external or inter¬
nal part of the carpus, upon the tendons or ligaments
in that part, ufually without any pain to the pa¬
tient.
GANGRENE, a very great and dangerous degree of in¬
flammation, wherein the parts affedted begin to cor¬
rupt, and put on a ftate of putrefadiion. See Medi¬
cine and Surgery.
GANTLET, or Gauntlet, a large kind of glove,
made of iron, and the figures covered with fmall plates.
It was formerly worn by cavaliers, when armed at all
points.
GAOL, a prifon, or place of legal confinement.
Gaol delivery, is where a commifiion or patent is
granted by the king in the nature of a letter, to cer¬
tain perfons, who are thereby appointed his juftices,
or to two or three of them, authoriling them to deliver
) GAR
his gaol, at fuch a place, of the prifoners contained
therein ; and for that end it commands them to meet at
fuch a place, at the time they themfelves lhall appoint,
when the IherifF of the county is commanded to bring
all the prifoners in the gaol before them, <bc.
GAP, a city and bifhop’s fee of Dauphine, in France,
eighteen miles welt of Embrun : E. long. 50 46', N,
lat. 440 32'.
GARBE, in heraldry, a Iheaf of any kind of grain,
bore in feveral coats of arms, and faid to reprefent
fummer, as a bunch of grapes does autumn.
GARCINIA, in botany, a genus of the icofandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The flower confifts of four roundifli
patent petals; and the fruit is a large unilocular co¬
riaceous berry, containing eight hairy and flelh-y feeds,
convex on one fide, and angular on the other. There
are two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
GARDA, a town of the Veronefe, in Italy, fubjedt to
Venice: E. long. n°, N. lat. 450
GARDANT, ocGuardant, in heraldry, denotes any
bealt full faced, and looking right forward. See
Plate LXXXVII. fig. 6. which reprefents a lion gar-
dant.
GARDELEBEN, a town of Bradenburg, in Germany:
E. long. 110 45', N. lat. 520 40'.
G A R D E MIN G.
GARDENING, a branch of agriculture, containing
the cultivation of gardens.
The fimplelt idea of a garden, is that of a fpot em-
bellilhed with a number of natural objedts, trees, walks,
polilhed parterres, flowers, ftreams, tec. One more com¬
plex comprehends llatuss and buildings, that nature and
art may be mutually ornamental. A third approaching
nearer perfedtion, is of objedts afiembled together, in or¬
der to produce, not only an emotion of beauty, eflential
to every garden, but alfo fome other particular emotion,
grandeur for example, or gaiety. The mod perfedl idea
of a garden is an improvement upon the third, requiring
the feveral parts to be arranged in fuch a manner, as to
infpire all the different emotions that can be raifed by gar¬
dening. In this idea of a garden, the arrangement is an
important circumftance; for fome emotions figure belt in
conjundtion, and others ought always to appear in fuc-
■ceflion and never in conjundtion. When the mod op-
jjofite emotions, fuch as gloominefs and gaiety, dillnefs
and adtivity, follow each other in fucceflion, the pleafure
on the whole will be the greated ; but fuch emotions
ought not to be united, becaufe they produce an unplea-
fant mixture. For that reafoti, a ruin, affording a fort
of melancholy pleafure, ought not to be fefen from
a flower-parterre, which is gay and cheerful: but to
pafs from an exhilarating objedt to a ruin, has a fine
effedf; for each of the emotions is the more fenfibly felt
Ijy being contraded with the other. Similar emotions,
on the other hand, fuch as gaiety and fweetnefs, dillnefs
Vol. II. No 53. 2
and gloominefs, motion and grandeur, ought to be raifed
together ; for their effedfs upon the mind are greatly
heightened by their conjundtion.
Kent’s method of embellilhing a field, is admirable ;
which is, to paint a field with beautiful objedts, natural
and artificial, difpofed like colours upon a canvas. It re¬
quires indeed more genius to paint in the gardening Way:
in forming a ianfeape upon a canvas, no more is required
but to adjud the figures to each other: an artid who
lays out ground in Kent’s manner, has an addditional tafk;
he ought to adjud his figures to the feveral Varieties of
the field.
One garden mud bedidinguifhed from a plurality ; and
yet it is not obvious wherein the unity of a garden con-
fids. A notion of unity is indeed fuggeded from viewing
a garden furrounding a palace, with views from each
window, and walks leading to every corner: but there
may be a garden without a houfe; in which cafe, what
makes it one garden, is the unity of defign, every fingle
fpot appearing part of a whole. The gardens of Ver-
failles, properly exprefled in the plural number, be¬
ing no fewer than fixteen, are indeed all of them coa-
nerfed with the palace, but have fcarce any mutual con¬
nexion : they appear not like parts of one whole, but ra¬
ther like fmall gardens in contiguity. Were thefe gar¬
dens at fome didance from each other, they would have
a better effeX: their junXion breeds confufion of ideas,
and upon the whole gives lefs pleafure than would be felt
in a flower fucceflion.
6 Z
Regularity
646 GAUD
Regularity Is required Ja that yart of a garde* rshixSo.
joins the dwelling-houfe; for being con&dered as a more
immediate acceffory, it ought to partake the regularity of
the principal objedt: but in proportion to the diilance
from the houfe confidered as the centre, regularity ought
lefs and lefs to be ftudied ; for, in an extenfive plan, it
hath a fine effect to lead the mind infenfibly from regula¬
rity to a bold variety. Such arrangement tends to make
an impreffion of grandeur : and grandeur ought to be flu-
died as much as poffible, even in a more confined plan,
by avoiding a multiplicity of fmall parts. A fmall gar¬
den, on the other hand, which admits not grandeur,
Ought to be flridly regular.
Milton, defcribing the garden of Eden, prefers juflly
the grand tafle to that of regularity:
Flow’rs worthy of paradife, which not nice art
In beds and curious knots; but Nature boon
Pour’d forth profufe on hill, and dale, and plain;
Both where the morning-fun firfl warmly fmote
The open field, and where the unpierc’d fhade
Imbrown’d the noontide bow’rs. Paradife Lift, b. 4.
An hill, by being covered with trees, appears both
more powerful and more lofty; provided no other beau¬
ties be hid that might be feen if the hill were naked.
To diftribute trees in a plain requires more art: near the
dwelling houfe they ought to be fo thin, as not to break
the unity of the field; and even at the greatefl diflance
of diflintt vifion, they ought never to be fo crowded
as to hide any beautiful objefl.
In the manner of planting a wood or thicket, much
art may be difplayed. A common centre of walks, termed
a jiaf, from whence are feen a number of remarkable ob-
jeds, appears too artificial, and confequently too ftiff and
formal, to be agreeable : the crowding withal fo manyob-
jeds together, leffens the pleafure that would be felt in a
flower focceflion. Abandoning therefore the ftar, let us
try to fubftitute fome form more natural, that will lay
open all the remarkable objeds in the neighbourhood.
This may be done by various openings in the wood con¬
trived to catch furrounding objeds, which in walking
bring fucceffively under the eye thefe objeds as by acci¬
dent ; fometimes a Angle objed, fometimes a plurality in
a line, and fometimes a rapid fucceflion of them. In
this form, the mind at intervals is roufed and cheered by
agreeable objeds; and the fcene is greatly heightened by
the furprEe it occafions when we Rumble, as it were, up¬
on ohjeds of which we had no expedation.
An objed terminating in a narrow opening in a wood,
appears at a double diltance. This fuggells another rule
for diftributing trees in fome quarter near the dwelling-
boufe; which is, to place a number of thickets one be¬
hind another, with an opening in each direding the eye
to the moft diftant through all the intermediate thickets ;
which, by making thefe thickets appear more diflant
from each other than they are in reality, will enlarge in
appearance the fize of the whole field. To give this plan
its utmoft effedy the thickets ought to be at a confider-
able diflance from each other: and, in order that each
may be feen diftindly, the opening neareft the eye ought
to be wider than the fecond, the fecond wider than the
third, and fo one to the end.
EKING.
By a judidoms diilrlbiatioe of trees. Tan whs tteaTitI.es
may be produced, far exceeding what have been men¬
tioned; which will appear as follows. A landfcape fo
rich as to ingrofs the whole attention, and fo limited as
fweetlyto be comprehended under a Angle.view, has a
much finer effed than the moft extenfive landfcape that
requires a wandering of the eye through fuccellive fcenes.
This confideration fuggefts a capital rule in laying out a
field ; which is, never at any one Ration to admit a lar¬
ger profped than can eafily be taken in at once. A field
fo happily fituated as to command a great extent of pro¬
fped, is a delightful fubjed for applying this rule : let
the profped be fplit into proper parts by means of trees;
ftudying at the fame time to introduce all the variety pof¬
fible. A plan of this kind executed with tafte will pro¬
duce charming effeds: the beautiful profpeds are multi¬
plied : each of them is much more agreeable than the en¬
tire profped was originally: and, to crown the whole,
the fcenery is greatly diverfified.
As gardening is not an inventive art, but an imitation
of nature, or rather nature itfelf ornamented, it follows
neceffarily, that every thing unnatural ought to be rejed*
ed with difdain. Statues of wild beafts vomiting water,
a common ornament in gardens, prevails in thofe of
Verfailles. Is this ornament in a good tafle ? A jet
d’eau, being partly artificial, may, without difguft, be
tortured into a thoufand ftiapes: but a reprefentation of
what really exifts in nature, admits not any unnatural
circumftance. Thefe ftatues therefore of Verfailles muft
be condemned; and yet fo inlenfible has the artift been
to juft imitation, as to have difplayed his vicious tafle
without the leaft colour or difguife: a lifelefs ftatue of
an animal pouring out water, may be endured without
much difguft; but here the lions and wolves are put in
violent adion, each has feized its prey, a deer or a lamb, .
in ad to devour; and yet, inflead of extended claws and
open mouth, the whole, as by a hocus-pocus trick, is
converted into a different fcene ; the lion, forgetting his
prey, pours out water plentifully ; and the deer, forget¬
ting its danger, performs the fame operation.
In gardening, every lively exhibition of what is beau¬
tiful in nature has a fine effed: on the other hand, diflant
and faint imitations are difpleafing to every one of tafte.
The cutting-evergreens in the fliape of animals, is a very,
ancient pradice; as appears from the epiftles of Pliny,
who feems to be a great admirer of this puerile conceit.
The propenfity to imitation gave birth to this pradice ;
and has fupported it wonderfully long, confidering how*
faint and infipid the imitation is. But the vulgar, great
and fmail, devoid of tafte, are entertained with the odd-
nefs and Angularity of a refemblance, however diftant,
between a tree and an animal. An attempt in the gardens
of Verfailles, to imitate a grove of trees by a group of
jets d’eau, appears, for the fame reafon, not -lefs ridi¬
culous.
In laying out a garden, every thing trivia! or whimfical
ought to be avoided. Is a labyrinth then to be juftified ?
It is a mere conceit, like that of-compofing verles in the
fhape of an ax or an egg : the walks and hedges may be
agreeable; but in the form of a labyrinth, they ferve to
no end but to puzzle: a riddle is a conceit not fo mean ;
becaufe
G A R D B
fjecanfe tfcc fol’Dilon is a proof of fagaclty, whidi affords
no aid in tracing a labyrinth.
The gardens of Verfailles, executed with infinite ex¬
pence by the belt artifts that could be found, are a lading
monument of a tafte the mod depraved : the faults above
mentioned, indead of being avoided, are chofen as beau¬
ties, and multiplied without end. Nature, it would feem,
was deemed too vulgar to be imitated in the works of a
magnificent monarch; and for that reafon preference was
given to things unnatural, which probably were midaken
for fupernatural.
A draight road is the mod agreeable, becaufe it fhortens
the journey. But in an embellidied field, a draight walk
has an air of diflFnefs and confinement: and at any rate is
lefs agreeable than a winding or waving walk ; for in fur-
veying the beauties of an ornamented field, we love to
roam from place to place at freedom. Winding walks
have another advantage : at every dep they open new
views. In fhort, the walks in a field intended to pleafe
the eye, ought not to have any appearance of a road.
This rule excludes not long draight openings terminating
upon didant 'objefts ; which openings, befide variety,
never fail to raife an emotion of grandeur, by extending
in appearance the fize of the field: an opening without
a terminating objeft, foon clofes upon the eye; but an
objedt, at whatever didance, continues the opening, and
deludes the fpediator into a convidton, that the trees
which confine the view are continued till they join the
objedf: and the objedt alfo, as obferved above, feems to
be at a greater didance than it is in reality. Straight
walks alfo in recedes do extremely well: they vary the
fcenery, and are favourable to meditation.
An avenue ought not to be diredted in a draight line
upon a dwelling-houfe : better far an oblique approach
in a waving line, with fingle trees and other fcattered ob-
jedfs interpofed. In a diredt approach, the fird appear¬
ance continues the fame to the end: we fee a houfe at a
didance, and we fee it all along in the fame fpot without
any variety. In an oblique approach,, the interpofed ob-.
jedls put the houfe feemingly in motion: it moves with
the padenger, and appears to diredt its courfe fo as hofpi-
tably to intercept him. An oblique approach contri¬
butes alfo to variety : the houfe, being feen fuccef-
dvely in different diredtions, takes on at every dep a new
figure.
A garden on a dat ought to be highly and varioudy or¬
namented, in order to occupy the mind, and prevent its
regretting the infipidity of an uniform plan. Artificial
mounts in this view are common: but no perfon has
thought of an artificial walk elevated high above the
plain. Such a walk is airy, and tends to elevate the
mind: it extends and varies the profpedl: and it makes
the plain, feen from a height, , appear more agreeable.
Whether fhould a ruin be in the Gothic or Grecian
form ? In the former; becaufe it exhibits the triumph of
time over drength, a melancholy but not unpleafant
thought: a Grecian ruin fuggeds rather the triumph of
barbarity over tade, a gloomy and difcouraging thought.
Fountains are feldom in a good tade. Statues of aai-
mals vomiting water, which prevail every where, dand
«ond?mned. A datue of a .whale fpouting water upward
: N I N G. $47
from its head, is in one ffrfe natural, as whales of a cer¬
tain fpecies have that power ; but it is fufficient to make
this deiign be rejected, that its fingularity would make it
appear unnatural: there is another reafon againd it, that
the figure of a whale is in itfelf not agreeable. In the
many fountains in and about Rome, datues of fidies are
frequently employed to lupport a large bafon of water.
This unnatural conceit is not accountable, unlefs from
the connection between water and the fifh that fwim in it;
which, by the way, Ihows the influence of even the flighter
relations.
Hitherto a garden has been treated as a work intended '
folely for pleafure ; or, in other words, for giving im-
preflions ofintrinfic beauty. What comes next in order
is the beauty of a garden dedined for ufe, termed relative
beauty ; fee Beauty : and this branch diall be difpatched
in a few words. In gardening, luckily, relative beauty
need never dand in.oppefition to intrinfic beauty: all the
ground that can be requifite for ufe, makes but a fmall
proportion of an ornamented field; and may be put in a-
ny corner without obdruCting the difpofition of the capital
parts. At the fame time, a kitchen-garden, or an orchard,
is fufceptible of intrinfic beauty; and may be fo artfully
difpofed among the other parts, as by variety and contraft
to contribute to the beauty of the whole.
Gardening being in China brought to greater perfec¬
tion than in any other known country, we diall take
a dight view of Chinefe gardens, which will be found
entirely obfequious to the principles that govern any one
of the fine arts. In general, it is an indifpenfible law
there, never to deviate from nature ; but in order to
produce that degree of variety which is pleafing, every
method is ufed that is confident with nature. Nature is
driCHy imitated in the banks of their artificial lakes and
rivers; which fometimes are bare and graveliy, fometimes
covered with wood quite to the brink of the water. To
flat fpots adorned with flowers and flirubs are oppofed
others deep and rocky. We fee meadows covered with
cattle; rice grounds that run into lakes; groves into
which enter navigable creeks and rivulets: thefe gene¬
rally conduA to feme intereding objeA, a magnificent ■
building, terraces cut in ^mountain, a cafcade, a grotto,
an artificial rock, or fuch like. Their artificial rivers
are generally ferpentine; fdmetimes narrow, noify, and
rapid; fometimes deep, broad, and dow: and to make
the feene dill more active, mills and other moving ma¬
chines are often eredted. In the lakes are interfperfed
idands; fome barren, furrounded with rocks and fhoals •
others inriched with every thing that art and nature can
furnidi. Even in their cafcades they avoid regularity,
as forcing nature out of its courfe : the waters are feen
burding from the caverns and windings of the artificial
rocks, here an impetuous cataraft, there many leffer
falls-; and the ilream often impeded by trees and denes
that feem brought down by the violence of the current.
Straight lines a*e fometimes indulged, in order to take
the advantage of fome intereding obje&.at a didance, by
direfling openings upon it.
Senfible of the influence of contrad, the Chihefe artids
deal in fudden trar.fitions, and in oppofirig to each other-
forms, colours,, and (hades. The eye is conduced'
from
6$ GARDE
from limited to extenfive views, and from lakes and ri¬
vers to plains, hills, and woods: to dark and gloomy
colours, are oppofed the more brilliant: the different
niaffes of light and (hade are difpofed in fuch a manner,
as to render the compofition diftimft in its parts, and
ftriking on the whole. In plantations, the trees are art¬
fully mixed according to their fliape and colour; thofe
of fpreading branches with the pyramidal, and the light
green with the deep green. They even introduce decayed
trees, fome eredi, and fome half out of the ground. In
order to heighten contraft, much bolder ftrokes are riflc-
ed : they fometimes introduce rough rocks, dark caverns,
trees ill formed and feemingly rent by tempefts or blafted
by lightning, a building in ruins or half confumed by
fire. But to relieve the mind from the harflinefs of fuch
objedls, they are always fucceeded by the fweetelband
moft beautiful fcenes.
The Chinefe ftudy to give play to the imagination.
They hide the termination of their lakes: the view of a
cafcade is frequently interrupted by trees, through which
are feen obfcurely the waters as they fall. The imagi¬
nation once roufed, is difpofed to magnify every objedt.
Nothing is more ftudied in Chinefe gardens than to
raife wonder or furprize. In fcenes calculated for that
end, everything appears like fairy-land; a torrent, for
example, conveyed under ground, puzzling a ftranger by
its uncommon found to guefs what it may be; and, to
multiply fuch uncommon founds, the rocks and buildings
are contrived with cavities and interftices. Sometimes
one is led infenfibly into a dark cavern, terminating un-
expedtedly in a landfcape inriched with all that nature
affords the moft delicious. At other times, beautiful
walks infenfibly condudt us to a rough uncultivated field,
where buflaes, briers, and ftones interrupt the paffage :
when we look about for an outlet; fome rich profpedt
unexptdtedly opens to view. Another artifice is, to ob-
fcur'e fome capital part by trees or other interpofed ob-
jedfs: our curiofity is raifed to know what lies beyond ;
and after a few fteps, we are greatly furprized with fome
fcene totally different from what was expedted.
Thefe curfory obfervations upon gardening, (hall be
clofed with fome refledtions. Rough uncultivated ground,
-difmal to the eye, infpires peevifhnefs and difcontent:
may not this be one caufe of the harfti manners of fa-
va^es ? A field richly ornamented, containing beautiful
objedfs of various kinds, difplays, in full luftre, the good-
nefs of the Deity, and the ample provifion he has made
-for our happinefs; which muft fill every fpedlator with
gratitude to his Maker, and with benevolence to his fel¬
low-creatures. Other fine arts may be perverted to ex¬
cite irregular, and even viciousj emotions: but garden¬
ing, which infpires the pureft and moft refined pleafures,
cannot but promote every good affbaion. The gaiety
and harmony of mind it produceth, inclining the fpedtator
to communicate his fatisfaaion to others, -and to make
them happy as he himfelf is, tend naturally to eftablilh
-in him a habit of humanity and benevolence.
Having thus unfolded the general principles of gar-
iidening, that have an influence upon tatte or manners ; we
N I N G.
(hall now fubjoin the praaical part, in the form of a ca¬
lendar.
JANUARY.
Flower-Garben.
This is the proper time for planting roots of the ra¬
nunculus ; the foil (hould be rich and fandy, and they
ftiould be planted at lead three inches deep. By laying
a quantity of earth made of old thatch or draw, about
feven inches beneath the furface of the ground, and then
filling it up with rich mould, a prodigious number of thefe
flowers may be produced. A fine earth may likewife be
made of tanner’s bark, or the bottom of a wood pile,
well mixed with about a third of natural foil, which will
prove peculiarly ferviceable.
As the wind and froft are very prejudicial to carna¬
tions and auriculas, they (hould this month be kept co¬
vered.
Anemonies (hould be planted in beds of fine earth ; no
dung muft be ufed in planting them. The roots of thefe
flowers may be increafed by breaking the knots,-about
the fize of a fmall button, afunder, and letting them lie
two or three days in the fun, before you plant them. It
(hould be remembered, that the roots of the anemony
are to be taken up about the end of June or the beginning
of July; after being dried in the fun, they (hould be
preferved in a dry cool place, or kept in fand for a month,
and then put in papers till the feafon for planting them.
When thefe roots are firft tranfplanted, a thin layer of
willow-earth, or rotten fally-wood, being put under
them, forwards their growth.
Fruit-Garden.
The prunning of pears, vines, and plumbs, is the
chief employment of this month. In pruning the pear,
thofe buds which appear fuller than the reft (hould be
carefully preferved; all branches that proceed from the
knob, whereon the ftalk of a pear grew, are to be taken
away, but the knob muft remain; and the extremity of
the laft year’s pruning is to be taken off.
As the large branches of a pear-tree are ufdefs in
bearing, care (hould be taken to extend the branches
fide.ways, and none but fmall branches fuffered to grow
in the middle, and not even thofe to grow diredtly per¬
pendicular, as, by that means, they would foon become
what is called great ’wood.
A pear-tree that is vigorous and luxuriant fhould not
be pruned till after k has begun to (hoot. A languifliing
pear-tree may be reftored to its former ftate by pruning
and removal into better ground. ' Another very good
method of treating pear-trees not in a bearing ftate, is to
bark the luxuriant brandies all round about,a quarter of
an inch wide, more or lefs, according to their ftrength.
Apple-trees will likewife bear this operation, which
{hould be done in April. Trees that are too vigorous
may be made to bear by cutting off the fap roots, or ta¬
king them up, and re-fetting them, for they are often
planted
CARD
Planted too deep. Plumbs and cherries may be pruned
in the fame manner as pears.
The winter-pruning of the vine (which requires a firft,
fecond, third, and fometimes a fourth pruning) fhould
be done either in October, November, December, or this
month. The vigour of the vine is to be regarded ; the
fmall weak (hoots that never bear any fruit muft be clear¬
ed away, and the other branches are to be fo proportion¬
ed as not to occafion any confufion ; fuch as are thickefl:
and beft placed (hould be preferved, and the ftrong (hort
branches left nine inches or more, according to the fize
of the vine. When they have (hot twelve or fifteen
inches long, which will be in the fummer, you mult be¬
gin to nail them up», and when they have (hot two -or
three feet, (top or cut off the ends of the (hoots ; thofe
on the fide (hould not be broke off till the fruit is fet:
and a fruit bearing branch Ihould be cut within three or
four eyes of the fruit.
All fuckers (hould be cut off as foon as they have (hot
fe.ven or eight inches. The vine (hould be kept thinner
of wood than any other tree, though it puts forth the
larged (hoots. All the old wood (hould be cut out, and
its place fupplied with vigorous young (hoots.
All dead or cankered branches (hould this month be
cut from the dandard fruit-trees, as alfo fuch as crofs
each other ; but in doing this you mud be careful to
make the wounded part Is fmooth as poff.ble, and doping,
that the wet may not enter and be detained there, to the
great prejudice of the trees.
Kitchen-Garden.
The management of hot-beds claims almod the foie
attention of the kitchen-gardener this month. 1 he place
mod expofed to the fun is bed forjnaking a hot-bed: when
you have marked out the dimenfions of the bed, drive
(takes into the ground on every fide, a yard above the
ground, and a foot afunder; wind thefe round with bands
made of hay or draw, and then fill them up with wet lit¬
ter and new horfe-dung, treading it down very hard as
.you fill; in doing which you mud be careful to leave
room for the earth and the (hooting of your plants.
When you have thus laid the bed, fix your wooden-'
frames fitted to the fame, for the reception of the mould
at top, and for the fupport of glafs frames, which are to
be fixed (loping.
The hot-bed (hould then be finifhed by putting in the
earth; an old hot-bed, w^ll rotted, affords excellent
duff for this purpofe; but if that cannot be procured,
fome very rich mould well fifted will do.
Over the whole you mud fix matts fupported by (hort
dicks, which mud remain about a week; by which time
the bed will abate of its extreme heat, and be of a pro¬
per temperature for ufe.
The bed (hould be warm, not hot; and when the heat
leffens too much, by applying new dung to the fides, you
may renew it.
When plants are come up in a hot-bed, they (hould
have air and the fun by degrees ; and when drong e-
nough, (hould be removed to a fecond hot-bed, of lefs
‘heat than the former, or into very rich earth, where
Vol. II, No. 53.
E N I N G. 649
they (hould be frequently watered gently, and kept from
the meridian fun till well fettled ; and when the weather
is cold, by covering the glaffes a little before fun-fet
with litter and matts, they may eafily be defended
from it.
Gardeners in general make their feed beds for cucum¬
bers and melons in this month, for railing them before
their natural feafon ; but the better method is, to make
hot-beds the latter end of O&ober or beginning of No¬
vember : about four feet fquare, and two feet high, is
the proper fize, wherein, after the heat is moderated,
cucumbers and melons may be fown.
About a week after their coming up, plant them four
inches apart in the fame bed, after having well (lirred up
the earth. As the days in Oftqber are ufually warm, the
plants may be flowed to have air ; but in January they
muft be kept covered up clofe. In this firft railing of
plants, a gardener may, with due care, make them as
hardy as he pleafes.
It is.ufual with fome people to keep thei-r melon feeds
in milk four and twenty hours before they make ufe of
them; others ufe them without that preparation: they
(hould be fet two or three in a hole, in the hot-bed, a-
bout an inch deep, and covered clofe up, to keep them
warm. About the end of April is the time for planting
melons, which (hould firft be done in fmall balkets made
of old willow-twigs, three inches deep, and eight or nine
inches over.
Two or three plants (hould be planted in one balket,
and when they will bear it, moved on another hot-bed,
covered with a fandy loam five or fix inches thick, fifted
fine, wherein they are to grow all the fummer.
Cucumbers are propaga'ed after the fame manner as
melons; but as a bad feafon may prevent their being fuc-
cefsfully raifed, it is highly neceflary to put fome feeds
into the bed at three or four different times this month,
that if fome (hould fail, the others may fupply their lofs;
In order to raife afparagus for hot-beds, make choice of
a piece of ground that has been well dug and mellowed,
then ftrike out lines feven or eight inches from each o-
ther, and plant the afparagus roots in them at fix or
feven inches apart when they are a twelvemonth old: let
them be kept free from weeds, and remain in the nurfe-
ry two years, in which time they will be fit for the hot¬
bed. The hot-bed for the reception of thefe roots (hould
be made pretty ftrong, and covered with earth fix inches
thick, encompaffed round with bands of draw. The a-
fparagus-roots (hould be planted as clofe as they can be
placed together without trimming ; which being done,
cover the buds of the plants two inches thick with earth ;
in which ftate let them remain five or fix days before the
franks and glaffes are put over them; and then lay on o-
ver the whole three inches thick of fre(h earth.
As foon as the buds appear, give them what air the
feafon will permit, which will make them green, and of
a good tafte. The bed will laft good about a month,
producing daily fre(h buds, if the weather be not too fe-
vere: when it begins to. cool, warm horle-litter laid upon
the glaffes every night will contribute : s much to facilitate
the (hoot of the buds as if new dung were applied to
the roots.
7 A It
6$o G A R D
It fhould be obferved, that the time for this work is
not only in this month, but from November till April;
(making frefh buds every month to follow one another
for a conftant fapply) and in- April comes the natural
crop.
A ve’ry moderate hot-bed made after the manner firft
dire&ed, will ferve to propagate early ftrawberries.
You may make a bed in two or three hours, with the
nfe of hot lime and powdered dung, the dung being in the
middle, and the lime underneath and at top ; over which
you Ihould lay a quantity of fine rich mould.
To raife radifhes in th$ hot-bed with fuccefs,' you
Ihould have fufficient thicknefs of rich light mould, that
they may have proper depth to root in before they reach
the dung.
Radifhes may be fowed all the year, but in hot beds
in the winter.
Muftard, lettuce, creffes, and other fallading, are ge¬
nerally raifed from the feeds fown in drills or lines, in fuch
an expofureas is required by the feafon of the year; in
the winter-feafon, on moderate hot beds ; in the fpring,
tinder glafles and frames ; and in the fommer, on natural
beds of earth.
CrefTes fown in the natural ground in Auguft, refill
the frofts of the winter, and help greatly to inrich the
hot-bed fallads with the high tafte they maintain by being
expofed to the open air.
Small herbs fhould be drawn up by the roots from the
hot beds ; and, in fowing a fecond crop, feeds of another
hind fhould be fown, and not the fame kiftd in the fame
place.
The hotfpur, charlton mafter, and other peas, muft
be fown in drills three feet afunder, that you may have
room to go between them; and the lines fhould run from
north to fouth.
When they have fhot about fix inches high, earth them
about four inches on both fides of the lines, raifing a little
bank on the eafl fide of them, to defend them from the
blafting winds.
In February you may fow a fecond crop, and in March
a third.
You muft, in the beginning of the winter, fow tu ice
the quantity of peafe you need to do, if you flay till Fe¬
bruary or March; becaufe the cold weather and the
mice will deflroy great part of them.
FEBRUARY.
Flower-Garden.
Fo r the better management of the auricula, which is
to be fown this month, prepare a box of oak or deal,
four feet long, two feet wide, and fix inches deep, with
holes in the bottom, fix inches diflance from each other ;
in which, after laying two inches thick of cinders or fea-
coals ; and fpreading over them fome earth taken out of hol¬
low willow-trees, till you have filled the box, fow the feeds
on the top, without any covering of earth, preffing them
into the mould with a flat board, in order to fettle them
below the edges of the box that, the light feeds may not
iloat over the brim in watering.
E N I N G.
From the time of fowing to the beginning of April, this
box mult be placed where it will receive the fun ; but af¬
ter that time, it muft be removed into a fhady place ; and
the feeds muft be continually refrefhed with gentle wa¬
terings.
If the feedlings do not come up the firft year, they will
the fecond; and in July or Auguft, after they appear a-
bove ground, will be ftrong enough to tranfplant; when
you muft fet them in beds of light earth well fifted, at
about four inches diftance from each other, and place
them where they may receive only the morning fun.
The April afterwards they will begin to fhew them-
felves, when ;hey fhould be tranfplanted into pots filled
with foil made of one load of melon earth, or dung well
rotted, half a load of fea-fand, and half aioad of fandy
loam ; or a load of melon earth, and the like of fandy
loam; or one load of rotten wood, or the bottom of a
wood-pile, the fame quantity of loam, and half a load of
melon earth, prepared as above.
Thefe flowers muft be carefully fheltered from the
rains, which greatly impair their colours.
Provided the weather is mild, you may, toward the
end of this month, plant out your choice carnations into
the pots where they are to remain to flower; in doing
which, you fltould not take too much of the earth from
their roots ; and when they are planted, it will be pro¬
per to place the pots in a warm fituation (but not too
near walls, or pales, which will draw them up weak);
and arch them over with hoops, that in bad weather they
may be covered with mats; for unlefs they acquire
ftrength in the fpring before the heat comes on, they will
not produce large flowers.
The polyanthus feed muft be fown upon a place pre¬
pared with earth taken out of decayed willows, often wa¬
tered and kept fhaded from the fun all April and May,
till the young plants are come up.
The feedlings will be fit to tranfplant the July or Au¬
guft following into beds : the foil of which fliould be
fomewhat binding, and their expofure only to the morn¬
ing fun.
You may have an annual fuppiy of larkfpurs without
the trouble of fowing, by fuffering the feeds of the flow¬
ers to drop, which will come up theenfuing fpring : they
are fown in fpots, and flourifh in variety of ground.
The Angle fort of Sweet William is raifed by feeds fown
in February or March; the double forts, propagated
from flips taken near the root about March or April, and
planted in a loamy foil: they may alfo be laid down in
the earth like carnation layers.
Holyhocks are raifed by feeds fown in this month, re¬
moved in Auguft or September to their proper places of
vegetation, in rich earth.
The moft agreeable difpofition of this flower is, under
fome coarfe wall, which they will handfomely fill, or in
any other place guarded from the winds^
Pinks, and candy-tufts, are generally ufed in edgings
in gardens, and infides of borders, where they are plant¬
ed in fpots, and have a very agreeable effe<fl.
The feed is fown in lines in this month or March ; or
they may be propagated from flips planted very early in
the fpring, or in Auguft.
Rofe-
CARD!
ftofe-trees, of which there are various forts, fucceed
beft in a ftrOng holding ground, tolerably moili; they
may either be raifed from layers or fuckers, laid down and
taken from the old roots in February or March, and
tranfplanted immediately before the roots grow dry:
Ihould there be a necelfuy, for keeping them out of the
ground for fome, time, lay. their roots in water five or fix
hours before they are. planted.
The rofe-tree does well in borders, or in the quarters
of wildernefs works, among other flowering flirubs ; and
fome or other of them will be in flower for ten months in
the year.
The laburnum tree is commonly planted among the o-
ther flowering Ihrubs of the wildernefs, and will grow in
the moll open expofure, as well as under the lhade of
large trees : it may eafily be raifed from feeds fown in
this month, and tranfplanted two years after it comes
up.
The althca may be raifed from layers or feeds ; there
are feveral different colours of this flower, and they may
be budded fo as to have all the colours on one plant.
The pomegranate profpcrs moll in a light foil ; and be-
ing propagated by laying down the young Ihoots in this
month or March, may be tranfpknted either in the fpring
or autumn feafon, when they may be put in pots, or a-
gaind a fouth wall, where the-fruit will ripen.
The pomegranate may alfo be raifed from feed.
The fyringa may be raifed from feeds ; but it is hardly
thought worth the trouble, as it is very apt to put forth
fuckers ; thefe, however, may with eafe be taken off and
tranfplanted at this time of the year, and in September.
It is a lhady pofition which mak.es this ftmib ftioot,
and the fun makes it flower; but it will grow aimed any
where.
The lilach is a plant which, grows to a pretty large tree,
bearing bunches of purple blodbms, likes plumes of fea:
thers, in May; and is raifed by laying down the young
branches in this month or March, or by taking off the
fuckers, and planting them in a light foil, about the fame
time, or in September
Thefe trees are highly ornamental in the quarters of
wildernefs works, and fmall walks of them are very plea-
fant.
The Spanilh broom is planted in wildernffs works, and
may be railed from feeds fown in light earth ; alfo by
laying down the tender branches, and cutting them at the
joints, after the manner of the carnation ; but the latter
method is not fo certain as the other, though it is fat
more troublefome.
The laurus tinus is greatly admired for producing its
flower in the winter ; and may be raifed from the berries,
managed as the holly; or from layers, which is the mod
expeditious way.
This plant is greatly hurt by frod, and fuqceeds bed
in moill lhady places; it will Aourilh in loamy foil, with¬
out the help of any rich manure, which forwards its
growth, too much.
The laurus tinus, is often trained up as a headed plant,
though it is bed planted againd a wall, or in wilderneffes;
and it is obfervable, that this plant, like all other exotics,
is naturally inclined to bloffom about the fpring in its own
l N I N G. 6$t
country, which.is our autumn -, for which reafon, it Ihould
- be pruned in our fpring feafon after it has done blowing.
The phillyrea, may in general be propagated from the
berries, or raifed from layers, which will prefently take .
root.
This plant, which fucceeds bed in a natural, light foil,
grows very fad; and being well fupported with rails or
flakes, a number of them makes a very thick and hand-
fome hedge.
The yew-tree delights in a light barren foil, and is
more plentifully produced on the colded mountains than
in the riched foils.
The berries of the yew may be laid in fand, as thofe
cf the holly, before they are fown ; and there is no dif¬
ficulty in propagating this plant, or removing it, if the
roots are pruned from time to time, by digging about
it while it dands in the nurfery.
The holly will grow to a very large tree ; but being a
rooted plant, does not fucceed well when tranfplanted,
unlefs the roots have been often pruned in the nurfery.
The berries of this plant, when ripe, are to be gather¬
ed; and after the , cave been laid to fweat fome time, are
to be put in fand or earth, till the autumn following,
when, and likewife in this tponth, they may be fown iti
nurfery beds.
They will lie in the ground for a long time before they
begin to fpring, and it will be four or five years before
the young docks will be fit to graft or inoculate upon.
The grafting mud be done in March, and the inocula¬
ting in July; but for dandard trees or hedges, they mud
be planted at their proper didances while very young,
that they may be accudomed to the foil.
The bay tree, which is managed as the holly, is rai¬
fed by berries fown in this month, on a bed of earth fredi
dug, and covered with fome frelh natural earth, well
fifted, about two inches thick.
In about fix weeks, the feeds thus fown will come up,
fhould the weather prove mgid^ they diould he covered
with draw, or fern, for the three fird winters, after
which time they mud be tranfplanted.
When thefe plants are difcoloured by froft, cut off the'
top-branch in the fpring, and they will ihoot afrelh.
The bay-tree may alfo be raifed from layers laid down
in the month of Odober, for cuttings, fet in pots of fine
earth, two or three inches deep; and from fuckers taken -
up with as much root as may be, and planted in the (hade,
in a gravelly foil, being well watered to fettle the earth .
about their roots.
The laurel is propagated in the fame manner as the
bay-tree, loves fliade, refids the weather, and will thrive
in aimed every foil.
Towards the end of this month, if the feafon proves
favourable, dir the furface of the ground of your flower¬
beds, and clear them from weeds, mofs, and whatever
filth may appear thereon, which will not only make your -
garden look neat, but be. of peculiar fervice to the.
lowers, .
Fruit-Garden.
The buficefs of this month is chiefly pruning and graft-
$52 CARD
ing ; and is more particularly the feafon for pruning fruit-
trees.
When a tree has produced two well difpofed branches
■with fome weak ones intermixed, they (liould be (horten-
ed equally to the length of five or fix inches ; and if the
•pofition of the two branches be irregular, there mult be
only one left to begin the formation of your tree.
A tree will fometitnes Ihoot five, fix, or feven bran¬
ches, the firft year ; when this happens, three or four
only of the bell branches are tp be preferved.
^ A multitude of branches in the firft year, is not always
a lign of vigour ; for they fometimes prove weak, occa-
ftoned by the infirmity of the roots: in pruning, general¬
ly a vigorous tree cannot have too many branches, if
they are well difpofed, nor a weak one too few.
The fap of ail trees mull be kept within due bounds,
and a greater liberty is to be allowed to flrong trees
■than to weak ones ; for which reafon llrong and vigorous
branches are left of a greater length than feeble ones :
and it is bell to prune weak fickly trees early, that the
•fap may not be too' much walled.
In the pruning of wall-fruit-trees, all the branches
{hooting directly forward are to be cut off clofe to the
branch they fpring from ; and the utmoll care mull be
taken to prevent their being too much crouded with wood,
it being often neceffary to take off even bearing branches,
to preferve your trees in beauty and health ; for it is im-
pollible too great a number of branches Ihould be fupplied
with juices as they ought; and if they are not, either
the bloffoms will drop off, or the fruit never ripen.
You Ihould ever be careful to preferve a convenient
fpace between one branch and another in all prunings;
alfo that one branch does not crofs another: a {lender
bearing branch may, notwithllanding, fometimes be per-
•mitted to Heal behind the main body of the tree, and
be no offence to the eye.
That a tree may be the better difpofed to bear fruit,
the branches fhould be carried horizontally as much as
pofiible ; for the more perpendicular the branches of a tree
are led, the more they are inclined to run into great
-wood and barrennefs.
Small weak branches, {hooting from the like, {hould
be cut away, as {hould all {hoots put forth in autumn.
When an old tree {hoots llronger branches towards the
bottom than the top, and the top is fickly, it muft be cut
off, and a new figure formed from the lower branches ;
but if the top be in good health, you mull cut off the
lower ones, unlefs it be a few that are well placed.
Where old trees are in a weak condition, to preferve
'them, they are to be difburthened totally, leaving a few
branches only fliortened to five or fix inches.
Having thus laid down the principal rules for pruning
in general, we now come to the management of the peach
and other fruit trees in particular.
Wheh peach-trees are vigorous, it is befl to defer the
Hrft pruning till they are ready to bloffom, when you may
be at a certainty in preferving thofe branches which are
■moft promifing of fruit, and then to Ihorten them as they
rrequire.
You may foon difcover the fruit-bearing branches by
itheir/welling buds, and you {hould reduce them to -the
ENIN G
length of five or fix inches ; the lad year’s (hoots tnay be
left ten or twelve inc hes long.
In the fpace of about three years, all the wood muft
at feveral prunings be taken away, but in the mean time
the wall is to be furniflied with other wood.
When you have reduced your tree to beauty and order,
you have little to do but thinning your fruit till Midfum-
mer, when the (hoots are to be (hortened and faftened to
the wall, giving the fruit the advantage of the fun as much
as poffible.
If the peach-tree makes over-hafte in its bearing, it is
a fign of infirmity, and muft be accordingly managed, by
pruning the branches (hort, and plucking off all or moft
of the bloffoms' or fruit ; which it is much lefs difficult
to do than when a peach is over vigorous ; for then na¬
ture is apt to make a confufion, which requires the great-
eft (kill to know what branches are fit to be chofen, and
what rejected.
The peach-tree requires a fecond, and fometimes a
third pruning ; the laft of which is to be performed a-
bout the middle of May, or in June or July.
The apricot and nedtarine may be pruned in the fame,
manner as the peach ; but it {hould be obferved, that the
apricot is more apt to run to wood than any other of thefe
kind of wall-fruit trees.
The ufual ways of grafting are, in the cleft—in the
bark—by approach, and whip-grafting.
Grafting in the cleft, or flip-grafting, is performed on
the cherry, pear, and plumb flocks, in the manner fol¬
lowing.
When you have chofen a flock, in a fmooth place cut
off the head of it, floping : then, with your knife make
the top horizontally even ; which being done, make a flit
of near two inches deep down the middle of the flock;
in which fix a cyon, doped on each fide from a bud; and
clofing the bark of both exaftly, tie them round with
bafs.
When you have thus finiffied your grafting, put a
quantity of clay and horfe-dung, tempered together,
round the flock and lower part of the cyon; in doing
which, be careful not to diflurb the latter.
Grafting in the bark is generally performed only on ap¬
ples, by cutting the head of the flock as already direded;
but inftead of flitting it, flit only the bark a little above
an inch on the fouth-weft fide, or as long as the doped part
of the cyon; then, loofening the top of the bark With
your knife, put in your cyon (being prepared with a flat
dope about an inch long, ending in a point, and begun
from the back-fide of an eye) and clofing it as above, co-
■ver it alfo in the fame manner with clay.
When either an apple, pear, plumb, or cherry tree,
•wants a branch to make the tree uniform, a graft maybe
put into the fide without cutting the head of it.
Grafting by approach, or inarching, is performed when
a (lock grows fo near another tree, the fruit of which you
would propagate, that it may be joined with a branch of
that tree, by cutting the fides of the branch and flock a-
bout three inches long, and fitting them, that the paffa-
ges of the fap may meet; in which pofture let them be
bound and clayed.
When they are well cemented, cut off the head of-the
flock
GARDE
ftocli Aout Fourlnches above the binding-, and in March
following, having cut off the liubb that was left of the
flock, and the cyon underneath, clofe the grafted place, .
that it may fobfifl by the Hock only.
This manner of grafting agrees heft with vines, pome¬
granates, oranges, and fuch like fbrubs.
When the (lock and cyon are of the fame bignefs, the
■operation of whip-grafting is performed, by doping the
flock and cyon about an inch, fa as to make them lit, and
then tying them together, and claying the place,
KitchhnGardsm.
Hor-beds for radirtaes and fpring-carrots fltoulc! now
he made, according to the direftions given for a common
hot-bed in the preceding month; which, by proper ma-
oagement, will do for all forts of leeds that are annual.
To make a mufhrum bed, dig a trench five or fix inch¬
es deep, and lay in it either the dung of horfes, mules,
or afl'es, in ridges, which dung mud be the lad covering
before the earth is laid'en.
The bed, when it is complete, mud be three or four
feet high ; and after covering the dung about two or
three inches deep with fuch earth as is taken from under
a turf, put fome mulhroom-earth all over the bed on the
lad covering of dung.
Should the weather be fevere, you may defend the bed
-with draw or dry litter, eight or ten inches thick, or
cover it with masts fadened on hoops.
The bed mud be kept properly watered, twice or thrice
a-week, and the mulhrooms will come up in two months
time at farthed ; fometimes in a month, when they mud
be immediately cut.
By putting fome mudiroom earth on your cucumber-
beds, you will greatly forward their growth.
In the natural ground potatoes love a fandy foil; and
the fmaller roots, or knots of them, are commonly faved
to raife a crop from, being fet about four or five inches
deep in the ground, and five or fix inches apart; and
when their haulms begin to decay, which is generally a-
’ bout Michaelmas, you may take them out of the ground
with forks as you have occafion to ufe them.
The Jerufalem artichoke fucceeds bed in a diff foil,
and affords a root as large as an ordinary turnip, being
in tade fomewhat like a potatoe, but rather more wa¬
tery.
The feveral forts of cabbages, as the red cabbage, the
Dutch cabbage, the Savoy cabbage, the Ruflia cabbage,
the Batterfea cabbage, and the two forts of the fugar-
loaf cabbage, Ihould be planted at proper didances, ac¬
cording to their feveral datures.
The Savoy cabbages are for winter ufe, and towards
the fpring put forth fprouts preferable to the cabbages
-themfelves.
Almod any ground will ferve for cabbages; but if the
weather be dry, it mud be well watered before planting.
The harded cabbages may be taken up before the
great frods come on; and after they have hung up by the
roots about a fortnight, lay them in a cellar, where they
will keep a long time ; or plant them deep in the ground
Vol. II. No. 53.
NINO. 653
dofe to one another, and cover them with haulm or draw,
till you have occafion to ufe them.
Carrots are mod prcfperous in a light ground. La
which their roots will grow to a great bignefs.
Spring-carrots are fown in July or Augud ; thofe in¬
tended for a winter-crop, in February or March, in dry
weather.
When your carrots are come up, and have been above
ground about a month, they mud be houghed, leaving the
fpace of about five inches between the plants ; and after
tire fird houghing they (hould be kept as clean as.pofiible
till they are full grown, when they may be taken up for
prefent ufe, and kept in fitnd during the winter.
Parfnips thrive bed in a rich foil, and, excepting that
they fhould not (land fo thick, are to be managed in the
fame manner as carrots.
The fkirret requires a light, moift, yet a rich foil; and
is propagated either by fowing feeds, or by tranfplanting
theoffsets fiom the roots,
As foon as the leaves begin to put forth, they lhauld
be taken out of the ground, and parted into as many flips
as can be conveniently taken off with the roots, fo as
only the frefh fpringing fibres remain on thepi; drills a-
bout four or five inches deep mud then be prepared:t®
plant them five or fix inches apart, and they mud be kept
well watered till their roots are fully grown.
The ufual time for fowing turnips is in July or Augud,
but fome people fow them in this month, by way of pro¬
viding them for the dimmer. They thrive bell in a fandy,
loam'y foil, but will grow in any ground : when the
plants have two or three leaves, they fliould be houghed
at the diltance prefcribed for parfnips and carrots.
Onions are down in this month, and in March, in rich
garden foil; and toward the latter end of April, being
come up, they are houghed, when about three inches
{hould be left between the plants till they begin to grow
fit for fallads, and then they may be drawn, or thinned
where they grow too clofe together.
In fowing onions you mud not be fparing of feeds, as
it often happens many of them, being bad, have no ef¬
fect.
When the leaves begin t© change their colour, they
fhould be pulled up, (in dry weather;) and after being-well
dried without doors, they mud be fpread on fome floor, to
dry more thoroughly for winter ufe.
Such onions as fpire in the houfe, may this month be
planted in lines fix inches apart, and two inches didance
for feeds for another year.
The leek is fown in a well-wrought ground, and is to
be kept free from weeds, and houghed like the onion ; the
plants are t-ranfplanted in July, in rich light foil, in lines
about five inches apart.
’Strawberries profper mod in ground inclining to clay ;
and the bed way of managing them, is to provide a quan¬
tity of horfe-dung and coal-afhes well mixed together,
and lay it upon the land to be dug or trenched in this
month; then make borders three feet wide, on which the
flips are to be planted from eight to eighteen inches apart,
according to the forts: the chila drawberries being lar¬
ged, ftiould be fet two feet afunder.
-2 .78
Afterwards
<554 GARDE
Afterwards you may fet beans for a futnmer crop, and
plant rofes, fweet brier, currants or goofeberries, at every
five or fix feet diftance, as the planes will not begin to
bear fruit to any purpofe till the following year, and it will
be the third year after planting before there will be a full
crop; in the mean time the rofes, goofeberries, (sc. turn
to a good account, befides being ferviceable to the plants
by /hading them.
The ftrawberries /hould be kept clear of weeds, and,
if their blowing feafon be dry, well watered : early in
the fpring you muft cleanfe them, and fling loofe earth
among them to Arengtben their roots.
Of ftrawberries there are five forts, the chila ftraw-
Berry, the hautboy, the fcarlet, the red, and the white
wood ftrawberry.
There are two kinds of rafpberries, the red and white;
the latter is the greater rarity, and thrives in fuch ground
as agrees beft with ftrawberries, being propagated by
flips taken from the roots the latter end of this month or
in March.
Rafpberries /hould be planted in fingle rows, about a
foot or eighteen inches afunder, and three feet between
every row, leaving the heads two feet high when plant¬
ed.
The Mufcovy cluftered rafpberry, planted againft a
wall between the trees where there is a vacancy, will
ripen very foon ; and their chief culture is to keep them
clean from weeds in the fpring ; to prune the tops of the
ftrongeft /hoots of the laft year, leaving them about three
feet high; and to cut away all dead and weak branches.
The goofeberry is propagated either by feeds, fuckers,
or cuttings; the fir/t may be fown as foon as ripe, and
will come up the fpring following; the fuckers are taken
from the roots of old trees when their leaves are fallen,
and tranfplanted in nurferies, in open weather ; and the
cuttings will take root, being planted in the months of Sep¬
tember orOftober.
This tree requires a ftrong holding foil, and may be
tranfplanted with more fafety in Oflober than at this time
of the year.
Currants are to be raifed in the fame manner as the
goofeberry, and thrive bell: in the fame kind of foil.
Liquorice /hould be planted at this feafon of the year;
and the ground made choice of for planting it /hould be
trenched three feet deep, and the. liquorice fet at a foot
diftance every way.
MARCH.
Flower-Garden.
The rofe campion is propagated either from feeds
fown this month, or from flips taken from the roots : the
double-bloflbm kind is raifed from flips only, as it does not
produce any feeds ; the laft-mentioned thrives beft in a
loamy foil: and open expofure.
In this month alfo o/F-fets of the white hellebore are
planted in a rich light foil.
Seeds are now fown of the fox-glove, which fucceed
beft in the /hade and a loamy foil, this flower does not blow
till two months from the time of fowing.
N I N G.
The poppy, which is an annual, is fown in fpots ; as
is the Venus looking-glafs: the latter is proper alfo for
edgings.
The valerian is raifed from feeds, and fome kinds of it
are increafed by parting the roots.
The primrofe tree will grow in any foil, and the feed
of it is fown in the natural ground towards the end of
this month : it is very proper for the middle of borders
in large gardens ; and the feedling plants, which will not
blo/Tom till the fecond year, are to be fown in the nurfe-
ry, and the young plants removed to proper places in the
Auguft after they come up.
Slips of the gentianella are planted in a Tandy foil in
this month or Auguft.
Cardinal flowers are raifed by feeds fown in hot beds,
in fine fitted earth ; and the feeds being fmall, are to be-
lightly covered with mould: thefe flowers, which are
commonly cultivated in pots, may be increafed by part¬
ing their roots in April, and planting them in places well
expofed to the fun.
You /hould now fow the feeds of the ftock-gilliflowers,
and tranfplant them in the Auguft following, in a light
natural dry foil.
The double kinds of this flower may be increafed by
flips or cuttings planted in May, June, or July.
Sow the feeds of the acanthus, in a fandy foil, and in
the /hade.
A loamy foil is requifite for raifing the double rocket
flower, which is propagated from flips taken from about
the root.
The fcarlet lynchis is propagated either from feeds, or
flips taken from the root; it is alfo cultivated in pots, and
requires a loamy foil, and open expofure.
The feveral forts of double wall-flowers may be raifed
from flips planted in /hady places, either in March, A-.
pril, May, or June ; but the bloody wall-flower may be
more eafily raifed from feeds fown in this month : and a
fandy foil is requifite to make them thrive.
The monk’s hood, a flower of a poifonous quality, is
propagated by parting the roots, which /hould be done in
this month, and will thrive beft in a loamy foil, in-the
mo ft /hady place in your garden.
The fun-flower, which will grow in any foil, is raifed
from feeds fown in large borders ; and alfo by parting the
roots, either in this month or in: Auguft.
The afters, or ftarworts, will thrive in any foil, and
are fit companions for the talleft flowers in your garden :
they are propagated from flips taken from the root; and
the beft method is to plant them in pets, otherwife they
will grow fo numerous.as to become a nufance rather than
an ornament.
Seeds or layers of the pafliorv-tree may be fown this
month ; and every cutting of it, being planted in- fine
earth, will take root about May or June.
Tliis tree is a prodigious quick, grower, and very har¬
dy ; loves moift and cool places; and, if conftantiy ws?
tered, and dunged about the roots, it will bear fruit re-
fembling lemons.
The arbutus,, thrives in a light, gravelly foil, andmay
be raifed either from feeds or layers ; and the fruit (which
muft be gathered about Chriftmas, and laid to dry for
G A R D I
* month) is to be fown in pots of light earth, and cover¬
ed about a quarter of an inch with fine mould in this
month; and the gentle heat of a hot bed will greatly
affilt the germination of the feeds, which are to be fre¬
quently fprinkled with pond-water as they come up.
The layers of the arbutus are made of the moll tender
(hoots about September ; but will not be ftrong enough to
t anfplant the Ipring following, though they will take
root in a year’s time.
The apocynum, or dog’s-bane, is propagated from feeds
fown this month in hot-beds, or from cuttings; a light
natural foil agrees bell with them; they Ihould be water¬
ed but feldom, and then gently; and they (hould be fet
in the hot houfe fooner or later, as they are more or lefs
tender.
Set the Hone of the fruit of the palm-tree this month
in light earth, and give them the affillance of the hot¬
bed ; it is a green-houfe plant, but might be made to
Hand abroad, after Iheltering for three or four years.
The green privet, which is a plant of a quick growth,
and makes an admirable hedge, is propagated by fowing
the berries in light earth, about an inch deep, watering
them frequently till they come up; a hot gravelly foil is
the molt proper for this tree; and they are to be tranf-
planted from the feed-bed the fecond year after fowing.
The mezeron, Ihould now be fown in a loamy foil, and
care Ihould be taken to preferve it from the birds.
The berries of the juniper-tree may be fown this month
in rich ground without watering, or in any light manure,
and in about two months they will come up; and they are
to remain in the feed-bed two years, during which time
they mult be kept free from weeds, and then they may
be tranfplanted.
You may now take off the fuckers of the fpirxa fru-
tex, and plant them in a light foil.
Sow the feeds of the feveral kinds of firs ornamental
in wildernefs-works, which will flourilh in any foil; in
order to keep their bodies fmooth and free from knots,
you mull break off their collateral buds while they are
young and tender.
Upon the hot-bed, fow. fuch exotic feeds as are lefs'
tender, and arrive fooner at perfection than thofe fown the
kit month ; among which are the China or Indian pink,
the najhirtium Indicttm, convolvulus, and balfamines ;
and none of thefe mull be planted in the natural ground
till the middle of May: if you have no hot-bed, you
may defer.growing the marvel of Peru and the najlurii-
um till the next month, when they will come up in the
natural ground,
Plant tube-rofes in pots of frelh earth, giving them a
gentle warmth, but no water till they fprout out of the
ground.
The feeds-of the campanula pyramidalis - Ihould now
be fown, and flips taken off from the roots; frelh air'
Ihould be given to the pots of this flower, and they
Ihould be fet in fome pit where the funmay come at them,
by.which means they will grow tall.
Mend and repair your Ihelves and places of (belter for
auriculas, which Ihould now-be. guarded on all fides but
the call from the fun, and defended from rain; put can-
¥as coverings or matts over your :tulips, to prevent their
! N I N G. 655
being blighted; and tranfplant your carnation layers for
blowing, if they were not planted out in autumn.
The feeds of the humble and fenfitive plants may now
be fown upon the hot-beds,; and the noli me lungere in
the natural ground.
You may tranfplant your evergreens ;’ graft the
Spanilh white jeflamin upon the common.Englilh fort;
and flip or fet box for edgings, or in figured works.
Such exotic plants as have fuffered in the green-houfe,
(hould be removed to the hot-houfe ; where, to prevent
the fleam of the bed from being of bad confequence, the
dung Ihould be covered with a due thicknefs of earth.
Fruit-Garden.
You may make layers of the vine either in this or the
next month, and they will be fit to tranfplant at Micha¬
elmas; this tree is alfo propagated by laying down the
young branches as foon as the fruit is gathered, or by-
making plantations of cuttings at that time.
If the weather proves open in February, that is the
bell time for planting vines; and the foil in which they
bell fucceed is rocky or gravelly.
A chalky hill, lying very open to the fun, will pro¬
duce better grapes than any of the rich foils prepared
with horfe-dung; but a tolerable good comport, to mix
with the earth about the roots, may be made with the
rubbilh of old buildings.
In planting a vine, let the places where your vines are
to Hand be open and prepared before any of the plants
are taken out of the nurfery, when great care fhould be
taken in their removal; they are to be planted fix or fe-
ven feet every way, and the heft grapes for a vineyard
are the marlmorfe, chiante, claret grape, and Burgundy
black morellon.
Thefe vines are to be pruned the September before
tranfplanted, according to their ftrength, leaving: not
more than four buds on the ftrongell; and to cleanfe them
from weeds is all the care they will require the firrt fum-
mer.
Shorten the fummer-lhoots about the end of Septem¬
ber, and the rtrongeft of them will begin to drew a little
fruit the fummer following-.
In May or June of this fecond year, the fmall (hoots*
and fuperfluous branches are to be carefully broke off,
and two or three Ihoots only preferved on each vine,
which Ihould be fupported by flakes or poles, till the
September following, (fpr the nearer the grapes grow to
the ground, provided they do not touch it, the fweeter
they will be) and then they may be (hortened.
The vineyard, thus planted and managed, will, in five
or fix years time, ptoducea good crop of grapes.
The fig is raifed either from layers, feeds, or fuckers ;
the layers are ordered like thofe of the vine ; the feeds
are fown in rubbilh, or fuch like foil; and the fuckers are-
feparated from the old roots the beginning of this month, .
and tranfplanted without cutting.off their tops.
The fig tree thrives in the fame fort of foil as-the vine,
and may be planted either againft walls or in flan-
da rds.
The pruning of this, tree is very different from that
GARDE
of other fruit-trees; for as the pra&ice is to take away
the fmall branches in pruning other trees, fo here it is to
be avoided, becaufe the fig puts forth its fruit chiefly at
the extremities of the laA year’s fhoots ; but you may
cut off fome'of the weak fmaller fhoots which do not
promife to bear, fo as you do it clofe to the great wood.
The branches mult not be fuffered to grow too high,
as they are prevented by that means from being full ; the
new thick branches mult be fhortened yearly to about a
foot, and the bud at the end of the -branches broken off
in the fpring time, which will caufe the figs to Ihoot out
more early, and inflead of a Angle branch there will be
two.
The pruning feafott of the fig is towards the end of
this month ; and it is belt in the fumuter to let this tree
have fome liberty from the wall, and not fuffer it to con¬
tinue clofe tacked to it like other fruit-trees; but in the
winter fome of the (haggling branches (hould be cut off, and
the belt and biggeft branches tacked to the wall in No¬
vember, that they may be more effectually fettled, and
fheltered from the frolt in the winter by the defence of a
matt, or other wife, efpecially when the feafon is very
cold.
The fuckers which this tree puts forth in great abun-
-dance, muft be kept ffown, and whatever you cut away,
niu.lt be as clofe to the great wood or roots as you can ;
and a whole tree may, afier an unkind winter, be cut
down for the recovery of its former date of health.
The following is the method of making the horizontal
{belters for fruit trees: Lay rows of tiles in the llruaure
of the wall, at certain diltances one above another, the
tiles jetting forward, and hanging over the plane of the
wall about an inch and a half; this is neither a difficult
nor a chargeable work, if the wall be of brick, to place
between every two rows of bricks thefe horizontal ffielters
•of tiles: and if the wall be of Hone, and the joints be
any thing regular, it is hot lefs eafy.
In order to avoid.the inconvenience of branches riding
•over the edges of the tiles, in each row, at convenient
diftances, mult be left void places or gaps, for the wood
branches to pafs through ; which gaps are to be left wider
at the bottom than at the top of the wall ; and the rows
<of the tiles are not to be laid exaflly horizontal, but ra¬
ther a litt'e floping, the beter to ffioot off the water from
the fruit.
Bloffoms and tender fruit are more efpecially preferved
by thefe horizontal (belters, than by mans, or coverings,
of any kind whatfoever; and by their affiftance a good
quantity of the choicefl: fruit may be depended on in the
molt difficult and unfeafonable year.
KitchenGarden.
Directions have, in the month of January, been gi¬
ven how to fow peafe in drills, or lines, and to earth them
when they come out of the ground ; when beans may be
planted three feet afunder between the rows, and the
large peas four feet, being fet about five inches apart in a
ftiff foil, without any manure, kept clean and watered a-
rbout the time of their bloffoin.
N I N G.
Thyme is raifed either by feeds Town in this month or
April, or from flips planted at the fame time.
Sage is alio propagated from feeds or flips, but molt
commonly from the latter, taken from the toots at the
end of rhis month, or the beginning of die next, and
.planted, in light earth, a foot apart.
Of marjoram there 'are two forts; one of which is
called winter Iweet marjoram, and propagated by plant¬
ing the flips about March or April in moift ground;
and the other fort is fown annually on hot-beds,
Camomile and penny-royal are propagated from flips
planted in this or the next month, in Itiff foil and in a
ihady part of the garden.
Fennel is raifed from feeds fown in this month in the
natural ground ; as is parfley, dill, fac.
Mint and balm will grow any where, and are propa-
tecbby parting their roots in any time of the fpring as
well as by lowing.
Mint is more generally propagated than balm, and
when it is about a foot high you may cut it in branches,
and dry it in the ffiade for winter ule.
Rue is a plant whjch is multiplied by flips fet in a light
foil, and ffiould have a place in the ffiade.
Tanfy is a plant, which fhould always be kept dry in
winter, and is increafed by parting the roots in the fpring.
Seliery is a hot her.b, and raifed from feed fown in
this month, or April, in fome well expofed place in the
garden; it mufl: be planted out about fix weeks after it is
come up in beds, allowing fix inches diftance between the
plants, and they may remain to the middle of June, at
which time fome of the firft fowing will be fit to plant in
trenches for blanching, in a light rich foil.
Your trenches muft be eight or ten inches wide, and of
the fame depth; in which the plants are to be put as foon
as made, after having pruned off their tops and roots;
place them at. five inches diftance ; as they increafe in
growth, earth them up within four or five inches of their
tops. Endive may be fown in this month, but April is
the more proper time ; a light foil agrees beft with it, and
when it has been come up about fix weeks, plant it in beds
as directed for fellery, and about the middle of July
plant it in rows about fix inches apart.
When it is well grown, tie up fome of it to whiten;
which work fhould be continued every ten or twelve days.
Purflane is fown in this month, and glaffes are ufed to
help it forward ; and in April it is fown in warm places.
Sorrel is fown in rows or drills, like other fallading.
Of fpinach, in March, April and May, you are to fow
feveral parcels of ground at different times, about a fort¬
night from each other, as'a conftant fupply for the table,
till there is plenty of other greens.
There are two forts of fpinach, the prickly fort, and
the round fpinach, both of which thrive in a light rich
foil; and fuch as is intended for winter ufe muft be fown
in Auguft.
Chives are raifed by off fets from the roots, planted at
fix inches diftance, cutting off their, branches at the time
of planting ; they fucceed beft in a light, rich ground ;
and the oftener they are cut, the fmaller and finer they
are.
Tarragon
GARDENING. ^57
’Tarragon rs raifeid from flips and feeds; the flips are
•taken from the root, and planted in tills month in as warm
Sen expofure as poilible. ,
Artichoke feeds are fown about the beginning of this
.•month, and planted out in April; and the middle of this
month is the molt proper time to flip the roots for new
/plantations ; for they are ra.fed by fuckers as well as
feeds.
When you have fevered the flips, three heads are to t>e
Jeft growing upon every old root; and thefe flips are to
be planted two feet apart, in lines four feet diltance from
each other, and well watered after planting.
Artichokes thrive bell in a ftrong rich ground, expo-
fed’to the fun, with dung well mellowed in it: when they
’bloflbm the firfl year, the roots are endangered; you may
therefore break off the bloflbms, and about the middle
of July break off the ftems of the old roots that have
-done blowing, by which means you will furnifh your-
felves with frefli fhoots.
The feeds of the cabbage and lettuce of all kinds may
now be fown in the open ground among the crops; a
light rich ground and a warm expolpre agrees belt with
them ; and that there may not be wanting a fupply of
them, they are to be fown every month from March to
Auguft, when the winter crops are to be put in, which
fhould be planted out three weeks after they come up, at
.about five inches diflance.
Such as produce large cabbages early in thefprrng may
•be permitted to Hand for feed, and are to be flaked up
and defended from the wind; the feeds will be fit to ga¬
ther as foon as they begin to {hew their down, and then
the plants are to be pulled up and let to dry in a green-
houfe.
The cauliflower feed is fown in fome well-expofed
corner of the garden, where the young plants may be
fheltered; and about the middle of April, when they
are in their firft leaf, they are to be planted in a nurfery
about five or fix inches afunder, and there continue till
the latter end of May, or June, when they are to be
tranfplanted abroad for your crop, which fhould be done
in moift or rainy weather; or if it be a dry feafon, holes
•are to be made in the ground, about three feet apart, and
to be well watered before you plant the cauliflowers,
which will make the plants {hoot, being alfo frequently
watered afterwards.
In the autumn following they will bear large flowers;
but fome of them will not flower till after Michaelmas,
and fuch plants may be taken up,with the earth round
their roots, and fet together in the green-houfe, or fome
fuch place, where they will enlarge th'emfelves, -and be
fit for ufe in the winter.
To raife fummer cauliflowers, you muft fow the feed
the beginning of Auguft, upon fome decayed hot-bed ;
and as foon as they have put out their leaf, tranfplant
them about three inches diftance, upon fome other bedt
in the middle of September draw out every other plant,
and fet them fix inches apart under a fouth wall, tofland
there till fpring, when they are to be planted out for
flowering ; or you may fet them in the places where they
are to bloflbm, covering them with glafs-bells in the winter.
-If the weather is open, the firit week in this month
Voi... II. No 54. .2
you may fow afparagus; and the-feedlings will be fit for
planting out the February or March following.
The following is the method ufed by the beft gardeners
to produce a natural crop.
After meafuring out the ground, allowing four feet
for the breadth of each bed, and two feet for the alleys
between the beds; open a trench at one end, and lay into the
bottom of it horfe-dung about fix or eight inches thick;
then go on and trench the fame quantity of ground lying
next to the firft trench, throwing the earth of the lecond
trench upon the dung at the bottom of the firft, and
thus continue working till the whole is done.
Having finiflied your beds, plant afparagus, taken frelk
out of the nurfery, in lines at eight or ten inches dif¬
tance, fpreading their roots, and covering their buds with
earth about four inches thick ; each bed takes up four
rows; and when-they are all planted, fow the whole
with onions, and rake it level, for the alleys will not be
of any ufe till after Michaelmas, when the onions will
be off, and the (hoots of the afparagus plants made that
fummer are to be cut down, the alleys dug up, part of
the foil thrown upon the beds, to raife the earth about
five or fix inches above the buds of the plants, and the
alleys fupplied with dung, or fome rich foil.
In March following the earth muft be raked down; and
the alleys are to be turned up every winter, and now and
then enriched with dung.
When Michaelmas is paft, you may cut down the
haulm, and give them their winter-drefling ; and you
fhould not be later than the middle of March in raking
and laying down the beds.
It is a general rule, not to cut any of the afparagus till
the fourth year after planting; but where the plants are
ftrong, a few may be taken here and there in very ftnall
quantities the third year.
The afparagus appears above ground the beginning of
April, and may be cut till the beginning of June, when
they have flood five years ; but if they are younger, you
muft not cut them after the middle of May.
No buds that appear above ground ftiould be fuffered
to grow in the cutting feafon, unlefs they proceed from
frefli plants, to make good deficiencies; and thofe muft
be fuffered to run up every year, till they have gathered _
ftrength : it is beft to cut them downwards a little floping
with a knife made blunt at the point.
APRIL.
Flower-Garden.
In this month, and the beginning of May, the feeds
of the carnation are to be fown in a compoft made of fandy
loam, and well-confumed melon-earth, two loads of the
former to one load of -the latter; fift them well together,
and let them lie in a heap for a time to mellow ; then lift
it a fecond time either to fow the carnation-feeds in, or
to plant your layers or roots of them upon.
Having filled your pots with this earth, and fmoothed
them on the top, fprinkle on your feeds ; and covering
them with the fame compoft. prefs it gently with a board,
and let them ftand expofed to the weather.
7 C The
GAUD
The feed will come up in about three weeks ; and in
the July following the young plants will be big enough to
tranfplant into beds, where they mult be let about ten
inches dillant from one another, and Ihaded from the fun
with mats for about three weeks.
You may find many varieties from the feedling plants
in the fecond year; and whatever rarities appear, they
mull be laid down as foon as pollible, by cutting half
.through a joint, and fplitting the internode upwards, half
way to the other joint above it; then the wounded part
muft: be buried in the earth, and fafteneddown till it takes
root, which, provided the earth is light, will be in about
two months.
The moft proper feafon for laying down the layers of
the feedlings is in July ; and when planted they mult be
carefully guarded, botli from the intenfe hekt in fummer,
and the chilling frofts in winter.
The flower Items will begin to put forth about April,
■when each flower mult be fupported by its Item being
tyed to a Itick about four feet long ; and as foon as the
flower-buds appear, leave only one or two of the largelt
upon each flower Item, to bloflbm ; and about ten days
before the flowers open, the round poded kinds will be¬
gin to crack their hulks on one fide, when you Ihould
fplit or open the hulk on the oppofite fide to the natural
fradtion with a fine needle; and three or four days before
the complete opening of the flower, you mult cut off the
points on the top of the flower-pod, and fupply the va¬
cancies on each fide of the hulk with two fmall pieces of
vellum, which may be eafily .flipped between the flower-
leaves and the infide of the hulk, by which means the
flower will make an equal difplay of its parts, and the
form of it, confequently, be entirely regular.
When the bloflbm begins to Ihew its colour, you Ihould
fix a piece of flat board upon the flicks, to Ihelter it from
the fun’s extreme heat.
The feeds of the carnation muft be gathered towards
the end of September, in dry weather, and be expofed
for a month or two, through a glais, without opening the
-hulks till the time of fowing the feeds comes round again.
The feeds of the columbine are fown in the nurfery
this month, from whence you may remove the choice
plants to the garden, and next year they will yield flow¬
ers : the roots of this flower will hold good for three or
four years, when you muft have a fupply of frelh ones.
The feed of the fcarlet bean is annually fown in good
ground, well expofed to the fun; and flicks Ihould be
fixed in the ground, round which they will twine, and
make a very agreeable Ihew.
The amaranthus is an annual, fown on a hot-bed; and
the feeds being fown in this or the preceding month, in
the hotteft part of your garden, are to be raifed under
glaffcS' . .r . ~
The African marygold is alfo an annual, raifed on a
hot bed.
Fruit-Garden.
You Ihould now carefully weed your beds of ftraw-
berries, and take off their runners; and if the feafon is
D K 1 N G.
dry, it will be proper to water them, for they produce
hut little fruit when this is neglefted.
Lay the branches of the peach-tree horizontally, and
keep them free from great wood, and perpendicular fhoots
in the middle, that the fap may be carried in fuch due pro¬
portion as ns neceflary ; and it fhould be ever obferved,
that too much vigour is as pernicious as too little, with
refpeA to the tree bearing a fuflicient quantity of fruit.
When a pear or apple-tree is ungovernable, and will
not bear frnit, (trip off the bark of the ftrongeft branches
half an inch, or an inch, according to the bignefs of the
tree, and take it entirely away to the wood.
Thefe branches will continue to bear fruit for feveral
years ; and when they die, there are always in a pear-tree
a fufficient number of others to fucceed them, efpecially
in the middle of the tree ; which, if ungovernable, ought
to undergo the fame kind of difcipline.
This work, which ftiould be pradtifed only on'low
dwarfs, or waH-trees, is heft done in March or April.
Cherry-trees, not in a thriving condition, (hould now
be flit perpendicularly down with the point of a knife,
juft entering the bark of the ftem of the tree, to prevent
being hide-bound ; after which operation they will thrive
and profper wonderfully, when, for want of it, they will
continue almoft barren for ten or fifteen years.
At this time you fliould look carefully to your young
fruit-trees which were planted in the fpring, obferving to
water them in dry weather; and if you obferve the leaves
beginning to curl up, you {hould water them gently all over
their branches; which may alfo be pra&ifed to great ad¬
vantage on old trees * but it muft not be done in the heat
of the day, left the fun fliould fcorch their leaves, nor
too late in the evening, efpecially if the nights are cold.
Where you obferve the fruit-trees tobe greatly infefted
with infedls, you (hould wafli the branches with water, in
which a great quantity of tobacco ftalks have been fteeped;
which, if carefully done, will infallibly deftroy the in-
feds, and not do any any injury to the trees ; or if the
leaves which are curled are taken off, and fome tobacco-
duft thrown on the branches, it will deftroy the infeds,
and may, in a day or two, be wafhed off again.
Towards the end of this month, you muft look over
your efpaliers and walls of fruit-trees, training in the re¬
gular kindly (hoots in their proper fituation, and difplacing
all fore-right and luxuriant ones.
In the middle of this month uncover thofe fig-trees
which were fcreened from the froft in the winter ; but do
it with caution, as the young fruit, which now begins to
appear, may be greatly hurt by being expofed to the air
too fuddenly.
Kitchen-Garden.
The middle of this month is the proper time to plant
out melons, which are to be raifed under paper: in ma¬
king thefe ridges, if the ground is dry, the dung fliould
be but a half a foot higher than the furface of the ground,
and the earth {hould be laid at leaft a foot and a half thick
upon the dung, that the plants may have depth enough
to root; they will require no watering, after they are
N I N G.
CARD]
•well rooted, and hereby a choicer fort of melons may be
•generaiiy obtained ; which, in the common method, fre-
■quently mifearry, or produce but little fruit.
The alleys between thefe beds Ihould be afterwards
raifed with dung and earth to the level of the beds, that
the roots may have room to extend on each fide, for the
roots of thefe plants fpread as far in the ground as titeir
branches extend on thefurface.
Of kidney-beans we have two forts ; the one, which
is'called the Batterfea-bean, bears early, and near the
root, without running high; and the other, grows near
fix feet high.
We fow thefe beans, the firft week in this month, about
four inches apart, in drills from north to fouth, in alight
frefli foil, covering them with earth, raifed in a ridge, to
Iceep the wet from them: the lines of the Batterfea-beans
Ihould be too feet apart; and the other fort are be fown
in rows like rounceval-peas, having alleys between them
two feet and a half wide; the former kind need not be
(taked, but the others will not bear well unlefs they are
flaked.
From the firfl fowing in this month, you may, once
every three weeks till the middle of July, continue to
fow frelh ground with kidney-beans to fucceed one an¬
other ; obferving, that when the ground is very dry, as
in June and July, and the weather hot, you mufl water
the drills as foon as you have opened them, before you
put in the feed, which will contribute to their vegeta¬
tion ; but after they are fown, you mult avoid watering
them.
Toward the end of this month, you may fow the
nonpareils, and the Spanilh morotto-peas, about two or
three inches apart in. lines, leaving a fpace of three or four
feet for alleys, till the whole is fown; and when they
grown up fix inches high, earth them up, and fet one row
of flicks or boughs about fix feet high, on each fide, for
them to rur> up, and you will have a plentiful crop.
The charlton, or mafter-hotfpur, Ihould be fown in
December, for the firfl: crop, in drills about two or three
feet afunder, the lines running from north to fouth : a fe-
cond crop of the fame kind of peas ihould be fown in Fe¬
bruary ; and in March we may put in<& third crop of the
fame fort.
Some ground may be prepared about the beginning of
April for the dwarf-peas, which feldom rife higher than half
a foot, and are to be fet four or five inches apart, in lines
about eighteen inches diftant from one another; and in
order to Iiave a coiiftant fupply of young peas, there is a
fort of dwarf peas which may be fown in May or June,
in edgings upon a gentle hot-bed, the firfl week in Sep¬
tember, and will produce peas in the winter.
Spanifh chardons may now be fown in the natural ground;
•you are to make holes for the feeds about five or fix feet
diftance, and put four or five feeds in each hole; and
when they are come up, leave growing only one ftrong
plant in a hole for blanching.
Lavender and rofemary are raifed from flips planted in
this month, which take root almofl immediately if they are
Ihoots of the laft year, but if they are older they will
not grow : thefe plants fhould be fet in a light fandy
foil, in the warmeft and drieft part of the garden.
<>59
M A Y.
Flower-Garden.
The ficoides, which is propagated by the cutting?,
being planted-abroad in a natural bed of earth in this
month, will be fit to put in pots in Auguft, where it
may remain in open air till the latter end of September;
feme kinds of this plant being annual, mufl be raifed from
feeds every year; and one fort of it will fland the win¬
ter, if we raife young plants of it about July or Auguft,
that do not blolfom in three or four months.
The fhrub-kinds, which have their ftalks woody, will
bear moderate waterings ; but the others, which are more
fucculent, muft have very little water. Thefe plants
muft be expofed to the fun, which will open their blof-
foms, unlefs it be two kinds, which only flower in the
night. The cuttings of thefe plants ftiould not be planted
before the wounded parts have been dried a day or two
in the fun.
The torch-thiftle is a fucculent plant, raifed from cut¬
tings planted between May and the end of July, upon a
little hill in the middle of the pot, for they can hardly
endure water : and before they are put into the hot bed,
they muft fland abroad about twenty days to take root ;
their waterings muft be feldom, and gentle ; and the beft
comport for this plant is, the rubbifh of old walls, mixed
with about one third of fandy foil. The fidums, efpe-
cially the tree-kind, are eafily propagated from branches
fet in the earth in a light fandy foil, either in this or any
of the fummer-momhs, giving them a little water, and
as much air and lhade as poflible in the fummer; and in
the winter no water at all.
There are feveral forts of the geranium, which are
raifed by planting the cuttings, this month, in natural .
ground, where they will become proper for tranfplanting ,
the Auguft following ; and from feeds fown in March on
hot-beds. Thofe planted in the natural ground require a »
medium foil without dung, muft be frequently watered,
and houfed with the orange-trees.
The amomum Plinii is raifed from cuttings planted
this month in the natural ground : during the fummer it
muft ftand in feme place defended from the. fun, and be
conftantly fupplied with water.
Cuttings of the Arabian j-flamin may this month be
planted in a fandy foil, and is more injured by wet than
cold. At the time the cuttings are taken from this plant,
it fhould pruned to within fix inches ot the laft year’s
fhoot, and have frefh earth put to the roots; by which
means it will (hoot near a foot in the enfuing fummer.
Layers of the myrtle-tree fhould be made this month ;
the youngeft Ihoots muft be bent into the earth, alter it
is well ftirred ; and being often refreihed with water, will
take root, and be fit to take off from the mother-plants
in the fpring following. In July, the cuttings of this
tree are planted, ftripping off the leaves, two inches from
each cutting, and fetting them that depth, about an inch .
apart, in pots of fine light earth, watering them frequent¬
ly till they have taken root, which will be about the latter
end of Auguft ; and this young plantation is to remain till -
** >ih£.
i6'&3 O A R D
the fecond of March before they are to be transplanted
into pots. About the middle of April you may prune,
and put earth about the roots of fuch old myrtle-trees
as are in a bad date, and cut the branches off their
heads within three or four inches of the ftem.
The melianthus is a plant propagated wirh eafe from
Sips taken about the roots any time between this month
and AuguCt, planted in a fandy foil, and frequently wa¬
tered.
The pyracantha is raifed from cuttings, planted in May
or June, in pots of fine earth, and watered frequently,
keeping them from the fun till the following winter,
when a warm expofure will be ferviceable to them. This
tree may alfo be raifed from layers and.feeds, and thrives
heft in a dry gravelly foil, unmixed with dung or any
.other rich manure.
The oleander plant has many varieties; Ate moft
.common of which is the fcar’et oleander, which being of
a hardy nature, may be kept abroad all the winter under
a fouth wall ; but the fweet-fcented oleander is more
tender, and fhould be houfed with the orange-tree. Thefe
jlhrubs are raifed by layers in this month or the next, in
a medium foil, and with moderate watering, and will take
root to tranfplant the Auguft following.
Orange and lemon trees may this month be removed and
tranfplanted without danger, as well as brought out of the
nonfervatory: upon bringing out your exotics, and other
plants, brufh and cleanfe them from the duft they have con-
traded in the houfe, give them frdh earth on the furface of
their pots, and water them well, when they are placed m the
order they are to ftand. When you tranfplant or remove
orange-trees, you are to do it carefully, without injuring
their bodies; let the cafes for your trees be filled with a
compofition of two parts in fandy loam, one part rotten
dung, and one part white fand; and when your orange-
trees are fo removed, give them frequent waterings, but
without wetting either the ftem or the leaves ; let them
in the Ihade for a fortnight, and let them have the fun by
degrees ; as, when it is too hot upon them, it turns their
leaves yellow.
Fit U 1 T-G A R T> E N.
In the beginning of this month, look carefully over
■your wall and efpalier trees, and take off all fore-right
ihoots, and fuch as are luxuriant and ill-placed; and train
fuch kindly branches as you would preferve regularly to
the wall or efpalier, which will prevent your trees from
growing into confufion.
Fruit-trees may be tranfplanted in the fummer months,
from May to Auguft, even when the trees are in bloffom:
the method of ttanfplanting them is, by preparing holes
for them before you begin to take them up ; and the earth
taken out of the holes you are to make very fine, and
mix with water in large tubs to the confiftence of thin
batter, with which each bole is to be filled for the tree
to be planted in, before the earthy parts have time to
• fettle or fall to the bottom. A tree, thus planted in
hatter, has its roots immediately clofed, and guarded
Trom the air ; and as the feafon now difpofes every part
.of the ,ree for growth and Ihooting, it lofes very little of
E N i N G '
’its vigour if you are careful of its roots, obfervlng to
wound but few of them at the taking the tree out of
the ground, and not let them dry in the paffage from one
place to another. Though this pap is ofufe in fummer-
.piantations, yet in the ufual winter-plantations it is per¬
nicious, as it will then chill and rot the root of your
trees.
As the cutting and wounding fome roots of a tree, and
among them of the capital ones; cannot be avoided, a
mixture of gum has been contrived to plaifter over the
wounded parts of the great roots, and prevent the air
ard wet penetrating too much into the veffels of the roots;
and if the root be very large, you may at the fame time
mark its correfponding limb or branch in the head, to be
cut off about a -fortnight afterwards in the fame propor¬
tion, and then to be plaiftered in the fame manner as the
root was done before.
In the removal of trees, care muft be taken that it be
fudden ; for if the roots are permitted to grow the leaft
dry, -we may prefently difeern a failure in the top-
branches, which will require time to redrefs ; for which
.reafon, it has been thought impofltble to remove a large
tree to any confiderable diftance.
There is one convenience in this laft way of planting,
which is not in the common way; and that is, that the
tree may be taken up without any earth about the roots,
which makes the tranfportation more eafy; and by this
method, and the alliftance of prepared gums, peach trees,
ne&arines, pear-trees, plumb-trees,^and cherry-trees,
with fruit upon them, either green or ripe, may be re¬
moved, though the trees are fix or feven years old ;
and trees of all forts may be thus tranfplanted in the
fummer.
Kitchen-Garden.
You may now give your melons air in the middle of
the day, and look to your melon-ridges, weeding them,
and carefully pruning off the water-branches, which are
known by their flatnefs and extraordinary breadth ; it is
alfo neceffary to pinch off the tops of the runners that
have fruit upon them, having three or four joints above
the fruit, and taking care that the fruit be well flickered
with Leaves from the power of the fun, otherwife their
growth will he fpoiled; but when the growth is perfected,
you cannot expofe them too much to the fun for ripen¬
ing. If the feafon be dry, rather float the alleys between
the melon-ridges, than pour water upon the plant, or
near the ftems.
About the beginning of this month, fow cucumbers in
the natural ground, both for fallad and pickling : in fow-
ing thofe fof fallads, put about twelve feeds in each hole;
but leave only four or five'’ when they come up ; let the
earth be frefli, and well worked with a fpade, rather
light than ftiff; and a plantation of this kind will produce
twice as much fruit as one of the fame quantity of ground
forced with dung.
To raife cucumbers for pickling, fow them in a drill,
as you do peafe or French beans ; and put a row of
bufliy fticks on each fide of them : the rows muft be four
or five feet afunder; and if fowed in the fouth border,
whets
GARDENING. 66t
"where there Is a vacancy, and nailed again(i the wall,
they wiil grow (trailer and finer flavoured than thofe on
the ground.
Replant imperial and Silefia lettuce: fowfomeof the
white and brown Dutch cos-lettuce, to be^planted out
for cabbaging in June : fow radifhes and endive very thin,
to be branched without tranfpladting ; and you may alfo
fow purflane and cabbage-feed ; tranfplant cauliflower-
plants ; make your firft drills for fellery, if your plants
are large enough. Plant out cabbages and beet-chard ;
and you may yet fow thyme, fvveet marjoram, and gilly¬
flowers.
You (hould now he very careful to deftroy weeds be¬
fore they flied their feeds ; deltroy alfo the nefts of cater¬
pillars and other infers which annoy your trees ; prune
off all crumpeled leaves, for they harbour the word of
vermin; and if the weather be dry, water new planted
trees, afparagus, <&c.
JUNE.
Flower-Garden.
The leaves of the faffron crocus appear as foon as the
flower is part, and remain all winter, which in the fpring
fliould be tied together in knots to help the increafe of
the roots ; and thefe will be fit to remove or tranfplant
about JVIidfummer-. This plant delights in chalky ground,
but it will profper alfo in a fandy foil; and the piftillum
contains the faffron ufed in medicine. The roots of the
feveral kinds of crocus may be taken out of the ground
in this month, and replanted with other bulbs; they love
a light foil, and may be increaled by off-fets.
The cyclamen is propagated from feeds fown as foon
as ripe, in a light foil, and tranfplanted in Midfummer
when their leaves are decayed; and it is a general rule,
that all bulbs may be fafely tranfplanted, when their
flowers and leaves are decayed.
The colchicum thrives bell in a fandy foil, and will on¬
ly bear tranfplanting about Midfummer, when the roots
are entirely at reft. There are many forts of aloes, the
moft common whereof are brought from America ; but
Africa produces the greateft variety, where they grow
upon rocky ground; therefore the earth proper for
them is to be made with one half fandy foil, and the
other rubbifh of old walls, mixed and fifted together;
you fhould plant them (hallow in the pots, railing the
€arth about them, fo that the plant may, as it were, ftand
on a hill ; and when you water them, do it without
touching any part of the plant, otherwife they will be in
danger of rotting; the off-fets of the aloe may be plant¬
ed in the latter end of this month, and the beginning of
July, when they fhould be fuffered to ftand abroad for
about nine days ; and they may be helped with a hot-bed
as foon as they begin to take root; if the weather be fair
while the aloes are abroad, their earth being dry, will
require watering once a-week ; and from the time of
their being houfed till the middle of Odfober, gentle re-
frefhments may be given them while the fun is upon them
in the morning; but from October to March, they muft
(be kept very dry. In May they fhould be tranfplanted,
Vol. II. No. sq. .2
without difturbing the roots; the feeds of many kinds of
aloes ripen in Britain, and may be fown in April upon
hot-beds. Thefritillaria is propagated by planting their
branches in a natural bed of earth any time between June
and Auguft, and they will foon be fit to plant into pots;
they fucceed beft in the fame fort of earth as the hloe.
The Indian fig is raifed by planting its leaves fingly a-
bout two inches deep, in pots of earth compofed of lime,
rubbifh, and fandy foil, after their wounds are dried,
and letting them ftand abroad till they take root, and
then they may have the help of the hot-bed ; you muft
give thefe plants a good deal of the fun, and the leaves
fhould be planted during the fummer-months.
Fruit-Garden.
The inoculation of fruit-trees now demands the atten¬
tion of the gardener, and the following is the moft ap¬
proved method of performing the operation. About
Midfummer take off a vigorous fhoot from any tree you
would propagate; and after having made choice of a ftock
of about three or four years growth, in a fmooth par.t
of it make a downright flit in the bark, a little above
an inch in length, and another crofswife at the top qf
that, to give way to the opening of the bark ; then gently
loofen the bark from the wood on both fides, beginning
at the top; which being done, cut off your bud with a
penknife, entering pretty deep into the wood, as much
above as below the bud, to the length cf the flit in the
ftock : after the bud is thus prepared, take out the woody
part of it (carefully preferving the eye of the bud) then
put it in between the bark and the wood of the ftock at
the crofs flit, putting it downward by the ftalk, where
the leaf grew, till it exa&ly clofes ; then bind it about
with coarfe woolen yarn, the better to make all parts re¬
gularly clofe, and the bud incorporate with the ftock:
in three weeks time the bud will be incorporated with
the ftock, when you muft loofen the yarn, that it may
not gall the place too much: the quicker this operation
is performed, the better; and you muft put twq buds into
one ftock, in inoculating nedtarines aud peaches. IF the
buds inoculated this month do not hit, you may make
another attempt in the fame year, and on the fame ftock.
The proper time for inoculating is from the beginning of
this month to the latter end of Auguft ; and care muft be
taken that the branch and fhoot made choice of for in¬
oculation, do not lie by, but that they be ufed as foon as
cut.
You may upon one tree, bud peaches, nedlarines, a-
pncqts, plumbs, and almonds.
Kitchen-Garden.
Kidne v-beans, radifhes, lettuces for cabbaging, and
endive, may now be fown; a? may alfo the large fort of
peas, about five or fix inches apart, allowing three or
four feet diftance between the lines, and they will in Sep¬
tember afford a good crop.
Replant cabbage-lettuces ; tranfplant leeks in light rich
ground, and at fix inches diftance from each other ; and if
the weather be dry, you may gather herbs for drying a-
7 D gaiaft
66i CARD
gainfl: the winter, fuch as lavender, rofemary, lage, mint,
fweet marjoram, thyme,
Take efpecial care to preferve your plants from the
fcorching fun; itir up ftiff ground ; continue to deftroy
weeds; and give your plants gentle waterings about their
extreme fibres, which ihould be done at the elofe of
day.
JULY.
Flower-Garden.
There is little to be done in the flower-garden this
month : the berries of the coffee-tree which are now
ripe, may be fown, firft cleaning their feeds from the
pulp, in pots of fine earth, about an inch deep; and if
you give them the help of a hot-bed, in lefs than fix
weeks time they will fprout.
The fruit of the ananas being ripe in this month, if
you cut off the crown of the leaves which grows on the
top of it, and plant it in a light Tandy earth, it will, with
the afliftance of a hot-bed, prefently take root.
Anemony-feeds, now fown, mult be fprinkled with
water frequently and gently.
Fruit-Garden.
The management of the vine fhould this month be
chiefly attended to: it is to beobferved, that from a vigo¬
rous fhoot of a vine already once pruned, there will pufli
again feveral Midfummer (hoots weaker than the former,
from the firft, fecond, and third bud towards the extre¬
mity ; which (hoots are to be taken off, only remember¬
ing that it is proper to fpare the laft of fuch (hoots fo far
as to leave one bud upon it, from whence, in Autumn,
nature may a third time exert herfelffor if thofe (hoots
were all entirely removed, the vine would pu(h at thofe
bearing buds which lie at the bottom of the (hoots ; in
confequence of which, there would be either a want of
fruit at thofe places next year, or a neceflity of pruning
the branch (horter than was intended, or is in the winter
convenient.
There is no danger in expofing the grapes this month
to the fun; for though the vines appear thin of wood
and leaves, the Autumn (hoots will recover that fault.
Put nets over your grapes to preferve them from the
birds ; and you (hould alfo guard againft wafps and other
infefls, which now deftroy the peaches, apricots, and o-
ther fruit; by placing phials of honey and ale near the
trees, you may foon entrap a great number of them.
K I T C H E N- G A R D E N.
You may know fow kidney-beans, and feme peas, to
bear in September and Odlober; fow cucumbers upon a
bed made with dry horfe-litter, and covered with light
earth ten inches thick ; they muft be covered at night in
September with a common frame and glafs, to keep them
from froft and rain, and by this method you may have
fome cucumbers till Chriftmas.
E N I N G.
Make a bed for mulhrooms as direfled in February ;
and be fure to cover it very thin with earth-:
About the middle of this month fow royal Silefia, and
brown Dutch, white gofs, and other forts of lettuces,
chervil, carrots, and turnips.
Plant cabbages, and favoys; tranfplant endive for
blanching againft: winter; earth up fellery in drills, and
plant out a new crop to fucceed the former; take up (bal¬
lots, garlick ; and water plentifully all herbs that are
feeding.
AUGUST.
Flower-Garden.
The tulip-tree being a plant of the wood, (hould be
among fuch trees as are defigned for groves, where it will
rife to a great height: the feeds of this tree come from
Virginia, and are to be fown in pots this month, and
(heltered the winter,, and they will come up all in the
fpring following.
At two years growth the young plants may be tranf-
planted into (ingle pots, and muft have (helter in the win¬
ter for the lirft nine years at lead till they have gathered
ftrength enough to refift the feverity of the- frofts, when
they may be planted in the natural ground, rather a fandy
foil than any other.
The iris flower has many varieties, fome with bulbous
and fome with tuberous-roots: the roots of the bulbous iris
may be taken up as foon as the leaves begin to wither,
and planted in Auguft ; and they may be increafed by ofF-
fets taken from their roots when their (talks are decayed :
the beft of the tuberous kind is the the chalcedonian iris-,
commonly called the toad flag, which requires a warm
and rich foil, and muft be carefully ordered, or it will
not thrive well.
The narciflus, or daffodil, is a flower of a hardy na¬
ture, and thrives greatly in any ground; thefe flowers
are propagated from off-fets from their roots, planted in
this month, and may be raifed by feeds fown in Septem¬
ber, which will produce great varieties: the feedling
plants are to remain without removal two or three years-,
when they are to be taken up in June, and replanted in
good ground at a proper diftance.
The jonquil is of the fame kind with the daffodil, and
flowers much about the fame time ; the roots, which are
bulbous, are to be taken out of the ground, and replant¬
ed like-other bulbs.
The bulbous violet, or fnow-drop,is reckoned amongfl:
the daffodils, and is one of the earlieft flowers in the
fpring.
You may now plants off-fets of the hyacinth, in beds
of fandy foil; the tuberous hyacinth is a plant of an afpi.-
ring head, and very tender nature; the roots of it muft
be taken up in April, and replanted in pots of prepared
earth; and, like other fhrubs, it requires the affiftance of
a hot-bed: you may take up the bulbs of this plant in
September, and preferve them in dry fand.
This is the proper time for parting the roots of the
lily, Which fucceeds beft in an open fandy foil: the ftri-
ped
GARDE
ped white lily is fo great a rarity as to deferve a place in
the niceft garden, and the orange-lily is a proper com¬
panion for it; the lily of the valley is eafily raifed from
plants, and thrives belt in lhady ground.
The crown-imperial may be raifed from feeds, but is
commonly propagated from off fets that fpring yearly from
old roots, which are to be taken up in June when the
(talks are dry, and replanted in Augull.
The work to be done this month, in the fruit and
kitchen-garden, is the fame as directed in the preceding
month.
SEPTEMBER.
Fl o w e r-G arden.
The tulip is propagated in the following manner: the
fiems of this flower being left remaining upon the root,
will perfeth: their feeds about July, which will be fit to
gather when the feed-veflels begin to burlt ; and then
they are to be cut clofe to the ground in a dry day, and
laid in fome dry place till September, when they are to
be fown, in a (oil compofed of natural black earth and
fand; and after their fecond appearance above ground,
they may be taken from the pots they were fown in, and
put in a bed of natural fandy foil, well lifted, where
the thicknefs of half an inch of the fame earth Ihould be
fpread over them; and thus they are to continue, with¬
out any other culture than every year adding half an inch
for their covering, till they-begin to blow, which will be
in five or fix years time: in this manner tulip-feeds are
every year to be fown for new varieties.
In planting tulips, all the forward blowers Ihould be
planted in a bed together; and of the late flowering tu¬
lips the tallell forts Ihould be placed in the middle line
of the bed, with two rows of the Ihorter on each fide.
Tulips planted in this month need no (helter till March,
when, the flower-buds appearing, they (hould be defend¬
ed from blights with mats, or other covering; which co¬
vering will alfo ferve to (helter them, when blown from
the too powerful heat of the fun, and pernicious
damps.
There are two clafles of tulips; the prcecoce tulips or early
blowers, and the ferotine or later blowers; and thefe are
diftinguiflied by their double and fingleflowers: theyhaveal-
fo different denominations, from their colout; andffature, as
bagats, which are the tailed flowers, commonly purple
and white marbled ; agates, which grow (hotter, and are.
veined with two colours ; and beazarts, which have four
colours, tending to yellow and red, of feveral forts.
You may now take up the roots of the peony, part and
plant them ; they will profper in any foil.
The feed of the mullein may now be fown, in a fandy
foil, and a fliady part of the garden; it is a beautiful
plant, and bloffbms four feet high.
Violets are increafed by tranfplanting their runners ei¬
ther in this month or in February, which will of them-
felves take root at every joint; they thrive bed in a bind¬
ing foil, (hady fituation, and (hould be planted in the mod
rural parts.of the garden..
N I N G. 6C3
You may now increafe dailies by parting their roots;,
and they make very pretty edgings for flower beds.
Layers of the honeyfuckie may now be put down;
they thrive bed in the lhade, and are mod eafily trained
. up in pots.
There are feven forts of the jeffamine : the common-
white, the yellow, and the Perfian jelfamine, are propa¬
gated from layers or cuttings, and will grow in any foil';
the layers are made in this month, and the cuttings may
at the fame time be planted, which (hould always be a
foot long, and twojoints be under ground. The jeflamine
(hould be planted againd walls or trees, or mixed in hedges.
There are jelTamines of a more tender nature, which re¬
quire to be flickered in the confervatory in the winter, as the
Spanifli jeflamine, the Portugal jeflamine, the Indian jeffa¬
mine, and the Arabian jeffamine: thefe are propagated by
grafting on thecommorr hitejeffaminein March, orby in¬
arching in May, or cuttings planted at the fame time : the in¬
arched plants are to be cut off the middle of Augufl following,
andinFebruary youareto cut off- the branches within four
or five inches of, the dem ; and, after they have freih
earth put to their roots, they may be fet near the glades
or windows of the greemhoufe: they fucceed bed in a
medium foil between fand and clay, without dung, and
Ihould not be watered too frequently.
The virgin’s bower is raifed from layers in this month,
and from cuttings allb : it is of a twining nature, mud be
fupportedwithdakes: it may either be planted againd a wall,
or fet in the wildernefs ; and it thrives bed in a light foil.
The Virginia dog-wood bloffoms early in the fpring;
and the flowers are fucceeded, by red berries, which hang
a long time upon the tree: the feeds are fown in ppts of
light earth in autumn, and they are to dand the winter in
the green-houfe, giving them the allidaoce of the hot-bed
the following fpring.
The Virginia myrtle, which bears berries, from which
is drawn the green wax whereof candles are made, is pro¬
pagated by fowing the berries in pots of black fandy earth,
which (hould be kept continually moid.
The faffafras-tree is a plant of Virginia, which lofes
its leaves in winter, and in the fpring puts forth" its yel¬
low flowers in cluders, which are .fucceeded by blue
berries, like thofe of the laurus tinus; thefe berries are
fown in autumn, in a fandy foil.
You may now make layers or dips of the box tree ;
and the feeds may be fown as foon as ripe, or laid in fand
during the winter, to be fown in the fpring following ;
this plant thrives bed in a chalky foil.
The d warf or Dutch box, is of great ufe for edging of
flower-beds,or making fcroll-works; it will remain good,
without renewing, a long time ; and fo great is the in¬
creafe of it, that being earthed up every year, in four or
five years after the planting, it may be taken up, parted,
or flipped, and be made to plant four times the ground
it flood upon.
F r U I T G A R D E N.
You may now gather the different forts of fruit as
they ripen ; for thofe which are in eating this month, fel-
dom continue long good.^
Traafplant
664 GARDE
Tranfplant ftrawberries, goofeberries, rafpberries, and
currants, towards the end of this month, if the weather
proves moid, othervvife it will be better to defer it till the
beginning of the next month ; and this is the belt feafon
to plant cuttings of goofeberries and cun ants, which will
take root, and make better plants than thofe which are
propagated by fuckers.
Your fruit trees againft the wall of your forcing-frame,
tnuft now be pruned and trained clofe to the wall or efpa-
lier, that their buds may be preparing before the feafon
for applying the heat ; and you (hould alfo prepare for
the ground where the fruit-trees are defigned to be plant¬
ed the next month, that it may lie ,to mellow and
fweeten.
Kitchen -G a r d e h.
Sow Spanilh radilhes for the winter, - and fpinach to
be cut in February ; make plantations of the Dutch
brown lettuce to Hand the winter; fow forrel, chervil,
and fmall herbs for fallads, in fome well-expofed place,
obferving to provide fuch mixtures for this feafon as are
hotter to the talte, than in the former months.
You may now replant endive, and all forts of fibrous-
rooted herbs; continue to earth up fellery; raife the
banks of earth about chardones for blanching ; tranfplant
afparagus-roots ; make plantations of cabbages and cole-
worts ; tranfplant young cauliflower plants in places where
they are to flower ; tranfplant ftrawberries ; make beds
for mufhrooms; cover mufhrooms fown in July every night;
earth up your winter-plants; prepare comports ; and, if
the weather be dry, water your plants and herbs in the
morning, and give your turnips the firrt houghing.
Such cucumbers as are now ripe, muft be cut open,
and the feed or pulp taken out of them, which Ihould lie
three or four days together before they are walked, and
ten days in the fun before it is laid up ; and it Ihould e-
vet* be obferved, that if feeds are not thoroughly dry
before they are laid up, they will rot, and be good for
.nothing.
OCTOBER.
Fl OW E R-G A RD E N.
Tou Ihould now plant anemonies, and ranunculufes ;
and as foon as they appear, defend them from winds and
frofts, with faw-duft, dry ftraw, ormatts; and make an
end of putting tulips into the ground: and likewife put
hyacinths, tulips, narciffufes, in glafles made for that
purpofe, to blow early in the houfe.
Continue to tranfplant and lay rofes, and fuch like
flowering Ihrubs; and to plant the cuttings of jeflamines
and honeyfuckles in lhady borders. Sow the berries of
yew, holly, and other evergreens, prepared in earth or
fand; and prune thefe kinds of plants if the feafon be
mild.
This is a proper time to remove your ananas or pine¬
apples out of the bark-beds into the ftove ; and always
dteep a tub of water in the ftove to water them when it is
N I N G.
wanted, which Ihould (land twenty-four hours before it is
ufed.
Set your pots of carnations, which are now blowing,
into your green-houfe near the door; and the beginning
of this month you are to houfe your myrtles, amomum
Plinii, melianthus, and fuch tender greens as remain yet
abroad. Tie up thofe plants that grow diforderly, and
place the aloes, torch-thirties, euphorbiums, &c. nearert
the fun; and the other plants, Which are more hardy, to¬
wards the back of the houfe.
When you water your houfed greens, let it be in
the morning, when the fun Ihines upon them; but you
are to give no more waterings to your tender fucculent
plants after the middle of the month.
The windows of the green-houfe are to be kept open
day and night till about the fifteenth of this month : after
that, in the day-time only.
Fruit-Garden.
You may now plant peaches, apricots, and other fruit-
trees; and as nothing is more prejudicial to them than
dung, this Ihould be done in untried earth.
Should this month be a wet one, you muft raife the
borders, and the trees planted high; for it is certain
death to peaches and apricots, to ftand where the water
ftagnates in the winter.
Vines fhould now be planted againft: walls feven or
eight feet afunder, in a foil compofed of fea-coal alhes,
drift fand, or the rubbilh of old buildings, with an equal
quantity of natural earth mixed with rotten dung.
About the middle of this month fow cyder-prellings in
beds of frelh earth, to raife ftocks for grafting, or even
making of orchards without grafting; and from a nurfe-
ry of this kind we may have as many different forts of
apples as we raife plants, although the feeds come all from
the fame tree.
You may now have plantations of apples, grafted upon
paradife ftocks, in pots; they will bear when the trees
are very fmall, and very greatly fet off an entertainment,
being placed growing upon a table among dilhes of fruit.
Tranfplant trees of all forts, and lay up acorns and
mart in fand; lay bare the roots of old unthriving for¬
ward blowing trees; ftir up new-planted ground ; and lay
in a good flock of untried earth to be ready upon ail oc-
cafions, for fruit-trees, ever greens, and flowers.
Kitchen- Garden.
This is the proper feafon today up roots for winter-
ftore, fuch as carrots and parfnips; take the roots of tur¬
nips out of the ground, and lay them up in fand ; make
plantations of currants and goofeberries, from the fuck¬
ers or cuttings.
The firft week of this month fow cucumbers On the
natural ground, to be afterwards tranfplanted into pots, for
the convenience of flickering from cold nights, till a hot¬
bed is prepared for them. This is better than to .begin
after the ufual method in December or January.
Make plantations of lettuce, for win ter-ufe: tranfplanft
•cabbages
CARD
cubages and cauliflower plants. Take up thole cauliflower
plants which begin to flower, tie their leaves together, and
bury their roots and fta?lk.s in fand, in a cellar, or fome
cool place. Cut artichokes with long ftalks, and preferve
.them in the houfe by fetting their (talks in fand. Earth
up and drefs fuch artichokes as have done blowing: and
continue to earth up fellery for blanching.
Sow kidney-beans in bafl-tets under a iouth wall, to be
afterwards forwarded by hot-beds, for early beans; and
hot-fpur peas, and Spanilh beans, in fame well expofed
■border, under a wall or a hedge. Sow alfo radifties in
fome warm place, to draw early in the fpring ; and cref-
fes, lettuce, multard, fpinach, £yc. upon a decayed hot¬
bed : Put likewife fome roots of mint upon a gentle hot¬
bed for winter fallads.
N O V E M R E R.
Flower.tGar.den.
You may now cut down the ftalks of fuch tall blowing
flowers as have done bloflToming within three inches of
The root. Tie up all trees and (bruts to (fakes, other-
wife by their being loofe, and at liberty, the wind? will
deftroy them. Lay up heaps of earth for your feveral
forts of flowers, and make the proper mixtures for exo¬
tics; obfer.ving, that where the ground is too ftiff. it may
be brought to a ftate of loam, by adding to it a fufficient
quantity of drift or fea-fand.
Peonies, and fome fibrous roots, may now be planted.
If the .weather be open, you may yet tranfplant rofes,
jeffamines, honeyfuckles, fyringa, and lilac. Unnail your
paflion-tre£« from the wall, and lay them upon the ground,
that in cafe of fevere frofts they may be covered with
ftraw. \
Plant hyacinths, jonquils, narciffus’s, and polyanthus’s,
in pots, and plunge them into hot-beds, to bloffom about
Chriftmas : lay down your auricula pots upon their fides,
the plants towards the fun, to drain them from moifture,
and preferve them from frofts ; and (belter young feedling
bulbs from the froft, but give them daily airings.
Fr.uitGar.den.
The bufinefs of this month being principally-planting,
it may be neceflary to give the reader dirtftions for bring¬
ing fruits to'perfedfion in the winter, fo as to have, by
a particular management in planting, ripe fruit through¬
out the year.
Apricots, cherries, early peaches, neftarines, currants,
goofeberries, are to be planted in the following manner,
againft a paling of five feet high : the (lakes to fupport
this paling muft be fet about four feet diftance from one
another; to which you are to nail whole deal-boards of
vwelve feet long, well-jointed to one another, and plough¬
ed on the edges, fo as to fet in laths, that thereby the
ileam of the dung, which is to lie at the back, may not
get among the plants ; becaufe wherever, fuch (team
comesj it will caufe mildews.
The deals are to be an inch ;in thicknefs; for if they
Vol. IL .No. 54. 2
E N I N G. 66s
are not quite fo thick, the trees will be apt to he fcorch-
ed upon the fi(ft application of the hot dung ; and if they
are thicker, the artificial heat applied to their backs, up¬
on the time it begins to decline, will not be powerf ul e-
nough to warm thoroughly, and tljen the dung mult be
oftener refrefhed.
When the paling is up, you are to mark out a border on
the fouth fide of it, about four feet wide ; and on the out-
fideof the border, faften to the ground, in a ftraight line,
fome fcantlings of wood about four inches thick, to reft
glafs lights upon, which are to (lope back to the paling,
to (belter the fruit as occafion requires: between theie
glafs-lights, there muft be bars cut of whole deal, about
four inches wide, for the glaftes to reft upon ; and the
bars muft always remain fixed, as in a frame for a hot¬
bed.
There muft be a door, fhaped to the profile of the
frame, at each end, to be opened, either the one or the
other, as the wind happens to blow, ever obferving that
the door be opened on that fide only which is moft free
from the wind.
You may plant fruit-trees in a frame of this fort the
fame fummer it is made, and thetrees will take very good
root before winter, and be fo well ftored with fap againft
the following fpring, that they will (hew no fign of their
removal, but bear extremely. Befides, by this fummer
planting, the trees feldom or never throw away their
(Length in autumn (hoots, or make any attempts towards
it, till September and Otftober, when the frofts prevent
their defign.
The trees planted muft have*time allowed for the jui¬
ces to digeft, before you begin to force them: therefore
the hot dung is not to be applied to the back of the pa¬
ling before November.
About the middle of this month, or towards the end,
is the time to bring ripe cherries in February : and at the
fame time likewife the heat may be ufed for apricots, fo
as to make the mafculine apricots as large as duke cher¬
ries by February, and ripen them the beginning of April.
The Anne peach will ripen about the end of April, as
will'alfofeveral forts of forward plumbs.
The early nedtarine thus forced will ripen with the maf¬
culine apricot: we may have green goofeberries fit for
tarts in January and February; and ripe goofeberries and
currants in March and April; but cherries do not hear
this alteration in nature fo well.
The grapes that do heft for this fgrt of work, are, the
royal mufcadine, marlmorfe, black fweet water, and
black morillon: the heft forts of the forward peaches,
nedtarines, cherries, and plumbs, and the Dutch rafpber-
ry, (hould be ever fixed on for forcing in the above man¬
ner. A row or two of ftrawberries may alfo be planted
in this frame, which would ripen at the end of Februa¬
ry, or beginning of March ; and amongft the fruit you
may mix here and there a monthly rofe-tree ; and have a
border planted with early tulips, hyacinths, jonquils,
narciffus’s, and other flowers, which by the forcing heats
would make a kind of fummer all the’winter.
The trees planted in thefe frames muft be clofe to the
paling, contrary to the methods of planting againft wafts-
7 K
GARDENING.
666
for the roots will run under the pales, and draw nourifli-
ment equally from the earth about them ; but with walls
it is otherwife.
The tjees need not be planted atagreater diilancethan
four or five feet; and thofe that have flood feven or
eight years againft walls, may be removed to thefe for¬
cing-frames without any danger: as to pruning thefe trees,
the fame method is to be followed as recommended for
other trees in February; but the feafon for doing it is
not the fame; for in the forcing frames our fpring begins
in November; but in the other cafe it does not begin till
the end of January, or beginning of February.
The trees are to be pruned and nailed to pales about a
week before the forcing heat is applied, and all the glaf-
fes put up as foon as they are pruned.
The hot-dung intended to be laid at the back of the
pales, fhould be toffed up in an heap fome days before it is
ufed, that it may yield an heap every where alike : when
it is fit to be applied to the pales, lay it four feet wide at
the bafe; and let it Hope to two feet at the top, the
height in all being at firft within four inches of the top of
the pales, and in about fix weeks time it will fink to four
feet, when you are to apply frefh dung, TheblolToming
of the tree is very muefi helped by covering them with
the glafs lights in frofty weather: but theylhould not be
denied the rain, if the weather be tolerably mild, till
the buds begin to ftir; after that, the glafles to remain
over them conflantly, till the fun begins to have fome
power.
When the fun fhines warm, and the wind is not too
lharp, give the air at the front of your frame ; and if
this does not happen during a fortnight’s fpace, then give
air at the end, and put up mats or canvas to correfl the
winds, and caufe the air to circulate in the frames.
About three changes of dung Will be fufficient to bring
your cherries to ripenefs in February, allowing each par¬
cel to remain a month at the back of the pales : but if
April proves cold, the forcing heat is to be continued till
May, for plumbs, peaches, ne&arines, and apricots.
K I T C H E N-G ARDEN.
Hot beds for afparagus fhould now be made; alfo
gentle hot-beds for the cucumbers and kidney-beans Town
in Oftober: continue to fow radifhes, lettuce, creffes,
fpinaeh, <bc. on a hot-bed; and if> your nurfery is with¬
out roots, provide them from fome old plantations.
Sow peafe, and beans of the hotfpur and Spanifh kinds,
in open ground; and if the weather be fair, earth up
thofe fown in September. Earth up fellery, and tie up
endive plants for blanching : and this is the beft time to
cut down afparagus haulm, when it is turned yellow ; it
mull be cut within two or three inches of the ground, and
the earth of the alleys flung up upon the beds; or if die
afparagus be worn, you are to give it a covering of rich
dung, not quite rotten: and cover well your artichokes
with long dung, to defend them from frofts, otherwife
they will be deflroyed in a fevere winter. Houfe, and
cover with fand, carrots, parfnips, eirc. and houfe cab¬
bages.
You mull now trench your grounds and lay it. up in
ridges to mellow; and in a frofly feafon wheel on dung
and other manures upon fuch places as want to be en¬
riched.
Plants are to be guarded againfi: frofls, and fheltered
againft cold rains ; and trees muft be flaked, to defend
them againft violent winds, common in this month.
DECEMBER.
Flower-Garden.
You fhould now cover the beds of choice anemonies,
hyacinths, and ranunculus’s; pick off dead and rotten
leaves from all exotic plants ; lay mulch about the roots
of new planted trees and fhrubs ; cover the pots of feed-
ling flowers; turn over the earth prepared for the flower
garden, that the froft may make it mellow; and mix up
fome new heaps, that there may be a fufficient quantity
ready for ufe eight or ten months before ft is wanted.
You muft not be too hafly in warming your green-
houfe with artificial heats, but let in as much fun as pof-
fible, which being a natural heat, is Aie moft agreeable to
your tender plants. The chief buunefs is to keep out
frofts; to effetft which, the doors and windows of your
green-houfe muft be well matted, and guarded from the
piercing air. .
But as no plant can live without air, therefore to re¬
cruit it in the houfe, and feed the plants therewith with¬
out pinching them, it is advifeable, that at the end of
your green-houfe there fhould be an antichamber, through•
which you are to pafs to the houfe; which chamber will
have frefh air from abroad every time you go into it; and
upon opening the door of it into the green-houfe, the air
will there mix with the other that has been pent up, and
impregnate it with new parts, by which means, it will
contribute to the vegetation of plants, without coming
upon them too luddenly.
Fruit-Garden.
Continue to prune vines ; prune and nail wall-fruit
trees, alfo fuch ftandards as are hardy; examine orchard
trees, and take away fuch branches as make confufion ;
covering every confiderahle wound with a mixture of
bees wax, rofin, and tar, in equal quantities, and of tal¬
low about half the quantity of any of the others; which
are to be melted together in an earthen veflel well gla¬
zed; and, with a painting brufh dipped into it, the wound
is to be covered : deftroy fnails in every part of your
garden; and you may, if the weather proves mild, re¬
move or plant moft forts of hardy trees'that in the win¬
ter fhed their leaves.
Kitchen-Gar den.
If the feafon proves mild, you may earth up thofe ar¬
tichokes which were in the former months negleded ;
in doing which, if the ground is not very good, bury
fome rotten dung in it, which will greatly promote the
growth of your artichokes in the fpring following.
Towards the middle of the month,-make a hot-bed for
afparagus.
GARDE
afparagus, in like manner as that made in November.
Sow upon hot-beds, lettuce, radifli, crefles, muftard,
and other herbs which are hot, to cut for fraall fallads.
In open weather you may fow early peas and beans of
the fame kinds, and in the fame manner, as diredled in
November and the preceding months ; and as vermin
now very much deftroy your roots and feeds, you are to
fet traps to catch them.
You ihould, when the weather is not too fevere, unco¬
ver the cauliflower plants every day, that they may enjoy
GAR
GARGARISM, in medicine, is fometimes taken, in a
large fenfe, for every collution of the mouth ; but,
ftridtly fpeaking, it fignifies a liquid medicine, appro¬
priated to afFeftions of the mouth, gums, fauces, la¬
rynx, andfome'timesof the head, received into the mouth,
and there ufed by way of collution, without deglutition.
GARLAND, a fort of chaplet made of flowers, fea¬
thers, and fometimes precious (tones, worn on the
head, in manner of a crown.
Garland alfo denotes ornaments of flowers, fruits, and
leaves, intermixed; anciently much ufed at the gates
of temples, where fealts and folerrm rejoicings were
held ; or at any other place where marks of public joy
or gaiety were required, as at triumphal arches, tour¬
naments, &c.
GARNET, in natural hiftory, a very beautiful gem, of
a red colour, wi*h an admixture of bluifli
When pure and free from blemiifles, it is little infe¬
rior, in appearance, to the oriental ruby, though only
of a middle degree of hardnefs between the fapphire
and common cryftal. It is found of various fizes, from
that of a pin’s head to an inch in diameter.
Among our lapidaries and jewellers, genuine
garnets are known by different names according to
their different degrees of colour., i. The garnet,
(imply fo called, is the fined and mod valuable kind,
being of a very deep blood red, with a faint ad¬
mixture of blue. 2. The rock ruby, a name very im¬
properly given to the garnet, when it is of a very drong
but not deep red, and has a fairer cad of the blue :
this is a very beautiful gem. 3. The forane or ferain
garnet, that of a yet brighter red, approaching to the
■colour of native cinnabar, with a faint blue tinge. 4.
The almandine, a garnet only a little paler than that
called the rock-ruby.
* Garnets are very properly didinguifhed into the ori¬
ental and occidental kinds, as being found in Europe
as well as the Ead Indies. The orientalones are prin¬
cipally brought from Calicut, Cananor, and Cambay;
and the European ones are common in Italy, Hunga¬
ry, and Bohemia.
Some authors have fuppofed the deeper-coloured
garnet to be the fame with the carbuncle of the anci¬
ents ; from which it really differs; fince, on receiving
the fun’s beams, it never gives fo true a fire-colour as
the carbuncle.
GARONNE, a large river of France, which taking^ its.
N I N G. 667;
the benefit of the air, otherwife they will be very weak¬
ly ; and in dry weather take up fellery, and endive to
blanch.
Great care mud now be taken of the mufhroom-beds;
they fhould be covered with frefh dry draw, fo thick as
to keep out the wet; for as, where proper care is taken,
there will be a condant fupply of them for the table in,
the mod rigorous feafon, fo, when they are negledted, the
produce will be fmall in proportion.
GAR
rife in the Pyrenean mountains, runs north-wed by the
city of Tholoufe, divides the provinces of Guienne
and Gafcony, and, vifivlng the city of Bordeaux, falls
into the bay of Bifcay, about fixty miles below that
city. It has alfo a communication with the Mediter¬
ranean, by means of the royal canal of Lewis XIV.
The tide flows up this river twenty miles above Bour-
deaux.
GARTER, a ligature for tying up the docking'; but
particularly ufed for the badge of a noble order of
knights, hence denominated the
Order of the Garter, a military order of knighthood,
the mod noble and ancient of any lay-order in the
world, indituted by Edward III. This order confids
of twenty-fix knights-companions, generally princes
and peers, whereof the king of England is the fove-
reign or chief. They are a college or corporation,.
- having a great and little feal.
Their officers are a.prelate chancellor, regider, king
at arms, and ufher of the black rod. They have alfo
a dean with twelve canons, and petty canons, vergers,.
and twenty-fix penfioners5 or poor knights. The pre¬
late is the head. This office is veded in the biffiop of
Wincheder, and has ever been fo. Next to the pre¬
late is the chancellor; which office is veded in the bi¬
ffiop of Sali(bury, who keeps the (eals, <bc. The
next is the regider, who by. his oath is to enter upon
the regidry, the fcrutinies, eleftions, penalties, and
other adls of the order, with all fidelity.. The fourth
officer is garter, and king at- arms, being two didinft
offices united in one perlon. Garter carries the rod
and fceptre at the fead of St George, the proteftorof
this-order, when the fovereign isprefent. He notifies
the eleAions of new knights, attends the folemnity of
their indallations, carries the garter to the foreign
princes, <&c. He is the principal officer within the
college of arms, and chief of the heralds. See King.
at arms.
All thefe officers, except the prelate, have fees and
penfions. The college of the order is feared in the ca-
die of Windfor, with the chapel of St George, and the
charter-houfe, eredted by the founder for that purpofe.
The habi$ and enfign of the order are, a garter, man¬
tle, cape, george, and collar. The four fird were
affigned the knights-companions by the founder • and
the george and collar by Henry VIII. The garter
Q?kte LXXXVL fig. 2. N° j.j challenges pre emi-
rtcuce
GAR
tience over all the other parts of the drefs, by reafon
■that from it the noble order is denominated ; that it is
the firft part of the habit prefented to foreign princes,
■ and abfent knights, who, and all other knigbts-eled,
are therewith fidt adorned; and it is of fo great ho¬
nour and grandeur, that by the bare invefliture with this
noble enfign, the knights are efteemed companions of
the greateif military order in the world. It is worn
on the left leg between the-knee and calf, and is en¬
amelled with this motto, Honi so.it qvi mal y
pense ; i. e. Shame t$ him that thinks evil hereof:
The meaning of which is, that king Edward having
laid claim to the kingdom of France, retorted Iliame
and defiance upon him that fhould dare to think amifs
~of the juft enterprize he had undertaken, for recover¬
ing his lawful right to that crown ; and that the bra¬
very of thofe knights whom he had eleded into this
order, was fuch as would enable him to maintain the
quarrel againft thofe that thought ill of it
The mantle {ibid. N° 2.) is the chief of thefe veft-
ments’ made ufe of upon all folemn occafions The
colour of the mantle is by the ftatutes appointed to be
blue. The length of the train of the mantle only di-
ftinguifties the Sovereign from the knights-companions.
To the collar of the mantle is fixed a pair of Iqng
firings, anciently wove with blue filk only, but now
twifted round, and made of Venice gold and filk, of
the colour of the robe, with knobs, or buttons, and
•taflels at the end. The left fhoulder of the mantle
has, from the inftitution. been adorned with a large
garter, with the device, Honi so it, &c. within this
is the crofs of the order, which was ordained to be
worn at all times by king Charles I. At length the
liar was introduced, being a fort of crofs irradiated
with beams of filver. {ibid. N° 3.) .
The collar {ibid. N° 4 ) is appointed to be compo-
fed of pieces of gold in fafhion of garters, the ground
enamelled blue, and the mot o gold.
The manner of eleding a knight companion into
this moft noble order, and the ceremonies of invefti-
ture are as follow. When the fovereign defigns to e-
Ted a companion of the garter, the chancellor belong¬
ing to this order draws up the letters, which, palling
both under the fovereign’s fign-manual and fignet of
the order, are fent to the perfon by garter principal
king at arms ; and are in this manner, or to the fame
effedt: “ We,'with the companions of our moft noble
“ order of the garter, aflembied in chapter, holden this
“ prefent day at our caftle at Windfor, confidering the
virtuous fidelity you have ftiewn, and the honour-
“ able exploits you have done in our fervice, byvin-
‘‘ dicating and maintaining our right, have e-
“ leded and chofen you one of the companions of our
“ order. Therefore, we require you to make your
“ fpeedy repair unto us, to receive the enfigns thereof,
“ and be ready for your inftallation upon the — day
“ of this prefent month, 6 c.”
The garter, which is of blue velvet bordered with
fine gold-wire, having commonly the letters of the
fSiotto of the fame, is, at the time of eledion, buckled
GAS
upon the left kg, by two of the fenior companions,
who receive it from the fovereign, to whom it was
prefented upon a velvet culhion, by garter king at
arms, with the ufual reverence, whilft the chancellor
reads the following admonition, enjoined by the fta¬
tutes : “ To .the honour of God omnipotent, and in
“ memorial of the blefled martyr St George, tie about
“ thy leg, for thy renown, this noble gaiter; wear
“ it as the fymbol of the moft illuftrious order, ne-
“ ver to be forgotten or laid afide ; that thereby
“ thou mayeft be admoniflied to be courageous ; and,
“ having undertaken a juft war, in which thou {halt
u be engaged, thoa mayeft ftand fi m, valiantly fight,
“ and fucceffively conquer.”
The princely garter being then buckled on, and the
words of its fignification pronounced, the knight eled
is brought befor.e the fovereign, who puts about his
neck, kneeling, a fky-coloured ribbon, {ibid. N° 5.)
whereunto is appendant, wrought in gold within the
garter, the image of St George on horieback, with his
fword-drawn, encountering with the dragon. In the
mean time, the chancellor reads the following admo¬
nition: “ Wear this ribbon about thy neck, adorned
“ with the image of the blefled martyr and-foldier of
“ Chrift, St George, by whofe imitation proyoked,
“ thou mayft fo overpafs both profperous and adverfe
“ adventures, that having ftoutly vanquiftied thy ene-
“ mies, both of body and* foul, thou mayft not only
“ receive the praife of this tranfient combat, but be
“ crowned with the palm of eternal vidory.”
Then the knight eleded kifles t^e fovereign’s'hand,
thanks his jnajefty for the great honour done him, rifes
up, and falutes all the companions feverally, whore-
turn their congratulations. NQ 2. {ibid.) exhibits a
view of a knight of the garter in the habit of this
order.
Since the inftituron of this order, there have been
eight emperors, and twenty-eight kings, befides numer¬
ous fovereign princes, enrolled as companions thereof.
Its origin is fomewhat differently related : the common
account is, that it was efeded in honour of a garter of
the countefs of Salilbury, which file dropped dancing
with king Edward, and whi(!h that prince picked’up:
but our beft antiquaries think it was inftituted on ac¬
count of the yidory over the French at Crefly, where
the king ordered his garter to be difplayed as a fignal
of the battle.
GASCOIN, or GastoiGN,.denotes the hinder thigh of
a horfey which begins at the ftifle, and reaches to the
ply or bending of the ham.
GASCONY, the moft fouth-weft province of France,
bounded by Guienne, on the north ; by Languedoc,
on the eaft; by the Pyrenees, which feparate it from
Spain, on the fouth; and by the Bay of Bifcay, on
the weft.
CASSENHOVEN, or Gutzenhoven, a town of the
Auftrian Netherlands, fifteen miles eaft of Louvain:
E: long. 50°, and N. lat. 50 yy7.
GASTEROSTEUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties
belonging to the order of thoracici. There are three
rays
( m )
Plate liXXXVL
G T. L f 6^9 ) GEN
rays in the membrane of the gills; the body is carina-
ted; and there are fome diltindt prickles before the
back-fin. There are eleven fpecies, diltinguilhed by
the number of prickles on the back.
GASTRIC, in general, fomething belonging to the fto-
mach.
GASTROCNEMIUS, in anatomy. See- Anatom-y,
p. 209. *
Gastrocnemius is alfo the name of one of the exten-
for-mufcles of the foot.
GASTROMANCY, a method of divination by water,
pradtifed by the ancient Greeks.
GASTRORAPHY, in furgery, the operation of few-
ing up wounds of the abdomen See Surgery.
GATE, ih architedture. See Architecture, p. 356.
GATTON, a borough-town of Surry, lixteen miles fouth
of London, which fends two members to parliament.
GAVEREN, or Waveren, a town of the Aultrian
Netherlands,, fituated on the call bank of the river
Scheld : E. long. 30 35', N. lat. 510.
GAUGE-POINT of a folid meafure, the diameter of
a circle whofe area is equal to the 'folid content of
the fame meafure.
GAUGER, a king’s pfficer, who is appointed to exa¬
mine all tuns, pipes, hoglheads; and barrels of wine,
beer, ale, oil, honey, 6c. and give them a mark of
allowance, before they are fold m any place within the
extent of his office.
GAUGING. See Geometry.
GAUNT-bellied, in the menage, is faid of a horfe
whofe belly (brinks up towards his flanks.
GAWSE, or Gawze, in commerce, a very flight, thin,
open kind of fluff, made of filk, and fometimes of
thread ; there are alfo figured gaw-zes, and fome with
gold or filver flowers on a filk ground.
GAZELLA, in zoology. See Capra.
GAZETTE, a news-paper, or printed account of the
tranfadlions of all the countries in the known world, in
a loofe ffieet, or half-ffieet. This name is with us
confined to that paper of news publiffied by authority.
The word is derived {xom gazetta, a Venetian coin,
which was th£ ufual price of the firft news-papers-
printed there, and which was afterwards given to the
paper itfelf.
GELATINOUS, in pharmacy and medicine, any thing
approaching to the glutinous confiftence of a gelatina
or jelly. See Jeuly.
GELDERLAND, comprehending Zutphen, is a pro¬
vince of the United Netherlands, bounded by the
Zuider-fea arid Overyflel on the north, by Weflphalia
on the eafl; by Brabant on the fouth, and by the pro¬
vince of Utrecht on the weft.
GELDING, the operation of caftrating any-animal.
GELDERS, a city of Gelderland, fituated twenty-three
miles fouth of Nimeguen: E. long. 6° S', andN. lat.
5i° 35'-
GELENHAUSEN, an imperial city of Germany, go¬
verned by its oWn magiftrates ; it is fituated nine
miles north of Hanau: E. long. 8° $0, and N. lat.
50° 15'.
Vo-l. II. No. 54. 2
GEM, in natural hiflory, a common name for all pre¬
cious ftones ; of which their are two clafles, the pellu¬
cid and femi-pellucid.
The bodies compofmg the clafs of pellucid gems are
Bright, elegant, and beautiful fofliis, naturally and ef-
fentially compound, ever found -in fipall detached
mafles, extremely hard, pellucid, and of great luftre ;
compofed of a very-firm and pure matter, without any
admixture of earthy fubftance, giving fire without fteel,
not fermenting with acid menftruums, and very diffi-
culdy calcinable in the fire.
The bodies compofmg the clafs of femi-pellucid
gems are, ftones naturally and effentially compound,
not inflammable nor fo-luble in water, found in detach¬
ed mafles, and compofed of -cryftalline matter, deba-
fed by earth: however, they are but (lightly debafed,
and are of great beauty and brightnefs, of a moderate
degree of tranfparency, and are-ufually found in fmali
mafles.
GEMARA, in Jewiffi antiquity, a colleftion of decifions
and determinations on the law, written after the Mifna
was completed.
It was called gemara, or perfeftion, becaufe it was
Confidered as fo perfed: an explication of the law, that
after it no further additions could be made, or any
thing more defined. is otherwife called the talmud.
See Talmud.
GEMBLOURS, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
in the province of Brabant, fituated on the river Orne,
ten miles north-weft of Namur : E. long. 40 3c/, and
N. lat. 50° 30'. _
GEMELLUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 2oy.
GEMINI, the Twins, in aftronomy, one of the twelve
* figns of the zodiac, the third in order, beginning with
aries. See Astronomy.
GEMMA, in natural hiftory. See Gem.
GEMUND, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia, and dukedom of Juliets, fituated on the river
Roer: E. long. 6° 15', and N. lat. 50° 34'.
Gemund, a town of Germany, in the circle of Swabia,-
and county of Rechlberg, fituated on the river Rems:
E. long. 90 40', andN. lat. 48° 45'.
Gemund, a town of Germany, in the circle of Franco¬
nia, fituated on the river Maine : E. long. 90 45',
and N. lat, 50° 8\
GENDARMES, or Gens d’armes, in the French ar¬
mies, a denomination given to a feled body of horfe,
on account of their fucceeding the ancient gendarmes,
who were thus called from their being completely
clothed in armour.
The king’s body-guards, the light horfe of the
royal houfe, and the mufquetcers, are -at prefent re¬
puted to Belong to the gendarmerie.
The grand gendarmes are a troop compofed of about
250 gentlemen, who guard the king’s perfon. The
king himfelf is their captain, and one of the prime
peers their captain-lieutenant, who has under him two
lieutenants, three enfigns, three guidons, and other
officers. There are, befides thefe, gendarmes of the
queen, the dauphin, 6c.
7 F GENDER,
GEN ( 670
GENDER, among grammarians, a divifion of nouns, or
names, to diftinguiih the two fexes.
This was the original intention of gender ; but, af¬
terwards, other words which had no proper relation,
either to the one fex or the other, had genders afligned
them, rather out of caprice than reafon ; which is at
length eftablilhed by cuftom. fience genders vary ac¬
cording to the languages, or even according to the
words introduced from one language into another.
Thus arbor, in Latin, is feminine ; but arbre,\n French,
is mafculine: and dens, in Latin, is mafculine ; but
dent, in French, is feminine.
GENEALOGY, an enumeration of aferies of anceftors;
or a fummary account of the reLtions snd alliances of
a perfon or family, both in the direct and collateral line.
GENEP, a town in the dutchy of Cleeve, in Germany,
fituated on the Nierfe and Maefe, ten miles weft of
Cleeve: E. long. S° 3°'> and N.Jat. 51° 40'.
GENERAL, an appellation given to whatever belongs
to a whole genus. See Genus.
General charge, in law. See Chargeenter heir.
General terms, among logicians, thofe which are
made the figns of general ideas.
General of an army, in the art of war, he who com¬
mands in chief.
The office of a general is, to regulate the march and
encampment of the army ; in the day of battle to chufe
out the moft advantageous ground ; to make the difpo-
frtion of the army; to poft the artillery; and where
there is occafion, to fend his orders by his aids de
camp. At a fiege, he is to caufe the place to be in¬
verted ; to order the approaches and attacks; to vifit
the works ; and to fend out detachments to fecure his
convoys.
GENERATING Line, or Figure, in geometry, is
that which by its motion produces any other plane or
folid figure.
GENERATION, in phyfiology, the adt of procreating
and producing a being fimilar to the parent.
According to Ariftotle, the male animals contain ^he
principle, and the female the matter of generation :
for though both were furniffied indeed with a feminal
liquor, yet the femen of the males alone was prolific.
The moderns, on the other hand, as well thofe who
contend for the fyftem of generation from eggs, as
they who adopt that of the animalcules in the male-
feed, pretend that females have no fuch feminal liquor
at all, and that vs hat was commonly taken for it was
fome other animal fluid.
Harvey is of opinion, that all females are furniffied
with eggs, and that the embryos, or young animals,
are formed in the fame maimer as a chick in the egg of
any bird Generation, according to this celebrated
phyfician, is effedted wholly by means of the uterus, or
womb; which conceives the foetus by a kind of con¬
tagion communicated to it by the male-feed, much in
the fame way as the load-done communicates magne-
tifm to iron. This contagion, he thinks, adls not
only on the uterus, but is communicated to the whole
body of the female, which is altogether prolific ; tho’
the uterus, he acknowledges,, is the only part that is
) GEN
capable of conceiving the foetus, juft as the brain is
alone capable of forming ideas and notions. Agreeable
to this dodtrine of Harvey, Steno and other anato-
mifts have pretended to difcover certain eggs in the
ovaries or tefticles of women ; which Mr Buflfon de¬
nies to be the cafe, affirming, that there are no fuch
eggs to be found in the ovaries or tefticles of women.
vVe cannot enter into a detail of the reafonings for
and againft the fyftem of generation from eggs ; and
ffiall therefore only obferve, that its advocates pretend
to have difcovered eggs in all the females on which
they made obfervations ; that the largeft of thofe found
in women did not exceed the bignefs of a pea; that
they are extremely fmail in young girls under fourteen,
but that age and commerce with men makes them grow
larger; that there are more than twenty fuch eggs in
each ovary or tefticle; that they are fecundated in the
ovary by the fpirituous and volatile part of the male-
feed ; that they afterwards are detached and fall into
the uterus through the Fallopian tubes ; that here the
foetus is formed of the internal fubftance of the egg,
and the placenta of the exterior part.
Leewenhoek is the author of another fyftem of ge¬
neration, from animalcules in the male feed. He tells
us, he difcovered many thoufands of thefe in a drop
lefs than a grain of fand. They are found in the fe¬
men of all males whatever, but not in that of females ;
and are fo fmall, that 3.000,000,000- of them are not
equal to a grain of fand, whofe diameter is but the
hundredth part of an inch. When any of thefe ani¬
malcules gets into an egg, fit to receive it, and this
falls into the womb through the Fallopian tubes, the
humours which diftil through the veflels of the womb,
penetrating the coats of the egg, fwell and dilate it, as
the fap of the earth does feed thrown into it. The pla¬
centa begins to appear like a little cloud, upon one fide
of the external coat of the egg ; and, at the fame time,
the fpine of the embryo-animalcule is grown fo big, as
to become vifible; and a little afterwards, the cere¬
brum and cerebellum appear like two bladders; and
the eyes ftand next goggling out of the head ; then the.
beating of the heart, or pun&um faliens, >is plainly to
be feen ; and the extremities difcover themfelves laft
of all.
Thefe animalcules are of different figures, fome like
tadpoles, and others like eels. In the femen of a man,
and in that of a dog, there have been difcovered two
different kinds of them, the one fuppofed to be males
and the other females. Some even pretend to have
fcen animalcules difengage themfelves from the mem¬
branes that furround them ; and that they then appeared
perfe&ly like men, with legs, arms, fac. like thofe of
the human body 1
All the advocates for the fyftem of generation from
animalcules ftrongly oppofe that from eggs. They
contend, that thefe animalcules cannot be looked upon
as the inhabitants of the femen, fince they were of
greater extent than the liquor itfelf; not to mention,
that no fuch animals are found in any other liquors of
the body; and fince females have nothing fimilar to
thefe animals, they think it manifeft that the prolific
principle
GEN ( 671 ) GEN
principle relides in males. When they are alfced, to
what purpofe ferves fueh an immenfe profufion of hu¬
man animalcules ? they anfwer, that it is agreeable to
- the ordinary courfe of nature, both in the animal and'
vegetable part of the creation. They likewife ftrength-
en their fyflem, by alledging the many examples we
have of fimilar transformations in the infeifl-clafs of a-
nimals, which, from caterpillars and fmall worms, be¬
come winged animals of the butterfly or fly kinds.
By this fyftem, fays Mr BufFon, the firft woman
cannot be faid to have contained the whole race of
mankind, as being all, according to it, the true pofte-
rity of the firft man, and in their animalcule ftate
contained only in him. On this principle, he proceeds
to invalidate the fyftem of generation from animalcules :
for fuppofing the fize of a man to be 1, then will that of
one of the fpermatic animalcules be , > ar,d
as a man is to an animalcule of the firft generation in
the fame ratio that this animalcule is to an animalcule
of the fecond generation, it follows, that this laft will
*he exprelfed by the fra&ion To'ga-oo'eo'oaogo 6-g6 6<re-
In this manner he computes the lize of the animalcules
of feveral generations, all fuppofed to be living ani¬
mals, notwithftanding that their minutenefs exceeds
the power of imagination to conceive; and then tells
us, that the fyftem of generation from eggs is liable to
the fame objetfions, whereof the detail may be feen
inhisHift. Natur. tom. II. p. 157, & feq.
As to BufFon’s own fyftem, he thinks that every
part, both of animals and vegetables, contains an infi¬
nite number of organic molecules ; thatthefe molecules
aflume fucceffively different forms, and are put into
different motions, according to the circumftances they
are in; but that they are much more numerous in the
feminal liquors of both fexes, and the feeds of plants,
than in other parts ; that thefe organic molcules make
the matter of nutrition ; that this matter is always a£tive,
and tends to organization, forming itfelf into different,
-fhapes, according to the moulds it meets with. When
the quantity of this organic matter is but fmall, as in
man, and moft large animals, generation only takes
place at,the age of maturity, and even then the number
of animals produced is.but fmall. The cafe is juft
the reverfe in animals which abound with this mat¬
ter, as in fifties, and moft birds.
With refpe<ft to the generation of mankind, the fame
author thinks it a certain faft, that the male-feed is
received into the womb of the woman ; and that, for
'this purpofe, it is highly probable the internal orifice
opens during the aft of coition. The female-feed.alfo
makes its way into the womb, where, being mixed
with that of the male, they both together .contribute
t-o the formation of the foetus ; which is either male or
female,, according as the feed of the man Or woman
abounds moft with organic molecules; and the infant
refemhles either father or mother, according to the
different combinations of thefe molecules. Both thefe
feminal liquors he thinks equally adfive in the for*
mation of the faetus, and that they fix and counter¬
balance each other ; the molecules of each parent be¬
ing thereby determined to form, fimilar parts to thofe
of the individual that furnifhed them, as the head,
trunk, arms, legs, 6e. He thinks the molecules pro¬
ceeding from the genital parts fix themfeives firft ; and
that the other molecules arrange themfeives fucceffively
round thefe, in the fame order which they before oc¬
cupied in the parent. When a great quantity of the
feminal liquors of both fexes is received into the womb,
there are formed different fpheres of attradlion, in dif¬
ferent parts of thefe liquors ; the confequence of which
is, that feveral foetufes are formed at the fame time.
Nearly a kin to Mr BufFon’s fyftem is that of Mr
Maupertuis, which he has explained in his Venus
Phyfique. He obferves, that all the variety cbfer-
vable among mankind, rfcay have been accidental at firft ;
but being once eftablifhed in the conftitution of the
parents, they become natural to their pofterity. To
illuftrate this, he gives an inftance of a fexdigitary
family at Berlin, who had fix fingers, or.fix toes, and
frequently both ; and that this peculiarity was tranf-
mitted equally by the father and mother, but was loft
by alliances with thofe who had but the ufual number
of fingers or toes.
He farther obferves, that moft animals, excepting-
mankind, have ftated feafons for procreation : and that
the females go with young fome a longer, others a
fhorter time. Mares go from eleven to twelve months ;
cows and hinds go nine months, as do alfo women ;
foxes and wolves, five months; and bitches go only
feven weeks; cats nine weeks; and rabbits, but thirty-
one days. Moft birds are hatched in twenty-one days'
the canary birds, and fome others, are hatched in thir¬
teen or fourteen days. It appears, therefore, that
there is an endlefs variety in the time and manner of
the generation of animals.
Whoever reads this fhort fketch of the different
theories of generation that have hitherto been in¬
vented, will probably require no other arguments to
convince him, that phyficians and philofophers are ftiH
as ignorant of the nature of this myfterious operation as
they were in the- days of Noah.
Parts of Generation. See Anatomy, p. 270.
Generation of Plants. See Botany, p. 643.
GENESIS, among mathematicians, figniiies the forma¬
tion or produdlion of fome figure or quantity.
Genesis, among divines, a canonical book of the Old
Teftament, and the firft of the pentateuch or five
books of Mofes. The Hebrews call it Berefchith, or.
In the beginning, thefe being the firft words in the
book. The Greeks gave it the name of Genefis, from
its beginning with the hiftory of-the creation of the
world. See Bible.
GENET, GennEt, or JEnnet,in the menage,denotes
a fmall-fized well-proportioned Spanifti horfe.
To ride a la genette, is to ride after the Spanifh faflii-
on. fo ftiort, that the fpurs bear upon the horfe’s flank..
GENEVA, a city near the confines of France and Swit¬
zerland, on the river Rhone, about fixty miles north-
weft of Lyons: E. long. 6°, N. lat. 46° 20 .
Geneva is a fortified town, about two miles in cir¬
cumference, fituated at the weft end of a lake fixty
. mjles long, and twelve broad, called the lake of Ge-
ne.va.
G E "N - f 672 ) GEN
meva. It is a republic, governed by a council of 200,
and a fenate of twenty five members; and is faid to
contain 30,000 inhabitants.
'Ceneva, or Gin, among diftillers, an ordinary malt
fpirit, diftilled a fecond time, with the addition of
dome juniper-berries.
Originally, the berries were added to the malt in
the grinding; fo that the fpirit thus obtained was fia-
woured with the berries from firft, and -exceeded all
that could be made by any other method. At prefent,
they leave out the berries entirely, and.give their fpi-
rits a flavour by drftiUing them with a proper quantity
of oil of turpentine ; which, though it nearly refem-
bles the flavour of juniper-berries, has none of their
valuable virtues.
■GENIAL, an epithet given by the Pagans to certajngods
who were fuppofed to prefide over generation.
The/genial gods, fays Feftus, were earth, air, fire,
and water. The twelve figns, together with the fun
and moon, were fometimes alfo ranked in the number.
-GENICULI, among botanifts, the knots or joints in the
flalks of plants; whence they are denominated genicu¬
late plants.
GENIOGLOSSI, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.
304-'
GENIOHYQIDiEUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
p. 304.
GENIS, a town of Savoy, fituated on the river Guier,
twelve miles weft of Chambery.
GENISTA, Green-weed, or Dyer’s weed, a ge¬
nus of the diadelphia decandria clafs. The calix is
bilabiated; the vexillum is oblong, and reflefted. There
are 14 fpecies, two of which are natives of Britain,
viz. the tiniloria, or dyer’s weed ; and the anglica,
or needle-furze.
GENITAL, an appellation given to whatever belongs to
the parts of generation. See Generation.
GENITES, among the Hebrews, thofe defcended from
. Abraham, without any mixture of foreign blood.
The Greeks diftinguifhed by the name of genites
fuch of the Jews as were iffued from parents, who,
during the Babylonifti captivity, had not allied with
any gentile family.
GENITIVE, in grammar, the fecond cafe of the declen-
fion of nouns. The relation of one thing confidered
as belonging in fome manner to another, has occafioned
a peculiar termination of nouns, called the genitive
cafe: But in the vulgar tongues, they make ufe of a
fign to exprels the relation of this cafe. In Englilh
they prefix the particle of, in French de or du, 'be.
Though in ftridtnefs there are no cafes in either of
.-thefe languages; inafmuch as they do not exprefs the
different relations of things by different terminations,
but by additional prepofitions, which is otherwife in
the Latin.
GENIUS, a good or evil fpirit, or daemon, w'hom the
ancients fuppofe’d fet over each perfon, to diredt his
birth, accompany him in life, and be his guard. See
Daemon.
The rank and office of the genii were inferior to
jthofe of the lares; for the latter were the tutelar
gods Of a family, whereas the genii had the care or ga-
vernment only of Angle perfbns, or places.
Genius, in matters of literature, be. a natural talent
or difpafition to do one thing more than another; or
the aptitude a man has .received from nature to perform
well and eafily that which others can-do but indiffe¬
rently and with a great deal of pains.
To know the bent of nature is the moft important
concern. Men come into the world with a genius de¬
termined not only to a certain art, but to certain parts
of that art, in which only they are cabable of fuccefs.
If they quit their fphere, they fall even below medio¬
crity in their profeflion. Art and induftry add much
to natural endowments, but cannot fupply them where
■they are wanting. Every thing depends on genius. A
painter often pleafes without obferving rules, whilft
another difpleafes though he obferves them, becaufe
he has not the happinefs of being born with a genius
for painting.
GENOA, a city and archbiffiop’s fee of It^ly,- and ca¬
pital of a republic of the fame name, is built un a
ftrand near the fea, and rifes gradually to the top of a
hill; the houfes, which are lofty and well built, rifing
like the feats of a theatre, afford a fine profpetft at fea.
The harbour is large and deep, and the principal ftreet,
from one end to the other, refembles a double row of
palaces: E. long. 90 3c/, and N. iat. 440 30.
GENTIANA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria dl-
gynia clafs. The corolla confifts of one petal; the
capfule has two valves, and one cell. There are twenty-
eight fpecies, five of which are natives of Britain, viz.
the pneumoanthe, or calathian violet; the amarella, or
autumnal gentian; „the centaurium, or leffer centaury;
the campeftris, or vernal dwarf gentian; and the fili-
formis, or marlh century.
The root of this plant is large, remarkably tough,
and of a firm texture. It is brought to us from Ger¬
many, where it is in many places cultivated as liquo¬
rice is amongft.us ; and it is to be chofen frelh, tough,
of a middle fize, free from the fmall fibres, and well
dried; tho’ if k be fcorched, it is to be rejedted This
root is one of the heft ftomachics.
GENTILE, in matters of religion, a pagan, or worfliip-
per of falfe gods.
Gentile, in the Roman law and biftory, a name which
fometimes expreffes what the Romans otherwife called
barbarians, whether they were allies of Rome or not:
but this word was ufed in a more particular fenfe- for
all ftrangers and foreigners not fubjedt to the Roman
empire.
GENTLEMAN-usher 0/"the black rod. See Rod.
Gentlemen of the officers, whofe duty and at¬
tendance is in the royal chapel, being in number thirty-
two, whereof twelve are priefts ; the other twenty,
commonly called clerks of the chapel, affift in the per¬
formance of divine fervice. One of the firft twelve is
chofen for confeffor of the houfliold, whofe office it is
to read prayers every morning to die houlhold fervants,
to vifit the fick, examine and prepare communicants,
and adminifter the faciament.
One of twenty clerks, well verfed in mufic,js chofen
firft
GEN
'firft crgarilft, who is mafier of the children, to in-
itrud them in mufic, and whatever elfe is neceflary for
the fervice of the chapel; a fecond is likewife an orga-
nilt; a third, a lutanift ; and a fourth, a violift.
There are likewife three vergers, fo called from the
fdver-rods they carry in their hands; being a ferjeant,
a yeoman, and groom of the veftry; the firft attends
the dean and fub-dean, and finds furplices and other
tieceffaries for the chapel; the fecond has the whole
care of the chapel, keeps the pev/s, and featp the no¬
bility and gentry; the groom has his attendance with¬
in the chapel-door, and looks after it.
'GENUS, among metaphyficians and logicians, denotes a
number of beings, which agree in certain general pro¬
perties common to them all^ fo that. a genus is no¬
thing elfe but an abftraft idea, expreffed by fome gene¬
ral name or term.
It is plain, therefore, that by a genus we do not
barely fignify one particular thing, nor yet a plurality
of things; but a fort or kind of things, all agreeing in
certain general properties.
Thus animal is laid to be a genus in rtfped of man
and brute, in regard man and brute agree in the com¬
mon nature and charafter of animal: fo a right-lined
figure of four fides, is a genus in refpeft of a paralle¬
logram, and a trape2»um; and fo likewife is fubftance.
GEO
in refpe£ of fubftance extended which is body, and
thinking fubftance which is mind.
Genus is alfo ufed for a charader or manner applicable
to every thing of a certain nature or condition: in
which fenfe it ferves to make capital divifions in divers
fciences, as rhetoric, anatomy, and natural hiilory*
Genus, in rhetoric. Authors dilhnguilh the art of rhe¬
toric, as alfo orations or difcourfes produced thereby,
into three genera or kinds, demonllrative, delibera¬
tive, and judiciary.
To the demondrative kind belong panegyrics, geneth-
liacons, epithalamiums, funeral harangues, &c.
To the deliberative kind belong perfuafions, difiua-
fions, commendations, &c. To the judiciary kind be¬
long defences and accufations.
Genus, in natural hiftory, a fub-divifion of any clafs or
order of natural beings, whether of the animal, vege¬
table, or mineral kingdoms, all agreeing in certain
common charaders. See Natural History.
GEOCENTRIC, in aftronomy, is applied to a planet or
its orbit, to denote it concentric with the earth, or as
having the earth for its centre, or the fame centre with
the earth.
GEOGRAPHICAL mile, the fame with the fea-mile;
being one minute, or the fixtieth part of a degree of a
great circle on the earth’s furface.
( <573 )
G E G G R A P H Y,
GEOGRAPHY, the dodrine or knowledge of the explains the properties of the earth, and the parts thereof
terreftrial globe ; or the fcience that teaches and which depend upon quantity.
The DESCRIPTION and USE of the GLOBES and ARMILLARY SPHERE.
IF a map of the world be accurately delineated on a
fpherical ball, the furface thereof will reprefent the fur-
face of the earth : for the higheft hills are fo inconfider-
able with refped to the bulk of the earth, that they take
off no more from its voundnefs than grains of fand do
from the roundnefs of a common globe; for the diameter
of the earth is 8000 miles, in round numbers, and no
known hill upon it is three miles jn perpendicular height.
For the proof of the earth’s being fpherical, fee A-
stronomy, p. 440.
With regard to whit we call«/and fee Astro¬
nomy, p. 445.
To an oblerver placed any where in the indefinite fpace,
where there is nothing to limit his view, all remote ob-
jeds appear equally diftant from him; and feem to be
placed in a vaft concave fphere, of which his eye is the
centre. The moon is much nearer to us than the fun;
fome of the planets are fometimes nearer, and fometimes
farther from us, than the fun; others of them never
come fo near us as the fun always is; the remoteft planet
in our fyftem, is beyond comparifon nearer to us than any
Vol^II. No 54. 2
of the fixed ftars are. And yet all thefe celeftial objeds
appear equally diftant from us. Therefore, if we ima¬
gine a large hollow fphere of glafs to have as many
bright ftuds fixed to its infide, as there are ftars vifible in
the heaven, and thefe ftuds to be of different magnitudes,
and placed at the fame angular diftances from each other
as the ftars are; the fphere will be a true reprefentation
of the ftarry heaven, to an eye fuppofed to be in its centre,
and viewing it all around. And if a fmall globe, with a
map of the earth upon it, be placed on an axis in the
centre of this ftarry fphere, and the fphere be made to
turn round on this axis, it will reprefent the apparent mo¬
tion of the heavens round the earth.
If a great circle be fo drawn upon this fphere, as to
divide it into two equal parts orhemifpheres, and the plane
of the circle be perpendicular to the axis of the fphere,
this circle will reprefent the equinofiial, which divides
the heaven into two equal parts, called the northern and
the fouthern hertiifpheres; and every point of that circle
will be equally diftant from the pe/es, or ends of the axis
in the fphere. That pole which is in the middle of the
7 G northers
674 G E O G
northern hemifphere, will be called tlie north pole of the
Jphcre; and that which is in the middle of the fouthern
hemifphere, \hz fouth pole.
If another great circle be drawn- upon the fphere, in
fuch a manner as to cut the equinoctial at an angle of
2 degrees in two oppofite points, it will reprefent the
ecliptic, or circle of the fun’s apparent annual motion :
one half of which is on the north iide of the equinoctial,
and the other half on the fouth.
If a large ftud be mai^e to move eaftward in this ecliptic,
in fuch a manner as to go quite round it, in the time that
the fphere is turned round weftwaird 366 times upon its
axis; this ftud will reprefent the fun, changing his place
every day a 365th part of the ecliptic ; and going round
weftward, the fame way as the ftars do; but with a mo¬
tion fo much flower than the motion of the ftars, that
they will make 366 revolutions about the axis of the
fphere, in the time that the fun makes only 365. Du¬
ring one half of thefe revolutions, the fun will be on the
north fide of the equinodtial; during the other half, on
the fouth ; and at the end of each half, in the equinoc¬
tial.
If we fuppofe the terreftrial globe in this machine to be
about one inch in diameter, and the diameter of the ftarry
fphere to be about five or fix feet, a fmall infeCt on the globe
would fee only a very little portion of its furface; but
it would fee one half of the ftarry fphere ; the convexity
of the globe hiding the other half from its view. If the
fphere be turned weftward round the globe, and the infedt
could judge of the appearances which arife from that mo¬
tion, it would fee fome ftars rifing to its view in the
eaftern fide of the fphere, whilft others were fetting on
the weftern : but as all the ftars are fixed to the fphere,
the fame ftars would always rife in the fame points of view
on the eaft fide, and fet in the fame points of view on the
weft fide. With the fun it would be otherwife, becaufe
•the fun is- not fixed to any point of the fphere, but moves
flowly along an oblique circle in it. And if the infedt
fltould look towards the fouth, and call that point of the
globe, where the equinoftial in the fphere feems to cut it
on the left fide, the eafl point; and where it cuts the
globe on the right fide, the nuejl point; the little animal
would fee the fun rife north of the eaft, and fet north of
the weft, for 182^- revolutions; after which, for as
many more, the fun would rife fouth of the eaft, and fet
fouth of the weft-. And in the whole 365 revolutions,
the fun, would rife only twice in the eaft point, and fet
twice in the weft. All thefe appearances would be the
fame, if the ftarry fphere flood ftill (the fun only moving
in the ecliptic) and the earthly globe were turned round
the axis of the fphere eaftward. For, as the infeCt would be
carried round with the globe, he would be quite infenfible
of its motion; and the fun and ftars would appear to
move weftward.
We may imagine as many circles defcribed upon the
earth as we pleafe ; and we may imagine the plane of any
circle defcribed upon the earth to be continued, until it
marks a circle in the concave fphere of the heavens.
The horizon is either fenfible or rational. The ferfihle
horizon, is that circle which a.man Handing upon a large
plane obferves . to terminate his view all: around, where
the heaven and earth feem to meet. The plane of our
R A P H Y.
fenfible horizon continued to the heaven, divides it into
two hemifpheres ; one vifible to us, the other hid by the
convexity of the earth.
The plane of the rational horizon, is fuppofed parallel
to the plane of the fenfible; to pafs through the centre
of the earth, and to be continued to the heavens. And
although the plane of the fenfible horizon touches the
earth in the place of the 1 obferver, yet this plane, and
that of the rational horizon, will feem to coincide in the
heaven, becaufe the whole earth is but a point compared
to the fphere of the heaven.
The earth being a fpheriCal body, the horizon, or li¬
mit of our view, muft change as we change our place.
The poles ef the earth, are thofe two points on its
furface in which its axis terminates. The one is called
the north pole, and the other the fouth pole.
The poles of the heaven, are thofe two points in which
the earth’s axis produced terminates in the heaven ; fo
that the north pole of the heaven is diredlly over the north
pole of the earth ; and the fouth pole of the heaven is di¬
rectly over the fouth pole of the earth.
The equator is a great circle upon the earth, every
part of which is equally diftant from either of the poles.
It divides the earth into two equal parts, called the nor~
them and fouthern hemifpheres. If we fuppofe the plane
of this circle to be extended to the heaven, it will mark
the equinoftial therein, and will divide the heaven into
two equal parts, called the northern and fouthern hernia
fpheres of the heaven.
The meridian of any place is a great circle palling
through that place and the poles of the earth. We may
imagine as many fuch meridians as we pleafe, becaufe any
place that is ever fo little to the eaft or weft of any other
place, has a different meridian from that place ; for no
one circle can pafs through any two fuch places and the
poles of the earth.
The meridian of any place is divided by the poles in¬
to two femicircles : that which paffes through the place
is called the geographical, or upper meridian-, and that
which paffes through the oppofite place, is called the
lower meridian.
When the rotation of the earth brings the plane of the
geographical meridian to the fun, it is noon or mid-day
to that place ; and when the lower meridian comes to the
fun, it is mid-night.
All places lying under the fame geographical ’meridian*
have their noon at the fame time, and confequently all
the other hours. All thofe places are faid to have the
fame longitude, becaufe no one of them lies either eaft¬
ward or weftward from any of the reft.
If we imagine 24 femicircles, one of which is the geo¬
graphical meridian of a given place, to meet at the poles,
and to divide the equator into 24 equal parts; each of
thefe meridians will come round to the fun in 24 hours,
by the earth’s equable motion round its axis in that time.
And, as the equator contains 360 degrees, there will be
15 degrees contained between any two of thefe meridians
which are neareft to one another : for 24 times *5 is 360“.
And-as the earth’s motion is eaftward, the fun’s apparent
motion will be weftward, at the rate of 15 degrees each
hour, Therefore,
They whofe geographical meridian is 15 degrees eaft¬
ward
G E O G
ward from iis, have noon, and every other hour, an hour
fooner than we have. They whofe meridian is fifteen
degrees weitward from us, have noon, and every o-
ther hour, an hour later than we have: and fo on
in proportion, reckoning one hour for every fifteen de¬
grees.
For the ecliptic circle, figns, and degrees, fee Astro¬
nomy, p. 435.
The tropics are lefier circles in the heaven, parallel to
the equinodtial; one on each fide of it, touching the e-
cliptic in the points of its greateft declination; fa that
each tropic is 2^-j degrees from the equinoctial, one on
the n'orth fide of it, and the other on the fouth. The
northern tropic touches the ecliptic at the beginning of
Cancer, the fouthern at the beginning of Capricorn; for
which reafon the former is called the tropic of Cancer,
and the latter the tropic of Capricorn.
The polar circles in the heaven, are each 23^ degrees
from the poles, all around. That which goes round the
north pole, is called the arftic circle. The fouth polar
circle, is called tire antarCtic circle, from its being op-
pofite to the ardtic.
The ecliptic, tropics, and polar circles, are drawn up¬
on the terreflrial globe, as well as upon the celeftial.
But the ecliptic, being a great fixed circle in the heavens,
cannot properly be faid to belong to the terreftrial globe;
and is laid down upon it only for the conveniency of hal¬
ving fome problems. So that, if this circle on the ter¬
reftrial globe was properly divided into the months and
days of the year, it would not only fuit the globe better,
but would alfo make the problems thereon much eafier.
For the earth’s motion round its axis every 24 hours;
its motion in the ecliptic round the fun every year; and
the viciflitude of feafons; fee Astronomy, p. 452.
Defcription of the Terre final Globe.
[See Plate XLIV. fig. 2.]
The equator, ecliptic, and tropics, polar circles, and
meridians, are laid down upon the globe in the manner
already defcribed. The ecliptic is divided into 12 figns,
and each fign into 30 degrees. Each tropic is 2 3-[ de--
grees from the equator, and each polar circle 231 degrees
from its refpedlive pole. Circles are drawn parallel to
the equator, -at every ten degrees diftance from it on each
fide to the poles: thefe circles are called parallels of la
tirude. On large globes there are circles drawn perpen¬
dicularly through every tenth degree of the equator,
interfering each other at. the poles : but orv. globes of
or under a foot diameter,- they are only drawn through
every fifteenth, degree of the. equator ; thefe circles
are generally called, meridiarls, fometimes circles of
longitude, and at other umzs hour-circles.
The globe is hung in ,a brafs-ring, called the brazen
meridian-, and turns upon a wire in eace .pole funk- half
its thicknefs into one fide of the meridian ring; by which
means, that fide of the ring divides the globe into two
equal parts, called the eafiern and 'wefiern bemifpheres ;
as the equator divides it into two eqqal parts, called the
northern zodfouthern hemifpheres.> The ring is divided
R A P H Y. <>75
into 360 equal parts or degrees, on the fide wherein the
axis of the globe turns. One half of thefe degrees are
numbered, and reckoned, from the equator to the poles,
where they end at 90 : their ufe is to fiiew the latitudes
of places. The degrees oh the other half of the meridian
ring are numbered from the poles to the equator, where
they end at 90 : their ufe is to Ihew how to elevate either
the north or fouth pole above the horizon, according to
the latitude of any given place, as it is north or fouih of
the equator.
The brazen meridian is let into two notches made in
a broad flat ring, called the mooden horizon ; the upper
furface of which divides the globe into two equal parts,
called the upper and lovser hemifpheres. One notch is
in the north point of the horizon, and the other in the
fouth. On this horizon are feveral concentric circles,
which contain the months and days of the year, the figns
and degrees anfwering to the fun’s place for each month
and day, and the 32 points of the compafs.—The gra¬
duated fide of the brafs meridian lies towards the eaft fide
of the horizon, and ftiould be generally kept towards the
perfon who works problems by the globes.
There is afmall horary, circle, fo fixed to the north part
of the brazen meridian, that the wire in the north pole of
the globe is in the centre of that circle ; and on the wire is
an index, which goes over all the 24 hours of the circle,
as the globe is turned round its axis. Sometimes there
are two horary circles, one between each pole of the globe
and the brazen meridian.
There is a thin flip of brafs:, called the quadrant of al¬
titude, 'Which is divided into 90'equal parts or degrees^
anfwering exadlyto fo many degrees of the equator. It
is occafionally fixed to the uppermoft point of the brazen
meridian by a nut and fcrew. The divifions end at the
nut, and the quadrant is turned round upon it...
The Defcriptidn anti Ufe' of the Armillary Sphere.
[See Plate LXXXVII. Fig. 1.] ..
The exterior parts of this machine.are, a compages of
brafs rings, which reprefent . the-principal circles of the
heaven, viz. 1. The .equinoflial A A, which is divided
into 360 degrees^ (beginning at its interfeftion with the
ecliptic in Aries) for ihewing the fun’s right afeenfion in
degrees; and alfo into 24 hours, for Ihewing his right a-
feenfion in time. 2. The.ecliptic, 55, wliich is divided
into 12 figns, and each fign into 3o.degrees, and alfo into
the months and days of tlie year ; in firch a manner, that
the degree or point of the ecliptic in which the fun is, on
any given day, ftands over that day in the circle of months.
3. The tropic of Cancer CC, touching the ecliptic at the
beginning of Cancer in af, and the tropic .of Capricorn
DD, touching the ecliptic at the beginning pf Capricorn
in/"; each 23.i degrees-from the equino&ial circle. 4. The
ardfic circle E, and the antardtic circle F, each 231 de¬
grees from its refpe&ive pole at //and S. 5. The equi-
noAial colure GG, palling through the north and fourh
poles of the heaven at Arand S, and through the equi-
nodtial points Aries and Libra, in the ecliptic. 6. The
Tolftitial colure EIJ, palling through the poles of the
heave a.
676 G E O G R
heaven, and through the folftitial points Cancer and Ca¬
pricorn, in the ecliptic. Each quaiter of the former of
thefe colures is divided Into 90 degrees, from the equi¬
noctial to the poles of the world, for fltewing the decli¬
nation of the fun, moon, and flat s; and each quarter of
the latter, from the ecliptic at e and f, to its poles b and
d, for fnewiug the latitude of the flats.
In the north pole of the ecliptic is a nut b, to which
is fixed one end of a quadrantal wire, and to the other
end a fmall fun T, which is carried round the ecliptic i? B,
by turning the nut: and in the fouth pole of the ecliptic
is a pin d, on which is another quadrantal wire, with a
fmall moon Z upon it, which may be moved round by
hand: but there is a particular contrivance for caufing
the moon to move in an orbit which crofles the ecliptic
at an angle of 5-j- degrees, in two oppofite points called
the moon's nodes ; and alfo for drifting thefe points back¬
ward in the ecliptic, as the moon's nodes drift in the hea¬
ven.
Within thefe circular rings is a fmall terredrial globe
1, dxt on an axis KK, which extends from the north
and fouth poles of the globe at n and /, to thofe of the
celedial fphere at Wand S. On this axis is fixt the dat
celeftial meridian L L, which may be fet diredtly over
the meridian of any place on the globe, and then turned
round with the globe, fo as to keep over the fame meri¬
dian upon it. This dat meridian is graduated the fame
way as the brafr meridian of a common globe, and its
ufe is much the fame. To this globe is fitted the move-
able horizon MM, fo as to turn upon two drong wires
proceeding from its call and wed points to the globe, and
entering the globe at the oppofite points of its equator,
which is a moveable brafs ring let into the globe in a
groove all around its equator. The globe may be turned
by hand within this ring, fo as to place any given meri¬
dian upon it, dire&ly under the celedial meridian LL.
The horizon is divided into 360 degrees all around its
outermod edge, within which are the points of the com-
pafs, for Ihewing the amplitude of the fun and moon,
both in degrees and points. The celedial meridian LL
pafies through two notches in the north and fouth points
of the horizon, as in a common globe: but here, if the
globe be turned round, the horizon and meridian turn
with it. At the fouth pole of the fphere is a circle of
24 hours, fixt to the rings, and on the axis is an index
which goes round that circle, if the globe be turned
round its axis.
The whole fabric is fupported on a pededal N, and
may be elevated or deprefled upon the joint 0, to any
number of degrees from o to 90, by means of the arc P,
which is fixed in the drong brafs arm and Aides in
the upright piece R, in which is a ferew at r, to fix it at
any proper elevation.
In the box P are two wheels (as in Dr Long’s frhere)
and two pinions, whole axes come out at V and U; ei¬
ther of which may be turned by the fmall winchY-E.
When the winch is put upon the axis V, and turn back¬
ward, the terredrial globe, with its horizon and celedial
■meridian, keep at red; and the whole fphere of circles
turns round from ead, by fouth, to wed, carrying the
funE, and moon Z, round the fame way, and caufing
A P H Y.
them to rife above and fet below the horizon. But when
the winch is put upon the axis U, and turned forward, the
fphere with tire fun and moon keep at red; and the
earth, with its horizon and meridian, turn round from
wed, by louth, to ead; and bring the fame points of the
horizon to the din and moon, to which thefe bodies came
when the earth kept at red, and they were carried round
it; Aiewing that they rife and fet in the fame points of
the horizon, and at the fame times in the hour circle,
whether the motion be in the earth or in the heaven. If
the earthly globe be turned, the hour-index goes round
its hour-circle; but if the fphere be turned, the hour-
circle goes round below the index.
.And fo, by this condrudlion, the machine is equally
fitted to Ihew either the real motion of the earth, or the
apparent motion of the heaven.
To redlify the fphere for ufe, fird Aacken the ferew r
in the upright demi?, and taking hold of the arm S>_, move
it up or down until the given degree of latitude for any
place be at the fide of the Item R; and then the axis of the
fphere will be properly elevated, fo as to Hand parallel
to the axis of the world, if the machine be fet north and
fouth by a fmall compafs: this done, count the latitude
from the north pole, upon the celedial meridian L L,
down towards the north notch of the horizon, and fet
the horizon to that latitude ; then, turn the nut b un¬
til the fun T comes to the given day of the year in the
ecliptic, and the fun will be at its proper place for
that day: find the place of the moon’s afeending node,
and alfo the place of the moon, by an Ephemeris, and
fet them right accordingly: ladly, turn the winch IV,
until either the fun comes to the meridian L L, or until
the meridian comes to the fun (according as you want the
fphere or earth to move) and fet the hour-index to the
XII, marked noon, and the whole machine will be rec¬
tified. Then turn the winch, and obferve when
the fun or moon rife and fet in the horizon, and
the hour-index will Aiew the times thereof for the given
day.
As thofe who underlland the ufe of the globes will be
at no lofs to work many other problems by this fphere,
it is needlefs to enlarge any farther upon it.
Directions for ufmg Globes.
In ufing globes, keep the eaft fide of the horizon t,o-
wards you (unlefs your problem require the turning of it),
which fide you may know by the word Eaft upon the ho¬
rizon ; for then you have the graduated fide of the meri¬
dian towards you, the quadrant of altitude before you,
and the globe divided exactly into two equal parts, by
the graduated fide of the meridian.
In working fome problems, it will he necefiary to torn
the whole globe and horizon about, that you may look on
the wefi: fide thereof; which turning will be apt tq jog
the ball fo, as to Aiift away that degree of the globe
which was before fet to the horizon or meridian : to a-
void which inconvenience, you may thruft in the feather-
end of a quill between the ball of the globe and the bra¬
zen meridian ; which, without hurting the ball, will keep
G E O G
st froiTi tr.rn'ing In the mieiidian, wiilft you turn the weft
ifide of the horizon towards you.
Prop. i. To find the latitude and longitude of any
given place upon the globe —Turn the globe on its axis,
until the given place comes exaflly under that graduated
fide ol the brafen meridian, on which the degrees are
numbered from the equator ; and obferve what degree of
the meridian the place then lies under; which is its lati¬
tude, north or fouth, as the place is north or fouth of
the equator.
The globe remaining in this pofition, the degree of the
equator, which is under the brafen meridian, is the lon¬
gitude of the place which is eaft or weft, as the place lies
on the eaft or w'eft fide of the firft meridian of the globe.
—All the Atlantic Ocean, and America, is on the weft
fide .of the meridian of London; and the grea'teft part
of Europe, and of Africa, together with all Alia, is on
the eaft fide of the meridian of London, which is reck¬
oned the firjl meridian of the globe by the Britilh geo¬
graphers and aftronomers.
Prob. II. The longitude and latitude of a place be¬
ing given, to find that place on the globe.—Look for the
given longitude in the equator (counting it eaft ward or weft-
ward from the firft meridian, as it is mentioned to be eaft
or weft;).and bring the point of longitude in the equa¬
tor to the brafen meridian, on that fide which is above
the fouth point of the horizon : then count from the e-
quator, on the brafen meridian, to the degree of the gi¬
ven latitude, towards the north or fouth pole, according
as the latitude is north or fouth ; and under that degree
of latitude on the meridian, you will have the place re¬
quired.
Pros. III. To find the difference of longitude, or
difference', of latitude, between any two given places.—
Bring each of thefe places to the brafeir meridian, and
fee what its latitude is: the lefler latitude fubtradted from
the greater, if both places are on the fame fide of the
equator, or both latitudes added together, if they are on
different fides of it, is the difference of latitude required.
And the number of degrees contained between thefe pla¬
ces, reckoned on the equator, when they are brought
feparately under the brafen meridian, is their difference
of longitude; if it be lefs than 180 : but if more, let it
be fubtradled from 360, and the remainder is the diffe¬
rence of longitude required. Or,
Having brought one of the places to the brafen meridi¬
an, and fet the hour-index to XII, turn the globe until
the other place comes to the brafen meridian, and the num¬
ber of hours and parts of an hour, part over by the in¬
dex, will give the longitude in time; which may beeafily
reduced to degrees, by allowing 15 degrees for every hour,
and one degree for every four minutes.
N B. When we fpeak of bringing any place to the
brafen meridian, it is the graduated fide of the meridian
that is meant.
Prob. IV. Any place being given, to find all thofe
places that have the fame longitude or latitude with it.
—Bring the given place to the brafen meridian, then all.
thofe places which lie under that fide of the meridian,
from pole to pole, have the fame longitude with the given
f>lace. Turn the globe round its axis, and all thofe pla-
Voz. II. No. 54.
R A P H Y.
ces which pafs under the fame degree of the meridian
that the given place does, have the fame latitude with
that place.
Since all latitudes are reckoned from the equator, and
all longitudes are reckoned from the firft meridian, it is
evident, that the point of tire equator which is cut by the
firft meridian, has neither latitude nor longitude.—The
greateft latitude is 90 degrees, becaufe no place is more
than 90 degrees from the equator. And the greateft lon¬
gitude is 180 degrees, becaufe no place is more than 180
degrees from the firft meridian.
Prob. V. To find //><? antceci, penoeci, and antipodes,
of any given place.—Bring the given place to the brafen
meridian ; and having found its latitude, keep the globe
in that fituation, and count the fame number of degrees
of latitude from the equator towards the contrary pole;
and where the reckoning ends, you have the anteeci of
the given place upon the globe. Thofe who live at the
equator have no antceci.
The globe remaining in the fame pofition, fet the hour-
index to the upper XII on the horary circle, afid turn
the globe until the index comes to the lower XII; then,
the place which lies under the meridian, in the fame lati-
titude with the given place, is the perioeci required.
Thofe who live at the poles have no periteci.
As the globe now ftands (with the index at the lower
XII) the antipodes of the given place wdll be under the
fame point of the brafen meridian where its antceci ftood
before. Every place upon the globe has its antipodes.
Prob. VI. To find the dtfiance between any twoplaces on
the globe.—Lay the graduated edge of the quadrant of
altitude over both the places, and count the number of
degrees intercepted between them on the quadrant; then
multiply thefe degrees by 6c, and the product will give the
diftance in geographical miles : but to find thediftance
in miles, multiply the degrees by 69^, and the product
will be the number of miles required. Or, take the di¬
ftance betwixt any two places with a pair of compaffes,
and apply that extent to the equator ; the number of de¬
grees, intercepted between the points of the compaffes, is
the diftance in degrees of a great circle; which may be
reduced either to geographical miles, or to Englilh miles,
as above.
Prob. VII. A place on the globe being given, and
its dijlance from any other place, to find ail the other
places upon the globe which are at the fame dijlance
from the given place.—Bring the given place to the bra¬
fen meridian, and ferew the quadrant of altitude to the
meridian, diredly over that place ; then keeping the
globe in that pofition, turn the quadrant quite round up¬
on it, and the degree of the quadrant that touches the
fecond place will pafs over all the other places which
are equally diftant with it from the given place.
This is the fame as if one foot of a pair of compaffes
was fet in the given place, and the other foot extended
to the fecond place, whofe diftance is known ; for if the
compaffes be then turned round the firft place as a centre,
the moving foot will go over all thofe places which are
at the fame diftance with the fecond from it.
Prob. VIII. The hour of the day at any place being
given, to find all thofe places where it is noon at that
.7 -H Wise.
678 O E O G ft
time —Bring the given place ta the brafen meridian, and
let the index to the given hour ; this done, turn the
globe until the index points to the upper XII, and then
all the places that lie under the bralen meridian have noon
at that time,
N. B. The upper XII always Hands for noon; and
■when the bringing of any place to the brafen meridian is
mentioned, the fide of that meridian on which the de¬
grees are reckoned from the equator is meant, unltfs the
contrary fide be mentioned.
Pros.IX. Tie hour ofthe day at any place being given, to
fndnuhat o'clock it then is at assy other place.—Bring the gi¬
ven place to the brafen meridian; and fet the index to
the given hour; then turn the globe, until the place where
the hour is required conies to the meridian, and the index
will point out the hour at that place.
Prob. X. To find the fun's place in the ecliptic, and
his declination, for any given day of the year.—Look on
the horizon for the given day, and right againft it you
have the degree of the fign in which the fun is (or his
place)'on that day at noon. Find the fame degree of that
iign in the ecliptic line upon the globe, and having brought
it to the brafen meridian, obferve what degree of the
meridian Hands over it; for that is the fun’s declination,
reckoned from the equator.
Prob. XI. The day of the month being given, to find
all thofe places of the earth over •which the fun •will pafs
vertically on that day.—Find the fun’s place in the eclip¬
tic for the given day, and having brought it to the bra¬
fen meridian, obferve what point of the meridian is over
it; then, turning the globe round its axis, all thofe pla¬
ces which pafs under that point of the meridian, are the
places required; for as their latitude is equal, in degrees
and parts of a degree, to the fun’s declination, the fun
mud be direttly over head to each of them at its refpec-
tive noon.
Prob. XIL A place being given in the torrid zone, to
find thofe two days of the year on which the fun /hall be
vertical to that place.—Bring the given place to the bra¬
fen meridian, and mark the degree of latitude that is ex¬
actly over it on the meiidian ; then turn the globe round
its axis, and obferve the two degrees of the ecliptic
which pafs exactly under that degree of latitude : laHly,
find on the wooden horizon, the two days of the year in
which the fun is in thofe degrees of the ecliptic, and they
are the days required: for on them, and none elfe, the
fun’s declination is equal to the latitude of the given
place ; and confequently, he will then be vertical to it
at noon.
Prob. XIII. To find all thofe places of the north fri¬
gid zone, where the fun begins to Jhine confiantly without
felting, on any given day, from the 21JI of March to the
l^dof September—On thefe two days, the fun is in the
equinodtial, and enlightens the globe exadlly from pole
to pole: therefore, as the earth turns round its axis,
which terminates in the poles, every place upon it will go
equally through the light and the dark, and fo make e-
qual day and night to all places of the earth. But as
the fun declines from the equator, towards either pole,
he will fhine juH as many degrees round that pole, as are
equal to his declination from the equator; fo that no
A P H Y.
place within that diHance of the pole will then go through
any part of the dark, and confequently the fun will not
fet to it. Now, as the fun’s declination is northward,
from the 2tfi of March to the 23d of September, he
mud conHamly ihine round the north pole all that time;
and on the day that he is in the northern tropic, he fliines
upon the whole north frigid zone; fo that no place with¬
in the north polar circle goes through any part of the
dark on that day. Therefore,
Having brought the fun’s place for the given day to the
brafen meridian, and found his declination (by Prob. IX )
count as many degrees on the meridian, from the north
pole, as are equal to the fun’s declination from the equa¬
tor, and mark that degree from the pole where the reck¬
oning ends: then, turning the globe round its axis, ob¬
ferve what places in the north frigid zone pafs diredlly
under that mark ; for they are the places required.
The like may be dope for the fouth frigid zone, from
the 23d of September to the 21H of March, during
which time the fun (bines conHantly on the fouth pole.
Prob. XIV. To find the place over which the fun is ver¬
tical at any hour of a given day.—Having found the fun’s
declination for the given day (by Prob. IX.) mark it with
a chalk on the brafen meridian : then bring the place
where you are(fuppofe Edinburgh) to the brafen meridian,
and fet the index to the given hour;- which done, turn
the globe on its axis, until the index points to XII at
noon; and the place on the globe, which is then diredtly
under the point of the fun’s declination marked upon the
meridian, has the fun that moment in the zenith, or di-
red! ly over head.
Prob. XV. The day and hour of a lunar eclipfe be-
*n& g'ven! to find all thofe places of the earth to which it
will be vifible.—The moon is never eclipfed but when Hie
is full, and fo diredfly oppofite to the fun, that the earth’s
fnadow falls upon her. Therefore, whatever place of
the earth the fun is vertical to at that time, the moon,
mud be vertical to the antipodes of that place: fo tha*
the fun will be then vifible to one half of the earth, and
the moon to the other.
Find the place to which the fun is vertical at the given
hour (by Prob. XIV.) elevate the pole to the latitude of
that place, and bring the place to the upper part of the
brafen meridian, as in the former problem: then, as the
fun will be vifible to all thofe parts of the globe which are
above the horizon, the moon will be vifible to all thofe
parts which are below it, at the time of her greated otx-
fcu ration.
Prob. XVI. To rellify the globe for the latitude,
the zenith, and the fun's place.—Find the latitude of the
place (by Prob. I.) and if the place be in the northern
hemifphere, raife the north pole above the north point of
the horizon, as many degrees (counted from the pole up¬
on the brafen meridian) as are equal to the latitude of the
place. If the place be in the fouthern hemifphere, raife
the fouth pole above the fouth point of the horizon, as
many degrees as are equal to the latitude. Then, turn
the globe till the place comes under its latitude on
the brafen meridian, and faden the quadrant of alti¬
tude fo, that the chamfered edge of its nut (which is e-
ven with the graduated edge) may be joined to the zenith,
G E O G R
*>r point of latitude. This done, bring the fun’s place in
the ecliptic for the given day (found by Prob X ) to the
graduated fide of the brafen meridian, and fet the hour-
index to XII at noon, which is the uppermolt XII on the
hour-circle ; and the globe will be rectified.
Prob. XVII. The latitude of any place, not exceed¬
ing degrees, and the day of the month, being given ;
to find the time of fun rifng and fetting, and confe-
quently the length of the day and night.—Having refill¬
ed the globe for the latitude, and for the fun’s place on
the given day (as direfted in the preceding problem)
bring the fun’s place in the ecliptic to the eaftern fide of
the horizon, and the hour-index will fhew the time of
fun rifing; then turn the globe on its axis, until the fun’s
place comes to the weftern fide of the horizon, and the
index will Ihew the time of fun-fetting.
The hour of fun-fetting doubled, gives the length of
the day ; and the hour of fun rifing doubled, gives the
length of the night.
Prob. XVIII. The latitude of any place, and the day
of the^nionth being given ; to find when the morning twi¬
light begins, and the evening twilight ends, at that place,
—This problem is often limited: for, when the fun does
not go 18 degrees below the horizon, the twilight conti¬
nues the whole night; and for feveral nights together in
fummer, between 49 and 66i degrees of latitude ; and
the nearer to 66-f, the greater is the number of thefe
nights. But when it does begin and end, the follow¬
ing method will Ihew the time for any given day.
Ref ify the globe, and bring the fun’s place in the ec¬
liptic to the eaflern fide of the horizon ; then mark that
point of the ecliptic with a chalk which is in the weftern
fide of the horizon, it being the point oppofite to the
fun’s place: this done, lay the quadrant of altitude over
the faid point, and turn the globe eaftward, keeping the
quadrant at the chalk mark, until it be juft 18 degrees
high on the quadrant; and the index will point out the
time when the morning twilight begins: for the fun’s
place will then be 18 degrees below the eahern fide of
the horizon. To find the time when the evening twilight
ends, bring the fun’s place to the weftern fide of the ho¬
rizon, and the point oppofite to it, which was marked
with the chalk, will be rifing in the eaft : then, bring the
^quadrant over that point, and keeping it thereon, turn
the globe weftward, until the faid point be 18 degrees
above.the horizon on the quadrant, and the index will
Ihew the time when the evening twilight ends ; the fun’s
place being then 18 degrees below the weftern fide of the
horizon.
Prob. XIX. To find onwhat day of the year the fm
begins to Jhine confiantly without fetting, on any given
place in the north frigid zone; and how long he continues
to do fo —Refify the globe to the latitude of the place,
>and turn it about until feme point of the ecliptic, be¬
tween aries and cancer, coincides with the north point of
the horizon where the brafen meridian cuts it: then find,
on the wooden horizon, what day of the year the fun is
in that point of the ecliptic; for that is the day on which
the fun begins to Ihine conftantly on the given place,
without fetting. This done, turn the globe untill forqe
joint of the ecliptic, between cancer and libra, coincides
A P H T. 679
with the north point of the horizon, where the brafen
meridian cuts it ; and find, on the wooden horizon, oa
what day the fun is in that point of the ecliptic; which
is the day that the fun leaves off conftantly fhining on the
faid place, and rifes and fets to it as to other places on
the globe. The number of natural days, or compleat
revolutions of the fun about the earth, between the two
days above found, is the time that the fun keeps conftant¬
ly above the horizon without fetting: for all that portion,
of the ecliptic, which lies between the two points which
interfeft the horizon in the very north, never fets below
it: and there is juft as much of the oppofite part of the
ecliptic that never rifes; therefore, the fun will keep as long
conftantly below the horizon in wimer,as above it in fummer,
Prob XX. To find in what latitude the fun Jhtnes
confiantly without fetting, for any length of time left
than iSzt of our days and nights.— Find a point in the
ecliptic half as many degrees from the beginning of can¬
cer (either toward aries or libra) as there are natural days
in the time given; and bring that point to the north fide
of the brafen meridian, on which the degrees are num¬
bered from the pole towards the equator : then, keep the
globe from turning on its axis, and Hide the meridian up
or down, until the forefaid point of the ecliptic comes to
the north point of the horizon, and then the elevation
of the pole will be equal to the latitude required.
Prob. XXI. The latitude of a place, not exceeding
66\ degrees, and the day of the month being given ; to
find the fun's amplitude, or point of the compafs on which
he rifes or />//.—Reftify the globe, and bring the fun’s
place to the eaftern fide of the horizon; then obferve
what point of the compafs on the horizon Hands right
againft the fun’s place, for that is his amplitude at ri¬
ling This done, turn the globe weftward, until the fun’s
place comes to the weftern fide of the horizon, and it will
cut the point of bis amplitude at fetting. Or, you may
count the rifing amplitude in degrees, from the eaft point
of the horizon, to that point where the fun’s place cuts
it; and the fetting amplitude, from the weft point oiu
the horizon, to the fun’s place at fetting.
Prob. XXII. The latitude, the fun s place, and his
altitude, being given; to find the hour of the day, and
the fun's azimuth, or number of degrees that he is di-
fiant from the meridian —Redify the globe, and bring
the fun’s place to the given height upon the quadrant of.
altitude ; on the eaftern fide of the horizon, if the time
be in- the forenoon ; or the vveftern fide, if-it be in the
afternoon: then the index will fhew the hour; and the
number of^degrees in the horizon, intercepted between
the quadrant of altitude and the foujth point, will be the
fun’s true azimuth at that time.,
PrqBt. XXIII. The latitude, hour.of the day, and
the fun's place, being given ; to find the fun's altitude and
azimuth—Reflify the globe, and turn it until the index-
points to the given hour ; then lay the quadrant of alti¬
tude over the fun’s-place in the ecliptic, and the degree
of the quadrant cut by the fun’s place is his altitude at
that time above the horizon; and the degree of the hori¬
zon cut by the quadrant is the fun’s azimuth, reckoned
from the fouth.
Pat o.b. XXIV. The latitude, the fun's altitude, and
his
m-o Or E O G
bit azimuth being given ; to find his place in the eclip¬
tic, the day of the month, and hour of the dy, though
they had all been Icjl.—lle&ify the globe for the latitude
and zenith, and fet the quadrant of altitude to the given
azimuth in the horizon ; keeping it there, turn the globe
on its axis until the ecliptic cuts the quadrant in the gi¬
ven altitude : that point of the elliptic which cuts the
quadrant there, will be the fun’s place ; and the day of
the month anfwering thereto, will be found over the like
place of the fun on the wooden horizon. Keep the
quadrant of altitude in that pofition ; and, having brought
the fun’s place to the brafen meridian, and the hour-index
to XII at noon, turn back the globe, until the fun’s place
cuts the quadrant of altitude again, and the index will
fhew the hour.
Any two points of the ecliptic, which are equidiftant
from the beginning of Cancer or of Capricorn, will have
the fame altitude and azimuth at the fame hour, though
the months be different; and therefore it requires fome
care in this problem, not to miftake both the month and
the day of the month ; to avoid which, obferve, that
from the 20th of March to the 2 id of June, that part
cf the ecliptic which is between the beginning of Aries
jtnd beginning of Cancer is to be tifed : from the 21ft
of June to the 23d of September, betw.en the beginning
of Cancer and beginning of Libra : from the 23d of Sep¬
tember to the 2id of December, between the beginning
of Libra and the beginning of Capricorn ; and from the
2 id of December to the 20th of March, between the
beginning of Capricorn and beginning of Aries. And as
one can never be at a lofs to know in What quarter of the
year he takes the fun’s altitude and azimuth, the above
caution with regard to the quarters of the ecliptic will
keep him right as to the month and day thereof.
Prob. XXV. To find the length of the longejl day
at any given place.—If the place be on the north fide of
the equator (find its latitude by Prob. I.) and elevate the
north pole to that latitude; then, bring the beginning of
Cancer to the brazen meridian, and fet the hour-in¬
dex to XII at noon. But if the given place be on the
fouth fide of the equator, elevate the fouth pole to its la¬
titude, and bring the beginning of Capricorn to the
brafs meridian, and the hour-index to XII. This done,
turn the globe wedward, until the beginning of Cancer
or Capricorn (as the latitude is north or fouth) comes to
the horizon ; and the index will then point out the time
of fun-fetting, for it w'ill have gone over all the after¬
noon hours, between mid-day and fun fet; which length of
time being doubled, will give the whole length of the day
from fun-rifingto lun-fetting. For, in all latitudes, the
fun rifes as long before mid day, as he fets after it.
Prob. XXVI. To find in what latitude the long-
efi day is, cf any given length, lefs than 24 hours.—If
the , latitude be north, bring the beginning of Cancer
to the brafen meridan, and elevate the north pole to a-
bout 66i degrees; but if the latitude be fouth, bring the
beginning of Capricorn to the meridian, and elevate the
fouth pole to about 66f degrees; becaufe the longed day
in north latitude is, when the fun is in the fird point of
^Cancer; and in fouth latitude, when he is in the fird:
pcint of Capricorn, Then fet the hour-index to XII at
tl A P H Y.
noon, and torn the globe wedward, until the Index points
at half the number of hours given; which done, keep the
globe from turning on its axis, and dide the meridian
down in the notches, until the aforefaid point of the e-
oliptic [viz. Cancer or Capricorn) comes to the horizon;
then, the elevation of the pole will be equal to the lati¬
tude required.
Prob. XXVII. The latitude of any place, not ex¬
ceeding (>i>\ degrees, being-given; to find in what cli¬
mate the {dace is.—Find tire length of the longed day at
the given place, by Prob. XXV. and whatever be the
number of hours whereby it exceedeth twelve, double
that number, and the fum will give the climate in which
the place is.
Prob. XXVIII. The latitude, and the day of the
month, being given ; to find the hour of the day when
the fun floineT.—Set the wooden horizon truly level, and
the brafen meridian due north and fouth by a mariner’s
compafs: then, having rectified the globe, dick a final!
fewing-needle into the fun’s place in the ecliptic, perpen¬
dicular to that part of the futface of the globe : this done,
turn the globe on its axis, until the needle comes to the
brafen meridian, and fet the hour-index to XII at noon ;
then, turn the globe on its axis, until the needle points
exadlly towards the fun (which it will do when it cads
no Ihadow on the globe), and the index will diew the hour
of the day.
The Ufe of the Celeftial dole.
Having done for the prefent with the terredrial
globe, we diall proceed to the ufe of the cekdial ; fird
premifing, that as the equator, ecliptic, tropics, polar-
circles, horizon, and brafen meridian, are exadtly alike
on both globes, all the former problems concerning the
fun are folved the fame way by both globes. The me-,
thod alfo of redtifying the celedial globe is the fame as
redtifying the terredrial.
N. B. The fun’s place for any day of the year dands
diredlly over that day on the horizon of the celedial globe,
as it does on’that of the terredrial.
The latitude and longitude of the dars, or of all o-
ther celedial phenomena, are reckoned in a very differ¬
ent manner from the latitude and longitude of places oq
the earth : for all terredrial latitudes are reckoned from
the equator; and longitudes from the meridian of fome
remarkable place, as of London by the Britilh, and of
Paris by the French.’ But the adronomers of all na¬
tions agree in reckoning the latitudes of the moon, dars,
planets, and comets, from the ecliptic; and their longi¬
tudes from the equino&ial colure, in that femi circle of
it which cuts the ecliptic at the beginning of Aries ; and
thence eadward, quite round, to the fame femi-circle a-
gaia. Conlequently thofe dars which lie between the e-
quino&ial and the northern half of the ecliptic, have north
declination and fouth latitude; thofe which lie between
the equinoftial and the fouthern half of the esliptic, have
fouth declination and north latitude ; and all thofe which
lie betw'een the tropics and poles, have their declinations
gnd latitudes of the fame denomination.
There are fix great circles on the ededia) globe, which
''//l//
AjVMILLAilY
Plafo LXXXYII.
Sphere
Plate LXXXVlil
PlateXXXX]
JX ^eIct
^ j
V,.)
•v
V
:-^r-
'I-
/4-
vt
«(//jy/.
Plate AC I.,
G E O G
cut tlie ecliptic perpendicularly, and meet in two oppofite
’points in the polar circles; which points are each ninety
degrees from the ecliptic, and are called its poles. Thefe
.polar points divide thofe circles into 12 femicircles ;
which cut the ecliptic at the beginnings of the 12 figns.
They referable fo many meridians on the terreftrial globe ;
end as all places which lie under any particular meridian-
femicircle on that globe, have the fame longitude, fo all
thofe points of the heaven, through which any of the a-
bove f?micirc!es are drawn, have the fame longitude.—
And as the greatefl latitudes on the earth are at the north
and fouth poles of the earth, fo the greatel latitudes in
the heaven are at the north and fouth poles of the ecliptic.
For the divifion of the liars into conflellations, ire. fee
Astronomy, p. 486.
Pros. I. To find -the right afcenfion artd declination
of the fun, or any fixed Jlar.— Bring the fun’s place in
the'ecliptic to the brafen meridian; then that degree in the
equinoctial which is cut by the meridian, is the fun’s right
afcenfion; and that degree of the meridian which is over
the fun’s place, is his declination. Bring any fixed liar
to the meridian, and its right afcenfion will be cut by the
meridian in the equinoctial; and the degree of the meri¬
dian that Hands over it, is its^leclination.
So that the right afcenfion and declination, on the cele
•llial globe, are found in the fame manner as longitude
and latitude on the terreftrial. -
Prob. II. To find the latinde and longitude of any
jlar.—If the given ftar be on the north fide of the eclip¬
tic, place the 90th degree of the quadrant of altitude on
the north pole of the ecliptic, where the twelve femicircles
meet, which divide the ecliptic into the 12 figns: but if
the ftar be on the fouth fide of the ecliptic, place the 90th
degree of the quadrant pn the fouth pole of the ecliptic:
keeping the 90th degree of the quadrant on the proper
pole, turn the quadrant about, until its graduated edge,
cuts the ftar: then, the number of degrees in the qua¬
drant, between the ecliptic and the ftar, is its latitude ;
and the degree of the ecliptic, cut by the quadrant, is
the ftar’s longitude, reckoned according to the fign in
which the quadrant then is.’
Prob. III. To reprefent the face of the ftarry fir¬
mament, as feen from any given place of the earth, at
any hour of the night.—ReAify the celeftial globe for
'the given latitude, the zenith, and fun’s place, in every
refpeft, as taught by the XVIth problem, for the ter¬
reftrial; and turn it about, until the index points to the
given hour: then, the upper hemifphere of the globe
will reprefent the vifible half of the heaven for that
time: all the ftars upon the globe being then in fuch
fituations, as exaftly correfpond to thofe in the heaven.
And if the globe be placed duly north and fouth, by means
of a fmall fea-compafs, every ftar in the globe will point
toward the like ftar in the heaven : by which means, the
conftellations and remarkable liars may be eafily known.
All thofe ftars which are in the eaftern fide of the horizon,
are then rifing in the eaftern fide of the heaven ; ail in the
weftern, are fetting in the‘weftern fide; and all thofe
under the upper part of the brafen meridian, between the
fouth point of the horizon and the north pole, are at their
greateft altitude, if the latitude of the place be north :
•Yoi. II. No 5J. .2
R A P II Y. 681
but if the latitude be fouth, thofe 'ftars which lie under
the upper part of the meridian, between the north point
of the horizon and the fouth pole, are at their greateft:
altitude.
Prob. IV. The latitude of the pl^ce, and day of
the month, being given ; to find the time ’when any
known far will rife, or be upon the meridian, or fet.-—
Haying rectified the globe, turn it about until the given
ftar comes to the eaftern fide of the horizon, and the in¬
dex will Ihew the time of the ftar’s rifing; then turn tie
globe weftward, and when the (tar comes to the brafen
meridian, the index will Ihew the time of the ftar’s co¬
ming to the meridian of your place; laftly, turn on, un¬
til the ftar comes to the weftern fide of the horizon, and
the index will Ihew the time of the ftar’s fetting.
N. B. In northern latitudes, thofe ftars which are
lefs diftant from the north pcle, than the quantity of ns
elevation above the north point of the horizon, never
let; and thofe which are leis diftant from the fouth pole,
than the number of degrees by which it is deprefted below
the horizon, never rife : and vice verfa in fouthern la¬
titudes.
Prob. V. To find at what time of the year a given
far will he upon the meridian, at a given hour of the.
night.—Bring the given ftar to the upper femicircle of
the/brafs meridian, and fet the index to the given hour ;
then turn the globe, until the index points to XII at
noon, and the upper femicircle of the meridian will th'en
cut the fun’s place, anfwering to the day of the year
fought; which day may be §afily found againft the like
placq of the fun among the figns on the wooden horizon.
Prob. VI. 7 he latitude, day of the month, and azimuth
of any known far, being given ; to find the hour of the
night.—Having reAified the globe £br the latitude, ze¬
nith, and fun’s place, lay the quadrant of altitude to the
given degree of azimuth in the horizon : then turn the
globe en its axis, until the ftar comes to the graduated
edge of the quadrant; and when it does, the index will
point out the hour of the night.
Prob. VII. The latitude of the place, the day of
the month, and altitude of any known f ar, being given :
to find the hour of the night.—Reflify the globe as in the
former problem, guefs at the hour of the night, and turn
the globe until the index points at the fuppofed hour ;
then lay the graduated edge of the quadrant of altitude
over the known ftar, and if the degree of the ftar’s height
in the quadrant upon the globe, anfwers exa&ly to the
degree of the ftar’s obferved altitude in the heaven,, you
have gueffed exaflly : but if the ftar on the globe.is high¬
er or lower than it was obferved to be in the heaven,
turn the globe backwards or forwards, keeping the edge
of the quadrant upon the' ftar, until its centre comes to
the obferved altitude in the quadrant; and then, the in¬
dex will (hew the true time of the night.
Prob. VIII. An eafy method for finding the hour of
the night by any two known fiars, without knowing ei¬
ther their altitude or azimuth’, and then, of finding
both their altitude and azimuth, and thereby the true
meridian.—Tie one end of a thread to a common mufket-
bullet; and, having redified the globe as above, hold
the other end of the thread in your hand, and carry k
7 I ’ flo.wly
68 2 G E O G R A P II Y.
ilowly round betwixt " your eye and the ftarry heaven,
untii you find it cuts any two known itars at once. Then
guefling at the hour of the night, turn the globe until the
index points to that time in the hour-circle ; which done,
Jay the graduated- edge of the quadrant over any one of
thefe two liars on the globe, which the thread cut in the
heaven. If the faid edge of the qu idrant cuts the other
ftar alfo, you have gue/Ted the time exa&ly ; but if it does
not, turn the globe flawly backwards or forwards, until
the quadrant (kept upon either liar) cuts them both
through their centres: and then, the index will point
out the exact time of the night; the degree of the hori¬
zon, cut by the quadrant, will be the true azimuth of
both thefe ftars from the fouth ; and the liars themfel ves
will cut their true altitude in the quadrant. At which
moment, if a common azimuth-compafs be fo fet upon a
floor or level pavement, that thefe flats in the heaven
may have the fame bearing upon it (allowing for the va¬
riation of the needle) as the quadrant of altitude has in
the wooden horizon of the globe, a thread extended o-
ver the north and fouth points of that compafs will be di¬
rectly in the plane of the meridian: and if a line be
drawn upon the floor or pavement, along the coorfe of
the thread, and an upright wire be placed in the fouth-
mofl end of the line, the ihadow of the wire will fall up¬
on that line, when the fun is on the meridian, and ftiines
upon the pavement.
Pros. IX. 7s find ths place of the moon, or of any
planet; and thereby to fheou the time of its rifmgyfouth-
ing, and fetting.—Seek in Parker’s or Weaver’s eplie-
meris the geocentric place of the moon or planet in the
ecliptic, for the given day of the month ; and, according
to its longitude and latitude, as fhewn by the ephemeris,
mark the fame with a chalk upon the globe. Then, ha¬
ving reClified the globe, turn it round its axis tveflward;
and as the faid mark comes to the eaftern fide of the ho¬
rizon, to the brafen meridian, and to the weftern fide of
the horizon, the index will (he w at what time the planet
rifes, comes to the meridian, and fets, in the fame man¬
ner as it would do for a fixed ftar.
For an explanation of the harveft moons by a globe, fee
Astronomy, p. 463.
For the defcription and ufe of a planetary globe, fee
Astronomy, p. 498.
For the equation of time, fee Astronomy, p. 458.
Having thus explained the ufe of the globes, and
general principles of geography, we muft refer to the
maps for the fituation of each particular country, with
regard to longitude, latitude, be. The ufe of maps is
obvious from their conflrudtion. The degrees of the
meridian, and parallels, flrew the longitudes and latitudes
of places •, and the fcale of miles annexed, their diflances.
The fituation of places, with regard to each other, as
well as the cardinal points, appears by infpeCHon; the
top of the map being always the north, the bottom the
fouth, the right-hand the eajl, and the left the •wefl, un-
lefs the compafs ufoally annexed fliew the contrary.
The brevity, which we are necefiarily obliged to ob-
ferve, prevents us from taking any notice of many parti¬
culars, which are to.be found in large treatifes on this
fubjeCl. A general account of countries, cities, rivers,
mountains, be. is given under their refpeftive names,
as they occur in the order of the alphabet. We ftiall
therefore conclude this article with the following table,
which will ferve to give an idea of the general divifion of
the habitable earth ; and at the. fame time ferve to ex¬
plain the maps in Plates 87. 88. 89: 90. 91. and 92.
The Divifion of the Habitable Earth, the fquare Miles of each Divifion and Subdirvifton, Capital
Cities, with the Dijtance and Bearing of each from London ; alfo the Time of each Country
compared with that of England.
The terraqueous globe is divided into
I. Europe
II. Asia
III. Africa
IV. America
Habitable earth
Seas, and unknown parts
2-749.349
10,257,487
8,506,208
9>iS3>762
30,666,806
117,843,821
Square miles, 60 miles in
length to a degree.
Superficies of the whole globe 148,510,627
Divifion and fubdivifion.
I. EUROPE.
1. Spa in
2. Portugal
3. France
Square
miles.
150.243
27,851
138.837
Capital cities.
Madrid
Lifbon
Paris
690 S
840 s w
203 E
DifF. of time
fromLondon.
*H.M.
o 16 W
o 38 W
o 9 E
4. Italy
* A degree of longitude being 4 minutes in time, therefore by having the longitude we have the time. A watch
that is.fet to time at London would be 16 minutes too fall at Madrid, as it lies to the weft of the meridian at London :
and Vienna being 16 degrees and ao minutes to the eaft of the meridian of London, conlequently a watch fet at London
would be x hour and j minutes too flow at Vienna.
G E O G
U A P
Divifion and fubdivifion.
4 . Italy
5. Germany
6. Holland
7. Denmark
8. Sweden
9.
10. Poland
11. Turkey in Europe
12. Britijh ijles
H, ASIA.
1. Turkey in
2. Arabia
?• P'rjia
A '. In lia
5. China
6. AJiatic jjles
7. Tart ary
1. Cbinefe
2. Independent
3. Mufcarvite
III. AFRICA.
1.
2. Barca
3.
4. Fez and Morocco
5. Tafiet and Segclmejfe
6. Algier
7. Tunis
8. Tripoli
9. Biledulgerid
10. Zaara
M. Negroland
12. Guinea
13. Loan go
14. Congo
15. Angola
16. Benguela
17. Mataman
18. Monomotapa
19. Monoemugi
20. Gaffers
21. Saffala
22. Zanguebar
23. Anian
24. Abyffinia
2 5. Nubia
26. Defart of Barca
27. Ethiopia
28. African ifles
IV. AMERICA.
1. British empire
I. Carolina
2. Virginia
3i. Maryland.
Square
miles.
75,576
181,631
9-540
163,001
228,715
1,103,485
226,414
212,240
105,634
510,717
700,000
800,000
,857,500
,105,000
811,980
644,000
778,290
3,056,000
Capital cities.
H Y.
[ Diftance and
| bearing from
1 London.
66.400
30,000
111.800
100.600
143.600
54>4°°
75,000
485,000
7^9,200
1,026,000
510,000
49.400
172.800
38.400
64,000
144,000
222,500
310,000
200,340
27,500
275,000
234,000
378,000
264,000
184,900
1,200,000
i8r,668
Rome
Vienna
Amjlerdam
Copenhagen
Stockholm
Peterjburgh
IVarfanx)
Conjlantinople
London
Burfa
Mecca
IJpahan
Agra
Pekin
Chinyan
Samarchand
Toboljky
140,700 Grand Cairo
Tolemeta
Erquicko
Fez and Morocco
Taflet and Segelmeffe
Algier
Tunis
Tripoli
Dara
Tegaffa
Madinga
B enin
Loango
St Salvador
Mocbina
Benguela
Monomotapa
Chic ova
Cape of Good Hope
Saffala
Mozambique
Brava
Caxuma
Dancala.
Angela
780 S E
650 E
132 E
480 N E
720 NE
10S0 N E
766 S E
1300 S E
1396 S E
2240 S E
2550 E
3780 E
4380 N E
Difference of
time from
London.
H. M.
o 52 E
1 5 E
o 18 E
o 50 E
1 10 E
2 2 E
1 23 E
1 56 E
ridian.
1 58 E
3 21 E
5 15 E
7 24 E
4480 N E ' 8 4 E
2800 E 4 26 E
2412 N E 4 10 E
57,50Oj Charles-Town
20,7501 James-Town
12,2(0 ( Baltimore
1920 S E
1440 S E
3590 S E
C1080 S
61290 S
51376 S
41240 s
920 s
990 S E
1260 S E
1565 S
1840 s
2500 s
2700 s
3300 s
3480 s
3750
3900 s
4500 s
4260 s
5200 s
4600 S E
4440 S E
3702 S E
2418 S E
1680 S E
3450 W
3210 W
w
2 10 E
1 26 E
2 36 E
O 21?
o 305
0 3°? w
o 185 W
o 13 E
o 39 E
o 66 E
o 36 W
o 24 W
o 38 W
o 20 E
o 43 E
1 o E
o 58 E
o 58 E
1 18 E
1 44 E
1 4 E
2 17 E
2 38 E
2 40 E
2 13 E
1 33 E
5 2 W
5 vv
O Cr XI
P H Y.
Divifion and fubdi-vifion.
4. Penfilvania
5. New-Jerfey
6. Neiu-Tork
7. England Atodl
Scotland 3
8. Ifles
2. Spanish empire
1. Old Mexico
2. New Mezico
3. Florida
4. Terra Firma
5.
6. Chili
7. Paragua
8. Land of Amazons
9. Magellani'a
10. California
11. Ifles
3. French empire
1. Louifiana
2. Canada and France
3. French ifles
4. Dutch dominions
I. Curajfow
.2. Bonair
5. Portuguese dominions
are
Brajil
6. 7Vr rfc Labrador
Square
miles.
12,500
10,000
8,100
115/000
42,972
571.240
300,000
113 000
828,000
1,150,000
993,600
325,000
240,000
143.196
516,000
1,059,100
21,520
342
.168
Capital cities..
Philadelphia
Elizabcth-Tonvn
New York
Boflon
Annapolis
King ft on
Mexico
Santta Fe
St Auguftine
Carthagsna
Lima
St Jago
Afl'urnption
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Havanna
Port Louis
Quebec
940,000 St Salvador
318,750 Unknown
-Diftance and Differencenf
bearing from time from
London. London.
3100 W
3040 W
3000 W
2790 W
2580 W
4080 W
4800 N W
4320 N W
3690 W
4320 W
5700 S W
7200 S W
5460 s w
4080 N W
2260 s w
H. M.
4 55 W
4 50 W
4 53 W
4 40 W
4 24 W
5 6 IV
6 54 W
7 1.7 W
5 25 W
5 6 W
5 4 W
5 6 W
3 52 W
5 26 W
6 5 W
5 46 W
4 42 W
GEOMETRY.
GEOMETRY originally fignified no more than the
art of meafuring the«arth, or any diffahees or di-
menfions within it: but at prefent, it denotes the fcience
of magnitude in general; comprehending the dodtrine and
relations of whatever is fufceptible of augmentation or di¬
minution, confidered in that light.
Hence to geometry may be referred the conftderation
not only of lines, furfaces, and folids ; butalfouf time,
velocity, number, weight, foe.
This fcience had its rife among the Egyptians, who
were in a manner compelled to invent it, to remedy the
confufion which generally happened in their lands, from
the inundations of the river Nile, which carried away all
boundaries, and effaced all the limirs of their poffeffions.
Thus this invention, which at firfl: confifted only in mea-
furing the lands, that every perfon might have what be¬
longed to him, was called Geometry, or the art of, mea-
furing land ; and it is probable that the draughts and
if'hemes, which they were annually compelled to make,
lielped them. to .difeover many excellent properties of
thefe figures; which fpeculations continued to be gradu¬
ally improved, and are fo to this day. x
From Egypt geometry paffed into Greece; where it
continued to receive new improvements in the hands of
Thales, Pythagoras, Archimedes, Euclid, foe. The Ele¬
ments of Geometry, written by this'laft in fifteen books,
are a moft convincing proof to what perfection this fcience
was carried among the ancients. However, it muff be
acknowledged, that it fell Ihort of modern geometry; the
bounds of which, what by the invention of fluxions, and
the difeovery of the almoft infinite orders of curves, are
greatly enlarged.
We may diffinguifh the progrefs of geometry into three
ages; the firft of which was in its meridian glory at the
time when Euclid’s Elements appeared ; the fecond, be¬
ginning with Archimedes, reachestothe time of Des Cartes,
who, by applying algebra to the elements of geometry,
gave a new turn to this fcience, which has been carried
to its utmoff perfection by Sir Ifaac Newton and Mr Leib¬
nitz.
Ja
GEOMETRY.
In'treating <Kis uTeful fubjeft, we fliall divide it into the fecond, the application of thefe principles to the men-
ttw.o parts; the firft .containing the.general principles; and furation of furfacea, folids, <bc.
PART I.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GEOMETRY.
Art. i. A point is that which is not made up of parts,
AL or which is of itfelf indivifible.
2. A line is a length without breadth, as B 
3. The extremities of a line are points; as the extre¬
mities of the line AB, are the points A and B, fig. 1.
Plate XC1II.
4. If the line AB be the neareft diftance between its
-extremes A and B, then it is called a Jirait ^ine, as A B ;
but if it be not the neareft diftance, then it is called a
curve line, as AB ; fig. 1.
5. A furface is that which is confidered as having only
length and breadth, but no thicknels, as’B, fig. 2.
6. The terms or boundaries of a furface are lines.
7. A plain furface is that which lies equally between
its extremes.
8. The inclination between two.lines meeting one an¬
other (provided they do not make one continued line,)
or the opening between them, is called an angle; thus
the inclination of the line AB to the line CB (fig. 3 )
meeting one another at B, orthe opening between the two
lines AB and CB, is called an angle.
9. When the lines forming the angle are right lines,
then it is called a right-lined angle, as A, fig. 4. if one of
them be right and the other curved, it is called n tnixed
angle, as B, fig 5. if both if them be curved, it is called
a curve-lined angle, as C, fig. 6.
10. If a right line AB fall upon another DC, (fig. 7.)
To as to incline neither fo one fide nor to the other; but
make the angles ABD, ABC, on each fide equal to one
another ; then the line AB*is laid to be perpendicular to
the line DC, and the two angles are called right-angles.
11. An obtufe angle is that which is greater than a
right one, as A, fig. 8; and an acute angle, that which
is lefs than a right one, as B, fig. 9.
12. If a right line DC be faftened at one of its ends C,
and the other end D be carried quite round, then the
fpace comprehended is called a circle; the curve line de¬
scribed by the point D, is called the periphery or circum¬
ference of the circle ; the fixed point C is called the
centre of it. Fig. 10.
13. The defcribing line CD is called the radius, viz.
any line drawn from the centre to the circumference;
^whence all radii of the fame or equal circles are equal.
14. Any line drawn through the centre, and termina¬
ted both ways by the circumference, is called a diameter.,
as BD is a diameter of the circle BADE. And the dia¬
meter divides the circle and circumference into two equal
parts, and is double the radius.
15 The circumference of every circle is fappofed to
be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees ; and each
degree is divided into 60 equal parts, called minutes ;
and each minute into 60 equal parts called,; and
V0L.XI.N0j5. -2
thefe into thirds, fourths, 'Bcc. thefe parts being .greater
or lefs according as the radius is.
16. Any part of the circumference is called an arch,
or arc, and is called an arc of as many degrees as it con¬
tains parts of the 360, into which the circumference was
divided: Thus if AD be the -f of the circumference, then
the arc AD is an arc of 45 degrees.
17. A line drawn from one end of an arc to the other,
is called a chord, and is the meafure of the arc; thus the
right line AB is the chord of the arc ADB, fig. n.
18. Any part of a circle cut off by a chord, is called a
fegment; thus the fpace comprehended between the
chord AB and circumference ADB (which is cut off by
the chord AB) is called a fegment. Whence it is plain,
if, Thafall chords -divide the circle into two feg-
ments.
idly. The lefs the chord is, the*more unequal are the
fegments, and e contra.
idly. When the chord is greateft, viz. when it is a
diameter, then the fegments are equal, viz. each a fe-
micircie.
19. Any part of a circle (lefs than a femidrcle) con¬
tained between two tadii and an arc, is called a feftor^
thus the fpace contained between the two radii, AC,*BC,
and the arc AB, is called the feftor; fig. 12.
20. The right fine of any arc, is a line drawn perpen¬
dicular from one end of the arc, to a diameter drawn
through the other end of the fame arc; thus (fig. 13.)
AD is the right fine of the arc AB, it being a line drawn
from A, the one end of the arc AB, perpendicular to CB,
a diameter palling through B, the other end of the arc
AB.
Now the fines (landing bn the fame diameter, ftill in-
creafe till they come to the centre, and then becoming the
radius, it is plain that the radius EC is the greateft pof-
fible fine, and for that reafon it is called the •whole fine.
Since the whole-fine EC muft be perpendicular
to the a diameter FB (by def. 20.) therefore produ¬
cing the diamfeter EG, the two diameters FB, EG, muft
•crofs one another at right angles, and fo the cir¬
cumference of the circle muft be divided by them in¬
to four parts EB, BG, GF, and FE, and thefe four
parts are equal to one another (by def. 10.) and fo EB a
quadrant, or fourth part of the circumference; therefore
the radius EC is always the fine of the quadrant, or
fourth part of the circle EB.
Sines are faid to be of fo many degrees, as the arc
contains parts of the 360, into which the circumferenee
is fuppofed to be divided ; fo the radius being the fine of
a quadrant, or fourth part of the circumference, which
contains 90 degrees (the fourth part of 360), therefore
the radius muft be the fine of 90 degrees.
21. The
686 G E O M
21. The part of the radius comprehended between the
extremity of the right fine and the lower end of the arc,
■viz. DB, is called the verfed fine of the arc AB.
22. If to any point in the circumference, viz. B, there
be drawn a diameter FCB, and from the point B, perpen¬
dicular to that diameter, there be drawn the line BH j
that line is called a tangent to the circle in the point B ;
which tangent can touch the circle only in one point B,
elfe if it touched it in more, it would go within it, and
fo not be a tangent but a chord, (by art. 17.)
23. The tangent of any arc AB, is a right line drawn
perpendicular to a diameter through the one end of the
arc B, and terminated by a line CAH, drawn from the
centre through the other end A; thus BH is the tangent
of the arch AB.
24. And the line which terminates the tangent, viz.
CH, is called the. fecant of the arc AB.
25. What an arc wants of a quadrant is called the
complement of that arc ; thus AE, being what the arc AB
wants of the quadrant EB, is called the complement of
the arc AB.
26. And what an arc wants of a femicircle is called
the fupplement of that arc; thus fince AF is what the
arc AB wants of the femicircle BAF, it is the fupple¬
ment of the arc AB.
27. The fine, tangent, <bc. of the complement of any
arc, is called the co fine, co-tangent, <bc. of that arc;
thus the fine, tangent, (be. of the arc AE is called the
co-fine, co tangent, be. of the arc AB.
28. The fine of the fupplement of an arc is the fame
with the fine of the arc itfelf; for, drawing them accord¬
ing to the definitions, there refults the leif-fame line
29. A right-lined angle is meafured by an arc of a
circle deferibed upon the angular point as a centre, com¬
prehended between the two legs that form the angle;
thus (fig. 14.) the angle ABD is meafured by the arc AD
of the circle CADE that is deferibed upon the point B
as a centre ; and the angle is faid to be of as many de¬
grees as the arc is; fo if the arc AD be 45 degrees, then
the angle ABD is faid to be an angle of 45 degrees.
Hence the angles are greater or lefs, according as the
arc deferibed about the angular point and terminated by
the two legs contain a greater or a lefs number of de¬
grees.
30. When one line falls perpendicularly on another,
as AB on CD, fig 15. then the angles are right (by the
10th def.); and deferibing a circle on the centre B, fince
the angles ABC ABD are equal, their meafures mull
be fo too, i. e. the arcs AC AD mull be equal; but
the whole CAD is a femicircle, fince CD, a line palling
through the centre B, is a diameter; therefore each of the
parts AC AD is a quadrant, i. e. 90 degrees; fo the
meafure of a right angle" is always 90 degrees.
31. If one line AB fall any way upon another, CD,
then the fum of the two angles ABC ABD is always
equal to the fum of two right angles ; fig. 16. For on
the point B, deferibing the circle CAD, it is plain, that
CAD is a femicircle (by the 14th); but CAD is equal
to CA and AD the meafure of the two angles ; therefore
the fum of the two angles is equal to a femicircle, that
•is, to two right angles, (by the laft).
E T R Y.
Cor. 1. From whence it is plain, that all the' angles
which can be made from a point in any line, towards one
fide of the line, are equal to two right angles.
2. And that all the angles which can be made about a
point, are equal to four right ones.
32. If one line AC crofs another BD in the point E,
then the oppofite angles are equal, viz. BEA to CED,
and EEC equal to AED ; fig. 17. For upon the point E,
as a centre, deferibing the circle ABCD, it is plain
ABC is a femicircle, as alfo BCD (by the 14th); there¬
fore the arc ABC is equal to the arc BCE; and from
both taking the common arc BC, there will remain AB
equal to CD, i. e. the Angle BEA equal to the angle
CED (by art. 29.). After the fame manner we may.
prove, that the angle BEC is equal to the angle AED.
33. Lines which are equally diftant from one another*
are called parallel lines- as AB, CD, fig. 18.
34. If a line GHcrofs two parallels AB, CD, (fig. 19.)
then the external oppofite angles are equal, viz. GEB
equal to CFH and AEG equal to HFD. For fince AB
and CD are parallel to one another, they may be con-
fidered as one broad line, and GH crofling it; then the
vertical or oppofite angles GEB CFG are equal (by art.
32^), as alfo AEG and HFD by the fame.
35. If a line GH crofs two parallels AB CD, then the
alternate angles, viz. AEF andEFD, orCFE and FEB,
are equal; that is, the angle AEF is equal to the angle
EFD, and the angle CFE is equal to the angle FEB,
for GEB is equal to AEF (by art. 32 ), and CFH is e-
qual to EFD (by the fame) ; but GEB is equal to CFH
(by the laft); therefore AEF, is equal to EFD. The
fame way we may prove FEB equal to EFC.
36. If a line GH crofs two parallel lines AB, CD,
then the external angle GEB is equal to the internal
oppofite one EFD, or GEA equal to CFE. For the
angle AEF is equal to the angle EFD (by the lalt); but
AEF is equal to GEB (by art. 32.), therefore GEB is
equal to EFD. The fame way we may prove AEG equal"
to CFE.
37. If a line GH crofs two parallel lines AB CD,
. then the fum of the two internal angles, viz. BEF and
DFE, or AEF and CFE, are equal to two right angles ;
for fince the angle GEB is equal to the angle EFD (by
art. 36.), to both add the angle FEB, then GEB and
BEF are equal to BEF and DFE ; but GEB and BEF
are equal to two right angles (by art. 31.) therefore BEF
and DFE are alfo equal to two right angles. The fame
way we may prove that AEF and CFE are equal to two
right angles.
39. A figure is any part of fpace bounded by lines or
a line. If the bounding lines be ftrait, it is called a rec-
tilineal figure, as A, fig. 20. if they be curved, it is cal¬
led a curvinealfigure, as B or C, fig. 21. and fig. 22.if
they be partly curve lines and partly ftrait, it is called a
mixt figure, as D, fig. 23.
35. The moft Ample redilinear figure is that which is
bouhded by three right lines, and is called a triangle, as
A, fig. 24.
40. Triangles are divided into different kinds, both
with refpedt to their fides and angles : with refpeft to their
fides they are commonly divided into three kinds, viz.
41. A
G E O M :
41. A triangle having all its three fides equal to one ano¬
ther, is called an equilateral triangle, as A, fig. 25.
42. A triangle having two of its fides equal to one a-
nother, and the third fide not equal to either of them,
is called an Ifofcela triangle, as B, fig. 26.
43. A triangle having none of its fides equal to one
another, is called a fcalene triangle, as C, fig. 27.
44. Triangles, with refpedt to their angles, are divided
into three different kinds, viz.
45. A triangle having one of its angles right, is called
a right-angled triangle, as A, fig. 28.
46. A triangle having one of its angles obtufe, or
greater than aright angle, is called an obtufe-angled tri¬
angle, as B, fig. 29.
47. Laftly, a triangle having all its angles acute, is
called an acute-angled triangle, as C, fig. 30.
48. In all right-angled triangles, the fides compre¬
hending the right angle are called the legs, and the fi^e
op polite to the right nngle [sczWz&xhz hypotbenufe. Thus
in the right-angled triangle ABC, fig. 31. (the right
angle being at B) the two fides AB and BC, which com-
prehen4 the right angle ABC, are the legs of the trian¬
gle ; and the fide AC, which is oppofite to the right an¬
gle ABC, is the hypothenufe of the right-angled triangle
ABC.
49. Both obtufe and acute angled triangles are in ge¬
neral called oblique-angled triangles; in all which any
fide is called the bafe, and the other two the fides.
50. The perpendicular height of any triangle is a line
drawn from the vertex to the bafe perpendicularly ; thus
if the triangle ABC (fig. 32.) be propofed, andBC be made
its bafe, then h. will be the vertex, viz. the angle oppofite
to the bafe; and if from A you draw the line AD per¬
pendicular to BC, then the line AD is the height of the
triangle ABC Handing on BC as its bafe.
Hence all triangles Handing between the fame parallels
have the fame height, fince all the perpendiculars are e-
quaf by the nature of parallels.
51. A figure bounded by four fides is called a quadri¬
lateral or quadrangular figure, as ABDC, fig. 33.
52. Quadrilateral figures whofe oppofite fides are pa¬
rallel, are called parallelograms. Thus in the quadrila¬
teral figure ABDC, if the fide AC be parallel to the fide
BD which is oppofite to it, and AB be parallel to CD,
then the figure ABDC is called a parallelogram.
53. A parallelogram having all its fides equal and angles
right, is called ayyaare, as A, fig. 34.
54. That which hath only the oppofite fides equal and
its angles right, is called a as B, fig. 35.
55. That which hath equal fides but oblique angles, is
cdAzd. a. rhombus, as C, fig. 36. and is juH an inclined
fquare.
56. That which hath only the oppofite fides equal and,
the angles oblique, is called a rhornboides, as D, fig. 37.
and may be conceived as an inclined redangle.
57. When none of the fides are parallel to another,
then the quadrilateral figure is called a trapezium.
58. Every other right fined figure, that has more fides
than four, is in general called %.polygon. And figures are
called by particular names according to the number of-
-tbsir fides, y/z. one of five fides is .called a pentagon, of
'TRY. 6Z7
fix a hexagon, of feven a heptagon, and fo on. Whea
the fides forming the polygon are equal to one another, the
figure is cajled a regular figure or polygon.
59. In any triangle ABC. (fig. 38.) one of its legs, as
BC, being produced towards D, the external angle
ACD is equal to both the internal oppefite ones taken to¬
gether, viz. to ABC and B AC. In order to prove this,
through C draw CE parallel to AB; then fince CE is
parallel to AB, and the lines AC and BD croffeth them,
the angle ECD is equal to ABC (by art. 36.) and the
angle ACE equal to CAB (by art. 35.) ; therefore the
angles ECD and ECA are equal to the angles ABC and
CAB; but the angles ECD and ECA are together e-
qual to the angle ACD; therefore the angle ACD is
equal to both the angles ABC and CAB taken together.
Cor. Hence it may be proved, that if two lines AB and
CD (fig. 39.) be croffed by a third line EF, and the al¬
ternate angles AEF and EFD be equal, the lines AB and
CD will be parallel ; for if they are not parallel, they,
mufi meet one another on one fide of the line EF (fup-
pofe at G) and fo form the triangle EFG, one of whofe
fides GE being produced to A, the exterior angle AEF
muH (by this article) be equal to the fum of the two
angles EFG and .EGF; but, by fuppofition, it is equal to
the angle EFG alone; therefore the angle AEF mufi be
equal to the fum of the two angles EFG and EGF, and
at the fame time equal to the angle EEG alone, which
is abfurd ; fo the lines AB and CD cannot meet, and i
therefore mufl be parallel.
60. In any triangle ABC, all the three angles taken
together are equal to two right angles. To prove this,
you mufi produce BC, one of its legs, to any difiance,
fuppofe to D ; then by the laft propofition, the external
angle, ACD, is equal to the fum of the two internal
oppofite ones CAB and ABC ; to both add the angle
ACB, then the fum of the angles ACD and ACB will
be equal to the fum of the angles CAB and CBA and
ACB. But the fum of the angles ACD and ACB, is
equal to two right, ones (by art. 32.), therefore the fum
of the three angles CAB and CBA and ACB, is equal
to two right angles ; that.is, the fum of the three angles
of any triangle ACB is equal to two right angles.
Cor. 1. Hence in any triangle given, if one of its
angles be known, the /urn of the other two is alfo
known : for fince (by the laft) thq fum of all the three is
equal to two right angles, or a femicircle, it is plain, that
taking any one of them from a femicircle or 180 degrees,
^he remainder will be the fum of the other two. Thus
(in-the former triangle ABC) if the angle ABC be 40
degrees, by taking 40: from 180 we have 140 degrees;
which is the fum of the two angles BAC, ACB : the
converfe of this is alfo plain, viz. the fum of any two"
angles of a triangle being given, the other angle is alfa ,
known by taking that fum from 180 degrees.
2. In any right-angled triangle, the two acute angles
mufi juft make up a right one between them; confequent-
ly, any one of the oblique angles being given, we may
find the other by fubtrafting the given one from 90 de¬
grees, which is the fum of- both.
61. If in any two triangles, ABC (fig. 40.) DEF (fig.
41.) two legs of the one, viz. AB and AC, be equal to
t\vo
6m c ie o m
s.wo legs in the ot'her, viz. to DE and 'DF, each to each
■rerpeftively, i. e. AB to DE, and AC to DF ; and if the
anglea included between the equal legs be equal, viz.
*he angle BAC equal to the angle EDF ; then the
remaining leg of the one fltall be equal to the rernain-
ing leg of the other, viz. BC to EF; and the angles
-oppolite to equal legs {hall be equal, viz. ABC equal to
DEF (being oppofite to the equal legs AC and DF), alfo
ACB equal to DFE (which are oppofite to the equal legs
AB and DE). For if the triangle ABC be fuppofed to
be lifted up and put upon the triangle DEF, and the point
A on the point D ; it is.plain, fince BA and DE are of
equal length, the point E will fall upon the point B ; and
fince the angles BAC EDF are equal, the line AC will
fall upon the line DF ; and they being of equal length,
the point C Will fall upon the point F ; and fo the line BC
will exaftly agree with the line EF, and the triangle ABC
will in all reCpeftsbe exadlly equal to the triangle DEF ;
and the angle ABC will be equal to the angle DEF, alfo
the angle ACB will be equal to the angle DFE.
Cor. x. After the fame manner it may be proved, that
if in any two triangles ABC, DEF, (fee the preceding
figure) two angles ABC and ACB of the one, be equal
to two angles DEF and EFE of the other, each to each
refpe&ivejy, viz. the angle ABC to the angle DEF, and
the angle ACB equal to the angle DFE, and the fides
included between thefe angles be alfo equal, viz. BC e-
qual to EF, then the remaining angles and the fides op¬
pofite to the equal angles, will alfo be equal each to each
refpefHvely; viz. the angle BAG equal to the angle
BDF, the fide AB equal to DE, and AC equal to DF:
for if the triangle ABC be fuppofed to be lifted up and
laid upon the triangle DEF, the point B being put upon
the point E, and the line BC upon the line EF, fince BC
and EF are of equal lengths, the point C will fall upon
the point F, and fince the angle ACB is equal to the an¬
gle DFE, the line CA will fall upon the line FD, and
by the fame way of reafoning the line BA will fall up¬
on the line ED ; and therefore the point of fnter-
fe&ion of the two lines BA and CA, viz. A, will fall
upon the point of interfeftion of the two lines BD and
FD.tuz. D, and confequently BA will be equal to DE,
and AC equal to DF, and the angle BAC equal to the
angle EDF.
Cor. 2. It follows likewife from this article, that if
any triangle ABC (fig. 42.) has two of its fides AB and
AC equal to one another, the angles oppofite to thefe'
fides will alfo be equal, wz. the angles ABC equal to the
angle ACB. Forfuppofe the line AD, bifefting the angle
BAC^or dividing it into two equal angles BAD and CAD,
and meeting BC in D, then theline AD will divide the whole -
triangle BAC into two triangles ABD and DAC ; in which
BA and AD two fides of the one, are equal to CA and
AD two fides of the other, each to each refpe&ively,
and the included angles BAD and DAC are by fuppo-
lition equal; therefore (by this article) the angle ABC
muft be equal to the angle ACB.
62. Any angle t BAD (fig. 43.) ^ the circumference of
a circle BADE, is but half the angle BCD at the centre
Jiandhig on the fame arch BED. To demonfirate
ibis, draw through A and the centre C, the right
E T n Y.
line ACE, then the angle ECD is equal to both the
angles DAC and ADG (by art. 59.) ; but fince AC and
CD are equal (being two radii of the fame circle) the
angles fubtended by them mud be equal alfo, (by art*
62. cor. 2.) i. e. the angle CAD equal to the angle
CD A; therefore the fum of them is double any one of
them, i. e. DAC and ADC is double of CAD, and
therefore ECD is alio double of DAC : the fame way
it may be proved, that ECB is double of CAB; and
therefore the angle BCD is double of the angle BAD,
or BAD the half of BCD, which was to be proved.
Cor. 1. Hence an angle at the circumference is mea-
fured by half the arc it Xubtends; for the angle at tlrp
centre ({landing on the fame arc) is meafured by the
whole arc (by art. 29.); but fince the angle at the centre
is double that at the circumference, it is plain the angle
at the circumference muft be meafured by only half the
arc it ftands upon.
Cor. 2. Hence all angles, ACB, ADB, AEB, drc.
(fig. 44-)at the circumference of a ciscle, Handing on the
fame chord AB, are equal to one another; for by the
laft corollary they are all meafured by the fame arc, viz.
half the arc AB which each of them fubtends.
Cor. 3. Hence an angle ina fegment greater than a femicir-
cle is lefs than a right angle: thus,if ADB be a fegment great¬
er than a femicircle, (lee the laft figure) than the arc AB, on
which it ftands, muft be lefs than a Cemicircle, and the
half of it lefs than a quadrant or a right angle; but the
angle ADB in the fegment is meafured by the half of
AB, therefore it is lefs than a right angle.
Cor. 4. An angle in a femicircle is a right angle. For
fince ABD (fig. 45.) is a femicircle, the arc AED muft
alfo be a femicircle: but the angle ABD is meafured by
half the arc AED, that is, by half a femicircle or qua¬
drant ; therefore the angle ABD is a right one.
Cor. 5. Hence an angle in a fegment lefs than a fehii-
circle, as ABD, (fig. 46.) is greater than a right angle:
for fince the arc ABD is lefs than a femicircle, the arc
AED muft be greater than a femicircle, and fo it is half
greater than a quadrant, i. e. than the meafure of a right
angle; therefore the angle ABD, which is meafured by
half the arc AED, is greater than a right angle.
6$.If from the centre C of the circle (fig. tf.) there
be let fall the perpendicular CD on the chord AB, lhen
that perpendicular •will bifell the chord AB in the point
D. To demonftrate this, draw from the centre to the
extremities of the chord the two lines CA, CB; then
fince the lines CA and CB are equal, the angles CAB,
CBA, which they fubtend muft be equal alfo, (by art.
62. cor. 2.) but the perpendicular CD divides the trian¬
gle ACB into two right-angled triangles ACD and CDB,
in which the Turn of the angles ACD and CAD in the
one, is equal to the fum of the angles DCB and CBDin
the other, each being equal to a right angle, (by cor. 2.
of art. 61.) but CAD is equal to CBD, therefore ACD
is equal to BCD. So in the two triangles ACD and
'BCD, the two legs AC and Cf> in the one, are equal to
the two legs BC and CD in the other, each to each re-
fpeftively, and the included angles ACD and BCD are
equal; therefore'the remaining legs AD and BD are
equal (by art. 61.) and confequendy AB bifedted in D.
.64. If
' //x. V.
<G TE 'G m
>64. IF from ihe centre fC of a circle ABE, there be
-ctlrawn a perpendiciilar CD on the chord AB, and
produced till it meet the circle in E, then the line
‘CF bifedts the arch AB in the point F ; for (fee the fbre-
:going figure) joining the points A and F, F and B by the
llreight lines AF, -FB, then in the triangles ADF, B.DF,
AD is equal to DB (by art. 63.) and DF common to
Both ; therefore AD and DF, two legs; of the triangle
ADF, are equal to BD and DF, two-legs of the trian¬
gle BDF, and the included angles ADF JBDF are equal,
being both right ; therefore (by art. 61) the remaining
legs AF and FB are equal; but in the feme circle equal
lines are chords of equal arches, therefore the arches'AF
and FB are equal. So the whole arch AFB is bifedted^
in the point F by the line CF.
Cor. 1. From art. 63. it follows, tjiat any line bifedt
ing a chord at right angles is a diameter; for fi nee .(by
art. 63.) a line draw from the centre perpendicular to *
chord, bifedts that chord at right angles ; therefor*, con-
-verfly, a line bifedting a chord at right angles, muft pals
thro’ the centre, andeonfequently be a dii.meter
Cor. 2. From the two lad articles it follows, that-the fine
of any arc is the half of the chord of twice the arc; (or
•(fee the foregoing fcheme) AD is the fine of the arc
AF, by the definition of a fine, and AF is half the arc
AFB, and AD half the chord AB (by art. 63.); there¬
fore the cor. is plain.
65. In any triangle, the half of each fide is the fine
of the oppofite angle ; for if a circle be fuppofed to be
drawn through the three angular points A, B, and D of
the triangle ABD, fig. 48. then the angle DAB is mea-
fured by half the arch BKD (by cor. 1 of art. 62.)
but the half of BD, viz. BE, is thq.fine of half the arch
BKD, viz. the fine of BK (by cor. 2. of the lafl) which
is the meafure of the angle BAD ; therefore the half of
BD is the fine of the angle BAD; the fame way it may
be proved, that the Ijalf of AD is the fine of the angle
ABD, and the half of AB is the fine of the angle
ADB.
66. The fine, tangent, 6^. of -any arch is called alfo
the fine, tangent, &c. of this angle whofe meafure the
arc is : thus becaufe the arc'GD (fig. 49.) is the meafure
of the angle GCD; and fence GH is the fine, DE the
tangent, HD the verfed fine, CE the fecant, alfo GK
the co-fine, BF the co tangent, and CF the co-fecant,
&c. of the arch GD ; then GH is called the fine, DE
the tangent, &c. of the angle GCD, whofe meafure is
the arch GD.
6’j.J/t’ivo equal and parallel lines, AB andCD (fig.JO.)
be joined by two others, AC and BY) ; then thefe Jhall al¬
fo be equal and parallel. Todemonftrate this, join thetwo
oppofite angles A and D with the line AD; then it is
plain this line AD divides the quadrilateral, ACDB, into
two triangles, viz. ABD, ACD, in which AB a leg of
the one, is eqijal to DC a leg of the other, by fuppofiti-
on, and AD is common to both triangles; and fince AB
is parallel to CD, the angle BAD will be equal to the
.angle ADC, (by art. 36.) therefore in the two trian¬
gles BA and AD ; and the angle BAD is equal
to CD and DA; and the angle ADC, that is, two
legs and the included angle in the one, is equal to two
'legs and the included angle in the other ; therefore (by
■art. 61 ) BD is equal to AC, and fence the angle DAC
Vol. H. No. .54. 2
E T H Y. #8$s
iis equal to the angle ADB, therefore the’lines BD AC
are parallel (by w. art. jq.)
Cor. .1. Hence it is plain, that the quadrilateral ABDC
is a parallelogram, fence the oppofite fides are parallel.
Cor. 2. In any parallelogram the line joining the op¬
pofite angles (called the diagonal) as AD, divides the fi¬
gure into two equal parts, fence it has been proved that
the triangles ABD ACD are equal to one another.
■Cor. 3. It follows alfo, that a triangle ACD on the
fame bafe CD, and -between the fame parallels with
a parallelogram .ABDC, is the half of that parallelo¬
gram.
Cor..q. Hence it is plain, that the oppofite fedes of a
parallelogram are equal ; for it has been proved, that
ABDC being a parallelogram, AB will be equal to CD,
and AC equal to BD.
68. All parallelograms on the fame or equal bafes,
and between the feme parallels, are-equal to one another ;
•that is, if BD and GH (tig. 51.) be equal, and the lines
BH and AF be parallel, then the parallelograms ABDG,
BDFE, and EFHG, are equal tu one another. For AC
is equal to EF, each being equal to BD, (by cor. 4. of
67.) To both add CE, then AE will be equal CF. So
in the two triangles ABE CDF, AB a leg of the one,
is equal to CD a leg in the other; and AE is equal to
CF, and theangleBAE is equal to the angle DCF (by art.
• 36.) ; therefore the two triangles ABE CDF are e-
-qual (by art. 6i.)'; and taking the triangle CKE from
both, the figure ABKC will be equal to the figure KDFE ;
to both which add the little triangleKBD, then the paral¬
lelogram ABQC will be equal to the parallelogram BDFE.
The fame way it may be proved, that the parallelogram
EFHG is equal to the parallelogram EFDB ; fo the
three parallelograms ABDC, BDFE, and EFHG will
be equal to one another.
Cor. Hence it is plain, that triangles on the fame bafe,
and between the fame parallels, are equal; fince they are
the half of the parallelograms on the fame bafe and be¬
tween the fame parallels. (by cor. 3. of h(Y art.)
69. In any right-angled triangle, ABC, (fig. 52.)
the fquare of the hypothenufe BC, viz. BCMH, is -qua!
to the fum of the fquares made on the two fides AB and
AC, viz. /<? ABDE and ACGF. To demonftrate this,
through the point A draw AKL perpendicular to the
hypothenufe BC, join AH, AM, DC, and EG; then
it is plain that DB is equal to BA (by art. 53.), alfo BH
is equal to BC (by the fame); fo in the two triangles
DBC ABH, the two legs DB and BC in the one are
equal to the two legs AB and BH in the other; and the
included angles DBC and ABH are alfo equal; (for DBA
is equal to CBH, being both right; to each add ABC,
then it is plain that DBC is equal to ABH) therefore the
triangles DEC ABHareequal(by art. 61.) butthe triangle
DBC is h&lf of the fquare ABDE (by cw. 3. of 67th)
ancl the triangle ABH is half the parallelogram BKLH
(by the fame), therefore half the fquare ABDE is equal
to half the parallelogram BKL. Confequently the fquare
ABDE is equal to the parallelogram BKLH, The fame
way it may be proved, that the fquare ACGF is equal
to the parallelogram KCML. So the fum of the fquares
ABDE and ACGF is equal the fum of the parallelo¬
grams BKLH and KCML, but the fum of thefe paral-
lellograms is equal to the fquare_ BCMH, therefore the
5.L ittis
6$>o |G E O M
rum of the fquares on AB and AC is equal to the
fquare on BC.
Cor. i. Hence in a right-angled triangle, the hypothe-
mife and one of the legs being given, we may eafrly find
the other, by taking the fquare of the given leg from the
fquare of the hypothenufe, and the fquare root of the
remainder will be the leg required.
Cor. 2. Hence, the legs in a right-angled triangle be-
ing given, we may find the hypothenufe, by taking the
fum of the fquares of the given legs, and extra&ing the
fquare root of that fum.
70. If upon the line AB (fig. 53.) there be drawn a femi-
circle ADB, whofe centre is C, and on the point C there be
raifed a perpendicular to the line AB, viz. CD ; then it
is plain the arc DB is a quadrant, or contains 90 degrees ;
fuppofe the arc DB to be divided into 9 equal arcs, each
of which will contain 10 degrees, then on the point B
raifing BE perpendicular to the line AB, it will be a
tangent to the circle in the point B, and if to every one
of the divifions of the quadrant, viz. B 10, B 20, B 30,
B 40, foe. you draw the fine, tangent, foe. (as in the
fcheme) we fhall have the fine, tangent, foe. to every
ten degrees in the quadrant: and the fame way we may
have the fine, tangent, foe. to every fingle degree in the
quadrant, by dividing it into 90 equal parts beginning
from B, and drawing the fine, tangent, foe. to all the
arcs beginning at the fame point B. By this method they
draw the lines of fines, tangents, foe. of a certain circle
on the fcale; for after drawing them on the circle, they
take the length of them, and fet them off in the lines
drawn for that purpofe. The fame way, by fuppofing
the radius of any number of equal parts, (fuppofe 1000,
or 10,000, foe.} it is plain the fine, tangent, foe. of e-
very arc mufl confift of fome number of thefe equal parts;
and by computing them in parts of the radius, we have
tables of fines, tangents, foe. to every arc in the qua¬
drant, called natural fines, tangents, foe. and the loga¬
rithms of thefe give us tables of logarithmic fines, tan¬
gents, foe. See Logarithms.
71. In any triangle, ABC, (Plate XCIV. fig. 1.) if
one of its fides, as AC, be bife&ed in E, (and confe-
quently AC double of'AE) and thtough E be drawn
ED, parallel to BC, and meeting AB in D, then BC
will be double of ED, and AB double of AD, through
D draw DF, parallel to AC, meeting BC in F: for
fince, by conltrudion, DF is parallel to AC, and DE pa¬
rallel to BC; therefore, (by art. 36.) the angle BFD
will be equal to the angle BCA, (and by the fame arti¬
cle) the angle BCA will be equal to the angle DEA,
confequently the angle BFD will be equal to the angle
DEA ; alfo, (by art. 36.) the angle BDF will be e-
qual to the angle DAE ; and fince DF is parallel to EC,
and DB parallel to FC, the quadrilateral DFCE will be
a parallelogram; and therefore, (by art. 59. cor. 4.)
DF will be equal to EC, which, by conftru&ion, is equal
to AE ; fo in the two triangles BDF DAE, the two
angles BFD and BDF in the one, are equal to the two
angles DBA and DAE in the other, each to each re-
fpe&ively; and the included fide DF, is equal to the in¬
cluded fide AE; therefore, (by art. 61. cor. r.) AD will
be equal to DB, and confequently AB double of AD ;
E T R Y.
alfo (by the fame) DE will be equal to BF; but DE is
alfo (by art. 67. cor. 4.) equal to FC ; therefore BF
and EC together, or BC, will be double of DE.
After the fame manner it may be proved, that if in
the triangle AKG, (fig. 2.) AE be taken equal to a
third part of AK, and through E be drawn ED, parallel
to KG, and meeting AG in D ; then ED will be equal to
a third part of GK, and AD equal to a third part of
AG.
Likewife if in any triangle ABC, (fig._3-) upon the
fideAB, be taken AE, equal to one fourth, one fifth, one
'fixth, foe. of AB, and through E be drawn ED parallel
to BC and meeting AC in D ; then DE will be one
fourth, one fifth, one fixth, foe. of BC, and AD the
like part of AC ; and, in general, if in'any triangle ABC,,
there be alfumed a point E on one of its fides AB, and
through that point be drawn a line ED, parallel to one
of it fides BC, and meeting the other fide AC in D ;
then whatever part AE is of AB, the fame part will ED
be of BC, and AD of AC.
Cor. Hence.it follows, that if in any triangle ABC,
there be drawn ED, parallel to one of its fides BC, and
meeting the other two in the points E and D, then
A*E : AB :: ED : BC :: AD : AC ; that is, AE is to
AB, as ED is to BC, and that as AD to AC.
72.IfanytwotrianglesABC, fig4. abc, fig. 5. are fimilar,
or have all the angles of the one equal to all the angles
of the other, each to each refpe&ively; that is, the
the angle CAB equal to the angle cab, and the angle
ABC equal to the angle abc, and the angle ACB equal
to the angle acb; then the legs oppofite to the equal
angles are proportioned, viz. AB : ab :: AC : ac :: and
and AB : ab :: BC : be :: and AC : ac :: BC : be.
On AB of the large!! triangle fet off AE equal) to
ab, and through E draw ED parallel to BC, meet¬
ing AC in D; then fince DE and BC are parallel,
and AB crofling them, the angle AED will (by art. 36.)
be equal to the angle ABC, which (by fuppofition) is e-
qual to.the-angle abc, alfo the angle DAE is (by fug-
pofition) equal to the angle cab ; fo in the two triangles
AED, abc, the two angles DAE AED of the one,
are equal to two angles cab abc of the other, each to
each refpe&ively, and the included, fide AE is (by con-
ftruttion) equal to the included fide ab; therefore, (by
art. 61. cor. 1.) AD is equal to ac, and DE equal to
cb ; but fince, in the triangle ABC, there is drawn DE
parallel to BC one of its fides, and meeting the two q-
ther fides in the points D and E, therefore (by cor. art. 71.)
AB : AE :: AC : AD, and AB : AE :: BC : DE, and
AC : AD :: BC : DE; and in the three laft proportions,
inftead of the lines AE, DE, and AD, putting in their e-
quals ab, be, and ac, we lhall have AB : ab :: AC : af,
and AB : ab :: BC : be, and laftly, AC : ac :: BC ;
be.
73. The chord, fine, tangent, foe. of any arc in one
circle, is to the chord, fine, tangent, foe. of the fame
arc in another, as the radius of the one is to the radius
of the other, fig, 6, 6. Let ABD abd be two circles,
BD bd two arcs of thefe circles, equal to one another,
or confifting of the fame number of degrees; FD f d
the tangents, BD bd the chords, BE be the fines.
G E O M
&c. of thcfe two arcs BD bd, and CDcd tlie radii
of the circles; then fay, CD : cd :: FD : fd, and
CD : cd :: BD : bd, and CD : cd :: BE : be, <kc.
For fince the arcs BD bd are equal, the angles BCD
bed will be equal; and FD fd, being tangents to the
points D and d, the angles CDF cdf will be equal, be¬
ing each a right angle (art. 22.) fo in the two triangles
CDF cdf, the two angles FCD CDF of the one, be¬
ing equal to the two angles fed c d f of the other, each
to each, die remaining angle CFD, will be equal to the
remaining angle cfd, (by art. 60.); therefore the tri¬
angles CFD cfd are fimilar, and confequently (by art.
73 ) CD : cd :: FD : fd. In the fame manner it may
be demondrated, that CD : cd :: BD : bd, and CD ;
cd t: BE : be, 6^.
74. Le£,ABD (fig. 7.) be a quadrant of a circle de-
feribed by the radius CD BD any arc of it, and BA
its complement, BG or CF the fine, CG or BF the co¬
fine, DE the tangent, and CE the fecant of that arc BD.
Then fince the triangles CDE CGB are fimilar or equi¬
angular, it will be (by art. 72.) DE : EC :: GB : BC,
i. e. the tangent of any arc, is to the fecant of the fame,
as the fine of it is to the radius Alfo fince DE : EC ::
GB : BC ; therefore, by inverting that proportion, we
have EC : DE :: BC ; GB, i e. the fecant is to the
tangent, as the radius is to the fine of any arc.
Again, fmee the triangles CDE CGB are fimilar,
therefore (by art. 72 ) it will be CD : CE :: CG : CB,
i. e. as the radius is 10 the fecant of any arc, fo is the co¬
fine of that arc to the radius. And by inverting the pro¬
portion we have this, viz. As the fecant of any arc is to
the radius, fo is the radius to the co-fine of that arc.
75. In all circles the chord of 60 is always equal in
length to the radius. Thus in the circle AEBD, (fig. 8.)
if the arc AEB be an arc of 60 degrees, then draw¬
ing the chord AB, I fay AB fiiall be equal to the
radius CB or AC; for in the triatigle ACB, the angle
ACB is 60 degrees, being meafured by the arc AEB ;
therefore the fum of the other two angles is 120 degrees,
(by cor. 1. of 60.); but fince AC and CB are equal to
the two angles CAB, CBA will alfo be equal; confe¬
quently each of them half their fum 120, viz. 60 degrees;
therefore all the three angles are equal to one another, .
confequently all the legs, therefore AB is equal to CB.
Cor. Hence the radius from which the lines on any
fcale are formed, is the chord of 60 on the line of chords.
Geometrical Problems.
Prob. 1. From a point C (fig. 9.) in a given line AB
to raife a perpendicular to that line.
Rule. From the point C take the equal diftances CB,
CA on each fide of it. Then ftretch the compalfes to any
diltance greater than CB or CA, and with one foot of
them in B, fweep the arc EF with the other; again,
with the fame opening, and one foot.in A, fweep the arc
GH with the other, and thefe two arcs will interfedl
one another in the point D; then join the given points C
and D with the line CD, and that fitall be the perpendi-
'Cular required.
E T R Y. 6pj
2. To divide a given right line AB (fig. 10.) into two e*
qual parts ; that is, to bifedt it.
Rule. Take any difiance with your compafies that yoa
are fure is greater than half the given line ; then fetting
one foot of them in B, with the other fweep the arc
DFC; and with the fame diftance, and one foot in A,
with the other fweep the arc CED; thefe two arcs
will interfedf one another in the points C D, which join¬
ed by the right line DC will bileft AB in G.
3. From a given point D, (fig. n.-) to let fall a per¬
pendicular on a given line AB.
Rule. Set one foot of the compaffes in the point D,
and extend the other to any diftance greater than the
leaft diftance between the given point and the line, and
with that extent fweep the arc AEB, cutting the
line in the two points A and B, then (by the laft prob.)
brfeft the line AB in the point C, laftly join C and D,
and that line CD is the perpendicular required.
4. (Fig. 12.) Upon the end B of a given right line BA,
to raife a perpendicular.
Rule, lake any extent in your compafies, and with
one foot in B fix the other in any point C without the
given line; then with one point of the compafles in C,
deferibe with the other the circle EBD, and thro’ E
and C draw the diameter ECD meeting the circle in D-
join D and B, and the right line DB is that required j
for EBD is a right angle (by cor. 4. of 63.). *
j. (Fig. 13.) To draw one line parallel to another gi¬
ven line AB, that fliall be difiant from one another by
any given diftance D.
Rule. Extend your compafles to the given difiance !>•
then fetting one foot of them in any point of the given
line (fuppofe A), with the other fweep the arc FCG • a-
gain, at the fame extern* and one foot in any other point
of the given line B, fweep the arc HDK, and draw the
line CD touching them, and that will be parallel to the
given line AB,. and diftant from it by the line D as was
required.
6. (Fig. 14.) To divide a given line AB into any num¬
ber of equal parts, fuppofe 7.
Rule. From the point A draw any line AD, making
an angle with the line AB, then through the point B,
draw a line BC parallel to AD; aqd from A, with any
fmall opening of the compafies, fet off a number of equal
parts (on the line AD,) lefs by one than the propofed
number (here 6.); then from B fet off the fame number
of the fame parts (on the line BC) ; laftly, join 6 and *,
2 and 5, 3 and 4, 4 and 3, 5. and 2, 6 and 1, and
thefe lines will cut the given line as required,
7. (Fig. ij.) To quarter a given.circle, or to. divide
it into four equal parts.
Rule. Thro’ the centre C of the given circle, draw a
diameter AB,- then upon the point C raife a perpendicu-
lar DCE to the line AB ; and thefe two di imeters AB
and DE lhall quarter the circle.
8 (Fig. 16 ) Thro’ three given points A, B, and D
to draw a circle. (Note, The three points muft not
in the fame firaight line.)
Rule. Join A and B, alfo B and D, with the ftreipht
lines AB BD ; then (by preb. 2.) bifeft AB with the
line
<6 9 2 C E O TVI
>line EC, alfo'BD with the line FC, which two-lines
will cut one another in fome point C ; that is the centre
.of the circle required : then fixing one point of your com-
paffes in D, and ftretching the other to A, defcribe
the circle ABDG, which will pafs thro’ the three points
given. The reafon of this is plain from cor. i. of
art. 64.
9. (Fig. 17.) From the .point A of the given line AB,
to draw another line (fuppofe AC) that fhall make with
AB an angle of any number of degrees, fuppofe 45.
Rule. Let the given line AB be produced, then take
•off1 your fcale the length of the chord of 6.0 degrees,
which is equal to the radius of the circle the fcale
was made for (by art. 75.) ; and fetting one foot in A,
with the other fweep of the arc BC ; then with your
compafles take from your fcale the chord of 45 degrees,
and fet off that diftance from B'to C. Laltly, join A
and C, and the line AC is that required. For the
angle CAB,, which is meafured by the arc BC, is an
angle of 45 degrees, as was required.
10. An angle BAC (fig. 18.) being given, to find how
many degrees it contains.
Rule. With your compafles take the length of your
chord of 60 from your fcale. Then, fetting one foot of
them in A, with the other fweep the arc BC, which is
the arc comprehended between the two legs AB, AC
produced if needful. Laflly, take with your compafles
the diftance BC, and applying it to your line of chords on
the fcale, you will find how many degrees the arc BC
.contains, and confequently the degrees of the angle BAC
which was required.
n. Three lines x,y, and z being given, (fig. 19. 19.)
to form a triangle of them; but any two of thefe lines
taken together muft always be greater than the third.
Rule. Make any one of them, as .v, the bafe; then
with your compafles take another of them, as z, and
fetting one foot in one end of the line x, as B, with the
. other fweep the arc DE ; and taking with your com-
pafles the length of the other y, fet one foot of them in
A, the other end of the line x, and with the other fweep
the arc FG, which will cut the other in C; laftly, join
CA and CB, and the triangle CAB is that required.
1 2. To make a triangle, .having one of its legs of any
number of equal parts (fuppofe 160), and one of the an¬
gles at that leg 50 degrees, and the other 44 degrees.
Rule. Draw an indefinite line ED, (fig. 20.) then
take off the line of equal parts with your compafles', 160
of them, and fet them on the indefinite line, as BC ; then
(by prob. 9.) draw BA, making the angle ABC of 50
degrees, and (by the fame) draw from C the line AC, ma-
E T ft Y.
king the angle ACB of 44 degrees ; which twoTmes wiffl
mieet one another in A, and the triangle ABC is that re-
.quired. See Trigonometry.
13. Upon a given line AB (fig. 21.) to make a fquare.
Ride. Upon the extremity A of the given line AB,
raife a perpendicular AC ;(by prab. 4.); then take AC
equal to AR, and with that extent, fetting one foot of
the compafles in C, fweep with the other foot the arc
:,GH ; then with the fame extent, and one foot in B, with
the other fweep the arc EF, which will meet the former
in fome point D ; Jaftly, join C and D, D and B, and
the figure ABDC will be the fquare required.
14. On a given line AB (fig. 22.) to draw a rhomb
that fliall have one of its angles equal to any number of
degrees, fuppofe 60 degrees.
Rule. From the point A of the given line AB, draw
the line AC, making the angle CAB of 60 degrees, (by
prab. q.) then take AC equal to AB, and with that ex¬
tent, fixing one foot of the compafles in B, with the o-
ther defcribe the arc GH; and at the fame extent, fixing
one foot of the compafles in C, with the other defcribe
the; arc EF cutting the former in D ; laftly, join CD
and DB, and the figure ACDB is that required.
15. Given two lines x and z, of thefe two to make a
reftangle.
Ride. Draw a line, as AB, (fig. 23. 23.) equal in length
to one of the given lines x; and on the-extremity A of that
Iine,raife a perpendicular AC, on which take AC equal to
the other line z; then take with your compafles the
length of the line AB, and at that extent, fixing one
foot of them in C, with the other fweep the arc EF ;
and alfo taking with your compafies the extent of the
line AC, fix one foot of them in B, and with the other
fweep the arc GH, which will meet the former in D ;
laftly, join CD and BD, 'and the figure ABDC will be
that required.
16.. Two lines x^ind z being given, of thefe to form a
rhomboides that fliall have one of its angles any number
of degrees, fuppofe 50.
Rule. Draw a line AB (fig. 24. 24.) equal in length to
one of the lines, as x; then draw the line AC, making with
the former the angle BAC equal to the propofed, fuppofe
50 degrees, and on that line take AC equal to the given
line z, then with your comgafles take the length of AB,
and fixing one foot in C, fweep the arc EF; alfo, taking
the length of AC, and fetting one foot in B, with the
other fweep the arc GH, which will cut the former in
D ; then join CD and DB, fo the figure ACDB will be
that required.
PART II.
THE APPLICATION OF THE FOREGOING PRINCIPLES TO THE MENSURATION
OF SURFACES, SOLIDS, &c.
Qf the Menfuration of Lines and Angles.
A Line, or length, to be meafured, whether it be di¬
ftance, height, or depth, is meafured by a line lefs
>,jthan it. With us the leaft ineafure of length is an inch :
not that we meafure no line lefs than it, but becaufe we
do not ufe the name of any meafure below that of an
inch; exprefling lefler meafures by the fra<5Hons of an
inch : and in this treatife we ufe decimal fradlions as die
eafieft. Twelve inches make a foot; three feet and an
Plate XC1Y
‘A ,
r' ■
V"
GEO M
krch make the Scots ell; fix ells make a fall; forty falls
make a furlong; eight furlongs make a mile: fo that the
Scots miles is 1184 paces, accounting every pace to be
Hive feet. Thefe things are according to the ftatutes of
Scotland ; notwithftaoding which, the glaziers ufe a foot
of only eight inches ; and other artifts for the molt
part ui'e an Englifh foot, on account of the feveral fcales
marked on the Englilh foot-meafure for their ufe. But'
the Englilh foot is fomewhat lefs than the Scots; fo that
185 of thefe make 1S6 of thofe, ^
Lines, to the extremities and any intermediate point of
which you have eafy aocefs, are meafured by applying to
them the common meafure a number of times. But lines,
to which you cannot have fuch accefs, are mefcfured by
methods taken from geometry ; the chief whereof we
fhall here endeavour to explain. The firft is by the help
of the geometrical fquare.
“ As for the Englifh meafures, the yard is three feet,
“ or thirty-fix inches. A pole is fixteen feet and a half,
“ or five yards and a half. The chain, commonly called
“ Gunter's chain, is four poles, or twenty-two yards,
“ that is, fixty fix feet. An Englifh flatute-mile is four-
“ fcore chains, or 1760 yards, that is, 5280 feet.
“ The chain (which is now much in ufe, becaule it is
“ very convenient for furveying) is divided into a hun-
dred links, each of which is 7T|~- of an inch: whence
“ it is eafy to reduce any number of thofe links to feet,
“ or any number of feet to links.
“ A chain that may have the fame advantages in fur-
“ veying in Scotland, as Gunter’s chain has in England,
** ought to be in length feventy-four feet, or twenty-four
“ Scots ells, if no regard is had to the difference of the
“ Scots and Englifli foot above mentioned. But, if re-
“ gard is load to that difference, the Scots chain ought
“ to confift of 74!- Englifh feet, or 74 feet -4 inches and
“ y of an inch. This chain being divided into' an hun-
“ dred links, each of thofe links is 8 inches and of
“ an inch. In the following table,- the moft noted mea-
“ fures are expreffed in Englilh inches and decimals of
“ an inch.”
Englifb inch. Dec.
The Englilh foot, is - - - *12 000
The Paris foot, - - - 12 788
The Rhindland foot, meafured by Mr Picart, 12 362
The Scots foot, - - - 12 065
The Amfterdam foot, by Snellius and Picart, 11 172
The Dantzick foot, by Hevelius, - 11 297
The Danilh foot, by Mr Picart, - 12 465
The Swedilh foot, by the fatne, - 11 692
The Bruffels foot, by the fame,- - 10 828
The Lyons foot, by Mr Auzout, - 13 458
The Bononian foQt, byMrCaffini, - 14 938
The Milan foot, by Mr Auzout, - 15 631
The Roman palm ufed by merchants, accord¬
ing to the fame, - - 9. 791
The Roman palm ufed by architefts, - 8 779
The palm of Naples, according to Mr Auzout, 10 314
The Englilh yard, - - - 36 000
The Englilh ell, - - 47 000
The Scots ell, - - 37 200
V01.. II. No 5J. 2
E T R Y. 69i
Inch. Dec •
The Paris aune ufed by mercers, according to
Mr Picart,
The Paris aune ufed by drapers, according to
the fame,
The Lyons aune, by Mr Auzout,
The Geneva aune.
The Amfterdam ell,
The Danilh ell, by Mr Picart,
The Swedilh ell.
The Norway ell,
The Brabant or Antwerp ell,
The Bruffels ell,
The Bruges ell,
The brace of Bononia, according to Auzout,
The brace ufed by architects in Rome,
The brace ufed in Rome by merchants,
The Florence brace ufed by merchants, ac¬
cording to Picart,
The Florence geographical brace.
The vara of Seville,
The vara of Madrid,
The vara of Portugal,
The cavedo of Portugal,
The ancient Roman foot.
The Perfian arilh, according to Mr Graeves,
The Ihorter pike of Conftantinople, according
to the fame.
Another pike of Conftantinople, according to
Meff. Mallet and De la Porte,
PROPOSITION I.
Pros. To deferibe the firufiure of the geometrical
fquare.—The geometrical fquare is made of any folid
matter, as brafs or wood, or of any four plain rulers join¬
ed together at right angles, (as in Plate XCV. fig. 1.)
where A is the centre, from which hangs a thread with
a final] weight at the end, fo as to be diretfted always to
the centre. Each of the fides BE and DE is divided in¬
to an hundred equal parts, or (if the fides be long e-
nough to admit of it) into a thoufand parts; C and F
are two fights, fixed on the fide AD. There is more¬
over an index GH, which, when there is occafion, is join¬
ed to the centre A, in fuch manner as that it can move
round, and remain in any given fituation. On this in¬
dex are two fights perpendicular to the right line going
from the centre of the inftrument: tbefe are K and L.
The fide DE of the inftrument is called the upright fide ;
E the reclining fide.
PROPOSITION II.
Fig. 2. To nieafure an acceffible height, AB, by tbs
help of a geometrical fjuare, its diftance being knonxm.
—Let BR be an horizontal plane, on which there ftands
perpendicularly any line AB : let BD, the given diftance
of the obfervator from the height, be =96 feet; let the-
height of the obfervator’s eye be fuppofed 6 feet; and
let the inftrument, held by a fteady hand, or rather lean¬
ing on a fupport, be di-refled towards the fummit A, Fo
that one eye (the other being (hut) -may fee it clearly
through the fights ; the perpendicular or plumb line mean¬
while hanging free, and touching the furface of the in-
M 7 ft rumens
46 786
46 680
46 570
44 76o
26 800
24 930
23 380
24 5x0
•27 -170
27 260
27 550,
2 J 200
30 730
34 270
22 910
21 570
44 031
27 354
11 632
38 364
2 5 576
27 920
4 G E O M
ftrament: let now the perpeoJicular be fappofei to cut
off on the right iideKN 80 equal parts. It is clear that
LKN, ACK, are limilar triangles ; for the angles LKN,
ACK are right angles, and therefore equal; moreover
LN and AC are parallel, as being both perpendicular to
the horizon ; c nfequently, (by art. 60. cor. i. part i.)
the angles KLN, KAG, are equal; wherefore, (by arc.
60 cor. 2. of part i.) the angles LNK, and AKC, are
likewife equal: fb that in the triangles NKL, KAC,
(by art. 72. of part 1 ) as NK : KL :: KC (/. e. BD)
: CA; that is, as 80 to joo, fo is, 96 feet to CA.
Therefore, by the rule of three, CA will be found to
be 120 feet; and CB, which is 6 feet, being added, the
■whole height is 126 feet.
But if the diftance of the obfervator from the height,
as BE, be fuch, that, when the inftrument is direfbed as
formerly toward the fummit A, th§ perpendicular falls on
the angle P, oppoftte to H,the centre of the inftrument,
and BE or CG be given of 120 feet; CA will alfo be
120 feet. For in the triangles HGP, ACG, equisn-
gular, as in the preceding cafe, as PG : GH: : GC:
CA. But PG is equal to GH ; therefore GC is like¬
wife equal to CA: that is, CA will be 120 feet, and
the whole height 126 feet as before.
Let the diftance BF be 300 feet, and the perpendicu¬
lar or plumb line cut off 40 equal parts from the recli¬
ning fide: Now, in this cafe, the angles QAC, QZI,
are equal, and the angles QZI, ZIS, are equal; there¬
fore the angle ZIS is equal to the angle QAC. But
the angles ZSI QCA are equal, being right angles;
therefore, in the equiangular triangles ACQ, SZI, it
will be, as ZS : SI : : CQj CA; that is, as 100 to 40,
fo is 300 to CA. Wherefore, by the rule of three,
CA will be found to be of 102 feet. And, by adding
the height of the obfervator, the whole BA will be 126
feet. Note, that the height is greater than the diltance,
when the perpendicular cuts the right fide* and lefs if
it cut the reclined fide; and that the height and diftance
are equal, if the perpendicular fall on the oppofite
angle.
SCHOLIUM.
If the height of a tower, to be meafured as above, end
in a point, (as in fig. 3.) the diftance of the obfervator
oppofne to it, is not CD, but is to be accounted from
the perpendicular to the point A ; that is, to CD muft
be added the half of the thicknefs of the tower, viz.
BD: which muft likewife be underftood in the following
propofitions, when the cafe is fimilar.
PROPOSITION III.
Fig. 4. From the height of a tower AY*>given, to
find a dijlance on the horizontal plane BC, by the geome¬
trical fquare —Let the inftrument be fo placed, as that
the mark C in the oppofite plane may be feen through the
fights ; and let it be obferved how many parts are cut off
by the perpendicular. Now, by what hath been already
demonftrated, the triangles AEF, ABC, are fimilar;
therefore, it will be as EF to AE, fo AB (compofed of
the height of the tower BG, and of the height of the
centre of the inftrument A, above the tower BG) to the
diftance BC. Wh&refore, if, by the rule of three, you
E T 11 Y.
fay, as EF to AE, fo is AB to BC, it will be the di¬
ftance fought.
PROPOSITION IV.
Fig. 5. To meafure any dijlance at land or fea, hi
the geometrical fquare—In this operation, the index is
to be applied to the inftrument, as was ftiown in the de-
fcription ; and, by the help of a fupport, the inftrument
is to be.placed horizontally at the point A ; then let it
be turned till the remote point F, whofe diftance is to be
meafured, be feen through the fixed fights ; and bringing
the index to be parallel with the other fide of the inftru¬
ment, obferve by the fights upon it any acceffxble mark B,
at a fenfible diftance: then carrying the inftrument to the
point B, let the immoveable fights be dire&ed to the firft
ftation A, and the fights of the index to the point F. If
the index cut the right fide of the fquare, as in K, in the
two triangles BRK, and BAF, which are aequiangular,
it will be as BRto RK, fo BA (the diltance of the ftations
to be meafured with a chain) to AF ; and the diftance
AF fought will be found by the rule of three. But if
the index cut the reclined fide of the fquare in any point
L, where the diftance of a more remote point is fought ;
in the triangles BLS, BAG, the fide LS lhall be to SB.
as BA to AG, the diftance fought; which accordingly
will be found by the rule of three.
PROPOSITION V.
Fig. 6. To meafure an accefible height by means
of a plain mirror.—Let AB be the height to be
meafured ; let the mirror be placed at C, in the horizon¬
tal plane BD, at a known diftance BC; let the obferver
go back to D, till he fee the image of the fummit in the
mirror, at a certain point of it, which he muft: diligently
mark; and let DE be the height of the obfervator’s eye.
The triangles ABC and EDC are equiangular; for the
angles at D and B are right angles; and ACB, ECD,
are equal, being the angles of incidence and reflexion of
the ray AC, as is demonftrated in optics ; wherefore the
remaining angles at A and E are alfd equal: therefote
it will be, as CD to DE, fo CB to.BA ; that is, as the
diftance of the obfervator from the point of the mirror
in the right lin6 betwixt the obfervator and the height, is
to the height of the' obfervator’s eye, fo is the diftance of
the tower from that point of the mirror, to the height of
the tower fought; which therefore will be found by the
rule of three.
Note 1. The obfervation will be more exadt, if, at the
point D, a ftaff be placed in the ground perpendiculaily,
over the top of which the obfervator may fee a point of
the glafs exadly in a line betwixt him and the tower.
Note 2. In place of a mirror may be ufed the fur-
face of water contained in a veffel, which naturally be¬
comes parallel to the horizon.
PROPOSITION VI.
Fig. 7. To meafure an accefible height AB by means
of two faff's.—Let there be placed perpendicularly in
the ground a longer ftaff DE, likewife a fhorter one FG,
fo as the obfervator may fee A, the top of the height to
be meafured, over the ends D F of the two ftaffs; let
FH and DC, parallel to the horizon, meet DE and AB
inHandC; then the triangles FHD, DCA, lhall be
equiangular;
G E O M I
equiangular; for the angles at C and H are right ones ;
likewife the angle A is equal to the angle FDH; where¬
fore the remaining angles DFH, and ADC, are alfo e-
qual: Wherefore, as FH, the didance of the ftaffs, to
HD, the excefs of the longer ftaff above the fhorter ; fo
is DC, the diftance of the longer dafF from the tower,
to CA, the excefs of the height of the tower above the
longer daff. And thence CA will be found by the rule of
three.
To which if the length DE be added, you will have
the whole height of the tower BA.
SCHOLIUM.
Fig. 8. Many other methods may be occafionally con¬
trived for meafuring an acceflible height. For example,
from the given length of the lhadow BD, to find out the
height AB, thus : Let there be eredted a daff CE per¬
pendicularly, producing the fliadow EF: The triangles
ABD, CEF, are equiangular; for the angles at B and
E are right; and the angles ADB and CFE are equal,
each being equal to the angle of the fun’s elevation above
the horizon : Therefore, as EF, the diadow of the daff,
to EC, the daff itfdf; foBD, the fiiadow of the tower,
to BA, the height of'the tower. Though the plane on
which thp fiiadow of the tower falls be not parallel to
the horizon, if the daff be eretded in the fame plane, the
rule will be the fame.
PROPOSITION VII.
To 7neafure an inaccejpble htight by means of two
faffs—Hitherto we have fuppofed the height to be ac-
ceflible, or that we can come at the lower end of it; now
if, becaufe of fome impediment, we cannot get to a tower,
or if the point whole height is to be found out be the
fummit of a hill, fo that the perpendicular be hid within
the hill; if, for want of better indruments, fuch an in-
acceflible height is to be meafured by means of two daffs,
let the fird obfervation be made with the daffs DE and
FG, (as in prop. 6.); then the obfervator is to go off in
a direcStline from the height and fird dation, till he come
to the fecond dation ; where (fig 11.) he is to place the
longer daff perpendicularly at RN, and the fhorter daff
at KO, fo that the fummit A may be feen along their
tops; that is, fo that the points KNA may be in the
fame right line. Through the point N, let there be
drawn the right line NP parallel to FA: Wherefore in-
the triangles KNP, KAF, the angles KNP KAF are
equal, alfo the angle AKF is common to both; confe-
quently the remaining angle KPN is equal to the remain¬
ing angle KFA And therefore, PN : FA :: KP : KF.
But the triangles PNL, FAS are fimilar; therefore,.
PN : FA : NL : SA. Therefore, (by the 11.5. Eucl )
KP : KF :: N L : SA. Thence, alternately, it will be,
as KP (the excefs of the greater didance of the ftiort.
ftaff from the long cfne above its leffer didance from it)
to NL, the excefs of the longer daff above the fiiorter ;
fo KF, the didance of the two dations of the fhorter
ftaff to SA the excefs of the height fought above the
height of the fhorter daff Wherefore SA will be found
by the rule .of three. To which let the height of the :
fiiorter daff be added, and the fum will give the whole .
inacceffible height BA.
Note 1. In the fame manner , may an inacceffible
: T R Y. 69$
height be found by a geometrical fquare, or by a plain
Ipeculum. But we fhall leave the rules to be found out
by the dudent, for his own exercife.
Note 2. That by the height of the ftaff we underftand
its height above the ground in which it is fixed.
Note 3. Hence depends the method of ufing other in¬
druments invented by geometricians ; for example, of the
geometrical crofs: And if all things be juftly weighed,
a like rule will ferve for it as here. Jlut we incline to
touch only upon what is mod material.
PROPOSITION VIII.
Fig. 9. To meafiire the dtfiance AB, to one of nuhofe
extremities we have accefs, by the help of four faffs.—
Let there be a daff fixed at the point A; then going,
back at fome fenfible diftance in the fame right line, let
another be fixed in-C, fo as that both the points A and B
be covered and hid by the daff C : likewife going off in a
perpendicular from the-right line CB, at the point A,
(the method of doing which fhall be diown in the follow¬
ing yc^Z/aw), let there be placed another ftaff at H ;
and in the right line CKG (perpendicular to the fame CB,
at the point B), and at the point of it K, fuch that the
points K, H, and B may be in the fame right line, let
there be fixed a fourth daff. Let there be drawn, or
let there be fuppofed to be drawn, a right line GH pa¬
rallel to CA. The triangles KGH, HAB, will be equi¬
angular ; for the angles HAB KGH are right angles.
Alfo the angles ABH, KHG are equal; wherefore, as
KG (the excefs of CK above AH) to GH, or to CA,
the diftance betwixt the firft and fecond ftaff; fo is AH,
the diftance betwixt the firft and third ftaff, to AB the
the diftance fought.
S C H 0 L I U M.
Fig. 10. To draw on a plane a right line AE perpen¬
dicular to CH, from a given point A; take the tight
lines AB, AD, on each fide equal; and in the points B
and D, let there be fixed (takes, to which let there, be
tied two equal ropes BE, DE, or one having a mark in
the middle, and holding in your hand their extremities :
joined, (or the mark in the middle, if it be but one),
draw out the ropes one the ground; and then, where the
two ropes meet, or at the mark, when by it the rope is
fully ftretched, let there be placed a third (take at E ; .
the right line AE will be perpendicular to CH in
the point A (prob. 1. of part. i.). In a manner not un¬
like to this, may any problems that are refolved by the
fquare and compaffes, Be done by ropes and a . cord i
turned round as a radius.
PROPOSITION IX.
Fig 12. To msafure the difance AB, one of whofe: -
extremities is acceffible —From the point A, let the
right line AC of a known length be made perpendicular
to AB, (by the precedingyFW/im): hkewife draw the
right line CD perpendicular to' CB, meeting the right :
line AB in D : then as DA : AC :: AG : AB. Where¬
fore, when D A and-AC are given, AB will be found by
the rule of three.
S C H 0 L I U M.
All the preceding operations depend dn the equality of '
fome angles of triangles, and on the (imilarity of the tri¬
angles anfing from that equality. And on the fame prin¬
ciples r
6<?6 G E O M
cipies depend innumerable other operations which a geo¬
metrician will find out of himfelf, as is very obvious,
However, fome of thefe operations require fuch exa&nefs
in the work, and without it are fo liable-to errors, that,
cxteris paribus, the following operations, which are per¬
formed by a trigonometrical calculation, are to be pre¬
ferred ; yet could we] not omit thofe above, being moft
eafy in praftice, and molt clear and evident to thole who
have only the firll elements of geometry. But jf you are
provided with inftruments, the following operations are
more to be relied upon. We do not infill on the- eafielt
cafes to thofe who are (killed in plain trigonometry,
which is indeed neceflary to any one who would apply
himfelf to practice. See Trigonometry.
PROPOSITION X.
Fig. 13. To defcribc the conftruflion and ufe of the
geometrical quadrant.—The geometrical quadrant is the
fourth part of a circle divided into ninety degrees, to
which two fights are adapted, with a perpendicular or
plumb line hanging from the centre. The general ufe of
it is for inveltigating angles in a vertical plane, compre¬
hended under right lines -going from the centre of the in-
ftrument, one of which is horizontal, and the other is
diredted to fome vifible point. This inftrument is made
of any folid matter as wood, copper, fee.
PROP O S I T I Q N XI.
Fig. 'i4. To deferibe and make ufe of the gra-
phorneter.—The graphometer is a femicircle made of any
hard matter, of wood, for example, or brafs, divided into
180 degrees ; fo fixed on a fulcrum, by means of a brafs
ball and focket, that it eafily turns.about, and retains a-
ny fituation; two fights are fixed on its diameter. At
the centre there is commonly a magnetical needle in a
box. There is iikewife a moveable ruler, which turns
round the centre, and retains any fituation given it. The
ufe of it is to obferve any angle, whofe vertex is at the
centre of the inllrument in any plane, (though it is molt
commonly horizontal, or nearly fo), and to find how ma¬
ny degrees it contains.
PROPOSITION XII.
Fig. 15, and 16. To deferibe the manner in nuhich
^angles are rneafured by a quadrant or graphometer.—
Let there be an angle in a vertical plane, comprehended
between a line parallel to the horizon HK, and the right
line RA, coming from any remarkable point of a tower
or hill, or from the fun, moon, or a ftar. Suppofe that
this angle RAH is to be meafured by the quadrant: Jet
the inllrument be placed in the vertical plane, fo as that
the centre A may be in the angular point: and let the
-fights be directed towards the objeft at R, (by the help
of the ray coming from it, if it be the fun or moon, or
-by the help of the vifial ray, if it is any thing elfe), the
degrees and minutes in the arc BC cut off by the perpen¬
dicular, will meafure the -angle RAH required. For,
from the make of the quadrant, BAD is a right angle ;
therefore BAR is likewife right, being equal to it. But,
becaufe HK is horizontal, and AC perpendicular, HAC
will be a tight angle; and therefore equal alfo to BAR.
iFrom thofe angles fubrradt the part HAB 'hat is common
,<o both ; and there will remain the. angle BAC equal to
;tiie angle RAH. But the arc BC is the meafure of the
E T R Y:
angle BAC ; confequently, it is iikewife the meafure cf
the angle RAH.
Note, That the remaining arc on the quadrant DC is
the meafure or the angle RAZ, comprehended between
the forefaid right line RA and AZ which points to the
zenith.
Let it now be required to meafure the angle ACB
(fig. 16.) in any plane, comprehended between the right¬
lines AC and BC, drawn from two points A and B, to
the place of (tation C. Let the graphometer be placed
at C, fupported by its fulcrum (as was Ihown above) ;
and let the immoveable fights on the fide of the inltru-
ment DE be direSed towards the point A; and likewife
(while the inllrument remains immoveabe) let the fights
of the ruler FG (which is moveable about the centre C)
be directed to the point B. It is evident, that the move-
able ruler cuts off an arc DH, which is the meafure of
the angle ACB fought. Moreover, by the fame me¬
thod, the inclination of CE, or of FG, may be obferved
with the meridian line, which is pointed out by the mag¬
netic needle inclofed in the box,.and is moveable about
the centre of the inllrument, and the meafure of this in¬
clination or angle found in degrees.
PROPOSITION XIII.
Fig. 17. To meafure an acceflible height by the geo¬
metrical quadrant.—By the 12th prop, of this part, let
the angle C be found by means of tbe quadrant. Then
in the triangle ABC, right angled at B, (BC being fup-
pofed the horizontal diftance of the obfervator from the
tower), having the angle at C, and the fide BC, the re¬
quired height BA will be found by the 3d cafe of plain
trigonometry. See Trigonometry.
PROPOSITION XIV.
Fig. 18. To 7neafure an inacceffible height by the
geometrical quadrant.—Let the angle ACB be obfer¬
ved with the quadrant (by the 12th prop, of this part
then let the obferver go from C to the fecond llation
D, in the right line BCD (provided BCD be a hori¬
zontal plane) ; and after meafuring this dillance CD,'
take the angle ADC likewife with the quadrant. Then,
in the triangle ACD, there is given the angle ADC,
with the angle ACD ; becaufe ACB was given before :
therefore (by art. 59. of Part L) the remaining angle
CAD is given iikewife. But the fide CD is likewife gi¬
ven, being the diftance of the ftation C and D ; there¬
fore (by the firft cafe of oblique-angled triangles
in trigonometry) the fide AC will be found. Where¬
fore, in the right-angled triangle ABC, all the angles
and the hypothenufe AC are given; confequently, by
the fourth cafe of trigonometry, the height fought AB
will be found ; as alfo (if you pleafe) the diftance of the
ftation C, from AB the perpendicular within the hill or
inacceffible.height.
PROPOSITION XV.
Fig. E9. From the top of a given height, to meafure
the difanceIEC.—Let the angle BAC be obferved by
the 12th prop, of this; wherefore in the triangle ABC,
right-angled at B, there is given by obfervation the an¬
gle at A ; whence (by the J9th art. of Fart I.) there will
alfo be given the angle BCA: moreover the fide AB
;(being the height of the tower) is fuppefed to be given.
Wherefore,
TlateXCV.
G ' E O M
Wherefore, % the 53 cafe of trigonometry, BC, the di-
ftance fought, will be found.
PPO POSITION XVI.
Fig. 20. To meafure ihe dijiance of t<wo places A
and B, of which one is acccjjihle, bythe graphomcter.-—
Let there be erected at two points A and C, fufficiently
diftant, two vifible iigns ; then (by the 12th prop, of this
part) let the two angles BAC, BCA be taken by the
graphometer. Let the diftance of the ftations A and C
be meafured with a chain. Then the third angle B being
known, and the fide AC being likewife known 4 there¬
fore, by the fir 11 cafe of trigonometry, the diltance re¬
quired, AB, will be found.
PROPOSITION XVII.
Fig. 21. To meafire by the graf>h«?ne!er, the di-
fance of two places, neither of which is acceffible.—•
Let two ilations C and D be chofen, from each of which
the places may be feen whofe diftance is fought : let the
■angles ACD, ACB, BCD, and likewile the angles
BDC, BDA,' CDA, be meafured by the graphometer;.
let the diftance of the ftations C and D be meafured by a
'drain, or (if it be neceflary) by the preceding pradice.
Now, in the triangle ACD, there are given two angles
ACD and ADC; therefore, the third CAD is likewife
given; moreover the fide CD is given; therefore, by the
firft cafe of trigonometry, the fide AD will be found.
After the fame manner, in the triangle BCD, from all •
the angles and one fide CD given, the fide BD is found.
"Wherefore, in the triangle ADB, from the given fides
DA and DB, and the angle ADB contained by them,
the fide AB (the diftance fought) ts found by the 4th
cafe of trigonometry of'oblique-aogled triangles.
PROPOSITION XVIII.
Fig. 22. It is requited by the graphometer and qua¬
drant, to meafure an accejjible height AB, placed fo on a
Jleep, that one can neither go near it in an horizontal
plane, nor recede from it, as we fuppofed in the folution
of the i/^h Prop.—Let there be chofen any fituation as
C, and another D ; where let fome mark be ereded :
let the angles ACD and ADC be-found by the grapho¬
meter; then the third angle DAC will be known. Let
the fide CD, the diftance of the ftations, be meafured
with a chain, and thence (by trigon.) the fide AC will be
found. Again, in the triangle ACB, right-angled at B,
having found by the quadrant the angle ACB, the other
angle CAB is known likewife: but the fide AC in the
triangle ADC is already known; therefore the height
required AB will be found by the 4th cafe of right-angled
triangles. If the height of the tower is wanted, the an¬
gle BCF will be found by the quadrant; which being
taken from the angle ACB already known, the angle
ACF will remain : but the angle FAC was known before ;
therefore the remaining angle AFC will be known. But
the fide AC wp,s alfo known before; therefore, in the
♦riangle AFC, all the angles and one of the fides AC be¬
ing known, AF, the height of the tower abov.e the hill,
will be found by trigonometry.
SCHOLIUM.
It were eafy to add many other methods of meafuring
heights and diftances; but, if what is above be under-
flood, it will be eafy (efpecially for one that is verfed in
VooT. II. No. 55. 2
£ T R Y, £97
the elements) to contrive methods for this prrrpofe, ac¬
cording to the occafion : fo that there is no need of add¬
ing any m&re of this fort. We fhall fubjoin here a me¬
thod by which the-diameter of the earth may be found
PROPOSITION XIX.
Fx. ate CXVI. Fig. t. To find the diameter of the
earth from one obfervation.—Let there be chofen a high
hill AB, near the fea-fhore, and let the obfervator on
the top of it, with an exacl quadrant divided into mi¬
nutes and feconds by tranfverfe divifions, and fitted with
a telefcope in place of the common fights, meafure the
the angle ABE contained under the right line AB, which
goes to the -centre, and -the right line BE drawn to the
fea, a tangent to the globe at E; let there be drawn
from A perpendicular to BD, the line AF meeting BE
in F. Now in the right-angled triangle BAF all the an¬
gles are given, alfo the fide /IB, the height of the hill ;
which is to be found by fome of the foregoing methods,
as exadlly as poflible; and (by trigonometry) the fides
BF and AF are found. But, by cor. 36th 3. Eucl. AF
is equal to FE; therefore BE will be known. More¬
over, by 36th 3. Eucl. the reft angle under BA and BD
is equal to the fquare of BE. And thence, by 17th
6. Eucl. as AB : BE :: BE : BD. Therefore, fines
AB and BE are already given, BD will be found by 1 ithj
6. Eucl. or by the rule of three; ami fubtrafting BA,
there will remain AD the diameter of the earth fought.
SCHOLIUM.
Many other methods might be propofed for meafiJring
■ the diameter of the earth. The moft exaft is that pro¬
pofed by Mr Picart of the academy of fciences at Paris.
** According to Mr Picart, a degree of the meridian
“ at the latitude of 490 21', was 57,060 French toifes,
“ each of which contains fix feet of the fame meafure;
“ from which it follows, that, if the earth be an exaft
“ fphere, the circumference of a great circle of it will
“ be 123,249,600 Paris feet, and the femidiameter of
“ the earth 19,615,800 feet: but the French mathe-
“ maticians, who of late have examined Mr Picart’s o-
“ perations, afiure us, That the degree in that latitude
“ is 57>i83 toifes. They meafured a degree in Lap-
“ land, in the latitude of 66° 20, and found it of
“ 57>43S toifes. By comparing thefe degrees, as wejl
“ as by the obfervations on pendulums, and the theory
“ of gravity, it appears that the earth is an oblate fphe-
“ roid ; and (fuppofing thofe degrees to be accurately
“ meafured) the axis or diameter that palfes through the
“ poles will be to the diameter of the equator, as 177 to
“ 178, or the earth willbe 22miles higher at the equator
“ than at the poles. A degree has likewife been mea-
fured at the equator, and found to be confiderably left
than at the latitude of Paris ; which confirms the ob-
“ late figure of the earth. But an account of this laft
“ menfuration has not been publifhed as yet. If the
<c earth was of an uniform denfity from the furface to
“ the centre, then, according to the theory of gravity,
“ the meridian would be an exaft eliipfis, and the axis
“ would be to the diameter of the equator as 230 to
“ 231; and the difference of the femidiameter of the
“ equator and femiaxis about 17 miles.”
• 7 N X&
6^ G E O M
In wfial follows, a figure is often to be hid down on
paper, like to another figure given; and bee aide this
likenefs confifls in the equality of their angles, and in the
fides having the fame proportion to each other (hy the de¬
finitions of the 6th of ,Eucl ) we are now to Ihew what
methods pradtical geometricians ufe for making on paper
an angle equal to a given angle, and how they conflitute
the fides in the fame proportion. For this purpofe they
make ufe of a protradtor, (or, when it is wanting, a line
of chords), and of a line of equal parts.
P R O P O S I T I O N XX.
FiG.2.3.4.5. and 6. Ts deferibe the conji ruction and ufe
of the protractor, of the line of chords, and of the line ofe-
qual parts .--lihz protradlor is a fmall femicircle of brafs, or
fuchfolidmatter. The femicircumference is divided into 180
degrees. The ufe of it is, to draw angles on any plane,
as on paper, or to examine the extent of angles already
laid down. For this laft purpofe, let the fmall point in
the centre of the protradlor be placed above the angular
point, and let the fide AB coincide with one of thefides
that contain the angle propofed; the number of degrees
cut off by the other fide, computing on the protradlor
from B, will fhow the quantity of the angle that is to be
meafured.
But if an angle is to be made of a given quantity on a
given line, and at a given point of that line, let AB co¬
incide with the given line. and let the centre A of the
inflrument be applied to that point. Then let there be a
mark made, at the given number of degrees ; and a right
line drawn from that mark to the given point, will contli-
tute an angle with the given right line of the quantity
required ; as is manifeft.
This is the mofi: natural and eafy method, either for
the extent of an angle on paper, or for deferibing on pa¬
per an angle of a given quantity.
But when there is fcarcity of inflruments, or becaufe a
line of chords is more eafily carried about, (being de-
feribed on a ruler on which there are many other lines be-
fides), pradlical geometricians frequently make ufe of it.
It is made thus: let the quadrant of a circle be divided
into 90 degrees; (as in fig. 4.) . The line AB is-the
chord of 90 degrees; the chord of every arc of the qua¬
drant is transferred to this line AB, which is always
marked with the number of degrees in the correfponding
arc.
Note, that the chord of 60 degrees is equal to the ra¬
dius, by corol. 15. 4th Fuel. If now a given angle EDF
is to be meafured by the line of chords from the centre
D, with the didance DG, (the chord of 60 degrees,)
deferibe the arch GF; and let the points G and F be
marked where this arch interfedls the fides of the angle.
Then if the diftance GF, applied on the line of chords
from A to B, gives (for example) 25 degrees, this lhaM
be the meafure of the angle propofed.
When an obtufe angle is to be meafured with this line,
let its complement to a femicircle be meafured, and thence
it will be known. It were eafy to transfer to the diameter
of a circle the chords of all arches to the extent of a fe¬
micircle.; but fuch are rarely found marked upon rules.
But now, if an angle of a given quantity, fuppofe of
50 degrees, is to be. made at a given point M.of the right
Jiae KL (fig- 6.) From the centre M> and the, di>
E T R Y.
fiance MN, equal to the chord of 60 degrees, deferibe
the arc QN. Take off an arc NR, whofe chord is e-
qual to that of 50 degrees on the line of chords ; join
the points M and R ; and it is plain that MR (hall
contain an angle of 50 degrees with the line KL propo¬
fed.
But fometimes we cannot produce the fides, till they
be of the length of a chord,of 60 degrees on our fcale;
in which cafe it is fit to work by a circle of proportions
(that is a'fe&or), by which an arc may be made of a
given number of degrees to any radius.
The quantities of angles are likewife determined by
other lines ufually marked upon rules, as the lines of fines.,
tangents, and fecants ; but, as thefe methods are not fo
eafy or fo proper in this place,, we omit them.
To delineate figures fimilar or like to others given,
befides the equality of the angles, the fame proportitn
is to be preferved among the fides of the figure that is
to be delineated, as is among the fides of the figures gi¬
ven. For which purpofe, on the rules ufed by ar ills,
there is a line divided into equal pa'rts, more*or lefs in
number, and greater or leffer in quantity, according to
the pleafure of fire maker.
A foot is divided into inches; and an inch, by means
of tranfverfe lints, into 100 equal parts: fo that with
this fcale, any number of inches, below twelve,, with
any part of an inch, can be taken by the compaffes, pro¬
viding Inch part be greater than the one hundredth part,
of an inch. And this excflnefs is very necellary in de¬
lineating the plans of houfes, and in other cafes.
PROPOSITION XXI.
Fig. 7. To lay down on paper, by the protractor or
line of chords, and line of equal parts, a right-lined
figure like to one given, providing the angles and fides of
the figure given be known by ohfervation er menfuration.
—For example, fuppofe that it is known that in a qua¬
drangular figure, one fide is of 235: feet, that the angle
contained by it and the fecond fide is of 84°, the fecond
fide of 288 feet,, the angle contained by it and the third
fide of 72°, and that the third fide is 294 feet. Thefe
things being given, a figure is to be drawn on paper like
to this quadrangular figure. On your paper, at a proper
point A, let a right line be drawn, upon which take 235
equal parts, as AB. The part reprefenting a foot is ta¬
ken greater or leffer, according as you would have your
figure greater or lefs. In the adjoining figure, the 100th
part of an inch is taken for a foot. And accordingly an
inch.divided into 100 parts, and annexed to the figure,
is called a fcale of 100 feet. Let there be made at the
point B (by the preceding prop.) an angle ABC of 85°,
and let BC be taken of 288 parts like to the former.
Then let the angle BCD be made of 720, and the fide
CD of 294 equal parts.. Then let the fide AD be drawn-;
and it will compleat the figure like to the figure given.
The meafures of the angle A and D can be known by the
protrailororlineof chords, and the fide AD by. the line of
equal parts; which will exadlly anfwer-to the correfpond¬
ing angles and to the fide of the primary .figure.
After the very fame manner, from the fides and an¬
gles given, which bound any right-lined figure, a, figuse
like to it may be drawn, and the reft-of .-its fides .and an¬
gles be known. -
€ 0 R 0 l-
G E O M
C a R.OLLJR Y.
Hence any trigonometrical problem in nght-iined tri¬
angles, may be refolved by delineating the triangle from
'tvhat is given concerning t, as in this propofition. 1 he
tinknown fides are examined by a line of equal parts, and
the angles by a protraftor or line of chords.
PROPOSI TION XXII.
The diameter of a circle being given, to find its cir¬
cumference nearly.—The periphery of any polygon in-
fcribed,*in' the circle is lefs than the circumference, and
the periphery of any polygon defcribed about a circle is
greater than the circumference. Whence Archimedes
firft difcovered that tlje diameter was in proportion to the
circumference, as 7 to 22 nearly; which ferves for com¬
mon nfe. But the moderns have computed the proporti¬
on of the diameter to the circumference to greater exadt-
nefs. Suppofing the diameter too, the periphery will be
more'than 314, but lefs than 315. The. diameter is
more nearly to the circumference, as 113 to 355. But
Ludolphus van Cuelen exceeded the labours of all ; for
by immenfe ftudy he found, that, fuppofmg the diameter
100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
the periphery will be lefs than
314,159,265,358,979,323.846,264,338,327,951,
but greater than
314,159,265,358,979,323,846,264,338,327,950;
whence it will be eafy, any part of the circumference be¬
ing given •in degrees and minutes, to affign it in parts of
the diameter.
Of Surveying arid Meafuring of Land.
Hitherto we have treated of the- meafunng of an¬
gles and Tides, whence it is abundantly eafy to lay down
afield, a plane, or an entire country : for to this nothing-
is requifite but the protradlion of triangles, and of other
plain figures, after having meafured. their Tides and an¬
gles. But as this is efleemed an important part of prac-.
tical geometry, we dial! fu'join here an account of it
with ail podible brevity; fuggefting withal, that a furvey-
or will-amp rove hirnfelf nwrc by mne day's practice, than
by a great deal of reading.
PROPOSITION XXIII.
To explain nnhat furveying is, and nvkat infruments
Surveyors ufe.—Y\r[\, it is necedary that the ftirveyor
view the field that is tabe meafuted, and inveftigate its
tides and angles, by means of an iron chain (having a par¬
ticular mark at each foot of length, or at any number
of feet, as may be mod convenient for reducing lines or
furfaces to the received meafures), and the graphometer
defcribed above. Secondly, It is necedary to delineate
the field in piano, or to form a map of it ; that is, to
lay down on paper a figure fimilar to the field; which is
done by the protractor (or line of chords) and of the line
of equal parts. Thirdly, It is neceffary to find out the
area of the field fo furveyed and reprefented by a map.
Of this lad we are to treat below.
The fides and angles of fmall fields are furveyed by the
help of a plain table ; which is generally of an oblong
redlangular figure, and Tupported" by a fulcrum, fo as to
turn, every way by means of a b..U fb-ket, It has -a
E T R Y. dp 9
moveable frame, which furrounds the board, and ferves
to keep a clean paper put on the board clofe and tight to
it. The fides of the frame facing the paper are divided
into equal parts every way. The board hath befides a-
box with a magnetic needle, and moreover a large index
with two fights. On the edge of the frame of the board
are marked degrees and minutes, fo as to fupply the room
of a graphometer.
PROPOSITION XXIV.
Fig. 8. To delineate a field by the help of a plain-
table, from one Jlation •whence all its angles may be fieen,
and their dijlances meafured by a chain.—Let the field
that is to be laid down be ABODE. At any convenient
place F, let the plain-table be ere&ed ; cover it with clean
paper, in which Jet fome point near the middle reprefent
the ftation. Then applying at this place the index with
the fights, direct it fo as that through the fights fome
maikmay be feen at one of the angles, fuppefe A; and
from the point F, reprefenting the ftation, draw a faint
right line along the fide of the index : then, by the help
of the chain, let FA the diftance of the ftation from the
forefaid angle be meafured. Then taking what part you
think convenient for a foot or pace from the line of equal
parts, fet off on the faint line the parts correfponding to
the line FA that was meafured ; and let there be a mark
made reprefenting the angle of the field A. Keeping the
table immoveable, the fame is to be done with the reft
of the angles ; then right lines joining thofe marks fhalT
include a figure like to the field, as is evident from 5. 6V
Euci.
COROLLARY.
The fame thing is done in like manner by the grapho—
meter : for having obferved in each of the triangles, AFB,
BFC, CFD, <bc. the angle at the ftation F, and having
meafured the lines from the ftation to the angles of the
field, let fimhar triangles be protracted on paper (by the
21. prop. 6f this) having their common vertex in the
point of ftation. All the lines, excepting thofe which
reprefent the fides of. the field-, are to be drawn faint or .
obfeure.
Note 1. When a furveyor wants to lay down a field,
let him place diftinclly in a regifter all the obfervations of
the angles, and the meafures of the fick-s, until, at time
and place convenient, he draw out the .figure on paper.
Notea The obfervations made by the help of the
graphometer are to be examined: for all the angles about
the point F ought to be equal to four right ones, (by con,
2. art. 30. of part I.).
P R () P O S I T I O N XXV.
Fig 9. To lay down a field by means of two Jlationt*
from each: of which all the angles can be feen, by meafu¬
ring only the diflance of the fat ions—Let the in'fti u-
ment be placed at the ftation F : and having chofen a
point reprefenting it upon the p^per which is laid upon
the plain table, let the index be.applied at tin's point, fo
as to be moveable about it. Then Jet it. be drreded fuc-
ceffively to the feveral angles of the field: and when any
angle is feen through the fights, draw an obfeure line a-
long the fide of the index. Let the index, with the
fights, be directed after the fame manner to the ftation
G: on the.cbfcure line drawn along its fide, pointing. to
A,
T^o G E O M
A, fet off from tlie fcale of equal parts a line correfpond-
ing to the meafuted dUlance of the Nations, and this will
determine the point G. Then remove the inftrument to
■ the flation G, and applying the index to the line repre-
i’enting the didance of the itations, place the inftrumenl
fo that the firff ftation may be feen through the fights.
Thep the inffrument remaining immoveable, let the index
be applied at the point reprefenting the fecond Ration G,
and be fucceffively directed by means of hs fights, to all
the angles of the field, drawing, (as before) obfcure lines:
and the interfediion of the two obfcure lines that were
drawn to the fame angle from the two Rations will al¬
ways reprefent that angle on the plan. Care muR be ta¬
ken that thofelines be not miRaken for one another. Lines
joining thofe interfedfions will form a figure on the paper
like to the field.
SCHOLIUM.
' It will not be difficult to dothe fame by the graphoroeter,
if-you keep a diRindt account of your obfervations of the
angles made by the line joining the Rations., and the lines
drawn from the Rations to the refpediive angles of the
field. And this is the moR common manner of laying
down whole countries. The tops of two mountains are
taken for two Rations, and their diRance is either mea-
fured by fome of the methods mentioned above, or is ta¬
ken according to common repute. The fights are fuc-
ceflively diredted towards cities, churches, villages, forts,
lakes, turnings of rivers, woods, &c.
Note, The diflance of the Rations ought to be great
enough, with refpedt to the field that is to be meafured ; _
fuch ought to be chofen as are not in a line with any
angle of the field. And care ought to be taken like-
wife that the angles, for example, FAG, FDG, &c.
be neither very acute, nor veryobtufe. Such angles are
to be avoided as much as poffible; and this admonition is
found veryufeful in pradlice.
PROPOSITION XXVI.
Fig. io. To lay donxin any field, however irre¬
gular its figure may may be, by the help of the gra-
phometer.—Let ABCEDHG be fuch a field. Let its
angles (in going round it) be obferved with a graphome-
ter (by the 12. of this) and noted down; let its fides be
meafured with a chain; and (by what was faid on the
21. of this) let a figure like to the given field be protradl-
ed on paper. If any mountain is in the circumference,
the horizontal line hid under it is to be taken for a fide,
which may be found by two or three obfervations accord¬
ing to fome of the methods defcribed above ; and its place
on the map is to be diRinguiflied by a ftiade, that it may
be known a mountain is there.
If not only the circumference of the field is to be laid
down on the plan, but alfo its contents, as villages, gar¬
dens, churches, public roads, we muR proceed in this
manner- -n 1 . • .
Let there be (for example) a church F, to be laid
down in the plan. Let the angles ABF BAF be obfer¬
ved and protradfed on paper in their proper places, the
interfedtion of the two fides BF and AF will give the
place of the church on the paper: Or, more exactly,
the lines BF AF being meafured, let circles be defen¬
ded.from the centres B and A, with parts from the
E T ,R Y.
fcale correfponding to the difiances BF and AF, and the
place of the church will be at their interfedioa.
Note 1. While the angles obferved by the graphometer
.-are taken down, you muft be careful to difiinguiih the ex¬
ternal angles, as E and G, that they may be rightly pro-
traded afterwards on paper.
•Note 2 Our obfervations of the angles may be exa¬
mined by computing if all the internal angles make twice
as many right angles, four exempted, as there are fides
of the figure: (for this is demonftrated by 32. 1. Eucl.)
But in place of any external angle DEC, its complement
to a circle is 30 be taken.
PROPOSITION XXVIL
Fig. 11. To lay down a plain field without inf ru¬
men Is.—If a fmaii field is to be meafured, and a map of
it to be made, and you are not provided with inftruments;
let it be fuppofed to be divided into triangles, by right¬
lines, as in the figure; and after meafuring the three
fides of any of the triangles, for example of ABC, let
its fides be laid down from a convenient fcale on paper,
(by the 22. of this.) Again, let the other two fides BD
CD of the triangle CBD be meafured and protraded on
the paper by the fame fcale as before. In the fame man¬
ner proceed with the reR of the triangles of which the
field is compofed, and the map of the field will be per-
feded ; for the three fides of a triangle determine the
triangle; whence each triangle on the paper is fimiiar to
its correfpondent triangle in the field, and is fimilarly fi-
tuated ; confequently the whole figure is like to the
whole field.
SCHOLIUM.
If the field be fmall, and all its angles may be feen
from one Ration, it may be very well laid down by the
plain-table, (by the 24. of thisj. If the field be larger,
and have the requifite conditions, and great exadnefs is
not expeded, it likewife may be plotted by means of the
plain-table, or by the graphometer, (according to the 25.
of this ; but in fields that are irregular and mountainous,
when an exad map is required, we are to make ufe of
the graphometer, (as in the 26. of this,) but rarely of
the plain-table.
Having protraded the bounding lines, the particular
parts contained within them may belaid down by the proper
operations for this purpofe, (delivered in the 26th pro~
pofition; and the method defcribed in the 27th propofi-
tion may be fometimes of fervice;) for we may truR
more to the meafuring of fides, than to the obferving of
angles. We are not to compute four-fided and many
fided figures till they are refolved into triangles: for the
fides do not determine thofe figures.
In the laying down of cities, or, the like, we may
make ufe of any of the methods defcribed above that may
be moR convenient.
The map being finiffied, it is transferred on clean pa¬
per, by putting the firR fketch abovejt, and marking the
angles by the point of a fmall needle. Thefe points.be¬
ing joined by right lines, and the whole illuminated by
colours proper to each part, and the figure of the mari¬
ners compafs being added to diflingukh the north and
fouth, with a fcale on the margin, the tnap or plan will
be finiihed and neat.
' W.£
GEO M I
We 'have thus briefly and plainly treated of furVeying,
and fliown by what inftruments it is performed ; having
^avoided thoie methods which depend on the magnetic
•needle, not only becaufe its diredlion may vary in different
•places of a field (the contrary of this at leaft doth not ap¬
pear,) but becaule the quantity of an angle obferved by it
cannot be exactly known ; for an error of two or three
degrees can fcarcely be avoided in taking angles by it.
As for the remaining part of furveying, whereby the
•area of a field already laid down on paper is found in
acres, roods, or any other fuperficial meafures; this we
leave to the following feftion, which treats of the men-
furation of furfaces.
“ Belides the inftruments defcribed above, a furveyor
“ ought to be provided with an off-fet (tiff equal in
“ length to ten links of tlie chain, and , divided into ten
“ equal parts. He ought likewife to have ten arrows or
“ fmall ftraight (licks neaf two feet long, (hod with iron
“ ferrils. When the chain is firft opened, it ought to be
“ examined by the off-fet ftaff. In meafuring any line,
the leader of the chain is to have the ten arrows at firil
“ fetting out. When the chain is ftretched in the line,
“ and the near end touches the place from which you mea-
“ fure, the leader (licks one of the ten arrows in the
“ ground, at the far end of the chain. Then the leader
“ leaving the arrow, proceeds with the chain another
“ length; and the chain being ftretched in the line, fo
“ that the near end touches the fird arrow, the leader
<l (licks down another arrow at his end of the chain. The
“ line is preferred ftraight, if the arrows be always fet
“ fo as to be in a right line with the place you meafure
“ from, and that to which you are going. In this man-
ner they proceed till the leader have no more arrows.
At the eleventh chain, the arrows are to be carried to
him again, and he is to (lick one of them into the
•“ ground, at the end of the chain. And the fame is to
“ be done at the 21. 31/41. chains, if there are
“ fo many in a right line to be meafured. In this man-
“ ner you can hardly commit an error in numbering the
“ chains, unlefs often chains at once.
“ The off-fet ftaff ferves for meafuring readily the di-
“ (lances of any things proper to be reprefented in your
“ plan, from the (lation-line while you go along. Thele
“ diftances ought to he entered into your field-book,
•“ with the correfponding diftances from the lad (lation,
“ and proper remarks, that you may be enabled to plot
them juftly, and be in no danger of miftaking one for
“ another when you extend your plan. The field-book
“ may be conveniently divided into five columns. In
the middle column the angles at the feveral ftations
* “ taken by the theodolite are to be entered, with di-
“ (lances'from the ftations. The diftances taken by the
off-fet ftaff, on either fide of the (lation-line, are to be
■“ entered into columns on either fide of the middle ct>-
- “ lumn, according to their pofition with refpedt to that
line. The names and chara&ers of the obje&s, with
proper remarks, may be entered in columns on either
“ iide of thefe laft.
- “ Becaufe, in the place of the graphometer defcribed
•“ by our author, furveyors now make ufe of the theodo-
“ lite, we (hall fubjoin a defcription of Mr .Siffon’s lateft
Vol. II. No. jj. .2
i: t n y. joi
“ improved theodolite from Mr Gardner’s pra&ical fur-
“ veying improved. See a figure of it in Plate XCVI.
“ In this inftrument, the three ftaffs, by brafs ferrils
“ at top, fcrew into bell-metal joints, that are moveable
“ between brafs pillars, fixed in a ftrongbrals plate ; in
N“ which, round the centre, is fixed a Pocket with a ball mcve-
“ able in it, and upon which the four fcrews prefs, that fet
“ the limb horizontal: Next above is another fuch plate,
“ through which the faid ferews pafs, and on which,
“ round the centre, is .fixed a fruftum of a cone of bell-
“ metal, whofe axis (being conneftcd with the centre of
the bell) is always perpendicular to the limb, by means
“ of a.conical brafr ferril fitted to it, whereon is fixed
“ the compafs-box ; and on it the limb, which is a ftrong
“ bell-metal ring, whereon are moveable three brafs in-
“ dexes; in whofe plate are fixed four brafs pillars,
“ that, joining at top, hold the centre pin of the bell-
“ metal double fextant, whofe double index is fixed on
the centre of the fame plate: Within the double fex-
“ tant is fixed the fpirit-level, and over it the telefcope. -
“ The compafs box is graved with two diamonds for
“ north and fquth, and with 20 degrees on both (ides
“ of each, that the needle may be fet to the variation,
“ and its error alfo known.
“ The limb has two fleurs de luce agairrftthe diamonds
“ in the box, inftead of 180 each ; and is curioufly di-
“ vided into whole degrees, and numbered to the left
“ hand at every ten to twice 180, having'three indexes
“ diftant 120, (with Nonius’s divifions on each for the
“ decimals of a degree), that are moved by a pinion fix-
“ ed below one of them, without moving the limb ; and
“ in another is a fcrew and fpring under, to fix it to any
“ part of the limb. It has alfo divifions nurnbered, for
“ taking the quarter girt in inches of round timber at the
“ middle height, when (landing ten feet horizontally
“ diftant from its centre ; which at 20 mud be doubled,
“ and at 30 tripled ; to which a ftrorter index is ufed,
“ having Nonius’s divifions for the decimals of an inch ;
“ but an abatement mud be made for the bark, if not.ta-
“ ken off.
“ The double fextant is divided on one fide from un-
“ der its centre (when the fpirit-tube and telefcope are
“ level) to above 60 degrees each way, and numbered at
“ 10, 20, &c. and the double index (through which it
“ is moveable) (hews on the fame fide the degree and de-
“ cimal of any altitude or depreffion to that extent
“ by Nonius’s divifions: On the other fide are divifions
“ numbered, for taking the upright height of timber,
“ in feet, when diftant 10 feet ; which at 20 muff be
“ doubled, and at 30 tripled ; and alfo the quantities for
“ reducing hypothenufal lines to liorizontal It is
“ moveable by a pinion fixed in the double index.
“ The telefcope is a little (herter than the diameter
“ of the limb, that a fall may not hurt it; yet it will
“ magnify as much, and (hew a diftant object as perfedl,
“ as mod of triple its length. In its focus are very fine
crofs wires, whofe interfe&ion is in the plane of the
“ double fextant; and this was a whole circle, and turn-
“ ed in a lathe to a true plane, and is fixed at right angles
“ to the limb ; fo that, whenever the limb is fet'hor’zb’n-
“ tal, (which is. .readily done by making the-fpirit-tube
702 G E O M
“ level over two fcrews, and the like over the other two),
“ the double fextant and telefcope are moveable in a ver-
“ tical plane; and then every angle taken on the limb
M (though the telefcope be never fo much elevated or
“ deprefled) will be an angle in the plane of the horizon.
“ And this is abfolutely neceflary in plotting a horizontal
w plane.
“ If the lands to be plotted are hilly, and not in any
“ one plane, the lines meafured cannot be truly laid down
“ on paper, without being reduced to one plance, which
“ muft be the horizontal, becaufe angles are taken in that
“ plane.—
“ In viewing your objedts, if they have much altitude
“ ordepreffion, either write down the degree and decimal
“ fhewn on the double fextant, or the Jinks fltewn on the
“ back fide ; which laft fubtrafted from every chain in
“ the ftation-line, leaves the length in the horizontal
“plane. But if the degree is taken, thefollowing table
“ will Ihew the quantity.
y? table of the links to be fubt rafted out of every chain
in hypothenufal lines of feveral degrees alt itude, or
depreflion, for reducing them to horizontal.
Degrees. Links. \ Degrees. Links. Degrees. Links.
4>oj  4 I M.07   3 23,074  8
5.73  i6>26 —^ 4 24,495  9
7,02  i | 18,195  5 25,84  10
8,11  1 I 19,95   6 27,13  11
11,48  2 1 21,565  7 28,36  12
“ Let the firft ftation line really meafure 1107 links,
“ and the angle of altitude or depreffion be 190, 95 ;
“ looking in the table you will find againd 190, 9.5, is 6
“ links. Now 6 times 11 is 66 ; whicn fubtrafted from
“ 1107, leaves 1041, the true length to be laid down
“ in the plan.
“ It is ufeful in furveying, to take the angles, which
“ the bounding lines form, with the magnetic needle,
“ in order to check the angles of the figure, and to plot
“ them conveniently afterwards.”
Of the Surfaces of Bodies.
The fmallelbfuperficial meafure with us is a fquare
inch ; 144 of which make a fquare foot. Wrights make
ufe of thefe in the meafuring of deals and planks; but
the fquare foot which the glaziers ufe in meafuring of
glafs, confifts only of 64 fquare inches. The other
meafures are, firft, the ell fquare ; fecondly, the fall,
containing 36 fquare ells; thirdly, the rood, containing
40 falls ; fourthly, the acre, containing 4 roods. Slaters,
mafons, and paviours, ufe the ell fquare and the fall; fur-
veyors of land ufe the fquare ell, the fall, the rood, and
the acre.
The fuperficial meafures of the Englifli are, firft, the
fquare foot; fecondly, the fquare yard, containing 9
fquare feet, for their yard contains only 3 feet; thirdly,
the potei containing 30^ fquare yards; fourthly, the
rood, containing 40 poles; fifthly, the acre,, containing
E T R Y.
4 roods. AndTtence it is eafy to reduce cur furperficial
meafures to the Englifti, or theirs to ours.
“ In order to find the content of a field, it is moft con-
“ venient to meafure the lines by the chains defcribed a-
“ bove, p. 693. that of 22 yards for computing the Eng-
“ lifh acres, and that of 24 Scots ells for the acres'of
“ Scotland. The chain is divided into 100 links, and the
“ fquare of the chain is 10,000 fquare links; ten fquares
“ of the chain, or 100,000 fquare links, give an acre.
“ Therefore, if the area be expreffed by fquare links,
“ divide by 100,000, or cut off five decimal places, and
“ the quotient lhall give the area in acres and decimals
“ of an acre. Write the entire acres apart; but multi-
“ ply the decimals of an acre by 4, and the product lhall
“ give the remainder of the area in roods and decimals
“ of a rood. Let the entire roods be noted apart after
“ the acres; then multiply the decimals of a rood by.40,
“ and the produd lhall give the remainder of the area in
“ falls or poles. Let the entire falls or poles be then
“ writ after the roods, and multiply the decimals of a
“ fall by 36, if the area is required in the meafures of
“ Scotland; but multiply the decimals of a pole by 30^,
“ if the area is required in the meafures of England, and
“ the product (hall give the remainder of the area in
“ fquare ells in the former cafe, but in fquare yards in
“ the latter. If, in the former cafe, you would reduce
“ the decimals of the fquare ell to fquare feet, multiply
“ them by 9.50694 ; but, in the latter cafe, the decimals
“ of the Enghlh fquare yard are reduce to fquare feet,
“ by multiplying them by 9.
“ Suppofe, for example, that the area appears to con-
“ tain 12.65842 fquare links of the chain of 24 ells';
“ and that this area is to be exprelfed in acres, roods,
“ falls, &c. of the meafures of Scotland. Divide the
“ fquare links by 100,000, and the quotient 12.65842
“ (hows the area to contain 12 acres °f an acre.
“ Multiply the decimal part by 4, and the produft
“ 2*63368 gives the remainder in roods and decimals of
“ a rood. Thofe decimals of the rood being multipled
“ by 40, the product gives 25.3472 falls. Multiply the
“ decimals of the fall by 36, and the product gives
“ 12.4992 fquare ells. The decimals of the fquare ell
“ multiplied by 9.50994 give 4.7458 fquare feet.
“ Therefore the area propofed amounts to 12 acres, 2
“ roods, 25 falls, 12 fquare ells, and ^toVs8^ fquare
“ feet.
“ But if the area contains the fame number of fquare
“ links of Gunter’s chain, and is to be exprefled by
“ Englifh meafures, the acres and roods are computed in
“ the fame manner as in the former cafe. The poles are
“ compiled as the falls. But the decimals of the pole,
“ viz. are to be multiplied by 30^ (or 30.25).
“ and the produft gives io;5028 fquare yards. Thede-
cimals of the fquare yard, multiplied by 9, give 4.5252
“ fquare feet; therefore, in this cafe, the area is in
“ Englifh meafure 12 acres, 2 roods, 25 poles, lofquare
“ yards, and fquare feet.
“ The Scots acre is to the Englifli acre, by ftatute,
“ as 100,000 to 78,694, if we have regard to the diffe-
“ rence betwixt the Scots and Englifh foot above men-
“ tioned. But it is cuftomary in fome parts of England
“ to
G E O M
“ to tiare 18, 21 fee. feet to a pole, and 160 fnch poles
“ to an acre ; whereas, by the llatute, i6-t feet make-a
“ pole. In fuch cafes the acre is greater in the dupli-
“ cate ratio of the number of feet to a pole.
“ They who meafure land in Scotland by an ell of 37
“ Englifn inches, make the acre lefs than the true Scots
“ acre by 593-*%- fquare Engliih feet, or Ly about —y of
“ the acre.
“ An hufband-land contains 6 acres of fock and fythe-
“ land, that is, of land that may be tilled with a plough,
“ and mown with a fythe ; t 3-acres of arable land make
“ an oxgang or oxengate ; four oxengate make a pound-
“ land of old extent (by a decree of the Exchequer,
*• March 11. 158^), and is called librata terra. A
“ forty-lliilling land of old extent contains eight oxgang,
“ or 104 acres.
“ Thearpent, about Paris, contains 32400 fquare Pa-
“ ris feet, and is equal to 2^- Scots roods, or Eng-
“ lilh roods.
“ The aftui quadratics, according to Varro, Collu-
“ mella, isc. was a fquare of 120 Roman feet. The
“ jugerum was the double of this. It is to the Scots a-
“ ere as io-.ooo to 20,456, and to the Englifh acre as
“ 10,000 to 16,097. It was divided (Lke the as) into
“12 uncia, and the uncia into 24 fcrupula."—This,
with the three preceding paragraphs, are taken from an
ingenious manufeript, written by Sir Robert Stewart
profeffor of natural philofophy. The greated part of
the table in p. 693. tvas taken from it likewile.
PROPOSITION XXVIII.
Fig. 12. Tu find out the area of a rectangular paral¬
lelogram ABCD—Let the fide AB, for example, Be
5 feet long, and BC (which conflitutes with BA a right
angle at B) be 17 feet. Let 17 be multiplied by 5, and
the produfl 85 will be the number of fquare feet in the area
of the figure ABCD. But if the parallelogram propofed
is not reftangular as BEFC, its bafe BC multiplied into
its perpendicular height AB (not into its fide BE) will
give its area. This is evident from art. 68. of part 1.
PROPOSITION XXIX.
Fig. 13. To find the area of a given triangle.—-Let
the triangle BAG be given, whofe bafe BC is luppofed 9
feet long : let the perpendicular AD be drawn from the
angle A oppofite to the bafe, and let us fuppofe AD to
be four feet. Let the half of the perpendicular be mul¬
tiplied into the bafe, or the half of the bafe into the per¬
pendicular, or take the half of the produdt of the whole
bale into the perpendicular, the product gives 18 fquare
feet for the area of the given triangle.
But if only the lides are given, the perpendicular is
found either by protrafting the triangle, ..or by 12th and
13th 2. Eucl. or by trigonometry. But how the area of
a triangle may may be found from the givens fides only,
fhall be fhewn in-the 31ft prop.
PROPOSITION XXX
Fig. 14. To find the area of any rectilineal figure.—
If the figure be irregular, let it be refolved into triangles;
and drawing perpendiculars to the bafes in each of them,
let the area of each triangle be found by the preceding
prop, and the funa of.thefe areas will give the area of the
figure,..
E T R Y. 703
SCHOLIUM 1.
In meafuring boards, planks, and glafs, their fides are
to be meafured by a foot-rule divided into 100 equal parts;
and after multiplying the fides, the decimal fra&ions are
eafily reduced to Idler denominations. The menfuration
of thefe is eafy, when they are reflangular parallelo¬
grams.
SCHOLIUM 3.
If a field is to be meafured, let it firft be plotted on
paper, by feme of the methods above deferibed, and let
the figure folaid down be divided into, triangles, as was
Ihown in the preceding propofition.
The bafe of any triangle, or the perpendicular upon
the bafe, or the diftance of any two points of the field, is
meafured by- applying it to the fcale according to which
the map is drawn.
SCHOLIUM 3.
But if the field given be not in a horizontal plane, but
uneven and mountainous, the fcale gives the horizontal
line between any two points, but not their diftance mea¬
fured on the uneven furface of the field. And indeed it
would appear, that the horizontal plane is to be account¬
ed the area of an uneven and hilly country. For if fuch
ground is laid out for building on, or for planting with
trees, or bearing corn, fince thefe (land perpendicular to
the horizon, it is plain, that a mountainous country can¬
not be confidered as of greater extent for thofe ufes than
the horizontal plane ; nay, perhaps, for ncurifhiug of
plants, the horizontal plane may be preferable.
If, however, the area of a figure, as it lies regularly on
the furface of the earth, is to be meafured, this may be
eafily done by refolving it into triangles as it lies. The
fum of their areas will be the area fought; which ex¬
ceeds the area of the horizontal figure more or lefs, ac¬
cording as the field is more or lefs uneven.
PROPOSITION XXXI.
Fig. 13. Thefides of a triangle being given, tofind the a-
rea, nuithiut finding the perpendicular.--LtfiW the fides of
the triangle ,be coliedted into one fum ; from the half of
which let the fides be feparately fubtracled, that three
differences may be found betwixt the forefaid half fum
and each fide; then let thefe three differences and th®
half fum be multiplied into one another, and the fquare
root of the product will give the area of the triangle. For
example, let the fides be 10, 17; 21 ; the half of their
fum is 24 ; the three differences betwixt this half fum
and the three fides, are 14, 7, and 3. The firft being
multiplied by the fecond, and their produdt by the third,
we have 294 for the produdt of the differences ; which
multiplied, by the forefaid half fum 24, gives 7056; the
fquare root of which 84 is the area of the triangle. The
demonllration of this, for the hike of brevity, we omit.
It is to be found in feveral treatilcs, particularly in Cla-
vius's Pradiical Geometry.
P R O P O S I T I O N XXXII.
Fig. 15. . The area of He ordinate figure AKEYGH.
is equal to the produCt -of the half circumference
of the polygon, multiplied into the perpendicular
drawn from the centre of the circumfcribed circle to the
fde of the polygon the ordinate figure can be refol-
vedinto as many equal triangles, as there are fides of the
figure;
?04 C E O M
figure ; and fince eaeh triangle is equal to the produit of
half the bafe into the perpendicular, it is evident that the
fum of all the triangles-together, that is the polygon, is
equal to the produd of half the funa of the bafes (that
is the half of the circumference of the polygon) into the
, common perpendicular height of the triangles drawn from
the centre C to one of the fides; for example, to AB.
PROPOSITION XXXIII.
Fig. 16. The area of a circle is found by multiply¬
ing the half of the periphery into the radius,’ or the half
of .the radius into the periphery —For a circle is not dif¬
ferent from an ordinate or regular polygon of an infinite
number of .fides, .and the common height of the triangles
into which the polygon or circle may be fuppofed to be
divided is the radius of the circle.
Were it worth while, it were eafy to demonflrate ac¬
curately this propofition, by means of the infcribed and
circumfcribed figures, as is done in the 5th prop, of the
treatife of Archimedes concerning the dimenfions of the
circle.
C O R 0 L L A R T.
Hencealfoit appears, that the area of the fe£!or ABCD
is produced by multiplying the half of the arc into the
- radius, and likewife that the area of .the fegment of the
circle ADC is found by fubtrafting from the area of the
feffor the area of the triangle ABC.
PROPOSITION XXXIV.
Fig. 17. The circle is to the fquare of the diameter,
as 11 to 14 nearly.—For if the diameter AB be fuppo¬
fed to be 7, the circumference AHBK will be almolt 22
fby the 22d prop, of this part), and the area of the
fquare DC will be 49; and, by the preceding prop, the
area of the circle will be 38^ : therefore the fquare DC
will be to the infcribed circle as 49 to 38-^, or as 98 to
77, that is, as 14 to 11. E. D.
If greater exadlnefs is required, you may proceed to
any degree of accuracy: for the fquare DC is to the in¬
fcribed circle, as 1 to 1— f + -f — + -£ —xV + tt>
Of. in infinitum.
“ This feries will be of no fervice for computing the
“ area of the circle accurately, without lome further ar-
“ tifice, becaufe it converges at too flow a rate. The
“ area of the circle will be found exa&ly enough for
“ molt purpofes, by multiplying the fquare of the dia-
“ meter by 7854, and dividing by 10,000, Or cutting
“ off four decimal places from the produft ; for the area
“ of the circle is to the circumfcribed fquare nearly as
“ 7854 to 10,000.”
PROPOSITION XXXV.
Fig. 18. To find the area of a given ellipfe—Let
ABCD be an ellipfe, whole greater diameter is BD, and
theleffer AC, bifefting the greater perpendicularly in E.
Let a.mean proportional HF be found (by 13th 6 Eucl.)
between AC and BD, and (by the. 33d of this) find
the area of the circle defcribed on the diameter HF.
This area is equal to the area of the ellipfe ABCD.
For becaufe, as BD to AC, fo the fquare of BD to the
fquare of HF, (by 2. cor. 20th 6. Eucl.): but (by the
2d 12. Eucl.) as the fquare of BD to the fquare of HF,
fo is the circle of the diameter BD to the circle of the
diameter HF: therefore as BD to AC, fo is the circle of
E T Pi Y.
the diameter BD to the circle of the diameter HF. And
(by the 5th prop, of Archimedes of fpheroid*) as the
greater diameter BD to the leffer AC, fo is the circle of
the diameter BD to the ellipfe ABCD. Confequently
(by the nth 5. Eucl.) the circle of the diameter BD
will have the lame proportion to the circle of the diame¬
ter HF, and to the ellipfe ABCD. Therefore, (by 9th
5. Eucl.) the area of the circle of the diameter HF will
be equal to the area of the ellipfe ABCD. 9. E. D.
SCHOLIUM.
• From this and the two preceding propolitions, a method is
derived of finding the area of an ellipfe. There are two ways:
1 ft. Say, as one is to the leffer diameter, fo is the greater dia¬
meter to a fourth number, (which is found by the rule of
three.) Then again fay, as 14 to 11, fo is the 4th number .
found to the area fought. Bu t the fccond way is fhorter. Mul-
tiply the leffer diameter into the greater, and the produdt
by 11 ; then diyicfe the whole produd by 14, and the
quotient will be the area fought of the ellipfe. For ex¬
ample, Let the greater diameter be 10, and the leffer 7 ;
by multiplying 10 by 7, the produd is 70; and multi¬
plying that by 11, it is 770 ; and dividing 770 by 14, the
quotient will be 55, which isTEe area of the ellipfe
fought.
, “ The area of the ellipfe will be found more accurate-
ly, by multiplying the produd of the two diameters
“ by 7854-’’
We lhall add no more about other plain furfaces, whe¬
ther redilinear or curvilinear, which feldom occur in
pradice; but lhall fubjoin fome propofitions about mea-
furingthe fbrfaces of folids.
PROPO'SITION XXXVI.
To meafure the furface of any prifm.—By the 14th
definition of the nth Eucl. a prifm is contained by planes,
of which two oppofite fides (commonly called the bafes)
are plain redilineal figures ; which are either regular and
ordinate, and meafured by prop. 32. of this ; or however
irregular, apd then they are meafured by the 38th prop.
The other fides are parallelograms, which are meafured
by prop. 28th; and the whole fuperficies of the prifm
confifts of the fum of thofe taken altogether.
PROPOSITION XXXVII.
To meafure the fuperficies of ahy pyramid.—Since its
bafis is a redilinear figure, and the reft of the planes ter,
minating in the top of the pyramid are triangles; thefe
meafured feparately, and added together, give the fur-
face of the pyramid required.
PROPOSITION XXXVIII.
To meafure the fuperficies of any regular body.—,
Thefe bodies are called regular, which are bounded by
equilateral and equiangular figures/ The fuperficies of
the tetraedron confifts of four equal and equiangular tri¬
angles ; the fuperficies of the-hexaedrOn, or cube, of fix
equal fquares ; an odedron, of eight equal equilateral
triangles; a dodecaedron, of twelve equal and ordinate
pentagons ; and the fuperficies of an icofiasdron, of
twenty equal and equilateral triangles. Therefore it
will be eafy to meafure thefe furfaces from what has been
already ftiown.
In the fame manner we,may meafure the fuperficies of
a folid contained by any planes.
PRO-
G E O M
PROPOSITION XXXIX.
Fig. 19. To msafure^the fuperjidcs of a cylinder.*—Be-
caufe a cylinder differsvery little from a prifm, whole oppofite
planes (or bafes) are ordinate figures of an infinite num¬
ber of lides, it appears that the fuperficies of a cylinder,
without the bafes, is equal to an infinite number of paralle¬
lograms ; the common altitude of all which is the fame with
the height of the cylinder, and the bafes of them all dif¬
fer very little from the periphery of the circle which is
the bafe of the cylinder. Therefore this periphery mul¬
tiplied into the common height, gives the fuperficies of
the cylinder, excluding the bafes; which are to be mea-
fured feparately by the help of the 33d prop.
This propofitiqn concerning the meafure of .the furface
of the cylinder (excluding its bafis) is evident from this,
that when it is conceived to be fpread out, it becomes a
parallelogram, whofe bafe is the periphery of the circle
of the bale of the cylinder llretched into a right line,
and whofe height is the fame with the height of the cy¬
linder.
PROPOSITION XL.
Fig. 20. To mqafure the furface of a right cone.—
The furface of a right cone is very little different from
the furface of a right pyramid, having an ordinate poly¬
gon for its bafe of an infinite number of fides; the fur¬
face of which (excluding the bafe) is equal to the fum of
the triangles The fum of the bafes of thefe triangles
is equal to the periphery of the circle of the bafe, and
the common height of the tr^ngles is the fide of the cone
AB ; wherefore the fum of thefe triangles is equal to
the product of the fum of the bafes (/’. e. the periphery of
the bafe of the cone) multiplied into the half of the
common height, or it is equal to the product of the pe¬
riphery of the bafe.
If the area of the bafe is likewife wanted, it is to be
found feparately by the 33d prop. If the furface of a
cone is fuppofed to be fpread out on a plane, it will be¬
come a fedor of a circle, whofe radius is the fide of the
cone; and the arc terminating the fe&or is made from the
periphery of the bafe. Whence, by corol. 33d prop, of
this, its dimenfion may be found.
COROLLARY.
Hence it will be eafy to meafure the furface of a fruf
turn of a cone cut by a plane parallel to the bafe.
PROPOSITION XLI.
Fig. 21. To meafure the furface of a given fphere.
—Let there be 3 fphere, whofe centre is A, and let the
area of its convex furface be required. Archimedes de-
monftrates (37. prop. 1. book of the fphere and cylin¬
der) that its furface is equal to the area of four great cir¬
cles of the fphere; that is, let the area of the great cir¬
cle be multiplied by 4, and the produft will give the area
of the fphere ; or, (by the 20th 6. and 2d 12 of Eucl.)
the area of the fphere given is equal to the area of a
circle whofe radius is the right line BC, the diameter of
the fphere. Therefore having meafured (by 33d prop )
the circle defcribed with the radius BC, this will give the
lurface of the fphere.
PROPOSITION XLII.
Fig. 2 2. To meafure the furface of a fegment of
a fphere.—Let there be a fegment cut off by the plane
Von. II, N° 56. 2
E T R Y. 705
ED. Archimedes demonftrates (49, and yo. 1 Be fphx-
ra) that the furface of this fegment, excluding the cir¬
cular bafe, is equal to the area of a circle whofe radius
is the right line BE drawn from the vertex B of the feg¬
ment to the periphery of the circle DE. Therefore, (by
the 33d prop.) it is eafily meafured.
COROLLARY 1.
Hence that part of the furface of a fphere that lieth
between two parallel planes is eafily meafured, by fob-
tracing the furface of the leffer fegment from the furface
of the greater fegment.
COROLLARY 2.
Hence likewife it follows, that the furface of a cylin¬
der, defcribed about a fphere (excluding the bafis) is e-
qual to the furface of the fphere, and the parts of the
one to the parts of the other, intercepted between planes
parallel to the bafis of the cylinder.
Of Solid Figures and their Menfuration, compre¬
hending Ukeivife the Principles of gauging
Vejfels of all Figures.
As in the former part of this treatife we took an inch
for the fmailell meafure in lengih. and an inch fquare for
the fmalleft fuperficial meafure; fo now, in treating of
the menfuration'of folids, we take a cubical inch for thf
fmalleft folid meafure. Of thefe 109 make a Scots pint;
other liquid meafures depend on this, as is generally
known.
In dry meafures, the firlot, by ftatute, contains 191-
pints ; and on this depend the other dry meafures : there¬
fore, if the content of any folid be given in cubical inch-
es, it will be eafy to reduce the fame to the common li¬
quid or dry meafures, and converfely to reduce thefe to
folid inches. The liquid and dry nleafures, in ufe a-
mong other nations, are known from their writers.
“ As to the Englilh liquid meafures, by a<ff of parlia-
“ ment 1706, any round veffel, commonly called a cy-
“ linder, having an even bottom, being feven inches in di-
“ ameter throughout, and fix inches deep from the top
“ of the infide to the bottom, (which veffel will be found
“ by computation to contain 230 cubical inches),
“ or any veffel containing 231 cubical inches, and no
“ more, is deemed to be a lawful wine-gallon. An
“ Englilh pint therefore contains 28| cubical inches;
“ two pints make a quart; four quarts a gallon; 18
“ gallons a roundlet; three roundlets and an half, or
“ 63 gallons, make a hoglhead ; the half of a hoglhead
“ is a barrel: one hoglhead and a third, of 84 gallons,
“ make a puncheon; one puncheon and a half, or two
“ hoglheads, or 126 gallons, make a pipe or butt; the
“ third part of a pipe, or 42 gallons, make a tierce;
“ two pipes, or three puncheons, or four hoglheads,
“ make a ton of wine. Though the Englilh wine gal-
“ Ion is now fixed at 231 cubical inches, the ftandard
“ kept in Guildhall being meafured, before many per-
“ fons of diltindion. May 25th 1688, it was found to
“ contain only 224 fuch inches.
“ In the Englilh beer meafure, a gallon contains 282
“ cubical inches; confequently 35^ cubical inches make
“ a pint, two pints make a quart, four quarts make a
p ....
706 G E O M
“ gallon, nine gallons a firkin, four firkins a barrel. In
“ ale, eight gallons make, a firkin, and 32 gallons make
“ a barrel. I^y an ad of the fird of William and Mary,
“ 34 gallons is the barrel, both for beer and ale, in all
“ places, except within the weekly bills of mortality.
“ In Scotland it is known that four gills make a
“ piutchkin, two mutchkins make a chopin ; a pint is
“ two cbopins ; a quart is two pints; and a galloiris
“ four quarts, or eight pints. The accounts of the cubi-
“ cal inches contained in the Scots pint vary confiderably
“ from each other. According to our author, it contains
“ 109 cubical inches., But the ftandard-jugs kept by the
“ dean of guild of Edinburgh (one of which has the year
“ 1555, with the arms of Scotland, and the town of E-
“ dinburgh, marked upon it) having been carefully mea-
“ fured feveral times, and by different perfons, the Scots
“ pint, according to thofe ftandards, was found to con-
“ tain about 103^0- cubic inches. The pewterers jugs
(by which the veffels in common ttfe are made) are faid
to contain fometimes betwixt 105 and 106 cubic inches.
“ A cafk that was raeafured by the brewers of Edinburgh,
“ before the commiflioners of Excife in 1707, was found
“ to contain 46-j Scots pints; the fame vefiel contained
“ 18xV Englifh ale gallons. Suppofing’this menfurating
“ to be juft, the Scots pint will be to the Englifh ale-
gallon as 289 to 750 ; and if the Englifh ale-gallon be
“ fuppofed to contain 282 cubical inches, the Scots pint
“ will contain 108.664 cubical inches. But it is fufpedt-
“ ed, on feveral grounds, that the experiment was not
“ made with fufficient care and exaflnefs.
“ The commiffioners appointed by authority of parlia-
“ ment to fettle the meafures and weights, in their aft of
“ February 19. 1618, relate, That having caufed fill the
Linlithgow firlot with water, they found that it con-
“ tained 21^ pints bf the juft Stirling jug and meafure.
“ They likewife ordain that this fhall be the juft and on-
“ ly firlot; and add, T/iaf the widenefs and breadnefs of
“ the •which firlst, under and above even over •within the
“ buirds, fhall contain nineteen inches and the fixth part
“ of an inch, and the deepnefs /even inches and a third
part of an inch. According to this aft (fuppofing their
“ experiment and computation to have been accurate) the
“ pint contained only 99.56 cubical inches ; for the con-
“ tent of fuch a veffel as is defcribed in the aft, is
“ 2115.85, and this divided by 21^ gives 99 56. But,
by the weight of water faid to fill this firlot in the fame
“ aft, the meafure of the pint agrees nearly with the E-
“ dinburgh ftandard above mentioned.
“ As for the Englifh meafures of corn, the Winche-
«' fter gallon contains 2725. cubical inches ; two gallons
“ make a peck; four pecks, or eight gallons (that is 2178,
“ cubical inches) make a bufhel ; and a quarter is eight
“ bufliels.
“ Our author fays, that 19! Scots pints make a firlot.
“ But this does.not appear to be agreeable to the ftatute
“ above mentioned, nor tothe ftandard-jugs. It may be
“ conjeftured that the proportion afligned by him has
“ been deduced from fome experiment of how many pints,
“ according to common ufe, were contained in the firlot.
“ For if we fuppofe thofe pints to have been each of
108.664 cubical inches, according to. the experiment
E T li Y.
“ made in the 1707 before the commiflfoners of excife*
*• defcribed above; then 19^ fuch pints will amount to
“2118-94, cubical inches; which agrees nearly with
“2115.85, the meafure of the firlot by ftatute a-
“ bove mentioned. But it is probable, that in this he
“ followed the aft 1587, where it is ordained, That the
“ wheat-firlot fhall contain'19 pints and two joucattes.
“ A wheat-firlot marked with the Linlithow ftamps be-
“ ing meafured, was found to contain about 2211 cubi-
“ cal inches. By the ftatute of 1618 the bariey-firlot
“ was to contain 31 pints of the juft Stirling-jug.
“ A Paris pint is 48 cubical Paris inches, and is nearly
“ equal to an Englifh wine-quart. Thc.'BciJfean con-
“ tains 644 68099 Paris cubical inches, or 780 36 En-
“ glifh cubical inches.
“ The Roman amphora was a cubical Roman foot, the
“ congius was the eighth part of the amphora, the fexta-
“ rius was one fixth of the congius. They divided the
“ fextarius like the as or libra. Of dry mealures, the
“ medmnus was equal to two amphoras, that is, about
“ Englifh legal bufhels ; and the modius was the
“ third part of the amphora."
PROPOSITION XLIII.
To find the folid content of a given prifm.—By
the 29th prop, let the area of the bafe of the prifm be
meafured, and be multiplied by the height of the prifm,
the produft will give the foiid content of the prifm.
PROPOSITION XLIV.
To find the folid content of a given pyramid.—The
area of the bafe being found, (by the 30th prop.) let it
be multiplied by the third part of the height of the pyra¬
mid, or the third part of the bafe by the height, the pro¬
duft will give the folid content, by 7th i2.Eucl.
COROLLARY.
If the folid content of a frujlum of a pyramid is re¬
quired, firft let the folid content of the entire pyramid be
found ; from which fubtraft the folid content of the part
that is wanting, and the folid content of the broken
pyramid will remain.
PROPOSITION XLV.
To find the content of a given cylinder.—The area
of the bafe being found by prop. 33. if it be a circle,
and by prop. 35. if it be an ellipfe, (for in both cafes
it is a cylinder,) multiply it by the height of the cylinder,
and the folid content of the cylinder will be produced.
COROLLARY.
Fig. 23. And in this manner may be meafured the folid
content of veflels and calks not much different from a cylin¬
der, as ABCD. If towards the middle EF it be fomewhat
grofler, the area of the circle of the bafe being found (by33d
prop.) and added to the area of the middle circle EF, and,
the half of their fum (thatis, an arithmetical mean between
the area of the bafe and the area of the middle circle) taken
for the bafe of the velfel, and multiplied into its height,
the folid content of the given velfel will be produced.
Note, That the length of the veftel, as well as the di¬
ameters of the bafe, and of the circle EF, ought to be
taken within the Haves; for it is the folid content within
the Haves that is fought.
PROPOSITION XL VI.
To find the. folid content of a .given. cone.—-Let the
area
G E O M
area of thebafe(found by prop.33.) be multiplied into of
the height, the product will give the folid content of the
cone ; for by the 10th is.Eucl. a cone is the third part
of a cylinder that has the fame bafe and height.
PROPOSITION XLVII.
Fig. 24. 25. To find the folid content of a fruftum
of a cone cut by a plane parallel to the plane of the
bafe. —Firft, let the height of the entire cone be found,
and thence (by the preceding prop.) its folid content; from
which fubtradl the folid content of the cone cut off at the
top, there will remain the folid content of the ffujhtm of
the cone.
How the content of the entire cone may be found, ap¬
pears thus: Let ABCD be the frufium of the cone (ei
ther right or fcalenous, as in the figures 2. and 3.) let
the cone LCD be fuppofed to be compleated ; let AG
be drawn parallel to DE, and let AH andEF .be perpen
dicular on CD ; it will be (by 2d 6. Eucl.) as CG:CA::
CD:CE; but (by art. 72. of part. 1.) as CA:AH::CE:
EF; confequently (by 22d 5. Eucl.) as CG.-AH::CD:
FF ; that is. as the excefs of the diameter of the lefier
bafe is to the height of the fnijlum, fo is the diameter of
the greater bafe to the height of the entire cone.
C 0 R 0 L L'A R Y.
Fig. 26. Some calks whbfe ftaves are remarkably bend¬
ed about the middle, and {Irak towards the ends, may
be taken for two portions of cones, without any confider-
able error. Thus ABEF is a frujlum of a right cone,
to whole bafe EF, on the other fide, there is another fi-
frujlum oi a cone joined, EDCF. The vertices of
thefe cones, if they be fuppofed to be completed, will be
found at G and H. Whence, (by the preceding prop.)
the folid content of fuch veflels may be found.
PROPOSITION XL VIII.
Fig. 27. A cylinder circumfcribed about a fphere,
that is, having its bafe equal to a great circle of the
fphere, and its height equal to the diameter of the fphere,
is to the fphere as 3 to 2.
Let ABEC be the quadrant of a circle, and ABDC
the circumfcribed fquare; and likewife the triangle ADC;
by the revolution of the figure about the right line AC,
as axis, a hemifphere will be generated by the quadrant,
a cylinder of the fame bafe and height by the fquare, and
a cone by the triangle. Let thefe three be cut any how
by the plane HF, parallel to the bale AB; the feftion in
the cylinder will be a circle whofe radius is FH, in the
hemifphere a circle of the radius EF, and in the cone a
circle of the radius GF.
By (art. 69. of part 1.) EAy, or HFyrrEFy and
FAy taken together, (but AFy=FGy, becaufe AC=CD) 4
therefore the circle of the radius HF is equal to a circle
of the radius EF together with a circle of the radius GF
and fince this is true every where, all the circles together,
defcribed by the refpedtive radii HF (that is, the cylin.-
der) are equal to all -the circles defcribed by the refpcc-
tive radii EF and FG (that is, to the hemifphere and the
cone taken together); but, (by the 10th 12. Eucl.) the
the cone generated by the triangle DAC is one third part,
of the cylinder generated by the fquare BC. Whence it
follows, that the heraifphere generated by the ro^tion of
the quadrant ABEC is equal to the remainirg two third
E T R Y. 707
parts of the cylinder, and that the whole fphere is | of
the double cylinder .circumfcribed about it.
This is that celebrated 39th prop. x. book of Archi¬
medes of the fphere and cylinder; in which he deter¬
mines the proportion of the cylinder to the fphere infcri-
bed to be that of 3 to 2.
COROLLARY.
Hence it follows, that the fphere is equal to a cone
whofe height is equal to the femidiameter of the fphere,
having for its bafe a circle equal to the fuperficies of the
fphere, or to four great circles of the fphere, or to a circle
whofe radius is equal to the diameter of the fphere, (by
prop. 41. of this.) And indeed a fphere differs very
little from the fum of an infinite number of cones that
have their bafes in the furfa’ce of the fphere, and their
common yen ex in the centre of the fphere ; fo that the
fuperficies of the fphere, (of whofe dimenfion fee prop. 41.
of this) multiplied into the third pan of the femidiameter,
gives the folid content of the fphere.
PROPOSITION XLIX.
Fig. 28. To find the folid content of a fetter of the
fpbere.—A fpherical feiflor ABC (as appears by the cor.
of the preceding prop ) is very little different from an in¬
finite number of cones, having their bafes in the fuperfi¬
cies of the fphere BEC, and their common vertex in the
centre. Wherefore the fpherical fuperficies BEC being
found (by prop. 42 of this), and multiplied into the third
part of AB the radius of the fphere, the product will
give the folid content of the fe<Sor ABC.
COROLLARY.
It is evident how to find the folidky of a fpherical feg-
ment lefs than a hemifphere, by fubtrafting the cone ABC
from the feffor already found But if the fpherical feg-
ment be greater than a hemifphere, the cone correfpond-
ing muft be added to the feftor, to make the fegment
PROPOSITION L.
Fig. 2,9. To find the folidity of the fpheroid, and of-
its J'cgments cut by planes perpendicular to the axis.—
In prop. 44. of this, it is {hewn, that every where
EH : EG :: CF : CD ; but circles are as the fquares
defcribed upon their rays, that is, the circle of the radi¬
us EH is to the circle of the radius EG, as CFy to CDy.
And fince it is fo every wherev all the circles defcribed
with the refpedtive rays EH, (that is, the fpheroid made
by the rotation of the femi-ellipfes AFB around the axis
AB^i will be to all the circles defcribed by the refpeftive
radii EG, (that is, the fphere deferibtd by the rotation
of the femicircie ADB on the axis AB) as FC^ to CDy ;
that is, as the fphereid to the fphere on the fame axis, fa
is the fquare of the other axis of the generating ellipfe
to the fquare of the axis of the fphere.
And this holds, whether the fpheroid beTound by a.
revolution around the greater or leffer axis..
' COROLLARY 1.
Hence it appears, that the half of the fpheroid, form-
ed by the rotatic# of the fpace AHFC around the axis-
AC, is double of the cone generated by the triangle AFC.
about the’ fame axis ; which, is the 32d prop, of Archie
medes of conoids and fpheroids.
C. 0 R'O L L ARY 2.
Hence, likewife,.is evident the meafure of fegments'of
the
7o8 G E O M
the fpheroid cut by planes perpendicular to the axis. For
the fegment of the ipheroid made by the rotation of the
fpace ANHE, round the axis AE, is to the fegment of
the fphere having the fame axis AC, and made by the
• rotation of the fegment of the circle AMGE, as CFy to
CD?.
But if the meafure of this folid be, wanted with lefs la¬
bour, by the 34th prop, of Archimedes of conoids and
fpheroids, it will be as BE to AC-j-EB; fo is the cone
.generated by the rotation of the triangle AHE round thp
axis AE, to the fegment of the fphere made by the rota¬
tion of the fpace ANHE round the fame axis AE ; which
could eafdy be demonftrated by the method of indivifibles.
C 0 R 0 L L J R T 3.
Hence it is eafy to find the folid content of the fegment
of a fphere or fpheroid intercepted between two parallel
planes, perpendicular to the axis. This agrees as uell
to the oblate as to the oblong fpheroid; as is obvious.
C 0 R 0 LL A RT 4.
Fig. 30. If a calk is to be valued as the middle piece
f of an oblong fpheroid, cut by the two planes DC and FG,
at right angles to the axis: firft, let the folid content of
the half fpheroid ABCED be meafured by the preceding
prop, from which let the folidity of the fegment DEC be
be fubtradted, and there will remain the fegment ABCD ;
and this doubled will give the capacity of the calk re¬
quired.
The following method is generally made ufe of for
finding the folid content of fuch velfels. The double
area of the greatell circle, that is, of that which is de-
fcribed by the diameter AB at the middle of the calk, is
added to the area of the circle at the end, that is, of the
circle DC or FG (for they are ufually equal), and the
third part of this fum is taken for a mean bafe of the
calk ; which therefore multiplied into the length of the
dalk OP, gives the content of the velfel required.
Sometimes veffels have other figures, different from
thofe we have mentioned; the eafy methods of meafuring
which may be learned from thofe who pradlife this art.
What hath already been delivered, is fufficient for our
purpofe,
PROPOSITION LI.
Fig. 31. and 32. To find how much is contained in
a vejfd that is in part empty, wkofe axis is parallel to
the horizon.—Let AGBH be the great circle in the mid¬
dle of the calk, whofe fegment GBH is filled wit!, li¬
quor, the fegment GAH being empty; the fegment GBH
is known, if the depth EB be known, and EH a mean
proportional between the fegments of the diameter AB
and EB ; which are found by a rod or ruler put into the
velfel at the orifice. Let the balls of the calk, at a me¬
dium, be found, which fuppofe to be the circle CKDL ;
and let the fegment KCL be fimilar to the fegment GAFI
(which is either found by the rule of three, becaufe as
the circle AGBH is to the circle CKDL, fo is the feg¬
ment GAH to the fegment KCL; or is found from the
tables of fegments made by authors); and the produdt of
this fegment multiplied by the length of the calk will give
■ the liquid content remaining in the calk.
PROPOSITION LIE
To find the filid content of a regular and ordinate
E T R Y.
body.—A tetraedron being a pyramid, the fblid content
is found by the 44th prop. The hexaedron, or cube,
being a kind of prifm, it is meafured by the 43d prop.
An odlaedron confilts of two pyramids of the fame fquare
bafe and of equal heights; confequently its meafure is
found by the 44th prop. A dodecaedron confills of
twelve pyramids having equal equilateral and equiangular
pentagonal bafes ; and fo one of thefe being meafured (by
the 44th prop, of this) and multiplied by 12, the pro-
duft will be equal to the folid content of the dodecaedi on.
The icofiaedron confills of 20 equal pyramids having tri¬
angular bafes; the folid content of one of which being
found (by the 44th prop.) and multiplied by 20, gives
the whole folid. The bafes and heights of thefe pyra¬
mids, if you want to proceed more exa£fly, may be found
by trigonometry. See Trigonometry.
PROPOSITION LIII.
To find the /Aid content of a body however irregular,
—Let the given body be immerfed into a velfel of water,
having the figure of a parallelopipedcn or prifm, and let
it be noted how much the water is raifed upon the immer-
fion of the body. For it is plain, that the fpace which
the water fills, after the immerfion of the body, exceeds
the fpace filled before its immerfion, by a fpace equal to
the folid content of the body, however irregular. But
when this excefs is of the figuie of a parallelopipedon or
prifm, it is eafily meafured by the 43d prop, of this, viz.
by multiplying the area of the bafe, Or mouth of the vef-
fel, into the difference of the elevations of the water before
and after immerfion. Whence is found the folid content
of the body given.
In the fame way the folid content of a part of a body
may be found, by immerfing that part only in water.
There is no necellity to infill here on diminilhing or en-
larging folid bodies in a given proportion. It will be ealy
to deduce thefe things from the 1 ith and 12th books of
Euclid.
“ The following rules are fubjoined for the ready com-
“ putation of the contents of velfels, and of any folids in
“ the meafures in ufe in Great Britain.
“ I. To find the content of a cylindric Veffel in Eng-
“ lilh wine gallons, the diameter of the bafe and altitude
“ of the veffel being given in inches and decimals of an
“ inch.
“ Square the number of inches in the diameter of the
“ veffel; multiply this fquare by the number of inches
“ in the height: then multiply the produdt by the deci-
“ mal fradlion .0034 ; and this lalt produft lhall give
“ the content in wine gallons and decimals of fuch, a
“ gallon. To exprefs the rule arithmetically; let D
“ reprefent the number of inches and decimals of an
“ inch in the diameter of the veffel, and H the inches
“ and decimals of an inch in the height of the veffel;
“ then the content in wine-gallons {hall be DDKX-to »
“ orDDHX.0034. Ex. Let the diameter 0 = 51.2
“ inqhes, the height H=62.3 inches, then the con-
“ tent fhall be 51.2 X 51.2 X 62.3 X .0034 =
“ 555.27.342 wine-gallons. Th s rule follows from
“ prop. 33. and 45. for, by the former, the area of the
“ bafe of the veffel is in fquare inches DDX.78544
“ and by the latter, the content of the veffel in folid
“ inches
\C \ 1.
G £ ^ O M
inches is DDHX.78J4; which divided by 231 (the
number^of cubical inches in a wine-gallon) gives DDH
X 0034, the content in wine-gallons. But though
the charges in the excife are made (by ftatute) on the
fuppofition that the wine-gallon contains 231 cubical
inches ; yet it is faid, that in fale, 224 cubical inches,
the content of the ftandard meafured at Guildhall (as
was mentioned above) are allowed to be a wine-gallon.
II. Suppoling the Engliflv ale-gallon !o contain 282
cubical inches, the content of a cylindric vellel is com¬
puted in fuch gallons, by multiplying the fquare bf the
diameter of a veffel by its height as formerly, and their
product by the decimal fra&ion .0,02/851 : that is,
the folid content in ale-gallons is DDMX .0,027,851.
“ III. Suppofing the Scots pint to contain about
103.4 cubical inches, (which is the meafure-given by
the llandards at Edinburgh, ^cording to experiments
mentioned above), the content of a cylindric velfel is
computed in Scots pints, by multiplying .the fquare of
the diameter of the vefl'el by its height,* and the pro¬
duct of thefe by the decimal fratfion .0076- Or the
content of fuch'a veffel in Scots pints is DDHX.0076.
“ Suppofing the Winchefter bufhel to contain 2187
cubical inches, the qontent of a cylindric veflel is com¬
puted In thofe bulliels by multiplying the. fquare of the
diameter of the veffel b^ the height, and the product
by the decimal fradlion .0,003,606. But the ftan¬
dard bulhel having been meafured by Mr Everard and
others in 1696, it was found to contain only 2145.6
folid inches ; and therefore it was enafted in the adt
for laying a duty upon malt, That every round bujhel,
’with a 'plain and even bottom, being 18^- inches dia¬
meter throughout, and?, inches deep, Jhould be ejleem-
ed a legal Winchefter bujhel. According to this adt
(ratified in the firft year of Queen Anne) the legal
Winchefter buftiel contains only 2150.42 folid inches.
And the content of a cylindric veffel is computed in
fuch bulhels, by multiplying the fquare of the diame¬
ter by the height, and their produdt by the decimal
frafiion .0,003^,625. Or the content of the veffel in
thofe bulhels is DDH X .0,003,625.
“ V. Suppofmg the Scots wheat firlot to'contain 21J
Scots pints, (as is appointed by the ftatute 1618), and
the pint to be conform to the Edinburgh ftandards
above mentioned, the content of a cylindric veffel in
fuch firlots is computed by multiplying the fquare of
the diameter by the height, and their produdt by the
decimal fradtion .00,358. This firlot, in 1426, is
appointed to contain 17 pints ; in 1457, it was appoint-,
ed to contain 18 pints ; in 1587, it is pints; in
1628, it is 21-j pints: and though this laft ftatute ap¬
pears to have been founded on wrong computations in
feveral refpedts; yet this part of the adl that relates
to the number of pints in the firlot feems to be the
le^ft exceptionable *, and therefore we fuppofe the fir¬
lot to contain 21^ pints of the Edinburgh ftandard, or
about 2197 cubical inches ; which a little exceeds the
Winchefter bulhel, from which it may have been ori¬
ginally copied
“ VI. Suppofing the bear-firlct to contain 31 Scots
pints, (according to the ftatute 1618), and the pint
Von. II. No. 56. 2
E T R Y. 709
“ conform to the Edinburgh ftandatds, the content of a
“ cylindric veffel in fuch firlots is found by multiplying
“ the fquare of the diameter by the height, and this
“ produdt by .000,245.
“ When the fedtion of the veffel is not a circle, but
“ an elliplis, the produdt of the greateft diameter by the
“ lealt, is to be fubftituted in thole rules for thefquareof.
“ the diameter.
“ VII. To compute the content of a veffel that may
“ be confidered as a frujlum of a cone in any of thofe
“ meafures.
“ Let A reprefent the number of inches in the diame-
“ ter of the greater bafe, B the number of inches in the
“ diameter of the leffer bafe. Compute the fquare of
“ A, the produdt of A multiplied by B, and the fquare
“ of B, and colledt thefe into a fum. Then find the
“ third part of this fum, and fubftitute it in the preceding
“ rules in the place of the fquare of the diameter ; and
“ proceed in all other refpedts as before. Thus, for ex-
“ ample, the content in wine-gallons is AA X AB X BB
“ X t X H X .0034.
“ Or, to the fquare of half the fum of the diameters
“ A and B, add one third part of the fquare of half their
“ difference, and fubftitute this fum in the preceding rules
“ for the fquare of the diameter of the veflel ; for the
“ fquare of f A X f B added to ^ of the fquare of £
“ A—i- B, gives \ AA X -f AB X f BB.
VIII. When a veflel is a fruftum of a parabolic
“ conoid, meafure the diameter of the fedtion at the mid-
“ die of the height of thefrujlum; and the content will be
“ precifely the fame as of a cylinder of this diameter, of
“ the fame height with the veflel.
“ IX. When aveffelis a fruflumof afphere, ifyou mea-
“ fure the diameter of the fedtion at the middle of the
“ height of the frujlum, then compute the content of a
“ cylinder of. this diameter of the fame height with the
“ veffel, and from this fubtradt of the content of a
“ cylinder of the fame height, on a bafe whofe diameter
“ is equal to its height; the remainder will give the con-
“ tent of the veffel. That is, if D reprefent the diame-
“ ter of the middle fedtion, and H the height of the
,c frujlum, you are to fubftitute DD—^ HH for the
“ fquare of the diameter of the cylindric veffel in the
“ firft fix rules.
“ X. When the veflel is a frujlum of a fpheroid.if the
“ bafes are equal, the content is readily found by the
“ rule in p 708. In other cafes, let the axis of the folid
be to the conjugate axis as « to 1; let D be the dia-
“ meter of the middle fedfion of the frufium, H the
“ height or length of the frufum-, and fubftitute in the
“ firft fix rules DD lid for the 'fquare of the fquare
“ of the diameter of the veffel.
“ XL When the veflel is an hyperbolic conoid, Jet
“ the axis of the foiid be to the conjugate axis as /r, to
“ 1, D the diameter of the fedticn at the middle of the
“ frujlum, H the height or length : compute DD X—
“ X HH, and fubftitute this fum for the fquare of the
“ diameter of the cylindric veffel in the firft fix rules.,
“ XII. In general, it is ufual to meafure any round
“ veffd, by diftinguilhing it into, feveral frujlnms, and
7 “ taking
7io G E O M
“ taking the diameter of the fedlion at the middle of
“ each fruflum ; thence to compute the content of each,
“ as if it was a cylinder of that mean diameter ; and to
“ give their fura as the content of the veflei. From the
“ total content, competed in this manner, they fubltradt
“ lucceflively the numbers which exprefs the circular a-
“ reas that correfpond to thofe mean diameters, each as
“ often as there are inches in the altitude of the frujium
Cl to which it belongs, beginning with the uppermoft;
“ and in this manner calculate a table for the veffel, by
“ which it readily appears how much liquor is at any
“ time contained in it, by taking either the dry or wet
“ inches; having regard to the inclination or drip of
“ the veffel, when it has any.
“ This method of computing the content of afrujhim
“ from the diameter of the fe&ion at the middle of its
“ height, is exadt in that cafe only when it is a portion
“ of a parabolic conoid ; but in fuch veffels as are in com*
“ mon ufe, the error is not confiderable. When the
“ veffel is a portion of a cone or hyperbolic conoid, the
“ content by this method is found lefs than the truth ;
“ but when it is a portion of a fphere or fpheroid, the
“ content computed in this manner exceeds the truth.
“ The difference or error is always the fame, in the dif-
“ ferent parts of the fame or of fimilar veffels, when the
“ altitude of the frujlum is given. And when the alti*
“ tudes are different, the error is in the triplicate ratio
“ of the altitude. If exadlnefs be required, the error in
“ meafuring the frujium of a conical veffel, in this man-
“ ner, is of the content of a cone fimilar to the veffel,
“ of an altitude equal to the height of the frujium. In
“ a fphere, it is of a cylinder of a diameter and height
“ equal to the frujium. ' In the fpheroid and hyperbolic
“ conoid, it is the fame as in a cone generated by the
“ right-angled triangle, contained by the twofemiaxes of
“ the figure, revolving about that fide which is the fe-
“ miaxis of the frujium.
“ In the ufuai method of computing a table for a vef-
“ fel, by fubdufting from the whole content the number
“ that expreffes the uppermoft area, as often as there are
inches in the uppermoft frujium, and afterwards the
“ numbers for the other areas fucceflively; it is obvious
“ that the contents afiigned by the table, when a few of
“ the uppermoft inches are dry, are ftated a little too
“ high, if the veffel ftands on its leffer bafe, but too low
“ when it ftands on its greater bafe ; becaufe, when one
“ inch is dry, for example, it is not the area at the mid-
“ die of the uppermoft frujium, but rather the area at
“ the middle of the uppermoft inch, that ought to be
“ fubdudted from the total content, in order to find the
“ content in this cafe.
“ XIII. To meafure round timber: Let the mean cir-
“ cumference be found in feet and decimals of a foot;
“ fquare it; multiply this fquare by the decimal .079,577,
“ and the produft by the length. Ex. Let the mean
“ circumference of a tree be 10 3 feet, and the length 24.
" feet. Then 10 3 X 10 3 X 079,577 x 24=202.615,
is the number of cubical feet in the tree. The foun-
“ dation of this rule is, that when the circumference of a
circle is j, the area is .0,795,774,715, and that the.
E T R Y.
“ areas of circles are as the fquares of their eircumfe-
“ rences.
“ But the common way ufed by artificers for meafu-
“ ring round timber, differs much from this rule. They
“ call one fourth part of the circumference the girt,
“ which is by them reckoned the fide of a fquare, whofe
“ area is equal to the area of the fe&ion of the-tree;
“ therefore they fquare the girt, and then multiply by
“ the length of the tree. According to their method,
“ the tree of the laft example would be computed at 159.
“ 13 cubical feet only.
“ How fquare timber is meafured, will be eafily under-
“ ftood from the preceding propolitions. Fifty folid feet
“ of hewn timber, and forty of rough timber, make a
“ load,
“ XIV. To find the burden of a fhip, or the number
“ of tons it will carry, the following rule is commonly
“ given. Multiply the length of the keel taken within
“ board, by the breadth of the fliip within board, taken
“ from the midlhip beam from plank to plank, and the-
“ produft by the depth of the hold, taken from the plank
“ below the keelfon to the under part of the upper-deck'
“ plank, and divide the produft by 94, the quotient is
“ the content of the tonnage required. This rule how-
“ ever cannot be accurate; nor can one rule be fuppofed
“ to ferve for the meafuring exadfly the burden of (hips of
“ all forts. Of this the reader will find more in the
“ Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris,
“ for the year 1721.
“ Our author having faid nothing of weights, it may
“ be of ufe to add briefly, that the Englilh Troy-pound
“ contains 12 ounces, the ounce 20 penny-weight, and
“ the penny-weight 24 grains; that the Averdupois
" pound contains 16 .ounces, the ounce 16 drams, and
that 112 pounds is ufualiy called the hundred weight.
It is commonly fuppofed, that 14 pounds Averdupois
are equal to 17 pounds Troy. According to Mr E-
verard’s experiments, 1 pound Averdupois is equal to
14 ounces 12 penny-weight and 16 grains Troy, that
is, to 7000 grains; and an Averdupois ounce is 437f--
grains. The Scots Troy-pound (which, by the ftatute-
1718, was to be the fame with the French) is com¬
monly fuppofed equal to 15!-ounces Englilh Troy, or
7560 grains. By a mean of ftandards kept by the
Dean of Guild at Edinburgh, it is 7599tjt °r 7600
grains. They who have meafured the weights which
were fent from London, after the union of the king¬
doms, to be the ftandards by which the weights in-
Scotland (hould be made, have found the Englilh A-
verdupois pound (from a medium of the feveral weights)-
to weigh 7000 grains, the fame as Mr Everard ; ac¬
cording to which, the Scots, Paris, or Amfterdam-
pound, will be to the pound Averdupois as 38 to 35.
The Scots Troy-ftone contains 16 pounds, the pound
2 marks or 16 ounces, an ounce 16 drops, a.drop 36-
grains. Twenty Scots ounces make a Tron pound ;
but becaufe it is ufuai to allow one to the feore, the
Tron pound is commonly 21 ounces. Sir John Skene,
however, makes the Tron (tone to contain only, tyi
“ pounds.”
GEORGE*
G E R { v
GEORGE, or Knights of St George, lias been the
denomination of feveral military orders, wheieofthat
of the garter is one of the moft illuftrious. See Gar¬
ter.
St George del Mina, the capital of the Dutch fettle-
y meats, on the gold-coafts of Guinea, fituated feven
or eight miles welt of Cape-coalt caltle, the capital of
the Britifh fettl.-ments there : W. long, f, and N.
lat. 50.
Fort 57 Geore, a town and fort on the coaft of Cor-
mandel, in the Hither India : E. long. 8o°, and N.
lat. 130.
The town is divided .into the White and Black town.
The fort, and White-town, which adjoins to it, are
inhabited only by Britilh; the whole circumference,
which is not above half a mile, being furrounded by a
ftone wall. The outward, or Black-town, called Ma-
drafs, has been lately encompalied by a Hone-wall
and balHons and is about a mile and a half in circum¬
ference; the whole being almolt environed by a river
and the fea.
St George’j, the largeft of the Bermuda, or Summer-
iflands.
Crofs of St George, a red one in a field argent, which
makes part of the Britifh ftandard.
GEORGIA, in Afia, a province bounded by Circaflia
and Dageflan on the north, by the Cafpian fea on the
eaft, by Armenia or Turcomania on the fouth, and by
Mingrelia on the weft.
Georgia, in America, one of the Britifh plantations,
taken out of South-Carolina, from which it is fepa-
rated by the river Savannah on the north, and bound¬
ed by the Atlantic ocean on the eaft, by the river of
St John, which divides it from Spanilh Florida, on
the fouth and weft.
GEORGIC, a poetical compofition upon the fubjeft of
hufbandry, containing rules therein, put into a pleafing
drefs, and fet off with all the beauties and embellifh-
ments of poetry.
Hefiod and Virgil are the two greateft mafters in this
kind of poetry.
The moderns have produced nothing in this kind,
except Rapin’s book of Gardening, and. the celebra¬
ted poem entitled Cyder by Mr Philips, who, if he
had enjoyed the advantage of Virgil’s language, would
have been fecond to Virgil in a much nearer degree.
GERANITES, in natural hiftpry, an appellation given
to fuch of the femipellucid gems as are marked with
a fpot refembling a crane’s eye.
GERANIUM, crane’s bill, in botany, a genus of
the monodelphia decandria clafs. It has but one fty-
lus; the ftigmata are five; and the capfule is fhaped
like the bill of a crane. There are fifty-feven fpe-'
cies, fixteen of which are natives of Britain, viz, the
cicutarium, or hemlock-leaved crane’s bill"; the maf-
chatum, or mufhed crane’s bill; the maritimum, or
fea crane’s bill; the nodofum, or knotty crane’s bill;
the phceum, or fpotted crane’s bill; the fylvaticum,
or mountain crane’s bill ; the pratenfe, or crowfoot
crane’s bill; the robertianum, or herb Robert; the
lucidum, or fbining doye’s-fo.ot crane’s bill; the ro-
[i ) G E R
tundifoiium, or round-leaved crane’s bill; the perentie,-
or perennial dove’s-foot crane’s bill; the molle, or
common dove’s-foot crane’s bill; the pufillum, or
fmall flowered dove’s-foot crane’s bill; the columbi-
num, or long ftalked dove’s fpot crane’s bill; the dif-
feflum, or jagged-leaved dove’s-foot crane’s bill; and
the fanguineum, or bloody crane’s bill. The leaves o£
the robertianum and pratenfe were formerly ufed as a-
ftringents, hut are now left out both of the London,
and Edinburgh difpenfatories.
GERARDIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermia clafs. The calix confifts of fivefegments;
the corolla is bilabiated, the inferior lip being divided
into three parts; the lobes are emarginated, the mid¬
dle one being divided into two fegments ; and the cap¬
fule is bilocular, and opens at the bafe. There are five,
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
GERFAJXON, orGYRFALcoN. SeeFAxco.
GERGENTUM, a town of Sicily, the Agrigentum of
the ancients, about fifty five miles fouth-eaft of Paler¬
mo: E. long. 130 3c/, N. lat. 570 20'.
GERMAINS, or St Germains, a town and royal pa¬
lace of France, fourteen miles north-weft of Paris.
St Germains is alfoa borough.of Cornwal, eight miles
weft of Plymouth. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment.
GERM, among gardeners. See Bud.
GERMAN, in genealogy, denotes entire or whole te
thus, a brother german is one both by the father’s and
mother’s fide ; and coufins german are. the children of
brothers or lifters.
German, or Germanic, alfo denotes anything belong¬
ing to Germany; as the German empire, German
flute, drc.
GERMANDER, in botany. See Teucrium.
GERMANY, an extenfive empire of Europe, fituated
between j° and 190 E. long, and between 45° and
and 550 N. lat.; bounded by Denmark and the Bal¬
tic fea on the north, by Poland and Hungary on the
eaft, by Switzerland and the Alps on the fouth, and
by France, Holland, on the weft.
It is divided into ten circles, three of which lie oiy
the north, viz. Upper and Lower Saxony, and Weft-
phalia ; three on the fouth, viz. Auftria, Bavaria, and
Swabia; three about the middle, viz Franconia, and
the Upper and Lower Rhine; the tenth, which con-
fifted of the duchy of Burgundy and the feventeen pro¬
vinces of the. Netherlands, have long been detached
from the empire.
There are in Germany upwards of three hundred
fovereign princes and ftates, moft of them arbitrary in
their refpeAive territories.
GERMEN, or Germ. See Bud,.
GERMERSHEIM, a town of Germany, fubjetft to
France, about ten miles eaft of Landau; E. Jong. 8°
I5/, and N. lat. 490‘^2,.
GERMINATION, the firft fprouting of the feeds of'
plants. See Agriculture, Parti.
GERONTES, in Grecian antiquity, a fort of magi-
ftrates of ancient Sparta, anfwering to the areopanites
at Athens. r b
GER-
G I A (71
'GEHTRUDENBURG, a fortified town of the united
Netherlands, in the province of Holland, nine miles
north of Breda; lubjeft to the'prince of Orange.--
GERUND, in grammar, a verbal noun of the neuter
gender, partaking of the nature of a participle, de¬
clinable only in the fingular number, through all the
cafes except the vocative ; as, nom. amandum, gen.
amandi. An. amando, zccut. a?nandnm, z\A. amando.
GESNERIA, in botany, a genus of plants, of the di-
dynamia clafs. The Calix reds upon the germen, and
confifts of five fegments ; the corolla is bent inwards
and backwards ; the capfule is below the flower, and
bilocular. There are three fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
GESTATION, among phyficians. See Pregnancy.
GESTRICIA, a province of Sweden, bounded by Hel-
fingia on the north, by the Bothnic gulph on the call,
by Upland on the fouth, and by DaleOarlia on the
weft.
GESTURE, in rhetoric, confifts chiefly in the proper
adtion of the hands and face.
CETHYLLIS, in botany, a genus of the decandria-
monogynia cLfs. The calix is a fpatha; the corolla
confifts of fix fegments ; and the capfule has three cells.*
There is but one fpecies, a native of Africa.
GEVAUDAN, a territory of Languedoc, adjoining to
the Cevennes.
GEUM, in botany, a genus of the icofandria-pen-
tagynia clafs. The calix has eight fegments; the
petals are eight ; and the feeds are hairy and caudated.
There are five fpecies, tvfro of which are natives of
Britain, ii/z. the urbanum, or common avens; and the
the rivale, pr water avens. The root of the avens is
fometimes ufed as a ftomachic.
GHENT, or Gaunt, a city and capital of Flanders,
thirty miles north weft of Bruffels : E. long. 30 36,
N. lat. 510.
It is a large fortified town, twelve miles in circum¬
ference, and defended by a citadel ; and yet is a place
of no great ftrength, by reafon of the vaft extent of
ground it takes in.
GIAGH, in chronology, a cycle of twelve years; in
ufe among the Turks and Cathayans.
Each year of the giagh bears a name of fome ani¬
mal : the firft, that of a moufe; the fecond, that of a
bullock; the third, of a lynx or leopard ; the fourth,
of a horfe; the fifth, of a crocodile ; the fixth, of a
ferpent; the fevetith, of a horfe; the eighth, of a
fheep ; the ninth, of a monkey ; the tenth, of a hen ;
the eleventh, of a dog ; and the twelfth, of a hog.
They alfo divide the day into twelve parts, which
they call giaghs, and diftinguifh them by the name of
fome animals. Each giagh contains two of our hours,
and is divided into eight kehs, as many as there are
quarters in our hours.
CIALLOLINO, in natural hiftory, a heavy, friable,
fine, yellow ochre, called Naples yellow, and much
ufed among painters, who efteem it a very fine colour.
‘Giant’s causeway, a vaft colletSion of a black kind'
of marble, called bafaltes, in the county of Antrim,
.inIreland. See Basautes.
2 y g 1 l
GIBBOUS, a term in medicine, denoting any protube¬
rance or convexity of#the body, as a perfon haunched,
or hump backed.
Gibbous, in aftronomy, a term ufed in reference to the
-enlightened parts of the moon, whillt (he is moving
from the firft quarter to the full, and from the full to
the laft quarter: for all that time thetiark part appears
horned, or falcated ; and the light one hunched out,
convex, or gibbous.
GIBELINS, Gibelltns, a famous faflion in Italy,
oppofite to another called the Guelphs.
Thefe two faiftions ravaged and laid wafte Italy for
a long feries of years, fo that the hiftory of that
country, for the fpace of two centuries, is no more
than a detail of their mutual violences and daughters.
The Gibelius ftood for the emperor againft the pope :
but concerning their origin and the reafon of their
names, we have but a very obfcure account. Accor¬
ding to the generality of authors, they role about the
year 1240, upon the emperor Frederick II.’s being ex¬
communicated by the pope Gregory IX. Other wri¬
ters maintain, that the two faaftions arofe ten years
before, though ftill under the fame pope and emperor.
But the molt probable opinion is that of Maimbourg,
who fays, that the two factions of Guelphs and Gibel-
1ms arofe from a quarrel between two ancient and il-
luftrious houfes on the confines of Germany, that of
the Henries of Gibeling.iand that of the Guelphs of
Adcrf.
GIBRALTAR, a port-town of Andalufia, in Spain,
fubjeft to Great Britain: W. long. 6°, and N. lat.
36°. ,
It ftands at the foot of mount Calpe, one of Her¬
cules’s pillars, about fixteen miles north of Ceuta, in
Africa, fro'm which it is divided by the Streights, to
which it gives name. It is built on a rock, in a penin-
fula, and can only be approached on the land-fide by
a very narrow paflage between the mountain and the
fea: crofs this paflage the Spaniards have drawn a line,
and fortified it, to prevent the garrifon's having any
communication with the country.
The Straits of Gibraltar are about twenty-four miles
long, and fifteen bro^d.
GIFT, in Scots law. See Donation.
GIGG, or Jigg, in mufic, denotes a brilk and lively
air; or an airy kind of dance to a fprightly mealure.
GILAN, a province of Perfia, bounded by the Cafpian
Sea on the north. Its capital is a city of the fame
name: E long. 48°, and N. lat. 370
GILBERTINES, a religious order founded in England
by St Gilbert, in the reign of Henry I. The nuns
followed the rule of St Beneditft, and the monks that
of Auguftin There were many monaftries of this or¬
der in different parts of England.
GILDING, the art of fpreading or covering a thing with
gold, either in leaf-or liquid.
We have this advantage over the ancients, in the
manner of ufing and applying the gold, that the fecret
of painting in oil, lately difcovered, furrtiflies us with
means of gilding works, capable of enduring all the
violence of time and weather, which theirs could not.
There
OIL (
There are Teveral methods of gilding in life among
ms, as gilding in water, gilding in oil, gilding by fire,
<&c.
'The method of <water-GiXDiKG. Water-gilding requires
.more preparation than oil gilding, and is chiefly on
wooden works, and thofe made of ftucco; and thefe
■too muft be fheltered from the weather. A fize is u-
!fed for this way of gilding made of Ihreds, <bc. of
parchment or gloves boiled in water to the confidence
of a jelly. If the thing to be gilt be of wood, it is
flrd walked with this fize, boiling hot, and then fet to
dry; and afterwards with white paint mixed up with
the fame fize. Some ufe Spanilh white for this purpofe,
and others plader of Paris, well beaten and fifted.
This fized paint mud be laid on with a diff brulli;
Which is to be repeated feldomer or oftener according
to the nature o'f the work, as ten or twelve times in
flat or fmooth works ; but feven or eight'tnnes will be
fuflicient in pieces of fculpture. In the foynef cafe they
are applied by drawing the brulh over the work, in the
latter by daubing it. 'When the whole is dry, they
moiden it with fair water, and rub it over with feve-
ral pieces of coarfe linen, if it be on the flat; if not,
they beat or fwitch it with feveral flips of the fame
linen, tied to a little dick, to make it follow and enter
all the cavities and depreflures thereof.
■Having thus finifhed the white, the next thing to be
done, is to colour it with yellow ochre : but if it be
a piece of fculpture in relievo, they fird touch it up,
and prepare the feveral parts, which may have happen¬
ed to have been disfigured, by the fmall iron inltru-
ments, as gouges, chiflels, '<bc. ,The ochre ufed for
this purpofe mud be well ground and fifted, and mixed
up with the fize before-mentioned. This colour is to be
laid on hot; and in works of fculpture, fapplies the
place of gold, which fometimes cannot be carried into
all the depreffures and cavities of the foliages and or¬
naments. A lay is aifo applied over this yellow, which
ferves for the ground on which the gold is to be laid:
this lay is ufually compofed of Armenian bole, blood-
done, black-lead, and a little fat; to which fome add
foap, and oil Of olives; others, burnt bread, biflre,
antimony, glafs of tin, butter, and fugar-candy. Thefe
ingredients being all ground down together with hot fiz?,
three lays of this compofition is applied upon the yel¬
low, the one after the other has been dried; being
cautious not to put any into the cavity of the work to
hide the yellow.
The brulh ufed for this purpofe, mud be a foft one ;
and when the matter is become very dry, they go o-
ver it again with a dronger bru(h, to rub it down, and
take off the fmall grains that dick out, in order to fa¬
cilitate the burnifhing of the gold.
To be prepared for gilding, you mud have three
forts of pencils; one to wet, another to touch up and
amend. _and»a third.to flatten ; alfa a gilding culhron,
for fpfeading the leaves of gold on when taken out of the
book ; a knife to cut them, and a fquirrel’s tail fitted
with a handle ; or elfe a piece of fine foft fluff on a
dick, to take them up direftly and apply them. You
¥ql. II. No. 56. 2
713 ■) G L A
are fird to begin with wetting your pencils; by which
the lad lay laid on with water is moidened, that it may
the better receive and retain the gold. Then,you are
to lay the leaves of gold on the culhion; and if whole,
you mud take up with the fquirrel’s tail, but, if in pieces,
with the*dther indrument, orthe knife wherewith they
are cut, and lay and fpread them gently on the parts
of the work you had moidened before. If the leaves,
as they frequently do, happen to crack or break in
laying on, thefe breaches mud be made up with final!
bits of leaf, taken up upon the repairing pencil, and
the whole work is to be fmoothed either with the fame
pencil, or another fomething larger; the gold being
preffed into the dents, into which it could not be fo
eafily carried by the fquirrel’s tail.
The work having been thus far gilded, mud be fet
to dry, in order to be burnifhed and .flatted. See
B u a n1s h1»g.
The lad operation is the applying the vermeil in all
the little lines and cavities ; and to flop and amend any
little faults with fliell-gold. The compofition called of
vermeil is made of gum guttae, vermilion, and a little of
fome ruddy-brown, ground together with Venetian var-
nifti and oil of turpentine. Some gilders, indead of
this, make drift with fine lacca, or dragon’s blood,
with gum-water.
Sometimes, indead of burnifiring the gold, they bur-
nilh the ground or compofition laid on the lad before
it, and only afterwards wadi the part over with the
fize. This method is chiefly pradtifed for the hands,
face, and other nudities in relievo: which, by this
means, do ndt appear fo very brilliant as the parts bur-
niflred, though much more fo than the parts perfe&ly
flat.
To gild a piece of work, and yet preferve white
grounds, they apply a lay of Spanilh white, mixed with
a weak fifh-glue, on all the parts of the ground, where¬
on the yellow or the lad lay might run.
The method (^Gilding in oil. This operation requires
much lefs apparatus than that before-mentioned. The
bafis or matter whereon the gold is laid, in this me¬
thod, is the remains of colours found fettled to the bot¬
tom of the pots in which painters waflf their pencils.
This matter, which is very vifcid [or dicky, is fird
ground, and then paffed through a linen-cloth, and
thus laid on the matter to be gilt, after it is waftied
once or twice over with -fize ; and if it be wood, with
fome white paint.
When this is almod dry, but yet is dill unffuous
enough to catch and retain die gold, the leaf-gold is
laid on, either whole, if the work be large, or cut to
pieces, if fmaller: the leaves of gold are taken up and
laid on with a piece of fine, foft, well carded cotton ;
or fometimes by a pallet for the purpofe, or fometimes
with the knife with which theleaves were cut, accor¬
ding to the parts of the work that are to be gilded, or
the breadth of the gold that is to be laid on. As the
gold is laid on, they pafs over it a eoarfe diff pencil
brufh, to make it dick and as it were incorporate with
the ground ; and after this they mend any cracks that
7 R- Jnay
OLA { 7i
may have happened in it, either with the fame pencil
or one that is fmaller, as has been Ihew.n before in
water-gilding.
This kind of gilding is chiefly ufed for domes and
roofs of churches, courts, banquettipg-houfes,
and-for figures of plafler of Paris, lead, foe.
T/>e method of Gilding ’with liquid gold. This is per¬
formed by gold reduced to a calx and amalgamated
with mercury, in the proportion of about an ounce of
mercury to a dram of gold. To perform this, they
heat a crucible red hot, and then put the gold and
mercury into it, ftirring them gently about till the gold
be found melted, and incorporated into a mafs with
the mercury. When this is done, they call them in¬
to water, to vvafh and purify them; and out of that
into other waters, where the amalgama, which is al-
moft as liquid as if there were nothing but quickfilvcr
in it, may be preferved a long time for ufe.
Before they proceed to lay this amalgamated gold
on the metal, they firft render the metal rough, by
waflring it over with aqua fortis, or aqua fecunda; and
afterwards rinfe the metal in fair water, and fcour it
a little with fine fand, and then it is ready for the
gold.
They next cover over the metal with the mixture
of gold and mercury, taking it up with a flip of cop¬
per, or a brufh made of brafs-wire, fpreading it as even
as poffible, to do which they wet the bruflr from time
to time in fair water. Then they fet the metal to the
fire, upon a grate, or in a fort of cage, under which
ftands a pan of coals ; and in proportion as the mercury,
evaporating and flying off, difeovers the places where
gold is wanting, they take care to fupply them by ad¬
ding new parcels of amalgama.
Then the work is rubbed over with the wire brufli,
dipt in beer or vinegar, which leaves it in a condition
to be brought to a colour which is the laft part of the
procefs, and which the gilders keep to themfelves as a
mighty fecret.
The method of Gilding by fire on metal. To prepare
the metal, they fcratch it well, or rake it; then polilh
it with a poiilher ; and afterwards fet it to the fire to
blue, /. <?. to heat, till it appear of a blue colour.
When this has been done, they clap on the firft lay of
leaf-gold, rubbing it lightly down with a poliflrer; and
expofe it thus to a gentle fire. They ufually give it
but three fuch lays, or four at the moft, each lay con-
fiftingof a fingle leaf for common works, and of two for
extraordinary ones : after each lay, it is fet a-freflr to
the fire ; and after the laft lay, the gold is in condition
4 ) G L A
ed with glair of eggs, and is dried) linear the faid com-
pofition; let it dry, then rub it well and polifh it; then
with fair water wet the edges of the book, and fud-
denly lay on the gold, prefs it down gently with cot¬
ton, let it dry, and then polifli it with a tooth.
GILL, a meafure of capacity, containing a quarter of an
Engliftr p nt.
GILLS, in ichthyology. See Branchiae.
GILOLO, a large ifland of the pacific ocean, lying be¬
tween 10 S. lat. and 2° N. lat. and between 1250 and
128° E. long.
Gilolo is alfo the name of the capital of the above ifland,
fituated in 40' N. lat.
GIN, in mechanics, a machine for driving piles, fitted
with a windlafs and winches at each end, where eight
or nine men heave, and round which a rope is reeved
that goes over the wheel at the top: one end of this
rope is feized to an iron-monkey, that hooks to a beetle
of different weights, acccording to the piles they are
to drive, being from eight to thirteen hundred weight;
and when hove up to a crofs-piece, near the wheel, it
unhooks the monkey, and lets the beetle fall on the
upper end of the pile, and forces the fame into ground.:
then the monkey’s own weight over-hauls the windlafs,
in order for its being hooked again to the beetle. '
GINGEN, an imperial city of Germany, twenty miles
E. of Ulm: E. long. io°, and north lat. 48° 36'.
GINGER, the root of a fpecies of amomum, too well
known to need any defeription : It is a very ufeful fpice
in cold flatulent colics, and in laxity and debility of
the inteftines.
GINGLYMUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 149.
GINSENG, a fmall root brought from North America,
and fometimes from China. It has a fweet tafte, ac¬
companied with a flight bitteriflrnefs and warmth. The
Chinefe look upon it as an univerfal reftorative in all
decays.
GIRONNE, a large city and bifliop’s fee of Spain, in
the province of Catalonia, forty-five miles north-eaft of
Barcelona: E. long..2° 35,» and N. lat. J2°.
Gironne*, oeGironny, in heraldry, a coat of arms
divided into girons, or triangular figures, meeting in
the centre of the fhield, and alternately colour and
metal. See Plate XCVII. fig 5.
GISBORN, a market-town of Yorkfhire, fifty miles
weft of York.
GISBOROUGH, another market-town of Yorkftiire,
thirty-feven miles north of York
GISORS, a city of Normandy in France, twenty-eight
miles fouth-eaft of Rouen: E.long. i° 25', N. rat. 50°
to be burnilhed.
To gild paper. Grind bole-armoniac (with rain-water,
and give one laying of it; when it is dry, take glair
of eggs, and add to it a little fugar-candy and gum-
water, which lay over the former; and upon this,
when it is dry enough, lay leaf-filver, or leaf gold.
To gild the leaves of hooks. Take bole-armoniac, eight
penny-weight; fugar-candy, two penny-weight: mix
and grind them with glair of eggs: then on a bound
book (while it is in the prefs, after it hath been fmear-
10,
GLACIS, in building, an eafy infenfible Hope or de¬
clivity.
The defeent of the glacis is lefs fteep than that of
the talus. In gardening, a defeent fometimes begins
in talus, and ends in glacis.
The glacis of the corniche, is an eafy imperceptible
flope in the cymatium, to promote the defeent and
draining off the rain-water.
Glacis, in fortification, that mafs of earth which ferves
as
G L A ( 715
•a-s a parapet to the covered way, floping eafily towards
the champain or field.
GLADDON. See Iris.
Glade, in gardening and agriculture, an opening and
light pafiage made through a wood, by lopping off the
branches of trees along th.it way.
GLADIATORS, in antiquity, perfbns who fought ge¬
nerally in the arena at Rome, for the entertainment of
the people.
The gladiators were ufually flaves, and fought out
of necefiity ; though fometimes freemen made profeflion
thereof, like our prizefighters, for a livelihood. The
Romans borrowed this cruel diverfion from the Alia-
tics ; and we find that the very high-priefts had their ludi
pontificaies, and ludi facerdotales. As from the ear-
lieft ages of antiquity we read that it was cuftomary
to facrifice prifoners of war to the manes of the great men
that fell in the engagement; inprocefs oftime they came
to facrifice flaves at the funerals of all perfons oT con¬
dition ; but as it would have appeared barbarous to cut
their throats like beads, they were appointed to fight
with each other, and do their bed to fave their own
lives by killing their adverfary.
Hence arofe the maders of arms called lanidse, and
and men learned to fight. Thefe laniflas bought flaves
to train up to this cruel trade, whom they afterwards
fold to fuch as had occafion to exhibit fhews. Junius
Brutus, who expelled the kings, was the firfl that ho¬
noured the funeral of his father with thefe inhuman di-
verfions at the fepulchre of the deceafed; but after¬
wards they were removed to the circus and amphithea¬
tres ; and other perfons, befides flaves, would hire
themfelves to this infamous office.
They were all firfl fworn that they would fight till
death v and if they failed, they were put to death, ei¬
ther by fire, fwords, clubs, whips, <bc. It was ufual
with the people, or emperor, to grant them life when
they (hewed no figns of fear. Augudus decreed that
it fhould always be granted them.
From flaves and freed men, the wanton fport fpread
to perfons of rank, as we find in Nero’s time. And
Domitian exhibited combats of women in the night¬
time : we alfo read, that dwarfs,encountered with one
another. Condantine the Great firfl prohibited thefe
combats in the Ead; but the practice was not entirely
aboliffied in the Wed before Theodoric king of the O-
ftrogeths, in the year 500
When any perfon defigned to entertain the people
with a fhow of gladiators, he fet up bills in the public
places, giving an account of the time, the number
and names of the combatants, and the circumflances
whereby they were to be diltinguiffied ; each having
his feveral badge, -which generally was a peacock’s fea¬
ther: they alfo gave notice what time the (how would
lad ; and fometimes gave reprefentations of thefe things
in painting, as is praftifed among us, by thofe who
have any thing to (how at fairs, ebe.
Upon the day appointed fcr the ffiow, in the firfl
place the gladiators were brought out all together, and
'obliged to take a circuit round the arena in a very fo-
) G L A
lemn and pompous manner. After this they proceeded,
paria compinere, to match them by pairs, in which
great care was taken to make the matches equal. The
firfl fott of weapons they made ufe of were daves, or
wooden lilts, called rudes; and the fecond were effec¬
tive weapons, as fwords, poinards, 'be.
The firfl were called arma luforia, or exercitoria ;
the fecond, decretoiia, as being given by decree or
fentence of the praetor, or of him at whofe expence
the fpedacle was exhibi ed.
They began to fence or fleirmilh with the firfl, which
was to be the prelude to the battle; and from thefe,
w hen well warmed, they advanced to the fecond, with
which they fought naked. The firfl part of the en¬
gagement was called ventilare, prccludere ; and the fe¬
cond dimicare ad certum, or verjh art/iis pugnare.
When any received a remarkable wound, either his
adverfary or the people ufed to cry out, Habst, or,,
Hoc habet. If the vanquilhed lurrendered his arms,
it was not in the vigor's power to grant him life: it
was the people during the time of the republic, and
the prince or people during the time of the empire,
that were alone empowered to grant this boon. The
two figns of favour and diflike given by the people
were, premere pollicem, and vertere pollicem ; the for¬
mer of which M Dacier takes to be a clenching of the
fingers of both hands between one another, and lo hold¬
ing the two thumbs upright clofe together, was a fign
of the peoples admiration of the courage fhewn by both
combatants; and at the fame time for the conqueror
to fpare his antagonid’s life : but the contrary motion,
or bending back of the thumbs, fignified the diflatif-
fatdion of the fpetflators, and authorifed the viftor to
kill the other combatant downright for a coward. The
emperor faved whom he liked, if he was prefent at the
folemnity, in the fame manner.
After the engagement, feveral marks of favour were
conferred on the viftor, particularly a branch of palm-
tree ; and oftentimes a fum of money, perhaps gather¬
ed up among the fpedators : but the mod common re¬
wards were the pileus and the rudis ; the former being
given only to fuch gladiators as were flaves, for a to¬
ken of obtaining their freedom; but the rudis feents
to have been bedowed both on flaves and freemen, with
this difference, that it procured the former no more
than a difcharge from any further performance in pu¬
blic, upon whiph they commonly turned Janifla: but
the rudis, when given to fuch perfons as, being free,
had hired themfeives out for thefe (hows, redored them
to a full enjoyment of their liberty. See PtL£us,
Rudi s. and Lanista.
GLADIOLUS, in botany, a genus of the triandria mo-
nogynia clafs . The corolla is ringent, and divided in¬
to fix parts. There are ten fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
GLAM A. See Camel.us.
GLAMORGANSHIRE, a county- of South Wales,
bounded by Brecknocklhire on the north, and by the
Bridol channel on the foiith. Its capital is Landaff.
GLAND, in anatomy. . See.ANATcrMY, p. 307.
GLANDERS,
C L A ( 7io
CLANDF.HS. See Farriery, p. 557.
(Gilans, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.270.
CLARIS, the capital of one of the cantons of Switzer¬
land, of the fame name, the inhabitants of which are
both proteiiant and popifh : it is fituated thirty-five
miles fcuth-eaft of Zurich, in E. long. 90, and N. lat.
47°-
GLASGOW, a large city^of Scotland, in the fhire of
Lanerklhire, or Ciydefdale, fituated on the river Clyde,
twenty miles north-weft of Lanerk, and forty miles
weft of, Edinburgh, 4n 40 S', W.-long.-and .55° 5',
N. lat.
This is one of the moft elegant towns in Scotland. .
It has an univerfity, and a good foreign trade.
GLASS, a tranfpareht, brittle, faditious body, produ¬
ced by the adiion of fire upon a fixt lalt and fand, or
ftone, that readily melts.
The chemifts hold, that there is no body but may
be vitrified, or converted into glafs; being the laft ef-
fed of fire, as all its -force is not able to carry the
change of any natural body beyond its vitrification.
When or by whom- the art of making glafs was firft
found cut is uncertain: fame will have it invented be¬
fore the flood; but without any proof. Neri traces
the antiquity of this art as far back as the time of Job:
but Dr Merret will have it as ancient as either pot¬
tery,, or the making of bricks : becaufe that a kiln of
bricks can fcarce be burnt, or a batch of pottery be
made, but fame of the bricks and the ware will be at
leaft fuperficially turned to glafs ; fo that it muft have
been known at the building of Babel, and as long be¬
fore as the making of bricks was ufed. It muft have
been known,confequently, among the Egyptians, when
the Ifraelites were employed by them in making bricks.
Of this kind, no doubt, was that foflil glafs mentioned
by Ferrant. Imperat. to be found mnder-ground in
places where great fires had been. The Egyptians
indeed boaft, that this art was taught them by the
great Hermes. Ariftophanes, Ariftotle, Alexander
Aphrodifaeus, Lucretius, and John the divine, put us
out of all doubt that glafs was in ufe in their days.
Pliny relates, that it was firft: difcovered accident¬
ally in Syria, at the mouth of the river Belus, by
certain merchants driven thither by a ftorm at fea, who,
being obliged to continue there, and drefs their vic-
als, by making a fire on the ground, whenf there was
great plenty of the herb kali; that plant 'burning to
nfhes, its falls mixed and incorporated with fand, or
1 tones fit to vitrify, and produced glafs.: that this ac¬
cident being known, the .people of Sidon, in that neigh¬
bourhood, allayed the work, improved the hint, and
brought it into ufe ; and that this art has been impro¬
ving ever fince. t
Venice, formany years, excelled all Europe in the
finenefs of its glaffes; but of late the French and Eng-
lifh have excelled in the Venetians, fo that we are no
longer fupplied with this commodity from abroad.
Nature and characters of Glass. Naturalifts are di-
.vided in what clafs of bodies to rank glafs: fome ma¬
king it a concrete juice ; others a ftone ; others again
.rank it among femi-metals ; but Dr Merret obfervcs,
) G IT A
that thefe are all natural productions, whereas glafs-is a
fa&iticus compound, produced by fire, and never found
in the earth, but only the fand and ftone that form it:
that metals are formed by nature into certain fpecies;
.and that fire only produces them, by its faculty of fe-
parating heterogeneous, and uniting homogeneous bo¬
dies : whereas it produces glafs, by uniting heteroge¬
neous matter, viz. fait and land, of both which it e-
vidently confifts; 1.00 tt> weight of fand yielding above
150 lb of glafs.
The fame learned doflor .gives us a precife and ac¬
curate .enumeration of th.e leveral charaflers, or pro¬
perties of glafs, W'hereby it is diftinguifhed from all
^ other bodies, w/z 1. That it is an artificial concrete of
Cilt and ifand, or ftones^ 2. -Fufible by ftrong fke. 3.
When ibfed, tenacious and coherent. 4. It does not
wafte nor confume in the fire. 5. When melted, it
deaves to-iion. 6. When it is red hot, it is dudiie,
and may be fafhioned into any form ; but not malle¬
able ; and capable of being blown into a hollownefs,
which no mineral is. 7. Frangible when thin, with¬
out annealing. ,8. Friable, when cold. 9. Diapha¬
nous, whether hot or cold. 10, Flexible and elaftic.
11. Diflbluble by cold and moifture. 12. Only capa¬
ble of being graven or cut with a diamond, or other
hard ftone and emery. 13. Receives any dye or colour
both externally and internally. 14. Not difibluble by
aqua fortis, aqua regia, or mercury. 15. Neither a-
cid juices nor any other matter extrad either colour,
tafte, or any other quality from it. 16. Admits of
polifhing. 17. Neither lofes weight nor fubftance by
the Ibngeft and moft frequent ufe. 18. Gives fufion
to other metal's, and foftens them. 19. The moft pli¬
able thing in the world, and that which beft retains
the fafhion given it. 20. Not capable of being cal¬
cined. 21. An open glafs being filled with water in
the fummer-time, will gather drops of water on the
outfide, juft fo far as the water on the infide reaches ;
and a perfon’s breath blown on it will manifeftly moi-
ften it. 22. Little glafs balls filled with water, mer¬
cury, and other liquor, and thrown into the fire, a's
alfo drops of green glafs being broken, will fly afunder
with a great noife. 23. Neither wine, beer, nor any
other liquor, will make it mufty, or change its colour,
or ruft it. 24. It may be cemented, as ftones and me¬
tals. 25. A drinking glafs, partly filled with water,
and rubbed on the brim with a wet finger, yields mu-
fica-1 notes, higher or lower as the glafs is more or lefs
full, and will make the liquor frifle and leap.
Materials for making d>/" Gl a s s. The materials where¬
of glals is made, we have already mentioned to be fait
and fand, or ftones. The fait here ufed, is procured
from a fort .of afhes, brought from the Levant, called
polverine, or rochetta ; which afhes are thofe of a fort
of water-plant, called kali, cut down in fummer, dried
in the fun, and burnt in heaps, either-on the ground,
or on iron grates ; the afhes falling into a pit, grow in¬
to a hard mafs, or ftone, fit for ufe.
To extraft the fait, thefe afhes, or polverine, are
powdered and fifted, then put into boiling water, and
there kept till one third of the water be confumed ; the
whole
G iL A (
^hd!e Ireing ilirred up, from time to time, that the
.afhes may iucorporate with the fluid, and all its falls b,e
extradled : then the veflel is filled up with new water,
and boiled over again, till one half be confumed ;
■what remains is a fort of lee, ftrongly impregn.ated
with fait. This lee, boiled over again in frefli cop¬
pers, thickens in about twenty-four hours, and-lhoots
its fait ; which is to be ladled out, as its ihoo.ts, into
carthern pans, and thence into wooden fats to drain
and dry. This'done, it is grofly pounded, and thus
put in a fort'of oven, called calcar, to dry. It may be
added, that there are other plants, befides kali, which
yield a fait fit for glafs : fuch are the alga, or lea weed,
the common way-thillle, bramble, hops, wormwood,
woad, tobacco, fern, and the whole leguminous tribe,
as peafe, beans, &c.
The land or (lone, called by the artifts Tarfo, is
the fecond ingredient in glafs, and that which gives it
stbe body and firmnefs. Thefe (tones, Agricola ob-
ferves, muft be fuch as will fufe ; and of thefe fuch
as are white and tranfparent are bed ; fo that cryflal
challenges the precedency of all others.
At Venice they chiefly ufe a font of pebble, found
in the river Tefino, refembling white marble, and cal¬
led cuogolo. Indeed Ant, Neri affures us, that all
ilones which will (Irike fire with fteel, are fit to vitrify :
but Dr Merret ftoews, that there are fome exceptions
•from this rule. Flints ate admirable ; and when cal¬
cined, powdered, and fearched, make a pure white
cryftalline metal: but the expence of preparing them
makes the mafters of our glafs-houfes fparing of their
ufe. "Where proper Ilones cannot be fo conveniently
■had, fand is ufed; which (hould be white, and fmall,
and well wafhed, before it be applied.: fuch is ufually
found in the months and fides of rivers. Our glafs-
houfes are furniftred with a fine fand for cryflal, from
Maidftone; the fame with that ufed for fand boxes, and
in fcouring; and with a coarfer for green glafs from
Woolwich For cryftal glafs, to 200 lt> of tarfo,
pounded fine, they put 130 tb of fait of pOlverine;
mix them together, and put them into the calcar, a
fort of reverberatory furnace, being firft well heated.
Here they remain baking, frying, and calcining, for
five hours, during which the workman keeps mixing
them with a rake, to make them incorporate : when ta¬
ken out, the mixture is called frit, or bolliro.
It may be further obferved, that glafs might be
made by immediately melting the materials without
thus calcining, and making them frit: but the opera¬
tion would he much more tedious.
A glafe much harder than any prepared in the com¬
mon way may be made "by means of borax, in the fol¬
lowing manner. Take four ounces of borax, and an
ounce of fine white fand, reduced to powder, and melt
them together in a large clofe crucible fet in a wind
furnace, keeping a flrong fire for half an hourt then
take out the crucible, and, when cold, break it; and
there will be Found at the bottom a hard, pure glafs,
capable of cutting common glafs almofl like a diamond.
This experiment duly varied, fays Dr Shaw, may lead
V.ol. H, H° 56. • 2
717 ) G L A
to fome confiderable improvements in the art of glafst,
enamels, and artificial gems. It (hews us an expediti¬
ous method of making glafs without the ufe of fixed
falts, which has generally been thought an elfmial
"ingredient in glafs, and which is the ingredient that
gives common glafs dts foftnefs ; and it is not yet
known, whether calcined cryftal, or other fubftances
being added to this fait, inftead of fand, it might not
make a glafs approaching to the nature of a diamond.
Kinc/s of Glass. Of thefe materials we have many
forts of glafs made, which may principally be diflin-
guiftied according to their beauty : as the cryfral flint
glafs, the cryflal white glafs, the green glafs, and
the bottle glafs. Again thefe feveral forts are diftin-
guiflied by their feveral ufes: as plate or coach glades,
looking glades', optic-glades, isc. which are made of
the (hit lort. The fecond fort includes crown^glafs,
toys, phials, drinking-glades, 6c. The third fort is
well known by its colour, and the fecond by its form.
B alas .coloured Glass is made thus: Put into a pot
cryftal frit, thrice waflred in water; tinge this with
manganefe prepared into a clear purple: to this add
alumen cativum lifted fine in fmall quantities, and at
feveral times ; this will make the glafs grow yellovviih.,
and a little reddifti, but not blackifh, and always difli-
pates the manganefe. The laft time you add manga¬
nefe, give no more of the alumen cativum, unlefs the
colour be too full. Thus will the glafs be exadtly of
the colour of the balas-ruby.
Red Glass. A blood-red glafs may be made in-^he
following manner: Put fix pounds of glafs of lead,
and ten pounds of common glafs, into a pot glazed
with white glafs : when the whole is boiled and refi¬
ned, add, by fmall quantities, and at fmall diftances
of time, copper calcined to a rednefs, as much as, on
repeated proofs, is found fufficient : then add tartar in
powder by fmall quantities at a time, till the glafs is
become as red as blood; and continue adding one or
other of the ingredients till the colour is quite per-
fe£t.
Yello-u) Glass. It is a neceflary remark in glafs-making,
that the cryftal glafs made with fait that has an admix¬
ture of tartar will never receive the true gold yellow,
though it will all other colours : for yellow glafs,
therefore, a fait muft be prepared from polverine, or
pot a(hes alone, to make the glafs.
Furnaces for the making Glass. In this manufacture,
there are three forts of furnaces ; one, called calcar,
is for the frit ; the fecond is for working the
glafs; the third ferves to anneal the glafs, and is called
the leer. See Furnace.
The calcar A (Plate XCVII. fig. 1.) refembles an
oven ten feet long, feven broad, and two deep: the
fuel, which in England is fea-coal, is put into a trench
on one fide of the furnace ; and the flame reverberating
■from the roof upon the frit, calcines it. The glafs
furnace, or working furnace B, is round, of three
yards diameter, and two high; or thus proportioned.
It is divided into three parts, each of which is vault¬
ed. The lower part C is properly called the crown.
G L A ( 713 ) G L A
and Is made in that form. Its ufe is to keep a brilk
fire of coal and wood, which is never put out. The
mouth of it is called the bocca. There are feveral
holes in the arch of this crown, through which the
flame paffes into the fecond vault, or partition, and
reverberates into the pots Idled with the ingredients a-
bove mentioned. Round the infides are eight or more
pols placed, and piling pots on them. The number of
pots is always double that of the boccas D, or mouths,
or of the number of workmen, that each may have
one pot refined to work out of, and another for metal
to refine in while he works out of the other. Through
the working holes the metal is taken out of the pots,
and the pots are put into the furnace; and thefe holes
are flopped with moveable covers made of lute and
brick, to fcreen the workmens eyes from the fcorching
flames. On each fide of the bocca, or mouth, is a
bocarella, or little hole, out of which coloured glafs,
or finer metal, is taken from the piling pot. Above
this oven, there is the third oven or leer, about five or
fix yards long, where the veflels, or glafs, is anneal¬
ed, or cooled: this part confifts of a tower, befides
the leer F, into which the flame afcends from the fur¬
nace. The tower has two mouths, through which
the glafles are put in with a fork, and fet on the floor
or bottom: but they are drawn out on iron pans, called
fraches, through the leer, to cool by degrees ; fo that
they are quite cold by the time they reach the mouth
of the leer, which enters the farofel, or room where
the glafles are to be flowed.
But the green glafs furnace is fquare; and at each
angle it has an arch for annealling, or cooling glalfes.
The metal is wrought on two oppofite fides, and on the
other two they have their colours, into which are
made linnet holes, for the fire to come from the fur¬
nace to bake the frit, and to difcharge the fmoke.
Fires are made in the arches to anneal the wo^k, fo
that the whole procefs is done in one furnace.
Thefe furnaces muft not be of brick, but of hard
fandy ftones. In France, they build, the outfide of
brick, and the inner part to bear the fire is made of a
fort of fuller’s earth, or tobacco-pipe clay, of which
' earth they alfo make their melting-pots.
Mr Blancourt obferves, that the worft and rougheft
work in this art, is the changing the pots, when they
are worn out, or cracked. In this cafe the great work¬
ing hole muft be uncovered; the faulty pot muft be ta¬
ken out with iron hooks and forks, and a new one muft
be fpeedily put in its place, through the flames, by the
hands only. For this work, the man guards himfelf
with a garment made of fltins, in the ftupe of a pan¬
taloon, that covers him all but his eyes, and is made
as wet as poflible: the eyes are defended with a proper
fort of glafs.
Injlruments for making of Glass. The inftruments
made ufe of in this work, may be reduced to thefe
that follow. A blowing pipe, made of iron, about two
feet and a half long, with a wooden handle. An iron
rod to take up the glafs, after it is blown, and to cut
off the former. Sciffars to cut the glafs when it comes
©ff from the firft hollow iron. Shears to cut and Ihape
great glaffes, &c. an iron ladle, with the end of the
handle cafed with wood, to take the metal out of the
refining pot, to put it into the workmens pots. A fraall
iron ladle^ cafed in the fame manner, to flcim the alka-
lic fait that fwims at top. Shovels, one like a peel,
to take up the great glaffes ; another, like a fire-(hovel,
to feed the furnace with coals. A hooked iron fork,
to ftir the matter in the pots. An iron rake for the
fame purpofe, and to ftir the frit. An iron fork, to
change or pull the pots out of the furnace, be.
Working or blowing round Glass. The tools thus pro¬
vided, the workman dips his blowing pipe into the
melting-pot; and by turning it about, the metal flicks
to the iron more firmly than turpentine. This he re¬
peats four times, at each time roiling .the end of his
inftrument, with the hot metal thereon, on a piece
of iron G, over which is a veffel of water which
helps to cool, and fo to confolidate, and to difpofe that
matter to bind more firmly with what is to be taken
next out of the melting-pot. But after he has dipt a
fourth time, and the workman perceives there is me¬
tal enough on the pipe, he claps his mouth immediately
to the other end of it H, and blows gently through the
iron, tube, till the metal lengthens like a bladder about
a foot. Then he rolls it on a marble (tone I, a little
while, to polifti it, and blows a fecond time, by which
he brings it to the fliape of a globe of about eighteen
or twenty inches diameter. Every time he blows into
the pipe, he removes it quickly to his cheek, other-
wife he would be in danger, by often blowing, of draw¬
ing the flame into his mouth ; and this globe may be
flattened by returning it to the fire, and brought into
any form by ftamp-irons, which are always ready.
When the glafs is thus blown, it is cut off at the col¬
let, or neck, which is the narrow part that ftuck to the
iron. The method of performing this is as follows:
the pipe is refted on an iron bar, clofe by the collet;
then a drop of cold water being laid on the collet, it
will crack about a quarter of an inch, which, with a
flight blow, or cut of the fhears K, will immediately
feparate the collet.
After this is done, the operator dips the iron rod
into the melting-pot, by which he extracts as much
metal as ferves to attract the glafs he has made, to
which he now fixes this rod at the bottom of his work,
oppofite to the opening made by the breaking of the
collet. In this pofition the glafs is carried to the great
bocca, or mouth of the oven, to be heated and fcald-
ed, by which means it is again put into fuch a foft
ftate, that, by the help of an iron inftrument, it can
be pierced, opened, and widened without breaking.
But the veffel is not finilhed till it is returned to the
great bocca ; where it being again heated thoroughly,
and turned quickly about with a circular motion, it
will open to any fize, by the means of the heat and
motion. And by this means we come to learn the
caufe why the edge of all bowls and glafles, be. are
thicker than the other parts of the fame glaffes ; be-
caufe in the turning it about in the heat, the edge
thickens; and the glafs being as it were doubled in
that part, the circumference appears like a felvage.
G L A ( 7
If there remains any fuperfluities, they are cut off
with the (hears L ; for till the glafs is cool, it remains
in afoft, flexible ftate. It is therefore taken from the
bocca, and carried to an earthen bench, covered with
brands, which are coals extinguiflied, keeping it turn¬
ing; becaufe that motion prevents,any fettling, and
preferves an evennefs in the face of the glafs, where,
as it cools, it comes to its confiftency ; being firft clear¬
ed from the iron rod by a flight ftioke by the hand of
the workman.
If the vefiel conceived in the workman’s mind, and
whofe body is already made, requires a foot, or a han¬
dle, or any other member or decoration, he makes them
feparate ; and now aflays to join them with the help of
hot metal, which he takes out of the pots with his iron
rod: but the glafs is not brought to its true hardnefs,
till it has pafled the leer, or annealing oven, defcribed
before.
Working, or blowing, of ‘window or table Glass. The
' method of working round glafs, or veflels of any fort,
is in every particular applicable to the working of win¬
dow or table-glafs, till the blowing iron has been dipt
the fourth time. But then, inftead of rounding it, the
workman blows, and fo manages the metal upon the
iron plate, that it extends two or three feet in the form
of a cylinder. This cylinder is put again to the fire,
and blown a fecond time, and is thus repeated till it is
extended to the dimenfions required, the fide to which
the pipe is fixed diminifhing gradually till it ends in a
pyramidical form ; fo that, to bring both ends nearly to
the fame diameter, while the glafs is thus flexible, he
adds a little hot metal to the end oppofite the pipe, and
draws it out with a pair of iron pinchers, and imme¬
diately cuts off the fame end with the help of a little
cold water, as before.
The cylinder being now open at one end, is carried
back to the bocca, and there, by the help of cold wa¬
ter, it is cut about eight or ten inches from the iron
pipe or rod ; and the whole length at another place, by
which alfo it is cut off from the iron rod. Then ft is
heated gradually on an earthen table, by which it opens
in length, while the workman, with an iron tool, al¬
ternately lowers and raifes the two halves of the cylin¬
der, which at lafl: will open like a (heet of paper, and
fall into the fame flat form in which it ferves for ufe;
in which it is preferved by heating it over again, cool¬
ing it on a table of copper, and hardening it twenty-
four hours in the annealing furnace, to which it is car¬
ried upon forks. In this furnace an hundred tables of
glafs may lie at a time, without injury to each other,
by feparating them into tens, with an iron fliivec be¬
tween, which diminifhes the weight by dividing it, and
keeps the tables flat and even.
This was the method formerly made ufe of for blow¬
ing plate-glafs, looking-glaffes, ire.; but the work¬
men, by this method, could never exceed fifty inches
in length, and a proportional breadth, becaufe what
were larger were always found to warp, which pre¬
vented them from refledling the objefts regularly, and
wanted fubftance to bear the neceflary grinding. Thefe
imperfeftions have been remedied by an invention of.
? ) OLA
the Sieur Abraham Thevart, in France, about the year
1688, of carting or running large plates of glafs in the
following manner.
Cafiing, or running of large locking-Glass plater. The
furnace G, fig. 2. is of a very large dimenfion, envi¬
roned with feveral ovens, or annealing furnaces, called
carquafles, befides others for making of frit, and cal¬
cining old pieces of glafs. This furnace, before it is
fit to run glafs, colts 3500I - It feldom“*tarts above
three years, and even in that time it mult be refitted
every fix months. It takes fix months to rebuild it;
and three months to refit it. The melting-pots are as
big as large hogftieads, and contain about 2000 weight
of metal. If one of them burfts in the furnace, the
lofs of the matter and time amounts to 250I. The
heat of this furnace is fo intenfe, that a bar of iron
laid at the mouth thereof becomes red hot in lefs than
half a minute. The materials in thefe pots are the
fame as defcribed before; and A is the man breaking
the frit for that purpofe. When the furnace is red-
hot, thefe materials are put in at three different times,
becaufe that helps the fufion ; and in twenty-four hours
they are vitrified, refined, fettled, and fit for carting.
H is the bocca, or mouth of the furnace; K is the ci-
ftern that conveys the liquid glafs it receives out of the
melting-pots in the furnace to the carting table. Thefe
cifterns are filled in the furnace, and remain therein
fix hours after they are filled; and then are hooked out
by the means of a large iron chain, guided by a pul¬
ley marked I, and placed upon a carriage with four
wheels marked L, by two men P P. This carriage
has no middle piece; fo that when it has brought the
ciftern to the carting-table M, they flip off the bottom
of the ciftern, and out rulhes a torrent of flaming mat¬
ter O, upon the table: this matter is confined to cer¬
tain dimenfions by the iron rulers N, N, N, which are
morveable, retain the fluid matter, and determine the
width of the glafs; while a man R, with the roller
reftingon the edge of the iron rulers, reduceth it as it
cools to an equal thicknefs, which is done in the fpace
of a minute. This table is fupported on a wooden
frame, with truftles for the convenience of moving to
the annealing furnace; into which, ftrewed with fand,
the new plate is (hoved, where it will harden in about
ten days. After this, the glafs needs only be ground,
polirtied, and foliated for ufe.
Grinding andpolijhing of plate-Gnkss. Glafs is made
tranfparent by fire, but it receives its luftre by the (kill
and labour of the grinder and poliflier, the former of
whom takes it rough out of the hands of the maker.
In order to grind plate glafs, they lay it horizontally
upon a flat ftone-table, (fig. 3.) made of a very fine¬
grained free-ftone; and for its greater fecurity they
plafter it down with lime, or ftucco : for otherwife the
force of the workmen, or the motion of the wheel
with which they grind it, w'ould move it about.
This ftone-table is fupported by a ftrong frame A,
made of wood, with a ledge quite round its edges, ri-
fing abouj two inches higher than the glafs. Upon this
glafs to be ground, is laid another rough glafs not a-
hove half fo big, and fo loofe as to Aide upon it; but
cemented
■?cenrente3 to a wooden plank, to guard it from the injury
:it muft otherwife receive from the fcraping of the wheel,
to which this plank is failened; and from the Weight?
laid upon it, to promote the grinding, or frit ore, of
the glaffes. The whole is covered with a wheel, B,
made of hard light wood, about fix inches in diamerer;
hy pulling of which backwards and forwards alternate¬
ly, and fometimes turning it round, the workmen who.
always Hand oppofite to each other, produce a conftant
attrition between the two glafles, and bring them to
what degree of fmoothnefs they pleafe, by firlt pour¬
ing in water and coarfe fand ; after that, a finer fort
of fand, as the word advanceth, till at laft they muft
pour in the powder of fmalt. As the upper or incum¬
bent glafs polifltes, and grows fmoother, it muft be taken
away, and another from time to time put in its place.
This engine is called a mill by the artifts, and is ufed
only in the largeft frze glafles; for in tire grinding of the
leffer glafies, they are content to work without a wheel,
and to have only four wooden handles faftened to the
four corners of the ftone which loads the upper plank,
by which they work it about.
When the grinder has done his part, who finds it
very difficult to bring the glafs to an exa<ft plain-
nefs, it is turned over to the care of the poliflier, who
with the fine powder of tripoli-ftone, or emery, brings ^
it to a perfeit evennefs and luftre. The inftrument
made ufe of in this branch, is a board, c, c, furnifhed
with a felt, and a fmall roller, which the workman
moves by means of a double handle at both ends. The'
artift in working this roller, is aflifted with a wooden
hoop or fpring, to the end of which it is fixed: for the
fpring, by conftantly bringing the roller back to the fame
points, facilitates the aftion of the workman’s arm.
Painting in Glass. The ancient manner of painting in
glafs was very Ample; it confifted in the mere arrange¬
ment of pieces of glafs of different colours in fome fort
of fymmetry, and conftituted what is now called Mo-
work. See Mosaic.
In procefs of time they came to attempt more regu¬
lar defigns, and alfo to reprefent figures heightened
with all their {hades: yet they proceeded no farther
than the contours of the figures in black with water¬
colours, and hatching the draperies after the fame man¬
ner on glaffes of the colour of the objeeft they defigned
to paint. For the carnation, they ufed glafs of abright
red colour; and upon this they drew the principal li¬
neaments of the face, &c. with black.
But in time, the tafte for this fort of painting im¬
proving confiderably, and the art being found appli¬
cable to the adorning of churches, bafilics, fyc. they
found out means of incorporating the colours in the
glafs itfelf, by heating them in the fire to a proper de¬
gree; having firft laid on the colours. The colours
ufed in painting or ftaining of glafs are very different
from thofe ufed in painting either in water or oil co¬
lours.
For black. Take feales of iron, one ounce ; feales
of copper, one ounce ; jet, half an ounce; reduce
them to powder, and mix them. For blue, Take pow-
ader of blue, one pound; fal nitre, half a pound ; mix
^ G L A •
them and g'ind them well together. For carnation,,
Take red chalk, eightjounces ; iron feales and litharge
of filver, of each two ounces; gum arabic, half an
ounce; diffolve in water,; grind altogether for half an
hour as (tiff as you can ; then put it i\i a glafs and
fftir it well, and let it ftand to fettle fourteen days.
For green, Take red lead, one pound; fcalcs of cop¬
per, one pound; and flint, five pounds ; divide them
into three pans; and add to them as much fal nitre;
put them into a crucible, and melt them with a ftrong
fire ; and when it is cold, powder it, and grind it on
a porphyry. For gold colour, Take filver,an ounce;
antimAty, half an ounce; melt th^m in a crucible;
then pound the mafs to powder ; and grind it on
a copper plate ; add to it yellow oker, or brick-duft
.cakined again, fifteen ounces; and grind them well to¬
gether with water. For purple. Take minium, one
pound; brown ftone, one pound; white flint, five
pounds; dtvide'thefn into three parts, and add to them
asmuclvfai nitre as one of the parts; calcine, melt, and
grind it as you did the green. For red,Takejet, fouroun-
ces; litharge of filver, two ounces; red chalk, one
ounce ; powderxhem fine, and mix them. For white.
Take jet, two parts; white flint, ground on a glafs
very fine, one part; mix them. For yellow, take
Spaniflr brown, ten parts; leaf filver, one part; anti¬
mony, half a part; put all into a crucible, and cal¬
cine them well.
In the windows of ancient churches, there are
to be feen the molt beautiful and vivid colours imagi¬
nable, which far exceed any of thofe ufed by the mo¬
derns, not fo much becaufe the fecret of making thofe
colours is entirely loft, as that the moderns will not go
to the charge of them, nor be at the neceffary pains,
by reafon that this fort of painting is not now fo much
in efteem as formerly. Thofe beautiful works which
were made in the glafs-houfes were of two kinds.
In fome, the colour was diffufed through the whole
■fubftance of the glafs. In others, which were the
more common, the colour was only on one fide, fcarce
penetrating within the fubftance above one third of a
line; though this was more or lefs according to the
nature of tire colour ; the yellow being always found
to enter the deepeft. Thefe laft, though not fo ftrong
and beautiful as the former, were of more advantage
to the workmen, by reafon that On the fame glafs,
though already coloured, they could {hew other kind
of colours where there was occafion to embroider dra¬
peries, enrich them with foliages, or reprefent other
ornaments of gold, filver, -<&c.
In order to this, they made ufe of emery, grinding
or wearing down the furface of the glafs, till fuch
time as they were got through the colour to the clear
glafs. This done, they applied the proper colours on
the other fide of the glafs. By thefe means, the new
colours were hindered from running and mixing with
the former, when they expofed the glades to the fire,
as will appear hereafter.
When indeed the ornaments were to appear white,
the glafs was only bared of its colour with emery,
without tinging the place with any colour at all; and
'this
G L A
this was the manner by which they wrought their lights,
and heightnings, on all kinds of colour.
The hr ft thing to be done, in order to paint or ftain
glafs, in the modern way, is to defign, and even co¬
lour the whole fubjeft on paper. Then they chufe
fuch pieces of glafs as are clear, even, and fmooth,
and proper to receive the feveral parts, and prbceed to
diftribute the deiign itfelf, or papers it is drawn on,
into pieces fuitable to thofe of the glafs ; always taking
care that the glafles may join in the contours of the fi¬
gures, and the, folds-of the draperies; that the carna¬
tions, and other finer parts, may not be impaired by
the lead with which the pieces are to be joined toge¬
ther. Tire diftribution being made, they mark all the
glaffes as well as papers, that they may be known
again : which done, applying every* part of the defign
upon the glafs intended for it, they copyt or transfer,
the defign upon this glafs with the black colour diluted
in gum v/ater, by tracing and following all the lines
anc^ ftrokes as they appear through the glafs with the
point of a pencil.
When thefe ftrokes are ell dried, which will hap¬
pen in about two days, the work being only in black
and white, they give airtight wafti over with urine, gum
arabic, and a little black; and repeat it feverai times,
according as the {hades are deTired to be heightened,
with this precaution, never to apply a new wafh till
the former is fufficiently dried.
This done, the lights and rifings are given by rub¬
bing off the colour in thp refpedtive places with a
wooden point, or the handle of the pencil,.
As to the other colours above-mentioned, they are
ufed with gum water, much as in painting in miniature ;
taking care to apply them lightly, for fear of effacing,
the out-lines of the defign ; or even, for the greater fe-
curity, to apply them on thebtherfide; efpecially yellow,
which is very pernicious to the other colours, by blend¬
ing therewith. And here too, as in pieces of black
and white, particular regard muft always be had not
to lay colour on colour, or lay on a new lay, till fuch
time as the former are well dried.
It may be added, that the yellow is the only colour
that penetrltes through the glafs, and incorporates
therewith by the fire; the reft, and particularly the
blue, which is very difficult to ufe, remaining on the
furface, or at leaft entering very little. When the
painting of all thb pieces is finifhed, they are carried
to the furnace', or oven, to anneal, or bake the co¬
lours.
The furnace here ufed is fmall, built of brick,
from eighteen to thirty inches fquare. At fix inches
from the bottom is an aperture to put in the "fuel,
arid maintain the fire. Over this aperture is a
grate, made of three fquare bars of iron, which tra-
verfe the furnace, and divide it into two parts. Two
inches above this partition, is another little aperture,
through which they take out pieces to examine how the
coffion goes forward. On the grate is placed a fquare
earthen pan, fix or feven inches deep ; and five or fix
inches lefs every way than the perimeter of the fur-
V.OL. II. No. 56. 2
G L A
trace. On the one fide hereof is n little aperture,
through which to make trials, placed direffly oppofite
that of the furnaces deftined for the fame end. In
this pan, are the pieces of glafs to be placed, in the
following manner. Fii ft, the bottom of the pan is
covered with three ftiata, or layers, of quick lime
pulverifed ; thofe ftrata being feparated by two other s
of old broken glafs, the defign whereof is to fecurs
the painted glafs from the too intenfe heat of the fire.
This done, the glaffes are laid horizontally on the laft
or uppermoft layer of lime.
The firft row of glafs they cover over with a layer
of the fame powder, an inch deep ; and over this they
lay another .range of glaffes, and thus alternately till
the pan is quite full; taking care that the whole heap
always end with a layer of the lime powder.
The pan being thus prepared, they cover up the
furnace vith tiles, on a fquare table of earthen ware,
cloftly luted all round; only leaving five little aper¬
tures, one at each corner, and another in the middle,
to ferve as chimneys. Things thus difpofed, there re¬
mains nothing but to give the fire to the work. The
fire for the firft two hours muft be very moderate, and
muft be increafed in proportion as the co&ion advances,
for the fpace of ten or twelve hours; in which time
it is ufually compleated. At laft the fire, which at
firft was charcoal, is to be of dry wood, fo that the
flame covers the whole pan, and even iffues out at the
chimneys.
During the laft hours, they make effays, from time
to time, by taking out pieces laid for the purpofe
through the little aperture of the furnace, and pan, to
fee whether the yellow be perfeft, and the other co¬
lours in good order. When the annealing is thought
fufficient, they proceed with great hafte to extinguifh
the fire, which otherwife would foon burn the colours,
and break the glaffes.
Glass of lead. See Chemistry, p. 136.
Glass porcelain, the name given by many to a modern
invention of imitating the china-ware with glafs.
The method of making it, as given byMr Reamur,
who was the firft that carried the attempt to any de¬
gree of perfedlien, is as follows.
The glafs veffels to be converted into porcelain, are
to be put into large vcffels, fuch as the common fine
earthen difhes are baked in ; or into fufficiently large cru¬
cibles : the veffels are to be filled with a mixture of
fine white fand, and of fine gypfum; or plafter ftone,
burnt into what is called plafter of Paris ; and all the
interftices are to be filled up with the fame powder, fo
that the glafis v^ffels may no where touch either one
another, or the fides ofijthe veffels they are baked in.
The vcffel is to be then covered down, and luted,
and the fire does the reft of the work : for this is only
to be put into a common potter’s furnace, and when it
lias flood there the ufual time of halting the other vef¬
fels, it is to be taken out, and the whole contents will
be found no longer glafs, hut converted into a wffiite
opake fubftance, which is a very elegant porcelain, and
has alraoft the properties of that of china.
( 721 )
Glass
G L A ( 722
Glkss of anthnony. See Chemi str y, p 87.
GLASTONBURY, a market town of Somerfetfhire,
five miles foiuh of Wells.
GLATZ, the capital of a county of the fame name in
Bohemia, 100 miles call of Prague: E. long. 160 S',
N. lat. 50° 25'.
GLAUBER’S salt. See Chemistry, p. 127.
GLAUCION, in ornithology. See Anas.
GLAUCIUM, in botany. See Chelidonium.
GLAUCOMA, in medicine, the change of the cryftal-
line humour of the eye into an azure-colour. See Me¬
dicine.
GLAUCUS, in ichthyology. SeeSquALus.
GLAUX, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix confifts of one leaf; it has no
corolla ; the capfule has one cell, 5 valves, and 5
feeds. There is but one fpecies, viz. the maritima,
fea-milkwort, or glafs-wort, a native of Britain.
GLAZIER, an artificer who works in glafs. SccGlass.
The principal part of a glazier’s bufinefs confilts in
fitting panes and plates of glafs to the fafhes and win¬
dow-frames of houfes, pictures, &c. and in cleaning
the fame.
GLAZING, the polifiiing or crufting over earthen ware,
by running melted lead or litharge over it.
The common ware is glazed with a compofition of
50 lb. clean fand, 70 lb. lead afhes, 30 lb. wood-afhes,
and 12 lb. fait, all melted into a cake. With this
mixture they glaze it over, and then fet it in an earth¬
en glazing pan; taking care that the veflels do not
touch one another. As feveral colours are ufed for
this purpofe, we fhall give the following receipts,
from Smith’s laboratory. i.For a black, take lead-
afhes, 18 parts; iron-filings, 3; copper-alhes, 3; and
zaffer, 2 : this, when melted, will make a brown black;
and if you would have it blacker, put fome more zaffer
to it. 2. For blue, take lead-aflies, 1 lb. clear fand
or pebble, 2 lb. fait, 2 lb. white calcined tartar, ilb.
Venice or other glafs, x6lb. and zaflfer, halfapound:
mix them well together ; and after melting, quench
them in water, and then melt them again ; which ope¬
ration is to be repeated feveral times; and if you
would have it fine and good, it will be proper to put the
mixture into a glafs furnace for a day or two. 3- A
brown glazing may be given with a mixture of lead-
glafs, 12 parts, and common glafs and manganefe, of
each one part. 4. A citron yellow may be made of
6 parts of red-lead, 7 parts of fine red brick-duft, and
2 parts of antimony, all melted together. 5. A flelh-
colour, with 12 parts of lead-afhes, and one of white
glafs. 6 For a green-colour, take 8 parts of litharge,
8 parts of Venice-glafs, 4 parts of brafs-duft, and melt
them together for ufe; or melt together two parts
yellow glafs, with as much copper-duft. 7. For a
gold-yellow, take of antimony, red lead, and fand, an
equal quantity, and melt them into a cake. 8. For a
fine purple brown, take lead-alhes, 15 parts ; clear
fand, 18; manganefe, 1; white glafs, lymeafures;
and 1 of zalfer. 9. For a fine red, take antimony,
2 lb. litharge, 31b. ruft of iron calcined, 1 lb. and
grind them to a fine powder. 10. For a fine white
) G L O
glazing, take 2 lb, of lead, 1 lb. of tin, and calcine
them to allies ; of which take 2 parts; of calcined flint
or pebble, 1 part; of fait, ipart; and mixing them
well together, melt them into a cake. At Rotterdam,
they make a fine Ihining white glazing, by melting to¬
gether 2 lb. clean tin-alhes, lolb. lead alhes, 2 lb.
fine Venice-glafs, and \ lb. tartar. 11 A yellow gla¬
zing is made of 4 ounces of red lead, and 2 ounces of
antimony, melted together. 12. For a fine yellow,
take red lead, 3 pints; antimony and tin, of each 2 lb.
then melting them into a cake, grind it fine; and re¬
peating this feveral times, you will have a good yel¬
low.
GLEBE, among miners, fignifies a piece of earth, where¬
in is contained fome mineral ore.
Glebe, in law, the land belonging to a parilh-church,
befides the tithes.
GLECHOMA, in botany, a genus belonging to the di-
dynamia gymnofpermia clafs. The calix confids of
five fegments ; and each pair of'antheras are difpofed
in the form of a crofs. There are three fpecies, two
of which are natives of Britain, viz. the hederacea, or
ground-ivy; and the arvenfis, or upright ground-ivy.
The leaves of the hederacea are corroborant, aperient,
and detergent.
GLEDITSI A, in botany, a genus of the polygamia dicecia
clafs. The calix of the hermaphrodite has four fegments;
the corolla four petals; there are fix (lamina, and one pi-
(lillum. The calix of the male confifts of three leaves,
and the corolla of three petals ; and it has fix (la¬
mina. The calix of the female confids of five leaves,
and the corolla of five petals ; it has but one piftillum;
and the capfule is a legumen. There are two fpecies,
none of them natives of Britain.
GLEET, in medicine, the flux of a thin limpid hu¬
mour from the urethra. See Medicine.
GLIRES, the name of Linnaeus’s fourth order of mam¬
malia See Natural History.
GLENOIDES, the name of two cavities, or fmall de-
preffions, in the inferior part of the firft vertebra of
the neck.
GLI5, in zoology. See Sciurus.
GLISCHROMICTHES, in natural hiftory, themame
by which Dr Hill calls the tougher and more vifcid
loams.
GLISTER, in furgery. Clyster.
GLOBE, in pradlical mathematics, an artificial fphericaF
body, on the convex furface of which are reprefented
the countries, feas, (ire. of our earth; or the face of
the heavens, the circles of the fphere, &c. See Geo¬
graphy.
GLOBULARIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria
monogynia clafs. The common calix is imbricated ;
and the proper calix is tubular and below the fruit;
the upper labium of the corollulse is divided into two
parts, and the under one into three; and the recep¬
tacle is paleaceous. There are feven fpecies, none
of them natives of Britain.
GLOBULE, a diminutive of globe, frequently ufed by
phyficians in fpeaking of the red fpherical particles of.
the blood.
GLOCESTER.*
G L U (7
GLOCESTER, the capital of Glocefter-fhire, ninety
miles weft of London: W. long. 20 i6\ and N. lat.
Si° 5c .
It is a biihop’s fee, and fends two members to par¬
liament.
GLOGAW, a city of Silefia, fituated on the river Oder,
forty five miles north weft of Breflaw: E long 160
and N. lat. 51° 4c/.
Lt;/c'r Glogaw, a town of Silefia, fifty miles fouth of
Breflaw.
GLORIOSA, superb Liny, in botany, a genus of
the hexandria monogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of
fix undulated and refledled petals; and the ftylus is ob¬
lique. There is but one fpecies, a native of Malabar.
GLOSSARY, a fort of diftionary, explaining the ob-
fcure and antiquated terms in fome old author.
GLOSSOPETRA, in natural hiftory, a genus of extra¬
neous foffils,, fo called from their having been fuppofed
the tongues of ferpents turned into done, though they
are really the teeth of (harks, and are daily found in
the mouths of thofe fifties, where ever taken.
GLOTTIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 300.
GLOWWORM SeeCiciNDELA.
GLUCKSTAT, a fortified town of Germany, fituated
on the eaft fide of the river Elbe, thirty miles north-
weft of Hamburgh: E. long. 90, and N. lat. 540 so'.
GLUE, among artificers) a tenacious vifcid matter,
which ferves as a cement to bind or connedt things to¬
gether.
Glues are of different kinds, according to the vari¬
ous ufes they are defigned Lr, as the common glue,
glove-glue, and parchment glue; whereof the two laft
are more properly called fize.
The common or ftrong glue is chiefly ufed by car¬
penters, joiners, cabinet-makers, fyc. and the beft kind
is that made in England, in fquare pieces of a ruddy
brown colour ; and, next to this, the Flanders glue. It
is made of the fkins of animals, as oxen, cows, calves,
ftieep, <&c. and the older the creature is, the better is
the glue made of its hide. Indeed, whole fkins are but
rarely ufed for this purpofe, but only the fhavings, pa¬
rings, or fcraps of them; or the feet-finews, That
made of whole fkins, however, is undoubtedly the beft ;
as that made of finews is the very word.
7he method of making Glue. In making glue of pa¬
rings, theyfirft fteep them two or three days in water;
then walking them well out, they boil them to the
confiftence of a thick jelly ; which they gafs, while hot,
through ozier-bafkets, to feparate the impurities from
it, and then let it ftand fome time, to purify it fur¬
ther: when all the filth and ordures are fettled to the
bottom of the veflel, they melt and boil it a fecond
time. They next pour it into flat frames or moulds,
whence it is taken out pretty hard and folid, and, cut
into fquares pieces or cakes. They afterwards dry it
in the wind, in a fort of coarfe net; and at laft firing ;
it, to finifh its drying.
The glue made of finews, feet, &£•. ;s managed
after the fame manner ; only with this difference, that
they bone and fcour die feet, and, do not lay them to
fteep.
23 ) G N A
The beft glue is that which is cldeft ; and the fureft
way to try us goodnefi, is to lay a piece to fteep three-
or four days, and if it fwell confiderably without melt¬
ing, and when taken out refumes its former drinefs, it
is excellent.
A glue that will hold againft fire or water, may be
made thus : mix a handful of quicklime with four
ounces of linfeed oil; boil them to a good thicknefs,
then fpread it on tin-plates in the (hade, and it will be¬
come exceeding hard, but may be eafily diftblved over
a fire, as glue, and will effeift the bufinefs to admira-
Method of preparing and ufng Glue. Set a quart of
water on the fire, then put in about half a pound of
good glue, and boil them gently together till the glue
be entirely diflblved and of a due confiftence. When
glue is to be ufed, it muft be made thoroughly hot ;
after which, with a brufh dipped in it, befmear the fa¬
ces of the joints as quick as poffible; then clapping
them together, Aide or rub them lengthwife one upon
another, two or three times, to fettle them clofe; and
fo let them ftand till they are dry and firm.
GLUME, among botanifts. See Botany, p.637.
GLUTiEUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p 204.
GLYClNE, itrbfotany, a genus of the diadelphia de-
candriadafs. The calix is bilabiated : and the pod
confifL of two cells. There are nine fpecies, none of
them fiatives of Britain.
GLYCYRRHIZA, liquorice, in botany, a genus of
the diadelphia decandria clafs. The calix is bilabia¬
ted ; and the pod is oval and comprefled. There are
three fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
The common liquorice is cultivated in moft coun¬
tries of Europe for the fake of its root. That which
is cultivated in Britain is preferable to fuch as comes
from abroad ; this laft being generally mouldy, which
this root is very apt to become, unlefs kept in a dry
place. The powder of liquorice ufually fold is often
mingled with flour, and probably toooften with fubftan-
ces not quite fo wholefome: the beft fort is of a brown-
ifh yellow colour (the fine-pale yellow being generally
fophifticated) and of a very rich fweet tafte, much
more agreeable than that of the frefh root. Liquorice
is almoft the only fw'eet that quenches thirft; whence
it w as called by the Greeks adipfon.: Galea takes no- -
ticc, that it was employed in this intention in hydro¬
pic cafes, to prevent the ntceflity of drinking. Mr
Fuller, in his MeJicinagymnaftica, recommends this
root as a very ufeful pedtoral, and fays it excellently
foftens acrimonious humours, at the fame time that it
proves gently detergent: and this account is warranted ,
by experience.
GLYPH, in feu Ip tare and architefture, denotes any ca¬
nal or cavity ufed as an ornament
GMELINA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia angio-
fpermia clafs. The calix has four teeth ; the corolla
is bell-ftiaped, and divided into four fegments ; the an-
tberas^are divided into two parts; and the fruit is a bi¬
locular drupa. There is but one fpecies, a native of
the Indies.
GNAPHALIUM, CUDWEED, in botany, a genus of the
fyngenefia .
O L '( 724
fynggnsfia polygamia fuperfiua claifs. The receptacle
is naked; the pappus is plumofe ; and the calix is im¬
bricated. There are 41 fpecies, five of them natives
of Britain, viz. the dioicum, mountain cudweed, or
cat’s foot; the margaritaceum, or American cudweed ;
the luteo-album, or Jerfey cudweed; the fylvaticum,
or upright cudweed; and the uliginolum, or black-
headecf cudweed.
‘GNAT, in zoology. See Musca.
GNESNA, the capital city of great Poland, fituated
one hupdred and ten miles well of Warfaw: E. long.
, 180, and N, lat. 530.
It is the fee of an archbilhop, who is always pri¬
mate ©f Poland. See Poland.
GNIDIA, in botany, a genus of the odlandria monogy-
niaclafs. The calix is funnel lhaped, and confilts of
four fegments ; the petals are four, and inferted into
the calix; and the berry contains but one feed. There
are three fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
GNOMON, in dialling, the llyle, pin, or cock of a
dial; which, by its lhadow, fliews the hour of the.
day. See Dialling.
Gnomon, in altronomy, a llyle eredled perpendicular to
the horizon, in order to find the altitude of the fun.
Gnomon.cy a globe, the index of the hour circle. See
Geography-.
GNOMONICS, the art of dialling. See Dialling.
GNOSTICS, in church-hiftory, Chritban heretics fo
called, it being a name which almoli all the ancient
' heretics affeCkd to take, to exprefs that new knowledge
and extraordinary light to which they made preten-
fions ; the word gnolticfignifying a learned or enlighten¬
ed perfon.
GOA, a city and fea-port of the hither India, fituated
in an illand of the river Mandoua, and lubjedt to the
Portuguefe : E. Ion. 730 70 , and N. lat. 150 20'.
GOAT, in zoology. See Capra.
Goat’s beard, in botany. See Tragopogon.
Goat’s rue, in botany. See Galega.
Goat sucker, in ornithology. See Caprimulgus.
GOBIUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fiflies- belonging
to the order of thoracic!. 7hey have two holes be¬
tween the eyes, four rays in the membrane of the
gills; and the belly-fins are united in an oval form.
There are eight fpecies, principally diftinguilhed- by
the number of rays in their fins.
GOD, one of the many names of the Supreme Being.
See Religion.
•GODDESS, a heathen deity of the female fex. •
The ancients had almoft as many goddeffes as gods;
fuch were Juno, the goddefs of air; Diana, the god-
defs of woods, And under this character were re-
prefented the virtues, graces, and principal advantages
of life; Truth, Juft ice, Piety, Liberty, Fortune, Victo¬
ry, &c.
It was the peculiar privilege of the goddeflys to be
reprefented naked on medals ; for it was fuppofed that
the imagination muft be awed and reftrained by the
confideration of the divine character.
fGOLCONDA, the capital of a province of the fame
-G O L
name in the hither India: E. long. 77^, and N. lat.
160.
GOLD. See Chemistry, p. 78, and 129.
Gold-wire, a cylindrical ingot of filver, fuperficially
gilt, or covered with gold at the fire, and afterwards
. drawn fucceffively through a great number of little,
round holes, of a wire-drawing iron, each left than
the other, till it be fometimes no bigger than a hair of
the head.
It may be obferved, that before the wire be reduced
to this exceflive finenefs, it is drawn through above an
hundred arid forty different holys; and that, each time
they dra"w it, it is rubbed afrelh over with new wax,
both to facilitate its paffage, and to prevent the filver’s
appearing through it.
Gold-wire flatted, is the former wire flatted between
two rollers of poliftied fteel, to fit it to be fpun on a
flick, or to be ufed flat, as it is, without fpinning, in
certain fluffs, laces, embroideries, See Stuff,
6-c.
Gold thread, or Spun-gold, is a,fi itted gold, wrap¬
ped, or laid over a thread of fiik, by twifting it with a
wheel and iron bobbins.
Manner of yirTE/tzg'Gold-wire, Gold-thread,
both round and flat. Firft, an ingot of filver, of twen¬
ty-four pounds, is forged into a cylinder, of about an
inch in diameter : then it ij drawn through eight or ten
holes, of a large, coarfe, wire-drawing iron, both to
findh the roundnefs, and to reduce it to about three
fourths of its former diameter. This done, they file
it very carefully all over, to take off any filth remain¬
ing on the forge ; then they cut it in the middle; and
thus make two equal ingots thereof, each about twen¬
ty fix inches long, which they draw through feveral new
holes, to take off any inequalities the file may have
left, and to render it as fmooth and equable as poflible.
The ingot thus far prepared, they heat it in a char¬
coal fire; then taking fome gold leaves, each about
four inches fquare, and weighing twelve grains, they
join four, eight, twelve, or fixteen of tbele, as the
wire is intended to be more or left gilt; and when they
are fo joined, as only to form a Angle leaf, they rub
the ingots reeking hot with a burnilher. Thefe leaves
being thus prepared, they apply over the whole furface
of the ingot, to the number- of fix, over each other,
burniftiing or rubbing them well down with the blood-
flone, to clofe and fmoothe them. When gilt, the in¬
gots are laid anew in a coal fire; and when raifed to a
certain degree of heat, they go over them a fecond
time with the bloed-ftone, both to folder ;be gold more
perfectly, and to finifh the polifhing. The gilding fi-
niftied, it remains, to draw the ingot into wire.
In order to this, they pafs it through twepty holes
of a moderate drawing iron, by which it is brought to
thethicknefs of the tag of a lace: from this time the
ingot lofes its name, and commences gold-wire. Twen¬
ty holes more of a leffer iron leaves it fmall enough for
the lead iron ; the fineft holes, of which laft fcarce ex¬
ceeding the hair of the head, finifli the work.
To difpofe the wire to be fpun on filk., they pafs it
between
C O L r 725 ) fO o
l>etween two rollers of a little mill: thefe rollers are
•of nicely poKlhed fteel, and about three inches in dia¬
meter. '1 hey are fet very dofe to each other, and
turned by means of a handle faftened to one of them,
which gives motion to the other. The gold wire in
palling between the two, is rendered quite flat, but
without loftng any thing of its gilding, and is rendered
fo exceedingly thin and flexible, that it is eafily fpun
on fi!k thread, by means of a hand wheel, and fo wound
on a Ipool or bobtn.
^Gold-leaf, 0/ Beaten Gont), is gold beaten with a
hammer into exceeding thin leaves, fo that it is com¬
puted, that an Ounce may be beaten into lixteen hun¬
dred leaves, each three indies fquare, in which ftate
it takes up more than 155052 times its former furface.
This gold they beat on a block of black marble, a-
bout a foo1?fquare, and ufuaHy railed three feet high :
they make ufe of three forts of hammers, formed like
mallets, of polifhed iron : the firft, which weighs three
or four pounds, ferves to chafe, or drive.; the feconjl,
of eleven or twelve pounds, to clofe ; and the third,
which weighs fourteen or fifteen pounds, to ftretch and
finilh. They alio make ufe of four moulds of differ¬
ent fizes, viz. two of vellum, the fmalleft whereof
confills of forty or fifty leaves, and the larger of two
hundred ; the other two, confiding each of five hun¬
dred leaves, are made of bullocks guts well feoured,,
and prepared. See Mould.
^Method of preparing and beating Gold. They flrft
melt a quantity of pure gold, and form it into an in¬
got : this they 'reduce, by forging, into a plate about
the thicknefs of a fheet of paper; which done, they
cut the plate into little pieces about an inch fquare, and
lay them in the firft or fmalleft mould to begin to ftretch
•them: after they have been hammered here a while
with the fmalleft hammer, they cut each of them into
four, and put them into the fecond mould, to be ex¬
tended further.
Upon taking them hence, they cut them again into
four, and put them into the third mould; out of which
they are taken, divided into four, as before, and laid
in the laft, or finifhing mould, where they are beaten
to the degree of thinnefs required.
The leaves thus finifhed, they take them out of the
mould, and difpofe them into little paper-books, pre¬
pared with a little red bole, for the gold to ftick to ;
each book ordinarily contains twenty-five gold leaves.
There are two fizes of thefe books; twenty-five leaves
of the fmalleftTmly weigh five or iix grains, and the
fame number of the largeft nine or ten grains.
It muft be' obferved, that gold is beaten more or lefs,
according to the kind 05 quality of the v/ork it is in¬
tended for; that for the gold-wire drawers to gild
their ingots withal, is left much thicker than that for
gilding the frames of piftures, tic. withal. See Gild¬
ing.
sGold-finch, in ornithology. See Fringilla.
•Goldsmith, er, as fome chufe to exprefs it,
fmith, an artift who makes veflels, utenfils; and orna¬
ments, in gold and filver.
The goldfmith’s work is either performed in the
Vol.U. N0.56.
mould, or'beat out with the hammer or other engine...
All works that have raifed figures, are caft in a mould,,
and afterwards polished and finifljed: plates, or difhes,
of .filver or ,gold, are-beat out from thin fi t plates ;
and tankards, and other veflels of that kind, are form¬
ed of plates foldered together, and their mouldings are
Beat, not call. The bufinefs of the goldfmiihs for¬
merly required much more labour than it does at pre¬
sent ; for they were obliged to hammer the metal from
the inget to the thinnefs they wanted: but there are
now invented flatting-mills, which reduce metals to the
thinnefs that is required, at a very fmail expence. The
goldfmith.is t© make his own moulds, and for that rea-
lon ought to be a good defigner, and have a tafte in
fculpture: be alfo ought to know enough of metallur¬
gy, to be able to alfay mixed metak, and to mix the
alloy,
GOLDEN, fomething that has a relation to gold, or
confifts of gold.
Golden number. See Astronomt, p. 492.
Golden rule. See Arithmetick, p.381.
GOLDINGEN, a city of Poland, in the duchy of
•Courland, fixty miles weft of Mittau : E. long. 220,
N. lat 570.
GOMBR.QN, the greateft fea-port town in Petfia, fitu-
ated on the ftrait at the entrance of the gulph of Per-
-fia, oppofite to the ifland of Ormus : E. long. 550 30',
JST, lat. 27° 3.o^
GOMER A, one of the Canary iflands, fubjedt to Spain,
and fituated weft of Ttneriff: W. long. 1S0, N. lat.
28°.
Gomorro iflands, fituated between io° and 130 S. lat*
on the eaftera coaft of Africa.
GOMPHOSIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 148*
GOMPHRENA, the purple everlafling flower, in bo¬
tany, a genus of the pentandria digynia clafs. The
calix confifts of three coloured leaves; the nedtarium
is cylindrical, with ten teeth; and the capfule contains
xme feed. "There are feven fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain,
GONDOLA, in naval architecture, a flat kind of boat,
very long and narrow, chiefly .ufed on the canals at
Venice.
GONORRHOEA, in medicine, an involuntary efflux of
the feminal juices, andTome other recrementitious mat¬
ter. See Me di c we .
GOOD, in general, whatever is apt to caufe or increafe
pleafure, or diminifh pain in us ; or, which amounts to
the fame, whatever is ablq to procure or preferve to
us the poffeflion of agreeable fenfations., and remove
thofe of an oppofite nature.
Moral-Goon, denotes the right conduCt of the feveral
fenfes and paffions, or their juft proportion and accom¬
modation to their refpeCtive objects and relations. See
Morals.
GOOD-HOPE, or c/Good-hope, themoft fou-
thern promontory of Africa, where the Dutch have
built a ^ood town and fort : E. long. x6° and N. lat,
34° H •
GOOSE, in ornithology. See Anas.
Gooseberry., in botany. SeePiBEs.
7U
Goose-.keck,.,
G O S ( 726 ) G O v
-Goose-neck, in a Hiip, a p:ece of iron , fixed on the
one end of the tiller, to which the laniard of the whip-
ftaff or the wheel-rope comes, for lleering the fhip.
Goose-wing, in the fea-language. When a (hip fails
before, or with a quarter-wind on a frefh gale, to
make the more hade, they launch out a boom, and
fail on the lee fide; and a fail fo fitted, is called a
goofe-wing.
GOR, the capital of a province of the fame name, in the
Eaft-Indies, fubjedt to the Mogul: E. long. 85°, N.
lat. 31° 15',
GORCUM, a city of the United Provinces, fituated in
that of Holland, on the river Waal, twenty two miles
eaft of Rotterdam.- E. long. 40 50', N lat. 510 50’.
GORDIAN knot, in antiquity, a knot made in the
leathers or harnefs of the chariot of Gordius, king of
Phrygia, fo very intricate, that there was no finding
where it began or ended.
The inhabitants had a tradition, that the oracle
had declared, that he who united this knot, (hould be
niafter of Alia. Alexander having undertaken it, was
unable to accomplilh it; when fearing led his not un¬
tying it fhould be deemed-an ill augury, and prove a
check in the way of his conqueds, he cut it afunder
with his fword, and thus either accompliflied or elu¬
ded the oracle.
GORE, in heraldry, one of the abatements, which, ac¬
cording to Guillim, denotes a coward. It is a figure
confiding of two arch lines drawn one from the finider
chief, and the other from the finider bafe, both meet¬
ing in an acute angle in the middle of the fefs point.
See Plate XCVII. fig. 4.
GORGE, in architecture, the narrowed part of theTuf-
can and Doric capitals, lying between the adragal, a-
bove the ihaft of the pillar, and the annulets.
Gorge, in fortification, the entrance of the platform of
any work. See Fortification.
GORGED, in heraldry, the bearing of a crown, coronet,
or the like, about the neck of a lion, a fwan, &c. and
in that cafe it is faid, the lion or cygnet is gorged with
a ducal coronet, <bc.
Gorged is alfo ufed when the gorge or neck of a
peacock, fwan, or the like bird, is of a different co¬
lour or metal from the red.
GORGONA, the name of two iflands; one in the Pacific
Ocean on the coad of Peru, W. long. 790, N. lat. 30;
the other in the Mediterranean, twenty five miles wed
of Leghorn.
GORGONS, in antiquity, a warlike female nation of
Lybia, in Africa, who had frequent quarrels with an¬
other nation of the fame fex, called Amazons.
GORLITZ, a city of Upper Saxony, in Germany, fifty
miles ead of Drefden : E. long. 150 6', N. lat. yi°
GOSHAWK. SeeFALCo.
GOSLAR, an imperial city of Lower Saxony, in Ger¬
many, thirty miles fouth of Brunfwick : E. long. io°
30'. N lat 520.
GOSPEL, the hidory of the life, aCHons, death, refur-
reCUon, afcenfibn and doCtrine of Jefus Chrid.
The word is faxon, and of the fame import with the
Latin term e-jangelium, which 'fignifies glad tidings,
or good news.
This hidory is contained in the writings of St Mat¬
thew, St Mark, St Luke, and St John ; who from
thence are called evangelids. The Chridian chucch
never acknowledged any more than thefe four gofpeis
as canonical; notwithstanding which, feveral apocry¬
phal gofpeis are handed down to us, and others are en¬
tirely lod. ■
GOSSYPIUM, in botany, a genus of the monodelphia
polyandria clafs The calix is double, the exterior
one confiding of three leaves ; the capfule has four
cells ; and the feeds are covered with down. There
are four fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
GOTHA the capital of the duchy of Saxe Gotha, in
Upper Saxony ; E. long. io° 30, N, lat. yi°.
It is fubjedt to the duke of Saxe Gotha, brother of
her royal highnefs the princefs dowager of Wales.
GOTHIC, in general, whatever has any relation to the
Goths: thus, we fay. Gothic cudoms, Gothic arcm-
te&ure, <bc.
GOTHLAND, the mod fouthern province of Sweden,
being a peninfula furrounded on three fides by the
Baltic Sea. It is fubdivided into Ead an i Wed Goth¬
land, Smaland, Halland, Bleken, and Schopen.
Gothland, is alfo an iflandof the Baltic, fituated with¬
out the province of Gothland and Livonia.
GOTTENBURG, a port-town of Sweden, fituated be¬
tween the Sound, on the coad-of the Schaggerack Sea,
near the entrance of the Baltic.
GOTTINGEN, a city of Germany, in the circle of
Lower Saxony and dukedom of Brunfwick : E. Jong.
90 45', N. Lat. ji° 32'.
GOTTORP, a city of the dukedom of Slefwic, in Den¬
mark, and capital of the territories of the duke of Hol-
dein Gottorp: E. long. io°, N. lat. 54°40.
GOUDE, a city of the United Netherlands, in the pro¬
vince of Holland, ten miles north-ead of Rotterdam.
GOVERNMENT, in general, is the polity of a date,
or an orderly power condituted for the public good.
Civil government was indituted for the prefervation
and advancement of mens civil intereds, and for the
better fecurity of their lives, liberties, and properties.
The ufe and neceflity of government is fuch, that there
never was an age or country without fome fort of civil
authority : but as men are feldom unanimous in the
means of attaining their ends, fo their difference in o-
pinion in relation to government, has produced a varie¬
ty of forms of it. To enumerate them, would be to
recapitulate the hidory of the whole earth. But they
may, in general, be reduced to one of thefe heads;
either the civil authority is delegated to one or more,
or elfe it is dill referved to the whole body of the peo¬
ple ; whence arifes the known didinftion of govern¬
ment into monarchy, aridocracy, and democracy.
Mr Hooker thinks, that the fird government was ar¬
bitrary, and adminidered by a fingle perfon ; till it
was found by experience, that to live by one man’s
will, was the caufe of all mens mifery: and this, he
concludes, was the original of inventing laws. The
Roman and mod of the Grecian dates were built up¬
on
o ii A ( :
on the rrepabilean phm; but when the‘Goths, and o-
rher northern nations, deftroyed the Roman empire,
and extended their conquers into far difiant countries,
they ertablifhed, where ever they came, a mixed form
of government. The prefervation of this conftitution
depending upon the balance Between the king, trobility,
and people, the legislative power was lodged in thefe
three hates, called by different names in different
countries ; in the north, diets ; in Spain, cones ; in
France, eftates ; and in Britain, parliaments. The
excellency of this mixed government, confifts in that
due poife or balance between rule and fubje&ion, fo
juftly obferved in it, that by the neceffary concurrence
of the nobility and commons, in making and repealing
all laws, it has the main advantage of an arihocracy,
and a democracy, and yet is free from the difadvanta-
ges and evils of either of them. This mixed form of
government is, however, now driven almoft out of Eu-
, rope, in Tome parts of which we can hardly find the
lhadow of liberty leu, and in many there is no more
than the name of it remaining. France, Spain, Portu¬
gal, Denmark, and part of Germany, were all, an
age or two ago, limited monarchies, governed by prin¬
ces, well advifed by parliaments or courts, and not by
the abfolute will of one man. But now all their va¬
luable rights and liberties are fwallowed up by the ar¬
bitrary power of their princes : whilft we in great Bri¬
tain have Hill happily preferved this noble., and ancient
Gothic conftitution, which all our neighbours once en¬
joyed. There is fuch a due balance of property, power,
and dominion in our conftitution, that, like the ancient
government of Sparta, it may be called an empire of
law s, and not of men ; being the moft excellent plan of
limited monarchy in the world.
Governments are commonly divided into two claffes,
arbitrary and free governments ; but there are many
differed forts of each. Thus the governments of
France and Spain are generaly called arbitrary ; tho’-
they differ as much from the governments of Turky
and other eaftern empires, where abfolute difpoticifm
prevails, as they do from the government of England,
and other European nations, where liberty is faid to
fiourilh in its fulled perfection.
Government is alfo a pod or office which gives a per-
fon the power or right to govern or rule over a place,
a city, or province, either fupremely or by deputa¬
tion.
Government is alfo ufed for the city, country, or
place to which the power of governing is extended..
GOURD, in botany. See Cucurbita.
GOUT, in medicine. See Medicine.
GRABOW, or Grubow, a town of Lower Saxony
and duchy.of Mecklenburg : E. long. ii° gb7, N. lat.
53° 32.
GRACE, among divines, is taken, id. For the free love
and favour of God, which is the fpnng and fogrce of
all the benefits which we receive from him. _2dly. For
the work of the fpirit, renewing the foul after the image
of God, and continually guiding and drsngthening the
727 ) G R A
believer to obey his will, to rcfid and mcrtlfy fin, and
to overcome it.
Grace, in geography, a city of Provence, in France.,
fifteen miles fouth-wed of Nice : E. long. 6° jo', N.
lat. 430 40 .
of Grace, the appellation given to the adt of par¬
liament 1696, c. 32. which allows prifoners for
civil debts to be fet at liberty, upon making oath, that
they have not wherewithal to fupport-themfelves in.
prifon, unlefs they are alimented by the creditors upon,
whofe diligences they were imprifoned, within ten
.days after intimation made for that purpofe. See
Scots Law, tit. 32.
Days of Grace, three days immediately following
the term of payment of a bill, within which the cre¬
ditor mud proted it, if payment is not obtained, in
order to intitle him to recourfe againd the drawer.
See Scots Law, tit. 21.
Grace is alfo a title of dignity given to dukes, archbl-
fhops, and in Germany to barons and other inferior
princes.
Graces, in heathen mythology, three goddeffes, whofe
names were AgHa, Thalia, and Euphrofyne; that is,
diining, flourilhing, and gay ; or, according to fome
- authors, Pafithae, Euphrofyne, and ASgiale. Some
make them the daughters of Jupiter, and Eurynome,
or Eunomia, the daughter of Oceanus; but the mod
common opinion is, that they were the daughters of
Bacchus and Venus.
They are fometimes reprefented dreffed, but more
frequently naked; to ffiew, perhaps, that whatever is
truly graceful, is fo in itfelf, without the aid of -ex*
terior ornaments. They prefided over mutual kind-
nefs and acknowledgment; bedowed liberality, elo¬
quence, and wifdom, together with a good grace, gai¬
ety of difpofition, and eafinefs of manners.
GRACULA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of pica:. The bill is convex, cultrated, and
bare at the point; the tongue is not cloven, but is
flelhy andfiiarpifh; it has three toes before, and one be¬
hind. There are eight fpecies, principally didinguiffi- ■
ed by their colour.
GRACULUS, in ornithology. See Corvus.
GRADATION, in general, the alcending dep bydep,
or in a regular and uniform manner.
GRADISKA, a city of Sclavonia, fituated on the river
Save, twenty-five miles wed of Pofega : E. long, ig0,
N. lat. 450 33'.
GRADUATE, a perfon who has taken a degree in the
univejuty. See Degree.
GRAFT, or Graff, in gardening, a cion or ffioot of
a tree inferted into another, fo as to make it
yield fruit of the fame nature with that of the tree
from whence the graft was taken. See Gardening.
GRATES, a market-town of Effex, fituated on the ri¬
ver Thames, feventeen miles ead of London..
GRAIN, ail forts of corn, as wheat, barley, oats rve
<bc. See Corn,.Wheat, 6c. . *
grammar.
'.[ 7«S )
G R A M MAR
-R. AMM A*R is t-be art of /peaking or of •writing
any language nuithpropriety.
Grammar confidered as an rlrt> neceflarily fuppofes
*he previous exirtence of;'language ; and as its defign is
.to teach any language to thole who are ignorant of it, it
^uuft be adapted to the genius of that particular language
<«f which it treats.—A juft method of grammar, there¬
fore, fuppofmg a language introduced by cuftom, with¬
out attempting any alterations in it, furnilhes certain ob-
iervations called rules, to which the methods of {peaking
aifed in this language may be reduced; this collection
.of rules is what is called a grammar of any, particular
language. For the greater diliinftnefs with regard to
thefe rules, grammarians, have .ufually divided this £ub-
jedt into four diftindt heads, tvs. Orthography, or
the art of combining letters into fyllabler, and fyllables
dntowords; QT'ita.QLQ&sthe art of deducing one
Of U N I V E 11 S
T is not oeceffary here to inquire how language was
originally invented, to trace the various changes it
may have undergone, or to examine whether any one
language may be confidered as the original from which all
others have been derived : it is fufficient for our purpofe
to obferve, that a‘Fmankind,iiowever diveffified in other
refpedts, agree in the common ufe of language4 from
which it appears, that language is not merely accidental
and arbitrary, but founded in the nature of things, and
within the reacli of all mankind. It is therefore an ob-
jedt worthy of a philofbphic inquiry to difcover the
foundations upon which this univerfal fabric has been
raifed.
The defign of fpeech is to publtfh to others the thoughts
and perceptions of our mind. The moft acute feelings
of man, as well as of every other animal, are exprefled
by fimple inarticulate founds, which, as they tend to the
prefervatton of the individual, are univerfally underftood.
Thefe inarticulate but fignificant founds, therefore, con-
ftitute a natural and univerfal language, which man, as a
mere fenfitive being, partakes in common with the other
>animals. But as man is not only endowed with fenfation,
but with the faculty of reafoning, dimple inarticulate
•founds are infuficienrfor expreffing all the various modi¬
fications of thought, or for communicating «> others a
chain of argumentation: it was therefore neceflary to call
in the aid of articulation ; which by modifying thefe fim¬
ple founds, and by fixing a particular meaning to thefe
modifications, forms the language peculiar to man, and
which diftinguifhes him from all other animals, and
enables him to communicate with facility all that diver¬
sity of ideas with which his mind is ftored. Thefe founds,
thus modified and having a determinate meaning, are cal¬
led Words ; and as all language is compofed of fignifi¬
cant words varioufly combined, a knowledge of them
is neceflary previous to our acquiring an adequate idea of
-language.
•word from another, and the various modifications fy
•which the fenfe of any one •word ran be divcrfified ;
Syntax, or what relates to the conjlruttion or due dif-
pofition of the •words of a language into fentences or
phrafes ; and Prosody, or that which treats of the
quantities and accents of fyllables, and the art of ma¬
king verfes.
But grammar confidered as a Science, views language
in itfelf: negledtiog particular modifications, or the ana¬
logy which •words may bear to each other, it examines
the analogy and relation between -words and things; di-
ftinguifties between tiiofe particulars which are ejfential
to language, and titofe'which are only accidental-, and
thus furnifhes a certain ftandard by winch dififerent lan¬
guages may be compared, and v^eir feveral excellencies
or defefts pointed out. This is what is called Philo¬
sophic or Universal Grammar.
A L GRAMMAR.
But, as it is by words that we exprefs the various
ideas which occur to the mind, it is neceflary to examine
how ideas themfdves are fuggefted, before we can afeer-
tain the various clafles into which words may be diftri-
buted. With this view, therefore, let us fuppofe a rea-
fonable being, devoid of every prepofleflion whatever,
placed upon this globe. His attention would, in the firft
place, be dire&ed to the various obje<fts which he faw
exifting around him: thefe he would naturally endeavour
to diftinguiflt from one another, and give them names,
by means of which the idea of them might be recalled
when the objefis themfelves were abfent. This is one
copious fource of words, and forms a natural clafs which
muft be common to every language ; and which is diftin-
guifhed by the name of Nouns. And as thefe nouns are
the names of the feveral fubftances which exift, they have
likewife been called Substantives.
It would likewife be early difeovered, that every one
of thefe fubftances were endov/ed with certain qualities or
attributes, to exprefs which another clafs of words would
be requifite. Thus, to be •weighty, is a quality of mat¬
ter; /o is an attribute of man Therefore, in every
language, words have been invented toexprefs the various
qualities of the feveral objeds which.exift. Thefe may
all be comprehended under the general denomination of
Attributives,
Thefe two claffes of words muft comprehend all things
that exift; for whatever exifts, muft of neceflity be ei¬
ther a fubftance, or the attribute of fome fubftance ; and
hence thefe two clafles muft comprehend all thofe words
which are fignificant of themfelves, and may be called
words significant of themselves. If any other
words occur, they can only be fignificant in fo far as they
tend to explain or conned the words of the two former
clafles.
But, although thefe words form the balls or matter of
a language, in the fame manner as ftones form the matter
G R A
of a building; yet, as (tones cannot be arranged into a re¬
gular ftrudture without a cement to bind and conne<9:
them, fo thefe original words Hand in need of others to
conned them, before they can be made to exprefs all the
variety of our ideas. Another order of words, there¬
fore, were neceffary, which, although not of themfelves
lignificant, yet, when joined with others, might acquire a
meaning. Thefe form a fecond general clafs of words
that may be called words not V1 themselves signi¬
ficant, and which cannot acquire any meaning but fo
far as they ferve either to explain or connect the
others.
Hence, therefore, all words which can poflibly be in¬
vented, may be divided into two general clafles; thofe
that are significant of themselves, and thofe that
are not. Words which are lignificant of themfelves, are
either expreflive of the names of fubftances, and therefore
called substantives; or, of qualities, which we call
attributives. Words which are not fignificant of
themfelves, mull: acquire a meaning either as defining or
conneding others, which we lhall arrange under the two
clafles of definitives and connectives, each of which
ihall be examined in their order.
Chapter I.
Of SUBSTANTIVES.
Substantives may be divided into two clafles, viz.
thofe which are primary, commonly called nouns ; and
thofe of a fecondary order, which are often fubftituted
for nouns, and are fience called pronouns : each of
which we lhall confider feparately.
Section I. Of Subftantives of the Fir/i Order,
called Nouns.
Nouns are all thofe ’words by •which ohjcSls or fub-
Jlances are denominated, and •which diflinguijh them
from one another, by names applicable to each, •without
marking either quantity, quality, aftion, or relation.
And as all the objeds which exift mult be either in the
fame ftate that they were produced by nature, or changed
from their original date by art, or abjlratted from fub-
dances by the powers of imagination, this naturally fug-
j*eds a divifion of nouns into natural, as man, vege¬
table, tree, &c.; artificial, zs, houfe, fhip, •watch,
&c.; or abstract, as •whitenefs, temperance. See.
But the diverfity of objeds being fo great as to render
it impoflible for any perfon to know the didind names of
every individual, therefore it has been found expedient
to arrange them under certain general clafles, the names
of which may be more eafily acquired, fo that by re¬
ferring any unknown objed to the clafs' to which it be¬
longs, we in fome meafure fupply the want of proper
names. Hence, therefore, each of the above fpecies of
nouns are divided into thofe which denote genera, fpecies,
.and individuals. Thus, in natural fubdances, animat,
vegetable, and fojfile, denote genera; man, dog, tree,
ametal, are fpecies; and Alexander, Carfar, oak, gold,
Vol. II. N° 57. 2
1 M A R. 729
are individuals. In artificial fubfiances, edifice is a ge¬
nus ; houfe, tower, church, are fpecies ; and iht Vati¬
can, Tron-church, and Herriot's hfpital, are indivi¬
duals. In abftraO fubllances, motion is a genus; flight
and courfe, are fpecies ; the flight of Mahomet, the courft
of a greyhound, are individuals. Each of thefe general
dalles might be fubdivided into many fmaller; but as
tfeefe lefler divilions can only relate to the particular ge¬
nius of different languages, it does not fall within our
plan to confider them. We therefore proceed to take
notice of the accidents which accompany nouns. Of
which kind may be reckoned number and gender.
As nouns are the names of fubdances, and as there
may be many fobdances of the fame kind, therefore
nouns mud be adapted to exprels whether there is one
or more of thofe obje&s of which we fpeak. Nouns,
therefore, in every language, admit of a certain variation
to denote this circumltance, which is called number.
Thus, in the Englilh language, when we fpeak of a (ingle
place of habitation, we call it a houfe; but if of more,
we call them houfes. In the fird of thefe cafes the noun
is faid to be in the fingular, and in the laft cafe, the
plural number: nor does the Englilh, or any other lan¬
guage except the Greek, admit of any other variation
but thefe two : and although the Greek language admits
of a particular variation of the noun called the i&W num¬
ber, which is a plural limited to two objefts; yet this
cannot be confidered as to language; and it is perhaps
doubtful whether this variation ought to be conlidered as
ao elegance or a defe6t in that language.
But although number be a natural accident of nouns,
it can only be conlidered as effential to thofe which de¬
note genera or fpecies, as. it does not defeend to indivi¬
duals. Thus we fay, animal, or animals, vegetables,
and foflils ; as alfo, man, or men, dogs, trees, &c. But
we only fay, Xenophon, Cefar, Bucephalus, See. in the
lingular. Nor do thefe admit of a plural, excepting
when we confider any proper name,- as a general appella¬
tive under which many others are arranged,-when it is no
longer the name of an individual, but that of a fpecies,
and as fuch admits of a plural; as the Alexanders, the
Ptolemies, the Howards, the Pelhams, the Montagues,
See. The reafonof all which will be obvious, if we con¬
fider, that every genus may be found whole and entire
in each of its fpecies ; for man, horfe, and dog, are each
of them an entire and complete animal: and every fpe¬
cies may be found whole and entire in each of its indivi¬
duals ; for Socrates, Plato, and Xenophon, are each of
them compleatly and entirely a man. Hence it is, that
entry genus, though one, is multiplied into man y ; and
every fpecies, though one, is alfo multiplied into many,
by reference to thofe beings which are their fuberdinates.
But as no individual has any fuch fubordinates, it can
never in ftridlnefs beconfidered as many, and fo is truly
an individual as well in nature as in name, and
therefore cannot admit of number.
Befides number, another accident of nouns is gendlr,
the nature of which may be thus explained : As nouns are
the names of the various objeffs in nature; and as the
diftindlions of fex is perceptible among all thofe objedls
which are animated; and as thole which are inanimate
7 X canno
730 G R A
cannot admit of any fex at all ; therefore all the beings
which can become the objects of our fpeculation, may be
confidered as either males, or femples, or fuch as admit
of no fex, and therefore may be faid to be neuter, or of
neither fex. Hence, therefore, grammarians have made
a threefold diftindfion of nouns, into mafculine genders,
or thofe which denote males; feminine, or thofe which
denote females; and neuters, winch denote thofe fub-
ftances that admit of no fex. But, although the origin
of genders is thus fo clear and obvious; yet every lan¬
guage that we know of, except the Englifh, deviates from
the order of nature, and often attributes fex to thofe fub-
Itances which are totally incapable of any; nay, fome
languages are fo particularly defedtive in this refpedt, as
to clafs every objedt inanimate as well as animate under
either the mafculine or feminine genders, as they admit
of no gender for thofe that are of neither fex. This is
the cafe with the French, Italian, and Spanilh. But the
Englifli, ftridtly following the order of nature, puts every
noun which denotes a male animal, and no others, in the
mafculine gender ; every name of a female animal, in the
feminine ; and every animal whofe fex is not obvious, or
known, as well as every inanimate objedt whatever, in
the neuter gender. Nor does this rule admit of any ex¬
ceptions ; although poets take the liberty of perfonifying
any objedts they think proper, and endow them with
whatever fex fuits their purpofe belt; which ferves ad¬
mirably to diftinguiih between the cool language of phi-
lofophy, and the enthufiafm of poetry.
Although Cafes are not neceffary accidents of nouns;
yet as they have been often confidered as fuch, it will
perhaps be deemed proper to take fome notice of them.
 As natural objedls remain the fame, although viewed
from many different points of view, they are not in their
own nature altered, although they may be connedled with
ethers in many different ways: their names therefore
ought to remain unchanged, although their relations to
other words may be varied. However, there are certain
circumftances in which nouns may be conlidered with re-
fpedt to their relation to, and connedfiomw/A other words,
which occur more frequently than others. Some langua¬
ges. (particularly the Greek and Latin) exprefs fome of
thefe circum(lances, by a variation of the original noun,
which variations are called cases. But the En-
glilh, and almofl all the modern languages of Europe,
have followed the order of nature, and allow the noun
to remain the fame, exprelfing its relation and connedion
with other words by the help of diftind words called pre-
pofitions.—Which of thefe methods is bed, it is not our
prefent purpofe to inquire. See Language.
It has been fuppofed the Englifh nouns admit of one
variation which anfwers to the genitive cafe of the La-
tins.—Thus the word Alexander is an Englifh noun in its
proper form, and in that cafe which in Latin would be
called the Nominative. The variation which they called
the Genitive Cafe, is expreffed in Englifh by adding the
prepofition of before the noun; thus, of Alexander. Rut
the fame meaning may be conveyed by the v/ord Alexan¬
der's ; for the meaning is the fame if I fay the houfe of
Alexander, or Alexander’s houfe. This, therefore, has
been, called a true infleflion of the original noun. How-
M M A R.
ever, although this opinion has been adopted by all gram¬
marians, it appears to have been adopted without fuffici-
ent examination, as will be evident from the following
confiderations.
There are certain circumdances in which this fuppofed
genitive cannot be fudituted indead of the other: for 1
may fay, I fpeak of Alexander. I write of Ceefar, I
think of Pompey ; but I cannot fay, I {yexub. Alexander
I write Cafar’s, or I think Pempey's. Hence thefe two
are notin all cafes fynonymous terms; and therefore one
of them mud be confidered as only accidentally coinciding
with the other in particular circumdances.
Again, everyone of thefe fuppofed genitives can with
propriety aflume all the various figns of the different cafes
in the Enghdi language: for we may fay (imply, as in
the nominative cafe, Alexander's houfe; but we can alfo
fay, of Alexander’s ksufe, to, with, from, in, by,
or for Alexander's houfe. See. If this then be a real
genitive, it requires the (ign of the genitive, as well as
of the other cafes, to explain it; which would be an ab-
furdity too great to be admitted.—But it may be alked,
if thefe are not genitives, to what clafs of words can they
be referred ?
In anfwer to this, it has been already obferved, that
the variety of fubdances is fo great, that it is impoffible
for any perfon to know the names of every one of them ;
and therefore they have been arranged under the feveral
orders of genera and fpecies. We now further oblerve,
that as the individuals are fo exceedingly numerous, it
■would be impoffible even to invent proper names for each,
and far lefs would it be poffible to make thefe names be
known to every perfon who might accidentally fee them :
therefore when we want to afeertain any individual ob-
je<S, and didinguifh it from all the other individuals of
the fame fpecies, w'e are obliged to have recourfe to par¬
ticular epithets, or definitives, to afeertain that individu¬
al.—Thus, I fee a particular hdufe which I want to di-
dinguifh from other houfes ; this has no particular name
of its own ; I mud therefore afeertain it in the bed man •
ner I can ; and as the (horted is always the bed, we mod
naturally denominate it from its owner or poffeffor if we
know him, and therefore Call it Alexander's, James's,
or John's houfe.—Here then we fee, that the words A~
lexander's, James's, and John's, do not dand as nouns,
but as articles or definitives ferving to afeertain and point
out the individuality of the noun with which they are
joined, and are much nearer allied to adjeftives than to
fubdantives. Thefe, therefore, like ether articles, do
not alter the cafe of the noun ; fo that the term Alexan¬
der's houfe, is as much the proper name of a particular
houfe, ss Alexander ox Janies are the proper names of
particular men, and of confequetrce may be varied thro’
the different cafes as well as the other.—It is furprifing,
that this idea never occurred to grammarians ; for St
Peter's at Rome, and St Paul's at London, are as truly,
the proper names of thefe two noble edifices, as the
tundo or the Circus are the proper names of two other
dru&ures.—We may. therefore fafely conclude, that the
Englifh language admits of no cafes at all, and that the
only eflemial accidents of nouns are gender and number.
Sec
G R A M M A R. 71*
ScA'xon II. 0/Subflantives of the Second Order,
cabled Pronouns.
All converfation pafles between individuals. When thefe
individuals are unknown to each other, .how fljall the one
fpeaker addrefs the othei, when he knows not his name; or
how explain himfelf by his own name, of which the
other is wholly ignorant i This might perhaps have been
at fir ft effected by pointing; but as this method behoved
to be extremely inconvenient and defeftive, it was necef-
fary that a particular clafs of words fhould be invented
for this purpofe ; and as thefe words always fupply the
place of a noun, they have been called pronouns ;—
the nature of which may be explained as follows.
Suppofe the parties converfing to be wholly unacquaint¬
ed, and the fubjedt of the converfation lobe the fpeakerhim-
felf : here, to fupply the place of pointing, the inven¬
tors of language have furnifhed the fpeaker with the pro¬
noun /; I write, I defirs; and as the fpeaker is always prin¬
cipal with rpfpedt to his own difcourfe, they have there¬
fore called this the pronoun of the first perfon.
Again, fuppofe the fubjedt of the converfation to be the
party addreffed : here, for fimilar reafons, they invented the
pronounxHou, i hov writej}, rwov walkcji •, and as the
party addreffed is next in dignity to the fpeaker, oratleaft
comes next with reference to the. difcourfe, they there¬
fore called this the pronoun of the second perfon.
But as the fubjedt of the converfation may be fome
third objedt different from either the fpeaker or the party
addreffed, another pronoun was neceffary ; and as this ob¬
jedt might be either a male or a feinale, or a neuter, it
was neceffary to have one pronoun for each of the gen¬
ders, he for the mafculins, she for the feminine, and
it for the neuter : and this, in diftindtion to the former,
was called the pronoun of the third perfon.—Hence
the diftribution of pronouns into perfons.
We have already feen that nouns admit of number; pro¬
nouns, which are their fubftitut^s, likewife admit of number.
There may be many fpeakers of the fame fentiment, as
well, as one who including himfelf fpeaks the fame fenti¬
ment with many ; fpeech may likewife be addreffed to
many at a time as well as to one ; and the fubjedt of
the difcourfe may likewife be many; therefore the pro¬
noun of eve ry one of thepzrfom muft admit of number,
to exprefs this fingularity or plurality. Hence, therefore,
the pronoun of the firft perfon 1, has the plural we ; that of
the fecond perfon thou, has the plural y«u ; and that
of the third perfon he, she, or it, has the plural they,
which is equally applied to all the three genders.
With regard to gender, we do not find in any language
that the pronouns of the Firjl or Second admit of
any diftindUon in this refpedf: nor was it neceffary that they
fttould ; as the fpeaker and party addreffed are ufually pre-
fent with one another,'this diftindlioc is generally obvious
from drefs and external appearance. But this is not the
cafe with regard to the pronoun of the Third perfon; of
whofe chajadter and diftindtions we often know no more,
than what we learn from the difcourfe itfelf-: and hence
it is, that in almoft all languages the pronoun of the third
perfon. admits of genders, as we have Hready feen the
Englifh admits of the triple diftindtion of mafeuftne, fe¬
minine, and neuter.—The utility of which threefold di¬
ftindtion will be belt ftiewn by an example. Suppofing
there was no fuch diftindtion, and that we fliould read in
any hiftory he caufed him todeftroy him, and were told
that the pronoun which is here thrice repeated ftood each
time for fomething different; that is to fay,/or a man,
for a woman, and for a city, whofe names were Alexan¬
der, Thais, and Perfepolis. Taking the pronoun thus
diverted of its genders, it does not appear which of the
three was deftroyed, which the deftroyer, or which the
caufe that moved to the deftrudlion. But there is no am¬
biguity when we hear the genders diftinguilhed; and when,
inftead of the ambiguous fentence, 'he caufed him to de-
ftroy him, we are told with the proper diftindtions that
she caufed him to deftroy it. Then we know with cer¬
tainty, that the promoter was the ‘woman, that her inftru-
ment was the hero, and that the fubjedt of her cruelty
was the unfortunate city.—From this example we would
be furprifed how the Italian, French and Spanijb could
exprefs themfelves with precifion or elegance, with no
more than two variations of this, perfon.
From the fame caufes as a diftindtion of gender is un-
neceffary in the pronouns of the firft and fecond perfons,
we fee the reafon why a Angle pronoun to each perfon,
an 1 for the firft, and a thou for the fecond, arefufficient
for all the purpofes of language, as thefe are always fup-
pofed prefent and obvious. But it is not fo with refpedt
to the third perfon, as the various relations of different
objedts made it neceffary to have not one, but many, fuch ,
as, HE, SHE, IT, THIS, THAT, OTHER, SOME, ALL,
ANY, <bc.
Although we have faid that there is only one pronoun
for each of the firft and fecond perfons, yet the Bnglilh
reader may perhaps be puzzled with finding two diftindt
words applied to each; I and me, for the firft perfon j .
thou and thee, for the fecond. The learned reader
will at once fee that thefe two words me and thee
are equivalent to the accufative cafe of the Latin pro¬
noun : but, in order to make the meaning of this as
plain as poffible without embarraffing ourfelves about un-
neceflary terms, we fliall only obferve, no effedt can be
produced without a caufe, and no adtion can be perform¬
ed without producing fome effedt. The fame perfon Hjay
in different circumftances be either the adlive and efficient
caufe of, or the paflive fubjedt who fuffers -an adlioD:
fome languages have therefore formed different words to
exprefs:the lame objedt in thefe different circumftances.
Thus in the Latin fentences, Brutus amavit Cajfhtm,
Brutus \o\t& Caftms-, .an& Caflius amavit Brutum, Caf-
fius loved Brutus; the \vox& Brutus imthe firft, and Caf-
fus in the fecond, is the form which the noun affumes
when it is ufed as -the efficient caufe ; and Brutum and
Caffium the.forms which the fame nouns affiime when they
are reprefented as the paffive fubjedts. This laft then was
what was called the accufative cafe of the noun, and the
fkft was called the nominative. We have already feen
that the Engliffi noun admits of no.cafes, the adtive fubjedt
-always preceding the verb, ..and the paffive following it,
1 ,as is plain/rom the above fentences,- where Brutus and
■Caffius remain changed in both fttuations ; and the
fame might be obfeivcd of all other modern languages •;
'Yet the Englifli and all modern languages admit of a
different word to exprefs the different date of the pro-
•rouns. Thus, we fay, I efteem thee, I admire him,
I love her : in all of which fentences /, the pronoun of
*the firff perfon, is the aflive, and thee of the fecond
perfon, and he and her of the third, are the paffivefab-
jedb, and are therefore expreffed by the words thee,
him, and her. But if the cafe be reverfed, and the.pro-
noun of the firit perfon becomes the paflive fubjeft, and
the others the active, they atfume a different form ; thus,
thou ejleemcji, >he admires, she love:—me. Hence,
therefore, it appears that we have two difiinft words for
each of thefe pronouns to exprefs the different ftates in
which they may be reprefented, exactly analogous to the
■nominative and accufative cafes of the Romans—Whether
thefe are to be admitted as cafes of our pronouns, or
■whether they may not rather be confidered as difHnft
words formed for that particular purpofe, is of little con-
fequence foj- us to enquire ; as, in whatever light they
may be confidered, this variation cannot be looked upon
as an effential part of language, but only as a particular
Tefinement, invented to prevent the difagreeable repetition
of the pronoun, which behoved frequently to have hap¬
pened without this contrivance. This feems to be the
-only reafon why pronouns have been endowed with this
variety, and not nouns. For as nouns are in themfelves
greatly diverfified, the famenefs of founds does not here
fo often occur as it would have done in the pronouns,
where the fame I, thou, he, she, or it, anfwers for
.the name of every objeft which occurs in nature ; but, by
this diverfity in the form of the words, this circumftance
is in fome meafure obviated. And it is probably for
the fame reafon, that the plural of each of thefe pronouns
is fo very different from the lingular. Thus, from I of
the firft perfon is formed we in the plural, and from me
the plural us ; from thou and thee the plurals ye
and you ; from he, she,—him, her, and it, the plu¬
rals they, and them. In all of which there is not the
lead refemblance between the lingular and plural of any
one word ; and, except in he and him, they and
them, there is not any limilarity between what may by
•fome be thought to be the different cafes of the fame
word.
We have feen that the fame objeft may fometimes be
the caufe-of an aftion, and fometimes the objeft which fuf-
<fers by it. We now obferve, that the fame objeft may
.fometimes be, with regard to the fame aftion, both the ac¬
tive caufe and paflive fubjeft; as when we fay, Brutus
killed hirnfelf. In which cafe it is evident, that Brutus
was both the caufe that produced, and the objeft that
fulfered by the aftion; the pronoun himfelf being put for
his name; for, were it not for the famenefs of the
found, andthe ambiguity which would be occafionedby it,
we might furely fay, Brutus killed Brutus. It was there¬
fore necelfary to have a particular pronoun for the paf-
five fubjeft, in all thofe cafes where the fame objeft was
-the agent; and on this account the word self has been in-
-vented, having the plural selves. This pronoun there¬
fore, which ferves on all occafions to reprefent the aftion
as returning upon the agent that produced it, may be call-
M A R.
ed the reciprocal pronoun; which has th's peculiarity,
that it can never Itand by itfelf, but mud alway have the
SlKdance of the pronoun in whofe place it is fubdituted ;
as, MYSELF, THYSELF, HIMSELF, HERSELF, ITSELF,
with their plurals. But although this feems to have been
the otiginal ufe of this pronoun; yet, in the Englilh lan¬
guage, its ufe has been extended further; and, from its
always having a reference to the agent of any aftion, it
has been employed to denote that agent by way of em-
phalis, as performing the aftion without the aid or af-
lidahce of any other; as, he himfelf •went. And from this
circumdance it has been further extended to denote any
objeft as performing or fnffering any thing which we would
not naturally have expefted from its known charafter or
nature; as in this fentence : “The mod daring of man¬
kind are fometimes dartled before they venture upon the
commiflion of any extraordinary crime ; even Caefar him¬
self felt the utmod perturbation of mind before he da¬
red to pafs the Rubicon.”
Thefe are all that can be properly called perfonal pro¬
nouns ; but there are others which are derived from them,
called pojfsjfive pronouns, as, my, thy, mine, his,
hers, its, &c.,\he nature of which it will be necef-
fary here to explain. We have already fhewn how nouns,
when they came to denote pofleflion, were no longer to
be confidered as nouns, but rather as definitives or articles;
fo the pronouns which we here confider, being the real
fiibditutes of nominal articles, ought alfo to be confider¬
ed as a didinft clafs of prdhomial articles ; for as thefe
neVer, in any cafe, can be fubdituted for a noun, they
cannot be confidered as pronouns. Grammarians have
been led into the midake of placing them under this head,
becaufethey-arethefubditutesof thefe words, which, altho’
they alTume the appearance of nouns, only perform the
part of definitives. Thus we have feen, that when we
fay, Alexander's houfe; the word Alexander's can only
be confidered as a definitive : and, in the fame manner,
if Alexander was the fpeaker, he might fay, my houfe ;
if the party addrefled, it would be thy houfe \ or if any
third perfon, his, and in the fame manner hers or its
houfe. In all which cafes this pofleflive pronoun is fub¬
dituted for that word which only ferves to define and af-
certain the identity of the noun, and not for the noun it¬
felf, which mud always be either exprefled or underdood.
Hence the reafon why one pronoun becomes the fubditute of
this noun and its proper definitive, whether that defini¬
tive appears in the form of a noun or pronoun : for I can
fay, “Alexander's houfe is more elegant than Mary's, or
his houfe is more elegant than hers, although it neither
isfo commodious nor agreeable to live in.” In which ex¬
ample it is plain, that the words his and hers are drift-
ly the fubditutes only of Alexander's and Mary's, and
nothing more; whereas the pronoun it is the fubdi¬
tute of the whole noun with its definitive Alexander's
houfe. The other clafs of pronouns pofleflive, mine,
thine, be. as they do not fo much ferve to didinguifli
individals, as to afeertain the property of the thing fpoken
of, which may, in a certain fenfe, be confidered as an at¬
tribute thereof, are more nearly allied to attributives,
and have therefore by fome been called adjeftives. And
CHAM
It Tnufl be acknowledged, ;that't:hefe two clafles qT words
iare io nearly allied to one another, that it is difficult to
alcertain, in all cafes, the precife boundarj between
them.
Befides thefe, there are other words which fometimes
affiumethe province of pronouns, and' are generally con¬
sidered as belonging to this clafs, although in many cafes
improperly ; fuch as, this, that, anv, some., these,
those, all, and fome others; which may be called im-
,/>r0/>er.pronouns. To diftinguiffi when they may be confider-
ed as pronouns, we mayobferve, that when they Hand by
themfelves, and fupply the place of a noun, as when we fay,
this is virtue, give ms that, then are they pronouns.
But when they are affociated to fome noun, as when we
lay, thts habit it virtue, or that mak defrauded
me ; then, as they do not fupply 7/;e place of a noun, but
only ferve to afcertain one, they fall rather under the
fpecies of definitives, or articles.. And indeed it mult be
confefled, that thefe, as well as the poffieffive .pronouns,
are more properly adapted to define and afcertain indivi¬
duals among nouns, than to fupply their place,; and
therefore are oftener to be confidered as articles than as
pronouns. The bell rule to diftinguifh when they are to
be confidered as the one or the other, is this. The ge¬
nuine pronoun always Jlands by itfelf, affuming the
power of a njoun, and fupplyin.g its place. The ge¬
nuine article never (lands by itfelf, but appears at
all times affociated to fometbing elfe, requiring a noun
for its 1'upport, as much as attributives or adjeffives.
The three orders of pronouns already mentioned, may
be called prepojitivesbzc&ute. they are capable of introdu¬
cing or leadmg a fentence, without having reference to
«ny thing previous. But there is another order of pro¬
nouns which can never be employed but to conned fen-
tences, and muft therefore always have a reference to
fome fentence that precedes them; as, who, wHt-c«,
what. The nature of which may be explained as fol¬
lows.
Suppofe I fay, light is a body ; -light moves with
great celerity ; thefe would apparently be two diftindt
fentences. But if, inftead of the fecond light, I were
to place the prepofitive pronoun it, and fay, light is a
body, it moves with great celerity, the fentences would
ftill be diftindi, and two. But if I add a connedive (as
ibr example and) faying, light is a body, and it
moves with great celerity •, I then, by connedlion, make
the tv/o into one. Now it is in the united powers of a
connedive and another pronoun, that we may fee the
force and charadter of the pronoun here treated of. For
if, in Head of the words and it, we fubftitute that or
which; faying,' light//// which moves with
great celerity; the fentence ftill retains its unity, and
becomes, if poffible, more compadt than before. We may
therefore call this pronoun the subjunctive ; becaufe
it cannot introduce an original fentence, but only ferves
to fubjoin one to fame other which is previous.
The application of this fubjundive, like the other pro
inouns, is univer/al. It may be the fubftitute of all kinds
of fubftantives, natural, artificial, or abftradt; general*
fpecial, or particular: for we may fay. The man who,
the flip which; Alexander who, virtue which, &c. Nay,
Vol. II. No. 5.7. 2
SI A T,. 753
it may even :be the fubftitute of till the -ofher 'pronouns*
and is therefore of courfe expreffive of ^11 the three per:
fons. Thus we fay, I vfto now write;, t-hou who
now reodefl; .he who now heareth, See. And thus the
subjunctive is truly a pronoun from its fubfitulion;
there being no fubftantive exifting in whole place it may
not ftand. At the fame time it is effentislly diftinguiftied
from the other pronouns by this particular, that it is not
only a fubjlitute, but like wife a conned ve.
As to the accidents of this pronoun: From its perform¬
ing the part of a connediive, it of ccurfe "follows, that
neither nor number can be .confidered as eflential
to it; becaufe thefe are always exprefled in the preceding
parts of the fentence to which it refers ; nor do we in
fadt find, that this pronoun, at leafl in modern languages,
admits of any diftindhon to denote nutnber, although the
Engliffi language admits of one variation for the genders,
as we employ WH-otor themajeuline and feminine, and
which for the neuter gender, thus: The man, or the
woman who went to Rome; the tree which Jlands on
yonder plain, fac. It like wife admits of a variation fimi-
lar to that of the accufative cafe ; at leaft when applied to
males or females For when the objedl whieh it repre-
fents is the efficient caufe' of adfion, it is who; as, the
man wh o fell, &c.; but when it is the paflive fubjedt,
it then, in certain circumftances, takes the form of
•whom ; as, the 7nan of whom I fpeak; although this is
not univerfal; as we likewife fay, the man who wa/
beaten. But the neuter admits of no fuch diftindtions, as
we equally fay, the tree which fell, or the tree of
which / fpole. But bo:h of thele admit of a varia¬
tion to denote poffeffion or qualities, which is the word
whose for all genders. Thus, we fay,' Socrates whose
only fludy was virtue ; Elizabeth whose reign was glo¬
rious.
To conclude: We have feen that fubftantives are either
primary or fecondary ; or, in other words, nouns or
pronouns. The nouns denote fubftances, eiffier na¬
tural, artificial, or abfirad ; and thefe either general,
fpecial, or particular. The fronuns, their fubilitutes,
are fivCoex prepofitive ox fubjundive: the -prepositive
is diftinguiffied into three orders, called the firjl, the fe-
cond, and the third perfons: the subjunctive in¬
cludes the powers of all the three, hw'mg fuperadded, as
of its own, the peculiar force of a connedive.
Chapter II.
Of ATTRIBUTIVES.
As all attributives muft either be exprelfive of the at¬
tributes of substances, or of other attributes, we
divide this clafs into two kinds ; calling thofe of the firft
kind, attributives of the first order ; and thofe of
the fecond kind, attributives of the second order.
Section I. Attributives of the Fir ft Order.
Attributives are all thofe principal words that denote
attributes ccnfidered as attributes. Such, for example,
7Y
734 G R A M M A R.
are the words, black, ’white, great, little, •wife, elo¬
quent, to ’write, to walk, to fpeak, &c. all of which are
the attributes oj fubjlances. Thus black is an attribute
of jett, •white of /now;—rwife and eloquent, as alfo, to
•write and fpeak, are attributes of men.
In examining the difftyent attributes of fubftances, we
readily perceive that fome of them have^their effence in
motion-, fuch are, to walk, to fly, to Jlrike, to live,
4dc. Others have it in the privation of motion', as, to
flop, to refl, to ceafe, to die, &c. And others have it in
fubjeds that have nothing to do with either motion or its
privation; fuch are the attributes of great and little,
•wife tca& foolifb, white and black, and, in a word, the
feveral quantities and qualities of all things. This there¬
fore furnilhes a natural divifion of attributives of this or¬
der ; and grammarians have called all thofe, whofe ef¬
fence confifts in motion or its privation, verbs ; and all
the others have been called adjectives; each of which
we lhall confider feparately.
I. Of Verbs.
Verbs are all thofe principal words which denote at¬
tributes, whofe eflence confifts in motion, or energies,
(for we chufe to make ufe of this laft term, as it implies
the exertions of the mind as well as thofe of the body), or
their privation. This order of attributives differs from the
other called adjeftives; not only in the particular above-
mentioned, butalfobecaufe adjedives denote only qualities
or quantities, which do not admit of any change of ftate;
whereas the verbal attributives may be confidered as in fe¬
veral different dates, and therefore admit of feveral va¬
riations in the term employed to exprefs thefe. It may,
in the firlt place, be confidered as a Ample attribute or e-
nergy, without particularizing any circumftance rela¬
ting to the ftate it may be in ; as in the'word to write.
Or, in the fecond place, as thefe are all attributes which
denote motions or energies, they may be reprefented as
in the ftate of adual motion or exertion; as in the word
writing. Or, laftly, the motion or energy may be fi-
nifhed, and its effed completed ; as in the word writ¬
ten. Hence, therefore, every verb admits of a threefold
variation in every language, in each of which languages
they are diftinguffhed by fome particular names. Our
grammarians have given the name of the infinitive
mode to the original verb itfelf, and the other two vari
ations of it are both diftinguifhed by the name of parti¬
ciples; that variation which exhibits the verb in its
ftate of energy being called the participle present
or active, and the other variation is called the parti¬
ciple PERFECT Or PAST.
Thefe variations of the verb are founded in the na¬
ture of things, and therefore muft be found in every lan¬
guage under fome form Or other. As to the other fup-
pofed variations of verbs relating to perfon, number, time,
&c. the flighted refledion on-this fubjed will drew, that
averb, confidered as a Ample attributive, can admit of none
of thefe affedions, but muft for ever remain the fame at
all times and in all fituations whatever; for who does
not fee, tjiat the attribute to •write is the fame whether
it is poflefled by you, by me, or by any number of diffe¬
rent perfons ? Nor does this attribute fuffer any change,
whether it is reprefented as having been exerted a thou-
fandyears ago, or at this prefent moment, or at any o-
ther affignable period of duration ; but, like every other
attribute, it muft remain forever the fame. For however
fubftances may vary with time, and be inceffantly chan¬
ging ; yet attributes of every fort are altogether beyond its
power. And we muft eafily perceive, that the attribute
which is expreffed by the word good, is the fame now
as it was at the creation, or will be while the world ex-
ifts. And in the fame manner, to walk, to write, to fly,
denote attributes, which muft each of them preferve their
own particular nature during all the fucceffive ages of
time. Hence therefore we fee, that the verbal attribute
muft for ever remain in that ftate, or modification, in
which it is at firft reprefented. Nor can it fuffer any
change, however different the circumftances may be in
which it can be applied in language. All, therefore, that
can be faid of thefe feveral variations with which gram¬
marians have ufually endo wed verbs, is this, That, as an
attributive, it hath fuch an intimate connedion with a fub-
ftantive, as neceffarily to be united with one, before it can
make a principal figure in language : And as that union
may be reprefented as taking place at different times,
and under different circumftances, the inventors of fome
languages have contrived to exprefs thefe different'con-
nedions by a Angle word, inftead oAioing it by different
words, as the thing in itfelf would naturally require ; in
the fame manner as thofe who ufe the ftiort-hand method
of writing, make a fingle charader exprefs a whole word,
or fentence: And as it was moft natural for the contrivers
of thefe words to derive them from the verb itfelf of which
they are compounded, they have each of them become a real
variation of the original word which expreffes the verbal
attribute; and, from thus being a variation of the verbal
word, they have at laft come to be confidered as an ef-
fential variation of the verb itfelf, which has occafioned
thofe contradidory definitions, and that confufion of i-
deas which we meet with among all writers on this fub¬
jed. But as we here confider language as in itfelf, with¬
out regarding the particular forms under which it may
appear, we muft rejed all thefe variations of perfons,
numbers, modes, and tenfes, which the verb itfelf has
ufually been fuppofed to undergo ; and confider them,
not as effential variations of the verb itfelf, but as varia¬
tions produced in language by the combination of the
verb with other parts of fpeech ; and therefore relating to
fyntax, and of courfe belonging to thofe grammatical dif-
quifitions alone which treat of the peculiarities of any
particular language. But as thefe variations have been
fb univerfally confidered as effential parts of the verb it¬
felf, and as the terms which this divifion of the verb
have introduced into grammar are fo frequently to be.
met with, it willbe neceffary to explain in fome mea-
fure the meaning of thefe feveral terms.
In the natural world, no attribute can poffibly exift
without a fubftance to which it belongs, nor any fub-
ftance without poffefling certain attributes. So neceffary
and intimate is the connedion between thefe, that it is as
impolfible
G R A M M A R. 735
. Impoffihle to fenarate them, as to create or annihilate the
ieveral 1'ubltances that poflefs thefe attributes. But al¬
though we are thus circumfcribed as to our bodily powers,
the mind admits not of fuch limitation; but can with
the utmoft facility feparate every quality from every objedt
whatever, and confider them/apart; as, ca/car without
fuperficies, fuperficies withoutfolidity, or ^weight without
matter, &c. and, when thus feparated, apply them to
what objedls, and in what manner, it pleafes. In this
manner the mind abftra&s thofe attributes which denote
motions or energies from their agents or energizers, in the
fame way as it abftradts qualities from their fuhfiances.
And it is thefe energies thus abftra&ed, which- form that
fpecies of words called verbs ; in the fame manner as
thofe attributes which denote quantities and qualities
abftradted from their neceflary fubftances, form adjettives.
Thus, the term to walk, denotes a particular energy as
conlidered perfectly apart from every energizer, in the
fame manner as the word good denotes a certain quality
without regard to any particular fubflance.
Here then we difcover a molt elfential difference be¬
tween the order of nature, and that reprefentation of it
which man makes by means of words. For in nature, every
quality muft at all times be united with fome fubftance,
nor can ever be exhibited feparate from it; but in lan¬
guage, every attributive, if it be confidered at all, muft
be feparated from the objedt to which it naturally belongs.
Hence we fee the reafon why, in language, every energy and
energizer, not only may be confidered feparately, but
mujl for ever remain feparate, unlefs they be united by
fome other power than what is neceffarily their own. For
the attribute to write, can no more be united to mati ns
proper energizer, than a motion could commence with¬
out a caufe; and till this attribute is united to its proper
energizer, it muft remain in a great meafure dead and in¬
efficacious in language.—To communicate life and ener¬
gy, therefore, to this inert attribute, it muft be united to
its proper energizer ; which can only be effedted by the
help of an aflertion of the fpeaker himfelf; which may
be confidered as the fame with regard to language, as
life is in the natural world.
It is evident that, by the affiftance of an affertion, the
fpeaker is enabled to write any energy to any particular
energiler, and thus, without making any change upon the
attribute itfelf, reprefent a variety of charges produced
upon other bodies by its means.—Thus, if I fay, 1 write,
what do I more than affert that I myfelf am pofteffed of
that particular attribute denoted by the verb to write ?
If I fay, You write, or He writes, what do I more
than aflert that another perfon is poflelTed of that parti¬
cular-attribute or energy?—If'I fay, He did write,
I only aflert that the fame attribute u'as pofTefled at ano¬
ther time, by the fame perfon, as before. Hence there^
fore, by the help of this affertion of the fpeaker, we are
enabled to join this particular attribute to many
different energizers, as well as to reprefent thefe
different combinations as -occurring at many diffe¬
rent times; fo that the fame atribute may thus be made
to appear under a great many different circumftances, and
exhibit a great variety of changes upon other objedls, al¬
though i tie If remains unchanged ; the feveral variations
which we perceive, only relating to the objedls with
which it is combined, or the means by which that union
iseffedled.—In the fame manner it often happens, that
any objedt in nature, a houfe for example, may appear
extremely different when viewed from different fituations.
From the intimate connedtion that takes place between
the energy, the energizer, the affertion, and time, thefe
feveral acceffories have been confidered as effential parts
of the verb; and therefore fome grammarians have defi¬
ned a verb to be H word denoting an energy, with time,
and an affertion. But if we were thus to confound things
with thofe which may neceflarily accompany them, we
could never arrive at a clear perception of any fubjedt
whatever. But not to enter into ,the arguments that
might be produced to fhew the impropriety of this defi¬
nition, we fhall only obferve, that by the univerfal ac¬
knowledgment of all grammarians this cannot be juft.
For they unanimoufly agree, that the infinitive mode is
not only a part of every verb, but the tnofl effeWliat
part; as it forms the root from which all the other parts
are derived. But as this mode neither denotes either
time or an affertion, it is evident that thefe, even by their
own acknowledgment, can be at beft but acceffories, and.'
not effential parts of the verb.
From thefe arguments, therefore, we muft conclude, that
the verb itfelf admits of no other variations but thofe al¬
ready taken notice of;—that before it can produce any
adlive effedt in language, like every other attribute, it
muft be united to fome proper energizer;—that this uni¬
on in language can never be elfedled but by means of an
exertion of the vital powers of the fpeaker, whereby he
either publifties his perception thereof, or his will that it
fhouldbe ;—and that this union may be reprefented as ta¬
king place at all the different times that can be alfigned.
Thefe, therefore, are each of them neceflary accompani¬
ments of a verb, but each of them feparate "and diftindt
in their own nature, not only from this verb, but from
one another; and it becomes an eflential part of the fyn-
tax of every language, to confider the various ways in
which thefe can be combined and affedt one another.—
Nay, fo intimate has this connedtion been thought to be
by fome, that the contrivers of certain languages have*
arranged them under particular clafles, for the fake of
diftindtnefs and precifion.—The form which a verb aflu?-
med, when thus varied in all the ways that their particu¬
lar language would admit of, was called the conjuga¬
tion of the verb ; the feveral parts of which may be
underftood from the following fketcbw
When the verb is confidered under the compound form-
of which we now fpeak, it can admit of variations chief¬
ly in three refpedis. For, firft, fflppofing the attribute,
the energizer, and the time when that attribute was ex¬
erted by the energizer, to be the fame ; a variation may
be occafioned by a change being produced in the percep¬
tion ox volition of the fpeaker, (which, for brevity, we
will call affert ion f) xls in thefe examples: I write,
scribo; 1 may write, scribam; do you write, scri¬
be. The variations produced by this means have been-
called modes. Secondly, Suppofing- the attribute, the
energizer, and the ajj'ertion, to be the fame; a change
may be produced in the time, as in thefe examples: I do
writCy
736 IS H A II M A II.
murife, S€-r.tb« ; I did nori-fe, «<C<.!P4(; IJhaU ’Write,
-SCR.IBAM, ei'i.'. The variations produced from this caufe
have been called tenses. And, thirdly, Suppofing the
attribute, the time, and the ajfertion,, to remain unchan¬
ged, there may be a difference in the energizer ; and this
likewife admits of a divifion': for as the energizer may be
OTi\y ane or more perfons, it mud have a variation into
Jingular znA plural on thefe accounts ; as in thefe exam¬
ples : I ’write, scribo; thou •w.riteft,. scribas ; he,
’write/,iSCRibat ; and in the plural, we •write,.scri-
BAMUS ; pe •write, sc at bat is: they -write, scrieamt.
The variations produced from this cayfe have been called
jperson and number. —Thefe are all the variations
which have been made in the Latin or Greek languages ;
and therefore our grammarians, who have adopted every
idea they have of grammar from thefe languages, men¬
tion no more: but it was not neceflary that they Ihould
have (lopt here. Tor an attribute is lately as fufceptible
of the diiiin&ion of Tex as of .perfon, fo that they might
have had a variation for Gender alfo ; and indead of ha¬
ving one word sc Rabat to anfwer for all the three gen¬
ders, he, Jhe, or it wrote, they might have had three
differem words —The compofers of the Hebrew language
have adopted this plan, and admit of two variations on
this account; and the Ruffian language admits of a like
variation in their verb for thefe genders; as in this exam¬
ple : on zohelal, he has done’, ona zqhelala,
Jhe has done, But as the two languages above men¬
tioned do not admit of this didindtioo, therefore all the
variations that our verbs are faid to admit of are modes,
which include within them tenses, which include under
them persons,under which head is included number ;
and thefe are all the parts into which a conjugation
has been divided.—As to what concerns the nature and
lefler diftin&ions of each of thefe, the following general
remarks may be fufficient.
With regard to modes; as this relates folely to the
perception or volition of the fpeaker, it neceflarily fol¬
lows, that there ought to beadiftinit and particular mo oe
for each diverfity that there can can ;be in his manner of
perceiving or willing any thing whatever, the principal
of which are the following.
If we-limply declare that we perceive any objedl, or
that fuch a thing is or will be, without any limitation
or contigency, it forms what has been called the de¬
clarative or indicative'mode ; as, I write.—A-
gain, if we limply reprefent it to be within our power,
or to depend upon our choice, it forms two other modes,
which may be called the potential, as, I can write;
or the elective, as, / may write—In the fame man¬
ner, if the fpeaker reprefents himfelf, or any other objeA,
as determined to perform any aftion, or as compelled to
it, or as it is his duty to perform it ; thefe form fo many
diftind modes, which may be called the determina¬
tive, as, l will write; the compulsive, as, / mujl
write ; and obligative, as, I Jhould write. But al¬
though each of thefe reprefents the fpeaker as perceiving
the agent under a different 'light with refped to the adi-
_ on; yet as all of them, except the indicative, agree in
phis, that however much they may reprefent it as the
duty or inclination, &c. of the agent to perform any adton
with which they are afibciatad, yet as they are Hi® of the
nature of contingents which may never take dtV.d, they
are frequently fubjotned to any other verb; therefore
the Latins have comprehended all of thefe under one
mode which they have called the subjunctive. We
only take notice of this cireumlfasce here, to ihew, that
however naturally fentences may be diftinguifhed into
modes, accoiding to the different fituation of the fpeak¬
er; yet as the whole order of the variation of words in
the conjugation of a verb is merely arbitrary, thofe who
invent them may arrange them into what order they pleafe,
-and call them by what names they may think molt pro¬
per. But however they may vary the names or external
arrangement, this does not affed the things themfelves.
For by whatever name the mode may be known which
comprehends the words expreffive of thefe feveral mean¬
ings, the fentences formed by thefe will be either poten¬
tial obliga-live, compuljive, &c. as above explained.
All thefe modes above mentioned only relate to the
different perceptions of the Ipeaker. But as man is not
only endowed with the powers of perception, but thofe
of volition alfo, he mult have words to exprefs thefe;
which forms another order of modes. As lie is not only
dependent himfelf, but has others depending upon him*
he may command, intreat, big. pray, wijh, inquire,—
Hence, therefore, fo many different orders of modes, the
imperative, requisitiye, frecative, opta¬
tive, interrogat i ve,. dsc. to which may be added
the vocative. But although each of thefe difplay a
diftind affedion of the fpeaker, yet grammarians have
allotted only one variation of their verb for all of thefe
purpofes, called the imperative mode ; all the o-
ther vol.tions being expreffed by this, or fome other modes,
by the help of particular contrivances, which are diffe¬
rent in different languages.
With regard to that variation of the verb which relates
to time, called tenses : As an adion or event may be
reprefented as happening at any affignable period of time,
it is neceffary to divide that duration into certain parts,
that we may be able to reprefent the different relations
which events bear to one another with refped to this
particular. The firft and moft obvious divifion of time
is into prefcnt, pajl, and future. But we may go far¬
ther (till in our divifions of time. For as time part and
future may be infinitely extended, we may in univerfal
time pajl affume many particular times pajl, and in u-
r.iverfal time future many particular times future,
fome more, fome lefs remote, and correfponding to each
other under different relations. . Even prefent time, how¬
ever, in Arid phyfical truth, it may be incapable of it, is
by the power of the imagination brought to admit of
thefe differences, and as neceffarily implies fome degree cf
exterjion, as every given line however minute : And hence
it is not fufficient for language to denote indefinite¬
ly mere paf, prefent, or future times; but on many
occasions to define with more precifion what kind of
paf, prefent, or future is meant.
Tenfes, therefore, or thofe variations of a verb which
denote a difference of time only, may be all divided into
present, past, and future ; each of which may be
fubdivided into definite and indefinite. The
definite
G K A M M A R. 737
definite tenfes ardtfhofe where the particuJar in ft ant of
tiine, whether prefeut, paft, 01 future, is pointed out. The
indefinite are thofe where paft, prefent, or future time is
indicated in general, without confining it to a particular
anthnt in either of thefe cafes. Thefe have been diftin-
guiftied among grammarians by the name of adjusts.—
Thus when Milton makes Adam fay.
Millions of fpiriiualcreatures walk the earth,
Unfeen, both when we wake and when we Jleep,
the verb walk means not that they were walking at that
inftant only when Adam fpoke, but indefinitely in any
inftant whatever. So likewife, when the fame author
calls hypocrify,
 the only evil which walks
Invifible except to God alone,
the verb walks has the like aoriftical fignification. He
went, he fell, are aorifils oi the p«ft, as they do not
fpecify any particular inftant, but refer to part time in ge¬
neral. So likewife in the legiftative fentences, thoujhalt
not kill, fhou /halt not Jleal, <bc the fame aoriftical
meaning is perceived, as the prohibition does not relate
to any particular time future, but is extended indefinite¬
ly to every umt future.
But it is not fufficient for a language to denote time
in this indefinite manner : it is necelfary likewife that it
ihould be capable of fpecifying any particular inftant of time
in an exaft anddefinite manner. Thus, if, inftead of the word
walk in the firft fentence above quoted, we were to put
are walking, it brings down the verb to denote a par¬
ticular time, and fpecifies that thefe fpiritual creatures
are, at that very inftant in which Adam fpeaks, walking
upon the earth unfeen. In like manner, in the fecond fen¬
tence, if the word walks were changed to is walking,
it denotes, that hypocrify, at that particular infant in
which the fentence was pronounced, was walking invi¬
fible upon the earth. And in the fame manner, was
walking, or will be walking, each of them de¬
note, that thefe energies were or will be exerted at a
particular fpecifiedtime. Thefe, therefore, form fo many
diftind definite tenfes, under whatever technical name
thefe may be known.
Here then we fee the ufe of that diftindtion of the dif¬
ferent ftates of the verb, into the verb properly fo called,
scaAparticiples. For as the verbitfelf exhibits the word as
altogether indefinite-, when this is joined to its proper e-
nergizer, it forms all thefe indefinite tenses which
our language requires. Thus, I write, 1 did write, I
twill write, I may write, I can write, <bc. each of
them, although they reprefent the attribute as united to
the energizer in fome paft, prefent, or future time, do
not fpecify any particular inftant, and are therefore fo ma¬
ny aorifts or indefinite tenfes. Whereas in the participle
the attribute is reprefented as in a ftate of exertion, it
neceftarily follows, that if it be ever united to its ener¬
gizer, it mnft point out the particular inftant when that
union took effeft, and of confequence form as great a
variety of definite tenses as the verb forms of in¬
definite. Thus, I am writing, neceffarily implies that
I am actually exerting this particular energy at the very
infant that I declare it. So likewife if I fay I was
writing, it indicates, that OX one. particular infant ot
paft duration, to which this has a reference, I was aftu-
Vol. II. No. 57. 3.
ally employed in that particular occupation. This inftant
is generally fixed by fome collateral circumftance; as,“ upon
the twentieth day of Auguftlaft, at 12 o’clock, l was wri¬
ting-," or, “ when the thunder broke upon the tower m
my neighbourhood, I was writing," fisc. And the fame
may be faid of. future time ; as, “ to morrow at tea
o’clock Ifhall be writing," fitc. In all of which cafes it
is obvious, that a particular new or infant is pointed out,
in which the attribute is reprefented as united to its pro¬
per energizer. We might here proceed to fhew the vari¬
ous times that each of .thefe different ftates of the verb
might be made to indicate ; the number of tenfes th^t
each mode admitted of; the feveral changes that might
be produced by joining the participle perfcft with any
objeff ; which cannot be here called the energizer, but
the fubjefi ; for as the energy is by this participle repre-
fenced as compleated, if it has any connexion with any
perfon, as the attribute cannot be affe&ed by any energi¬
zer after it is compleated, it muft of neceffity affeft the
perfon, inftead of being affefted by it; and hence it is
that the feveral variations produced by this participle
perfeff have been called the passive voice of the verb.
But as all thefe particulars only relate to the conftrudHon
of one particular language, it would lead us a great deal
too far from the particular fubjeft of which this article
treats. We fhall therefore only obferve, that be-
fides the above variations of the verbr-which the Greeks
and Romans have thought proper to make, the terms of
which we have adopted; there are many others that
they might with equal propriety have made, but which
they rather chofe to exprefs by the help of other words
called adverbs But fome other languages have gone fur¬
ther in this refpeff, and endowed their verbal word with
feveral variations to exprefs feveral other circumftances
than they do. This is particularly the cafe with the He¬
brew language, which, befides the variation for gender a-
bove mentioned, has allotted certain other variations of
its verb to exprefs feveral other circumftances. Thus,
pakad in that language dgmfes hevijited-, pakeda,_/&i?
vifited, fisc, pikked, he vifited diligently-, hephked,
he made him vifit ; and hethpeked, he vifitedhimfelf.
In this manner is every verb in that language varied ; and
each of thefe different conjugations of their verb ad¬
mits of a particular variation for the paffive of each —
Hence, therefore, the conjugation of a verb in that lan¬
guage admits of a great many variations which neither
the Greeks nor Romans were acquainted with : for be¬
fides the diftin&ions of modes, tenfes, perfors, and num¬
ber, they have divided their verb into fo many d.ftinff
divifions to anfwer for thefe diftinftions above mentioned,
which they have denominated kal, pihel, HipniL.and
hithpahel, with their paflives niphal, puhal, and
hophal ; each of which admits of variations through all
the modes, tenfies, perfons, numbers, and genders which
any of their verbs admit of.
The only ufe which we meant to make of thefe obfer-
vationson the Hebrew verbs, is this : That as the authors,
who have formed their idea of grammar from the forms
which the fevcral parts of fpeech admit of in the Greek
and Latin languages, have fuppofed that every variation
which thefe languages admitted of was a natural and ne-
ceflary part of language ; and that therefore every lan¬
guage which did,not admit of the fame number of varia-
7 Z tions,
73'B G 11 A M M A K.
tions with theirs in every part of fpeech, was in fo far
defe&ive and incomplete. So, for the fame reafon, an
author who had formed his idea of grammar upon the
model of the Hebrew tongue, would as naturally fup-
pofe, that the feveral variations which the verb admitted
of in his own favourite language, were eflential and ne-
ceffary; and that, of confequence, every language which
. did not admit of as many variations was imperfeift and
incomplete. But to any one who confiders this matter
with attention, it will appear, that there could be no end
to thefe unneceflary difcuilions and groundlefs claims of
fancied fuperiority : for if compound words have fuch
an advantage over fimpie, the Chinefe language, in which
we are told almofl: every fentence has a particular compound
chara&er to exprefs it, muft be by far the mod perfeft in
the world; but fo far is this from being the cafe, that
every one allows it to be the moll imperfedt and incom¬
plete. The only method, therefore, which remains for us
to confider this fubjedt is, to diregard every particular
form of language, and confider the words in themfelves,
as diverted of every extraneous circumftance, and ob-
ferve what variations they neceflarily require, allowing
every particular language to compound thefe with one
another in what manner they lhall think moft proper.
It is in this manner we have confidered the verbal attri¬
butives, and endeavoured to difentangle them from thefe
unneceflary fetters with which they have been loaded,
and reftore them to their own original freedom.
Befides the variations above-mentioned, verbs have
been dirtinguiihed from one another in a different manner;
the names and nature of which may be thus explained.
AVe have already feen, that all verbs, as they denote
energies, neceflarily have reference to certain energizing
fubjiances. For, how could there be fuch energies as
to love, to fly, to ’wound ? &c. were there not fuch
beings as men, birds, flwords, &c. Farther, every energy
not only requires an energizer, but is neceffarily conver-
fant about fome fubjeft. For example, if we fay, Bru¬
tus loves, we muft needs fupply—loves Cato, Caflius, or
fome one. And thus it is, that every energy is necefla-
rily fituated between two fnbftantives, an energizer which
is aftive, and a fubjedt which is pajflve. If the energi¬
zer leads the fentence, the energy has been faid to follow
its charadter, and becomes what we call a verb active :
thus we fay, Brutus amat, Brutus loves. On the
contrary, if the palfive fubjedt be principal, it is faid to
follow the charadter of this too, and becomes what we
call a verb passive : thus we fay, Portia amatur,
Portia is loved. But in fome verbs it happens, that the
energy always keeps within the energizer, and never
palfes out to any extraneous fubjedt. Thus, when we
fay, Cxfar walketh, Ceefar fittetb, it is impoffible that
the energy Jhould pafs out, becaufe both the energizer
and the pajflve JitbjeS are united in the fame perfen.
For what is the caufe of this walking or fitting ? it is the
will and vital powers belonging to Ceefar : and what is
the fubjedt made fo to move or fit ? it is the body and-
limbs belonging alfo to the fame Ceefar. This fpecies of
verbs have been by grammarians diftinguilhed by the
flame of verbs neuter, as if they were void both of
alJion and Jajflon, when perhaps they may be rather faid.
to imply both. It is in this manner, that verbs have
been diftinguilhed into the three clalfes of a£iive, pajflve,
and neuter. Thefe, however, might with more propriety
be divided into two clafles, which might be called verbs
transitive, and not transitive ; the firft clafs in¬
cluding all thofe verbs which are ufually called aSlive,
with the paflives belonging to them; for it is evident,
that thefe paflives are not verbs themfelves, but a varia¬
tion only of a verb ; and the fecond clafs including thofe
verbs commonly called neuter.
Some languages, as the Greek and French, have an¬
other clafs of verbs, which are called by the firft verbs
middle, and by the laft recipro-cal verbs ; which
are employed to denote that ftate of any tranfitive verb,
when the energizer himfelf becomes the fubjedt; as thus,
Brutus killed bimfeif, &c. But as thefe only exprefs a
flight variation of an accompaniment of a verb, they
have no claim to be confidered as a diftindt fpecies.
II. Of A d j e c t i v e s.
Adjectives are all thofe words which denote attri¬
butes whofe eflence does not confift in motion or its pri¬
vation : or, in other words, they are thofe words which
denote the attributes of quantity, quality, and relation;
fuch as, many, few, great and little, black and white,
good and bad, double, treble, quadruple, &c.
As thefe attributes admit of no change of ftate, nor
can be effedted by the variations of time, or any other
accident, but are in their own nature perfedlly fixed and
invariable, the words which exprefs them ought to be in
all fituations and on all occafions the fame. For as the
qualities good or bad, black or white, admit of no change
in their own nature, whether they be applied to a man,
to a woman, to many, or to few; neither ought the
word which exprefles any one of thefe attributes in
ftridtnefs to admit of any alteration, whether it be joined
to one or other of thefe fubftantives. So that although
in fome languages, from the particular conftrudlion of
tbe other parts of fpeech, it has been found neceflary to
endow their adjedtives with the threefold diftindtion of
gender, number, and cafe; yet this muft only be confi¬
dered as an accidental variation occafioned by parti¬
cular circumftances, and not in the leaft eflential to lan¬
guage, but rather a deviation from the order of nature,
which would require them to be kept invariably the fame
in all Cafes. This order, the Englilh language (.which
in this and almoft every other cafe is moft ftridtly con¬
formable to the nature of things than any other language-
we are acquainted with) moft ftridtly obferves ; as we fay.
equally, a good man, or a good woman, a good houfe;
or good men, good houfes, &c.
It has probably been from obferving, that the adjec¬
tives in fome particular languages are endowed with vari¬
ations conformable to the gender, number, and cr.Je of
their fubftantives, that grammarians have been led into
the ftrange abfurdity of ranging them with nouns, and
feparating them from verbs; though with refpedt to
verbs they are pefedtly homogeneous, and with, refpedt.
to nouns they are quite the contrary. Adjedtives are
homogeneous with relpedt to verbs, as both forts denote,
attributes^,
GRAMMA R. 739
; they are heterogeneous with refped to nouns, high v2ountain. See. ' Now fome of thefe quantities and
as never properly denoting fubjlances. qualities are capable -of intenfton and remijfion. Thus
Befides original adjedlives, there is another clafs which we fay, a garment exceedingly white, a mountain
are formed from fubftantives. Thus when we fay,tolerably or moderately high. Hence, then, one
of Pompiy, the ftyle of Cicero, the philofopty of Socrates \ copious fource of fecondary attributives, or adverbs, to
in thefe cafes, the party, the ftyle, and philofophy fpoken denote thefe two, that is, intenjion and remiflien ; fuch
of, receive a (lamp and character from the perfons they as, greatly, vaftly, extremely, fifficiently, moderately,
refpeft, and actually pafs into attributives, and as fuch tolerably, indifferently. See.
aflame the form of adjeftives: And hence we fay the But where there are different intenfions of the fame at-
Pompeian party, the Ciceronian Jlyle, and the Socra-
tic philofophy. In like manner, for a trumpet of brafs,
we fay, a brafen trumpet; for a crown of gold, a gol¬
den crown. Sec. Even pronomial fubflantives admit the
like mutation ; as, inflead of faying the book of me, of
thee, or of him, we fay, tny book, thy book, his book, <bc.
Yet it mud be acknowledged, that thefe, as they often
ferve rather to define a noun than to denote any quality
appertaining it, they partake more of the nature of
articles than adjettives; fo that it is in many cafes dif¬
ficult to afeertain exadly to which clafs they are to be
referred. But of this we have already taken particular
notice, p. 713. col. 2. & 716. col. 2.
The nature of thefe variations of adje&ives which have
been called degrees of comparifon, will be more properly
explained under the following fe&ion.
Sedion II. Of Attributives of the Second Order,
called Adverbs.
As the attributives hitherto mentioned denote the attri¬
butes of fubjlances, fo there is an inferior clafs of them
which denote the attributes only of attributes. To ex¬
plain thefe by examples of either kind : when we fay,
‘ Cicero and Pliny were both of them eloquent \ Statius
and Virgil both of them wrote f in thefe inftances, the
attributes eloquent and wrote, are immediately referable
to the fubflantives Cicero, Virgil. See.: As, therefore, de¬
noting the attributes of fubjlances, we call them attri¬
butives of the first order. But when we fay,
“ Pliny was moderately eloquent, but Cicero exceedingly
eloquent; Statius wrote indifferently, but Virgil wrote
admirably in thefe inflances, the attributives moderate¬
ly, exceedingly, indifferently, and admirably, are net
rzfzrMtg tojubjlantives, but to other attributes; that
is, to the words eloquent and wrote : As, therefore, de¬
noting alributes of attributes, we call them attri¬
butives of the second-order. Thefe have been,
by grammarians, called adverbs. And indeed, if we
take the word verb in its moft comprehenfive fignifica-
tion, as including all the words which denote the attri-
butes of Jubflances, (which was the fenfe in which A-
riftotle and many of the mofl ancient grammarians em¬
ployed it) we ftiall find the name adverb to be a very
juft appellation, as denoting a part of fpeech the.natural
appendage of verbs. So great is this dependence in
grammatical fyntax, that an adverb can no more fubfill
without its verb, than a verb can fubfift without its fub-
Jlantive.
Among the attributes of fubftances are reckoned quan-
'ijties and qualities. Thus we fay, a white garment, a
tribute, they may be compared together: thus, if the
garment A be. exceedingly white, and the garment B
be moderately white, we may fay, the garment A is
more white than the garment B. In thefe inftances,.
the adverb more not only denotes intenfion, but relative
intenfton. Nay, *we flop not here, as we not only de¬
note intenfion merely relative, but relative intenjion than
which there is none greater. Thus we not only fay, the
mountain A is more high than the mountain B, but
that it is the most high of all mountains. Even verbs,
properly fo called, as they admit offimple intenfions, fo
they admit alfo of thefe ««<■/. Thus, in the
following example, Fame he loveth more than riches,
but virtue of all things he loveth most ; the words
more and most denote the dafFsazot. comparative inten¬
fions of the verbal attribute loveth.
Hence the rife of comparison of adjeftives, and of
its different degrees, which cannot well be more than the
two fpecies above-mentioned; one to denote fimple ex-
cefs, and one to denote fuperlative. Were we in¬
deed to introduce more degrees than thefe, we ought
perhaps to introduce infinite, which is*abfurd. For why
flop at a limited number, when in all fubje&s fufceptible
of intenfion the intermediate excefles are in a manner
infinite ? There are infinite degrees of more white, be¬
tween the firjl fimple while, and the fuperlative whitejl;
and the fame may be faid of great, more fhxoog,
mere minute, &c. The doftrine of grammarians about
three fuch degrees of comparifon, which they call the
pofitive, the comparative, and the fuperlative, muft be
abfurd ; both becaufe ip their pofitive there is no ccm-
parifon at all, and becaufe their fuperlative is a compa¬
rative as much as their comparative itfelf. Examples
to evince this may be met with every where; Socrates
was the mostwise of ail the Athenians; Homer was v
the most sublime of all poets, .&c..
The authors of language have in fome inftances con-t
trived.a way, to.retrench thefe comparative adverbs, by
exprefling their force by an-infleffion of the primary at¬
tributive. Thus, inflead of more fair,- they fay, fair¬
er ; inftead of mofl fair, fairest : and the fame me¬
thod of, compofition takes place both in the Greek and.
Latin languages; with this difference however between
the genius of thefe languages and ours, that we are at
liberty to fofmAhe .comps rifon, either in the one method
or the other : but in thefe. languages, the.comparifon is
almoft never formed by the afliftance of the adverb, but
always by the inflection of the adjective- and hence this
inflection is always confidered by them as a necelTary' ac¬
cident of the adjeCtive. But this method of expreffmg
the power of the .adverb has. reached no farther than to!
adjectives,:,
740 G R A
■ adjedlives, or to their participles, which were To nearly
allied to adjectives. Verbs were perhaps thooght to he
too much diverfified, to admit of more variations with¬
out perplexity.
Some qualities admit of companion, others admit of
none: fuch, for example, are thofe which denote that
quality of bodies artfrig from their figure ; as, when we
fay, a circular table, a quadrangular court, a conical
piece of metal, <bc. The reafon is, that a million of
■things participating the fame fgnre, participate it e-
qually if they do it at all. To fay, therefore, that
while A and B are both quadrangular, that A is more or
lefs quadrangular than B, is abfurd. The fame holds in
all attributives denoting definite quantities of whatever
nature. For, as there can be no comparifon vj'nhoM in-
tenfion or remifiion, and as there can be no intenfion and
remiflion in things always definite, therefore thefe attri¬
butives can admit of no comparifon. By the fame me¬
thod of reafoning, we difcover the caufe why no fubjlan-
five is fuficeptible of tbefe degrees of comparifon. A
■mountain cannot be faid more to be or to exist
than a mole-hill; nor the lion A cannot be more a lion
than the lion B : but the more or left muft be fought for
in their quantities or qualities ; a mountain is more bulky
than a mole-hill, and the lion A is more fierce than the
lion B; the excefs being always derived from their at¬
tributes.
Of the adverbs or fecondary qualities already men¬
tioned, thofe denoting intenfion and remifiion may be
called adverbs of quantity continuous ; once,
twice, thrice,are adverbs of quantity discrete;
more and moft, lefs and leaf, to which may be added
equally, proportionally, &c. are adverbs of relation.
There are others of quality ; as when we fay, ho¬
nestly indufirious, prudently brave, they fought
bravel y, he painted finely, <bc.
The adverbs hitherto mentioned, are common to verbs
of every fpecies-, but there are fome which are confined
to verbs properly fo called, that is to fay, to fuch as
denote motions or energies with their privations. All
motion and ref imply time and place as a kind of necefla-
iy coincidence. Hence, if we would exprefs the place
or time of either, we muft needs have recourfe to ad¬
verbs formed for this purpofe ; of place, as when we
fay, he food there, he went hence, he travelled
far, <bc.\ or of time, as when we fay, he food then,
he Went afterward, he travelled formerly, <bc.
Should it be aflted, Why adverbs of time, when verbs
have ienfes? The anfwer is, though tenfes may be fuffi-
cient to denote the greater diftin&ions of time, yet to
denote them all by tenfes would be a perplexity without
end. What a variety of forms would be neceflary to de¬
note yeferday, to day, to-morrow, formerly, juft now,
now, immediately, prefently, foon, hereafter ? Ac.
To thefe adverbs juft mentioned may be added thofe
which denote the intenfions and remifiions peculiar to
motion, fuch as fpeedily, haftily, fwiftly, fiowly, &c.;
as alfo adverbs of place made out of prepoftions, fuch
as upward and downward, from up and down. In
.'fome inftances the prepofition fullers no change, butbe-
M M A R.
comes an adverb by nothing more than its application ;
as when we fay, he rides about, he was near fal¬
ling, &c.
There are likewife adverbs of interrogation;
fuch as, where, whence, whither, how. See. of which,
there is this remarkable, that when they lofe their inter¬
rogative power, they aflume that of a relative, fo as to
reprefent the relative or fubjunflive pronoun-, as in this
doggerel tranflation of a line from Virgil,
And corn doth grow where Troy town food ;
that is to fay, corn groweth in that place in which
Troy food, the power of the relative being implied in the
adverb. It is in like manner, that the relative pronoun
becomes an interrogative-, as in this line from Milton,
Who firft feduc'd them to that foul revolt ?
The reafon of this is as follows : the pronoun and ad¬
verbs here mentioned are all, in their original charadter,
relatives. Even when they become interrogatives,
they lofe not this charadter, but are ftill relatives as much
as ever : the difference is, that without an interroga¬
tion they have reference to a fubjedt which is antecedent,
definite, and known ; with an interrogation, to a fubjedt
which is fuhfcquent, indefinite, and unknown, and which
it is expedted the anfwer fhould exprefs and afeertain.
Who firft feduc'd thetn? The queftion itfelf fuppofes a
feducer, to which, though unknown, the pronoun who
has a reference—77/ infernal firpent. Here, in the
anfwer, we have the fubjedt, which was indefinite, afeer-
tained; fo that we fee who, in the interrogation, is as
much a relative as if it had been faid originally, without
any interrogation at all, It was the infernal ferpent who
firft /educed them : and thus interrogatives and relatives
mutually pafs into one another.
Having thus confidered all thofe parts of fpeech which
ARE SIGNIFICANT OF T H E M SELVE S, WC proceed tO thofe
auxiliary PARTS, which are ONLY signiiicant
when associated with others, which we have al¬
ready faid are either definitives or connectives.
Of which in their order.
Chapter. III.
Concerning Definitives commonly call¬
ed ARTICLES.
The knowledge of man is at heft but limited and con¬
fined. Although we have invented words to denominate
almoft all the fubftances which exift, yet as it is impofli-
ble for any perfon to be acquainted with all of thefe. it
was neceffary to fall upon fome contrivance in language
to obviate the difficulties which would arife from this
caufe. With this view, we have already feen, that fub¬
ftances have been diivded into general clafles, each of
-which includes under it feveral lefler fubdivifions ; the
names of which general clafies, being but few, may be
more eafily retained, as animal, edifice, motion. See.
for by referring the feveral objedls that we may accident¬
ally fee, and with which weare unacquainted, to the feveral
clafls to which they may belong, we are in fome mea-
fure enabled to communicate our ideas without the know¬
ledge
GRAM
hdge of the particular names. But as this particular
object muft in fome manner be diftmguifhed from others
of the fame dais to which it belongs, a particular clafs
of words was found neceflary to define and afcertain
iirhefe individuals, which has given rife to this order of
words of which W£ now treat, and which we have called
definitives, becaufe they ferve to define and afcertain
any particular cbjcft, fo as to feparate it from the gene¬
ral clafs to ■which it does belong, and, of courfe', denote
its individuality. The principal of thefe definitives have
been ufually called articles, the nature of which may
be explained as follows.
Suppofing I fee an object with which I am totally un¬
acquainted, having a head and limbs, and appearing to
pollefs the powers of fdf motion and fenfation If I
know it not as an individual, I refer it to its proper fpe-
cies, and caWii a dog, a horfe, a lion, or the like; and
if none of the names of any fperies with which I am ac¬
quainted fit it, I refer it to the genus, and call it an a-
nimal.
But this is not enough. The object at which we are
looking, and want to diftinguilh, is perhaps an individu¬
al.—Of what kind l Known or unknown ? Seen now
for the firfl time, or feen before and now remembered \ It
is here we fhall difcover the ufe of the two articles a and
the ; for the article a refpedfs our primary perception,
and denotes individuals as unknown-, whereas the re-
fpedts our fecondary perception, and denotes individuals
as known. To explain this by an example, I fee an ob-
-jedt pafs by which I never faw till then: What do I fay ?
'Theregoes A beggar with a long beard. The man de¬
parts, and returns a week after : What do I then fay ?
There goes the beggar with the long beard. Here
the article only is changed, the reft remains unaltered.
Yet mark the force of this apparently minute change.
The individual once vague is now recognifed as fome-
thing known, and that merely by the efficacy of this lat¬
ter article, which tacitly infinuates a kind of previous ac¬
quaintance, by referring a prefent perception to a like
perception already part. Hence therefore we fee, that al¬
though the articles A $.nd the are both of them defini¬
tives, as they circumfcribe the latitude of genera and
fpecies, by reducing them, for the moft part, to denote
individuals; yet they differ in this refpedt, that the arti¬
cle a leaves the individual itfelf itnafcertained, but the
article the afcertahrs the individual alfo, and is for that
•reafon the more accurate dei.nitive of the two. They
differlikewife in this refpedl, that as the article a ferves only
to feparate one particular objedt from the general clafs to
which it belongs, it cannot be applied to plurals. But
as the article the ferveS-to define objedts, or refer to
them as already known, without relation to number, or
any other circumftances, it is applicable to both numbers
indifcriminately, as well as nouns of every gender, with¬
out fuffering any fort of change; for it is evident, that no
variation of the nature of the noun can make any diffe¬
rence in thofe words which ferve to define or denote a
certain reference to them. So that although we find
■fome modern languages which admit of a variation of
their article, which relates to the gender of the noun
with which it is affociated, yet this cannot be confidered
Vol. II. N° 5,7. 5
M A R. 74 c
as effential to this fpecies of words : and fo far is this
from being an improvement to the language, that it only
ferves to perplex and confufe, as it always prefents a par¬
ticular idea of fex, where in rr. tny cafes it is not in the
leaft neceffary.
Of all the parts of fpeech which may be confidered as
effential to language, there is none in which wre find fo
many languages defective as in this. For we know of no
language, except our own, which has the particular
article a ; and the Latin language has no word of
the fame import with the word the. The reafon of
which deficiency is, that as other parts of fpeech may
be fo eafily converted from their original meaning, and
be made to affume the chara&er of definitives, they have
made fome of thefe perform both of thefe offices ; and
as the article a only feparates a particular object, and
is therefore fo nearly allied to a numeral, many langua¬
ges, as the French, Italian, Spanifh, and German, have
made the numeral word, one fupply its office, while o-
thers, as the Greek, have denoted this particular objedt
by a mere negation of the other article ; and as the ar¬
ticle the agrees with pronouns in this refpeft, that they
both denote reference, the Latins made their pronoun,
by a forced periphrafis, fupply the place of this^ But
all of thefe methods- of fupplying the want of the genu¬
ine article are defeftive, as will appear more particular¬
ly by and by.
As articles are by their nature definitives, it follows of
courfe, that they cannot be united with fuch words as are
in their own nature as definite as they may be; nor with
fuch words which, being indefinite, cannot properly be
made otherwife ; hut only with thofe words which, tho'
indefinite, are yet capable, through the article, of beco¬
ming definite. Hence we fee the reafon why it is abfurd
to fay the I, or the thou, becaufe nothing can make
thefe pronouns more definite than they are ; and the fame
may be faid of proper names. Neither can we fay the
both, becaufe thefe words are in their own nature
each of them perfedlly defined. Thus, if it be faid, “ I
have read both poets,” this plainly indicates a definite
pair, of whom fome mention has been made already. On
the contrary, if it be faid, “I have read two poets,”
this may. mean any pair out of all that ever exifted. And
hence this numeral, being in this fenfe indefinite, (as in¬
deed are all others as well as itfelf,) is forced to ajfume the
article whenever it would become definite. Hence alio
it is, that as two, when taken alone, has reference to
lamt primary and indefinite perception, while the article
the has reference to fome perception fecondary and de¬
finite, it is bad language to fay two the men, as this
would be blending of incompatibles, that is to fay, of a
defined fubftantive with an undefined attributive. On
the contrary, to fay both the men, is good and al¬
lowable ; becaufe the fubftantive cannot poflibly be lefs
apt, by being defined, to coalefce with an attributive
which is defined as well as itfelf. So likewife it is cor-
redt to fay, the two men ; becaufe here the article, be¬
ing placed at the beginning, extends its power as well
through fubftantive as attributive, and equally tends to
define them both.
As fome of the words above admit of no article, le-
■8 A cauft
742 G II A
eaufe they are by nature as definite as may be ; fo there
are others which admit it not, becaufe they are not be, de¬
fined at all. Of this fort are all interrogatives. If
we queftion about fublknces, we cannot fay the who
is this; but who is this? And the f^me as to
lities, and both kinds of quantities : for we fay, with¬
out an article, what sort of, how many, how
great ? The reafon is, the article the refpe&s beings
already known, and interrogatives refpeA be ngs about
which we are ignorant-, forasto what we know, interroga¬
tion is fuperfiuous. In a word, the natural affociators with
articles are all those common appellatives which
DENOTE THE SEVERAL GENERA AND SPECIES OF BE¬
INGS. It is thefe, which, by afluming a different arti¬
cle, ferve either to explain an individual upon its firft be¬
ing perceived, or elfe to indicate, upon its return, a recog¬
nition or repeated knowledge.
But although proper names do not admit of the arti¬
cle, being in their own nature definite; yet as theft often
fall into homonymic, that is, different, perfons often go
by the fame name, it is neceffary to diftinguilh thefe from
one another, to prevent the ambiguity that this would
occafion. For this purpoft we are obliged to have re-
courfe to adjettives or epithets. For example, there
were two Grecian chiefs who bore the name of ydjax ;
and was it not without reafon that Mnejlheus ufts epi¬
thets, when his intention was to diftinguilh the one from
the other; “ If both Ajaxes cannot be fpared, (fays he)
“ at leaft let mighty Telamonian Ajax come.” But as e-
pithets are in their own nature perfedtly indefinite, feeing
the fame adje&ive may be applied to infinite fubje&s, it is
neceffary to define thefe when we want to apply them to any
particular objeft ; fo that it is neceffary to endow thefe
with an article, that they may have a reference to fame
Jingle perfon only. And thus it is we [vj,Trypho the
grammarian, Appolodorus the Cyrenian, &c. It is
with reafon, therefore, that the article is here alfo added,
as it brings the adjcciive to an individuality as precife
as the proper name. Even common appellatives, by the
help of an article, come to have the force of proper
names, without the afliftance of any epithet whatever.
Thus, in Englilh, city is a name common to many places,
and fpeaker a name common to many men. Yet if we
prefix the article, the city means our metropolis ; and
the the speaker, a high officer in the Britiffi par¬
liament. And hence, by an eafy tranfition, the article,
from denoting reference, comes to denote eminence alfo;
that is to fay, from implying an ordinary pre-acquaintance,
to prefume a kind of general and univerfal notoriety.
Thus, among the Greeks, the poet meant Hosner,
and the stagy rite meant Arijlotle ; not but that
there were many poets befide Homer, and many ftagy-
rites befides Arijlotle, but none equally illuftrious.
The articles already mentioned are thoft ftriftly fo
called; but, befides theft, there are the pronomial
articles, fuch as this, that, any, fame, all, other,
none, &c. Of thefe we have already fpoken in the chap¬
ter upon pronouns, where we have Ihewn when they may
be taken as pronouns, and when as articles. Yet, in
truth, if the effence of an article be. to define and afcer-
M M A R.
tain, they are much more ftridly articles than any thing
elfe, and ought to be confidered as fuch in univerfal
grammar. Thus, when we fay, “ this pidure I ap¬
prove, but that I diflike ;” what do we perform by the
help of thefe definitives, but bring down the common ap¬
pellatives to denote individuals ? So when we fay,
“ some men are virtuous, but all men are mortal;’*
what is the natural effect of this all and some, but to
define that univerfality and particularity which would
remain indefinite were we to take them away ? The fame
is evident in fuch fentences as thefe: “ some fubftances
have fenfttion, others want it; choofe any way of
adting, and some men will find fault, <bc." For here,
some, other, and any, ferve all of them to define
different parts of a given whole ; some, to denote a de¬
finite part; any, to denote an indefinite; and ot he is.,
to denote the remaining part, when a part has been al¬
ready affumed. Even the attributive pronouns, my, thy,
his, her's, &c. are, in ftriCtnefs, more properly articles
than any thing elfe, feeing each of them ferve only to
define and afcertain the individual objeCl to which they
are applied. As when we fay, “ my houfe is lefs com¬
modious than your’s; her form is more elegant than
his, <bc.” For in thefe examples what do the words
my and your’s do, but afcertain two individual houfes;
or the words his and her’s, but afcertain two indivi¬
dual forms, which are compared with one another ? In
the fame manner we have already feen nouns fometimes,
lay afide their own proper charatfer, and become defini¬
tives, as in the words Alexander's, Cesar’s, Pom-
pey’s, dye. which may be faid to form fo many nomial
articles. But of theft we have fpoken fo fully in the
chapter of nouns, that it is unneceffary to fay more of
them ia this place.
Before we leave this fubjeCl, we ffiall produce one ex¬
ample to ffiew the utility of this fpecies of words; which,
although of themfelves infignificant, and feemingly of;
fmall importance; yet, when properly applied, ferve to
make a few general terms be fufficient for the accurate
expreffion of a great variety of particulars, and thus makes
language capable of expreffing things infinite, without
wandering into infinitude itfelf. To explain this, let
the general term be man, which I have occafion to em¬
ploy for the denoting of fome particular. Let it be re¬
quired to exprefs this particular, as unknown; I fay, a
man :—Known; I fay, the man -.—Definite; a cer¬
tain man :—Indefinite; an y man -.—Prefent and near;
this man :—Prefent anddijlant; that man :—Like
like to fome other; such a man :—Different from fome
other-, another man:—An indefinite multitude-, ma¬
ny men :^A definite multitude-, A thousand men :—
The ones of a nsultitude, taken throughout -, every man ;
—'The fame ones, taken with dijlinftion-, each man:
—<Taken in order -, first man, second man, &c. 
The whole multitude of particulars taken colleflively ;
al l,men -.—The negation of that multitude ; no man :—
A number of particulars prefent, and at fome dijlance;
these men :—At a greater dijlance, or oppofedto others-,
t h o%yl men :—A number prefent and near-, these men ;
—-A number of individuals different from another num¬
ber t
GRAM
ier ; other men:—A great number of individuals ta¬
ken cdlettively ; many men :—Afmall number ; few
men :—A proportionally greater number; more men :—
Smaller number; fewer men:—And fo on we might go
almofl to infinitude. But not to dwell longer upon this
article, we (hall only remark, “ that minute changes in
principles, lead to mighty changes in effects; fo
that principles are well entitled to regard, however
trivial they may appear.
Chapter IV.
Of CONNECTIVES.
Connectives, according as they conned either fen-
fences or ‘words,wz called by the different names of con¬
junctions, or prepositions. Of thefe names, that
of the prepojiiion is taken from a mere accident, as it
commonly Hands in connedtion before the part which it
conne&s. The conjunction, as is evident, has reference
to its effential character, We Hull treat of thefe two
feparately.
Seclion I. Of Conjunctions.
A conjunction is a part of fpeech void of fignifi-
cation itfelf, but fo formed as to help fignification, by
making two or more fignificant fentences to be one
Jignificant fentence. As, therefore, it is the ejfence of a
Conjunction to conneCl fentences ; at the fame time that
they do this, they muft either conned their meaning or
not. For example, let us take thefe two fentences,
Rome nuas enfaved,—Cue far was ambitious, and conned
them together by the conjundion because ; Rome was
enfaved, because Caifar was ambitious. Here the.
meanings, as well as the fentences, appear to be conned-
ed. But if I fay, manners muf be reformed, ovl liber¬
ty will be loft ; here the conjundion or, though it
join the fentences, yet, as to their refpedive meanings, is
a perfed disjundive. And thus it appears, that though
all conjundions conjoin fentences, yet, with refped to
the fenfe, feme are conjunctive, and others are dis¬
junctive.
Thofe conjunctions which conjoin both fentences and
their meanings are either copulatives or continu-
atives. The principal copulative in Englijh is and.
The continuatives are much more numerous; if, be¬
cause, therefore, wherefore, hence, that.
The difference between thefe js this ; The co¬
pulative does no more than barely couple fentences,.
and is therefore applicable to all. fubjeds whofe na¬
tures are not incompatible: Continuatives, on the, con¬
trary, by a more intimate connedion, confolidate fen¬
tences into one continuous whole', and"are therefore.-
applicable only to fubjeds which have an efential co¬
incidence'. For example, it is no way improper to fay,
Lyfippus was a ftatuary, and Prifcian a grammarian ;
ibefun Jhinetb, ahts the Jky is clear-, becaufe thefe are
things that may co-exift, and yet imply no abfurdity.
But it would be abfurd.to fay, Lyfippus was a fatuary}
M A R. 743:
because Prifcian was a grammarian', though not to-
fay, the fun Jhineth because the Jky is clear. The rea-
fon is, with refped to the full, the co-incidenee is mere¬
ly accidental: with refped to the laft, it is ejfenlial, and
founded in nature.
he, continuatives, they are suppositive, fuch
ifor positive, fuch as becaufe, therefore, as, fyc.
Take examples of each:—Tou will live happily you
live honefly —Tou live happily because you live ho-
neftly.—Tou live honefly, therefore you live happily.
The difference between thefe continuatives is this : The
fuppoftives denote connedion, but do not affert adual
exiftence; the pof lives imply both the one and the other.
Thefe pofttives above-mentioned are either casual,
fuch %.% becaufe, fince, as, <bc. or collective,
fuch as therefore, wherefore, foe. The difference be -
tween which is this: The cafuals fubjoin caufes to ef-
feds ; “ the fun is in ecclipfe because the moon inter¬
venes The colledives fubjoin effects to caufes; “ the
moon intervenes, therefore the fun is in echpfe." We
therefore ufe cafuals in thofe indances where the effed
being confpicuous we feek for its caufe; and colledives,
in demonftrations and fcience, properly fo called, where
the caufe being firft known, by its help we difeern ef-
feds.
All thefe continuatives are refolvable into copulatives:
For, inftead of faying, Because it is day, it it is light;
we may fay, It is day, and it is light. Inftead of If
it is day, it is light ; we may fay. It is at the fame time
neceffary-to be day, and to be light. The reafon is, That
the power of the copulative extends to all connedions,
as well to the effential as to the cafual. Hence the con-
tinuative may be refolved into a copulative and fomething;
more ; that is to fay, into a copulative implying an effen- -
tial coincidence in the fubjeds conjoined.,
As to cafual conjundions, we. may further obferve, .
that there is no one of the four fpecies of caufes which. -
they are not capable of denoting. Forexample, /^mate¬
rial caufe\ The trumpet founds, because it is made of
metal. The formal ; The trumpet founds, because//
is long and hollow. The efficient ; The trutnpet
founds, because an arlift blows it. The final: The
trumpet founds, that it may roufe our courage. It is
worth obferving, that the three iirft caufes are exprelfed
by the ftrongeft affirmation ; becaufe, if the effed adually
be, that muft be alfo. But this is not the cafe with re- -
fped to the laft, which is only affirmed as a thing that
may happen. The reafon is. That however this may be
the end which fet the artift firft to work, it may ftill be
beyond his power to obtain, and which, like all other
contingents, may either happen or not. Hence alfo it is
conneded by a particular conjundion, that,1 ahfolutely
confined to this caufe.
We now come, to the disjunctive conjunctions;:
a fpecies of words which bear th's contradidory name, .
becaufe, while thvg x>i%io\n .the fenfe, they conjoin
the fentences.
With refped to thefe, we may obferve, that as there
is a principle of union diffufed through all things by
which this whole is kept together and preferved from
dilfipation j fa there is, in like, manner, a principle of dj-
744 G R A IN
ve&sity diffared through all, the fource of diJiinfiUn,
of numbsr, and of order. Now, it is to exprefs in fome
degree the modifications of this diverfity, that dis-
junctive,conjunctions feem at firft to have been in¬
vented.
Of \.h.zfe disjunftives, fome'are simple, fome adver¬
sative. Simple', as when we fay, either it is day, or
it is night:—Adverfative ; as when we fay, It is not day,
but it is night. The difference between thefe is, that
the Jimple do no more than merely disjoin ; the adverfa¬
tive disjoin with a concomitant apportion. Add to this,
that the adverfative are definite', the ftmple indefinite.
Thus, when we fay, the number three is not an even
number, but an odd; we not only disjoin two oppofite
attributes, but we definitely affirm one, and deny the o-
ther. But when we fay, the number of the fiars is ei¬
ther or odd', though we affertone attribute
and the other not to be, yet the alternative is notwith-
ffanding \eh.indefinite.
As to adverfative disjurittives, it has been already
faid, that,they imply opposition. Now, there can be
no oppofition of the fame attribute in the fame fubjed;
as when we fay, Nereus was beautiful: but the oppofi¬
tion muft be either of the fame attribute in different fub-
jeffs, as when we fay, “ Brutus was a patriot, but Cec-
far was not;” or of different attributes in the fame fub-
jeft, as when we fay, “ Gorgius was a fophiji, but not a
‘philofopheror of different attributes in different fub-
je£ts, as when we fay, “ Plato was a philofopher, but
Hippias was a fophift." The conjunctions ufed for all
,thefe purpofes may be called abfolute adverfatives.
But there are other adverfatives befides thefe; as when
we fay, “ Nereus was more beautiful than Achilles ;—
Virgil was as great a poet as Cicero was an orator”
The character of thefe latter is, that they go farther than
the former, by marking not only oppofition, but that <?-
quality or excefs which arifes from the comparifon of fub-
jeCts ; and therefore they may be called adverfatives of
comparifon.
Befides the adverfatives here ^ntioned, there are twoo-
ther fpecies, of which the mod eminent are unless and al¬
though : For example, "Troy will be taken, UNLES|the
iW/W/aw be preferred; Troy will be taken, although
Hettor defendit.” The nature of thefe adverfatives may
be thus explained. As every event is naturally allied to
its caufe, fo, by parity of reafon, it is oppofed to its pre-
•veniive ; and as every caufe is either adequate or inade¬
quate, (inadequate, when it endeavours, without being
effectual), fo in like manner is every preventive. Now,
adequate preventives are expreffed by fuch adverfatives—as
unless : “ Troy will be taken, unless the Palladium be
preferred;” that is, that this Alone is fufficient to prevent
it. The inadequate are expreffed by fuch adverfatives
as although: “TVoj'will be taken, although i/ifCiVr
defend it;” that is, Heflors defence will prove ineffec¬
tual. Thefe maybe called adverfatives adeotuate and
SNADEQUATE. .
Before we leave this fubjeCl, we may obferve, that the
words when and where, and all others of the fame na¬
ture, fuch' as whence, whether, whenever, where-ever,
,<pc. may be called adverbial conjunctions; becaufethey
I M A R.
participate the nature both of adveibs and conjunctions;
of conjunllions, as they conjoin fentences ; of adverbs,
as they denote the attributes either of time or place.
And thefe adverbial conjunctions (contrary to the cha¬
racter of acctffary words, which have ftriCtlyno fignifica-
tion but when alfociated with other words) have a kind
of obfeure fignification when taken alone, by denoting
thefe attributives of time and place. And hence it is,
that they appear in grammar like zoophytes in nature, a
kind of middle beings, of amphibious character, which,
by (haring the attributes of the higher and the lower,
conduce to link the whole together.
Sedlion II. Of thofe Connectives, called Pre¬
positions.
A preposition is a part fpeech devoid itfelf of Jig-
nificatdon, but fo formed as to unite two words that are
fignificant and that refufe to coalefct of themfelves.
This connective power (which relates to words only, and
not to fentences) will be better underliood by the follow¬
ing obfervations.
Some things naturally coalefce and unite of themfelves,
while others refufe to do fo without help, and as it were
by compulfion. For example, all quantities and qualities
coaldce^immediately with their fubffances : thus it is we
fay, a fierce lion, a vajl mountain, &c. In like man¬
ner aCtions coalefce with their agents, and paffions with
their patients : thus it is we fay, Alexander conquers,
Darius is conquered. Nay, as every energy is a kind
of medium between its agent and patient, the whole three,
agent, energy, and patient, coalefce with the fame facili¬
ty ; as when we fay, Alexander conquers Darius. Farther
than this, as the greateft part of attributives themfelves
may be charaCterifed, as when we fay of fuch attributives
as ran, beautiful, learned, &c. “ he ran fwiftly, (he
was very beautiful, he we* moderately learned,” &c.
thefe mud readily coalefce with the attributes which they
thus charaCterife. From ail which it appears, thus thofe
parts of fpeech unite of themfelves in grammar whofe o-
riginal archetypes unite of themfelves in nature. Hence,
therefore, it is, that although fubftances naturally coin¬
cide with their attributes, yet they abfolutely refufe
doing fo one with another: and hence thofe known
maxims in phyfics, that body is impenetrable, that two
bodies cannot poffefs the fame place. See..
From thefe principles it follows, that when we form a
fentence, the fubrtance without difficulty coincides with
the verb, from the natural coincidence of fubftance with
energy; the sunwarmeth: fo Hkewife the energy
with the fubjeCt on which it operates; warmeth the
earth : fo likewife both fubdance and energy with their
proper attributes ; the splendid sun genially
warmeth the fertile earth. But fuppofe we are
to add other fubdantives, as, for indance, air, or beams',
how could thefe coincide, or under what charafter be
introduced ? not either as the energizer of the verb, nor
as the fubjett on which it operates ; for both of thefe
places are already filled up, the fird by the word sun,
and the lad by the fubdance earth : not as attributes
to thefe lad, or to any other thing; for attributes by na¬
ture
G R A
'fare they neither ave nor can be made. Here, then, we
perceive the rife and ufe of prepojitions : by theie we con-
neft thofe (ubftantives to fentetices, which, at the time,
are unable to coalefce of themfclves. Let us aflame, for
inflance, a pair of thefe connectives, through and with,
and mark their effeCt upon the fubitances here mention¬
ed; the fplendid fun with his beams genially nuarm-
eth through the air the fertile earth: the fentence,
.as before, remains entire and one; the/ubflantives re¬
quired are both introduced, and not a word which was
there before is difplaced from its proper ftation.
It mufl: be here obferved, that mojl if not all prepofitions
feem originally formed to denote the relations of place',
becaufe this is that grand relation which bodies or natu¬
ral fubfiances maintain at all times to one another, whe¬
ther they are contiguous or remote, whether in motion
or at reft : thus we have prepofitions to denote the con¬
tiguous relation of body ; as when we fay, Caius
’walked with a faff the fatuc food upon a pedefal',
the river ran over a precipice : others for the detached
relation ; as when we fay, he is going to Italy; the fun
is rifen above the hills ; thefe fgs came from Turkey :
So as to motion and rvy?; only with this difference, that
here the prepofition varies its character with the verb :
thus if we fay, that lamp hangs from the ceiling, the
prepofition from aflumes the character of quiefence :
but if we fay, that lamp is falling from the ceiling, the
prepofition aflumes a character of motion. So in Milton ;
 To fupport uneafy feps
Over the burning marie 
Again,
 He with looks of cordial love
Hung over her enamour d.-—
In the firftof thefe examples, over denotes motion, and
in the laft it denotes ref.
But though the original ufe of prepofitions was to de¬
note the relations of place, they could not be confined to
this office only ; but by degrees extended themfelves to
fufijeCts incorporeal, and came to denote relations as
well intelleflual as local. Thus becaufe, in place, he
who is above has commonly the advantage of him who is
below, we transfer over and under to dominion and
obedience : of a king we fay, he ruled over his people-,
of a common foldier, he ferved under fitch a general:
fo too we fay, with thought', without attention',
thinking over a fuhje£t\ under anxiety; from fear-,
out ov love •, t h rouG h jealoufy, &c. All which in-
ftances, with many of the like kind, fhew, that the firfl
words of men, like their firfl ideas, had an immediate
reference to fenfble objefts', and that, in aftehdays,
when they began to difcern with their intellefl, they
took thefe words which they found already made, and
transferred them, by metaphor, to intelleflual conceptions.
There is indeed no method to exprefs new ideas, but
M MAR. 745
either by metaphor, or by coining new words; both wl:h
have been praClifed by philolophers, according to the
nature and exigence of the occafion.
In the foregoing ufe of prepofitions, we Have feen how
they are employed by way of juxta-poftion \ that is to
fay, where they are prefixed to a word without becoming
a part of it: but they may be a!fo ufed by way of corn-
poftion; that is, they may be prefixed to a word fo as
to become a part of it: thus, to vntsERfand, to foke-
tell, to oveRaft, to xitroERvalue, to ovrgo, 8cc. are
fo many diftinCt words formed by prepofitions joined in¬
timately with feme other word: in all which cafes, the
prepofitions commonly transfufe fomething of their own
meaning into the word with which they are compounded ;
and this imparted meaning, in moft inftances, will be found
refolvable into fome of the relations of place, as ufed ei¬
ther in its proper or metaphorical acceptation.
Besides the above parts of fpeech, there is another,
which cannot be comprehended under any of the fore¬
going clafles, called Interjections: of this kind are
the words, ah! alas! fie! <ksc. This fpecics of
words coincide with no part of fpeech, but are either ut¬
tered alone, or elfe thrown into a fentence, without alter¬
ing its form either in fyniax or flgnificatlcn. It may
be therefore objedted, that as we fay, that all language
is divided into the feveral parts above enumerated, and
this clafs cannot be comprehended in any of thefe divi-
fions; of courfe, the analyfis that we have made cannot be
juft, becaufe it does not comprehend the whole To this
objedlion it may be anfwered, that the language of which
we have been treating, is that which has been formed by
mutual compadh, for the purpofes of reafoning and fp'ecu-
lation; that befides this artificial language, man, like e-
very other fenfitive animal, is endowed with a natural
language, by which he can exprefs any ftrong fenfation.
This language does not owe its charadteriftical expreflion
to the arbitrary form of articulation ; but derives its
whole force from the tone of voice, and modification
of countenance and gefturf : and of confequence thefe
tones and geftures exprefs the fame meaning without any
relation to the articulation which they may aflume, and
are therefore univerfally underftood by all mankind. Now,
interjeftion is the name by which we diftinguifti thefe
natural expreflions : thefe cannot be properly called
words, or parts of fpeech; but certain adventitious founds,
or voices of nature, exprefling thofe paflions and natural
emotions which fpontaneoufly arife in the mind upon
the view or narrative of interdfting events. We muft,
therefore, ftill conclude, that all language properly fo
called is compofed of words, all of which may be ar¬
ranged into the feveral clafles above-mentioned ; and as a
recapitulation of the whole that we have faid, we fubjoin
the following table, which prefents at one view the feve¬
ral clafles and fubdivifions of words.
2 8 B
Vol. II. No. 57.
A
• ■ •
-
■
.
.
- t ... m
.
-
G R A ( 747 ) G R A
GRAMMONT, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
in the province of Flanders, fituated on the river
Dender: E. long. 30 jo', and N. lat 50° 55'.
GRAMPOUND, a borough-town of Cornwal, thirty-
eight miles fouth-weft of Launcefton : W. long.
50 ay', and N. lat. 50° 20'. It fends two members
to parliament.
GRAMPUS, in ichthyology. See Delphinus.
GRANADA, a province of Spain, bounded by Andalu-
lufia on the north, by Murfia and the Mediterranean
on the call, by the fame fea on the fouth, and by An-
dalufia on the weft.
Granada, the capital city of the provine of Granada in
Spain, fituated two hundred miles fouth of Madrid :
W. long. 30 40', and N. lat. 370 15'.
Granada, a province of Terra Firma, in South Ame¬
rica, bounded on the north by the provinces of Car-
thagena and St Martha, on the eaft by Zeneguela, by
Popoyan on the fouth, and by Darien on the weft.
Granada, a city of Mexico, in North America, fitua¬
ted on the fide of the lake Nicaragua : W. long. 89°,
and N. lat. 11° S'.
Granada is alfo the moft foutherly of the Caribbee-
iflands, fituated one hundred and fifty miles fouth-weft
of Barbadoes : W. long. 6i° 30', and N lat. i2°is.
GRANADIER, a foldier armed with a fword, a fire¬
lock, a bayonet, and a pouch full of hand granadoes.
They wear high caps, are generally the talleft and
bcilkeft fellows, and are always the firft upon all at¬
tacks.
Every battalion of foot has generally a company of
granadiers belonging to it, or elfe four or five grana-
diers belong to each company of the battalion ; which,
on occafion, are drawn out, and form a company of
themfelves. Thefe always take the right of the bat¬
talion.
GRANADILLA. See Passiflora.
GRANADILLOS, fome of the Caribbee-iflands, fitu-
tuated between the ifland of St Vincent and Granada ;
but lb inconfiderable, that no nation has thought them
worth poflefling.
GRANADO, a hollow ball or Ihell, of iron or other
metal, about two inches and a half in diameter ; which,
being filled with fine powder, is fet on fire by means
of a fmall fufee, faftened to the touch-hole, made of
the fame compofition as that of a bomb: as foon as
the fire enters the fliell, it burft into many pieces, much
to the damage of all that ftand near.
GRANARY, a building to lay or ftore corn in, efpe-
cially that defigned to be kept a confiderable time.
Sir Henry Wotton advifes, to make it look towards
the north, becaufe that quarter is the cooleft and moft
temperate. Mr Worlidge obferves, that the beft gra¬
naries are built of brick, with quarters of timber
wrought in the infide, to which the boards may be
nailed, with which the infide of the granary muft be
lined fo clofe to the bricks, that there may not be a-
ny room left for vermin to flielter themfelves. There
may be many ftories one above another, which Ihould
be near the one to the other; becaufe the fhallower
the corn lies, it is the better, and more eafily turned.
GRAND JURY, in Englifti law, is the jury who find
bills of indictment before juftices of peace and goal-
delivery, or of oyer and terminer, Sc. againft any
offenders that may be tried for the faft.
GRANDE, a branch of the river Niger in Africa, which
difeharges itfelf into the Atlantic ocean, in 150 W.
long, and 11° N. lat.
Grande, is alfo a river of Brafil, in the province of
Del Rey, in South America, which difeharges itfelf
into the Atlantic ocean, in 5.10 W. long, and 320
S. lat.
GRANDEE, a defignation given to a nobleman of Spain
or Portugal.
The grandees are fuflfered to be covered before the
king, who treats them like princes, ftyling them Illu-
ftrious, in his letters ; and in fpeaking to them, or of
them, they are ftyled Eminences.
GRANDENTZ, or Graudentz, a city of Poland,
forty-two miles fouth of Dantzick: E. long. 190, and
N. lat. 530 30'!
GRANDPRE, a town of Champaign, in France, thirty
miles eaft of Rheims: E. long. 40 y6\ and N. lat.
490 18'.
GRANICUS, a little river near the Hellefpont, in the
Lelfer Afia, where Alexander fought the firft battle
with the forces of Darius.
GRANITE, in natural hiftory, a diftinCl genus of ftones,
compofed of feparate and very large concretions rudely
compacted together; of great hardnefs, giving fire
with fteel, not fermenting with acids, and flowly and
imperfedtly calcinable in a great fire.
Of this genus there are three fpecies: 1. The hard
white granite, with black fpots, commonly called'
moor-ftone : this is a very valuable kind, confiding of
a beautiful congeries of very varioufly conftruCted and
differently coloured particles, not diffufed among or
running in one another, but each pure and diftinCt,
though firmly adhering to whichever of the others it
comes in contaCt with, and forming a very firm mafs:
it is much ufed in London for the fteps of public build¬
ings, and on other occafions where great ftrength and
hardnefs are required. 2 . The hard red granite, va¬
riegated with black and white, and common in Egypt
and Arabia. 3. The pale whitilh granite, variegated
with black and yellow. This is fometimes found itr
ftrata, but more frequently in loofe nodules, and. is ;
ufed for paving the ftreets.
GRANIVOROUS', an appellation given to animals
which feed on corn or feeds. Thefe are principally of
the bird-kind.
GR ANT, in Jaw, a conveyance in writing of fuch things
as cannot pafs or be conveyed by word only; fuch are
rents, reverfions, fervices, &c.
GRANTHAM, a borough-town of Lincolnfhire, twen-»
ty-two miles fouth of Lincoln. It fends two members
to parliament:
GRANVILLE, a port-town of Normandy, from whence
the noble family of Carteret take the title of earl.
GRANULATED, fomething that has undergone gra¬
nulation. See the next article*
GRANULATION, according to Cramer, is the redu¬
cing..
G R E (
cing metals to fmall particles, in order to promote their
'fufion and mixture with other bodies.
GRAPE, the fruit of the vine. See Vine.
GRAPHOMETER, a mathematical in'trument, other-
wife called a femi-circle, the ufe of which is to ob-
ferve any angle whole vertex is at the centre of the
inftrument in any plane {though it is molt commonly
horizontal, or nearly fo), and to find how many de¬
grees it contains. See Geometry, p. 696. and
Plate XCV. fig. 14.
GRAPNELS, a fort of anchors with four flooks, fer-
ving for boats to ride by.
There is alfo a kind called fire and chain grapnels,
made with four barbed claws inflead of flooks, and
ufed to catch hold of the enemy’s rigging, or any other
part, in order for boarding them.
GRASS, in botany, a name given to feveral diV
flirft plants; as, the agroftis, or couch grafs; the
briza, or quaking-grafs, &c. Under the term grafs
are alfo coroprehended all manner, of herbaceous
plants ferving for the food of cattle, as clover, rye-
grafs, 6 c.
GRASSHOPPER, in zoology. See G-ryllus.
GRATIOLA, in botany, a genus of the diandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla is irregular; the capfule
has two cells ; and the calix confifts of feven leaves.
There are four fpecies, noneof them natives of Britain,
GRATZ, a city of Germany, and capital of the duchy
of Stiria, (ixty-five miles fouth of Vienna: E. long.
15° 5$', and N. lat 47° 20'.
GRAVE, in mufic, is applied to a found, which is of a
low or deep tone.
Grave, in geography, a rtrong city of the Netherlands,
in the province of Dutch Brabant, eight miles fouth
of Nimeguen : E. long. 50 45', N. lat. yi° 50*.
GRAVEL, in natural hiftory and gardening, a conge¬
ries of pebbles, which, mixed with a ftiff loam, makes
lading and elegant gravel walks ; an ornament pecu¬
liar to our gardens, and which gives them the advan¬
tage ov.er thofe of other nations.
‘Gravel, in medicine. See Medicine.
GRAVESEND, a port town of Kent, fituated on the
fouthern fliore of the river Thames, twenty miles eaft
of London.
GR AVINA, a city and bifliop’s fee of the kingdom of
Naples, twenty-feven miles fouth-weft of Barri: E.
long. 170, and N. lat. 410.
GRAVITATION. See Mechanics.
GRAVITY. See Mechanics. -
Specific Gravity. See Hydrostatics.
GRAY, in geography, a city of Franche Compte in
France, twenty-two miles north-weft of Beian9on:
E. long. 50 32', N lat. 47° 30'. t
GREASE, a fwelling and gourdintfs of the legs of a
horfe. See Farriery.
GREECE, thy prefent Rumelia, and the ancient Hel¬
las, is fituated between 20° and 26^ E’. long and be¬
tween 36° and 440 N. lat.
It reaches from the Adriatic fea eaft ward to the
Archipelago, and is generally a healthy and fruitful
country.
? ) G R E
GREEK, or Grecian, any thing belonging to ancient
Greece. .
The Greek language, as preferved in the writings
of the celebrated authors of antiquity, as Homer, He-
fiod, Demofthenes, Anftotle, Plato, Xenophon, 6c.
has a great variety of terms and exprelfions, fuitable
to the genius and occafions of a polite and learned
people, who had a tafte for arts and feiences.
Greek biiile. SccBible.
Greek Church. See Church.
Greek monks and nuns, of whatever order, confider
St Bafil as their founder and common father, and e-
fteem it the higheft crime to deviate in the leaft from
his conftitutions. There are feveral beautiful convents
with churches/in which the monks perform divine fer-
vice day and night. Some of the monks are coeno¬
bites, or live together, wear the fame habit, eat at the
fame table, and purfue the fame exercifes and employ¬
ments.
GREEN, one of the original colours, exhibited by the
rays of light.. See Optics.
Green, among painters See Botany, p. 634,
Gamboge will give five or fix forts of green with
verdigreafe. But the yellow, which fome prefer be¬
fore all others, is made of French berries ; which is
either deeper or fainter, according as the liquor is
more or lefs ftained by them. In like manner, a
yellow, drawn from rhe roots of the barberry
or mulberry, will anfwer the fame purpofe, being
mixed with tranfparent verdigreafe. As to verdigreafe
itfelf, it produces a fine bluiih green, flows readily in
the pencil, and may even ferve as an ink to write with ;
but is fubjedl to decay. Mountain-green is ufed for a
grafs colour. Verditer is a light green, feldom ufed
but to colour landfkips that feem alar off. Sap-green
is dark and dirty, and therefore never ufed but to fha-
dow over greens in the darkeft places. Copper-green
is an excellent tranfparent and fhining grafs-green,_ if
thickened in the fun (hine, or over a gentle fire. It is
the moft ufed pf any green in walhing of prints or
maps.
Green-cloth, a board, or court of juftice, held in
the corapting houfe of the king’s houlhold, compofed
of the lord fteward, and officers under him, who fit
daily. To this court is committed the charge and o-
verfight of the king’s houlhold in matters of juftice
and governm nt, with a power to corredl all offenders,
and to maintain the peace of the verge, or jurifdi&ion
of the court royal: which is every way about two hnn-
dred yards from the laft gate of the palace where his
majefty refides.
It takes its name, bard of green doth, from a
green cloth fpread over the board where they fit.
Without a warrant firtt obtained from this court,
none of the king’s fervants can be arrefled for debt.
Clerks of the Green Cloth, are two officers of the
board of green cloth, who appoint the diet of the king
and his houffiold ;~ and keep all records, ledgers and
papers relating thereto; make up bills, parcels and
debentures for falaries, and provifions and neceffari s
for the officers of the pantry, buttery, cellar, 6c.
They
C, 11 a ( 74? ) 'G H 1
"They slfo wait upon foreign princes when entertain¬
ed by his majeh.y.
<J-r.een finch, in ornithology, the Englifn name of
the greeniih fringilla, with the wings and tail variega¬
ted with yellow. See Fringilxa.
•GREEN HOUSE, or confervatory, a houfe in a gar¬
den contrived for Iheltering and preferviog the moft
tender and curious exotic plants, which, in our climate,
will not bear to be expofed to the open air during the
winter feafon. Thefe are generally large and beautiful
llru&ures, equally ornamental and ufeful.
‘GREENLAND, or /Fiy? Greenland, extends from
the meridian of London to yo0 W. long, and from 6o°
to .80° N. lat.
The Danes have fome colonies here, and pretend to
the property of the whole. However, the Dutch make
very free with the filhery on this coaft, notwithdand-
ing the reprefentations and even menaces of the Danes
on that head.
GREENWICH, a town of Kent, fituated on the fouth-
ern Ihore of the Thames, five miles call of London ;
remarkable for its royal and magnificent hofpital, erec¬
ted for decayed or difabled feamen who have ferved
their country, and for its palace and molt delightful
park.
On the top of a deep hill in the park, dands the
royal obfervatory, built by Charles II. and furni/hed
with all manner of indruments for adronomical obferva-
tions, and a deep dry well for obferving the ftars by day.
GREGARIOUS* among zoologids, a term applied to
fuch animals as do not live folitary, but in iferds,
flocks, or coveys.
GREGORIAN calendar, that which Ihews the new
and full moon, with the time of Eader, and the move-
able feads depending thereon, by means of epatds, dif-
pofed through the feveral months of the Gregorian
year. See Astronomy, p. 490.
'Gregorian year. See Astronomy, p. 490.
GRENOBLE, a city of France, capital of Dauphiny,
forty-five miles fouth-ead of Lyons, and thirty-fix
miles fouth-wed of Chamberry: E. long. y° 28,J and
N. lat. 450 xa'.
GRENOCK, or Greenock, a port-town of Scotland,
near the mouth of the river Clyde; being the principal
dation for the herring-filhery.
GREWIA, in botany, a genus of the gynandria polyan-
dria clafs. The calix confids of five leaves ; the pe¬
tals are five; at the bafe of each petal there is a nefta-
riferous fcale; and the berry has four cells. There
are two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
'GREY, or Gray, a mixed colour partaking of the two
extremes, black and white.
GRIFFON, in heraldry, an imaginary animal, feigned
by the ancients to be half eagle and half lion ; by this
form they intended to give an idea of drength and
fwiftnefs joined together, with an extraordinary vigi¬
lance in guarding the things intruded to its care.
Thus the heathen naturalids perfuaded the ignorant,
that gold mines were guarded by thefe creatures with
incredible watchfulnels and refolution.
GRIMPERG, a city of Germany, in the circle of the
Vol. II. No. 5.3. .2
Lower Rhine, and earldom <of Tiiers: E. ’long.*#®
35', N lat. 49° 40'.
GRIMSBY, a borough and port-town of Lincolnfhire,
fituated at the mouth of the Humber: E. long. 4,,>
N. lat. 530 34'. It fends two members to parliamew.
GRINDING, the reducing hard fubdances to fine pow¬
ders.
Method of Grinding optic glof is. Mr Huygens di¬
rects, in general, vto make the breadth of the concave
tool, plate, dilh, or form, in which an objeS-glafs
mud be ground, almod three times the breadth of the
glafs. Though in another place he fpeaks of grinding
a glafs whofe focal didance was 200 feet, and breadth
8^ inches, in a plate only fifteen inches broad. But
for eye-glades, and others of lefler fpberes, the tools
mud be broader in proportion to the breadth of thefe
glades, to afford room enough for the motion of the
•hand in polidiing. .Mr Huygens made his tools of
copper, or of cad brals, which, for fear they fhould
change their figure by bending, can hardly be cad too
thick: however, he found by experience, that a tool
fourteen inches broad, and half an inch thick, was
drong enough for the forming glades to a fphere off
thirty-fix feet diameter; when the tool was drongly
cemented upon a cylindrical, done an inch thick, with
hard cement made of pitch and afhes.
In order to make moulds for calling fuch tools as are
pretty much concave, he dire&s, that wooden patterns
fhould be turned in a lathe, a little thicker and. broad¬
er than the tools therrifelves ; but for tools that; belong
to fpheres above twenty or thirty feet diameter, he
fays it is fufficient to make ufe of flat boards turned
circular to the breadth and thicknefs required. When
the plates are cad, they mud be turned in a lathe ex-
a<5tly to the concavity required ; and for this purpofe it
is requifite to make a couple of brafs gages in the man¬
ner following, according to the diredfions of Mr Mo-
lyneux.
Take a wooden pole, a little longer than the radius
of the fpherical furface of the glafs to be formed .; and
through the ends of it drike two fmall deel points, at
a didance from each other equal to the radius of the
fphere intended ; and by one of the points hang up the
pole againft a wall, fo that this upper point may have
a circular motion in a hole or focket made of brafs or
iron, fixt firmly to the wall. Then take two equal
plates of brafs or copper, well hammered and fmooth-
ed, whole length is fomewbat more than the breadth
of the tool of cad brafs, whofe thicknefs may be about
a tenth or a twelfth of an inch, and whole breadth
may be two or three inches. Then having fadened
thefe plates flat againft the wall in a horizontal pofition,
with the moveable point in the pole, ftrike a true arch
upon each Ot them. Thendile away the brafs on one
fide exactly to the arch ftruck, fo as to make one of the
brafs edges convex, and the other concave; and to
-make the arches correfpond more exadtly, fix one of
the plates flat upon s table, and grind the other againft
it with emery. Thefe are the gages to be made ufe
of in turning the brafs tools exatfly to the fphere re¬
quired.
8 C
GRIND-
G R O ( 7.
GRINDSTEAD, or Eafi Grindstead, a borough-
town of Suffex, twenty-four miles .diredllj fouth of
London, which fends two members to parliament.
GR1PSWALD, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and province of Swedifh Pomerania,
lituated on a bay of the Baltic fea: E. long. 130 40',
N lat. 540 15'.
GRISONS, allies op Switzerland; their country is al-
moft of a circular form, about fixty miles over every
way, and is bounded on the north by Tyrol and part
of Switzerland ; on the eaft, by Tyrol and Trent; on
the fouth, by Italy; and by the Swifs cantons on the
weft.
GRIST, in country-affairs, denotes cormground, or
ready for grinding.
GROATS, in country-affairs, oats after the hulls are
off, or great oat meal.
GROCERS, anciently were fuch perfons as engroffed
all merchandize that was vendible; but now they are
incorporated, and make one of the companies of the
city of London, which deals in fugar, foreign fruits,
fpices, <bc
GROENLAND, or Spitzbergen, a cold miferable
country without inhabitants, and with very few ani¬
mals or vegetables, fituated between 10° and 30° E.
long, and between 770 and 82° N. lat.
GROGRAM, a kind of fluff, made of filk and mohair.
GRONINGEN, the capital of a province of the fame
name, which makes one of the feven united provinces:
E. long. 6° 40', N. lat. 530 20'.
GRONOVIA, .in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The petals are five, inferted along
with the ftamina into a bell-fhaped calix; and the ber¬
ry is dry, contains one feed, and fituate below the
flower. There is but one fpecies.
GROOM, a name particularly applied to feveral fuperior
officers belonging to the king’s houfehold, as groom of
the chamber, groom of the Hole. See Stole, and
Wardrobe.
Groom is more particularly ufed for a fervant appointed
to attend on horfes in the ftable.
GROOVE, among miners, is the lhaft or pit funk into
the earth, fometimes in the vein, and fbmetimes not.
Groove, among joiners, the channel made by their
plough in the edge of a moulding, ftyle, or rail, to put
their pannels in, in wainfcotting.
GROSS-beak, in ornithology. See Loxia.
GROSSULARIA. See Rises.
GROTESQUE, or Grotesk, in fculpture and paint¬
ing, fometbing tyhimfical, extravagant, and monftrous ;
confiding either of things that are merely imaginary,
and have no exiftence in nature ; or of things fo dif-
torted, as to raife furprize and ridicule.
GROTSKA, a city of Silefia, and capital of a duchy of
the fame name, thirty miles fouth of Breflaw : E. long.
170, N. lat. 50° 40'.
GROTTO, a large deep cavern or den in a mountain or
rock.
Of thefe we find feveral remarkable ones in differ¬
ent parts of the world. The moft celebrated one of
our own country, is that called Ookley-bole, on the
>o ) G R TJ
fouth fide of Mendip hills. Its length is aboiit two
hundred yards, and its height various; being in fame
places very lowland in others eight fathoms. There
is another at Puzzoli, about^four leagues from Naples,
called the Dog’s Grotto; becaufe. a dog thrown into
it is immediately killed, by a deltru&ive vapour equally
fatal to all animals within its reach. The milky grot¬
to, crypta lattea, about a mile from the ancient village
of Bethlehem, is faid to have been thus called from
the holy virgin’s letting fall fome drops of her milk in
it • on which account the earth of this cavern has been
fuppofed to poffefs the virtue of reftoring womens
milk.
Grotto is alfo ufed fora fmall artificial edifice made
in a garden, in imitation of a natural-grotto.
The outfides of thefe grottos are ufuaily adorned
with ruftic archite&ure, and their infide with Ihell-
work, coral, eirc. and alfo furnilhedtfith various foun¬
tains, and other ornaments.
The following is recommended as a good cement for
grotto work. Take two parts of white rofin, melt it
clear, add to it four parts of bees wax; when melted
together, add fome flower of the ftone you defign to
cement, two or three parts, or fo much as will give
the cement the colour of the ftone; to this add one
part of the flower of fulphur: firft incorporate all to¬
gether over a gentle fire, and afterwards knead it with
your hands in warm water. With this faften the
ftones, Ihells, fee. after they are well dried, and
warmed before the fire.
GROVE, in gardening, a fmall wood impervious to the
rays of the fun.
Groves are not only great ornaments to gardens,
but are alfo the greateft relief againft the violent heats
of the fun, affording (hade to walk under in the hotteft
parts of the day, when the other parts of the garden
are ufelefs.
GROUND, in agriculture, is much the fame with earth
or foil. See Agriculture, p. 50.
Ground-ivy, in botany. See Glechoma.
Ground-pine, in botany. See Teucrium,
GROUP, in painting and fculpture, is an affemblage of
two or more figures of men, beafts, fruits, or the like,
which have fome apparent relation to each other.
GROUSE, orGaowsE. SeeTETRAo.
GRUBS, in medicine, certain unftuous pimples arifing
in different parts of the face, but chiefly in the alse of
the nofe.
GRUBBING, in agriculture, the digging or pulling up
the ftubs and roots of trees.
GRUBENHAGEN, a town and caftle of Lower Sax¬
ony, and duchy of Brunfwic, remarkable for its mines
of filver, copper, iron,, and lead: E. long, 90 jb',
and N. lat. 51 0 45'.
GRUME, in medicine, denotes a concreted clot of
blood, milk, or other fubftance. Hence grumous
blood is that which approaches to the nature of grume,
and by its vifeidity, and ftagnating in the capillary vef-
fels, produces feveral diforders.
GRUMOSE roots, fuch as are knotty, and faftened to
one head,, like thofe of celandine and anemonies.
CRUS,
G U A (751
'GRUS, in ichthyology. See Ardea.
GRYLLUS, in zoology, the name of the cricket and
locult kind, which, together with the grafshoppers,
make only one genus of fnfeAs, belonging to thcorder
cf hemiptera: the charafters of which are thefe : the
antennse are fetaceous and filiform ; the exterior wings
are membranaceous, narrow, and have much of the
appearance of the wdngs of feme cf the fly kind ; the
thorax is compreffed and angulated; and the legs are
formed for leaping. There are no lefs than 64 fpecies.
See Plate LXXXVI. fig. 3. 4. J.
GRYPHITES, in natural hiltory, an Englifh crowds
stone, an obiong foffile fhell, very narrow at the
head, and becoming gradually wider to the extremity,
where it ends in a circular limb ; the head or beak of
this is very hooked or bent inward.
GUADALAJARA, a city of Mexico, in North Ame-
iica, and the Atpital of Guadalajara, or New Galicia:
. W. long 1080, and N. lat. 20° 45V
GUADALAVIAR, a river of Spain, which rifesinthe
province of Arragon, and runs fouth-eaft through the
province of Valencia, falling into the Mediterranean a
little below the city of Valencia.
GUADALAXARA, a city of Spain, in the province of
New Caftile, twenty-eight miles north-welt of Madrid :
W. long. 30 50', and N. lat. 40° 40'.
GUADALUPE, one of the largeft of the Caribbee-
iflands, eighty miles north of Martinico, fubjedt to
France: W. long. 6i°, and N. lat. 160 30'.
GUADIANA, a river of Spain, which rifes in the mid¬
dle of New Cafiile, and running through Eftremadura,
enters Portugal; where, palling through the provinces
of Alentejo and Algarva, it difeharges itfelf into the
Atlantic ocean.
GUADILBARBAR, a river of Africa, which rifes in
the mountains of Atlas, runs through the kingdom of
Tunis, and falls into the Mediterranean fea near Bona.
GUADILQUIVIR, a river of Spain, which rifes in the
mountains of Segura in New Caftile, runs the whole
length of Andalufia, and palling by Cordova and Se¬
ville falls into the Atlantic ocean at St Lucar.
GU ADlX, a city of Spain, in the province of Granada :
W. long 30, and N. lat. 370 15'.
GUAJACUM, in botany, a genus of the decandria-
monogynia clafs. The calix confilts of five unequal
fegmtnts ; the petals are five, and infetted into the
calix; and the capfule is angular, and has from three
to five cells. There are three fpecies, all natives of
the Indies.
The wood is very ponderous, of a clofe compadt
texture ; the outer part is of a yellow colour, the heart
of a deep blackilh green, or variegated with black,
green, pale, and brown colours: the bark is thin,
fmooth, externally of a dark greyifii hqe : both have
a lightly aromatic, bitterilh, pungept-tafle ; the bark
is fomewhat the weakett. The refin (which exfudes.
from incifions made in the trunk of the tree) is brought
to us in irregular maffes, ufually. friable, of a dufky*
greeniflr, and fometimes of a reddifh caft, with pieces
of the wood-among them: its tafte is more, acrid apd
pungent than that, of the wood or, bark,.
) ' G U A
Their general virtues are thofe of a warm, fiiir.tr-
lating medicine : they ftrengthen the fiomach and other
vifeera ; and remarkably promote the urinary and ar¬
ticular difeharge: hence in cutaneous defedatior.s, and
other diforders proceeding from obfirudlions of the ex¬
cretory glands, and where fluggifn ferocs humours a-
bound, they are eminently ufeful: rheumatic and o-
ther pains have often been relieved by thcpi. The
refin is the mofi adtive of thefe drugs ; and rhe efficacy
of the Others depends upon the quantity of this part
contained in them: the refin is extradled from the
wood in part by watery liquors, but much'more pu-
fedlly by fpiritous ones; the watery extradl cf this
wood, kept in the fhops, proves not only lefs in quan¬
tity, but confiderably weaker than one made with fpi-
rit. This lafi extradf is of the fame quality with the
native refin, and differs from that brought to us only
in being purer. The gum, or extradfs, are given from
a few grains to a fcruple or half a dram ; which lafi:
dole proves for the molt part confiderably purgative.
GUALEOR, a city of the Hither India, and the capital
of the province of Gualeor, fituated forty miles fouth
of A^ra : E. long. 790, and N. lat. 26°.
GUAM, th£ chief of the Lgdrone-iflands, in the Pacific
ocean: E. long. 140°, and N. lat. 140.
GUANIHANI, or St Salvador, now called Catt-
ifland, one of the Bahama iflands in the Atlantic ocean,
in North America: W. long. 76°, N. lat. 240.
GUANUCO, a town of Peru, in South America, one
hundred and eighty miles north-eaft of Lima: W. Ion,
750 1 j', and S. lat. io°.
GUARANTY, in matters of polity, the engagement of
mediatorial or neutral ftates, whereby they plight their
faith, that certain treaties (hall be inviolably obferved,
or that they will make war againft the aggreffor.
GUARD, in a general fenfe, fignifies the defence or pre-
fervation of any thing; the adt.of obfervieg what paff-
es, in order to prevent furprize; or the care, precau¬
tion, and attention, we make ufe of, to prevent any
thing happening contrary to our intention or inclina¬
tions.
•Guard, in the military art, is a duty performed by a
body of men, to fecure an army or place from being
furprifed by an enemy.
Advanced Gxsxk-q, is a party of either horfe or foot,,
that marches before n more confiderable body, to give
notice of any approaching danger.
Artillery Guard, is a detachment from the army, to
fecure the artillery: their corps de garde is in the
front, and their centries.round the park. This is a
forty eight hours guard : and upon a march, they go
in the front and rear of the artillery, and muft be fure
to. leave nothing behind; if a . gun or waggon break
down, the captain is to leave a part of his guard to
affifl the gunners and matroffes in gettrng.it up again.
Qorpi de Garde, are foldiers entrufied with the guard of
a port, under the command of one or more officers.
For rap r-GuARD, a detachment fent out to fecure the
forragers, which are polled at all places, where either
the enemy’s party may co'me to difiurb the forragers,
or where they may be fpread. too.near the. enemy, fo
as
-G G E t 752
3»s to t>e in danger of being taken. They confifl both
■Of horfe and*foot, and mud ftay at their poib till the
forrajrers all come off the ground.
tiGrand Guard, three or four fquadross of horfe, com¬
manded by a field officeri .ported at about a mile and
a half from the camp, on the right and left wings, to¬
wards the enemy, for the fecurity of the camp.
Main Guard, that from whence all the other guards
are detached.
JPicquet‘G\}ti’s.'D, a good number of horfe and foot al¬
ways in readinefs in cafe of an alarm : the horfe are all
the time faddled, and the riders booted. The foot
draw up at the head of the battalion, at the beating of
the tattoo ; but afterwards return to their tents, where
they hold themfelves in readinefs to march, upon any
fudden alarm. This guard is to make refiftance, in
cafe of an attack, till the army can get ready.
Quarter-Gxiart>, a fmall guard, commanded by a fub-
altern officer, ported by each battalion, about an hun¬
dred yards before the front of the regiment.
.Rrar-GuARD, that part ofrhe army which brings up the
rear, which is generally the old grand-guards of the
camp. The rear-guard of a party is fix or eight horfe,
that march about four or five hundred paces behind
the party. The advanced-guard of a party on its go¬
ing out, make the rear-guard on its return.
Standard-Gvakv>, a fmall guard, under a corporal, out
of each regiment of horfe, and placed on foot, in the
front of each regiment.
Guard, that part of the army which marches in
the front.
-Guard is more particularly underftood of a foldier de¬
tached from a company or corps,, to proteft, detain,
or fecure any perfon, &c.
Guards, are alfo troops kept to guard the king’s perfon,
called alfo royal-guards, life-guards, gardes du corps,
Thefe are diftinguilhed into horfe, foot, grana-
diers, and yeomen.
The Englifh horfe-guards are dirtinguilhed by troops,,
and the foot-guards by regiments.
ITeomen of the Guards. See Yeoman.
The French Guards are divided into thofe within, and
thofe without the palace : the firft confilts of the guards
du corps, or body-guard, which confilfs of four com¬
panies of horfe, the firft of which companies was ancient¬
ly Scotch, and ftill retains the name, though it now
confifts wholly of Frenchmen. The guards without,
are the gens d’armes, light horfe, mufqueteers, and
two other regiments, the one of which is French and
the other Swifs. See Gendarmes.
Guard, in fencing, is a pofture proper to defend the
body from an enemy’s fword.
GUARDIAN, in law, a perfon who has the charge of
any thing ; -but more commonly it fignifies one who
has the cuftody and education of fuch perfons as have
not fufficient difcretion to take care of themfelves and
') GO!
fing in the mountains of Balagate, runs north-eaft, and
falls into the weft branch of the river Ganges in Ben-
Sal-
GUERET, a town of France, in the province of Lionois :
E. long 20, anti north lat. 46° 5 .
GUERNSEY, orGARNSEY, an ifland in the Englifh
channel, on the coaft 'of Normandy, fifty-eight miles
fouth of Portland, in Dorfetfiiire, and twenty two weft
of cape la Hogue, in Normandy ; about ten miles long
and as many broad, containing ten parilhes. The na¬
tives, who fpeak French, are ftill governed by the
Norman laws, but are fubjedt to England.
GUIAQUIL, a city and port-town of Peru, fituated
near the Pacific ocean: W. long. 8o°, and S.
lat. 30.
GUIARA, a port-town on the Caracoa coart, in Terra
Firnta, in South America: W. long. 66°, and N.
lat. io° 35'.
GUIDON, a fort of flag or ftandard, borne by the king’s
life guards ; being broad at one extreme, and almoit
pointed at the other, and flit or divided into two.
Guidon, alfo denotes the officer who bears the guidon.
He is the fame in the horfe-guards that the enfign is in
the foot. The guidon of a troop of horfe takes place
next below a cornet.
GUIENNE, a province of France, bounded by the Or-
leannois on the north, by Gafcony, from which it is
feparated by the river Garonne, on the fouth, by Lan¬
guedoc on the eaft, and by the bay of Bifcay on the
weft.1
GUILANDINA, in botany, a genus of the decandria
monogynia clafs. The calix confifts of one leaf; the
petals are inferred into the neck of the calix , and the
capfule is angular, and contains from three to fix cells.
There are five Ipecies, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
GUILD, a fraternity or company. As to the original
of thefe guilds or companies, it was a law among the
Saxons, that every freeman of fourteen years of age
ffiouid find fureties to keep the peace, or be commit¬
ted ; upon which the ne ghbours enter into an aflbcia-
tion, and become bound for each other, either to pro¬
duce him who committed any offence, or to make fa-
tisfadion to the injured party ; in order to which they
raifed a fum among themfelves, which they put into a
common ftock; out of which they, upon occafion, made
a pecuniary compenfation according to the quality of
the offence committed. Thefe guilds are now com¬
panies joined together with laws and orders made by
themfelves, by the licence of the prince.
Dean of Guild, in Scots law, a magiftrate of a royal
Borough, who is head of the merchant-company. See
Scots Law, title 4.
GUILDFORD, or Guldeford, a borough-town of
Surry, fituated on the river Wye, thirty miles fouth-
weft of London. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment.
their own affairs, as children and ideots.
GUBEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony: E. long: 150, and N. lat. 510 50'.
■GUDGEON, in ichthyology. SeeGosius.
,G,UENGA, a great river of the Hither India, which ri-
GUILLESTRE, a city of France, in the province of
Dauphiny : E. long. 6°j2o', and N. lat. 440 45'.
GUINEA, a large country of Africa, fituated between
if E. and ij° W^. long, and between 40 and jo° N.
las.
CUM { 753 ') C U M
Hat. The Britifli, Dutch, French, ®nd other na
tions, have forts and faftories on this coaft.
Guinea is aifo the name of a Bxitilh gold-coin, value
i 1. is. Sterling.
Guinea-pig, in zoology. See Mu a.
GUIPUSCOA, the nonh-ealt divifion of the province of
Bifcay, in Spain, fituated on the confines of Navarre
in France.
GUIRA, or Guara Guainumbi, in ornithology, the
Brafilian name of the green ifpida, with a creftedhead
and very long tail.
GUISE, a town of France, in the province of Picardy,
fituated on the river Oyfe: E. long 3'0 36/, and N.
5at 49° 55'-
GUITAR, Guitar,ra, a mufical inftrument of the
firing kind, with five double rows of firings, of which
thofe that are bafs are in the middle, unlefs it be for
the burden, an o&ave lower than the fourth.
This inflrument was firft ufed in Spain, and by the
Italians.
GULA, or Gola, in architedlure, a wavy member, the
contour of wh-ch refembles the letter S, which the
Greeks call cymatium, and our archite&s an ogee.
See Architecture.
GULES, in heraldry fignifies the colour red, which is
exprefled in engraving by perpendicular lines falling
from the top of the efchutcheon to the_bottom. See
Plate Cl. fig 6.
It is the firft of all colours in armory, and was for¬
merly prohibited to be worn by any perfon in his coat-
armour, unlefs he were a ,prince, or had a permiffion
from him. This colour is a fymbol of charity, valour,
and generofity, and reprefents blood colour, and true
fcarht
The Romans, according to Spelman, painted the bo¬
dies of their gods, and generals that triumphed, with
vermilion ; and under the confuls, their foldiers were
clad in red; hence called ruffati. And we are told,
that the Lacedemonians wore fcarlet to prevent fee¬
ing the blood iffue from their wounds. Thofe who
bear this colour are obliged to relieve fuch as are in
danger of being opprefled by injullice.
GULL See Larus.
GULPH, or Gulf, in geography, a part of the fea,
almoft furrounded by lands, the gulph of Mexico,
gulph of Venice, of Lyons, <&c.
GUM, in pharmacy, a concreted vegetable juice, which
tranfudes through the bark of certain trees, and hardens
upon the furface.
Gum Arabic. See Cwzw Arabic.
Gum Seneca, is a gum extremely refembling gum ara-
bic. It is brought to us from the country through
which the-river Senega runs, in loofe or fingie drops,
but thefe are much larger than thofe of the gum arabic
ufually are; fometimes it is of the bignefs of an egg,
and lomeumes much larger : the furfaqe is very rough,
or wrinkled, and appears much lefs bright than the in¬
ner fubftance, where the maffes are broken. It has no
fmell, and fcarce any tafte. We are not acquainted
with the tree which produce? it. The virtues of it
are the fame with the gum arabic ; but it is rarely ufed
Voi. II. No. 58. 2
in medicine, unlefs as mixed with the gnm Arabic*
the dyers and other artificers confume the great quan¬
tities of it that are annually imported here. The ne¬
groes difiblve it in milk, and in that ftate make it a
principal ingredient in many of their diftus ; and often
feed on it thus alone.
Gum Tragacanth. See Tragacahth.
Gum manna. See Manna.
Other fubftances known by the name of gums, are
as follow.
Gum aloes, a preparation of aloes, as fet down in the
London Difpenfatory.
It is made thus : Take of fuccotrine aloes, four
ounces ; of water, a quart: boil the aloes till it is diA
folved as much as may be ; and let all by for a night:
the refin will be precipitated to the bottom of the vef-
fel; the liquor poured olf and drained, being evapo¬
rated, will have the gum. The intention of this fepa-
ration of the refin, is to procure, in the gum, a medicine
lefs purgative, but more agreeable to the ftomach, than
the crude aloes.
Gum ammoniac. See Ammoniac.
Gumelemi. See Elem 1.
Gum guaiacum. See Guaiacum.
Gum lacca. See Lacca.
Gums, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p, 305.
GUN, afire arm, or weapon of offence, which forcibly
difcharges a ball, Ihot, or other offenfive matter, thro'
a cylindrical barrel, by means of gun powder. See
Gunpowder,
Gun is a general name, under which are included
divers or even moft fpecies of fire-arms. They may
be divided into great and fmaM.
Great guns, called alfo by the general name can-
ncrs, make what we alfo call ordinance, or artillery ;
under which come the feveral forts of cannons,
as cannon-royal, demi-cannon, &c. Culverins, de-
mi-culverins, fakers, minions, falcons, &c. See
Cannon.
Small guns include mufquets, mufquetoons, cara¬
bines, biunderbuffes, fowling pieces, &c. See Mus-
qy et, ebe.
Piftols and mortars are almoft the only fort of regu¬
lar w'eapons, charged with gun-powder, that are ex¬
cepted from the denomination of guns. See Pistol
and Mortar.
The advantage of large guns, or cannons, over thofe
of a (mailer bore, is generally acknowledged. Robins
obferves, that this advantages arifes from feveral cir-
cumftances-, particularly in diftant cannonading. The
diftanceto which larger bullets fly with the fame pro¬
portion of powder, exceeds the flight of the fmalkr
ones, almoft in proportion to their diameters ; fo that
a thirty two pound fliot, for inftance being famev/hat
more than fix inches in diameter, and a nine pound fiiot
but four inches; the thirty-two pound will fly near
half as far again as that of nine pound, if both pieces
are fo elevated as to range to, the fartheft diftance pof-
fible Another and more important advantage of heavy
bullets is, that with the fame velocity they break holes
in ail folid bodits, in a greater proportion than their
8 D weight.
GUN ( 754 ) G U N
weight. Finally, large cannons-, by carrying the
weight of theii ballet in grape or lead fliot, may an¬
noy the enemy more efFeiftaally than could be done
by ten times the number of fmall pieces. See Gun¬
nery.
The author here quoted, has propofed to change
the fabric of all the pieces employed in the Britilh navy,
from the twenty four pounders downwards, fo that
they may have the fame or lefs weight, but a larger
bore. He thinks the thirty two pounders in prefent ufe
would be proper models for this purpofe. Thefe be-
ihg of fifty:two or fifty-three hundred weight, have
fomewhat lefs than a hundred and two thirds for each
pound of bullet. And that this proportion would an
i'wer in fmaller pieces, in point of Itrengrh, feems clear
from thefe conhderations . i.That the firength of iron
or any other metal, is in proportion to its fubftance.
2. That the lelfer quantity of powder fired in a fpace
it fills, has proportionably lefs force than a larger quan¬
tity; fo that if two pieces, a large and a fmall one, be
made in the fame proportion to their refpedtive bullets,
and fired with a proportionable quantity of powder, the
larger piece will be more ftrained, will heat more, and
recoil more than the fmaller.
On this fcheme our prefent twenty-four pounders
will be eafed of fix or eight hundred weight of ufelefs
metal; and fome pieces of a lefs caliber, as nine and
fix pounders, would be fometimes eafed by fourteen
hundred : hence much larger guns of the fame weight
might be-borne. Thus, inftead of fix, nine, twelve,
and eighteen pounders, our (hips might carry twelve,
eighteen, and twenty-four pounders: guns would be
kept cooler and quieter, and would be of more fervice,
in many refpeds, if their ufual charge of powder were
diminilhed.
GUNELLUS, in ichthyology. See Blenniu's.
GUNNER, an officer appointed for the fervice of the
cannon ; or one Hulled to fire the guns.
In the tower of London, and other garrifons, as
well as in the field, this officer carries a field-fiaffi, and
a large powder-horn in a firing over his left ffioulder :
he marches by the guns ; and when there is any appre-
henfion of danger, his field-ftaff is armed with match:
his bufinefs is to lay the gun to pafs, and to help to,
load and traverfe her.
Gunner, a patent-officer of the ordnance, who
is appointed to teach all fuch as learn the art of gun¬
nery, and to certify to the mafter general the ability of
any perfon recommended to be one of the king’s gun¬
ners. To every fcholar he adminifiers an oath, not to
ferve, without leave, any other prince or ftate ; or
teach any one the art of gunnery, but fuch as have ta¬
ken the faid oath.
GUNNERY, is the art of charging, directing, and ex¬
ploding fire-arms, as cannons, mortars, muikets, <foc.
to the befi advantage.
To the Art of Gunnery belongs the know¬
ledge of the force and effefts of gun-powder, (fee
Gun powder), the dimenfions of cannon, err. and the
proportion of the powder and ball they carry, with the
method of managing, charging, pointing, fpunging, Stcv
A cannon is a military engine, or fire-arm, for throw¬
ing iron, lead, or ftone bullets, by force of gun powder,
to a place exadlly oppofite to the axis of the cylinder
whereof it confifts.
Cannons are made cylindrical, that the motion of the
ball might not be retarded in its pafiage; and that the
powder, when on fire, might not flip between the ball
and the furface of the cannon, which would hinder irs
effefl. With regard to the names, dimenfions, weight,
tic. of cannons, fee Cannon.
Each fort of ordnance is more or lefs fortified-;
which fortification is reckoned by the thicknefs of the
metal at the touch hole, at the trunnions, and at the
muzzle, in proportion to the diameter of the bore.
There are three degrees ufed irTfortifying each fort of
ordnance, both cannons and culverihes: Firft, fuch as
are ordinarily fortified, which are called legitimate pieces-;
fecondly, fuch whofe -fortifications are leflened, which are
called baftard pieces; thirdly, double fortified pieces,
or extraordinary pieces.
The cannons double fortified have fu'^one diameter of
their bore in thicknefs of metal at their touch-hole,
and aI their trunnions, and ^ at their muzzle. The
leflened cannons have, at their touch hole, but-J- or-*-^ bf
the diameter of their bore in thicknefs of metal, and-J at
their trunnions, and -/6 at their muzzle. The ordinary
fortified cannons, have 4 at the touch hole, -g at the trun¬
nions, and 4 at tbe muzzle. All the double fortified
culverines, and all lefler pieces of that kind, have one di¬
ameter and at the touch-hole, at the trunnions,,
and -jSg- at the muzzle. And all the ordinary fortified
culverines, are fortified every way as the double fortified
cannons; and the leflened culverines, as the ordinary,
cannons in all points.
With regard to bullets, or balls, wherewith cannons
are loaded, they are of various kinds, viz v i. Red-hot bul¬
lets, intended to fet fire to places, where combuflible
matters are found. The bullet is made red-hot, by
digging a place in the earth, and lighting in it a great
quantity of charcoal, or fea coal, and placing over it a
ftrong iron grate. When the fire is well lighted, the
bullets are placed on the grate, where, in a very ffiort
time, they grow red-hot,; they are taken out with tongs’,
or iron ladles for the purpofe, and carried into the piece;
having before put fome clay over the powder the cannon
is loaded with, left: it ffiould be fee on fire by the red hot
bullet: then the piece is fired. Where:ever the bullet
pafles, and meets with combuftible matters, it fets them
on fire. But when a trench is before the battery of red-
hot bullets, hay is rammed over the powder; becaufe> if
it was clay, the pieces of it would wound and kill the
workmen.
. Red-hot bullets are never fired but with eight or four
pounders. For if they were of a ftronger caliber, the
bullets could not be ferved eafily.
2. Hollow bullets are ffiells made cylindrical, with an a-
perture and fnfee atone end, which giving fire to the in-
fide, when in the ground, it buifts, and has the fame^ef-
feift with a mine.
5|. Chaim
<•
GUN
3. Chain-bullets confift of two balls joined by a chain,
•three or four foot a parjt.
4. Branch bullets are two balls joined by a bar ofiron,
five or fix inches a-part.
5. Two-headed bullets, called alfo angels, being two
halves of a bullet, joined by a bar or chain : thefe are
chiefly ufed at fea, for cutting of cords, cables, fails,
. As bullets, as well as th6 pieces of ordnance, are of
different caliber, which caliber, in a piece of ordnance,
is the diameter of the mouth thereof; and in a bullet, its
circumference; there are means found to proportion thefe
two calibers to one another, viz. with an inflrument cal¬
led a caliber rule, wherein a right’line is fo divided, as
that the firft part being equal to the diameter of an iron
6r leaden ball of one pound weight, the other parts are
to thefirfl, as the diameters of balls of two, three, four,
&c. pounds, are to the diameter of one ball of one
pound.
The caliber confills of two thin' pieces of brafs, fix
inches long, joined by a rivet, fo as to move quite round
each other : the head, or one end of the piece, is cut
circular, and one half of its circumference divided into
every .fecond degree. On the other half are divifions fiom
one to ten ; each again fubdivided into four: the ufe of which
civifions and fubdivifions, is when the diameter of a bul¬
let, ire. not exceeding ten inches, is taken, the diameter of
the femicircle will, among the divifions, give the length
of the diameter, taken between the points of the calibers,
in inches and fourth parts.
The degrees on the head ferve to take the quantity
of an angle, the method of which is obvious. If the
angle be inward, apply the outward edges to the planes
that form the angle; the degree cut by the diameter of
the femicircle, fhews the quantity of the angle fought.
For an outward angle, open the branches till the points
be outward, and applying the ftreight edges to the planes
that form the angle, the degrees cut by the diameter of
the femicircle fltew the angle required; reckonihgfrom
. 180, towards the right hand.
On one branch of the calibers, on the fame fide, are,
firft, fix inches ; and each of thefe fubdivided into ten
parts. Secondly, a fettle of unequal divifions, beginning
•at two, and ending pt ten, each fubdivided into four parts.
Thirdly, two other feales of lines, fhewing, when the
diameter of the bore of a piece is taken with the points
of the calibers outwards, the name of the piece, whe¬
ther of the iron or brafs, i. e. the weight of the bullet
it carries, or that it is fuch or fuch a pounder, from one
to forty-two pounds.
On the other branch of the calibers, on the fame fide,
is a line of cords to about three inches radius ; and a line
of lines on both branches, as on the feftor ; with a table
of the names of the feveral pieces of ordnance. On the
fame face is a hand graved, and a right line drawn from
the finger towards the centre of the rivet, fhewing, by its
cutting certain divifions made on the circle, the weight
of an iron (hot, when the diameter is taken by the points
of the calibers. Laftly, on the circle or head, on. the
fame fide, are graved feveral geometrical figures, inferi-
, bed in each other, with number s ;.as a.cube,whofe fide is fup-
G U N
pofed one foot; a pyramid on the fame bafe.or altitude,
.and the proportions of their weight, <fcc. a fphere in-
feribed in a cube ; a cylinder^ cone, circle, fqoure, <fcc.
The outfide of the caliber ferves to take the diameter
of the mouth of the piece; and the infide, called the
heel, that of the bullet.
There is another method of taking the caliber of the
pieces, which is to have a rule very well divided, on
which are graved the calibers both of the pieces and
-bullets. That rule muft be applied'on the mouth oftthe
piece, and the caliber is prefently found.
Sometimes, in lieu of bullets, the pieces are charged
with cartouches, which are cafes loaded with mulket-bails,
nails, chains, and pieces of old iron ; fometimes, alfc,
with fmali cannon-balls. See Plate XCVIII.
There are cartouches made in form of grapes, which
are mufket-balls joined together with pitch, and difpofed
on a fmali board, in a pyramidal form round a wooden
ftick, which arifes from the middle of the board, [ibid.)
The cartouches made of tin are the beft, becaufe they
carry further.
There are alfo cartouches made in form of pine apples,
whofe figure is pyramidal. Their bafe is equal to the ca¬
liber of a bullet, propofed for the piece they are to be
fired with; their height is of a caliber and a half; they
are dipped in tar, and afterwards rolled on mu fleet-balls,
and when well covered with thofe balls, dipped again in
the fame tar, after which they may be ufed, thrufting
the biggeft foremoft into the piece. Thefe pine-apples
are very good at fea, becaufe, befides that the muflcet-balls
flying about wound a great number of people, the bullet
which is at the bottom of the cartouch does alfo much,
execution.
There are feveral forts of carriages for ordnance, vizi.
baftard carriages, with low wheels* and high wheels.
Sea-carriages, made in imitation of thofe for fhip-guns :
and carriages for field-pieces* of which there are two >
kinds.
The carriages muft he proportioned to the pieces mount¬
ed on them.—The ordinary proportion is, for the car¬
riage to have if of the length of the gun; the-wheels to
be half the length of the piece in height; four times the
diameter or caliber, gives the depth of the planks the
fore end, in the middle jf.
The piece thus.mounted on its carriage, feveral inftru-
ments are employed, iome to prepare the piece to be load¬
ed, fome, to load it, others to point it, and others to •
cleanfeit, fee. Thofe inftruments have each their pro¬
per name, which, are as follows :
7 he lantern or ladle, {ibid.) which ferves to carry the
powder into the piece, and which confifts of two parts, viz.
of a wooden box, appropriated to the caliber of the piece
for which it is intended, and of a caliber and a half in
length with its vent ; and of a piece of copper nailed to
the box, at the height of a half caliber.
This lantern nvuft have three calibers and a half in
length, and two calibers in breadth, being rounded at the
end fo load the ordinary pieces.
The rammer, {ibid.) which is a round piece of wood,
commonly called a box, faftened to a ftick twelve-foot
long,
( 755 )
Q VJ N
{ 75^ )
C II H
isag, for t1i2 pieces from twelve to liirty three pound-
-ers; and ten for the eight and four pounders; which
derve to drive home the powder and hall to the breech.
The fpunge, (ibid.) which is a long ftaff or rammer,
with a piece of fheep or lamb jfkin wound about its end,
to ferve for fcouring the cannon when difcharged, before
it be charged with frelh powder; to prevent any fpark
<of fire from remaining in her, which would endanger the
Jife of him who (hould load her again.
Wad-ferew, {ibid.) which are two points of iron
turned ferpent-wife, to extraft the wad out of the pieces,
when one wants to unload them, or the dirt which had
chanced to enter into it.
The botefeux, {ibid) which are flicks two or three
<feet long, and an inch thick, fplit at one end, to hold an
end of the match twifted round it, to fire the cannon.
The priming iron, {ibid.) which is a pointed iron rod,
to clear the touch-hole of the pieces of powder or dirt;
and alfo to peirce the cartridge, that it may fooner take
fire.
The primer, {ibid ). Which muft contain a pound of
powder atleaft, to prime the pieces.
The quoin of mire, which are pieces of wood with
a notch on the fide to put the fingers on, to draw
them back or pufh them forward, when the gunner points
his piece. They are placed on the fble of the carriage.
Leaden plates, whichire ufed to cover the touch-hole,
when the piece is charged, left fome dirt ftiould enter it
and flop it.
Before you charge the pidee, fpunge it well, to clean
it of all filth and diit within-fide ; then the proper weight
of gunpowder, which powder drive in and ram down ;
taking care that the powder be not bruifed in ramming,
which weakens its effedt; run over it a little quantity of
paper, hay, or the like; and then throw in the ball.
To point, level, or diredt the piece, fo as to play a-
gainft any certain point, is done by tfre help of a qua¬
drant with a plummet; which quadrant confifts of two
branches made of brafs or wood; one about a foot long,
eight line$ broad, and one line in thicknefs; the other to convey it, in the night tii
four inches long, and the fame thicknefs and breadth as nitions.
the former. Between thefe branches is a quadrant, di¬
vided into 90 degrees, beginning from the ftiorter branch,
and furnifhed with thread and plummet.
far as the bullet will go point blank ; and the bullet will
go fartheft when the piece is mounted to about 45 de¬
grees above the level range.
Mr Norton obferves, that
A Bafe fiioots —
A Rabinet,  
A Falconet, —
A Falcon, — —
Minion ordinary —
Minion largejl, —.—
Sackir leajt, — —
Sacker ordinary, v—
Sucker old fort, — —
Demi-culverine leaf,
Demi-culverine ordinary,
Demi-culverine. old fort.
Culver ine leaf,  
Culver ine ordinary, —
Culverine largejl,  
Demi-cannon leaf, —
Demi-cannan ordinary,
Demi-cannon large, —
Cannon-royal, —■—■
Paces.
Level.
60
— 70
90
I2S
150
l6o
I63
174
175
i73
180
181
183
156
162
180
iS5
Paces.
Utmojl Random,
600
700
900
1300
1200
1250
1500
1600
1630
1740
>75<>
1780
1800
1810 '
1830
1560
1620
1800
1850
A 24 pounder may very well fire 90 or 100 fliots, e-
very day in fummer; at 60 or 75 in winter. In cafe of
necellity, it may fire more And fome French officers of
artillery affure, that they have caufed fuch a piece to fire
every day 150 ffiots in a fiege.
A 16 and a 12 pounder fire a little more, becaufe they
are eafier ferved. There have even been fome occafions,
where 200 fliots have been fired from thefe pieces, in
the fpace of nine hours, and 138 in the fpace of five.
To range pieces in a battery, take care to reconoitre
well the ground where it is to be placed, and the road
the cannon and the mu-
The pieces muft be armed, each with two lanterns, or la¬
dles, a rammer, a fpunge, and two priming irons. The
battery muft alfo be provided with carriages, and other
Place the longeft branch of this inftrument in the can- implements, neceflary to remount the pieces which the
mouth, and elevate or lower it till the thread cuts enemy ffiould chance to difmount.
To ferve expedirioufly and fafely a piece in battery, it
is neceffary to have to each a fack of leather, large e-
nough to contain about twenty pounds of powder tocharge
the degree neceflary to hit the propofed objeft. Which
/done, prime the cannon, and then fet fire to it.
To point a cannon well, fo as to do the execution pro¬
pofed, we muft know the path of a bullet, or the line it the lanterns or ladles, without carrying them to the ma-
-deferibes, from the mouth of the piece to the point where gazine ; and to avoid thereby making thofe trains of
it lodges, which path is commonly called range.
If the piece be laid in aline parallel to the horizon, it
is called the right or level range ; and if it be mounted
to 45 degrees, the ball is faid to have the utmoft range,
and fo proportionably ; all others between op degrees and
45, being called intermediate ranges.
A (hot made when the muzzle of a cannon its raifed a-
vbove the horizontal line, and is not defigned to ffioot di-
•recHy or paint blank, is called random-ffiot.
The utmoft random of any piece is about ten times as
powder in bringing back the lantern from the magazine,
and the accidents which frequently happen thereby.
A battery of 3 pieces mull have 30 gabions, hecaufe
fix are employed on each of the two fides or epaulments,
which make twelve, and nine for each of the two merlons.
There ought to be two gunners and fix foldiers to
each piece, and four officers of artillery.
The gunner, polled on the right of the piece, muft
take care to have always a pouch full of poVder, and two
priming-irons ; his office is to prime the piece, and load
'O V 'N ( 7
itt with powder. That ©n the left fetches the powder
.from the little magazine, and fills the lantesn or ladle
-.which his comrade holds ; after which, he minds that
•the match be very well lighted, and ready to fet fire to
the piece at the hr ft command of the officer.
There mull be three foldiers on the right, -and three
on the left of the piece. The two firft to take care to
ram and fpuhge the piece, each on his fide. The ram¬
mer and fpunge moft be placed on the left, and the lan¬
tern or ladle on the right. After having rammed well
the wad put over the powder, and that put over the bul¬
let, they then take each a handfpike, which they pafs
between the foremoft fpokes of the wheel, the ends
■whereof will pafs under the head of the carriage, to
make ti e wheel’turn round, leaning on the other end of
the handfpike, towards the embrafure.
It is the office of the fecond foldier on the right, to
provide wad, and to put.it into the piece, as toell over the
■powder as over the bullet; and that ot his comrade on
the left, to provide 50 ballets, and every time the piece
is to be charged, to fetch one of them and put it into the
piece, after the powder has been rammed. Then they
both take each an handfpike, which they pafs under the
hind part of the wheel, to puffi it in battery.
The officer of artillery muft take care to have the piece
diligently ferved.
In the night he muft employ the gunners and'foldiers,
'\vho ffiall relieve thofe who have ferved 24 hours re¬
pair the embrifures.
If there be no water near the battery," care muft be
• taken to have a calk filled with it, to dip the fpunges in
-it, and cool the pieces, every ten or twelve rounds.
The Mortar is a ftiort piece of ordnance, thick and
"wide, proper for -throwing bombs, carcaffes, fhells,
■ftones, &c.
There are chiefly two kinds of mortars : the one hung
or mounted on a carriage with low wheels, after the
manner of guns, called pendent or hanging mortars ; the
'Other fixed on an immoveable bafe, called /landing mor¬
tars. {ibid.)
At the head of the bore, or chafe of the mortar, is
-the chamber for the charge of the powder. This is ufu-
-ally made cylindrical, all but the bafe which they make
hemifpherical: though fome of the later engineers prefer
.hemifpherical chambers -r as the furface of thofe being
lefs, under equal capacities, make lefs rcliftaace to the
.gun-powder.
The thicknefs of the mortar about the chamber, is to
be much greater than about the chafe, by reafon the
gun-powder makes a much greater effort about the cham-
:ber than elfewhere. The diameter of the chamber to be
.much lefs than that of the bore ; by reafon bombs, Ihells,
dye. are much lighter than the bullets of equal diameters,
and confequently lefs powder fuffices.
The firft mortar-piece ufed for throwing ftones, weighs
colnmonly tooolb. and whofe utmoft random is 150 fa¬
thoms, loaded with two pounds of powder ; it has 15
inches of diameter at its mouth, and 2 foot 7 inches in
-height.
The depth of its bore or chafe is 1 foot 7 inches, and
&he depth of its chamber, without including the entrance
Vol. II. No. 5*8- 2
57 ) -G XT -N
where the taYnpion is placed, ^8 inches. The tourillorss
-have j incites of diameter,
The chamber muft enter-an inch into the tourillons :;
the thicknefs of the metal about the chamber, 3 inches :
the thicknefs of the belly, 2 inches; and-the length of
the chafe, 1 inch-and^; about each ring, 1 inch -and
Mortars, for throwing bombs, are of feveral kinds.
There are fome in the ancient manner, of 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, it, 12, and 18 inches diameter at their moutlt, and
which contain in their chambers 3, 4, 5,-6, and 12
pounds of powder.
The chamber where the powder is-put is cylindrical,
and a little rounded at bottom.
Thofe of new invention have a concave chamber And
of thefe there are fbme which have 12 inches and \ at
the mouth, and contain in their chambers 18 pounds of
powder; others T2, and others 8.
The proportions of mortars are as follow : The mortar
which throws a bomb of 17 inches 10 lines of diameter,
has the bore 27i inches long, and :& inches 4 lines of
diameter : it has in thicknefs between the bourelet, and
its fmall reinforced ring, 3-j inches; its fmall reinforced
ring, is 3! inches thick ; its great one, 4 inches ; the
entrance of its chamber has 57 inches of diameter; the
chamber, in form of a pear, is 1.3 inches long, and 7^
inches-of diameter at its greateft breadth; and alfo 7^
thick, and contains 12 pounds of powder.
The tourillons of the mortar have 32 inches in length
from one end to the other, and 9 of diameter. The
mortar has in height 4 foot 4 Inches.
The bomb has 17 inches 10 lines of diameter, is 2
inches thick every where, except the bottom, which has
2 inches 10 lines. The aperture of the touch-hole is of
20 lines within and-without.
The bomb contains 4&ib. of powder, and weighs 490 lb.
and a little more.
The bore of the concave mortar, whofe chamber con¬
tains 18 pounds of powder, has i2f inches of diameter,
and is l84: inches long. It has in thicknefs between the
bourelet, and its reinforced ring,- 3^ inches ; and its
reinforced ring is 4^ inches thick. Its chamber has 9
inches 7 lines-of diameter at its greateft width: the
higher part thereof has-6 inches of diameter, and 4 inches
in height; and its lower part 24- inches. The thicknefs
of the metal round the chamber is of 26 inches 9 lines.
The tourillons have, from one endto the other, 8 inches
of diameter. The mortar has in height 3 feet 5 inches
4 lines. It throws a bomb of 11 inches 8 lines diameter,
which is 1 inch 4 lines-thick every where, except at its
cullot, which has 1 inch 8 lines. The aperture of its
touch hole is 16 lints infide and outfide. The bomb
contains 15 pounds of .powder, and weighs 130 pounds,
or thereabout.
The bore or chafe of the concare mortar, whofe cham- '
her-contains 12 pounds of powder, has 12 inches 6 lines
of diameter, and 17 inches 6 lines in length. Its thick¬
nefs between the bourelet and its reinforced ring, is of
2f inches. Its reinforced ring-is 3 inches thick. Its
chamber has of diametft-, at its greareft width, 9 inches
6 lines. The portion of that chamber a-top has 5 inches
4 lines of diameter, and 2 inches at bottom. The thick-
8 E „-ne&
GUN ( 758 ) G U N
nefs of the metal round ihe chamber is 6 inches. The
toiirillons are, from one end to the other, 30 inches long,
and 7 inches of diameter; and the mortar is in all 3 foot
2 inches high.
It throws a bomb 11 inches 8 lines of diameter, which
is 1 inch 4 lines thick every where, except at its cullot,
which has 1 inch 8 lines.
The aperture of its touch-hole outfide and infide, is
16 lines.
The bomb contains 15 pounds of powder, and weighs
130.
The mortar, which has a concave chamber containing
8 pounds of powder, muft throw a bomb of it inches 8
lines. Its diameter is of is-i inches; its bore 18 inches
long; its thicknefs at the chafe 2i inches; its reinforced
ring 6 inches long, and 3 inches thick; its concave cham¬
ber 8 inches 8 lines long, and 7 inches in diameter; the
thicknefs of the metal round it 5 inches; its tourilions 3
inches long from one end to the other, and 7 inches in
diameter. The concave chamber contains 8 pounds of
powder, and throws a bomb as above.
The ordinary mortar, which throws a bomb of 11
inches 8 lines, has a bore of 12 inches diameter, and
18 long; its thicknefs at the neck 2 inches ; at its rein¬
forced ring 2y inches; its chamber 9-^ inches in length,
its diameter of 5^ inches, the thicknefs of the metal
round the chamber 7 inches, which chamber contains 6
pounds of powder ; the tourillons have in length, from one
end to the other, 28 inches, and 8 inches of diameter.
The mortar, which throws a bomb of 8 inches, has
the bore 12 inches long, and 8 inches 4 lines in diame¬
ter; its thicknefs 1 inch 4 lines at the chafe ; its rein
forced rings 4 inches 8 lines long, and 1 inch 8 lines
thick; its chamber 6 inches long, and 2 inches 8 lines
of diameter; its tourillons 18 inches 8 lines in length,
and 4 inches 8 lines of diameter. The bomb of 8 inches
of diameter is 10 lines thick every where, except at the
cullot, which is 13, and its touch-hole 1 inch of diame¬
ter infide and outfide. The chamber contains 4 pounds
of powder, and the bomb weighs 40 pounds.
The bore of the mortar, which is to throw a bomb of
6 inches, is of inches of diameter, and 9 inches
long ; its thicknefs at the chafe 1 inch; its reinforced
ring i-| inch thick, and 3-J inches long; its chamber 41-
inches long, and 2 inches of diameter; the thicknefs of
the metal 2 inches, and from the bottom of the chamber
to behind the recoil of the mortar 4 inches thick.
Common mortars are very good for the bombardment
of a place, when they can be carried near the place ;
throwing the bomb to 43 degrees of elevation, and to
700 fathoms diltance : the chamber is charged with 5 or 6
pounds of powder, which is the greateft charge, and car¬
ries farther : the nearer a place a mortar is mounted, the
Jefs powder is wanted for its charge. The mortars, with
a concave chamber of the fame diameter, i e. of 12 and
I2-J-inches, pointed at 43 degrees, are proper to bom¬
bard places afar off; they carry their'bombs from 1200
to 1800 fathoms. Thofe whofe chamber contains 8
pounds of powder, throw the bomb to 1200 fathoms,
and weigh 2000 lb. Thofe af 12 pounds of powder will
carry their bonibs to 1400 fathoms, and weigh 2yco'lb.
Thofe of 18 pounds of powder will carry to 1800 fathoms,
and weigh 3000 lb.
The carriage for a mortar of 1 2 inches of diameter
muft be 6 foot long, the flailts 12 inches long and jo
thick. The trunnions are placed in the middle of the
carriage.
The carriage of 18 muft be 4 foot long; and the flalks
11 inches high, and 6 thick.
To mount the mortars of new invention, they ufe car¬
riages of caft iron.
In Germany, to mount mortars from 8 to 9 inches,
and carry them into the field, and execute them hori¬
zontally as a piece of cannon, they make ufe of a piece
of wood 8 feet 2 inches long, with a hole in the middle
to lodge the body of the mortar and its trunnions as far
as their half diameter, and mounted on two wheels four
feet high, to which they join a vantrain proportioneduto
it, and made like thoie which ferve to the carriages of
cannons.
Having mounted the mortar on its carriage, the next
thing is to caliber the bomb, by means of a great ca¬
liber, the two branches whereof embrace the whole
circumference of the bomb : ihefe two branches are
brought on a rule where the different calibers are mark¬
ed, among which that of the bomb is found.
A bomb is a hollow iron ball, or (hell, filled with gun¬
powder, and furnifhed v/ith a vent for a fufee or wooden
tube filled with combuftible matter to be thrown out
from a mortar. The method of preparing a bomb is as
follows: A hollow iron globe is caft pretty thick, ha?
ving a round aperture by which it may be filled and light¬
ed ; and circular anfae for the commodioufly putting it
into the mortar. To prove whether it be ftaunch, after
heating it red hot on the coals, it is expofed to the air
fo as it may cool gently; for, fince fire dilates iron, if
there be any hidden chinks or perforations, they will
thus be opened and enlarged, and the rather becaufe of
the fpring of ti e included air continually a<fting from
within. This done, the cavity of the globe is filled with
hot water, and the aperture well flopped, and the outer
furface wafhed with cold water and foap; fo that if there
be the fmalleft leak, the air, rarified by the heat, will
now perfpire and form bubbles on the furface.
If no defedt be found in the bomb, its cavity is filled,
by means of a funnel, with whole gun powder; a little
fpace or liberty is left, that when a fufee or wooden tube,,
of the figure of a truncated cone, is driven through the
aperture, (with a wooden mallet, not an iron one, for
fear of accident), and faftened with a cement made of
quick lime, allies, brick-duft, and fteel filings worked
together in a glutinous water, or of four parts of pitch,
two of colophony, one of turpentine, and one of v/ax;
the powder may not be bruifed. This tube is filled with
a combuftible matter, made of two ounces of nitre, one of
fulphur, and three of gun-powder-duft W'dl rammed.
This fufee let on fire, burns flowly till it reaches the
gun powder, which goes off at once, burfting the fhell
to pieces with incredible violence. Special care, howe¬
ver, muft be taken, that the fufee he fo proportioned, as
that
G TJ N ( 759 ) GUN
"that the gun-powder do not take fire ere the {hell anivcs
at the dettmed place ; to prevent which, the fufee is fre¬
quently wound round \yith a wet clammy thread.
The mortar mounted on its carriage, and the bomb
;ready, let us place our piece in battery, which battery
mu!t confid,— i. Of an epaulment to fiielter the mortars
Trotn the fire of the enemy. 2. Of platforms on which
the mortars are placed. 3. Of fmall magazines of pow¬
der. 4. Of a boyau which leads to the great magazine.
5. Of ways which lead from the battery to the magazine
• of bombs. 6. Of a great ditch before the epaulment.
7. Of a berm or retraite.
The platforms for mortars of 12 inches muff have 9
feet in length, and 6 in breadth.—The lambourds for
common mortars muft be four inches thick; thofe of a
concave chamber of 8 lb. cf powder, 5 inches; thofe of
12 lb. 6 inches ; thofe of 18 lb. 7 inches, or thereabouts.
Their length is at diferetion, provided there be enough
to make the platforms 9 feet long —The fore-part of the
platform will be fituated at two foot diiiance from the
epaulment of the battery.—The bombardiers, to Ihelter
themfelves in their battery, and not be feen from the
town befieged, raifed an epaulment of 7 foot or more
high, which epaulment has po embrafures.
To fei ve expeditioufly a mortar in battery are required,
—five Ifrong har.dfpikes; a dame or rammer, of the ca¬
lmer of the conic chamber, to ram the wad and the
earth ; a wooden knife a foot long, to place the earth
round the bomb; an iron feraper two foot long, one end
whereof muft be 4 inches broad and roundwife, to clean
the bore and the chamber of the mortar, and the other
end made in form of a fpoon to clean the little cham¬
ber ; a kind of brancard to carry the bomb, a fiiovel, and
pick ax.
The officer who is to mind the fervice of the mortar
muft have a quadrant to give the degrees of elevation.
Five bombardiers, or others, are employed in that fer¬
vice ; the fitft muft take care to fetch the powder to
charge the chamber of the mortar, putting his priming-
iron in the touch-hole before he charges the chamber;
and never going to fetch the powder before he has afked
his officer at what quantity of powder he defigns to charge,
becaufe niore or lefs powder is wanted, according to the
diftance where it is fired ; the fame will take care to ram
the wad and earth, which another foidier (hall put in the
chamber.
That on the right will put again two ffiovels full of
earth in the bottom of the bore, which fliould be likewife
very wdl rammed down.
This done, the rammer or dame is returned into its
place, againft the epaulment on the right of the mor¬
tar: he takes an handfpike in the fame place to port
himfelf behind the carriage of the mortar, in order to
help to pufii it into battery : having laid down his hand¬
fpike, he takes out his priming-iron, and primes the
touch-hole with fine powder.
The fecond foidier on the right and left, will have by
that time brought the bomb ready loaded, to be placed.
in the mortar, which -muft be received in the mortar bv
the nrft Idldier, and placed very ftrait in the bore or chafe
of the mortar.
The firft, on the right, ffiall furniffi him with earth to-
put round the bomb, which he muft take care to rant
clofe with the.knife gnren him by the fecond on the left.
This done, each Ihall take a handfpike, which the two
firft, on the right and left, ffiall put under the pegs of
retreat of the fore part, and the two behind under thofe
of the hind-paj t; and they together ffiall puffi the mortar
in battery.
Afterwards the officer ffiall point or direft the mortar.
During that time the firft foidier ffiali take care to
prime the touch hole of the mortar, without ramming
the powder ; and the laft on the right, fhall have the
match ready to fet fire on the fufee of the bomb on the
right, while the firft ffiail be ready with his on the left,
to fet fire to the touch-hoie of the mortar; which he ought
not to do till he fees the fufee well lighted.
The foremoft foldiers will have their handfpikes ready
to raife the mortar upright, as foon as it has difeharged ;
while the hindmoft on the left ffiall, with the feraper,'
clean the bore and chamber of the mortar.
The magazine of powder for the fervice of the battery,
ffiall be fituated iy or 20 paces behind, and covered with
boards, and earth over it.—The loaded bombs are on the
fide of the faid magazine, at five or fix paces diftance.
The officer who commands the fervice of the mortar,
muft take care to difeover, as much as poffihle, with the
eye, the diftance of the place where he intends to throw
his bomb, giving the mortar the degrees of elevation, ac¬
cording to the judgmefft he has formed of the diftance.
Having thrown the firft bomb, he muft diminiffi or increafe
the degrees of elevation, according to the place upon
which it ffiall fall. Several make ule of tables to difco-
ver the different diftances according to the differences of
the elevations of the mortar, efpecially the degrees of the
quadrant from 1 to 45.
M. Biondel has wrote a large treatife on that fubjeft,
where he pretends to give' a demonftration to throw bombs
with great exadnefs.
They fay then, (fays M. Blonde!, fpeaking of bombar¬
diers), that the mortar chafes more or .lefs, according as
it is more or lefs charged with powder; and that a mor¬
tar, for example, -of 12 inches caliber, charged in its
chamber with 2 lb, of powder, gives every degree 48 feet
difference in the random, and for the greateft extent un¬
der the elevation of.45 degrees, 2160 feet.
The fame mortar will give every degree jo foot differ¬
ence, if it be charged with 24 of the lame goodnefs, and
2700 foot for the greateft random.
Laftly, it will give 72 foot difference every degree,
if the charge be of 3 lb. of the fame powder; and at the
elevation of 45 degrees, which, they fay, is the greateft
random, it Will throw the bomb at the diftance of 3240
feet. 5 '
On this foundation they have made the following tables.
Tables
G V N
X 7^0 )
fG U 'N
’tr-AffLES /or Mortars of 12 inches 0/‘Caliber. Tables /or Mortars 0/ 8 inches Caliber.
Fir/? Table at two pounds cf powder.
Fir/} Table at half pound-ol powder.
Randoms
i ipb.Feet
I2L8
1260
1302
1344
1386
1428
1470
1512
1554
1596
1638
1680
1722
1764
1806
■Granadoes are charged like the bombs, and are very
•fnuch like them, except that tbey have no anfa.
A granado is a hollow ball, or Ihell of iron, brafs, or
even glafs, or potters earth, filled-with gun powder, and
fitted with a fufee to give it fire, {ibid.)
Of thefe there are two kinds ; the one large for
ditches, or foffees, called fometimes bombs, whofe cali¬
ber is the fame with that of the bullets of 331b. . and
which weigh 16 lb. of 24, and which weigh 12 lb. of 16,
iwhich weigh 8 lb.
Thefe granadoes are rolled from the ramparts, or o-
ther works, into the ditch, or on a breach, and do much
.execution.
Degrees Randoms
41  —— 3362 Feet
42  :— 3444
43   3526
.44  3608
45 3690
The other are hand-granadoes, of the bignefs or cali-
ber-of a bullet of 4 lb. and weigh only 2 lb. containing
4 or 5 ounces of powder, or thereabout.
Thefe ferve to throw with the hand into the trenches,
or retrenchments, in the middle of a troop or company,
and they infallibly lame or kill.
' Care is taken, as much as poffible, that they be well
emptied, fhaved, and of brittle iron. Their aperture or
orifice muft have fix lines, or thereabout.
Small lanterns or ladles of copper, and fmall rammers,
are ufed to charge the granadoes.
As to the proportions of granadoes, thofe of the caltbtr
(1 rXNEJVY
Plate XCVlIt .
GUN • ( 76
of a t>uilet of 33, have 6 inches of d’ameter, and fome-
thing more ; they are 8 lines thick, and weigh 16 lb.
7'hofe of the caliber of 24 have 5: inches j lines dia¬
meter, are 6 lines thick, and tveigh 12 lb.
Thofe of the caliber of 16 have 4 inches 9 lines of dia¬
meter, are 5 lines thick, and weigh 8 lb.
Thofe which weigh 6 lb have 3 inches 5 lines diame
ter. and 5 lines in thickncfs.
Thofe of 5 lb. weight have 3 inches 2^ lines diameter,
and 5 lines in thickn^fs.
Thofe which weigh 3 lb. have 2 inches 8 lines diame¬
ter, and are 47 lines thick.
Thofe of 2 lb. weight, have 2 inches 4 lines diameter,
and 4 lines in thicknefs.
ThoVe of 1 lb weight have 1 inch 10 lines diameter,
and are 3 lines, tliick.
Thofe of ^ have 1 inch 8 lines diameter, and are 3
lines thick.
Thofe of l have i inch 6 lines diameter, and are 3
lines thick.'
Thofe of a 4 have 1 inch 2 lines diameter, anti are 2f
lines thick.
All thefe granadoes mull be thicker at bottom than any
where elfe.
Thefe different forts of granadoes have a’-fo different
forts of fufees.
Thofe of the caliber of 33 24 16 12 8 4
are at the biggefl end, of ulin. 11 to-f 10 9f 84-
The diameter of the?
orifices, j ^ ^ 3 3 3 2
The fufees are in? . . , , ,
length, in all, of 5 ^irlVC ' ■* ^ 4 3t 2*
■ And as the large granadoes, which are made to throw
into the foffes, or ditches, or with (mall mortars, they
mud have fufees of different lengths ; thefe are for fmall
mortars; thofe for ditches mud be fhorter.
The Germans cover over the fufee with paper or parch¬
ment, tied with a thread round, the fufee.
In France they ufe a compofition of black pitch, mixed
with a little tallow, with which they rub‘over the fufee,
when fixed to the granado.
The fufee mud burn fo long, and no longer, as is the
time of the motion of the bomb or granado, from the
mouth of the mortar, drc. to the place where it is to
fall, which time is about 27 feconds; fo that the fufee
mud be contrived, either from the nature of the compo¬
fition, or the length of the pipe which contains it, to
burn jud that time.
At Paris they charge the fufees for the bombs and gra-,
radoes with a compofition made with powder-duft and
charcoal, very vyell pounded, and lifted very fine, put¬
ting two ounces of charcoal on each pound of powder, and
make feveral proofs, to know if the compofition be not
too quick.
There are feveral other compofibons to charge the fu¬
fees for bombs or granadoes.
The fird is of 41b. of powder, 2 lb. of faltpetre, and
l lb. of fulphur.
The fecond is of 5 lb. of powder, 2 lb. of faltpetre,
and 1 pound of fulphur.
Vol. II. No. j8. 2
1 ) GUN
The third, which is the bed, is of 31b. of powder,
2 lb. of faltpetre, and 1 lb. of fulphur.
The fourth is of 3 lb. of powder, 2lb. of faltpetre,
and 7 lb. of fulphur.
The fufees mud be charged even, /. e. they mud burn
witKout fpitting.
The fufee of the hand-granado, which is of the cali¬
ber of 4, mud be 2 inches 2 lines long, 9 lines of dia¬
meter, and 6 lines at the fmall end; the orifice of the
fufee 2i lines.
As foon as the fufee is placed to the granado, the head
thereof mud be fauced in melted pitch, and afterwards
dipped in water, which hinders the compofition from
fpoiling, and the wood from.rptting.
The petard (ibid.) is the next piece of artil¬
lery which deferves our attention, .and is a kind of
engine of metal, fomewhat in thape of a high-crowned
hat, ferving to break down gates, barricades, draw¬
bridges, or the like works ; which are intended to be fur-
prized. It is very fhort, narrow at the breach, and wide
at the muzzle, made of copper mixed with a little brafs,
or of lead with tin.
The petards are not always of the fame height and
bignefs: they are commonly to inches high, 7 inches of
diameter a-top, and 10 inches at bottom. They weigh
commonly 40, 45. and 50 pounds.
The madrier, on which the petard is placed, and
where it is tied with iron circles, is of two feet for its
greatdl width, and of 18 inches on the fides, and no
thicker than a common madrier. Under the madrier are
two iron bars paffed crofs-ways, with a hook, which ferves
to fix tfie petard.
To charge a petard jj inches high, and 6 or 7 inches
of caliber or diameter at the bore, the infide mull be firfl
very well cleaned and heated, fo that the hand may bear
the' heat; then take the bell powder that may be found,
throw over it fome fpirit of wine, and expole it to the
fun, or put it in a frying-pan ; and when it is well dried,
5 or 61b. of this powder is put into the petard, which
reaches within three fingers of the mouth: the vacancies
are filled with tow, arid Hopped wish a wooden tampion 5
the mouth being llrongly bound up with cloth tied very
tight with ropes; then it is fixed on the madrier, that
has a cavity cut in it to receive the mouth of the petard,
and faftened down with ropes.
Some inllead of gun powder for the charge, ufe one
of the following compofitions, viz. gun-powder feven
pounds, mercury fublimate one ounce, camphor eight
ounces; or gun-powder fix pounds, mercury fublimate
three ounces, and fulphur three; or gun-powder fix,
beaten glafs 4 an ounce, and camphor .4.
Before any of thefe pieces are appropriated for feryice,
it is neceffary to have each undergo a particular trial of
its foundnefs, which is called a proof, to be made by or
before one authorifed for the purpofe, called the pr.oof-
vtajler.
To make a proof of the piece, a proper place is chofen,
which is to be terminated by a mount of earth very thick
to receive the bullets fired againll it, that none of. them
tnay run through it. The piece is laid on theoground,
8 F , iupportei
GUN (
fupported only in the middle by a block of wood. It is
fired three times : the full with powder of the weight of
the bullet, and the two others with ^ of the weight; af¬
ter which a little more powder is put in to linge the piece ;
and after this water, which is impreffed,with a fpunge,
putting the finger on the touch-hole, to difcover if there
be any cracks ; which done, they are examined with the
cat, which is a piece of iron with three grafps, difpofed
in the form of a triangle, and of the caliber of the piece;
then it is vifited with a wax candle, but it is of very little
fervice in the fmall pieces, becaufe if they be a little long,
the fmoke extinguilhes it immediately.
The proof of mortars is made in this manner : Where
there are carriages of caft iron, the mortar is placed on
one of thofe carriages. Under that carriage is made a
platform of madriers 5 or 6 inches thick; the mortar is
charged with the bed: powder, and with as much of it as
its chamber can contain, obferving to leave no vacuity at
the neck of the mortar, but what is neceflary to put a
little wad over the powder, and which is rammed with
the end of an handfpike, to keep the powder together as
much as pofiible. A large green turf, with earth two
fingers deep, is put over the wad, which muft have width
enough to fill up the bottom of the mortar. This turf
and earth are very well rammed down, then the bomb is
placed over it as upright as pofiible, leaving a fmall place
round it, which is to be filled with clay as tight as pof-
fible, prelling it between the mortar and the bomb with
a pointed dick ; and as it is not neceflary to fpend much
powder in thefe fort of proofs, the bomb mud be filled
with as much earth as it would contain powder.
For want of carriages of cad iron, holes are dug in the
earth where the mortars are buried as far as the touch-
hole ; and in order that the mortars thus buried may find
more refidance, and make a greater effort, large pieces
of wood in form of joids are put under the mortar, chu-
fmg always the harded ground, to refid better the recoil
of the mortar.
A fufee for granadoes is put on the touch-hole of each
mortar, that the gunner may have time to retire, in cafe
the mortar was to burd in the propf; which is alfo prac-
tifed in the proof of the pieces.
This proof is made three times, without increafing or
diminilhing any thing.
Befides the large pieces mentioned throughout this trea-
tife, invented for the dedrudtion of mankind, there are
others called fmall guns, viz. mu fleets of ramparts, com¬
mon mufkets, fufils, carabines, mulketoons, and pidols.
A mufket, or mufquet, is a fire arm borne on the
fhouider, and ufed in war, formerly fired by the appli¬
cation of a lighted match, but at prefent with a flint and
lock.
The common mufleets are of the caliber of 20 leaden
balls to the pound, and receive balls from 22 to 24: its
length is fixed to 3 feet 8 inches from the muzzle to the
touch-pan.
A fufil, or fire-lock, has the fame length and caliber ;
and ferves at prefent indead of a mufleet.
A carabine is a fmall fort of fire-arm, Ihorter than a
fufil, and carrying a ball of 24 in the pound, borne by
the light-horfe, hanging at a belt over the left Ihoulder,
The carabine is a kind of medium between the piftol
and the mulket; and bears a near affinity to the arejue-
bufs, only that its bore is fmaller. It was formerly
made with a match lock, but of late only with a flint¬
lock.
The mufquetqon is of the fame length of the cara¬
bine, the barrel polifhed, and clean within.
The mufquetoon carries five ounces of iron, or feven
and a half of lead, with an equal quantity of powder.
The barrel of a pidol is generally 14 inches long.
As to the invention of cannon and gun powder, we
are certain that they are difeoveries of a modern date :
but there is no depending upon the various accounts
given of them by authors. All that can be faid with
certainty is, that there is mention made of gun-powder
in the regider of the chamber of accounts in France,
in the year of ChridisjS; that AlphonfusXI. king
of Cadile, befieged the Moors with iron mortars, in
the year of Chrilt 1343 ; and that our King Edward,
in 1346, fird carried thofe tliundering machines of war
and death into France, where he availed himfelf of five
or fix pieces of cannon at the battle of Crefly.
Before the invention of thefe indruments of war,
the ancients made ufe of the aries, or battering-ram,
the catapultae, the ballida, fcorpion, and tedudo. See
Ram, drc.
For the mathematical principles of Gunnery, fee
Projectiles.
GUN POWDER, a compofition of faltpetre, fulphdr,
and charcoal, mixed together, and ufually granulated ;
which eafily takes lire, and, when fired, rarifies, or
expands, with great vehemence, by means of its eladic.
force.
It is to' this powder we owe all the adtion and effedt
of guns, ordnance, <bc. fo that the modern military
art, fortification, <bc. in a great meafure depend there¬
on.
Method of making Gun powder. Dr Shaw’s recipe
for this purpofe is as follows, Take four ounces of
refined faltpetre, an ounce of brimdone, and fix drams
of fmall coal: reduce thefe to a fine powder, and con¬
tinue beating them for fome time in a done mortar,
with a wooden peflle, wetting the mixture between
whiles with water, fo as to form the whole into an
uniform pade, which is reduced to grains, by palling
it through a wire fieve fit for the purpofe; and in this
form being carefully dried, it becomes the common
gunpowder.
For greater quantities, mills are ufually provided,
by means of which more work may be performed in
one day, than a man can do in a hundred.
The nitre or faltpetre is refined thus: difiblve four
pounds of tough nitre as it comes to us from the In¬
dies, by boiling it in as much water as will commodi-
oufly fuffice for that purpofe : then let it fhoot for two
or three days in a covered vefiel of earth, with dicks,
laid acrofs for the crydals to adhere to. Thefe cry-
dais being taken out, are drained and dried in the open
air.
In order to reduce this'fait to powder, they diiTolve
ar
GUN ( 7<*3 ) GUN
a large quantity of it in as fmall a proportion of water
as poflible; then keep it conftantly itirring over the
fire, till the water exhales, and a white dry powder is
left behind.
In order to purify the brimftone employed, they
diflblve it with a very gentle heat; then fcum and pals
it through a double drainer. If the brimftone fliould
happen to take fire in the melting, they have an iron
cover that fits on clofe to the melting veffel, and damps
the flame. The brimftone is judged to be fufficiently
reined if it melts, without yielding any fetid odour, be¬
tween two hot iron plates, into a kind of red fubftance.
The coal for the making of gun-powder is either
that of willow, or hazel, well charred in the ufual
manner, and reduced to powder. And thus the in¬
gredients are prepared for making this commodity:
but as thefe ingredients require to be intimately mixed,
and as there would be danger of their firing if beat in
a dry form, the method is to keep them continually
moift, either with water, urine, or a folution of fal
ammoniac: they continue thus (lamping them together
for.twenty-four hours, after which the mafs is I t for
corning and drying in the fun, or otherwife, fo as fe-
. duloufly to prevent its firing.
Rationale of Gun-powder. The explofive force of
gun-powder is now a thing commonly known, but the
phyfical reafon thereof may not perhaps be hitherto
fufficiently underflood. In order to explain it, Dr
Shaw propofes the following obfervations: 1. That
faltpetre of itfelf is not inflammable; and though it
melts in the fire, and grows red hot, yet does not ex¬
plode, unlefs it comes in contadt with the coals. 2.
That brimftone eafily melts at the fire, and eafily
catches flame. 3 That powdered charcoal readily
takes fire, even from the fparks yielded by a flint and
fteel. 4. That if nitre be mixed with powdered char¬
coal, and brought in contadf with the fire, it burns
and flames. 5 That if fulphur be mixed with pow-
dered charcoal, and applied to the fire, part of the
fulphur burns flowly away, but not much of the char¬
coal; and, 6. That if a lighted coal be applied to a
mixture of nitre and fulphur, the fulphur prefently
takes fire with fome degree of explofion; leaving part
of the nitre behind, as we fee jn making the fal pru¬
nellas, and fal polychreftufh..
Thefe experiments duly confidered, adds the doflor,
may give us the chemical caufe of the flrange explofive
force of gun-poader. For each grain of this powder
conlifting of a certain proportion of fulphur, nitre, and
coal, the coal prefently takes fire, upon oontadt of the
fmalleft fpark : at which time both the fulphur and the
nitre immediately melt, and by means of the coal in-
terpofed between them, burrt into flame; which,
fpreading from grain to grain, propagates the fame ef-
fedt almoft inftantaneoufly: whence the whole mafs of
powder comes to be fired: and as nitre contains both
a large proportion of air and water, which are now.
violently rarified by.the heat, a kind of fiery explafive
blafl is thu-, produced, whe-rein the nitre feems, by its
aqueous and aerial parts, to adt as bellows to the other
inflammable bodies, fulphur and coal, to blow them
into a flame, and carry off their whole fubflance in
fmoke and vapour.
Different kinds of Gvx-vowd-zk. The three ingredi¬
ents of gun powder are mixed in various proportions
according as the powder is intended for mufkets, great
guns, or mortars; though thefe proportions feem not
to be perfed'tly adjufted or fettled by competent ex¬
perience. >
Semienbwitz, for mortars, diredfs an hundred pounds
of faltpetre, twenty-five of fulphur, and as many of
charcoal; for great guns, an hundred pounds of falt¬
petre, fifteen pound of fulphur, and eighteen pound of
charcoal; for mufkets and piftols, an hundred pound
of faltpetre, eight pound of fulphur, and ten pound of
charcoal. Miethius extols the proportion of one pound
of faltpetre to three ounces of charcoal, and two, or
two and a quarter of fulphur ; than which, he affirms,
no gun-powder can poflibly be ftronger. He adds, that
the ufual practice of making the gun-powder weaker1
for mortars than guns, is without any foundation, and
renders the expence needlefly much greater : for where¬
as to load a large mortar, twenty-four pound of com ■
mon powder is required, and confequently, to load it
ten times, two hundred and forty pound, he (hews, by
calculation, that the fame effedt would be had by one
hundred and fifty pound of the ftrong powder.
To increafe the flrength of powder, Dr Shaw thinks
it proper to make the grains confiderably large, and to
have it well fifted from the fmall dufl. We fee that
gun-powder, reduced to duft, has little explofive force;
but when the grains are large, the flame of one grain
has a ready paflage to another, fo that the whole par¬
cel may thus take fire nearly at the fame time, other-
wife much force may be lofi, or many of the grains go -
away as (hot unfired.
It ffiouid alfo feem that there are other ways of in-
creafing the flrength of powder, particularly by the
mixture of fait of tartar; but perhaps, adds the laft-
mentioned author, it were improper to divulge any
thing of this kind, as gun powder feems already fuf¬
ficiently deftruffive.
Method of trying and examining Gun pow.de r. There-
are two general methods of examining gun-powder;
one with regard to its purity, the other with regard to
its ftrength. Its purity is known by laying two or
three little heaps near each other upon white paper,
and firing one of them : for if this takes fire readily,
and the fmoke rifes upright, without leaving any drofs
or feculent matter behind, and without burning the
paper, or firing the other heaps, it is efteemed a fign
that the fulphur and nitre were well purified, that the
coal was good, and that the three ingredients were
thoroughly incorporated together: but if the other
heaps alfo take fire at the fame time, it is prefumed,
that either common fait was mixed with the nitre, or
that the coal was not well ground, or- the whole mafs
not Well beat, and mixed together; and if either the
nitre or fulphur be not well purified, the paper will be
black or fpotted
In order to try the flrength of gun-powder, there
are two kinds of inflrumtms in ufe; but neither of
them:
a U. N ( ) G IT N
i«enr appesr more exaiS than the common method of
trying to what didance a certain weight of powder w 11
throw a ball from a me'¥et.
There has been much talk of a white powder, which,
if it anfwered the charadVer given it, might be a dan¬
gerous compofition; for they pretend that this white
powder will throw a ball as far as the black, yet with¬
out making a report; ljut none of the white powder
we have feen, fays Dr Shaw, anfwets to. this ..charac¬
ter; being, as we apprehend, commonly made either
with touchwood or camphor, inffend of coal.
Qhj'ervat •ons cn the force oj Gun-fowder, Gun pow¬
der, fired either in vacuum, or in air, produces, by
its explofion, a permanent eladic fluid, Fdr if a red-
hot. iron Le included in a receiver, after being exhaud-
. ed, and gun powder be let .fail on the iron, the pow¬
der will take fire, and the mercurial gage will fud-
denly defcend upon the explofion ; and though it im¬
mediately afoends again, yet it will never rife to the
height it firft Hood at, but will continue deprefled by
a fpace proportioned to the quantity pf gun powder
which was let fall on the iron
The fame prcdudtion iikewife takes place, when
gun powder is fired in the air: fpr if a fmall quantity
of powder be placed in the upper part of a glafs tube,
and the lower part of the tube be immerged in wa-v
ter, and the water be made to rife fo near the top,
that only a fmall portion of air is left in that part
v here .the gun-powder is placed; if in this fituation
the communication of the upper part of the tube wfth
the,external air be clpfed, and the powder be fired,
which will eafily be done by a burning-glafs, the wa¬
ter will in this experiment defcend upon the explofion
as the quickfilver did in the lafl; and will always con¬
tinue dtprefltd below the place at which it flood be¬
fore the explofion ; and the quantity of this depref-
. ficn will be greater, if the quantity of powder be in-
crcafed, or the diameter of the tube be diminifhed.
From whence it is proved, that as well in air as in a
vacuum, the explofion of fired powder produces a
permanent elaftic fluid. It alfo appears from experi¬
ment, that the elafticity or preflure of the fluid pro¬
duced by the firing of gun pow-der, is. exteris pari-
bvs, diretfly as its denfity. THU follows from hence,
that if in the fame receiver a double quantity of
powder be jet fall, the mercury will fubfide twice as
much as in the firing of a fingle quantity.
To determine the elafticity and quantity of ^his ela-
flic fluid, produced .from the explofion of a given quan¬
tity of gun powder, Mr Robins premifes, that the
elafticity of this fluid increafes by heat, and diminifties
by cold, in the fame manger as that of the air; and
that the denfity of this fluid, and confequemjy its
l weight, is the fame with the weight of an equal bulk
of air having the fame elafticity, and the fame temper¬
ature.
From thefe principles, and from his experiments,
(for a detail of which w e muft refer the reader to his
,New Principles of Gunnery, in Scholium to prop. II.)
die concludes, that the fluid produced by the firing of
gun-powder will te T3? of the weight of the gun pow¬
der, and the ratio of the refpe&ive bulks of the pow¬
der, and the fluid produced from it, will be in round
numbers i to 244
Hence we are certain, that any quantity .of powder
fired in any confined (pace, which it adequately fills,
exerts, at the inftant of its explofion, againit the
(ides of the veffeis containing it, and the bodies it im¬
pels before it, a force at leaft 244 times greater than
the elafticity of common air; or, which is the fame
thing, than the pieflure of the atmofphere ; and !his
without confidering the great addition which this
force will receive from the violent degree of heat
with which it is endued at that time, the quantity
of which augmentation is the next head of Mr Ro¬
bin’s enquiry. He determines that the elafticity of the
air is augmented when heated to the extreme.! heat of
red. hot iron, in the proportion of 796 to 1944.; and
fuppofing that .the flame of fired gun-powder is not
leis hot than red hot iron, and the elafticity of Tie
air, and confequently of the fluid, generated by the
explofion, being augmented by the extremity of this
heat in the ratio of 79610 1944, ^ follows, that if 244
be augmented in this ratio, the refulting number, which
is 999-4, will determine how many times the elafticity
of the flame of fired powder exceeds the elafticity of
common air, fuppoling it to be confined in the fame
fpace which tfte powder filled before it was fired.
Hence then, the abfolute quantity of the preflure
exerted by gun powder at the moment of its explo¬
fion may be afligned : for fince the fluid then genera¬
ted has an elafticity of 9994, or, in round numbers,
Iopo times greater than common air; and fince com¬
mon air, by its elafticity, exerts a preflure on any gi¬
ven futface equal to the weight of the incumbent at¬
mofphere with which it is in equilibria, the preflure
exerted by fired powder, before it has dilated itfelf,
is loop times greater than the preflure of the at¬
mofphere ; and confequently the quantity of this force
on a furface of an inch {quare amounts to above fix
tun weight, which force however diminiflies as the
fluid dilates itfelf. The variations of the denfity of
the atmosphere does not any way alter the action of
powder by any experiment that can be made. But
the moifture of the air has a very great influence on
the fo^ce of it : for that quantity which in a dry fea-
fon would communicate to a bullet a velocity of 1700
feet in one fecond, will not in damp weather commu¬
nicate a velocity of more than 12 or 1300 feet in a fe-
, cond, or even lefs, if the powder be bad and negli¬
gently kept.
The velocity of expanfion of the flame of gun¬
powder, when fired in a piece of artillery, without
either bullet, or any other body before it, is prodigi¬
ous. By the experiments of Mr Robins, it feems
this velocity cannot be much lefs-than 7000 feet in a
fecond. This, howeveg, muft be underftood of the
moft adtive part of the flame. For, as was obferved
before, the elaftic fluid, in which the aftivity of gun¬
powder confifts, is only of the ful^ftance of the
powder, the remaining will in the explofion be
mixed with the elaftic part, and will by its weight re¬
tard
G t N ( : 765 ) G V N
mrti'fhe -activity of the explofion ; and yet they will
’be fo completely united, as to move with uncommon
:motion ; but the unelalHc part will be lefs accelerated
than the reft, and fome of it will not even be car¬
ried out of the barrel, as appears by the confiderable
quantity of unftuous matter, which adheres to the in-
fide of- all fire-arms, -after they have been uled.
Thefe inequalities in the expanlive motion of the
flame render it impracticable to determine its veloci¬
ty, otherwife than from experiments.
Tb recover damaged Gun powder. The method of
the powder-merchants is, to put part of the pow¬
der on a fail-cloth, to which they add an equal weight
of what is really good; and with a {hovel mingle it
well together, dry it in the fun, and barrel it up, keep¬
ing it in a dry and proper place. Others again, if
it be very bad, reftore it by moifteningit with vinegar,
water, urine, or brandy : then.they beat it fine, fearce
it, and to every pound of powder add an ounce, an
ounce and a half, or two ounces, according as it is de¬
cayed, of melted fait petre. Afterwards, thefe ingre¬
dients are to be moiftehed and mixed well, fo that no¬
thing can be difeerned in the compofition, which may
be known by cutting the mafs; and then they granu¬
late it as aforefaid. In cafe the powder be in a man¬
ner quite fpoiled, the only way is to extract the Salt¬
petre with water, according to the ufual manner, by
boiling, filtrating, evaporating, and cryftailizing ; and
then with frefh fulphur and charcoal to make it up a-new
again In regard to the medical virtues of gun-powder,
Boerhaave informs us, that the flame of it affords a very
healthy fume in the height of the plague: becaufe the
explofive acid vapour of nitre and‘fulphur corrects the
air ; and that the fame vapour, if received in a Small
clofe pent up place, kills infefts.
It is enafted by 5 and 11 of Geo. I. and 5 Geo.
II. c. 20. that gun-powder be carried to any place in
a covered caniage ; the barrels being clofe jointed; or
in cafes and bags of leather, &c. And perfons keep¬
ing more than 200 pounds weight of gun powder at
one time, within the cities of London and Weftmin-
fter, or the fuburbs, fyc. are liable to forfeitures if it
be not removed; and juftices of peafce may iffue war¬
rants to fearch for, feize, and remove the fame.
The invention of gun powder is aferibed by Poly-
dore Virgil to a chemift, who having accidentally put
Tome of the ingredients in this compofition in a mortar,
and covered it over with a ftone, it happened to take
fire, and blew up the ftone. Thevet fays, the perfon
here fpoken of was a monk of Friburg, named Con-
ftantine Anelz^n ; but Belleforet and others hold it to
be Bartholdus Schwartz, or the black; at leaft it is af¬
firmed, that he firft taught the ufe of it to the Vene¬
tians, in the year 1380, during the war with the Ge-
noefe. But what contradi&s this account, and (hews
gun-powder to be of an older date, is, that Peter
Mexia, in his Varias Leftiones, relates, that Alphon-
fus XI king of Caftile, ufed mortars againft the
Moors in a fiege in 1343. Ducange adds,' that there is
mention made of this powder in the regifters of the
chambers of accounts in France, as early as the year
Vol. II. No. 58. 2
1338 ; and frier Bacon, our countryman, mentions
the compofition in exprefs terms, in his treatife De
nullitate magke, publ.fhed at Oxford, in the year
1216.
Gun shot-wounds. See Surgery.
GUNTSBERG.^a town of Germany in the circle of
Swabia, fituated on the eaft fide of the Danube : E.
long, to0 1 y', N. lat. 48° 35'.
GUNTER’s l i ne, a logarithmic line, ufually graduated
upon feales, feftors, <&c.
It is alfo called the line of lines, and line of num~
bers ; being only the-logarithms graduated upon a ruler,
which therefore ferves to folve problems inflrumental-
ly in the fame manner as logarithms do arithmetically.
It is ulually divided into an hundred parts, every
tenth whereof is numbered, beginning with r, and
ending with 10 ; fo that, .if the firft great divifiori,
marked 1, ftand for one tenth of any integer, the next
divifion, marked 2, will ftand for two tenths; 3, three
tenths, and fo on ‘ and the intermediate divifions will,
in like manner, reprefent toodth parts of the fame.in¬
teger. If each of the great divifions reprefent 10 in¬
tegers, then will the leffer divifions ftand for integers ;
and if the greater divifions be fuppofed each 100, tire
fubdivilions will be each 10.
Wfe of Gunter’s line. i. TofinitheprodnSloft'VJO
nnmbars. From 1 extend the compaffes to the multi¬
plier ; and the fame extent, applied the fame way from
the multiplicand, will reach to the produdt. Thus if
the produft of 4 antFB be required, extend the com¬
paffes from 1 to 4, and that extent laid from S the fame
way, will reach to-32, their produfi. 2 . Te divide one
number by another. The extent from the divifpr to
unity, will reach from the dividend to the quotient:
thus, to divide 36 by 4, extend the compaffes from 4
to 1, and the fame extent will reach from 36 to 9,
the quotient fought. 3. To three given numbers, to
find a fourth proportional. Suppofe the numbers
6, 8, 9; extend the compaffes from 6 to 8, and this
extent, laid from 9 the fame way, will reach to 12,
the fourth proportional required. 4. To find a mean
proportional between any two given numbers. Sup¬
pofe 8 and 32 ; extend the compaffes from 8, in the
left hand pet of the line, to 32 in the right ; then bif-
fefting th s diftance, its half will reach from 8 for¬
ward, or from 32 backward, to 16, the mean propor¬
tional fought. 5. To extrafi the fquare root of any
number. Suppofe 25 ; biffeft the diftance between 1
on the fcale and the point reprefenting 23 ; then the
half of this diftance, fet off from 1, will give the point
reprefenting the root 5. In the fame manner, the
cube root, or that of any higher power, may be found
by dividing the diftance on the line, between 1 and
the given number, into as many equal parts as the in¬
dex of the power expreffes; then one of thofe parts,
fet from 1, will find the point reprefenting the root
required.
Gunter’s quadrant, one made of wood, brafs,
containing a kind of ftereographic projection of the
fphere, or> the plane of the equinoctial; the eye be¬
ing fuppofed placed in one of the poles.
8 G
G.UNXEfv’S
G Y M ( :
Gunter’s scale, called by navigators fimply the gun-
ter, is a large plain fcale, generally two foot long, and
about an inch and a half broad, with artificial lines.de¬
lineated on it, of great ufe in folving queftions in tri¬
gonometry, navigation, &c.
GUN-WALE, or Gunnel, is the uppermoft wale of
a fhip, or that piece of timber which reaches on either
fide from the quarter deck to the forecaftle, being the
cppermoft bend which finifhes the upper works of the
hull, in that part in which are put the ftanchions which
fupport the wafte-trees.
GURIEL, a fubdivifion of Georgia in Afia, fituated on
the eaftern coaft of the Euxine fea.
GURK, a city of Carinthia, in Germany: E. long. 1.40,
N. lat. 47° 10'.
GURNARD, in ichthyology. See Trigla.
GUSSET, in heraldry, is formed by a line drawn from
the dexter or finiller chief points, and falling down
perpendicularly to the extreme bafe. See Plate XCVU.
fig. 8.
The guflet is an abatement of honour, denoting an
effeminate perfon.
GUSTROW, a town of Germany, in the dutchy of
Mecklenburg: E. long. 1 20 15', N. lat. 54°.
GUTS. See Anatomy, p. 257.
GUTSKROW, a city of Germany in the circle of Up¬
per Saxony, and province of Swedifh Pomerania: E.
long. 130 40', N. lat. 540.
GUTTiE, in architedure, are ornaments in the form of
little cones, ufed in the plafond of the Doric corniche,
or on the architrave underneath the triglyphs, repre-
fenting a fort of drops or bells. See Architec¬
ture.
Gutta serena, a difeafe in which the patient, without
any apparent fault in the eye, is entirely deprived of
fight. See Medicine.
GUTTERS, in architediure, a kind of canals in the
roofs of houfes, ferving to receive and carry off the
rain.
GUTTURAL, a term applied to letters or founds pro¬
nounced or formed as it were in the throat.
GUTTY, in heraldry, a term ufed when any thing is
charged or fprinkled with drops. In blazoning, the
colour of the drops is to be named ; as, gutty of fable,
of gules, foe.
GUY, in a fhip, is any rope ufed for keeping off things
from bearing or falling againft the fhip’s fide when
they are hoilting in.
That rope which at one end is made faft to the fore-
mad, and feized to a fingle block at the pendant of the
garnet, is called the guy of the garnet.
GUZES, in heraldry, roundles of a fanguine or murry
colour. Thefe, from their bloody hue, are by fome
fuppofed to reprefent wounds.
GYMNASIARCH, in antiquity, the direftor of the
gymnafium. He had two deputies under him ; the one
called xyftarch, who prefided over the athletae, and
had the overfight of the wreftling ; the other gymna-
ftes who had the dir -ftion of all the other exercifes.
GYMNASIUM, in Grecian antiquity, a place fitted for
performing exercifes.
5 ) GYM
Gymnafia, according to Potter, were firft ufed at La-
cedarmon, but were afterwards very common in all the
parts of Greece, and imitated, very much augmented,
and improved at Rome. They were not fingle edifices,
but a knot of buildings united, being fo capacious as
to hold many thoufands of people at once ; and having
room enough for philofophers, rhetoricians, and the
profeffors of all other fciences, to read their lectures ;
and wreftlers, dancers, and all others who would, to ex-
ercife at the fame time without the lealt didurbance or
interruption. They confided of a great many parts,
the chief of which were, the porticos, ekeothefium,
palaeflra, conifter-um, foe,
Athens had feveral gymnafia, of which the lyceum,
academia, and cynofurges, were thofe of mod note.
The lyceum was fituated on the banks of the river
Iliffus, and received its name from Apollo, to whom it
was dedicated.
The lyceum was the place where Aridotle taught
philofophy, walking there every day till the hour of
anointing; whence he and his followers got the name
of peripatetics.
The academy was part of the ceramicus without
the city, where Plato leftured. See Academy.
GYMNASTICS, the art of performing the feveral bo¬
dily exercifes, as wreftling, running, fencing, dan¬
cing, foe.
GYMNOPYRUS, in natural hiftory, a name given by
Dr Hill to the pyritas of a fimple internal drudture,
and not covered with a cruft
Of thefe there are only two fpecies : r. A green
varioufly lhaped kind. 2. A botryoide kind.
The firft fpecies is the molt common of all jhe pyrl -
tse, and appears under a great diverfity of ftiapes. It
is very hard and heavy, very readily gives fire with
fteel, but will not at all ferment with aquafortis. The
fecond fpecits is very elegant and beautiful, and its
ufual colour is a very agreeable pale green; but what
moft diftinguifhes it from all other pyritae is. that its
furface is always beatifully elevated mto tubercles of
various fizes, refembling a clufter of grapes.
GYMNOSOPHISTS, a fedt of philofophers who clo¬
thed themfelves no farther than modefty required.
There was fome of thefe fages in Africa; but the moft
celebrated clan of them was in India. The African
gymnofophifts dwelt upon a mountain in Ethiopia, near
the Nile, without the accommodation either of heufe
or cell. They did not form themfelves into focieties
like thofe of India, but each had his pr vate retire¬
ment, where he ftudied and performed Its devotions
by himfelf. If any perfon had killed another by chance,
he applied to thefe fages for abfolution, and fubmitted
to whatever penances they enjoined. Thejr obferved am
extraordinary frugality, and lived only upon the fruits^
of the earth Lucan aferibes to thefe gymnofophifts
feveral new difeoveries in altronomy.
As to the Indian gymnofophifts, they dwelt in the
woods, where they lived upon the wild produces of
the earth, and never drank wine, nor married. Some
of them praftifed phyfic, and travelled from one place
to another: thefe were particularly famous for their
remedies.
G Y N
teraedies againft barrennefs. Some of them, likewife,
pretended to prattife magic, and to foretell future e-
vents.
In general, the gymnofophifts were w>fe and learned
men : their maxims and difcourfes, recorded by hifto-
rians, do not in the leaft favour of a barbarous educa¬
tion, but are plainly the refult of great fenfe and
deep thought. They keep up the dignity of their
charadter to fo high a degree, that it was never their
cuftom to wait upon any body, not even upon princes
themfelves ; for which reafon Alexander, who would
not condefcend to vifit them in perfon, fent fome of
b s courtiers to them in order to fatisfy his curiofity.
Their way of educating their difciples is very remark¬
able: everyday, at dinner, they examined them how
they had fpent the morning ; and every one was obli¬
ged to fhew, that he had difcharged fome good office,
pradtifed fome virtue, or improved in fome part of
learning : if nothing of this appeared, he was fent
back without h's dinner. They held a tranfmigration
of fouls; and it is probable that Pythagoras borrowed
his dodlrine from them.
GYMNOSPERMIA, in botany. See Botany, p. 636.
GYMNOTUS, in ichthyology, a genus of lifhes be¬
longing to the order of apodes. They have two
tentacula at the upper lip; the eyes are covered with
the common ffiin; there are five rays in the membrane
of the gills ; the body is comprefled, and carinated
on the helly with a fin There are five fpecies.
GYNALCEUM, among the ancients, the apartment of
the women, a feparate room in the inner part of the
houfe, where they employed themfelves in fpinning,
weaving, and needle-work.
GYNiECOCRACY, denotes the government of women,
or a Hate where women are capable of the fupreme
command. Such are Britain and Spain.
GYNANDRIA, in botany. See Botany, p. 635.
G Y S
GYPSIES. See Egyptians.
GYPSUM, or Plaster-stone, in natural hiftory, a.
genus of foffils, naturally and eflentially Ample, not in¬
flammable nor foluble in water, and compofed of flat
fmall particles, which form bright, gloffy, and in fome
degree tranfparent malfes, not flexible or elaftic, not gi¬
ving fire with Reel, nor fermenting with, or being foluble
in, acid menftrua. and very eafily calcined in the fire.
Of thefe gypfums, fome are harder, others folter, and
are of feveral colours ; as, white, grey, red, green,
fac. fometimes diftintt, and fometimes varioufly blend¬
ed together.
The texture of all the gypfums being ultimately the
fame, it may be fufficient to obferve, that their origin
is plainly from particles of a determinate nature and
fubRance, and of a certain and invariable figure, an
oblong, flat, and irregularly angular one. Thefe we
fometimes fee, as indeed is mod natural to them, dif-
pofed without order or regularity, into loofe, complex,
friable mafles ; at others, they are getting out of their
native order, and emulating the flrudture of other-
clafles of bodies, of which they are indeed properly
the bafis, and appearing fomewhat in the figure of the
fibrarise ; and at other times, of the foliaceous compo-
pofite flakes of the felenitae: the fpecies which have
thefe flruftures, are truly varying from the gypfums
into thofe bodies they emulate ; for the fibrariae are
only a peculiar arrangement of thefe very particles,
and the felenitse only more broad flakes of the fame,
like thofe of the foliaceous talcs.
The gypfums are much ufed in plafler, for flucco-
ing rooms, and caRing buRs and flatues.
GYRFALCON. See Falco.
GYSHORN, a town of germany, in the dutchy of Lu¬
nenburg, fituated on the river Aller, forty-five miles
north eaR of Hanover : E. long. io° 45', and N. lat,
520 50'.
( 7*7 )
H
H A B H A B
HABAT, the north-weR province of the empire of
Morocco, fituated on the Rreights of Gibraltar.
HABAKKUK, or the prophecy of Habakkuk, a ca¬
nonical book of the Old TeRament
There is no mention made in fcripture, either of
the time when this prophet lived, or of the parents
from whom he was defcended; but according to the
authors or the lives of the prophets, he was of the
tribe of Simeon, and a native of Bethzacar.
HABEAS CORPUS, in law, is a writ of two kinds ;
the one being the great writ of the Englifh liberty,
which lies where a perfon is indifted for any crime or
trefpafs before juRices of the peace, or in a court of
any franchife, and on being imprifoned has offered
fufficient bale, which has been refufed, though the
cafe be bailable; in. which cafe he may have this writ
out of the king’s bench, in order to remove himfelf
thither, to anfwer the caufe at the bar of that court.
The pradice in this cafe is, firR to procure a cer-
stiorari out of the court of chancery, dire&ed to all the
juRices for removing the indifiment into the king’s
bench ; and upon that to obtain this writ, direded to
the ffieriff, for caufing the body of the party to be
brought at a certain day.
The other kind of habeas corpus is ufed for bring¬
ing the body of a perfon into court, who is committed
to any goal or prifon, either in civil or criminal caufes*
which writ will remove the perfon and caufe from one
court and prifon to another.
No habeas corpus, or other writ, to remove a caufe
from:
HAD (763 ) H A D
nfrom-out of an inferior court, can be allowed, if the
i'a.ne be not delivered to the judge of the court, before
the jury who are to try the caufe have appeared, a>ad
before any of them are fworn, 45 Eliz. c. 5.
The habeas corpus aft, 31 Car. II. c. 2. has or-
daingd, that a perfon may have a habeas corpus from
any judge, on complaint made and view of the warrant
of commitment, (except fuch perfon is committed for
treafonor felony exprefled in the warrant, or fome o-
ther offence that is not bailable) which habeas corpus
mud be made returnable immediately ; and on produ¬
cing a certiticate of the caufe of commitment, the pri-
I'oner is to be difcharged on bail given to appear n the
court of king’s bench the next term, or next affizes^eirc.
Perfons committed, for either treafon or felony, ex-
prefsly mentioned in'the warrant, upon a motion made
tn open court, in the fird week of the term, or day of
feffions, <bc. after commitment, are to be brought to
tr al ; and if they are not indifted the next term or
feilions after commitment, on a motion made the lad
day of that term, they fhall be let out upon bail, ex¬
cept it appear on oath, that the king’s witnefles are
not ready; and in cafe they are not indifted or tried
the fecond term after commitment, they fhall be dif¬
charged.
Judges denying a habeas corpus, fhall forfeit 500 1.
vand if an officer refufe to obey it, or to deliver a true
copy of the commitment-warrant, he forfeits 1001,
for the firft offence.
HABIT, in philofophy, an aptitude or difpofition either
of mind or body, acqu red by a frequent repetition of
the fame aft.
Habit, in medicine, denotes the fettled conflitution of
the body, or the habitude of any thing elfe, as the
Ilrufture or compofition of a body, or the parts there¬
of.
Habit is alfo ufed for ad refs or garb, or the compofi-
t on of garments, wherewith a perfon is covered ; in
which fenfe we fay, the habit of an ecclefiaftic, of a
religious, fee. a military habit, fee.
HABITE AND REPUTE, in S ots law, the common
opinion of the people, among whom a perfon lives,
with refpeft to any circumftance relating to him.
HABITUAL, fomething grown to a habit by long ufe.
See Habit.
HABITUDE, among fchoolmen, the refpeft or relation
one thing bears to another. See Relation.
HACHA, a town of terra firma, in South America, fi-
tuated on the north fea, at the mouth of the river
Hacha. in W. long. 720, N lat. 110 o'.
HACKNEY, a village on the nertb-eaft fide of London,
with a handfome church, three meeting-houfes, and fe-
venteen, alms-houfes.
HADDINGTON, a parliament-town in Scotland, .a-
bout eighteen miles eafl of Edinburgh.
HADDOCK, the Englifh name of a well known fiffi of
the gadus kind. See Gadus.
HADRAMUT, a city of Arabia Felix, the capital of
the province of Hadramut, (ituated in E. long. 50°
-o', N. lat. 160, three hundred and fixty miles north-
HzEMAGOGOS, among phyficians, a compound me¬
dicine confuting of fetid and aromatic fimples, mixed
with black hellebore ; and preferibed in order to pro¬
mote the menilrual and haemorrhoidal fluxes, as alio to
bring away the lochia.
HyElVlANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the hexandria
monogynia clafs. The involucrum is large, and con-
filts ot fix leaves; the corolla is above the fruit, and
divided into fix parts; and the berry has three cells.
There are four ipecies, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
HAEMATITES, or blood stone, in natural hifiory,
an extremely rich and fine iron.
It is very ponderous, and is either of a pale red, a
deeper red, or a bluiffi colour; ufually of a very gloffy
furface; and when broken, of a fine and regularly
ftr.ated texrurej; the itriae converging toward the centre
of the body ; and the maifes thereof naturally break¬
ing into fragments of a broad bale and pointed end;
appearing fomething pyramidal. The hsematites is va¬
rious in its degrees of purity and hardneis, as well as
in its figure: the finefi: and moft pure is of abotryoide
furface; the whole fuperficies rifing into larger or
fmaller roundiffi tubercles: fometimes the haematites is
of a coarfe texture, and a iaxer ftrufture, in which
Hate it is known to many by the name fchiitus.
HAEMATOPUS, the sea-pye. in ornithology, a genus
belonging to the order of grallae. The beak is com-
preffed with an equal wedge-ffiaped point; the noltrils
are linear; and the feet have three toes without nails.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the aftralegus, a native
of Europe and America. It feeds upon fhell-filh near
the fea (horei.
HiEMATOXYTUM, campeche-wood, in botany, a
genus of the decandria monogynia clafs. The calix is
divided into five parts; the petals are five; the capfule
is lanceolated, and contains one cell with two boat-
fhaped valves. There is but one fpecies, viz. the
campechianum, campechy or logwood, a native of A-
merica, near Carthagena. It is ufually brought home
in large logs, very hard, of a red colour, and mi a-
ftringent fweet tafte. It has been long ufed by the
dyers, but not till very late as a medicine : an ex-
trafted decoftion of it are faid to be ferviceable in di¬
arrhoeas.
HAEMOPTOSIS, H^maptysis, or H^emoptoe, in
medicine, a fpitting of blood. See Medicine.
HAEMORRHAGE, in medicine, a flux of blood frf>m
any part of thorbody. See Medicine.
HAEMORRHOIDAL, an appellation given by anato-
mifts to the arteries and veins going to the inteftinum
reftum. See Anatomy, Part III. and IV.
HAEMORRHOIDS, or Piles, in medicine, an hae¬
morrhage, or flux of blood from the haemorrhoidai
veffels. See Medicine.
HAERLEM, a populous city of the- United Provinces,
in the province of Holland, fituated near the lake
which from this town is called Haerlem-Meer; four
miles call of the ocean, and twelve wed of Amfterdam :
E. long. 40 20'. N. lat. 520 30'.
HAGAI, a canonical book of the Old Teffament, f@
called
HAL ( 760 ) HAL
caHid from the prophet of that name, who, in all pro¬
bability was born at Babylon, from whence he return¬
ed with Zerubbabel.
HAGENAU, a fortified town of Germany, in the Land-
graviate of Alface": E. long. 70 40, N. lat. 48° 45/.
HAGUE, a town of the United Provinces, in the pro¬
vince of Holland* fuuated two miles eaft of the fea,
and fourteen north-weft of Rotterdam. This is one of
the'fineft towns in Europe ; but though it enjoys all
the privileges of a city of Holland, except .that of
fending reprefentatives to the ftate, yet, as it has no
walls, it is only efteemed a village. Here every city
of the United provinces has a houfe for their refpe&ive
deputies, and here the ftates of the province of Hol¬
land aflemble, and all public 'affairs are/ tranfadled.
HAIL, in phyfiology, an aqueous concretion, in form
of white or pellucid fpherules, defcending out of the
atmofphere.
Hail is evidently no other than drops of rain con¬
gealed into ice. This happens when in their paffage thro’
the inferior air, they meet with nitrous particles,
which are known to contribute greatly to freezing.
Their magnitude is owing to a freftv acceflion of mat¬
ter as they pafs along. Hence we fee the reafon why
hail is fo frequent in fummer, becaufe at that time
greater quantities of nitre are exhaled from the earth,
and float up and down the air. See Rain and Frost,
HAIMSUCKEN, in Scots law, the affaulting or beat¬
ing a man in his own houfe. See Scots Law, title
33-
HAIR, flender, oblong, and flexible filaments, growing
out of the pores of animals, and ferving moft of them
as a covering. See Anatomy, p. 256.
HAKE, in ichthyology. See Gadus.
HALBERSTAT, a city of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, the capital of the duchy of the fame
name; fubjeft to the king of Pruffia, E. long, m® (3 ,
N. lat. 510 55'.
HALCRY.PTIUM, a name given by Dr Hill to the fait
fufpended in a fluid form, and in very fmall quantities
in mineral waters, fcarce difcernable by the tafte, and
with much difficulty feparable from them.
HALCYON, in ornithology, a name given by the an¬
cients to the alcedo, or kings-fiflier. See Alcedo.
Halcyon days, in antiquity, a name given to feven
days before and as many after the winter folftice; by
reafqn the halycon, invited by the calmnefs of the
weather, laid its eggs in nefts build in the rocks, clofe
by the brink of the fea, at this feafon.
HALE, in the fea-language, fignifies pull; as, to haleup,
is to pull up ; to hale in or out, is to pull in or out.
To over-hale a rope, is to hale it too ftiff, or to hale
it the contrary way.
J^/ Hale. See Ducking.
HALEM, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, in the
province of Brabant, twenty-five miles weft of Maeft-
richt: E long. 50 5', N. lat. 510 5'.
HALESWORTH, a market town of Suffolk, thirty-
five miles eaft of Bury: E. long. i° 40', N. lat. 520
BE¬
HALF-BLOOD, in law, is where a man marries a fe-
Vol.II. No. 59. 2
cond wife, the firft being dead, and by the fii ft venter
has a fon, and by his fecond venter has likewife a fon,
the two brothers, in this cafe, are but of half blood.
HALF merk, a noble, or6 s. 8d.
HALF moon, in fortification, an outwork compofed of
two faces, forming a faliant angle, whofe gorge is in
form of a crefcent, or half moon; whence the name.
See Fortification.
HALI/ETUS, in ornithology. See Falco.
HALIOTIS, the ear-shell, a genus of infefts be¬
longing to the order of Vermes teftacea. This is an
animal of the fnail-kind, with an open (hell refembling
an ear. There are feven fpecies, diftinguifhed by the
figure of their (hells.
HALL, in geography, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Auftria, and county of Tyrol, fnuated fix miles
north-eaft of Infpruckt E. long. ii° 28', N. lat. 47°
Hall is alfo a town of the Auftrian Netherlands in the
province of Brabant, feven miles fouth of Bruffels:
E. long. 40 id, N. lat. 50° jo'.
FIall is alfo a city of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, in the capity of a duchy fituated-on the river
Sala, fubjeft to the king of Pruffia: E. long. 120 5',
N. lat. 51° 35'.
Hall is alfo a town of Germany, in the circle of Swa¬
bia, twenty miles eaft of Hailbron ; being an imperial
-city, or fovereign ftate.: E. long. 90 45', N. lat. 49°
.20'.
HALLAGE, a fee or toll paid for cloth brought to be
fold in Blackwell-hall London.
HALLAMASS. See All-Saints.
HALLELUJA, a word fignifying, praifc the Lord.
The finging halleluja was a fort of invitatory, or
call to each other, to praife the Lord.
St Auftin fays, that in fome churches, it was fung
only on Eafter-day, and the fifty days of Pentecoft ;
but that even in thofe churches where it was moft in
ufe, it was never ufed in the time of lent.
HALLEN, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, in the
province of Brabant UE. long. 50, N. lat. 50° 55'.
HALLEIN, a town of Germany, in the archbifliopric
of Saltzburg: E. long. 13° 6', N. lat. 470 36'.
HALLER, a town in the Netherlands, in the province
of Brabant: E. long. 50, N. lat. po° 46'.
HALLERIA, in botany a genus of the didynamia angio-
fpermia clafs. The calix has three fegments, and the
corolla four, the filaments are longer than the corolla;
and the berry has two cells. There is but one fpecies,
a native of ^Ethiopia.
.HALLIFAX, a large market town in the weft riding of
of Yorklhire, thirty-four miles fouth-weft of York:
W. long. i° 40', N. lat. 530 45'.
KALMSTAT, a port-town of ■■Gothland in Sweden,
eighty miles fouth of Gottenberg : E. long. 130 5',
N. lat. 56° 45'.
HALO, a meteor in the form of a luminous ring or circle,
of various colours., appearing round the bodies of the
fun, moon, or ftars.
Concerning the production of halos, Sir Ifaac Newr-
ton intimates, that they are formed by the light
8 H which
HAM (7
v/Vich comes through the drops of rain, by two refrac¬
tions, without any reflediion ; but how this may be, is
not eafy to conceive.
HALTWESEL, a market-town of Northumberland,
thirty-two miles weft of Newcaftle : W. long. 20, N.
lat. 550.
HAM, in anatomy, the part behind the knee.
Ham, in geography, a city in Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia, and the capital of the county of Mark,
fubjedt to Pruffia: E. long. 70 15, N. lat. ji° 35'.
HAMA, or Apamea. See Apamea.
HAMAD AN, a city of Perfia, in the province of Eyrac
Agem, 200 miles north-weft of ifpahan j E. long. 47°
3s', N. lat 350.
HAMADRYADS, in heathen theology, certain rural
deities ; being nymphs of the woods, whofe fate de¬
pended upon certain trees, together with which they
were fuppofed both to be born and to die.
HAM SMELTS, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria
digynia clafs. The involucrum confifts of three leaves,
and the proper calix of four; the petals are four;
and the nut has two cells. There is but one fpecies,
a native of Virginia.
HAMAXOBIANS, hamaxobii, an ancient people of
Europian Sarmatia, fo called from their living toge¬
ther in chariots or waggons, for the conveniency of
fhifting the place of their abode at pleafure.
HAMBURGH, a large city and well fortified port town
of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and
duchy of Holftein, fituated on the north fide of the ri¬
ver Elb, partly 00 iflands, and partly on the conti¬
nent. It is an imperial city, or fovereign ftate, go¬
verned by its own magiftrates, and fubjedf only to the
general laws of the empire. Merchants from all parts
of Europe refort to it, from whence their goods are
fent into the heart of the empire: E. long. 90 40', N.
lat. 540.
HAMCHEU, the capital of the province of Chekiam,
in China, fituated on the river Cienton, 160 miles
fouth-eaft of Nanking: E. long. 120°, N. lat. 30°.
HAMELIN, a town of Germany, in the circle of lower
Saxony, and duchy of Brunfwic, fubjeft to the elec¬
tor of Hanover: E, lohg. 90 I27, N. lat. 520 15'.
H AMILTON, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Clydefdale, fituated on the river Clyde, eleven miles
fouth-eaft of Glafgow: W. long. 30 jo', N. lat. 550
40'
HAMLE, the name of the eleventh month of the Ethi¬
opian year, beginning on the 25th of June, old ftyle.
HAMMONT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia, and bifhopric of Liege, fituated near the
confines of Brabant: E. long. 50 32', N. lat. yi°
20/.
HAMPSHIRE, an Englifh country, bounded by Berk-
fhire, on the north; by Surry and Suffex, on the eaft ;
by the Englilh channel, on the fouth; and by Wilt-
Ih re and Dorfetfiiire, on the weft. ' It comprehends
the ifle of Wight. Its chief towns are Winchefter,
Southampton, and Portfmouth.
jVAv Hampshire, a province of New England, in
North America, bounded by Nova Scotia,_ on the
)
H A It
north; by the Atlantic ocean, on the eaft; by the
province of Mafluchufets bay, on the fouth ; and by
New A"ork, on the weft: fubjeft to Great Britain.
HAMPSTEAD, a pleafant village in Middiefex, four
miles north of London.
HAMPTON, a market-town of Gloucefterlhire, twelve
miles fouth of Gloucefter: W. long. 20 15. N. lat.
510 38'.
HAMPTON-COURT, a town in Middiefex, fituated
on the north fide of the Thames, twelve miles weft of
London, and two weft of Kingfton; in which is the
fineft palace belonging to the king of Britain.
HANAU, the capital of a county of the fame name in
Germany, is pleafantly fituated on the river Kunts,
thirteen miles eaft of Frankfort, and twelve north-weft
of Afchaffenburgh: E long. 8° 45'. N. lat. yo° 12'.
HAND, in anatomy. See Anatomy, Pan I. II. <bc.
Hand, in the manege, a meafure of four inches, or of
a clinched fill, by which the height of a horfe is com¬
puted.
Hand-breadth, a meafure of three inches.
Hands, in heraldry, are borne in coat-armour dexter
and finifter, that is, right and left, expanded or open.
Thefe are the moft neceflary parts of the human body,
as they ferve to exprefs all forts of adtions, and even
our very thoughts and defigns'; thus, joining of hands
is an univerfal token of friendlhip, and clapping of
hands a general mark of applaufe.
HANOVER, a city of Germany, in the circle of Lower
Saxony, and dukedom of Brunfwic, fituated on the ri¬
ver Leina, thirty-fix miles weft of Biunfwic : it is the
capital of his Britannic majefty’s German dominions,
fituated in E. long. 90 45'. N. lat. 520 32*.
HANSE, or Hans, a company of merchants united for
the promotion and advantage of trade.
Hanse-towns, port-towns of Germany of which Lu-
bec and Hamburgh were the chief. They were for¬
merly all of them imperial cities, confederated for their
mutual defence, and the protedfion of their trade.
HAPPINESS, among philofophers, confifts in the pro-
fecution or enjoyment of fome good.
HARBINGER, an officer of the king’s houffiold, having
four yeomen under him, who ride a day’s journey be¬
fore the court, when it travels, to provide lodgings, &c.
HARBOROUGH, a town of Leicefter (hire, thirteen
miles fouth-eaft of Leicefter: W. long. i°. N. lat. 520.
26’.
HARBOUR, a place where ffiips may ride fafe at anchor,
chiefly ufed in fpeaking of thofe fecured by a boom and
chain, and furniffied with a mole.
HARBURGH, a port town of Germany, in the circle
of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Lunenburg, fituated
on the river Elbe, oppofite to Hamburgh : E. long. 90
30'. N. lat. 530 57'.
H’ RCOURT, a town of France, in the province of
Normandy, twenty-three miles fouth-\yeft of Rouen.
HARDENING, the giving a greater degree of hardnefs
to bodies than they had before.
There are feveral ways of hardening iron and fteel,
as by hammering them, quenching them when hot in
cold water, fac. Chemistry, p 134.
HARDERWICK,
H A II (7
HARDERWICK, a town of Gueld«r!and, in the U-
nited Netherlands, twenty-three miles north weft of
Zutphen : "E, long. 50 N. lat. 520
HARDNESS, in phyfiology, that quality in bodies
whereby their parts cohere firmly together, fo as not
to give way to any external impulfe, nor yield inwards,
without breaking.
In this fenfe hardnefs coincides with what on other
occafions we call firmnefs, in oppofition to foftnefs and
fluidity^
HARE, in zoology. See Lepus.
Hare lip, in furgery. See Surgery.
HARENGUS. See Ceupea.
HARFLEUR, a port-town of France, in the province
of Normandy, fituated near the mouth of the Seyne*
four miles weft of Havre de Grace : E. long. 150 N.
lat. 490 go'.
HARIOT, or He riot, in law, a due belonging to a
lord at the death of his tenant, confiding of the belt
bead, either horfe, ox, or cow, which he had at the
time of his death ; and in fome manors, the beft goods,
piece of plate, e^rc. are called hariqts.
HARLEBECK, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, in
the province of Flanders, fituated on the river Lys,
fix miles north-ealt of Courtray : E. long. gQ 15', N.
lat. 50° 50'.
HARLEQUIN, a buffoon or merry andrew; but is now
ufed for a perfon of extraordinary agility, dreffed in
party-coloured cloaths, the principal charadter in a pan¬
tomime entertainment. See Pantomime.
-HARLESTON, a market-town of Norfolk, fituated on
the river Waveney, fourteen miles fouth of Norwich :
E. long. i° 2 s', N. lat. 52° 35'.
HARLINGEN, a port-town of the United Netherlands,
in the province of Weft Friefland, fituated on the Ger¬
man fea: E. long 50 20', N. lat. 530 is'.
HARLOW, a market town of Effex, fituated fifteen
miles weft of Chelmsford: E. long. 6', N. lat. 51°
4^,•
HARMONICAL, fomething belong to harmony. See
Harmony
Harmonical composition, in a general fenfe, in¬
cludes both harmony and melody,* /. <?. of mufic or
(pngs, both in a fingle part, and in feveral parts.
Harmonical series, a feries of many numbers in
continual harmonical proportion. Thus, if there are
four or more numbers, of which every three immediate
terms are harmonical, the whole will make an harmo¬
nica! feries: fuch is 30 : 20 : 15 : 12 : 10. Or, if
every four terms immediately next ealch other are har¬
monical, it is alfo a continual harmonical feries, but of
another fpecies, as 3, 4, 6, 9, 18, 36,
Harmonical sounds, an appellation given, by Mr
Sauveur, to fuch founds as always make a determinate
number of vibrations, in the time that one of the fun¬
damentals, to Which they are referred, makes one vi¬
bration.
H irmonical founds are produced by the parts of
chords, i&c which vibrate a certain number of times,
while the whole chord vibrates once.
71 ) H A R
The relations of founds had only betn Confideted jrr
the feries of numbers, 1:2, 2:3, 3 : 4, 4 : 5,
which produced the intervals called odtave, fifth, fourth,
third, 6c. Mr Sauveur firft confidered them in the
natural feries, 1, 2, 3, 4, S> an^ examined the
relations df founds arifing therefrom. The refult is*
that the firft interval, 1 : 2, is an odfave ; the fecond,.
1:3,3 twelfth ; the third, x : 4, a fifteenth, or dou¬
ble oflave; the fourth,, i : 5, a feventeenth ; the fifth,
x : 6, a nineteenth, 6c.
This new confideration of the relations of founds is
more natural than the old one; and is, in effeft, all
the mufic that nature makes without the affiftance of
art.
HARMONICS, that part of mufic which confidered the
differences and proportions of founds, with refpeff to-
acute and grave; in contradiftinflion to rythmica and
metrica.
HARMONY, in mufic, the agreeable refult or union
of feveral mufical founds heard at one and the fame
time ; or the mixture of divers founds, which together
have an effedt agreeable to the ear.
Harmon y ef the ft>heresy or Celeftial Harmony, a fort
of mufic much talked of by many of the ancient pbilo-
fophers and fathers^ fuppofed to be produced by the
fweetly tuned motions of the ftars and planets. This
harmony they attributed to the various proportionate
impreflions of the heavenly globes upon one another,
adting at proper intervals. It is impoffible, according
to them, that fuch prodigious large bodies, moving
with fo much rapidity, (hould be filent; on the con¬
trary, the atmofphere continually impelled by them,
muft yield a fet of founds proportionate to the impref-
fion it receives; confequently, as they do not all run:
the fame circuit, nor with one and the fame velocity,
the different tones arifing from the diverfity of motions,
diredted by the hand of the Almighty, muft form an
admirable fymphony, or concert.
They therefore fuppofed, that the moon, as being
the loweft of the planets, correfponded to mi; mer- .
cury, to /a', venus, to foh, the fun, to la; mars, to
ft', jupiter, to ut; faturn, to re-, and the orb of the
fixed liars, as being the higheft of all, to mi, or the
odtave.
HARP, a mufical inftrument of the ftring-kind, of a tri¬
angular figure, held upright between the legs of the
perfon who plays upon it.
HARPIES, among the ancient poets, fabulous impure1
monfters, faid to be the daughters of Neptune and
Earth. Virgil mentions three of them, Aello, Ocy-
pete, and Celceno ; they are defcribed to be fowls, with,
the face of a virgin, beats ears, their bodies like vul¬
tures, and hands like their crooked talons.
HARPINEER, or Harponeer, the perfon who ma¬
nages the harping-iroc.
HARPSICHORD, the moll harmonious of all the mu¬
fical inftruments of the firing-kind. It is played on.
after the manner of the organ, and is furnifhed with a-
fet, and fometimes with two fets of kefs ; the touch¬
ing or ftriking of thefe keys moves a kind of little jacks,
whidL
HAS ( 7:
which atfo tnove a double row of chords or firings, of
brafs or iron, ftretc'hed over four bridges on the table
of the inftrument.
HARQUEBUSS, a piece of fire-arms, of the length of
a mufket, ufualiy cocked with a wheel. It carried a
ball that weighed one ounce feven eighths.
There was aifo a larger fort, called the great har-
quebufs, ufed for the defence of flxong places, which
carried a ball of about three ounces and a half: but
they are now but little ufed, except in fome old caflles,
and by the French in fome of their garrifons,
■HARRIER, a kind of hound, endowed with an admi¬
rable gift of fmelling, and very bold in the purfuit of
his game.
HARROW, in agriculture. See Agriculture, p.
58.
HART, a flag, or male deer, in the fixth year. See
• Cervus.
Hart’s horns, in pharmacy, the whole horns of the
common male deer, as feparated from the head, with¬
out farther preparation.
The chemical analyfis of hart’s-horn is fufficiently
known : it yields a water highly impregnated with a
volatile fait, which is called fpirit of hart’s horn, with
a fetid oil, and a volatile fait by the common diftilla-
tion in a retort.
The fa.lt of hart’s horn is a great fudorific, and is
given in fevers of many kinds with great fuccefs ; the
fpirit has the fame, and'all the.other virtues of volatile
alkalis, and is ufed to bring 'people out of faintings by
its pungency, on holding it under their nofe, and at
the fame time pouring fome drops of it in water down
the perfon’s throat.
Hart-wort, in botany. See Tordyllium.
HARTFORD, the capital of Hartfordfhire, fituated
twenty-one miles north of London : W. long. 7', and
N. lat. 510 45'. «
Hartford is alfo a town of New -England, in the pro¬
vince of Connecticut, fituated 50 miles weft of Bbfton:
W. long. 71° 15', and N. lat. 420.
HARTLAND, a market-town of Devon, fituated near
the Briftol channel; it gives name to a cape, called
Hartland-point, at the entrance of the Briftol channel:
W. long. 40 45', and N. lat. 510 9'.
HARTLEPOOL, a port-town of the county of Dur-
_ ham, fituated on the German ocean, fourteen miles
" fouth eaft of Durham: W. long. 55', and N. lat.
54° 40,•
HARVEST, the time or feafon that the corn is ripe,
and fit to be reaped and taken into barns.
HARWICH, a borough and port-town of Effex, fixty-
two miles, north-eaft of London: E. long. i° 25',
N. lat. 52° s'. It fends two members to parliament.
-HASLEM, an ifland of Denmark, in the Categate-lea,
north of the ifland of Zealand.
-HASLEMERE, a borough-town of Surry, thirty-eight
miles fouth-weft of London, and ten miles fouth-weft
of Guildford. It fends two members to parliament.
-HASSELT, a town ofWeftphalia, in Germany, fifteen
miles north-weft of Maeftricht.
HASSIDEANS, or A-ssideans, an appellation given
72 ) HAT
to thofe Jews who refarted to Mattathias, to fight for
the law of God, and the liberties of their country,
HASSOCK, a bafs made of rufaes, to kneel or reft the
feet upon in churches.
HASP and Staple, in Scots law, the fymbol common¬
ly ufed in burgage tenements for entering and infefting
an heir, by delivering into his hands the hafp and ftaple.
of the door. See Scots Law, title 27.
HASTA, among medallifts, a kind of javelin, not {hod
or headed with iron ; or rather an ancient fort of fcep-
tre, longer than ordinary, occafionally given to all the
gods.
HASTATED leaf. See Botany, p. 639.
HASTINGS, a borough town of Suflex, fituated on
the coaft of the Englifh channel, fifty miles fouth eaft
of London : £. long. and N. lat. 50° 5c/.
HAT, a covering for the head, worn by the men in moft
parts of Europe, Thofe moft in efteem are made of
the pure hair of the caftor or beaver ; for they are alfo
made of the hair or wool of divers other animals, and
that by much the fame procefs.
Method of making Hats. To make the beaver-hats,
they tear off the long and ftiort hair from the {kin,
with knives fuitable to the occafion : after which they
proportion the quantity of the feveral forts of beaver-
hair, by mixing one third of the dry caftor to two
•thirds of old-coat, which is a term for a {kin that has
been worn fome time by the Indians of America, who
catch and fell them to the Europeans. The hair, fo
mixed, is carded and weighed out into parcels, ac¬
cording to the fize and thicknefs of the hat intended.
The fluff is now laid on the hurdle, with an inftru-
ment called a bo'w, refembling that of a violin, but
larger-; whofe firing being worked with a fmall bow-
ftick, and made to play on the furs, they fly, and mix
themfelves together, the duft and filth at the fame time
pafling through the chinks. Inftead of a bow, fome
hat-makers ufe a fearce of hair, through which they
pafs the fluff. Thus hats are formed of an oval figure,
•ending with an acute angle at the top: with what fluff
remains, they ftrengthen them where flendereft, yet
defignedly make them thicker in the brim near the
crown, than towards the circumference, or in the crown
itfelf They next harden the fluff, fo managed, into
more compad flakes, by prefling down a hardened
leather upon it. This done, they are carried to the
-bafon, upon which laying one of ahe hardened hats,
they fprinkle it over with water, and mould it;-and
the heat of the fire, with the water and preffing, im-
body the fluff into a flight hairy fort of felt; after
which, turning up the edges all round over the mould,
they lay it by, and proceed with another ; which be¬
ing in like manner reduced to the fame confiftence and
form, they are both joined together, fo as to make
them meet in an angle at top, making only one conical
cap. The next procefs is to remove the hat to a
trough, refembling a mill-hopper, which is a copper
kettle filled with water and grounds, kept hot-for the
purpofe; and, after being dipped in the kettle, the
hat Is laid on the Hoping fide, called the plank. Here
they proceed to work it, by rolling and unrolling it
HAT C 773 ) HAT
again and again, one part after another, firft with the
hand, and afterwards with a fmall wooden roller,
taking care to dip it from time to time, till at length,
by thus fulling and thickening it four or five hours, it
is brought to the dimenfions intended. In this violent
labour, the workmen ufually guard their hands with
thick leather, which they call gloves. The hat thus
wrought into the form of a conical cap, is reduced in¬
to proper lhape on a block of the fize of the intended
crown, by tying it round with a firing, called a com¬
mander; after which, with a bent iron, called a
flamper, they gradually beat down the commander all
round, till it has reached the bottom of the block,
and what remains at the bottom below the firing forms
the brim. In this flation it is fet to dry, and after¬
wards finged, by holding it over the blaze of a fire*
made of draw, or fhavings: it is then rubbed with
pumice-done, to take off the coarfer nap ; then rubbed
over with feal fkin, to lay the nap dill finer; and,
ladly, carded with a fine card, to raife the line cotton,
with which the hat is to appear when finidied: then
fitting it to the block, they tie it, cut round the edges,
and deliver it to the dyers. (See Dying.) The
dye being completed, the hat is dried by being hung
in the roof of a dove heated with a charcoal-fire ; and,
when dry, it is diffened with melted glue, or rather
gum-fenega, which is fmeared over the hat with a
brufh, and rubbed in with the hand. Then, having
fpread a cloth over the deaming bafon, which is
a little fire-place raifed about three feet high, with an
iron plate laid over it, exa&ly covering the fire, the
hat is laid uoon the cloth, with the brim downwards,
the cloth being fird fprinkled with water, to raife a
drong deam, to force in the diffening. When it is
moderately hot, the workman drikes gently on the
brim, with the flat of his hand, to make the joinings
incorporate and bind fo as not to appear, turning it
from time to time, and at lad fetting it on the crown.
And when it has been fufficiently deamed and dried, it
is put again on the block, bruflied, ironed, well fmooth-
ed, and fitted for lining.
Hats make a confiderable article in commerce : Eng-
lahd fupplies Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Germany,
with extraordinary quantities of them ; and as our ma¬
nufacturers have the reputation of making the bed hats
in Europe, their importation is prohibited.
Hats are alfo made for womens wear, of chips, draw,
. or cane, by platting, and fewing the plats together;
beginning with the centre of the crown, and working
round till the whole is finifhed. Hats for the fame
purpofe are alfo wove and made of horfe-hair, (ilk, tec.
HATCHEL, or Hitcheo, a tool with which flax and
hemp are combed into fine hairs. It confifls of long
iron pins, or teeth, regularly fet in a piece of board.
HATCHES, in a fhip, a kind of trap-doors between the
main-mad and fore-mad, through which all goods of
bulk are let down into the hold.
Hatch-way, the place wfiere the hatches are. Thus,
to lay a thing in the hatch way, is to put it fo, that
the hatches cannot be come at, or opened.
HATCHING, the maturating fecundated eggs, whether
Vol. II. No. 59. 2
by the incubation and warmth of the parent-bird, or
by artificial' heat, fo as to produce young chickens
alive.
The art of hatching chickens by means of ovens has
long been pradtifed in Egypt; but it is there only
known to the inhabitants of a Angle village named
Berme, and to thofe that live at a fmall didance from
it. Towards the beginning of autumn they fcatter
themfelves all over the country, where each perfon a-
mong them is ready to undertake the management of
an oven, each of which is of a different fize, but in
general they are capable of containing from forty to
fourfcore thoufand eggs. The number of thefe ovens
placed up and down the country is about three hundred
and eighty-fix, and they ufually keep them working
for about fix months: as therefore each brood' takes
up in an oven, as under a hen, only twenty-one days,
it is eafy in every one of them to hatch eight diffekent
broods of chickens. Every Bermean is under the ob¬
ligation of delivering to the perfon who intruds him
with an oven, only two thirds of as many chickens as
' there have been eggs put under his care; and he is a
gainer by this bargain, as more than two thirds of the
eggs ufually produce chickens. In order to make a
calculation of the number of chickens yearly fo hatched
in Egypt, it has been fuppofed, that only two thirds
of the eggs are hatched, and that each brood confids
of at lead thirty thoufand chickens ; and thus it would
appear, that the ovens of Egypt give life yearly to at
lead ninety-two millions fix hundred and forty thou¬
fand of thefe animals.
This ufeful and advantageous method of hatching
eggs has been lately difeovered in France, by the in¬
genious Mr Reaumur, who, by a number of experi¬
ments, has reduced the art to certain principles. He
, found by experience that the heat neceffary for-this
purpofe is nearly the fame with that marked 32 on his
thermometer, or that marked 96 on Farenheit’s. This
degree of heat is nearly that of the Ikin of the hen,
and, what is remarkable, of the Ikin of ail other do-
meflic fowls, and probably of all other kinds of birds.
The degree of heat which brings about the develope-
ment of the cygnet* the gofling, ard the turkey-pout,
is the fame as that which fits for hatching the canary-
fongder, and, in all probability, the fmalled humming
bird: the difference is only in the time during which
this heat ought to be communicated to the eggs of dif¬
ferent birds : it will bring the canary bird to perfe&ion
in eleven or twelve days, while the turkey-pout will
require twenty feven or twenty-eight.
After many experiments, Mr Reaumur found 'hat
doves heated by means of a baker’s oven, fucceeded
better thap thofe' made hot by layers of dung : and the
furnaces of glafs houfes, and thofe of the mehers of
metals, by means of pipes, to convey heat into a room,
might, no doubt, be made to anfwer the fame purpofe.
As to the form of the doves, no great nicety is re¬
quired; a chamfer over an oven will do very well;
nothing more will be neceffary but to afeertain the de¬
gree of heat, wh:< h may be done by melting^a lamp of
butter, of the fize of a walnut, with half as much tal-
8 I low.
H A V ( 774 ) HAY
low, and putting it into a phial; this will ferve to in¬
dicate the heat with fufficiem exa&nefs, for when it is
too great, this mixture will become as liquid as oil,
and when the heat is too fmall, it will remain fixed in
a lump; but it will flow like a thick fyrup, upon in¬
clining the bottle, if the (love be of a right temper:
great attention therefore fhould be given to keep the
heat always at this degree, by letting in freflx air, if it
be too great, or (hutting the (love more clofe, if it be
too fmall ; and that all the eggs in the ftove may e-
qually (hare the irregularities of the heat, it will be
neceflary to (hift them from the (ides to the centre;
thereby imitating the hens, who are frequently feen to
make ufeof their bills, to pulh to the outer parts thofe
eggs that were neared to the middle of their nefts, and
to bring into the middle fuch as lay neared the fides.
Mr Reaumur has invented a fort of low boxes, with¬
out bottoms, and lined with furs. Thefe, which he
calls artificial parents, not only (belter the chickens
from the injuries of the air, but afford a kindly warmth,
fo that they prefently take the benefit of their (belter
as readily as they would have done under the wings of
a hen. After hatching, it will be neceffary to keep
the chickens, for fome time, in a room artfully heated
and furnifhed with thefe boxes ; but afterwards they
may be fafely expofed to the air in the court yard, in
which it may not be amifs to place one of thefe artifi¬
cial parents to (belter them if there (hould be occafion
for it.
As to the manner of feeding the young brood, they
are generally a whole day after being hatched, before
they take any food at all; and then a few crumbs of
bread may be given them for a day or two, after which
they will begin to pick up infefts and grafs for them-
felves.
But to fave the trouble of attending them, capons
may be taught to watch them in the fame manner as
hens do. Mr Reaumur affures us, that he has feen
above two hundred chickens at once, all led about and
defended only by three or four fuch capons. Nay,
cocks may be taught to perform the fame office, which
they, as well as the capons, will continue to do all their
lives after.
HATFIELD, a market-town of Hartfordfhire, fituated
twenty miles north weft of London.
HATHERLY, a market-town of Devonfhire, twenty
miles north weft ofExeter.
HATTEM, a town of Gelderland, one of the United
Provinces: E long 6°, N. lat. 520 30'.
HATTOCK, a (hock of corn containing twelve (heaves:
others make it only three (heaves laid together.
HATUAN, a town of Upper Hungary, fifteen miles
north eaft of Buda : E. long. 190 35', and N. lat.
47° 48'-
HAVANNA, a port-town of the ifland of Cuba, in A-
merica, fituated at the entrance of the gulph of Mexi
co; fubjeft to Spain : W. long. 84°, and N. lat. 23°.
HAVANT, a market town of Hampfhire, fix miles
north-eaft of Portfmouth.
HAVEL, a river of Brandenburg,, in Germany, which
receives the river Spree, near Berlin, and difeharges
itfelf into the Elbe, a little below Havelburg
HAVELBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and marquifate of Brandenburg, fub-
jedt to the king of Pruflia: E, long. 120 44', and N.
lat. 530.
HAVEN, a fea-port or harbour. See Harbour.
HAVERFORD WEST, a borough-town of Pembroke-
(hire, in fouth Wales, fituated twelve miles fouth eaft
of St David’s. It fends only one member to parlia¬
ment.
HAUNCH, or Hanch, the hip, or that part of the
body between the laft ribs and the thigh,
HAVRE de Grace, is a port-town of France, in the
province of Normandy, fituated on the Englifti chan¬
nel, at the mouth of the river Seyne : E. long. io\
and N. lat. 490 30/.
HAUTBOY, a mufical inftrument of the wind kind,
(haped much like the flute, only that it fpreads and
widens towards the bottom, and is founded through
'a reed. The treble is two feet long; the tenor goes
a fifth lower, when blown open : it has only eight
holes; but the bafs, which is five feet long, has e-
leven.
H.AW, a fort of berry, the fruit of feveral fpecies of
mefpilus, thence denominated haw-thorns. See Me-
spilus.
Haw, among farriers, an excrefcence refembling a griftle,
growing under the nether eye-lid and eye of a horfe,
which, if not timely removed, will put it quite out.
See Farriery.
HAWK. SeeFALCO.
HAWKING, the exercife of taking wild-fowl by means
of hawks.
HAWSER, in the fea-language, a large rope, or a kind
of fmall cable, ferving for various ufes a-board a (hip,
as to fallen the main and fore (hrouds, to warp a (hip
as (he lies at anchor, and wind' her up to it by a cap-
ftan, The hawfer of a man of war may ferve for
a cable to the (heet-anchor of a fmall (hip.
HAWSES, in a (hip, are two large holes under the
bow, through which the cables run when (he lies at
anchor.
HAY, any kind of grafs, cut and dried, for thfijfood of
cattle.
The time of mowing grafs for hay, muft be regu¬
lated according to its growth and ripenefs ; nothing
being more prejudicial to the crop than mowing it too
foon, becaufe the fap is not then fully come out of the
root, and when made into hay, it (brinks away to no¬
thing. It muft not, however, be let (land too long,_
till it have (bed its feeds. When the tops of the grafs
look brown, and begin to bend down, and the red ho-
ney-fuckle flowers begin to wither, you may conclude
it ripe for mowing.
St Foin Ha.y. See Agriculture, p. 6f .
Hay, in geography, a market town in BrecknockJhire,
fouth Wales, thirteen miles north-eaft of Brecknock.
HAYNAULT, a province of the Netherlands, bounded
by Brabant and Elanders, on the north; by Namur
and
H E A ( 775 ) H E A
and Liege, on the eaft; by the Cambrefis, Picardy,
and Champaign, on the fouth; and by Artois, and
another part of Flanders, on the weft : the north part
is fubjed to the houfe of Auftria, and the fouth part to
France. Its capital is Mens.
HAYWARD, the perfon who keeps the commop herd
or cattle of a town.
HAZARD, a game on dice, without tables, is very
properly fo called; fince it fpeedily makes a man, or
undoes him.
It is played with only two dice ; and as many may
play at it as can ftand round the largeft round table.
Two things are chiefly to be obferved, viz. main
and chance; the latter belonging to the carter, and
the former, or main, to the other gamefters. There
can be no main thrown above nine, nor under five ;
fo that five, fix, feven, eight, and nine, are the only
mains flung at hazard Chances and nicks are from
four to ten: thus four is a chance to nine, five to
eight, fix to feven, feven to fix, eight to five; and
nine and ten a chance to five, fix, feven, and eight:’
in fhort, four, five, fix, feven, eight, nine, and ten,
are chances to any main, if any of thefe nick it not.
Now nicks are either when the chance is the fame with
the main, as five and five, or the like; or fix and
twelve, feven and eleven, eight and twelve* Here
obferve, that twelve is out to nine, feven, and five;
eleven is out to nine, eight, fix, and five ; and ames-
ace and duce-ace, are out to all mains whatever.
HAZLE, in botany. See Corylus.
Hazle earth, or Hazley earth, a kind of red
loam, which is faid to be an excellent mixture with
other forts'of earth ; Uniting what is too loofe, cooling
what is too hot, and gently entertaining the moifture.
HEAD, in anatomy. See Anatomy, Part I. II i&'c*
Head ach, a moft troublefome fenfation in the head,
produced by various caufes and attended with differ¬
ent fymptoms, according to its different degrees, and
the place where it is feated. See Medicine.
Dragon's Head, in aftronomy, is the afcending
node of the moon, or other planet.
HEADFORD. a town of Galway, in Ireland, twelve
miles north of the city of Galway.
HEALTH is a right dilpofition of the body, and of all
its parts ; confifting in a due. temperature, a right
conformation, juft conne&ion, and ready and free ex-
ercife of the fevei al vital fumftions.
HEAM, in hearts, is the fame with the fecundines, or
after birth in women.
HEARING the fenfe whereby we perceive founds.
The organ of hearing is the ear, and particularly
the auditory nerve and membrane. See Anatomy,
P- 29?. . .
This membrane, in the various degrees of tenfion
and relaxation, adapts itfelf to the feveral natures and
ftates of fonorous bodies ; becoming ten£e for the re¬
ception of acute founds, and relaxed for the admilfion
of grave founds In fhort, it is rendered tenfe and
velaxed in a thoufand different degrees, according to
the various degrees of acutenefs or gravity in founds.
■Sound, then,, is in iffetft nothing but a certain mo¬
dulation of the air, which being colle&ed by the ex¬
ternal ear, partes through the meatus auditorius, and
beats upon the membrane of the tympanum, which
moves the bones in the tympanum: thefe move the
internal air, which finally communicates the motion to
the auditory nerve, in the labyrinth and cochlea; and
according as the vibrations are quick or flow, the found
is either acute or grave.
It deferves obfervation, that though the air be the
ufual matter of founds; fo that if a bell be hung in
vacuo, it will not be heard at al! ; yet moft other bo¬
dies, properly difpofed, will do its office, only fome
more faintly than others. Thus a found may be heard
through water, or even through earth, of which there
are various inftances.
As the fight is aflifted by fpeftacles, or other glafles;
fo the hearing is enlivened and rendered quick, by
means of acouftic inftruments; which are of various
figures, but for the moft part bear fome refemblance
to a trumpet, diverging and growing wider towards
the external mouth
HEARSE, among fportfmen, a hind of the fecond year
of her age.
HEART, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 278.
Force of the Heart. Several ingenious perfons have,
from time to time, attempted to make eftimates of the
force of the blood in the heart and arteries ; who have
as widely differed from each other, as they have front
the truth, for want of a fufficient number of data to
argue upon. This fet the truly ingenious Dr Hales
upon making proper experiments, in order to afeertaia
the force of the blood in the veins and arteries of fe¬
veral animals.
If, according to Dr Keil’s eftimate, the left ventri¬
cle of a man’s heart throw out in each fyftole an ounce
or 1.638 cubic inches of blood, and the area of the ori¬
fice of the aorta be =0 4187 . then dividing the for¬
mer by this, the quotient 3.9 is the length of the cy¬
linder of blood, which is formed in parting through
the aorta in each fyftole of the ventricle ; and in the
feventy-five pulfes of a minute, a cylinder of 292.5
inches in length will pafs : this is at the rate of 1462
feet in an hour. But the fyftole of the heart being
performed in one third of this time, the velocity of the
blood in that inftant will be thrice as much, viz. at
the rate of 4386 feet in an hour, or 73 feet in a mi¬
nute. And if the ventricle throws out one ounce in a
pulfe, then in the feventy five pulfes of a minute, the
quantity of bjood will he equal to 4.41b 11 oz. and<,
in thirty-four minutes, a quantity equal to a middle-
fized man, viz. 158 lb. will pafs through the heart.
But if, with Dr Harvey and Dr Lower, we fuppofe
two ounces of blood, thax is, 3.2 76 cubic inches, to be
thrown out at each fyftole of the ventricle, then the
velocity of the blood in entering the orifice of the
aorta, will be double the former, viz. at the rate of
146 feet in a minute, and a quantity of blood equal to
the weight of a man’s body will pafs in half the time,
viz. 17 minutes.
If we fuppofe, what is probable, that the blood'will
rife 7-Hi feet high in a tube fixed to the oarotide ar¬
tery
H E A ( 77<5
tery of a man, and-that the inward area of the left
ventricle of his,heart is equal to fifteen fquare inches;
thefe multiplied into 7-hr!-. feet, give 1350 cubic inches
of blood, which preffes on that ventricle, when it firft
begins to contrad, a weight equal to 15.5 pounds.
What the dodlor thus calculates, from fuppofition,
with regard to mankind, he adtually experimented up¬
on hqrfes, dogs, fallow-does, <&c. by fixing tubes, in
) H E A
orifices opened in their veins and arteries; by obfer-
ving the feveral heights, to which the blood rofe in
thele tubes, as they lay on the ground ; and by mea-
furing the capacities of the ventricles of the heart, and
orifices of the arteries. And, that the reader may the
more readily compare the faid eftimates together, he
has given a table of them, ranged in the following
order.
out this, all the bodies upon our globe would doubt-
lefs grow rigid, lifelefs, and fixed. It is this that
flirs within them, as the main fpring of their adlions.
Hence vegetation and animalization are evidently pro¬
moted ; and hence the ocean and the atmofphere con¬
tinue in a fluid ftate.
Heat in us is properly a fenfation, excited by the
action of fire; or it is the efFedt of fire on our organs
of feeling. Hence it follows, that what we call heat
is a particular idea or modification of our own mind,
and not any thing exifting in that form in the body
that occafions it. Heat, fays Mr Locke, is no more
in the fire that burns the finger, than pain is in the
needle that pricks it. In effedt, heat in the body that
i is produced in our bodies, which excites the idea
of heat in our mind ; fo that heat in refpedl: of us is
nothing but that idea, and in the hot body nothing but
motion. If fucb motion expel the fire in right lines,
it gives us the idea of light; if in a various and irre¬
gular motion, only heat.
Heat, with refpedl to our fenfations, or the effedl
produced on us by a hot body, is eflimated by its rela¬
tion to the organ of feeling ; no objedl appearing to be
hot, unltfs its heat exceed that of our body Whence
the fame thing to different perfons, or at different
times to the fame perfon, (hall appear both hot and
cold. The degree of heat is. meafured by the expan-
fion of the air, or fpirit in the thermometer.
It
H E A ( 777 ) H E A
It has been juftly obferved, by fome of our modern
philofophers, that aflual or abfolute heat, is to fenfible
or relative heat, the fame as motion is 10 velocity: for
abfolute heat is nothing but the whole motion of all
the parts of the ignited body ; and fenfible or relative
heat, refpe&s only the comparative velocity of the
parts. Th's, equal bulks of mercury and water fet
in a fand heat, where the heat of the fire may be uni¬
formly communicated to both, will acquire in equal
times equal degrees of abfolute heat : but the relative
heat of the water, or that which is fenfible to the fin¬
ger, will be near 14 times as great as that of the mer¬
cury, becaufe the,water, having 14 times a lefs quan¬
tity of matter, will admit of velocity fo much in pro¬
portion greater.
Again, if mercury and water have the fame rela¬
tive or fenfible heat, that is, if both are heated in fuch
a manner as to caufe an equal afcent in the thermome¬
ter, then a quantity of mercury will heat 14 times as
much water as the lame quantity of water will do ; or
it will make the fame quantity of cold water 14 times
hotter than the fame quantity of hot water can. All
which is eafy to be Ihewn by experiment, and abun¬
dantly proves, that heat and fire are wholly owing to
the velocity of the parts of the heated or ardent body :
on which theory the various phenomena of heat, cold, fire,
burning, are rationally accounted for. For, firft,
we are to confider, that cold and heat are only com¬
parative terms, or that the fame thing may either be
too hot, or too cold, according to the relative idea or
ftandard-degree. Thus, ice or fnow is faid to be
cold with refpedt to the finger, but ice or fnow is
warm if compared to a freezing mixture ; fo that if
(as we commonly do) we make the hand or any part
of the body the ftandard of heat or cold, or the term
of comparifon ; then it is evident, 1. If the parts of
any body, applied to the hand, have the fame velocity
as the parts of the hand, fuch a body we naturally
pronounce is neither hot nor cold. 2. If the particles
of the body have a greater velocity than thofe of
the hand, we pronounce it warm, if the excefs be
fmall ; but hot, if it be great. 3. If the velocity of
the parts of the body applied be lefs than that in the
hand, the fenfation then is what we call cold, which
alfo may be in various degrees. 4. Hence it is plain,
there can be no fuch thing as abfolute cold, but where
the particles of matter are abfolutely quiefcent or at
reft. 5. Hence alfo, there can be no fuch thing as
abfolute heat, becaufe no degree of velocity can be
affigned but-a greater is ftill aflignable, till we come to
infinity, where we are quite loft, as having no idea of
infinite-velocity or heS.
From this theory of heat and cold we may conclude,
that there is no body in nature whofe parts are not in
motion, in fome degree, fince we have yet been able
to difcover no ultimate degree or limit of cold ; and
if any fuch thing were to be found in nature, it is like¬
ly that it would be as impoflible to bear or endure the
left, as any extreme degree of heat; both heat and
cold naturally tending to deftroy the animated part,
or teft, in the extreme degrees : cold, by deftroying
Vol. II. Numb. 59. 2
the vital motion, and fixing the part rigid and inflexi¬
ble ; but heat, by putting the parts into too great an a-
gitation, caufing a greater velocity of the fluids, and diffi-
pation and a force of tenfion in the folids beyond
what the natural Hate of the body can bear; and there¬
fore it will inevitably deftroy it.
Heat, in the animal oeconomy. known by the fe-
veral names of natural heat, vital heat, innate heat,
and animal heat, is commonly fuppofed to be that ge¬
nerated by the attrition of the parts of the blood, oc-
cafioned by its circulatory motion, efpecially in the
arteries.
To what organs or operations, the heat of the hu¬
man body, and other animal bodies, is owing, is hi¬
therto extremely doubtful. The opinions that at pre-
fent prevail are, 1. That the heat of animal-bodies is
owing to the attrition betwixt the arteries and the
blood. 2. That the lungsl-are the fountain of this
heat. 3. That the attrition of the parts of the folids
on one another produce it. 4. That it is owing to
the mechanical attrition of the particles of our fluids.
To which opinions Dr Stevenfon of Edinburgh add¬
ed a yth, viz. That whole procefs by which our ali¬
ment and juices are conftantly undergoing fome alter¬
ation.
The reafonings in favour of thefe feveral opinions
maybe feen at large, as laid down by the above men¬
tioned author in an eflay on the caufe of animal-heat,
in the Medical Eflays, vol. vi. The chief arguments
in favour of the firft opinion, are, that if an artery is
tied, or cut, the part to which it goes turns cold ;
and on the ceafing of the pulfation of the arteries, cold
and death follow. An increafe of heat attends a hriflc
circulation, and a languid circulation is accompanied
with a fmall heat. One who burns in a fever, or is
hot with exercife, has a full and frequent pulfe. In
cold faintings, chlorofis, <bc. the pulfe is fmall and
flow. To thefe they add, that the thermometer fhews
the arterial blood to be a little hotter than that of the
veins.
This is accounted for from the conical figure of the
arteries, from their fluxes and branches into exquifite-
ly fmall capillaries ; whence the refiftance, and confe-
quently the attrition, muft be great, from the number,
. ftrength, and elafticity of their coats, from the propel¬
ling power of the heart, and their ftrong refiftance.
From all thefe it is inferred, that the particles of blood
perpetually getting new motions, direiftions, and ro¬
tations, are attenuated, condenfed, have their angles
grinded off, and are made homogeneous: hence, it is
faid, follows the fluidity, red colour, and heat of the
mafs, which is here perfe&ed.
The fecond opinion is, that the lungs are the foun¬
tain of heat in the human body. All that has been
faid for the blood’s being heated in the arteries is ad¬
vanced to prove this hypothefis, with confiderable ad¬
ditions, viz. that in the lungs the blood-veffels every
where attend, divide, and fubdivide, along with the
ramifications of the wind-pipe; and as thefe are perpe¬
tually changing their fituation and form, becoming
longer or ihorter, making more acute or more obtufe
8 K angles.
H E A ( 778 ) H E B
angles, fo mud the concomitant blood-veflels every
moment make |iew angles, and give the blood new di¬
rections ; that at laii it enters into an exquifitely fine
net-work, fpreads every where on the vaitly thin air-
veficles, where thefe air-bladders are perpetually chan¬
ging their angles, points of contaCt, their form, volume,
interllices, and fo forth. From thefe and the el aftici-
ty of the air, and weight of the atmofphere, the blood
is faid to be churned, prefled backward and forward,
broken and kneaded together, diflblved and condenfed,
made red and hot in refpiration.
The third opinion is, that the caufe of the animal
heat is owing to the aftion of the folid parts upon one
another. The reafon in fupport of this opinion, is,
that the heart and arteries move moft; thence that it
is natural to think, that the heat fliould be owing to
this motion.
The fourth opinion is, the mechanical attrition of
the particles of the fluids upon one another. Dr Ste-
venfon obferves, that thofe who fupport this hypothe¬
cs, muft not only fuppofe that mechanical attrition be¬
gets heat, but begets itfelf without diminution; that
they muft not only fhew what fets this attrition agoing,
but what maintains it, becaufeall mechanical force per¬
petually decreafes in a refitting medium ; in fltort, that
they muft Ihew the poflibility of a perpetuum mobile,
the impoflibility of which they themielves demonftrate.
The fifth opinion is, what Dr Stevenfon calls the
animal procefs, or that procefs by which our aliment
and fluids are perpetually undergoing fome alteration.
This procefs, according to that writer, may be one
fui generis, fomewhat of a middle nature betwixt fer¬
mentation and putrefaClion ; and he thinks it comes
fo near to the latter, that he chufes to call it by that
name. In putrefaction, which is a moft powerful dif-
folvent of bodies, the inteftine aCtion of their minute
particles creates, collects, or fome way or other is the
caufe or means of heat. The doctor thinks it probable
that this procefs is conftantly carried on in all our juices,
efpecially where there is blood ; and this is chiefly in
the veins, fo that the blood is both the fountain of heat
and the firft fpring and motion.
The late Dr Mortimer, in the Philof. Tranf. n°
476. gives it as his opinion, that the heat of animals
is explicable from the phofphorus and air they contain.
Phofphorus exifts, at leaft in a dormant ftate, in ani¬
mal fluids; and it is alfo known, that they all con¬
tain air : it is therefore only neceflary to bring the pho-
fphoreal and aerial particles into contact, and heat muft
of confequence be generated.
HEATH, in botany. See Erica,
Berry bearing Heath. See Empetrum.
HEATHENS, in matters of religion. See Pagans.
HEAVEN, literally fignifies the exjianfe of the firma¬
ment, furrounding our earth, and extended every way
to an immenfe diftance.
The Hebrews acknowledged three heavens : the firft:
the aerial heaven, in which the birds fly, the winds
blow, and the Ihowers are formed; the fecond, the
firmament in which the flars are placed ; the third.
the heaven of heavens, the refidence of the Almighty,
and the abode of faints and angels.
Heaven is confidered byChriftian divines and philo-
phers, as a place in fome remote part of infinite Space,
in which the omniprefent Deity is faid to afford a
nearer and more immediate view of himfelf, and a more
fenfible manifeftation of his glory, than in the other
parts of the univerfe. This is often called the empy¬
rean, from that fplendor with which it is fuppofed to
be inverted ; and of this place the infpired wr ters give
us the moft noble and magnificent defcriptions.
The pagans confidered heaven as the refidence only
of the celeftial gods, into which no mortals were ad¬
mitted after death, unlefs they were deified. As for
the fouls of good men, they were configned to the eiy-
fian fields. SccElysian fields.
HEBDOMARY, a folemnity of the ancient Greeks, in
honour of Apollo, in which the Athenians fung hymns
in honour of that god, and carried in their hands
branches of laurel. The word fignifies the feventh day,
this folemnity being obferved on the feventh day of e-
very lunar month.
HEBENSTRETIA, in botany, a genus of the didyna-
mia angiofpermia clafs. The calix is bilabiated; the
corolla has but one labium, confiding of four fegments;
and the capfule contains two feeds. There are two
fpecies, both natives of Ethiopia.
HEBRAISM, an idiom or manner of fpeaking peculiar to
the Hebrew language. See the next article.
HEBREW, or Hebrew language, that fpoken by
the ancient Jews, and wherein the Old Teftament is
wrote.
This appears to be the moft ancient of all the lan¬
guages in the world, at leaft we know of none older :
and fome learned men are of opinion, that this is the
language in which God fpoke to Adam in Paradife.
The books of the Old Teftament are the only pieces
to be found, in all antiquity, written in pure Hebrew;
and the" language of many of thefe is extremely fub-
lime ; it appears perfectly regular, and particularly fo
in its conjugations ; indeed, properly fpeaking it has
but one conjugation, but this is variedjn each fevenor
eight different ways, which has the effe<ft of fo many
different conjugations, and affords a great variety of
expreilions to reprefent by a fingle word the different
modifications of a verb, and many ideas which in the
modern and in many of the ancient and learned lan¬
guages cannot be expreffed without a periphrafis.
The primitive words, which are called roots, have
feldom more than three letters or two fyUables.
In this language there are twenty two letters, only
five of which are ufually reckoned vowels, which are
the fame with ours, viz. a, e, i, e, u; but then each
vowel is divided into two, a long and a Ihort, the found
of the former being fomewhat grave and long, and
that of the latter Ihort and acute : it muft however be
remarked, that the two laft vowels have founds that
differ in other refpedts befides quantity, and a greater
or lefs elevation. To thefe tenor twelve vowels,may
be added others called femi-vowels, which ferve to con¬
ned the confonants, and to make the eafier tranfitions
front
II E B (
i v
from one another. The number of accents to this
language are, indeed, prodigious : of thefe there are
•near forty, the ufe of fome of which, notwithftanding
ail the inquiries of the learned, are not yet perfectly
known. We know, in general, that they ferve to
diftinguifh the feritences like the points called commas,
femicolons, &c. in our language; to determine the
quantity of the fyllables, and to mark the tone with
which they are to be fpoken or fung. It is no wonder
then, that there are more accents in the Hebrew than
in other languages, fince they perform the office of
three different things, which in other languages are
called by different names.
Hebrews, or ij/oy//?Hebrews, a canonical book
of the New Tellament.
Though St Paul did not prefix his name to this e-
piftle, the concurrent teftimony of the belt authors
ancient and modern afford fuch evidence of his being
the author of it, that the objections to the contrary
are of little or no weight.
The Hebrews, to whom this epiftle was wrote,
were the believing Jews of Paleftine; and its defign
was to convince them, and by their means all the
Jewifh converts wherefoever difperfed, of the in-
fufficiency and aboliffiment of the ceremonial and
ritual law.
HEBRIDES, iflands on the weft of Scotland, of which
Sky, Mull, Ifla, and Arran are fome of the largeft.
HECATOMB, among the ancient pagans, was the fa-
crifice of an hundred bulls or oxen ; or, in a lefs con¬
fined fenfe, an hundred animals of any fort.
HECATOMBAlON, in ancient chronology, the firft
month of the Athenian year, confifting of thirty days,
and anfwering to the latter part of our June,
HECK, an engine to take fiffi. A falmon heck is a grate
for catching that fort of filh.
Hectic fever. See Medicine.
HEDERA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla confifts of five oblong petals,
and the berry contains five feeds. There are two fpecies ;
one of them, viz- the helix, is a native of Britain.
Hf.DERA TERRESTRIS, SeeGLBCHOMA.
HEDGES, in agriculture, are either planted to make
fences round inclofures, or to divide the feveral parts of
a garden. When they are defigned as outward fences,
they are planted either with haw thorn, crabs, or black¬
thorn ; but thofe hedges which are planted in gardens,
eithertofurround wildernefs-quarters, or to fcreen the
other parts of a gat den from fight, are planted according
to the fancy of the owner, fome preferring ever-greens,
in which cafe the holly is beft ; next the yew, then
the laurel, lauruftinus, phillyria, &c. others prefer
the beech, the hornbeam, and the elm.
HEDMORA, a city of Sweden, in the province of
Weftmania, fituated on the river Dalecarlia, fifty
miles north-weft of Upfal: E. long. 150 55', and
N. lat. 6o° 16'.
HEDYOTIS, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix confifts of one funnel ffiaped
petal; and the capfule has two cells, and many feeds.
There are three fpecies, all natives of Ceylon.
779 ) H E L
HEDYSARUM, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia
decandria clals. The.corolla is tranfverfdy carinated ;
and the pod is jointed, each joint containing one feed.
There are 46 fpecies, only one of which is a native of
Britain, viz. the St Foin, or cocks-head.
HEEL, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 185.
Heel, in the fea language. If a ffiip leans on one fide,
whether ffie be a-ground or a-float, then it is faid fhe
heels a ftarboard, or a-port ; or that ffie heels off-
wards, or to the ffiore ; that is, inclines more to one
fide than to another.
HEELER, or Bloody heel-cac^, a fighting cock that
ftrikes or wounds much with his fpurs.
The mafters know fuch a cock, even while a
chicken, by the ftriking of his two heels together in
his going.
HEGIRA, in chronology, a celebrated epocha among
the Mahometans.
The event which gave rife to this epocha was the
flight of Mahomet from Mecca, with his new profe-
lytes, to avoid the perfecution of the Coraifchites ; who,
being then moft powerful in the city, could not bear
that Mahomet ffiould aboliffi idolatry, and eftabliffi his
new religion. This flight happened in the fourteenth
year after Mahomet had commenced prophet : he
retired to Medina, which he made the place of his
refidence.
HEIDELBURG, a city of Germany, in the circle of
the lower Rhine, the capital of the Palatinate, fitua¬
ted on the river Neckar : E. long. 8° 40', and N. lat.
490 20'.
HEILA, a port-town of regal Pruflia, in the kingdom
of Poland, fituated on the point of a peninfula in the
Baltic fea, twelve miles north of. Dantzick : E. long.
190, N. lat. 54° 30'.
HE1NUSE, among hunters, a roe-buck of the fourth
year.
HEIR, in Scots law, a generic term applicable to thofe
who are intitled by law to take the poffeffion of any
fubjeff which belonged to aperfon deceafed.—For the
different kinds of heirs, <drF. fee Law, tit. 27 & 28.
Heirship moveables, in Scots law, the belt of cer¬
tain kinds of moveables, which the heir of line is in-
titled to take, befides the heretable eftate. See Law,
tit. 27.
Heir-apparent, is a perfon fo called in the lifetime of
his anceftor, at whofe death he is heir at law.
HEIRESS, a female heir to one who has an eftate in
lands, be. Stealing an heirefs, and marrying her a-
gainft her will, was declared felony by 3 Hen. VII.
HELENA,, or St Helena, an ifland in the Atlantic
ocean, fituated 1200 m.les weft of the coaft of Africa,
and 1800 eaft of the coaft of fouth America: W.
long. 6° 3c/, S. lat. 160.
HELENIUM, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia
polygamia fuperfhia clafs. Th; receptacle is naked ;
the calix is fimple, and confifts of many leaves ; and
the corollulae of the radius are femitrifid.. There is
but one fpecies, a native of Auftria..
HELLEA,
II E L ( V
HELLEA, in Grecian antiquity, was the greated and
mod frequented court in Athens for the trial of civil
affairs. The judges who fat in it were at lead fifty,
but the more ufual number was either two or five hun¬
dred When caufes of great moment were to be tried,
it was cudomary to call in the judges of the other
courts: fometimes a thoufand were called in, and then
two courts are faid to have been joined ; fometimes
fifteen hundred or two thoufand were called in, atad
then three or four courts met together, »
They had cognizance of civil affairs of the greated
■weight and importance, and were not permitted to
give judgment till they had taken a folemn oath-to do
it with impartiality, and to give fentence according to
the laws, <fac.
HELIACAL, in adronomy, a term applied to therifing
or fetting of the dars 4 or, more dridtly fpeaking, to
their emerfion out of, and immerfian into, the rays and
fuperior fplendor of the km .
A dar is faid to rife heliacally, when after having
been in conjunftion with the fun, and on that account
- invifible, it comes lobe at fuels a didance from him, as
to be feen in the morning before fun-rifing; the fun,
by his apparent motion, receding from the dar towards
the ead : on the contrary, the heliacal fetting is when
the fun approaches fo near a dar, as to hide it with
his beams, which prevent the fainter light of the dar
from being perceived ; fothat the terms apparition and
©ccultation would be more proper than rifing and fet-
ting
HELIANTHEMUM, in botany, fee the article Cis-
TUS.
HELIANTHUS, the Great sun-flower, in botany,
a genus of the fyngenefia polygamia frudranea clafs.
The receptacle is paleaceous and plane; the pappus
confids of two leaves ; and the calix is imbricated and
fquarrous. There are twelve fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
HELIASTES, in antiquity, one of the judges of the
court heliaea. See Heli^ea.
HELICTERES, thi skew-tree, io botany, a genus
of the gynandriadecandria clafs. It has five dyli; the
calix confids of one oblique leaf; the petals are five ;
the ne&arium confifts of five fmall leaves ; and it has
five twided capfules. There are four fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
HELIOCARPUS, in botany, a genus of the dodecan-
dria digynia clafs. The calix confids of four leaves;
the petals are four ; the dyli are Ample; and the cap-
fule confids of two comprefled cells, radiated on each
fide. There is but one fpecies, a native of America.
HELIOCENTRIC latitude of a planet, the inclina¬
tion of a line drawn between the centre of the fun and
the center of a planet, to the plane of the ecliptic.
Heliocentric place of a planet, in adronomy, the
place of the ecliptic wherein the planet would appear
to a fpe&ator placed at the centre of the fun.
HELIOCOMETES, aphaenomenon fometimes obferved
about fun fetting ; being a large luminous tail or co¬
lumn of light, proceeding from the body of the fun.
!o ) H E L
and dragging after it, not unlike the tail of a comet;
whence the name.
HELIOSCOPE, in optics, a fort of telefcope, pecu¬
liarly fitted for viewing the fun without hurting the
eyes.
HELIOSTATA, in optics, an indrument invented by
the late learned Dr S Gravefande ; who gave it this
name, from its fixing, as it were, the rays of the fun
in an horizontal direction acrofs the dark chamber all
the while it is in ufe.
HELIX, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 298.
Helix, in zoology, a genus belonging to the order of
vermes tedacea. It is an animal of the fnail-kind;
the fliell confids of one fpiral, brittle, and almod dia¬
phanous valve; and the aperture is harrow. There
are 60 fpecies, principally didinguifhed by the figure
of their (hells.
HELL-, the place of divine punidiment after death.
As all religions have luppofed a future date of ex-
idence after this life; fo all have their hell or place of
torment, in which the wicked are fuppofed to be pu-
nifhed. The hell of the ancient heathens was divided
into two manfions; the one called elyfium, on the
right hand, pleafant and delightful, appointed for the
fouls of good men ; the other called tartara, on the
left, a region of milery and torment, appointed for the
wicked. The latter only was helb in the prefent re¬
drained fenfe of the word. See Elysium.
The philofophers were of opinion, that the infernal
regions were at an equal didance from all the parts of
the earth; neverthelefs it was the opinion of fome,
that there were certain padages which led thither, as
the river Lethe near the Syrtes, and the Acherufian
cave in Epirus. At Hermione it was thought, that
there was a very fhort way to hell; for which reafon
the people of that country never put the fare into the
mouths of the dead to pay their paflage.
The Jews placed hell in the centre of the earth,
and believed it to be fituated under waters and moun¬
tains. According to them, there are three paflages
leading to it: the fird is in the wildernefs, and by
that Korah, Dathan and Abiram defcended into hell;
the fecond is in the fea, becaufe Jonah, who was
thrown into the fea," cried to God out of the belly of
hell; the third is in Jerufalem, becaufe it is faid the
fire of the Lord is in Zion, and his furnace is in Je-
rufalem. They likewife aclyiowledged feven degrees
of pain in hell, becaufe they find this place called by
feven different names in fcripture. Though they be¬
lieved that infidels, and perfons eminently wicked, will
continue for ever in hell; yet they maintained, that
every Jew who is not infeifted with fome herefy, and
has not aided contrary to the points mentioned by the
rabbins, will not be punifhed therein for any other
crimes above a year at mod.
The Mahometans believe the eternity of rewards and
punifhments in an'other life. In the Koran it is faid,
that hell has feven gates, the fird for the Mulfulmans,
the fecond for the Chridians, the third for the Jews,
the fourth for the Sabians, the fifth for the Magians,
the
H E L ( 781
the (ixth for the pagans, and the feventh for the hy¬
pocrites of all religions.
Among Chriftians, there are two controverted
queftions in regard to hell ; the one concerns locality,
the other the duration of its torments. The locality
of hell, and the .reality of its fire, began firft to be
controverted by Origen. That father, interpreting the
fcripture account metaphorically, makes hell to confift
not in external punifhments, but in a confcioufnefs or
fenfe of guilt, and a remembrance of pafl: pleafures.
Among the moderns, Mr Whifton advanced a new
hypothefis. According to him, the comets are fo many
hells appointed in their orbits alternately to carry the
damned into the confines of the fun, there to be fcorch-
ed by its violent heat, and then to return with them
beyond the orb of Saturn, there to ftarve them.in
thefe cold and difmal regions. Another modern author,
not fatisfied with any' hypothefis hitherto advanced,
affigns the fun to be the local hell. .As to the fecond
queftion, Wz. the duration of hell-torments, we have
Origen again at the head of thofe who deny that they
are eternal; it being that father’s opinion, that not only
men, but devils, after a due courfe of punilhment
fuitable to their refpeftive crimes, fliall be pardoned
and reftored to heaven. The chief principle upon
which Origen built his opinion, was the nature of
punilhment, which he took to be emendatory, applied
only as phyfic for the recovery of the patient’s health.
The chief objeftion to the eternity of hell torments
among modern writers, is the difproportion between
temporary crimes and eternal punilhments. Thofe
who maintain the affirmative, ground their opinions on
fcripture accounts, which reprefent the pains of hell
under the figure of a worm which never dies, and a
fire which is not quenched; as alfo upon the words,
“ Thefe lhall go away into everlafting puniftiment, but
“ the righteous into life eternal.
HELLEBORUS, hellebore,in botany, agenus of the
polyandria polygynia clafs. It has no calix ; the pe¬
tals are five or more; the neiffarium is tubular andbila-
biated ; and the capfule contains many feeds. There
are five fpecies, two of them natives of Britain, viz.
the faetidus, or great baftard black hellebore ; and the
viridis, or wild black hellebore. The hellebore, when
taken in large quantities, is poifonous ; but the root,
in fmall dofes, is fuppofed to attenuate the humours,
and to promote urinary and uterine difcharges.
HELLENISM, in matters of language, a phrafe in
the idiom, genius, or conftrudtion of the Greek tongue.
Thi* word is only ufed when fpeaking of the authors
who, writing in a diflFerent language, exprefs themfelves
in a phrafeology peculiar to the Greek.
HELLENISTIC, or Helenistic language, that u-
fed by the Grecian Jews who lived in Egypt and other
parts where the Greek tongue prevailed. In this lan¬
guage it is (aid the Septuagint was written, and alfo
the books of the New Teftament; and that it was thus
denominated to (hew that it was Greek filled with He-
braifms and Syriacifms.
HELLESPONT, the entrance of the ftreights which
divides Alia from Europe, and pafles from the Archir
Vol. II. No. 59. 3
) HEM
pelago to Conftantinople. It is now called the Darda¬
nelles, and is about two miles wide.
HELM of a Jhip, is a piece of timber faffened into the
rudder, which comes forward into the fteerage, or
place where the perfon at the helm fleers the fhip, by
holding the whipftaffin his hand, which is joined to
the helm. They begin however to be left off, fteering-
wheels being ufed in their room.
There are feveral terms in the fea-language relating
to the helm; as, bear up the helm; that is, let the
fhip go more large before the wind. Helm a mid Jhip,
or right the helm; that is, keep it even with the
middle of the fhip. Port the helm, put it over the
the left fide of the fhip. Starboard the helm, put it
on the right fide of the fhip.
HELMET, an ancient defenfive armour worn by horfemen
both in war and in tournaments. It covered both the
head and face, only leaving an aperture in the front
fecured by bars, which was calledthe vifor.
HELMINTHOLITHUS, in natural hiftory, a name
given by Linnseus to petrified bodies refemblktg worms.
Of thefe he reckons four genera. 1. Petrified li-
thophyta, found in the mountains of Sweden. 2. Pe-
. trified fhells. 3. Petrified zoophytes. 4. Petrified
reptiles.
HELMONT, a town of the Netherlands, in the pro*
vince of Dutch Brabant, fituated on the river Aa : E.
long. 50 40', N. lat. 510 30'.
HELMSTAT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Lower Saxony, and dukedom of Brunfwic : E. long-
11® 1 J, N. lat. 520 20'.
HELOTS, in Grecian antiquity, the inhabitants of
Helos, a town of Laconia, conquered by the Spartans ;
who made them all prifoners of war, and reduced
them into the condition of Haves.
The freemen of Sparta were forbidden the exercife
of any mean or mechanical employment, and therefore
the whole care of fupplying the city with neceffaries
devolved upon the Helots.
HELS1NGFORD a port-town of Sweden, fituated on
the gulph of Finland, in 240 6' E. long, and 6o° 8*
N. lat.
HELSINGIA, a province of Sweden, bounded by
the Bothnic gulph on the eaft, and by Dalecarlia on
the weft.
HELSINGIC character, a peculiar kind of charac¬
ter, found infcribed on ftones in the province of Hel-
fingia : the Runic and Helfingic characters may be eafily
tranformed into each other.
HELSTON, a borough of Cornwall, nine miles fouth-
weft of Falmouth: it fends two members to parlia¬
ment.
HELVOETSLUYS, a port-town of the united Nether¬
lands, fituated in the illand of Voorn, in the province
of Holland, five miles fouth of the Briel: it is one of
the beft harbours in Holland, and that to which the
Englilh packet alway goes.
HEMEROBIUS, in zoology, a genus of infedts of the
neuroptera order, the characters of which are thefe :
The mouth is furniftied with two teeth ; the palpi are
four ; the wings are deflected, but not plaited ; and
8 h ike
H E M (
the antennae are briftly and longer than the bread.
There are 15 fpecies, principally diftinguifhed by dieif
colours.
HEMEROCALLIS, day-lilly, in botany, a genus
of the hexandria-monogynia clafs. The corolla is
bell-fhaped, with a cylindrical tube ; and the ftamina
are declinated. There are two fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
HEMI, a word ufed in the compofition of divers terms,
fignifying the fame with femi, ordemi, viz. one half.
HEMINA, in Roman antiquity, a liquid meafurewhich,
according to Arbuthnot, was equal to half a wine-pint
englilh meafure ; its contents being 2,818 folid inches.
HEMIONITIS, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
Alices clafs. The parts of fru&ification lie in decuffa-
tinglines. There are three fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
HEMIPLEGIA, or Hemiplexia, among phyficians,
a palfy of one half of the body.
HEMISPHERE, in geometry, the half of a globe or
fphere, when it is fuppofed to be cut thr'ough its centre
in the plane of one of its great circles.
Hemisphere is alfo trfed to denote a projection of half
the terreftrial globe, or half the celeftial fphere, on a
plane, and frequently called planifphere.
HEMISTICH, in poetry, denotes half a verfe, or a verfe
not completed.
HEMITRITiEUS, among phyficians, a kind of inter¬
mitting fever, being a femitertian. See Medicine.
HEMLOCK, in botany. See Cicuta.
HEMP, in botany. See Cannabis.
The railing and drefling of hemp fcarcely differs
from the raifing and drefling of flax, but in the follow¬
ing particulars. •
Hemp requires a light, free, dry, dufly, and even
a Tandy warm foil ; which if not naturally rich, muft
be made fo by manure. New broke up ground does
not anfwer for hemp, producing it thin and poor upon
the ftalk. Hemp does well to follow beans. The
growid fhould be ploughed and harrowed three or four
times, a fortnight or three weeks intervening between
each time. In fome parts of Lincoln and Holland the
foil is naturally fo free and rich, that it will produce
hemp conftantly year after year without manure.
The leaves which fall off the ftalk help to manure the
ground. It is frequently fown with a view to clear
the ground of weeds ; which it does moft affe&ually,
growing fall, and Loon checking every weed but mug-
wort, which is picked out with a fork.
It is fown about the firft of May ; fo thin, that a-
bout four pecks are fufficient for an Englifh acre; and
the ground muft then be covered as much as poflible
to preferve the feed from the birds, who are very fond
of it.
The ftalk which does not bear the
pods, is called the female, though in fadt it is the
trialefeat taring from its bloom a fmall dull, which im¬
pregnates the pods of .the bujhy-topped \ which laft is
commonly, though improperly, called the male or
carle hemp.
When hemp is the objedl of the farmer more than
782 ) HEP
a crop of feed, the whole fhould be pulled when the
ftalk begins to grow yellow, and the earth remaining
about the roots fhould be beat off to prevent more
growth : but if the feed is wanted in its greateft per-
fedtion, the ftalks bearing the pods muft be pulled be¬
fore the upmoft pod begins to open ; the earth fhould
not be beat off from the roots ; it fhould be ftooked
in fheaves upon the field, to dry and win as corn ; and
the top of thefe ftooks fhould be covered with under¬
growth, or the like, to preferve the feed from the
birds.
Hemp is fooner watered than flax, and the canals
muft be deeper.
In keeping the feed, care muft be taken to preferve
it from rats, mice, and fuch like vermin, who are ail
fond of it.
It s dreffed as coarfe flax, but is fooner drefled; and
its greater length requires more care, and renders it
more troublefome in the handling, efpecially in the
flcutching of it by the water lint-mills with horizon¬
tal fkutchers, when it muft; be folded double. What
is too coarfe and ftrong in the ftaik for the hand or
foot machines, may be broke and peeled by the hand.
See Flax;
HEMPSTEAD, a market-town of Hartfordfhire,
twenty-four miles north-weft of London.
HEN, in ornithology. See Phas 1 anus.
Hen bane. See Hyosciamus.
HENDECAGON, in geometry, a figure that hath e-
leven fides and as many angles.
HENLEY, a market-town of Oxfordfhire, fimated on
the river Thames, twenty miles fouth-eaft of Oxford,
and thirty-two weft of London.
HENNEBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia, and the capital of the county of Hen-
neburgh : E. long io° 27', and N. lat. 50° 40'.
HENOTlCON, in church-hiftory, a decree or edidt of
the emperor Zeno, made at Conftantinople, in the
year 482, by which he pretended to reconcile all parties
under onfe faith. It is generally agreed that Peter,
patriarch of Alexandria, and Acacius, patriarch of
Conftantinople, were the authors of this decree, and
that their defign was to compliment the emperor with
a right of preferibing regulations in matters of faith.
The emperor, by this decree, arrogated to himfelf the
right of being head of the church. Pope Simplicius,
- however, in the year 483, condemned the henoticon,
and cited Acacius, the chief promoter of it, to appear
before him at Rome; but it was not entirely fupprefled
till the year 518.
HENRICO, a county of the colony of Virginia, in North
America.
HENRY, ovCape-henry, the fouth cape of Virginia,
at the entrance of Chefepeak-bay: W. long. 74° yc/,
N. iat. 370.
He par sulphur is, or liver ar sulphur. See Che¬
mistry.
HEPATIC, in medicine and anatomy, any thing belong¬
ing to the liver.
HEPATICA, in botany. See Anemone,
HEPATITIS, in medicine. Sec Medicine.
HEPATUS.
HER ( 783 ) HER
H EPATUS, in ichthyology. See Labrus.
HEPHiESTIA, in Grecian antiquity, an Athenian fefH-
val, in honour of Vulcan, the chief ceremony of which
was a race with torches,
HEPSETUS, in ichthyology. See Esox.
HEPTACHORD, in the ancient poetry, fignified verfes
that were fung or played on feven chords, that is, on
feven different notes. In this fenfe it was applied to
the lyre, when it had but feven firings.
HEPTAGON, in geometry, a figure confifting of feven
fides and as many angles.
HEPTANDRIA, in botany. See Botany, p. 635.
HEPTANGULAR, in geometry, an appellation given
to figures which have feven angles.
HEPTARCHY, a government of feven perfons : alfo a
a ftate or country divided into feven kingdoms, and
governed by feven independent princes ; in which
fenfe it is particularly applied to the government of
fouth Britains when divided amongfi the Saxons.
HEPTATEUCH, the feven firft books of the Old Te-
ftament, containing the pentateuch, or five books of
Mofes, and the books of Jofhua and Judges.
HEPHTHEMIMERIS, in ancient poetry, a verfe
confifting of three feet and an half, or feven half feet.
It likewife denotes a cxfura after the third foot of a
verfe.
HERACLEA, a port-town of Romania, in European
Turky, fituated on the Propontis, lixty miles fouth-
weft of Conftantinople ; it was once a great city: E.
long. 28°, andN. lat. 410.
HERACLEONITES, a fed of chriftians, the followers
of Heracleon, who refined upon the gnoftic divinity,
and maintained that the world was not the immediate
produ&ion of the Son of God, but that he was only
the occafional caufe of its being created by the demi-
urgus. The Heracleonites denied the authority of the
prophecies of the Old Teftament, maintaining that they
were mere random founds in the air; and that St.
John the Baptift was the only true voice that clireded
to the Mefiiah.
HERACLEUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
digynia clafs, the general flower of which is difform and
radiated; the Angle flowers of the difc confifi each
of five equal petals, but thofe of the radius confift of
five unequal petals : the fruit is eliptic, compreffed, and
ftriated on each fide in the middle, and contains two
oval compreffed feeds. There are five fpecies, one of
which, viz the fphondylium, or cow-parfnip, is a
native of Britain.
HERACLIDiE, or Return' of the Heraclid;e into
Peloponnefus, in chronology, a famous epocha, that
conftitutes the beginning of profane hiftory ; all the
time preceding that period being accounted fabulous.
This return happened in the year of the world 2862,
an hundred years after they were expelled, and eighty
after the deftrudion of Troy.
HERALD, an officer at arms, whofe bufinefs it is to
declare war, to proclaim peace, to marffial all the fo-
lemnities at the coronation, chriftening, marriage, and
funeral of princes, to blazon and examine coats of arms,
cbc.
_ Heralds were formerly held in much greater efteenj
than they are at prefent, and were created and chri-
ftened by the king, who pouring a gold-cup of wine on
their head, gave them the herald-name; but this is
now done by the earl-marffial. They could not arrive
at the dignity of herald without having been feven years
pourfuivant; nor could they quit the office of herald,
but to be made king at arms.
HERALDRY, is the art of armory and blazoning ; or,
the knowledge of what relates to the bearing of arms,
and the laws and regulations thereof.
Arms, or Armories, are marks of dignity and ho *
nour, regularly compofed of certain figures and colours,
given or authorized by fovereigns, and borne in banners,
ffiields, coats, fac. for the diftituftion of perfons, fa- '
milies, and ftates, and paffing by defcent to pofterity.
They are called arms, in regard they are borne prin¬
cipally on the buckler, cuiraffe, banners, and other
apparatus of war; and coats of arms, coat-armour.
See. becaufe anciently embroidered on a cloak or habit,
worn by the ancient knights over their arms, both in
war and at tournaments, and ftill borne by the heralds
at arms.
It was a kind of furcoat, reaching only as low as the
navel, open at the fides, with ffiort fleeves ; fometimes
furred, with ermine and vair, wherein were applied the
armories of the knight, embroidered with gold andt
filver, and enamelled with beaten tin, coloured black,
green, red, blue; whence the rule never to apply
colour on colour, nor metal on metal.
The coats of arms were frequently open, and diver-
fified with bands and fillets of feveral colours, alter¬
nately placed, as we ftill fee cloths fcarleted, watered,
4sc. Hence they were alfo called devices ox divifes ; and
being divided, or compofed of feveral pieces fewed to¬
gether, whence the words fejfe, pale, chevron, bend,
erofs, falter, lozenge. See. See thefe articles.
The furcoat being embroidered with gold zed filver,
was the occafion that thofe two metals have been fince
placed in the coats of arms, under their French name
of or and argent; and their being coloured black,
green, red, and blue, that thofe different colours
have alfo been introduced in them: therefore,
There are two metals in Heraldry, viz, or and ar¬
gent ; and feven colours, which are, gules, azure, fa¬
ble, vert, purpure, tenne, and fanguine.' See thefe
and all the other terms belonging to heraldry as they
occur in the order of the alphabet.
HERAT, a city of Perfia, in the province of Choraffan t
E. long. 6i°, and N. lat. 340 3c/..
HERB, in pharmacy, an appellation given to the ftalks
and leaves of plants, efpecially fuch as are fleffiy and
fucculent, and die away every year; but is alfo fre¬
quently ufed to denote the leaves alone.
HERBAL, a book that treats of the claffes, genera, fpe¬
cies, and virtues of plants. See Botany.
HERBIVOROUS animals, thofe-which feed only on
vegetables.
HERBOURG, a town in the circle of the upper Rhine,
and territory of Naffau : E. Ion, 8° 15', and N. lat,
50 9 36'.
HERCINIAN,
HER ( 784 ) HER
HERCINIAN forest, a foreft which anciently ex¬
tended the whole length of Germany and Bohemia,
fome remains of which are ftill in being, viz. the Black
Foreft, Odenwald near Heidelburg, Stigewald in
Wurtfburg, and Bamberg, and Hartfwald in Brunf-
wic.
HERCOLE, a port-town of Tufcany, on the coaft cal¬
led Stato del Prefidii: E. Ion. 120, and N. lat. 420
25r.
HERCULES, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p.
486.
Hercules-pillars, in antiquity, a name given to
mount Calpe in Spain, near Gibraltar, on the European
fide of the ftreights, and mount Avila on the African
fide,
HEREDITAMENTS, whatever immoveable things a
perfon may have to himfelf and his heirs by way of
inheritance; and which, if not other wife bequeathed,
defcend to him who is next heir, and not to the execu¬
tor, as chattels do.
HEREDITARY, an appellation given to whatever be¬
longs to a family by right of fucceffion, from heir to
heir.
HEREDITAS jacens, in Scots law. An eftateis faid
to be in hereditate jacente, after the proprietor’s death,
till the heir’s entry,
HEREFORD, the principal city of Herefordfhire, fitu-
ated on the river Wye, twenty-four miles north-weft
of Glocefter, and one hundred and twenty weft of
London : W. Ion. 20 42', and N. lat, 520 o .
It fends two members to parliament.
HERESY, the crime of obftinately perfifting in opinions
that are contrary to the fundamentals of religion.
HERETABLE rights, in Scots law, all rights af-
fefting lands, houfes, £;c. or anyhnmoveablefubjeft.
See Law, tit. 9.
HERETAGE, in Scots law, lands, houfes, or any im¬
moveable fubjeft, in contradiftinttion to moveables or
moveable fubjedts. See Law, tit. 9. It alfo fometimes
fignifies fuch immoveable property as a perfon fuc-
ceeds to as heir to another, in contradiftindlion to that
which he himfelf purchafes or acquires in any other
manner, called conqueji. See Law, tit. 27.
HERETIC, a general name for all fuch perfons, under
any religion, but efpecially the Chriftian, as profefs or
teach religious opinions contrary to the eftablifhed
faith, or to what is made the ftandard of orthodoxy.
HERLING, a market-town of Norfolk, twenty miles
fouth-weft of Norwich.
HERMAS, among antiquarians, ftatues of the god Mer¬
cury, made of marble, and fometimes of brafs, with¬
out arms or feet, and fet up by the Greeks and Romans
in the crofs ways.
HERMALA, in antiquity, ancient Greek feftivals, in
honour of the god Hermes or Mercury.
HERMANIA, in botany, agenusofthemonadelphia pen-
tandria clafs It has but one ftylus ; the capfulehas
five cells ; and the petals are femitubular at the bafe.
There are nine fpecies, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
HERMANASTAT, the capital city of Tranftlvania, fub-
jedtto tEe houfe of Auftria: E. Ion. 240, N. lat. 46°
32 • ■
HERMAPHRODITE, a perfon of both fexes, or who
has the parts of generation both of male and female.
It is now generally allowed, that there is no fuch
thing as a true hermaphrodite ; n.oft, if not all thofe
who pafs for fuch, being mere women, whofe clitoris
is grown to an enormous fize, and the labia pudendi
become unufually tumid.
Among the infedt-clafs of animals, indeed, herma¬
phrodites are very frequent: fuch as worms, fnails,
leeches,
Hermaphrodite flowers, among botanifts. See
Botany.
HERMATHENA, among antiquarians, a ftatue repre-
fenting Mercury and Minerva both in one.
HERMES. SeeHERMA:.
HERMETIC, or Hermetical, an appellation given
to whatever belongstochemiftry, from Hermes Trifme-
giftus, who is fuppofed to have been its inventor.
HERMETICAL philosophy, that which undertakes
to folve the various phaenomena of nature, from the
chemical principles fait, fulphur, and mercury.
Hermetical seal, among chemifts, a method of flap¬
ping glafs-velfels, ufed in chemichal operations, fo
. clofely, that the moft fubtil fpirit cannot efcape through
them.
It is commonly done by heating the neck of the vef-
fel in a flame, till ready to melt, and then twilling it
clofely together with a pair of pincers. Or, velfels.
may be hermetically fealed, by flopping them with a
glafs plug, well luted; or, by covering the velfel with
another ovum philofophicum.
HERMIT, a devout perfon retired into folitude to be
more at leifure for contemplation, and to difencumber
himfelf from the affairs of the world.
HERMON, a mountain on the eaft of Syria and Paleftine,
in Afia.
HERNANDIA, in botany, a genus of the moncecia
triandria clafs. The calix of the male has three feg-
ments, and the corolla three petals. The calix of the
female is entire and truncated; the corolla confifts of
fix petals; and the drupa is hollow, with an open
mouth, and a loofe kernel. There are two fpecies,
both natives of the Indies.
HERNGRUNT, a town of Upper Hungary, fituated
north of Buda, near the Carpathian mountains : E. Ion-
190 20' lat. 48° 47'.
HERNIA, in medicine. See Medicine and Sur¬
gery.
HERNIARIA, rupture-wort, in botany, a genus
of the pentandria digynia clafs. The calix confifts of
five fegments ; it has no corolla ; and the capfule con¬
tains one feed. There are four fpecies, three of them
natives of Britain, viz. the glabra, or fmooth rupture¬
wort; the hirfuta, or rough rupture wort; and the
lenticulata, or fea rupture wort. The leaves may be
ufed as a mild reftringent; but have no title to their
former reputation of curing ruptures.
HERO, in the ancient mythology, a great and illuftrious
perfon, of amortal nature, though fuppofed by the popu¬
lace
H E T' ( 7S5 ) HID
lace to partake of immortality 5 and, after his death,
placed among the number of the gods.
HEROIC poem, that which defcribes fome extraordinary
enterprize; being the fame with epic poem. See Com¬
position.
Heroic verse, that^wherein heroic poems are ufually
composed; or it is that proper for fuch poems. In the
Gretk and Latin, hexameter verfes are ufually deno
minated heroic verfes, as being alone ufed by Homef,
Virgil, (be.
HERON, in ornithology. SccArdea. .*
HERPES, in medicine, a bilious puilule, which breaking
out in different manners upon the fkin, accordingly re¬
ceives different denominations. See Medicine.
HERRING, in ichthyology. SeeCLUPEA
HERSILLON, in the art of war, is a (Irong plank or
beam, about ten or twelve feet long, ftuck full of fpikes
on both fides, and ufed to incommode the m rch
of the infantry or cavalry
HESPER, an appellation given to the planet Venus,
when fire fets after the fun.
HESPERIDES, in antiquity, the daughters of Hefperus,
brother of Atlas, who kept a garden full of golden
apples, guarded by a dragon : but Hercules havinglaid
the dragon afleep Hole away the apples.
HE'SPERIS, dame’s vioi et, in botany, a genus of
the tetradynamia filiquofa clafs. The petals are ob¬
liquely bent; there is a gland betwixt the fhort ftami-
na- and the ftigmais forked at the bafe, and connivent
at top There are feven fpecies, only one of which,
viz. the martronalis, or unfavoury dame’s violet, is a
native of Britain.
HESSE-CASSEL landgraviate, including Wetteravia,
is a circle of the Upper Rhine, bounded by Weflpha-
lia and Brunfwic on the north, by Franconia and Sax¬
ony on the eaft, by the river Maine on the fouth, and
by another part of Weftphalia and the ele&orate of
Mentz and Triers on the weft: it is fubjetft to the
king of Sweden.
Hesse-darmstat, is bounded by the river Maine,
which divides it from Heffe-Caffel, on the north, by the
fame river on the eaft, and by the Palatinate on the
fouth and weft.
HETEROCLITEj among grammarians, one of the three
variations in irregular nouns, and defined by Mr Rud-
diman, a noun that varies in declenfion ; as, hoc vas,
vjjis ; htec vafa> vaforum. ^
HETERODOX, in polemical theology, any thing con¬
trary to the faith and doftrines of a church.
HETERODOMUS vectis, in mechanics, a lever,
wherein the fulcrum, or point of fufpenfion, is placed
between the power and the weight. See Mecha¬
nics.
HETEROGENEITY, in phyfiology. that quality or
property of bodies which denominates a thing hetero¬
geneous. See the next article.
HETEROGENOUS, or heterogeneal, fomething
that confifts of parts of diffimilar kinds, in oppofition
o homogeneous.
HETEROSCII, in geography, a term of relation, deno- .
ting fuch inhabitants of the earth as have their Ihadows
Voe. II. No. 59. 2
falling but one way, as thofe who live between the tro¬
pics and polar circles, whofe fhadows at noon in north
latitude are always to the northward, and in fouth
latitude to the fouthward.
HEUCHERA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria di-
gynia clafs. The petals are five ; and the capfule has
a double beak, and two cells. There is but ope fpe¬
cies, a native of Virginia.
HEXACHORD, in ancient mufic, a concord called by
the moderns a fixth.
HEXAGON, in geometry, a figure of fix fides and an¬
gles ; and if thefe fides and angles be equal, it is called
a regular hexagon. See Geometry.
HEX AHEDRON, in geometry, one of the five Platonic
bodies, or regufar foiids; being the fame with a cubp.
HEXAMETER, carmen hsxanutrum, in ancient
poetry, a kind of verfe. confiding of fix feet ; the firft
four of which may be indifferently either fpondees or
dadlyls, the fifth is generally a dadtyl, and the fixth
always a fpondee. Such is the fpllowing verfe of Ho¬
race:
12 3 456
j4ut prr\dejj'e vc\!unt, aut\delt\ttare p^etee.
HEXANDRIA, in botany See Botany, p. 635.
HEXASTYLE, in archite&ure, a building with fix co¬
lumns in front.
HEXHAM, a market-town of Northumberland, fixteen
miles weft of Newcaftle,
HEYDON, a borough town in Yorkftiire, thirty-Ieven
miles fouth-eaft of York, and fix miles weft of Hull.
It le>.ds two members to parliament.
HEYTSBURY a borough town of Wiltfhire, fourteen
miles north-weft of Salilbury, fends two members to
parliament.
HIATICULA, in ornithology. See Charadrius.
HIATUS, properly fignifies an opening, chafm, or gap;
but it is particularly applied to thofe verfes, where one
word ends with a vowel, and the following word begins
with one, and thereby cccafions the mouth to be more
open, and the found to be very harlh.
The term hiatus is alfo ufed fn Ipeaking of mahu-
feripts, to denote their defeds, of the parts that have
been loft or effaced.
-HIBISCUS,, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia po-
lyandria clafs. The calix is double; the exterior one
confifts of many leaves; the capfule has five cells,
and contains many feeds, There, are twenty-five fpe¬
cies, none of them natives of Britain.
HICCUP, or Hiccough, in medicine, a fpafmodic
affedion of the ftomach and diaphragm,- arifing from
any thing that irritates and vellicates their nervous coats.
See Medicine.
HIDE, the flein of beafts, but particularly applied to
thofe of large cattle, as bullocks, cows, horfes. be.
Hides are either raw or green, juft as taken off the
carcafe; faked or feafoned with fait, alum, and lalt-
petre, to prevent their fpoiling ; or curried and tanned.
See Tanning,
Hide 0/ land, was fuch a quantity of land as might
be plowed with one plough within the compafs of a
year, or fo much as would maintain a family ; fome
8 M call
HIE ( 7*
call it fixty, fome eighty, and fome an hundred acres.
Hide-bound. See Farriery, p. 563.
HIERACHIUM, hawkweed, in botany, genus of
the fyngenefia polygamia sequaiis ciafs. The receptacle
is naked; the calix is oval and implicated; and the
pappus is fimple and feflile. There are 28 fpecies,
8 of them natives of Britain. The leaves of the pilo-
fella, or common creeping moufc-ear, are recommend¬
ed as aftringents.
HIERACITESf in church-hiftory, Chriftian heretics in
the third century, fo called from their leader Hierax,
a philofopher of Egypt; who taught that Melchifedek
was the Holy Ghoft, denied the refurreftion, and con¬
demned marriage.
HIERARCHY, among divines, denotes the fubordina-
tion of angels.
Some of the rabbins reckon four, others ten, orders
or ranks of angels ; and give them different names,
according to their different degrees of power and know¬
ledge.
Hierarchy likewife denotes the fubordination of the
clergy, ecclefiaflical polity, or the conftitution and go¬
vernment of the Chriftian church confidered as a fo-
ciety.
HIEROGLYPHICS, in antiquity, myftical characters,
or fymbols, in ufe among the Egyptians, and that as
well in their writings as infcriptions ; being the figures
of various animals, the parts of human bodies, and me¬
chanical inftruments.
But befides the hieroglyphics in common ufe among
the people,.the priefts had certain myflical characters,
in which they wrapped up and concealed their doc¬
trines from the vulgar. It is faid, that thefe fome-
thing refembled the Chinefe characters, and that
they were the invention of Hermes. Sir John Mar-
fham conjectures, that the ufe of thefe hierogiyphi-
cal figures of animals introduced the ftrange wor-
fhip paid them by that nation : for as thefe figures were
made choice of, according to the refpeCtive qualities
of each animal, to exprefs the qualities and dignity of
the perfons reprefented by them, who were generally
their gods, princes and great men, and being placed
in their temples, as the images of their deities; hence
they came to pay a fuperftitious veneration to the ani¬
mals themfelves.
The meaning of a few of thefe hieroglyphics, has
been preferved by ancient writers. Thus we are told
they-reprefented the fupreme Deity by a ferpent with
the head of a hawk. The hawk itfelf was the hiero¬
glyphic of Ofiris; the river-horfe, of Typhon ; the
dog, of Mercury; the cat, of the moon, or Diana ; the
beetle, of acouragious warrior;, a new-born child, of
the rifmg fun ; and the like.
HIEROGRAMMATISTS, i. e. holy regifters, were
an order of priells among the ancient Egyptians, who
prefided over learning and religion.
They had the care of the hieroglyphics, and were
the expofitorsof religious doCtrines and opinions. They
were looked upon as a kind of prophets, and it is pre¬
tended that one of them predicted to an Egyptian king,
that an Ifraelite, (meaning Mofes) eminent for his
)6 ) H I N
qualifications and atchievements, would leffen and de-
prefs the Egyptian monarchy.
HIEROMANOY, in antiquity, that part of divination
which predicted future events from obferving the va¬
rious things offered in facriiice. See Divination
and Sacrifice.
HEROMNEMON, the name of an officer in the Greek
church, whofe principal function it was to ftand behind
the patriarch at the faeraments and other ceremonies
of the church, and to (hew him the prayers, pfalms,
6t. in the order in which they were to be rehearfed..
HIEROPHANTES, in Grecian antiquity, the name by
which the Athenians called thofe priefts and priefteffes
who were appointed by the ftate to have the fupervifal
of things facred, and to take care of the facrifices.
HIEROPHYLAX, an officer in the Greek church, who
was guardian or keeper of the holy utenfils, veftments,
6v. anfwering to our facrifta or veftry-keeper.
High way, a free paflage for the king’s fubjeCts, on
which account it is called the king’s high-way, tho’
the freehold of the foil belong to the owner of the
land. Thofe ways that lead from one town to ano¬
ther, and fuch as are drift or-cart-ways, and are for
all travellers in great roads, or that communicate with
them, are high-ways only; and as to their reparation,
are under the care of furveyors.
HIGHAM FERRERS, a borough town ofNorthamp-
tonfhire, twelve miles nortli-eaft of Northampton :
it fends two members to parliament.
HIGHNESS, a title given to princes. Before king
James I. the kings of England had no other title but
that of highnefs ; which was alfo the cafe of the kings
of Spain before Charles V.
At prefent all the Tons of crowned heads are ftyled
royal highnefs, as the electors of Germany are elec¬
toral highnefs.
HIGH WORTH, or Higworth, a market-town of
Wiltfhire, fiiuated thirty miles north of Salifbury.
HILARIA, an ancient Roman feftival, obferved on the
eighth of the calends of April, or the twenty-fifth day
of March, in honour of the goddefs Cybele. It was
fo called from the various exprefiions of joy and mirth
on this occafion.
HILARODI, in the ancient mufic and poetry, a fort of
poets among the Greeks, who went about finging lit¬
tle gay poems or fongs, fomewhat graver than the Ionic
pieces, accompanied with fome inftrument. From the
ftreets they were at length introduced into tragedy,
as the magodi were into comedy. They appeared
dreffed in white, and were crowned with gold. At
firft they wore {hoes, but afterwards they affumed the
crepida, being only a foie tied over with a ftrap.
HILARY-term. See Term.
HILDESHEIM, the capital of a bifhopric, furrounded
by the territories of Brunfwic, and fubjeCito its own
bfthop: E. long. io°, N. lat. 52° 17'.
HILUM, among botanifts, denotes the eye of a bean.
HIN, a hebrew meafure of capacity for things liquid, con¬
taining the fixth part of an ephah, or one gallon two
pints, or 2.533 Iblid incites, Englifh meafure.
Hind,
HIP (787
Hivd, a female flag in the third year of its age. See
Cervus.
H'NDON, a borough town of Wiltfhire, fituated four¬
teen miles weft of Salifbury ; it fends two members to
parliament.
HINDOWN, or Hendown, the capital of the country
of the Hindowns, in the hither India: E, long 76°
30', N. lat 27°.
HINE, or Hind, a hufbandman’s fervant. Thus the
perfon who overfees the reft, is called the matter hine.
HIPPOBOSCA, or Horse-foy, in zoology, a getius
of infers belonging to the order, of diptera. The
beak confifts of two valves, is cylindrical, obtule, and
hanging ; and the feet have feveral claws. There are
fou'r fpecies, diftinguilhed by their wings, <&c. The
equina is extremely troublefome to horfes.
HIPPOCAMPUS, in ichthyology. See Syngnathus.
HIPPOCENTAUR, in antiquity, a fabulous animal,
half man half hos fe.
What gave rife to the fable of Hippocentaurs, was
this. The Theffitlians are faid to have been the firft
inventors of the art of breaking horfes ; and being firft
feen on horfeback, they feerned to make but one body
with the horfes; whence the origin of the fable.
HIPPOCREP1S, COMMON HORSE SHOE VETCH, in
botany, a genus of the diadelphia decandria clafs.
The pod is comprefled and crooked. There are three
fpecies, only one of which, viz. the comofa, or tufted
horfe-lhoe vetch, is a native of Britain.
HIPPODROME, in antiquity, the courfe where horfe-
races were performed.
HIPPOGLOSSUS, in ichthyology. See Pleuronec-
TES.
Hippomanes fignifies the exprefled juice of the tithy-
mallus ; as alfo a juice diftilling from the genitals of
a mare, in the time of her covering: fome again take
it for the fecundines of a mare; and, laftly, it figntlies
a flefhy fubftance adhering to the . forehead of a colt
newly foaled, which fome imagine to have a virtue of
procuring love, and promoting the birth.
HIPPOPHAE, in botany, a genus of the dicecia tetran-
dria clafs. The calix of the male has two fegmentsj
and the corolla is wanting The calix. of the female
confifts of two fegments; it has no corolla ; but one
ftylus ; and the berry contains many feeds. There are
three fpecies, only one of which, viz. the rhamnoi-
des, fallow-thorn, or fea buck thorn, is a native of
Britain.
HIPPOPOTAMUS, the river-horse, a genus of
quadrupeds, belonging to the ouier of belluce ; the
charadlers of which are thefe : It has 6 foreteth in
the upper jaw, difpofed in pairs at a dillance from each
other ; and four prominent foreteeth in the under jaw,
the intermediate ones being longeft : the dog-teeth are
folitary and obliquely truncated; and the feet are hoof¬
ed on the edges.
There is but one fpecies pf hippopotamus, viz.
the amphibius. or river-horfe. The hiftory of this
quadruped, though next to the elephant in magni¬
tude, is far from being fufficiently delineated. The
beft. defcription hitherto given of. him is that of
) HIP
Frederic Zerenghi, an Italian furgeon, publifhed in the
year 1603. Zerenghi killed two of them (a male and
a female) on the banks of the Nile, preferved their
Ikins, and brought them to Rome. Every fliin took
400,pounds of fait in curing. He fays, the Ikin of the
hippopotamus is about an inch thick, extremely hard,
impenetrable by a common mulket-ball; and there
are only a few fhort white hairs fcattered very thin o-
ver it. The teeth are not protruded out of the mouth,
as is commonly believed ; for, when the mouth isfhut,
although the teeth be extremely large, they are entire¬
ly covered by the lips. The dimenfions of the female,
of which Zerenghi gives a figure, are as follow: From
the point of the muzzle to the origin of the tail, between
11 and 12 feet; the circumference of the body about
10 feet; the height of the body, 4-i- feet; the circum¬
ference of the leg, near the fhoulder, 2 feet 9 inches,
lower down 1 foot 94- inches ; the height of the legs
about foot ; the length of the feet from the ex¬
tremity of the claws,, 44 inches; the claws are neatly
of an equal length and breadth, and are fomewhat more
than two inches ; each toe is furnilhed with a claw,
and each foot with four toes. The tail is about one
foot long, more than a foot in circumference near the
origin, and about 3 inches near the point. The tail
is not round, but ilattilh. The head, from the extre¬
mity of the lips to the neck, is about 2 feet 4 inches,
and the circumference 5 feet 8 inches The ears are
about 3 inches long, and nearly as broad; they are a
little pointed, and covered in the interior fide with
flrort white hair. The mouth, when open, is about 14
foot wide, and furniihed with 44 teeth of different
figures. Their teeth are of fuch a ha^d fubftance,
that they give fire with fteel. Thefe dimenfions are
taken from a female hippopotamus ; but the male is
generally about one third larger.
With fuch powerful arms, and fuch a prodigious
ftrength of body, the hippopotamus might render himfelf
formidable to everyother animal. But he is naturally
of a mild difpofition ; and befides,. his body is fo hea¬
vy, and his motions fo flow, that he cannot overtake
any other quadruped. He fwims fwifter than he runs,
and preys upon fifnes. He dives in the water, and can
flay very long under. He has no membrane betwixt
his toes, as the caftor or the otter and he onlyfwims
eafily in cqnfequence of the great bulk of "his belly,
which makes him nearly of an equal fpecific gravity
with the water.. Moreover, he often keeps himfelf at
the bottom, and walks upon the channel with the fame
freedom as upon dryland, Befides preying uponfifhes,
crocodiles, <bc. he frequently goes out of the wat- x
and feeds upon fugar-canes, ruftits, roilJet, rice, roots'j
cbc. Thefe he devours in large quantities, and often
does great damage in the cultivated field. But as he
is more timid on land than in the water, he is eafily
drove away. -His legs are fo fhort, thay he cannot e-
fcaps by flight' when at a diftance from the river.
He generally flies when approached by people in boats ;
but, if they wound him, he returns with fury, attacks
the boats with his teeth, and frequently overfets them.
This animal feems to be. confined principally to the
'rivers
HIV f 788 } H O L
■rivers of Africa. The male and female generally go
together, and the female is faid to produce but one
at a birth.
HIPPURIS, in botany, a genus of the monandria mo-
nogynia clafs. It has neither calix nor corolla ; the
ftigma is Ample ; and there is but one feed. There is
only one fpecies, viz. the vulgaris, a native of Bri¬
tain.
HIPPURIS, in ichthyology. See Coryphjena.
HIRCANIA, in geography, the provinces of Perfia in
Afia, which lie on the fouthern Ihore of the Cafpian
fea.
HIRCHFIELD, a city of Germany, in the circle of
the upper Rhine, and landgraviate of Heffe Calfel, fi-
tuated on the river Fuld, in E. long. 9* 32', N. lat.
50° 47'.
HIRTELLA, in botany, a genus of the tr'andria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix is divided into five parts ;
the petals are five, and equal; the filaments are fpiral,
and the ftylus is lateral. There is but one fpecies, a
native of Brazil.
HIRUDO, the leech, in zoology, a genus belonging
to the order of vermes intellina. The body is flat,
jointed, and moves either forward or backward. There
are nine fpecies, principally diftinguifliedby that colour.
This well known animal is ufed for bleeding children,
fee. When they once fix, they feldom quit till they
are glutted with blood. Salt makes them quit their
hold, and throw up the blood.
HIRUNDO, in ornithology, a genus of birds, of the
order of pafleres. The bill is fmall, crooked, fubu-
lated, bent a little inward, and deprefled at the bafe.
There are 12 fpecies, principally diflinguiflied by their
colour. This includes the common fwallow, martin,
(sc.
HISPANIOLA, an ifland of America, in the Atlantic
ocean, fituated between 67° and 740 of W. long, and
between 180 and 20° N lat being about 420 miles
long from eaft to weft, and 120 in breadth. It is fre¬
quently called St. Domingo, from the capital there¬
of.
HISTORIOGRAPHER, a profefled hiftorian, or writer
of hiftory.
HISTORY, a defcription or recital of things as they are,
or have been, in a continued orderly narration of the
principal fa&s and circumftances thereof.
Hiftory, with regard to its fubjedl, is divided into
the hiftory of Nature, (See Nat. Hist.) and the hi¬
ftory of Aflions. The hiftory of Adtions is a conti¬
nued relation of a feries of memorable events.
HISTRIO, in the ancient drama, fignified an ador or
comedian, but mare efpecially a pantomime, who ex¬
hibited his part by geftures and dancing.
HITCHING, a market-town in Hartfordfhire, fourteen
miles north-weft of Hartford, and thirty-two north-
weft of London.
Hithe, one of the Cinque Ports in the county of Kent,
fituated on the Engliih channel, fix miles weft of Do¬
ver.
HIVE, in country affairs, a convenient receptacle for
bees. See Apis.
HIVING of Bees. See Apis.
HO ACHE, in natural hiftory, a kind of earth approach¬
ing to the nature of chalk, but harder, and feeling like
foap ; whence fome think, that it is either the lame
with our foap-rock of Cornwal, or very like it. The
Chinefe diffolve it in water, till the liquor is of the
confiftence of cream, and then varnilh their china-ware
with it.
Hoar hound, in botany. See Marubium.
HOARSENESS, in medicine, a diminution of the voice,
commoly attended with a preternatural afperity or
roughnefs thereof.
HOBBY, in ornithology. See Ealco.
HOE, in country-affairs, a tool made like a cooper’s adz,
to cut upwards in gardens, field, (sc. This tool is com¬
monly called the hand-hoe See Agriculture.
HOG, in zoology. See Sus.
HOGSHEAD, in commerce, a meafure of capacity, con¬
taining fixty-three gallons.
HOGUE, a town and cape on the north-weft point of
Normandy in France, near which admiral Rook burnt
the French admiral’s ftiip called the Rifing-fun with
twelve more large men of war: W. Ion. 20, and N. lat.
490 50'.
HOHIO, a river of North America; which lifing in the
Apalachian mountains, near the confines of Carolina
and Virginia, runs fouth-weft, and falls into the river
Miffiflipi.
HOKE-day, the Tuefday after eafter-week; which was
the day on which the Englilh conquered and expelled
the Danes : this was therefore kept as a day of rejoi¬
cing; and a duty, called hoke-tuefday money, was paid
to the landlord, for giving his tenants and bondmen
leave to celebrate it.
HOLCUS, in botany, a genus of the polygamia moncecia
clafs. The calix of the hermaphrodite is a double-
flowered glume; the corolla is a glume with an awn ;
and there are three ftamina, two ftyli, and one feed.
The calix of the male is a double valved glume; it
has no corolla, but three ftamina. There are ten fpe¬
cies, only two of them natives of Britain, viz. the
lanatus, or meadow foft-grafs ; and the mollis, or creep¬
ing foft-grals
HOLDERNESS, a peninfula in the eaft riding of York-
fliire, which has the German ocean on the eaft, and
the river Humber on the fouth.
HOLDING, in Scots law, the tenor or terms upon which
a proprietor of lands holds or enjoys them of his
fuperior.—See Blench, Burgage, Feu, Ward.
HOLLAND, one of the United Provinces. It is about
one hundred miles long from north to fouth, and fcarce
thirty miles broad : but enjoys the greateft trade of
any province in the world, and in point of ftrength and
riches is equal to the other fix united provinces. It
is fituated one hundred miles eaft of England, and is
bounded on the north and weft by the German fea, on
the eaft by the Zuider fea, and on the fouth by the pro¬
vinces of Zealand and Utrecht.
Holland is alfo the name of the fouth eaft divifion of
Lincolnshire.
Holland, in commerce, a fine and clofe kind of
linen,
H O M ( 780 ) H O O
linen, fo called from its being firft manufactured in
Holland.
HOLLY, in botany. See Ilex.
Sea-HoLtY. See Eryngium.
HOLOCAUST, a burnt-offering, or facrifice, wholly
confumed by fire : of this kind was the daily faerifice
in the Jewifh church. This was done by way of ac¬
knowledgment, that the perfon offering and all that
belonged to him, were the effeCts of the divine bounty.
HOLOGRAPH, among civilians, a will wholly written
by the hand of the teflator.
HOLSTEIN, a dutchy of Germany, in the circle of
lower Saxony, one hundred miles long, and fifty broad.
It is bounded by Slefwic or fouth Jutland on the north,
by the Baltic fea and the duchy of Sax-Lawenburg on
the eaft, by the riven Elbe on the fouth, and by the
German fea on the weft.
HOLY-GHOST, oneof thePerfons of the Holy Trinity.
Order of the Wo^y ghost, the principal military order
in France, inflituted by Henry III. in 1569. It con-
fifts of an hundred knights, who are to make proof of
their nobility for three defcents. The king is the
grand-mafter, orfovereign; and as fuch, takes an oath on
his coronation-day, to maintain the dignity of the order.
Holy-days. See Festival.
Holy-head, a cape and town in the ifle of Anglefea,
fituated in the Irifh channel: W. long. 40 45', and
N. lat. 530 26'.
Holy-island, an ifland in the German fea, fix miles
fouth of Berwick upon Tweed: W. long. i° 42', and
N. lat. 550-4s'.
Holy-well, a town of north Wales, in Flintfhire, ten
miles eaft of St. Afaph.
HOMAGE, in law, is the fubmiflion, loyalty, and fer-
vice which a tenant promifed to his lord, when he was
firft admitted to the land which he held of the lord in
fee : alfo that owing to a king, or to any fuperior.
HOMBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
upper Rhine, and landgraviate of Hefle, fituated ten
miles north of Francfort : E. long. 8° 24', N. lat.
500 26'.
Homberg is alfo atown of Germany, in the palatinate
of the Rhine, and dnkedomof Deuxponts : E. long. 70
6r. and N. lat. 490 20 .
HOMER. See Omer.
HOMICIDE, fignifies in general the taking away of any
perfon’s life.- See Scots Law, tit. 33.
HOMILY, in ecclefiaflical writers, a fermon, or dif-
courfe, upon fome point of religion, delivered in a
plain manner, fo as to be eafily underflood by the com¬
mon people.
HOMO, man, is ranked by Linnaeus under theorder of
prifnates, and charaClerifed by having four parallel
foreteeth both in the upper and lower jaw, and two
mammae on the bread. The fpecies, according to this
author, are two, viz. the homo fapiens, and the homo
troglodytes. He fubdivides the homo fapiens into five
varieties, viz. the American, the European, the A-
•fiatic, the African, and what he calls the monftrous.
The troglodytes, or orang outang, is a native of A-
thiopia, Java, and Amboina. His body is white ; he
•Vox. II. No. 59. 1
walks ere&; and is about one half the ordinary human
lize. He generally lives about 25 years. He conceals
himfelf in caves during the day, and fearches for his
prey in the night. He is laid to be exceedingly faga-
cious, but is not endowed with the faculty of fpeech.
HOMOLOGOUS, in geometry, an appellation given to
the correfponding fides and angles of fimilar figures, as
being proportional to each other.
HONAN, a province of China, bounded by thofe of
Xanfi and Pekin on the north, by Xantong and Nankin
on the eaft, by Suchuen on the fouth, and by Xenfi
on the weft; lying between 330 and 370 north latitude.
Its capital is Caifum.
HONDURAS, a province of Mexico, in North A-
merica ; which including the country of the Molkito-
Indians, is fituated between 850 and 940 W. long,
and between 120 and 160 N. lat.
HONE, a fine kind of whiteftone, ufed for fetting razors,
pen-knives, and the like.
HONEY, is, in general, a thick, vifcous, and more or
lefs fluid fubftance, of a whitiih or yellowifli colour,
fweet to the tafte, foluble in water, becoming vinous
in fermentation, inflammable, liquable by a gentle heat,
and of a fragrant fmell. See Apis.
HONFLEUR, a port-town of France, in the province
of Normandy, fituated on the fouth fide of the
river Seyne, near the Englilh channel: E. long. ic'.
and N. lat, 490 24k
HONITON, a borough-town of Devonlhire, twelve
miles eaft of Exeter. It fends two members to par¬
liament.
HONOUR, a teftimony of efteem or fubmiflion, exprefi-
fed by words, actions, and an exterior behaviour, by
which we make known the veneration and refpedt we
entertain for any one on account of his dignity or
merit. The word honour is alfo ufed in general for
the efteem due to virtue, glory, and reputation. It
is alfo ufed for virtue and probity themfelves, and for
an exaftnefs in performing whatever we have promi¬
fed ; and in this laft fenfe we ufe the term, a man of
honour. But honour is more particularly applied to
two different kinds of virtue, bravery in men, and
chaftity in women.
Maids s/Honour, are fix young ladies in the houfe-
hold of the queen and princefs-royal ; the falary of
thofe of a queen are 300 1. per ann. each, and thofe
of the princefs dowager of Wales, 200 1.
Honour-point, in heraldry, is that next above the
centre of the efcutcheon, dividing the upper part into
two equal portions.
HOOF, the horny fubftance that covers the feet of divers
animals, as oxen, horfes, fheep, drc.
HOOKS are a neceffary fort of utenfils, and ufed for va¬
rious purpofes.
HOOKER, in naval architedhire, a veflll much ufed by
the Dutch, built like a pink, but rigged and mafted like
a hoy.
Hookers will lie nearer a wind than veffels with
crofs fails can do. They are from fifty to tw-o hun¬
dred tons burden, and with a few hands will fail to the
Eaft Indies.
8 N
HOP,
HOP ( 790 ) HOP
HOP, in botany. See Humulus.
New land is found to fucceed better with hops than
old ; and on this principle they are very cautious in
their plantations in Xertt, and look forward for the
after-produce. When they make a new hop-ground,
they plant it with apple-trees at a large diila'nce afun-
der, and with cherry trees between ; by this means,
when the hops have grown ten years, which they judge
as much as they will do well, they place their account
in the cherry-trees, which bear large crops; thefe they
gather for about thirty years, and then they cut them
upland depend upon their apple-trees only, which
they find very large and ftrong by that time.
The dry ftalks of hops (hould be burnt on the ground
in winter, covering them with a little frelh earth as
they burn. This makes together an excellent comport,
to make the hills of. The land muft be dug or plow,
ed well, and laid very even, and then the places for
the hills marked out by a line, and a ftick put in every
place where one is to be. A thoufand hills may be
made in an acre of ground, and fix or feven plants fet
on every hill. From fix to nine feet Ihould be allow¬
ed between every hill, and the grounds in the hills
fhould be better and richer than the common earth.
Some plant hops in March and April, but the moft
experienced people prefer the month of October, be-
caufe they will then rtrike firm roots, and be ftrong
and vigorous againft fpring. The jargeft plants are to
be chofen ; and it is befl to procure them from fome
rich ground, where the hills have been laid high ; they
fticuld be about eight or ten inches long, and have
three or four joints or buds a-piece ; the holes for
planting them are to be dug eight or ten inches deep,
and about a foot over; and in each of thefe holes four
plants are to be fet, one in each corner : they may
be covered an inch deep over the top, if planted in Oc¬
tober ; but in fpring, when they have Ihot from the
joints, then they muft not be buried,: after this, the
ground muft be carefully kept clear of weeds.
DrejJiug of Hops. This is preparing the ground in
winter and fpring for the making a good fummer-crop.
In doing this, the hills upon which the plants ftand
muft be all pulled down, and undermined on every fide,
till the fpade comes near the principal root; then (hake
off or remove with the hand the loofe mould from the
upper pr loofe roots, that you may fee where the new
roots grow out of the old fets. The old fets are to be
carefully preferved, but the other roots may be cut a-
way. Whatever time the hills are pulled down, the
roots muft not be cut till March. When the young
hops are drefled for the firft time, all the roots are to
be cut away that grew the year before, and the fets
are to be cut off within one inch of the fame ; and e-
very year after, they muft be cut as clofe as may be to
the old roots ; but to a weak hop, fome of the flioots
are to be left at the drefling. Thofe roots of the plant
which grow downwards, are never to be injured, but
only thofe which run horizontally are to be cut. The
old roots and the young ones may be eafily diftinguifli-
ed, in that the old ones are always red, and the young
white. If tlxere are by accident any wild hops got a¬
mong the reft, the places where they grow- are to be
marked with fticks, or otherwife, at the time of their
being gathered ; and after this, at the time of dreffing
the ground, that whole hill is to be deftroyed, and a
mew one made with new plants in the room of it. When
the roots are cut and dreffed, the rich comport is to
be put to them ; and the hills muft not be made too
high at firft, left they hinder the young Ihoots.
Gathering and drying of Hops. Hops blow in the latter
end of July, in the beginning of Auguft they bell; and -
they are fometimes ripe at the beginning of September, ’
fometimes later, When they begin to change colour,
are eafily pulled to pieces, and their feeds look brown
within them, they are ripe ; and they are then to be
gathered as quick as poflible, for the leaft blaft of wind
will hurt them at this time.
The manner of gathering hops, is to take down
four hills Handing together in the midft of the garden,
and to cut the roots even with the ground, then lay
the ground level; and when it is fwept clean, it makes
a floor, on which the hops may be laid and picked.
The hop-plants are firft unwound from the poles,
and then the people fit round and pick off the hops into
balkets.
Care Ihould be taken to dry the hops as faft as they
are picked, for in lying undried they are apt to heat
and change colour very quickly. If the quantity pick¬
ed be To large, that the kiln in which they are to be
dried is over-ftocked, they muft'be fpread thin upon
a floor, and they will keep two or three days in that
manner without any harm. Indeed, where the quan¬
tity is but fmall, there is no need to have recourfe to
the kiln at all, for they will dry much better than any
other way, by being laid thin upon a floor, and often
turned. The drying of hops is the moft material
part of their manufadture; for if they be ill dried,
they lofe all their agreeable flavour ; and great caution
(hould be ufed, that they be all equally dried.
Bagging of Hops, a term ufed by the farmers, who cul¬
tivate hops, for the laft thing they have to do with
with them, in order to bring them to market ; that is,
the putting them up in large bags of coarfe cloth, for
carriage. When the hops have been picked and dried
in the ooft, or tin-floor, they are fo brittle that they
would break to pieces and be fpoiied if they were im¬
mediately to be put up ; they are therefore to lie to¬
gether three weeks, or thereabouts, that they maybe-
come tough : if they are covered from the air by blan¬
kets in the heap, they may be bagged much fooner
than if left open.
The manner of bagging them is this ; a hole is made
in an upper-floor, fo large that a man may eafily go
up and down it ; then a hoop is fitted to the mouth of
the bag, and fo firmly fewed on, that it cannot be torn
off ; the bag is then let down through the hole, and
the hoop remaining above, flops it from being pulled
quite through, being larger than the hole : a few hops
are to be firft thrown into the bag, and a perfon below
is to take up a parcel of thefe in each corner of the bag,
tying it with a packthread.; this makes a fort of taflel,
by which the bags are afterwards the eafier managed ,
H O R (
and turned about. When this is done, one man muft
go down into the bag, and, while another cads in the
hops, he muft tread them down equally every way
with his feet; when the bag is in this manner filled,
it is to be ripped from the hoop, and fewed up, lea¬
ving two taffels at the corners, as at the bottom. A
b^tg of hops thus "prepared, may be kept for feveral years
in a dry place.
The tops of this plant, being of a cooling quality,
are eaten, when boiled, as an emollient. Adecodlion
of hop-flowers is alfo accounted an antidote againft poi-
fon, and cures the itch, as well as the fyrup thereof,
and is edeemed excellent in choleric and pedilential
fevers. The heads and tendrils are good in the fcurvy
and molt cutaneous difeafes. Juleps and apozems are
alfo prepared with hops for hypochondriacal and hyfte-'
rical affections, and to promote the menfes : but the
chief ufe of this plant confids in preferring beer and
other malt-liquors (in which the flower of this plant
is a principal ingredient) from turning fowr, and ren¬
dering it wholefome and grateful to the tade,
HORD, in geography, is ufed for a company of wan¬
dering people, which have no fettled habitation, but
droll about, dwelling in waggons, or under tents, to
be ready to drift as foon as the herbage, fruit, and the
prefect province is eaten bare : fuch are feveral tribes
of the Tartars, particularly thofe who inhabit beyond
the Wolga, in the kingdom of Adracan and Bulgaria,
HORDEUM, barley, in botany, a genus of the
triandria digynia clafs. The involucrum confids of
fix leaves, and contains three flowers. There are
eight fpecies, only one of which, viz. the murinum,
or wall-barley-grafs, is a native of Britain. The na¬
tive place of the vulgare, or common barley cultivated
in our fields, is not known. For the culture, &c. of
common barley, fee Agricxtlture, p. 61.
HORDICALIA, or Hordicidia, in antiquity, areli-
g’ous fead held among the Romans, wherein they fa-
crificed cattle big with young. This feaft fell on April
15. on which day they facrificed thirty cows with calf
to the goddefs Telius or the Earth ; part of them
were facrificed in the temple of Jupiter. The calves ta¬
ken out of their bellies were burnt toadies at firdbythe
791 ) H O R
pontitces, afterwards by the elded of the vedal virgins.
HOREHOUND, Ballota, Stachys, in botany.
See Marubium.
HORIZON, in adronomy and geography, that great
circle which divides the heavens and the earth into two
equal parts, or hemifpheres, didinguifhing the upper
from the lower. See Astronomy and Geograph y.
HORIZONTAL, fomething relating to the horizon • or
that is taken in, or on a level with the horizon: thus
we fay, an horizontal plane, &c.
HORMINUM, clary, in botany, a genus ofthedi-
dynamia gymnofpermia clafs. The calix is bell-fliaped,
with four nearly equal fegments, and a fifth larger
and emarginated ; and the upper labium of the corolla
is concave. There are two fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
HORN, a hard fubdance growing on the heads of di¬
vers animals, particularly the cloven-footed quadru¬
peds ; and ferving them both as weapons of offence
and defence.
Horn beam, in botany. See Carpinus.
Horn-work, in fortification, an out-work compofed
of two demi-badions, Joined by a curtin. See For¬
tification.
HORNET, in zoology. See Apis.
HORNING, in Scots law, a writing iffuing from the
fignet, in hisMajedy’s name, at the indance of a credi¬
tor againd his debtor, commanding him to pay or per¬
form within a certain time. See Denunciation,
—and Law, tit. 12. §. 13. 14.
HORNSEY, a market-town of the ead riding of York-
fliire, thirty-five miles ead of York
HOROGRAPHY. See Dialling.
HOROLOGIUM, a general name for indruments to
meafure the hours, as a watch, clock, dial, See
Watch.
HOROSCOPE, in adrology, is the degree of the af
cendent, or the dar that riles above the horizon at a
certain moment, which is obferved in order to predidi
fome future event, as the fuccefs of a defign, the for¬
tune of a perfon who was at that indant born, &c.
HORSE, in zoology. See Eqjuus..
HORSEMANSHIP;
Or, The Art of Riding, and of Training and Managing Horses.
Tie method of preparing horfes to he mounted".
THOUGH all horfes are generally bought at an age
when they have already been backed, they fltould
be begun and prepared for the rider with the fame care,
gentlenefs and caution, as if they had never been handled
or backed, in order to prevent accidents, which might
elfe arife from Ikittilhnefs or other caufes : and as it is
proper that they Ihould be taught the figure of the ground
they are to go upon, when they are at fird mounted,,
they Ihould be previoufly trotted in a longe on circles*
without anyone upon them.
The manner of doing this is as follows: Put an eafy
cavejfon upon thehorfe’s nofe, and make him go forwards
round you, danding quiet and holding longe-•, and let
another man, if you find it neceffary, follow him with a
whip. All this mud be done very gently, and but a little
at a time: for more horfes are fpoilt by over-much
work, than by any other treatment whatever; and that
792 H O R S E M
by very contrary effefts ; for fometimes it drives them
into vice, madnefs and defpair, and often ftupifies and
totally difpirits them.
The firft obedience required in a horfe is going for¬
wards : Till he performs this duty freely, never even
think of making him rein back, which would inevitably
make him rdtive : As foon as he goes forwards readily,
flop and carefs him. You mult remember in this, and
likewife in every other exercife, to ufe him to go equally
well to the right and left; and when he obeys, carefs
him and difmifs him immediately. If a horfe, that is
very young, takes fright and Hands Hill, lead on another -
horfe before him, which probably will induce him in-
ftantly to follow. Put afnaffle in his mouth ; and when
he goes freely,1 faddle him, girting him at firlt very loofe.
Let the cord, which you hold, be long and loofe; but
not fo much, fo as to endanger the horfe’s entangling his
legs in it. It muft be obferved, that fmall circles, in the
beginning, would conllrain the horfe too much, and put
him upon defending himfelf. No bend mull be required
atlirll: never fuffer him to gallop falfe ; but whenever he
attempts it, flop him without delay, and then fet him off
afrelh. If he gallops of his own accord, and true, per¬
mit him to continue it; but if he! does it not volunta¬
rily, do not demand it of him at firft. Should he fly
and jump, lhake the cord gently upon his nofe.with¬
out jerking it, and he will fall into his trot again. If
he Hands Hill, plunges or rears, let the man who
holds the whip, make a noife with it; but never touch
him, till it be abfolutely neceffary to make him go on.
When you change hands, Hop and carefs him, and entice
him by fair means to come up to you : For by prefenting
yourfelf, as fome do, on a fudden before horfes, and
frightening them to the other fide, you run a great rifle
of giving them a Ihynefs. If-he keeps his head too low,
lhake the cavejfon to make him raife it: And in whatever
the horfe does, whether ‘he walks, trots, or gallops, let
it be a conHant rule, that the motion be determined and
really fuch as is inteded, without the leafl Ihuffling, pa¬
cing, or any other irregular gait.
’The method of placing the rider and rendering him firm
on horfeback, •with fome occafional injlrufiions for
riders and the horfes.
It is necelfary that the greatefl attention, and the fame
gentlenefs, that is ufed in teaching the horfes, be ob¬
ferved likewife in teaching the riderj efpecially at the be¬
ginning. Every method and art muH be pradlifed to
create and preferve, both in man and horfe, all polEble
feeling and fenfibility, contrary to the ufage of molt
riding maHers, who feem induftrioufly to labour at abo-
lilhing thefe principles both in one and the other. As
fo many eflential points depend upon the manner in
which a man is at firfi placed on horfeback, it ought to
be confidered and attended to with the HridteH care and
exadlnefs.
The abfurdity of putting|a man, whoperhaps has never
before been upon a horfe, on a rough trotting horfe, on
which he is obliged to Hick with all the force of his arms
and legs, is too obvious to need mentioning. This rough
A N S H I P.
work, all at once, is plainly as detrimental at firH, as it is
excellent afterwards in proper time. No man can be ei¬
ther well, or firmly feated on horfeback, unlefs he be
mafier of the balance of his body, quite unconftrained,
with a full pofieflion of himfelf, and at his eafe; none of
which requifites can he enjoy, if his attention be other-
wife engaged; as it muft wholely be in a raw, unfup-
pled, and unprepared lad, who is put at once upon a
rough horfe: in fuch a diftrefsful Hate he is forced to
keep himfelf on at any rate, by holding to the bridle, (at
the expence of the fenfibility both of his own hand, and
the horfe’s mouth,) and by clinging with his legs, in
danger of his life, and to the certain depravation of a
right feeling in the horfe.
The firft time a man is put on horfeback, it ought to
be upon a very gentle one, He never ftiould be made to
trot, till he is quite eafy in the walk; nor gallop, till
he is able to trot properly. The fame muft be obferved
in regard to horfes : they ftiould never be made to trot,
till they are obedient, and their mouths are well formed
on a walk ; nor be made to gallop, -till the fame be effec¬
ted on a trot. When he is arrived at fuch a degree of
firmnefs in his feat, the more he trots, and the more he
rides rough horfes, the better. This is not only the belt
method, but alfo the eafieft and the fliorteft: by it, a
man is foon made fufficiently an horfeman for a Ibldier ;
but “by the other deteftable methods, that are commonly
ufed, a man, inftead of improving, contracts all forts of
bad habits, and rides worfe and worfe every day; the
horfe too becomes daily more and more unfit for ufe.
In proceeding according to the manner propofed, a man
is rendered firm and eafy upon the horfe, both his own
and the horfe’s fenfibility is prefervedf and each in a
fituation fit to receive and prattife all leffons effedtually.
Among the various methods that are ufed of placing
people on horfeback, few are dire&ed by reafon. Be¬
fore you let the man mount, teach him to know, and al¬
ways to examine, if the curb be well placed, (that is,
when the horfe has a bit in his mouth, which at firft he
ftiould not; but only a fnaffle, till the rider is firm in his
feat, and the horfe alfo fomewhat taught;) and likewife
if the nofe-band be properly tight; the throat band loofifh,
and the mouth piece neither too high nor too low in the
horfe’s mouth, but rightly put fo as not to wrinkle the
flein, nor to hang lax ; the girts drawn moderately, but
not too tight; and the crupper and the breaft plate pro¬
perly adjufted. A very good and careful hand may ven¬
ture on a bit at firft, and fucceed with it full as well, as
by beginning with a fnaffie alone : oh colts, indeed, it is
better, in all fchools whatfoever, taavoid any preflure on
the bars juft at firft, which a curb, though ever fo deli¬
cately ufed, muft in fome degree occafion. When the
bridle, have been well looked to, let the man ap¬
proach the horfe gently near the (houlder ; then taking
the reins and an handful of the mane in his left hand, let
him put his foot fofriy in the left ftirrup, by pulling it
towards him, lead he touch the horfe with his toe, then
raifing himfelf up, let him reft a moment on it with his
body upright, but not ftiff: and after that paffing his
right leg clear over the faddle without rubbing againft
any thing, let him feat hirafelf gently down. He muft
be
H O R S E M
be cautious not to take the reins too thort, for feai* of
making the horfe rear, run, or fall back, or throw up
his head; but let him hold them'of an equal length, nei¬
ther tight hor flack, and with the little finger betwixt
them. It is fit that horfeslhould be accuftomed to ftand
ftill to be nqounted, and not to ftir till the rider pleafes.
All foldiers Ihould be inftrudted to mount and difmount
equally well on buth fides, which may be of very great
ufe in times of hurry and confufion. Then pl^ce the
man in his faddle, with his body rather tback, and his
head held up with eafe, without ftiffnefs ; feated neither
forwards, nor very backwards, with the breaft pulhed
out a little, and the lower part of the body like wife a lit¬
tle forwards; the thighs and legs turned in without con-
ftraint, and the feet in a ftraight line, neither turned in
nor out: By this politico, the natural weight of the thighs
has a proper and fufficient preflure of itfelf, and the legs
are in readinefs to adt, when called upon: they mull hang
down eafy and naturally, and be fo placed, as not to be
wriggling about, touching and tickling the horfe’s fides,
but always near them in cafe they (hould be wanted, as
wdil as the heels.
The body mtjll be carefully kept eafy and firm, and
without any rocking, when in motion; which is a bad
habit very eafily contracted, efpecially in galloping. The
left elbow mult be gently leant againft the body, a little,
forwards;-unlefs it be fo relied, the hand cannot be
Heady, but will be always checking, and confequently
have pernicious effedts on the horfe’s mouth: and the
hand ought to be of equal height with the elbow; if it were
lower, it would conllrain and confine the motion of the
horfe’s Ihoulders ; but, as the mouths of horfes are dif¬
ferent, the place of the hand alfo mull occafionally dif¬
fer : a leaning, low, heavy fore hand requires a high
hand; and a horfe that pokes out hi^nofe, a low one.
The right hand arm mull be placed in fymmetry with
the left; only let the right hand be a little forwar¬
der or backwarder, higher or lower, as occafions may
require, in order that both hands may be free : both
arms mull be a little bent at the elbow, to prevent HifF-
nefs.
A foldier’s right hand Ihould be kept unemployed in
riding; it carries the fword, which is a fufficient bufinefs
for it.
There remains one farther obfervation, that ought not
to be omitted, about the hand, that it mull be kept clear
of the body; /. e. about two inches and half forwards
from it, with the nails turned oppofute to the belly, and
the wrill a little rounded with eafe; a pofition not lefs
graceful than ready for flackening, tightening, and mo¬
ving the reins from on fide to the other, as may be
found necelfary.
W hen the men are well placed, the more rough trotting
they have without llirrups, the better; but with a llridt
care always, that their pofition be preferved very exadt-
ly. In all cafes, great care mull be taken to hinder
their clinging with their legs: In ffiort, no (licking by
hands or legs is ever to be allowed of at any time. If
the motion of the horfe be too rough, flacken it, till the
rider grows by degrees more firm : and when he is quite
firm and eafy on his.horfe in every kind of motion, ftir-
Vox,. II. Numb. 60. i
A N S H I P. 793
rups may be given him ; but he mud never leave off trot •
ting often without any.
The llirrups mull be neither ffiort nor long; hut of
fucha length, that when the rider, being well placed, puts
his feet into them, (about one third of the length of each
foot from the point of it,) the points may be between
two and three inches higher than the heels. The rider
mud not bear upon his dirrups, but only let the natural
weight of his legs red on them: For if he bear upon
them, he would be raifed above and out of his laddie 5
which Ihould never be, except in charging fword in hand,
with the body inclined forwards at the very indant of-at¬
tacking. Spurs may be given, as foon as the rider is
grown familiar with dirrups, or even long before, if his
legs are well placed.
A hand ffiouldalways be firm, but delicate: a horfe’s
mouth ffiould never be furprifed by any fudden tranfitien
of it, either from flack to tight, or from tight to flack.
Everything in horfemanlhip mud be'feffeded by degrees,
but at the fame time with fpirit and refolution. That
hand which, by giving and taking properly, gains- its
point with the lead force, is the bed ; and the horfe’e
mouth, under this fame hand’s diredtions, will alfo con¬
fequently be the bed, fuppofing equal advantages in both
from nature. This principle of gentlenefs Ihould be ob-
ferved upon all occafions in every branch of horfemanffiip.
Sometimes the right hand may be necelfary, upon fome
troublefome horfes, to affid the left; but thefeldomer this
is done, the better ; efpecially in a foldier, who has a
fword to carry, and to make ufe of.
The fnaffle mud on all occafions be uppermod ; that is
to fay, the reins of it mud be above thole of the bridle,
whether the fnaffle or the bit be ufed feperately, or whe¬
ther they be both ufed together. When the rider knows
enough, and the horfe is fufficiently prepared and fettled
to begin any work towards fuppling, one rein mud be
Ihortened according to the fide worked to ; but it mud
never be fo much Ihortened, astomakethe wholedrength
red on that rein alone; for, not to mention that the
work would be falfe and bad, one fide of the horfe’s
mouth would by that means be always deadened; where¬
as on the contrary, it Ihould always be kept frelh by its
own play, and by the help of the oppofite rein’s aiding
delicately in a fomewhat fmaller degree of tenfion; the
joint effed of which produces in a horfe’s mouth the pro¬
per, gentle and eafy degree of appui or bearing.
A coward and a madman make alike bad riders, and are
both alike difeovered and confounded by the fuperior fenfe
of the creature they are mounted upon, who is equally
fpoilt by both, though in very different ways. The
coward, by fuflfeting the animal to have his own way,
not only confirms him in his bad habits, but creates mew
ones in him : and the madman, by falfe and violent mo¬
tions and corredions, drives the horfe, through defpair,
into every bad and vicious trick that rage can fuggeil.
It is very requifite in horfemanlhip, that the hand and
legs Ihould ad in correfpondence with each o’herin every
thing; the latter always fublervient and afliftant to the
former Upon circles, in walking, trotting, cr gallop¬
ing, the outward leg is the only one to be ufed, and that
only for a moment at a time, in orde,r to fet off the horfe
8 O true,
794 H O R S E M
true, or put him right, if he be falfe; and as foon as
that is done, it muft be taken away again immediately:
but if the horfe be lazy, or otherwife retains himfelf, both
kgs muft be ufed, and preffed to his fides at the fame
time together. The lefs the legs are ufcd in general, the
better. Very delicate good riders, with horfes they
have dreffed themfelves, will fcarcely ever want their
help. By the term outward is underftood the fide which
is more remote from the centre ; and by/wwan/is meant
the fide next to the centre. In reining back, the rider
fliould be careful not to ufe his legs, unlefs the horfe
backeth on his fhoulders; in which cafe they muft be
both applied gently at the fame time, and correfpond
with the hand. If the horfe refufe to back at all, the
riders legs muft be gently approached, till the horfe lifts
up a leg, as if to go forwards ; at which time, when
that leg is in the air, the rein of the fame fide with that
leg, which is lifted up, will eafily bring that fame leg
backwards, and accordingly oblige the horfe to back : but
if the horfe offers to rear, the legs muft be inftantly re¬
moved away. The inward rein muft be the tighter on
circles, fo that the horfe may bend and look inwards ;
and the outward one crolfed over a little towards it; and
both held in the left hand.
Let the man and horfe begin on very flow motions,
that they may have time to underftand, and refledton what
is taught them; and in proportion as the effedts of the
reins are better comprehended, and the manner of work¬
ing becomes more familiar, the quicknefs of motion muft
be increafed. Every rider muft learn to feel, without the
help of the eye, when a horfe goes falfe, and remedy
the fault accordingly : this is an intelligence, which no¬
thing but pradlice, application and attention can give, in
the beginning on flow motions. A horfe may not only
gallop falfe, but alia trot and walk falfe. 'If a horfe
gallops falfe, that is to fay, if going to the right, he
leads wfth the left leg; or if'going to the left, he leads
with the right; or in cafe he is difunited, i. e. if he
leads with the oppofite leg behind to that which he leads
with before ; flop him immediately, and put him off a-
gain properly: the method of effedting this, is by ap¬
proaching your outward * leg and putting your hand out¬
wards, (till keeping the inward rein the fliorter, and the
horfe’s head inwards, df poflibk'; and if be Ihould ftill
refift, then bend and pull h's head outwards alfo, but re¬
place it again, bent- properly inwards, the 'moment he
goes off true. A horfe isfaid.to be cbfunited to the
right, when going to the right, and confeq.uently leading
with the right leg before, he leads with the left behind;
and is faid to be difunited to the left, wffen going to the
left, and confequently leading with the left leg before, he
leads with the right behind. A horfe may at the fame
time be both falfe and difunited; in corredting both
which faults, the fame method muft be ufed. He is both
falfe and difunited to the right, when in going to the
right he leads with the left leg before, and the right be¬
hind ; notwithftanding that hinder leg be with propriety
more forward under his belly than the left, becaufe the
horfe is working to the right: and he is falfe and difuni¬
ted to the left, when in going to the left he leads with
the right leg before, and the left behind ; notwithftanding,
A N S H I P.
as above, that hinder leg be with propriety more for¬
ward under his belly than the right, becaufe the horfe is
working to the left.
In teaching men a right feat on horfeback, the greateft
attention muft be given to prevent ftiffnefs, and flicking
by force in any manner upon any occafion : ftiffnefs dif-
graces every right work; and flicking ferves only to
throw a man (when difplaced) a great diftance from his
horfe by the fpring he muft go off with : whereas by a
proper equilibrating pofition of the body, and by the
natural weight only of the thighs, he cannot but be firm,
and fecure in his feat.
As the men become more firm, and the horfes more
fupple, it is proper to make the circles lefs, but not too
much fo, for fear of throwing the horfes forwards upon
their fhoulders.
Some horfes, when firft the bit is put into their mouths,
if great care be not taken, will put their heads very low.
With fuch horfes, raife your right hand with the bridoon
in it, and play at the fame time with the bit in the left
hand, giving and taking.
On circles, the rider muft lean his body inwards ; un¬
lefs great attention be given to make him do it, he will
be perpetually loofing his feat outwards. It is fcarce
poffible for him to be difplaced if he leans his body pro¬
perly inwards.
The method of fuppling horfes with men upon them, by
Epaule en dedans, &c. withasidwitkout a\oT\gt,
on circles and on Jirait lines.
Wh e n a horfe is well prepared and fettled in all his mo¬
tions, and the rider firm, it will be proper then toj>ro£eed
on towards a farther fuppling and teaching of both.
/ In fetting out upon this new work, begin by bringing
the hokfe’s head a little rfiore inwards than before, pull¬
ing the inward rein gently/to you by degrees. When this
is done, try to gain a little on the fhoulders, by keeping
the inward rein the fhorter, as before, and the outward
one croffed over towards the inward one. The intention
of thefe operations is this; the inward rein ferves to
bring in the head, and procures the bend; whilft the out¬
ward one, that is a little croffed, tends to make that
1 bend perpendicular, and as it fliould be, that is to fay,
to reduce the nofe and the forehead to be in a perpendi¬
cular line with each other: it alfo ferves, if put forwards,
as well as alfo croffed, to put the horfe forwards, if
found neceffary, which is often requifite, many horfes
being apt in this and other works rather to lofe their
ground backwards than otherwife, when they Ihould
rather advance: if the nofe were drawn in towards the
breaft beyond the perpendicular, it would confine the mo¬
tion of the Ihoulders, and have other bad effe&s. All
other, bends, befides what are above fpecified, are falfe.
The outward rein, being croffed^ not in a forward fenfe,
but rather a little backwards, ferves alfo to prevent the
outward fhoulder from getting too forwards, and makes
it approach the inward one; which facilitates the inward
leg’s crofling over the outward one; which is the mo¬
tion that fo admirably fupples the fiioulders. Care
muft be taken, that the.inwardleg pafs over the outward
one.
H O R S E M
one, without touching it; this inward leg’s cro/Eng over
muft be helped alfo by the inward rein, which you mufl
crofs towards and over the outward rein every time the
outward leg comes to the ground, in order to lift and
help the inward leg over it: at any other time, but juft
when the outward leg comes to the ground,, it would be
wrong to crofs the inward rein, or to attempt to lift up
the inward leg by it; nay, it would be demanding an ab-
folute impoffibility, and lugging about the reins and horfe
to no purpofe; becaufe in this cafe, a very great part of
the horfe’s weight refting then upon that leg, would ren¬
der fuch an attempt, not only fruitlefs, but alfo preju¬
dicial to the fenfibility of the mouth, and probably o-
blige him to defend himfelf: and moreover, it would put
the horfe under a neceflity of ftraddling before, and alfo
of leading with the wrong leg, without being produ&ive
of any fuppling motion whatfoever.
When the horfe is thus far familiarly accuftomed to
what you have required of him, then proceed to effe<ft
by degrees the fame crofting in his hinder legs. By
bringing in the fore-legs more, you will of courfe engage
the hinder ones in the fame work: if they refift, the
rider muft bring both reins more inwards; and, if necefr
fary, put back alfo, and approach his inward leg to the
horfe ; and if the horfe throws out his croup too far, the
rider muft bring both reins outwards, and if abfolutely
neceftary, he muft alfo make ufe of his outward leg, in
order to replace the horfe properly; observing that the
croup ftiould always be confiderably behind the Shoulders,
which in all aiftions muft go firft ; and the moment that
the horfe obeys, the rider muft put his hand and kg a-
gain into their ufual pofition.
Nothing is more ungraceful in itfelf, more detrimental
to a man’s feat, or more deftru&ive of the fenfibility of
a horfe’s fides, than a continual wriggling unfettlednefs
in a horfeman’s legs, which prevents the horfe from ever
going a moment together true, fteady, or determined.
A horfe Ihould never be turned, without, firft, moving
a ftep forwardsand when it is doing, the rider muft
not lift up his elbow, and difplace himfelf; a motion only
of the hand from the one fide to the other being fufficient
for that purpofe. It muft alfo be a conftant rule never
to fuffer a horfe to be flopped, mounted or difmounted,
but when he is well placed* The flower the motions
are, when a man or horfe is taught, agy thing, the better.
At firft, the figures worked upon muft be great, and
afterwards made lefs by degrees, according to the im¬
provement which the man and .horfe make ; and the ca?
denced pace alfo, which they work in, muft be accord?
ingly augmented. The changes from one fide to the o-
ther, mu'ft be in a bold determined trot, and at firft quite
ftraight forwards, without demanding any fide rnotionon
two pijles, which is very neceflary to require afterwards,
when the horfe is fufficiently. fuppled. By two pijies is
meant, when the fore-parts and hinder^parts do not fol¬
low, butdefcribe two different lines;
In the beginning, a hnge is ufeful on circles, and alfo
on ftraight lines, to help both the rider and the horfe;
but afterwards, when they are grown more intelligent,
they fhould go alone. At the end of the leffon, rein
hack; and then put the horfe, by a little at a time, for?
A N S H I P. 795
wards, by approaching both legs gently to his fides, and
playing with the bridle: if he rears, pufti him out imme¬
diately into a full trot. Shaking the cavejfon on the
horfe’s nofe, and alfo putting one’s felf before him and
rather near to him, will generally make him back, though
he otherwife refufe to do it: and moreover a flight ufe
and approaching of the rider’s legs, will fometimes be
neceffary in backing, in order to prevent the horfe from
doing it too much upon his fhoulders; but the preffure
of the, legs ought to be very fmall, and taken quite away
the moment that he puts himfelf enough upon his haunches.
If the horfe does not back upon a ftraight line properly,
the rider muft not be permitted to have recourfe immedi¬
ately to his leg, and fo diftort himfelf by it, but firft try,,
if crofting over his hand and reins to which ever fide may,
be neceffary, will not be alone fufficient; which moft
frequently it will; if not, then employ the leg.
After a horfe is well prepared and fettled, and goes
freely on in all his feveral paces, he ought to be in all
his works kept, to a proper degree, upon his haunches,,
with his hinder legs well placed under him; whereby
he will be always pleafant to himfelf and his rider, will
be light in hand, and ready to execute whatever may be.
demanded of him, with facility, vigour, and quicknefs.
The common method that is ufed, of forcing a horfe.
fideways, is a moft glaring abfurdity, and very hurtful to
the animal in its confequences ; for inftead of fuppling.
h:m, it obliges him to ftiffen and defend himfelf, and of-w
ten makes a creature, that is naturally benevolent, reftive,
frightened and vicious.
For horfes, who have very long and high fore-hands,
and who poke out their nofes, a running fnaffle is of ex¬
cellent ufe ; but for fuch as bore and keep their heads
low, a common one is preferable ; though, any horfe’s
head indeed may be kept up alfo with a running one, by
the rider’s keeping his hands very high and forwards :
but whenever either is ufed alone, without a br[ddle upon
horfes that carry their heads low and that bore, it muft.
be fawed about from one fide to the other.
This leffon of the epaul en dedans, ffiould be taught
to fuch people as are likely to become ufeful in helping to
teach men and to break horfes; and the more of fuch.
that can be found,,the better: none others ffiould evet
be fuffered upon any odcafion to let their horfes look any.
way befides the way they are going. But all horfes
whatever, as Itkewife all men, who are defigned for the
teaching others, muft.go thoroughly and perfeflly through ,
this'excellent lefion, under the diredtions of intelligent
inftrudtors, and often, praftife it too afterwards, and when
that is done, proceed to, and be finiftied by the kffons:
of the..head and-tail to. the walk
Of ' the head to the wtll, and of the croup to the vjalL
Th i s .leffon ftiould be praftifed immediately after that ,
of the epaule en dedans, in order to place.thehbrfe pro?
perly the way he goes, The difference between the
head to the wall,, and the croup,, to the wall,, confifts in
this : in the former, the fore parts are more remote from >
the centre, and go over more ground; in the latter, the
hinder-parts are more remote from the center, andcoB,?-
feq'iently.
796 H O R S E IV
fequently go over more ground : in both, as likewife in
all other leflbns, the Ihoulders mufl go firft. In riding-
houfes, the head to the wall is the eafier lefibn of the
two at firft, the line to be worked upon being marked by
the wall, not far from his head.
The motion of the legs to the right, is the fame as
that of the epaule en dedans to the left, and fo vice verfa-
but the head is always bent and turned differently : in
the epaule en dedans, the'horfe looks the contrary way
to that which he goes; inthis he looks the way he is going.
In the beginning, very little bend muft be required ;
too much at once would aftonifh the horfe and make him
defend himfelf: it is to be augmented by degrees. If
the horfe abfolutely refufes to obey, it is a fign, that
either he or his rider has not been fufficiently prepared by
previous leflbns. It may happen, that weaknefs or a hurt
in feme part of the body, or fometimes temper, though
feldom, may be the caufe of the horfe’s defending himfelf:
. it is the rider’s bufinefs to find out from whence the ob-
ftacle arifes ; and if he finds it to be from the firft men¬
tioned caufe, the previous leflbns muft be refumed again
forfome time; if from the fecond, proper remedies muft
be applied ; and if from the laft caufe, when all fair
means that can be tried have failed, proper corredlions
with coolnefs and judgment muft be ufed.
In praftifing this leflbn to the right, bend the horfe to
the right with the right rein; helping the left leg over
the right (at the time when the right leg is juft come to the
ground,) with the left rein crofted towards the right, and
keeping the right-fttoulder back with the right rein to¬
wards your body, in order to facilitate the left legs croft"-
ing over the right; and fo likewife vice verfa to the left,
each rein helping the other by their properly mixed effedls.
In working to the right, the rider’s left leg helps the hin¬
der parts on to the right, and his right leg ftops them,
if they get-too forwards ; and fo vice verfa to the left;
but neither ought to be ufed, till the hand being em¬
ployed in a proper manner has failed, or finds that a
greater force is neceflary to bring what is required about
than it can effeft alone ; for the legs ftiould not only be
correfpooding with, but alfo fubfervient to th£ hand ;
and all unneceflary aids, as well as all force, ought al¬
ways to be avoided, as much as poflible.
In the executioh of all leflbns, the equilibre of the
rider’s body is of great ufe to the horfe : it ought always
th go with and accompany every motion of the animal ;
when to the right, to the right; and when to the left,
to the left.
Upon all horfes, in every leflbn and a&ion, it muft be
obferved, that there is no horfe but has his own peculiar
appui or degree of bearing, and alfo a fenfibility of mouth,
as likewife a rate of his own, which it is abfolutely ne¬
ceflary for the rider to difeover and make himfelf acquaint¬
ed with. A bad rider always takes off at lead the deli¬
cacy of both, if not abfolutely deftroys it. The horfe
will inform his rider when he has got his proper hearing
in the mouth, by playing pleafantly and fteadily with his
bit, and by the fpray about his chaps. A delicate and
good hand will not only always preferve a light appui, or
bearing, in its fenfibility ; but alfo of a heavy one, whe¬
ther naturally fo or acquired, make a light one. The
[ A N S H I P,
lighter this appui can be made, the better ; provided that
the rider’s hand correfponds with it ; if it does not, the
more the horfe is properly prepared, fo much the worfe,
Inftances of this inconvenience of the heft of appuis, when
the rider is not equally taught with the horfe, may be
feen every day in fome gentlemen, who try to get their
horfes bitted as they call it, without being fuitably pre¬
pared themfelves for riding them : the confequence of
which is, that they ride in danger of breaking their necks;
till at lergth after much hauling about, and by the joint
infenfibility and ignorance of themfelves and their grooms,
the poor animals gradually become mere fenfeleis, uni-
feeling pofts ; and thereby grow, what they call, fettled*.
When the proper appui is found, and made of courfe as
light as poflible, it muft not be kept duly fixed without
any var ation, but be played with ; otherwife one equally
continued tenfion.of reins would render both the rider’s
hand and the horfe’s mouth very dull. The flighteft,
and frequent giving and taking, is therefore neceflary tU
keep both perfedt
Whatever .pace or degree of quicknefs you work in,
(be it ever fo Taft, or ever fo flow,) it muft be ca-
denqed ; time is as neceflary for an horfeman as for a
mufic:an.
This leflbn of the head and of the tail to the wall,
muft be taught every foldier : fcarce any manoeuvre cart
be well performed without it. In clofiag and opening of
files, it is almoft every moment wanted.
The method of teaching horfes to flandfire, noifes, alarms,
fights, &C.
In order to make horfes ftand fire, the found of drums,
and all forts of different noifes, you muft ufe them to it
by degrees in the liable at feeding-time ; and inftead of
being frightened at it, they will foon come to like it as
a fignal for eating.
With regard to ftrch horfes -as are afraid of burning
objedts, begin by keeping them ftill at a certain diftanci
from fome lighted ftraw : carefs the horfe; and in pro¬
portion as his fright diminifties, approach gradually the
burning ftraw very gently, and increafe the fize of it.
By this means he will very quickly be brought to be fo
familiar with it, as to walk undaunted even through it.
As to horfes that are apt to lie down in the water, if
animating them, and attacking them vigoroufly, Ihould fail
of the defired effedt, then break a ftraw bottle full of
water upon their heads, and let the water run into their
ears, which is a thing they apprehend very much.
AH troop-horfes.muft be taught to Hand quiet and ftill
when they are fhot off from, to flop the moment you pre-
fent, and not to move after firing, till they are required
to do it; this leflbn -ought efpecially to -be obferved in
light-troops ; in fhort, the horfes muft be taught to be
fo cool and undifturbed, as to fuffbr the rider to adt upon
him with the fame freedom as if he was on foot. Pa¬
tience, coolnefs, and temper, are the only means requifite
for accomplifhing this end. Begin by walking the horfe
gently, then flop and keep him from flirting for fome time,
fo as to accuftom him by degrees not to have the leaft
idea of moving without orders : if he does, then back him;
and
HORSEMANSHIP.
ftac! when you flop him, and he is quite dill, leave the reins
quite ioofc.
To ufe a horfe to fire arms, firfl put a piftol or cara¬
bine in the manger with his feed ; then ufe him to the
foifnd of the lock and the pan ; after which, when you
are upon him, fliew the piece to him, prefenting it for¬
wards, fometimes on one fide, fometimes on the other :
when he is thus far reconciled, proceed to flafli in the
pan ; after which, put a fmali charge into the pjece, and
fo continue augmenting it by'degrees to the quantity which
is commonly ufed: if he feems uneafy, walk him forwards
a few fteps flowly; and then flop, ^back and carefs him.
Horfes are often alfo difquieted and unfteady at the clalh,
and drawing, and returning of fwords, all which they
mud be familiarized to by little and little, by frequency
and gentlenefs.
It is very expedient for all cavalry in general, but
particularly for light cavalry, that their horfes fhould be
very ready and expert in leaping over ditches, hedges,
gates, &c. The leaps, of whatever fort they are, which
the horfes are brought to in the beginning, ought.to be
very fmall ones; the riders mud keep their bodies back,
raife their bands a little in order to help the foreparts of
the horfe up, and be very attentive to their equilibre. It
is bed to begin at a low bar covered with furze, which
pricking the horfe’s legs, if he does not raifehimfelf fuffi-
cientiy, prevents his contradting a fluggidi and dangerous
habit of touching, as he goes over, which any thing
yi 1 ding and not pricking would give him a cudom of
doing. Let the ditches you fird bring horfes to, be nar¬
row; and in this, as in every thing elfe, let the increafe
be m de by degrees. Accudom them to come up to e-
very thing which they are to leap over, and to dand
coolly at it for fome time ; and then to raife themfelves
gently up in order to form to themfelves an idea of the
didance. When they leap well danding, then ufe them
to walk gently up to the leap, and to go over it without
fird halting at it ; and after that practice is familiar to.
them, repeat the like in a gentle trot, and fo by degrees
fader and fader, till at length it is as familiar to them
to leap flying on a full gallop, as any other way : all
which is to be acquired with great facility by calm and
foft means without any hurry.
As horfes are naturally apt to be frightened at the fight
and fmell of dead horfes, it is advifable to habituate them
to walk over, and leap,over carcafl'es of dead horfes: and
as they are particularly terrified at this fight, the greater
gentlenefs ought confequently to be ufed.
Horfes fbould alfo be accudomed to fwim, which often
may be necefltry upon fervice ; and if the men and horfes
both are not ufed to it, both may be frequently liable to
-perilh in the water. A very fmall portion of drength is
fufficient to guide a horfe, any where indeed, but parti¬
cularly in the water, where they mud be permitted to
have their heads, and be. no ways condrained in any
fhape.
The unreafonable rage in Britain of cutting off all ex¬
tremities from horft,a, is in all, cafes a very pernicious
cudom. It is particularly foin regard to a troop horfe’s
tail. It is almod incredible, how much they fuffer at the
picket for want of it ; conltamiy fretting, and fwealing,
Von. If. No. 60. i
797
kicking about and laming one another, tormented, and
dung off their meat, milerable, and helplefs ; whild o-
ther horfes, with their tails on, brudi off all flies, are
cool and at their eafe, and mend daily, whild the dock¬
ed ones grow every hour more and more out of condition.
Ti e method of reining back,—and of moving forivardi
immediately after,—of piafng,—cf pillars, &c.
Never fi'nifii your work by reining back with horfes
that have any difpofiticn towards retaining themfelves ;
but always move them forwards and a little upon the
haunches alfo after it, before you difmount, (unlefs they
retain themfelves very much indeed, in which cafe nothing
at all mud be demanded from the haunches ) This lef-
fon of reining back, and piafing, is excellent to conclude
with, and puts an horfe well and properly on the haunches:
It may be done, according as horfes are more or lefs fup-
pled, either going forwards, backing, or in the fame
place ; if it is done well advancing, or at mod on the
fame fpot, it is full fufficient for a foldier’s horfe : For
to piafe in-backing, is rather too much to be expeftfdin
the hurry, which cannot but attend fuch numbers both
of men and horfes as mud be taught together in regi¬
ments. This leffon mud never be attempted at all, till
hotfes are very well fuppied, and fomewhat accudomed
to be put together ; otherwife it will have very bad con-
fequences, and create redivenefs. If they refufe to back,
and dand motionlefs, the rider’s legs mud be approached
with the greated gentlenefs to the horfe’s fides; at the
fame time as the hand is afting on the reins to folicite the
the horfe’s backing. This feldom fails of procuring the
defired effevfl, by railing one of the horfe’s fore-legs,
which being in the air, has no weight upon it, and is
confequently very eafily brought backwards by a fmall
degree of tenfion in the reins. When this lelfon is well
performed, it is very noble, and ufeful, and has a plea,-
fing air ; it is an excellent one to begin teaching fcholars
with.
The leffon is particularly ferviceable in the pillars,
for placing fcholars well at frd. Vety few regimental
riding-houfes have pillars, and it is fortunate they have
not ; for though, when properly made ufe of with Ikill,
they are one of the greated and bed dtfcoveries in horfe-
manfhip ; t,hey mud be allowed to be very dangerous and
pernicious, when they are hot under the diretdion of a
very knowing perfon.
The method of curing ref.ivenejfes, vices, defences, fart-
ing, &c.
Whenever a horfe makes refidance, one ought, be¬
fore a remedy orcorretdion is thought of, to examine very
minutely all the tackle about him, if any thing hurts or
tickles him, whether he has any natural or accidental
weaknefs, or in thort any the lead impediment in any part.
For want of this precaution, many fatal difaders hap¬
pen : the poor dumb animal is frequently accufed falfely
of being redive and vicious ; is ufed ill without reafon,
and, being forced into defpair, is in a manner obliged
to aft accordingly, Joe his temper and inclination ever f0
8 P Well
HORSEMANSHIP.
798
we!I difpofed. It is very feldom the cafe, that a horfe is
really and by nature vicious ; but if fuch be found, he
will defpife ali careflcs, and then chaftifements become
neceflary.
Corredtion, according as you ufe it, throws a horfe
into more or lefs violent adtion, which, if he be weak, he
cannot fupport: but a vitious ftrong horfe is to be confi-
dered in a very different light, being able both to under¬
go and confequently to profit by all leffons ; and is far
preferable to the beft natured weak one upon earth.
Patience and fcience are never-failing means to reclaim
fuch a horfe : in whatfoever manner he defends himfelf,
bring him back frequently with gentlenefs (not however
without having given him proper chaftifement, if necdfa-
ry,) to the leffon which he Teems moft averfe to. Horfes
are by degrees made obedient, through the hope of re-
compence and the fear of punifhment: how to mix thefe
two motives judicioufly together, is a very difficult matter;
it requires much thought and pradtice; and not only a
good head, but a good heart likevvife. The cooled, and
bed natured rider, will always facceed bed. By a dex¬
trous ufe of the incitements above mentioned, you will
gradually bring the horfe to temper and obedience ; mere
force and want of Ikill and coolnefs, would only tend to
confirm him in bad tricks. If he be impatient or chole¬
ric, never drike him, unlefs he abfolutely refufes to go
forwards; which you mud refolutely oblige him to do,
and which will be of itfelf a correftion, by preventing
his having time to meditate, and put in execution any
defence by retaining himfelf. Refidance in horfes, you
mud confider, is fometimes a mark of drength and vigour,
and proceeds from fpirits, as well as fometimes from
vice and weaknefs. Weaknefs frequently drives horfes
into vitioufnefs, when any thing wherein drength is ne-
ceffiary is demanded from them; nay, it inevitably
mud: great care therefore ffiould always be taken to
didinguiffi from which of thefe two caufes any remedy
or puniffiment is thought of. It may fometimes be a bad
fign, when horfes do not at all defend .themfelves, and
proceed from a duggifh difpofition, a want of fpirit, and
of a proper fenfibility. Whenever one is fo fortunate as
to meet with a horfe of jud the right fpirit, aftivity, de¬
licacy of feeling, with drength and good-nature, he can¬
not be cheriffied too much; for fuch a one is a rare and
inedimable jewel, and, if properly treated, will in a
manner do every thing of himfelf. Horfes are oftener
fpoilt by having too much done to them, and by attempts
to drefs them in too great an bury, than by any other
treatment
If after a horfe has been well fuppled, and there are
no impediments, either natural or accidental, if he dill
pe'rfids to defend himfelf, chadifements then become ne¬
ceflary: but whenever this is the cafe, they mud not be
frequent, but always 1km, though always as little vio¬
lent as poffible: for they are both dangerous and very
prejudicial, when frequently or flightly played with ; and
ftill more fo, when ufed too violently.
It is impofltble, in general, to be toocircumfpedVin lef¬
fons of all kinds, in aids, chadifements, orcarefles. Some
have quicker parts, and more cunning, than others.
Many will imperceptibly gain a little every day on their
rider. Various, in fliort, are their difpofitions and capa¬
cities. It is the rider’s bufinefs to find out their diffe¬
rent qualities, and to make them fenfible how much he
loves them, and defires to be loved by them ; but at the
fame time that he does not fear them, and will be mader.
Plunging is a very common defence among redive and
vitious horfes: if they do it. in the fame place, or backing,
they mud, by the rider’s legs and fpurs firmly applied, be
obliged to go forwards, and their heads kept up high.
Butiftheydo it flying forwards, keep them back, and
ride them gently and very flow for a good while together.
Of all bad tempers and qualities in horfes, thofe which
are occafioned byharfli treatment and ignorant riders, are
the word.
Rearing is a bad vice, and, in weak horfes efpecially,
a very dangerous one. Whild the horfe is up, the rider
mud yield his hand, and when the horfe is defcending,
he mud vigoroufly determine him forwards: if this be
done at any other time but whild the horfe is coming
down, it may add a fpring to his rearing, and make
him fall backwards. With agoodhand on them, horfes
feldom perlid in this vice ; for they are themfelves na¬
turally much afraid of falling backwards. If this me¬
thod fails, you mud make the horfe kick up behind, by
getting fomebody on foot to drike him behind with a
whip; or, if that will not effedt it, by pricking him with
a goad.
Starting often proceeds from a defedl in the fight ;
which therefore mud be carefully looked into. What¬
ever the horfe is afraid of, bring him up to it gently; if*
you carefs him every dep he advances, he will go quite*
up to it by degrees, and foongrow familiar with all forts
of objefls. Nothing but great gentlenefs can corredV
this fault: for if you inflidl punifhment, the apprehen-
fion of chadifement becomes prevalent, and caufes more,
darting than the fear of the objeft. If you let him go¬
by the objedt, without bringing him up to it,- you in-
creafe the fault, and confirm him in his fear : the confe-
quence of which is, betakes his rider perha'ps a quite con¬
trary way from what he was going, becomes his mader,
and puts himfelf and the perfoa upon him every moment
in great danger.
With fuch horfes as are to a very great degree fear¬
ful of any objedls, make a quiet horfe, by going before
them, gradually.entice them to approach nearer and nearer
to the thing they are afraid of. If the horfe, thus a-
larmed, be undifciplined and head-drong, he will pro¬
bably run away with his rider ; and if fo, his head mud.
be kept up high, and the fna/Re fawed backwards and
forwards from right to left, taking up and yielding the'
reins of it, as alfo the reins of the bit: but this latter
mud not be-fawed backwards and forwards, like the
fnaffle, but only taken up, and yielded properly. No
man ever yet did, or ever will dop a horfe, or gain any
one point over him, by main force, or by pulling a dead
weight againd him.
Remarks and hints on Shoeing.
As feet differ, fo ffiould ffioes accordingly. The only
fydem of farriers, is to flroe in general with exceffive heavy.
and..
H O R S E M
and cfumfy ill-fhaped flioes, and very many nails, to the
total delhudion of the foot. The cramps they annex,
tend to deflroy the bullet; and the fl»oes made in the (hape
of a walnut-fhell prevent the horfe’s walking upon the
firm bafis which God has given him for that end, and
thereby oblige him to Humble and fall. They totally
pare away alfo, and lay bare the infide of the animal’s
foot with their detelhible butteris, and afterwards put on
very long flioes, whereby the foot is hindred from having
any preffure at all upon the heels, which piefiVtre other-
wife might Hill perchance, notwithfianding their dreadful
cutting, keep the heels properly open, and the foot in
good order. The frog fhould never be cut out; but as it
will fometimes become ragged, it mull be cleaned every
now and then, and the ragged pieces cut off with a knife.
In one kind of foot indeed a confiderable cutting away
muft be allowed of, but not of the frog; we mean that
very high feet mull be cut down to a proper height; be-
caufe if they were not, the frog, though not cut, would
Hill be fo far above the ground, as not to have any.bear-
ing on it, whereby the great tendon, muft inevitably be
damaged, and confequently the horfe would go lame.
The weight of flioes mult greatly depend on the quality
and hardnefs of the iron. If the iron be very good, it
will not bend; and in this cafe, the (hoes cannot poflibly
be made too light: care however mull be taken, that
they be of a thicknefs fo as not to bend; for bending
would force out the nails,. and ruin the hoof. That part
of the lhoe which is next, the horfe’s heel, mull be nar¬
rower than any other, (as is feen in the draught, plate
joi. fig. 4.) that Hones may be thereby prevented from
getting under it, and flicking there; which otherwife
would be the cafe; becaufe the iron, when it advances
inwardly beyond the bearing of the foot, forms^a cavity,
wherein Hones being lodged w'ould remain, and, by
prefling againfi the foot, lame the hcrfe. The part of
thelhoe, which the horfe walks upon, fliouldbe quite flat,
and the infide of it l.kewue.;. only juH fpace enough be¬
ing left next the foot, to put in a picker, (which cught
to be ufed every time the horfe comes into the liable,) and
alfo to prevent the flioe’s preffing upon the foie. Four
nails on each fide hold better than a gteater number, and
keep the hoof in a far better Hate. The toe of the horfe
mult be cut fhort, and nearly fquare. (the angles only
jufl rounded off,) nor muH any nails be driven there;
this method prevents much Humbling, efpecially in de-
fcents, and ferves, by throwing nourifh-ment to the
heels, to Hrengthen them ; on them tire horfe fllould in
fe me meafure walk, and the .lhoe be made of a proper
length accordingly; by this means, narrowheels at e pre¬
vented, and many other good effedls produced. Many
people drive a nail at the toe, , but it is an abfurd prafliee
Leaving, room to drive one there caufes ihe foot to be of
an improper length; and moreover that part of the hoof
is naturally fo brittle, that even when it is kept well grea-
fed, the the nail there feldona flays in, but tears out and
H O R
HORSHAM, a market town and borough of Suflex,
lituated twenty miles north well of Lewis, in-W. long,
A N S H I P. 799
damages the hoof. That the direflions for fhoeing a pro¬
per length may be the more clear and intelligible, we have
annexed (plate 101.) a draught of a foot fhoed a proper
length Handing on a plain furface, and with it a draught
of the right kind of Ihoe.
In wet, fpungy, and foft ground, where the foot finks
in, thepreflure upon the heels is of courfe greater, than
on hard ground; and fo indeed it Ihould be upon all ac¬
counts. The hinder feet muH be treated in the fame man¬
ner as the fore-ones; and the Ihoes the fame: except in
hilly and flippery countries, they may not improperly.be
turned up a little behind : but turning up the fore-fltoes
is of no jervice, and is certain ruin to the fore legs, e-
fpecially to the bullets. In defeending hills, cramps are
apt.to throw horfes down, by Hopping the fore-legs, out
of their proper bafis and natural bearing, when the hinder
ones are rapidly prefltd; which unavoidably mull be the
cafe, and confequently cannot but pulh the horfe upon
his nofe. With them on a plain furface, a horfe’s foot
is always thrown forwards on the toe, out of its proper
bearing, which is very liable to make the horfe Humble.
The notion of their utility in going up hills is a falfe one.
In afeending, the toe is the' firfl part of the foot, which
bears on, takes hold of the ground, and whether the
horfe draws or carries, and confequently the bufinefs
is done before the part where the cramps are comes
to the ground. Ice n-ails are preferable to any thing to
prevent flipping, as alfo to help horfes up hill, the mofl
forward ones taking hold of the ground early, confiderably
before the heels touch the ground : they mufl be fo made,
as to be, when driven in, fcarce half inch- above the :
Ihoe, and alfo have four fides ending at the top in a point.
They are. of great fervice to prevent flipping on all kinds
of places, and by means of them a horfe is not thrown
oat of his proper balls. They mufl be made of very
goed iron. If they are not, the heads of them will be
perpetually breaking off. From the race-horfe to the.
cart-horfe, the fame fyflem of Ihoeing Ihould be obferved.
The fize, thicknefs, and weight of them only Ihould differ.
The Ihoe of a race-horfe mufl of courfe be lighter than
that of a faddle horfe; that of a faddlehorfe lighter than
that of a coach or bat horfe ; and thefe lal! more fo than
a. cart, waggon; or artillery horfe. At prefent all Ihoes
in general are too /jeavy ; if the iron is good, Ihoes need ■.
not be fo thick as they are now generally made. The
utmofl feverity ought to be inflicted upon all thofe who *
clap Ihoes on hot: This unpardonable lazinefs of farriers
in making feet thus fit Ihoes, inflead of flioes fitting
feet, dries up the hoof,: and utterly deflroys them. Fre¬
quent removals of Ihoes are detrimental and tear the foot,
but fometimes they are very neceffary : this is an incon¬
venience which half-lhoes are liable to; for the end of:
the Ihoe, being very Ihort, is apt to work foon into the
foot, and confequently mufl then be moved;.
For the Natural Jiiftory and Treatment of the Dif-
eafa of Horfes, fee Eqjjus, and Farriery,
II o 11
22V N. lat. 51 eT©'. It fends two members to par*
liament,.
HORTAGILERSj
H O S ( 800 ) HU G
HORTAGILERS, in the grand fdgntor’s court, up-
holfterers, or tapettry-hangers. The grand feignior
has conflantly four hundred in his retinue when he is
. in the camp : thefe go always a day’s journey before
him, to fix upon a proper place for his tent, which
they prepare firft; and afterwards thofe of the officers,
according to their rank.
HORTULANUS, in ornithology. See Emberiza.
HORTUS SICCUS, a dry garden, an appellation
given to a coliedtion of fpecimens of plants, carefully
dried apd preferved.
Take a fpecimen of a plant in flower, and with it
one of its bottom-leaves, if it have any; bruife the
flalk, if too rigid ; flit it, if too thick ; fpread out the
leaves and flowers on paper; cover the whole with
more paper, and lay a weight over all. At the end of
eighteen hours take out the plants, now perfedfly flat
ted; lay them on a bed of dry common fand ; tift over
. them more dry fand, to the depth of two inches, and
thus let them lie about three weeks : the lefs fucculent
dry much fooner, but they take no harm afterwards.
If the floor of a garret be covered in fpring with fand
two inches deep, leaving fpace for walking to the fe-
veral parts, it will receive the colledfion of a whole
fummer, the covering of fand being fifted over every
parcel as laid in. They need no farther care, from
the time of laying them, till they are taken up to be
ftuck on paper. The cement ufed is a folutioa of gum-
arabic in water.
Plants may be dried very well without fand, by on¬
ly putting them frequently into frefli quires of paper,
or a few by only prefling them between the leaves of a
book; but the fand-method preferves the colour beft,
and is done with leaf! trouble.
HOSANNA, a Hebrew word, fignifying or
Save, we befeech thee; from the frequent ufe of which,
during the feaft of tabernacles, the whole fokmnity
got the appellation of Hofanna Rabbi.
HOSEA, a canonical book of the Old Teftament, fo call¬
ed from the prophet of that name, its author, who was
the fon of Beri, and the firft of the lefler prophets.
He lived in the kingdom of Samaria, and delivered
his prophecies under the reign of Jeroboam II. and
his fucceffors, kings of Ifrael; and under the reigns of
Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Ju¬
dah. His principal defign is to publiih the grofs ido¬
latries of the people of Ifrael and Judah, to denounce
the divine'vengeance again!! them, and to foretel the
captivity in Affyria.
•HOST, denotes either a perfon who entertains another,
or the perfon fo entertained ; but it is now generally u-
fed in the firft of thefe fenfes.
Host, in the church of Rome, a name given to the e-
lements ufed in the eucharift, or rather to the confe-
crated wafer; which they pretend to offer up eve¬
ry day, a new hoft or facrifice, for the fins of man-
kind. _ _
They pay adoration to the hou, upon a fane pre-
fumption that the elements are no longer bread and
■wine, but tranfubflantiated into the real body and blood
of Chrift. See Transubstanhation.
HOSTAGE, a perfon given up to an enemy as a fecuri-
ty for the performance of the articles of a treaty.
Hot-beds, in gardening, beds made with frefli horfe-
dung, or tanner’s bark, and covered with glaffes to
defend them from cold winds.
HOTTONIA, water-violet, in botany, a genus
of the pentandria monogynia clafs. The corolla is
fliaped like a jug ; the ftamina are fixed to the tube of
the corolla; and the capfule has bift one cell. There
are two fpecies, none of them natives ofBritain.
HOVINGHAM, a market-tOwn of the eaft riding of
Yorkftiire, feventeen miles north-eaft of York.
HOULSWORTHY, a market-town of Devonfhire,
thirty-eight miles north-weft of Exeter,
HOUND. SeeCANis.
HOUR, in chronology, an aliquot part of a natural day,
ufuallya 24th, fometimes a 12th. See Astronomy,
Dialing. Gbography.
HOUSE, a habitation, or place built with conveniencies
for dwelling in. See Architecture.
House, in aitrology, denotes the twelfth part of the
heavens.
HOUSTONIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria-
monogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of one bell-
ftiaped petal; and the feeds are two, and furrowed.
There are two fpecies, none of them natives of Bri-
HOY, in naval architeffure, a fmall veffel, fitted only
with one maft.
HOYE, a town of Weftphalia, capital of a county of the
fame name, and fubjeft to the eleftor ot Hanover: E.
long. 90, N. lat. 530 5'.
HUDSON’S bay, a large medherrauean fea of north A-
merica, fituaied between 510 and 63° of N. lat. and
of unequal breath from 130 to 35 leagues.
Hudson’s Jlreights, giving entrance into Hudfon’s bay,
lie between. 65° and yf0 of W. Ion.
Hudson’s river, rifes near the lake Champlain, ia
Canada, and falls into the Atlantic, a little below the
city of New-York.
HUE and cry, in law, the purfuit of a perfon who has
committed felony on the highway.
HUEGLY, a large town in the Eaft Indies, fituated on
an ifland in the moft wefterly branch of the river Gan¬
ges, in the province of Bengal: E. long. 87° N.
lat. 23°.
HUETTE, a city of Spain, in the province of New
Caftile, fixty-feven miles eaft of Madrid : W. Ion. 20
45', N. lat. 40° 35'.
HUGUENOTS, a name given'by way of contempt to the
Calvinifts of France.
The name had its rife in the year f$6o; but au¬
thors are not agreed as to its origin. The.moft plau-
fible opinion, however, is that of Pafquier, who ob-
ferves, that at Tours, the place where they were firft
thus denominated, the people had a notion, that an
apparition or hobgoblin, called king Hugon, ftrolled
about the ftreets in the night-time; from whence as
thofe of the reformed religion met chiefly in the night
to pray, fee they called them Huguenot?, that is, the
difciples of king Hugon.
HULKS,
HUN
HULKS, large Teflels ufed in fetting the mails of ihips.
HULL, in the fea-language, is the main body of a ihip,
withoat either malts, yards, fails, or rigging. Tims
to tlnke a-hull in a (torrh is to take in her fails, and
to lalh the' helm on the lee-fide of the (hip; and. to
hull, or lie a-hull, is faidof a (hip whofe fails are-thus
taken in, and helm laflrtd a lee.
Hull, in geography, a (Irong fea port town in the eaft
riding of Yorkfhire, fituated on the river Hull, near
the month of the Humber, thirty-two miles fouth-eaft
of York.
HULPEN, a town of the 'Andrian Netherlands, in. the
province of Brabant, lituated nine miles fouth ead of
Bruflels : E long. 40 22. N. lat 50° as2 .
HUMAN, in general, is anappellatibn given to whatever
relates to mankind : thus we fay, the human foul, hu¬
man body, human laws, <bc.
HUMANITY, the peculiar nature of man, whereby he
is diliinguiflied from all other beings.
Humanities, in the pljiral, (ignify grammar, rhetoric,
and poetry, known by the name oiliterd humaniores ;
for teaching,of which, there are profedbrs in the uni-
verfities of Scotland, called humanids.
HUMBER, a river formed by the,Trent,the'Oufe and
feveral other dreams united. It divides Yorkdiira
from Lincolnlhire, and falls into the German Sea at
Holdernefs.
HUMBLE BEE. See Aris.
HUMERUS, in anatomy. See Anat. p. 176.
Luxation of the Humerus See Surgery.
HUMIDITY, that quality in bodies wheie 'y they are
capable of wetting other bodies. This differs very
much from fluidity, and feems to be merely a relative
thing, depending upon the congruity of the component
particles of the liquor to the pores of fuch particular
bodies, as it is capable of adhering to, penetrating a
little into, or wetting. Thus, for indance, quick-
filver is not a moid thing with regard to our hands or
clothes, but may be called fo in reference to gold, tin,
or lead, to whofe furfaces it will perfe&ly adhere, and
render them foft and moid.
HUMMING BIRD. See Trochilus.
HUMOUR, in a general fenfe, denotes much the fame
with liquid or fluid. See Fluid.
Humour. See Wit.
HUMULUS, in botany, a genus of thedicecia pentan-
dria clafs. The calix of the male is divided into five
parts, and it has no corolla. The calix of the female
confids of one entire leaf opening at one fide; the co¬
rolla is wanting; it has twodyli; and.the nut has two
valves, and is inclofed within the calix. There is but
one fpecies, viz. the lupulus, or hop, a native of Bri¬
tain. See Hop.
HUNDRED, hundredutn, or centuria, a part or divi-
fion of a county, which was anciently fo called from
its containing an hundred families, or from its furnifh-
ing an hundred able men for the king’s wars. After
king Alfred’s divi iingthis kingdom into counties, and
giving the-government of each county to a (heriff. thefe
counties were divided into hundreds, of which the con-
ftable,was the chief officer. The grants of hundreds
Vol. II. No. 60. 2
H U
were at firfl: made by the king to particular perfons
but they are not now held by grant or prefcription ;
their jurifdiftion being devolved to the county court-;
a few of them only excepted, that have been by pri¬
vilege annexed to the crown, or granted to feme great
fubjeCls, and (till remain in the nature oT a franchiie.
HUNGARY, a kingdom bounded by the Carpathian
mountains, which divide it from Poland, on the north;
by Tranfilvania and Walachia on the eaft; by the ri¬
ver Dravej which (eparates it from Sclavonia, on the
fouth ; and by Auftria and Moravia on the wed. Ft
is one continued plain ot 300 miles long, and is fitua¬
ted between 160 and 230 of E Ion. and between 450
and 490 of N. lat. It is now fubjeft to the emprefs
queen,
Hungary water, a diftilled water, fo denominated
from a queen of Hungary, for Whofe ufe it was firit pre¬
pared
Qnincy gives the following diredHons for making it.
Take of frefli gathered flowers of rofemary, two
pounds; redtified fpiii s of wine, two quarts; put
them together, and didil them immediately in bal-
rieo.
Or, Take of frefli tops of rofemary, one pound and
a half; proof fpirit, one gallon; and diflil in balneo
till five pints are obtained.
HUNGER, an uneafy fenfation, which creates an ap¬
petite or. defire of food.
Hunger is by feme attributed to a fliarp acrimonious
humour, which vellicates the coats of the ftomach ; o-
thers, who deny the exiftence of any fuch liquor, at¬
tribute it to the attrition or rubbing of the coats of the
ilomach; and others, apain, account for it from the
acidity of the blood.
HUNGERFORD a market-town of Berkfli re, fitua¬
ted on the riyerKennet, twenty four miles well of Read¬
ing.
HUNNINGHEN, a town of Germany,' in the iangra-
viate of Alfice, fituated on the Rhine, three miles
northofBafil: E long. 70 35', N. lat. 47° 3 7'’.
HUNNOBY, a market-town in the eaft riding of York-
' (hire, fituated thirty four miles north eaft of York.
HUNTING the exerdfe or diverfibn of purfuing four-
footed beads of game.
Four-footed beads are hunted in the fields, woods,
and. thickets, and that both with guns and grey¬
hounds.
Birds, on the contrary, are either (hot in the air,
or taken with nets and other devices, which exercife
is called fowling ; or they are purfued and taken by
birds of ptey, which is called hawking
The purfuing of four-footed bekfts, as badgers, deer,
does, roebucks foxes hares, he. properly termed
hunting, is a noble exerche, ferving not only to recreate
the mind, but to ftrengthen the body, whet the ftomach,
and chear the fpirits
HUNTINGDON, the capital of Hnntingdonffiire, .fi¬
tuated on the river Oufe. fifty fix miles north of Lon¬
don : W Ion. 15', and N lat 520 2f.
It fends two members to parfe.ment.
HUQUAM, a province of China, bounded by Honan
8 00
( soi >
HUS (
on the north, and byQnamfi and Canton on the fouth;
lying between 25° and 36° of north latitude.
HURA, the sand box tree, in botany, a genus of
the monoecia monadelphia clafs. The male has no
calix ; the corolla confifts of four petals; it has eight
ftaaiina, and four gl mdalar bearded ne&aria ; the ca¬
lix and corolla of the female are the fame as in the
mile ; the ftylus is filiform ; the ftigma i- peluted ; the
capfule has four valves, and but one leed. There is
only one fpecier, a native of Mexico.
HURDLES, in fortification, twigs of willows or oliers
interwoven clofe together, fuftained by long {lakes, and
ufually laden with earth.
Hurdles, in hulbandry, certain frames, made either
of (plit timber, or of hazel-rods, watled together, to
ferve for gates in inclolures, or to make {beep-folds,
6c.
||URDS, orHoRDS, or the coarfer parts
feparated in the drelhngs from the tear or fine Huff.
See Flax.
HURLE BONE, in a horfe, a bone near the middle of
the buttock, very apt to go out of its fockets with a
hurt or {train.
HURON,, a vaft lake of North America, fituated be¬
tween 84° and 89° W. long and between 430 and
46° N lat from whence the country contiguous to
it is called the country of the'Hurons, whofe language
is fpoken over a great extent in the fouthern parts of
north America.
HURRICANE, a furious {form of wind, owing to a con¬
trariety of winds. See Wind and Whirlwind.
Hurricanes are frequent in the Welt-indies, where
they make terrible ravages, by rooting up trees, de-
flroying houfes and {hipping, and the like.
HUSBAND, a man joined or contrafted with a woman
in marriage.
HUSBANDRY. See Agriculture.
HUSK, the fame with what botanifts call the calix,
or cup of a flower. See Botany,, p. 636, 6c.
HUSO in ichthyology. See Accipenser.
HUSSARS, a kind of irregular cavalry armed with the
fabre and bayonet, are retained in the fervice of molt
princes or the continent.
They are very refolute partifans, and better in an
invafion or hafty expedition than in a fet battle.
HUSSITES, the difciples of John Hufs, a Bohemian,
and curate of the chapel of Bethlehem at Prague ; who,
about the year 1414, embraced and defended the opi¬
nions of Wickhff of England, for which he was cited
before the council of Conltance, and, refufing to re¬
nounce his fuppofed errors, he was condemned to be
burnt alive, which fentence was accordingly executed
upon him at Conftance.
It is evident in what the. pretended herefy of John
Hufs and Jtrom of Prague, who fufiered with him,
confifled, from the anfwer they made to the council,
when they were admonifbed to conform to the fenti-
ments of the church : They were lovers, they faid, of
the holy gofpel, and true difciples of Chrift . that the
church of Rome, and all other churches of the world,
were wicjely departed from the apoftolical tradition ;
802 ) H Y A
that the clergy ran after pleafures and riches, lorded
it over the people, affe&ed the higheft feats at enter¬
tainments, bred horfes and dogs; and the revenues of
the church, which belonged to the poor members of
Chrilt, were confumed in vanity and wantonnefs ; and
that the prielts w'ere ignorant of the commandments of
God, or, if they did know them, paid but little regard
to them. The followers of Hufs were alfo called Ca-
lixtins, Taberites, and Bohemian brethren.
HUSTINGS, a court held in Guildhall before the lord-
mayor and aldermen of London, and reckoned the fu-
preme court cf the city. Here deeds may' e inrolled,
recoveries paffed, out-lawries fued out, and replevins
and wr ts of error detei mined. In this court alio is
the eleftion of aldermen, of the four members of par¬
liament for the city, 6c.
This court is very ancient, as appears by the laws of
Edward the ConfdTor.
Some other cities have likewife had a court bearing
the fame name, as Wiiichefler, York, 6c.
HUSUM, a port-town of Slefwic or fouth Jutland, fitu¬
ated on the German fea : fubjeft to the duke of Hol-
fttin Gottorp : E long 8° 3o\ N. lat. 540 40.
HUTHERFIELD, a market town in the well riding
ofYorkfhire: W. long i° 34', N. lat 530 37’.
HUY, a flrong town in the bifliopric of Liege, fituated
on the Maes, fixteen miles north-eaft of Namur: E.
long 50 1 5, N. lat. 50-® 35/.
HYACINTH, in botany. See Hyacinthus.
Hyacinth in natural hiftory a genus of pellucid
gems, whofe colour is red with an admixture of yel¬
low.
The hyacinth, though lefs finking to the eye than
any other red gems, is not without its beauty in the
finefi fpecimens. It is found of various fizes, from
that of a pin’s head to the third of an inch in diameter.
Like common cryfial, it is fometimes found columnar,
and fometimes in a pebble-form ; and is always hardeft
and brighteft in the largejr mafies.
Its colour is a dull or deadilh red, with an admix¬
ture of yellow in it; and this mixed colour is found in
all the v.iriety of tints that a prevalence of the red or
of the yellow in different degrees is capable of giving
it.
Our jewelers allow all thofe gems to be hyacinths or
jacinths, that are of a due hardneis with this mixed
colour ; and as they are of very different beauty and
value in their feveral degrees and mixture of colours,
they divide them into four kinds; three of which they
call hyacinths, but the fourth, very improperly, a
ruby. 1. When the fione is in its moft perfedt {fate,
and of a pure and bright flame-colour, neither the red
nor the yellow prevail ng, in this {fare they call it
hyacintha la belle 2. When it has an over propor¬
tion of the red. and that of a dufkier colour than the
fine high red in the former, and the y; How that ap¬
pears in a faint degree in it is npt a fine, bright, and
clear, but a dufley brownifli-yellow, then they call it
the faffron hyacinth 3 Such ffones as are of a dead
whitifli-yellow, with a very fmall proportion of red in
them, they call amber-hyacinths. And, 4. When
H Y D (
the ftone Is of a fine deep red, blended with a dnfky
and very deep yellow, they call it a rubacelle. But
though the over-proportion of a ftrong red in this gem
has made people refer ij to the clafs of rubies, its evi*
dent mixture of yellow (hews that it truly belongs to
the hyacinths
The hyacinth la belle is found both in the Eaft and
Weft -Indies. The oriental are the harder, but the
American are often equal to them in colour. The ru¬
bacelle is found only in the Eaft Indies, and is gene¬
rally brought over among the rubies, but it is of little
value: the other varieties are found in Silelia and Bo¬
hemia.
HYACINTHUS, in botany, a genus of the hexandria
monogyma clafs. The corolla is bell (haped; and
there are three melliferous pores in the germen. There
are 13 fpecies, only one of which, viz. the non-fcrip-
tus, Englilh hyacinth, or hare bells, is a native of
Britain.
HYADES, in aftronomy, feven ftars in the bull’s head,
famous among the poets for the bringing of rain. See
'Astronomy, p 487.
HYATIDES. in medicine, little tranfparent veficles or
bladders, full of water, fometimes found folitary, and
fometimes in clufters, upon the liver, and various o-
ther parts, efpecially in hydropical conftitutions.
HYDATOSCOPI called alfo hydromancy, a kind of
divination or method of foretelling future events by
means of water.
HYDNUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
fungi clafs: it is an horizontal fungus, echinated or
befet withfharp-pointed fibreson its under part There
are four fpecies, only one of which, viz. the imbri-
catum, or common hydnum, is a native of Britain.
HYDRA, in aftronomy See Astronomy, p. 487.
HYDRAGOGUES, among phylicians, remedies which
evacuate a large quantity of water in dropfies.
Qmncy obferves, that the ftrongeft cathartics chiefly
anfwer to the charafter of hydragogues, in that by
their forcibly (baking and vellicating the bowels and
their appendages, they fqueeze out water enough to
make the ftools appear little elfe.
The principal h dragogues, in the common opinion,
are the juices of elder, of the root of iris, of folda-
nella, m ch 'acan, jalop, fyc.
HYDRANGEA, in botany, a genus of the decandria
digynia clafs. Tlie capfule has two cells, and a double
beak There is but one fpecies, a native of Virginia.
HYDRAULICS, the fcience of the motion of fluids,
and the conftru&ion of all kinds of inftruments and
machines relating thereto
As the conftru&ion of hydraulic engines depends
upon the knowledge of the general laws of fluids it will
be better to give the defcription of them under the ar¬
ticle hydroftatics See Hydrostatics.
HYDRENTEROCELE, in furgery, a fpecies of her¬
nia. wherein the inteftines defend into the ferotum, to¬
gether with a quantity of water.
HYDROCELE, in furgery denotes any hernia arifing
from water ; but is particularly ufed for fuch a one of
the fcrotuia which fometimes grows to the fize of one’s
803 ) H Y D
head, without pain, but exceeding troublefome to the
patient See Surgery.
HYDROCEPHALUS, in furgery, a preternatural dif-
tention of the head, to an uncommon fize, by a flag-
nation and extravafathm of the lymph, which, whet}
colle&ed within fide of the bones of the cranium, the
hydrocephalus is then termed internal; as it is exter¬
nal. when retained betwixt the common integuments
and the cranium. See Surgery.
HYDROCHARIS, the LITTLE WATER LILY, ill
botany, a genus of the dicecia decandria clafs. The
fpatha of the male confifts of two leaves, the calix of
three fegments, and the corolla of three petals. The
calix of the female confifls of three fegments, and the
corolla of three petals ; it has fix ftyli ; and the cap-
fule has fix cells and many feeds. There is but one
fpecies, viz the morfus ranSe, or frog bit, a native of
Britain.
HYDROCORAX, in ornithology. See Buceros.
HYDROCOTYLE, in botany, a genus of the pentan-
dria digynia clafs. The um* ella is fimple ; the invo-
Jucrum ccnfifts of four leaves ; the petals are entire, and
the feeds are roundifti and comprefled. There are
five fpecies, only one of them, viz. the vulgaris,
march penny wort, or white rot, is a native of Britain.
HY’DROGR APHY, the art of meafuring and defenbing
the fea, rivers, lakes, and canals.
With regard to the fea, it gives an account of its
tides, counter tides, foundings bays, gulphs, creeks,
fac. as alfo of the rocks, (helves, fands. (hallows,
promontories, harbours, the diftance and bearing of
one port from another, with every thing that is re¬
markable, whether out at fea, or on the coaft.
HYDROMA&JCY, a method of divination by water,
praftifed by the ancients in this manner They filled
a cup or bowl of water : then faftening a ring to a piece
of thread tied to their finger, hejd it over the water,
and repeated a certain form of words, defiring to be
fatisfied with regard to their inquiry ; and if the
queftion was anfwered in the affirmative, the ring would
ftrike the fides of the bowl of its own accord.
Another kind'of hydromancy was to look upon the
water in which the figure of feveral dsemons ufed to
appear. This expedient Numa is faid to have made
ufe of, to fettle the ceremonies of religion.
This way of divination is faid to have been ufed firft
by the Perfians, and afterwards approved by Pytha¬
goras.
HYDROMEL, among phyficians, water empregnated
with honey, either before or after fermentation.
Vinous hydromel, commonly called mead, is faid to
be good for the gravel. See the article Mead.
HYDROMETER; an inftrument to meafure- the gra¬
vity, denfity, velocity, force, <fac. of water and other
fluids. See Hydrostatics.
HYDROPHACE, in botany. See Lemna.
HYDRGMPHr.LUS, in medicine and furgery, a tu¬
mour in the navel, arifing from a colledtion of water.
HYDROPHANAE, in natural hiftory, a genus of femi-
pellucid gems, compofed of cryftal and earth ; th&
latter ingredient being in large proportion, and mixed
imperfeftly.
H Y D ( 804 ) H Y D
Imperfeiflly, as in the chalcedony * and giving a gene¬
ral cloudinefs or miltinefs to the Hone, but of fo im
perfedt and irregular an admixture, as not to be capa¬
ble of fo goodapolilh as the chalcedony ; and appear-
1 ing of a dulky and foul furface, till thrown into water,
in which they become lucid, and in fome degree tranf-
parent, either in part or totally ; alfa changing their
colour, -which returns to them on being taken out of
the water.
To this genus belong the oculus belt of authors, or
whitilh-grey hydrophanes, variegated with yellow, and
with a black central nucleus ; and the oculus mundi,
or lapis mutabilis, which is hkewife a whitilh-grey kind
without veins.
HYDROPHOBIA, an averfion or dread of water; a
HYDROS
THEfcienc# of Hydrostatics treats of the nature
gravity, preffure, and motion of fluids in general;
and of weighing folids in them.
A fluid is a body that yields to the leafl: preflure or
difference of preffures. Its particles are fo exceedingly
fmall, that they cannot be difcerned by the bell of micto-
fcopes ; they are hard, fince no fluid, except air or fleam,
can be preffed into a lefs fpace than it naturally pofleffes;
and they are round and fmooth, fince they are lb eafily
moved among one another.
All bodies, both fluid and folid, prefs downwards by
the force of gravity: but fluids have this wonderful pro¬
perty. that their preffure upwards and fidewife is equal
to their preffure downwards ; and this is always in pro¬
portion to their perpendicular height, without any re¬
gard to their quantity : for, as each particle is quite free
to move, it will move towards that part or fide on
which the preffure is leaft. And hence, no particle or
quantity of a fluid ,can be at reft, till it is every way e-
qually preffed.
(Plate XCIX. fig. 2.) To Ihew by experiment that
fluids prefs upward as well as downward, let AB be a
long upright tube filled with water near to its top ; and
CD a fmall tube open at both ends, and immerfed into
the water in the large ofte : if the immerfion be quick,
you will fee the water rife in the fmall tube to the fame
height that it ftands in the great one, or until the fur
faces of the water in both,are on the fame level: which
{hews that the water is preffed upward into the fmali tube
by the weight of what is in the great one; otherwife it
could never rife therein contrary to its natural gravity ;
unlefs the diameter of the bore were fo fmall, that the
attraAion of the tube would raife the water ; which will
never.happen, if the tube be as wide as that in a common
barometer. And as the water rifes no higher in the
fmall Kibe than till its furface be-on a level • ith the fur
face of the water in the great one, this (hews that the
preffure is not in proportion to the quantity of water in
the great tube, but in proportion to its perpendicular
terrible fymptom of the rabies canina. See Medicine.
HYDROPHYJLLUM, in botany, a genus of the peman-
dria monogynia clafs. The corolla is bell-fliaped ; the
ftigma is bifid ; and the capfule is roandilh with two
valves. There are two fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain.
HYDROPS, in medicine. SccMedicine.
HYDROSCOPE, an inftrument anciently ufed for the
meafuring of time.
The hydrofcope was a kind of water-clock, confid¬
ing of a cylindrical tub, conical at bottom : the cylin¬
der was graduated, or marked out with divifions, to
which the top of the water becc.ming fucceflively con¬
tiguous, as it trickled out at.the vertex of the cone,
pointed out the hour.
T A T I C S.
height therein: for there is much more water in the
great tube all, around the Imall one, than what is rai-
fed to the fame height in the fmall one, as it ftands in the
great.
Take out the fmall tube, and let the water run out of
it; then it will be filled with air. Stop its upper end
with the cork C, and it will be full of air all below the
cork : this done, plunge it again to the bottom of the
water in the great tube, and you wdl fee the water rife
up in it to the height E; which {hews that the air is a
body, otherwife it could not hinder the water from rifing
up to the fam$ height as it did before, namely, to A ;
and in fo doing it drove the air out at the top ; but now
the air is confined by the cork C : and it alfo ftiews
that the air is a compreflible body; for if it were not
fo, a drop of water could not enter into the tube.
The preffure of fluids being equal in all directions, it
follows, that the fides of a veffel are as much preffed by a
fluid in it, all around in any given ring of points, as the
fluid below that ring is preffed by the weight of all that
Rands above it. Hence the preffure upon every point in
the fides, immediately above the bottom, is equal to the
preffure upon every point of the bottom. To fliew this
by experiment, let a hole be made at E (fig. ;.) in the
fide of the tube AB clofe by the bottom; and another
hole of the fame fize in the bottom, at C; then pour
water into the tube, keeping it full as long as you chufd
the holes fhould run, and have two two hafons ready to
receive the water that runs through the two holes, until
you think there is enough in each bafon ; and you will
find, by meafuring the quaintities. that they are equal;
which {hews that the water run with equal fpeed through
both holes; which it could not have done, if it had not
been equally preffed through them both: for if a hole
of the fame fize be made in the fide of the tube, as about
f, and if all three are permitted to run together, you will
find that the quantity run through the hole at/is much
iefs than what has run in the fame time through either of
the holes C or e.
la
HYDROS
In the fame figure, let the tube be re-cutved from the
bottom at O into the (hape DE, and the hole at C be
ftopt with a cork. Then pour water into the tube to
any height, as Ag, and it will fpout up in a jet EFG,
nearly as high as it is kept in the tube AB, by continuing
to pour in as much there as runs through the hole E;
which, will be the cafe whilft the furface Ag keeps at the
fame height. And if a little ball of cor^k G be laid upon
the top of the jet, it will be fupported thereby, and
dance upon it. The reafon why the jet rifes not quite
fo high as the furface of the water Ag, is owing to the
refiftance it meets with in the open air : for if a tube, ei¬
ther greater fmall, was ferewed upon the pipe at E, the
water would rife in it until the furfaces of the water in
both tubes were on the fame level; as will be ftrewn by
the next experiment.
The hydrojlatic paradox.
Any quantity of a fluid, how fmall foever, may be
made to balance and fupport any quantity, how great fo¬
ever. This is defervedly termed the hydrojlatical para¬
dox, which we ftiall firft flrew by an experiment, and
then account for it upon the principle above-mentioned,
namely, that the prejfure offluids is direftly as their per¬
pendicular height, •without any regard to their quantity.
Let a fmall glafs tube DCG, (fig. 4.) open at both
ends, and bended at B, be joined to the end of a great
one AI at cd, where the great one is alfo open ; fo that
thefe tubes in their openings may freely communicate
with each other. Then pour water through a fmall-
necked funnel into the fmall tube at H ; this water will
run through the joining of the tubes at cd, and rife up
into the great tube : and if you continue pouring until
the furface of the water comes to any part, as A, in the
greattube, and then leave off, you will fee that the furface
of the water in the fmall tube will be juft as high at D;
fo that the perpendicular altitude of the water will be the
fame in both tubes, however fmall the one be in propor¬
tion to the other. This fhews, that the fmall column
DCG balances and fupports the great column Acd;
which it could not do if their prefiures were not equal a-
gainft one another in the recurved bottom at B.—If the
fmall tube be made longer, and inclined in the fituation
GEF, the furface of the water in it will ftand at F, on
the fame level with the furface A in the great tube ; that
is, the water will have the fame perpendicular height in
both tubes, although the column in the fmall tube is long¬
er than that in the great one ; the former being oblique,
and the latter perpendicular.
Since then the preflure of fluids is diretfly as their per¬
pendicular heights, without any regard to their quantities,
it appears that whatever the figure or fize of vefiels be,
if they are of equal heights, and if the areas of their
bottoms are equal, the preffures of equal heights of water
are equal upon the bottoms of thefe veflels ; even though
the one fltould hold a thoufand or ten thoufand times as
much water as would fill the other. To confirm this
part of- the hydroftatical paradox by an experiment, let
two veflels be prepared of equal heights, but very une¬
qual contents, fuch as AB in fig. 5. and AB in fig. 6.
Vo-L. II. No. do. 1
T A T I C S. 805
Let each veflel be open at both ends, and their bottoms
Y)d Y)d be of equal widths. Let a brafs bottom CC
be exadUy fitted to each veflel, not to go into it, but for
it to ftand upon ; and let a piece of wet leather be put
between each veflel and its brafs bottom, for the fake of
clofenefs. Join each bottom to its veflel by a hinge D,
fo that it may open like the lid of a box ; and let each
bottom be kept up to its veflel by equal weights E and E,
hung to lines which go over the pulleys F and F (whole
blocks are fixed to the Tides of the veflels at f') and the
lines tied to hooks at d and d, fixed in the brafs bottoms
oppofite to the hinges D and D. Things being thus
prepared and fitted, hold the veflel AB (fig. j.) upright
in your hands over a bafon on a table, and caufe water
to be poured into the veflel flowly, till the preflure of the
water bears down its bottom at the fide d, and raifes the
' weight E ; and then part of the water will run out at d.
Mark tlffe height at which the furface H of the water
flood in the veflel, when the bottom began to give way
at d ; and then, holding up the other veffel AB (fig. 4.)
in the fame manner, caufe water to be poured into it at
H ; and you will fee that when the water rifes to A in
this veflel, juft as high as it did in the former, its bot¬
tom will alfo give way at d, and it will lofe part of the
water.
The natural reafon of this furprifing phenomenon is,
that fince all parts of a fluid at equal depths below the
furface are equally prefled in all manner of direftions,
the water immediately below the fixed part B/(fig. 4 )
'dll be prefled as much upward againft its lower furface
within the veflel, by the aflion of the column Ag, as it
would be by a column of the fame height, and of any
diameter whatever ; (as was evident by the experiment
with the tube, fig. 3.) and therefore, fince aftion and
reaction are equal and contrary to each other, the water
immediately below the furface By will be prefled as much
downward by it, as if it was immediately touched and
prefled by a column of the height ^A, and of the diame¬
ter By: and therefore, the water in the cavity BD^//*
will be prefled as much downward upon its bottom CC,
as the bottom of the other veflel (fig. 5.) is prefled by all
the water above it.
To illuftrate this a little farther, let a hole be made
aty(fig. 5.) in the fixed top By, and let a tube G be
put into it ; then, if water be poured into the tube A,
it will (after filling the cavity B</) rife up into the tube
G, until it comes to a level with that in the tube A ;
which is manifeftly owing to the preffiire of the water in
the tube A, upon that in the cavity of the veflel below it.
Confequently, that part of the top By, in which the hole
is now made, would, if corked up, be prefled upward
with a force equal to the weight of all the water which
is fupported in the tube G : and the fame thing would
hold at g, if a hole were made there. And fo if the
whole cover or top By were full of holes, and had tubes
as high as the middle one Ag put into them, the water
in each tube would rife to the fame height as it is kept
into the tube A, by pouring more into it, to make up
the deficiency that it fuftains by fupplying the others,
until they were all full: and then the water in the tube
A would fupport equal heights of water in all the reft of
8 II the
8®6 HYDROS
lhe tubes, Or, if all the tubes except A, or any other
One, were taken away, and a large tube equal in diame¬
ter to the whole top By were placed upon it, and ce¬
mented to it; and then if water were poured into the tube
that was left in either of the holes, it would afcend
through all the reft of the holes, until it filled the large
tube to the fame height that it ftands in the fmall one,
after a fufficient quantity had been poured into it: which
{hews, that the top By was prefled upward by the water
under it, and before any hole was made in it, with a
force equal to that wherewith it is now prefled downward
by the weight of all the water above it in the great tube.
And therefore, the rea<3ion of the fixed top By muft be
as great, in prefling the water downward upon the bot¬
tom CC, as the whole preflitre of the water in the great
tube would have been, if the top had been taken away,
and the water in that tube left to prefs diredtly upon the
water in the cavity BD*y.
The hydrojlatic bellows.
Perhaps the beft machine in the world for demonftra-
ting the upward preflure of fluids, is the hydroftatic bel¬
lows A (fig. 7.) which confifts of two thick oval boards,
each about 16 inches broad, and 18 inches long, covered
with leather, to open and ftiut like a common bellows,
but without valves ; only a pipe B, about three feet high,
is fixed into the bellows at e. Let fome water be pour¬
ed into the pipe at c, which will run into the bellows,
and feparate the boards a little. Then lay three weights
b, c, d, each weighing 100 pounds, upon the upper
board; and pour more water into the pipe B, which wi.ll
run into the bellows, and raife up the board with all the
weights upon it; and if the pipe be kept full, until the
weights are raifed as high as the leather which covers the
bellows will allow them, the water will remain in the
pipe, and fupport all the weights, even though it flrould
weigh no more than a quarter of a pound, and they 300
potinds : nor will all their force be able to caufe them to
defcend and force the water out at the top of the pipe.
The reafon of this will be made evident, by confider-
ing what has been already faid of the refult of the prefiure
of fluids of equal heights without any regard to their
quantity. For, if a hole be made in the upper board,
and a tube be put into it, the water will rife in the tube
to the fame height that it does in the pipe; and would
rife as high (by fupplying the pipe) in as many tubes as
the board could contain holes. Now, fuppofe only one hole
to be made in any part of the board, of an equal diameter
v/ith the bore of the pipe B ; and that the pipe holds juft
a quarter of a pound of water ; if a perfon claps his finger
upon the hole, and the pfye be filled with water, he
will find his finger to be jfrefled upward with a force e-
qual to a quarter of a pound. And as the fame preflure
is equal upon all equal parts of the board, each part,
whofe area is equal to the area of the whole, will be pref-
fed upward with a force equal to that of a quarter of a
pound: th fum of all which preflures againft the under
fide of an oval board 16 inches broad, and 18 inches
long, will amount to 300 pounds; and therefore fo much
weight will be raifed up and fupported by a quarter of a
gound of water in the pipe.
T A T I C S,
Hence, if a man ftands upon the upper board, and
blows into the bellows through the pipe B, he will raife
himfelf upward upon the board: and the Jfmaller the
bore of the pipe is, the eafier he will be able to raife him¬
felf. And then, by clapping his finger upon the top of
the pipe, he can fupport himfelf as long as he pleales ;
provided the bellows be air tight, fo as notto lofe what is
blown into it.
_ Upon this principle of the upward preflure of fluids, a
piece of lead may be made to fwim in water, by immer-
ling it to a proper depth, andkeeping the water from get¬
ting above it. Let CD (fig. 8.) be a glafstube, open at
both ends, and EFG a flat piece of lead, exactly fitted
to the lower end of the tube, not to go within it, but
for it to ftand upon; with a wet leather between the
lead and tube to make clofe work. Let this leaden
bottom be half an inch thick, and held clofe to the tube
by pulling the packthread IHL upward at L with one
hand, whilft the tube is held in the other by the upper
end C; In this fituation, let the tube be immerfed in
water in the glafs veflel AB, to the depth of fix inches
below the furface of the water at K; and then, the leaden
bottom EFG will be plunged to the depth of fomewbat
more than elqyen times its own thicknefs: holding the
tube at that depth, you may let go the thread at L; and
the lead will not fall from the tube, but will be kept to
it by the upward preflure of the water below it, occafioned
by the height of the water at K above the level of the
lead. For as lead is 11.33 times as heavy as its bulk
of water, and is in this experiment immerfed to a depth
fomewhatmore than 11.33 times its thicknefs, and no wa¬
ter getting into the tube between it and the lead, the column
of water EaicG below the lead is prefled upward againft
it by the water KDEGL all around the tube; which
water being a little more than 11.33 times as high as
the lead is thick, is fufficient to balance and fupport the
lead at the depth KE. If a little water be poured into
the tube upon the lead, it will increafe the weight upon
the column of water unde^ the lead, and caufe the lead to
fall from the tube to the bottom of the glafs veflel, where
it will lie in the fituation W. Or, if the tube be raifed
a little in the water, the lead will fall by its own weight,
which will then be too great for the preflure of the wa¬
ter around the tube upon the.column of water below it.
Let two pieces of wood be plained quite flat, fo as n6
water may get in between them when they are put toge¬
ther : let one of the pieces, as bd, be cemented to the
bottom of the veflel AB (fig. 8.) and the other piece be
laid flat and clofe upon it, and held down to it by a ftiek,
whilft water is poured into the veflel; then remove the
flick, ahd the upper piece of wood will not rife from the
lower one: for, as the upper one is prefled down both
by its own weight and the weight of all the water
over it, whilft the contrary preflure of the water is kept
oifby the wood under it, it will lie as ftill as a ftone
Would do in its place. But if it be raifed ever fo little at
any edge, fome water will then get under it; which be¬
ing afted upon by the water above, will immediately prefs
it upward; and as it is lighter than its bulk of water,
it will rife, and float upon the furface of the water.
All fluids weigh juft as much in their own element as
they
HYDROS
they do in open air. To prove this by experiment, let
as much (hot be put into a phial, as, when corked, will
make it fink in water: and being thus charged, let it be
weighed, firli in air, and then in water, and the weights
in both both cafes wrote down. Then, as the phial
hangs fufpended in water, and counterpoifed, pull out the
cork, that water may run into it, and it will defcend,
and pull down that end of the beam. This done, put as
much weight into the oppofite fcale as will reftore the e-
quipoife; which weight will be found to anfwer exa&ly to
the additional weight of the phial when it is again weigh¬
ed in air, with the water in it.
The velocity with which water fpouts out at a hole in
the fide or bottom of a velfel, is as the fquare root of the
depth or diflance of the hole below the furface of the wa¬
ter. For, in order to make double the quantity of a
fluid run through one hole as through another of the fame
fize, it will require four times the preflure of the other,
and therefore mult be four times the depth of the other
below the furface of the water : and for the fame reafon,
three times the quantity running in an equal time through
the fame fort of hole, mult run with three times the ve¬
locity, which will require nine times the prelfure; and
confequently mull be nine times as deep below the furface
of the fluid : and fo on—To prove this by an experiment,
let two pipes, as C and^ (fig 9.) of equal fized bores,
be fixed into the fide of the veflel AB ; the pipe^ being
four times as deep below the furface of the water at b in
the velfel as the pipe C is : and whilft thefe pipes run, let
water be conftantly poured into the veffel, to keep the
furface Hill at the fame height. Then, if a cup that
holds a pint be fo placed as to receive the water that
fpouts from the pipe C, and at the fame moment a cup
, that holds a quart be fo placed as to receive the water
that fpouts from the pipe £, both cups w ill be filled at the
fame tinrj by their refpeftive pipes.
The horizontal diftance, to which a fluid will fpout 1
from a horizontal pipe, in any part of the fide of an up¬
right veflel below the furface of the fluid, is equal to
twice the length of a perpendicular to the fide of the vef-
fel, drawn from the mouth of the pipe to a femicircle
defcribed upon the altitude of the fluid : and therefore,
the fluid will fpout to the greateft diflance poifible from a
pipe whofe mouth is at the centre of the femicircle; becaufe
a perpendicular to its diameter (fuppofed parallel to the
fide of the veflel) drawn from that point, is the longeft
that can poffibly be drawn from apy part of the diameter
to the circumference of the femicircle.- Thus, if the
veflel AB (fig. 9.) be full of water, the horizontal pipe
D be in the middle of its fide, and the femicircle Neticb
be defcribed upon D as a centre, with the radius or fe-
midiameter D^N, pr Qfb, the perpendicular to the-
diameter NDi is the longeft that can be drawn from any
part of the diameter to the circumference NefiM. And
if the veflei be kept full^ the jet G will fpout from the
pipe D, to the horizontal diftance NM. w'hich is double
the length of the perdendicular T>d. If two other pipes
as C and E,,‘be fixed into the fide of the veflel at equal
diftances above anc( below the pipe D, the perpendiculars
Cc and E?, from tfiefe pipe to the femicircle, will be e-
qualj and the jets t and H fpotuing from them. will.
T A T I C S. 807
each go to the horizontal diftance NK ; which is double
the length of the equal perpendiculars Cc or Dd.
Fluids by their preflure may be conveyed over hills and
valleys in bended pipes, to any height not greater than
the level of the fprings from whence they flow. But
when they are defigned to be raifed higher than the fprings,
forcing engines muft be ufed; which fhall be defcribed
when we come to treat of pumps.
A fyphon, generally ufed for decanting liquors, is a
bended pipe, wbofe legs are of unequal lengths ; and the
fhorteft leg muft always be put into the liquor intended
to be decanted, that the perpendicular altitude of the
column of liquor in the other leg may be longer than the
column in the immerfed leg, efpecially above the fur¬
face of the water. For, if both columns were equally
high in that refpeft, the atmofphere, which prefles as
much upward as downward, and therefore a<fts as much
upward againft the column in the leg that hangs without
the veflel, as it adts downward upon the furface of the li¬
quor in the veflel, would hinder the running of the liquor
through the fyphon, even though it were brought over
the bended part by fuftion. So that there is nothing left
to caufe the motion of the liquor, but the fuperior weight
of the column in the longer leg, on account of its having
the greater perpendicular height.
Let D (fig. 10.) be a cup filled with water to C, and
ABC a fyphon, whofe (hotter leg BCF is immerfed in
the water from C to F. If the end of the other leg
were no lower than the line AC, which is level with the
furface of the water, the fyphon would not run, even
though the air (hould be drawn out of it at the mouth
A. For although the fudtion would draw forae water at
firft, yet the water would ftop at the moment the fudiion
ceafed ; becaufe the air would adl as much upward againft
the water at A, as it adted downward for it by preffing on
the furface at C. But if the leg AB comes down to G
and the air be drawn out at G by fudlion, the water
will immediately follow, and continue to run, until the
fm face of the water in the cup comes down to F; becaufe
till then, the perpendicular height of the column BAG-
will be greater than that of the column CB ; and confe¬
quently, its weight will be greater, until the furface comes
down to F; and then the fyphon will ftop, though the
leg CF (hould reach to the bottom of the cup. For
which reafon, the leg that hangs without the cup is al¬
ways made long enough to. reach below the level of its
bottom ; as from s' to E : and then, when the fyphon iV
emptied of air by fudlion at E, the water immediately
follows, and by its continuity brings away the whole from*
the cup ; juft as pullingone end of a thread'will make the
whole clue follow.
If the perpendicular height of a fyphon, from the fur¬
face of the water to its bended top at Bi be more than*
33 feet, it will draw no water, even though the other
leg were much longer, and the fyphon quite emptied of
air, becaufe the weight of a column of water 33 feet
high is equal to- the weight of as thick, a column of
air, reaching from the furface of the earth to the top of
the atmofphere ; fothat there will then be an equilibrium-
and confequently, though there would be Weight enough*
of air upon the furface G to make the water afcend in the
go’S HYDROS
leg CB alrnoft to the he’ght B, if the fyphon were emp¬
tied of air, yet the weight would not be; fufficient to force
the water over the bend; and therefore, it could never
be brought into the leg BAG.
Tantalus's cup.
Let a hole be made quite through the bottom of the
cup A (fig. it.) and the longer leg of the bended fyphon
• BCED he cemented into the hole, fo that the end D of
the fliorter leg DE may almoft touch the bottom of the
cup within. Then, if water be poured into this cup, it
will rife in the (horter leg by its upward preffure, extrud¬
ing the air all the way before it through the longer leg :
and when the cup is filled above the bend of the fyphon
at F, the preffure of the water in the cup will' force it
over the bend of the fyphon: and it will defcend in the
longer leg CBG, and run through the bottom, until the
cup be emptied.
This is generally called Tantalus's cup, and the. legs
of the fyphon in it are almoft clofe together; and a little
hollow ftatue, or figure of a man, is fometimes put over
the fyphon to conceal it; the bend E being with the neck
of the figure as high as the chin. So that poor thirfty
Tantalus ftands up to the chin in water, imagining it
will rife a little higher, and he may drink; but inflead of
that, when the water comes up to his chin, it immediate¬
ly begins to defcend; and fo, as he cannot floop to
follow it, he is left as much pained with third as ever.
The fountain at command.
The device called the fountain at command aids upon
the fame principle with the fyphon in the cup. Let two
veffels A and B (Plate C. fig. i.) be joined together by
the pipe C which opens into them both. Let A be open
at top, B clofe both at top and bottom (fave only a fmall
hole at b to let the air get out of the veffel B) and A be
of fuch a fize as to hold about fix times as much water
as B. Let a fyphon DEF be foldered to the veffel B, fo
that the part DEe may be within the veffel, and F with¬
out it; the end D almofl: touching the bbttom of the vef¬
fel, and the end F below the level of D : the veffel B
•hanging at A by the pipe C (foldered into both) and the
whole fupported by the pillars G and H upon the (land I.
The bbre of the pipe mud be confiderably lefs than the
bore of the fyphon.
The whole being thus condru&ed, let the veffel A be
filled with water, which will run through the pipe C,
and fill the veffel B. When B is filled above the top
of the fyphon at E, the water will run through the
fyphon, and be difcharged at F. But fince the bore
of the fyphon is larger than the bore of the pipe, the fy¬
phon will run fader than the pipe, and will foon empty the
veffel B ; upon which the water will ceafe from running
through the fyphon at F, until the pipe C re-fills the
veffel B, and then it will begin to run as before. And
thus the fyphon will continue to run and dop alternate^,
until all the water in the veffel A has run through the pipe
C.—So that after a few trials, one may eafily guefs a-
bout what time the fyphon will dop, and when it will be-
T A T I C S.
gin to run: and then to amufe others, he may call out
fop. or run, accordingly.
Upon this principle, we may eafily account for inter¬
mitting or reciprocating fprings. Let AA (fig. 2 ) be
part of a hill, within which there is a cavity BB; and
from this cavity a vein or channel running in the direction
BCDE. The rain that falls upon the fide of the hill
will fink and drain through the fmall pores and crannies
G, G, G, G; and fill the cavity H with water. When
the water rifes to the level HHC, the vein BCDE will
be filled to C, and the water will run through CDF as
through a fyphon ; which running will continue until the
cavity be emptied, and then it will dop until the cavity
be filled again.
The common pump.
The common fucking pump, with which we draw wa¬
ter out of wells, is an engine both pneumatic and hy¬
draulic. It confids of a pipe open at both ends, in which
is a moveable pidon, bucket, or fucker, as big as the
bore of the pipe in that part wherein it works ; and is
leathered round, fo as to fit the bore exadtiy; and
may be moved up and down, without differing any air to
come between it and the pipe or pump-barrel.
We (hall explain the condrudtion both of this and the
forcing pump by piflures of glafs models, in which
both tie adtion of the pidons and motion of the valves
are feen.
Hold the model DCBL (fig. 3.) upright in the veffel
of water K, the water being deep enough to rife at lead
as high as from A to L. The valve a on the moveable
bucket G, and the valve b on the fixed box H, (which
box quite fills the bore of the pipe or barrel at H) will
each lie clofe, by its own weight, Upon the hole in the
bucket and box, until the engine begins to work. The
valves are made of brafs, and covered underneath with
leather for clofing the holes the more exadtly: and the
bucket G is raifed and depreffed alternately by the handle
E and rod D d, the bucket being fuppofed at B before
the working begins.
Take hold of the handle E, and thereby draw up the
bucket from B to C, which will make room for the ait-
in the pump all the way below the bucket to dilate itfelf,
by which its fpring is weakened, and then its force is not
equivalent to the weight or preffure of the outward air
upon, the water in the veffel K: and therefore, at the fird
droke, the outward air will prefs up the water through
the notched foot A, into the lower pipe, about as far as
e : this will condenfe the rarefied air in the pipe between
e and C to the fame date it was in before; and then, as
its fpring within the pipe is equal to the force or preffure
of the outward air, the water will rife no higher by the
fird droke ; and the valve b, which was raifed a little by
the dilation of the air in the pipe, will fall, and dop the
hole in the box H; and the furface of the water will
dand at e. Then, deprefs the pidon or bucket from C
to B, and as the air in the part B cannot get back again
through the valve b, it will (as the bucket defcends) raife
the valve a, and fo make its way through the upper part
of the barrel </ into the open air. But upon raifing the
bucket
PlacfeXClX
'Xn>
HYDROS
bucket G a fecond time, the air between it and the water
in the lower pipe at e will be again left at liberty to fill a
larger fpace ; and fo its fpring.being again'weakened, the
preffure of the outward air on the water in the veflel K
will force more water up into the lower pipe from e to f;
and when the bucket is at its greatell height C, the lower
' valve b will fall, and Hop the hole in the box H as be¬
fore. At the next ftroke of the bucket or pifton, the
water will rife through the box H towards B, and then
the valve b, which was raifed by it, will fall when the
bucket G is at its greateft height. Upon deprdling the
bucket again, the water cannot be pulhed back through
the valve b, which keeps clofe upon the hole whilft the
pifton defcends. And upon raifing the pifton again, the
outward preflure of the air will force the water up thro’
H, where it will raife the valve, and follow the bucket
to C. Upon the next depreflion of the bucket G, it will
go down into the water in the barrel B; and as the water
cannot be driven back through the now clofe valve b, it
will raife the valve a as the bucket defcends, and will be
lifted up by the bucket when it is next raifed. And now,
the whole fpace below the bucket being full, the water
above it cannot fink when it is next deprefied; but upon
its depreffion, the Valve a will rife to let the bucket go
down; and when it is quite down, the valve a will fall
by its weight, and ftop the hole in the bucket. When
the bucket is next raifed, all the water above it will be
lifted up, and begin to run off by the pipe F. And thus,
by raifing and deprelling the bucket alternately, there is
ftill more water raifed by it; which getting above the
pipe F, into the wide top I, will fupply the pipe, and
make it run with a continued dream.
So, at every time the bucket is raifed, the valve b ri¬
fts, and the valve a falls : arid at every time the bucket
is depreffed, the valve b falls, and a rifes.
As it is the preffure of the air or atmofphere which caufes
the water to rife and follow the pidon or bucket G as it is
drawn up; and fince a column of water 33 feet high is
of equal we’ght with as thick a column of the atmofphere
from the earth to the very top of the air ; therefore, the
perpendicular height of the pidon or bucket from the fur-
face of the water in the well mud always be lefs than
33.feet; otherwife the water will never get above the
bucket. But, when the height is lefs, the preffure of the
atmofphere will be greater than the weight of the water
in the pump, and will therefore raife it above the bucket;
and when the water has once got above the bucket, it
may be lifted thereby to any height, if the rod D be
made long enough, and a fufficient degree of drength be
employed, to raife it with the weight of the water a-
bove the bucket; without ever lengthening the droke.
The force required to work a pump, will be as the
height to which the water is raifed, and as the fquare of
the diameter of the pump-bore, in that part where the
pidon works. So that, if two pumps be of equal heights,
and one of them be twice as wide in the bore as the o-
ther, the wided will raife four times as much water as the
narrowed ; and will therefore require four times as much
ftrength to work it.
The widenefs or narrowhefs of the pump, in any other
part befides that in which the pidon works, does not
Von. It. Numb. 60. 1
T A T I C S. 809
make the pump either more or lefs difficult to Work; ex'
cept what difference may arife fiom the fri&ion of the
bore, which is always greater in a narrow bore than
in a wide one, becaufe of the greater velocity of the wa¬
ter.
The pump-rod is never raifed dire&Iy by foch a han¬
dle as E at the top, but by means of a lever, whofe lon¬
ger arm (at the end of which the power is applied) ge¬
nerally exceeds the length of the fliorter arm five or fix
times ; and, by that means, gives five or fix times as
much advantage to the power. Upon thefe principles,
it will be eafy to find the dimenfions of a pump that dull
work with a given force, and draw water from any gi¬
ven depth. But, as thefe calculations have been gene¬
rally neglected by pump-makers (either for want oflkill
or indudry) the following table was calculated by the late
ingenious Mr Booth for their benefit. In this calculation,
he fuppofed the handle of the pump to be a lever increa-
fing the power five times; and had often found that a
man can work a pump four inches diameter, and 30 feet
high above the bucket, and difcharge 27! gallons of wa¬
ter (Englilh wine meafure) in a minute. Now, if it be
required to find the diameter of a pump, that dull raife
water with the fame eafe from any other height above the
bucket; look for that height in the fird column, and o-
ver againd it in the fecond you have the diameter or width
of the pump; and in the third, you find the quantity of
water which a mafi of ordinary drength can difcharge in a
minute.
Height of the Diameter of the
pump above bore where the
the bucket. bucket works
Water difcharged
in a minute, Eng-
lilh wine-meafure.
2J
3°
35
4<3
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
8b
•93
.65
.90
.38
.06
.70
•47
3 .26
3 .10
2 .95
2 .83
2 .71
2 .62
2 -53
2 .44
81 6
54 4
40 8
32 6
27 2
23 3
20 4
18 1
16 3
14 7
13 5
12 4
11 5
The forcing-pump.
The forcing pumpraifes water through the box H (fig.
4 ) in the fame manner as the fucking-pump does, when the
plunger or pidon g is lifted up by the rod T>d. But this
plunger has no hole through it, to let the water in the
8 S barrel
8 io HYDROS
barrel BC get above it when it is deprefled to B, and
the valve b (which rofe by the afcent of the water through
the box H when the plunger jv was drawn up) falls down
and (tops the hole in H, the moment that the plunger is
raifed to its greateft height. Therefore, as the water
between the plunger g and box H can neither get through
the plunger upon its defcent, nor back again into the
lower part of the pump Le, but has a free paffage by the
cavity around H into the pipe MM, which opens into the
air-veflel KK at P ; the water is forced through the pipe
MM by the defcent of the plunger, and driven into the
air-veflel; and in running up through the pipe at P, it
opens the valve a; which fhuts at the moment the
plunger begins to be raifed, becaufe the adtion of the
water againft the under fide of the valve then ceafes.
The water, being thus forced into the air-veflel KK
by repeated ftrokes of the plunger, gets above the lower
end of the pipe GHI, and then begins to condenfe the
air in the veflel KK. For, as the pipe GH is fixed air¬
tight into the veflel below F, and the air has no way to
get out of the veflel but through the mouth of the pipe
at I, and cannot get out when the mouth I is covered
with water, and is more and more condenfed as the
water rifes upon the pipe, the air then begins to adt for¬
cibly by its fpring againft the furface of the water, at H :
and this adtion drives the water up through the pipe IH
GF, from whence it fpouts in a jet S to a great height ;
and is fupplied by alternately raifing and deprefling of the
plunger g, which conftantly forces the water that it rai-
C s through the valve H, along the pipe MM, into the
air-veflel KK.
The higher that the furface of the water H is raifed in
the air-veflel, the lefs fpace will the-air be condenfed in¬
to, which before filled that veflel ; and therefore the
force of its fpring will be fo much the ftronger upon the
water, and will drive it with tire greater force through
the pipe at F : and as the fpring of the air continues
whilft the plunger £ is rifing, the ftream or jet S will be
uniform, as long as the adlton of the plunger continues :
and when the valve b opens, to let the water follow the
plunger upward, the valve a fhuts, to hinder the water,
which is forced into the air-veflel, from running back by
the pipe MM into the barrel of the pump.
If there was no air-veflel to this engine, the pipe GHI
would be joined to the pipe MMN at P ; and then
the jet S would flop every time the plunger is raifed,
and run only when the plunger is deprefled.
Mr Newfham’s water-engine, forextinguifhingfire, con-
fifts of two forcing pumps, which alternately drive wa¬
ter into a clofe. veflel of air ; and by forcing the water in¬
to that veflel, the air in it is thereby condenfed, and com-
prefles the water fo ftrongly, that it rufhes out with great
impetuofity and force through a pipe that comes down in¬
to it; and makes a continued uniform ftream by the con-
denfation of the air upon its furface in the veflel.
By means of forcing pumps, water may be raifed to a-
ny height above the- level of a river or fpring *, and ma¬
chines may be contrived to workthefe pumps, either by
a running ftream, a fall of water, or by horfes. An
iaftance in each fart will be fufficient to fhew. the me¬
thod,
T A TICS.
Firft, by a running ftream, or a fall of water. Let AA
(fig. 5.) be a wheel turned by the fall of water BB; and
have any number of cranks (fuppofe fix) as C, D, E, F,
G, H, on its axis, according to the ftrength of the fall of
water, and the height to which the water is intended to
be raifed by the engine. As the wheel turns round, thefe
cranks move the levers c, d, e,f,g, h, up and down, by
the iron rods i, k, l, m, n, 0 ; which alternately raife
and deprefs the piftons by the other iron rods p, q, r, r,
/, «, w, x, y> in twelve pumps ; nine whereof, as L, M,
N, O, P, R, S, T, appear in the plate; the other
three being hid behind the work at V. And as pipes may
go from all thefe pumps, to convey the water (drawn up
by them to a fmall height) into a clofe ciftern, from
which the main pipe proceeds, the water will be forced
into this ciftern by the defcent of the piftons. And as
each pipe, going from its refpe&ive pump into the ciftern,
has a valve at its end in the ciftern, thefe valves will
hinder the return of the water by the pipes; and there¬
fore, when the ciftern is once full, each pifton upon its
defcent will force the water (conveyed into the ciftern by
a former ftroke) up the main pipe, to' the height the en¬
gine was intended to raife it: which height depends up¬
on the quantity raifed, and the power that turns the wheel.
When the power upon the wheel is JeiTened by any de¬
feat of the quantity of water .turning it, a proportiona¬
ble number of the pumps may be laid afide, by difen-
gaging their rods from the vibrating levers.
This figure is a reprefentation of the engine eretfted
at Blenheim for the Duke of Marlborough, by the late
ingenious Mr Alderfea. The water-wheel is 74 feet in
diameter, according to Mr Switzer’s account in his Hy¬
draulics.
When fuch a machine is placed in a ftream that runs
upon a fmall declivity, the motion of the levers and ac¬
tion of the pumps will be but flow; fince the wheel muft
go once round for each ftroke of the pumps. But, whenr
there is a large body of flow running water, a cog or
fpur-wheel may be placed upon each fide of the water¬
wheel AA, upon its axis, to turn a trundle upon each
fide ; the cranks being upon the axis of the trundle. And
by proportioning the cog-wheels to the trundles, the mo¬
tion of the pumps may be made quicker, according to
the quantity and ftrength of the water upon the firft
wheel; which may be as.greit as the workman pleafes,
according, to the length and breadth of the float-boards
or wings of the wheel. In-this manner, the engine for
raifing water at London-Bridge is conftruded ; in which
the water-wheel is 20 feet diameter, and the flots 14 ,
feet long.
A quadruple pump-mill for ratfing water.
The engine is reprefented in Plate 99. fig. 1. In
which ABCD is a wheel, turned by-water according to
the order of the letters. On the horizontal axis are four
fmall wheels, toothed almoft half round ; and the parts
of their edges on which there are no teeth are cut down
fo as to be even with the bottoms of the teeth where
they ftand.
The teeth of thefe four wheels take alternately into,
the.
HYDROS
the teeth of four racks, which hang by two chains over
the puliies Q__and L; and to the lower ends of thefe
racks there are four iron rods fixed, which go down into
the four forcing pumps, S, R, M, and N. And, as the
wheels turn, the racks and pump-rods are alternately
moved up and down.
Thus, fuppofe the wheel G has pulled down the rack
I, and drawn up the rack K by the chain : as the lall:
tooth of G juft leaves the uppermoft tooth of I, the firft
tooth ofH is ready to take into the lowermoft tooth of the
rackK, and pull it down as far as the,teeth go ; and then
the rack I is pulled upward through the whole fpace of
its teeth, and the wheel G is ready to take hold of it,
and pull it down again, and fo draw up the other 
In the fame manner, the wheels E and F work the racks
0 and P. t
Thefe four wheels are fixed on the axle of the great,
wheel in fuch a manner, with refpeft to the pofitions of
their teeth, that whilft they continue turning round, there
is never one inftant of time in which one or other of the
pump rods is not going down and forcing the water. So
that, in this engine, there is no occafion for having a
general air-veflel to all the pumps, to procure a conftant
ftream of water flowing from the upper end of the main
pipe.
From each of thefe pumps, near the loweft end, in
th£ water, there goes off a pipe. With a valve on its
fartheft end from the pump; and thefe ends of the pipes all
enter one clofe box, into which they deliver the water :
and into this box, the lower end of the main condudl pipe
is fixed. So that, as the water is forced or pulhed into
the box, it is alfo pufhed up the main pipe to the height
that it is intended to beraifed,
A pump-engins to go by herfes.
Where a ftream or fall of water cannot be had,' apd
gentlemen want to have water raifed, and brought'to
their houfes from a rivulet or fpring.; this may be effec¬
ted by a horfe-engine, working three forcing-pumps which
ftand in a refefvoir filled by the fpring or rivulet: the
piftons being moved up and down-in the pumps by means
of a triple crank ABC, which, as it is turned round by
the trundle G (Plate too. fig. 6.) raifes and depreffes
the rods D, E, F. if the wheel has three times as many
cogs as the trundle has ftaves or rounds, the trundle and
cranks will make three revolutions for every one of the
wheel : and as each crank will fetch a ftroke in the time
it goes round, the three cranks will make nine ftrokcs for
every turn of the great wheel.
The cranks Ihould'be made of call iron, becaufe^that
will not bend; and they Ihould each make an angle of
120 with both of the others, as at a, b, c; which is-(as
it were) a view-of their radii, in looking endwife at the
axis : and then there will be always one or other of them
going downward, which* will pulh the water forward.with
a continued ftream into the main pipe. For, when £ is
almoft at its loweft fituation, and is therefore juft begin¬
ning to lofe its adtion upon the ptfton which it moves, c
is-beginning to move downward, which will by its pifton
continue the propelling force upon the water ; and when
T A T I C S. 811
c is come down to the pofition of b, a will be in the pofi-
tion of c.
Ti e more perpendicularly the pifton rods move up and
down in the pumps, the freer and better will their ftrokes
be : but a little deviation from the perpendicular *will
not be material Therefore, when the pump-rods D,
E, and F go down into a deep well, they may be moved
direftly by. the cranks, as is done in a very good horfe-
engine of this fort at the late Sir James Creed’s at Green-
w ch, which forces up water about 64 feet from a well
under ground, to a refervior on the top of his houfe.
But when the cranks are only at a fmall height above.the
pumps, the piftons muft be moved by vibrating levers, as
in the above engine at Blenheim : .and the longer the le¬
vers are, the nearer will the ftrokes be to a perpendicu¬
lar.
Let us fuppofe, that in fuch an engine as Sir James
Creed’s, the great wheel is twelve feet diameter, the trun¬
dle four feet, and the radius or length of each crank nine-
inches, working a pifton inits pump. Let there be three
pumps in all, and the bore of each pump be four inches,
diameter. Then, if the great wheel has three times as
many cogs as the trundle has ftaves* the-trundle. and
cranks will go three times round for each, revolution
the horfes and wheel, and the three cranks will make
nine ftrokes of the pumps in that time, each ftroke being.
18 inches (or double the length of the crank) in a four-
inch bore. Let the diameter of the horfe-walk be 18
feet, and the perpendicular height to which the water is-
raifed abo^e the furface of the well be 64 feet.
If the horfes go at the rate of two miles an hour (which •
is very moderate walking) they,will turn.the great wheel
187 times round in an hour..
In each turn of the wheel the piftona make- nine ftrokese
in the pumps, which, amount to 1683 in an hour.
Each ftroke raifes a column of water 18 inches long,;
and four inches thick, in the pump barrels; which co¬
lumn, upon* the defcent .of the pifton, is forced into the.
main pipe, vvhofe perpendicular altitude above the furface.
of the well is 64 feet.
Now, fince a column of water 18 inches long, and four
inches thick, contains 226.18 cubic inches,- this number
multiplied by 16S3 (the ftrokes in an hour) gives 380661
far the number of cubic inchesof water-railed in an hour.
A gallon-, in wine-meafure, contains -231 cubic inches,
by which divide 380661, and it quotes 1468 in rounds
numbers, for the number of gallons raifed in an hour;
which, divided by 63, gives 26^- hogfheads * If the
horfes go ftfter, the.quantity raifed will be fo mach the
greater.
In this calculation it is fuppofed that no water is waft--
ed by the engine. Ihat as no forcing engine can be fup-
ppfed to lofe lefs than a fifth part of the calculated quan- •
tity of water, between the pifthns and-barrels, and by '
the opening and (hutting of the valves,- the horfes ought
to-, walk almoft rnrles per hour to fetch up this lofs. .
A column of water four inches'thick, and 64 feet
high, weighs 349t^- pounds averdupoife,. or 424-/? pounds
troy ; and this weight, together with the frktion of the
engine, is the reliftance that muft be overcome- by tbe ■
ftren gth of the herfea,-
The;
II YDROSTATIC S.
8 f 2
The horfe tackle Hiould he To contrived, that the horfes
may rather puHi on than drag the Severs after them.
For if they draw, in going round tire walk, the outfide
Seather-fbaps will rub againfi their fides and hams ; which
will hinder them from drawing at right angles to the le¬
vers, and fo make them pull at a difadvantage. But if
they pufh the levers before their breads, inftead of drag¬
ging them, they c&n always walk at right angles-to thefe
levers.
It is no ways material what the diameter of the main
or conducft pipe be: for the whole refiltance of the water
therein, againfl: the horfes, will be according to the height
to which it is raifed, and the diameter of that part of
the pump in which the pifton works ; as we have already
obferved So that by the fame pump, an equal quanti¬
ty of water may be raifed in (and confequently made to
run from) a pipe of a foot diame'.er, with the fame eafe
as in a pipe of five or fix inches; or rather with more
eafe, becaufe its velocity in a large pipe will be lels than
in a fmall one, and therefore its fridion againft the fides
Of the pipe will be lefs alfo.
And the force required to raife water depends not upon
the length of the pipe, but upon the perpendicular height
to which it is raifed therein above the level of the fpring.
So that the fame force, which would raife water to the
height AB (fig. 7.) in the upright pipe h.iklmnopcfi>,
will raife it to the fame height or level BIH in the oblique
pipe AEFGH. For the preffure of the water at the end
A of the latter, is no more than its preffure againlt the
end A of the former.
The weight or preffure of water at the lower end of a
pipe, is always as the fine of the angle to which the pipe is
elevated above the level parallel to the horizon. For, al¬
though the water in the upright pipe AB would require
a force applied immediately to the lower end A, equal to
the weight of all the water in it, to fupport the water,
and a little more to drive it up and out of the pipe ; yet
if that pipe be inclined from its upright pofition to an
angle of 80 degrees (as in A 80), the force required to
fupport or to ratfe the fame cylinder of water will then
be as much lefs as the fine 80 b is lefs than the radius
AB ; or as the fine of 80 degrees is lefs than the fine of
90. And fo, decrcafing as the fign of the angle of ele¬
vation leffens, lintil it arrives at its level AC or place of
reft, where the force of the water is nothing at either end
of the pipe. For, ajthough the abfolute weight of the
water is the fame m all politions, yet its preffure at the
lower end decreafes, as the fine of the angle of elevation
decreafes ; as will appear plainly by a farther eonlidera*
tion of the figure.
Let tw© pipes, AB and BC, of equal lengths and
bores, join each other at A; and let the pipe AB be
divided into 100 equal parts, as the fcale S is ; whofe
length is equal to the length of the pipe,—Upon this
length, as a radius, defcribe the quadrant BCD, and
divide it into 90 equal parts Or degrees.
Let the pipe Ap be elevated to to degrees upon the
quadrant, and then filled with water; then, part of the
water that is in it will rife in the pipe AB, and if it be
kept full of water, it will raife the water in the pipe AB
from A to i; that is, to a level / 10 with the mouth of
the pipe at 10 : and the upright line a 10, equal to At,
w ill be the fine of ro degrees elevation ; which being mea-
fered upon the fcale S, will be about 17.4 of fuch parts
as the pipe contains 100 in length: and therefore, the
force or preffure of the water at A, in the pipe A 10,
will be to the force or preffure at A in the pipe AB as
17.3 to 100.
Let the fame pipe be elevated to 20 degrees in the qua¬
drant, and if it be kept full of water, part of that wa¬
ter will run into the pipe AB, and rife therein to the
height Ai, which is equal to {Jie length of the up¬
right line b 20, or to the fine of 20 degrees elevation ;
which, being meafured upon the fcale S, will be 34.3
of fuch parts as the pipe contains 100 in length ; and
therefore the preffure of the water at A, in the full pipe
A 20, will be to its preffure, if that pipe were raifed to
the perpendicular fituation AB, as 34.2 to 100.
I?
35
52
70
87
104
122
139
156
191
208
22s
242
259
276
292
309
D. I9
325
342
358
375
391
407
423
438
454
469
485
500
5i5
530
545
559
573
588
Sine of Parts
D. 37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
602
616
629
643
656
669
682
695
707
7*9
73i
743
755
766
777
788
799
809
D- 55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
Parts j Sine of
819
829
839
848
857
866
875
883
891
899
906
9«3
920
927
934
940
945
95i
D. 73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
956
961
966
970
974
978
982
985
988
990
992
994
996
997
998
999
1000
Elerate
H Y D R O S
Elevate the pipe to the pofition A 30 on the quadrant ;
and if it be fupplied with water, the water will rife from
it into the pipe AB, to the height A/, or to the fame
level with the mouth of the pipe at 30. The fine of this
elevation, or of the angle of 30 degrees, is c 30; which
is juft equal to half the length of the pipe, or to jo of
fuch parts of the fcale as the length of the pipe con¬
tains 100. Therefore, the preflufe of the water at A,
in a pipe elevated 30 degrees above the horizontal level,
will be equal to one half of what it would be, if the
fame pipe ftood upright in the fituation AB.
And thus, by elevating the pipe to 40, yo, 60, 70,
and 80 degrees on the quadrant, the fines of thefe ele»
vations will be d 40, e 50, f 60, g 70, and h 80 ; which
will be equal to the heights Aw, A«, Au, Kp, and
Aq; and thefe heights meafured upon the fcale 8 will be
64.3, 76.6, 86.6, 94.0, and 98.J ; which exprefs the
preffures at A in all thefe elevations, confidering the
preffure in the upright pipe AB as too.
Becaufe it may be of ufe to have the lengths of all the
fines of a quadrant from o degrees to 90, we have given
the foregoing table, (hewing the length of the fine of eve¬
ry degree in fuch parts as the whole pipe (equal to the
radius of the quadrant) contains 1000. Then the fines
will be integral or whole parts in length. But if youfup-
pofe the length of the pipe to'be divided only into ico
equal parts, the laft figure of each qxart or fine muft be
cut off as a decimal; and then thoie which remain at
the left hand of this feparation will be integral or whole
parts.
Thus, if the radius of the quadrant (fuppofed to be
equal to the length of the pipe AG) be divided into iqoo
oqual parts, and the devation be 45 degrees, the fine of
that elevation will be equal to 707 of thefe parts; but
if the radius be divided into 100 equal parts, the fame
fine will be only 70.7 or 70^ of thefe parts. For, as
tooois to 707, fo is too to 70.7.
As it is of great importance to all engine-makers, to
know what quantity and weight of water will be contain¬
ed in an upright round pipe of a given diameter and
height, To as, by knowing what weight is to be raifed,
they may proportion their engines to the force which
they can offord to work them ; we (hall fubjoin tables
(hewing the number of cubic inches of water contained
in an upright pipe of a round bore, of any diameter from
one inch to fix and a half; and of any height from one
foot to two hundred: together with the weight of the
faid number of cubic inches, both in troy and avoirdoir-
dopoife ounces. The number of cubic inches divided by
231, will reduce the water to gallons in wine mealure;
and divided by 3^82, will reduce it to the meafure of ale-
gallons. Alfo/the troy ounces divided by 12, will
reduce the weight to troy pounds : and the avoirdupoife
ounces divided by 16, will reduce the weight to avoirdu¬
poife pounds.
And here We muft repeat it again, that the weight or
preffure of the water ailing againft the power that works
the engine muft always be eftimated according to the
perpendicular height to which it is to be raifed, without
any regard to the length of the conduit pipe, when it
tias an dblique pofition ; and as if the diameter of that
Vol. II. No. 60. 1
T A T I C S. 813
pipe were juft equal to the diameter of that part of the
pump in which thepifton works. Thus by the tables on
the two following pages, the preffure of the water againft
an engine whofepump is of a 44 inch bore, and the per¬
pendicular,height of the water in the conduit-pipe is 80
feet, will be equal to 8057.5 troy ounces, and to
8848.2 avoirdupoife ounces ; which makes 671.4 troy
pounds, and 553 avoirdupoife.
Example. Requiredthe number of cubic inches, and
the ’weight of the water, in an upright pipe 278 feet
high, and 1 inch diameter ?
Feet. Cubic inches. Troy oz. Avoir, oz.
200 4241.1 2238.2 ,24578
70 1484.1 783.3 860.2
8 169.6 89.5 98.3
,Anfw. 278 5895.1 3111.0 3416.3
Here theneareft fingle decimal figure is only taken in¬
to the account; and the whole, being reducedby divifion,
amounts 1025.4 wine-gallons in meafure, to 259^ pounds
troy, and 21.34 pounds avoirdupoife.
Thefe tables were at fir it calculated to fix decimal
places for the fake of exadtnefs; but in tranlcribing
them there are no more than two decimal figures taken
into the account, and fometimes but one; becaufe there
is no necellity for computing to hundredth parts of an inch
or of an ounce i» praitice.
The fire engine.
Th e firt-engine in order to be explained :
but as it would be difficult, even by the beft plates, .to
give a particular deicription of its feveral parts, fo as to
make the whole intelligible, we ihall only explain the
principles upon which it is conftrudted.
1. Whatever weight of water is to be raifed, the
pump-rod muft be loaded w th weights fuffici; nt for that
purpofe, if it be done by a forcing pump, as is generally
the cafe: and the power of the engine muft be fufficient
for the weight of the rod, in order to bring it up.
2. It is known, that the atmofphere preffes upen the
furface of the-earth with -a force equal to 15 pounds upon
every fquare inch.
3. When water is heated to a.certain degree, the par¬
ticles thereof repel one another, and coniUtute an elaftic
fluid, which is generally called fteam or vapour. <
4. Hot fteam is very elaftic ; and when it is cooled.by
anymeans, particularly by its being mixed with cold wa¬
ter, its elafticity is deftroyed immediately, and it is re¬
duced to water again,
5. If a veffel be filled with hot fteam, and then clofed
fo 8s to keep out the external air and all other fluids;
when that fteam is by any means condenfed, cooled, or
reduced to water, that water will tall to the bottom of
the veffel; and the cavity of -the vefl’el will be almoft a
perfeft vacuum.
6. Whenever a vacuum is made in any veffel the air
by its weight will endeavour to mill into the veffel, or
8 T to
8i4 HYDRO
to drive in any other body that will give way to
its preffure; as may be eafily feen by a common
fyringe. For, if you Hop the bottom of a fyringe,
and then draw up the pilton, if it be fo tight as
to drive out all the air before it, and leave a va¬
cuum within the fyringe, the pifton being let go
will be driven down with a great force.
7. The force with which the pifton is drove
down, when there is a vacuum under it, will be
as the fquare of the diameter of the bore in the
fyringe. That is to fay, it will be driven down
with four times as much force in a fyringe of a
two-inch bore, as in a fyringe of one inch : for
the areas of circles are always as the fquares of
their diameters.
8. The preffure of the atmofphere being to 15
pounds upon every fquare inch, it will be equal
to about 12 pounds upon every circular inch. So
that if ihe bore of the fyringe be round, and one
inch in diameter, the pifton will be preft down
into it by a force nearly equal to 12 pounds:
but if the bore be two inches diameter, the pif¬
ton will be preft down with four times that force.
And hence it is eafy to find with what force
the atmofphere preffes upon any given number
either of fquare or circular inches.
Thefe being the principles upon which this
engine is conftrufted, we (hall next defcribe the
chief working parts of it: which are, 1. A boiler.
2. A cylinder and pifton. 3. A beam or lever.
The b®iler is a large vefiel made of iron or
copper ; and commonly fo big as to contain about
2000 gallons.
The cylinder is about 40 inches diameter,
bored fo fmooth, and its leathered pifton fitting fo
tJofe, that little or no water can get between the
pifton and fides of the cylinder.
Things being thus prepared, the cylinder is
placed upright, and the ftiank of the pifton is
fixed to one end of the beam, which turns on
a centre like a common balance.
The boiler is placed under the cylinder, with
a communication between them, which can be 0-
pened and fhut occafionally.
The boiler is filled about half full of water,
and a ftrong fire is made under it : then, if the
communication between the boiler and the cylin¬
der be opened, the cylinder will be filled with hot
fteam ; which would drive the pifton quite-Out at
the top of it. But there is a contrivance by
which the piftbn, when it is near the top of the
cylinder, fliuts the communication at the top of
the boiler within.
This is no fooner ftrut, than another is o-
pened, by which a little cold water is thrown up¬
wards in a jet into the cylinder, which mixing
with the hot fteam, condenfes it immediately ; by
which means a vacuum is made in the cylinder, and
the pifton is prelfed down by the weight of the
atmofphere ; and fo lifts up the loaded pump-rod.
at the other end of .the beam.
STATICS.
HYDRO-
HYDROSTICAL TABLES.
1 Inch diameter.
n? ' Solidity
" | in cubic
if- inches.
9-42
18.85
28.27
37-70
47-12
56.5s
65.97
75.40
84.82
94-25
188.49
282.74
376.99
471-24
565.49
659.7 i
753 98
843.23
942.48
1884.96
Weight
in Troy
ounces.
4-97
9-95
14.92
19.89
24.87
29.84
34-82
39-79
44.76
49-74
99.48
149.2
198.95
248.69
298.43
348.17
397-90
447.64
497-38
In avoir
dupoife
ounces.
5.46
10.92
16.38
21.85
27-3
32.77
38.25
43.69
49.16
54-62
109.24
163.86
218.47
273-09
327.7
382.33
436.95
491-57
546.19
994.76,1092.38
2 Inches diameter.
37-70
75.40
113.10
150.80
188.50
226.19
263.89
301.59
339-29
376.99
753-98
1130.97
1507.97
1884.96
2261.95
2638.94
3015-93
3392.92
3769.91
7539*82,
19.89
39-79
59.68
79.58
99-47
119.37
139.26
159.16
179.06
198.95
397-90
596.85
795.80
994-75
[ 193.70
1392.65
1591.60
1790.56
1989.51
3979.00
21.85
43.69
65.54
87,
109.24
131.08
152.9.
174.78
196.63
218.47
436.95
665.42
873.90
1092.37
1310.85
1529.32
1747-80,
1966.27
2184.75
4369.50
lx Inches diameter.
trl ! I
ft Solidity jWeight
2. in cubic in Troy
inches, ounces.
2i.5i
42.42
63.62
84.8
106.03
127-23
147-44
169.65
190.85
21206
424-12
6^6.17
848.23
1060.29
1272.35
1484.40
1696.46
1908.52
2120.58
424«.i j,
33-57
44-76
55-95
67.15
78.34
89.53
100.72
111.91
223.82
335-73
447.64
559-55
671.46
783.37
895.28
007.19
In avoir
dupoile
ounces.
12.29
24.58
36.87
49-16
6i.45
73-73
86.02
98.31
110.60
122.89
245-78
368.68
49I-57
614.46
757-35
860.24
983.14
,106.03
228.92
2457.84
2x Inches diameter.
1178.ro
1767.15
2356.20
2545.25
3534-29
4123.34
4712.39
5:,or-44
5890.49
31.08
62.17
93.26
124.34
155-43
186.52
217.60
248.69
279-77
310.86
621.72
932.58
1243-44
1554-30
1865.16
2176.02
2486.88
2797.74
3108.60
1780.98 6217.20
34-14
68.27
102.41
136.55
170.68
204.82
238.96
273.09
307.23
341.37
682.73
1024.10
1 365.47
1706.83
2048.20
2389.27
2730.94
3072.30
2413-67
4827.34
HYDROSTATICS. 815
HYDROSTATICALTABLES.
3 Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
169.6
254.5
239-3
424.
508.9
593-7
698.6
763-4
848.2
1696.5
2244 7
3392-9
4241-1
5089.4
5937-6
6785.8
7634-1
8482.;
Weight
in Toy
ounces.
44.76
8953
134-29
179.06
223.82
268.58
313-35
358 . r 1
402.87
447.64
895.28
1342.92
1790.56
22 38.19
26S5.-83
3133-47
3581.11
4028.75
4476.39
16964.6; 8952.78 9821.36
In avoir
dupoife
ounces.
49.16
98.31
147-47
199.63
245-78
4 inches diameter.
150.8
301.6
452*4
603.2
754.0
904.8
1055.6
1206.4
3JI5.9
4523.9
6631.9
7539-8
9047.8
10555.8
12063.7
13571.7
15079.7
30159-3
79.6
159.2
2j8. 7
318.3
497-9
477-5
557-1
636.6
716.2
795-8
i59i-6
2387.4
3183.2
3997-o
4774-8
5570.6
6366.4
7162.2
7958.0
15916.0
87.4
174.8
262.3
349-6
436.9
524.3
611.7
699.1
786.5
873-9
1747-8
2621.7
3495-6
4369.5
5243-4
6117.3
6991.2
7865.1
8739-1
17478.2
3-*- Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
115.4
230.9
346.4
461.8
577-3
Weight
in Troy
60.9
i2i.r
182.8
243-7
304.6
365.6
426.5
487.4
548..
609.:
1218.6
1827.9
1437-
3046.4
3655-7
4265.6
4874-3
5483.6
6092.9
2^090.7! 12185.7!
In avoir
dupoife
opnces.
66.9
133-8
200.7
267.6
334-5
401.4
468.4
535-3
6O2.2
669.1.
1338.2
2007.2
2676.3
3345-4
4014.5
4683.6
5352.6
6021.7
6690.8
13381.5
^ Inches diameter.
190.8
381.7
572 6
763.4
954-3
1145.1
1337-9
1526.8
I7J7.7
1908.5
3817.0
5725.6
7644-'
7542.6
11451.1
13359-6
[5268.2
17176.7
19085.2
38170.4
402.9
503.6
805.7
906.5
1007.2
2014.4
3021.6
4028.7
5035 9
6043.1
7050.3
8057-5
9064.7
10071.9
2014.8
xio.6
221.2
331.8
442-4
553-0
663.6
774-2
2212.1
3818 1
4424.1
5530.1
66.6.2
9954-3 i
11060.3 !
22120.6 1
5 Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
235.6
471-2
706.8
942.5
1178.
1413.7
1649.3
1884.9
2120.6
2356.2
4712.4
7068.6
9424.8
1781.0
14I37-2
16493.4
S849.6
11205.8
562.0
Weight
in Troy
124.3
248.7
373-o
497-4
621.8
746.1
870.4
994.8
1119.1
1243-4
2486.9
3730.3
4973-8
6217.2
7460.6
8704.1
9947-5
; 1191.0
12434-4
In avoir
dupoife
ounces.
136.5
273-i
409.6
546.2
682.7
819.3
955.8
1092.4
1228.77
1365.5
2730.9
4096.4
5461.9
6827.3
8192.8
9558.3
10923.7
12289.2
.654.7
47124.0 24868.8 127309.3
6 Inches diameter.
337-3
6$8.6
ioi7-9
1 357-2
1696.5
2035.7
2375-0
27I4-3
3053-6
3392-9
6785.8
10178.8
I3571.7
16964.6
2<A57-5
2 '750.5
27143.4
30536, 3
’,-929.2
67858.1
716.2
895.3
1074-3
1253.4
1432.4
1611.5
1790.6
3581.1
5571-7
7162.2
8953.8
10743-3
12533-9
196.6
393-3
589.9
786.5
983.1
1179-8
1 >76.4
1573-0
1769.6
1966.3
3932-5
5.'-98.8
7865.1
*3763-9
15730 2
17696.5
7905.61 19662.7
35811-2: 39325-4
Indies diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
285.1
570-2
855-3
1140.4
1425.5
1710.6
1995-7
2280.8
2565.9
2851.0
5702.0
8553-o
11404.0
14255-0
7106.0
CTU 32000.0
90J 256J9.O
IOO 285IO.O
200,57020.0
Weight
in Troy
ounces.
150.5
300.9
45i-4
601.8
’752-2
902.7
1053-2
1203.6
1354-1
1504.6
3009.1
4513-7
6018.2
7522.9
9027.4
10531-9
120 ^6.5
1354I-I
15045-1
30091.2
In avoir
dupoife
ounces.
164.3
328.5
492-8
657.
92i-3
985-6
1149-9
1314-2
1478.4
1642.7
3285.4
4928.1
6570.8
8213.5
9856.2
1498.9
13141-6
14784.3
16426.9
32853-9
Inches diameter.
398.2
797-4
1195-6
1593-8
199I-9
*390.1
2788.3
3186.5
3584.7
3982.0
7965.8
11941.8
19914.6
2,897:6
27880.5
31863.4
35846.3
39829.3
7965 8.6
420.3
630.4
840.6
1050.8
1260.9
I47I-I
1681.2
1891.3
2101.5
4202.9
6504.4
. 8405.9
ic>507;4
12608.9
14710.4
16811.8
18913.3
21014.8
142029.6
230.7
461.4
692.1
922.8
1 r53.6
1384-3
1615.0
1845-7
2076.4
2307.1
4614.3
6921.4
9228.6
11535-7
1 .>842.9
16150.0
18457-2
20764.3
23071-5
46143.0
If
S16 HYDROSTATICS.
If the cylinder be 42 inches in diameter, the pi lion will
be preffed down with a force greater than 30000 pounds,
and will confequently lift up that weight at the oppofite
end of the beam : and as the pump-rod with its plunger
is fixed to that end, if the bore where the plunger works
were 10 inches diameter, the water would be forced up
through a pipe of 180 yards perpendicular height.
But, as the parts of this engine have a good deal of
friftion, and mufl work with a confiderable velocity, and
there is no fuch thing as making a perfe<ft vacuum in the
cylinder, it is found that no more than 8’pounds of
preflure muft be allowed for, on every circular inch of
the pifton in the cylinder, that it may make about 16
ftrokes in a minute, about 6 feet each.
Where the boiler is very large, the piflon will make
between 20 and 25 ftrokes in a minute, and each ftroke
7 or 8 feet ; which, in a pump of 9 inches bore, will
raife upwards of 300 hogfheads of water in an hour.
It is found by experience, that a cylinder 40 inches
diameter will work a pump 10 inches' diameter and
100 yards long : and hence we can find the diameter
and length of a pump -that can be worked by any other
cylinder.
For the conveniency of thofe who would make ufe of
this engine for railing water, we {hall fubjoin part of a
table calculated by Mr. Beighton, fhewing how any given
quantity of water may be raifed in an hour, from 48 to
440 hogfheads; at any given depth, from 15 to 100
yards ; the machine working at the rate of _x6 ftrokes
per minute, and each ftroke being 6 feet long.
One example of the ufe of this table, will make the
whole plain. Suppofe it were required to draw 150
hogfheads per hour, at 90 yards depth ; in the fecond
column from the right hand, I find the neareft number,
viz. 149 hogfheads 40 gallons ; againft which, on the
right hand, I find the diameter of the bore of the pump
muft be 7 inches ; and in the fame collateral line, under
the given depth 90, I find 27 inches, the diameter of
the cylinder fit for that purpofe.—And fo for any
other.
A Table fhewing the Power of the Engine for railing Water by Fire ;
Calculated to the Meafure of Aie-gallons, at 282 cubic Inches per Gallon.
The depth to be drawn in yards.
ioi
45 | 50 60
80 90
Hogfh. Gal.
440
369 33
304 48
247 7
221 15
195 22
182 13
172 30
14,9 40
128 54
110 1
60 60
48 ji
Diam. of
pump.
84r
8
71
7w
7
6i
6
Si
5
41
The Pcrfian wheel.
Water maybe raifed by means of aflream AB (Plate
too. fig. 8.) turning a wheel CDE, according to die
order of the letters, with buckets a,a,a,a, <bc. hung
upon the wheel by ftrong pins b,h,bsb, &c. fixed in the
fide of the rim: but the wheel muft be made as high as
the water is intended to be raifed above the level of that
part of the dream in which the wheel is placed. As the
wheel turns, the buckets on the right hand go down into
the water, and are thereby filled 5 and go tip full on the
left hand, until they come to the top at K ; where they
ftrike againft the end n of the fixed trough M, and aie
thereby overfet, and empty the water into the trough ;
from which it may be conveyed in pipes to the place which
it is defigne'd for: and as each bucket gets over the trough,,
it falls into a perpendicular pofiuon again, and goes down
empty, until it comes to the water at A, where it is fill¬
ed as before. On each bucket is a fpring r, which going
over the top or crown of the bar (fixed to the trough
M) raifes the bottom of the bucket above above the level
of
HYDROS
of Its mouth, and fo caufes it to empty all its water into
the trough.
Sometimes this wheel is made to raife water no higher
than its axis; and then, inflead of buckets hung upon it,
its fpokes C, d, e^ f g, h are made of a b.-nt form, and
hollow within; thefe hollows opening into the holes C,
D, E, F, in the ontfide of the wheel, and alfo into thofe
at O in the box N upon the axis. So that, as the holes
C, D, be. dip into the water, it runs n5to them ; and as
the wheel "turns, the water rifes in the hallow fpokes,
d. 8cc. and runs out in a ftream P from the holes at O,
and falls kito the trough Q, from whence it'is conveyed
by pipes, ^id this is a very eafy way of railing water,
bec.aufe the engine requires neither men nor horfes to
turn it.
0/ the fpecific gravities of bodies.
The art of weighing different bodies in water, and
thereby finding their fpecific gravities, or weights, bulk
for bulk, was invented by Archimedes.
The fpecific gravities of bodies are as their weights,
feulk for bulk ; thus a body'is faid to have two or three
times the fpecific gravity of another, when it contains
two or three times as much matter in the fame fpace.
A body immerfed in a fluid will fink to the bottom, if
it be heavier than its bulk of the fluid. If it be fufpend-
ed therein, it will lofe as much of what it weighed in air,
as its bulk of the fluid weighs. Hence, all bodies of equal
bulk, which would fink in fluids, lofe equal weights when
fufpended therein. And unequal bodies lofe in proportion
to their bulks.
The hydrojlatic balance.
The hydrojlatic balance differs very little from a com¬
mon balance tlm is nicely made : only it has a book at
the bottom ofeach fcale, on which fmall weights may be
hung by horfe-hairs, or by fiik threads. So that a
body, fufpended by the hair or thread, may be immer¬
fed in water without wetting the fcale from which it hangs.
If the body thus fufpended under the fcale, at one end
of the balance, be firft counterpoifed in air by weights in
the oppofite fcale, and then immerfed in water, the equi¬
librium will be immediately deftroyed. Then, if as much
weight be put into the fcale from which the body hangs
as will reftore the equilibrium (without altering the
weights in the oppofite fcale) that weight which reftores
the equilibrium will be equal to the weight of a quantity
of water as big as the immerfed body. And if the weight
of the body in air be divided by what it lofes in water,
the quotient will (hew how much that body is heavier
than its bulk of water. Thus, if a guinea fufpended in
air be counterbalanced by 129 grains in the oppofite fcale
of the balance; and then, upon its being immerfed in
water, it becomes fo much lighter as to require 7^
grains put into the fcale over it, to reftore the equilibri
urn ; it (hews that a quantity of water, of equal bulk
with the guinea, weighs 7^ grains, or 7.25 ; by which
divide 129 (the weight of the guinea in air) and the quo¬
tient will be 17.793; which fhews that the guinea is
Vol, II. No. 61. 2
T A T I C S. 817
17.793 times as heavy as its bulk of bulk of water. And
thus any piece of gold may be tried, by weighing it firll
in air, and then in water ; and if, upon dividing the weight
in air by the lofs in water, the quotient comes out to be
17.793, the gold is good; if the quotient be 18, orbe-
tween 18 and 19, the gold is very fine; but if it be lefs
than 174, the gold is too much allayed, by being mixed
with fome other metal.
If filver be tried in this manner, and found to be 11
times as heavy as water, it is very fine; if it be 10-r,
times as heavy, it is ftandard; but if it be of any lefs weight
compared with water, it is mixed with fome lighter metal,
fuch as tin.
By this method the fpecific gravities of all bodies that
will fink in water may be found. But as to thofe which
are lighter than water, as mod forts of wood are, the
following method may be taken, to (hew how much
lighter they are than their refpeftive bulks of water.
Let an upright ftud be fixed into a thick flat piece of
brafs, and in this ftud let a fmall lever, whofe arms are
equally, long, turn upon a fine pin as an axis. Let the
thread which hangs from the fcale of the balance be tied
to one end of the lever, and a thread from the body to be
weighed tied to the other end. This done, put the
brafs and lever into a veflel: then pour water into the
veffel, and the body will rife and float upon it, and draw
down the end of the balance from which it hangs: then,
put as much weight in the oppofite fcale as will raife that
end of the balance, fo as to pull the body down into the
water by means of the lever; and this weigh t,in the fcale will
fhewhow much the body is lighter than its bulk of water.
There are fome things which cannot be weighed in this
manner, fuch as quickfilver, fragments of diamonds, be.
becaufe they cannot be fufpended in threads ; and muft
therefore be put into a glafs bucket, hanging by a thread
from the hook of one fcale, and counterpoifed by weights
put into the oppofite fcale. Thus, fuppofe you want to
know the fpecific gravity of quickfilver, with refpett to
that of water ; let the empty bucket be firfl: counterpoifed
in air, and then the quickfilver put into it and weighed.
Writedown the weight of the bucket, and alfo of tl^
quickfilver; which done, empty the bucket, and let it be
immerfed in water as it hangs by the thread, and coun¬
terpoifed therein by weights in the oppofite fcale : then,
pour the quickfilver into the bucket in the water, which
will caufe it to preponderate; and put as much weight into
the oppofite fcale as will reftore the balance to an equi-
poife ; and this weight will be the weight of a quantity
of water equal in bulk to the quickfilver. Laftly, divide
the weight of the quickfilver in air, by the weight of its
bulk of water, and the quotient will Ihew how much the
quickfilver is heavier than its bulk of water.
If a piece of brafs, glafs, lead, or filver, be immerfed
and fufpended in different forts of fluids, its different
Ioffes of weight therein will Ihew how much it is heavier
than its bulk of the fluid ; the fluid being lighteft, in which
the immerfed body lofes leaft of its aerial weight A folid
bubble of glafs is generally ufed for finding the fpecific
gravities of fluids.
Hence we have an eafy method of finding the fpecific
gravities both of folids and fluids, with regard to the re-
8 U fpediva
818 HYDROS
fpedtive bulks of common pump water, which is generally
madeaftandard for comparing all the others by.
In conftru&ing tables of fpecific gravities wi.b accuracy,
the gravity of water muft be reprefented by unity or
l.ooo, where three cyphers are added, to give room for
exprefling the ratios of other gravities in decimal parts,
as in the following table.
Take away the decimal point from the numbers in the
right hand column, or (which is the fame) multiply them
by 1000, and they will fhew how many ounces avoirdu-
poife are contained in a cubic foot of each body.
JHtnxi to find out the quantity of adulteration in met ah.
The ufe of the table of fpecific gravities will beft appear
by an example. Suppofe a body to be compounded of
of gold and (liver, and it is required to find the quantity
of each metal in the compound.
Firft find the fpecific gravity of the compound, by
weighing it in air and in water, and dividing its aerial
weight by what it lofes thereof in water, the quotient
will fhew its fpecific gravity, or how many times it is
heavier than its bulk of water. Then, fubtrad the fpe¬
cific gravity of filver (found in the table) from that of
the compound, and the fpecific gravity of the com¬
pound from that of gold; the firft remainder {hews the
bulk of gold, and the latter the bulk of filver, in the
whole compound : and if thefe remainders be multiplied
by the tefpedive fpecific gravities, the produds will fhew
the proportion of weights of each metal in the body. Ex¬
ample,
T A T I C S.
Suppofe the fpecific gravity of the compounded body
to be 13 ; that of ftandard filver (by the table) is 10. y,
and that of gold 19 63 : therefore to.5 from 13, remains
2.5, the proportional bulk of the gold; and 13 from
19.63, remains 6 63, the proportional bulk of filver in
the compound. Then, the firft remainder 2.5, multi¬
plied by 19.63, the fpecific gravity of gold, produces
49.075 for the proportional weight of gold; and the laft
remainder 6.63 multiplied by 10.5, the fpecific gravity of
filver, produces 69.615 for the proportional weight of fil¬
ver in the whole body. So that, for every 49 07 ounces
or pounds of gold, there are 69.6 pounds or ounces of
filver in the body
Hence it is eafy to know whether any fufpeded metal
be genuine, or allayed, or counterfeit ; by finding how
much it is heavier than its bulk of water, and comparing
the fame with the table: if they agree, themetal is good;
if they differ, it is allayed or counterfeited.
Honu to try fpirituous liquors.
A cubical inch of good brandy, rum, or other proof
fpirits, weighs 235.7 grains ; therefore, if a true inch cube
of any metal weighs 235.7 grains kfs in fpirits than in
air, it (hews the fpirits are proof. If it lofes lefs of its
aerial weight in fpirits, they are above proof: if it lofes
more, they are under. For, the better the fpirits ate,
they are the lighter; and the worfe, the heavier
The hydrometer is one of the moft ufeful inftruments
of the philofophic kind; for though the hydroftaticaf
balance be the moft general inftrument for finding the
A Table of the fpecific Gravities of the feveral folid and fluid Bodies.
A cubic inch of
Very fine gold
Standard gold
Guinea gold —
Moidore gold
Quickfilver —
Lead  
Fine filver —
Standard filver
Copper  
Plate brafs —
Steel  
Iron  
Block tin —
Spelter —
Lead ore —
Glafs of antimony
German antimony
Copper ore —
Diamond  
Clear glafs
Lapis lazuli
Welch afbeftos
Troy weight Avoirdup.
gr-
7 3-83
19 6.44
7 17 18
o 19.84
7 11.61
19 17-55
16 23.23
336
7 °4
9.60
13
o 15.20
17 5 68
14 12.86
11 1776
15 16.89
2 4.80
1 11.83
15 20.88
13' .5-58
12 5.27
lo •17.57
iz. drams
5 3o
M 9°
4 76
14.71
1.45
9 08
6.66
1.54
1.89
10.09
8.70
6.77
3- 79
1.42
14.96
o 89-
5.04
4- 43
15.48
13 16
12.27
10.97
Compa¬
rative
weight.
19.637
18.888
17 793
17.140
14.019
11 325
11 087
10.535
8.843
8 000
7.852
7.645
7'321
7 065
6.800
5.280
4 000
3-775
3 400
3-15°
3-P54
2.913
HYDRO STATICS.
The Table concluded.
A cubic inch of
White marble  
Black ditto   -
Rock cryftal  
Green giafs — -
Cornelian Hone  
Flint   
Hard paving done
Live fulphur —
Nitre  
Alabafter —
Dry ivory   -
Brimftone  
Alum  
Ebony  
Human blood  
Amber  
Cow’s milk —
Sea water    -
Pump water •—
Spring water — -
Dillilled water  
Red wine    -
Oil of amber  :
Proof ipirits  
Dry oak  
Olive oil  
Pure fpirits —
Spirit of Turpentine
Oil of Turpentine
Dry Crabtree
SafTafras wood —
Cork  
Troy weight. | Avoirdup.
oz pw. gr. ! oz. drams.
13.41
i2.6y
1.00
15.38
1.21
19.63
22.87
1 2.40
o 1.08
19 18.74
19 6.09
18 23 76
17 21.92
11 18.82
11 2.89
10 20.79
10 20.79
10 20.79
10 13.30
10 12.94
10 11.42
10 11.42
10 7.63
19 73
18 00
15 17
3 27
76
8-53
1.69
2.04
9.06
9.02
8.61
8.26
7.73
7-53
6.77
2.52
1.59
i-35
0.89
o 66
15-72
10.34
9.76
954
9-54
954
9.26
9.25
9.20
9.20
9.06
8.62
8 56
8.45
8.02
7 99
7 33
7 08
4.46
2.21
Compa¬
rative
weight.
2.707
2 704
2 658
2.620
2.568
2.542
2.460
2.000
j .900
1.875
1.825
1.800
I,7'4
1.1 *7
1 054
1.030
1.030
1.030
1 000
o 999
o 99.3
o 993
0.978
o 931
0.925
0.913
o 866
0.864
0.772
o 765
o 482
0.240
819
fpecific gravities of all forts of bodies, yet the hydro¬
meter is bed fuited to find thofe of fluids in particular,
both as to eafe and expedition.
This indrument fliould be made of copper, fince
ivory imbibes fpirituous liqours, and- thereby alters
its gravity ; and giafs is apt to break. The mod
Ample kind, ufed for finding the drength of fpirits,
eonfids of a copper-ball B& Plate 101. (fig. 1. n° 1.}
with a hrafs wire, AB?, of an inch thick, folder-
ed into it. The upper part of this wire being filed
flat on one fide, is marked proof at w, becaufe it finks
exaftiy to this mark in proof-fpirits. There are other
two marks at A and B, to' Ihew whether the liquor
he -1% above or b low proof, according as the hydro
meu r finks to A or emerges to B,‘when a brafs weight
as C or K has been fcrewed on at the bottom c. There
are alfo weights to ’ e fcrewed on, for (hew ng the fpe¬
cific gravities of fluids quite to common water. The
round part, of the wire above the ball, may be marked
fear to rep re feat river water when it finks to R W,
(Jb/d r° 2 ") the weight which fits the indrument for.
r ver water being fcrewed on at e .• alfo when put into
fpring-water mineral water, fea-water, and water of
fait fprings, it will emerge or rife gradually to the
marks SP, MI, SE. SA; and, on the contrary, when
put into Bridol-water, rain-water, port-wine, and' moun¬
tain wine, it will fucceflively fink to the. marks, hr, ra,
po, mo.
Another kind, which ferves to= didinguifh the fpeci-
fie differences of fluids to great nicety, conlids of a.
large hollow hall B, {ibid. n° 3 ) with a fmailer ball h
under it,, partly filled with quick filver or, fmall fiiot,.
and fcrewed on to the lower part of the former, ia
order to render it but little fpec fically lighter than
water: it has alfo a final 1 ftrort neck at C, into which,
is fcrewed the graduated brafs-wire AC, which by its
weight caufes the body of the indrument to defeend in.
the fluid, with part of the flem.
When this indrument is fwimming in the Kqpor, .
contained.in the jar ILMK,, the part of the fluid dif-’
placed
320 HYDROS
placed by it will be equal in bulk, to the part of the
inllrument under water, and equal in weight to that
of the whole inllrument. Suppofe the weight of the
whole were 4000 grains, then it is evident we can by
tins means compare together the different bulks of
4000 grains of various forts of fluids. For if the weight
A be fuch as fhall caufe the araeometer to fink, in rain¬
water, till its furface comes to the middle point of the
ftem 20; and if, after this, it be immerf'ed in common
fpring water, and the furface is obferved to (land TV
cf an inch below the middle point 20; it is evident
that the fame weight of each water differs in bulk on¬
ly by the magnitude of ^ of an inch in the ftem.
Now fuppofe the ftem were ten inches long, and
weighed 100 grains, then every tenth of an inch would
be one grain weight; and fince the ftem is of brafs,
and brafs is about eight times heavier than water, the
fame bulk of water will be equal to f of a grain ; and
confequently to the f of part, that is, a 320odth
part of the whole bulk, which is a degree of exa&nefs
as great as can be defired. Yet the inftrument is ca¬
pable of (till greater exaflnefs, by rnaking the ftem or
neck confift of a flat thin flip of brafs, inftead of one
that is round or cylindrical: by this means we increafe
the furface, which is the moft requifite thing; and
diminifh the folidity, by which the inllrument is ren
dered moreexaft.
In order to adapt this inftrument to all forts of ufes,
there ought to be two different Items to fcrew on
and off in a fmall hole at a. One ftem fhould be fuch
a nice thin flip of brafs, or rather of fleel, like a watch-
fpring fet ftraight, as we have juft mentioned, on one
fide of which ought to be the feveral marks or divi-
fions to which it will fink in various forts of waters,
as rain-water, river-water, fpring-water, fea water, fait
fpring-water, &c. And on the other fide you mark
the divifion to which it finks in various lighter fluids,
as hot bath-water, Briftol water, Lincomb water, Chel-
ten water, port-wdne, mountain, madeira, and various
other forts of wine. But in this cafe the weight A on
the lop mufi: be a Tittle lefs than before, when it was
afed for the heavier waters.
But, in cafe of trying the ftrength of fpirituous li¬
quors, a common cylindric ftem will do beft, becaufe
4>f its ftrength and fteadinefs; and this ought to be fo
contrived, that, when immerfed in what is called proof-
fpirit, the furface of the fpirit may be upon the mid¬
dle point 20; which is eafily done by duly adjuftingthe
fmall weight A on the top, and making the ftem of fuch
a length, that, when immerfed in water, it may juft
cover the ball, and rife to a; but, when immerfed in
pure fpirit, it may arife to the top at A ; then by di¬
viding the upper and lower parts a 20, A 2©, into ten
equal parts each, when the inftrument is immerfed in any
fort of fpirituous liqour, it will immediately Thew how
much it is above or below proof.
This proof-fpirit confifts of half water and half alco¬
hol or pure fpirit ; that is, fuch as when poured upon
gunpowder, and fet on fire, will burn all away, and
permit the powder to take fire, which it will, and
T A T I C S.
fluff as in the open air. But if the fpirit be not fo
highly reftified, there will remain fome phlegm or
water, which will make the powder wet, and unfit to
take fire. This proof fpirit of any kind weighs feven
pounds twelve ounces per gallon.
The common method of ffaking the fpirits in a vial,
and, by raifing a crown of bubbles, to judge by the
manner of their rifing or breaking away whether the
fpirit be proof or near it, is very precarious, and ca¬
pable of great fallacy. There is no way fo eafy, quick,
certain, and philofophical, as this by the araeometer,
which will demonftrate infallibly the difference of bulks,
and confequently fpecific gravities, in equal weights
of fpirits, to the 30, 40, or 50 thoufandth part of the
whole, which is a degree of accuracy beyond which
nothing can be defired.
All bodies expand with heat, and contraft with cold;
but fome more and fome lefs than others : and therefore
the fpecific gravities of bodies are not precifely the fame
in fummer as in winter. It has been found, that a cubic
inch of good brandy is 10 grains heavier in winter than
in fummer ; as^much. fpirit of nitre, 20 grains ; vinegar
6 grains, and fpring water 3, Hence it is moft profita¬
ble to buy fpirits in winter, and fell them in fummer,
fince they are always bought and fold by meafure. It has
been found, that 32 gallons of fpirits in winter frill make
33 in fummer.
The expanfion of all fluids is proportionable to the de¬
gree of heat ; that is, with a double or triple heat a fluid
will expand two or three times as much.
Upon thefe principles depends the conftnnftion of the
thermometer, in which the globe or bulb, and part of
the tube, are filled with a fluid, which, when joined
to the barometer, is fpirits of wine tinged, that it
may be the more eafily feen in the tube. But when ther¬
mometers are made by thenafelves, quickfilver is gene¬
rally ufed.
In the thermometer, a fcale is fitted to the tube,
to ffew the expanfion of the quickfilver, and confe¬
quently the degree of heat. And, as Farenheit's fcal.e
is moft in efteem at prefent, we ffall explain the con-
ftrudtion and graduation of thermometers according to
that fcale
Firft, let the globe or bulb, and part of the tube, be
filled with a fluid ; then immerfe the bulb in water juft
freezing, or fnow juft thawing ; and even with that part
in the fcale where the fluid then ftands in the tube, place
the number 32, to denote the freezing point: then put
the bulb under your arm pit, when your body is of a
moderate degree of heat, fo that it may acquire the fame
degree of heat with your Ikin ; and when the fluid has
rifen as far as it can by that heat, there place the
number 97 : then divide the fpace between thefe num¬
bers into 65 equal parts, and continue thofe divifions
both above 97 and below 32, and number them ac¬
cordingly.
This may be done in any part of the world ; for it is
found that the freezing point is always the fame in all
places, and the heat of the human body differs but very
Kttle : fo that the thermometers made in this manner
Wili
HYDROS
will agree with one another: and the heat of feveral bodies
will be fhewn by them, and expreffed by the number upon
the fcale, thus.
Air, in fevere cold weather, in our climate, from 15
to 25. Air in winter, from 26 to 42. Air in fpring
and autumn, from 43 to 53. Air at midfummer, from
65 to 68. Extreme beat of the fummer fun, from 86
to 100. Butter juft melting, 95. Alcohol boils with
i74or 175. Brandy with 190. Water 212. Oil of
turpentine 550. Tin melts with 408, and lead with
540. Milk freezes about 30, vinegar 28, and blood 27.
A body fpecifically lighter than a fluid will fwimupon
its furface, in fuch a manner, that a quantity of the fluid
equal in bulk with the immeifed part of the body, will
be as heavy as the whole body. Hence, the light¬
er a fluid is, the deeper a body will fink in it ; upon
which depends the conftruiftion of the hydrometer or
water-poife.
From this we can eafily find the weight of a fhip, or
any other body that fwims in water. For, if we multi¬
ply the number of cubic feet which are under the furface,
by 62.5, the number of pounds in one foot of freih water;
or by 63, the number of pounds in a foot of fait water ;
the produdt will be the weight of the ihip, and all that is
in it. For, fince it is the weight of the ihip that difplaces
the water, it muft continue to fink until it has removed
v H Y P
HYGROMETER, a machine, or inftrument whereby
to meafure the degrees of drinefs, or moifture of the
air, or rather of the atmofphere.
There are divers forts of hygrometers ; for what¬
ever body either fwells or {brinks, by drynefs or moif¬
ture, is capable of being formed into an hygrometer.
Such are woods of moft kinds, particularly aih, deal,
poplar, <hc. Such alfo is catgut, the beard of a wild
oat, tic.
HYMEN, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 277.
HYMENAIA, in botany, a genus of the decandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix confifts of five fegments,
and the corolla of five petals ; and the pod is filled with
a farinaceons pulp. There is but one fpecies, a native
of America.
HYMENAlAL, fomething belong to marriage, fo called
from hymen.
HYMN, a religious fong. The hymns fung in the
chriftian church, as diftinguiihed from the pfalms, are
pieces of poetry compofed by pious .but not infpired
authors.
HYOIDES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 166.
HYOSCYAMUS, hen-bane, in botany, a genus of the
pentandria monogynia clafs. The corolla is obtufe and
funnel ihaped; the ftaminaare inclined ; and the capfule
is operculated, and confifts of two cells. There are fix
fpecies, only one of which, viz. the niger, or com¬
mon hen-bane, is a native of Britain. The leaves,
tic. of this plant are highly narcotic and poifonous,
and now difregaided in pra&ice.
HYOTHYROIDES, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
p. 300.
Vol. II. No. 61. 2
T A T I C S. 821
as much water as is equal to it in weight; and therefore
the part immerfed muft be equal in bulk to fuch a
portion of the water as is equal to the weight of the
whole ihip.
To prove this by experiment, let a ball of fome light
wood, fuch as fir or pear-tree, be put into water con¬
tained in a glafs veffel ; and let the veftel be put into a
fcale at one end of a balance, and counterpoifed by weights
in the oppofite fcale : then, marking the height of the
water in the veftel, take out the ball ; and fill up the
vefl’el with water to the fame height that it flood at when
the ball was in it; and the fame W'eight will counterpoife
it as before.
From the veffel’s being filled up to the fame height at
which the water flood when the ball was in it, it is evi¬
dent that the quantity poured in is equal in magnitude to
the immerfed part of the ball ; and from the fame weight
counterpoifing, it is plain that the water poured in is e-
qual in w'eight to the whole ball.
In troy weight, 24 grains make a pennyweight, 20
pennyweight make an ounce, and 12 ounces a pound. In
avoirdupoife weight, 16 drams make an ounce, and 16
ounces a pound. The troy pound contains 5760 grains,
and the avoirdupoife pound 700.0: and hence, the a-
voirdupoife dram weighs 27.34375 grains, and the avoir¬
dupoife ounce 437.5.
HYP
HYP ANTE, or HyperpaNte, a name given by the
Greeks to the feaft of the prefentation of Jefus in the
temple.
This word, which fignifies lowly or humble meeting,
was given to this feaft, from the meeting of old Simon
and Anna the prophetefs in the temple, when Jefus was
brought thither.
HYPECUM, •wi/ci cumin, in botany, a genus of the
tetrandria digynia clafs. The calix confifts of two
leaves, and the corolla of four petals, the two outer-
moft of which are broader, and divided into three feg¬
ments. There are four fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain.
HYPERBATON, in grammar, a figurative conftruction
inverting the natural and proper order of words and
fentences.
HYPERBOLA. See Conic Sections.
HYPERBOLE, in rhetoric, afiguie, whereby the truth
and reality of things are exceffively either enlarged or
diminiihed.
An objedluncommon with refpeeft to fize, either very
great of its kind or very little, ftrikas us with furprife;
and this emotion forces upon the mind a momentary
conviftion that the objedt is greater or lefs than it is
in reality : the fame effedt, precifely, attends figura¬
tive grandeur or linlenefs ; and hence the hyperbole,
which expreffes this momentary convidHon. A wri’.er,
taking advantage of this natural delufion, enriches his
defenption greatly by the- hyperbole : and the read¬
er, even in his cooleft moments, reliihes this figure,
being fenfible that it is the operation of nature upon a
It
HYP ( 8:
It cannot have efcaped obfervation, that a writer is ge¬
nerally more fuccefsful in magnifying by a hyperbole than,
in diminiihing. The reafon is, that a minute objeif con¬
trails the mind, and fetters its powers of imagination ;
but that the mind, dilated and inflamed with a grand ob-
jeit, moulds obje&s for its gratification with great facili¬
ty. Longinus, with refpeil to a diminifliing hyperbole,
cites the following ludicrous thought from a comic poet:
“ He was owner of a bit of ground not larger than a La-
“ cedemonian letter.” But, for the reafon now given,
the hyperbole has by far the greater force in magnifying
obje&s ; of which take the following examples :
For all the land which thou feeft, to thee will I give
it, and to thy feed for ever. And I will make thy
feed as the dull of the earth : fo that if a man can
number the dull of the earth, then fhall thy feed alfo
be numbered. Gcnefis xiii. 15. 16.
Ilia vel intadse fegetis per furama volaret
Gramina : nec teneras curfu laefilTet ariftas.
JEneid. vii. 808.
 Atque imo barathri ter gurgite vaftos
Sorbet in abruptum fludlus, rurfufque fob auras
Erigit alternos, et fidera verberat unda.
JEneid. iii. 421.
.—s Horrificis juxta tonat AEtna ruinis,
Interdumque atrarn prorumpit ad aethera nubem,
Turbine fumantem piceo et candente favilla :
Attollitque globos flammarum, et fidera lambit.
JEneid. iii. 571.
Speaking of Polyphemus,
 Ipfe arduus, altaque pulfat
Sidera. JEneid. iii. 619.
 — When he fpeaks.
The air, a charter’d libertine, is ftill.
Henry V. aJi \. fc. 1.
Now fhield with fhield, with helmet helmet clos’d.
To armour armour, lance to lance oppos’d,
Hofl a gain ft hoft with fhadowy fquadrons drew.
The founding darts in iron tempefts flew,
Vidiors and vanquifli’d join promifcuous cries,
And fhrilling lhout%and dying groans arife;
With dreaming blood the flipp’ry fields are dy’d,
And flaughter’d heroes fwell the dreadful tide.
Iliad iv. 508.
Quintilian is fenfible that this figure is natural: “ For,”
fays he, “ not contented with truth, we naturally in-
“ cline to augment or diminilh beyond it; and for that
“ reafon the hyperbole is familiar even among the vulgar
“ and illiterate and he adds, veryjuftly, “ That the
“ hyperbole is then proper, when the fubjedt of itfelf
exceeds the common meafure.” From thefe premifles,
one would not expedt the following inference, the only
reafon he can find for juftifying this figure of fpeech,
“ Conceditur enim amplius dicere, quia diei quantum
“ eft, non poteft : meliufque ultra quam citra ftat 0-
“ ratio.” (We are indulged to fay more than enough,
2 ) HYP
becaufe we cannot fay enough ; and it is better to be a»
bove than under.) In the name of wonder, why this
flight and childifh reafoning, when immediately before
he had obferved, that the hyperbole is founded on human
nature ? we could not refill this perfonal ftroke of criti-
cifm ; intended not againft our author, for no human
creature is exempt from error, but againft the blind ve¬
neration that is paid to the ancient claflic writers, with¬
out diftinguiftiing their blemifltesTrom their beauties.
Having examined the nature of this figure, and the
principle on which it is eredled; let us proceed to the
rules by which it ought to be governed. And, in the
firft place, it is a capital fault, to introduce an hyperbole
in the defcription of an ordinary object or event ; for in
fuch a cafe, it is altogether unnatural, being deftitute of
furprife, its only foundation. Take the following in-
ftance, where the fubjeft is extremely familiar, viz.
fwimmihg to gain the fliore after a fhipwreck,
I faw him beat the furges under him,
And ride upon their backs ; he trod the water;
Whofe enmity he flung afide, and breafted
The furge moft fwoln that met him : his bold head
’Bove the contentious waves he kept, and oar’d
Himfelf with his good arms, in lufty ftrokes
To Jhore, that o’er his wave-borne bafis bow’d.
As Hooping to relieve him. 'Tempeft, a(i 2. fc. r.
In the next place, it may be gathered from what is
faid, that an hyperbole can never fuit the tone of any
difpiriting paflion : forrow in particular will never prompt
fuch a figure ; and- for that reafon the following hyper¬
boles muft be condemned as unnatural:
K. Rich. Aumerle, thou weep’ll, my tender-hearted
coufin !
We’ll make foul weather with defpifed tears ;
Our lighs, and they, fliall lodge the fummer-com.
And make a dearth in this revolting land.
Richard II. aft c,. fc. 6.
Draw them to Tyber’s bank, and weep your tears
Into the channel, till the lowed ftream
Do kifs the moft exalted Ihores of all.
Julius Cafar, a/I \.fc. j.
Thirdly, a writer, if he wifti to/ucceed, oughtalways
to have the reader in his eye : he ought in particular
never to venture a bold thought or expreflion, till the
reader be tvarmed and prepared. For this reafon, an
hyperbole in the beginning of a work can never be in its
place. Example:
Jam pauca aratro jugera regiae
Moles relinquent. Herat. Cart?i. Ms. 2. ode ry.
In the fourth place, the niceft point of all, is to afeer-
tain the natural limits of an hyperbole, beyond which
being overftrained it has a bad effeft. Longinus,
(chap, iii.) with great propriety of thought, enters a
caveat againft an hyperbole of this kind : he compares
it to a bowftring, which relaxes by overftraining, and
produceth an effedt dire&ly oppofite to what is intended.
To afeertain any precifs boundary, would be difficult.
H ? P ( 0
pot Impracticable. We {hall therefore only give a fpeci-
men of what may be reckoned overftrained hyperboles.
No fault is more common among writers of inferior rank ;
and inftances are found even among thofe of the tineft
tafte ; witnefs the following hyperbole, too bold even for
an Hotfpur.
Hotfpur, talking of Mortimer :
In fingle oppofition hand to hand.
He did confound the beft part of an hour
In changing hardiment with great Glendower.
Three times they breath’d, and three times did they
drink,
Upon agreement, of fwift Severn’s flood ;
Who then affrighted with their bloody looks.
Ran fearfully among the trembling reeds,
And hid his crifp’d head in the hollow bank,
Blood-ftained with thefe valiant combatants.
Firjl Part Henry IV. ad l.fc. 4.
Speaking of Henry V.
England ne’er had a King until his time :
Virtue he had, deferring to command :
His brandifli’d fword did blind men with its beams:
His arms fpread wider than a dragon’s wings :
His fparkting eyes, replete with awful fire,
More dazzled, and drove back his enemies,
Than mid-day fun fierce bent againft their faces.
What (hould I fay i1 his deeds exceed all fpeech :
He never lifted up his hand, but conquer’d.
Firji Part Henry VI. ad l.fc. I.
Laftly, An hyperbole, after it is introduced with all
advantages, ought to be comprehended within the feweft
words pofiible : as it cannot be relifhed but in the burry
and fwelling o£ the mind, a leifurely view diffolves the
charm, and dlfcovers the defcription to be extravagant
at leaft, and perhaps alfo ridiculous. This fault is pal¬
pable in a fonnet which pafltth for one of the mo(f com¬
plete in the French language: Phillis, in a long and florid
defcription, is made as far to outfliine the fun as he out*
fltines the flats 1
Le filence regnoit fur la terre et fur 1’onde,
L’air devenoit ferain et POlimp vermeil,
Et 1’amoureux Zephir affrtnchi du fomeil,
Reffufcitoit les fleurs d’une haleine feconde.
L’Aurore deployoit 1’or de fa treffe blonde,
Et femoit de rubis le chemin du foleil;
Enfin ce Dieu venoit au plus grand appareil
Qu’il foit jamais venu pour eclairer le monde :
Quand la jeune Philis au vifage riant,
Sonant de fon palais plus clair que 1’orient,
Fit voir une lumiere et plus vive et plus belle.
Sacre flambeau du jour, n’en foiez point jaloux,
Vous parutes alors auffi peu devant elle,
Que les feux de la nuit avoient fait d.vant vous.
Malleville.
There is in Chaucer a thought expreiTed in a fingle line.
23 ) HYP
which fets a young beauty in a more advantageous light
than the whole of this much laboured poem :
Up rofe the fun, and up rofe Emelie.
HYPERCATALECTIC, in the Greek and Latin poe¬
try, is applied to a verfe, which has one or two
fyllables too much, or beyond the regular and juft
jnealure: as.
Mu]a forores funt Minerva.
Alfo,
Mufa forores Palladis lugent.
HYPERICUM, St John’s wort, a genus of the
polyadelphiapolyandria clafs The calix confifls of five
fegments, and the corolla of five petals and th- iila-
meutsare numerous, and bound in live bundles. There
are twenty-nine fpecies, 'eight of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
HYPERSARCOSIS, in medicine and forgery, an ex-
cefs of flefh, or rather a flefhy execref ence, fuch "as
thofe generally arifing upon the lips of wounds, &£•.
HYPHEN, an accent or charadler, in grammar, imply¬
ing that two words are to be joined, or conneAed into-
one compound word, and marked thus -; as, pre efta-
blifhed, five-leaved, <fac.
Hyphens alfo ferve to conneft the fyllables of fuch
words as are divided by the end of the line.
HYPNOTIC, in the materia medica, fuch medicines as
any way produce fleep, whether called narcotics,
hypnotics, opiates, or foporifics.
HYPNUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia mufci
clafs. There are forty-two fpecies, all natives of
Britain.
HYPOCAUSTUM, among the Greeks and Romans, a
fubterraneous place, wherein was a furnace to heat the
baths.
Another fort of hypocafium was a kind of kiln, to
heat their winter parlours.
Among the moderns, it is that place where the fire
is kept that warms a ftove or hot-houfe.
HYPOCHAERIS, in botany a genus of the fynge-
nefia polygamia sequalis clafs. The receptacle is pa¬
leaceous; the calix is imbricated; and the pappus is
plumofe. There are four fpecies, tw o of them natives
of Britain, viz. the radicata, or long-rooted hawk-
weed ; andthe maculata, or fpdtted hawkweed.
HYPOCHONDRIA, in anatomy. See Anatomy
p. 256.
HYPOCHONDRIAC Passion. See Medicine
HYPOCYSTIS, in pharmacy, an infpifTated juice, ob¬
tained from the fefiile afarum, muchrefembling the true
Egyptian acacia.
They gather the fruit, while unripe, and exprefs
the juice, which they evaporate over a very gentle lire,
to the confiftence of an extra#, and then form into
cakes, andexpofe them to the fun to dry.
Hypocyft is an aftringent, and that of confiderable
power; it is good againft diarrhoeas and hcemorrhages
of all kinds, and may be ufed in repellent gargarifms°in
the manner of the acacia; but it is very rarely met
with genuine in our {hops, the german acacia being u-
fually fold under its name.
II Y S ( 82.
HYPOGASTRIC, an appellation given to the internal
branch of' the iliac artery.
HYPOGASTRIUM, inanatomy. See Anatomy, p.
HYPOPHYLLOCARPODENDRON, in botany. See
Leucodendron.
HYPOPYON, in medicine, a colledlion of purulent
matter under'the cornea of the eye.
HYPOSTASIS, among divines, fignifies a perfon Or
fubftance; chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the ^perfons of the
Trinity.
HYPOTHEC,- in Scots law, aright of fecurity eftablith-
ed by law to creditors upon the goods and effe&s of
their debtors, for payment of certain debts. See Law,
tit. 20. § 13.
HYPOTHENAR, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.
200.
HYPOTHENUSE, in geometry, the longefl fide of a
right-angled triangle, or it is that fide which fubtends
the right angle.
HYPOTHESIS, in general, denotes fomething fuppofed
to be true, or taken for granted, in order to prove or
illuftrate a point in queftion.
Hypothefes, however elegant and artful, ought to
be firit proved by repeated obfervations and confiant
experience, before they are received as truths.
HYSSOPUS, in botany, a genus of thedidynamia gym-
nofpermia clafs. The inferior lip of the corolla has
a fmall crenated fegment; and the (lamina are crett and
diftant. There are three fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain. The leaves are faid to be good in afthmas,
coughs, and other diforders of the lungs.
HYSTERICS, or Hysteric passion. See Medi¬
cine.
HYSTERON proteron, in grammar and rhetoric, a
fpecies of the hyperbaton, wherein the proper order
of conftrudtion is fo inverted, as that the part of any
fentence which fhould naturally come (irll is placed
laft ; as in t his of Terence, valet <b vivit, for vivit is
valet; and in the following of Virgil, miriamur & in
media arma ruamus, for in media arma ruamus dr
moriamur.
HYSTEROPHORUS: See Parthenium.
HYSTRIX, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds belong¬
ing to the order of glires, the charadters of which are
thefe : They have two fore-teeth, obliquely divided,
both in the upper and under jaw, befides eight grinders;
and the body is covered with quills or prickles. (See
Plate Cl. fig. 5A There are four fpecies, viz.
1. The crifiata, or crefled porcupine, has four toes
on the fore-feet, five toes on the hind-feet, a crefted
Lead, a (horttail, arid the upper lip is divided like that
of a hare. The length of the body is about two feet,
and the height about two feet and ahalf. The porcu¬
pine is covered with prickles, fome ofthem nine orten
inches long, and about ^ of an inch thick. Like the
hedge-hog, he rolls himfeif up in a globular form, in
which pofition he is proof againft the attacks of the
mod rapacious anim. is. The prickles are exceedingly
Iharp, and each of them has five large black and as
jmany white rings, which fucceed one another alter-
1) H Y S
nately from the root to the point. Thefe quills the
animal can eredt or {et down at pleafure; when irri¬
tated, he beats the ground with his hind-feet, erddts
his quills, fhakes his tail, and makes a confiderable
rattling noife with his quills.
Moft authors have afierted that the porcupine, when
irritated, darts his quills to a coufiderable diftance a-
gainft the enemy, and that he will kill very large ani¬
mals by this means. ButMrBuflfon, and fome other
late hiftorians, aflure that the animal poflefles no fuch
power. Mr Buffon frequently irritutedthe'porcupine,
but never faw any thing like this darting of his quills.
He fays indeed, that when ^he creature was much a-
gitated with paflion, fome of the quills which adhered
but flightly to the fkin, would fall off, particularly
from the tail; and this circumfiance, he imagines, has
given rife to the miftake.
The porcupine, though originally a native of Afri¬
ca and the Indies, can live and. multiply in the more
temperate climates of Spain and Italy. Pliny, and
every other natural hiftorian fince the days of Ari-
ftotle, tells us that the porcupine, like the bear, con¬
ceals itfelf during the winter, and that they bring forth
their young in 80 days. But thefe circumftances re¬
main to this day uncertain. It is remarkable, that
although this animal be very common in Itaiy^ no
perfon has ever given us a tolerable hiftory of it. We
only know in general, that the porcupine, in a domef-,
tic date, is not a fierce or ill-natured animal; that
with his foreteeth, which are ftrong and fharp, he can
cut through a ftrong board; that he eats bread,
fruits, roots, &c. that he does confiderable damage
when he gets into a garden; that he grows fat, like
moft animals, about the end of fummer ; and that his
iiefti is not bad food.
2. The prehenfilis, or cuandu, has four toes on
the fore-feet, five on the hind feet, and a long tail.
It is confiderably lefs than the former fpecies, being
only 17 inches long from the point of the muzzle to
the origin of the tail, which is nine inches long; the
legs and feet are covered with long brownifh hair; the
reft of the body is covered with quillsinterfperfed with
long hairs ; the quills are about five inches long and
about TV of an inch in diameter. He feeds upon birds
and fmall animal. He fleeps in the day like the hedge¬
hog, and fearches for his food in the night. He climbs
trees, and fupports himfeif by twifting his tail round
the- branches. He is generally found in the high
grounds of America from Brafil to Louifiana and the
fouthern parts of Canada. His flefii is efteemed very
good eating.
3. The dorfata, has four toes on the fore-feet, five
on the hind-feet, and has quills only on the back,
which are fhort, and almoft hid among the long hair.
He is about two feet long. He is a native of Hudfon’s
-bay. The favages eat his flefh, and make ufe of his
Ikip as a fur after taking off the prickles.
4. The macroura, has five toes both on the hind
and fore feet; his tail is very long, and the prickles
are elevated. He is a native of Afia the Eaft Indies.
JACCA,
tirD B OIMF, TJBJl S
Plate Cl.
C 825 )
JAG
JACCA, a city and bifhop’s fee of Arragbn, in Spain,
fixty miles north of Saragolfa; W. Ion. 50', and
N. lat. 420 50'.
JACEA. See Centauria.
JACK, in mechanics, a well-known inflrument of com¬
mon ufe for raifing very great weights of any kind.
The common kitchen-jack is a compound engine
where the weight is the power applied to overcome the
fridtion of the parts, and the weight with which the
fpit is charged ; and a fteady and uniform motion is ob¬
tained by means of the fly.
Jack flag, in a fhip, that hoifted up at the fprit fail
top-moft head. See Flag.
Jack daw, in ornithology. SeeCoavus.
JACKALL, in zoology. SccCanis.
JACOBAlA, in botany. See Senecio.
JACOBITES, a term of reproach bellowed on the per-
fons, who, vindicating the dodlrines of paffive obedience
and non-refiftance with refpedl to the arbitrary pro¬
ceedings of princes, difallow of the late revolution,
and alfert the fuppofed rights and adhere to the inte-
refts of the late abdicated Icing James and his family.
Jacobites, in church hiftory, a fed! of Chriftians in
Syria and Mefopotamia- fo called either from Jacob,
a Syrian, who lived in the reign of the emperor Mau-
ricius; or from one Jacob, a monk, who flourilhed in
the year 550.
The Jacobites are of two fedts, fome following the
rites of the Latin church, , and others continuing fepa-
rated from the church of Rome. There is alfo at
prefent a divifion among the latter, who have two ri¬
val patriarchs, one of whom'refides at Caramit, and
the other at Derzapharan. As to their belief, they
hold but one nature in Jefus Chrift; - with refpedt to
purgatory and prayers for the dead, they are of the
fame opinion as the Greeks and other eaftern Chri¬
ftians : they confecrate unleavened bread at the eucha-
rift, and are againft confeffion, believing that it is not
of divine inftitution.
JACOBUS, an ancient gold coin worth twenty five Ihil-
lings.
JAFFA, anciend^1 called Joppa, is a port town of
Paleftine in Afiatic Turky, fituated thirty miles north-
weft of Jerufalem: E. Ion. 36°, N. lat. 32°2o'.
JAFNAPATAN, a port-town at the north end of the
ifland of Ceylon, in the Eaft Indies; fubjedt to the
Dutch: E. Ion. 790, N. lat. io°.
JAGENDORF, a city of Silefia, twelve miles north-
weft of Tropaw: E. Ion. 170 6' N. lat. 50° 8'.
St JAGO, the chief of the Cape Verd iflands, in Afri¬
ca, 300 miles weft of Cape Verd ; fubjedt to Portu¬
gal: W. Ion. 240, N. lat. 150.
St. Jago, the capital of the ifland of Cuba, too miles
north weft of Jamaica : W. Ion. 76°, 30', N lat. 20°.
Vol. II. Numb. 61. 2
JAM
St. Jago, the capital of the province of Chili, in fouth
America, fituated fix miles weft of the mountains of
Andes, and eighteen eaft of the Pacific ocean :W.
Ion. 770, S. lat. 340.
Jago de la Vega, or Spanilh town, the capital of
Jamaica, fituated at the fouth-eaft part of the ifland,
about leven miles north-weft of Port Paflage and the
bay of Port Royal : E. Ion. 76° 30', N. lat. iS^c/.
JALAP, in botany. See Mirabilis.
JAMAICA, an ifland of America, fituated in the At¬
lantic ocean, between 76° and 790 of weft longitude,
and between 17° and 18* odd minutes north latitude,
near 5000 miles fouth-weft of England, 100 miles
fouth of the ifland of Cuba, and 3 50 miles north of
Terra Firma. The ifland lies eaft and weft, and is
about 140 miles long, and 60 broad. The wind fets
on the fhore almoft all the day in every part of the
ifland, and off the Ihore in the night ; it fometimes
hails, but the people there never fee froft or fnow.
The produce of the ifland is chiefly fugar ; but there
are plantations of coffee, of the cocoa or chocolate
tree, of indigo, tobacco, pepper, cotton, woods for
dying, and the mahogany and machined wood, gin¬
ger, medicinal drugs and gums. The common difeafes
of the country are fevers, fluxes, and the dry gripes.
JAM ANA, the chief town of a province of Arabia, alfo
of the fame name: E. Ion. 47° 15', N. lat. 25°.
JAMBA, a city of the hither India, and the capital of
the province of the fame name, fituated 220 miles
north eaft of Delli: E. Ion. 82°, N. lat. 310.
JAMBOLIFERA, in botany, a genus of the odtandria
monogynia glafs. The calix has four teeth, and the
corolla four funnel-fttaped petals; and the ftigma is
Ample. There is but one fpecies, a native of India,
IAMBUS, in ancient poetry, a Ample foot confifting of
a fliort and a long fyllable, as pi«s.
JAMBY, a town on the eaft fide of the ifland of Suma¬
tra, in the Eaft Indies, fituated in ioi° E. Ion. and
in i° 30' S. lat.
JAMES, or knights of St James, a military order in
Spain, firft inftitu-ted about the year 1170, by Ferdi¬
nand II. king of Leon and Galicia. The greateft dig¬
nity belonging to this order is grand mafter, which has
been united to the crown of Spain. The knights are
obliged to make proof of their defcent from families
that have been noble for four generations, on both
fides; they muft alfo make it appear that their faid an-
ceftors have neither been Jews, Saracens, nor Heretics ;
nor have ever been called into tpeftion by the inquifi-
tion. The novices are obliged to ferve fix months in
the galleys, and to live a month in a monaftery; they
obferve the rules of St Auftin, making no vows but of
poverty, obedience, and conjugal fidelity.
St James’s day, a feftival of the Chriftian church, ob-
8 Y ferved
JAN ^ ( 82
ferved on the 2jth of July, in honour of St James the
greater, fon of Zebedee.
Epijile of St James, a canonical book of the New Te*
ftament, being the ■firft- ofnhe catholic or general ,e-
piftles ; which are fo called, as not being written to
one, but to feveral Chridian churches. •
James-town, once the capital of Virginia in America,
and of James-country, fituated in a peninfula on the
north fide of James, or Pauhatan river, in W. Ion.
76° 30', N. lat. 370 30'.
JANEIRO, a province of Brazil, in fouth America, fi¬
tuated between 440 and 490 of W. Ion. and between
the tropic of capricorn and 220 of S. lat.
JANICAW, or Janowits, a town of Bohemia, fituated
forty-five miles fouth-eaft of Prague.
JANIZARIES, an order of the Turkiih infantry, repu¬
ted the grand fignior’s guards, and the main ftrength
of the Ottoman army.
JANSENISTS, in church-hiftory, a fedt of the Roman-
catholics in France, who followed the opinions of Jan-
fenius, biihop ofYpres, and dodtor of divinity of the
univerfities of Louvain and Douay, in relation to grace
and predellination.
In the year 1640, the two univerfities jurt mention¬
ed, and particularly father Molina and father Leonard
Celfus, thought fit to condemn the opinions of the Je-
fuits on grace and free-will. This having fet the
controverfy on foot, Janfenius oppofed to the dodtrine
of the Jefuits the fentiments of St Auguftine, and
wrote a treatife on grace, which he entitled Augufti-
nus. This treatife was attacked by the J’efuits, who
accufed Janfenius of maintaining dangerous and here¬
tical opinions; and afterwards in 1642, obtained of
pope Urban VIII. a formal condemnation of the trea-
tife wrote by Janfenius : when the partifan» of Janfe-
hius gave out that this bull was fpurious, and compo-
fed by a perfon entirely devoted to the Jefuits. After
the death of Urban VIII. the affair of Janfenifm be¬
gan to be more warmly controverted, and gave birth
to an infinite number of polemical writings concerning
grace ; and what occafioned fome mirth, was the titles
which each party gave to their writings: one writer
publifhed, The torch of St Augttfttn> another found
fnuffers for St Auguflin’s torch, and father Veron
formed a gag for the janfenifts, In the year 1-650,
fixty eight biihops of France fubfcribed a letter to pope
innocent X. to obtain an enquiry into, and condem¬
nation of the five following propofitions, extradfed
from Janfenius’s Auguflinus : I. Some of God’s com¬
mandments are impofiiole to be obferved by the righ¬
teous, even though they endeavour with all their
power to accomplifh them. II. In the flate of cor¬
rupted nature, we are incapable of refilling inward
grace. III. Merit and demerit in a flate of corrupted
nature, does not depend on a liberty which excludes
peceflity, but on a liberty which excludes conflraint.
IV. The femipelagians admitted the neceffity of an
inward preventing grace for the performance of each
particular adt, even forthe beginning of faith; but they
were heretics in maintaining that this grace was of fuch
a nature, that the will of man was able either to refill
6 ) . JAP
or obey it. It is femipelagianifni to fay, that Jefus
Chrifl died, or fired his blood, for all mankind in ge¬
neral.
In the year 1652, the-pope appointed a congregation
for examining into the difpute in relation to grace. In
this congregation Janfenius was condemned; and tire
bull of condemnation, publifhed in May 1653, filled
all the pulpits in Paris with violent outcries and alarms
againfl the herefy of the Janfenifls. In the year 1656:,
pope Alexander VII. iflued out another bull, in which
he condemned the five propofitions of Janfeniusi
However, the Janfenifts affirm, that thefe propofitibns
are not to be found in this book; but that fome of iris
enemies having caufed them to be printed on a flieet,
inferted them in the book, and thereby deceived the
pope. At lafl Clement the XL put an end to the dif¬
pute by his conflitution of July the 17. 1705; in
which, after having recited the conflitutions of his
predeceflbrs in relation to this affair, he declares,
“ That in order to pay a proper obedience to the pa-
“ pal conflitutions concerning the prefent queflion, it is
“ neceffary to receive them with a refpedtful fiience.”
The clergy q[ Paris, the fame year, approved and ac¬
cepted this bull, and none dared to oppofe it.
This is the famous bull Unigenitus, fo called from
its beginning with the words Unigenitus Dei Filius, See.
which has occafioned fo much copfufion in France.
JANUARY, in chronology, the firfl month of the year,
fo called from Janus, one of the ancient Roman deities
painted with two faces ; one whereof was fuppofed to
look towards the new year, and the other towards the
old.
JAPAN, s^Japan,' are fituated between 130°
and 1440 of E. Ion. and between 30° ?nd 40° N.
lat.
JAPANNING, the art of varniffiing and drawing fi¬
gures on wood, in the manner as is done by the
natives of Japan.
The method of preparing woods for japanning is as
follows. 1. Take plafterer’s fize, diffolve it over the
fire, and mix it with whiting finely powdered till it is
of a good body, but not too thick. 2. By means of
a flrong bruffi, lay your work over with the former
mixture ; and letting it dry very well, repeat this till
the wood is perfediy plain, or the pores and crevices
fufficiehtly filled up ; and when it is thoroughly dry,
rub the work over with a wet rag till it is rendered as
fmooth as poffible : this work is called water-plaining.
3, After this, waffi over the work with the thickefl
of feed-lac varnifh till it is very fmooth, letting it
fland to dry between every wafliing, 4. In a day of
two’s time, you may varniffi it over with blark, or
whatever other colour you defign ; and when it is
dry, finiffi it by poliffiiog. See the articleVarnish.
After the fame manner carved figures are to be
primed; alfoframes, cabinets, (lands, tea-tables, &e..
faving that thefe are. not to be poiilhed, andtherefore
do not require fo great a body of varniffi ; but for the
tops of tables,, boxes, fides of cabinets, when
the wood is ordinary and rough grained, as deal oak,
&c. you may ufe common joiners glue diffolved in
water
JAP (8
water till it is fine and-thin* into which put the fineft
faw dud, till it is indifferently thick : then with a brufh
Jay your wooden-work over with it, and when it is dry,,
repeat it fo often till all the roughnefs and grain of the
wood is fufficiently hidden; and two or three days after
let it be fcraped with a fcraper, as pear-tree and olive-
wood are done, to make it as fmooth as poflible: then
yarnilh it as before directed. This, if well done, might
not come behind any other work either for beauty or du¬
rability; but, however, thpfe woods that are firm and
clofe grained are chiefly to be chofen.
Method of taking off japan patterns, i. Having laid
your ground, whether black, or of any other bolour, and
rendered it fit for drawing; and having your draught or
defign before you on paper, either drawn or printed, do
as follows. 2. Rub this draught or print all over the
back fide with whiting or fine chalk, wiping off all that
whiting which lies loofe upon the paper; then laying this
paper upon the table, or piece of varniflied-work, with
the whited fide next it upon the very place where you
would have that figure made, with a needle not fharp-
pointed, fixed in a wooden handle, and called a tracing-
pencil, go over and trace as much of the drawing as you
think proper: thus by means of the whiting, you will
have the grofs form of the draught, and fuch other lines
as will be a dire&ion to you how to perform what you
would have done. 3. Having done this, if you draw in
gold-fize, ufe fine cinnabar mixed with gum-water ; and
with a fmall pencil dipt into it, go overall the lines made
by the chalk: this will hold it fo as not to come off. 4.
If you work your metals or colours in gum-water, then
trace over your defign with gum-water mixt with gold or
brafs dull; by either of thefe ways when it is dry and fi-
nilhed, viz. either in gum-water or gold fize, you may
compleat and finilh your work.
Method of japanning wood. The wmod being prepa¬
red as before dire&ed, it is japanned with black, as
follows. 1. Take of the thickell lac-varnilh, fix oun¬
ces; and lamp-black, enough to colour it: with this
walh over your piece three times, letting it dry thoroughly
between each time: again, with, the fame varnilh, walh
it over three other feveral times, letting it dry as before,
and rulh it fmooth between each walhing. 2. Then
take the following: Of thickell feed-lac vat nilh. fix oun¬
ces ; and Venice turpentine, one ounce , walh over your
Work with it fix times, letting it Hand twelve hours be¬
tween the three firfl and the three lalt varnifnes. 3. Your
work being thus far done, take the following japan-varnilh:
Of the fined feed-lac varnilh, fix ounces; of lamp black,
^ fuflicient quantity; mix them, and with that let your
work be wafhed twelve times, Handing twelve hours be¬
twixt the firll fix and the laH fix walkings. 4. Then
letting it Hand to dry for fix or feven days, polifh it with
tripoli and a rag, as before directed : but in polifhing you
muH work at it only till it is almoll fmooth ; and then let
it Hand by for two d*ys : afterwards polilh it again, almoll
enough ; then let it Hand for fix days, after uhich finilli
the polilhing of it; finally, clear it up with oil and lamp¬
black, by which means you will have a good black japam
fcarce at all inferior to the true japan.
For, a white japan. ,1. Lay the ground with ifing-
27 ) J a P
glafs fize mixed with as much whiting fcraped into it as
will make it of a proper thicknefs ; with this whiten
your woik once over, and being thoroughly dry, do it.
over again ; and in like manner repeat it the third time;,
after which let it Hand for twelve hours, covering it from,
dull; rulh it with Dutch rulhing as near the grain of the
wood as is proper. 2. Then taking firfi ifing-glafs fize,
and flake white, fo much as will make the fize of a fair
body, mix them well together, and with this go over
your work three feveral times, letting it dry between each
time, and rulh it .as before. 3. Then take white flarch
boiled in fair water, till it is fomewhat thick, walh over
the whole work twice with it, blood-warm; letting it
dry as before. 4. Letting it Hand for a day or two, it
being firll walked with re&ified fpirit of wine, to clear it
from the dull, dip a pure clean pencil into the finell
white varnilh, and do over the work fix or feven times ;
and if this be well done, it will give a finer glofs than if it
were polilhed t if it be not well done, polilhing will be
necellary, for which reafon you mufl give it five or fix
varnilhes more. In polilhing you muH make ufe of the
finefl tripoli ; and inllead of lamp-black and oil, muH ufe
putty and oil, and conclude with white flarch mixed with,
oil.
Common red japan. 1. Take ifing-glafs fize, fine ver¬
milion, a fufficient quantity, as much as is proper; with
the former mixture do your work over four times; firll
warming it by the fire, letting it dry each time, and
rulhing it as before. 2. This being done, walh it over '
eight times with ordinary feed lac varnilh, and let it by
for twelve hours: then rulh it again, but llightly, to
make it look fmooth 3. And, laflly, for an exquifite
outward covering, walh it ten times with the bell lac-
feed varnilh ; let it lie feven days to dry, and then polilh
it witfytripoli, and clear it up with oil and lamp black
A deeper red japan may be made by mixing fine fanguis
dracbnis, in powder, with the varnilh ; and a pale red japan
may be had by mixing fo much w'hite lead with it, as to
make it of whatever degree of palenefs you pleafe.
Blue japan, 1 Take gum-water what quantity you
pleafe, and a fuffic ent quantity of white lead; gr.nd
them well upon a marble; take ifing-glafs lizc what
quantity you pleafe, and the finefl and bell fmalt a fuf¬
ficient quantity; mix them -well together; then add to
them of the white lead, ground as before, fo much as
will give it a fufficient body; mix all together to the conr
fiflenceof apaint. 2. Do your work over with this mix-
.ture three or four times, till you perceive the blue to lie
with a good and fair body, letting it dry thoroughly
between each time: if your blue is too pale, put more
fmalt among your fize, without any white lead, and fo
vice verfa. 3. Then rulli it fmooth, and go over it again
with a flronger blue; and when it is dry, walh it three
times with the clearefl ifing glafs lize alone, and let it
Hand for two days to dry, covering it. 4. Warm your
work gently at the fire, and with a pencil yarniffi it over with
the finefl white varnilh,^ repeating it feven or eight times,
letting it Hand to dry two days as before. After which
repeat again the walhes feven or eight times in like man¬
ner. 5. Let it now Hand for a week, and ttyen polilh it
as before, and clear it up with lamp black and oil.
Chefaut.
JAP (82!
'Chefnut-coloured japan. Take indian red, grind it
■with ifing-glafs fize upon a porphyry-ftone, till they are
as foft and as fine as butter : then mix a little white lead,
which grind ftrongly ; and, laftly, lamp-black, in due pro¬
portion.
A tortoife-lhell japan. Firft lay a white ground, as
before directed; then with proper colours, as vermilion,
auripigment, <bc. duly mixed with turpentine-varnifh,
flreak and cloud or (hadow the white ground with any ir¬
regular fancy at pleafure, in imitation of tortoife-fhell:
then let it ftand to dry, and ftriking it here and there with
reddifh yellow varnilh, mixed with a little cinnabar,
cloud the work up and down, touching it up alfo with
varnilh mixed with lamp or ivory black. HavTng done
this, varnifh it live or fix times over with the fineft
white varnilh, letting it dry between every w'alhing.
japanning with gold fize. The fize being laid over
that part only which you intend to gild, as already di¬
rected, let it remain there till it is fo dry, that when you
put your linger on it, it be glutinous and clammy,
but not fo moift that the particles fhould come off with
your fingers. It is in this temper that the gold is to be
applied: then take apiece of walhing leather, or the like,
and wrapping it round your fore linger, dip it in the
gold dull, and rub it where your gold fize is laid; for
it will flick no where but on the fize ; and if any gold-duft
lies about your work, brulh it away with a fine clean
varnilhing brulh. Then, with your pencil, draw that
part with gold fize alfo which is defigned for your copper,
and letting it dry as in the former cafe, coyer it over
with copper dull in the fame manner. Having done this,
lay your filver-fize ; and when it is dry, as before, lay
on your filver-duft, as in the two former. But it is to
be obferved, that the metalline colours are to be laid
fuccefiively one after another, letting each be covered and
thoroughly dry before you enter upon a diftinCt colour.
After all thefe, the other colours which are not metalline
are to be laid on with gum-water, referving the rock,
for the lafl part of the work. Let your fize be
of a due confiflence, neither too thick nor too thin, that
it may run fmooth and clean. See Size.
Japanning metals with gum-water. Take gum water,
put it into a muffel-lhell; with which mix fo much of
your metal or colour as may give it a proper confiflence,
fo that it may run fine and fmooth : having prepared and
well mxed your metals and colours, lay on your defign ;
your gum-water being thoroughly dried, you are to run
it over with fine feed-lac varniih, and afterwards polifh
and clear it.
.Laying fpeckles or ftrewings on japan-work. To do
this, either on outfide or infide boxes, drawers, foe.
mix your fpeckles with ordinary lac-varnifh, fo much as
may make it fit to work, but not fo thick as for colour,
and mix them well with a proper brufh. Warm the
work to be done gently by the fire, and with a pencil
walh it over with the former mixture ; and when it is dry,
repeat it again, and fo often till your fpeckles lie as thick
and even as you defire. When it is thoroughly dry, go
over and beautify the work three or four times with feed-
Jac varnifh mixt with turpentine, and fo let it dry, and
the work is finiflied, except you have a mind to polilh it.
t ) . J A V
But if you polifh it, you mud wafh it eight or ten
times over with the beft feed-lac varnifh, letting it (land
to dry every time; and afterwards polifh it, as before
direfted. All forts of coloured fpeckles may be thus
ufed, except thofe of filver ; the laying on of which
requires the befl and fineft of the lac-varnifh, or the
beft white varnilh, which muft make it fit for polifh-
ing; but if you have not a mind to pulifh it, fewer
wafhes of the varnifh will be fufficient.
Japanned and laquered ware of the Eaft indies, pay
duty for every 100 1. grofs value at the fale 38 1. on
importation, and the drawback is 35 1. 12s. 6d. on
exportation.
JASMINUM, in botany, agenus of the diandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla confifts of five fegments;
the berry is tricoccous; and the feed is ariilated.
There are fix fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
JASPER, in natural hiftory, a genus of ferupi, of a com¬
plex irregular ftrudfure, of great variety of colours,
and emulating the appearance of the finer marbles, or
femipellucid gems.
The great charaifteriftic of jafpers is, that they all
readily ftrike fire with fteel, and make not the leaft
effervefcence with aquafortis.
Jafpers, though commonly reckoned among the pre¬
cious flones, ought undoubtedly to be ranged among
the ferupi; being only opake cryftalline maffes, vari-
oufly debafed with an earthy admixture: and to
this laft ingredient it is that they owe all their va¬
riety of colours, as white, green, red, brown, and
bluifh.
The feveral kinds of nephritic flone, and the lapus
divinus or jade, are all genuine jafpers ; but the hard,
bright, green jafper of the Eaft Indies, feems to be
the true kind. It is found in maffes of various fizes
and fhapes; but the more ufual ftandard as to fize, is
between four and fix inches in diameter ; but there are
maffes of it found of a foot or more in diameter, and
others no larger than a horfe bean. It is generally
fimple and n.nmixed; but if it be variegated at all, it
is always with white ; and this is difpofed not in ftreaks
or veins, but in clouds. It is capable of a very fine
poli(h|; and when the white clouds are well difpofed. Is
very beautiful; and, in pieces not too thick, is tolerably
pellucid, when held up againft the light.
JASPONYX, in natural hiftory, the pureft horn colour¬
ed onyx, with beautiful green zones, which are com-
pofed of the genuine matter of the fineft jafpers. See
Jasper and On yx.
JASQUES, a port-town of Perfia, fituated on the gulph
of Ormus: E. long. 58°, N. lat. 2j°.
JATROPHA, the cassada plant, in botany, a ge¬
nus of tfie moncecia monadelphia clafs. The male has
no calix ; the corolla confifts of one funnel ftiaped pe¬
tal ; and the ftamina are ten. The female has no ca¬
lix ; the corolla confifts of five petals; the ftyli are
three, and bifid ; the capfule has three cells, and con¬
tains but one feed. There are feven fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain,
JAVA, an illand of the Eaft Indies, fituated between
102° and 1130 of E. longitude, and between y° and
ICE ( 829 ) I C H
8° of footh latitude; being about 700 miles long from
eafl to weft, and one hundred broad.
JAVELIN, in antiquity, a fort of fpear, five feet and
an half long ; the ftiaft of which was of wood, with a
fteei point.
Every foldier, ih the Roman armies, had feven of
thefe; which were very light and flender.
JAUNDICE, in medicine. SeeMEDiciNE.
JAW, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 159.
JAWER, a city of Silefia, capital of the duchy of Jaw-
er, fituated in 160 \2 E. long, and 510 8' N. lat.
JAZY, a city of European Turky, capital of Moldavia,
fituated on the river Pruth, inE. long. 28° 40', N.lat.
47° IJ-
IBERIS, in botany, a genus of the tetradynamia fili-
culofa clafs. The corolla is irregular, the two out-
moft petals being largeft; and the pod is emarginated,
and contains many feeds. There are twelve fpecies,
only one of which, viz. the medicaulis or rock-crefle,
is a native of Britain.
IBEX, in zoology. See Capra.
IBIS, in ornithology. See Tantalus.
ICE, in phyfiology, a folid, trafparent, and brittle body,
formed of fome fluid, particularly water, by means of
cold. See Frost and Freezing.
The younger Lemery obferves, that ice is only a re-
eftabliftiment of the parts of water in their natural
ftate; that the mere abfence of fire is fufficient to ac¬
count for this re-eftabiifltment; and that the fluidity
of water is a real fufion, like that of metals expofed to
the fire; differing only in this, that a greater quantity
of fire is neceflary to the one than the other. Gallileo
was the firft that obfervedice to be lighter than the wa¬
ter which compofed it: and hence it happens, that ice
floats upon water, its fpecific gravity being to that of
water as eight to nine. This rarefaftion of ice is owing
to the air-bubbles produced in the water by freezing ;
and being confiderably large in proportion to the water
frozen, render the body lo much fpecifically lighter:
and thefe air-bubbles growing large, acquire a great
expanfive power, fo as to burft the containing veflels,
though ever fo ftrong.
Ice-house, a building contrived to preferve ice for the
ufeof a family in the fummer-feafon.,
Ice-houfes are more generally ufed in warm countries
than with us ; particularly in Italy, where the meaneft
perfon who rents a houfe, has his vault or cellar for ice.
As to the fituation, it ought to be placed upon a dry
fpot of ground; becaufe where-ever there is moifture,
the ice will melt: therefore in all ftrong lands which
retain the wet, too much pains cannot be taken to make
drains all round them. The place fhould alfo be ele¬
cted, and as much expofed to the fun and air as pof-
fible.
As to the figure of the building, that may be accord¬
ing to the fancy of the owner ; but a circular form is
moft proper for the well in which theiceisto beprefer-
ved, which fhould be of a fize and depth proportionable
to the quantity to be kept; for it is proper to have it
large enough to contain ice for two years confumption,
Voc. II. No. 61. 1
fo that if a mild winter fhould happen, in which little
or no ice is to be had, there may be a flock to fupply
the want. At the bottom of the well, there fhould be
a fpace of about two feet deep, left to receive any
moifture that may drain from the ice; over this fpace
fhould be placed a ftrong wooden grate, and from
thence a fmall drain fhould be laid under ground, to
carry off the wet. The fides of the well fhould be
built with brick or ftone, at leaf! two bricks thick; for
the thicker it is, the lefs danger there will be of the
well being affedted by any external caufe. When the
well is brought up within three feet of the furface,
there fhould be another outer-arch or wail begun, which
fhould be carried up to the height of the top of the in¬
tended arch of the well; and if there be a lecond arch
turned over this wall, it will add tothe goodnefs of the
houfe: the roof muftbehigh enough above the inner arch
to admit ofa door-way to get out the ice. If the building
is to be covered with dates or tiles, reeds fhould be laid
confiderably thick under them, to keep out the fun
and external air; and if thefe reeds are laid the thick-
nefs of fix or eight inches, andplaftcred over with lime
and hair, there w'ill be no danger of the heat getting
through them. The external wall may be built in
what form the proprietor pleafes; and as thefe ice-
houfes are placed in gardens, they are fometimes fo
contrived as to have an handfome alcove-feat in front,
with a fmall door behind it, through which a perfoa
might enter to take out the ice; and a large door on
the other fide, fronting the north, with a porch
wide enough for a fmail cart to back, in order to
fhoot down the ice near the mouth of the well, which
need not be more than two feet diameter, and a ftone
fo contrived as to fhut it up in the exa&eft manner:
all the vacant fpace above and between this and the
large door fhould be filled up with barley-ftraw. The
building thus finifhed, fhould have time to dry before
the ice is put into it.
It is to be obferved, that upon the wooden grate, at
the bottom of the well, there fhould be laid fome
fmall faggots ; and if upon thefe a layer of reeds is
placed fmooth for the ice to lie upon, it will be better
than ftraw, which is commonly ufed. As to the
choice of the ice, the thinner it is, the eafier it may be
broken to powder; for the fmalier it is broken, the
better it will unite when put into the well. In putting
it in, care muft be taken to ram it as clofe as poflibie ;
and alfo to allow a vacancy of two inches, all round,
next the fide of the well, to give paffage to any moi¬
fture occafioned by the melting of fome of the ice.
When the ice is put into the well, if a little falt-petre
be mixed with it at every ten inches or a foot in thick-
nefs, it will caufe it to unite more clofely into a folid
mafs.
ICHNEUMON, in zoology. See Vive rra.
Ichneumon is alfo the name of a genus of flies, of the
hymenoptera order. It has no tongue; the antennte
have above thirty joints ; the abdomen, in moft of the
fpecies, is petiolated; and it has a fting in the tail
inclofed in a double-valved cylindrical fheath. There
8 Z are
are feventy-feren fpecies, principally diftinguiflied by
their colour.
ICHNOGRAPHY, in perfpeftive, the view of anything
cut off by a plain parallel to the horizon, juft at the
bafe of it.
Among painters, it fignifies a defcription of images,
or of ancient ftatues of marble and copper, of bufts
and femi-bufts, of paintings in frefco, mofaic works,
and ancient pieces of miniature.
ICHOGLANS, the grand fignior’s pages ferving in the
feraglio.
Thofe are the children of Chriftian parents, either
taken in war, purchafed, or prefents from the vice¬
roys and governors of diftant provinces : they are the
moft fprightly, beautiful and well-made that can be
met with ; and are always reviewed and approved of
by the grand fignior himfelf, before they are admitted
into the feraglios of Pera, Conftantinople, or Adria-
nople, being the three colleges where they are educated,
or fitted for employments, according to the opinion
the court entertains of them.
IGHOR, properly fignifies a thin watery humour, like
ferum : but is fometimes alfo ufed for a thicker kind,
flowing from ulcers, called alfo fanies.
1CHTHYOCOLLA, isinglass, a preparation from
the fifti known b-y the name of hufo. See Ac open-
SF.R.
This is a tough and firm fubftance, of a whitilh
colour, and in fome degree tranfparent; it is light,
moderately hard, very flexile, and of fcarce any fmell,
and very little tafte. We ufually receive it in twilled
pieces of an oblong and rounded figure, and bent in
thelhapeof a horfe-lhoe : this our druggifts ufually beat
and ptill to pieces, and fell it in thin Ihreds like Ikins,
which eafily difiblve: befides this kind of round ifing-
glafs, we meet with fome in fmall thin fquare cakes,
white and very tranfparent; thefe are the fineft of all.
But ifinglafs, of whatever lhape, is to be cbofen clean,
whitilh, and pellucid.
The method of preparing the ichthyocolla is this :
they cut off all the fins of the hufo, clofe to the flelh,
and take out the bladder, ftomacb, and inteftines ;
they walli thefe very clean, and then cut them in
pieces, and throwing them into a large quantity of
water, they let them fteep four and twenty hours, and
after this they kindle a fire under the veflel, and keep
the liquor juft boiling till the greater part of the mat¬
ters are diflblved; they then ftirthe whole brilldy a-
bout; then ftrain it through flannels, and fet the li¬
quor by to cool. When there is a large quantity of
fat ufually formed upon it, which is carefully Ikimmed
off, and the clear liquor is poured off from thegroffer
parts which fubfide, it is put over the fire again, and
oently evaporated and flammed afrelh all the time,
till by trials they find, that on kiting a fpoonful of it
cool it will harden into, the confiftence of glue.
Great care is taken to keep the fire very gentle, to
prevent burning towards the end of this evaporation.
They then pout it out upon a large, •ffmooth, wooden
table; and as it cools, form it into the mafles we meet
with it.h), by cutting and rolling it up.
) 1 D I
The' greateft quantity of ifrnglafs is made in Ruffia.
We have it principally from Holland, the Dutch con-
trafting for the moft of it before it is made.
It is an excellent agglutinant and ftrengthener; and
is often preferibed in jellies and broth, but rarely en¬
ters any compofitions of the regular medicinal form.
It is the moft efficacious as well as the moft fafe and
innocent of all the ingredients ufed for cleaning wines,
upon which account the wine-coopers ufe a much
grester quantity ofit than the apothecaries.
A very valuable glue is alfo made of this drug, which
is a proper form to keep it for the wine-coopers ufe.
ICHTHYOLOGY, the fcience of fifties, or that branch
of zoology which treats of fifties. See Natural
History.
ICHTHYPERIA, in natural hiflory, a name given by
Dr Hill'To the bony palates and mouths of fifties, u-
fually met with either foffile, in fingle pieces, or in frag¬
ments. They are of the fame fubftance with the bu-
fonitce; and are of very various figures, fome broad
and fiiort, others longer and fiender; fome very gib-
bofe, and others plainly arched. They are like wife
of various fizes, from the tenth of an inch to two inches
in length, and an inch in breadth.
ICOSAHEDRON, in geometry, a regular folid, con¬
fiding of twenty triangular pyramids, whofe vertexes
meet in the centre of a fphere, fuppofed tocircumfcrjbe
it ; and therefore, have their height and bafes equal:
wherefore the folidity of one of thofe pyramids multi¬
plied by 20, the number of bafes, gives the folid cpn-
tent of the icofahedron.
ICOSANDRIA, in the Linnaean fyftem of botany. See
Botany, p. 635.
IDA, a mountain in the ifland of Candiaor Crete; alfo
another in Natolia, or leffer Afia, celebrated by the
poets for the judgment of Paris on the beauty of the
three goddeffes, Minerva, Juno, and Venus, to the
laft of whom he gave the preference.
IDEA, the reflex perception of objeifts, after the origi¬
nal perception or impreffion has been felt by the mind.
See Metaphysics.
IDENTITY, denotes that by which a thing is itfek,
and not any thing elfe ; in which fenfe, indentity dif¬
fers from fimilitude as well as diyerfity. See Meta¬
physics.
IDES, in the ancient Roman calendar, were eight days
in each month; the firftof which fell on the 15th of
March, May, July, and October; and on the 13th
day of the other months.
They were reckoned backwards, in the manner al¬
ready explained underthe article Calenbs.
Thus they cafled the 14th day of March, May,
July, andOdober; and the 12 th of the other months,
the pridie idus, or the day before the ides ; the next
preceding day, they called the tertio idus; and fo on,
reckoning always backwards, till they come to the
nones. See Nones. This method of reckoning time
is ftill retained in the chancery of Rome, and in the ca¬
lendar of the breviary.
IDIOM, among grammarians, properly fignifies the pe¬
culiar
IDO ( 83
culiar genius of each language, but it is often ufed in a
fynonymous fenfe with dialedt.
IDIOPATHY, in phyfic, a diforder peculiar to a certain-
part of the body, and not ariling from any preceding
difeafe ; in which fenfe, it is oppofed to fyinpathetic.
Thus, an epilepfyis idiopathic, when it happens mere¬
ly through fome fault in the brain ; and fympathetic,
when it is the confequence of fome other diforder.
IDIOSYNCRASYi among phyficians, denotes a pecu¬
liar temperament of body, whereby it is redered more
liable to certain diforders than perfons of a different
conftitution ufually are.
IDIOT, a perfon that is born a natural fool.
IDOLATRY, or the worlhip of idols, may be diftin-
guifhed into two forts. By the firft, men adore the
works of God, the fun, the moon, the ftars, angels,
* daemons, men and animals: by the fecond, men wor-
fhip the work of their ov/n hands, as ftatues, pictures,
and the like : and to thefe .may be added a third, that
by which men have worfhipped the true God under
fenfible figures and reprefentations. This indeed may
have been the cafe with refpeft to each of the above
kinds of idolatry ; and thus the Ifraelites adored God
under the figure of a calf.
The ftars were the firft objefts of idolatrous vor-
fhip ; and on account of their beauty, their influence
on the productions of the earth, and the regularity of
their motions, particularly the fun and moon, which are
confidered as the moft glorious and' refplendent images
of the Deity : afterwards, as their fentiments became
more corrupted, they began to form images, and to
entertain the opinion,, that by virtue of confecration,
the gods were called down to inhabit or dwell in their
ftatues. Hence Arnobius takes oecafion to rally the
pagans for guarding fo carefully the ftatues of their
gods, who, if they were really prefent in their images,
might fave their worfhippers the trouble of fecuring
them from thieves and robbers.
As to the adoration which the ancient pagans paid
to the ftatues of their gods, it is certain, that the wifer
and more fenfible heathens confidered them only as
fimple reprefentations or figures defigned to recal to
their minds the memory of their gods. This was the
opinion of Varro and Seneca : and the fame fentiment,
is clearly laid down in Plato, who mentains, that i-
mages are inanimate, and that all the honour paid to
them has refpeft to the gods whom they reprefent.
But as to the vulgar, they were ftupid enough to be¬
lieve the ftatues themfelves to be gods, and to pay di¬
tine worfhip to ftocks and ftones.
Soon after the flood, idolatry feems to have been
the prevailing religion of all the world ; for where-eyer
we caft our eyes at the time of Abraham, we fcarcely
fee any thing but falfe worftiip and idolatry. And it
appears from fcripture, that Abraham’s forefathers,
and even Abraham himfelf, were for a time idolaters.
The Hebrews were indeed exprefsly forbidden to
make any reprefcntation of God; they were not fo
much as to look upon an idol: and from the time of
the Maccabees to the deftrufiion of Jerufalem, the
Jews, extended this precept to the making the figure
i ) J E H
of any man : by the law of Mofes, they were obliged
to deftroy all the images they found, and were for¬
bidden to apply any of the gold or filver to their own
ufe, that no one might receive the leaft profit from any
thing belonging to an idol. Of this the Jews, after
they had fmarted for their idolatry, were fo fenfible,
that they thought it unlawful to ufe any veflel that had
been employed in facrificing to a falfe god, to warm
themfelves with th.e wood of a grove, after it was cut
down, or to flicker themfelves under its fliade.
But the preaching of the Chriftian religion, where-
ever it prevailed, entirely rooted out idolatry; as did
alfo that of Mahomet, which is built on the worfliip
of one God. It muft not, however, be forgotten,
that the proteftant Chriftians charge thofeof the church
of Rome with paying an idolatrous kind of worfliip to
the pictures or images of faints and martyrs : before
tkefe, they burn lamps and wax-candles ; before thefe,
they burn incecfe, and kneeling offer up their vpws
and petitions : they, like the pagans, believe that the
faint to whom the image is dedicated, prefides in a
particular manner about its flirine, and works miracles
by the intervention of its image ; and that if the image,
was deftroyed or taken away, the faint would no longer
perform any miracle in that place.
IDYLLION, in ancient poetry, is only a diminutive of
the word [e/c/os,] and properly fignifies any poem of
moderate extent, without confidering the fubjeCt.
But as the collection of Theocritus’s poems were
called idyllia, and the paftoral pieces being by far the
beft in that collection, the term idyllion feems tp be
now appropriated to paftoral pieces.
JEALOUSY, in general, denotes the fear of a rival ;
but is more efpecially underftood of the fufpicion which
married people entertain of each other’s fidelity and
affeCtion.
JEDBURGH, the capital of Tiviotdale or Roxburgh,
in Scotland, thirty-fix miles fouth-eaft of Edinburgh :
W. long 20 15', N, lat. 55° 25'.
JEDDO, the capital city of Japan Proper, fituated on
the eaft fide of the iftand : E. long. 1410 N. lat; 560.
The fplendor of the royal palace and public build¬
ings of this city, in the opinion of thofe Europeans
who have feen it; is no where to be equalled. The
emperor’s palace and gardens, which are in the middle
of the city, are five miles in circumference. All the
houfes are built upon one floor, and the rooms are only
divided by folding fcreens.
JEER, or Jeer-rope, in a fliip, is a large rop reeved
through double or treble blocks, laftted at the maft-
head and on the yard, in order to hoift or lower-the
yards.
JEHOVAH, one of the fcripture-names of God, figr
nifying the Being who is felf-exiftent and gives exili-
ence to others.
So great a veneration had the Jews for this name,
that they left off the cuftom of pronouncing it, where¬
by its-true pronunciation was forgotten. They call1
it tetragrammaton, or the name witb four letters; and
believe, that whoever knows the true pronunciatfon
of it cannot fail to be heard by God.
JEJV-
j E R ( 832 ) JET
JEJUNUM, in' anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 260.
JEMPTERLAND, a province of Sweden, bounded
by Angermania on the north, by Medelpadia on
the ead, by Helfingia on the fouth, and by Norway
on the weft.
JENA, a city of Germany, in the circle of Upper Sax¬
ony, and the landgraviate of Thuringia : E. Ion. 11°
44', N. lat. 51°.
JENKOP1NG, a city of Sweden, in the province of
Gothland, fituated ninety miles fouth-eaft of Gotten-
burg: E. long. 14° 30', N. 570 %o'.
JEREMIAH, T/)t prophecy of, a canonical book of the
Old Teftament. This divine writer was of the race
of the priefts, the fon of Hilk'ah of Anathoth, in the
tribe of Benjamin. He was called to the prophetic
office when very young, about the thirteenth of Jofiah,
and continued in the difcharge of it about forty years.
He was not carried captive to Babylon with the other
Jew's, but remained in Judea to lament the defolation
of his country. He was afterwards a prifoner in E-
gypt with his difciple Barach, where it is fuppofed he
died in a very advanced age. Some of the Chriftian
fathers tell us, he was ftoned to death by the Jews,
for preaching againft their idolatry ; and fome fay, he
was put to death by Pharaoh Hophra, becaufe of his
prophecy againft him. Part of the prophecy of Jere¬
miah relates to the time after the captivity of Ifrael,
and before that of Judah, from the firft chapter to the
forty-fourth ; and part of it was in the time of the
latter captivity, from the forty-fourth chapter to the
end. The prophet lays open the fins of Judah with
great freedom and boldnefs, and reminds them of the
fevere judgments, which had befallen the ten tribes
for the fame offences. He paflionately laments their
misfortune, and recommends a fpeedy reformation to
them. Afterwards h@ predicts the grievous calamities
that were approaching, particularly the feventy years
captivity in Chaldsea. He likewife foretells their de¬
liverance and happy return, and the recompence which
Babylon, Moab, and other enemies of the Jews ffiould
meet with in due time. There are likewife feveral in¬
timations in this prophecy concerning the kingdom of the
Meffiah ; alfo feveral remarkable vifions, and types,
and hiftorical paffages relating to thofe times. The fifty-
fecond chapter does not belong to the prophecy of Jere¬
miah, which probably was added byEzra, and contains a
narrative of the taking of Jerufalem, and of what hap¬
pened during the captivity of the Jews, to the death
of Jechonias. St. Jerom has obferved upon this pro¬
phet, that his ftyle is more eafy than that of Ifaiah and
Hofea; that he retains fomething of the rufticity of
the village where he was born ; but that he is very
learned and majeftic, and equal to thofe two prophets
in the fenfe of his prophecy.
JERSEY, an ifland in the Engliffi channel, fifteen miles
weft of the coaft of Normandy, and eighty miles fouth
of Portland in Dorfetlhire: W. long. 2® 2o\ N. lat.
49° 20'.
New Jersey, a province in North America, which
may be bounded on the north by a line drawn from
the river Delawar to Hudfon’s river, which divides it
from New-York; by the Atlantic Ocean, on the eaft ;
by the fame ocean on the fouth; and by Delawar bay
and river, which feparates it from Penfilvania, on the
weft. It lies between 74° and 76° of W. long, and
between 390 and 410 of N. lat. and is about 140
miles in length, and 60 in breadth. It is fubjedt to
Britain.
JERUSALEM, the capital city of Judea, or Paleftine,
in Afiatic Turky, fituated thirty miles eaft of the
Levant, or Mediterranean fea, and ninety miles fouth
of Damafcus : E. long. 36°, N. lat. 32°.
It Hands on a high rock, with fteep afcents on e-
very fide, except on the north; and is furrounded with
a deep valley, which is again incompaffed with hills.
The city is at prefent three miles in circumference,
and has a little altered its fituation : for mount Calvary,
which was formerly without the walls, Hands now in
the middle of the city; and mount Sion, which ftood
near the centre, is now without the walls.
JESI, a city of Italy, in the province of Ancona, and
territory of the pope : E. long. 140 4c/, N. lat. 430
4 S'1
JESSELMERE, the capital of the province of the
fame name in the Eaftlndies, fubjedt to the Mogul:
E. long. 73° 20/, N. lat. 27°.
JESSO, or Yedso, a country of Afia, which lies north
of Japan, and is faid to extend north-eaft to the con¬
tinent of America : E. long. 140°, N. lat. 40°.
JESUAT, a province of India, bounded by Patan on
the north, and by Bengal on the fouth ; fubjedt to the
Mogul.
JESUITES, or the fociety of Jefus, a famous religious
order in the Romifh church, founded by Ignatius
Loyola, a native of Guipufcoa in Spain, who in the
year 1538 affembled ten of his companions at Rome,
principally chofen out of the univerfity of Paris, and
made a propofal to them to form a new order ; when,
after many deliberations, it was agreed to add to the
three ordinary vows of chaftity, poverty, and obedience,
a fourth ; which was, to go into all countries whither
the pope fhould pleafe to fend them, in order to make
converts to the Romiffi church. Two years after,
pope Paul III. gave them a bull, by which he ap¬
proved this new order, giving them a power to make
fach ftatutes as theylhould judge convenient: on which,
Ignatius was created general of the order ; which in a
fliort time fpread over all the countries of the world,
to which Ignatius fent his companions, while he
ftaid at Rome, from whence he governed the whole
fociety.
The entire fociety is compofed of four forts of mem¬
bers ; novices, fcholars, fpiritual and temporal coad¬
jutors, and profeffed members. The novices continue
fo two years; after which they are admitted to make
the three Ample vows, of chaftity, poverty, and obedi¬
ence, in the prefence of their fuperiors : the fcholars
add fome fpiritual exercifes to their ftudies. The fpi¬
ritual coadjutors affift the profeffed members, and alfo
make the three Ample vows : the temporal coajutors,
or
JEW ( 833 ) I L I
or lay-brothers, take care of the temporal affairs of
the fociety ; and the profeffed members, which com-
pofe the body of the fociety, befides the three fimple
vows, add a fpecial vow of obedience to the head of
the church in every thing relating to miffions among i-
dolaters and heretics. They have profeffed houfes for
their profeffed members and their coadjutors ; colleges,
in which the fciences are taught to ftrangers ; and fe-
minaries, in which the young Jefuits go through a
courfe of philofophy and theology. They are govern¬
ed by a general, who has four alliftants, and who ap¬
points reftors, fuperiors of houfes, provincials, vifitors,
and commiffaries. The difcipline of thefe houfes, and
efpecially of the colleges, was regulated by Ignatius
htmfelf. On account of the grofs do&rines and bad
practices of the Jefuits, the order, within thefe few
years, has been fuppreffed in mod Roman-catholic
countries, the members banifhed, and their goods con-
fifcated.
JET, in natural hiftory, a folid, dry, dpake, inflamma¬
ble fubftance, found in large detached maffes, of a fine
and regular ftru<5ture, having a grain like that of wood,
fplitting more eafily horizontally than in any other
direftion, very light, moderately hard, not fufible,
but readily inflammable, and burning a long time with
a fine greenifh flame.
It is of a fine deep black colour, very gloffy and
fhining, except upon its furface, where it has been
fouled by accident. When examined by the micro-
fcope, it is found to be compofed of a number of pa¬
rallel plates, very thin, and laid clofely upon one a-
nother. It is not foluble in, nor makes any effervef-
cence with acids. It fhould be chofen of the deepell
black, of a moderate hardnefs, very light, and fuch
as will fplit mod evenly in an horizontal direftion ;
this being its great charafteriftic, by which it is diftin-
guifhed from the cannel coal, which breaks equally eafy
any way.
Jet is of great ufe to perfumers, and is fometimes
prefcribed in medicine. Diofcorides tells us, that it
is an excellent emollient and difcutient, and recom¬
mends a fumigation of it for difeafes of the womb ;
and among the eaflern nations, it is dill in high repute
as a cordial, a drengthener, and prolOnger of life.
Every pound of jet pays on importation a duty of
/-nns-d. and draws back 6^VTd. on exportation.
JET d’eau, a French term, frequently alfo ufed with
us, for a fountain that cads up water to a confidefable
height in the air.
JEWEL, any precious done, or ornament befet with
them. See the articles Diamond, Ruby, ere.
JEWS, thofe who profefs obedience to the laws and re¬
ligion of Mofes.
When a modern Jew builds an houfe, be mud leave
part of it unfurnifhed, in remembrance that the temple
and Jerufalem now lie defolate. They lay great drefs
upon frequent walkings. - They abdain from meats
prohibited by the Levitical law ; for which reafon,
whatever they eat mud be dreffed by Jews, and after
a manner peculiar to themfelves. Every lev/ is obli-
Vol. II. No. 61. x
ged to marry, and a man who lives to twenty unmar¬
ried, is accounted as aftually living in fin.
The Jews, it is faid, were formerly at the difpofal
of the chief lord where they lived, and likewife all
their goods. A Jew may be a witnefs by our law,
being fworn on the Old Tedament, and taking the oaths
to the government.
For a farther account of the Jew, fee the articles
Caraites, Circumcision, Levites, Passover,
Pharisees, Rabbins, Sadducees, Sanhedrim,
Synagogue, Talmud, <bc.
Jew’s ears, in botany, SccTremella.
IGLAW, a town of Germany, in the province of Mo¬
ravia, fituated on the river Igja, on the frontiers of
Bohemia ; fubjeft to the houfe of Audria : E. long.
1 s° 7', N. lat. 490 i6f.
IGNAVUS, in zoology. See Bradytus.
IGNIS. See Fire.
Ignis-fatuus. See WiLL-*uu7/5-<j-<wrj$>.
IGNITION, in chemidry, the heating metals red-hot,
without meking them.
IGNORANCE, the privation or abfence of knowledge.
The caufes of ignorance, according to Locke, are
chiefly thefe three. 1. Want of ideas. 2. Want of
a difcoverable conneftion between the ideas we have.
3. Want of tracing and examining our ideas. See
Metaphysics.
IGUANA, in zoology. See Lacerta,
IHOR, the capital of the province of Ihor, in Malacca,
near the fouth cape of the further peninfula of India,
fubjeft to the Dutch : E. Ion. 103^, N. lat. 30.
ELCHESTER, a borough-town of Somerfetihire, four¬
teen miles fouth of Wells. It fends two members to
parliament. *
ILEX, the holm-oak, or ever-green oak, in bo¬
tany, a genus of the tetrandria tetragynia clafs. The
caHx -has four teeth; the corolla is rotated ; it has no
dylus ; and the berry contains four feeds. There are
five fpecies, none of them natives of Britain. The
kermes of the fliops adheres and is gathered off the
branches of the ilex aquifolium. The kermes is a
round grain about the bulk of a pea. Thefe grains
appear full of fmall reddifh ovula, or animalcules, of
which they are the nidus. The kermes is a grateful
mild reftringent and corroborant.
ILHEOS} or Rio de Ilheos, a province of Brazil in
fouth America, fuhjeft to Portugal. It is bounded
by the bay of All-faints on the north, and by the At¬
lantic ocean on the ead.
ILIAC passion, in medicine. See Medicine.
ILIACUS musculus, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
p. 204.
ILIAD, the name of an ancient epic poem, the fird and
fined of thofe compofed by Homer.
The poet’s defign in the iliad was to fliew the Greeks,
who were divided into feveral little dates, how much
it was their intered to preferve a harmony and good
underdanding among themfelves: for which end, he
fets before them the calamities that befd their ancef-
tors from the wrath of Achilles, and his mifunder-
9 A danding
I M M ( 834 ) IMP
{landing with Agamemnon; and the advantages that
afterwards accrued to them from their union. The
Iliad is dividedinto twenty-four books, or rhapfodies,
v/hich are marked with the letters of the alphabet.
ILIUM, in anatomy. See Anat. p. 260.
ILLENOIS, the inhabitants of a country contiguous to
the illenois-lake, in Canada, in north America, which
is fituated between 88° and 93° of W. Ion. and be¬
tween 410 and 46° of N. lat.
ILLER, a river of Germany, which riling in the moun¬
tains of Tyrol, runs north through Swabia, and falls
into the Danube at Ulm.
ILMEN, a lake in the province of Great Novogrod, in
Ruffia, in 340 E. Ion. and 58° N. lat.
ILMINSTER, amarket-town of Somerfetlhire, twenty-
four miles foflth weft of Wells.
IMAGE, in a religious fenfe, is an artificial reprefen-
tation or limilitude of fome perfon or thing, ufed ei¬
ther by way of decoration and ornament, or as
an objedt of religious worlhip and veneration; in
which laft fenfe, it is ufed indifferently with the word
idol.
IMAGINATION, a power or faculty of the mind,
whereby it conceives and forms ideas of things com¬
municated to it by the outward organs of fenfe. See
Metaphysics.
IMAN, a name applied by the Mahometans to him who
is head of the congregations in their mofques; and, by
way of eminence, to him who has the fupreme autho¬
rity both in refpedt to fpirituals and temporals.
IMBECILLITY, a languid, infirm ftate of body, which,
being greatly impaired, is not able to perform its ufual
exercifes and funftions.
IMBIBING, the adtion of a dry porous body, that ab-
forbs or takes up a moift or fluid one : thus, fugar im¬
bibes water; a fpunge, the moifture of the air,
IMBRICATED, among botanifts. See Botany, p.
641.
IMENSTAT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Swabia; fituated in E. Ion. io6 8'. N. lat. 47° 26'.
IMITATION, the adts of doing or Having to copy af¬
ter, or become like to, another perfon or thing.
Du Bos obferves, that the principal merit of poems
and pidtures confifts in the imitation of fuch objedls
as would have excited real paffions ; and that the paf-
fions which thefe imitations give rife to, are onlyfu-
perficial, and not fo ftrong as that of the objedl imitated,
and are therefore foon effaced. He alfo maintains,
that the imitation of tragic objedts in poems and pic¬
tures, afford moft pleafure: we liften, therefore, with
pleafure to thefe unhappy men who make a recital of
their misfortunes by means of a painter’s pencil, or of
a poet’s verfes; but, as Diogenes Laertius obferyes,
it would afflidl us extremely, were we to hear them
bewailing their fad difafters in perfon.
IMMACULATE, fomething without ftain, chiefly ap¬
plied to the conception of the holy virgin.
IMMATERIAL, fomething devoid of matter, or that is
pure fpirit: thus God, angels, and the human foul, are
immaterial beings.
IMMEDIATE, whatever is capable of producing an ef-
fedt without the intervention of external means ; thus
we fay, an immediate caufe, in oppofition to a mediate
or remote one.
IMMENSITY, an unlimited extenfibn, or which no
finite and determinate fpace, repeated ever fo often,
can equal.
IMMERSION, that adt by which any thing is plunged
into water or other fluid.
It is ufed in chemiftry for a fpecies of calcination,
when any body is immerfed in a fluid to be corroded ;
or it is a fpecies oflotion, as when a fubftance is plun¬
ged into any fluid in order to deprive it of a bad quali¬
ty, or communicate to it a good one.
Immersion, in aftronomy, is when a ftar or planet is fo
near the fun with regard to our obfervations, that we
cannot fee it; being, as it were, inveloped and hid in
the rays of that luminary. It alfo denotes .the begin¬
ning of an eclipfe of the moon, or that moment when
the moon begins to be darkened, and to enter into the
ftiadow of the eirth.
IMMORTAL, that which will laft to all eternity, as ha¬
ving in it no principle of alteration or corruption:
thus God and the human foul are immortal.
IMMUNITY, a privilege or exemption from fome
office, duty, or impofition, as an exemption from
tolls, &c.
Immunity is more particularly underftood of the li¬
berties granted to cities and communities.
IMPALED, in heraldry ; when the coats of a man and
his wife who is not an heirefs are borne in the fame
efcutcheon, they muft be marfhalled in pale; the huf-
band’s on the right fide, and the wife’s on the left:
and this the heralds call baron and feme, two coats
impalled.
If a man has had two wives, he may impale his coat
in the middle between theirs; and if he has had more
than two, they are to be marfhalled on each fide of his
in their proper order.
IMPALPABLE, that whofe parts are fo extremely mi¬
nute that they cannot be diftinguifhed by the fenfes,
particularly by that of feeling.
IMPANATION, a term ufed by divines, to fignify the
opinion of the Lutherans with regard to the eucharift,
who believe that the fpecies of bread and wine re¬
main together with the body of our Saviour after con-
fecration.
IMPANNELLING, in law, fignifies the writing down
or entering into a parchment, lift or fchedule, the
names of a jury fummoned by the fheriff to appear for
fuch public fervices as juries are employed in.
IMPARLANCE, in law, a petition in court for a day
to confider or advife what anfwer the defendant fhall
make to the plaintiff’s aftion; and is the continuance of
the caufe till another day, or a longer time given by
the court.
IMPASTATION, the mixtion of various materials of
different colours and confiftencies, baked or bound to¬
gether with fome cement, and hardened either by the
air or by fire.
IMPATIENS, in botany, a genus of thefyngenefia mo^
nogynia clafs.. The calix confifts of two leaves, and
the.
IMP ( 835 ) IMP
the corolla of five Irregular petals; and the capfule
has five valves. There are feven fpecies, only one of
which, viz. the noli-me-tangere, or touch-me-not, is
a native of Britain.
IMPEACHMENT, an accufation and profecution for
treafon and other crimes and mifdemeanors.
IMPENETRABILITY, in philofophy, that property
of body, whereby it cannot be pierced b r another :
thus, a body, which fo fills a fpace as to exclude all
others, is faid to be impenetrable.
IMPERATIVE, one of the moods of a verb, ufed when
we would command, intreat, or advife: thus,
take pity, be advifed, are imperatives in our language.
IMPERATOR, in Roman antiquity, a title of honour
conferred on viflorious generals, by their armies, and
afterwards confirmed by the fenate,
IMPERATORLA, master-wort, in botany, a genus
of the pentandria digynia clafs. The fruit is roundilh,
comprefled, and gibbous in the middle. There is but
one fpecies, a native of Switzerland. The root of
this plant, though an excellent aromatic, has only
place in the plague water of the Edinburgh pharma¬
copoeia.
IMPERFECT, fomething that is defe&ive, or that
wants fome of the properties found in other beings of
the fame kind.
IMPERIAL, fomething belonging to an emperor or
empire, as imperial crown, imperial chamber, imperial
cities, imperial diet, tec.
IMPERSONAL verb, in grammar, a verb to which
the nominative of any certain perfon cannot be prefix¬
ed; or, as others define it, a verb dellitute of the two
firli and primary perfons, as decet, opertet, &c.
IMPERVIOUS, a thing not to be pervaded nor palled
ti ro’, either by reafon of the clofenefs of its pores, or
the particular configuration of its parts.
IMPETUS, in mechanics, the force with which one
body impels or ftrikes another. See Mechanics.
IMPLICATION, in law, is where fomething is im¬
plied, that is not exprelfed by the parties themfelves
in their deeds, contradls, and agreements.
IMPORTATION, in commerce, the bringing merchan¬
dize into a kingdom from foreign countries; in con-
tradiftin&ion to exportation. See Exportation.
Welhall here give fome of the principal laws rela¬
ting to the importation of goods into this kingdom.
Goods imported without entry, or paying cuftoms,
are forfeited ; and the lord-treafurer, the barons of
the exchequer, or chief magiftrates of the place where
the offence was committed, or next adjoining to it,
may grant a warrant to any perfon, who, with the
alfiltance of a conftable, may break open doors, chelfs,
dye. and take thence any prohibited or unaccufiomed
goods ; but this is to be done within one month
after the offence was committed. But if falfe infor¬
mation is given, the perfon wrongfully accufed, may
recover colls and damages.
No Ihip or veffel arriving from beyond fea is to bear
bove three days in failing from Gravefend to the place of
difeharge on the river Thames, unlefs hindered by con¬
trary winds or oth.er impediment. And no Ihip bound
for the port of London is to touch or ffay at any place
adjoining to any Ihofe, between Gravefend and Chelfer-
quay. True entries are to be made of all fuch Ihips
lading, upon oath of the mailer or purler for that voy¬
age ; alfo where Ihe took in her lading, where Ihe was
built, how manned, who were the owners, and who the
mailer during the voyage. In all out-ports, Ihips are to
come diredtiy to the place of unlading, and make true
entries as aforefaid, upon penalty of the forfeiture of
too 1.
After any lliip is cleared, and the watchmen and tidefc
men difeharged from their attendance, if there be found
on board any concealed goods that have not paid the duty
inwards, the mailer, or other perfon taking charge of the
Ihip, lhall forfeit 100 I.
Porters, carmen, watermen, <foc. allilling in landing
unaccullomed goods, lhall, on conviftion, for the fir It
offence, be committed to the next jail till they find fe-
curity for their good behaviour; and for their fecond of¬
fence, they are to be committed to prifon for two months,,
without bail or mainprize, or till they are difeharged by
the court of exchequer, or each of them pay 5 1. to the
Iheriff of the county.
No merchant-denizen Ihall cover a flranger’s goods,
but lhall, byhimfelf or agent, fign one of his bills of e-
very entry, with the mark, number, and contents of e-
very parcel of goods* without which no entry lhall pafs.
And no children of aliens under the age of twenty one
years, Ihali have entry made in their names, nor be per¬
mitted to trade.
Merchants, trading into the port of London, lhall1
have free liberty to lade and unlade their goods at any of
the lawful quays between the Tower and London-bridge,
from fun-riling to fun-fetting, from September 10, to
March 10 ; and between fix o’ clock in the morning and
fix in the evening, from March 10, to September j6;
giving notice thereof to the refpetfive officers, appointed
to attend the lading and unlading of goods. And fuch
officers as lhall refufe to be prefent lhall forfeit j 1. for e-
very default.
To prevent combination between importers, and feiiers
of goods unlawfully imported or exported, none lhall
feize them but the officers of the cultonas, or fuch as
lhall be authorifed fo to do by the lord treafurer, under-
treafurer, or a fpecial commiffion from his majelly, under
the great privy feal.
If any feizer of prohibited or unaccullomed goods does
net make due profecution thereof, it is lawful for the cu-
llom houfe officers, or others deputed thereto, to make
feizure of fuch goods, and they lha!l be, in law, ad¬
judged the firll true informers and feizers, and have the
benefit thereof, notwithllanding. any law and ftatute-to <
the contrary.
All foreign goods permitted to be Ended by bills at
fight, bills at view or fuffrance, ffiall be landed -at the
moll conrenient quays and wharfs, as the officers of the
culloms lhall diredl ; and there, or at the king’s llore-
houfe of the refpedlive ports, lhall be meafured, weighed,
numbered, dye. by the officers appointed, who Ihali per-
fedl the entry, and fubferibe their names to it, and the
next day make their report to the cu Homer, colletfor,
IMF ( 836 ) I N A
or comptroller j or in default thereof, fliali forfeit
100 1.
Any merchant who rtrall import goods, lhall have
liberty to break bulk in any lawful port or quay, the
mafter or purfer firft making oath of the true contents
of the Ihip’s lading. No Englifli merchant lliall put on
(hore in Scotland or Ireland, any merchandize of the
growth or produce of any of his majefty’s plantations,
unlefs the fame have been firlt landed in England,
Wales, or Berwick, and paid the duties with which
they are chargeable, under the penalty of forfeiting
the (hip and goods, three fourths to the king, and
one fourth to the informer, or he that lhall fue for the
fame: but if a (hip be difabled, or driven into any
port of Ireland, and unable to proceed on her voyage,
her goods may be put on (bore, under the hands of the
principal officers of the cuftoms there redding, till the
goods can be put on board fome other veiTel, to be
tranfported to fome part of England or Wales.
Natives of England or Ireland may import into Eng¬
land, direftiy from Ireland, any hemp, flax, thread,
yarn and linen, of the growth and manufacture of
Ireland, cuftom-free; the chief officer fo importing
bringing a certificate from the chief office in Ireland,
expreffing the particulars of the goods, with the names
and places of abode of the exporters thence, and of
fuch as havefworn that the faid goods are, bona fide,
of the growth and manufacture of that kingdom, and
who they are configned to in England; and the chief
officer (hall make oath, that the faid goods are the fame
that are on board, by virtue of that certificate.
IMPOST, in iaw,.fignifies in general a tribute or cuflom,
but is more particularly applied to fignify that tax
which the crown receives for merchandizes imported
into any port or haven.
Imposts, in architecture, the capitals of pillars, or pi-
lafters, which fupport arches.
IMPOSTHUME, in furgery, See Abscess.
IMPOTENCE, or Impotency, in general, denotes
want of ftrength, power, or means to perform any
thing.
Divines and philofophers diftinguiffi two forts of im¬
potency; natural, and moral. The firfi: is a want of
fomephyfical principle, neceflary to an aClion ; orwhere
a being is abfolutely defective, or not free and at li¬
berty to act : the fecond only imports a great difficul¬
ty, as a ftrong habit to the contrary, a violent paflion,
or the like.
Impotency is, more particularly, ufed for a natural
inability to coition. Impotence with refpeCt to men,
is the fame as fterility in women ; that is, an inability
of propagating the fpecies. There are many caufes of
impotence; as, a natural defeCt in the organs of gene¬
ration, which feldom admits of a cure: accidents, or
difeafes ; and in fuch cafes the impotence may, or
may not be remedied, according as tbefe are curable
or otherwife.
IMPREGNATION, the getting a female with-child.
See Pregnancy.
The term impregnation is alfo ufed, in pharmacy,
for communicating the virtues of one medicine to ano¬
ther, whether by mixture, coCtion, digeftion, 6\?.
IMPRESSION is applied to the fpecies of objects,
which are fuppofed to make fome mark or impreffion
on the fenfes, the mind, and the memory.
The peripatetics afiert, that bodies emit fpecies re-
fembling them, which are conveyed to the common
fenforium, and they are rendered intelligible by the
adtive intellefl; and when thus fpiritualized, are cal¬
led expreffions, or exprefs fpecies, as being exprefled
from the others.
Impression alfo denotes the edition of a book, regard¬
ing the mechanical part only ; whereas edition, befides
this, takes in the care of the editor, who corredted or
augmented the copy, adding notes, <bc. to render the
work more ufeful.
IMPROB4TION, in Scots law, the name of that
adlion brought for fetting any deed or writing afide upon
the head of forgery. See La-w, tit. 33.
IMPROPRIATION, a parfonage or ecclefiaftical living,
the profits of which are in the hands of a layman ; in
which fenfe, it (lands diftinguiffied from appropriation,
which is where the profits of a benefice are in the hands
of a bii'hop, college, foe. though thefe terms are now
often ufed promifeuoufly.
IMPULSE, in machanics. See Mechanics.
IMPURITY, in the law of Mofes, is any legal defile¬
ment. Of thefe there were fevsral forts ; fome were
voluntary, as the touching a dead body, or any animal
that died of itfelf, or any creature that was edeemed
unclean; or the touching things holy, by one who
was not clean, or was not a prielt; the touching one
who had a leprofy, one who had a gonorrhoea, or who
was polluted by a dead carcafe, <bc. Sometimes thefe
impurities were involuntary, as when any one inadver¬
tently touched bones, or a fepulchre, or any thing
polluted ; or fell into fuch difeafes as pollute, as the
leprofy, <bc.
IMPUTATION, in general, the charging fomething to
the account of one, which belonged to another : thus,
the aflertors of original fin maintain, that Adam’s (in
is imputed to all his pofterity.
In the fame fenfe, the righteoufnefs and merits of
Chriftare imputed to true-believers.
INACCESSIBLE, fomething that cannot be come at,
or approached, by reafon of intervening obflacles, as
a river, rock, ebc. It is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of
heights and diftances. See Geometry.
INALIENABLE, that which cannot be legally alienated
or made over to another : thus the dominions of the
king, the revenues of the church, the eftates of a mi¬
nor, tic. are inalienable, otherwife than with a referve
of the right of redemption.
INANIMATE, a body that has either loft its foul, or
that is not of a nature capable of having any.
INANITION, among phyficians, denotes the (late
of the ftomach when empty, in oppofition to re¬
pletion.
INARCHING, in gardening, is a method of grafting,
commonly called grafting by approach, and is Ufed
when the (lock intended to graft on, and the tree from
which the graft is to be taken, (land fo near, or
can
INC ( 837 ) INC
can be brought fo near, that they may be joined to¬
gether.
INAUGURATION, the coronation of an emperor or
king, or the confecration of a prelate : fo called from
the ceremonies ufed by the Romans, when they were
received into the college of augurs.
INCA, or Ynca, a name given by the natives of Peru
to their kings and the princes of the blood. Pedro
de Ciega, in his Chronicle of Peru, gives the origin
of the incas, and fays, that that country was, for a
long time, the theatre of all manner of crimes, of war,
diflention, and the molt dreadful diforders, till at laft
two brothers appeared, one of whom was called Man-
gocapa ; of this perfon, the Peruvians relate many
wonderful ftories. He built the city of Cufco, made
laws, eftablifiied order and harmony by his wife regu¬
lations ; and he and his defcendents took the name of
inca, which fignilies king or great lord. Thefe incas
became fo powerful, that they rendered themfelves
mafters of all the country from Pafto to Chili, and
from the river Maule on the fouth, to the river Aug-
afmago on the north ; thefe two rivers forming the
bounds of their empire, which extended above thirteen
hundred leagues in length. This they enjoyed till the
diviiions between inca Guafcar and Atabalipa; which
the Spaniards laying hold of, made themfelves mafters
of the country, and deftroyed the empire of the incas.
INCAMERATION, a term ufed in the chancery of
Rome, for the uniting of lands, revenues, or other
rights, to the pope’s domain.
INCANTATION, denotes certain ceremonies, accom¬
panied with a formula of words, and fuppofed to L»e
• capable of rafting devils, fpirits, 6<r. See Charm,
fcc.
INCAPACITY, in the canon-law, is of two kinds :
x. The want of a difpenfation for age in a minor, for
legitimation in a baftard, and the like : this renders
the provftion of a benefice void in its original. 2.
Crimes and heinous offences, which annul provifions
at firft valid.
INCARNATION, in theology, the adt whereby the
fecond perfon of the holy Trinity affumed the human
nature, viz. a true body and reafonable foul, in order
to accomplifti the redemption of fallen mankind.
INCARNATIVES, in furgery, medicines which aflift
nature in filling up wounds or ulcers with flefti ; or
rather remove the obftruttions thereto,
INCENSE, or Frank-incense, in the materia medica,
a dry refinous fubftance, known among authors
by the names thus and olibanum.
Incenfe is a rich perfume, with which the ancient
pagans, and the Roman Catholics ftill, perfume their
temples, altars, &c.
The burning of incenfe made part of the daily fer-
vice of the ancient Jewifh church. The priefts drew
lots to know who fhould offer it; the deftined perfon
took a large filver dfth, in which was a cenfer full of
incenfe; and being accompanied by another prieft,
carrying fomc live coals from the altar, went into the tem¬
ple. There, in order to give notice to the people,
theyftruck upon.an inftrument of brafs placed between
Vol. II. No. 61. ' 1
the temple and the altar ; and being returned ‘to the
altar, he who brought the fire left it there, and went
away. Then the offerer of incenfe having faid a pray¬
er or two, waited the lignal, which was the burning
of the holocauft ; immediately upon which he fet fire
to the incenfe, the whole multitude continuing all the
time in prayer. The quantity of incenfe offered each
day, was half a pound in the morning, and as much
at night.
One reafon of this continual burning of incenfe might
be, that the multitude of vi<5Hms that were continually
offered up, would have made the temple fmell like a
flaughter-houfe, and confequently have infpired the
comers rather with difguft and averfion, than awe and
and reverence, had it not been overpowered by the a-
greeable fragrance of thofe perfumes.
INCEST, the crime of venereal commerce between per-
fons who are related in a degree wherein marriage is
prohibited by the law of the country.
INCH, a well known meafure of length ; being the
twelfth part of a foot, and equal to three barley-corns
in length.
INCIDENCE, denotes the diredtion in which one body
ftrikes oh another. See Optics and Mechanics.
INCIDENTDiligence, in Scots law, a warrant grant¬
ed by a lord ordinary in the court of feffion, for citing
witneffes for proving any point, or for produ&ion of
any writing neceffary for preparing the. caufe for a
final determination, or before it goes to a general
proof.
INCISIVE, an appellation given to whatever cuts or
divides: thus, the fore-teeth are called dentes incifivi,
or cutters ; and medicines of an attenuating nature, in¬
cidents, or incifive medicines.
INCLE, a kind of tape made of linen yarn.
INCLINATION, is a word frequently ufed by mathe¬
maticians, and lignifies the mutual approach, tendency,
oj- leaning of two lines or two planes towards each o-
ther, fo as to make an angle.
INCLINED plane, in mechanics, one that makes an
oblique angle with the horizon. See Mechanics.
INCLOSURE, in bufoandry, the fence or hedge made
to inclofe lands.
INCOGNITO, or incog, is applied to a perfon that
is in any place where he would not be known : but it
is more particularly applied to princes, or great men,
who enter towns, or walk the ftreets. without their or-
dinary train or the ufual marks of their diftindion and
quality.
INCOMBUSTIBLE, fomething that cannot be burnt,
or confumed by fire. See Aseestus.
INCOMMENSURABLE, a term in geometry, ufed
where two lines, when compared'to each other, have no
common meafure, how fmall fo^ver, that will exadly
meafure them both. And in general, two quantities
are faid to be incommenfurable, when no third quan¬
tity can be found that is an aliquot part of both.
Incommensurable numbers are fuch as have no com¬
mon divifor that will divide them both equally.
INCOMPATIBLE, that which cannot fubfift with a-
nothcr, without deftroying it: thus cold and heat are
9 B inccnj-
I N D ( 838 ) I N D
incofnpatible ia the fame fubjeft, the ftrongeft over¬
coming and expelling the weakelt.
INCORPORATION, in pharmacy, is much the fame
as impadation, being a reduction of dry fubftances to
the conliftence of a parte, by the admixture of fome
fluid ; thus pills, boles, troches, and plaflers are made
by incorporation. Another incorporation is, when
things of different confiftences, are by digeftion redu¬
ced to one common confiftence.
INCORPOREAL, a thing, or fubftance, which has no
body ; as God, angels, and the foul of man.
INCORRUPTIBLE, that which cannot be corrupted.
INCRASSATING, in pharmacy, 6c. the rendering
fluids thicker by the mixture of other fubflances lefs
fluid, or by the evaporation of the thinner parts.
INCUBATION, the adion of a hen, or other fowl
brooding on her eggs.
INCUBUS, or Night-mare, in medicine. SeeMs-
DICINE.
INCUMBENT, a clerk, or minifter who is refident on
his benefice : he is called incumbent, becaufe he does,
or at lead: ought, to bend his whole ftudy to difcharge
the cure of his church.
INCURVATION of tie rays of light, their bending out
of a rectilinear ftraight courfe, occafioned by refraction.
See Optics.
INCUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 296.
INDEFINITE, that which has no certain bounds, or
to which the human mind cannot affix any.
Indeeinite, in grammar, is underftood of nouns, pro¬
nouns, verbs, participles, articles, 6c. which are left
in an uncertain indeterminate fenfe, and not fixed to
any particular time, thing, or other circumftance.
INDELIBLE, fomething that cannot be cancelled, or
effaced.
INDEMNITY, in law, the faving harmlefs; or, a
writing to fecure one from all damage and danger that
may enfue from any adt.
INDENTED, in heraldry, is when the out-line of an
ordinary is notched like the teeth of a faw. See Plate
CII. fig. 1.
INDEPENDENTS, a feCt of Protertants in Britain and
Holland, fo called from their independency on other
churches, and their maintaining that each church or
congregation has fufficient power to aft and perform
every thing relating to religious government within it-
felf, and is no way fubjeft or accountable to other
churches or their deputies.
They therefore difallow parochial and provincial
fubordination, and form all their congregations upon a
fcheme of co-ordinancy. But though they do not think
it neceffary to affemble fynods; yet if any be held,
they look on their refolutions as prudential councils,
but not as deciftoas to which they are obliged to con¬
form.
INDETERMINATE, in general, an appellation given
to whatever is not certain^ fixed, and limited ; in
which fenfe, it is the fame with indefinite.
INDEX, in arithmetic and algebra, fhews to what power
any quantity is involved, and is otherwife called ex¬
ponent.
INDIA proper, or Hither India, alarge peninfula
in Afia; bounded on the north by Ufbec Tartary, and
Thibet; on the eart, by another part of Thibet, the king¬
dom of Afem, Ava, and Pegu ; on the fouth, by the bay
of Bengal, and the Indian ocean; and by the fame ocean
and Perfiaon the weft: fituatedbetween 66° and 920
of eaft longitude, and between 70 and 40° of north
latitude ; being about 2000 miles in length from north
to fouth, and 1500 miles in breadth from eart to vvert
where broadeft ; though the fouthern part of the pe-
ninfula is not 300 miles broad. All the country with¬
in thefe limits is either fubjeft or tributary to the
great Mogul. It is frequently called Indortan, a
name fuppofed to be derived from the river Indus,
on its weftern frontiers: it is alfo called the Mo-
gulftan, from the imperial family now upon the throne,
who trace their pedigree from Tamerlane a Mogul
Tartar.
The produce of this country, and what the Euro¬
peans import from thence, is chiefly chints, callicoes,
muflins, fome filk, pepper, and diamonds, which are
purchafed by mod nations with filver; but the Dutch
frequently barter fpices for them, which makes the
India trade doubly advantageous to them.
INDIA, beyond the Ganges, is a country bounded by
Thibet and Boutan on the north ; by China, Tonquin,
and Cochin-China on the eaft; by the Indian ocean
on the fouth ; and by the hither India, the bay of
Bengal, and the ftraits of Malacca, on the weft: it is
fituated between 920 and 104° of eart longitude, and
between the equator and 30 degrees of north latitude:
■ being near 2000 miles in length from ’north to fouth,
but of a very unequal breadth ; in which limits are
comprehended the kingdoms of Afem, Ava, Pegu,
Laos, Siam, Cambodia, and Malacca, governed by as
many Indian princes; only the Dutch have ufurped
the dominion of Malacca. In this country there are a
vaft number of elephants, and confequently a great
deal of ivory; our merchants alfo meet with gold and
precious ftones, canes, opium, and fuch other articles
as are ufually found within the tropics.
Indian berry. SeeCoccunus.
INDICATION, in phyfic, whatever ferves to direft the
phyfician how to aft.
INDICATIVE, in grammar, the firft mood, or manner,
of conjugating a verb, by which we Amply affirm,
deny, or afk fomething; as, amant, they love; non
amant, they do not love ; amantne, do they love ?
INDICTION, in chronology, a cycle of fifteen years.
INDICTMENT, in Scots law, the name of the fum-
mons or libel upon which criminals are cited before
the court of Jufticiary to Hand trial.
INDIES, Eaft and Weft. See India and America.
INDIGESTION, in medicine, a crudity, or want of
due coftion, either in the food, aahumour of the body,
or an excrement.
INDIGETES, a name which the ancients gave to fome
of their gods.
INDIGO, in botany. See Indjgofera.
INDIGOFERA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia
decandria clafs. The calix is plain; the fuperior mar¬
gins
I N D (839
gins of the alae are connivent, and of the fame fhape
with the vexillum ; and the pod is ftrait. There are
fix fpecies, all of them natives of the Indies. The
tin&oria, anil, or indigo, grows about two feet high,
with roundifh leaves.
As to the indigo blue, it is a fecular, or fettling,
made by means of water and oil olive out of the leaves
of the anil, or indigo plant; there is a difference be¬
tween that made by the leaves only, and that which
is made of the leaves and fmall branches. The choiceft
of the former fort is that which bears the furname. of
Serquiffe, from a village of that name fome leagues
from Surat in the Eaft-Indies. It is made alfo about
Biana and Coffa near Agra; and alfo in the kingdom of
Golconda. In making the fecute of anil, in order to
make indigo of it, they cut the herb with a fickle,
when the leaves begin to fall upon touching them ; and
after they have ftripped them from the branches, they
put them into a fufficient quantity of water in a veffel
called the deeping vat; and let them iofufe there thir¬
ty or thirty-five hours ; after which they turn the cock,
in order to let the water run off, which is become of
a green colour inclining towards blue, into a veffel of
the nature of a churn, where it is worked by means of
a roller or turner of wood, the ends of which are
pointed and faced with iron : this they work till the
water abounds with a lather; then they cad into it a
little oil of olive, that is, one pound into fuch a quan¬
tity of the liquor as will yield feventy pounds of indi¬
go, fuch as is faleable; and as foon as the faid oil is
thrown in, the lather feparates into two parts, fo that
you may obferve a quantity curdled as milk is when
ready to break; then they ceafe working, and let it dand
to fettle ; which when it has done fome time, they o-
pen the pipe or cock of the veffel, in order to let the
water clear off, that the feculas which is fubfided may
remain behind at the bottom of the veffel like the lees
of wine. Then taking it out, they put it into drain¬
ing bags of cloth, to feparate what water was left;
after which they convey it into cheds or boxes that are
/hallow, to dry it; and being dried, it is what we call
indigo.
Ghufe the indigo of Serquiffe in flat cakes, of a mo¬
derate thicknefs, neither too foft nor too hard, of a
deep violet colour, light, and fuch as fwims on water,
and when broken has no white fpots in it; and laflly,
f fuch as is copperi/h or reddi/h on being rubbed with
one’s nail, and has the lead dud and broken pieces in
it;
The other fort of indigo is alfo thefeculse made from
the anil; and differs nothing from the former, but as it
is made of the whole plant, dalk and leaf; the bed
of which kind is that which bears the name Guatima-
la, that comes from the Wed Indies. In chufing
this indigo, it diould be as near the other kind as can
he ; but the fured proof of its goodnefs is its burning
upon the fire like wax, and leaving only a little a/hes
behind. The fecond fort of indigo is that of St Do¬
mingo, differing nothing from the Guatimala, only
that it is not of fo lively a colour; the third is the Ja-
waica indigo; the fourth is that of the Leeward
) 1 N D
iflands ; all which are better or worfe, according as-
they are more or lefs neat and pure.
The ufe of the indigo is for the the dyer and land*
reffes, fervmg the lad to put among their linen. The
painters ufe it to grind with white for painting in blue ;
for if it is ufed alone and neat, it turns black; ground
with yellow, it makes a green : fome confe&ioners
and apothecaries prepoderoudy ufe this to colour fu-
gars with which to make conferves and fyrup of vio¬
lets, by adding fome orice.
INDIVIDUAL, in logic, a particular being of any fpe¬
cies, or that which cannot be divided into two or more
beings equal or alike.
The ufual divifion in logic is made unto genera.or
genus’s, thofe genera into fpeciesj and thofe fpecies
into individuals.
INDIVISIBLE, among metaphyficians. A thing is faid
to be abfolutely indivifible, that is a Ample being, and
confids of no parts into which it maybe divided. Thus
God is indivifible in all refpe&s, as is alfo the human
mind, not having extenfion or other properties of bo-
dy.
Indivisibles, in geometry, the elements or principles
into which any body or figure may be ultimately re-
folved; which elements are fuppofed infinitely fmall :
thus a line may be faid to confid of points, a furface
of parallel lines, and a folid of parallel and fimilar fut-
faces. .
INDORSEMENT, in law, any thing written on the
back of a deed, as a receipt for money received.
There is likewife an indorfement, by way of aflign-
ment, on bills of exchange and notes of hand ; which
is done by writing a perfon’s name on the back there.-
of. See Bill.
INDUCTION, in law, is putting a clerk or clergyman,
in poffeflion of a benefice or living to which he is coL
lated, or prefented.
INDULGENCES, in the Romifli church, are a remiffion
of the punilhment due to fins, granted by the church,
and fuppofed to fave.the finner from Purgatory. Cle¬
ment VI. in his decretal, which is generally received
by the church of Rome, declares, that our Saviour
has left an infinite treafure of merits, arifing from his
own fufferings, befides thofe of the bleffed virgin gnd-
the faints ; and that the padors and guides of the
church, and more efpecially the popes, who are the
fovereign difpofers of this treafure, have authority to
apply it to the living by virtue of the keys, and to the
dead by way of fuffrage,. to difcharge them from
their refpeffive proportions of punifhment, by. taking
juft fo much merit out of this general treafure as they,
conceive the debt requires, and offering it to God.
The power of granting indulgences has been great-i
ly abufed in the church of Rome. It was one of the
chief things which the council of Gonftance laid to the.
charge of John XXIII. in 1415, that he impowered
his legates to abfolve penitents from all forts of crimes,
upon the payment of furas proportionable to their guilt.
Pope Leo X. in order to carry on the magnificent
ftruffure of St. Peter’s at Rome, publi/hed indulgences,
and a pjenary remiflion to all fuch as fliould contribats
money
I N E (84
money towards it. Finding the project take, he gave
his After, the princefs of Cibo, the benefit of the in¬
dulgences of Saxony and the neighbouring parts, and
farmed out thofe of other countries to the higheft bid¬
ders, who, to make the beft of their bargains, procu¬
red the ableft preachers to cry up the value of the ware.
“ Happy times for finners ! fays a modern Writer,
“ their crimes were rated, and the remilfion of them
“ fet up by auction. The apoftolic chancery taxed
“ fins at a pretty reafonaBle rate. It coft but ninety
“ livres and a few ducats, for crimes which people on
“ this fide the Alps punifhed with death.”
It was this great abufe of indulgences that contri¬
buted not a little to the ’firft reformation of religion in
Germany, where Martin Luther began firft to de¬
claim againft the preachers of indulgences, and after-
w'ards againft indulgences themfelves : but fince that
time the popes have been more fparing in the exercife
of this power: however, they ftill carry on a great
trade with them to the Indies, where they are pur-
chafed at two rials a-piece, and fometimes more.
The pope likew.fe grants indulgences to perfons at
the point of death ; that is, he grants them, by a brief,
power to chufe what confefibr they pleafe, who is
authorized thereby to abfolve them from all their fins-
in general.
INDULT, in the church of Rome, the power of pre-
fenting to benefices granted to certain perfons by the
pope. Of this kind is the induk of kings and fove-
reign princes in the Romilh communion, and that of
the parliament of Paris granted by feveral popes. By
the concordat for the abolition of the pragmatic fanc-
tion, made between Francis I. and Leo X. in 1516,
the French king has the power of nominating to bilhop-
rics, and other confiftorial benefices, within his realm.
At the fame time, by a particular bull, the pope grant¬
ed him the privilege of nominating to the churches of
Britany and Provence. In 1648 pope Alexander
VIII. and in 1668 Clement IX. granted the king an
indult for the bilhoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun,
which had been yielded to him by the treaty ofMun-
fter; and in 16 68 the fame pope Clement IX. grant¬
ed him an indult for the benefices in the counties of
Roufillon, Artois, and the Netherlands. The cardi¬
nals likewife have an indult granted them by agree¬
ment between pope Paul IV. and the facred college
in 1555, which is always confirmed by the popes at
the time of their ele&ion. By this treaty the cardi¬
nals have the free difpofal of all the benefices depend¬
ing on them, and are impowered like wife to beftow a
benefice in commendam.
INDULTO, a duty, tax, orcuftom, paid to the king
of Spain for all fuch commodities as are imported
from the Weft Indies in the galleons.
INDUS, a large river of Afia, which rifes in the moun¬
tains which feparate Tartary from India, and dif-
charges itfeif into the India ocean.
INERTIA of matter, in philofophy, is, defined by Sir
Ifaac Newton to be a palfive principle by which bodies
perfift in their motion or reft, receive motion m pro-
o ) INF
portion to the force imprelling it, and refill as much
as they are refilled.' It is alfo defined by the lame
author to be a powef implanted in all matter, whereby
it refifts any change endeavoured to be made in its ftate.
See Mechanics.
INFALLIBLE, fomething that cannot err, or be decei¬
ved.
One of the great controverfies between the Prote-
llants and Papifts, is the infallibility which the latter
attribute to the pope; though, in fadt, they themfelves
are not agreed om that head, fome placing this pretend¬
ed infallibility in the pope and a general council.
INFAMY, in law, is a term which extends to forgery,
perjury, grofs cheats, tec. by whidva perfon is ren¬
dered incapable of being.a witnefs or juror, even tho’
he is pardoned for his crimes.
INFANT, denotes a young child. See Midwifery,
and Medicine.
INFANTE, and Infanta, all the fons and daughter,-
of the kings of Spain and Portugal, except the eldeft ;
the princes being called infantes, and the princefTe% in¬
fantas.
INFANTRY, in military affairs, denotes the whole
body of foot-foldiers.“
INFECTION, among phyficians. See Contagion.
INFEFTMENT, in Scots law, the folemnity of the
delivery of an heretable fubjedt to the purchafer. See
Law, tit. 10.
INFINITE, that which has neither beginning nor end ;
in which lenfe God alone is infinite.
Infinite is alfo ufed to fignify that which has had a
beginning, but will have no end, as angels and human
fouls. This makes what the fchoolmen call infinitum
a parte poji; as, on the contrary, by infinitum aparte
ante, they mean that which has an end but had no be¬
ginning.
Infinite quantities. The very idea of magnitudes
infinitely great, or fuch as exceed any aflignable quan¬
tities, does include a negation of limits: yet if we
nearly examine this notion, we fhall find that fuch
magnitudes are not equal among themfelves, but that
there are really, befides infinite length and infinite area,
three feveral fort of infinite folidity ; all of which are
quantitates fut generis, and that thofe of each fpecies
are in given proportions.
Infinite length, or a line infinitelylong, istobecon-
fidered either as beginning at a point, andfo infinitely
extended one way, or elfe both ways from the fame
. point; in which cafe the one, which is a beginning in¬
finity, is the one half of the whole, which is the fum
of the beginning and ceafing infinity; or, as may be
faid, of infinity a parte ante and a parte poji, which
is analogous to eternity in time and duration, in which
there is always as much to follow as is paft, from any
point or moment of time; nor doth the addition or
fubdifttion of finite length, or fpace of time, alter the
cafe either in infinity or eternity, fince both the one or
the other cannot be any part of the whole.
INFINITESIMALS, among mathematicians, are defi¬
ned to be infinitely fmall quantities.
In
INF (841
In the ifiethod of infinitefimals, the element, by
which any quantity increafes or decreafes, is fuppofed
to be infinitely fmall, and is generally exprefled by'
two or more terms, fome of which are infinitely lefs
than the reft, which being neglefted as of no importance,
the remaining terms form what is called the difference
of thepropofed quantity. The terms that are neglec¬
ted in this manner, as infinitely lefs than the other
terms of the element, are the very fame which arife in I
confequence of the acceleration, or retardation, of the
generating motion, during the infinitely fmall time in
which the element is generated ; fo that the remaining I
terms exprefs the elements that would have been pro¬
duced in that time, if the generating motion had conti¬
nued uniform: therefore thofe differences are accurately
in the fame ratio to each other as the generating moti- I’
ons or fluxions. And hence, though in this method
infinitefimal parts of the elements are negledted, the
conclufions are accurately true without even an iftfi- E
nitely fmall error, and agree precifely with thofe
that are deduced by the method by fluxions. See I
Fluxions. Ij
INFIRMARY, a kind of hofpital, where the weak and
fickly are properly taken care of.
INFLAMMABILITY, that property of bodies which I]
difpofes them to kindle, or catch fire. See Fire.
INFLAMMATION. See Medicine and Surgery.
INFLECTION, or .?<«'*/^Inflection, in the high¬
er geometry, is a point where a curve begins to bend a II
contrary way.
Inflection, in grammar, the variation of nouns and
verbs, by declenfion and conjugation. II
INFLUENCE, a quality fuppofed to flow from the hea¬
venly bodies, either with their lighter heat; to which L
aftrologers idly aferibe all fublunary events.
INFORMATION, in law, is nearly the fame in the 11
crown-office, as what in other courts is called a decla¬
ration. It is fometimes brought by the king, or his
attorney general, or the clerk of the crown-office ;
and at other times by a private perfon, who informs or II
fues, as well for the king as himfelf, upon the breach
of fome popular ftatiite, in which a penalty is given to
the party that t^ill fue for it. I]
INFRACTION, a term chiefly ufed to fignify the vio¬
lation of a treaty.
INFRA-SCAPULARIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, A
p. 196. %
INFRA-SPINATUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.
19? •
INFUL A, in antiquity, a broad kind of fillet, made of
white wool, which the priefts ufed to tie round their
heads.
INFUNDIBULIFORM, in botany, an appellation gi¬
ven to fuch monopetalous or bne-leaved flowers, as
refemble a funnel in fhape, or which have a narrow
tube at one end, and gradually widen towards the limb
or mouth.
INFUSION, in pharmacy, a method of obtaining the
virtues of plants, roots, <bc. by fteeping them in a hot
or cold liquid.
Hot infufions are made by pouring boiling water, or
Vol. II. Numb. 62. 1
i ) I N J
any other menftruum, on the drugs whofe virtues we
would extradl: thus, in order to obtain the common
infufion of fena, take the leaves of fena, an ounce and
a half; of cryftals of tartar, three drams; of the lef
fer cardamom feeds hulked, two drams : boil the cry¬
ftals of tartar in a pint of water, till they are diflblved ;
then pour the water, while boiling hot, upon the fena
and the reft; and when the liquor is cold.ftrainit off.
INGELSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the palatinate
of the Rhine, eight miles fouth-weft of Mentz, E.
long. 70 40', N.lat. 50°.
INGLUVlES, the crop or craw of graniverous birds,
ferving for the immediate reception of the food, where
it is macerated for fome time, before it is tranfmitted
to the true flomach.
INGOLSTAT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Bavaria, fituated on theriver Danube, thirty miles weft
of Ratifbon: E. long. ii° 30', and N. lat. 48° 45'.
INGOT, a mafs of gold or filver, melted down and caft
in a mould, but not coined or wrought.
INGRAFTING, in gardening. See Gakdenintg.
INGRESS, in aftronomy, fignifies the fun's entering
the firft fcruple of one of the four cardinal figns, efpe-
cially Aries.
INGRIA, a province o£- Ruflia, bounded by the lake
Ladoga, the river Nieva, and the gulph of Finland on
the north, by Novogorod on the eafl and fouth, and by
Livonia on the weft.
INGROSSER, one who buys up great quantities of any
commodity, before k comes to market, in order to
raife the price.
INGUEN, in anatomy, the fame with what is otherwife
called groin, or pubes.
INHERITANCE, a perpetual right or intereft in lands,
invefted in a perfon and his heirs.
INHIBITION, in Scots law, a diligence obtained at
the fuit of a creditor againft his debtor, prohibiting him
from felling or contracting debts upon his eftate to the
creditor’s prejudice. See Law, tit. 18.
INHUMATION, in chemiftry, a method of digefting
fubftances by burying the veffel in which they are con¬
tained in horfe-dung or earth.
INJECTION, the forcibly throwing certain liquid me¬
dicines into the body, by means of a fyringe, tube, cly-
fter-pipe, or the like.
Anato?nical Injection, the filling the veflels with fome
coloured fubftance, in order to make their figures and
ramifications vifible.
For this purpofe, a fine red injection is prepared
thus : pour a pint of oil of turpentine on three ounces
of vermilion, ftir them well together, and then ftrain
all through a fine linen cloth. If a g'reen injection is
wanted, diftilled verdigreafe may be ufed inftead of the
vermilion.
A coarfe injection may be made ofone pound of tal¬
low, five ounces of white-wax, three ounces of oil of
olives, melted together, and adding two ounces of
Venice-turpentine ; and when this is diffolved, three
ounces of vermilion or verdigreafe are to be throughly
mixed with the other ingredients, and the whole drain¬
ed through a linen cloth.
9 C
INJURY,
INK ( 842 ) INN
INJURY, any wrong done to a man’s perfon, reputation,
or goods.
INK, a black liquor generally made of an infufion of
galls, copperas, and a little gum arabic.
To make a very good ink for writing: take three
ounces of good galls, reduced to powder; which infufe
in three pints of river or rain water, fetting it in the
fun or a gentle heat, for two days ; then take common
copperas, or green vitriol, three ounces; powder it,
put it into the infufion, and fet it in the fun for two
days more ; laflly, lhake it well, and add an ounce of
good gum arabic.
To make the London powder-ink: take ten ounces
of the clearefl nut-galls, which reduce to a fine powder;
then add two ounces of white copperas, four ounces of
Roman vitriol, and of gum arabic or fandarach an ounce;
pound and lift them very fine. This powder, though
. whitifh itfelf, will, when put into water, turn it to a
good black ink : an ounce of the powder ferves to make
a pint of ink.
To make a fhining ink : take gum arabic and Roman
vitriol, of each an ounce ; galls well bruifed, a pound;
put them into rape-vinegar, or vinegar made of clear
fmall beer; fet them in a warm place, (Hrthem often
till the liquor becomes black, and then add to a gallon
of this preparation an ounce of ivory-black, and a quar¬
ter of a pint of feed-lac varniih.
To make a fhining Japan or China ink: take an ounce
of lamp-black, and clarify it in an earthen pipkin to
take out the drofs ; two drams of indigo ; half a dram
of peach black ; one dram of black endive, burnt; re¬
duce them to a very fine powder, and then take a
moiety of fig-leaf water, another part of milk, and a
very little gum arabic; and mixing all the ingredients
well together, make them up for ufe.
printing Ink is made by boiling or burning linfeed-oil
till it is pretty thick, adding a little rofin to it while
hot,, and then mixing this varnifh with lamp-black.
Ink is alfo an appellation given, to any coloured liquor,
ufed in the fame manner as the atramentum or black
ink; as red, green, blue, yellow, <bc. inks.
Red ink is made thus : take wine-vinegar a pint;
rafpings of brazil, one ounce; alum, half an ounce;
boil them gently, and add five drams of gum arabic :
diflblve the gum, ftrain the ingredients, and keep the
liquid for ufe.
Green ink is made by boiling verdigreafe with argpl
in fair water, and adding a little gum arabic.
Blue ink is made by grinding indigo with honey and
the white of eggs, and making it fluid with water.
Yellow ink is made by an. infufion offaffron in water,
with a little alum and gum. arabic.
Sympathetic^*, a liquor with which a perfon. may
write, without the letters appearing, till fome means
betaken to render them legible.
Of this kind afethe glutinous juices of plants, or
any other thick and vifeid fluids, provided they have no
remarkable colours themfelves ; for being v/ritten on
white paper, nothing will appear, till fome fine powder
of any coloured earth is thrown over the paper, where¬
by the letters become legible: the reafon of this is
evident, as the powder flicks only to the letters formed
by the invifible but vifeid liquor.
Another fort of fympathetic inks are made of infufi-
ons, the matter of which eafily burns to a charcoal:
thus if a fcruple of fal armoniac be diffolved in two
ounces of fair water, letters written therewith will be
invifible till held before the fire ; for the fal armoniac
being burnt to a charcoal, by a heat not flrong enough
to fcorch the paper, the letters are thereby rendered
vifible, .
Another fort of fympathetic ink is made of a folu-
tion of leadfin vinegar, and a lixivium of lime and orpi-
ment; for if a letter be written with the former, nothing
will appear: but to conceal the affair flill more, fome
different fubjedt may be written above it, with a black
ink made of burnt cork and gum-water; then, if a
pice of cotton, wetted with the faid lixivium, be rub¬
bed over the paper, the fentence that was vifible will
difappear, and the invifible one before written with
thefolution of lead will be feen in its place very black
and flrong.
INN, a place appointed for the entertainment and relief
of travellers.
Inns of Court, are colleges in London, for the fludy of
the laws of England, with all conveniencies for the
lodging and entertainment of the profeffors and flu-
dents.
The four principal inns of court are the Inner temple.
Middle-temple, Lincoln’s inn, and Gray’s inn; the
other inns are the two ferjeant’s inns ; and the others,
which are lefs confiderable, are Clifford’s inn, Sy-
mond’s inn, Clement’s inn, Lion’s inn, Furnival’s inn.
Staple’s inn, Thavie’s inn, .Barnard’s inn, and New-
inn. Thefe are moflly taken up by attorneys, folici-
tors, &c. but they belong to the inns of court, who
fend yearly fome of their barriflers to read to them.
Inn, in geography, a large river which rifes in a moun¬
tain of the Alps, in the country of the Grifons, runs
north-eafl through Tyrol and Bavaria, and difeharges
itfelf into the Danube.
INNATE ideas, thofe fuppofed to be flamped on the
mind from the firfl moment of its exiftence, and which
it conflantly brings into the world with it: a doftrine,
which Mr. Locke has abundantly refuted.
INNERKEITHING, a port town of Scotland, in the
county of Fife, fituated on the north fhore of the frith
of Forth, ten miles north-weft of Edinburgh.
INNISKILLING, a flrong town of Ireland, in the pro¬
vince of Ulfter, and county of Fermanagh : W. long.
7° 50', and N. lat. 540 20'.
INNOCENTS da y, a feftival of the Chriflian church,
obferved on December 28, in memory of the maffacre
of the innocent children by the command of Herod
king of Judea ; who being alarmed at hearing that an
infant was born king of the Jews, and imagining that
his Own kingdom was in danger, fent orders to have
all the children flain that were in Bethlehem and
the adjacent country;
The Greek church in their calendar, and the Abyf-
finians of Ethiopia in their offices, commemorate four¬
teen thoufand infants on this occafion.
JNNQMI-
I N Q ( 843 ) INS
INNOMINAT/i csfA, ir ar.atomy. See Anatomy,
p. 171.
INOCULATION, ir rrifcii- ir,c. the art of tranfplanting
a diftemper from one lubjid to another, by incifion,
particularly ufed for engrafting the fmall pox. See
Medicine.
INOSCULATION, in anatomy, See Anastomasis.
INQUEST, in Scots law, the fame with jury.
INQUISITION, in the church of Rome, a tri¬
bunal in feveral Roman catholic countries, eretfed
by the popes for the examination and punifhment of
heretics.
This court was founded in the twelfth century by
father Dominic and his followers, who were lent by
pope Innocent III. with orders to excite the catholic
princes and people to extirpate heretics, to fearch into
their number and quality, and to tranfmit a faithful
account thereof to Rome. Hence they were called
inquifitors ; and this gave birth to the formidable tri¬
bunal of the inquifition, which was received in all I-
taly, and the dominions of Spain, except the kingdom
of Naples and the Low Countries.
This diabolical tribunal takes cognizance of herefy,
Judaifrri, Mahometanifm, Sodomy, and polygamy, and
the people Rand in fo much fear of it, that parents
deliver up their children, hulbands their wives, and
mailers their fervants, to its officers, without daring
in the leaft to murmur. The prifoners are kept for a
long time, till they themfelses turn their own accufers,
and declare the caufe of their imprifonment; for they
are neither told their crime, nor confronted with wit-
neffes.. As- foon as they are imprifoned, their friends
go into mourning, and fpeak of them as dead, not
daring to folicit their pardon, left they ffiould be
brought in as accomplices. When there is no ffiadow
of proof again!! the pretended criminal, he is difchar-
ged, after fullering the mod cruel tortures, a tedious
and dreadful imprifonment, and the lofs of the great-
ell part of his effiefts. The fentence again!! the pri-
. foners is pronounced publicly, and with extraordinary
folemnity. In Portugal they ere# a theatre capable of
holding three thoufand perfons, in which they place
a rich altar, and raife feats on each fide in the form
of an amphitheatre. There the prifoners are placed,
and over-againft them is a high chair, whither they are
called, one by one, to hear their doom, from one of
the inquifitors.
Thefe unhappy people know what they are to fuflfer,
by the cloaths they wear that day. Thofe who ap¬
pear in their own cloaths, are difcharged upon pay¬
ment of a fine : thofe who have a fanto benitc, or Rrait
yellow coat without fleeves, charged with St. Andrew’s
crofs, have their lives, but forfeit ail their effects :
thofe who have the refemblance of flames, made of
red ferge, fewed upon their fanto benito, without any
crofs, aie pardoned, but threatened to be burnt if even
they relapie : but thofe who, befides thefe flames,
have on their fanto benito their own pidlure, furround-.
ed with figures of devils, are condemned to expire in
the flames. The inquifitors, who are ecclefiaflics, do
not pronounce the fentence of death ; but form and
read an a<R, in which they fay, that the criminal being
convi&ed of fuch a crime, by his own confeflion, is
with much reludlance delivered to the fecular power to
be puniffied according to his demerits : and this writing
they give to the feven judges, who attend at the right
fide of the altar, who immediately pafs fentence.
For the conciufion of this horrid fcene, fee Act c/
faith.
INSCRIBED, in geometry. A figure is faid to be in-
fcribed in another, when all its angles touch the fide
or planes of the other figure.
INSCRIPTION, a title or writing carved, engraved,
or affixed to any thing, to give a more diflindt know¬
ledge of it, or to tranfmit fome important truth to po*
Iterity.
The infcriptions mentioned by Herodotus and Dio¬
dorus Siculus, fufficiently ffiew that this was the fir!!
method oTF conveying inftrudtion to mankind, and tranf-
mitting the knowledge of hiftory and fciences to pofte-
rity: thus the ancients engraved upon pillars both the
principles of fciences, and the hiilory of the world.
Pififlxatus carved precepts of hufbandry on pillars of
ftone ; and the treaties of confederacy between the
Romans and Jews, were engraved on plates of brafs..
Hence, antiquarians have been , very curious in exa¬
mining the infcriptions on ancient ruins, coins, me¬
dals, <fac;
INSECTS, in zoology, a numerous clafs of animals. See
Natural History.
INSERTION, in anatomy, the clofe conjunction of the
vefiels, tendons, fibres, and membranes of the body,
with fome other pans.
INSIPID, an appellation given to things without tafte,
INSOLATION, in chemiftry, the fuffering matters to
Rand and digeR in the heat of the fun, inRead of that
of a furnace.
INSOLVENT, a term applied to perfons unable to pay-
their debts.
INSPIRATION, among divines, implies the conveying
of certain extraordinary and fupernatural notices or mo¬
tions into the foul.
INSPISSATING, in pharmacy, an operation whereby
a liquor, is brought to. a thicker confiRence, by evapo¬
rating the thicker parts.
INSPRUCK, a city of Germany, in the circle of
AuRria, capital, of the county of Tyrol, fituated
on the river Inn, in E. long. 110 26', N. lat. 470 12'.
INSTALLMENT, the inflating or eftabliffiing.a perfon
in fome dignity.
INSTANT, fuch a part of duration wherein we perceive
no fuecdlion ; or it is that , which takes up the time
only , of one idea in our minds.
INSTAURATIQN,. the re eflabliffiment or reflauna-
tion of a religion,. a.church,, or the like, to its for¬
mer flate.
INSTEP, in the manege, is that part of a horfe’s
hind leg.v/hiclv reaches from the ham to the paftern-
joint.
INSTINCT, an appellation given to the fagacity and na¬
tural inclinations of brutes, which fupplies the place of
reafon.in mankind.
INSTI-
INS ( 8<j
INSTITUTES, in literary hiftory, a book containing
the elements of the Roman law, and conllitutes the
lad part of the civil-law.
The Inftitutes are divided into four books, and con¬
tain an abridgment of the whole body of the civil law ;
being defigned for the ufe of Undents.
INSTITUTE, in Scots law. When by difpofition, or
deed of entail, a number of perfons are called to the
fucceffion of an eftate one after another, the perfon
firft named is called the inllitute, and-the others fub-
ftitutes; See Law, tit. 27.
INSTITUTION, in general, fignifies the eftablilhing or
founding fomething.
In the canon and common law, it fignifies the in¬
verting a clerk with the fpirituaiities of a reftory, <bc.
which is done by the bilhop, who ufes the formuia,
“ I inftitute you redlor of fuch a church, with cure of
<c fouls, and receive your care and mine.”
INSTRUMENT, in general, whatever is fubfervient to
a caufe in producing any effe<51:.
A common cafe of mathematical inrtruments contains
feveral compaffes, a fedtor, fcale, drawing-pen, and
protractor.
Notarial instrument, in Scots law, any fadt cer¬
tified in writing, under the hand of a notary-public.
See Law, tit 21.
INSULATED, in architedture, an appellation given
to fuch columns as ftand alone, or free from any con¬
tiguous wall, like an ifland in the fea ; whence the
name.
INSURANCE, in law and commerce, a contradt or a-
greement whereby one or more perfons, called infurers,
affurers, fyc. oblige themfelves to anfwerfor thelofs of a
Ihip, houfe, goods, in confideration of a premium
paid by the proprietors of the things infured.
Infurances are of various kinds, as on Ihips or parts
of (hips, on merchandize ftngly, and onlhips and goods
jointly: and thefe are again branched out to run either
for a time ftipulated, or to one fingle port, or out and
home, with liberty to touch at the different places
mentioned in the policy. Infurances may likewife be
made on goods fent by land, or by hoys, tic. on rivers;
and this is frequently done, more efpecially on jewels,
and other things of great value.
The principal offices for the infurance of fhips and
merchandize in London, are the Royal-exchange affur-
ance, and the London affurance, both of which are
eftablilhed by adt of parliament. Thefe offices alfo
infure houfes and other buildings, goods, wares, and
merchandize, from lofs or damage by fire ; and the
former of them alfo affunj lives.
The Royal-exchange infurance, on a brick or ftone
building, infures any fum not exceeding 2001. at js.
per ann. and any larger fum not exceeding 1000I. af¬
ter the rate of 2 s. 6d. per cent, per ann. Above
10001. and not exceeding 20001. at 3 s. percent.
Above 20001 and not exceeding 30001. at per
cent. On goods and merchandize, the property of
the affured, within any brick or ftone building, or on
the goods and building together, this office infures any
fum not exceeding 3001. for 7s 6d. per ann. and
4 ) I N T
larger fums after the rates above-mentioneu : but tim¬
ber or plafter buildings, or goods or merchandize there¬
in, pay 8 s. per ann. for 2001. and after the rate of
4 s. per cent, for any greater fpm not exceeding ioooI.
and per cent, for all infurances above 1000I. and
not exceeding 20001. On a timber or plafter-build-
ing v/ith goods and merchandize together, any fum,
not exceeding 3001. may be infured for 12 s. per ann.
and larger funis at the above rates. The goods be¬
longing to hazardous trades, as diftillers, chemifts, a-
pothecaries, colour-men, tallow-chandlers, oilmen,
innholders, depofited in brick houfes, pay 8s.
per ann. for infuring 2001. and after the rate of 4 s,
per cent, for any greater fum not exceeding 1000 1;
and above 1000I. and not exceeding 20001. y s. per
cent, but when the houfes and goods are put together,
the price of infurance is 4 s. per cent, per ann. with¬
out any other charge except the policies.
The Friendly Society infurance, has fome very ex¬
traordinary regulations ; the principal of which is, that
every one of the affured becomes a member of the fo-
ciety; and when any lofs happens, contributes in pro¬
portion to the fum he has infured, to make good the
damage ; on which account he pays only is. 4d. per
cent, per ann. premium, and 6s. 8d. per cent, as
a caution ; but what is unexpended of the 6 s. 8d. is
returned to the party infured at the end of feven years.
We have alfo infurances for lives, in virtue of which,
when the perfon infured dies, a fum of money becomes
payable to the perfon on whofe behalf the policy of
infurance was granted. The principal infurance-office
of this kind, is that.of the Amicable Society for a
perpetual affurance, kept in Serjeant’s inn, Fieet-ftreet,
London.
In this office, after paying the charges of the policy,
and 10s. entrance-money, each perfon pays 5 1. per
annum, by quarterly payments ; and from thefe pay¬
ments the dividends, which ufually amount to 100I.
and upwards, are to arife. All perfons admitted are
to be between the ages of twelve and forty five, and
in a good Rate of health. Any perfon is allowed to
have two or-three infurances or numbers on the fame
life, whereby fuch perfon will be intitled to a claim
on each number fo infured ; and every claimant is im-
powered to put in a new life, in the room of, one de-
ceafed, within twelve kalendar months next after the
end of the current year. By becoming members of
this fociety, clergymen, phydcians, lawyers, tradef-
men, and all whofe income ceafes at the time of their
death, may, in all probability, leave to their families
a claim of not Jefs than 1001. for every 5I. anuaily
paid in.
INTAGLIOS, precious ftones on which are engraved
the heads of great men, infcriptions, and the like ;
fuch-as we frequently fee fet in rings, feals, tic.
INTEGER, in arithmetick, a whole numbo*-, in contra-
diftinftion to a fradlion.
INTERCALARY, an appellation given to the odd day
inferted in leap year ; which was fo called from calo,
calare, to proclaim, it being proclaimed by the prierts
with a loud voice.
INTER-
I N T (845
INTERCOLUMNIATION, in architeaure, denotes
the fpace between two columns, which is always to be
proportioned to the height and bulk of the columns.
See Architecture.
INTERCOSTAL, in anatomy, an appellation given to
fuch mufcles, nerves, arteries and veins as lie between
the ribs. See Anatomy, Part II.
INTERDICT, an ecclefiaftical cenfure,. by which the
church of Rome forbids the performance of divine
fervice in a kingdom, province, town, <bc.
INTERDICTION, in Scots law, a legal reftraint laid
upon weak or profufe perfons from figning any deed
to their own prejudice, without the confent of cura¬
tors or interdidtors. See Scots Law, tit. 7.
INTEREST, is the premium or money paid for the
loan or ufe of money ; and is diftinguilhed into two
kinds, fimple and compound.
Simple interell is that which is paid for the princi¬
pal, or fum lent, at a certain rate or allowance made
by law, or agreement of parties, whereby fo much as
jl. or 61. or any other fum, is paid for tool, lent
out for one year; and more or lefs proportionally for
greater or lelfer fums, and for more or lefs time. For
. example, if it is jl. to tool, for one year, it is 2I.
ios. for half a year, and 10I. for two years: alfo
101. for one year of 2001. and 5 1. for half a year;
and fo on, for other fums and times. Thus, as the
law, or agreement of parties, fixes a certain ratio, or,
as we call it, rate of intereft, which is fo much on the
iocI. for one year; from this we can eafily find the
proportional intereft on il. for one year, being plain¬
ly’ the -i-§^ part of the intereft of tool, fo if this is j 1.
that is .051. if this is 61. that is .c61. and if this is
5I. 10s. or 5.51. that is .0551. Wherefore, if we
underftand the rate of intereft to be the intereft of il.
for one year, the more common queftions about fimple
intereft will relate to thefe four things, viz. any prin¬
cipal fum, its intereft, the time in which it gives that
intereft, and the rate, or intereft of 11. for one year;
according to which, that principal, intereft, and time, are
adjufted to one another.
From which we have four problems ; in the rules
whereof we fuppofe the principal and intereft exprefled
in the denomination of pounds, by reducing what is lefs
than il. to a decimal of 11. and the time to be ex-
prefied in years, and decimal parts of one year.
Probe I. Having any principal, fum, and time, with
the rates of intereft given, to find the intereft of that
fum for that time and rate.
Rule: Multiply the principal rate, and time, con¬
tinually into one another ; the produdt is the intereft
fought. _ ^
Obferve, if we exprefs the principal by p, the in¬
tereft by », the time by t, and the rate by r, then
this rule is thus reprefented, n—tpr.
Example : The rate of intereft being .051. what is
the intereft of 851. for 4 years and 3 quarters, or
4.75 years?
Anfwer. 20L 3s. 9d =20.1875 1. = 85 X4.75X.
05.
Vol. II. No. 62. 2
) I N T
Which is thus performed:
Ss=p
4.75=/
20.1875 pounds.
Which decimal is reduced by multiplying it by 20,
12, and 4 : thus,
.1875
3.7500 Ihtilings
9.0000 pence
Prob. II. Having the rate, principal and intereft,
to find the time.
Rule: Divide the intereft by the produtt of the rate
and principal, the quote is the time: thus,
Example: The rate .051. principal 851. intereft
20I. 3s. 9d. orao.iSy^l. the time is 4.75 years,
or 4 i y««- Thor. 4-7S=f2gSa. or
Demonftration: This rule is deduced from the for¬
mer ; thus, fince n—trp, then dividing both fides by
rp, it is Tf:—*-
Prob. III. Having the principal, intereft, and time,
to find the rate.
Rule: Divide the intereft by the produA of princi¬
pal and time, the quote is the rate : thus, -jp~r.
Example: »=20.i875l. */=4.7j years, />=S5l.
then is r=.o5or
4-7JX85 403.75
Demonftration: Since n=trp, divide both by Ip;
it is Pp—r.
Prob. IV. Having the rate, time and intereft, to
.find the principal.
Rule : Divide the intereft by the produft of rate and
time, the quote is the principal ; thus, pp—p.
Example: »=2o.i875l. /=4.75 years, ^=.051.
then is /=85l.=^:l87J 0r ^75.
4 75X05 .2375
Demonftration: Since n—trp, divide both fides by
tr, the quote is ~7r=-p.
Scholium : If the intereft of any fum for any time
is added to the principal, this total or fum is called
the amount, {viz. of the principal and its intereft for
that time.) And then from thefe four things, viz.
the amount, which we call a, the principal, the time,
9 D and
I N T (84^
and rate, arife four problems ; for having any three
of thefe, the-fourth may always be found. Thus,
Prob. V. Having the principal, time, and rate, to
find the amount.
Rule : Find the intereft by prob. I. add it to the
principal, the fum is the amount.
Thus, by prob. I. the interefl: is ptr : therefore the
amount is a—ptr+p. The reafon is evident.
Note: Becaufe ptr—rtXp, and^=iXy>; there¬
fore rip-\-p—rt-J-1 Xp —a. And fo the rule may be
exprefled thus ; To the produ£t of the rate and time
add unity, and multiply the fum by the principal, the
product is the amount.
Example : What is the amount of 2461. principal
in 2 years and 4. or 2.5 years, the rate of intereft being
.05I? Anfwer 2461.4'30.7Sl.=276!• 15s. for the
intereft is=246X.ojX2.5—30.75I. Or thus ; .05X
2.5=1251. to which add 1, it isi-Ki25l. wh.ch
multiplied by 276, produces 276.751.
Prob. VI. Given the principal, amount, and time,
to find the rate.
Rule: Take the difference betwixt the principal and
amount, and divide it by the product of the time and
principal, the quote is the rate : thus,
Example: Suppofe <7=276.75!. />.=246, /=2.J
years ; then is r— 05 l.=2 76-75—246__30.75j
2.5X246 615
Demonftration : Since by prob. V. a—trp-\-p, take
p from both fides, it is a—p—trp ; then divide both
« • • a~P
by //, it is —~—r.
Prob. VII. Given the amount, principal, and rate,
to find the time.
Rule : Take the difference of the amount and prin¬
cipal, and divide it by the produdt of the principal and
rate, the quote is the time : thus /=^~'
Example: Suppofe <r=276.751. ^=246 I. r=.05 ;
then is /=2-5 years=276-75 I.—246:_3o.75
246X .05 123’
Demonftration : In the laft problem, a—p was e-
qual to trp ; and dividing both by rpt it is-
Prob. VIII. Given the amount, rate, and time, to
find the principal.
Rule : Add 1 to the product of the rate and time,
and by that fum divide the amount, the quote is the
principal : thus, p-=.-~-^
Example. <1=276.751. r= ojl. /=2.5years; then
. , ’ 276.75 276.75
ls/>_24 — 2 5X oj^_i —l J25
Demonftration: By prob. V. it is <7=r/+ 1 X/;
therefore dividing both fides by r/-t- 1, it is~p^=/.
Compound Interest, is that which is paid for any prin¬
cipal fum, and the fimple intereft; due upon it for any
) I N T
time, accumulated into one principal fum. Example:
if tool, is lent out for one year at 61. and if at the
end of that year the 61. due of in ereft be added to the
principal, and the fum 106 1. be confidered as a new
principal bearing intereft for the next year (or what¬
ever lefs time it remains unpaid) this is called com¬
pound intereft, becaufe there is intereft upon intereft,
which may go on by adding this fecond year’s intereft
of 106 1. to the principal 106 1. and making the whole
a princ'pal for the next year.
Now, although it be not lawful to let out money at
compound intereft, yet in purchafing of annuities or
penfions, foe. and taking leafes in reverfion, it is very
ufual to allow compound intereft to the purchafer for
his ready money; and therefore, it is veryneceffary to
underftand it.
Let therefore, as before, />=the principal put to in¬
tereft ; r=the time of its continuance ; <7=the amount
of the principal and intereft; R=the amount of 1 1.
and its intereft for one year, at any given rate, which
may be thus found.
Viz. 100: 106:: 1: i,o6=the amount of 11. at
6 per cent. Or 100: 105:: 1 : i,05=the amount of
11. at 5 per cent. And fo on, for any other alligned
rate of intereft.
Then if
R =amount of il. for 1 year, at any rate.
R*=amount of il. for 2 years.
RJ=amount of il. for 3 years.
R4=amount of il. for 4 years.
RJ=amount of il. for y years.
Here t—^. For 1 : R :: R : RR :: RR: RRR ::
RRR:: R4: R4: : R1: foe. in z geometrical progreflion
continued; that is, as 11.: is to the amount of 11. at 1
years’s end: : fo is that amount: to the amount of 11.
at 2 years end, foe. Whence it is plain, that com¬
pound interefl: is grounded upon a feries of terms,
increafing in geometrical proportion continued; where¬
in t (viz. the number of years) does always aflign the
index of the laft and higheft term, viz. the power of
R, which is R'.
Again, as 1 : Rf::^ Rf —a the amount of p for
the time, that Rf = the amount of 11. That is, as
11.: is to the amount of 11. for any given time :: fo
is any propofed principal, or fum : to its amount for the
fame time.
From what has been faid, we prefume, the reafon
of the followings theorems will be very eafily under-
ftood.
Theorem I. /R'=<7, as above.
From hence the two following theorems are eafily
deduced.
Theorem II. -^y=/.
Theorem III. —=R'.
P
By thefe three theorems, all queftions about com¬
pound intereft may be truly refolved by the pen only,
viz. without tables: though not fo readily as by the
help of tables calculated on purpofe.
Example
I N T ( 847 ) I N V
Example I. What will 256I. 10 s. amount to in
7 years, at 5 per cent, per annum, compound interelt ?
Here is given p — 256 5, f = 7> andR^i.oy, which
being involved until its index = / f viz. 7) will become
R7=r.40710. Then 1.40710X 256. 5 = 360.921 iy
=<1 = 3601. 18 s. 5 d. which is the anfwer required.
Example II. What principal or fum of money
muft be put out to raife a ftock of 360I. 18 s. yd. in
feven years, at 5 per cent, per annum, compound in-
tereft.
Here is given <7=360 921x5. R=5.o7and/ = 7 to
find/-by theorem II. Thus R'=1.40710 (360.92115
—a) 2y6.5=/>. That is,/>= 2561. 10s. which is the
fum or principal required.
Example III. In what time will 2561. xos. raife a
flock of (or amount to) 360I 18 s. yd. allowing $per
cent, per annum, compound intereft ?
Here is given/>=2y6 5, 5=360.92115, R=i.oy.
To find t by theorem III. Rr=—=- ^7—
p 256
1.40710. which being continuallydivided by R=x .05
until nothing remain, the number of thofe divifions will
be =7 = /.
Thus 1.05) x.40710 (1,3400, and 1.05) (1.3400)
1.2762, and 1.05(1.2762) 1.2155, and fo on until
it becomes 1.05) 1.05 (1. which will be at the feventh
divifion.
Therefore it will be /=/, the number of years re¬
quired by the queflion.
INTERJECTION, in grammar, an indeclinable part of
fpeech, fignifying fome paflion or emotion of the mind.
See Grammar.
INTERIM, a name given to a formulary, or kind of con-
fellion of the articles of faith, obtruded upon the Pro-
teffants after Luther’s death by the emperor Charles V.
when he had defeated their forces; fo called becaufe
it was only to take place in the interim (mean time) till
a general council Ihould have decided all points in dif-
pute between the Proteftants and Romanics It retain¬
ed niofl of the doftrines and ceremonies of the Romani fts,
excepting that of marriage, which was allowed to
priefts, and communion to the laity under both kinds.
Moll of the Protellants rejedted it. There were two
other interims, one of Leipfic, the other of Franconia.
INTERLOCUTOR, in Scots law. The fenrence or
judgment of a court of law, is commonly called an in¬
terlocutor before decree is extadled.
INTERLOPERS, are properly thofe who, without
due authority, hinder the trade of a company or' cor¬
poration lawfully eftablilhed, by dealing in the fame way.
INTERLUDE, an entertainment exhibited on the theatre
between the afts of a play, to amufe the fpedtators
while the adlors take breath andfhift their drefs, or to
give time of changing the fcenes and decorations.
INTERMITTENT, or intermitting feve rs, fuch
fevers as go off and foon return again, in oppofition to
thofe which are continual. See Medicine
INTEROSSEUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 202.
INTERPOLATION, among critics, denotes a fpur ous
pafiage inferted into the writings of fome ancient au¬
thor.
INTERREGNUM, the time during which the throne
is vacant in elective kingdoms ; for in fuch as are he¬
reditary, like ours, there is no fuch thing as an inter¬
regnum
INTERREX, the magiflrate who governs during an in¬
terregnum
INTERMENT. See Burial.
INTERROGATION, or Point ^Interrogation,
in grammar, a character of this form (?) ferving to
denote a quellion.
INTERVAL, in mufic, the difference between two
founds, in refpefl of acute and grave; or, that ima¬
ginary fpace terminated by two founds, differing in
acutenels or gravity.
INTESTATE, in law, a perfon that dies without ma¬
king a will.
INTESTINES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 259.
INTESTINAL, fomething belonging to or feated in
the inteftines.
INTRIGUE, or Intreague, an affemblage of events
or circumftances, occurring in an affair, and perplexing
theperfons concerned in it.
In this fenfe, it is ufed to fignify the nodus or plot
of a play or romance ; or that point wherein the princi¬
pal charadters are moft tmbarralfed, through the arti¬
fice and oppcfition of certain perfons, or the unfortu¬
nate falling out of certain accidents and circumftances.
INTRINSIC, a term applied to the inner, real, and
genuine values, properties, &c. of any thing, in op¬
pofition to their extrinfic or apparent values,
INTRUSION, in Scots law. See Ejection.
INTUITION, among logicians, the aft whereby the
mind perceives the agreement or difagreement of two
ideas, immediately L.y themfelves, without the inter¬
vention of any other ; in which cafe, the mind per¬
ceives the truth as the eye doth the light, only by be¬
ing direfted towards it.
INVECTED, in heraldry, denotes a thing fluted or
furrowed.
Invefted is juft the reverfe of ingrailed, in which
the points are turned o tward to the field; whereas in
invefted they are turned inward to the ordinary, and
the fmall femicircles outward to the field. See Plate
CII fig. 2.
INVECT IVE, in rhetoric, differs from reproof, as the
latter proceeds from a friend, and is intended for the
good of the perfon reproved ; whereas the inveftive is
the work of an enemy, and entirely defigned to vex
and give uneafinefs to the perfon againft whom it is di¬
refted.
INVENTION, denotes the aft of finding any thing new, '
or even the thing thus found.
INVERARY, a parliament town of Scotland, in the
county of Argyle, of which it is the capital, fituatedin
Lochfn, forty five miles north-weft of Glafgow : W.
long. 50, N. lat 36° 28'.
INVERNESS, a parliament and port-town of Scotland,
the capital of the county of Invernefs, fituated at
the mouth of the river Nefs : W. long. 40 N. lat.
57° 46'.
INVERSE,
JOB ( 848
INVERSE, is applied to a manner of working the rule
of three. See Arithmetick, p. 383.
INVERURY, a parliament-town of Scotland, in the
county of Aberdeen, lituated on the river Don, ten
miles weft of Aberdeen.
INVESTIGATION, properly denotes the fearching or
finding any thing out by the tradts or prints'of the feet;
whence mathematicians, fchoolmen, and grammarians,
come to ufe the term in their refpe&ive refearches.
INVESTITURE, in Scots law, the writings which
conftitute a proper feudal right. See Law, tit. 10.
INULA, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia polyga-
mia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle is naked; the
pappus is fimple ; and the antberse terminate at the bafe
in two briftles. There are 22 fpecies, 4 of.them natives'
of Britain, viz. the helenium, or elecampane ; the
dyfenterica, or middle flea-bane; the pulicaria, orfmall
flea-bane; and the erithmoides, or golden fampire. The
root of the elecampane is faid to excite urine, and loofen
the belly.
INVOCATION, in theology, the afl of adoring God,
and efpecially of addreffing him in prayer for his aflif-
tance and protedtion.
INVOICE, an account in writing of the particulars of
merchandife, with their value, cuftom, charges, &<r.
tranfmitted by one merchant to another in a diftant
country. See Book-keeping, p. 6)8.
INVOLUCRUM, among botanifts. See Botany,
p. 637.
INVOLUTION, in algebra See Algebra, p. 84.
JOACHIMITES, in church-hiftory, the difciples of
Joachim a ciftertian monk, who was an abbot of Flora
in Calabria, and a great pretender to infpiration.
The Joachimites were particularly fond of certain
ternaries : the Father, they faid, operated from the be¬
ginning till the coming of the Son ; the Son, from
that time to theirs, which was the year 1260; and from
that time the Holy Spirit was to operate in his turn.
They alfo divided every thing relating to men, to doc¬
trine, and the manner of living, into three claffes, ac¬
cording to the three perfons in the Trinity.
JOANNA, one of the iflands cf Comoro, fituated be¬
tween the-north-weft part of Madagafcar and Zangue-
bar, in Africa: E. long. 450, S. lat. 120.
JOB, or Boclt of Job, a canonical book of the Old Te-
ftament, containing a narrative of a feries of misfor¬
tunes which happened to a man whofe name was Job,
as a trial of his virtue and patience; together with the
conferences he had with his cruel friends, on the fub-
jedt of his misfortunes, and the manner in which
was reftored to eafe and happinefs. This book is filled
with -thofe noble, bold, and figurative expreflions,
which conftitute the very foul of poetry.
Many of the Jewifh rabbins pretend that this rela¬
tion is altogether a fi&ion: others think it a fimple
narrative of a matter pf fadt, juft as k happened: while
a third fort of critics acknowledge, that the ground¬
work of the ftory is true, but that it is wrote in a poe¬
tical ftrain, and decorated with peculiar circumftanees,
to render the narration more profitable and entertaining.
The time is not fet down in which Job lived. Some
) J O II
have thought that he was much ancienter than Mofes,
becaufe the law is never cited by Job or his friends,
and becaufe it is related that Job himfeif offered facri-
fices. Some imagine that this book was wrote by him¬
feif; others fay, that Job wrote it originally in Syriac
or Arabic, and that Mofes tranflated it into Hebrew:
but the rabbins generally pronounce Mofes to be the
author of it, and many Chriftian writers are of the
fame opinion.
JOBBER, in law, a perfon that buys and fells cattle for
others. Hence ftock-jobbers are perfons who buy and
fell ftocks for other perfons,
IOGUIS, among the Eaft-Indians, a kind of hermits,
who generally ftand under trees, or near their pagods.
Some of them go ftark naked, holding their arras a-
crofs over their heads, and continue in that pollute all
their lives: others lie on the ground, with one leg
higher than the other, and their arms raifed above
their head; and thefe wretched penitents infenfibly
lofe the ufe of their arms and legs: fome confine
themlelves in cages, fet on the top of a thick ftake,
fixed in the ground ; and thefe cages are fo fmall, that
they put the penitent to prodigious torture : fome
holding a fabre in one hand, and a kind of Ihield in
the other, go up a kind of crane, where hocking
themfelves to an iron, which runs a confiderable way
into their backs, they fpring forward into the air,
flourilhing their fabr^s, and launching out into extra¬
vagant praifes of their idols: and others plunge into
the Ganges, in hopes of being devoured by a croco¬
dile, fancying that by this means they lhall obtain the
happinefs of the next life.
Thefe miferable wretches are confidered by the In¬
dians as perfedt models of piety and holinefs : they are
followed by perfons of both fexes, who make a vow
of devoting themfelves to their fervice, and are whole-
ly employed in foothing their voluntary fufferings by
offering them alms and refrelhments. They call the
pious to their devotions by ringing a little bell; and
when they hold their fpiritual converfations, they fit
clofe in a ring, and fet up a banner, made of feveral
pieces oFftuff, faftened at the end of a flick.
JOHN, or Gofpel of St. John, a canonical book of the
New Teftament, containing a recital of the life, ac¬
tions, dodtrine, and death of our Saviour Jefus Chrift,
written by St John the apoftle and evangelift.
St. John wrote his Gofpel at jrphefus, after his re¬
turn from the ifle of Patmos, at the defire of the
Chriftians of Alia. St Jerom fays, he would not un¬
dertake it, but on condition they lhall appoint a pub¬
lic faft, to implore the alliftance of God ; and that the
fall being ended, St. John, filled with the Holy^Ghoft,
broke out into thefe words, “ In the beginning was
“ the word,” &c. The ancients aflign two reafons for
this undertaking : the firft is, becaufe, in the other
three gofpels, there was wanting the hiftory of the be¬
ginning of Jefus Chrift’s preaching, till the imprifon-
jnent of Jchn the Baptift ; which, therefore, heap-
plied himfeif particularly to relate. The fecond rea-
fon was, in order to remove the errors of the Cerin-
thians, Ebionites, and other fedls.
St
ION ( 849 ) IPS
St. John's day, the name of two ChrifHan feftivals,
one obferved on June 24, kept in commemoration of
the wonderful circumdances attending the birth of St. ■
John the Baptift; and the other on Dec. 27, in ho¬
nour of St. John the Evangelift.
Sf. John’s wort. See Hypericum. (
St. John’s, in geography, one of the PRilippine iflands,
fituated in 126° E. Ion. and 7® N. lat.
St. John’s, is alfo an ifland in the bay of St. Lawrence,
fituated north of New Scotland: W. Ido. 65°, N.
lat. 47°.
JOINERY, the art of working in wood, or of fitting
various pieces of timber together.
It is called by the French tmnui/srie, q. d. fmall
work, to diftinguifh it from carpentry, which is em¬
ployed about la*rge and lefs curious works.
JOINT, in general, denotes the jundure of two or more
things.
The joints of the human body are called by anato-
mifts articulations. See Anatomy, p. 148.
JOINTURE, in law, generally (ignifies a fehlement of
lands and tenements, made on a woman in confidera-
tion of marriage. <•
JOINVILLE, a town of Champaign, in France, fitu¬
ated on the river Marne: E. Ion. 50 15', and N.
lat. 48° 27'.
JOISTS, or Joysts, in architedure, thofe pieces ofi
timber framed into the girders and fummers, on which
the boards of the floor are laid.
JONAH, or Prophecy of Jonah, a canonical book of
the Old Teftament; in which it is related, that Jonah
was ordered to go and prophecy the defirudion of the
Ninevites ; but that difobediently attempting a voyage
another way, he was difcovered by the rifing of a hid¬
den tempeft, and'caft into the fea; where he was fwal-
lowed up by a whale, which, having lodged him three
days and three nights in his belly, difgorged him upon
the fliore; whereupon being fenfible of his part danger
and furprifing deliverance, he betook himfelf to the
journey and embafiy to which he was appointed; and
arriving at Nineveh, the metropolis of Aflyria, he,
according to his commiflion, boldly laid open to the
inhabitants their fins and mifcarriages, and proclaim¬
ed their hidden overthrow; upon which the whole ci¬
ty, by prayer and falling, and a fpeedy repentance,
happily'averted the divine vengeance, and efcaped the
threatened ruin.
IONIA, anciently was a province of the Lefler Afia, or
Natolia, bounded by Etolia on the north, Lydia on
the eaft, Caria on the fouth, and the Archipelago on
the weft.
IONIC order. See Architecture, p. 352.
Ionic dialect, in grammar, a manner of fpeaking pe¬
culiar to the people of Ionia.
Ionic sect was the firft of the ancient fefls of philofo-
phers ; the others were the Italic and Eleatic. The
founder of this fe<ft was Thales, who, being a native of
Miletus in Ionia, occafioned his followers to aflume
the appellation of Ionic: Thales was fucceeded by
Anaximander, and he by Anaximenes, both of Mile¬
tus ; Anaxagoras Clazomenius fucceeded them, and
Yol. II. Numb. 62. 2
removed his fchool from Afia to Athens, where So¬
crates was his fcholar. It was the diftinguilhing tenet
of this fed, that water wras the principle of all natural
things.
JONK, or Jonque, in naval affairs, is a kind of final!
fhip, very common in the Eaft Indies: thefe vefiels
are about the bignefs of our fly-boats ; and differ in
the form of their building, according to the diffeicnt
methods of naval architedure ufed by the nations to
which they belong. Their fails are frequently made
of mats, and their anchors are madeof wood.
JOSHUA, a canonical book of the Old Teftament, con¬
taining a hiftory of the wars and tranfadions of the
perfon whofe name it bears. This book may be di¬
vided into three parts ; the firft of which is a hiftory
of the conqueft of the land of Canaan; the fecond,
W'hich begins at the twelfth chapter, is a defcription
of that country, and the divifion of it among the tribes ;
and the third, comprifedin thetwolaft chapters, con¬
tains the renewal of the covenant he caufed the Ifrae-
lites to make, and the death of their vidorious leader
and governor. The whole comprehends a term of
feventeen, or, according to others, of twenty-fevcn
years.
JOURNAL, or Day-book. See Book-keeping, p.
583-
Journal, at fea. See Navigation.
Journal is alfo a name common for weekly effays,
news-papers, <bc. as the Gray’s Inn Journal, the
Weftminfter Journal, the Edinburgh Weekly Journal,
tec. '
JOURNEYMAN, properly one who works by the day
only; but it is now ufed for any one who works un¬
der a mafter, either by the day, the year, or the piece.
IPECACUxANHA, in the materia medica, aWeft-indi-
an root, of which there are two kinds, diftinguifhed by
their colour, and brought from different places, but
both poffelfing the fame virtues, though in a different
degree. The one is grey, and brought from Peru ; the
other is brown, and is brought from the Brazils : and
thefe are indifferently fent into Europe under the gene¬
ral name of ipecacuanha.
Thefe two forts have been by feme fuppofed to be
the roots of two different plants : but this is a miftake ;
the only difference is, that one grows in a different
place, and in a richer and moifter foil, and is better
fupplied with ju'ces than the other.
Ipecacuanha is an excellent, mild, andfafe emetic;
it is alfo a noble reftringent; and, given in dofes too
fmall to vomit, is the greateft of all remedies fcr a
dyfentery. Small dofes of ipecacuanha, are an excel¬
lent remedy in diarrhoeas of a more fimplekind; and in
the fluor albus we hardly know a better medicine.
IPOMzEA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla is funnel lhaped ; theftylus
is globular ; and the capfule has three cells. There
are eighteen fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
IPSWICH, a borough and port town of Suffolk, fituated
on the river Orwel, twenty-four miles fouth-eaft of
Bury.
It fends two members to Darliament.
9 E ‘ IRELAND,
ISA ( 850 ) I S N
IRELAND, an ifland of the Atlantic ocean, fubjeftto
Great Britain, fitnated between 50 an to0 W. long,
and between 510 and 56° N. lat. being bounded by
the Northern ocean on the north, by St. George’s
channel, which divides it from Great Britain, on the
eaft, and by the Atlantic and Weftern ocean on the
the fouth and weft. This country is two hundred and
fifty miles long, and one hundred and fifty broad; di-
liant from Holyhead in north Wales fifty miles, and
from Galloway in Scotland fifteen miles. It is di¬
vided into four large provinces, viz. Ulfter on the
north, Leinfter on the eaft, Munfter on the fouth, and
Connaught on the weft.
IRIS, the Rainbow. See Optics.
Iris, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 289.
Iris, the flower*de luce, in botany, a genus of the
triandria monogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of fix
divifions, alternately reflettcd : the ftigmata have the
appearance of petals. There are twenty-two fpecies,
only two of which are natives of Britain, viz. the
pfeudacorus, or yellow flower-de-luce; and the fce-
tidiflima, or ftinking gladden. The root is cathartic,
and recommended in dropfies.
IRON. See Che-mistry, p. 82.
Iron-sick, in the fea-language, is faid of a Ihipor boat,
when her bolts or nails are fo eaten with ruft, and fo
worn away, that they occafion hollows in the planks,
whereby the veffel is rendered leaky.
Iron-wort., in botany. See Sideritis.
IRONY, in rhetoric, is when a perfon fpeaks contrary
to his thoughts, in order to add force to his difeourfe;
whence Quintilian calls it diverfiloquium.
IROQUOIS, the name of five nations in North America,
in alliance with the Britifh colonies. They are bound¬
ed by Canada on the north, by the Britifh plantations
of New-York and Penfilvania on the eaft and fouth, and
by the lake Ontario on the weft.
IRRADIATION, the aft of emitting fubtile effluvia,
like the rays of the fun, every way.
IRTIS, a great river, which runs from north to fouth
through Ruflia, falls into the river Oby, and makes part
of the boundary between Afia and Europe.
IRWIN, a port-town of Scotland, in the bailiwic of
Cunningham, fituated at the mouth’of the river Irwin,
on the frith of Clyde: W. long. 40 40', N. lat. 550
35'.
ISABELLA, a fortrefs of the Auftrian Netherlands,
fituated on the weft fide of the river Schield, oppofite
to Antwerp: in E. long 40 ro', N. lat 510 15'.
ISAIAH, or Prophecy of Isaiah, a canonical book of
the Old Teftament. Ifaiah is the firft of the four
greater prophets, the other three being Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, and Daniel. This prophet was of royal
blood, his father Amos being brother to Azariah king
of Judah. The ftyle of this prophet is noble, fublime
and florid. Grotius calls him the Demofthenes of the
Hebrews.. He had the advantage, above the other
prophets, of improving his diftion by converfing with
men of the greateft parts and elocution ; and this added
a fublimity, force, and majefty to what he faid. He
impartially reproved the vices of the age in which he
lived, and openly difplayed the judgments of God that
were hanging over the Jewifll nation ; at the fame time
denouncing vengeance on the Aftyrians, Egyptians, E-
thiopians, Moabites, Edomites, Syrians, and Arabi¬
ans, who were inftrumental in inflifting thofe judg¬
ments. He foretold the deliverance ofthe Jews from
their captivity in Babylon, by the hands of Cyrus king
of Perfia, an hundred years before it came to pafs;
but the moft remarkable of his prediftions are thofe con¬
cerning the Meffiah, in which he not only foretold his
coming in the flelh, but all the great and memorable
circumftances of his life and death.
ISATIS, in botany, a genus of the tetradynamia filiquo-
fa clafs. The pod is lanceolated, has two valves, and
contains but one feed. There are four fpecies, only
one of which, viz. the tinftoria, or woad, is a native
of Britain. It is ufed by the dyers. See Botany,
p.634.
ISCH/EMUM, schoenanth, in botany, a genus of
the polygamia moncecia clafs. The calix of the her¬
maphrodite is a glume containing two flowers ; the
corolla confifts of two valves ; it has three ftamina,
two ftyli, and one feed. The calix, <b c. of the
male are the fame with thofe of the hermaphrodite.
There are two fpecies, both natives of the Eaft Indies.
ISCHIUM, in anatomy. See Anat. p. 172.
ISCHURY, in medicine, a difeafe conlifting in an entire
fuppreflion of urine. See Medicine.
ISENACH, a town of Germany in the circle of Upper
Saxony, fituated in E. long. io° i2/, N. lat. 510.
ISENARTS, a town of Germany, in the circle of Au-
ftria, and dukedom of Stiria, fituated thirty-five miles
north-weft of Gratz.
ISERNI A, a town of Naples, in the province of Mo-
life, fituated in E. long. 150 15', N. lat. 410 36'.
ISH, in Scots law, fignifies expiry : thus we fay, The ifh
of a leafe. It fignifies alfo :o go out: thus we fay.
Free ilh and entry from and to any place.
ISIA, feafts and facrifices anciently folemnifed in honour
of the goddefs Ifis.
The Ifia were full of abominable impurities, and
for that reafon thofe who were initiated were obli,
ged to take an oath of fecrecy: they held for nine days-
fucceflively ; but were fo abominable, that the fenate
abolilhed them at Rome, under the confullhip of Pifo
and Gabinius.
ISINGLASS. S^e Ichtiiyocolla.
ISLAND, a traft of dry land, encompafled with water;
in which fenfe it ftands contradiftinguiihed from con¬
tinent, or terra firma.
Isle de dieu, an ifland in the bay of Bifcay, on the
coaft of France, fituated fourteen miles weft of the
coaft of Pojfou.
Isle e/* France, a province of that kingdom, in which
the capital city of Paris is fituated, being bounded by
Picardy on the north, by Champain on the eaft, by
Orleans on the fouth, and by Normandy on the weft.
ISNARDIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mo¬
nogynia clafs. It has no corolla ; the calix confifts cf
four divifions; and the capful has four cells. There
is hut one fpecies, a native of France.
TSNY.,
I T A (8.
ISNY, a free imperia! city of Germacy, in the circle of
Swabia, lituated in E, long. io°, N. lat. 47° 36'.
ISOCHRONAL, is applied -to fuch vibrations of a
pendulum, as are performed in the fame fpace of time
as all the vibrations or fwings of the fame pendulum
are, whether the. arches it defcribes be longer or
(hotter.
Isochronal line, that in which a heavy body is fup-
pofed to defcend without any acceleration.
ISOLA, a port-town and bHhop’s fee of the hither Ca¬
labria, fifteen miles fouth of St Severino.
ISOPERIMETRICAL figures, in geometry, are
fuch as have equal perimeters or circumferences.
ISOPYRUM, in botany, a genus of the polyandria po-
lygynia clafs. It has no calix; the petals are five or
more; the ne<5tarium is bilabiated, and tubular; and
the capfule contains many feeds. There are three
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
ISOCELES triangle, in geometry, one that has two
equal fides.
ISPAHAN, or Spahawn, the capital city of Eyrac
Agem, and of all Perfia: it is of an oval form, and
twelve miles in circumference: E. Ion. 50°, N. lat.
3 2° 30'.
ISPIDA, in ornithology. See Alcedo.
ISSUES, in furgery, are little ulcers made defignedly by
the furgeon in various parts of the body, and kept o-
pen by the patient, for the prefervation or recovery of
his health. See Surgery.
ISTHMIA, or Isthmian games, one of the four fo-
lemn games which were celebrated every fifth year in
Greece ; fo called from the Corinthian ilthmus, where
they were kept.
Isthmus, in geography, a narrow neck of land, that
joins two continents, or joins a peninfula to the terra
finm, and feparates two feas,
ISTRIA, a peninfula in the north-part of the gulph of
Venice, bounded by Carniola on the north; and on
the fouth, eaft, and weft, by the fea.
ITALIAN, the language fpoken in Italy.
ITALY, a country fituated between feven and nineteen
degrees eaft long, and between thirty-eight and forty-
feven degrees north latitude, bounded by Switzerland,
and the Alps, which feparate it from Germany, on
the north; by the gulph of Venice, on the eaft ; by
the Mediterranean fea, on the fouth; and by the
fame fea and the Alps, which feparate it from France,
on the weft; and if we include Savoy, which lies in¬
deed on the weft fide of the Alps, between Italy and
France, we muft extend it a degree farther weft: this
is ufually defcribed, however, with Italy, as it is conti¬
guous to Piedmont, and has the fame fovereign, being
a province of the king of Sardinia’s dominions. Italy is
faid to refemble a boot, and is in length from north-
weft to fouth-eaft 600 miles; the breadth is very un¬
equal ; in the north, which may be called the top of
the boot, it is about 400 miles broad from eaft to
weft" i.n the calf of the leg, or middle, it is about
120 miles broad; and towards the fouth, about the
inftep, eighty miles broad ; and comprehends the fol¬
lowing countries or fubdivifions, 1. In-the north are
;i ) J u I)
the duchies of Savoy, Piedmont, andMorftferrat; the
territories of Genoa ; the duchies of Milan, Mantua,
Parma, Modena, and the territories of Venice. 2. In
the middle of Italy, are the duchy of Tufcany, the
pope’s dominions, and the ftate of Lucca. 3. And
in the fouth is the kingdom of Naples.
ITCH, a cutaneous difeafe, ariiing from a corruption of
a ferous lymphatic matter, ibmetimes attended with
mild, fometimes with more obftinate and dangerous
fymptoms. See Medicine.
JUBILEE, a time of public andfolemn feftivity among
the ancient Hebrews.
This was kept every fiftieth year : it began about
autumnal equinox, and was proclaimed by the found of
trumpet throughout all the country. At this time all
flaves were releafed, alldebts annihilated, and all lands,
houfes, wives, and children, however alienated,'were
reftored to their firft owners. During this whole year
aM kind of agriculture was forbidden, and the poor
had the benefit of the harveft, vintage, and other pro-
duAions of the earth, in the fame manner as in the
fabbatic or feventh year. As this was defigned to
put the Ifraelites in mind of their Egyptian fervitude,
and to prevent their impofing the like upon their bre¬
thren, it was not obferved by the Gentile profelytes.
The Chriftians, in imitation of the Jews, h^ve like-
wife eftablifhed jubilees, which began in the time of
pope Boniface VIII. in the year 1300, and are now
pradifed every twenty-five years ; but thefe relate on¬
ly to the pretended forgivenefs of fins, and the indul¬
gences granted by the church of Rome ; together with,
the privilege of performing a thoufand frolics in maf-
querade.
JUCATAN, or Yucatan, a peninfula of Mexico, fi¬
tuated between 89° and 940 W. long, and between 160
and 210 N. lat.'
JUDAISM, the religious doftrines and rites of the Jews.
See Jews.
JUDE, or the general epiftle of ]wdz, a canonical book
of the New Teftament, written againft the heretics,
who, by their diforderly lives and impious doftrines,
corrupted the faith and good morals of the Chriftians.
Su. Jude draws them in lively colours, as men given
up to their paffions, full of vanity, conduding them-
felves by frorldly wifdom, and not by the fpirit of God.
JUDEA. See Palestine.
JUDENBURGH, a city of Stiria, in Germany : E.
long 150, N fat. 47° zf.
JUDGE, a chief magiftrate of the law, appointed to
hear caufes, to explain the laws, and to pafs fentence.
Book of Judges, a canonical book of the Old Tefta¬
ment, fo called from its relating the ftate of the Ifrael¬
ites under the adminiftration of many illuftrious perfons
who were called judges, from their being both the ci¬
vil and military governors of the people, and who were
raifed up by God upon fpecial occafions, after the
death of Joftnia, till the time of their making a-king.
In the time of this peculiar polity, there were feveral
remarkable occurrences, which are recorded in this
book. It acquaints us with the grofs impiety of a
liew-generation v/hich fprursg up after the death of Jo^
fttua,.
J u N ( l
fliua, and gives us a fliort view of the’difpenfations of
heaven towards this people, fometimes relieving and
delivering them, and at others feverely chaltifiag
them by the hands of their enemies.
JUDGMENT, among logicians, a faculty or rather aft
of the human foul, whereby it compares its ideas, and
perceives their agreement or difagreement.
JuDGiMExr, in law, the fentence of the judges upon a
fuit, 6c.
JUDOIGNE, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, in
the province of Brabant, fituated on the river Gheet,
thirteen miles fouth-eaft of Louvain, and lixteen north
of Namur.
IVES, or St. Ives, a borough and port-town of
Cornwal, limited on the Irilh channel: it fends two
members to parliament : W. long. 6°, N. lat. yo°
18'.
JUGERUM, in Roman antiquity, a fquare of 120 Ro¬
man feet ; its proportion to the Ehglilh acre being as
10000 to 1-6097.
JUGULAR, in anatomy, an appellation given to two
veins of the neck, which arife from the fubclavians.
See Anatomy, part IV.
IVICA, or Yvica, the capital of an ifland of the fame
name, fifty miles ealt of Valencia in Spain : E. long.
t°, N. lat. 390.
JUICE, denotes the fap of vegetables, or the liquors of
animals.
JUJUBES, in the materia medica, the name of a fruit
of the pulpy kind, produced on a tree which Linnaeus
makes a fpecies of rhamnus. See Rhamnus.
The jujubes have been made a general ingredient in
peftoral decoftions ; but they are now feldom ufed on
thefe occafionr, and are fcarce at all heard of in pre-
fcription, or to be met with in our fhops.
JULEP, in pharmacy, a medicine compofed of fome
proper liquor, and a fyrup or fugar of extemporaneous
preparation, without decoftion, defigned for the con-
coftion or alteration of the humours, or reltoring the
firength.
JULIAN, or St. Julian, a harbour on the coaft of
Patagonia, in South America, where (hips bound
to the fouth feas ufually touch : W. long, 74°, N.
lat. 48° 15'.
Julian period, in chronology. See Astronomy,
p. 489.
JULIERS, the capital of the duchy of the fame name,
fituated on the river Roer, twenty miles weft of Co-
logn, and as many eaft of Maeftricht: E. long. 6°,
N. lat. 50° 55',
JULPHA, or Old Julpha, once the capital of Armenia,
but now in ruins, the inhabitants being tranfplanted to
a town within a mile of Ifpahan, called New Julpha,
and there they carry on a foreign trade with all coun¬
tries in Ada. The fituation of Old Julpha was in E.
long. 46°, N. lat. 390.
JULY, in chronology, the feventh month of the year,,
fo called in honour of Julius Caefar; before whofe time
it was known by the name of quintilis, as being the
fifth month of the old Roman year.
JUNCUS, the rush, in botany, a genus of the hexan-
152 )’ JUS
dria monogynia clafs. The calix has fix leaves ; it
has no coroila ; and the berry is dry, and contains but
one teed. There are 19 fpecies, twelve of them na¬
tives of Britain.
JUNGERMANNIA, a genus of the cryptogamia algae
clafs. Of which there are 29-fpecies, all natives of
Britain.
JUNIPERUS, in botany, a genus of the dioecia mona-
delphia clafs. The male has no corolla, but has three
ftamina; the calix of the female confifts of three parts ;
it has three petals, and three ftyli; and the berry contains
three feeds. There are nine fpecies, only one of which,
viz. the communis or common juniper, is a native of
Britain. The berries are ufed as carminatives and
ftomachics.
JUNK, in the fea-language, old cables cut into Ihort
pieces, and given to boatfwains for making fwabs,
plats, and nippers ; as alfo to the (hip carpenters, and
to poor people, to be picked into oakam, for caulking
fnips, 6c.
JUNTO, in matters of government, denotes a feleft
council for taking cognizance of affairs of great confe-
quence, which require fecrecy.
In Spain and Portugal, it fignifies much the fame
with convention, affembly, or board among us : thus
we meet with the junto of the three eftates, of com¬
merce, of tobacco, 6c. See Board, 6c.
IVORY, in natural hiftory, 6c. a hard, folid and firm
fubftance, of -a white colour, and capable of a very
good polifh. It is the tufk of the elephant, (See E-
lephas,) and is hollow from the bafe to a certain
height, the cavity being filled up with a compaft me¬
dullary fubftance, feeming to have a great number of
glands in it. It is obferved, that the Ceylon ivory,
and that of the ifland of Achem, do not become yellow
in the wearing, as all other ivory does ; for this rea-
fon the teeth of thefe places bear a larger price tl^an
thofe of the coaft of Guinea.
JUPITER, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 441.
JUREA, or Jura, a ftrong city in Italy, in the pro¬
vince of Piedmont, fituated on the river Doria, fubjeft
to the king of Sardinia: E. long. 70, 36/; N. lat.
450, 22'.
JURISPRUDENCE, the fcience of what is juft orun-
juftj; or the knowledge of laws, /ights, cuftoms, fta-
tutes, 6c. neceffary for the adminiftration of juftice.
JURY-MAST, whatever is fet up in room of a mart
that has been loft in a ftorm or in an engagement, and
to which a Idler yard, ropes, and fails, are fixed.
JUS deliberandi, in,Scots law, that right which an
heir has, by law, of deliberating for a certain time
whether he Will reprefent his predecdfor. See Law,
tit. 27.
Jus devolutum, in Scots law, the right of the church,
of prefenting a minifter to a vacant parifli, in cafe the
patron (hall negleft to ufe that right within the time
limited by law. See Law, tit. 5.
Jus mariti, in Scots law, the right the hnlband ac¬
quires to his wife’s moveable eftate, in virtue of the
marriage. See Law, tit. 6.
Jus relictjE} in Scots law, the right the wife has in
the
JUS ( 8j
the goods in communion, in cafe of the previous deceafe
of the hufband. See Law, tit. 28.
Jus prevent 1 onis, in Scots law, the preferable'
right of jurifdifiion acquired by a court, in any caufe
to which other courts are equally competent, by ha¬
ving exercifed the firft aft of jurifdiftion. See Law,
tit. 2.
JUST, a fportive combat on horfeback, man againft man,
armed with lances. *
The difference between juffs and tournaments, ac¬
cording to Dn Cange, confifts in this, that the latter
is a genus of which the former is only a fpecies. Tour¬
naments included all kinds of military fports and en¬
gagements, which were made out of gallantry and di-
verfion. Jufts Were thofe particular combats, where
the parties were near each other, and engaged with
lance and fword.
JUSTICE, in a moral fenfe, is one of the four cardinal
virtues, which gives every perfon his due.
Justice, in a legal fenfe, a perfon deputed by the king
to adminifter juftice to his fubjefts, Whofe authority
arifes from his deputation, and not by right of magi-
ftracy.
Justice-seat, is the highefl: foreff-court, always held
before the lord chief juftice in eyre of the forefl ; in
which court fines are fet for offences, and judgments
given.
JUSTICIA, in botany, a genus of the diandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla is ringent; and the capfule
has two cells. There are impedes, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
3 ) I X O
JUSTICIAR, in the old Enghlb laws, an officer inftituted
by William theConqueror, as the chief officer of ftate,
who principally determined in all cafes civil and crimi¬
nal. He was called in Latin Capitalis Jufliciarius tot int
Anglia:,—For Justiciar in Scotland, fee Law,
tit. 3. § 13.
JUSTICIARY, or Court of Justiciary, in Scot¬
land. See Law, tit. 3. § 10.
JUTES, the ancient inhabitants of Jutland, in Den¬
mark.
JUTLAND, a peninfula of Denmark, anciently called
the Cimbrian Cherfonefe, fituated between 8° and 110
of E. long, and between 550 and 58° of N. lat.
bounded by the Categate fea, which feparates it from
Norway, on the north ; by the fame fea, which- di¬
vides it from the Danifh iffands and Sweden, on the
eaft ; by Holftein, on the foutff ; and by the German
ocean, on the weft. It is divided into north and fouth
Jutland ; the fouth being ufually called Slefwic.
The whole is about 180 miles in length, and 90 in
breadth.
IVY, in botany. See Hedera.
IXIA, in botany, a genus of the triandria monogynia
clafs. The corolla confifts of fix open equal petals ;
and it has three ereft ftigmata. There are ten fpecies,
none of them natives of Britain.
IXORA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mono¬
gynia clafs. The corolla confifts of one long fun-
nel-lhaped petal; and the berry contains four feeds.
There are three fpecies, none of them natives of
Britain.
ooooooooooooooooooooooo«oooooooooooooooooooo
K.
K E D K E E
KJEMPFERIA, in botany, a genus of the monandria
mbnogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of fix feg-
ments, three of them being large and open. There
are two fpecies, both natives of India, The root of
this plant is the galangal, which was formerly ufed in
bitter infufions, but is now neglefted in praftice.
KAKENHAUSEN, a city of Livonia, fubjeft to Rulfia:
E. long. 26°, N. lat. 570.
KALI, in botany. See Sal sola.
KALLO, a town of upper Hungary, fituated in a lake
twenty miles fouth eaft of Tockay.
KAOLIN, one of the fubftances whereof china-ware is
made; being no oth-er than a kind of talc reduced to
powder, and made into a pafte with water.
KAUSBEUREN, an imperial city of Germany, thirty-
two miles fouth of Auglburg: E. long. io° 45', N.
^ lat. 47s 50'.
KEBLA, an appellation given by the Mahometans to
that part of the world where the temple of Mecca is
fituated, towards which they are obliged toturnthem-
felves when they pray.
TEDGING, in the fea-laoguage, is when a ftiip is
Vol. II. No. 62. 2
brought up or down in a narrow river by means of the
tide, the wind being contrary. To do this, they ufe
to fet their fore-courfe, or fore-top fail and mizzen,
that fo they may flat her about; and if ftie happens to
come too near the Ihore, they let fall a kedge-anchor,
with a hawfer faftened to it from the fliip, in order to
turn her head about; which work is called kedging.
KEEL, the loweft piece of timber in a fliip, running
her whole length from the lower part of her ftem to
the lower part of her ftern poft. Into it are all the
lower futtocks faftened ; and under part of it, a falfe
keel is often ufed.
KEELSON, a principal timber in a ftiip, fayed within-
fide crofs all the floor timbers ; and being adjufted to
the keel with fuitable fcarfs, it fertes to ftrengthen the
bottom of the ftiip.
KEEPER of the great feal, is a lord by his office, is
ftyled lord keeper of the great fea! of Great-Britain,
and is always one of the privy-council. All grants,
charters and commiflions of the king under the great
feal, pafs through the hands of the lord-keeper ; for
without that feal, many of thofe grants, <bc. would
X E R { $:
be of no force ; the king being, in the interpretation
of the law, a corporation, and therefore pafles nothing
but by the great fea!, which is alfo faid to be the pu¬
blic faith of the kingdom, being in the higheft efteem
and reputation.
Whenever there is a lord-keeper, he is inverted with
the fame place, authority, preheminence, jurifdidtion,
or execution of laws, as the lord chancellor of Great-
Britain is verted with.
The lord-keeper is conrtituted by the delivery of
the great feal, he.
Keeper of the privy feal, is alfo a lord by his office,
through whofe hands all grants, pardons, he. pafs be¬
fore they come to the great feal, and even fome things
pafs this officer’s hands which do not pafs the great
feal at all. This officer is alfo one of the privy coun¬
cil, yet was anciently called clerk of the privy feal.
His duty is to put the feal to no grant, he. without
a proper warrant; nor with warrant where it isagainft
law, or inconvenient, but (hall firft acquaint the king
therewith.
KEISERWAERT, a ftrong town of Germany in the
circle of Weftphalia and duchy of Berg, fituated on
the Rhine, twenty-five miles north of Cologne, E. Ion.
6° 8', N. lat. 510 so'.
KELLINGTON, a borough-town of Cornwall, thirteen
miles fouth of Launcefton, which fends two members
to parliament.
KELP, a fixed fait, or particular fpecies of pot-affi,
procured by burning a fpecies of falicofa. See Sali-
cos a.
KELSO, a town of Scotland, in the fliire of Mers, or
Roxburgh, fituated on the north fide theTweed, twen¬
ty miles fouth-weft of Berwick.
KEMPTEN, a city of Germany, in the circle of Swa¬
bia, fituated on the river Ifer: E. Ion. io° 7', N.
lat. 47® 38'.
KENDAL, a market town of Weftmoreland, twenty-
two miles fouth-weft of Appleby.
KENKS, in the fea language, doublings in a rope or
cable, when handed in and out, fo th'at it does not run
eafy ; orwhenany rope makes turns ortwifts, and dees
mot run free in the block, then it is faid to make kenks.
KENNING to «Terce, in Scots law, the dividing or
fetting off that part of the hufband’s eftate to his relift
which fhe is entitled to liferent after his death. See
Terce.
KENSINGTON, a pleafant village in the county of
Middlefex, two miles weft of London; where is a
royal palace, with large and fine gardens.
KENT, a county, bounded by the river Thames on the
north, by the ocean on the eaft, by Suffex and the
Straits of Dover on the foath, and by Surrey on the
weft.
KERMAN, the capital of the province of Kerman,
orCarimania, inPeifia : E. Ion. 56" 30,, N. lat. 30°.
KERMES in botany. See Ilex.
Kermes mineral. See Chemistry, p. 140.
KERRY, a county of Ireland, in the province of Mun-
fter, hounded by the river Shannon, which divides it
from Clare, on the north; by Limeric and Cork, on
;4 ) KIN
the eaft ; by another part of Cork, on the fouth; and
by the Atlantic Ocean, on the weft.
KESSEL, a town of Upper Guelderland, in the quarter
of Roermonde, fituated on the river Meufe: E. Ion.
6°, N. lat. 5 i° 25'.
KESTRIL, in ornithology. SeepALCO.
KETMIA, in botany. SeeHisiscus.
KETTERING, a market town of Northamptonffiire,
ten miles north-eaft of Northampton.
KETCH, in naval architecture, a veffel with two marts.
See Ship.
KEVEL, in Ihip-building, a piece of plank fayed aga'nft
the quickwork on the quarter-deck, in the fhape of a
femicircle; about which the running rigging is belaid.
KEXHOLME, the capital of the province of the fame
name in Finland, fituated on the lake Ladoga, eighty
miles north of Peterlburgh: E. Ion. 30°, N. lat.6i°
3°'.
KEY, a well known inftrument for opening and (hutting
the locks of doors, chefts, buroes, and the like.
Key, in mufic, a certain fundamental note, or tone, to
which the whole piece, be it in concerto, fonata, canta¬
ta, he. is accommodated, and with which it ufually
begins, but always ends.
Key-stone of an arch, or vault, that placed at the top
or vertex of an arch, to bind the two fweeps toge¬
ther.
KIAM, a great river of China, which, taking its rife
near the weft frontier, croffes the w'hole kingdom eaft-
ward, and falls into the bay or gulph of Nanking, a
little below that city.
KIAMSI, a province of China, bounded by that of
Nanking on the north, and by that of Canton on the
fouth.
KIDDERMINSTER, a market-town twelve miles
north of Worcefter.
KIDNEYS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p 268.
KIGGELARIA, in botany, a genus of the dioecia de-
candria clafs. The calix of both male and female
confifts of five fegments, and the corolla of five petals;
the antherae of the male are perforated at the apex :
The female has fiveftyli; the capfule has five valves,
one cell, and many feeds. There is but one fpecies,
a native of Ethiopia.
KIDDARE, the capital of a county of the fame name,
in Ireland, twenty-feven miles fouth weft of Dublin.
KILDERKIN, a liquid meafure, containing two fir¬
kins .
KILKENNY, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Leinfter, bounded by Queen’s County, on the north:;
by the county of Wexford, on the eaftby Water¬
ford, on the fouth ; and by the county of Tipperary,
on the weft. It is alfo the name of the capital of that
county ; and is fituated in W. Ion. 7° ij', N. lat.
520 50'.
KIMBOLTON, a market-town of Huntingtonlhirs,
nine miles fouth-weft of Huntington.
KING, in the general acceptation of the word, is a per-
fon who has a fupreme authority, with the power of
levying taxes, making laws, and enforcing an obe¬
dience to them : but in Britain, which is a limited
monarchy,
KIN ( 855 ) KIN
TOcr.arcliy, tlse power of the king is greatly retrained ;
which is fo far from diminifliing his honour, that it adds
a glory to his crown; for while other kings are abfolute
monarchs over innumerable multitudes of Haves, the
king of England has the diftinguifhed glory of governing
a free people, the leaft of whom is protefled by the
laws : he has great prerogatives, and a boundlefs power
in doing good; and is at the fame time only reftrained
from adting inconfiftently with his own happinefs, and
that of his people. He has all the enfigns of royalty, and
all the ma; ks of fovereignty; but while he has the power of
making treaties, of fending and receiving ambafladors,
of conferring titles of honour, creating privy counfel-
Jors, officers of Hate, and judges, and may raife men
and arms both for fea and land, he cannot force his fub-
jeds to maintain them, or raife one tax by his foie au¬
thority : he has the privilege of coining money, but he
cannot force the meaneft fubjedt to part with his pro¬
perty : he can pardon a criminal; but he cannot put a
fubjsdl to death, till he is condemned by his peers: he
may at his pleafure call, continue, prorogue, and diffolve
parliaments, and without his royal alfent no bill in par¬
liament can pafs into a law; yet he can neither adt con¬
trary to law, nor make new laws by his foie authority;
on the contrary, he may even be fued and call in his own
courts.
At his coronation, he takes an oath to govern his peo¬
ple according.to the Hatutes agreed on in parliament, to
caufe law and juftice in mercy to be executed in all his
judgments ; to maintain, as much as in him lies, the
laws of God, the true profeflion of the gofpel, and the
proteftant reformed religion by law eflablifhed. But tho’
he may mitigate the rigour of the law, and forgive
offenders, he cannot pardon murder, where an appeal is
-brought by the fubjedt; nor any other crime, whem the
offender is impeached by the houfe of commons. He may
lay an embargo on fhipping; but then it ought to be for
the public good, and not for the private advantage of any
particular traders. Writs, procelfes, commiflions, <bc.
are in his name ; and he has a power not only to make
courts, but to create univerfities, colleges, and boroughs;
to incorporate a city or town, and to grant franchifes to
,fuch corporations ; but they muff not, under colour
thereof, fet up a monopoly. He is efteemedthe head of
the church in that part of his dominions called England.
But notwithlfandiog thefe and other prerogatives, the
king can take what he has a right to only by due courfe
of law. In fhqrt, he has a principal (hare in the legifla-
tive power, and the whole executive power is lodged in
him ; he is fuppofed prefent in all his courts, he can do
no wrong, and, according to the laws of England, he
never dies.
KING’S bench, a court in which the king was former¬
ly accuftomed to fit in perfon, and on that account
was moved with the king’s houfliold. This was origi¬
nally the only court in Wertminfter-hall, and from
this, it is thought that the courts of common pleas and
exchequer were derived. As the king in perfon is
ffiil prefumed in law to fit in this court, though only
asprefented by his judges, it is fald to have fuprcrae
authority; and the proceedings in it are fuppofed to te
corani nobis, that is, before the k'ng. This court con-
fifts of a lord chief juftice and three other jultices or
judges, who are invefled with a fovereign jurifdiiflion
over all matters, whether of a criminal or public nature.
All crimes againft the public good, though they do
not injure any particular perfcn, are under the cog¬
nizance of this court; and no private fubjeft can fuf-
fer any unlawful violence or injury againft his perfon,
liberty, or poffellions, but a proper remedy is afford¬
ed him here ; not only for fatisfaQion of damages fuf-
tained, but for the punifhment of the offender: and
wherever this court meets with an offence contrary to
the firft principles of juftice, it may punifh it. It fre¬
quently proceeds on indiftments found before other
courts, and removed by certiorari into this. Perfons
illegally committed to prifon, though by the king and
counfel, or either of the houfes of parliament, may be
bailed in it; and in fome cafes, even upon legal commit¬
ments. Writs of mandamus are iffued by this court,
for thereftoring of officers in corporations, &c. unjuft-
ly turned out, and freemen wrongfully disfranchifed.
The court of king’s bench is now divided into a
crown-fide and p!ea-fide, the one determining criminal,
and the other civil caufes : in the firft it determines cri¬
minal matters of all kinds, where the king is plain¬
tiff; fuch as treafons, felonies, murders, rapes, rob¬
beries, riots, breaches of the peace, and all other
caufes that are profecuted by indiament, information,
&c. On the pica fide, it determines all perfonal ac¬
tions commenced by bill or writ; as aaions of debt,
upon the cafe, detinue, trover, ejeament, trefpafs,
wafte, tec againft any perfon in the cuftody of the
marfhal of the court, as every perfon fued here is fup¬
pofed to be by law.
The officers of this court on the crown-fide are the
clerk and ftcondary of the crown ; and on the fide of
the pleas there are two chief clerks or prothonotaries,
and their fecondary and deputy, the cuftos brevium,
two clerks of the papers, the clerk of the declarations,
the figner and fealer of bills, the clerk of the rules,
clerk of the errrors, and clerk of the bails; to which
may be added the blazers, the marffial of the court,
and the crier.
Booh of Kings, two canonical books of the Old Tefta-
ment, fo called becaufe they contain the hiftory of the
kings of Ifrael and Judah, from the beginning of the
reign of Solomon, down to the Babylomfli captivity,
for thefpace of near fix hundred years.
It is probable that thefe books were compofed by E-
zra, who extrafted them out of the public records,
which were kept of what paffed in that nation.
King’s county, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Leinfter, bounded by Weft-meath on the north,
by the county of Kildare on the eaft, by Queen’s coun¬
ty and Tipperary on the fouth, and by the river Shan¬
non, which feparates it from Galway, on the weft.
King’s evil. See Medicine.
King’s fisher, in ornithology. See Alcedo.
KINGHORN, a town of Scotland, on the coaft of.Fife
nine miles no th of Edinburgh.
KINGSTON,
K N E ( M ) K N I
KINGSTON, a market-town of Surry, (ituated on the
river Thames, twelve miles weft of London.
.Kingston, a port-town of Jamaica, fituated on the
north fide of the bay of Port royal: W. long. 770,
N. lat. 170 32'.
KINROSS^ a town of Scotland, in the fliire of Fife,
fituated on the lake of Loch-Leven, twenty miles north
of Edinburgh.
KINSALE, a port-town of Ireland, in the county of
Cork and province of Munfter, fituated on the river
Bandon, fourteen miles fouth of the city of Cork :
W. long. 8° 20', and N. lat. 51° 32'.
KIOF, or Kiow, the capital of the Ruffian Ukraine,
on the frontiers of Poland : E. long. 30® , and
N. lat. yi°.
KIRK, a Saxon term, fignifying the fame with church.
Kirk Oswald, a market town of Cumberland, twelve
miles fouth of Carlifle
Kirk-sessions, aninfer'orchurch judicatory in Scot¬
land, confifting of the minifters, elders, and deacons
.of a parilh.
It regulates matters relating to public worfhip, ca-
techifing, vifitations, fcc. and judges in cafes of for¬
nication and lefler fcandals
KIRKALDY, a town of Fifefhire, in Scotland, ten
miles north of Edinburgh.
KIRKHAM, a market town of Lancafliire, fixteen miles
fouth of Lancafter.
KIRKUDBRIGHT, a parliament-town of Scotland,
which ranks with Dumfries, Annan, 6"c. fituated on
a bay of the Irilh fea, fixty miles weft of Carlifie:
W. long. 40 5', and N. lat. 54° 38'.
KIRKWALL, the capital of the Orkrtey-iflands, and
fituated in that of Pomona, is aparliament-town, which
claffes with Dingwall, Tain, tic. W. long. 25°, and
N. lat. 59° 45'.
Kitchen-garden, a piece of ground laid out for the
cultivation of fruit, herbs, pulfe, and other vegetables
ufed in the kitchen. See Gardening.
KITE. SeeFALCO.
KNARESBOROUGH, a borough-town in the north
riding of Yorklhire, fifteen miles north of York. It
fends two members to parliament.
KNAVE, in old law-books, an appellation given to a man-
fervant, or even to a male child.
KNAVESHIP, in Scots law, one of the names of the
fmall-duties payable in thirlage to the miller’s fervants,
called fequels. See Scots Law, tit. 16.
KNAUTIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mono-
gynia clafs. The common calix is oblong, Ample,
and contains five flowers; the proper calix is fimple,
and above the fruit; the corollulse are irregular; and
the receptacle is naked. There are two fpecies, none
of them natives of Britain.
KNEE, in anatomy, the articulation of the thigh and
leg-bones. See Anatomy, parti, tic.
Knee, in a (hip, a crooked piece of timber, bent like a
knee, ufed to bind the beams and futtocks together,
by being bolted fall into them both. Thefe are ufed
about all the decks.
£W«£-Knees, in a fhip, thofe timbers which extend
from the (ides to the hatch-way, and bear up the deck
on both fides.
KNIFE, a well-known inftrument, made for cutting.
All forts of knives are prohibited to be imported.
KNIGHT, among the Romans, a perfon of the fecond
degree of nobility, following immediately that of the
fenators.
Part of the ceremony whereby this honour was con¬
ferred, was the giving of an horfe; for each had an
horfe at the public charge, and received the ftipend of
a horfeman, to ferve in the wars. ,
When the knights were taken in among the fena¬
tors, they refigned the privilege of having an horfe
kept for them at the charge of the public : then it be¬
come necefl’ary, in order to be a knight, that they
fliould have a certain revenue, that their poverty mioht
not difgrace the order; and when they failed of the
prefcribed revenue, they were expunged out of the
lift of knights, and thruft down among the Plebeians.
Ten ^ti^oufand crowns is computed to have been the
revenue required.
The knights at length grew fo very powerful, that
they became a balance between the power of the fe-
nate and people: they neglefted the exercifes of war,
and betook themfelves principally to civil employments
. in Rome.
Knight, in a modern fenfe, properly figoifies a perfon,
who, for his virtue and martial prowefs, is by the king
raifed above the rank of gentlemen, into an higher clafs
of dignity and honour.
Knighthood was formerly the firft degree of honour
< in the army, and ufually conferred with' a great deal
of ceremony on thofe who had diftinguilhed them¬
felves by fome notable exploit in arms : the ceremo¬
nies at their creation have been various; the principal
was a box on the ear, and a ftroke with a fword on
the ftioulder; they put on him a flioulder-belt, and a
gilt fword, fpurs, and other military accoutrements ;
after which being armed as a knight, he was led to the
church in great pomp. Camden defcribes the manner
of making a knight-batchelor among us, which is the
loweft, though the moft ancient order of knighthood,
to be thus : the perfon kneeling, was gently ftruck
on the Ihoulder by the prince, and accofted in thefe
words, “ Rife, or be a knight, in the name of God.”
Knight is alfo underftood of a perfon admitted into a-
ny order, either purely military, or military and reli¬
gious, inftituted by fome king or prince, with certain
marks-and tokens of honour and diftinftion, as the
knights of the garter,- knights of the thiftle, knights
of Malta, the knights of the Holy Ghoft, tic.
Knights-errant, a pretended order of chivalry,
much talked of in old romances, being a kind of heroes
that travelled the world in fearch of adventures, re-
dreffing wrongs, refcuing damfels, ’and taking all oc-
cafions of fignalizing their prowefs. This romantic
bravery of the old knights was heretofore the chimera
of the Spaniards.
Knights of the Jhire, or Knights of parliament, in
..the
K N O ( 857 ) K U T
the Brltifn polity, are knights or gentlemen of eftate,
who are ele&ed, on the king’s writ, by the freehold¬
ers of every county, to reprefent them in parliament.'
The qualifications of a knight of the fhire in Eng¬
land, is to bepoflelfed of 6ool./><?r. arm. in a freehold
eftate ; and in Scotland 4001. Scots valued rent, or
. 40 drillings of old extent. Their' expences during
their fitting, were, by a ftatute of Hen. VIII. to be
defrayed by the county; but this is now fcarce ever
required.
Knight-marshal, an officer in the king’s hrtufehold,
who has jurifdi&ion and cognizance of any tranfgreffion
within the king’s houfehold and verge ; as alfo of con¬
trails made there, whereof one of the houfe is party.
Knights, in a ffiip, two thick ffioft pieces of wood^
commonly carved like a man’s head, having four dri¬
vers in each, three for the halyards, and one for the
top-ropes to run in : one of them Hands fad bolted on
the beams abaft the for^maft, and is therefore called
the foreknight; and the other, Handing abaft the
main maH, is called the main knight.
KNOWLEDGE, is defined, by Mr Locke, to be the
perception^ of the connexion and agreement, or difa-
greement and repugnancy, of our ideas.
KONIGSBURG, a city of Poland, the capital of ducal
Prufiia, and of the king of Prufiia’s Pclidt dominions,
fituatedon the river Pregel, near a bay of the Baltic Ha,
feventy miles north-eait of Dantzick: E. long. 210,
and N. lat. 54° 40'.
KORAN, or Alcoran. See Mahometanism.
KOS, in Jewiffi antiquity, a meafure of capacity, con¬
taining about four cubic inches: this was the cup of
bleffing, out of which theydrank when they gave thanks
after folemn meals, like that of the padbver.
KUR, the ancient Cyrus, a river of Perfia, which rifes
in the mountains of Georgia, and running foutEeaH by
Tedis, unites it dreams with the river Arras (the an¬
cient Arraxes) and falls into the Cafpian fea, fouth of
Baku.
KUTUCHTA, among the Calmuc Tartars, the name
of their high-pried, or fovereign pontiff; formerly only
the deputy of the delai-lama, or high-prielt of the
Tartars, but at prefent independent on him.
L-
LAB' LAB
LA, in mufic, the fyllable by which Guido denotes
the lad found of each hexachord: if it begins in C,
it anfwers to our A ; if in G, to E; and if in F,
. toD .
XABARUM, in Roman antiquity, the flandard borne
before the Roman emperors ; being a rich pUrple
dreamer, fupported by a fpear.
LABDANUM, or ladanum, a refin of the fofter kind,
though of too firm a confidence to be ranked among
the fluid ones.
There are two kinds of it kept in the ffiops; one
ufually imported in bladders, to preferve it in its ge¬
nuine foft confidence, and to prevent the evaporation
of its finer parts; another in rolls, much inferior to
the former in purity and virtue.
Labdanum ffiould be chofen foft and moid, of a
drong fmell, pure, very inflantmable, and didufing a
fragrant fmell while burning. It is a refinous juice
which exfudes from a tree of the cidus-kind.
In medicine it is ufed externally, to attenuate and
difcufs tumours; internally, it is more rarely ufed, but
it is greatly extolled by fome againd catarrhs, and in
dyfenteries.
LABEL, in heraldry, a fillet ufually placed in the middle
along the chief of the coat, without touching its ex¬
tremities. Its breadth ought to be a ninth part of the
chief. It is adorned with pendants; and when there
are above three of thefe, the number mud be fpecified
in blazoning.
Tins is a tynd of addition to the arms of a fecond
Vot. II. Numb. 62. 2
brother, to didinguiffi him from the fird, and is edeem-
ed the mod honourable of all differences. See Plate
CII.
LABIAL letters, thofe pronounced chiefly by means
of the lips.
LABIATED flowers, monopetalous flowers, confid¬
ing of a narrow tube, with a wide mouth, divided in¬
to two or more.
LABIAU, a port-town of Pruffia, fituated on a bay of
the Baltic fea, twenty miles north-ead of Konitigfburg:
E. long. 220 15', N. lat. 55°.
LABORATORY or Elaboratory, the chemids
work-houfe, or the place where they perform their ope¬
rations ; where the furnaces are built, their veffels
kept, 'be. and in general, the term laboratory,-is ap¬
plied to any place where phydcal experiments in phar¬
macy, chemidry, pyrotechny, be. are performed.
See Chemistry, p. 108, be.
LABOUR, in general, denotes a clofe application to
work or bufinefs. Among feamen a fhip is faid to be
in labour, when die rolls and tumbles very much, ei¬
ther ahull, under fail, or at anchor.—It isalfo fpeke cf
a woman in travail or child birth. See Midwifery.
LABOURER, generally fignifies one that does the mod
davifli and lefs artful part of a laborious work, as that
of huffiandry, mafonry, be.
LABRADOR, alfo called New-Britain, and Efidmaux,
is a country in North America, bounded by Hudfon’s
Straits and the Atlantic Ocean, on the nc.vth ; by the
fame ocean, on the eaft ; by the river of St. Lawrence
9 O a*d
LAC ( 858
and Canada, on the fouth ; and by Hudfon’s bay, on the
weft: fituated between 590 and 790 ofW. long, and
between 50° and 64° of N. lat.
LABRUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fiflies belonging
to the order of thoracici, the characters of which are
thefe. The teeth are lharp, and the lips are finiple
and very thick; there are fix bony rays in the mem¬
brane of the gills, and the opercula are fcaly. The
rays of the back fin are furnifhed with a thread-like
ramentum behind ; the bread fins are (harp-pointed; and
the lateral line is straight. There are forty 6ne fpecies
of labrus, diftinguifhed by the fhape of the tail, fins,
colour, <bc.
LABURNUM, in botany. SeeCvrisus.
LABYRINTH, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 297.
LAC, milk, among phyficians, <bc. See Milk.
LACCA, or Lac, in natural hiftory, improperly called
gum-lac, a fort of wax of a red colour, colledted in the
Eaft-Indies by certain infeits, and depofited on flicks
faflened for that purpofe in the earth. It is brought
over, either adhering to the flicks, orinfmalltranfparent
grains, or in femi-tranfparent flat cakes : the firflis call¬
ed flick lac, the fecond feed lac, and the third fhell
lac. On breaking a piece of flick lac, it appears com-
pofed of regular cells like the honey-comb, with fmall
corpufcles of a deep red colour lodged in them: thefe
are the young infers, and to thefe the lac owes its tinc¬
ture, for when freed from them its colour is very dilute.
The fhell and feed lacs, which do not exhibit any in¬
fers or cellular appeara&ce upon breaking, are fuppofed
tube artificial preparations of the other: the feed fort
isfaid to be the flick lac bruifed and robbed of its more
foluble parts; and the fhell to be the feed lac, melted
and formed into cakes. The flick lac therefore is the
genuine fort, and ought alone to be employed for me¬
dicinal purpofes. This concrete is of great efleem in
Germany and other countries, for laxity and fponginefs
of the gums, proceeding from cold, or a fcorbutic ha¬
bit: for this ufe the lac is boiled in water, with the
addition of a little alum, which promotes its folution :
or a tinflure is made from it with rectified fpirit. This
tindlure is recommended alfo internally in the floor al¬
bas, and in rheumatic and fcorbutic diforders : it has
a grateful fmell, and a not unpleafant, bitterifh, aflrin-
gent tafle: in the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, a tin&ure
is direfled to be made withfpirit of fcurvy grafs. The
principal ufe of lac among us is in certain mechanic arts
as a colouring drug, and for making fealing wax.
LACE, in commerce, a work compofed of many threads
of gold, filver or filk, interwoven the one with the 0-
ther, and worked upon a pillow with fpindles, accord¬
ing to the pattern defigned. The open work being
formed with pins, which are placed and difplaced as the
fpindles are moved.
The importation of gold and filver lace is prohibi¬
ted.
Hone Lace, a lace made of fine linen thread or filk,
much in the fame manner as that of gold and filver.
The pattern of the lace is fixed upon alarge round pil¬
low, and pins being fluckinto the holes or openings in the
pattern, the ‘ threads are interwoven by means of a
) LAC
number of bobbins made of bone or ivory, each of
whidi contains a fnull quantity of fine thread, in fuch
a manner as to make the lace exadtly refemble the pat¬
tern. There are feveral towns in England, and par¬
ticularly in Buckinghamfhire, that carry on this manu-
faflure; but vail quantities of the finell laces have been
imported from Flanders.
LACEDEMON, the ancient name of Mifithra. See
Misithra.
LACERTA, the lizard, in zoology, a genus of amphi¬
bious animals belonging to the order of reptilia, the
charadlers of which are thefe : The body is naked,
with four feet, and a tail. There are 49 fpecies, viz.
1. The crocodyius, or crocodile, has a comprefled
jagged tail, five toes on the fore-feet, and four on the
hind-feet. This is the largdl animal of the lizard kind.
One that was difleAed at Siam, an account of which
was fent to the Royal Academy at Paris; was eigh¬
teen feet and a half long, of which the tail was no lefs
than five feet and a half, and the head and neck above
two and a half. He was four feet and nine inches in
circumference where thickeft.
The hinder legs, including the tliigh and the paw,
were two feet and two inches long ; the paws, from
the joint to the extremity of the longed claws, were
above nine inches. They were divided into four toes ;
of which three were armed with large claws, the long¬
ed of which was an inch and a half, and feven lines
and a half broad at the root. The fourth toe was
without a nail, and of a conical figure ; but was co¬
vered with a thick fkin like fhagreen leather. 'Thefe
toes were united with membranes like thofe of ducks,
but much thicker.
The fore-legs had the fame parts and conformation
as the arms of a man* both within and without; but
they were fomewhat ihorter than thofe behind. The
hands had five fingers, the two lad of which had no
'nails, and were of a conical figure, like the fourth toe
on the hind paws. The head was long, and had a lit¬
tle rifing at the top ; but the red was flat, and efpeci-
aliy towards the extremity of the jaws. It was-co¬
vered with a fkin, which adhered firmly to the ikull
and to the jaws. The flcull was rough-and unequal in
feveral places; and about the middle of the forehead
there were two bony creds, about two inches high.
They were not quite parallel, but feparated from each
other in proportion as they mounted Upwards.
The eye was very fmall in proportion to the red of
the body, and was fo placed within its orbit, that the
outward part, when ftvut, was only a little above an
inch in length, and run parallel to the opening of the
jaws.
The nofe was. placed in the middle of the upper
jaw, near an inch from its extremity, and was perfectly
round and flat, being two inches in diameter, of a
black, foft, fpungy fubdance, not unlike the nofe of a
dog. The nodrils were in the form of a Greek capital
g , and there were two caruncles which filled and
clofed them very exadlly, and which opened as often
as he breathed through the npfe. The jaws feemed to
fttut one within another by means of feveral apophyfes,
which
LAC ( 859 ) LAC
vLicli proceeded from above downwards, and from be¬
low upwards, there being cavities in the oppofite jaw
to receive them. They had twenty-feven dog-teeth
in the upper jaw, and fifteen in the lower, with feveral
void fpaces between them. They were thick at the
bottom, and (harp at the point ; being all of different
fizes, except ten large hooked ones, fix of which were
in the lower jaw, and four in the upper. The mouth
was fifteen inches in length, and eight and a half in
breadth where broadefl; and the diftance of the two
jaws, when opened as wide as theycould be, was fifteen
inches and a half. The Ikull, between the two crefts,
was proof againft a mufket ball, for it only rendered
the part a little white that it (truck againft.
The colour of the body was of a dark brown on
the upper part, and of a whifilh citron below, with
large fpots of both colours on the Tides. From the
fhoulders to the extremity of the tail he was covered
with large fcales of a fquare form, difpofed like paral¬
lel girdles, and were fifty-two in number ; but thofe
near the tail were not fo thick as the reft. In the mid¬
dle of each girdle there were four protuberances,
which became higher as they aproached the end of
the tail, and compofed four rows, of which the two in
the middle were lower than the remaining two, form¬
ing three channels, which grew deeper the nearer they
came to the tail, and were confounded with each other
about two feet from its extremity.
The (kin was defended with a fort of armour, which,
however, was not proof againft a mulket ball, contrary
to what has been commonly faid. However, it muft
be acknowledged, that the attitude in which it was
placed might contribute not a little thereto ; for pro¬
bably, if the ball had (truck obliquely againft the (hell,
it would have flown off. Thofe parts of the girdles
underneath the belly were, of a whitilh colour, and
were made up of fcales of divers fhapes. They were
about one fixth of ah inch .in thicknefsj and were not fo
hard as thofe on the back.
This creature lays eggs of the fize of thofe of a
goofe, to the number of (ixty; which fne covers over
with fand, and leaves to be hatched by the heat of the
fun. They are to be met with jn the rivers Nile,
Niger, and Ganges, befides moft other large rivers; in.
the fouthern parts of Afia, Africa, and America.
The crocodile is very deftrudtive to the lower peo¬
ple of Upper Egypt,, often devouring women who
come to the river to fetch water, and children playing
on the (hore or fwimming in the river.
2. The caudiverbera, has a deprefted pinnatifid tail,
and palmated feet It is larger than the common
green lizard, is found in Peru, and has got its name
from its beating the ground with its tail. 3. The
dracsera, has a long tail dentated above, afmooth body,
and equal toes. It is a native of America., 4. The
fuperciliofa, has a carinated tail, and the fcales on
the back and eye brows are ciliated. It is a native
of the Indies. 5 The fcu ata, has a fubcomprelfed
tail, and a dentated futpre on the back. It is a native
of Afia. 6. The monitor, has a carinated tail, and
wJute eyedike fpots on.the body. -Itis a native of the
Indies. 7. The principalis, has a carinated tail, a creft-
on the throat, and a fmooth back. It is found in
fouth America. 8. The bicarinata, has a compreffed
tail with a double carina, and a quadruple carina on
the back. It is a native of the Indies. 9. The cor-
dylus has a (hort verticiliated tail, and dentated fcales.
It is found in Africa and Afia. 10. The ftellio, has
a verticiliated tail, and dentated fcales. It is a na¬
tive of Africa, n. The mauritaoica, has a (hort
verticillated tail fmooth at the apex. It is found in
Mauritania. 12. The azurea, has a fhort Verticil¬
iated tail, and (harp pointed fcales. It is a native of
Africa. 13. The turcica, has a verticillated tail, and
a rough grey body. It is a native of the Eaft Indies.
14. The ameiva, has a long verticillated tail, 30(01-
tse on the belly, and a plaited collar. It is a native
of America. 15. The agilis, has a pretty long verti¬
cillated tail, with (harp fcales, and a collar formed by
fcales. This is the common green lizard, and is a
native both of Europe and India. 16. The algira,
has a pretty long verticillated tail, and a yellow line
on each fide of the body. It is found in Mauritania.
17. The feps has a long verticillated tail, with a re-
fledfed lateral future, and fquare fcales. It is a native
of warm climates. 18. The fex-lineata, has a long
verticillated tail, and fix white lines on the back. It
is a native of Carolina. 19. The angalata, has a
long hexagonal tail, and (harp carinated fcales. It is a .
'.native of America.
20. Thechamteleon, has a crooked cylindrical tail.
The head of a large chamseleon is almoft two inches -
long, and from thence to the beginning of the tail it
is four inches and,a half. The tail is five inches long,.
and the feet two and a half. The thicknefs of the
body is different at different feafons; for fometimes
from the back to the belly it is two inches, and
fometimes but one; for he can blow himfelf up and.
enntradt himfelf at pleafure. This fwelling and con-
tradfion is not only of the back, and belly, but of the
legs and tail. v
Tftefe different motions are not like thofe ofother
animals, which proceed from a dilatation of the breaft
in breathing, and which rifes and falls fucceffively ;
but they are very, irregular, as in tortoifes, and frogs.
The chamaeleon has continued as it were blown up for
two hours together, and.then he would grow lefs and
lefs infenfibly; for the dilatation was always more,
quick and vifible than the-contradfion. In this lad
ftate 'he appeared extremely kan, and the fpine of the
back was (harp, and all his ribs might be told; like-
wife the tendons of the arms and legs might be feen,
very diftindtly.
The (kin is very cold to the touch; and, notwithftand -
ing he feems fo lean, there is no feeling the beating of
the heart. The furface of the (kin isunequal, and has
a grain not unlike (hagreen, but very foft, becaufe
each eminence, is as fmooth as if it was polfthed.
Some of. thefe are as large as a middling pin’s head on
the arms, legs, belly, and tail, but on the (boulders and
head they are of an oval figure, and a little larger.
Thofe.underthfc throat are ranged in the forfi; of a chap¬
let,.
LAC ( 8 <£o
-let, from the lower lip to the hreafr. Some "on the
head and back are aniaffed together in clufters, with
fpaces between them, on which are almofl: impercep¬
tible fpots of a pale red and yellow colour; as well as
the ground of the /kin itfelf; which plainly appears
between thefe clufters. This ground changes colour
. when the animal is dead, becoming of a greyi/h brown,
and the fmall fpots are whitiih.
The colour of all thefe eminences, when the chamx-
. Jeon is at reft in a /hady plate, is of a bluifti grey,
except on the claws, where it is white with a little
yellow; and the fpaces between the clufters. is of a pale
red' and yellow, as was before obferved-. But when
he is in the fun, all parts of the body which are affec¬
ted with the light, become of a greyifh brown, or ra¬
ther of a tawny. That part of the Hein which the fun
does not fliine on, changes into feveral brighter co¬
lours, which form fpots of the (ize of half one’s fin¬
ger. Some of thefe defcend from the fpine half way
on the back ; and others appear on the fides. arms,
and tail. They are all of an ifabella colour, from a
mixture of a pale yellow and of a bright red, which
is the colour of the ground of thefkin.
The head ftf a chameleon is not unlike that of a fi/h,
it being joined to the breaft by a very fhort neck, co¬
vered on each fide with cartilaginous membranes re-
fembling the gills of filbes. There is a creft direflly
on the top of the head, and two others on each fide
above the eyes, and between thefe there are two cavities
near the top of the head. The muzzle is blunt, and
not much unlike that of a frog; at the end there is a
hole on each fide for the noftrils, but there are no
ears, nor any fign of any.
The jaws are furnifhed with teeth, or rather with a
bone in the form of teeth, which he makes little or no
ufe of, becaufe he lives upon fwallowing flies and o-
ther infefts, without chewing them. The form, ftruc-
ture, and motion of the eyes, have fomething very
particular; for they are very large, being almoft half
an inch in diameter They are of a globous figure;
which maybe eafily feen, becaufe they ftand out of the
head. They have a lingle eye-lid like a cap, with a
hole in the middle, through which the fight of the eye
appears, which is of a/hining brown, and round it
there is a little circle of a gold colour. This eye-lid
has a grain like Ihagreen, as well as the other parts of
the /kin ; and when the reft of the body changes co¬
lour, and affumes fpots of different (hapes, thofe on
the lid always keep the fame form, though they are
tintfured with the fame colour as the /kin. But the
moft extraordinary thing relating to the eyes is, that
this animal often moves one when the other is en¬
tirely at reft; nay, fometimes one eye will feem to
look direftly .forward, and the: other backward; and
one will look up to the Iky when the other regards the
earth.
That part of the body which is called the trunk,
'and comprehends the thorax and the belly, in a cha-
maeleon is almoft all thonfe with little or no belly.
The four feet are all of a lefl|th ; and the only [diffe¬
rence between them is, that thofe before are turned
} LAC
backwards, and thofe behind forwards. There are
five toes on each paw, which have a greater refemblance
to hands than feat. They are all divided into two,
which gives the appearance of two hands to each arm,
and two feet to each leg ; and though one of thele parts
have three toes, and the other but two, yet they feem
to be ajl of the fame fize. Thefe toes lie together
under‘the fame /kin as in a mitten ; however, their
fnape might be feen through the /kin. With tbefe
paws the chamxleon can lay hold of the fmall branches
of trees in the fame manner as a parrot. When he is
about to perch, he parts his toes different from birds,
becaufe he puts two behind and two before. The
claws are little, crooked, very /harp, and of a pale
yellow, proceeding but halfway out of the fltin, while
the other half is hid beneath it. His walk is flower
than that of a tortoife, and he feems to move along
with an affedlation of gravity. He feems to feek for
a proper place to fet his feet upon; and when he
climbs up trees, he does nottruft to his feet like fijuir-
rels, but endeavours to find out clefts in the bark, that
he may get a furer hold.
His tail is like that of a viper when it is puffed up
and round; for otherwife the bones may' be feen in the
fame manner as on the back. He always wraps his
tail round the branches of trees, and it ferves him as
it were inftead of a fifth hand.
He is a native of Africa and Afia.
21. The gecko, has a cylindrical tail, concave ears,
and a warty body. Itis the Indian falama^der ofBontius.
“ This animal is very frequent in Cairo, (fays Haffel-
quift) both in the houfes^and without them. Thepoifon
of this animal is very Angular, as it exhales from thelobu-
li of the toes. The animal feeks all places and things im¬
pregnated with fea fait, and p, fling over them feveral
times leaves this very noxious poifon behind it. In July
1750,1 faw two women and a girl, in Cairo, at the point
of death, from eating cheefe new failed, bought in the
market, and on which this animal had dropt its poifon.
Once at Cairo, I had an opportunity of obferving how a-
cridthe exhalations of the toes of this animal are, as it
ran over the hand of a man who endeavoured to catch
it; there immediately rofe little puftules over all thofe
parts the animal had touched; tbefe were red, infla¬
med, and finarted a little, greatly refembling thofe oc-
cafioned by the flinging of nettled It emits an odd
found, efpecially in the night, from its throat, notun¬
like that of a frog.” 22. Thefcincus, has a cylindri¬
cal tail, compreffed at the point, and blunt margina-
ted toes. This animal is found in Arabia Petraea near
the Red Sea, and in Upper Egypt near the Nile. It is
much ufed by the inhabitants of the Eaft as an aphrodi-
fiacutn, but not at this time by the Europeans. Thg fle/h
of the animal is given in powder, with fome ftimulating-
vehicle ; broth made of the recent fle/h, is likewife
ufed by the Arabs. It is brought from Upper Egypt
and Arabia to Alexandria, whence it is carried^to
Venice and Marfeilles, and from thence to all the a-
pothecaries /hops of Europe. It has been an error,
common to almoft all authors, to imagine the fcinous
to be a filh. 23. The orbicularis, Jus a -cylindrical
;^rfii'ononn /*r:: ’>>
'a j ru*> ’
LAC ( )
fall, and a roundilh belly. It is a native of Mexico.
24. The <juinque-lineata, has a cylindrical tail, and
five white lines on the back. It is found in Carolina.
25. The bafilifcus, has a long cylindrical tail, a ra¬
diated fin on the back, and a creft on the hind part of
the head. It is a native of South America, 26. The
ignava, has a long cylindrical tail, a teethed ridge on
the back, and a creft on the throat. It is a native
of the Indies. 27. The calotes, has a. long cylindri¬
cal tail, with the fore-part of the back and hind-part
of the head teethed. It is a native of Ceylon. 28.
The agam has a long cylindrical tail, with prickles
on the neck and hind part of the head. It is a native
Xjf America. 29. The umbra, has a long cylindrical
tail, a callous creft on the nape of the neck, and a
ftreaked back. It is a native of fouthern climates.
30. The plica, has a long cylindrical tail, a callous creft
LAM
LACHNiEA, in botany, a genus of the oflandria mo-
nogynia clafs. It has no calix ; the corolla is divided
into four fegments ; the limbus is unequal; and the
fruit,, which is a kind of berry, contains but one feed;
There are two fpecies, both natives of warm cli¬
mates.
LACHRYMAL, in anatomy, an appellation given
to feveral parts of the eye. See Anatomy, p. 289.
LACHRYMATORY, in antiquity, a veflel wherein
were collefted the tears of a deceafed perfon’s friends,
and preferved along with the aftres and urn.
LACTEAL vessels, in anatomy. SeeANAT. p. 263^
LACTIFEROUS, an appellation given to plants a-
bounding with a milky juice, as the fow-thillle, and
the like.
LACTUCA, lettuce, in botany. See Lettuce.
LACUNA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 27.5, 276,.
on the hind head, and a warty neck.' It is a native of LACUNAR, in architedture, an arched roof or ceiling.
the Indies. 31. The marmorata, has along cylindri¬
cal tail, a fmooth back, and a fmall teethed creft on
the throat. It is a native of Spain. 32'. The bullaris,
has a long cylindrical tad, and a bladder on the throat,
which it blows up when enraged. It is a native of Ja¬
maica. 33. The ftrumofa has a long cylindrical tail,
and a gibbous breaft. It is found in. South America.
34. The tequifein, has a long cylindrical tailr and a
plaited future on the fide. It is a native of the Indies.
35. The aurata, has a cylindrical tail, and round Ihi-
ning fealeshke gold. It is found in the iflands of Cy¬
prus and Jerfey. 36. The nilotica, has a long tail
with a triangular edge, and four lines of feales on the
back. It is a native of Egypt. 37. The pundlata,
has a long cylindrical tail, two yellow lines on the
back, and is interfperfed with black points. It is found
in Afia. 38. The lemnifeata, has a long cylindrical
tail, and 8 white lines on the back. It is found in
Guinea. 39. The fafeiata, has a blue cylindrical tail,-
and five yellow lines on the back. It is a native of
Carolina. 40. The chalcides, has a long cylindrical
tail, and very Ihort legs, with five toes on the feet.
It is a native of Europe and-Africa. 41. The vul¬
garis has a cylindrical tail, four toes on the fore feet,
and two dufity coloured lines on th@ back. It is a na¬
tive of Europe. 42. The aquatica, has a tail fome-
what cylindrical, and four toes oh the fore-feet. It
lives in the frelh waters, pools, ebc. of Europe. 43,
The paluftris, has a lanceolated tail, and four toes on.
the fore-feet. It inhabits the ftagnaru waters of Eu:
rope. 44. The pundtata, has a cylindrical tail, four
more efpecially the planking or flooring above porticos
and piazzas.
LADENBURG, a town of Germany, fituated on the
river Neckar, eighty miles north weft of Hetdelburg.
LADRONE islands, are fituated in the Pacific O-
cean, between 12° and 28° of N. lat. and about 140°
E long.
LADY’s bedstraw. See Gallium.
Lady’s mantle. See Alchimilla.
Laly’s smock. See Cardamine.
Lady’s slipper.. See Cypripedium.
Lady’s traces. SccOphrys
Lady day, in law, the 2Sth of March, being the
annunciation of the holy virgin. See Annunciation^
LAGOECIA, round-headed cummin, in botany,,
a genus of the pentandria monogynia clafs. It has
both an univerfal and partial involucrum ; the petals
s are bifid; and the feed is folitary. There is but one
fpecies, a native of Crete.
LAG.OPUS, in ornithology. SeeTETRAo.
LAGOS,, a port-town of Portugal, in the province of
Algarva : W. long. 90 27',-N. lat. 36° 45'’.
LAGURUS, in botany, a genus of the triandria digynia
clafs. The calix has a double valve, with a villous
aun, and the exterior petal has two auns at the end.
There are two fpecies, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
LAHOLM, a port-town of Gothland, in Sweden, fixty
miles north of Copenhagen.
LAHOR, the capital of a province of the fame name in
the hither India : E. long 75° and N. lat. 330.
toes on the fore-feet, and longitudinal rows of white LAKE, a colledtion of waters contained in fome cavity
fpots on the back. It is a native of Carolina. 45
The quatuor-lineata, has- a long cylindrical tail, four
toes on the fore-feet, and four yellow lines on the
back. It is a native of North America. 46. The
falamandra, has a Ihort cylindrical tail, foui*-toes on
the fore feet, and a naked porous body. This animal,
is vulgarly faid to live in fire; but it is found to be a.
.miftake. It is found in the fouthern countries of Eu¬
rope. 47. The aoguina, has a very long vertieillated
tail, extremely rigid at the point. It is found at the
Cape of Good-hope.
See Plate CII.
You. u; No. 62. X
an inland place, of a large extent, furrounded
with land, and having no communication with the
ocean.
LAMA, the fovereignpontifF, or rather god of the Afiatic
Tartars, inhabiting the country of Barantola, The
lama is not only adored by the inhabitants of the coun¬
try', but a!fo by the kings of Tartary, who fend him
rich prefents, and go in pilgrimage to pay him adora¬
tion, calling him lama congiu, i. e. god the everlaft-
ing father of heaven. He is never to be feen but in
a fecret place of his palace, amidft a great number of
lamps, fitting crofs-legged upon a culhion, and adorned
9.- H all-
LAM ( 862 ) LAN
^1! over with gold and precious Hones ; where, at a
diltance, they proftrate themfelves before him, it not
being lawful for any to kifs even his feet. He is cal¬
led the great lama, or lama of lamas, that is, prieft of
priefts. And to perfuade the people that he is immor¬
tal, the inferior priells, when he dies, fubflitute a-
tiother in his Head, and fo continue the cheat from ge¬
neration to generation. Thefe priefts perfuade the
people, that the lama was raifed from death many
hundred years ago, that he has lived ever fince, and
will continue to live for ever.
LAMB, in zoology, the young of the fheep kind. See
Ovis.
LAMBOIDES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.152.
LAMELLAE, in natural hiftory, denotes very thin plates,
fuch as the fcales of fifties are conipofed of.
LAMENTATIONS, a canonical book of the Old Te-
ftament, written by the prophet Jeremiah. The two
iirft chapters of this book are employed in defcribing
the calamities of the fiege of Jerufalem. In the third,
the author deplores the perfecutions he himfelf had
fufFered. The fourth turns upon the defolation of the
city and temple, and the misfortune of Zedekiah.
The fifth chapter is a prayer for the Jews in their dif-
perfion and captivity ; and at the end of all, he fpeaks
of the cruelty of the Edomites, who had infulted Je¬
rufalem in her mifery. The firft four chapters of the
lamentations are an abcedary, every verfe or couplet
beginning with one of the letters of the Hebrew alpha¬
bet, in the alphabetical order.
LAMINiE, in phyfiology, the thin plates whereof many
fubftances confift.
LAMIUM, dead-nettle, in botany, a genus of the
didynamia gymnofpermia clafs. The fuperior labium
is entire and vaulted ; the inferior one confifts of two
lobes ; in the margin of the faux on each fide there
is a remarkable tooth. There are eight fpecies, three
of them natives of Britain, viz. the album, or white
dead-nettle ; the rubrum, or red dead nettle ; and the
amplexicaule, or great henbit.
LAMMAS-day, a feftival celebrated on the firft of
Auguft by the Romifti church, in memory of St. Peter’s
imprifonment.
LAMP, a vefiel containing oil, with a lighted wick.
Dr. St. Clair, in Phil. Tranf. n° 245, gives the
defcription of an improvement upon the common lamp.
He propofes that it fhould be made two or three inches
deep, with a pipe coming from the bottom almoft as
high as the top of the veflel : let it be 'filled fo high
with water as to cover the hole of the pipe at the bot¬
tom, that the oil may not get in at the pipe, and fo be
loft. Then let the oil be poured in, fo as to fill the
veffel almoft brim full, which muft have a cover pier¬
ced with as many holes as there are wicks defigned.
When the veflel is thus filled, and the wicks are light¬
ed, if water falls in by drops at the pipe, it will al¬
ways keep the oil at the fame height, or very near ;
the weight of the water being to that of the oil as 20
t?, to 19, which in two or three inches makes no great
difference. If the water runs fafter than the oil waftes,
it will only run over at the top of the pipe, and what
does not run over will come under the oil, and keep it
at the fame height.
LAMPAS, in farriery. See Farriery, p. 557.
LAMPREY. See Petromyzon.
LAMPSACUS, a port-town of the leffer Afia, at the
entrance of the Propontis, oppofite to Gallipoli, fitu-
ated eighty miles fouth-weft of Conftantinople: E.
long. 28°, N. lat. 40° 12^
LANCASTER, the county-town of Lancafhire : W.
long. 20 44', N. lat. 540. It fends two members to
parliament.
LANCEOLATED leaf. See Botany, p. 639.
LANCET, a chirurgical inftrument, fharp-pointed, and
two-edged, chiefly ufed for opening veins in the ope¬
ration of phlebotomy, or bleeding; alfo for laying open
abfceffes, tumors, <&c.
LANCHANG, the capital of the kingdom of Laos, in
the further India : E. long. ioi°, N. lat. 20°.
LAND, in a limited fenfe, denotes arable ground. See
Agriculture.
Land, in the fea-language, makes part of fevcral com¬
pound terms ; thus land-laid, or to lay the land, is
juft to lofe fight of it. Land-locked, is when land lies
all round the fliip, fo that no point of the compafs is
open to the fea ; if file is at anchor in fuch a place,
flie is faid to ride land-locked, and is therefore con¬
cluded to ride fafe from the violence of winds and tides.
Land mark, any mountain, rock, fteeple, tree, fac.
that may ferve to make the land known at fea. Land
is Jhut in, a term ufed to fignify that another point of
land hinders the fight of that the ftiip came from.
Land to, or the fhip lies land to; that is, flie is fo far
from fhore that it can only be juft difcerned. Land
turn, is a wind that in almoft all hot countries blows at
■certain times from the ftiore in the night. To Jet the
land, that is, to fee by the compafs how it bears.
LANDAFF, a city and bilhop’s fee of Glamorganfliire,
in fouth Wales, twenty-fix miles north weft of Briftol:
W. long. 30 20, N. lat. yi0 33'.
LANDAU, a city of Germany, in the circle of the Up¬
per Rhine, and landgraviate of Alface, fituated fifteen
miles fouth-weft of Spire: E. long. 8°, N. lat. 49°
12'.
LANDEN, a fmall town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
in the province of Brabant, eighteen miles fouth eaft
of Louvain, and twenty miles north of Namur.
LANDGRAVE, the German name for a count or earl,
that has the government of a province, country, or
large trad of land.
LANDGRAVIATE, or landgravate, the office,
authority, jurifdidHon, or teritory of a landgrave.
LANDRECY, a town of the French Netherlands, in
the province of Hainault : E. long. 30 25', N. lat,
50° 5'.
LANDSCROON, a port-town of Sweden, in the pro¬
vince of Gothland, and territory of Schonen, fituated
on the Baltic fea, within the Sound: E. long. 140
20', N. lat. 55? 42'.
LANDSHUT, a city of Germany, and the capital of
Lower Bavaria, fttuated forty miles north eaft of Mu¬
nich : E, long, li0 6', N. lat. 4803o'.
LANDSKIP,
LAN ( 863 ) LAN
LANDSKIP, or Landscape, in painting, tire view or
profped of a country, extended as far as the eye will
reach.
Landlkips are efteemed one of the loweft branches
of painting, reprefenting lome rural fcene, as hills.,
valleys, rivers, country-houfes, be. where human
figures are only introduced as accidents.
LANDSPER.G, the name of two towns in Germany ;
one fituated on the river Warta, thirty-two miles north •
eaft of Frankfort upon the Oder ; and the other
in Bavaria, twenty three miles fouth of Auglburg.
LANERK, a parliament town of Scotland, fituated
on the river Clyde,- twenty miles fouth-eaft of Glaf-
gow.
LANGREL shot, at fea, that confifting of two bars
of iron, joined by a chain or ftiackle, and having half
. a ball of iron fixed on each end ; by means of which
apparatus, it does great execution among the enemy’s
rigging-
LANGRES, a great city of Champaign, the bilhop of
which is one of the twelve peers of France : E. long.
50 22 , and N. lat. 48°.
LANGUAGE, in the moft genera} meaning of the word,
fignifies any found uttered by an animal, by which it
exprefles any of its paffions, fenfations, or affedlions ;
but it is more particularly underftood to denote thofe
various modifications of the human voice, by which the
feveral fenfations and ideas of one man are communi¬
cated to another.
Nature has endowed every animal with powers fuf-
ficient to communicate to others of the fame fpecies
feme of its fenlations and defires. The organs of
moft animals are fo formed, as readily to perceive and
underftand (as far as is neceflary for their particular
fpecies of exiftence) the voice of thofe of their own
kind ; by means of which they aflemble together, for
the defence or prefervation of the fpecies. But as
they rife higher in the order ofintelleftual powers, the
powers of expreflion likewife increafe. However, the
voice alone, even when endowed with a great extent of
modulation, is incapable of conveying all that variety
of emotions and fenfations, which on many occafions
are necfflary to be communicated. In all thefe cafes,
motion and gefture are called in tofupply the deferis of
the voice; The amorous pigeon does not truft folely
to his plaintive cooing in order to foften the rigour
of his relu&ant mate, but adds to it the moft fubmif-
five and expreffive geftures ; and the faithful dog, find¬
ing his voice alone infufficient to exprefs his joy at
■meeting with his-mafter, is obliged to have recourfe
to a variety of endearing addons. But man—the
moft diftinguilhed of all the animal creation,—although
endowediwith a power of voice and expreflion of counte¬
nance and gefture eminently fuperior to all the crea¬
tures of God, finds that all thefe united are notfuffi-
cient to exprefs the infinite variety of ideas with which
his mind is ftored : for although thefe may powerfully
exprefs the paflions and ftronger feelings of the mind,;
■yet as they are incapable of exprefling the feveral pro-
greflive fteps of perception by whiclniis reafon afeends
from one degree of knowledge' to another, he has
been obliged to difeover, by means of his reafoning
' faculty, a method of expreffing with certainty, and
communicating with the utmoft facility, every percep¬
tion of his mind.—With this view, having obferved, that
befides the power of uttering fimple founds, and the fe¬
veral variations of thefe into acute or grave, open or
ftirill, be. by which his ftronger feelings were naturally
exprefled, he was likewife endowed with a power of flop¬
ping or interrupting thefe founds, by certain clofings of
of the lips with one another, and of the tongue with the
palate, be. he has taken advantage of thefe circumftances,
and formed untohimfelf a language capable of exprefling
every perception of the mind ; for by affixing at all times
the fame idea to any one found or combination of founds
thus modified and joined together, he is enabled at any
time to excite in the mind of any other perfcn an idea
fimilar to that in his own mind, provided the other perfoh
has been previoufly fo far inftrudted as to know the par¬
ticular modification of found which has been agreed upon
as the Jymbal of that idea.—Thus man is endowed with
two different fpecies of language: one ccnfifting of tones
and geftures; which as it is natural to man conlidered as
a diftinft fpecies of animals, and neceffary for the prefer¬
vation and well-being of the whole, is univerfally under¬
ftood by all mankind : thus laughter and mirth univerfally
exprefs chearfulnefs of mind; while tears, in every part
of the globe, difeover a heart overflowing with tender
fenfations; and the humble tone of fupplication, or the
acute accent of pain, are equally underftood by the Hu-
rons of America, and by the more refined inhabitants of
Europe, The other fpecies of language, as it is entirely
artificial, and derives its power from particular compadt,
(for before any thing can be recognifed as the fymbol of
an idea, feveral perfons muft firft agree that fuch an idea
muft always be denoted by this fymbol,) muft be
different in different parts of the globe; and every diftindl
form which it may affume, from the different genius of
every fodety who originally formed a particular language
for themfelves, will be altogether unintelligible to every
other body of men, but thofe belonging to the fame fociety
where that language was originally invented, or thofe who
have been at pains to acquire a knowledge of it by means
of ftudy.
It is unneceffary for us here .to draw any parallel be¬
tween the nature of thefe two different fpecies of language ;
it being fufficiently evident, that the artificial language
does not debar the ufe of the tones and geftures of the
natural, but tends to afeertain the meaning of thefe with
greater precifion, and confequently to give them greater
power. Man muft therefore reap many advantages from
the ufe of artificial language, which he could not have en¬
joyed without it. It is equally plain, that the one, being
natural and infpired, muft remain nearly the fame, with¬
out making any progrefs to perfedtion ; whereas the other,
being entirely the inventiomof man, muft have been ex¬
ceedingly rude and imperfedt at firft, and muft have ar¬
rived by flow degrees at greater and greater perfedtion, as
the reafoning faculties acquired vigour and acutenefs.
It muft likewife be fubjedt to perpetual changes, from
that variety of incidents which affect all fublunary things:
and
LAN ( 864 ) LAN
and thefe changes muft always correfpond with the change
of circumftances in the people who make ufe of that par¬
ticular language : for when any particular fet of ideas be¬
come prevalent among any focietyof men, words muft be
adopted to exprefs tbem ; and from thefe the language mull
alfume its charaifler. Hence the reafon why the language
of all barbarous and uncivilized people is rude and uncul¬
tivated ; while thofe nations which have improved their
reafoning faculties, and made fome progrefs in the po¬
lite arts, have been no lefs diftinguilhed by the fuperiority
of their language than by their pre-eminence in other re-
fpe&s.—-The language of a brave and martial people is
bold and nervous, although perhaps rude and uncultivated;
while the language of thofe nations in which luxury and
effeminancy prevail, is flowing and harmonious, but de¬
void of force and energy of exprellion.
It may be confidered as a general rule, that the
language of any nation is an exa6t index of the ftate
of their minds, But as man is naturally an imitative ani¬
mal, and iiv matters of this kind never has recourfe to
invention, but through neceffity ; if by fome accident any
part of a nation (hould be feparated from that commu¬
nity to which they belonged, after a language had been
invented, they would retain the fame general founds and
idiom of language with thofe frofti whom they were fe¬
parated ; although in procefs of time thefe two people,
by living in countries of a diflimilar nature, or being en¬
gaged in different occupations, and leading a different
manner of life, might in time lofe all knowledge of one
another, a (fume a different national charadter and oppo¬
site difpofitions of mind, and form each of them a dif-
tindt language to themfelves, totally different in genius
and ftyle, though agreeing with one another in the fun¬
damental founds and general idiom : fb that if this par¬
ticular idiom, formed before their reparation, fhould hap¬
pen to be more peculiarly adapted to the genius of one
of thefe people than the other, that particular people
whofe natural genius and flyle of language was not in con¬
cord with the idiom which they had adopted, would la¬
bour under an inconvenience on this account which they
never would be able entirely to overcome; and this in¬
convenience would prevent their language from attaining
fuch a degree of perfection, as the genius of the people
would otherwife naturally have led them to. Thus lan¬
guages have been originally formed ; and thus that happy
concord of circumftances which have concurred to raife
fome languages to that height of perfection which they
have attained may be eafily accounted for, while many
ineffectual efforts have been made to raife other languages
to the fame degree of excellence.
We fhall not here enter upon any fruitlefs inquiries,
with a view to difcover if only one language was original¬
ly formed, or if any language that we are acquainted
with has a greater claim to that much envied pre-emi
nence than others. We have feen, that thedifeovery of
language is entirely within our reach, and evidently the
invention of man; and therefore that the invention of
different languages by different focieties, is extremely
probable. But thefe different focieties, in procefs of
time, behoved to intermix by war or commerce, and
their different languages would likewife become mixed.
Hence during the fucceffion of many ages, while the
principles of language were not underltood, many diffe¬
rent languages muflhave been formed, while others may
have funk into oblivion, efpecially in thofe early ages be¬
fore the invention of letters, which alone could preferve
their memory. In vain, therefore, would we endeavour
to difcover the ftate of thofe nations or languages of
which we have but obfcure traces in hiftory. Indeed we
have nd reafon to lament our lofs in this particular; for
fuppofingfuch adifcovery could be made, we could derive
little advantage from it. The antiquity of a language
does not imply any degree of excellence: fome nations
have made more progrefs in improving their mental fa¬
culties, and refining their language, in a few years, than
others have done in many ages. We fhall therefore leave
this fubjeCt, and proceed to make fome remarks on the
advantages or defeCts of fome of thofe idioms of lan¬
guage with 'which we are moft intimately acquainted, as
this may perhaps lead us to fome difcoveries of real uti¬
lity to ourfelves.
As the words idiom and genius of a language are
often confounded, it will be neceffary to inform the rea¬
der, that by idiom we would here be underflood to mean
that general mode of arranging'words into fentencesiuhich
prevails in any particular language', and by the genius
of a language we mean to exprefs the particular fet of
ideas 'which the •words of any language, either from
their formation or multiplicity, are mojl naturally apt
to excite in the mind of any one who hears it properly
uttered. Thus although the Englijh, French, Italian,
and Spanijh languages , nearly agree in the fame general
idiom; yet the particular genius of pach is remark¬
ably different : The Englijh is naturally bold nervous,
and ftrongly articulated; the French is weaker, and
more flowing ; the Italian more foothing and harmonius ;
and the Spanijh more grave, fonorous, and flately.
Now, when we examine the feveral languages which have
been moft efleemed in Europe, we find that there are
only two diftincft idioms among them which are effen-
tially diftinguifhed from one another ; and all thefe lan¬
guages are divided between thefe two idioms, following.
fometimes the one, and fometimes the other, either
wholly or in part. The languages which may be faid to.
adhere to the firft idiom, ate thofe which in their Con-
flruAion follow the order of nature; that is, exprefs
their ideas in the natural oj-der in which they occur to
the mind ; the fubjeft which occafions the affion appear¬
ing firft ; then the a<Sion, accompanied with its feveral
modifications ; and, laft of all, the objeft to which it
has reference.—Thefe may be properly called analo¬
gous languages; and of this kind are the Englifh,
French, and moft of the modern languages in Europe —
The languages which may be referred to the other 1-
moM, are thofe which follow no other order in their con-
ftrudlion than what the tafte or fancy of the compofer may
fuggeft; fometimes makingtheobjedi, fometimes theadfion,
and fometimes the modification of the adlion, to precede
or follow the other parts. The confufion which this might
occafibn is avoided by the particular manner of ivfleliing
their words, by which they are made to refer to the
others with, which they ought to be conne&ed, in what¬
ever.
LAN ( &55 ) LAN
ever part of the femence they ©coir, the mind being left
at liberty to conne<S the feveral parts with one another
after the whole fentence is concluded. And as the words
maybe here tranfpofed at pleafure, thofe languages may
be called tkanspositive iang-uages. To this ciafewe
muft, in an efpecial manner, refer the Latin and Greek
languages.—As each of tl.efe idioms has feveral advan¬
tages and defeats peculiar to itfelf, we ihall endeavour to
point out the molt cotdiderabk of them, in order to af-
certain with greater precifion the particular charadter and
excellence of feme of thofe languages,now principally
fpoken or ftudied in Europe.
The partiality which our forefathers, at the revival of
letters in Europe, naturally entertained for the Greek
and Homan languages, made them look upon every dr-
ftinguifhing peculiarity belonging to them, as ore of the
many caxifcs of the amazing luperiority which thefe lan¬
guages evidently enjoyed above every- other at that time
fpoken in Europe.^—This blind deference IliH continues
to be paid to them, as our minds are early prepoffeffed
with thefe ideas, and as we are taught in our earlieft in¬
fancy to believe, that to entertain the Jeaft idea of our
own language being- equal to the Greek or Latin in any
particular whatever, would be a certain mark of ignorance
or want of tafte.—Their rights, therefore, like thofe of
the church in former ages, remain ftill to be examined;
and we, without exerting our reafon to difcover -truth
from faifehood, tamely fit down fatisfied with the idea
of their undoubted pre-eminence in every refpedt.—But
if we look around us for a moment, and obferve the ma¬
ny excellent produdtions which are to be met with in al-
mo(l every language of Europe, we mull be fatisfied, that
even thefe are now pofleffed of feme powers which might
afford at leaft a prefumption, that, if they were culti¬
vated with a proper degree of attention, they might, in
fame refpetts, be made to rival, if not to excel, thofe
beautiful, and juftly admired remains of antiquity.—
Without endeavouring to derogate from their merit, let
us, with the cool eye of philofophic reafoning, endeavour
to bring before the facred tribunal of Truth fome of thofe
opinions which have been moft generally received upon
this fubjedt, and reft the determination of the caufe on
her impartial decifion.
The learned reader well knows, that the feveral changes
which take place in the arrangement of the words in every
transpositive language could not be admitted with¬
out occafioning great confufion, unlefs certain claffes of
words were endowed with particular variations, by means
of which they might be made to refer to the other words
with which they ought naturally to be connedted.—From
this caufe proceeds the neceflity of feverai variations of
verbs, nouns, and adjectives; which are notin the leaft
effential or neceffary in the analogous languages, as
we have pretty fully explained under the article Gram¬
mar, to which we refer for fatisfadlion on this head.
We (hall in this place confider, whether thefe variations
are an advantage or a difadvantage to language.
As it is generally fuppofed, that every language whofe
verbs admit of infefiion, is on that account much more
perfedt than one where they are varied by auxiliaries ;
we Ihall, in the firft place, examine this with foiiie degree
Vol. II. Numb. 63. 2
of attention; and that what is faid on this head may
be the more intelligible, we fhall give examples from the
Latin and Englilh languages. We make choice of thele
’ languages, becaufe the Latin is more purely tranfpofitive
than the Greek, and the Englifti admits of lefs inflect}ion
than any other language that we are acquainted with.
If any preference be due to a language from the one or
the other method of conjugating verbs, it mufl in a great
meafure be owing to one or more of thefe three caufes:
—Either it muft admit of a greater variety of founds,
and confequently more room for harmonious diverfity of
tones in the language ;—or a greater freedom ofexpref-
fion is allowed in utering any fimpie idea, by the one admit¬
ting of a greater variety in the arrangement of the words
which are neceffary to exprefs that idea than the other
does;—or, laftly, a greater preafion and accuracy in
fixing the meaning of the perfon who ufes the language,
arife from the ufeofone of thefe forms above the other!
—for, as every other circumftance which may ferve to
give a diverfity to language, fuch as the general and moft
prevalent founds, the frequent repetition of any one
particular letter, and a variety of other circumftances of
that nature, which may ferve to debafe a particular lan¬
guage, are not influenced in the leaft by the different
methods of varying the verbs, they cannot be here con-
fidered. We {hall therefore proceed to make a cotnpari-
fonof the advantages or difadvantages which may accrue
to a language by inflefting their verbs, with regard to each
of thefe particulars.
The firjl particular that we have to examine, is, Whe¬
ther the one method of exprefling the variations of a verb
admits of a greater variety of founds.—In this refpeQ:
the Latin feems, at firft view, to have a great advantage
over the Engliflji for the word amo, amabam, atnave-
ram, amavero, amem, See, foem to be more different
from one another than the Englifti tranflations of thefe,
I love, / did love, I had loved, 1 Jball have loved, /
may love, 8cc, for, although the fyllable am is repeated
in every one of the firft, yet as the laft fyllable ufually
ftrikes the ear with greater force, and leaves a greater
impreflien than the firft, it is very probable that many
will think the frequent repetition of the word love will,
in the laft inftance, appear more linking to the ear than
the other: we will therefore allow this its full weight,
and grant that there is as great, or even a greater diffe¬
rence between the founds of the different tenfes of a La¬
tin verb, than there is between the words that are equi¬
valent to them in Englifti.—But as we here confider the
variety of founds of the language in general, before any
juft conclufion can be drawn, we muft not only compare
the different parts of the fame verb, but alfo compare the
different verbs with one another in each of thefe langua¬
ges.—And here, at firft view, we perceive a moft lin¬
king diftirxftion in favours of the analogous language over
the infictled: for as it would be impolfible to form a par¬
ticular fet of infie&ions different from one another for
each particular verb, all thofe languages which have ad¬
opted this method have been obliged to reduce their
verbs into a fmall number of clafles ; all the words of
each of which claffes, commonly czWed conjugations, have
the feveral variations of the modes, tenfes, and perfons,
9 I exprefled
LAN (
«xpre!Ted exaftiy in the fame manner, which muft of ne-
ceffity introduce a fimilarity of founds into the language
in general, much greater than where every particularverb
always retains its own diftinguifhing found.—To be con¬
vinced of this, we need only repeat any number of verbs
in Latin and Englilh, and obferve one which fide the
preference with refpett to variety of founds muft fall.
Pono,
Dono,
Cano,
Sono,
Orno,
Pugno,
Lego,
Scribo,
Puto,
Vivo,
Ambulo,
Loqueo,
I put.
1 give.
1fing'
1 found.
1 adorn.
1 fgb*-
1 read.
1 write.
1 think.
1 live.
I walk.
Ifpeak.
Moveo,
Doleo,
Lugeo,
Obeo,
Gaudeo,
Incipio,
Faoeo,
Fodio,
Odio,
Rideo,
Impleo,
Abftineo,
1 move.
I a il.
1 mourn.
I die.
I rejoice.
I begin.
I make.
J dig.
I hate.
I laugh.
I fill.
I forbear.
$66 )
Obie-bam ;
Gaudie-bam;
loci pie bam;
Facie-bam ;
Fodie-bam ;
Odie bam ;
Ride bam ;
Imple-bam ;
Abftinie-bam
The fimilarity of founds is here fo obvious in the Latin
as to be perceived at the firft glance: nor can we be fur-
prifed to find it fo, when we confider, that all their re¬
gular verbs, amounting to four thoufand or upwards,
muft all be reduced to four conjugations, and even thefe
differing but little from one another, which muft of ne-
ceffity produce the famenefs of founds which we here
perceive ; whereas every language that follows the natu¬
ral order, like the Englifh, inftead of Uiefe fmall number
of uniform terminations, have almoft as many diftindt
founds as original verbs in their language.
But if, inftead of the prefent of the indicative mood,
we fhould take almoft any other tenfe of the Latin verb,
the fimilarity of founds would be ftill more perceptible,
as many of thefe tenfes have the fame termination in all
the four conjugations, particularly in the imperfeft of the
indicative, as below.
Pona bam ;
Dona-bam ;
Cane-bam.;
Sona-bam;
Orna-bam.;
Pugna-bam;
Lege-bam ;
Scribe-bam js
Puta bam ;
Vive bam;
Ambula bam
Loque-bam;
Move bam ;
Dole-bam ;
Luge-bam;
1 did put,
J did give,
1 did fing,
1 did found,
J did adorn,
1 did fight,
I did read,
I did write,
I did think,
1 did live,
I did walk,
I did fpeak,
I did move,
I did ail,
I did mourn,
1 put.
I gave.
Ifung.
I founded.
I adorned.
1 fought.
I read.
I wrote.
1 thought.
I lived.
I walked.
I fpoke.
I moved.
I ailed.
I mourned.
L A
/ did die,
I did rejoice,
I did begin,
I did make,
/ did dig,
/ did hate,
I did laugh,
I did fill,
I did forbear,
N
I died.
1 rejoiced.
I began.
I made.
/ dug.
I hated.
I laughed.
I filled.
Iforbore.
It is unneceffary to make any remarks on the Latin
words in this example: but in the Englifh tranflation we
have carefully marked, in the firft column, the words
without any infledion ; and, in the fecund, have put
down the fame meaning by an infiedion of our verb ;
which we have been enabled to do, from a peculiar ex¬
cellency in our own language unknown to any other, ei¬
ther ancient or modern.—Were it neceffary to purfue
this fubjed farther, we might obferve, that the perfect
tenfe in all the conjugations ends univerfally in /, the
pluperfect in eram, the future \n am or bo; in the
fubjundive mood, the univerfally in rem, the
perfect in erim, and the pluperfeCl in issem and ero:
and as a ftill greater famenefs is obfervable in the different
variations for the perfons in thefe tenfes, feeing the firft
perfon plural in all tenfes ends in mus, and the fecond
perfon in tis, with little variation in the other perfons;
it is evident, that, in refped of diverfity of founds, this
method of conjugating verbs by inflection, is greatly in¬
ferior to the more natural method of exprefling the va¬
rious connedions and relations of the verbal attributive
by different words, ufually called auxiliaries.
The fecond particular by which the different methods
of marking the relation of the verbal attributive can.
affed language, arifes from the variety of expreffions,
which either of thefe may admit of in uttering the fame
fentiment.—In this refped likewife the method of conju¬
gating by infledion feems to be deficient. Thus the pre¬
fent of the indicative mood in Latin can at moft be ex-
preffed only in two ways, viz. scribo, and ego scr*-
bo ; which ought perhaps in (Iridnefs to be admitted
only as one : whereas, in Englifh, we can vary it in four
different ways, viz. \fl, I write ; idly, I do write.;
^dly. Write I do; e[thly, Write do 1#. And if
we confider the further variation which thefe receive
in power as well as in found, by having the accent placed
on the different words ; inftead of four, we will .find
eleven different variations : thus, \ft,\ write, with the
emphafis upon the I; —idly, / write, with the enj-
phafis upon the wmrd write. Let any o.ne pronounce
thefe with the different accent neceffary, and he will be
immediately fatisfied that they are not iM)ly diftind:
from each other with refped to meaning, hut alfo with
regard
* We are fuffciently aware, that the laft variation cannot in ftridnefs be confidered as good, languagealthough many
examples of this manner of ufmg it in ferious compofitions, both in poetry and profe, might be eafily produced from the
beft authors in the Engliili language.—But however unjuftifiable it may be to ufe it in ferious compofition; yet, when
judicioufly employed'in works of humour, this and other forced expreffions of the like nature produce a fine effect, by giving
a burlefque air to the language, and beautifully contrafting it to the purer didion of folid reafoning. _ The fagacious
Shakefpeare ha-, on many occafions, file wed how fuccefsfully thefe may be employed in compofition, particularly in draw¬
ing the charader of ancient Piflol, in Henry V. Without this liberty, Butler would have found greater difficulty.in draw¬
ing the inimitable charafter of Hudibras.- -Let this apology fuffice for our having inferted this and other variations of tjie
feme kind; which, although they may be often improper for ferious compofition, have ftill their ule in language
LAN
regard to found ; and the fame muft be underflood of all
the other parts of this example.
3. I write, 8. Write / do,
4. / do write, 9. Wr i te do I,
5. Idovtwrz, to. 'Writenol,
6. ’WkitkIcIo, 11. Write do\,
7. Write I do.
None of the Latin tenfes admit of more variations than
the two above mentioned : nor do almoft any of the En-
glifh admit of fewer than in the above example; and fe-
veral of thefe phrafes, which mud be confidered as exad
tranflations of fome of the tenfes of the Latin verb, ad¬
mit of many more. Thus the imperfect of the fubjundlive
mood, which in Latin admits of the above two variations,
admits in Englifh of the following :
1. I might have wrote. 4. Wrote might have I.
2. Wrote 1 might have. 5. / wrote might have.
3.. Have wrote / might. 6. Have wrote might I.
And if we likewife confider the variations which maybe pro¬
duced by a variation of the emphafis, they will be as under.
1. I might have wrote. 13. Wrote might have I.
2. / might have wrote. 14. Wrote might have I.
C ^7 )
LAN
3. I might have wrote.
4. / n.ight have wrote.
5. Wrote I might have.
6. Wrote I- might have.
7. Wrote 1 might have.
8. Wrote I might have.
9. Have wrote I might.
10. //sve wrote I might.
11. Have wrote I might.
12. Have wrote /might.
15. Wrote might have /.
16. Wrote might have L
17. I wrote might have.
18. 1'Ni.O T?. might have.
19. I wrote might have.
20. / wrote might have.
21. Have wrote might I.
22. Have wrote might /.
23. Have wrote might I.
24. Have wrote might I.
words than would have been neceflary even to efFe& th's
purpofe, and make the fame word ferve a double, treble,
or even quadruple office, as in the Latin tenfe which
gave rife to thefe obfervaticns: So that however in
phyfical neceffity this may not be chargeable upon this
particular mode of conflru/lon, yet in moral certainty this
mult always be the cafe ; and therefore we may fafely
conclude, that the mode of varying verbs by inflexion
affords lefs variety in the arrangement of the words of
the particular phrafes, than the method of varying them
by the help of auxiliaries.
But if there fhould ftill remain any fhadow of doubt in
the mind of the reader, whether the method of varying
the verbs by inflexion, is inferior to that by auxiliaries,
with regard to diverfity of founds, or variety of expref-
fion; there cannot be the leafl doubt, but that, with re-
fpeft to precifion, diltindtnefs, and accuracy in expreffing
any idea, the latter enjoys a fuperiority beyond all com-
parifon.—Thus the Latin verb Amo, may be Ecglifhed
either by th^ words Hove, or I do love, and the emphafis
placed upon any of the words that the circumftances may
require; by means of which, tlje meaning is pointed out
with a force and energy which it is altogether impoflible
to produce by the ufe of any fiogle word. The following
line from Shakefpear’s Othello may ferve as an example j,
 Excellent wretch !
Perdition catch my foul, but / do love thee:
In which the ftrong emphafis upon the word do, gives it
a force and‘energy which conveys, in an irrefiflible man¬
ner, a mofl perfect knowledge of the fituation of the mind
of the fpeaker at the time —That the whole energy of
the expreffion depends upon this feemingly infignificant
word, we may be at once fatisfied of, by keeping it away,
in this manner;
In all twenty four variations,, inftead of two.—If we lilce-
wife confider, that the Latins were obliged to employ the
fame word, not only to exprefs “ I w/g/r have wrote.”
but alfo “ I could’, I would, or \Jhould have wrote,” each
of which would admit of the fame variations as the word
might, we have in ail ninety Jtx different eXpreffions in
Euglifh for the fame phrafe which in Latin admits only
of two, unlefs they have recourfe to other forced turns
of expreflipn., which the defers of their verbs in this par¬
ticular has compelled them to invent.
But, if it fhould be obje&ed, that the lafl circumflance
we have taken notice of as a defeft, can only be confi¬
dered as a defe£t of the'Latin language, and is not 10 be
attributed to the inflexion of their verbs, feeing they might,
have had a particular, tenfe for each of thefe different
words might, ccidd, would, and Jhould; we anfwer,
that, even admitting this excufe as valid, the fuperiority
of the analogous language, as fuch, ftill remains in this
refpe<5t as twelve to one.—Yet even this conceflion is
greater than ought to have’been made : For as the diffi¬
culty of forming a fuffiiient variety of words for all the
different modifications which a verb may be made to un¬
dergo is too great, for any rude people to be able to o-
vercome; we find, that every nation which has adopted
this mode of inflexion, not excepting the Greeks them-
felves, has been obliged to remain fatisfied with fewer
 Excellent wretch!
Perdition catch my foul, but //srethee.
How poor—how tame—how infignificant is,this, when;
compared with the other! Here nothing remains but a
tame affertion, uftvered in with a pompous exclamation
which, could not here be introduced with any degree of
propriety. Whereas, in the way that Shakefpear has left
it to us, it has a forcible power which nothing can furpafs;
for, overpowered with the irrefiftible force of.Defdemo-
na,’s charms, this ftrong exclamation is forced from the
foul of Othello- in fpke of himfelf. Surprifed at this
tender emotion which brings to his mind all thofe amiable
qualities for which be had fo much efteemed her, and at
the fame time fully imprefted with the firm perfuafion of her
guilt, be burfts out into that feemingly inconfiftent exclama¬
tion—Excellent wretch! And then he adds in the warmth
of his furprife, thinking it a tiling moft aftonilhing
that any warmth of affedlion Ihould ftill remain inbis breaft,,
he even confirms it with an oath,— “ Perdition catch viy
foul, but /do lovethee."— “ In fpite of all thefalfehoods
with which I know thou baft deceived.me—in fpite of all
the crimes of which I know thee guilty*—in fpite of all
thefe reafons for which I ought to hate thee—in fpite of
myfeif,—ftill I find that I love,— yes, Ido love thee,” 
We look upon it as a thing altogether impoffible to tranf-
fufe
HAN ( 863 ) LAN
fsfe the energy of this exprefljon into any language whofe
verbs are regularly infle&ed.
In the fame manner we might go through all the other
tenfea, and (hew that the fame fuperiority is to be found
in each —Thus in the perfett tenfe of the Latins, in-
ftead of the fimple amavi, we fay, I have loved;
and by the liberty we have of putting the emphafis upon
any of the words which compofe this phrafe, we can in
the moft accurate manner fix the precife idea which we
mean to excite: for if we fay 1 have loved, with the
emphafis upon the word I, it at once points out the per-
fori as the principal obje<5 in that phrafe, and makes us
naturally look for a contraft in fome other perfon, and
the other parts of the phrafe become fubordinate to
it ;•—“ he has /orerfthee much, but I have loved thee in¬
finitely more ”—The Latins too, as they were not pro¬
hibited from joining the pronoun with their verb, were
alfo acquainted with this excellence, which Virgil has
beautifully ufed in this verfe:
   Nos patriam fuglmus ;
Tu, Tytere, lent is .in umbra, See.
But we are not only enabled thus to diftinguifh the
perfen in as powerful a manner as the Latins, but can alfo
with the fame facility point out any of the other circum-
ftances as principals ; for if we fay, with the emphafis up¬
on the word i/<w, “ I have loved,” it as naturally points
out the time as the principal objeft, and makes us look for
a contra6t in that peculiarity, /have: “ I have loved
indeed;—my imagination has been led aftray—my reafon
has been perverted:—but, now that time has opened my
eyes, I can fmile at thofe imaginary diftreffes which Once
perplexed me.”—In the fame manner we can put the em¬
phafis upon the other word of th6 phrafe loved,—“ I have
loved.”—Here the pafiion is exhibited as the principal
circiimftance; and as this can never be excited without
fomeobjeft, we naturally wi(h to know the objedt of that
pafion—“Who! what have you/ove/r”’ are the natural
quedions we would put in his cafe. ‘T have loved
 Eliza.” In this manner we are, On all occafions,
enabled to exprefs, with the utmod precifion, that par¬
ticular idea which \ye would wi(h to excite, fo as to
give an energy and perfpicuity to the language, which
can never be attained by thofe languages whofe verbs are
conjugated by inflexion; and if to this we add theincon-
Convenience which all infledted languages are fubjedfed to,
by having too fmall a number of tenfes, fo as to be com¬
pelled to make one word on many occafions fupply the
place of two, three, or even four, the balance is turned dill
more in our favours.—Thus.inLatin, the fame word am a-
bo dands for Jhall or will love, fo that the reader is left
to guefs from the context which of the two meanings it
was molt likely the writer had in view.'—In the fame
manner, may or can love are exprefied by the fame word
Amem; as is alfo' might, could, would, or fhould love, by
the fingle word amarem, as we have already obferved ;
fo that the reader is left to guefs which of thefe fourmean-
ingsthe writer intended to exprefs; which occafions a per¬
plexity very different from that clear precifion which our
language allows of, by not only pointing out the different
words, but alfb by allowing us to put the emphafis upon
any of them we pleafe, which fuperadds energy and force
to the precifion it would have had without that of affid-
ance.
Upon the whole, therefore, after the mod canditf exa¬
mination, we mud conclude, that the method of conjuga¬
ting verbs by inflettion is inferior to that which is perform¬
ed by the \\z\y aiauxiliaries \—becaufeit does not afford
fuch a diverfity of founds,—nor allow fuch variety in the
arrangement of expreffion for the fame thought,—nor
give fo much didin&ion and precifion in the meaning 
It is, however, attended with one confiderable advantage
above the other method: for as the words of which it is
formed are necelfarily of greater length, and more fono-
rous, than in the analogous languages, it admits of a more
flowing harmony of expreflion ; for the number of mono-
fyllables in this lad greatly checks that pompous dignity
which naturally refults from longer words. Whether
this fingle advantage is fufficient to counterbalance all the
other defeds with which it is attended, is left to the
judgment of the reader to determine :—but we may re¬
mark, before we quit the fubjed, that even this excel¬
lence is attended with fome peculiar inconveniences, which
fhall be more particularly pointed out in the fequel.
But perhaps it might dill be objeded, that the com-
parifon we have made above, although it may be fair,
and the conclufion jud with regard to the Latin and
Englifh languages; yet it does not appear clear, that
on that account the method of conjugating verbs by in¬
flexion is inferior to that by auxiliaries: for although it
be allowed, that the Latin language is defedive in
point of tenfes; yet if a language wrere formed which
had a fufficient number of infleded tenfes to anfwer every
purpofe; if it had, for indance, a word properly formed
for every variation of each tenfe; one for / love, an¬
other for I do love; one for / Jhall, another for /
will love; one for Insight, another for I could, and would,
and Jhouldlo'se; and fo on through all the other tenfes ;
that this lanouage would not be liable to the objedions
we have brought againd the infledion of verbs; and
that of courfe, the objedions we have brought are only
valid againd thofe languages which have followed that
mode and executed it imperfedly. We anfwer, that
although this would in fomemeafure remedy the-evil, yet
it would not remove it entirely. For in the fird place, un-
lefs every verb, or a very fmall. number of verbs, was
conjugated in one way, having the found of the words in
each tenfe, and divifions of tenfes, as we may fay, different
from all the other conjugations,—it would always occa-
fion a famenefs of founds which would in fome meafure
prevent that variety of founds fo proper for a language.
And even if this could be efFeded, it would not give fucb
a latitude to the exprelfion as auxiliaries allow : for al¬
though there (hould be two words, one for / might, and
another for I could love ; yet as thefe are (ingle words,
they cannot be varied ; whereas, by auxilaries, either of
thefe can be varied twenty-four different ways, as has
been (hewn above.—In the lad place, no fingle word
can ever exprefs all that variety of meaning which we
can do by the help of our auxilaries and the emphafis.
/ have lovid, if exprefled by any one word, could only
denote at all times one didind meaning ; fo that, to give
it
LAS 1 «■
Jt--(Re powr of ours, there behoved to be three
words at leaft. However, if all this was done that
ts, if there was a diftiniS conjugation formed for. every
forty or fifty verbs;—if each of the tenfes was properly
formed, and all of them different from every other
lenfe as well as every other,verb; .and thefe a!J. carried
through each of the different perfcns, fo as to be all dif-.
ferent from one another;—and if likewife there was a
diftindt word to mark each of the feparate meaning's which
the fame tebfe could be made to affume by means of the
emphafis ;—and if all this infinite variety of words could
be formed in a difHndt manner, different from each other
and harmonious j—kthts language would have powers
greater than any that could be formed by auxiliaries, if
it were peffible for the human powers to •acquire fuch a
degree of knov/ledge as to be able to employ it with fa¬
cility. But how could this be atta-ned, fihce upwards
■of ten thoufand words would be neceffrty to form the
variations of any one verb, and a hundred times that
number would not include the knowledge of the verbs alone
of fuch a language * ?—How much, thenefoi’e, ought we
to admire the fimple perfpicuity of our language, which
which enables us, by the proper application often or twelvd
feemingly trifling'words, the meaning and ufe of which’
can be attained with the utmofl eafe, to exprefs all that
could be expreffed by this unwieldy apparatus ? What'
can equal the fimplicity or the power of the one method,
but the well known powers of the twenty-four letters,
the knowledge of which can be obtained with fo much
cafe:—and their power knows no limits ?-—or what can
be compare’d to the fancied perfefliqh of the other, but
the tranfcrpt of it which the Chinefe feem to have formed
in their unintelligible language ?
Having thus confidered pretty fully the advantages and
defe&s of each of thefe two methods of varying verbs,
we cannot help feeling'a fecret wi(h arife in our mind, that
there had been a people fagacious enough to have united
the powers of the one method with thofe of the other;—
nor can we help being furprifed, that, among the chan¬
ges which took place in the feveral languages of Europe
after the down fall of the Roman monarchy, fome of them
did not accidentally ftumble on the method of doing it.—
From many concurring circumftances, it feetns probable,
that the greateft part, if not all the Gothic nations that
over-ran Italy at that time, had their verbs varied by the
help of auxiliaries ; and many of the modern European
languages which have fprunjj from them, have fo far bor-
rowed*from the Latin, as to have fome of the tenfes of
their verbs infledted: yet the Englifh alone have in any
inftance combined the joint powers of the two: which
could only be done by forming inflexions for the different
tenfes in the fame manner as the Latins, and at the fame
time retaining the original method of varying them by
auxiliaries; by which means either the one or the other
method could have been employed as occafion required.
We have luckily two tenfes formed in that way; the
Vol. II. No. 63. 2
) LAN
prefent of the indicative, and the paji. In almoft all
our verbs thefe can be declined either with or without
"auxiliaries. Thus the prefect, without an auxiliary, is,
■Hone, l.’writey /fpeak ; with an auxiliary, 1 do write,
l dp lev*, I do J'peak. In the'fame manner, the pad
tenfe, by inflexion, is, l loved, I wrote, I fpcke-. by
auxiliaries, l did love, I did fpeak, 1 did write. Every
author, who knows any thing of the power of the Englifli
language, knows the ufe which may be made of this di-
ffinXion. What a pity is it that we fltould have ftopt
fhort fo foon ? how blind was it in fo many other nations
to imitate the defeXs, without making a proper ufe of
that beamifuManguage which is now numbered among
the dead ?
After the verbs, the next moft confiderable variation
we find between the Analogous and trnnfpofstive lan¬
guages, is in the nouns; the latter varying the different
cafes of the.fe by inft:flion ; whereas the former exprefs
all the different variations of them by the help of o*
ther words prefixed, called preprJitions. Now, if we
confider the advantages . or difadvantages of either of
thefe methods under the fame heads as we have done the
verbs, we will find, that with regard to the firfl: parti¬
cular, v/z. variety of founds, almoff the fame remarks may
be made as upon the verbs ;—for if we compare any par¬
ticular noun by itfelf, the variety of found appears much
greater between the different cafes intheTV^wy^^r/t'if, than
between thetranOation of thefe in the Analogous language.
Thus, £ex, regis, reg 1, regem, are more di-
ftinX from one another in point of found, than the tranf-
lation of thefe, a king, of a king, to a king, a king, &c.
But if we proceed one ftep further, and confider the va¬
riety which is produced in the language in general, by
the one or the other of thefe methods, the cafe is entire¬
ly reverfed. For as it would have been impolfible to form
diftinX variations, different from one another, for each
cafe of every noun, they have been obliged to reduce all
their nouns into a few general claffes, called dechnfi-ons,
and endowed all of thofe' included under each clafs with
the fame termination in every cafe ; which produces a like
fimilarity of found with what we already obferved was
occafioned to the verbs from the fame caufe ; whereas in
the analogous languages, as there is no neceflity for any
conftraint, there is almolt as great a variety of founds as
there are of nouns. The Latins have only five different
declenfions, fo that all the great number of words of this
general order muff be reduced to the very fmall diverfity
of founds which thefe few claffes admit of; and even the
founds of thefe few claffes are not fo much diverfified as
they ought to have been, as many of the different in
the different declenftons have exactly the fame founds, as
we fhall have occafion to remark more fully hereafter.—
We might here produce examples to fliew the greit Ji-
snilarity of founds between different nouns in the Latin
language, and variety in the Enfglifli, in the fame way
as we did of the verbs: but as every reader, in the leaff
9 K acquainted
* This afleftlon may perhaps appear to many very much exaggerated: but if any fliould think fo, we only beg the fa¬
vour that lie will fet himielf to mark all the variation of tenfes, mode, perfon, and number, which an Engiifli verb can
be made to alfiime, varying each of theferin every way that it will admit, both as to the diverfity of exprelfions, and the
Xnphafis; he will foon be convinced that we have here faid nothing more than enough.
LAN ( 870 ) LAN
acquainted with thefe two languages, can fatisfy himfelf
in this particular, without any further trouble than by
marking down any number of Latin nouns, with their
tranflationsin Englifh ; we thought it unneceflary to dwell
longer on this particular.
But if the inflexion of nouns is a difadvantage to a lan¬
guage in point of diverfity of founds, it is very much
the reverfe with regard to the variety it allows in the ar¬
ranging the words of the phrafe. Here, indeed, the
TranfpoStive language fliines forth in all its glory, and
the Analogous mull yield the palm without the fmal-
Jeft difpute. For as the nominative cafe (or that noun
which is the caufe of that energy exprefled by the verb)
is different from the accufative (or that noun upon which
the energy expreffed by the verb is exerted) thefe may
be placed in any fituation that the writer {hall think pro¬
per, without occafioning the fmalleft confufion: whereas
in the analogous languages, as thefe two different ftates
of the noun are expreffed by the fame word, they cannot
be diftinguilhed but by their pofition alone; fo that the
noun which is the efficient caufe mud always precede the
v.erb, and that which is the afHve fubjed mud follow ;
which greatly cramps the harmonious flow of compofition.
—Thus the Latins, without the fmalleft perplexity in
the meaning, could fay either Brutum amavit Cafius, or
Cajfws amavit Brutum, or Brutum Cafius atnavit, or
Caffius Brutum amavit. As the termination of the word
Cajjiut always points out’that it is in the nominative cafet
and therefore that he is the perfon from whom the ener¬
gy proceeds ; and in the fame manner, as the termination
of the word Brutum points out that it is in the accufative
cafe, and confequently that he is the objed upon which
the energy is exerted ; the meaning continues ftill di-
ffind and clear, notwithftanding of all thefe feveral varia¬
tions : whereas in the Engliffi language, we could only
lay Cdffius loved Brutus, or, by a more forced phrafe-
ology, Cajfws Brutus loved : Were v/e to reverfe
the cafe, as in the Latin, the meaning alfo would
be reverfed ; for if we fay Brutus loved CaJJius, it is
evident, that, inftead of being the perfon beloved, as
before, Brutus now becomes the perfon from whom
the energy proceeds, and CaJJius becomes the objed
beloved.—In this refped, therefore, the analogous lan¬
guages are greatly inferior to the tranfpofitive; and in¬
deed it is from this fingle circumftance alone that they
derive their chief excellence.
But although it thus appears evident, that any lan¬
guage, which has a particular variation of its nouns to
diftinguiffi the accufative from the nominative cafe, has
an advantage over thofe languages which have none ; yet
it does not appear that any other of their cafes adds to
the variety, but rather the reverfe: for, in Latin, we
can only fay Amor Dei; in Engliffi the fame phrafe
may be rendered, either,—the love of God,—of God
the love,—or, by a more forced arrangement, God
the love of. And as thefe oblique cafes, as the La¬
tins called, them, except the accufative, are clearly di-
ftinguiffi'ed from one another, and from the nominative,
by the prepofition which accompanies them, we are not
confined to any particular arrangement with regard to
thefe as with the accufative, but may place them in what
order we pleafe, as in Milton’s elegant invocation at the
beginning of Paradife Loft
Of man’s firft difobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whofe mortal tafte
Brought death into the world, and all our wo.
With lofs of Eden, till one greater Man
Reftore us, and regain the blifsful feat,
Sing, heavenly mufe.
In this fentencethe tranfpofition is almoft as great as the
Latin language would admit of, and the meaning as di-
ftinft as if Milton had begun with the plain language of
profe, thus,—“ Heavenly mufe, ling of man’s firft difo¬
bedience,” &c.
Before we leave this head, v/e may remark, that the
little attention which feems to have been paid to this pe¬
culiar advantage derived from the ufe of an accufa¬
tive cafe different from the nominative, is fomewhat fur-
prifing.—The Latins, who had more occafion to attend
to this with care than any other nation, have in many
cafes overlooked it, as is evident from the many inftances
we meet with in their language where this is not diftin-
guiffied. For the nominative and accufative are the fame
in the fingular number of all thofe of the firft declenfion
ending in e ; as is likewife the cafe with thofe in um of
the fecond, in e of the third, and in u of the fourth.
In the plural number, there is no diftinftion between thefe
two cafes in thofe of the fecond declenfion ending in um,
nor in all thofe of the third, fourth, and fifth, of every ter¬
mination, the number of which is very confiderable. Sa
that their language reaps no advantage in this refpe<5t
from almoft one half of their nouns. Nor have any of
the modern languages in Europe, however much they
may have borrowed from the ancient languages in other
refpedts, attempted to copy from them in this particular;
from which perhaps more advantage would have been gain¬
ed, than from copying all the other fuppofed excellencies
of their language.—But to return to our fubjeff.
It remains that we confider, whether the inflexion of.
nouns gives any advantage over the method of defining
them by prepofitions, in point of diftinftnefs and preci-
fion of meaning.—But in this refpedt too the analogous
language muft come off vfiftorious.—Indeed this is the
particular in which their greateft excellence confifts ; nor
was it, we believe, ever difputed, but that, in point of
accuracy and precifion, this method muft excel all others,
however it may be defeftive in other refpedts.—We ob-
ferved under this head, when fpeaking of verbs, that it
might perhaps be pollible to form a language by infledion
which ffiould be capable of as great accuracy as in the
more fimple order of auxiliaries: but this would have
been fuch an infinite labour, that it was not to be expec¬
ted that ever human powers would have been able to ac-
compliffi it. More eafy would it have been to have form¬
ed the feveral infledions of the nouns fo different from
one another, as to have rendered it impoflible ever to mif-
take the meaning. Yet even this has not been attempted.
And as we find that thofe languages which have adopted
the method of infleding their verbs are more imperfed in
point of precifion than the other, fo the fame may be faid
cf infl.eding the nouns: for, not to mention the energy
which-
LAN (8
■which the analogous languages acquire by putting the ac¬
cent upon the noun, or its prepofition (when in an ob¬
lique cafe), according as the fubjeft may require, to ex-
prefs which variation of meaning no particular variety of
words have been invented in any infle<5led language, they
are not even complete in other refpeifts.—The Latin, in
particular, is in many cafes defe&ive, the fame termination
being employed in many inftances for different cafes of
the fame noun.—Thus the genitive and dative Angular,
and nominative and vocative plural, of the firft declen-
fion, are all exa&ly alike, and can only be diftinguifhed
from one another by the formation of the fentences ;—
as are alfo the nominative, vocative and ablative An¬
gular, and the dative and ablative plural. In the fecond,
the genitive Angular, and nominative and vocative plural,
are the fame ; as are alfo the dative and ablative Angular,
and dative and ablative plural; except thofe in um, whofe
nominative, accufative, and vocative Angular, and nomina¬
tive, accufative and vocative plural, are alike. The other
three declenfions agree in as many of their cafes as thefe
do; which evidently tends to perplex the meaning, un
lefs the hearer is particularly attentive to, and well ac¬
quainted with, the particular conftruftion of the other
parts of the fentence ; all of which is totally removed,
and the cleared certainty exhibited, at once, by the help
of prepofitions in the analogous languages.
It will hardly be neceffary to enter into fuch a minute
examination of the advantages or difadvantages attending
the variation of adjettive:; as it will appear evident, from
what has been already faid, that the endowing them with
terminations Amilar to, and correfponding with the nouns,
mud tend dill more and more to increafe the Amilarity
of founds in any language, than any of thofe particulars
we have already taken notice of; and were it not for the
liberty which they have, in tranfpoAtive languages, of
feparating the adjedtive from the noun, this mud have-
©ccaAoned fuch a jingle of Amilar founds as behoved to
have been mod difguding to the ear: but as it would have
been impoffible in many cafes, in thofe languages where
the verbs and nouns are infledted, to have pronounced the
words which ought to have followed each other, unlefs
their adjedtives could have been feparated from the nouns;
therefore, to remedy this inconvenience, they were for¬
ced to devife this unnatural method of infledting them
alfo; by which means it is eafy to recognize to what noun
any adjedlive has a reference, in whatever part of the
fentence it may be placed.—In thefe languages, there¬
fore, this infledlion, both as to gender, number, and cafe,
becomes abfolutely necedary; and, by the diverAty which
it admitted in the arranging the words of the feveral phra-
fes, might counterbalance the jingle of Amilar founds
which it introduced into the language.—But what lhall
we fay of thofe European nations, who, although poffef-
fed of a language in every refpedt different from the tranf¬
poAtive idiom, have neverthelefs adopted the variations of
their adjedlives in the fulleft fenfe ? for here they have
nothing to counterbalance this difagreeable jingle of Ami¬
lar founds, fo deftrudlive of all real harmony.—In the
days of monkilh ignorance, when this cuftom was proba¬
bly introduced, the claihing of words with one another
might be elteemed an ornament j but now that mankind.
I )
LAN
have attained a Ivgher fenfe of harmony and propriety,
we in Britain may felicitate ourfelves to And, that our lan¬
guage has cfcaped this mark of barbarity, which fo many
others are now fubjedted to.
Having thus examined the moft ftriking particulars in
which the tranfpofitive and analogous languages differ,
and endeavoured to fliow the general tendency of every
one of the particulars feparately, it would not be fair to
difmifs the fubjedl w thout conAdering each of thefe as a
whole, and pointing out their general tendency in that
light: for we all know, that it often happens in human
inventions, that every part which compofes a whole, ta¬
ken feparately, may appear extremely Ane; and yet,
when all thefe parts are put together, they may not agree,
but produce a jarring and confufion very different from
what we might have expedted. We therefore imagine a
few remarks upon the genius of each of thefe two diltindt
idioms of language confidered as a whole will not be
deemed ufelefs.
Although all languages agree in this refpedt, that they
are the means of conveying the ideas of one man to ano¬
ther ; yet as there are an infinite variety of ways in which-
we might wifh to convey thefe ideas, fometimes by the
eafy and familiar mode of converfation, and at other times
by more folemn addreffes to the underftanding, by pom¬
pous declamation, <bc. it may fo happen, that the genius
of one language may be more properly adapted to the one
of thefe than the other, while another language may
excel in the oppofite particular. This is exadHy the cafe
in the two general idioms of which we now treat.—E-
very particular in a tranfpojitive language, is peculiarly
calculated for that folemn dignity which is neceffary for
pompous orations. Long founding words, formed by
the infledlion of the different parts of fpeech,—flowing
periods, in which the attention is kept awake by the har¬
mony of the founds, and an expectation of that word
which is to unravel the whole,—if compofed by. a Ikilful
artift, are admirably fuited to that folemn dignity and
awful grace which conftitute the effence of a public ha¬
rangue. On the contrary, in private converfation, where
the mind wifhes to unbend itfelf with eafe, thefe become
fo many cloggs which encumber and perplex. At thefe
moments we wifli to transfufe our thoughts with eafe
and facility—we are tired with every unneceffary fyllable
—and wifh to be freed of the trouble of attention as much
as may be. Like our ftate robes, we would wifli today
afide our pompous language, and enjoy ourfelves at home
with freedom and eafe. Here the folemnity and wind¬
ings of the /ra«^a/f/z'w language are burdenfome ; while
the facility with which a fentimentcanbe expreffed in the
the analogous language is the thing that we wifh to ac¬
quire.—In this humble, though moft engaging fphere,
the analogous language moves unrivalled.;—in this it wifhes
to indulge, and never tires. But it in vain,attempts to rival
the tranfp-ojitive in dignity and pomp : The number of
monofyllables interrupt the flow of harmony; and akho'
they may give a greater variety of founds, yet they do
not naturally poffefs that dignified gravity which fuits
the other language. This, then, muft be confidered as
the ftriking particular in the genius of thefe two differ¬
ent ijdioms, which marks their ckaradlers.
If
LAN ( 872 ) LAN
If we confider the efFefts which thefe two different
chara<fiers of language muft naturally produce upon the
people who employ them, we will foon perceive, that the
genius of the analogous language is much more favourable
for the iholt engaging purpofes of life, the civilizing the
human mind by mutual intercourfe of thought, than the
tranfpojitive. Foras it is chiefly by the ufe of fpeech that
man is railed above the brute creation ;—as it is by this
means he improves every faculty of his mind, and, to
the obfervations which he may himfelf have made, has
the additional advantage of the experience of thofe with
whom he may converfe, as well as the knowledge which
the human race have acquired by accumulated experience
of all preceding ages;—as it is by the enlivening, glow of
eonverfation that kindred fouls catch fire from one another,
that thought produces thought, and each improves upon
the other, till they foar beyond the bounds which hu¬
man reafon, if left alone, could ever have afpired to ;—
we mull furely confider that language as the mofi: bene¬
ficial to fociety, which mod effectually removes thefe
bars that obftrudt its progrefs. Now, the genius of the
languages is fo eafy, fo Ample and plain, as to be
within the reach of everyone who is born in the kingdom
where it is ufed, to (peak it with facility; even the
rudelt among the vulgar can hardly fall into any gram¬
matical errors : whereas, in the tranfpofitive languages,-
fo many rules are neceffary to be attended to, and fo
much variation is produced in the meaning by the flight-
eft variations in the found, that it requires a ftudy far a-
bove the reach of the illiterate mechanic ever to attain.
So that, how perfedt foever the language may be when
fpoken with purity, the bulk of the nation mult ever la¬
bour under the inconvenience of rudenefs and inacurracy
of fpeech, and all the evils which this naturally pro¬
duces.—Accordingly we find, that in Rome, a man,
even in the higheft rank, received as much honour, and
was as much diftinguilhed among his equals, for being
able to converfe with eafe, as a modern author would be
for writing in an eafy and elegant ftyle ; and Caefar among
his cotemporaries was as much efteemed for his fuperior-
ity in fpeaking the language in ordinary converfation
with eafe and elegance, as for his powers of oratory,
hisikillin arms, or his excellence in literary compofition.
It is needlefs to point out the many inconveniences that
this behaved to produce in a ftate. It is fufficient to ob-
ferve, that it naturally tends to introduce a vaftdiftinftion
between the different orders of men ; to fet an impenetra¬
ble barrier between thofe born in a high and thofe born
in a low ftation; to keep the latter in ignorance and bar¬
barity, while it elevates the former to fuch a height as
muft fubjeft the other to be eafilyled by every popular de¬
magogue.—How far the hiftory of the nations who have
followed this idiom oflanguage confirms this obfervation,
every one is left to judge for himfelf.
Having thus confidered Language in general, and
pointed out the genius and tendency of the two moft dif-
tinguifhed idioms which have prevailed; we ftiall clofe
thefe remarks with a few obfervations upon the particular
nature and genius of thofe language which are now chiefly
fludied or fpoken in Europe.
Of all the. nations whole memory hiftory has tranf-
mitted to us, rone have been fo eminently diftinguiftied
for their literary accompliftiments, as well as acquaintance
with the polite arts, as the Greeks ; nor are we as yet
acquainted with a language pcffeffed of fo many advan¬
tages, with fo few defe&s, as that which they ufed, and
which continues- ftilt to be known by their name.—The
neceflary connexion between the progrefs of knowledge
and the improvement of language has been already ex¬
plained ; lb that it will not be furprifing to find their pro+
grefs in the one keep pace with that of the other : but
it w ill be of utility to point out fome advantages which
that diftinguifhed people poffeffed, which other nations,
perhaps not lefs diftingufthtd for talents or tafte, have not
enjoyed, which has contributed to render their language the
rcoft umverfaily admired in ancient as well as in modern
times.
As it is probable, that many different focieties of
men, in the early ages of antiquity, may have found them
felves in fuch circumftances as to be obliged to invent
a language to themfelves ; each would naturally adopt
thofe founds into their language which chance might fug¬
ged, or were moft agre'eable to their perception of har¬
mony, or moft confonant to the difpofition of mind of
the original inventors ; in the fame manner as we fee
that each compofer of mufic has a particular fpeciCs cf
founds of which he is fonder than any other, which will
predominate through all his compofitions, and give them a
certain charabteriftic tone by/which they maybe diftinguifti¬
ed from that of other compofers :—So the language of
each particularfet of people would have originally a certain
charafterillic tone of harmony, which would diftinguifh it
from all ethers ; and behoved to be more or lefs perfect*
according to the greater or lefs degree of that delicate
fenfe of harmony, diftihguiftied by the name of tajle,
which thefe original inventors were poffeffed of. Thefe
founds, then, being once eftabliftied by cuftom, would be¬
come familiar to the ear of the defeendents of thefe par¬
ticular tribes : new words would be invented as know¬
ledge increafed ; but thefe behoved to be modulated fo
as to be agreeable to the general tenor of their language,
from the neceflity of making it confonant as well to the
organs of hearing as the organs of fpeech.—Hence it
happens, that the charafteriftic tones of a language are
preferved much longer without variation than any other
particular relating to it; and if it change at all, the
change muft be flow and imperceptible. Knowledge after
this mayincreafe ;—tafte may be improved ; —it may be
perceived that the language is not copious enough to ex-
prefs the ideas, or harmonieus enough to pleafe the ear
of the compofer ;—he may readily invent words to fup-
ply the deficiency in that refpebt ; but the founds in a
great meafure remain without the reach of his power,
and he muft reft fatisfied with thefe, fuch as they are,
without attempting innovations. Happy therefore, in
this refpebt, muft we deem thofe nations, whofe earlieft
anceftors have been fo fortunate as to adopt no unharmoni-
ous founds into their language, whereby they are freed from
one bar to the cultivating thofe refined pleafures which
proceed from the ufe of a delicate tafte, which others
may perhaps never be able to furmount :—and in this reT
fpect no nation was ever fo eminently diftinguiflied as
LAN ( 871 ) LAN
the Greeks ; which no doubt contributed its fhare to
promote that general elegance and harmony of proportion
which prevailed in all their arts. The original founds
and fundamental tones of that language are the mod har¬
monious, and the mod agreable to the ear, of any that
have hitherto been invented ; infomuch, that from this
principle alone the found of their language is agreeable
to every nation who have heard it, even when the mean¬
ing of the words are not underdood ; whereas almod all
other languages, till they are underdood, appear, to an
ear wrhich has not been accudomed to them, jarring and
difcordant. This is the fundamental excellence of that
judly admired language ; nor have the people failed to
improve this to the utmod of their power, by many aids
of their own invention.—The Greek language is of the
tranfpofttive kind : but a people fo lively, fo acute, and
fo loquacious, could ill bear the ceremonious redraint
which that mode of language naturally fubjedted them to;
and have therefore, by various methods, freed it in a
great meafure from the diffnefs which that produced.
In infledfing their nouns and verbs, they fometimes pre¬
fix a fyllable, and fometimes add one ; which, befides
the variety that it gives to the founds of the language,
adds greatly to the didindtnefs, and admits of a more na¬
tural arrangement of the words than in the Latin, and
of confequence renders it much fitter for the esfinefs of
private converfation : and indeed, the genius of the peo¬
ple fo far prevailed over the idiom of the language, as to
render it, in the age of its greated perfedtion, capable of
almod as much eaie, and requiring almod as little tranf-
pofition of words, as thofe languages which have been
called analogous. But as thofe nations who fpoke this
language were all governed by popular aflemblies, and as
no authority could be obtained among them but by a
(kill in rhetoric and the powers of perfuafion ; it became
neceflary for every one, who wifhed to acquire power or
confideration in the date, to improve himfelf in the
knowledge of that language, in the ufe of which alone he
could expedt honours or reputation. Hence it happened,
that while the vivacity of the; people rendered it eafy,
the great men dudioufly improved every excellence that
it could reap from its powers as a tranfpojitive lingungz;
fo that, when brought to its utmod perfedtion by the a-
mazing genius of the great Demodhenes, it attained a
power altogether unknown to any other language.—Thus
happily circumdanced, the Greek language arrived at
that envied pre-eminence which it dill judly retains.
From the progrefs of arts and fc.ences ; from the gaiety
and inventive genius of the people ; from the number of
free dates into which Greece was divided, each of which in¬
vented words of its own, all of which contributed to the
general dock; and from the natural commutation which
took place between thefe dates, which excited in the drong-
ed degree the talents of the people ; it acquired a copiouf-
-nefs unknown to any ancientlangsage, and excelled by few
of the moderns.—In point of harmony of numbers, itis al¬
together unrivalled ; and on account of the eafe as well as
dignity which it admitted of from the caufes afligned above,
it admits of perfection in a greater number of particular
kinds of compofition than any otker language ever known.
—The irrefidible force and overwhelming impetuofity of
Yoi. II. No. 63. 2
Demcjlhems feems not more natural to the genius of the
language ; than the more flowery charms .of Plato’s cairn
and harmonious cadences, or the unadorned fimplicity of
Xenophon ; nor does the majedic pomp of Homer feem
to be more naturally adapted to the genius of the language,
than the more humble drains of Theocritus, or the laugh¬
ing fedivity of Anacreon: Equally adapted to all purpofes,
when we perufe any of thefe authors, we would ima¬
gine the language was mod happily adapted for his par¬
ticular dyle alone. The fame powers it likewife in a
great meafure poffeded for converfation ; and the dia¬
logue feems not more natural for the dignity of Sophocles
or Euripides, than for the more eafy tendernefs of Menan¬
der, or buffoonery of Aridophanes.—With all thefe ad¬
vantages, however, it mud be acknowledged, that it did
not poffefs that unexceptionable clearnefs of meaning,
which fome analogous languages enjoy, or that charadter-
idic force which the accent has power to give it, were
not thefe defeCfs counterbalanced by other caufes which
we fhall afterwards point out.
The Romans, a people of fierce and warlike difpofi-
tions, for many ages during the infancy of their republic,
more intent on purfuing conqueds and military glory,
than in making improvements in literature or the fine
arts, bedowed little attention to their language. Of a
difpofition lefs focial and more phlegmatic than the
Greeks, they gave themfelves no trouble about render¬
ing their language fit for converfation; and it remained
drong and nervous, but, like their ideas, was limited
and confined. More difpofed to command refped by the
power of their arms than by the force of perfuafion, they
defpifed the more effeminate powers of fpeech: fo that,
before the Punic wars, their language was perhaps
more referved and uncourtly than any other at that
time known. — But after their rival Carthage was de-
droyed, and they had no longer that powerful curb upon
their ambition; when riches flowed in upon them by
the multiplicity of that conqueds;—luxury began to
prevail, the dern auderity of their manners to relax,
and felfifh ambition to take place of that difintereded love
for their country fo eminently confpicuous among all or¬
ders of men before that period.—Popularity began then
to be courted: ambitious men, finding themfclvesnotpof-
feffed of that merit which infured them fuccefs with the
virtuous fenate, amufed the mob with artful and fedi-
tious harangues ; and by making them believe that they
were poffeffed of all power, and had their facred rights
encroached upon by the fenate, led them about at their
pleafure, and got themfelves exalted to honours and riches
by thefe infidious arts. It was then the Romans fird
began to perceive the ufe to which a command of language
could be put.—Ambitious men then dudiedit with care,
to be able to accomplifh their ends ; while the more vir¬
tuous were obliged to acquire a flrill in this, that they
might be able to repel the attacks of their adverfaries.
—Thus it happened, that in a diort time that people,
from having entirely negle&ed, began to dudy their lan¬
guage with the greated afiiduity; and as Greece hap¬
pened to be fubje&ed to theRoman yoke about that time,
and a friendly intercourfe was edablifhed between thefe
two countries, this greatly confpired to nourilh in the
9 L minds
LAN ( 874 ) LAN
minds of the Romans a tafte for that art of which they
had lately become fo much enamoured. Greece had, long
before this period, been corrupted by luxury-, their tafte
for the fine arts had degenerated into unneceflary refine¬
ment; and all their patriotifm confided in popular ha¬
rangues and unmeaning declamation. Oratory was
then ftudied as a refined art; and all the fubtleties
of it were taught by rule, with as great care as the gla¬
diators were afterwards trained up in Rome. But while
they were thus idly trying who Ihould be the lord of
their own people, the nerves of government were relaxed,
and they became an eafy prey to every invading power.
In this lituation they became the fubjefts, under the title
of the allies, of Rome, and introduced among them the
fame tafte for haranging which prevailed 4mong them-
felves. Well acquainted as they were with the powers of
their own language, they fet themfelves with unwearied
affiduity to polilh and improve that of their, new mafters:
hut with all their afliduity and pains they never were able
to make it arrive at that petfedtion which their own lan¬
guage had acquired ; and in the Auguftan age; when it
had arrived at the fummit of its glory, Cicero bitterly com¬
plains of its want of copioufnefs in many particulars.
But as it was the defire of all who ftudied this lan¬
guage with care, to make it capable Of that ftately dig¬
nity and pomp neceflary for public harangues; they fol¬
lowed the genius of the language in this particular,
and in a great meafure neglected thofe leffer delicacies
Which form the pleafure of domeftic enjoyment ; fo that,
while it acquired more copioufnefs, more harmony, and
precifion, it remained ftiff and inflexible for conveffation;
rtor could the minute diftin&ion of nice gramrhatical
rules be ever brought down to the apprehenfion of the
vulgar ; fo that the language fpoken among the lower
clafs of people remained rude and unpolilhed even till the
end of the monarchy. The Huns who over run I-
taly,' incapable of acquiring any knowledge of fuqh a dif¬
ficult and ah ftrufe language, ne^er adopted it; and the
native inhabitants being made acquainted with a lan¬
guage more natural and eafily acquired, quickly adopted
that idiom of fpeech introduced by their conquefors, al¬
though they ftill retained many of thofe words Which the
confined nature of the barbarian language made neceflary
to ailbw them, to exprefs their ideas.—And thus it was
that the language of Rome, that proud miftrefs of the
world, from an original defeat in its formation, although
it had been carried to a perfeftion in other refpe&s far fu-
perior to any northern language at that time, eafily gave
way to them, and in a few ages the knowledge of it was
loft among mankind : while, on the contrary, the more
eafy nature of the Greek language has ftill been able to
keep fome flight footing in the world, although the na¬
tions in which it has been fpoken have been fubjedted to
the yoke of foreign dominion for upwards of two thou-
fand years, and their country has been twice ravaged by
barbarous nations, and more cruelly deprefled than ever
the Romans were.
From the view which we have already given of the La-
fin language, it appears evident, that its idiom was more
ftrifHy tranfpofitive than any other language yet known,
and was attended with all the defedts to which that idiom
is naturally fubjeAed: nor could itboaftoffuch favourable'
alleviating circumftances as the Greek, the prevailing
founds of the Latin being far lefs harmonious tothe ear: and
although the formation of the words are fuch as to admit
of full and diftindt founds, and fo modulated as to lay
no reftraint upon the voice of the fpeaker; yet, to a per-
fon unacquainted with the language, they do not convey
that enchanting harmony fo remarkable in the Greek lan¬
guage. The Latin is ftately andfolemn, it does not ex¬
cite difguft ; but at the fame time it does not charm the
ear, foas to make it liften with pleafed attention. To one
acquainted with the language indeed, the nervous boldnefs
of the thoughts, the harmonious rounding of the periods,
the full folemn fwelling of the founds, fo diftinguilhable
in the moft eminent writers in that language which have
been preferved to us, allconfpire to make it pleafing and
agreeable.—In thefe admired works we meet with all its
beauties, without perceiving any of its defedls ; and we
naturally admire, as perfedt, a language which is capable
of producing fuch excellent works.—Yet with all thefe
feeming excellencies, this language is lefs copious, and
more limited in its ftyle of compofition, than many mo¬
dern languages far lefs capable of precifion and accuracy
than almoft any of thefe, and infinitely behind them all
in point of eafinefs in converfation. But thefe points
have been fo fully proved already, as to require no fur¬
ther illuftration.—Of the cbmpofitions in that language
which have been preferVed to us, the orations of Cicero
are heft adapted to the genius Of the language, and we
there fee it in its utmoft perfedlion. In the philofophical
•works of that great author we perceive fome of its defedts;
and it requires all the powers of that great man, to ren¬
der his epiJUei agreeable, as thefe have the genius of
the language to ftruggle with —Next to oratory, hiftory
agrees with the genius of this language; and Casfar, in
his Commentaries, has exhibited the language in its pureft:
elegance, without the aid of pomp or foreign ornament.
  Among thefoets,'Virgil has heft adapted his works
to his language. The flowing harmony and pomp of it
is well adapted for the epic ftr^ih, and the corre<h deli¬
cacy of his tafte rendered him perfedtly equal tothe taflc.
But Horace is the only poet whofe force of genfus was
able to overcome the bars which the language threw in
his way, and fucceed in lyric poetry. Were it not for
the brilliancy of the thoughts, and acutenefs of remarks,
which fo eminently diftingUilh this author’s compolitions,
his odes would Ibng ere now have funk into utter obli¬
vion.—But fo confcious have all the Roman poets been
<3f the unfitnefs of their ftmguage for eafy dialogue; that
almoft none of them, after Plautus and Terence, haveat-
tempted any dramatic coatpofitions in that langusge.—
Nor have we any reafon to regret that they negledted this
branch of poetry, as it is probable, if they had ever be¬
come fond of thefe, they would have been obliged to
have adopted fo many unnatural contrivances to render
them agreeable, as would have prevented us (whoofcoarfe
would have confidered ourfelves as bound to follow them)
from making that progrefs in the drama which fo parti¬
cularly diftinguifhes the produ&ions of modern times..
The modern Italian language, from an inattention quite
common in literary fubtfls, has been ufually called a
Child;
LAN (8
child of the Latin language, and is commonly believed
to be the ancient Latin a little debafed by the mixture of
the barbarous language of.thofe people who conquered I-
taly. The truth is, it is dire&ly the reverfe : for this
language, in its general idiom, and fundamental princi¬
ples, is evidently of the analogous kind, firlt introduced
by thefe fierce invaders, although it has borrowed many
of its words, and fome of its modes of phrafeology, from
the Latin, with which they were fo intimately blended
that this could fcarcely be avoided ; and it has been from
remarking this, flight conne&ion fo obvious at firfl: fight,
that fuperficial obfervers have been led to draw this gene¬
ral conclufion, fo contrary to fadt.
When Italy was over-run with the Lombards, and the
empire deftroyed by thefe northern invaders, they, as
Conquerors, continued to fpeak their own native language.
Fierce and illiterate, they would not ftoop to the fervility
of ftudying a language fo clogged with rules, and difficult
of attainment, as the Latin behoved to be to a people al¬
together unacquainted with nice grammatical diftindlions :
while the Romans of neceffity were obliged to ftudy the
language of their conquerors, as well to obtain fome re¬
lief of their grievances by prayers and fupplications, as
to deftrpy that odious diftindion which fubfifted between
.the conquerors and conquered while they continued as
diftind people. As the language of their new mafters,
although rude and confined, was natural in its order, and
cafy to be acquired, the Latins would foon attain a com¬
petent fkill in it: and as they bore fuch a proportion to
the whole number of people, the whole language behoved
to partake fomewhatof the general found of the former:
for, indpiteof all their efforts to the contrary, the organs
of fpeech could not at once be made to acquire a per fed
power of uttering any unaccuftomed founds : and as the
language of the barbarians behoved to he much lefs co¬
pious than the Latin, whenever they found themfelves at
a lofs for a word, they would naturally adopt thofe which
mofl readily prefented themfelves from their new fob-
jeds. Thus a language in time was formed, fomewhat
refembling the Latin, both in the general tenor of the
founds, and in the meaning of many words: and as the
barbarians gave themfelves little trouble about language,
and in fome cafes perhaps hardly knew the general ana¬
logy of their own language, it is not forprifing if their
new fubjeds ftiould find themfelves fometimes at a lofs on
that account, or if, in thefe fituations, they followed^
On fome occafions, the analogy fuggefted to them by
their own: which accounts for the ftrange degree of
mixture of heterogeneous grammatical analogy we meet
with in the Italian as well as Spanilh and French lan¬
guages.—The Idiom of all the Gothic languages is pure¬
ly analogous; and in all probability, before their mix¬
ture with the Latins and other people in their provinces,
the feveral grammatical parts of fpeech followed the
plain fimple idea which that foppofes ; the verbs and nouns
were all probably varied by auxiliaries, and their adjec¬
tives retained their fimple unalterable ftate :•—but by their
mixture with the Latins, this fimple form has been in
many cafes altered; their verbs became in fome cafes
iofleded ; but their nouns in all thefe languages ftill re¬
tained their original form 5 although they have varied
75 ) L A N
their adjedives, and fooliflily clogged their nouns with
gender, according to the Latin idioms. From this he--
terogeneous, and fortuitous (as we may fay, beca^fe in¬
judicious) mixture of parts, refults a language pofieifing
almoft all the defeds of each of the languages of which
it is cbmpofed ; with few of the excellencies of either :
for it has neither the eafe and precifion of the analogousy
nor the pomp and boidnefs of the Iranfpofitive langua¬
ges; at the fame time that it is clogged with almolt as
many rules, and liable to as great abufes.
Thefe obfervations are equally applicable to the French,
and Spanifli, as to the Italian language.—With regard
to this laft in particular, we may obferve, that as the
natural inhabitants of Italy, before the laft invafion
of the barbarians, were funk and enervated by luxury
and that deprelfion of mind and genius which anarchy
always produces ; they had become fond of feafting and
entertainments, and the enjoyment of fenfual pleafures
conftituted their highetl delight; and their language par¬
took of the fame debility as their body.^ The barba^
rians too—unaccuftomed to the fedudions of pleafure —
foon fell from their original boidnefs and intrepidity,—
and, like Hannibal’s troops of old, were enervated by the
fenfual gratifications into which a nation of conquerors
unaccuftomed to the reftraint of government freely in¬
dulged.—The foftnefs of the air—the fertility of the
climate—the unaccuftomed flow of riches which they at
once acquired,—together with the voluptuous manner
of their conquered fubjeds,—all confpired to ener¬
vate their minds, and render them foft and effeminate.—•
No wonder then, if a language new-moulded ftiould at
this jundure partake of the genius of the people who
formed it; and inftead of participating of the martial
boidnefs and ferocity of either of their anctflors, Ihould be.
foftened and enfeebled by every device which an effemi¬
nate people could invent. The ftrongconfonants which
terminated the words, and gave them life and boidnefs,
being thought too harfli for the delicate ears of thefe Tons-
of floth, were baniflied their languagewhile fonorous
vowels, which could be protraded to any length in mufic,
were fobftituted in their ftead. Thus the Italian lan¬
guage is formed flowing and harmonious, but deftitute of
thofe nerves which conftitute the ftrength and vigour
of a language: at the fame time, the founds are neither
enough diverfified, nor in themfelves of foch an agreeable
tone, as to afford great pleafure without the aid of mufi-
cal notes ;—and the fmall pleafure which this affords is flill
kflened by the little variety of meafure which the great
fimilarity of the termination of words occafions.—Hence
it happens, that this language is fitted for excelling in
fewer branches of literature that) almoft any ether:—and
although we have excellent hiftorians, and more than or¬
dinary poets, in this language; yet they labour under
great inconveniences from the language in which they
write,—as it wants nerves and llatelinefs for the for¬
mer,'—and fuffioient variety of modulation for the lat¬
ter.—It is, more particularly on this account, altogether
unfit for an epic poem :—and although attempts have been
made in this way by two men, whofe genius, if net
fettered by the language, might have been crowned
with focc.efs; yet tbefe, notwithfUnding the fame that
with
LAN (. 876) LAN
with fome they may have acquired, muft, in point of
.poetic harmony, be deemed defective by every impartial
perfon. Nor is it poflibie that a language which hardly
admits of poetry without rhime, can ever be capable of
producing a perfeth poem of great length ; and the ftanza
to which their poets have ever confined themfelves, mull
always produce the moft difagreeable effedl in a poem
where unreftrained pomp or pathos are necelTary qualifi¬
cations. The only fpccies of poetry in which the Ita¬
lian language can claim a fuperior excellence, is the ten¬
der tone of elegy: and here it remains unrivalled and
alone :—the plaintive melody of the founds, and fmooth
flow of the language, feem perfeflly adapted to exprefs
that Toothing melancholy which this fpecies of poetry re¬
quires.—On this account, the plaintive flanzas of the'P*/-
Jior Fido of Guarini have juftly gained to that poem an
univerfal applaufe; although, unlefs on this account a-
Jone, it is perhaps inferior to almoft every other poem of
the kind which ever appeared. We mull obferve with
furprife, that the Italians, who have fettered every other
fpecies of poetry with the fevered {hackles of rhime, have
in this fpecies Ihewed an example of. the moft unreftrained
freedom; the happy effefts of which ought to have
taught all Europe the powerful charms attending it: yet
with amazement we perceive, that fcarce an attempt
to imitate them has been made by any poet in Europe
except by Milton inhis Lycidas; no dramatic poet, even
in Britain, having ever adopted the unreftrained harmony
of numbers to be met with in this and many other of their
heft dramatic compofitions.
Of all the languages which fprung up from the mixture
■of the Latins with the northern people on the deftruttion
of the Roman empire, none of them approach fo near to
the genius of the Latin as the Spanilh does. For as the
Spaniards have been always remarkable for their military
prowefs and dignity of mind, their language is naturally
adapted to exprefs ideas of that kind. Sonorous and
folemn, it admits nearly of as much dignity as the Latin.
For converfation, it is the moft elegant and courteous
language in Europe.—The humane and generous order of
chivalry was firft invented and kept its footing longeft in
this nation; and although it run at laft into fuch a ridicu¬
lous excefs as defervedly made it fall into univerfal difre-
pute, yet it left fuch a ftrong tinfture of romantic hero-
ifm upon the minds of all ranks of people, as made them
jealous of their glory, and ftrongly emulous of cultivating
that heroic politenefs, which they confidered as the higheft
perfeftion they could attain. Every man difdained to
flatter, or to yield up any point of honour which he pof-
i’efted: at the fame time, he rigoroufly exadted from others
all that was his due. Thefe circumftances have given
rife to a great many terms of refpedt, and courteous con-
defcenfion, without meannefs or flattery, which give
their dialogue a refpeflful politenefs and elegance un¬
known to any other European language. This is the
reafon why the characters fo finely drawn by Cervan¬
tes in Don Quixote are ftill unknown to all but thofe
who underftand the language in which he wrote.—No¬
thing can be more unlike the gentle meeknefs and humane
heroifm of the knight, or the native fimplicity, warmth
i>f afFeCtion, and refpeftful loquacity of the fquire,—than
the inconfiftent follies of the one, or the impertinent for-
wardnefs and difrefpeCtful petulance of the other, as they
are exhibited in every Englifh tyanflation —Nor is it
poliibleto reprefent fo much familiarity, united with fuch
becoming condefcenfion in the one, and unfeigned defer¬
ence in the other, in any other European language, as is
neceflary to paint thefe two admirable characters.
Although this language, from the folemn dignity and
majertic elegance of its ItruCture, is perhaps better quali¬
fied than any othqr tpodern one for the fublime ftrains of
epic poetry ; yet as the poets of this nation have all along
imitated the Italians by a moft fervile fubjeCtion to rhime,
they never have produced one poem of this fort, which
in point of poefy of ftyle deferves to be tranfmitted to po-
fterity. And in any other fpecies of poetry but this, or the
higher tragedy, is it not naturally fitted to excel. But
although the drama and other polite branches of literature
were early cultivated in this country, and made confide-
rable progrefs in it, before the thirft of gain debafed
their fouls, or the defire of univerfal dominion made them
forfeit that liberty which they once fo much prized;
fince they became enervated by an overbearing pride, and
their minds enflaved by fuperftition; all the polite arts
have been negleCted: fo that, while other European na¬
tion have been advancing in knowledge, and improving
their language, they have remained in a ftate of torpid
inactivity ; and their language has,not arrived at that per¬
fection which its nature would admit, or the acute^ ge¬
nius of the people would have made us naturally expeCt.
It will perhaps, by fome, be thought an unpardonable
infult, if we do not allow the French the preference of all
modern languages in many refpeCts. But fo far muft we
pay a deference to truth, as to be obliged to rank it a-
mong the pooreft languages in Europe.—Every other
language has fome founds which can be uttered clearly by
the voice: even the Italian, although it wants energy, ftifi
poflefles diftinCtnefs of articulation. But the French is
almoft incapable ofeither of thefe beauties; for in that
language the vowels are fo much curtailed in the pronun¬
ciation, and the words run into one another in fuch a
manner, as of neceflity to produce an indiftinftnefs which
renders it incapable of meafure or harmony. From this
caufe, it is in a great meafure incapable of poetic modu¬
lation, and rhime has been obliged to he fubftituted in its
Head; fo that this pooreft of all contrivances which has
ever yet been invented to diftinguifh poetry from profe,
admitted into all the modern languages when ignorance
prevailed over Europe, has ftill kept fome footing in
the greateft part of thefe, rather through a deference for
eftablifhed cufto'ms, than from any neceflity.—Yet as .the
French language admits of fo little poetic modulation,
rhime is in fome meafure neceffary to it; and therefore they
have adopted, and dignified this poor deviation, from
profe with the name of Poetry; and, by their blind attach¬
ment to this art, have negledted to improve fo much as
they might have done thefmall powers for harmony that
their language is poflefled of; and, by being long accuftomed
to this falfe tafte, have become fond of it to fuch a ridicu¬
lous excefs, as to have all their tragedies,—nay even their
comedies, in rhime. While the poet is obliged to ener¬
vate his language, and check the flow of compofition, for
LAN (8
The fake C-flinking his lines together, the judicious atfor
finds more difficulty in deftroying the appearance of that
meafure, and preventing the clinking of the rhimes, than
in all the red of his talk. After this we will not be
furprifed to find Voltaire attempt an epic poem in this
fpecies of poetry; although the more judicious Fene-
lon in his Teletuaque had (hewn to his countrymen the
only fpecies of pOefy which their language could admit of
for any poem which afpired to the dignity of the epic
ftrain Madam Defpouliers, in her Idyllie, has ffiewn
the utmofl: extent of harmony to which their language
can attain in fmaller poems indeed in the tendernefs of
an elegy, or the gaiety of a fong, it may fucceed; but
it is fo deftitute of force and energy, that itcan never be
able to reach the Pindaric, or even perhaps the Lyric
flrain,—as the ineffetfual efforts even of the harmonious
Rouffeau, in h s tranllation of the Pfalms of David of this
{lamp, may fully convince us.
With regard to its power in other fpecies of compofition,
the fententious rapidity of Voltaire, and the more ner¬
vous dignity of Rouffeau, afford us no fmall prefumption,
that, in a Ikilful hand, it might acquire fo much force, as
-to tranfmit to futurity hiftorical fatfs in aftyle not altoge¬
ther unworthy of the fubjedt —In attempts at pathetic
declamation, the fuperior abilities of the compofer may
perhaps on fome occafions excite a great idea, but this
is ever cramped by The genius of the language : and altho’
no nation in Europe can boaft of fo many orations where
this grandeur is attempted; yet perhaps there are few who
cannot produce more perfedf, although not more laboured,
compofitions of this kind.
But notwithftanding the French language labours un¬
der all thefe inconveniences;—although it can neither
equal the dignity or genuine politenefs of the Spaniffi,
the nervous boldnefs of the Engliffi, nor the melting
foftnefsof the Italian ;—although it is deftituteof poetic
harmony, and fo much cramped in found as to be abfo-
lutely unfit for almofl: every fpecies of mufical compofi¬
tion* ;—ypt the fprightly genius of that volatile people
has been able to furmcunt all thefe difficulties, and ren¬
der it the language moft generally efteemed, and moft
univerfally fpcken, of any in Europe : for this people,
naturally gay and loquacious, and fond to excefs of thofe
fuperficial accompliffiments which engage the attention of
the fair fex, have invented fuch an infinity of words
capable of expreffing vague and unmeaning compliment,
now dignified by the name of politenefs, that, in this
Itrain, one who ufes the French' can never be at a.lofs ;
Vol. II. Numb. 63. 2
77 ) LAN
and as it is eafy to converfe more, and really fay Up, in
this titan any other language, a man ef very moderate
talents may difiinguiffi himfdf much more by ufing this
than any other that has ever yet been invented.—On this
account, it is peculiarly well adapted for that fpecies of
converfation which muft ever take place in thofe general
and promifcuous companies, where many perfons of both
fexes are met together few the purpofes of relaxation or
amufement; and muft of courfe be naturally admitted
into the courts of princes, and affemblies of great per-
fonages; who, having fewer equals with whom they can
affociate, are more under a neceffity of converfing with
Grangers, in whofe company the tender ftimuius of friend-
ffiip does not fo naturally expand the heart to mutual
truft or unreftrained confidence. In thefe circumfiances,
as the Ireart remaineth difengaged, converfation mult ne-
ceffarily flag ; and mankind in this fituation will gladly
adopt that language in which they can converfe moft
eafily without being deeply interefted—One thefe accounts
the French now is, and probably will continue to be
reckoned the mod polite language in Europe, and there¬
fore the moft generally ftudied and known : nor fltould
we envy them this diftinftion, if our countrymen would
not weaken and enervate their own manly language, by
adopting too many of their unmeaning phrafes.
The Englifh is perhaps poffefled of a greater degree of
excellence, blended with a greater number of defedfs,
than any of the languages that wfe have hitherto men¬
tioned.—As the people of great Britain are a bold, da¬
ring, and impetuous race of men; fubjedt to flrong paf-
fions, and, from the abfolute freedom and independence
which reigns among all ranks of people throughout this hap¬
py ifle, little folicituous about controulingthefepafltons;—•
our language takes its ftrongeft charadteriftic diftindlion
from the genius of the people; and, being bold, daring, and
abrupt, is admirably well adapted to exprefs thofe great
emotions which fpring up in an intrepid mind at the pro-
fpedt of interefting events. Peculiarly happy too in the
full and open found of the vowels, which forms the cha-
radteriftic tone of the language, and in the ftrong ufe of
the afpirate H in almoft all thofe words which are ufed
as exclamations, or marks of ftrong emotions upon inte¬
refting occafions, that particular clafs of words called in-
terjettions have, in our language, more of that fulnefs
and unreftrained freedom of tones, in which their chief
power confifts, and are puffied forth from the inmoft re-
cefles of the foul in a more forcible and unreftrained man¬
ner, than any other language whatever. Hence it is
9 M more
* An authorof great dilcernment, and well acquainted with the French language, has lately made the fame remark; and
as the loftinefs of his genius often prevents him from bringing down his illuftrations to the level of,ordinary comprehen-
f on, he has on this, and many other occafions, been unjuftly accufed of being fond of paradoxes.—But as mufic never pro¬
duces its full effect but when the tones it aflumes are in unifon with the idea that the words naturally excite, it ofne-
ceflity follows, that if the words of any language do not admit of that fulnefs of found, or of that {pedes of tones, which
the paffion or affection iha may be delcribed by the words would naturally require to excite the fame idea in the mind of
one who W'as unacquainted with the language, it will be impoflible for the mufic to produce its full effeft, as it will Be
cramped .and confined by the found of the words ;—and as the French language does not admit of thofe full and open,
founds which are necefiary for pathetic expreflion in mufic, it muft of courfe be unfit for mufical compofition.—It is true
indeed, that in modern times, in which fo little attention is beffowed on the iimple and fublime charms of pathetic expreflion,
and a fantaffical tingling of unmeaning founds is called mufic—where thefenfe of the words are foil in fugues, quavers, .and
vnneceffary repetition of particular fyllables,—all languages are nearly equally fitted for it; and arreng thefe the French :
nor is it tobe doubted, that, in the ealy gaiety-of a fong, this language can properly enough admit of all the timfical ex-
prelfion which that ipecies of compofition may require.
LAN (8;
more peculiaily adapted for the great and interefting
fcenes of the Drama than any language that has yet ap¬
peared in the globe.—Nor has any other nation ever ar¬
rived at that perfe&ion which the Englilh may juitly
claim in that refpeft; for however faulty our dramatic
compofitions may be in fome of the critical niceties which
relate to this art,—in nervous force of di&ion, and in the
. natural expreflion of thofe great emotions which confti-
tute its foul and energy, we claim, without difpute, an
unrivalled fuperiority.-^—Our language too* from the great
intercourfe that we have had with almoft all the nations
of the globe by means of our extenfive commerce^ and from
the eminent degree of perfection which we have attained
in all the arts and fciences, has acquired a copioufnefs
beyond what any other modern nation can lay claim to;
and even the moll partial favourers of the Greeklanguage
are forced to acknowledge, that in this refpeCt it mull
give place to the Englilh. Nor is it lefs happy in that
facility of conllruClion which renders it more peculiarly
adapted to the genius of a free people, than any other form
of language.—Of an idiom purely analogous, is has de¬
viated lefs from the gem us of that idiom, and poffefies more
of thecharadleriftic advantages attending it, than any other
language that now exilts : for, while others, perhaps by
their more intimate connexion with the Romans, have ad¬
opted fome of their tranfpofitions. and clogged their lan¬
guage with unnecelfary fetters, nue have preferyed our-
felves free from the contagion, and ftill retain the primi¬
tive fimplicity of our language. Our verbs are all varied
by auxiliaries (except in the inftance we have already gi¬
ven, which is fo much in our favours); our Kea«/remain
free from the perplexing embarrafiment of genders, and
our pronouns mark this diftinftion where necelfary with
the moll perfect accuracy ; our articles alfo are of courfe
freed from this unnatural encumbrance, and our adjec¬
tives preferve their natural freedom and independence.
From thefe caufes, our language follows an order of coa-
ftruCtion fo natural and eafy, and the rules of fyntax are
fo few and obvious, as to be within the reach of the
)
"LAN
repaired, by the powers of an ingenious artift, as complain
of this charaClerillic excellence of our language as a defeit.
But if we thus enjoy in an eminent degree the advan¬
tages attending an analogous language; we likewife feel
in a confiderable meafure the defeCls to which it is expo-
fed ; as the number of monofyllables with which it al¬
ways mult be embarralfed, not with Handing the great im¬
provements which have been made in our language fince
the revival of letters in Europe, prevents in fome degree
that fwelling fulnefs of found which fo powerfully con¬
tributes to harmonious d gnity and-graceful cadences
in literary compofitions.—And as the genius of the
people of Britain has always been more difpofed to
the rougher arts of command, than the fofter infinua-
tions of perfualion, no pains have been taken to corrcCt
thefe natural defeCls of our language; but on the con¬
trary, by an inattention of which we have hardly a pa¬
rallel in the hiftory of any civilized nation, we meet with
many inlhnces, even within this lall century, of the har¬
mony of found being facrificed to that brevity fo defire-
able in converfation, as many elegant words have been
curtailed, and harmonious fyllables fupprefied, to fubfti-
tute in their Head others, {boner indeed, but more bar¬
barous and uncouth—Nay, fo little attention have our
forefathers bellowed upon the harmony of founds in our
language, that one would be tempted to think, on looking
back to its primitive Hate, that they had on fome occa-
fions ftudioufly debafed it.—Our language, at its tirll
formation, feems to have laboured under a capital defect
in point of found, as fuch a number of S’s enter into the
formation of our words, and fuch a number of letters and
combinations of other’letters affume a fimilar found, as
to give a general hifs through the whole tenor of our lan¬
guage, which muft be exceedingly difagreeable to every
unprejudiced ear. We would therefore have naturally
expeCted, that at the revival of letters, when our forefa¬
thers became aoquaioted with the harmonious languages
of Greece and Rome, they would have acquired a more
Correft talle, and endeavoured, if poflible, to have di-
mod ordinary capacity. So that from this, and the great minilhed the prevalence of this difgufting found. But
clearnefs and dillinCtnefs of meaning which this mode fo far have they been from thinking of this, that they
of confliudlicn neceflarily is accompanied with, it is have multiplied this letter exceedingly. The plurals of
much better adapted for the familiar intercourfe of almoft all our nouns were originally formed by adding
private fociety, and liable to fewer errors in ufing it, the harmonious fyllable en to the lingular, which has
than any other language yet known; and on this ac¬
count we may boaft, that in no nation of Europe do the
lower clafs of people fpeak their language with fo much
accuracy, or have their minds fo piuch enlightened by
knowledge, as thofe of great Britain. —What then
fball we fay of the difcernment of thofe grammarians,
who are every day echoing back to one another com¬
plaints of the poverty of our language on account of the
few and fimple rules which it requires in fyntax ? As
juftly might we complain of an invention in mechanics,
.which, by means of one or two fimple movements, ob¬
vious to an ordinary capacity, little liable to accidents,
and eafilyputin order by the rudeft hand, Ihouid poflefs
the whole powers of a complex machine, which had re¬
quired an infinite apparatus of wheels and contrary move¬
ments, the knowledge of tvhich could only be acquired, or
the various accidents to whichitwasexpofedby vjfingit be
given place’ to the letter r; and inftead of houfen for*
merly, we now hy houfes. In like manner, many of the
variations of our verbs were formed by the fyllable eth,,
which we have likewife changed into the fame difagree¬
able letter; fe that, inftead of lavetb', moveth, nuriteth,
•walkcth, &c. we have changed them into the more mo-
dilh form of loves, moves, writes, walks, See.—Our
very auxiliary verbs have fuffered the fame change; and
inftead of hath and doth, we now make ufe of has and
does. From thefe caufes, notwithftanding the great im¬
provements which have been made in language, within
thefe few centuries, in other refpetfs ; yet, with regard,
to the pleafingnefs of found alone, it was. perhaps much
more perfe<5t in the days of Chaucer than at prefent: and
although cuftom may have rendered thefe founds fo fa¬
miliar to our ear, as not to affeft us much ; yet to an un¬
prejudiced perfon, unacquainted with our language, we
have
LAN (8:
have not the fmaHeft doubt, but the language of Baccn
or Sydney would appear more harmonious than that oi
Rabertfon or Hume.—This is indeed the fundamental
defed of our language, and loudly calls for reformation.
But notwithftanding this great and radical defeat in our
language with regard to pleafmgnefs of founds, which
mult be fo llrongly perceived by every one who is unac¬
quainted with the meaning of our words ; yet to thofe
who underffand the language, the exceeding copioufnefs
which'it allows in the choice of words proper for the oc-
cafion, and the nervous force which it derives from the ac¬
cent, with the perfpicuity and graceful elegance theempha-
fis beilows upon it, makes this defeft be totally overlooked ;
and we could produce fuch numerous works of profe
which excel in almoft every different ftyle of compofition
as would be tirefome to enumerate ; and every reader of
tafle and difcernement will be able to recollect a fufficient
number of writings which excel in point of ftyle, between
the graceful and becoming gravity fo confpicuous in all
the works of the author of the Whole Duty of Man, and
the animated and nervous didtion of Robertfon in his hif-
tory of Charles the fifth,—the more flowery ftyle of
Shaftfbury, or the Attic fimplicityand elegance of Addifon.
But although we can equal, if not furpafs, every modern
language in works of profe, it is in its poetical powers
that our language {bines forth with the greateft luftre.—
The brevity to which we muft here neceflarily confine
purfelves, prevents us from entering into a minute exa¬
mination of the poetical powers of our own, compared
with other languages ; otherwife it would be eafy to
fhew, that every other modem language labours under
great reftraints in this relpedt which ours is freed from ;—
that our language admits of a greater variety of poetic move¬
ments, and diverfity of cadence, than any of the admi¬
red languages of antiquity;—that it diftinguifhes with the
greateft accuracy between accent and quantity, and is poflef-
fed of every other poetic excellence which their languages
were capable of: fo that we are pofl’efied of all the fources
of harmony which they could boaft; and, befides all
thefe, have one fuperadded, which is the caufe of
greater variety and more forcible expreflion in numbers
than all the reft; that is, the unlimited power given to
the emphafis over quantity and cadence; by means
whereof, a neceflary union between found and fenfe,
numbers and meaning, in ver(ideation, unknown to the
ancients, has been brought about, which gives our lan¬
guage in this refpeft a fuperiority over all thofe juftly
admired languages.—But as we cannot here further put -
fue this fubjedt, we (hall only obferve, that thefe great
and diftinguiftting excellencies far more than counterba¬
lance the inconveniencies that we have already mention¬
ed ; and although, in mere pleafantnefs of founds, or
harmonious flow of fyllables, our language may be in¬
ferior to the Greek, the Latin, Italian, and Spanifti ;
yet in point of manly dignity, graceful variety, intuitive
diftindtnefs, nervous energy of expreffion, unconftrained
freedom and harmony of poetic numbers, it will yield the
palm to none.—Our immortal Milton, (lowly riling, in;
graceful majefty ftands up as equal, if not Ibperior in
thefe refpedVs to any poet, in any other language, that
ever yet cxifted ;—while Thomfcm, with more humble
rp ) L A N-
aim, in melody mere fmooth and flowing,- ^foftens the
foul to harmony and peace :—the plaiptive moan of Ham¬
mond calls forth the tender tear and fympathetic figh ;
while Gray’s more fcothing melancholy fixes the fober
mind tofrlent contemplation;—more tender (fill than thefe,
the amiable Shenfton comes ; and from his Doric reed,
ftill free from courtly affedtation, flows a drain fo. pure,
fo fimple, and of fuch tender harmony, as even Arcadian
fhepherds would be proud to own. But far before the
reft, the daring Shakefpear fteps forth confpicuous,
clothed in native dignity; and, preffing forward with un¬
remitting ardour, boldly lays claim to both dramatic
crowns, held out to him by Thalia and Melpomene :—
his rivals, far behind, look up, and envy him for thefe
unfading glories ; and the aftonilhed nations round, with
diftant awe, behold and tremble at bis daring flight.  
Thus the language, equally obedient to all, bends with
eafe under their hands, whatever form they would have
it aflume; and, like the yielding wax, readily receives,
and faithfully tranfmits to pofterity, thofe impreflions
which they have damped upon it.
Such are the principal outlines of the language of Great
Britain, fuch are its beauties, and fuch its moft capital
defefts ; a language more peculiarly circumftanced than
any that has ever yet appeared. -It is the language of
a great and powerful nation, whofe fleets futround the
globe, and whofe merchants are in every port; a peo¬
ple admired, or revered by all the world ;—and yet it is.
lefs known in every foreign country, than any other lan¬
guage in Europe.—In it are written more perfedt treati-
fes on every art and fcience, than are to be found in any
other language;—yet it is lefs fought after or efteemed
by the literati in any part of the globe, than almoft any
of thefe. Its fuperior powers for every purpofe of lan¬
guage are fufficiently obvious from the models of perfec¬
tion, in almoft every particular, which can be produced
in it;—yet it is negledled, defpifed, and vilified by the
people who ufe it; and many of thofe authors who owe
almoft the whole of their fame to the excellence of the
language in which they wrote, look upon that very lan¬
guage with the higheft contempt.—Negiedted and defpifed,
it has been trodden under foot as a tiling altogether unwor¬
thy of cultivation or attention. Yet in fpite of all thefe
inconveniences, in fpite of the many wounds it has thus
received, it ftill holds up its head, and preferves evident
marks of that comelinefs and vigour which are its charadle-
riftical diftindtion. Like a healthy oak planted in a rich and
fertile foil, it has fprung up with vigour : and although ne-
gledfed, and fuffered to be over run with weeds; although
expofed to every blaft, and itnprotedled from every violence;
it ftill beareth up under all thefe inconveniences-, and (hoots
up with a robuft healthineft and wild luxuriance of growth.
Should this plant, fo found and vigorous, be now cleared
from thofe weeds with which it has been fo much encum¬
bered ;—(hould every obftacle which now buries it under
thick (hades, and hides it from the view of every paflen-
ger, be cleared away ;—fliould the foil be cultivated with
care, and a ftrong fence be placed around it, to prevent
the idle or the wicked from breaking or diftorting its
branches who can tell with what additional vigour it
would fleurifh, or what amazing magnitude and perfec-
, tioa
LAP ( 880 ) L A R
-tion it might at lad attain!—How would the afio
ni(hed world behold, with reverential awe,' the maje-
ftic gracefulnefs of that objed which they fo lately de-
fpifed !
IN. B. Somewtayoid tb'.t cirarnjiances Lukich attended the frintins £>/
■ defern
t oecajhned. fever
ijtakes in it, of -which tbe follo-wint
t- ihou'.d be delete.
Page Sfia.-colCmn 1. line 29. the words in tit,
P. b'fij. col. 2. I. 34. for word, read -words.
P. 863. col. r.l. 6. for o«, read on.
Ibid. cbl. r. and 2. delete Lojueo, Odio, Lojue-bam, Odie-bam, with the
Englith words accompanying item;—and for Faceo, Pona-bam, Qbie-bam,
-GaiuUe-bam, and A'nlinie-bam, read Facto, Pone-bam, Obi-bamr Gaude-bam,
• and AiJUnf-batn.
Ibid. col. 2.1. 22. for “ and the jVa*er/etf in ISSEM andERO,” read, “ the/>/u-
perfedin ISSEM,, and the future in ERO.”
P. 868. for, XU, Tytere, lends in umbra, &c. read, TU, Tityre, lentus in urn-
■ bra, &c.
’Ibid. col. 1. 1. 28. for contrail, read contrrf 37. for pafion, read paf-
jion;— and delete tlie fyllable con at the beginning of 1. 4S-
P. 870. col. 2. line« 22, 22, 24, 2J, and 26. read thus:—For alt their nouns
. in UM of the fecond decfen'.ion, in E of the third, and in U of the fourth,
have' each their nominative and accufative Angular alike. Nor in the plu¬
ral number is there any diitimftion between thefe cafes, Sec. ' -
Ibid. cot. i. 1. 19. frodi the bottom, for language, read languages.
P. 87 3. col. 2. h 38. for that, read their.
P. 876. col. 2, 1. 16. for is it, read it is.
L.ANGUED, in heraldry, exprefles fuch animals whofe
tongue apppearing out of the mouth, is borne of a differ¬
ent colour from that of the body.
LANGUEDOC, a province of France, bounded by
Lionois, on the north ; by the river Rhone, which di¬
vides it from Dauphine and Provence, on the eaft; by
the Mediterranean and the -the Pyrenees, on the
fouth ; and by Guienne and Gafcony, on the weft.
LANGUOR, among phyficiansj fignifies great weaknefs
and lofs of ftrength, attended with a dejection of mind;
fo that the patients can fcarce walk, or even ftand up¬
right; but are apt to faint away.
LANIGEROUS, an appellation given to whatever bears
wool.
LANfUS, the butcher-bird, in ornithology, a ge¬
nus belonging to the order of accipitres ; the. charac¬
ters of which are thefe : The beak is fomewhat ftrait,
with a tooth on each fide towards the apex, and na-
.ked at the bafe; and the tongue is lacerated. There
are twenty fix fpecies, diftinguifhed by the fhapeof the
tail, and colour.
LANNIERS, ofLanniards, in a fhip, are fmall
ropes reeved into the dead-man’s eyes of all fhrowds,
either to flacken them or fet them taught : the flays of
all mafts are alfo fet taught by lanniers.
LANTANA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermia clafs. The calix confifts of four obfolete
teeth ; and the drupa has two cells. There are feven
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
LANUGO, the foft down of plants, like that growing
on the fruit of the peach tree.
LANZO, a town of Italy, in the territory of Piedmont,
fituated fifteen miles north of Turin.
LAODICEA, an ancient city of the lefler Afia, fituated
eaft of Ephefus, now in ruins.
LAON, a city of France, in the province of the Ifle of
France, fituated inE. long. 30 45', lat. 49' 37.
LAOS, a country of the farther India in Afia, bounded
by China on the north ; by Tonquin, on the eaft ; by
Siam and Cambodia, on the fouth; and Ava and Pe¬
gu, on the weft.
LAPATHUM, in botany. See Rumex.
LAilDARY, an artificer, who cuts precious ftones.
The art of cutting precious ftones is of great anti¬
quity. The French, though they fell into it but late¬
ly, have notwithftanding carried this art to a very
great perfe&ion, but not in any degree fuperior to the
Englifh.
There are various macliines employed in the cutting
of precious ftones, according to their quality : the dia¬
mond, which is extremely hard, is cut on a wheel of
foft fteel, turned by a mill, with diamond-duft, tem¬
pered with olive-oil, which alfo ferves to polifh it.
The defeription of the diamond-cutter’s wheel or
mill, as reprefented in Plate CHI. fig. 7 is as follows:
et is the pincers; b-, the ferew of the pincers; r, the
ftiell that carries the maftic and the diamond; d, the
malfc that foftens the diamond at the end of the fhell;
e, the diamond prefented to the wheel, to be cut fa-
cetwife; f, the iron-wheel turning on its pivot; g,
iron-pegs, to fix and keep the pincers fteady; h, fmall
pigs of lead of different weights, wherewith the pincers
are loaded atpleafureto keep them fteady; a Wood¬
en wheel; i, the axis of the wheel. It is bended and
makes an elbow under the wheel, to receive the im-
pulfion of a bar that does the office of a turning han¬
dle; /, the foie, qr fquare piece of fteel, wherein the
pivot of the tree or axis moves; m, the turning handle,
that fets the wheel a-going by means of the elbow of
its axis ; the elbow of the piercer wherewith a hogf-
head is broached, will give an idea of this kind of mo¬
tion; n, the cat-gut firing, that goes round both the
iron and the wooden wheels. If the wooden wheel is
twenty times larger than ‘the iron-one, the latter ffiall
make twenty turns upon the diamond, whilft the large
wheel makes but one round its axis; and whilft the boy
gives, without any refiftance, a hundred impulfions to
the turning handle, the diamond experiences a thou-
fand times the fridtion of'the whole grinding wheel.
The diamond-cutter follows the work with his eyes,
without taking any other ffiare in it than that of chan¬
ging the place of the diamond to bite on a new furface;
and of timely thrown upon it, with a few drops of oil,
the minute particles of tire diamonds firft ground one
againft the other, to begin the cutting of them.
The oriental ruby, fapphire, and topaz, are cut on
a copper wheel with diamond duft, tempered with o-
live-oil, and are poliffied on anothercopper wheel with
tripoli and water. The hyacinth, emerald, amethyft,
garnets, agats, and other ftones, not of an equal de¬
gree of hardnefs with the other, are cut on a leaden
wheel with fmalt and water, arid peliffied on a tin-
wheel with tripoli. The turquois of the old and new
rock, girafol and opal, are cut and poliflied on a wood¬
en wheel with tripoli alfo.
The lapidaries of Paris have been a corporation
fince the year 1290. It is governed by four jurats,
who fuperintend their rights and privileges, vifitth?
mafter-workmen take care of the mafter-piece of work-
manffiip, bind apprentices, and adminifter the free¬
dom.'
LAPIS, in general, is ufed to denote a ftone of any
kind.
LAPLAND, the moft northerly part of Europe, divi¬
de!
LAS (81
ded into Norwegian Lapland, Swedish Lapland, and
Ruffian Lapland: it lies between io° and35°ofE.
long, and between 65 and 720 of N. lat.
LAPWING, in ornithology. See Fringe.
LAQUEUS, in furgery, a kind of ligature, fo contrived,
that when ftretched by any weight, or the like, it
draws up.clofe. Its ufe is to extend broken or dif-
jointed bones, to keep them in their places when they
are fet, and to bind the parts clofe together.
LAR-BOARD, among feamen, the left-hand fide of the
ffiip, when you Hand with your face towards the head.
LARCENY, in law, a felonius carrying away another
perfon’s goods ; and this, according to the value of the
thing ftolen, is either grand, or petit larceny; the
firft being dealing effedts above the value of 1 s. and
the laftfuch as are either of that value, or under it.
LAREDO, a port-town of Spain, in the province of
Bifcay, fituated on the coaft of Bifcay : W. Ion. 30
40', N. lat. 430 30'.
LARES, certain inferior deities among the ancient Ro¬
mans, who were the guardians of houfes; they were
ulfo fometimes taken for the guardians of flreets and
ways, and Tibullus makes them the guardians of the
fields. According to Ovid, they were the fons of
Mercury and Lara, whofe tongue was cut out by Ju¬
piter, beesufe (he revealed his adulteries to Juno ; and
not contented with this, he delivered her to Mercury,
with orders to condudl her to hell; but he falling in
love with her by ahe way^ had twins by her, who
from their mother Were called lares.
Thefe domeftic deities were fometimes reprefented
under the figure of a dog, the fymbol of fidelity; be-
caufe dogs have the fame function as the lares, which
is to guard the houfe. At other times their images
were covered with the ffiin of a dog, and had the fi¬
gure of that domeftic animal Handing by them. The
principal facrifices to the lares, wereinceofe, fruit, and
a hog.
LARIX. SeePiNus.
LARK, in ornithology. See Alauda.
LARUS, theciM-i., in ornithology, a genus belonging
to the order of anferes, the charadters of which are
thefe: The bill is ftrait, cultrated, a little crooked at
the point, and without teeth; the inferior mandible is
gibbous below the apex, the noftrils are linear, a little
broader before, and fituate in the middle of the back.
There are 11 fpeeies, principally diftinguifhed by their
colour.
LARYNX, in anatomy. See Anat, p. 300.
LASERPITIUM, laser-wort, a genus of the pen-
tandria digynia clafs. The fruit is oblong, with eight
membranaceous angles. Thereare nine fpecies, none
of them natives of Britain.
LASSITUDE, or Weariness, in medicine, amor-
bid fenfation, that comes on fpontaneoufty, without
any previous motion, exercife, or labour. This is a
frequent fymptom in acute diftempers: it arifes either
from an increafe of bulk, a diminution of proper eva¬
cuation, or too great a confumption of the fluids necef-
fary to maintain the fpring of the folids, or from a vi¬
tiated fecretion of that juice.
Vol. II. No. 63. 1
!i ) LAV
LAST, in general, fignifies the burdehor load of a ihip.
It figniiies alfo a certain meafure of fiffi, corn,
wool, leather, tic. A laft of codfiffi, white her¬
rings, meal, and allies for foap, is twelve barrels ; of
corn or rapefeed, ten quarters ; of gun powder, twen¬
ty-four barrels; of red-herrings, twenty cades; of
hides, twelve dozen ; of leather, twenty dickers ; of
pich and tar, fourteen barrels; of wool, twelve facks;
offtock-fifh, one thoufand; offlax or feathers, jyoottb.
LAS PAGE, or Lestage, a duty exadled in fome
fairs and markets, for carrying things bought whi¬
ther one will. It fignifies alfo the ballaft or lading of
a ffiip; and fometimes is ufed for garbage, rubbilh,
or fuch like filth.
LATER AN councils, thofe councils held in the ba-
filica of the Latin church ar Rome. See Council,
There have been five councils held in this place.
viz. in the years 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, and 1513.
LATH, in building, a long, thin and narrow flip of wood,
nailed to the rafters of a roof or ceiling, in order to
fuftain the covering.
LATHE, in turning, a well-known engine ufed in turn¬
ing wood, ivory, and other materials.
LATHR/EA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermiaclafs. The calix confifts of fourfegmenis;
and the capfule has but one cell. There are four fpe¬
cies, only one of which, viz. the fquamaria, or tooth-
wort, is a native of Britain.
LATHYRUS, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia de-
candria clafs. The ftylus is plain, villous above, and
broader below ; and the two fuperior laciniae of the ca¬
lix are ffiorter than the others. There are 21 fpecies,
feven of them natives of Britain ; viz. the piffolia
or crimfon grafs-vetch ; the yellow vetchling ; the hir-
futus, or rough-codded chickling-vetch ; the latifo-
lius, or broad-leaved peafe-everlafting; the fylveftris,
or narrow-leaved peafe-everlafting; the paluftris, or
marffi chickling vetch ; and the pratenfis, or common
yellow vetchling.
LATIN, a dead language, firft fpoken in Latium, and
afterwards at Rome; and ftill ufed in the Romiffi
church, and among many of the learned. See Lan¬
guage.
LATISSIMUS, in anatomy. See Anat. p. 19;.
LATITUDE. See Geography, and Astronomy.
LATITUDINARIAN, a perfon of moderation with
regard to religious opinions, who believes there is a la¬
titude in the road to heaven, which may admit people
of different perfuafions.
LATTEN, denotes iron-plates tinned over, of which
tea-canifters are made.
LAVANDULA, lavender, in botany, a genus of the
didynamia-gymnofpermia clafs. The calix is oval,
fubdentated, and fupported by a bradtea; and the fta-
mina are within the tube. There are four fpecies,
none of them natives of Britain.
LAVATERA, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia
polyandria clafs. The calix is double, the exterior
one being divided into three fegments ; and there are
many cApfules, containing each a number of feeds.
There are nine fpecies, only one of which, viz. the
9 N arborea,
L A U ( 8B
arborea, orfeatree mallow, is a native of Britain.
tAUBACH, a city of Germany, in the circle of Au-
ftria, and the capital of the duchy of Carinthia: E.
Ion. 140 40', and N. lat. 46° 28'.
LAUDANUM. See Opium.
LAUDER, a borough town of Scotland, in th6 {hire
of Mers, fituated twenty-two miles fouth-eaft of E-
dinburgh.
LAVENDER. See Lavendula.
LAUGHTER, an affedtion peculiar to mankind, occa-
fioned by fomething that tickles the fancy.
In laughter, the eye-brows are raifed about the
middle, and drawn down next the nofe; the eyes are
almoflfhut; the mouth opens, and {hews the teeth, the
corners of the mouth being drawn back and raifed up ;
the cheeks feem puffed up, and almoft hide the eyes;
fche face is ufually red, and noftrils open, and the
eyes wet.
LAUNCESTON, the county-town of Cornwal, thirty-
fix miles weft of Exeter ; W. Ion. 40 4c/, N. lat.
5°° 45'-
It fends two members to parliament.
LAUNCH, in thefealanguage, fignifies to put out: as,
launch the Jhip, that is, put her out of the dock:
launch aft, or forward, fpeaking of things that are
flowed in the hold, is, put them more forward: launch,
ho ! is a term ufed when a yard is hoifted high enough,
and fignifies, hoijl no more,
LAURA, in church-hiftory, a name given to a collec¬
tion of little cells, at feme diftance from each other,
in which the hermits, in ancient times, lived together
in a wildernefs.
Thefe hermits did not live in community, but each
monk provided for himfelf in his diftinft cell. The
moft celebrated lauras mentioned in ecclefiaftical hi-
ftory, were in Paleftine; as the Laura of St Euthy-
mus, at four or five leagues diftance from Jerufalem ;
the laura of St Saba, near the brook Cedron; the
laura of the Towers, near the river Jordan, <bc.
LAURENTALIA, in Roman antiquity, a feftival cele¬
brated in honour of Acca Laurentia, Romulus’s nurfe.
LAURUS, in botany, a genus of the enneasdria mono-
gynia clafs. It has no calix ; the corolla confifts of
fix petals; the ne&ariurn confifts of three glands, with
two briftles furrounding the germen; and the drupa
contains but one feed. There are eleven fpecies, a-
mong which are the cinnamonium, or cinnamon-tree;
the camphora, or camphor-tree, (fee Cam/hor ;)
and the faffafras, or faffafras-tree.
The bark;of the cinnamon-tree is light, thin, and
of a reddifir colour, rolled up in long quills or canes ;
of a fragrant delightfuf fmell, and an aromatic fweet
2 ) L A U
pungent tafte, with feme degree of aftringency. It is
generally mixed with the cafia bark : this laft is eafily
diftinguifliable by its breaking over fmooth, whilft cin¬
namon fplinters ; and by its {limy mucilaginous tafte,
without any thing of the roughnefs of the true cinna¬
mon. Cinnamon is a very elegant and ufeful aromatic,
more grateful both to the palate and ftomach than
moft other fubftanCes of this clafs : by its aftringent
quality it likewife corroborates the vifeera, and proves
of great fervice in feveral kinds of alvine fluxes and
immoderate difeharges from the uterus. As effential
oil, a (imple and fpirituous diftilled water, and a tinc¬
ture of it, are kept in the (hops : it is likewife employ¬
ed as a fpicy ingredient in a great number of compo-
fitions.
The root of the faffafras-tree is brought to us in long
ftraight pieces, very I’ght, and of a fpongy texture,
covered with a rough fungous bark ; outwardly of an
aftt colour, inwardly of the colour of rufty iron. It
has a fragrant fmeli, and a fweetifh aromatic fubacrid
tafte: the bark taftes much ftronger than any other
part; and the fmall twigs ftronger than the large pieces.
As to the virtues of this root, it is a warm aperient
and corroborant; and frequently employed, with good
fuccefs, for purifying and fweetening the blood and
juices. For thefe purpofes, infulions made from the
rafped root or bark may be drank as tea. In fome
conftitutions, thefe liquors, by their fragrance, are
apt, on firft taking them, to affeA the head : in fucb
cafes, they may be advantagioufly freed from their fla¬
vour by boiling; a decoAion of faffafras, boiled down
to the confiftence of an extraA, proves {imply bitterilh
and fubaftringent. Hoffman allures us, that he has fre¬
quently given this extract to.the quantity of a fcruple
at a time, with remarkable fuccefs, for {Lengthening
the tone of the vifeera in cachexies ; as alfo in the
decline of intermittent fevers, and in hypochondriacal
fpafms. Saffafras yields in diftillation an extremely
fragrant oil, of a penetrating pungent tafte, fo p.onde;-
rous (notwithftanding the ligbtnefs of the drug itfelf)
as to fink in water. ReAifkd fpirit extrafls the whole
tafte and fmell of faffafras: and elevates nothing in e-
vaporation: hence the fpirituous extraA proves the moft
elegant and efficacious preparations, as containing .the
virtue of the root entire.
The only officinal preparation of faffafras is the ef¬
fential oil. The faffafras itfelf is an ingredient in the
deco&ion of the woods and the compound.lime wa¬
ters, and the oil in the elixir guaiacinurn.
LAUSANNE, a city of Switzerland, in the canton of
Bern, fituated on the north fide of the lake, of Geneva :
E. Ion. 6°-3i', and N. lat.. 46° 33’.
L A W.
LAW may be defined, “ The command of the fdve- 1, The law of nature is that v/hich God has prefer! bed
reign power, containing a common rule of life for to all men, by the internal di&ate of reafon alone. It is
the fubjefts.” It is divided into the law of nature, the difeovered by a juft confideration of the agreeablenefs or
law of .nations, and civil or municipal law.. difagreeablenefs of human addons to. the nature of man ;
aodii
L 4
and comprehends all the duties we owe either to the Su¬
preme Being, to ourfelves, or to our neighbour ; as re¬
verence to God, felf-defence, temperance, honour to our
parents, benevolence to all, a (hid adherence to our
engagements, gratitude, &c. The law of nature, where
it either commands or forbids, is immutable, and cannot
be controlled by any human authority ; but where that
law does no more than confer a right, without obliging
us to ufe it, the fupreme power may divert us thereof, in
whole or in part.
2. The law of nations is alfo the refult of reafon, and
has God for its author ; but it fuppofes mankind formed
into feveral bodies politic, or ftates; and comprifes all
the duties which one ftate owes to another. Thefe muft
of rifeceflity be fimilar to the duties arifing bettveen indi¬
viduals, fince both are didated by reafon; fo that what
is the law of nature when applied to men confidtred
fimply as fuch, is indeed the law of nations when ap¬
plied to kingdoms or dates. F rom this foarce pro¬
ceed the rights of war, the fecurity of ambafladors, the
obligations arifing from treaties, ire. The particu¬
lar ufages of nations in their mutual' correfpondence
PRINCIPLES of the
Title I. General Obfervations.
1. The municipal law of Scotland, as of moft other
countries, confifts partly of rtatutory or written law,
Which has the exprefs authority of the legiflative power ;
partly of cuftomary or unwritten law, which derives force
from its prefumed or tacit confent.
2. Under our ftatuforyor written law is comprehended,
(j.) Our ads of parliament: not only.thofe which were
made in the reign of James I. of Scotland, and from
thence down to our union with England in 1707; but
fuch of the Britifhrtatutes enaded fince the union as con¬
cern this part of the united kingdom.
3. The remains of our ancient written law were pu-
blifhed by Sir John Skene clerk-regifter, in the beginning
of the lad century, by licence of parliament. The books
of Regiarn Majeftatcm, to which the whole colledion
owes its title, feem to be a fyftem of Scots law, written
by a private lawyer at the command of David I.; and
though no exprefs confirmation of that treatife by the
legiflature appears, yet it is admitted to have been the
ancient law of our kingdom by exprefs ftatutes. The
borough-laws, which were alfo enaded by the fame king
David, and the ftatutes of William, Alexander II.
David II. and the three Roberts, are univerfaily allowed
to be genuine. Our parliaments have once and again ap¬
pointed commifllons to revife and amend the Regiam Ma-
jejlatem, and the other ancient books of our law, and
to make their report: but, as no report appears to have
been made, nor confequently any ratification by parlia¬
ment, none of thefe remains are received, as of proper
authority, in our courts ; .yet they are of excellent ufe
in proving and illuftrating our raoft ancient curtoms.
4. Our written law comprehends, (2.) The ads of fe-
derunt, which are ordinances for regulating the. forms of
I W. 883
which’are not neceffarily founded in reafon, are no-part
of the law of nations in its proper fenfe : for they are
arbitrary, and derive their foie authority fronveompad,
either exprefs or prefumed; and may therefore, without
violating the law of nature,, be altered. For this reafon,
they ought to be thrown into thedafs of pofitive laws,
whofe obligation lafts no longer than the agreement upon
which it is founded. Of this fort, are the ceremonial
ufed in receiving and entertaining ambaffadors, the pri¬
vileges indulged to fame of their fervants, the rules ob-
ferved in cartels for exchanging prifoners of war,
3. Civil or municipal Jaw, is that which every fovereign
kingdom or ftate has appropriated to itfelf. The ap¬
pellation of municipal was originally, confined to the laws
of mun-cipia, or dependent ftates; but it came by degrees
to fignify all civil laws without diftindion. £Jo fovereign
ftate can fubfift without a fupreme power, or a right of
commanding, in the laft refort; the fupreme power of one
age cannot therefore be fettered by any enadment of a
former age, otherwife it would ceafe to be fupreme.
Hence the law laft in date derogates from prior laws.
LAW o f S C O T L A N D.'
proceeding before thfe court of feffion in the admint-
ftration of juftice, made by the judges, who have a dele¬
gated power from the legiflature for that purppfe; Some
of thefe ads dip upon matter of right, which declare
what the judges apprehend to be- the law of Scotland,
and what they are to obferve afterwards as a rule of
judgment.
5. The civil or Roman and canon laws, though they
are not perhaps to be deemed proper parts -of our writ¬
ten law, have undoubtedly had the greateft influence in
Scotland. The powers exercifed by our fovereigns and
judges have been juflified upon no other ground, than
that they were conformable to the civil or canon Jaws;
and a fpecial ftatute was judged neceilary, upon the refor¬
mation, to refeind fuch of their cbnftitutiohs as were
repugnant to the Proteftant dodrine. From that period,
the canon law has been little refpeded, except in que-
ftiotis of tithes, patronages, and feme few more articles
of ecclefiafticsl right: But the Roman continues to have
great authority in all cafes where it is not derogated
from byftatute or cuftom; and where the genius of our
law fuffers us.to apply it.
6. Our unwritten or cirftomary-law, is that which,
without being exprefsly: enaded by ftatute, derives its
force from the Tacit confent of king and- people ; which
confent is prefumed from the ancient cuftom of the com¬
munity. Cuftom, as it is equally founded in the will of
the lawgiver with written law, has therefore the fame ef-
feds : Hence, as one ftamtemay be explained by another,
fo a ftatute may be explained or repealed by the uniform
pradice of the community, and even go-into difufe by a
pofterior contrary caftom. But this power of cuftom to
derogate from prior ftatutes, is generally confined by
lawyers to ftatutes concerning private right, and does
not extend to -thofe which regard public policy.
7.- An
884 L A
7. An uniform tradt of the judgments or decifions of
the court of feiRon, is commonly confidered as part of
our cuftomary law; and without doubt, where a particu¬
lar cnftoni is thereby fixed or proved, filch cultom of it-^
ftlf conftitutes law : But decifions, though they bind the
parr'es litigating, have not, in their own nature, the au
thority of law m fimilar cafes ; yet, where they continue
uniform, great weight is juflly laid on them. Neither
can the judgments of the houfe of peers of Great Britain
reach farther than to the parties in the appeal, fince in
thefe the peers aft as judges, not as lawgivers.
8. Though the laws of nature are fufficiently publifhed
by the internal fuggeltion of natural light, civil laws
cannot be confidered as a rule for the condudl oflife, till
they are notified to thofe whofe condudl: they are to re¬
gulate. The Scots adls of parliament were, by our moft
ancient cuftom, proclaimed in all the different fhires,
boroughs, and baron-courts of the kingdom. But after
our ftatutes came to be printed, that cuftom was gradually
tiegledled ; and at laft, the publication of our laws, at the
market-crofs of Edinburgh, was declared fufficient; and
they became obligatory forty days thereafter. Bri-
tijh ftatutes are deemed fufficiently notified, without for¬
mal promulgation; either becaufe the printing is truly a
publication, or becaufe every fubjedt is, by a maxim of
the Englifh law, party to them, as being prefent in parlia¬
ment, either by himfelf or his reprefentative. After a
law is publifhed, no pretence of ignorance can excufe the
breach of it.
9. As laws are given for the rule of our condudt, they
can regulate future cafes only ; for part adtions, being
out of our power, can admit of no rule. Declaratory
laws form no exception to this ; for a ftatute, where it
is declaratory of a former law, does no more than inter¬
pret its meaning ; and it is included in the notion of in¬
terpretation, that it mufl draw back to the date of the
law interpreted.
10. By the rules of interpreting (latute-law received
in Scotland, an argument may be ufed from the title to
the adt itfelf, <* rubro ad nigrum; at leaft, where the
lubric has been either originally framed, or afterwards
adopted by the legiflature. The preamble or narrative,
which recites the inconveniences that had arifen from the
;former kw, and the caufes inducing the enadfment, may
alfo lead a judge to the general meaning of the ftatute.
But the chief weight is to be laid on the ftatutory words.
11. Laws, being diredfed to the unlearned as well as
the learned, ought to be conftrued in their moft obvious
meaning, and not explained away by fubtle diftindfions;
and no law is to fuffer a figurative interpretation, where
the proper fenfe of the words is as commodious, and e-
qually fitted to the fubjedt of the ftatute. Laws ought
to be explained fo as to exclude abfurdities, and in the
fenfe which appears moft agreeable to former laws, to
the intention of the lawgiver, and to the general frame
and ftrudture of the conflitution. In prohibitory laws,
where the right of adting is taken from a perfon, folely
for the private advantage of another, the confent of him,
in whofe behalf the law was made, fhall fupport the adt
done in breach of it; but the confent of parties imme¬
diately interefted has no effedt in matters which regard
w.
the public utility of a ftate, Where the words of a fta¬
tute are capable but of one meaning, the ftatute muff be
obferved, however hard it may bear on particular perfons.
Neverthelefs, as no human fyilem of laws can compre¬
hend all poffible cafes, more may be fometimes meant by
the lawgiver than isexprefled ; and hence certain ftatutes,
where extenfion is not plainly excluded, may be extended
beyond the letter, to limilar and omitted cafes: others
are to be confined to the ftatutory words.
12. A ftridf interpretation is to be applied, 1. To
corredtory ftatutes, which repeal or reftridt former laws,
and to ftatutes which enadt heavy penalties, or reftrain
the natural liberties of mankind. 2. Laws, made on
ccafion of prefent exigencies in a ftate, ought not to be
drawn to fimilar cafes, after the prelfure is over,
3. Where ftatutes eftablifh certain folemnities asrequifitc
to deeds, fuch folemnities are not fuppliable by equiva¬
lents ; for folemnities lofe their nature, when they are
not performed fpecifically. 4. A ftatute, which enume¬
rates fpecial cafes, is, with difficulty, to be extended to
cafes not exprelfed; but, where a law does not defcend
to particulars, there is greater reafon to extend it to fimi¬
lar cafes. 5. Statutes, which carry a dilpenfation or
privilege to particular perfons or focieties, fuffer a firidt
interpretation; becaule they derogate from the general
law, and imply a burden upon the reft of the community.
But at no rate can a privilege be explained to the preju¬
dice of thofe in whofe behalf it was granted. As the on¬
ly foundation of cuftomary law is ufage, which confifts in
fadt, fuch law can go no farther than the particular ufage
has gone.
13. All ftatutes, concerning matters fpecially favour¬
ed by lav/, receive an ample interpretation ; as laws for
the encouragement of commerce, or of any ufeful public
undertaking, for making effedfual the wills of dying per¬
fons, for reftraining fraud, for the fecurity of creditors,
&c. A ftatute, though its fubjedt-matter fhould not be
a favourite of the law, may be extended to fimilar cafes,
which did not exift when the ftatute was made ; and fdr
which,- therefore, it was not in the lawgiver’s power to
provide.
14. Every ftatute, however unfavourable, muft re¬
ceive the interpretation neceffary to give it effedl: And,
on the other hand, in the extenfion of favourable laws,
fcope muft not be given to the imagination, in difcovering
remote refemblances ; the extenfion muft be limited to
the cafes immediately fimilar. Where there is ground
to conclude that the legiflature has omitted a cafe out
of the ftatute purpofely, the ftatute cannot be extended
to that cafe, let it be ever fo fimilar to the cafes expref-
fed.
Tit. 2. Of Jurifditfion and Judges in general.
1. Thx objedt of law are perfons, things, and adtions:
among perfons, judges, who are invefted with jurifdidlion,
deferve the firft confideration. JurifdidHon is a power
conferred upon a judge or magiftrate, to take cognifance
of, and decide caufes according to law, and to carry his
fentences into execution. That tradt of ground, or dif-
tridt, within which a judge has the jight of jurifdidlion,
L
is caHed Tils territory : and every adt of jurifdiclion, ex-
ercifed by a judge without his territory, either by pro¬
nouncing fentence, or carrying ft into execution,, is null.
2. The fupreme power, which has the right of enadt-
rng la-AS, falls naturally to have the right of eredting
courts, and appointing judges, who may apply thefe laws
to particular cafes : But, in Scotland; th;s right has been
always intruded with the Growm, as having the executive
pow er of the date.
3. Jurifdidlion is either fupreme, inferior, or mixed.
That jurifdidlion is fupreme, from which there lies no
appeal to a higher court. Inferior courts are thofe
whofe fentences are fubjedf to the review of the fupreme
courts, and whofe jurifdidiion is confined to a particular
territory. Mixed jurifdidtion participates of the nature
both of the fupreme and inferior : thus, the judge of the
high court of Admiralty, and the commiflaries of Edin¬
burgh, have an uoiverfal jurifdidtion over Scotland, and
they can review the decrees of inferior admirals and com-
midaries ; but fince their own decrees are fubjedt to the
review of the courts of Seffion or Judiciary, they are,
in that refpedf, inferior courts. ' *
4. Jurildidtion is'either civil or criminal : by the fird,
quedions of private right are decided ; by the other,
crimes are punifhed. But, in all jurifdiciion, though
merely civil, there is a power inherent in the judge to
punilh, either corporally, or by a pecuniary fine, thofe
who offend during the proceedings of the court, or who
lhall afterwards obdrudt the execution of the fentence.
5. JurifdidHon is either, privative or cumulative.
Privative jurifdidtion, is that which belongs only to one
court, to the exclufion of all others. Cumulative, o-
therwife called concurrent, is that which may be exer-
cifed by any one of two or more courts, in the fame
caufe. In civil cumulative jurifdidtion, the private pur-
fuer has the right of elediion before which of the courts
he {hall fue ; but as, in criminal quedions which are pro-
fecuted by a public officer of court, a collifion of jurif¬
didtion might happen, through each of the judges claim¬
ing the exercife of their right, that judge, by whofe
warrant the delinquent is fird cited or apprehended,
{which is the fird dep of jurifdidtion), acquires thereby
{jttre praventionis) the exclufive right of judging in the
caufe.
6. All rights of jurifdidtion, heing originally granted
in confideration of the fitnefs of the grantee, were there¬
fore perfooal, and died wit!*, himfelf. But, upon the in-
trodudtion of the feudal fydem, certain jurifdidtions were
annexed to lands, and defcended to heirs, as well as the
lands to which they were enexed ; but now all heritable
jurifdidtions, except thofe of admiralty and a fmall pit¬
tance referved to barons, are either aboliffied, or refu¬
med and annexed to the crown.
7. JurifdidHon is either proper or delegated. Proper
jufifdidlion, is that.which belongs to a judge or magi-
ilrate himfelf, in virtue of his office. Delegated, is that
which is communicated by the judge to another who adts
in his name, called a depute or deputy. Where a de¬
puty appoints one under him, he is called a fubffitute.
No grant of jurifdidlion, which is an office requiring per-
fonal qualifications, can be delegated by the grantee to
another, without an exprefs power in the grant/
Vol. II. No. 63. 2
K W. 885
8. Civil jurifdidlion is founded, 1. R'athne domicilii,
if the defender has his domicile within the judge’s terri¬
tory. A domicile is the dwelling-piece where a perfon
lives with an intention to remain ; and cuftom has fixed it
as a rule, that refidence for forty days founds jurifdidtion.
If one has no fixed dwelling place, <?. £. a loldier, ora
travelling-merchant, a perfona! citation againft him with¬
in the territory is fufficient to found the judge’s jurifdic-
tion over him, even in civil queftions. As the defender is
not obliged to appear before a court to which he is
not fubjedt, the pUtfuer mufi: follow the defender’s domi¬
cile.
9. It is founded, 2. Ratione reifit*, if the fubjedl
in queftion lie within the teritory. If that fubjedt be im¬
moveable, the judge, whofe jurifdidfion is founded in
this way, is the foie judge competent, excluding the
judge of the domi ile.
10. Where one, who has not his domicile within the
territory, is to be fued before an inferior court raticne
rei Jita, the court of feffion muft be applied to, whofe
jurifd!dlion is univerfal, and who, or courfe, grants letters
of fupplement to cite the defender to appear before the in¬
ferior judge. Where the partyto be fued refides in another
kingdom, and has an- eftate in this, the court of feffion
is the only proper court, as the commune forum to all
perfons refiding abroad ; and the defender, if his eftate
be heritable, is confidered as lawfully fummened to that
court, by a citation at the market-crofs of Edinburgh,
and pier and ffiore of Leith : but where a ffranger, not
a native of Scotland, has only a moveable eftate in this
kingdom, he is deemed to be fo little fubjeft to the ju-
rifdidtion of our courts, that a&ion cannot be brought a-
gainft him till his effefts be firft attached by an atredment
jurijdidionis fund andee caufa. Hare. 487, which is laid
on by a warrant ilfuing from the fupreme courts of feffion,
or admiralty, or from that within whofe territory the fub-
je<5t is fnuated, at the fuit of the creditor.
11. A judge may, in fpecial cafes, arreft or fecure
the perfons of fuch as have neither domicile nor eftate
within his territory, even for civil debts. Thus, on the
border between Scotland and England, warrants are
granted of courfe by the judge-ordinary of either fide, a-
gainft thofe who have their domicile upon the oppofite
fide, for arrefting their perfons, till they give caution
judiciofifti : and even the perfons of citizens or natives
may be fo fecured, where there is juft reafon to fufpedl
that they are in medhatione fug<e, i. e. that they intend'
fuddenly to withdraw from the kingdom ; upon which
fufpicion, the creditor who applies for the warrant muft
make oath. An inhabitant of a borodgh-royal, who has
furniffied one who lives without the borough in meat,'
cloaths, or other merchandize, and who has no fecurity
for it but his own compt book, may arreft his debtor,-
till hfe give fecurity judicid ffii. ’
12. A judge may be declined, i. e. his jurifduftion
difowned judicially, 1. Ratione caufa, from his incom¬
petency to'the fpecial caufe brought before him. 2.
RationefufpedU judicis ; where either the judge hinjfelf,
or his near kinfman, has an intereft in the fuit. No
judge can vote in the caufe of his father, brother, or fon,
either by cohfanguinity or affinity ; nor in the caufe of
his uncle or nephew by confanguinity. 3. Ratioi:e pri~
9 O v Reg ie j
&86 L A
vilegii; where the party is by privilege exempted from
their jurifdiftion.
13 Prorogated jurifdi&ion f jurifdiflio in confentien-
m) is that which is,- by the confeot of parties, confer¬
red upon a judge, who, without fuch confent, would be
incompetent. Where a judge is incompetent, every ftep
he takes muff be null, till his jurifdiflion be made com¬
petent by the parties actual fubmiflion to it. It is other-
wife where the judge is competent, but may be declined
by the party upon privilege.
14. In order to prorogation, the judge mud have ju-
rifdidtion, fuch as may be prorogated. Hence, proroga¬
tion cannot be admitted where the judge’s jurifdi6tion
is excluded by llatute. Yet where the caufe is of the
fame nature with thofe to which the judge is competent,
though law may have , confined his jurifdiftion within a
certain fum, parties may prorogate it above that fum un-
lefs where prorogation is prohibited. Prorogation is not
admitted in the king’s caufes ; for the intereft of the
Crown cannot be hurt by the negligence of its officers.
15. All judges mult at their admiffion fwear, 1. The
oath of allegiance, and fubfcribe the alfurance ; 2. The
oath of abjuration; 3. The oath of fupremacy ; laftly,
The oath de fideli adminifiratione.
16. A party who has either properly declined the )u-
rifdiftion of the judge before whom he had been cited,
or who thinks himfelf aggrieved by any proceedings in
the caufe, may, before decree, apply to the pourt of
feflion to iflue letters of advocation for calling the aftion
from before the inferior Court tothemfelves. The grounds
therefore, upon which a party may pray for letters of ad¬
vocation, are indompetency and iniquity. Under incom¬
petency, is comprehended not only defeft of jurifdiflion,
but all the grounds of declining a jurifdidtion, in itfelf
competent, arifing either from fufpicion of the judge, or
privilege in the parties. A judge is faid to commit ini¬
quity, when he either delays jurtice, or pronounces fen-
tence, in the exercife of his jurifdidlion, contrary to law.
17. That the court of feflion may not wafte their time
in trifles, no caufe for a fum below twelve pound Sterling
Can be advocated to the court of feflion from the inferior
judge competent : but if an inferior judge fhall proceed
upon a caufe to which he is incompetent, the caufe may
be carried from him by advocation, let the fubjefl be ever
fo inconfiderable.
Tit. 3- Of the fupreme fudges and Courts of
Scotland.
1. The King, who is the fountain of jurifdi&ion, might
by our conftitution have judged in all caufes, either in
bis own perfon, or by thofe whom he was pleafed toveft
with jurifdhSion,
2. The parliament of Scotland, as our court of the
laft refort, had the right of reviewing the fentenees of
all cur fupreme courts.
3. By the treaty of onion, 1707, the parliaments of
Scotland and England are united into one parliament of
Great Britain. From this period, the Britifh houfe of
Peers, as coming in place of the Scots parliament, is be¬
come our court of the lalt refort, to which appeals lie
w.
from all the fupreme courts of Scotland : But that court
has no original jurifdlition in civil matters, in which they
judge only upon appeal! By art. 22. of that treaty,
the Scots mare of the reprefentation in the houfe of Peers
is fixed to fixteen Scots peers eledtive; and in the houfe
of Commons, to forty-five commoners, of which thirty
are eledted by the freeholders of counties, and fifteen by
the royal boroughs. The Scots privy council was alfo
thereupon abolilhed, and funk into that of Great Britain,
which for the future is declared to have no other powers
than the Englifti privy council had at the time of the union.
Court of Session.
4. A court was eredted in 1425, confiding of
certain perfons to be named by the king, out of the
three edates of parliament, which was veded with the
jurifdidbon formerly lodged in the privy council, and
got the name of the Seflion, becaufe it was ordained to
hold annually a certain number of feflions at the places
to be fpecially appointed by the king. This court had a
jurifdidUon, cumulative with the judge ordinary, in
fpuilzies, and other poifefTory adlions, and in debts ; but
they had no cognizance in quedions of property of herit¬
able fubjedls. No appeal lay from its judgments to the
parliament. The judges of this court ferved by rotation,
and were changed from time to time, after having fat
forty days; and became fo negligent in the adminidration
of jurtice, that it was at laft thought necefiary to transfer
the jurifdkdion of this court to a council to be named
by the king, called the daily council,
5. The prefent model of the court of feflion, or col-
lege of juftice, was formed in the reign of James Vi
The judges thereof, who are veiled with an univerfal cU
vil jurifdiftion, confirted originally of feven churchmen',
feven laymen, and a prefident, whom it behoved to be a
prelate; but fpiritual judges were in 1584 partly, and in
ibjo totally prohibited. The judges of felfion have been
always received by warrants from the crown. Anciently
his Majefty feems to have transferred to the court itfelf
the right of chufing their own prefident ; and in a f.de-
runt recorded June 26. 1593, the king condefcended to .
prefent to the lords, upon every vacancy in the bench, a
lift of three perfons, out of which they were to chafe
one. But his Majefty foon refumed the exercife of both
rights, which continued with the Crown till the ufurpa-
tion ; when it was ordained, that the king fhouid name
the judges of the feflion, by the advice of parliament.
After the reftoration, the nomination was again’declared
to be folely in the Sovereign.
6. Though judges may, in the general cafe, be named
at the age of twenty-one years, the lords of leflion muft
be at leaft twenty-five. No perfon can be named lord of
feflion, who has not ferved as an advocate or principal
clerk of feflion for five years, or as a writer to the fignet
for ten : and in the cafe of a writer to the fignet, he
muft undergo the ordinary trials upon the Roman law,
and be found qualified two years before he can be named.
Upon a vacancy in the bench, the king prefents the fuc-
celfor by a letter addreffed to the lords, wherein he re¬
quires them to try and admit the perfon prefented. The
powers given them to rejetft the prefentee upon trial are
taken
L
taken away, and a bare liberty to remonflrate fubftituted
in its place.
7. Befides the fifteen ordinary judges, the king was
allowed to name three or four lords of his great council,
who might fit and vote with them. Thefe extraordinary
lords were fupprefied in the reign of Geo. I.
8. Though the jurifdidion of the feflion be properly
limited to civil caufes, the judges have always fufiained
themfelv.es as competent to the crime of falfehood.
Where the .falfehood deferves death or demembration,
they, after finding the crime proved, remit the criminal
to the court of judiciary. Special ftatute has given to
the court of fefiion jurifdiftion in contraventions of law-
burrows, deforcements, and breach of arredment; and
they have been in ufe to judge in battery pendente life,
and in ufury.
9. In certain civil caufes, the jurifdiiftion of the feffion
Is exclnfive of a!! inferior jurifdudions ; as in declarators:
of property, and other competitions of heritable rights,
provings of the tenor, cejjiones- bonorum, reditution of
minors, redu&ions of decrees or of writings, fales of the
edates of minors or bankrupts, &c. In afecond clafs of
eaufes, their jurifdidion can be only exercifed in the
way of review, after the caufe is brought from the in¬
ferior court; as in maritime and confidorial caufes,
v/hich mud be purfued in the fird indance before the ad¬
miral or Commidary ; and in a&ions below twelve pounds
Sterling, which mud be commenced before the judge-
ordinary. In all civil actions, which fall under neither
of thefe clafles, the jurifdi&ion of the fe/Eon is concur¬
rent, even in the firft indance, with that of the judge-
ordinary. The feflion may proceed as a court of equity
by the rules of confciehce, in abating the rigour of law,
and giving aid in proper cafes to fuch as in a Court of
law can have no remedy: and this power is inherent in
the fupreme court of every country, where feparate.courts
are not edablilhed for law and for equity.
Court of Justiciary:
jo. The fupreme. criminal judge was dyled the
Judiciar; and he had anciently an univerfal civil ju-
rifdhdion, even in matters of heritage. He was obli¬
ged to hold two judice courts or ayres yearly at E-
dinburgh or Peebles, where all the free-holders of the
kingdom were obliged to attend. Befides this univerfal
court, fpecial judice-ayres were held in all the different
fhires of the kingdom twice in the year. Thefe lad
having gone into difufe, eight deputies were appoinred,
two for every quarter of the kingdom, who diouki make
their .circuits over thewhole in April and Odlober.
11. The office of deputies was fupprefled in 1972*, and
five lords of feffion were added, as commiffioners of
Jndiciary, to thejudice-general and judice-clerk. The
jodice-general, if prefent, is condant prefident of the
eourt, and in his abfence the judice-clerk. The kingdom
is divided into three didrifts, and two of the judges are
appointed to hold circuits in certain boroughs of each di-
ftridt twice in the year; one judge may proceed to bull-,
nefs in the abfence of his collegue.
12- By an old datute, the crimes of robbery, rape,
i&urder, and wilful fire raffing, (the four pleas of the
A W; 88 *
Crown), 'are faid to be referred to the Kiog’s .court of.
Judiciary; but the only crime in which, de praxi, th<z
jurifdi&ion of Judiciary became at lad exclufive of all
inferior, criminal jurifffidlion, was that of high treafon.
The court of Judiciary, when fitting at Edinburgh, has
a power of advocating caufes from all inferior criminal-
judges, and of fufpendiog their fentences.
13. The circuit-court can alfo judge in all criminal
caufes which do not infer death or demembration, upon
appeal from any inferior court within their dfflruft; and
has a fiupreme civil jurifditffion, by way of appeal, in all
caufes not exceeding twelve pounds Serling, in which
their decrees are not fubjedt to review ; but no appeal is
to lie to the circuit, tiff the caufe be finally determined,
in. the inferior court.
Court of Exchecjutr.
14. The court of Exchequer, as the King’s chamber^
lain court, judged in all quedions of the revenue. In
purfuance of the treaty of Union, that court was abo-
liihed, and a new court erefted, confiding of the Lord
High Treafurer of Great Britain, and a chief Baron*
with four, other Barons of Exchequer; which Barons are
to be made of ferjeants at law, Engliffi barriders, or
Scots advocates of live years danding. This <;ourt has a
privative jurifdiftion conferred upon it, as to the duties
of cudoms, excife, or other revenues appertaining to the
King or Prince of Scotland, and as to all honours and
edates that may accrue to the crown; in which matters,,
they are to judge by the forms of proceeding ufedin the
Englilh court of Exchequer, under the following limita¬
tions ; that no debt due to the Crown (hall affe<5t the
debtor’s real edate in any other manner than fuch edate
may be affefted by the Jaws of Scotland, and that the
validity of the Crown’s titles to any honours or lands
dial! continue to be tried by the court of Seffion. The
Barons have the powers of the Scots court transferred to
them, of palling the accounts of ffierifFs, or other officers'
who have the execution of writs iff'uing from, or return¬
able to the court of Exchequer, and of repeiving refig-
nations, and palling fignatures of charters, gifts of ca-
fualties,'i&c. But though all thefe mud pafs in Ex¬
chequer, it is the court of Seffion only who can judge of:
their preference after they are completed.
Admiral Court.
15: The jurifdiAion of the Admiral in maritime
caules was of old concurrent with that of the Seffion.
The High-admiral is declared the King’s Judice-General
upon the feas, on frefh water within Hood mark, and in
all harbours and creeks. His civil jurifdidtion extends
to all maritime caufes, and fo comprehends quedions of
charter-partiesj freights, falvages, bottomries, tec. He
exercifes this fupreme jurrfdiAion by a delegate, the
judge of the high-court of admiralty; and he may alfo
name inferior deputies, whofe jurifdi<5U6n is limited to
partrcujar didri&s, and whofe fentences are fubjecd to the
review of the high court. In caufes which are declared
to fall under the-Admiraf’s cognifance, his jurifdiftion is
now foie; in fo much that the Seffion itfelf, though they
may review his decrees by fulpenfion or reduftion., can-
888 L i
not carry a maritime queftion from him by advocation.
The Adm ral has acquired, by ufage, a jurifdiftion in
mercantile caufes, even where they are not Itridlly mari¬
time, cumulative with that of the judge-ordinary.
16. All our fupreme courts have feals or fignets, pro¬
per to their feveral jurifdi&ions. The courts of Selfion
and Judiciary ufed formerly the fame fignet, which was
called the King’s, becaufe the writs ifluing from thence
run in the King’s name ; and though the Judiciary got
at lad a feparate fignet for itfelf, yet that of the Seffion
dill retains the appellation of the King's Signet. In this
effice are fealed fummonfeS for citation, letters of exe¬
cutorial diligence, or for daying or prohibiting of dili¬
gence, and generally whatever pafles by the warrant of the
Seflion, and is to be executed by the officers of the court.
All thefe mud, before fealing, be figned by the writers
or clerks of the fignet: But letters of diligence, where
rhey are granted in a depending procefs, merely for pro¬
bation, though they pafs by the fignet, mud be fubfcri-
bed by a clerk of Seflion. The clerks of the fignet alfo
prepare and fubfcribe all fignatures of charters, or other
royal grants, which pafs in Exchequer.
Tit. 4. Of the inferior Judges and Courts
of Scotland.
Sheriff.
Sheriff, from reeve, governor, and fheer, to cut
or divide, is the judge ordinary condituted by the Crown
over a particular divifion or county. The Sheriff’s
jurifdi£tion, both civil and criminal, was, in ancient
times, nearly as ample within his own territory as that
of the fupreme courts of Seflion and Judiciary was over
the whole kingdom.
2. His civil jurifdidtion now extends to alladtions up¬
on contradls, or other perfonal obligations, forthcomings,
poindings of the ground, mails and duties, and to all pof-
f'eflbry adlions, as removings, ejeifbons, fpuilzies, he.
to all grieves ifluing from the chancery, as of inqued,
terce, divifion, tutory, he. and even to adjudications of
land-edates, when proceeding on the renunciation of the
apparent heir. His prefent criminal jurifdi&ion extends
to certain capital crimes, as theft, and even mOrder,
though it be one of the pleas of the Crown ; and he is
competent to mod quedions of public police, and has a
cumulative jurifdiftion with judices of the peace in all riots
and breaches of the peace.
3. Sheriffs have miniderial pow-er, in virtue of which,
they return juries, in order to the trial of caufes that
require juries. The writs foreletfing members of parlia¬
ment have been, fince the union, direfted to the Sheriffs,-
who, after they are executed, return them to the crown-
office from whence they iffued. They alfo execute w'rits
iffuing from the court of Exchequer; and in general,
take care of all edates, duties, or cafualties that fall to
the Crown within their territory, for which they mud ac¬
count to the Exchequer.
Lord ofR.EGAi.iTY.
4. A Lord of Regality was a magidrate, who had a
L W.
grant of lands from the Sovereign, with royal jurifdk-
tion annexed thereto. His civil jurifdiftion was equal to
that of a Sheriff; his criminal extended to the four pleas
of the crown. He had a right, to repledge or reclaim ail
criminals, fubjedt to his jurifdidtion, from any other com¬
petent court, though it were the Judiciary itfelf, to his
own. He had alfo right, according to the mod common
opinion, to the frngle efeheat cf all denounced perions
refiding within his jurifdidtion, even though fuch privilege
had not been exprefled in the grant of regality.
Stewart.
y. The Stewart was the magidrate appointed by the
King over fuch regality lands as happened to fall to the
Crown by forfeiture, he. and therefore th-e dewart’s ju-
rifdi&ion was equal to that of a regality. The two
dewartries of Kircudbright; and of Orkney and Zetland,
make (hires or counties by themfelves, and fend each a
reprefentative to parliament.
Bailie.
6. Where lands, not erefted into a regality, fell into
the King’s hands, he appointed a Bailie over them, whofe
jurifdifHon was equal to that of a Sheriff.
7 By the late jurifdi<5lion a<5l: 20. Geo.W. all heritable
regalities and bailieries, and all fuch heritable Iheriffships
and dewartries as were only parts of a Ihire, are diffol-
ved; and the powers formerly veded in them are made to
devolve upon fuch of the King’s courts as thefe powers
would have belonged to if the jurifdiftions diffolved had
never been granted. All Iheriffships and dewartries that
were no part of a fhire, where they had been granted,
either heritably or for life, are refumed and annex¬
ed to the crown. No High Sheriff or Stewart can
hereafter judge perfonally in any caufe. One Sheriff
or Stewart-depute is to be appointed by the King in
every (hire, who mud be an advocate of three years
danding ; and after a certain term not yet expired, all
commiffions to thefe deputies are to be granted for life.
Prince of Scotland.
8. The appanage, or patrimony, of the Prince of
Scotland, has been long ere£ted%into a regaiity-jurifdic-
tion, called the Principality. It is perfonal to the King’s
elded fon, upon whofedeath orfucceflidn it returns to the
Crow n. The prince has, or may have, his own chancery,
from which his writs iffue, and may name his own cham¬
berlain and other officers for receiving and managing his
revenue. The vaffals of the Prince are intitled to eledl, or
to be defied members of Parliament for counties, equally
with thofe who hold of the Crown.
Justices of the Peace.
9. Judices of the Peace are magidrates named by
the Sovereign over the feveral counties of the kingdom,
for the fpecial purpofe of preferving the public peace.
Anciently their power reached little farther than to bind
over difbrderly perfons for their appearance before the
Privy Council or Judiciary ; afterwards they were author
rifed to judge in breaches of the peace, 4nd in mod of
the laws concerning public policy. They may compel
workmen or labourers to ferve for a reafonable fee, and
they
L A
tkey can condemn msfters in the wages due to their fer-
yams. They have power to judge in queitions of high-
waysvand to c. ii cutthe tenants with their coders and fer-
vants to perform fix days work yearly for upholding
them.
to Since the Union -ourjufHces of the peace, over
and above the powers committed to them by the laws of
Scotland, are authorifed to exercife whatever belonged
to the office of an Englifh jufiice of the peace, in rela¬
tion to the public peace. From that time, th'e Scots and
the Englifn commiffions have run in the fame flyle, which
contain power* to inquire into, and judge in all capital
Crimes, witchcrafts, felonies, and feveral others fpecially
enumerated, with this limitation lubjoined, of ’which jh-
fiicei of the peace nay lawfully inquire. Two julltces
can conftitute a court. Special ftatutehas give the coghi-
{ance of feveral matters of excife to the juftices, in w'hich
their fentences are final.
Boroughs.
t i . A borough is a body-corporate, made up of the
inhabitants of a certain tr <51 of ground erected by the
Sovereign, with jurifdi<5fion annexed to it. Boroughs
are eredted, either to be holden of the Sovereign himltlf,
which is the general cafe of royal boroughs; or of the fu-
perior of the lands eredfed, as boroughs of regality and
barony Boroughs-royal'have power, by their charters,
to chufc annually certain office-bearers or magiflrates;
and in boroughs of regality and barony, the nomination
<?f magtftrates is, by their charter, lodged, fometimes in
the inhabitants, fometimes in the fuperior Bailies of
boroughs have jurtfdidlion in matters of debt, fervices,
and queflions of polTeflion bet'iixt the inhabitants. Their
criminal jurifdidfion extends to petty riots, and recklefs
fire-raifing The Dean of Guild is that magiftrate of a
royal borough, who is head of the merchant-copapany :
he has the cognifance of mercantile caufes within borough,
and the infpedtion of buildings, that they incroach nei¬
ther on private property, nor on the public ftreets ; and
he may diredl infufficient houfcs to be pulled down His
jurifdidfion has no dependanceon the court of the borough,
or bailie-court.
Barons.
12. A Baron, in the large fenfe of that word, is one
who holds his lands immediately of the Crown ; and, as
fuch, had, by our ancient cdnftitution, right to a feat in
parliament, however fmall his freehold might have^ieen.
The lefier Barons were exempted from the burden of at¬
tending the fervice of parliament. This exemption grew
infenfibly into an utter difability in all the lefler Barons
from fitting in parliament, without eledlion by the coun¬
ty ; though no llatute is to be found exprefsiy excluding
them. ■ '
13. To confifitute a Baron in the ftridt law-fenfe. his
lands mud have been'eredted, or at lead confirmed by
the King, in likeram haroniamand fuch Baron had a
certain jurifdidfion, both civil and criminal,' which he
might have exercifed, either in his own perfon, or by his
bailie.
14. By the late jurifdidtion-adf, the civil jqrifdidtion
Voi.. II» N0. 64. 2
W. 889
of a Baron is reduced to the power of recovering, from
his vafials and tenants, the rents of his lands, and of con¬
demning them in mill fervices; and of judging i,n
caufes where the debt and damagessdo ,oot exceed- 40 $,
Sterling. His criminal juriididfion is, by the lame da-
tute, limited to affaults, batteries, and other fmaller of¬
fences, which may be punifhed by a fine not exceeding
.20 s. Sterling, or ny fetting the offender in the docks in
the day-time not above three hours; the fine to be le¬
vied by poinding, or one month's imprifonment. The ju¬
rifdidfion formerly competent to proprietors of mines,
and coal or fait works, over their workmen, is referred,;
and alfo that which was competent to proprietors who
had the right of fairs or markets, for correcting the dif-
orders that might happ n during their continuance ; pro¬
vided they dull exercife no jurifdidfion inferring, the iofs
of life or demembration.
Constabularies.
15. The High Condable of Scotland had no fixed ter¬
ritorial jurifdidlion, but followed the. court; and had,
jointly with the Marifchalj the cognifance of all crimes
committed within two leagues of it. All other conftabu-
laries were dependant on him: Thefehad caftles, and
fometimes boroughs fubjedf to their jurifdidtion, as Dun¬
dee, Montrofe, e5rc. and amongft other powers, now lit¬
tle known, they had the right of exercifing criminal juri/-
didtion within their refpedtive territories during the con¬
tinuance of fairs. By the late junfdidtion-adf, all jurif-
didtions of conffabulary are diffolvcd, except that of High
Conftable.
Lyon King of Arms.
16. The office of the Lyon King of Arms was chiefly
minifterial, to denounce war, proclaim peace, carry pub¬
lic meflages, ifrc. But he has alfo a right of jurifdidfion,
whereby he can puniffi all who ufurp arms contrary to
the law of arms, and deprive or fu pend meffengers, hd-
ralds or purfuirants, (who are officers named by himfelf;’)
but he has no cognifance of the damage arifingto the pri¬
vate party through the mefienger’s fault. Meffengers are
fubfervfent to the fupreme courts of feffion and judiciary ;
and their proper bufinefs is to execute all the King's let¬
ters either in civil or criminal cauies.
17. Our judges had, for a longtime, no otherfalaries
or appointments than what arofe from the fetences they
pronounced. Our criminal judges applied to their ov/n
life the fines or iffues of their feveral courts; and rega¬
lities had a right to the fingle efeheat of all perfons de¬
nounced, who refided within their jurifdidlion ; and our
civil judges got a certain proportion of thefum contained
in the decree pronounced. But tbefe were all prohibited
upon regular falaries- being fettled upon .our judges.
Tit. 5. Of Ecclefiafltcnl Perfans.
The Pope, or brlhop of Rome, was long acknow¬
ledged, over the weftern part of Chiiflendom, for the
head of the Chriffian church. The papal jurifdidlion
was abolilhed in Scotland anno 1560. The K ng was,
byadf 1669, declared to have fupreme authority overall
9 P peefens.
890 L A
perfons, and in all caufes ecclefiaftical; but this a<fl was
repealed by 1690, as inconfident with Prelbyterian
church-government, which was then upon the point of
being ellabliftied.
2. Before the reformation From Popery, theclergy was
divided intofecular and tegular. The fecularhad a parti¬
cular trail of ground given them in charge, within which
they exercifed the paftoral office of bifhop, prefbyter, or
other church officer. The regular clergy had no cure of
fouls, but were tied down to refidence in their abbacies,
priories, or other monafteries : And they got the name
of regular, from the rules of mortification to which they
were bound, according to the inftitution of their feveral
orders. Upon the vacancy of any benefice, whetherfe-
cular or regular, Commendators were frequently appoint¬
ed to levy the fruits, as failors or ftewards during the
vacancy. The Pope alone could give the higher bene¬
fices in commendam; and at laft, from the plenitude of
his power, he came to name commendators for life, and
without any obligation to account. After the reforma¬
tion, feveral abbacies and priories were given by James
VI. inpsrpetuam ccmmendam, to laics.
3. Upon abolifhing the Pope’s authority, the regular
clergy was totally fuppreffed ; and, in place of all the
different degrees which diftinguifhed the fecular clergy,
we had at firft only parochialPrefbyters or Mlnifters, and
fuperintendants, who had the overfight of the church
within a certain diflridl: Soon thereafter the church-
government became epifcopal, by Archbifhops, Bifhops,
&c. and after fome intermediate turns, is now Prefby-
terian by kirk-feffions, pre/byteries, fynods, and general
ffemblies.
4. Prelate, in our ftatutes, fignifies a Brfltop, Abbot,
or other dignified clergyman, who in virtue of his office
had a feat in parliament. Every Bifhop had his Chapter,
which confifted of a certain number of the minifters of
the diocefe, by whofe affiftance he managed the affairs
of the church within that diflridt. The nomination
of Bifhops to vacant fees has been in the crown fince
,1540, though under the appearance of continuing the
ancient right of eledlion, which was in the Chapter.
The confirmation by the Crown under the great feal, of
the Chapter’s election, confirmed a right to the fpirituality
of the benefice ; and a fecond grant, upon the confecra-
tion of the Bifhop-eledt, gave a title to the temporality ;
but this fecond grant fell foon into difufe.
5. He who founded or endowed a church was intitled
to the right of patronage thereof, or advocatio ecclefta;
whereby, among other privileges, he might prefent a
churchman to the cure, in cafe of a vacancy. The pre-
fentee, after he was received into the church, had a
right to the benefice proprio jure; and if the church
was parochial, he was called a parfo^a. The Pope claim¬
ed the right of patronage of every kirk, to which no
third party could fhew a fpecial title; and fince the re¬
formation, the Crown, as coming in place of the Pope,
i? confidered as univerfal patron, where no right of pa¬
tronage appears in a fubjedl. Where two churches are
united, which had different patrons, each patron prefents
by turns.
6. Gfentlemen ofeflates frequently founded colleges or
w.
collegiate churches, the head of which got the name of
Provofl, under whom were certain Prebendaries or Ca¬
nons, who had their feveral flails in the church, where
they fung maffes. Others of leffer fortunes founded cha-
plainries, within the precinfts of a parochial church ; or
altarages, which were donations granted for the fmging
of maffes for deceafed friends at particular altars in a
church. Though all thefe were fuppreffed upon the re¬
formation, their founders continued patrons of the en¬
dowments ; out of which they were allowed to provide
burfars, to be educated in any of the univerfities.
7. Where a fund is gifted for the eflablifhment of a
fecond minifter in a parilh where the cure is thought too
heavy for one, the patronage of fuch benefice does not
belong to the donor, but to him who was patron of the
church, unlefs either where the donor has referved to
himfelf the right of patronage in the donation, or where
he and his fucceffors have been in the conflant ufe of pre-
fenting the fecond minifler, without challenge from the
patron. The right of prefenting incumbents was by
1690, c. 23. taken from patrons, and veiled in the he¬
ritors and elders of the parilh, upon payment to be made
by the heritors to the patron of 600 merks ; but it was
again reflored to patrons, 10. dn. c. 12. with the ex¬
ception of the prelentations fold in purfuance of the for¬
mer a£t.
8. Patrons were not limply administrators of the
church ; for they held the fruits of the vacant benefice
as their awn, for fome time after the reformation. But
that right is now no more than a trull in the patron, who
mull apply them to pious ufes within the parilh, at the
fight of the heritors, yearly as they fall due. If he fail,
he lofes his right of adminiltring the vacant llipend for
that and the next vacancy. The king, who is exempted
from this rule, may apply the vacant llipend of his church¬
es to any pious ufe, though not within the partlh. If
one Ihould be ordained to a church, in oppofnion to the
prefentee, the patron, whofe civil right cannot be affect¬
ed by any fentence of a church-court, may retain the
ftipend as vacant. Patrons ate to this day intitled to a
feat and burial-place in the churches of which they are
patrons; and to the right of all the teinds of the parilh-
not heritably difponed.
9. That kirks may not continue too long vacant, the
patron mull prefent to the prelbytery, (formerly to the
Bilhop), a fit perfon for fupplying the cure, within fix
months from his knowledge of the vacancy, otherwife
the right of prefentation accrues to the prelbytery jure
devoluto. Upon prefentation by the patron, the Bilhop
Collated or [conferred the benefice upon the prefentee by
a writing, in which he appointed certain minilters of the
diocefe to induce or inllitute him into the chjurch ;-which
induction completed his right, and was performed by
their placing him in the pulpit, and delivering him the
bible and the keys of the church. The bifhop collated
to the churches of which-himfelf was patron j plena jure,
or without prefentation ; which he alfo did in menfal
churches, whofe patronages were funk, by the churches
being appropriated to him, as part of his patrimony.'
Since the revolution, a judicial aCl of admiffion by the
prelbytery, proceeding either upon a prefentation, or, up-
L ;
oa a Call from the heritors and elders, or upon their own
jus devolutum, compleats the minifter’s right to the be¬
nefice.
10. Soon after the reformation, the Popifh churchmen
were prevailed upon to refign in the fovereign’s hands, a
third of their benefices, which was appropriated, in the
firft place, for the fubfiftence of the reformed clergy.
To make this fund effe&ual, particular localities were
alligned in every benefice, to the extent of a third,
called the aflumption of thirds ; and for the farther fup-
port of mini-ders. Queen Mary made a grant in their fa
vour of all the fmall benefices not exceeding 300 merks.
Bilhops, by the aCl which reftored them to the whole of
their benefices, were obliged to maintain the minifters
within their diocefes, out of the thirds; and in like man¬
ner, the laic titulars, who got grants of the teinds,
became bound, by their acceptation thereof, to provide
the kirks within their eredtions in competent llipends.
11. But all thefe expedients for the maintenance of
the clergy having proved ineffedlual, a commiffion of
parliament was appointed in the reign of James VI. for
planting kirks, and modifying ftipends to minifters out of
the teinds; and afterwards feveral other commiffions were
appointed, with the more ample powers of dividing large
parifties.erediing new ones, <bc. all of which were, in 1707,
transferred to the court of Seflion, with this limitation,
that no parifh fliould be disjoined, nor new church erec¬
ted, nor old one removed to a new place, without the
confent of three fourths of the heritors, computing the
votes, not by their numbers, but by the valuation of
their rents within the parilh. The Judges of Seflion.
when fitting in that court, areconfidered as a comipiffion.
of Parliament^ and have their proper clerks, macers, and
other officers of court, as fuch.
12. The loweft ftipend that c?u!d be modified to a
minifter by the firft commiffion was 500 merks, or five
chalders of vidtual, unlefs where the whole teinds of the
pariffi did not extend fo far: And the higheft was 1000.
merks, or ten chalders. The parliament 1633 raifed
the minimum to eight chalders of victual, and propor-
tionably in filver ; but as neither the commiffion appoint¬
ed by that a<5t, nor any of the fubfequent ones, was
limited as to the maximum, the commiffioners have been
in ufe to augment ftipends confiderably above the old
maximum, where there is fufficiency of free teinds, and
the cure is burdenfome, or living expenfive.
13 Where a certain quantity of ftipend is modified to
a minifter out of the teinds of a pariffi, without propor
tioning that ftipend among the feveral heritors, the de¬
cree is called a decree of modification: But where the
commiffioners alfo fix the particular proportions payable
by each heritor, it is a decree of modification and locali¬
ty. Where a ftipend is only modified, it is fecured on
the whole teinds of the pariffi. fo that the minifter can
infift againft any one heritor to the full extent of his
teinds : fuch heritor being always entitled to relief a-
gainft the reft, for what he (hall have paid above his juft
ffiare: But where the ftipend is alfo localled, each heri¬
tor is liable in no more than his own proportion.
14. Few of the reformed minifters were, at firft, pro¬
vided with dwelling houfesmgft of. the Popiffi clergy
L W. 891
having, upon the firft appearance of the reformation, let
their manfes in feu, or in long tacks : Minifters there*
fore got a right, by 1563, to as much of thefe manfes
as would ferve them, notwithftanding fuch feus or tacks;
Where there was no parfon’s nor vicar’s manfe, one was
to be built by the heritors, at the fight of the biffiop,
(now the Preffiytery,) thecharge not exceeding L. 1000
Scots, nor below 500 merks. Under a manfe are com¬
prehended ftable, barn, and byre, with a garden ; for all
which, it is ufual to allow half at> acre of ground.
1 j. Every incumbent is intitled at his entry to have
his manfe put into good condition ; for which purpofe,
the preffiytery may appoint a vifitation by tradefmen, and
order eftimates to be laid before them of the fums ne-
ceflary for the repairing, which they may proportion a-
mong the heritors according to their valuations. The
preffiytery, after the manfe is made fufficient, ought, up¬
on application of the heritors, to declare it a free manfe,
which lays the incumbent under an obligation to uphold
it in good condition during his incumbency; otherwife,
he or his executors (hall be liable in damages; But they
are not bound to make up the lofs arifing from the necef*
fary decay of the building by the wafte of time.
16. ^ All minifters, where there is any landward or coun¬
try-pariffi, are, over and above their ftipend, imitled to a.
glebe, which comprehends four acres of arable land, of
fixteen fowms of pafture-ground where there is no ara¬
ble land, (a fowm is what will graze ten ffieep or one
cow), and is to be defigned or marked by the biffiop or
preffiytery out of fuch kirk lands within the panffi as
lie neareftto the kirk, and, in default of kirk-lands, out
of temporal lands.
17. A right of relief is competent to the heritors,,
■whofe lands are fet off for the manfe or glebe, againft:
the other heritors of the pariffi. Manfes and glebes,
being once regularly.defigned, cannot be feued or fold
by the incumbent in prejudice of his fucceffors, which is-
in pradHce extended even to the cafe where fuch alienation-
evidently appears profitable to the benefice.
18. Minifters, befides their glebe, are intitled tografsi
for a horfe and tao cows. And, if the lands, out of
which the grafs may be defigned,. either lie at adiftance,
or are not fit for pafture, the heritors are to pay to the
minifter L. 20 Scots yearly as an equivalent. Minifters.
have alfo freedom of foggage. pafturage, fewe'l, feal,-divot,
loaning, and free iffi and entry, according to ufe and
v ont: What thefe privileges are, muft be determined by
the local cuftom of the feveral parishes.
19 The legal terms which ftipends become due to-
minifters are Whitfunday and Michaelmas. If the
incumbent be admitted to his church before Whitfunday, ,
till which term the corns are not prefumed to be fully
fown, he has right to'that whole year’s ftipend; and,
if he is received after Whifunday, and before Michael¬
mas, he is intitled to the half of that year; becaufe, tho5
the corns were fown before- his entry, he was admitted,
before the term at which they are preftimed to be reaped.
By the fame reafon, if he dies or is tranfported before
Whitfunday, he has right to no part of that year*; if be¬
fore Michaelmas, to the half; and if not till after Michael¬
mas, to the whole.
20. After-
891 L
20. After the minifter’s death, hts executors have
right 10 the annat; which, in the fcnieof the canon law,
■was a right referved to the Pope, of the firft year’s fruits
of every .benefice. Upon a threatened invasion from
England anrrs 1547, the annat was given by our Parlia¬
ment, not.', ith flan ding this right in the Pope, to the
executors of fuch churchmen as Ihould fall in battle in
defence of their country: But the word annat or ann,
as it is now underftood, is the right which law gives to
the executors of miniflers, of half a year’s benefice, over
and above what was due to the minifter himfelf for his
incumbency.
21. The executors of a minifter need make up no title
to the ann by confirmation : Neither is the right ailignable
by the minilter, or affeftable with his debts ; for it never
belonged to him, but is a mere gratuity given by law to
thofe" whom it is prefumed the deceafed could not fuffi-
ciently provide ; and law has given it exprefsiy to
executors : And if it were to be governed by the rules of
fucceffion in executory, the widow, in cafe of no children,
would get one half, the other would go to the next of
kin ; and where there are children, (he would be intitled
to a third, and the other two thirds would fall equally
among the children. But the court of Scffion, probably
led by the general praflice, have in this lad cafe divided
the ann into two equal parts, of which one goes to the
widow, and the other among the children in capita.
22. From the great con .dence that was, in the firft
ages of Chriftianity, repofed in churchmen, dying per
fons frequently committed to them the care of their eftates,
and of their orphan children ; but thefe were fimply
rights of truft, not of jurifdidtion. The clergy foonhad
the addrefs to eftablifh to themfelves a proper jurifdisftion,
not confined to points of ecclefiaftical right, but extending
to queftions that had no concern with the church They
judged, not only in teinds, patronages, teftaments, breach
of vow, fcandal, &c.\ but in queftions of marriage and
divorce, becaufe marriage was a facrament; in tochers,
becaufe thefe were given in confideration of marriage;
in all queftions where an oath intervened, on pretence
that oaths were a part of religious worfliip, &c. As
churchmen came, by the means of this extenfive jurifdic-
tion, to be diverted from their proper fumftions, they
jcommitied the exercife of it to their officials or commtf-
faries: Hence the Cornmiffary-court was called theBiffiops
court, and Curia ChriJUanitatis ; it is alfo ftyled the
Confiftovial Court, from Conjiftory. a name firft given to the
court of appeals of the Roman Emperors, and afterwards
to the courts of judicature held by churchmen.
23. At the reformation, all epifcopal juiifdi&ion,
exercifed under the authority of the Bilhop of Rome,
•was abolifhed. As the courfe of jnftice in confiftorial
caufes was thereby flopped, Q^Mary, befides naming a
Commiflary for every diocefe, did, by a fpecial grant,
efta lifh a new Commiffary-court at Edinburgh, confifting
of four judges or commiffaties This court is vefted with
a double jurifdidHon ; one diocefan, which is exercifed
in the fpecial territory contained in the grant, viz. the
counties of Edinburgh, Haddington, Linlithgow, Pee¬
bles, and a part part of Stirling-fhire ; and another uni-
setfal, by which the judges confirm the teftaments of all
A W.
who die in foreign parts, and may reduce the decrees of
ail inferior CommifTaries, provided the redudRon be pur-.
fued within a year after the decree: Bifhops, upon their
re efta lifliment in the reign of James VI werereftored
to the right of naming their feveral Commiffaries.
24. As the clergy, in times of Popery, aflumed a ju-
rifdiAion independent of the civil power or any iecular
court, their (en ences could be reviewed only by the Pope,
or judges delegated by him ; fo that, with regard to the
ecu ts of Scotland, their jurifd'dhon was fopreme. But
by an adt 1560, the appeals from our Bdhops courts,
that were then depending before the Roman confi'iories,
were ordained to be decided by the court of Seffion:
And by a pdflerior adf 1609, the Seffion is declared the
King’s great Confiftory, with power to review all fen-
tences pronounced by the Commiffaries. Neverthdefs,
fince that court had no inherent jurifdidfion in confiltorial
caufes, prior to this ftatute; and fince the ftatute gives
them a power cf judging only by way of advocation,
they have not, to this day, any proper confi'torial jurif-
didfion in the firft infbmce: neither do they pronounce
fentence, in any confiftorial caufe brought from the
CommifTaries, but remit it back to them with inftrudfions.
By the pradtice immediately fubfequent to the adl before
quoted, they did not admit advocations from the inferior
CommifTaries, till the caufe was brought before the
CommifTaries of Edinburgh; but that pradtice is now
in difufe.
25. The Commiflaries retain to this day an exclufive
power of judging in declarators of marriage, and of the
nullity of marriage; in adtions of divorce and of non¬
adherence, of adultery, baftardy, and confirmation of
teftaments ; becaufe all .thefe matters are (till confidered
to be properly confiftorial Inferior Commiffaries are
Hot competent to queftions of divorce, under which are
comprehended queftions of baftardy and adherence, when
they have a ednnedtion with the lawfulnefs of marriage,
or with adultery.
26. Commiffaries have now no power to pronounce
decrees in abfence for any fum above L. 40 Scots, ex¬
cept in caufes properly confiftorial: but they may au:hen-
ticate tutorial and curatorial invemories ; and all bonds,
contraAs. <bc. whi h contain a claufe for regiftration in
the books of any judge competent, and protefts on bills,
may be regiftred in their books.
Tit. 6. Of Marriage.
Persons, when confidered in a private capacity, are
chiefly diftinguiflied by their mutual relations; ashulband
and wife, tutor and minor, father and child, mafter and
fervant. The relation of hu(band and wife isconftituted
by marriage; which is the-conjundion of- man and wife,
vowing to live infeparably till death.
2. Marriage is truly a contra#, and fo requires the
confent of parties Ideots, therefore, and furious per-
fons cannot marry. As no perfon is prefumed capable
of confent widiin the years of pupillarity, which, by our
law, lafts till the age of fourteen in males, and twelve
in femahs, marriage cannot be contrsded by pupils ; but
if the married pair (hould cohabit after puberty, fuch
acquiefcence
L
{UVjmefcence elves force to the marriage. Marriage is
fully perfected by confent; which, without confumma-
tion, founds all the conjugal rights and duties. The
confent tequifite to marriage mutt be de prxfenti. A
proraife of marriage, {Jlipulatio fponfalitia,) may be
refiled from, as long as matters are entire ; but if any
thing be done by one of the parties, whereby a prejudice
arifes from the non-performance, the party refiling is li¬
able in damages to the other. The canonifts, and after
them our courts of juflice, explain a copula fubfequent
to'a promife of marriage into a&ual marriage.
3. It is not neceffary, that marriage fliould be cele¬
brated by a clergymen. The confent of parties may be
declared before any magiftrate, or {imply before wit-
neffes: And though no formal confent fhould appear,
marriage is prefumed from the cohabitation, or living
together at bed and board, of a man and woman who are
generally reputed hnfband and wife. One’s scknowledg-
mentvof his marriage to the midwife whom he called to
his t*{i£e, and to the minifter who baptized his child, was
fpund fufficient prefumptive evidence of marriage, with¬
out the aid, either of cohabitation, or of babite and re
pute. The father’s confent was, by the Roman Lw,
efT-ntial to the marriage of children in familia : But, by
our law, children may enter into marriage, without the
knowledge, and even againft the remonftrances of a fa¬
ther.
4. Marriage is forbidden within certain degrees of
blood. By the law of Mofes, Levit. c. j8. which is
made ours, feconds in blood, and all remoter degrees,
may lawfully marry. By feconds in blood are meant
firft coufins Marriage in the diredf line is forbidden in
infinitum; as it is alfo in the collateral line, in the fpe-
cial cafe where one of the parties is loco parentis to the
other, as grand uncle, great grand-uncle, tec. with re-
fpeift to his grand-niece, tec. The fame degrees that are
prohibited in confanguinity, are prohibited in affinby ;
which is the tie rifing from marriage, betwixt one of the
married pair and the blood relations of the other.
Marriage alfb, where either of the parties is naturally
unfit for*generation, or Hands already married to a third
perfon. is ipfio jure null.
5. To prevent bigamy and inceftuous marriages, the
church has introduced proclamation of banns; which is
the ceremony of publifhing the names and defignations of
thofe who intend to intermarry, in the churches where the
bride and bridegroom refide, after the congregation is af-
fembled for divine fervice ; that all perfons uho know
any objeffion to the marriage, may offer it. When the
order of the church is obferved, the marriage is called
regular ; when otherwife, clandeftine.
6. By marriage, a fociety is created between the mar¬
ried pair, which draws after it a mutual communication of
their civil intereffs, in as far as is neceffary for maintain¬
ing it. As the fociety lafls only for the joint lives of
the f&cii; therefore rights that have the nature of a per¬
petuity, which our law ftyles heritable, are not brought
under the partnerfhip or communion of goods ; as a land-
eftate, or bonds bearing a yearly intereff: It is only mo¬
veable fubjefts, or the fruits produced by heritable fub-
Vql, II. Numb. 64. 2
A W. 893
jefts during the marriage, that become common to man
• and wife.
7. The hnfband, as the head of the wife, has the foie
right of managing the goods in communion, which is
called jus tnariti. This right is fo abfolute, that it
bears but little refemblance to a right of adminiftring a
common fubjeifl; for the hufband can, in virtue thereof^
fell, or even gift at pleafure, the whole goods falling un-:
der communion ; and his creditors may afftd them for
the payment of his proper dpbts : So that the jus mart-
ti carries all the characters of an affignitien by the wife
to the hufband, of her moveable eftate. It arifes ipfo-
jure from the marriage; and therefore needs no other
conftitution. But a flranger may convey an eftate to a
wife, fo as it fhall not be fubjedt to the hufband’s admi-
niftration ; or the hufband himfelf may, in the marriage-
contraft, renounce his jus mariti in all or any part of
his wife’s moveable eflate.
8. From this right are excepted paraphernal goods,-
which, as the word is underftood in our law, comprehends
the wife’s wearing apparel, and the ornaments proper to
her perfon, as necklaces, ear rings, bread or arm jewels,
buckles, &c. Thefe are neither alienable by the huf¬
band, nor affedtable by his creditors. Things of pro-
mifeuous ufe to hufband and wife, as plate, medals, 3cc,
may become paraphernal, by the hufband’s giving them to?
the wife, at or before marriage ; but they are paraphernal;
only in regard to that hufband who gave them as fucb,
and are efleemed common moveables, if the wife, whofe
paraphernalia they were, be afterwards married to a fe-
cond hufband ; unlefs he fhall in the fame manner appro¬
priate them to her.
9. The right of the hufband to the wife’s moveable e-
flate, is burdened with the moveable debts contracted by
her before marriage : And as his right is univerfal, fo is
his burden ; for it reaches to her whole moveable debts,
though they fhould far exceed her moveable eflate. Yet
the hufband is not confidered as the true-debtor in his
wife’s debts. In all actions for payment, fhe is the pro¬
per defender: the hufband is only cited for his intereft,
that is, as curator to her, and adminiflrator of thefociety-
goods. As foon therefore as the marriage is diffolved,
and the fociety goods thereby fuffer a divifion, the huf¬
band is no farther concerned in thefhare belonging to his
deceafed wife ; and confequently is no longer liable to
pay her debts, which mufl be recovered from her repre-
fentatives, or her feparate Hate.
10. This obligation upon the hnfband is perpetuated
againfl him 1. Where his proper eflate, real or perfonal,
has been affeCted, during the marriage, by complete legal
diligence; in which cafe, the hufband mufl, by the com¬
mon rules of law, relieve his property from the burden
with which it Hands charged : But the utmoft diligence
againft his perfon, is not fufficient to perpetuate the o-
bligation ; nor even incomplete diligence againft his eftate:
2- The hufband continues liable, even after the wife’s
death, in fo far as he is lucratus or profited by her e-
ftate. As he was at no time the proper debtor in his
wife’s moveable debts; therefore, though he fhould be
lucratus, he is, after the diffolution, only liable for
9 Q_ them
894 L
them fiibfidiarh, i. e. if her own feparate edate is not
fufficient to pay them ofF.
11. Where the wife is debtor in that fort of debt,
which, if it had been d ie to her, would have excluded
the jus mariti, e. g. in bonds bearing intereft, the huf-
band is liable only for the bygone interefts, and thofe that
may. grow upon the debt during the marriage; becaufe
his obligations for her debts mult be commenfurated to the
interell he has in her eftate. It is the hulband alone who
is liable in perfonal diligence for his wife’s debts, while
the marriage fubfifts: The wife, who is the proper deb¬
tor, is free from all perfonal execution upon them while
Ihe is vejiita viro.
12. The hulb.ind by marriage becomes the perpetual
curator of the wife. From this right it arifes, i. That
no fuit can proceed againft the wife, till the hufband be
cited for his interelt. 2. All deeds, done by a wife
without the hulband’s content, are null ; neither can Ihe
fue in any a<3ion without the hulband’s concurrence.
Where the hulband refufes, or by reafon of forfeiture,
cannot concur; or where the adlion is to be brought
againft the hulband himfelf, for performing his part of
the marriage-articles; the judge will authorife her to fue
in her own name. The effects arifing from this curato¬
rial power difcover themfelves even before marriage, upon
the publication of banns; after which the bride, being
no longer fui juris, can contract no debt, nor do any
deed, either to the prejudice of her future hulband, nor
even to her own.
13. If the hulband Ihonld either withdraw from his
wife, or turn her out of doors; or if, continuing in fa¬
mily with her, he Ihould by fevere treatment endanger
her life; the Commiffaries will authorife a feparation a
menfa et toro, and give a feparate alimony to the wife, fuit-
able to her hulband’s eftate, from the time of fuch fepara¬
tion, until either a reconciliation or a fentence of divorce.
14. Certain obligations of the wife are valid, notwith-
ftanding her being ran* ex.gr. obligations
arifing from delict; for wives have no privilege to commit
crimes. But if the punifhment refolves into a pecuniary
mulft, the execution of it muft, from her incapacity to
fulfil, be fufpended till the diffolution of the marriage,
unlefs the wife has a feparate eftate exempted from the
jus mariti.
15. Obligations arifing from con trad, affeCt either the
perfon or the eftate The law has been fo careful to
proteCI wives, while fub cura mariti, that all perfonal
obligations granted by a wife, though with the hulband’s
confent, as bonds, bills, <bc. are null; with the following
exceptions: 1. Where the wife gets a feparate jeculium
or ftoclt, either from her father or a ftranger, for her
own or her children’s alimony, Ihe may grant perfonal
obligations in relation to fuch ftock; and by ftronger
reafon, perfonal obligations granted by a wife are good,
when her perfon is actually withdrawn from her hulband’s
power, by a judicial feparation. 2. A wife’s perfonal
obligation, granted in the form of a deed inter vivos, is
valid, if it is not to take effeCt till her death. 3. Where
the wife is by the hulband preepsfiia negotiis. erttrufted
with the management, either of a particular branch of
bufifiefs, or of his whole affairs, all the contracts Ihe en-
A W.
ters into in the exercife of her prsep^Jitura, are effe&ual,
even though they be not reduced to writing, but (hould
arife merely ex re, from furnifhings made to her: But
fuch obligations have no force againft the wife; it is the
hulband only, by whofe commiflion Ihe aCts, who is
thereby obliged.
16. A wife, while Ihe remains in family with her huf¬
band, is confidered as prxpoftta negotiis domejiicis ; and
confequently may provide things proper for the family,
for the price whereof the hulband is liable, though they
fliould be mifapplied, or though the hulband Ihould have
given her money to provide them elfewhere. A hulband,
who fufpeCts that his wife may hurt his fortune by high
living, may ufe the remedy of inhibition againft her ; by
which all perlbns are interjidled from contracting with
her, or giving her credit. Aftey the completing of this
diligence, whereby the prsepofitura falls, the wife cannot
bind the hulband, unlefs for fuch reafonable furnilhings
as he cannot inftruCt that he provided her with aliunde.
As every man., and confequently every hulband, has
to remove his managers at pleafure, inhibition may pkfs
at the fuit of the hulband againft the wife,- though he
Ihould not offer to juftify that meafure by an aCtual proof
of the extravagance or profufenefis of her temper.
17. As to rights granted by the wife affeCting her e-
ftate ; Ihe has no moveable eftate, except her parapher¬
nalia; and thefe Ihe may alien or impignorate, with con¬
fent of the hulband. She can, without the hufband, be¬
queath by teftament her fhare of the goods in communion;
but Ihe cannot difpofe of them inter vivos. A wife can
lawfully oblige herfelf, in relation to her heritable eftate,
with confent of her hufband ; for though her perfon is in
fome fenfe funk by the marriage, Ihe continues capable
of holding a real eftate; and in fuch obligations, her e-
ftate is confidered, and not her perfon A hulband,'
though' he be curator to his wife, can, by his acceptance
or intervention, authorife rights granted by her in his
own favour; for a hulband’s curatory is not intended only
for the wife’s advantage, but is confidered as a mutual
benefit to both.
18. All donations, whether by the wife to the huf-
band, or by the hulband to the wife, are revocable by
the donor ; but if the donor dies without revocation, the
right becomes abfolute. Where the donation is not pure*
it is not fubjedt to revocation:. Thus, a grant made by
the hulband, in confeq'vence of the natural obligation
that lies upon him to provide for his wife, is not revoca¬
ble, unlefs in fo far as it exceeds the meafure of a ratio¬
nal fettlment; neither are remuneratory grants revocable,
where mutual grants are made in eonfideration of each
other, except where an onerous caufe is fimulated, or
where what is given bine inde bears no proportion to
each other. All voluntary contracts of feparation, by
which the wife is provided in an yearly alimony, are ef¬
fectual as to the time paft, but revocable either by the
hulband or wife.
19. As wives are in the ftrongeft degree fubjeCt to the
influence of their hufbanda, third parties, in whofe fa¬
vours they had made grants, were frequently vexed
with actions of reduction, as if the grant had been ex¬
torted from the wife, through the force or fear of the
hulband..
hufoatu!. To fecure the grantees againft this danger,
ratifications were introduced, whereby the wife, appear¬
ing before a judge, declares upon oath, her huftand not
prefent, that ihe was not induced to grant the deed tx
vi aut metu. A wife’s ratification is not abfolutely ne-
ceffary for fecuring the grantee: Law indeed allows the
wife to bring reduction of any deed Ihe has not ratified,
upon the head of force or fear ; of whLh, if Ihe brings
fufficient evidence, the deed will be fet afide ; but if Ihe
fails in the proof, it will remain efFeftual to the receiver.
20. Marriage, like other contracts, might, by the
Roman law, be diffolved by the contrary confent of par¬
ties ; but, by the law of Scotland, it cannot be diflblved
till death, except by divorce, proceeding either upon
the head of adultery, or of wilful defertion.
21. Marriage is difiblved by death, either within year
and day from its being contraffed, or after year and
day. If it is diflblved within year and day, all rights
granted in confideration of the marriage (unlefs guard ¬
ed againft in the contraft) become void, and things re¬
turn to the fame condition in which they flood before
the marriage ; with this reftri&ion, that the hufband is
confidered as a 6a»a fide poflefibr, in relation to what he
has confumed upon the faith of his right ; but he is liable
to repay the tocher, without any deduction in confidera¬
tion of his family expence during the marriage. If things
cannot be reftored on both fides, eqaity hinders the re-
ftoring of one party, and not the other.
22. Upon the diflblution of a marriage, after year and
day, the furviving hufband becomes the irrevocable pro¬
prietor of the tocher and the wife, where fhe furvives,
is intitled to her jointure, or to her legal provifions.
She has alfo right to mournings, fuitable to the hufband’s
quality ; and to alimony from the day of his death, till
the term at which her liferent provifion, either legal or
conventional, commences. If a living child be procrea¬
ted of the marriage, the marriage has the fame effetft as
if it had fubfifted beyond the year. A day is adjedted
to the year, in majorem evidentiant, that it may clearly
appear that the year itfelf is elapfed ; and therefore, the
running of any part of the day, after the year, has the
fame effect as if the whole were elapfed. The legal right
of courte'y competent to the furviving hufband is ex¬
plained below, Tit. xvi 28.
23. Divorce is fuch a feparation of married perfons,
during their lives, as loofes them from the nuptial tie,
and leaves them at freedom to intermarry with others.
But neither adultery, nor wilful defertion, are grounds
which muft neceflarily diflblve marriage ; they are only
handles, which the injured party may take hold of, to
be free. Cohabitaition, therefore, by the injured party,
after being in the knowledge of the adts of adultery, im¬
plies a pafling from the injury ; and no divorce can pro¬
ceed, which is carried on by collufion betwixt the parties,
left, contrary to the firft inftitution of marriage, they
might difengage themfelves by their own confent : and
though after divorce, the guilty perfon, as well as the
innocent, may contradl fecond marriages; yet in the
cafe of divorce upon adultery, marriage is by fpecial fta-
tute prohibited betwixt the two adulterers.
54. Where either party has deferred from the other
W. 895
for four years together, that other may fue for adherence.
If this has no effedt, the church is to proceed, firft by
admonition, then by excommunication ; all which pre¬
vious fleps are declared to be a fufficient ground for pur-
fuing a divorce. De fraxi, the Commiflaries pronounce
fentence in the adherence, after one year’s defertion ;
but four years muft intervene between the firft defertioa
and the decree of divorce.
25. The legal effedts of divorce on the head of defer¬
tion are, that the offending hufband fhall reftore the
tocher, and forfeit to the wife all her provifions, legal
and conventional ; and on the other hand, the offending
wife fhall forfeit to the hufband her tocher, and all the
rights that would have belonged to her, in the cafe of
her furvivance. This was alfo efteemed the rule in divor¬
ces upon adultery. But by a decifion of the court of
S'effion 1762, founded on a tradl of ancient decifions re¬
covered from the records, the offending hufband was al¬
lowed to retain the tocher.
Tit. 7. Of Minors, and the'v Tutors and Cu¬
rators*
1. The ftages of life principally diftinguiffied in law
are, pupillarity, puberty or minority, and majority, A
child is under pupillarity, from the birth till fourteen
years of age, if a male, and till twelve, if a female.
Minority begins where pupillarity ends, and continues
till majority, which, by the law of Scotland, is the age
of twenty-one years complete, both >n males and females:
But minority, in a large fenfe, includes all under age,
whether pupils, or puberes. Becaufe pupils cannot in
any degree ad for themfelves, and minors feldom with
difcretion, pupils are put by law' under the power of tu¬
tors, and minors may put themfelves under the diredion
of curators. Tutory is a power and faculty to govera
the perfon, and adminifler the eftate of a pupil. Tutors
are either nominate, of law, or dative
2. A tutor nominate is he who is named by a father,
in his teflament or other writing, to a lawful child.
Such tutor is not obliged to give caution for the faithful
difcharge of his office ; becaufe his fidelity is prefumed
to have been fufficiently known to the father.
3. If there be no nomination by the father, or if the
tutors nominate do not accept, or if the nomination falls
by death or otberw fe, there is place for a tutor of law.
This fort of tutory devolves upon the next agnate ; by
which we underlland he who is neareft related by the fa¬
ther, though females intervene.-
4. Where there are two or more agnates equally near
to the pupil, ; he who is intitled to the pupil’s legal fuc-
ceffion falls to be preferred to the others. But as the
law fufpeds, that he may not be over careful to preferve
a life which /lands in the way of his own intereft, this
fort of tutor is excluded from the cuftody of the pupil’s
p- rfon, which is commonly committed to the mother,
while a widow, until the pupil be feven years old ; and,
in default of the mother, to the next cognate, i. e. the nigheft
relation by the mother. The tutor of law muft be at
lea/l twenty-five years of age. He is ferved or declared
by a jury of fworn men, who are called upon a brief iflu-
ing
$96 L
tng from the Chancery, which is directed to any judge
having jurifdidion. He muft give fecurity before he en¬
ters upon the management.
5. If no tutor of law demands the office, any perfon,
even a llranger, may apply for a tutory-dative. But
becaufe a tutor in law ought to be allowed, a competent
time to deliberate whether he will ferve or not, no tuto¬
ry-dative can be given till the elapfmg of a year from
flie time at which the tutor of law had firll a right to
ferve. It is the king alone, as the father of his country,
who gives tutors-dative, by his court of exchequer ; and
no gift of tutory can pafs in exchequer, without the ci¬
tation or confent of the next of kin to the pupil, both by
the father and mother, nor till the tutor give fecurity,
recorded in the books of exchequer. There is no room
for a tutor of law, or tutor-dative, while a tutor nomi¬
nate can be hoped for : and tutors of law, or dative,
even after they have begun to ad, may be excluded by
the tufor nominate, as foon as he offers to accept, unlefs
he has exprefsly renounced the office. If a pupil be with
out tutors of any kind,'the court of Seffion will, at the
fuit of any kinfman, name a fador (fteward) for the ma¬
nagement of the pupil’s eilate.
6. After the years of pupillarity are over, the minor
is confidered as capable of ading by himfelf, if he has
confidence enough of his own capacity and prudence.
The only two cafes in which curators are impofed upon
minors are, firft, where they are named by the father, in
a Hate of health. 2. Where the father is himfelf alive ;
for a father is ip/o jure, without any fervice, admipiftra-
tor, that is, both tutor and curator of law to his children,
in relation to whatever eftate may fall to them during
their minority. This right in the father does not extend
to grand-children, nor to fuch even of his immediate
children as are forisfamiliated. Neither has it place in
fubjeds which are left by a ftranger to the minor, ex
clufive of the father’s adminiftration. If the minor chufes
to be under the diredion of curators, he muft raife and
execute a fummons, citing at leaft two of his next of
kin, to appear before his own judge-ordinary, upon nine
days warning. At the day and place of appearance, he
offers to the judge a lift of thofe whom he intends for his
curators : fuch of them as refolye to undertake the office,
muft fign their acceptance, and give caution^ upon which
an ad of curatory is extraded.
7. Thefe curators are ftyled ad negotia, todiftinguilh
them from another fort called curators ad lites, who
are autborifed by the judge to concur with a pupil or
minor in adions of law, either-where he is without tutors
and curators, or where his tutors or curators are parties
to the fuit. This fort is not obliged to give caution, be¬
caufe they have no intermeddling with the minor’s eftate:
they are appointed for a fpecial purpofe ; and when that
is over, their office is at an end. Women are capable
of being tutors and curators, under the.following reftric-
tions ; 1. The office of a female tutor or curator falls by
her marriage, even though the nomination fhould provide
otherwife ; 2. No woman can be tutor of la>w. Papifts
are declared incapable of tutory or curatory. Where
the minor has more tutors and curators than one, who
are called in the nomination to the joint management,
A W.
they muft all concur in every ad of adminiftration : where
a certain number is named for a quorum, that number
muft concur : where any one is named ftne quo non, no
ad is valid without that one’s fpecial concurrence. But
if they are named without any of thele limitations, the
concurrence of the majority of the nominees then alive is
fuffiuent.
8. In this, tutory differs from curatory, that as pupils
are incapable of confetit, they- have no perfon capable of
ading ; which defed the tutor fupplies: but a minor
pubes can ad for himfelf. Hence, the tutor lubfcribes
alone all deeds of adminiftration : but in curatory, it is
the minor who fubfctibes as the proper party ; the cura¬
tor does no more than confent. Hence alfo, the perfcns
of pupils are under the power, either of their tutors or
of their neareft cognates; but the minor, after populari¬
ty, has the difpolal of his own perfon, and may refide
where he pleafts. In moft other particulars, the nature,
the powers, and the duties of the two offices coincide.
Both tutors and curators muft, previous to their admini¬
ftration, mike a judicial inventory, fubfcribed by them
and the next of kin, before the minor’s judge-ordinary,
ot his whole eftate, petfonal and real ; of which, one
fubfcribed duplicate is to be kept by the tutors or cura¬
tors themfeives ; another, by the next of kin on the fa¬
ther’s fide ; and a third, by the next of kin on the mo¬
ther’s. If any eftate belonging to the minor lhall after¬
wards come to their knowledge, they muft add it to the
inventory within two months after their attaining poffef-
fion thereof. Should they negledt this, the minor’s
debtors are not obliged to make payment to them ; they
may be removed from their offices as fiUpeded, and they
are intitled to no allowance for the fums diflmrfed by
them in the minor’s affairs, except the expence laid out
upon the minor’s entertainment, upon his lands and houfes,
and upon completing his titles.
9. Tutors and curators cannot grant leafes of the mi¬
nor’s lands, to endure longer than their own office; nor
under the former rental, without either a warrant from
^.the court of Seffion, or fome apparent necellky.
10. They have power to fell the minor’s moveables •
but cannot fell their pupil’s land eftate, without the
authority of a judge. But the alienation of heritage by
a minor, with confent of his curators, is valid.
11. Tutors and curators cannot, contrary to the nature
of their truft, authorife the minor to do any deed for
their ov/n benefit ; nor can they acquire any debt affecting
the minor’s eftate: and, where a tutor or curator makes
fuch acquifition, in his own name, for a lefs fcm than
the right is intitled to draw, the benefit thereof accrues
to the minor.
12. By the Roman law, tutory and curatory, being
munera Jtublica, might be forced upon every one who
had not a relevant ground of excufe ; but, with us, the
perfons named to thefe offices may either accept or de¬
cline : and where a father, in liege pouftie, names cer¬
tain perfcns both as tutors and curators to his children,
though they have adted as tutors, they may decline the
office of curatory. Tutors and curators having once ac¬
cepted, are liable in diligence^ that is, are accountable
for the confequences of their negkit in any part of their
L
duty from the time of their acceptance. They are ac¬
countable finguli in folidum, i. e. every one of them is
anfwerable, not only for his own diligence, but for that
of his co-tutors ; and any one may be fued without ci¬
ting the reft : But he who is condemned in the whole,
has aftion of relief againft his co-tutors.
13. From this obligation to diligence, we may except,
1. Fathers or adminillrators in law, who, from the pre-
fumption that they aft to the beft of their power for their
children, are liable only for aftual intromiflions. 2. Tu¬
tors and curators named by the father, with the fpecial
provifos, that they (hall be liable barely for intromillions,
not for omiflions ; and that each of them (hall be liable
only for hirafelf," and not in folidum for the co-tutors :
But this power of exemption from diligence, is limited
to the eftate defcending from the father himfelf. Tu¬
tors or curators are not intitled to any falary or al¬
lowance for pains, unlefs a falary has been exprefsly
contained in the teftator’s nomination ; for their office is
prefumed gratuitous.
14. Though no perfon is obliged to accept the office
of tutor or curator, yet having once accepted, he cannot
throw it up or renounce it, without fufficient caufe ; but,
if he ffiould be guilty of mifappiying the minor’s money,
or fail in any other part of his duty, he may be removed
at the fuit of the minor’s next in kin, or by a co-tutor,
or co-curator. Where the mifconduft proceeds merely
from indolence, or inattention, the court, in place of
removing the tutor, either join a curator with him, or,
if he be a tutor-nominate, they oblige him to give caution
for his paft and future management.
15. The offices of tutofy and curatory expire by the
pupil’s attaining the age of puberty, or the minor’s at¬
taining the age of twenty-one years complete ; and by
the death either of the minor, or of his tutor or cura¬
tor.
16. Deeds either by pupils, or by minors having cu¬
rators without their confent, are null ; but they oblige
the granters, in' as far as relates to fums profitably ap¬
plied to their ufe. A minor under curators can indeed
make a teftament by himfelf; but whatever is executed
in the form of a deed inter vivos, requires the curator’^
confent. Deeds by a minor who has no curators, are as
effeftual as if he had curators, and figned them with
their confent; he may even alien his heritage, without
the interpofition of a judge.
17. Minors may be reftored againft all deeds granted
in their minority, that are hurtful to them. Deeds, in
themfelves void, need not the remedy of reftitution ; but
where hurtful deeds are granted by a tutor in his pupil’s
affairs, or by a minor tvho has no curators, as thefe
deeds fubfift in law, reftitution is neceffary: And even
where a minor, having curators, executes a deed hurtful
to himfelf with their confent, he'has not only aftion
againft the curators, but he has the benefit of reftitution
againft the deed itfelf. The minor cannot be reftored,
if be does not raife and execute a fummons for reducing
the deed, ex capiie ininorennitatis et lafionis, before he
be twenty-five years old. Thefe four years, between the
age of twenty-one and twenty-five, called quadriennium
utile, are indulged to the minor, that he may have a
Vol. II. No. 64. 2
A W. 897
reafonable time, from that period, when he is firft pre¬
fumed to have the perfeft ufe of his reafon, to confider
with himfelf what deeds done in his minority have been
truly prejudicial to him.
18. Queftions of reftitution are proper to the court of
Selfion. Two things muft be proved by the minor, in
order to the reduftion of the deed; 1. That he was mi¬
nor when it was figned ; 2. That he is hurt or lefed by
the deed. This lefion muft not proceed merely from ac¬
cident ; for the privilege of reftitution was not intended
to exempt minors from the common misfortunes of life ;
it muft be owing to the imprudence or negligence of the
minor, or his curator.
19. A minor cannot be reftored againft his own delift
or fraud. 2. Reftitution is excluded, if the minor, at
any time after majority, has approved of the deed, either
by a formal ratification, or tacitly by payment of intereft*
■ or by other afts inferring approbation. 3. A minor,
who has taken himfelf to bufinefs, as a merchant (hop-
keeper, <&c cannot be reftored againft any deed granted
by him, in the courfe of that bufinefs, efpecially if he
was proximus rrtajorennitati at figning the deed. 4.
According to the more common opinion, a minor cannot
be reftored in a queftion againft a minor, unlefs fome grofs
unfairnefs (hall be qualified in the bargnin.
20. The privilege of reftitution does not always die
with the minor himfelf. 1. If a minor fucceeds to a mi¬
nor, the time allowed for reftitution is governed by the
minority of the heir, not of the anceftor. 2. If a minor
fucceeds to a major, who was not full twenty-five, the
privilege continues with the heir during his minority; but
he cannot avail himfelf of the anni utiles, except in fo
far as they were unexpired at the anceftor’s death. 3.
If a major fucceeds to a minor, he has only the qundri-
enniurn utile after the minor’s death ; and if he fucceeds
to a major dying withiri the quadrienniiim, no more of
it can be profitable to him than what remained when the
anceftor died,
21. No minor can be compelled to ftate himfelf as a
defender, in any aftion, whereby his heritable eftate flow-
ing from afeendants may be evifted from him, by one
pretending a preferable right.
22. This privilege is intended merely to fave minors
from the neceffity of difputing upon queftions of prefe¬
rence ; it does not therefore take place, 1. Where the
aftion is purfued on tfie father’s falffiood or delift. 2.
Upon his obligation to convey heritage. 3. On his li¬
quid bond for a fum of money, though fuch aftion ffiould
have the effeft to carry off the minor’s eftate by adjudica¬
tion. 4. Nor in aftions purfued by the minor’s fuperi-
or, upon feudal cafuahies. 5. This privilege cannot be
pleaded in bar of an aftion which had been firft brought
againft the father, and is only continued againft the minor;
nor where the father was not in the peaceable poffeffion of
the heritable fubjeft at his death. Before the minor pan
plead it, he muft be ferved heir to his father. .The per-
Tons of pupils are protefted from imprifonment on civil
debts.
23. Curators are given, not only to minors, but in
general to every one who, either through defeft of
judgment, or unfitnefs of difpofition, is incapable of
9 R rightly
898 L A W.
rightly managing his own affairs. Of the firft fort, are
idiots and furious perfons. Idiots, oryir/a/, are entirely
deprived of the faculty of reafon. The diftemper of the
furious perfon does not confift in the defdiS of reafon, but
in an overheated imagination, which obftrufts the appli¬
cation of reafon to the purpofes of life. Curators may
be alfo granted to lunatics, and even to perfons dumb
and deaf, though they are of found judgment, where it
appears that they cannot exert it in the management of
bufinefs. Every perfon, who is come of age, and is ca¬
pable of afting rationally, has a natural right to condudt
his own affairs. The only regular way, therefore, of
appointing this fort of curators, is by a jury fummoned
upon a brief from the chancery; which is not, like the
brief of common tutory, directed to any judge-ordinary,
but to the judge of the fpecial territory where the perfon
alledged to be fatuous or furious refides; that if he is
truly of found judgment, he may hare an opportunity to
oppofe it: And, for this reafon, he ought to be made a
party to the brief. The curatory of idiots and furious
perfons belongs to the neareft agnate ; but a father is
preferred to the curatory of his fatuous fon, and the
hufbandto that ofhis fatuous wife, before the agnate.
24. A claufe is inferted in the brief, for inquiring how
long the fatuous or furious perfon has been in that condi¬
tion; and the verdidt to be pronounced by the inqueft, is
declared a fufficient ground, without farther evidence,
for reducing all deeds granted after the period at which
it appeared by the proof that the fatuity or furiofity be¬
gan. But, as fatuous and furious perfons are, by their
very ftate, incapable of being obliged, all deeds done by
them may be declared void, upon proper evidence of their
fatuity at the time of figning, though they fhould never
have been cognofced idiots by an inqueft.
25. We have fome few inftances of the Sovereign’s
giving curators to idiots, where the next agnate did not
claim ; but fuch gifts are truly deviations from our law,
fince they pafs without an inquiry into the ftate of the
perfon upon whom the curatory is impofed. Hence the
curator of law to an idiot, ferving quandocunqite, is pre¬
ferred as foon as he offers himfelf, before the curator-da¬
tive. This fort of curatory does not determine by the
lucid intervals of the perfon Jub cura; but it expires by
his death, or perfedl return to a found judgment ; which
laft ought regularly to be declared by the fentence of a
judge.
26. Perfons, let them be ever fo profufe, or liable to
be impofed upon, if they have the exercife of reafon, can
effectually oblige themfelves, till they a-re fettered by law.
Interdidion is a legal reftraint laid upon fuch perfons
from figning any deed to their own prejudice, without
the confent of their curators or interdidtors.
27. There could be no interdidlion, by our ancient
pradlice, without a previous inquiry into the perfon’s con¬
dition. But as there were few who could bear the fhame
that attends judicial interdiction, however neceffary the
reftraint might have been, voluntary interdiction has re
ceived the countenance of law ; which is generally execu¬
ted in the form of a bond, whereby the granter obliges
himfelf to do no deed that may affeCt his eftate, without
the confent of certain friends therein mentioned. Though
the reafons inductive of the bond ihould be but gently
touched in the recital, the interdiction ftands good.
Voluntary interdiction, though it be impofed by the foie
aCt of the perfon interdicted, cannot be recalled at his
pleafure: But it may be taken off, 1. By a fentence of
the court of Seflion, declaring, either that there was,
from the beginning, no fufficient ground for the reftraint ;
or that the party is, fince the date of the bond, become
rei ftme providus. 2. It falls, even without the autho¬
rity of the Lords, by the joint aCt of the perfon interdic¬
ted, and his interdiCtors, concurring to take it off. 3.
Where the bond of interdiction requires a certain number
as a quorum, the reftraint ceafes if the interdiCtors Hull
be by death reduced to a lefl'er number.
28. Judicial interdiction is impofed by a. fentence of
the court of Seffion. It commonly proceeds on an aCtion
brought by a near kinfmen to the party; and fometimes
from the nobile officium of the court, when tney perceive,
during the pendency of a fuit, that any of the litigants
is. from the facility of his temper, fubjeCt to impolition.
This fort muft be taken off by the authority of the fame
court that impofed it.
29 An interdiction need not be ferved againft the per¬
fon interdicted ; but it muft be executed, or pubhlhed by
a meffenger, at the market-crofs of the jurifdiCtion where
he refides, by publicly reading the interdiction there, af¬
ter three oyeffes made for convocating the lieges, A copy
of this execution muft be affixed to theciofs ; and there¬
after, the interdiction, with its execution, muft be regi-
ftred in the books, both of the jurifdiCtion where the
perfon interdicted refides, and where his lands he, or in
the general regifter of the feffion, within forty days from
the publication. An interdiction, before it is regiftred,
has no effeCt againft third parties, though they ffiould be
in the private knowledge of it; but it operates againft the
interdiCtors themlelves, as foon as it is delivered to
them.
30. An interdiction, duly regiftred, has this effeCl,
that all deeds, done thereafter, by the perfon interdicted,
without the confent of his interdiCtors, affeCting his he¬
ritable eftate, are fubjeCt to reduction. Regiftration, in
the general regifter, fecures all his lands from alienation,
where-ever they lie; but where the interdiction is record¬
ed in the regifter of a particular ffiire, it covers no lands,
except thofe fituated in that fhire. But perfons interdict¬
ed hare full power to difpofe of their moveables, not on¬
ly by teftament, but by prefent deeds of alienation: And
creditors, in perfonal bonds granted after interdiction,
may ufe all execution againft their debtor’s perfon and
moveable eftate; fuch bonds being only fubjeCt to reduc¬
tion, in fo far as diligence againft the heritable eftate may
proceed upon them
31. All onerous or rational deeds granted by the per¬
fon interdicted, are as effectual, even without the confent
of the interdiCtor, as if the granter had been laid under
no reftraint * but he cannot alter the fucceffion of his he¬
ritable eftate, by any fettlement let it be ever fo ration¬
al. No deed, granted with confent of the interdiCtors, is
reducible, though the ftrongeft lefion or prejudice to the
granter fhould appear: The only remedy competent, in
fuch cafe, is an aCtion by the granter againft his interdiC¬
tors,
L
tors, for making up to him what he has loft through their
undue confent. It is no part of the duty of interdittors,
to receive fums, or manage any eflate; they are given
merely ad aud^ritatern prajiandam, to interpofe their
authority to reafonable deeds; and fo are accountable for
nothing but their fraud or fault, in confenting to deeds
hurtful to theperfon under their care.
32. The law concerning theftate of children falls next
to be explained. Children are either born in wedlock, or
out of it. All children, born in lawful marriage or wedlock,
are prefumed to be begotten by the perfon to whom the
mother is married; and confequently to be lawful chil¬
dren. This prefumption is fo ftrongly founded, that it
cannot be defeated but by diredt evidence that the mo¬
ther’s hufband could not be the father of the child, e.g.
where he is impotent, or was abfent from the wife till
within fix lunar months of the birth. The canonifts in¬
deed maintain, that the concurring teftimony of the huf¬
band and wife that the child was not procreated by the
hufband, is fufficient to elide this legal prefumption for
legitimacy: but it is an agreed point, that no regard is
to be paid to fuch teftimony, if it be made after they
have owned the child to be theirs. A father has the ab-
folute right of difpofing of his childrens perfon, of direc¬
ting their education, and of moderate chaftifement; and
even after they become puberes, he may compel them to
live in family with him, and to contribute their labour
and induftry, while they continue there, towards his fer-
vice. A child who gets a feparate ftock from the father
for carrying on any trade or employment, even though
he fhould continue in the father’s houfe, may be faid to
be emancipated or forisfamiliated, in fo far as concerns
that ftock; for the profits arifing from it are his own.
Forisfamiliation, when taken in this fenfe, is alfo inferred
by the child’s marriage, or by his living in a feparate
houfe, with his father’s permiflion or goodwill. Chil¬
dren, after their full age of twenty-one years, become,
according to the general opinion, their own matters; and
from that period are bound to the father only by the na¬
tural ties of duty, affection, and gratitude. The mutu¬
al obligations between parents and children to maintain
each other, are explained afterwards, Tit. 20.
33. Children, born out of wedlock, are ftyled natural
children, or baftards. Baftards may be legitimated or
made lawful, either, 1. By the fubfequent intermarriage
of the mother of the child with the father. And this
fort of legitimation, intitles the child to all the tights of
lawful children. The fubfequent marriage, which produces
legitimation, is confidered by the law to have been enter¬
ed into when the child legitimated was begotten ; and
hence, if he be a male, he excludes, by his right of pri¬
mogeniture, the fons procreated after the marriage, from
the fucceffion of the father’s heritage, though thefe fons
were lawful children from the birth. Hence alfo, thofe
children only can be thus legitimated, who are begotten
of a woman whom the father might at that period have
lawfully married. 2. Baftards are legitimated by letters
of legitimation from the fovereign. See Tit. 29.
34. As to the power of mafters over their fervants:
All fervants now enjoy the fame rights and privileges with
other fubje&s, unlefs in fo far as they are tied down by
A W. 899
their engagements of fervice. Servants are either ne»
ceffary or voluntary. Necelfary are thofe whom law o-
bliges to work without wages, of whom immediately.
Voluntary fervants engage without, compulfion, either
for mere fubfiftence, or alfo for wages. Thofe who earn
their bread in this way, if they ihould ftand off from en¬
gaging, may be compelled to it by the Juftices of the
peace, who have power to fix the rate of their wages.
35. Colliers, coal-bearers, and falters, and otb^r per-
fons neceftary to collieries and faltworks, as they are
particularly deferibed by aft 1661, are tied down to per¬
petual fervice at the works to which they have once en¬
tered. Upon a fale of the works, the right of their
fervice is transferred to the new proprietor. All perfons
are prohibited to receive them into their fervice, without
a teftimonial from.their laft mafter; and if they defert
to another work, and are redemanded within a year there¬
after, he who has received them is obliged to return them
within twenty-four hours, under a penalty, But though
the proprietor fliouid neglefl to require the deferter
within the year, he does not, by that fhort prefeription,
lofe his property in him. Colliers, <bc. where the col¬
liery to which they are aftridted, is either given up, or
not fufficient for their maintenance, may lawfully engage
with others; but if that work ffiall be again fet a going,
the proprietor may reclaim them back to it.
36. The poor make the loweft clafs or order of per¬
fons. Indigent children may be compelled to ferve any
of the king’s fubjedts without wages, till their age of
thirty years. Vagrants and fturdy beggars may be alfo
compelled to ferve any manufadturer. And becaufe
few perfons were willing to receive them into their fer¬
vice, public work-houfes are ordained to be built for
fetting them to work. The poor who cannot work,
muft be maintained by the pariffies in which they were
born ; and where the place of their nativity is not known,
that burden falls upon the pariffies where they have had
their moll: common refbrt, for the three years immediately
preceeding their being apprehended, or their applying
for the public charity. Where the contributions colledi-
ed at the churches to which they belong, are not fuffici¬
ent for their maintenance, they are to receive badges
from the minifter and kirk feffion, in virtue of which they
may alk alms at the dwelling houfes of the inhabitants
of the pariffi.
Tit. 8. Of the Divifion of Rights, and the federal
•ways by vjhich a Right may be acquired.
The things or fubjedts to which perfons have right, are
the fecond objedt of law. The right of enjoying and
difpofing of afubjedlat one’s pleafure, is called property.
Proprietors are reftrained by law from ufing their pro¬
perty emuloufiy to their neighbour’s prejudice. Every
ftate or fovereign has a power over private property,
called, by fome lawyers, dominium eminent, in virtue of
which, the proprietor may be compelkd to fell his pro¬
perty for an adequate price, where an evident utility on
the part of the public demands it.
2. Certain things are by nature itfelf incapable of ap¬
propriation, as the air, the light, the ocean, <bc. j none
of
L
of which carT be brought under the power of any one
perfon, though their ufe be common to all: Others are
by law exempted from private commerce, in refpeft of
the ufes to which they are deftined. Of this laft kind
are, i. Res public#, as navigable rivers, highways,
bridges, &c.: the right of thefe is veiled in the King,
chiefly for the benefit of his people, and they are cal-
ed regalia. 2. Res univerfitatis, things which be¬
long in property to a particular corporation or fociety,
and whofe ufe is common to every individual in it ; but
both property and ufe are fubjedi to the regulations of
the fociety ; as town houfes, corporation-halls, market¬
places, church yards, <bc. The lands or other revenue
belonging to a corporation do not fall under this clafs,
but are juris privati.
3. Property maybe acquired, either by occupation
or acceflion ; and transferred by tradition or prefcrip-
tion : But prefcription, being alfo a way of lofing pro¬
perty, falls to be explained under a feparate title. Oc¬
cupation, or occupancy, is the appropriating of things
which have no owner, by apprehending them, or feizing
their poffeflion. This was the original method of acqui¬
ring property, and continued, under certain reftridtions,
the dodlrine of the Roman law, Q^iod nullius eft, fit oc¬
cupant is; but it can have no room in the feudal plan, by
which the King is looked on as the original proprietor of
all the lands within his dominions.
4. Even in that fort of moveable goods which are
preiumed to have once had an owner, this rule obtains
by the law of Scotland, Quod nullius eft, fit domini re-
gis. Thus, the right of treafures hid under ground, is
not acquired by occupation, but accrues to the King.
Thus alfo, where one finds ftrayed cattle or other move¬
ables, which have been loft by the former owner, the
finder acquires no right in them, but muft give public
notice thereof; and if within year and day after fuch
notice, the proprietor does not claim his goods, they fall
to the King, Sheriff, or other perfon, to whom the King
has made a grant of fuch efcbeats.
5. In that fort of moveables which never had an owner,
aswildbeafts, fowls, fifties, or pearls found on the ftiore,
the original law takes place, that he who firft apprehends,
becomes proprietor ; in fo much, that though the right
of hunting, fowling, and fifhing, be reftrained by ftatute,
under certain penalties, yet all game, even what is catch-
ed in contravention of the law, becomes the property of
the catcher, unlefs where the confifcation thereof is made
part of the penalty : But whales thrown in or killed on
our coafts, belong neither to thofe who kill them, nor to
the proprietor of the grounds on which they are caft,
but to the King, providing they are fo large as that they
cannot be drawn by a wane with fix oxen.
6. Accession is that way of acquiring property, by
which, in two things which have a connexion with, or
dependence on one another, the property of the principal
thing draws after it the property of its acceffory. Thus
the owner of a cow becomes the owner of the calf; a
houfe belongs to the owner of the ground on which it
ftands, though built with materials belonging to, and at
the charge of another. The Romans excepted from this
yule the cafe of paintings drawn on another man’s board
A W.
or canvas, in confideration of the excellency of the art ;
which exception our pra&ice has for a like reafon ex¬
tended to fimiiar cafes.
7. Under acceflion is comprehended Specification ;
by which is meant, a perfon’s making a new fpecies or
fubjed, from materials belonging to another. Where
the new fpecies can be again reduced to the matter of
which it was made, law confiders the former mafs as ftill
exifting ; and therefore, the new fpecies, as an acceffory
to the former fubjeft, belongs to the proprietor of that
fubjeft: But where the thing made cannot be fo reduced,
as in the cafe of wine, which cannot be again turned in¬
to grapes, there is no place for the fittio juris ; and
therefore the workmanfhip draws after it the property of
the materials.
8. Though the new fpecies fhould be produced from
the Commixtion or confufion of different fubftances
belonging to different proprietors, the fame rule holds ;
but where the mixture is made by the common confent
of the owners, fuch confent makes the whole a common
property, according to the (hares that each proprietor
had formerly in the feveral fubjedls. Where things of
the fame fort are mixed without the confent of the pro¬
prietors, which cannot again be feparated, e. g. two
hogfheads of wine, the whole likewife becomes a common
property ; but in the after-divifion, regard ought to be
had to the different quality of the wines : If the things
fo mixed admit of a feparation, e. g. two flocks of (heep,
the property continues diftinft.
9. Property is carried from one to another by Tra¬
dition ; which is the delivery of poffeflion by the pro¬
prietor, with an intention to transfer the property to the
receiver. Two things are therefore requifite, in order
to the tranfmitting of property in this way : 1. The in¬
tention or confent of the former owner to transfer it on
fome proper title of alienation, as fale, exchange, gift,
drc. 2. The adlual delivery in purfuance of that inten¬
tion. The firft is called the caufa, the other the modus
transferendi dominii : Which laft is fo neceffary to the
acquiring of property, that he who gets the laft right,
with the firft tradition, is preferred, according to the
rule, Traditionibus, non nudis pad is, transferuntur re¬
rum dominia.
to. Tradition is either real, where the ipfa corpora,
of moveables are put into the hands of the receiver ; or
fymbolical, which is ufed where the thing is incapable of
real delivery, or even when a&ual delivery is only incon¬
venient. Where the poffeflion or cuftody of the fubjedl has
been before with him to whom the property is to be tranf-
ferred, there is no room for tradition.
11. Poffeflion, which is effential both to the acquifi-
tion and enjoyment of property, is defined, the detention
of a thing, with a defign or animus in the detainer of
holding it as his own. It cannot be acquired by the foie
aft of the mind, without real detention ; but, being once
acquired, it may be continued folo animo. Poffeflion is
either natural, or civil. Natural poffeflion is, when one
poffeffes by himfelf: Thus, we poffefs lands by cultiva¬
ting them and reaping their fruits, houfes by inhabiting
them, moveables by detaining them in our hands. Civil
poffeflion is our holding the thing, either by the foie aft
of :T;£ cjlad, or by tf e hands of another who holds It in
our name : Thus, the owner of a thing lent poflefles it
by the borrower ; the proprietor of lands, by his tackf-
niiD, trut’ee, or Reward ; The fame fubj. 61 cannot
be poflefl’ed entirely, or inJclidum, by two different per-
fens at one and the fame time ; and therefore pofftflion
by an a6t of the mind ceafes, as foon as the natural pof-
feffion is fo taken up by another, that the former poikffor
is not fufFered to re-enter. Yet two perfons may, in the
judgment of law, pofftjs the fame fubjedt, at the fame
time, on different rights .: thus, in the cafe of a pledge,
the creditor poffeffes it in his own name, in virtue of the
right of impignoration ; while the proprietor is confidered
as poffefling, in and through the creditor, in fo far as is
neceffaty for fopporting his right of property. The fame
do6trine holds in liferenters, tackfmen, and, generally,
in every cafe where there are rights affeffing a fubjeft,
■drflindt from the property. •
12. A bon.1 fide poffeffor is he, who, though he is not
really proprietor of the fubjedt, yet believes himfelf pro¬
prietor on probable' grounds. A mala fide poffeffor knows,
or is prefumed to know, that what he poffeffes is the
property of another. A pofftffor bona fide acquired
right, by the Roman law, to the fruits of the fubjedt
poffeffed, that had been reaped and confumed by himfelf,
■while he believed the fubjedls his own. By our cuftoms,
perception alone, without confumption, fecures the pof-
ieffor : Nay, if he has fown the ground, while his bona
fides continued, he is intitled to reap the crop, propter
curam et culturam. But this dodlrine does not reach
to civd fruits, e. g. the interefl of money, which the
Iona fide receiver muft rellore, together with the princi¬
pal, to the owner.
13. Bona fidei neceffarily ceafeth by the confcientia
ret alienee in the poffeffor, whether luch confcioufnefs
fhould proceed from legal interpellation, or private know
ledge; Mala fides is fometimes induced, by the true
owner’s bringing his adfion againft the poffeffor, fome-
times not till litifconteflation, and, in cafes uncommonly
favourable, not till fentence be pronounced aeainft the pof¬
feffor.
14. The property of moveable lubjedls is prefumed by
the bare effedt of poffeJlion, until the contrary be proved ;•
but poffeflion of an immoveable fubjedf, though for a cen¬
tury of years together, if there is no feifin, does not
create even a prefumptive right to it : Nulla faftna,
nulla terra. Such fubjedt is confidered as caduciary,
and fo accrues to the fovereign. Where the property of
a fubjedt is contefted, the lawful poffeffor is intitled to
continue his poffeffion, till the point of right be difeuffed ;
and, if he has loft it by force or ftealth, the judge will,
upon fummary application, immediately reftore it to him.
15. Where a pofftffor has feveral rights in his perfon,
afftdting the fubjedl poffeffed, the general rule is, that he.
may aferibe his poffcftiotf to which of them he pleafes ; but
one cannot aferibe his poffeffion to a title other than that on
w hich it commenced, in prejudice of him from whom his
title flowed.
Tit. 9. Ofherhalle and move able Rights.
For the better underftanding the doarine of this title,
Vol. II. No. 64. 2
W. 90?
it muft be known, that by the law of Scotland, and in¬
deed of moft nations of Europe, ft nee the introduaion of
feus, where ever there are two or more in the fame de¬
gree of confanguinity to one who dies inteftate, and who
are not ail females, fuch rights belonging to the deceafed
as are either properly feudal, or have any reremblance to
feudal rights, deicend wholly to one of them, who is con¬
fidered as his proper heir; the others, who have the
name of next of kin or executors, muft be contented v.ith
that portion of the eftate which is of a more perifttable
nature. Hence has arifen the divifion of rights to be ex¬
plained under this title : the fubjedb defeending to the
heir, are ftyled heritable; and thofe that fall to the next
of kin, moveable.
2. All rights of, or affedUng lands, under which are
comprehended houfes, mills, fifltings, teinds; and ail
rights of fu'ojedts that are fundo anexa, whether com-
pieated by feifin or not, are heritable ex fua natura. Oa
the other hand, every thing that'moves itfelf, or can be
moved, and in general whatever is net united to land,,
is moveable ; as houfehold-furniture, corns, cattle, cafh,
arrears of rent and of intereft, even though they fhould
be due on a right of annualrent : For though the arrears
laft: mentioned are fecured on land, yet being prefentiy
payable, they are confidered as calh.
3. Debts, (nomina debitorutn), when due by bill,
promiffory note, or account, are moveable. When con-
ftituted by bond, they do not all fall under any one head;
but are divided into heritable and moveable, by the fol¬
lowing lules, .411 debts conftituted by bond bearing an
obligation to infeft the creditor in any heritable fubjeff in
fecurity of the principal fum and annualrent, or annual-
rent only, are heritable ; for they not only carry a yearly
profit, but are fecured upon land.
4. Bonds merely perfbnal, though bearing a claufe of
intereft, are moveable as to fucctflion; i- e. they go not to
the heir, but to the next of kin or executors : but t-heyare
heritable with refpedt to the fifk, and to the rights of huf-
band ami wife; that is, though, by the general rule, mo¬
veable rights fall under the communion of goods confe-
quent upon marriage, and the moveables of denounced
perfons fall to the crown or fiik, by Angle efeheat, yet
fuch bonds do neither, but are heritable in both re-
fpedts.
5. Bonds-taken payable to heirs and affignees, feclu-
ding executors, are heritable in all refpedb, from the de-
ftination of the creditor. But a bond, which is made
payable to heirs, without mention of executors, defeends,
not to the proper heir in heritage, though heirs are men¬
tioned in the bond, but to the executor; for the word
heir, which is a generic term, points out him who is to
fucceed by law in the right; and the executor, being the
heir in mob 1 lib us. fs confidered as the perfon to whom
fiiCh bond is taken payable But where a bond is taken
to heirs-male, or to a feries of heirs, one after another,
fuch bond is heritable, becaufe its deftination ne^effarily
excludes executors.
6 Su' jedts originally moveable become heritable :
I. By the proprietor’s deftination. Thus, a jewel, or
any other moveable fubjedt.’, may be provided to the
heir, from the right competent ■ to .every -proprietor-to
fettle his property on whom he pleafes. 2. Moveable
9©* L
rights may become heritable, by the fupsryening of an
heritable fecurity : Thus, a fum due by a perfonal bond
becomes heritable, by the creditor’s accepting an heritable
tight for fe-curing it, or by adjudging upon it,
7. Heritable rights do not become moveable by accef-
fory moveable fecurities, the heritable right being in fuch
cafe the jus nobilius, which draws the other after it.
8. Certain fubjefts partake, in different refpedls, of
the nature both of heritable and moveable. Perfonal
bonds are moveable in refpedf of faccelSon, but heritable
as to the fide, and hufband and wife. All bonds, whe¬
ther merely perfonal, or even heritable, on which no feifm
has followed, may be affeded at the fuit of creditors,
either by adjudication, which is a diligence proper to he¬
ritage; or by arreftment, which is peculiar to moVeabies.
Bonds fecluding executors, though they defeend to the
creditor’s heir, are payable by the debtor’s executors,
without relief againft the heir; fince the debtor’s fuccef-
fion cannot be affeded by the deflination of the creditor.
9. All queftions, whether a right be heritable or move-
able, mult be determined according to the condition of
the fubjed at the time of the anceftor’s death. If it was
heritable at that period, it mult belong to the heir ; if
moveable, it muft fall to the executor, without regard
to any alterations that may have affeded the fubjed in
the intermediate period between the anceftor’s death and
the competition.
Tit. 10. Of the Conftltution of heritable Rights
by Charter and Seijin.
Heritable rights are governed by the feudal lav/,
which owed its origin, or at leaft its firft improvements,
to the Longobards; whofe kings, upon having penetrated
into Italy, the better to preferve their conquefts, made
grants to their principal commanders of great part of
the conquered provinces, to be again fubdivided by them
among the lower officers, under the conditions of fidelity
and military fervice.
2. The feudal conftitutions and ufages were firft re¬
duced into writing, about the year 1150, by two lawyers
of Milan, under the title of Confueludtries Feudorum.
None of the German Emperors appear to have exprefsly
confirmed this colledion by their authority; but it is
^generally agreed, that it had their tacit approbation, and
was confidered as the cuftomary feudal law of all the
countries fubjetfl to the empire. Noother country has ever
acknowledged th.efe books for their law; but each ftate
has formed to itfelf fuch a fyftem of feudal rules, as beft
agreed with the genius of its own conftitution. In feudal
queftions, therefore, we are governed, in the firft place,
by our own ftatutes and cuftoms ; where thefe fail us, we
have regard to the pradliceof neighbauringcountries, if
the genius of their law appears to be the fame with ours;
and fhould the queftio-n flill remain doubtful, we may
have reccurfe to thofe written books of the feus, as to
the original plan on which all feudal fyftems have pro¬
ceeded.
3. This military grant got the name, firft of beneficium,
and afterwards oLfeudutn; and was defined a gratuitous
right to the property of Hnds, made under the conditions
A W.
of fealty and military fervice, to be performed to the
granter by the receiver; the radical right of the lands
ftill remaining in the granter. Under lands, in this defi¬
nition, are comprehended all rights or fubjefts fo con-
ne&ed with land, that they are deemed a part thereof j
as houfes, mills, fifhings, jurifdidtions, patronages, &c.
Though feus in their original nature were gratuitous, they
foon became the fubjeft of commerce ; fervices of a civil
or religious kind were freqeuntly fubftituted in place of
military ; and now, of a longtime, fervices of every kind
have been entirely difpenfed with, in certain feudal te¬
nures. He who makes the grant is called the fuperior,
and he who receives it the vaffal. The fubjedt of the
grant is commonly called the feu ; though that w< rd is
at other times, in our law, ufed to fignify one particular
tenure. See Tit. 11. The intereft retained by the fu¬
perior in the feu is ftyled do-minium direttum or the fu-
periority; and tke intereft acquired by the vaflal, domi¬
nium utile, or the property. The word fee is promif-
cuoufiy applied to both.
4. Allodial goods are oppofed to feus; by which are
underftood, goods enjoyed by the owner, independent of
a fuperior. All moveable goods are allodial; lands on¬
ly are fo, when they are given without the condition of
fealty or homage. By the feudal fyftem, the fovereign,
who is the fountain of feudal rights, referves to himfelf
the fuperiority of all the lands of which he makes the
grant ; fo that, with us, no lands are allodial, except
thofe of the King’s own property, the fuperiorities which,
the King referves in the property-lands of his fubjedls,
and manfes and glebes, the right of which is compleat-
ed by the prelbytery’s defignation, without any feudal
grant.
5. Every perfon who is in the right of an immoveable
fubjeift, provided he has the free adminiftration of his e-
ftate, and is not debarred by ftatute, or by the nature of
his right, may difpofe of it to another. Nay, a valla);
though he has only the dominium utile, can fubfeu his
property to afubvaffal by a fubaltern right, and thereby
raife a new dominium direllum in himfelf. fubordijate
to that which is in his fuperior; and fo in infinitum.
The vaflal who thus fubfeus, is called the fubvafiai’s im¬
mediate fuperior, and the vaffal’s luperior is the fubvaf-
fal’s mediate fuperior.
6. All perfons who are not difabled by law, may ac¬
quire and enjoy feudal rtghs. Papifts cannot purchafe a
land eftate by any voluntary deed. Aliens, who owe al¬
legiance to a foreign prince, cannot hold a feudal right
without naturalization ; and therefore, where fuch privi¬
lege was intended to be given to favoured nations or per¬
fons, ftatutes of naturalization were neceflary, either ge¬
neral, or fpecial; or at leaft, letters of naturalization by
the fovereign.
7. Every heritablefubjeift, capable of commerce, may
be granted in feu. From this general rule is ex¬
cepted, 1. The annexed property of the Crown, which
is not alienable without a previous diftblution in parlia¬
ment. 2. Tailzied lands, which are devifed under
condition that they fhall not be aliened. 3. An eftate
in kereditate jacente cannot be effedtually aliened by the
heir-apparent (/'. e. not entered); but fuch alienation
becomes.
L
"feecomcs tffeflual upon his entry, the fupervening right
accruing in that cafe to the purchafer ; which is a rule
applicable to the alienation of all fubjefls not belonging
to the vender at th^time of the fale.
8. The feudal right, or, as it is called, invelliture,
is conflituted by charter and feifm. By the charter, we
underlfand that writing which contains the grant of the
feudal fubjedt to the vaffal, whether it be executed in the
proper form of a charter, or of a difpofition. Charters
by fubjed-fuperiors are granted, either, j. A me de
fuperiore meo, when they are to be holden, not of the
granter himfeif, but of his fuperior. This fort is called
a public holding, becaufe vaflals were in ancient times
publicly received in the fuperior’s court before the pares
curia or co-vaflals. Or, 2. De me, where the lands are
to be holden of the granter. Thefe were called fometimes
bafe rights, from has, lower: and fometimes private,
becaufe, before the ellablidiment of our records, they
were eafily concealed from third parties; the nature of
all which will be more fully explained. Tit. 14. An
original charter is that by which the lee is firft granted :
A charter by progrefs is a renewed difpofition of that
fee to the heir or afligney of the vaflal. All doubtful
claufes in charters by progrefs ought to be con (trued
agreeably to the original grant; and all claufes in the
original charter are underftood to be implied in the char¬
ters by progrefs, if there be no exprefs alteration.
.9. The firft claufe in an original charter, which follows
immediately after the name and defignation of the granter,
is the narrative or recital, which exprefles the caufes
indudtive of the grant. If the grant be.made for a va¬
luable confideration, it is faid to be onerous; if for love
and favour, gratuitous. In the difpofitive claufe of a
charter, the fubjefts made over, are defcribed either by
fpecial boundaries or march-ftones, (which is called a
bounding charter), or by fuch other charadters as may
fufficiently diftinguifh them. A charter regularly carries
right to no fubjedfs but what are contained in this claufe,
though they (hould be mentioned in fome other claufe of
the charter.
10. The claufe of ienendas (from its firft words, te-
nendas pradidas terras) exprefles the particular tenure
by which the lands are to be holden. The claufe of red¬
dendo (from the words, reddendo inde annuatim) fpeci-
fies the particular duty or fervice which the vaflal is to
pay or perform to the fuperior.
11. The claufe of warrandice is that by which, the
gramer obliges himfeif that the right conveyed (hall be
effedlual to the receiver. Warrandice is either perfonal
or real. Perfonal warrandice, where the granter is,only
bound perfonally, is either, 1. Simple, that he (hall
grant no deed in prejudice of the right; and this fort,
which is confined to future deeds, is. implied even in do¬
nations. 2. Warrandice from fadband deed, by which
t-he granter warrants that the right neither has-been, nor
{hall be hurt by any fadfof his. Of, 3. Abfolute war¬
randice contra ornnes mar tales, whereby the right is war¬
ranted againft all legal defedfs in it, which may carry it
off from the receiver, either wholly or in .part. Where
a fale of lands proceeds upon an onerons caufe, the grant-
«r is liable in abfolute warrandice, though no warraa.-
A W. 905
dice be exprefied ; but in aflignations to debts of decrees^
no higher warrandice than from fadl and deed is implied*.
12. Gratuitous grants by the Crown imply no war¬
randice; and though warrandice fnould be exprefled, the
claufe is ineffedtual, from aprefumption, that it has crept in
by the negligence of the Crown’s officers. But where the
Crown makes a grant, not jure corona, but for an ade¬
quate price, the fovereign is in the fame cafe with his
fubjedls.
13. Abfolute warrandice, in cafe of evidtion, affords
an adtion to the grantee, againft the granter, for making
up to him all that he (hall have fuffered through thedefedi
of the right; and not (imply for his indemnification, by
the granter’s repayment of the price to him. But as
warrandice is penal, and confequently flrifti juris, it is
not eafily ptefumed, nor is it incurred from every light
fervitude that may affedf the fubjedt, far lefs does it ex¬
tend to burdens which may affedt the fubjedt pofterior to
the grant, nor to thofe impofedby public ftatute, whethes
before or after, unlefs fpecially warranted againft.
14. Real warrandice is either, t. Exprefs, whereby,
in fecurityof the lands principally conveyed, other lands,
called warrandice-lands, are alfo made over, to which
the receiver may have recoufe in cafe the principal lands
be evidted. Or, 2. Tacit, which is conftituted by the
exchange or excambion of one piece of ground with a-
nother ; for, if the lands exchanged are carried off from
either of the parties, the law itfelf, without any padtion,
gives that party immediate recourfe upon his own firft
lands, given in exchange for the lands evidted.
15. The chapter concludes with a precept of feifin,
which is the command of the fuperior granter of the right'
to his bailie, for giving feifin or pofleflion to the vaflal, or
his attorney, by delivering to him the proper fymbols.
Any perfon, whofe name may be inferted in the blank,
left in the precept for that purpofe, can execute the pre¬
cept as bailie; and whoever has the precept of feifin in
his hands, is prefumed to have a power of attorney
from the vaflal, for receiving pofleflion in his name.
16 A feifin is the inftrument or atte (ration of a notary,
that pofiefiion was adtually given by the fuperior or his
bailie, to the vaflal or his attorney ; which is confidered
as fo neceflary a folemnity, as not to be fuppliable, either
by a proof of natural pofleflion, or even of the fpecial fadt
that the vaffd was duly entered to the pofleflion by the
fuperior-’s bailie.
17. The fymbols, by which the delivery of poffeflioTr
is exprefled, are, for lands, earth and done; for rights
of annualrent payable forth of land, it is alfo earth and
(tone, with the addition of a penny money; for parfon-
age teinds, a Areaf of corn ; for jurifdidlions, the book
of the court; for patronages, a pfalm-book, and the
keys of the church; for fifhings, netand coble ; for mills,,
clap and happer, drc. The feifin muft be taken upon the
ground of the lands, except where there is a fpecial dif-
penfation in the charter from the Crown.
18. All feifins muft be regifired within fixty days aff
ter their date, either in the general regifter of feifins at
Edinburgh, or in the regifter of the particular (hire ap¬
pointed by theadf 1617; which, it muft be obferved, is nor, ,
in every cafe, thelhire within which the lands lie. Bur-
$®4 ^ A W.
gage feifins are ordained to be regiitered in the books of
the borough.
19. Unregiftred feifins are ineffe&ual againft third
parties, but they are valid againd the granters and their
heirs. Seifins regularly recorded, are preferable, not
according to their own dates, but the dates of their regi-
ftration.
20. Seifin neceirarlly fuppofes a fuperior by whom it
is given; the right therefore which the fovereign, who
acknowledges no fuperior, has over the whole lands of
Scotland, is conlHtuted, yr/re without feifin. In
feveral parcels of land, that lie contiguous to one ano¬
ther, one feifm ferves for all, unlefs the right of the fe¬
veral parcels be either holden of different fuperiors, or
derived from different authors, or enjoyed by different
tenures under the fame fuperior. In difeontiguous lands,
a feparate- feifin mud be taken on every parcel, unlefs
the fbvereign has united them into one tenandry, by a
charter of union; in which cafe, if there is no fpecial
place expreffed, a feifin taken on any part of the united
lands will ferve for the w'hole, even though they be fitua-
ted in different (hires. The only effetfl of union is, to give
the difeontiguous lands the fame quality as if they had
been contiguous, or naturally united ; union, therefore,
does not take off the neceflity of feparate feifins, in lands
holden by different tenures, or the rights of which flow
from different fuperiors, thefe being incapable of natural
union.
21. The privilege of barony carries a higher right
than union does, and confequently includes union in it
as the leffer degree. This right of bafony can neither
be given, nor tranfmitted, unlefs by the Crown ; but the
quality of fimple union, being once conferred on lands
by the fovereign, may be communicated by the vaffal to
a fubvaffal. Though part of the lands united or ereffed
into a barony, be fold by the vaffal to be holden a me,
the whole union is not thereby diffolvcd: what remains
unfold retains the quality.
22. A charter, not perfeffed by feifin, is a right
merely perfonal, which does not transfer the property, (fee
Tit. xx. 1.) and a feifin of itfelf bears no faith, without
its warrant: It is the charter and feifin joined together
that conftitutes the feudal right, and fecurcs the receiver
againft the effedt of all pofterior feifins, even though
the charters on which they proceed fliould be prior to his.
23. No quality which is defigned as a lien or real bur¬
den on a feudal right, can be effcdlual againft Angular
fucceffors, if it be not inferted in the inveftiture. If
the creditors in the burden are not particularly mention¬
ed, the burden is not real; for no perpetual unknown in¬
cumbrance can be created upon lands. Where the right
itfelf is granted with the burden of the fum therein men¬
tioned, or where it is declared void, if the fum be not
paid againft a day certain, the burden is real; but where
the receiver is (imply obliged by his acceptance to make
payment, the claufe is effedtual only againft him and his
heirs.
Tit. 11. Of the feveral kinds of Holding.
Feudai, fubjefls are chiefly diftinguifhed by their dif¬
ferent manners of holding, which were either ward,
blanch, feu, or burgage. Ward holding, which is now
abohlhed by 20. Geo. II. c. yo. was that which was
granted for military fervi ;e. Its proper reddendo was,
fervices, or fervices ufed and nuont; by which laft was
meant the performance of fervice whenever the fupe-
rior’s occafions required it. As all feudal rights were
originally held by this tenure, ward-holding was in du-
bio. Hence, though the reddendo had contained iome
fpecial fervice, or yearly duty, the holding was prefu¬
med ward, if another holding was not particularly ex¬
preffed.
2. Feu holding is that whereby the vaffal is obliged
to pay to the fuperior a yearly rent in money or grain, and
fometimes alfo in fervices proper to a farm, as plough¬
ing, reaping, carriages for the (uperior’s ufe, ebc. nomine
feudi fir nice. Thiskind of tenure was introduced for the
encouragement of agriculture, the improvsnient of which
was confiderably obftrufted by the vaifai’s obligation to
military fervice. It appears to have been a tenure known
in Scotland as far back as leges burgorum.
3. Blanch-holding is that whereby the vaffal is to
pay to the fuperior an elufory yearly duty, as a penny
money, a rofe, a pair of gilt fpurs, &c. merely m ac¬
knowledgment of the fuperiority, nomine alba firmce.
This duty, where it is a thing of yearly groc th, if it be
no: demanded u ithimthe year, cannot be exadled thereaf¬
ter ; and where the words, Ji petatur tantum, are fub-
joined to the reddendo, they imply a releafe to the vaffal,
whatever the quality of the duty may be, if it is not allied
within the year.
4 Burgage holding is that, by which boroughs-royal
hold of the fovereign the lands which are contained in
their charters of eredtion. This, in the opinion of Craig,
does not conftitute a feparate tenure, but is a (pecies of
ward-holding; with this fpeciality, that thevaffJ is not
a private perloni but a community : And indeed, watch¬
ing and warding, which is the uiual fervice contained in
the teddendool fuch chatters, might be properly enough
faid, fome centuries ago, to have been of the military
kind. ’ As the royal borough is the King’s vaffal, all
burgage-holders hold immediately of the Crown: The
magiltrates therefore, when they receive the refignations
of the particular burgeffes, and give feifin to them, aift,
not as f. periors, but as the King’s bailies fpecially autho-
rifed thereto.
y. Feudal fobjedts, granted to churches, monafteries, or
other focieties for religious or charitable ufes, are faid to
be mortified, or granted ad manummortiiam ; either be-
caufe all cafualtits muft neceffarily be loft to the fupe¬
rior, where the vaffal is a corporation, which never dies:
or becaufe the property of thefe fubjedls is granted to a
dead hand, which cannot transfer it to another. In lands
mortified in times of Popery to the church, whether
granted to prelates for the behoof of the church, or in
pur am eleemofynam; the only fervices preftable by the
vaflal were prayers, and finging of maffes for the fouls
of the deceafed, which approaches nearer to blanch-hold-
ing than ward. The purpofes of fuch grants having been,
upon the reformation, declared fuperftitious, the lands
mortified were annexed to the Crown: But mortifications
to
L A
to univcrfities, hofpitals, <bc. were nor affefled by that
annexation; and lands may, at this day be mottified
to any lawful purpofe, either by blanch or by feu hold¬
ing.
Tit. 12. Of the Cafualtles due to the Superior.
The right of the fuperior continues unimpaired, not¬
wit ftandmg the feudal grant, unlefs in fo far as the do-
miniurn utile, or property, is conveyed to his- vaffal.
The fuperiority carries a right to the fervices and annual
duties contained in the reddendo of the vaflal’s charter.
The duty payable by the vaffal is a debitum fundi; /. e.
it is recoverable, not only by a perfonal action againft
himfelf, but by a real a£h'on againft the lands.
2. Befides the conftant fixed rights of fuperiority,
there are others, which, becaufe they depend upon un¬
certain events, are called cafualties.
3. The cafualties proper to a ward holding, while that
tenure fubfifted, were ward, recognition, and marriage,
which it is now unneceffary to explain, as by the late
ftatutes 20 and25 Geo. II. for abolifhing ward-holdings,
the tenure of the lands holden ward of the Crown or
Prince is turned into blanch, for payment of one penny
Scots yearly, Jipetatur tantum ; and the tenure of thofe
holden of fubje&s, into feu, for payment of fuch yearly
feu-duty in money, vidhial, or cattle, in place of all fer¬
vices, as ftiall be fixed by the court of Seflion. And
accordingly that court, by.adt of federunt Feb. 8. 1749,
laid down rules for afcertaining the extent of thefe feu-
duties.
4. The only cafualty, or rather forfeiture, proper to
feu-holdings, is the lofs or tinfelof the feu-right, by the
negletft of payment of the feu-duty for two full years.
Yet where there is no conventional irritancy in the feu-
right, the vaffal is allowed to purge the legal irritancy at
the bar; that" is, he may prevent the forfeiture, by ma¬
king payment before fentence: but where the legal irri¬
tancy is fortified by a conventional, he is not allowed to
purge, unlefs where he can give a good reafon for the
delay of payment.
5. The cafualties common to all holdings are, non-en¬
try, relief, liferent-efcheat, difclamation, and purprefture.
Non-entry is that cafualty which arifes to the fuperior
out of the rents of the feudal fubjeft, through the heir’s ne-
gleding to renew the inveftiture after his anceftor’s death.
The fuperior is intitled to this cafualty, not only where
the heir has not obtained himfelf infeft, but where his
retour isfetafide upon nullities. The heir, from the death
of the anceftor, till he be cited by the fuperior in a pro-
cefs of general declarator of non-entry, lofes only the re¬
toured duties of his lands, (fee next parag.) ; and he forfeits
.thefe, though his delay (hould not argue any contempt of
the fuperior, becaufe the cafualty is confidered to fall,
as a condition implied in the feudal right, and not as a
penalty of tranfgrellion : But, where the delay proceeds
stot from the heir, but from the fuperior, nothing is for¬
feited.
6. For underftanding the nature of retoured duties, it
muft be known, that there was anciently a general valua¬
tion of all the lands in Scotland, defigned both for re-
Vox.. II. Numb. 64. 2
W. 905
gulating the proportion of public fubfidi£s, and for afcer-
taining the quantity of non-entry and relief-duties payable
to the fuperior; which appears, by a contradt betwixt K.
R. Bruce and his fubjefts anno 1327, preferred in the
library of the faculty of advocates, to have been fettled
at leaf! as far back as the reign of Alexander III. This
valuation became in the courfe of time, by the improve¬
ment of agriculture, and perhaps alfo by the heightning
of the nominal value of our money, from the reign of
Robert I. downwards to that of James III. much too
low a ftandard for the fuperior’s cafuajties : Wherefore,
in all fervices of heirs, the inqueft came at laft to take
proof likewife of the prefent value of the lands contained
in the brief {quantum nunc valent') in order to fix thefe
cafualties. The firft was called the old, and the other
the new extent. Though both extents were ordained to
be fpecified in all retours made to the Chancery upon
brieves of inqueft; yet by the appellation of retoured
duties in a queftion concerning cafualties, the new extent
is always underftood._ The old extent continued the
rule for levying public fubfidies, till a tax was impofed by
new proportions, by feveral adts made during theufur-
pation. By two adts of Cromwell’s parliament, held at
Weftminfter i6j6, impofing taxations on Scotland, the
rates laid upon the feveral counties are precifely fixed.
The fubfidy granted by the adt of convention 1667, was
levied on the feveral counties, nearly in the fame propor¬
tions that were fixed by the ufurper in 1656; and the
fums to which each county wasfubjedted were fubditfided
among the individual land holders in that county, accor¬
ding to the valuations already fettled, or that fhould
be fettled by the commiffion appointed to carry that adl
into execution. The rent fixed by thefe valuations is
eommonly called the valued rent; according to which the
land tax, and moft of the other public burdens, have been
levied fince that time.
7. In feu-holdings, the feu-duty is retoured as the
rent, becaufe the feu-duty is prefumed to be, and truly
was at firft, the rent. The fuperior therefore of a feu-
holding gets no non-entry, before citation in the general
declarator ; for he would have been intitled to the yearly
feu-duty, though the fee had been full, i e. though there
had been a vaffal infeft in the lands. The fuperior of
teinds gets the fifth part of the retoured duty as non¬
entry, becaufe the law confiders teinds to be worth a
fifth part of the rent. In rights of annualrent which are
holden of the granter, the annualrenter becomes his
debtor’s vaffal ; and the annualrent contained in the right
is retoured to the blanch -or other duty contained in die
right before declarator.
8. It is becaufe the retoured duty.is the prefumed rent,
that the non-entry is governed by it. If therefore no
retour of the lands in non-entry can be produced, nor
any evidence brought of the retoured duty, the fuperior
is intitled to the real, or at lead to the valued rent,
even before citation, In lands formerly holden w'ard of
the King, the heir, in place of the retoured duties, is
fubjefted only to the annual payment of one per cent, of
the valued rent.
9. The heir, after he is cited by the fuperior in the
a&ionof general declarator, Is fubjeded to the full rents
9 T till
£0*6 L A
till his entry, ^ecaufe his negle<S is lefs excofable after
citation. The decree of declarator, proceeding on this
adion, intitles the fuperior to the pofleffion, and gives
him right to the rents, downward from the citation. As
this fort of non-entry is properly penal, our law has al¬
ways reflridted it to the retoured duties, if the heir had
a probable excufe for not entering.
10. Non entry does not obtain in burgage-holdings,
becaufe the incorporation of inhabitants holds the whole
incorporated fubjedts of the King ; and there can be no
non-entry doe in lands granted to communities, becaufe
there the vafial never dies : This covers the right of par¬
ticulars from non-entry ; for if non-entry be excluded
with regard to the whole, it cannot obtain with regard
to any part. It is alfo excluded, as to a third of the
lands, by the terce, during the widow’s life ; and as to
the whole of them, by the courtefy, during the life of the
hulband. But it is not excluded by a precept of feifin
granted to the heir, till feifin be taken thereon.
11. Relief is that cafualty which intitles the fupe¬
rior to an acknowledgement or confideration from the heir,
for receiving him as vaflal. It is called relief, becaufe,
by the entry of the heir, his fee is relieved out of the
hands of the fuperior. It is not due in feu-holdings
flowing from fubjedts, unlefs where it is expreffed in the
charte- by a fpecial claufe for doubling the feu-duty at
the entry of an heir; but in feu rights, holden of the
crown, it is due, though there Ihould be no fuch claufe
in the charter. The fuperior can recover this cafualty,
either by a poinding of the ground, as a debitum fundi,
or by a perfonal adfion again!! the heir. In blanch and
■feu-holdings, where this cafualty is exprefsly flipulated,
a year’s blanch or feu-duty is due in name of relief, be-
fide the current year’s duty payable in name of blanch or
feu farm.
12. Escheat (from echeoir, to happens fall) is that
forfeiture which falls through a perfon’s being denoun¬
ced rebel. It is either Angle or liferent. Single efcheat,
though it does not accrue to the fuperior, muft be ex¬
plained k> this place, becaufe of its coincidence with life-
rent.
13. After a debt is conlKtuted, either by a formal de¬
cree, or by regiftration of the ground of debt, which to
the fpecial effedt of execution, is in law accounted a de¬
cree ; the creditor may obtain letters of horning, iffuing
from the fignet, commanding meflengers to charge the
■debtor to pay or perform his obligation, within a day
certain. Where horning proceeds on a formal decree of
-the Seffion, the time indulged by law to the debtor is
fifteen days ; if upon a decree of the commiffion of teinds
or admiral, it is ten ; and upon the decrees of all inferior
judges, fifteen da^s. Where it proceeds on a re-
giftred obligation, which fpecifies the number of days,
that number muft be the rule ; and, if no precife num¬
ber be mentioned, the charge muft be given on fifteen
‘days, which is the term of law, unlefs where fpecial fta-
tute interpofes ; as in bills, upon which the debtor may
be charged on fix days.
14. The meffenger muft execute thefe letters (and in¬
deed all fummonfes) againft the debtor, either perlonally,
or at his dwelling houfe j and, if he get not accefs to
w.
the houfe, he muft ftrike fix knocks at the gate, and
thereafter affix to it a copy of his execution. If pay¬
ment be not made within the days mentioned in the
horning, the meffenger, after proclaiming three oyeffes
at the market-crofs of the head borough, of the debtor’s
domicile, and reading the letters there, blows three blafts
with a horn, by which the debtor is underftood to be
proclaimed rebel to the King for contempt of his au¬
thority ; after which, he muft affix a copy of the execu¬
tion to the market-crofs : This is called the publication
of the diligence, or a denounciation at the horn. Where
the debtor is not in Scotland, he muft be charged on fix-
ty days, and denounced at the market crofs of Edinburgh,
and pier and ffiore of Leith.
15. Denunciation, if regiftered within fifteen days,
either in the Sheriff’s books, or in the general regiftcr,
drew after it the rebel’s fingle efcheat, i. e. the forfeiture
of his moveables to the Crown. Perfons denounced re¬
bels have not * perftna Jlandi in judicio ; they can nei¬
ther fue nor defend in any adlion. But this incapacity,
being unfavourable, is perfonal to the rebel, and cannot
be pleaded againft his aflignee.
16 Perfons cited to the court of Jufticiary may be
alfo denounced rebels, either for appearing there with
too great a number of attendants ; or, if they fail to ap¬
pear, they are declared fugitives from the law. Single
efcheat falls without denunciation, upon fentence of
death pronounced in any criminal trial ; and by fpecial
ftatute, upon one’s being conviifted of certain crimes,
though not capital ; as perjury, bigamy, deforcement,
breach of arreftment, and ufury. By the late ad abo-
liffiing wardholdings, the cafualties both of fingle and
liferent efcheat are dilcharged, when proceeding upon
denunciation for civil debts ; but they ftill continue,
when they arife from criminal caufes. All moveables
belonging to the rebel at the time of his rebellion,
(whether proceeding upon denunciation, or fentence in
a criminal trial), and all that ffiall be afterwards acqui¬
red by him until relaxation, fall under fingle efcheat.
Bonds bearing intereft, becaufe they continue heritable
quoad fifcum, fall not under it, nor fuch fruits of he¬
ritable liibjeds as become due after the term next-enfu-
ing the rebellion, thefe being reffirved for the liferent
efcheat.
17. The King never retains the right of efcheat to-
himfelf, but makes it over to a donatory, whofe gift is
not perfeded, till, upon an adion of general declarator,
it be declared that the rebel’s efcheat has fallen to the
crown by his denunciation, and that the right of it is now
transferred to the purfuer by the gift in his favour :
Every creditor therefore of the rebel, whofe debt was
eontraded before rebellion, and who has ufed diligence
before declarator, is preferable to the donatory. But
the efcheat cannot be affeded by any debt contraded,
nor by any voluntary deed of the rebel after rebellion.
18. The rebel, if he either pays the debt charged for,,
or fufpends the diligence, may procure letters of relaxa¬
tion from the horn, which, if publiflted in the fame place,
and regiftred fifteen days thereafter in the fame regifter
with the denunciation, have the effed to reftore him to
his former Hate ; but they have no retrofped, as to the
moveables
L A W. 9o-7
moveables already fallen under efcbeat, without a fpecial
claufe for that purpofe.
19. The rebel, if he continues unrelaxed for year and
day after rebellion, is conftrued to be civilly dead : And
therefore, where he holds any feudal right, his fuperiors,
as being without a vaffal, are entitled, each of them, to
the rents of foch of the lands belonging to the rebel
as holds of himfelf, during all the days ot the rebel’s na¬
tural life, by the cafualty of Liferent-escheat ;
except where the denunciation proceeds upon treafon or
proper rebellion, in which cafe the liferent falls to the
King.
20. It is that eftate only, to which the rebel has a
proper right of liferent in his own perfon, that falls un¬
der his liferent efcheat.
21. Though neither the fuperior nor his donatory
can enter into poffdlion in confequence of this cafualty,
till decree of declarator ; yet that decree, being truly
declaratory, has a retrofpedl, and does not fo properly
confer a new right, as declare the right formerly confti-
tuted to the fuperior, by the civil death of his vaflal.
Hence, all charters or heritable bonds, though granted
prior to the rebellion, and all adjudications, though led
upon debts contrafted before that period, are ineffedtual
againft the liferent efcheat, unlefs feifin be taken thereon
within year and day after the granter’s rebellion,
22. Here, as in fingle efcheat, no debt contradted after
rebellion can hurt the donatory, nor any voluntary right
granted after that period, though in fecurity or fatisfac-
tion of prior debts.
23. Disclamation is that cafualty whereby a
vaffal forfeits his whole feu to his fuperior, if he difowns
or difclaims him without ground, as to any part of it.
Purpresture draws likewife a forfeiture of the whole
feu after it, and is incurred by the vaffal’s incroaching
upon any part of his fuperior’s property, or attempting,
by building, inclofing, or otherwile, to make it his own.
In both thefe feudal delinquencies, the lead colour of
-excufe fav.es the vaffal.
24. All grants from the crown, whether charters,
•gifts of cafuaities, or others, proceed on fignatures which
pafs the fignet. When the King refided in Scotland, all
fignatures were fuperferibed by h m ; but, on the accef-
fion of James VI. to the crown of England, a cachet or
feal was made, having the King’s name engraved on it,
in purfuanee of anadlof the Privy Council, dpSil 4. 1603,
with which all fignatures were to be afterwards fealed,
that the Lords of exchequer were impowered to pafs;
and thefe powers are transferred to the court of Exchequer,
which was eftablilhed in Scotland after the union of the
two kingdoms in 1707. Grants of higher confequence,
as remiffions of crimes, gifts proceeding upon forfeiture,
and charters of navodamus, muft have the King’s fign-
manual for their warrant.
25. If lands holding of the Crown were to be convey¬
ed, the charter paffed, before the union of the kingdoms
in 1707, by the great feal of Scotland ; and now by a
leal fubltituted in place thereof Grants of church-digni¬
ties, during epifcopacy, paffed alfo by the great feal ;
and the commiffions to all the principal officers of the
Crown, as Juftice Clerk,^King’s Advocate, Solicitor, &£•.
do fo at this day. All rights which fubjedts may tranf-
mit by limple affignation, the King tranfmits by the priv y
fieal ; as gifts of moveables, or of cafuaities that require
no feifin. The quarter feal, otherwife called the tefti-
monial of the great feal, is appended to gifts of tutory,
commiffions of brieves iffuing from the ch-ncery, and
letters of prefentation to lands holding of a fubjedt, pro¬
ceeding upon forfeiture, baftardy, ox ultimus hares.
26. Seals are to royal grants, what fubfeription is to
rights derived from fubje&s, and give them authority ;
They ferve alfo as a check to gifts procured (fuhreptione
vel obreptioneJ by concealing the truth, or expreffing a
falfehood ; for, where this appears, the gift may be
flopped before paffing the feais, though the fignature
ffiouid have been figned by the King. All rights paffing
under the great or privy feal mufl be regiftered in the re-
giiters of the great or privy feal refpeilive, before ap¬
pending .the feal.
Tit. 13. Of th&BJght which the Vajfal acquires
by getting the Feu.
Under the dominium utile which the vaffal acquires
by the feudal ridht, is comprehended the property of
whatever is conliqered as parr of the lands, whether of
houfes, woods, inclofures, <bc. aboveground; or of coal,
limdlone, minerals, under ground. Mills have, by
the generality of our lawyers, been deemed a feparate
tenement, and fo not carried by a charter or difpolition,
without either a fpecial claufe conveying mills, or the
eredtion of the lands into a barony. Yet it is certain,
that, if a proprietor builds a mill on his own lands, it
will be carried, by his entail, or by a retour, without men¬
tioning it, although the lands are not erected into a ba¬
rony. If the lands difponedfae aftridted, or thirled to a-
nother mill, the purchaser is not allowed to build a new
corn-mill on his property, even though he ffiouid offer
fecurity that it ffiall not hurt the thirle; which is intro¬
duced for preventing daily temptations to fraud.
2. Proprietors are prohibited to build dove-cotes, xm-
lefs their yearly rent, lying within two miles thereof,
extend to ten chalders of vidlnal. A purchafer of lands*
with a dove-cote, is not obliged to pull it down, though
he ffiouid not be qualified to build one ; but, if it becomes
ruinous, he cannot rebuild it. The right of brewing,
though not expreffed in the grant, is implied in the na¬
ture of property ; as are alfo the rights of fiffiing, fowl¬
ing, and hunting, in To far as they are not reftrained by
ftatute.
3. There are certain rights naturally confequent on
property, which are deemed to be referved by the crown
as regalia; unlefs they be fpecially conveyed. Gold and
filver mines are of this fort: The firlt univerfally; and
the-other, where three half-pennies of filver can be extrac¬
ted from the pound of lead, by aft 1424, (three half¬
pennies at that time was equal to about two ffiillings five
pennies of our prefent Scots money.) Thefe were by our
ancient law annexed to the Crown; but they are now dtf-
folved from it ; and every proprietor is intitled to a grant
of the mines within bis own lands, with the burden cf
delivering to the crown a tenth of what ffiall be brought up.
4. Saimaa*
90 8 L I
4. Saltnon-fifliing is likewife a right underftood to be
referved by the Crown, if it be not exprefsly granted; but
forty years pofleffion thereof, where the lands are either
eredled into a barony, or granted with the general claufe
of fifhings, eftablifh as the full right of the falmon fifhing
in the vaflal. A charter of lands, within which any of
the king’s forelts lie, does not carry the property of fuch
foreft to the vaflal.
j. All the fubjefls, which were by the Roman law ac¬
counted res public#, as rivers, high ways, ports, fee.
are, fince the introduftion of feus, held to be inter rega¬
lia, or in patrimonio principis', and hence incroachment
upon a highway is faid to infer purprefture. No perfon
lias the right of a free port without a fpecia! grant, which
implies a power in the grantee to levy anchorage and
111 ore dues, and an obligation upon him to uphold the
port in good condition. In thisclafsof things, our fore¬
fathers reckoned fortalices, or fmall places of ftrength,
originally built for the defence of the country, either
againft foreign invafions, or civil commotions; but thefe
now pafs with the lands in every charter,
6. The'vaffal acquires right by his grant, not only to
■the lands fpecially contained in the charter, but to thofe
■that have been poilefied forty years as pertinent thereof.
But, 1. If the lands in the grant are marked out by fpe-
cial limits, the vaffal is circumfcribed by the tenor of his
own right, which excludes every fubjedt without thefe
limits from being pertinent of the lands. 2. A right
poflcfTed under anexprefs infeftment is preferable, ceeteris
paribus, to one poffefled only as pertinent, 3, Where
neither party is infeft per exprtffum, the mutual promif-
cuous pofleffion by both, of a fubjedl as pertinent, re-
lolves into a comraomy of the fubjedt po/Tefled: But if
one of the parties has exercifed all the afts of property
of which the fubjedf was capable, while the pofleflion of
the other was confined to paflurage only, or to calling
feal and divot, the firft is to be deemed foie proprietor,
and the other to have merely a right of fervitude.
7. As barony is a nomen univerjitatis, and unites the
feveral parts contained in it into one individual right, the
general conveyance of a barony carries with it all the
different tenements of which it confifts, though they fhould
net be fpecially enumerated, (and this holds, even without
eredlion into a barony, in lands that have been united un¬
der a fpecial name,) Hence likewife, the phflefiion by
the vaffal of the fmalleft part of the barony lands pre-
ferves to him the right of the whole.
8. The vaflal is intitled, in confequence of his pro¬
perty, to levy the rents of his own lands, and to reco¬
ver them from his tenants by an adtion for rent before
his own court; and from all other pofleffors and intro-
mitters, by an adfion of mails and duties before the She¬
riff. He can alfo remove from his lands, tenants who
have no leafes, and he can grant tacks or leafes to others.
A tack is a contradl of location, whereby the ufe of
land or any other immoveable fubjedt, is fet to the leffee
or tackfman for a certain yearly rent, either in money,
the fruits of the ground, or fervices. It ought to be re¬
duced into writing, as it is aright concerning lands;
tacks therefore, that are given verbally, to endure for
term of years, are good againll neither party, for more
L W
than one year. An obligation to grant a tack is as ef-
fedfual againft the granter, as a formal tack. A liferent-
er, having a temporary property in the fruits, may grant
tacks to endure for the term of his own liferent.
9. The tackfman’s right is limited to the fruits which
fpring up annually from the fubjedl fet, either naturally,
or by the induftry of the tackfman ; he is not therefore
intitled to any of the growing timber above ground, and
far lefs to the minerals, coal, clay, fee. under ground,
the ufe of which confumes the-fubftance. Tacks are, like
other contradls, perfonal tights in their own nature, and
confequently ineffedtual againft: Angular fuccdfors in the
lands; but, for the encouragement of agriculture, they
were, byadt 1449, declared eiFedtual to the tackfman for
the full time of their endurance, into whofe hands foever
the lands might come.
10. To give a written tack the benefit of this ftatute,
it muft mention the fpecial tack-duty payable to the
proprietor, which though fmall, if it be not elufory, fe-
cures the tackfman ; and it-muft be followed by pofleflion,
which fupplies the want of a feifin. If a tack does not
exprefs the term of entry, the entry will commence at
the next term after its date, agreeable to the rule, Hhiod
pure debetur, preejenti die debetur. If it does not men¬
tion the ifli, /. e. the term at which it is to determine,
it is good for one year only; but, if the intention of
parties to continue it for more than one year, (hould ap¬
pear from any claufe in the tack, it is fuftained for two
years as' the minimum. Tacks granted to perpetuity,
or with an indefinite ilh, have not the benefit of the fta¬
tute. Tacks of houfes within borough do not fall within
this adt.
x 1. Tacks neceflarily imply a deleftus perfon#, a choice
by the fetter of a proper perfon for his tenant. Hence
the conveyance of a tack, which is not granted to allig-
nees, is ineffedlual without the landlord’s confent. A
right of tack, though it be heritable, falls under the jus
mariti, becaufe it cannot be feparated from the labouring
cattle and implements of tillage, which are moveable fub-
jedls. A tack therefore granted to a Angle woman with¬
out the liberty of afligning, falls by her marriage, becaufe
the marriage, which is a legal conveyance thereof to the
hufband, cannot be annulled. Tnisimplied exclufion of af-
fignees.’is however limited to voluntary, and does not extend
to neceflaryaffignments, as an adjudication of attack by the
tackfman’s creditor; but a tack, exprefsly excluding aflig-
nees, cannot be carried even by adjudication. But tackfmen
mayfubfet, Unlefs fubtenants are exprefsly excluded ; and
liferent tacks, becaufe they import a higher degree of
right in the tackfman, than tacks fora definite term, may
be afligned, unlef? affignees be fpecially excluded.
12. If neither the fetter nor tackfman (hall properly
difeover their intention to have the tack diffolved at the
term fixed for its expiration, they are underftood, or
prefumed, to have entered into a new tack upon the fame
terms with the former, which is called tacit relocation,
and continues till the landlord warns the tenant to remove,
or the tenant renounces his tack to the landlmd : This
obtains alfo in the cafe of moveable tenants, who poflefs
from year to year without written tacks.
13. In tacks of land, the fetter is commonly bound to
put
A
L
p:n all the houfes and office houfes, neceflary for the
farm, in good condition at the tenant’s entry; and the
tenant mult keep them and leave them fo at his removal.
But in tacks of houfes, the fetter mull not only deliver
to the tenant the fubjeft fet, in tenantable repair at his
entry, but uphold it in that repair during the whole years
of the tack,
14 If the inclemency of the weather, inundation, or
calamity of war, Ihould have brought upon the crop an
extraordinary damage (plus qitam tolerabile), the land¬
lord had, by the Roman law, no claim for any part of the
tack-duty : If the damage was more moderate, he might
exadt the full rent. It is nowhere defined, what degree
of lierility or devaftation makes a lofs not to be borne ;
but the general rule of the Roman law feems.to be made
.ours. Tenants are obliged to pay no public burdens, to
which they are not exprefsly bound by their tacks, except
mill-fervices.
15. Tacks maybe evacuated during their currency,' i.
In the fame manner as feu-rights, by the tackfman’s run¬
ning in arrear of his tack-duty for two years together._
This irritancy may be prevented by the tenant’s making
payment at the bar before fentence. 2. Where the te¬
nant either runs in arrear of one year’s rent, -or leaves
his farm uncultivated at the ufual feafon ; in which cafe
he may be ordained to give fecurity for the arrears, and
for the rent of the five following crops, if the tack lhall
fubfift fo long; otherwife, to remove, as if the tack were
at an end- 3. Tacks may be evacuated at any time, by
the mutual confent of parties.
16. The landlord, when he intends to remove a tenant
whofe tack is expiring, or who poffelfes without a tack,
mull, upon a precept figned by himfelf, warn the tenant
forty days preceding the term of Whitfunday, at or im¬
mediately preceding the ifh, perfonally, or at his dwell¬
ing houfe, to remove at that term, with his family and
effedts. This precept mult be alfo executed on the ground
of the lands, and ^thereafter read in the parilh-church
where the lands lie, after the morning fervice, and affixed
to the moft patent door thereof. Whitfunday, though
it be a moveable feaft, is, in queftions of removing, fixed
to the 15th of May. In warnings from tenements with¬
in borough, it is fufficient that the tenant be warned forty
days before the iffi of the tack, whether it be Whitfun¬
day or Martinmas ; and in thefe the ceremony of chalk¬
ing the door is fuftained as warning, when proceeding up¬
on a verbal order from the proprietor.
17. This procels of warning was precifely neceflary
for founding an adtion of removingagainft tenants, tilladl
of federunt of the court of Selfion, Dec. 14. 1756, which
leaves it in the option of the proprietor, either toufe the
former method*- or to bring his adtion of removing before
the Judge ordinary; which, if it be called forty days be¬
fore the faid term of Whitfunday, {hall be held as equal
to a warning. Where the tenant is bound, by an exprefs
daufe of his tack, to remove at the iffi without warning,
fuch obligation is, by the faid adt, declared to he a fuf¬
ficient wairant for letters of horning, upon which, if the
landlord charge his tenant forty days before the faid
Whitfunday, the judge is authorifed to ejedt him within
fix days after the term of removing expreffied in the tack.
Vox.. II. No. 64. 2
W. 909
18. Adtions of removing might, even before this adt
of federunt, have been purfued without any previous
warning, 1. Againlt vicious poffeflbrs, /. e. perfons who
had feized the pofleffion by force, or who, without any
legal title, had intruded into it, after the laft poffeffi-r
had given it up. 2. Againlt pofleflbrs who had a naked
tolerance. 3. Againlt tenants who had run in arrear of
rent, during the currency of their tacks. 4. Again fuch
as had fold their lands, and yet continued to polfefs after
the term of the purchafer’s entry. Upon the fame ground;
warning was not required, in removings againlt polLlTors
of liferented lands, after the death of the liferenter who
died in the natural pofleffion : But if he polFelTed by te¬
nants, thefe tenants Could not be difturbed in their pof-
feffions till the next Whitfunday, that they might have
time to look out for other farms; but they might be
compelled to remove at that term, by an action of remo-'
ving, without warning.
19.. A landlord’s title in a removing, let it be ever fa
lame, cannot be brought under quellion b*y a tenant whofe
tack flows immediately from him; but, if he is to inlift
againlt tenants not'his own, his right muft-be perfected
by infeftment, unlefs it be fuch as requires no infeftment,
as terce, &c.
20. The defender, in a removing, mult, before offer¬
ing any defence which is not inltantly verified, give fecu¬
rity to pay to the fetter the violent profits, if they ffiould
be awarded againft him. Thefe are fo called, becaufe
the law confiders the tenant’s poffeffion after the warning
as violent. They are eftimated, in tenements within
borough, to double the rent; and inlands, tothehigheft
profits the purfuer could have made of them, by poffef-
fing them etcher by a tenant, or by himfelf.
21. If the aCtion of removing ffiall be palled from, of
if the landlord ffiall, after ufing warning, accept of rent
from the tenant, for any term fubfequent to that of the
removal, he is prefumed to have changed his mind, and
tacit relocation takes place. All actions of removing a-
gainft the principal or original tackfman, and decrees
thereupon, if the order be ufed", which is fet forth fupra,
§ 17. are, by the aCt of federunt 1755, declared to be
effectual again the aflignees to the tack, or fubtenants.
22. The landlord has, in fecurity of his tack-duty,
over and above the tenant’s perfonal obligation, a tacit
pledge or hypothec, not only in the fruits, but in the cat¬
tle palluring on the ground. The corn, and other fruits,
are hypothecated for the rent of that year whereof they
are the crop; for which they remain affeCted, though
the landlord ffiould not ufe his right for years together.
23. The whole cattle on the ground, confidered as a
quantity, are hypothecated for a year’s rent, one after
another fucceffively. The landlord may apply this hy¬
pothec payment of the paft year’s rent, at any time with¬
in three months from the laft conventional term of pay¬
ment, after which it ceafes for that jear. As the te¬
nant may increafe the fubjeCt of this hypothec, by pur-
chafing oxen, Iheep, &c. fo he can impair it, by felling
part of his ftock ; but if the landlord fufpeCts the tenant’s
management, he may, by fequeftration or poinding, make
his right, which was before general upon the whole ftock,
fpecial upon every individual. A fuperior has alfp-i hy~
9 U pother
pro L
p&thec for his feu*duty, of the fame kind with that juft
explained.
24. In tacks of houfes, breweries, fhops, and other
tenements, which have no natural fruits, the furniture
and other goods brought into the fubjedt fet are hypo¬
thecated to the landlord for one year’s rent. But the
tenant may by fale impair this hypothec, as he might that
of cattle in rural tenements; and indeed, in the particular
cafe of a Ihop, the tenant rents it for no other purpofe,
than as a place of fale.
Tit. 14. Of the Tranfmiffion of Rights, by Con¬
firmation and Refignation.
A vassal may tranfmit his feu either to univerfal fuc-
ceflbrs, as heirs ; or to fingulai fucceffors, /. e. thofe
■who acquire by gift, purchafe, or other lingular title.
This laft fort of tranfmiflion is either voluntary, by dif-
polition ; or neceflary, by adjudication.
2. By the firft feudal rules, no fuperior could be com¬
pelled to receive any vaffal in the lands, other than the
heir exprefled in the inveftiture; for the fuperior alone
had the power of afcertaining to what order of heirs the
fee granted by himfelf was to defcend. But this right of
refufal in the fuperior did not take place, 1. In the cafe
©f creditors apprifers or adjudgers, whom fuperiors were
obliged to receive upon payment of a year’s rent. 2. In
the cafe of purchafers of bankrupt eftates, who were put
on the fame footing with adjudgers. The Crown refufes
no voluntary difponee, on his paying a compolition to the
exchequer of a lixth part of the valued rent Now fu¬
periors are directed to enter all lingular fucceflbrs (except
incorporations) who lhall have got from the vaffal a dif
pofition, containing procuratory of relignation; they al¬
ways receiving the fees or cafualties that law entitles
them to on a vaffal’s entry, i. e. a year’s rent.
3. Bafe rights, i. e. difpolitions to be holden of the
difponer, are tranfmiffions only of the property, the fu-
periority remaining as formerly. As this k nd of right
might, before eftablilhing the regifters, have been kept quite
concealed from all but the granter and receiver, a public
right was preferable to it, unlefs cloathed with paffellion:
But as this diftinftion was no longer neceffary after the
eftablifliment of the records, all infeftments are declared
preferable, according to the dates of their feveral regi-
ftrations ; without refpetf to the former diftin<ftion of bafe
and public, or of being cloathed and not cloathed with
poffeflion.
4. Public rights, i. e. difpofitions to be holden of the
granter’s fuperior, may be perfe&ed either by confirma¬
tion or refignation ; and therefore, they generally con¬
tain both precept offeifmand procuratory of refignation.
When the receiver is to complete his right in the firft
way, he takes feifin upon the precept; but fuch feifin is
ineffectual without the fuperior’s confirmation; for the
difponee cannot be deemed a vaffal, till the fuperior re¬
ceive him as fuch, or confirm the holding. By the ufual
ftyle in the tranfmiflion of lands, the difpofition con¬
tains an obligation and precept of infeftment, both a me
and de me, in the option of the difponee ; upon which,
if feilin is taken indefinitely, it is conftrued in favour of
A W.
the difponee to be a bafe infeftment, becaufe a public
right is null without confirmation: But, if the receiver
fliall afterwards obtain the fuperior’s confirmation, it is
confidered as if it had been from the beginning a pu¬
blic right.
5. Where two feveral public rights of the fame fub-
jeCl are confirmed by the fuperior, their preference is
governed by the dates of the confirmations, not of the in¬
feftments confirmed; becaufe it is the confirmation which
compleats a public right.
6. Though a public right becomes, by the fuperior’s
confirmation, valid from its date ; yet if any mid impedi¬
ment intervene betwixt that period and the confirmation,
to hinder the two from being conjoined, e. g. if the
granter of a public right ftiould afterwards grant a bafe
right to another, upon which feifin is taken before the fu¬
perior’s confirmation of the firft, the confirmation will
have effeft only from its own date ; and confequently the
bafe right firft compleated, will carry property of the
lands preferable to the public one.
7. Refignation is that form of law, by which a vaffal
furrenders his feu to his fuperior; and it is either ad per-
petuam remanentiam, or in favorem. In refignations ad
remanentiam, where the feu is refigned, to the effect
that it may remain with the fuperior, the fuperior, who
before had the fuperiority, acquires, by the refignation,
the property alfo of the lands refigned : and as his in¬
feftment in the lands ftill fubfifted, notwithftanding the
right by which he had given his vaffal the property ; there¬
fore, upon the vaffals refignation, the fuperior’s right of
property revives, and is confolidated with the fupenority,
without the neceffity of a new infeftment; but the in-
firument of refignation muft be recorded.
8. Refignations favorem are made, not with an
intention that the property refigned fhould remain with
the fuperior, but that it (hould be again given by him,
in favour either of the refigner himfelf, or of a third
party ; confequently the fee remains in the refigner,
till the perfon in whofe favour refignation is made gets
his right from the fuperior perfedted by feifin And be¬
caufe refignations in favorem, are but incompleat perfon-
al deeds, our law has made no provifion for recording
them. Hence, the firft feifin on a fecond refignation is
preferable to the laft feifin upon the firft refignation; but
the fuperior, accepting a fecond refignation, whereupon
a prior feifin m <y be taken in prejudice of the firft refigna-
tory, is liable in damages.
9. By our former decifions, one who was veiled
with a perfonal right of lands, i e. a right not compleat¬
ed by feifin, effeftually divefted himfelf by difponing it
to another; after which, no right remained in the dif¬
poner, which could be carried by a fecond difpofition,
becaufe a perfonal right is no more than a jus obligationh,
which may be transferred by any deed fufficiently ex¬
prefling the will of the granter. But this dodtrine, at the
fame time that it rendered the fecurity of the records ex¬
tremely uncertain, was not truly applicable to fuch rights
as required feifin to complete them; and therefore it now
obtains, that the granter even of a perfonal right of lands,
is not fo divefted by conveying the right to one perfon,
but that he.may effedlually make it over afterwards to a-
nother ^
L A W. 9”
mother; and the preference between the two does not
depend on the dates of the difpofitions, but on the prio¬
rity of the feifins following upon them.
Tit. 15. Of redeemable Kights.
An heritable right is faid to be redeemable, when it
contains a right ot reverfion, or return, in favour of the
perfon from whom the right flows. Reverfions are either
legal, which arife from thelawitfelf, as in adjudications,
which law declares to be redeemable within a certain term
after their date; or conventional, which are conftituted
by the agreement of parties, as in wadfets, rights of an-
nualrent, and rights in fecurity. A wadfet (from wad
or pledge) is a right, by which lands, or other heritable
fubjefts, are impignorated by the proprietor to his credi¬
tor, in lecurity of his debt; and, like other heritable
rights, is perfe<5ted by feifin. The debtor, who grants
the wadfet, and has the right of reverfion, is called the
reverfer; and the creditor, receiver of the wadfet, is call¬
ed the wadfetter.
Wadfets, bytheprefent praflice, are commonly made
out in the form of mutual contradls, in which one party
fells the land, and the other grants the right of reverlion.
When the right of reverfion is thus incorporated in the
body of the wadfet, it is efiettual without regiftration ; be-
caufe the fingular fucceflbr in the wadfet is, in that cafe,
fuffidently certified of the reverfion, though it be not re-
giltred, by looking into his own right, which bears it in
gremio. But where the right of reverfion is granted in
a feparate writing, it is ineflfedlual againft the fingular fuc¬
ceflbr of the wadfetter, unlefs it beregiftred in the regifter
of feifins within 60 days after the date -of the feifm up¬
on the wadfet.
3. Rights of reverfion are generally efteemed Jlritti
juris; yet they goto heirs, though heirs fliould not be
mentioned, unlefs there be fome claufe in the right,
difcovering the intention of parties, that the reverfion
fliould be perfonal to the reverfer himfelf. In like man¬
ner, though the right fliould not exprefs a power to re¬
deem from the wadfetter’s heir, as well as from himfelf,
redemption will be competent again 11 the heir. All our
lawyers have affirmed, that reverfions cannot beafligned,
nnlefs they are taken to aflignees ; but from-the favour of
legal diligence, they may be adjudged.
4. Reverfiohs commonly leave the reverfer at liberty
to redeem the lands quandocunqe, without reftiifrion in
point of time ; but a claufe is adjeded to fome reverfians,
that if the debt be not paid againfl: a determinate day,
the right of reverfion ffiall be irritated, and the lands
ftiall become the irredeemable property of the wadfetter.
Neverthelefs, the irritancy beingpenal, as in wadfets, the
fiim lent falls always fliort of the value of the lands, and
the right of redemption is by indulgence continued to>the
reverfer, even after the term has expired, while the ir¬
ritancy is not declared. But the reverfer, if he does not
take the benefit of this indulgence, within forty years af¬
ter the lapfe of the term, is cut out of it by preferip-
iion.
5. If the reverfer would redeem his lands, he mud ufe
an order-of redemption againft the wad fetter : the lirll-
ftep of which is premonition (or notice given under form
of inftrument) to die wadfetter, to appear at the time and
place appointed by the reverfion, then and there to re¬
ceive payment of his debt, and thereupon to renounce
his right of wadfet. In the voluntary redemption of a
right of wadfet holden bafe, a renunciation duly regi-
ftred re-eftablilhes the reverfer in the full right of the
lands. Where the wadfet was granted to be holden of
the granter’s fuperior, the fuperior mull receive the re¬
verfer, on payment of a.year’s rent, if he produce a dif-
pofition from the wadfetter, containing procuratory of
refignation. If, at executing the wadfet, the fuperior-
has granted letters of regrefs, i. e. an obligation again
to enter the reverfer upon redemption of the lands, he
will be obliged to receive him, without payment of the
year’s rent. But letters of regrefs will not have this effedl
againfl: fingular fucceflbrs in the fuperiority, if they are
not regiftred in the regifter of reverfions. All wadfet*
that remain perfonal righis, are extinguifhed by Ample
difeharges, though they (hould not be recorded.
6. If the wadfetter either does not appear at the time
and place appointed, or refufes the redemption-moneyr
the reverfer muft confign it under form of inftrument, in
the hands of the perfon thereto appointed in the right of
reverfion . or, if no perfon be named, in the hands of
the clerk to the bills, a clerk of feflion, or any refponfal-
perfon. An inftrument of confignation, with the config-
natory’s receipt of the money configned, compleats the or¬
der of redemption, flops the farther currency of intereft
againft the reverfer, and founds him in an adion for de¬
claring the order to be formal, and the lands to be redeem¬
ed in confequence of it.
7. After decree of declarator is obtained, by which?
the lands are declared to return to the debtor, the con¬
figned money, which comes in place of the lands, be¬
comes the wadfetter’s, who therefore can charge the con-
fignatory upon letters of horning to deliver it up to him;:
but, becaufe the reverfer may, at any time before de¬
cree, pafs from his order, as one may do from any other
ft'ep of diligence, the configned fums continue to belong
to the reverfer, and the wadfetter’s intereft in the wad¬
fet continues heritable till that period.
8. If the wadfetter chufes to have his money rather
than the lands, he muft require from the reverfer, under
form of inftrument, the fums due by the wadfet, in terms
of the right. The wadfet fums continue heritable, not-
wichftanding requifition, which may, be palled from by
the wadfetter even after the reverfer has configned the.
redemption money in confequence thereof.
9. Wadfets are either proper or improper. A proper
wadfet is that whereby it is agreed, , that the ufe of the
land (hall go for the ufe of the money.; fo that the wad¬
fetter takes his hazard of the rents, and enjoys them
without acsounting, in fatisfadtion, or/«_/«/«/«/».of his
intereft'.
to. In an improper wadftt; the reverfer, if the rent
Ihould fall Ihort of the intereft, is taken bound to make
up the deficiency ; if it amounts to more, the wadfetter
is obliged to impute the excrefcence towards extinction
of the capital: And, as foon as the whole fums, princi¬
pal and intereft, are extinguilhed by the wadfetter’s pofr
912 L A
feffion, he may be compelled to renounce, or divert him-
felf in favour of the reverfer.
11. If the wadfetter be intitled by his right to enjoy
the rents without accounting, and if at the fame time
the reverfer be fubjeirted to the hazard of their deficien¬
cy, fuch contracts juftly declared ufurious ; and alfo in
all proper wadfets wherein any unreafonable advantage
has been taken of the debtor, the wadfetter muft, during
the not requifition of the fum lent, either quit his pof-
felfion to the debtor, upon his giving fecurity to pay the
intereft, or fubjeift himfelf to account for the fuplus-rents,
as in improper wadfets.
12. Infeftments of annualrent, the nature of which
has been explained, are aifo redeemable rights. A right
of annualrent does not carry the property of the lands,
but it creates a real nexus or burden upon the property,
for payment of the intereft or annualrent contained in the
right; and confequently, the bygone interefts due upon
it are debita fundi. The annualrenter may therefore
either infift in a real aftion for obtaining letters of poind¬
ing the ground, or fue the tenant in a perfonal atftion
towards the payment of his part intereft: And in a com¬
petition for thofe rents, the annualrenter’s preference will
not depend on his having ufed a poinding of the ground,
for his right was compleated by the feifin; and the power
of poinding the ground, arifing from that antecedent
right, is mera facultatis, and need not be exercifed, if
payment cansbe otherwife got. As it is only the intereft
of the futn lent which is a burden upon the lands, the
annualrenter, if he wants his principal fum, cannot re¬
cover it either by poinding or by a perfonal adtionagainft
the debtor’s tenants, but muft demand it from the debtor
himfelf, on his perfonal obligation in the bond, either by
requifition, or by a charge upon letters of horning, ac¬
cording as the right is drawn.
13. Rights of annualrent, being fervitudes upon the
property, and confequently confident with the right of
property in the debtor, may be extinguilhed without re-
fignation.
14. Infeftments in fecurity are another kind of re¬
deemable rights (now frequently ufed in place of rights
of annualrent) by which the receivers are infeft in the
lands themfelves, and not fimply in an annualrent forth
of them, for fecurity of the principal fums, intereft, and
penalty, contained in the rights. If an infeftment in fe¬
curity be granted to a creditor, he may thereupon enter
into the immediate pofleflion of the lands or annualrent
for his payment. They are extinguiftred as rights of an¬
nualrent.
15 All rights of annualrent, rights in fecurity, and
generally whatever conftitutes a real burden on the fee,
may be the ground of an adjudication, which is prefer¬
able to ail adjudications, or other diligences, intervening
between the date of the right and of the adjudication
deduced on it; not only for the principal fum contained
in the right, but alfo for the whole part intereft contained
in the adjudication. This preference arifes from the
nature of real debts, or debita fundi \ but in order to
obtain it for the intereft of the intereft accumulatedin the
adjudication, fuch adjudication muft proceed on a procefs
•of poinding the ground.
w.
Tit. 16. Of Servitudes.
Servitude is a burden afFedling lands, or other he-
Titable fubjefls, whereby the proprietor is either reftrain-
ed from the full ufe of what is his own, or is obliged to
fuffer another to do fomething upon it.' Servitudes are
either natural, legal, or conventional. Nature itfelf
may be (aid to conftitute a fervitude upon inferior tene¬
ments, whereby they muft receive the water that falls
from thofe that ftand on higher ground. Legal fervi¬
tudes are eftabiifhed by ftatute or cuftom, from confide-
rations of public policy; among which may be numbered
the.reftraints laid upon the proprietors of tenements with¬
in the city of Edinburgh. There is as great a variety
of conventional fervitudes, as there are ways by which
the exercife of property may be reftrained by padtion in
favour of another.
2. Conventional fervitudes are conftituted, either by
grant, where the will of the party burdened is exprefted
in writing, or by prefcription, where his confent is pre¬
fumed from his acquiefcence in the burden for 40 years,
A lervitude conftituted by writing, or grant, is not
effedtual againft the granter’s fingular fuccefibrs, unlefs
the grantee has been in the ufe or exercife of his right:
But they are valid againft the granter and his heirs, even
w'ithcut ufe. In fervitudes that may be acquired by pre¬
fcription, forty years exercife of the right is fuflicient,
without any title in writing, other than a charter and
feifin of the lands, to which the fervitude is claimed to
be due.
3. Servitudes conftituted by grant are not effedlual,
in a queftion with the fuperior of the tenement burdened
with the fervitude, unlels his confent be adhibited ; for
a fuperior cannot be hurt by his vaflal’s deed : But,
where the fervitude is acquired by prefcription, the con¬
fent of the fuperior, whofe right afforded him a good
title to interrupt, is implied. A fervitude by grant,
though followed only by a partial poffeflion, muft be go¬
verned, as to its extent, by the tenor of the grant; but
a fervitude by prefcription is limited by the meafure or
degree of the ufe had by him who prefcribes ; agreeably
to the maxim, iantum prafcriptum quantum poffejfum.
4. Servitudes are either predial or perfonal. Predial
fervitudes are burdens impofed upon one tenement, in
favour of another tenement. That to which the fervi¬
tude is due is called the dominant, and that which owes
it is called the fervient tenement. No perfon can have
right to a predial fervitude, if he is not proprietor of
fome dominant tenement that may have benefit by it;
for that right is annexed to a tenement, and fo cannot
pafs from one perfon to another, unlefs fome tenement
goes along with it.
5. Predial fervitudes are divided intfe rural fervitudes,
or of lands ; and urban fervitudes, or of honfes. The
rural fervitudes of the Romans were iter, atlus, via,
aqureduftus, aquahoufus, and jus pc.fccndi pecoris. Si¬
milar fervitudes may be conftituted with us, of a foot-
road, horfe road, cart-road, dams, and aquedutfs, water¬
ing of cattle, and pafturage. The right of a highway is
not a fervitude conftituted in favour of a particular tene¬
ment, but is a right common to all travellers. The care
L
of high ways, bridges, and ferries, is committed to the
fheriffs, judices of peace, and commiflioners of fupply in
each (hire,
6. Common pafturage, or the right of feeding one’s
cattle upon the property of another, is fometimes confti-
tuted by a general claufe of pafturage in a charter or dif-
pofhion, Without mentioning the lands burdened; in which
cafe, the right comprehends whatever had been former¬
ly appropriated to the lands difponed out of the granter’s
own property, and likewife all pafturage due to them out
of other lands. When a right of pafturage is given to
feveral neighbouring proprietors, on a moor or common
belonging to the granter, indefinite as to the number of
cattle to be paftured, the extent of their feveral rights is
to be proportioned according to the number that each of
them can fodder in winter upon his own dominant tene¬
ment.
7. The chief fervitudes of houfes ampng the Roman?
were thofe of fupport, viz. tigni immitte'ndi, and oner is,
ferendi. The firft was the right of fixing in our neigh¬
bour’s wall a joift or beam from our houfe : The fecond
was that of refting the weight of one’s houfe upon his
neighbour’s wall.
8. With us, where different floors or ftories of the fame
houfe belong to different perfons, as is frequent in the,
city of Edinburgh, ,the property of the houfe-cannot be
faid to be entirely divided ; the roof remains a common
roof to the whole, and the area on which the houfe (lands
fgpports the whole ; fo that there is a communication of
property, in confequence of which the proprietor of the
ground floor muft, without the conftitution of any fer-
vitude, uphold it for the fupport of the upper, and the
owner of the higheft ftory muft uphold that as a cover
to the lower. Where the higheft floor is divided into
garrets among the feveral proprietors, each proprietor is
obliged, according to this rule, to uphold that part of the
roof which covers his own garret.
9. No proprietor can build, fo as to throw the rain¬
water falling from his own houfe, immediately upon his
neighbour’s ground, without a fpecial fervitude, which is
called of Jiillicide ; but, if it falls within his own pro¬
perty, though at the fmalleft diftance from the march,
the owner of the inferior tepement muft receive it.
10. The fervitudes altius non tollendi, et non ojficiendi
luminibus vel profpcflui, reftrain proprietors from raifing
their houfes beyond a certain height, or#from making any
building whatfoever that may hurt the light or profpedt
of the dominant tenement. Thefe fervitudes cannot be
conftituted by prefcription alone ; for, though a propri¬
etor fhould have built his houfe ever fo low, or fhould
not have built at all upon his -grounds for forty years
together, he is prefumed to have done fo for his own
conveniency or profit ; and therefore cannot be barred
from afterwards building a houfe on his property, or
raifing it to what height he pleafes, unlefs he be tied down
by his own confent.
11. We have two predial fervitudes to which the Ro¬
mans were ftrangers,* viz. that of fewel or feal and divot,
and of thirlage. The firft is a right, by which the owner
of the dominant tenement may turn up peats, turfs, feals,
©r divots, from the ground of the fervient, and carry
Voi. II. No. 64. 2
A W. 9\x
them off either for fewcl, or thatch, or the other ufes o^
his own tenement.
12. Thirlage is that fervitude, by which lands are
aftridted, or thirled, to a particular mill, and the poflef-
fors bound to grind their grain there, for payment of
certain multures and fequels, as the agreed price of grind¬
ing. In this fervitude, the mill is the dominant tene¬
ment, and the lands aftridted (which are called alfo the
thirle or fucken) the fervient. Multure is the quantity
of grain or meal payable to the proprietor of the mill,
or to the multurer his tackfman. The fequds are the
fmall quantities given to the fervants, under the name of
knavefhip, bannock, and lock or gowpen. The quantities
paid to the mill by the lands not aftridhed, are generally pro¬
portioned to the value of the labour, and are called out town
or out-fucken multures; but thofe paid by the tbirle are or¬
dinarily higher, and are called in-town or in-fucken multures..
13. Thirlage may be conftituted by a land-holder,
when, in the difpofition of certain lands, he aftridhs them
to his own mill ; or when, in the difpofition of a mill,
he aftridhs his own lands to the mill difponed, or when,
in letting his lands, he makes it a condition in the tacks.
The grant of a mill with the general cjaufe of multures,
without fpecifying the lands aftridted, conveys the thir¬
lage of all the lands formerly aftridted to that mill,
whether they were the property of the granter, or of a
third party.
14. A lefs formal conftitution ferves to aftridt barony-
lands to the mill of the barony, than is neceflary in any
other thirlage ; which perhaps proceeds from the effedls
of the union between the two. Hence, if a baron makes
over the mill of a barony, cum multuris, or cum ajlriflit
multuris, it infers -an aftridtion of the barony lands to
the mill conveyed, even of fuch as had been before fold
to another for a certain duty pro omni alio onerc. Bnt
if, prior to the baron’s conveyance of his mill cum mul¬
turis, he had fold any part of the barony-lands to another
cum multuris, the firft purchafer’s lands are not aftridted
by the pofterior grant; for a right of lands with the
multures, implies a freedom of thefe lands from thirlage.
14. Thirlage is either, 1. Of grindable corns ; or, 2.
Of all growing corns; or, 3. Of the invetta et Mata,
i. e. of all the grain brought within the thirle, though of
another growth. Where the thirlage is of grindable
grain, it is in pradtice reftridted to the corns which the
tenants have occafton to grind, either for the fupport of
their families, or for other ufes ; the furplus may be
carried out of the thirle unmanufadtured, without being
liable in multure. Where it is of the grana crefcentia,
the whole grain growing upon the thirle is aftridted, with
the exceptions, 1. Of feed and horfe-corn, which are
deftined to ufes inconfiftent with grinding ; and, 2. Of
the farm-duties due to the landlord, if they are deliver¬
able in grain not grinded. But, if the rent be payable
in meal, flour, or malt, the grain of which thefe are made
muft be manufadhtred in the dominant mill.
16. The thirlage of invetta et illata is feldom confti¬
tuted but againft the inhabitants of a borough or village,
that they (hall grind all the unmanufadiured grain they
import thither at the dominant mill. Multure, therefore,
cannot be exadfed in a thirldge of invefta et Mata, for
9 X flour
914 L A W.
flour or oat-meal brought into tlje fervient tenement, un-
lefs the importer had brought it in grain, and grinded it
at another mill. The fame grain that owes multure, as
granum crefceus, to the mill in whofe thirle it grew, if
it (hall be afterwards brought within a borough where
the inveda et Mata are thirled, mull pay a fecond mul¬
ture to the proprietor of that dominant tenement ; but,
where the right of thefe two thirlages is in the fame pro¬
prietor, he cannot exa£t both. Where lands are thirled
of general terms, without exprefling the particular nature
in the fervitude, the lighted thirlage is prefumed, from
the favour of liberty; but in the adridtion of a borough
or village, where there is no growing grain which can be
the fubjedt of thirlage, the adridtion of invsfla et Mata
mud be neceflarily underdood.
17. Thirlage, in the general cafe, cannot be edablilh-
ed by prefeription alone, for its qua funtrnera facultatis
non praferibitur; but where one has paid for forty
years together the heavy infucken multures, the flighted
title in writing will fubjedl his lands. Thirlage may be,
contrary to the common rule, condituted by prefeription
alone, 1. Where one pays to a mill a certain fum, or
quantity of grain yearly, in name of multure, whether
he grinds at it or not (called dry multure.) 2. In mills
of the King’s property ; which is conflituted jure corona,
without titles in writing; and, where he derives right
from another, his titles are more liable to be lod. This
is extended in pradtice to mills belonging to church-lands,
where thirty years pofleflion is deemed equivalent to a
title in writing, from a prefumption that their rights were
dedroyed at the reformation. Though thirlage itfelf
cannot be condituted by mere pofleflion, the proportion
of mul,ture payable to the dominant tenement may be fo
. fixed.
18. The poflefibrs of the lands aflridted, are bound to
uphold the mill, repair the dam-dykes and aquedudls,
and bring home the millflones. Thefe fervices, though
not exprefled in the conditution, are implied.
19. Servitudes, being redraints upon property, are
Jir 'thi juris : They are not therefore prefumed, if the
stdb upon which they are claimed can be explained con¬
fidently with freedom ; and, when fervitudes are confli¬
tuted, they ought to be ufed in the way lead burdenfome
to the fervient tenement. Hence, one who has a fervi¬
tude of peats upon his neighbour’s mofs, is not at liberty
to extend it for the ufe of any manufadure which may
require an extraordinary expence of fewel; but mud
confine it to the natural ufes of the dominant tenement.
20. Servitudes are extinguilhed, 1. Confuftone, when
the fame perfon comes to be proprietor of the dominant
and fervient tenements ; for res fua nemini fervit, and
the ufe the proprietor thereafter makes of the lervient
tenement is not jure fervitutis, but is an a£t of proper¬
ty. 2. By the perifhing, either of the dominant or fer
vient tenement. 3. Servitudes are lofl utendo, by
the dominant tenement negledting to, ufe the right for
forty years ; which is confidered as a dereliftion of it,
though he, who has the fervient tenement, flrould have
made no interruption, by doing a<5ts contrary to the fer¬
vitude.
2.x. Perfonal fetvitudes are thofe by which the proper¬
ty of a fubjeft is burdened, in favour, not of a tenement,
but of a perfon. The only perfonal fervitude known in
our law, is ufufrutt or liferent; which is a right to ufe
and enjoy a thing during life, the fubdance of it being
preferved. A liferent cannot therefore be condituted
upon things which periflr in the ufe ; and though it may
upon fubjedts which gradually wear out by time, as houfe-
hold-furniture, <bc. yet, with us, it is generally applied
to heritable fubjedts. He, whofe property is burdened,
is ufually called the fiar.
22. Liferents are divided into conventional and legal.
Conventional liferents are either Ample, or by refervation.
A Ample liferent, or by a feparate conditution, is that
which is granted by the proprietor in favour of aaother :
And this fort, contrary to the nature of predial fervitudes,
requires feifln in order to affedt Angular fucceflbrs ; for a
liferent of lands is, in flridt fpeeeh, not a fervitude, but
a right refembling property, which conditutes the life-
renter vaflal for life ; and Angular fucceflbrs have no way
of difeovering a liferent-right, which perhaps is not yet
commenced, but by the records ; whereas, in predial
fervitudes, the condant ufe of the dominant tenement
makes them public. The proper right of liferent is in-
tranfmiflible, ojfibus ufufrufluarii inharet : When the
profits of the liferented fubjedt are tranfmitted to another,
the right becomes merely perfonal, for it intitles the af-
Agnee to the rent, not during his own life, but his ce¬
dent’s, and is therefore carried by Ample aflignation,
without feiAn.
23. A liferent by refervation, is that which a pro¬
prietor referves to himfelf in the fame writing by which
he conveys the fee to another. It requires no feifin j
for the granter’s former feifin, which virtually included
the liferent, dill fubfifts as to the liferent which is ex-
prefsly referved. In conjundt infeftments taken to huf-
band and wife, the wife’s right of conjundt fee refolves,
in the general cafe, into a liferent.
24. Liferents by law, are the terce and the courtefy.
The terce/tertiaJ is a liferent competent bylaw to
widows, who have not accepted of fpecial provifions, in
the third of the heritable fubjedts, in which their hufbands
died infeft; and takes place only where the marriage
has fubfided for year and day, or where a child has been
born alive of it.
25. The terce is not limited to lands, but extends to
teinds, and to fervitudes and other burdens afledting lands;
thus, the widow is intitled, in the right of her terce, to
a liferent of the third of the fums fecured, either by rights
of annnalrent, or by rights in fecurity. In improper
wadfets, the terce is a third of the fum lent: In thofe
that are proper, it is a third of the wadfet-landa ; or in
cafe of redemption, a third of the redemption money.
Neither rights of reverfion, fuperiority,. nor patronage,
fall under the terce ; for none of thefe have fixed profits,
and fo are not proper fubje&s for the widow’s fubfidence ;
nor tacks, becaufe they are not feudal rights. Burgage-
tenements are alfo excluded from it,, the reafon of which
is not fo obvious. Since the hudjand’s feifin is both the
meafure and fecurity of the terce, fuch debts or diligen¬
ces alone, as exclude the hulband’s feifin, can prevail over it.
26. Where a terce is due out of lauds burdened with
L A
’a prior terce ftill fubfifling, the fecond tereer has only
right to a third of the two thirds that remain unafFtjfted
by the firft tercfe. But upon the death of the 6rlt widow,
whereby the lands are dilburdened of her terce, the leffer
terce becomes enlarged, as if the firft had never exifled.
widow, who has accepted of a fpecial provifion from her
hufband, is thereby excluded from the terce, unlefs fuch
provifion fhall contain a claufe that fhe fhall have right
to both.
27. The widow has no title of poflefllon, ard fo can¬
not receive the rents in virtue of her terce, till fhe be
ferved to it; and in order to this, fhe muft obtain a brief
out of the chancery, diredted to the Sheriff, who calls an
inqueft, to take proof that fhe was wife to the deceafed ;
and that the deceafed died infeft in the fubjefts contained
in the brief. The feryice or fentence of the jury, find¬
ing thefe points proved, does, without the neceffity of a
retour to the chancery, intitle the wife to enter into the
poffeffion ; but fne can only poflefs with the heir pro in-
divifo, and fo cannot remove tenants, till the fheriff kens
her to her terce, or divides the lands between her and
the heir. In this divifion, after determining by lot or
kavil, whether to begin by the fun or the fhade, i. e. by
the eaft or the weft, the fheriff fets off the two firft acres
for the heir, and the third for the widow. Sometimes
the divifion is executed, by giving one entire farm to the
\iddow, and two of equal value to the heir. The widow’s
eight is not properly conftituted by this fervice ; it was
conftituted before, by the hufband’s feifin, and fixed by
his death ; the fervice only declares it, and fo intitles her
to the third part of the rents retro to her hufband’s death,
preferable to any rights that may have affedted the lands
in the intermediate period between that and her own fer¬
vice. The relidt, if fhe was reputed to be lawful wife
to the deceafed, muft be ferved, notwithftanding any ob-
jedtions by the heir againft the marriage, which may be
afterwards tried by the commiflary,
28. Cpurtefy is a liferent given by law, to the furvi-
ving huflj^nd, of all his wife’s heritage in which fhe died
infeft, if there was a child of the marriage born alive.
A marriage, though of the longeft continuance, gives no
right to the courtefy, if there was no iffue of it. The
child born of the marriage muft be the mother’s heir: If
fhe had a child of a former marriage, who is to fucceed
to her eftate, the hufband has no right to the courtefy
while fuch child is alive; fo that the courtefy is due to
the hufband, rather as father to an heir, than as hufband
to an heirefs. Heritage is here oppofed to conqueft, and
fo is to be underftood only of the heritable rights to
which the wife fucceeded as heir to her anceftors, ex¬
cluding what fhe herfelf had acquired by Angular titles.
29. Becaufe the hufband enjoys the liferent of his
wife’s whole heritage, on a lucrative title, he is confider-
ed as her temporary reprefentative, and fo is liable in
payment of all the yearly burdens chargeable on the fub-
jedt, and of the current intereft of all her debts, real and
perfonal, to the value of the yearly rent he enjoys by the
courtefy. The courtefy needs no folemnity to its confu¬
tation : That right, which the hufband had to the rents
ef his wife’s eftate, during the marriage, jure mariti, is
continued with him after her death, under the name of
W. 915
courtefy, by an aft of the Jaw itfelf. As in the terce,
the hufband’s feifin is the ground and meafure of the
wife’s right; fo in the courtefy, the wife’s feifin is the
foundation of the hufband’s ; and the two rights are, in
all other refpefts, of the fame nature; if it is not that
the courtefy extends to burgage holdings, and to fuperi-
orities.
30. All lifererters muft ufe their right falva ret fub-
Jiantia : Whatever therefore is part of the fee itfelf,
cannot be encroached on by the liferenter, e g. woods
or growing timber, even for the neceffary ufes of the
liferented tenement. But, where a coppice or Ji/va
cadua has been divided into hags, one of which was in
ufe to be cut annually by the proprietor, the liferenter
may'continue the former yearly cuttings ; becaufe thefe
are confidered as the annual fruits the fubjeft was intend*
ed to yield, and fo the proper fubjeft of a liferent.
31. Liferenters are bound to keep the fubjeft liferented in
proper repair. They are alfo burdened with the alimony of
the heir, where he has not enough for maintaining him-
felf. The bare right of apparency founds the aftion a-
gainft the liferenter. It is a burden perfonal to the life-
renter himfelf, and cannot be thrown upon his adjudging
creditors, as coming in his place by their diligences.
Liferenters are alfo fubjefted to the payment of the year¬
ly cefles, ftipends, <bc. falling due during their right,
and to all other burdens that attend the fubjeft liferented.
32. Liferent is extinguifhed by the liferenter’s death.
That part of the rents which the liferenter had a proper
right to, before his death, falls to his- executors; the
reft, as never having been in bonis oi the deceafed, goes
to the fiar. Martinmas and Whitfunday are, byourcu-
ftom, the legal terms of the payment of rent : Confe-
quently, if a liferenter of lands furvives the term of
Whitfunday, his executors are intitled to the half of that
year’s rent, becaufe it was due the term before his death ;
and if he furvives the Martinmas, they have right to the
whole. If the liferenter, being in the natural poffelfion,
and having firft fowed the ground, fhould die, even be¬
fore the Whitfunday, his executors are intitled to the
whole crop, in refpeft that both feed and indultry were
his. In a liferent of money conftituted by a moveable
bond, the executors have a right to the intereft, down to
the very day of the liferenter’s death, where no terms
are mentioned for the payment thereof; but in the cafe
of an heritable bond, or of a money liferent fecured on
land, the interefts of liferenter and fiar (or of heir and
executor, for the fame rules ferve to fix the interefts of
both) are both governed by the legal terms of land-rent,
without regard to the conventionaL
Tit. 17. Of Teinds.
x. Teinds, or tithes, are that liquid proportion of
our rmts or goods, which is due to churchmen, for per¬
forming divine fervice, ot exerciling the other fpiritual
functions proper to their feveral offices. Moft of the
canonifts affirm, that the precife proportion of a tenth,
not only of the fruits of the ground, but of what is ac¬
quired by perfonal induftry, is due to the Chriftian clergy,
of divine right, which -they therefore call the proper pa¬
trimony,
L
trimony of the church ; though it is certain that tithes,
in their infancy, were given, not to the clergy alone, but
to lay-monks who were called pauperes, and to other in¬
digent perfons. Charles the Great was the firft fecular
Prince who acknowledged this right in the church. It
appears to have been received with us, as far back as
David I.
2. Theperfon employed by a cathedral church or mona-
dlery to ferve the cure in any church annexed, was called
a vicar, becaufe he held the church, not in his own right,
but in the right or vice of his employers; and fo was
removeable at pleafure, and had no (hare of the benefice, '
other than what they thought fit to allow him: But, in
the courfe of time, the appellation of vicar was limited
to thofe who were made perpetual, and who got a dated
Jhare of the benefice for their incumbency ; from whence
arofe the diftinftion of benefices into parfonages and vi¬
carages.
3. Parfonage-teinds are the teinds of corn; and they
are fo called becaufe they are due to the parfon or other
titular of the benefice. Vicarage teinds are the fmall
teinds of calves, lint, hemp, eggs, fac. which were com¬
monly given by the titular to the vicar who ferved the
cure in his place. The firft fort was univerfally due, un-
lefs in the cafe of their infeudation to laics, or of a pon¬
tifical exemption; but, by the cuftoms of almoft all Chri-
llendom, the leffer teinds were not demanded where
they had not been in ufe to be paid. By the practice of
Scotland, the teinds of animals, or of things produced
from animals, as lambs, wool, calves, are due though
not accuftomed to be paid ; but roots, herbs, (be. are
not tithable, unlefs ufe of payment be proved: nei¬
ther are perfonal teinds, i. e. the ten;h of what one
acquires by his own induftry, acknowledged by our
law ; yet they have been found due, when fupported by
40 years pofleflion.
4. The parfon who was entitled to the teind of corns,
made his right effedtual either by accepting of a certain
number of teind-bolls yearly from the proprietor, in fa-
tisfa&ion of it; or more frequently, by drawing or fe-
parating upon the field his own tenth part of the corns,
after they wete reaped, from the ftock or the remaining
nine tenths of the crop, and carrying it off to his own
granaries; which is called drawn teind.
5. After the reformation, James VI. confideredhim-
felf proprietor of all the church-lands; partly becaufe
the purpofes for which they had been granted were de¬
clared fuperftitious; and partly, in confequence of the
refignations which he, and Q^Maryhis mother, had pro¬
cured from the beneficiaries: and even as to the teinds, tho’
our reformed clergy alfo claimed them as the patrimony
of the church, our fovereign did not fubmit to that
do&rine farther than extended to a competent pro-
vifion for minifters. He therefore erefted or fecula-
rifed feveral abbacies and priories into temporal lord-
Ihips; the grantees of which were called fometimes lords
of eredtion, and fometimes titulars, as having by their
grants the fame title to the ereded benefices, that the
monafteries had formerly.
6. As the Crown’s revenuefuiFered greatly by thefe e-
reftiens, the temporality of all church-benefices (#. e*
A W.
church lands) was, by 1587, c. 29. annexed to the
crown. That ftatute excepts from the annexation fuch
benefices as were eftabliihed before the reformation in
laymen, whofe rights the legiflature had no intention to
weaken. Notwichftanding this ftatute, his Majefty con¬
tinued to make farther eredtions, which were declared
null by 1592, c. 119. with an exception of fuch as had
been made in favour of lords of parliament, fince the
general aft of annexation in 1587.
7. K. Charles I. foon after his fucceflion, raifed a re-
d iftion of all thefe ereftions, whether ganted before or
after the aft of annexation, upon the grounds mentioned
at length by Mr Forbes in his treatife of tithes, p. 159.
At laft the whole matter was referred to the King him-
felf by four feveral fubmiflions or compromifes, in which
the parties on one fide were the titulars and their tackf-
men, the bifhops with the inferior clergy, and the royal
boroughs, for the intereft they had in the teinds that were
gifted for the prffvifion of minifters, fchools, or hofpitals
within their boroughs ; and, on the other part, the pro¬
prietors who wanted to have the leading of their own
teinds. The fubmi/fion by the titulars contained a furren-
der into his Majefty’s hands of the fuperiorities of their
feveral ereftions.
8. Upon each of thefe fubmiflions his Majefty pro¬
nounced feparate decrees-arbritral, dated Sept. 2. 1629,
which are fubjoined to the afts of parliament of his reign.
He made it lawful to proprietors to fue the titulars for a
valuation, and if they thought fit fora fate alfo, of their
teinds, before the commiflioners named or to be named for
that purpofe. The rate-of teind, when it was poflefled
by the proprietor jointly with the ftock, for payment of a
certain duty to the titular, and fo did not admit a feparate
valuation, was fixed at a fifth part of the conftant yearly
rent, which was accounted a reafonable furrogatut/t, in
place of a tenth of the increafe. Where it was drawn
by the titular, and confequently might be valued feparate-
ly from the ftock, it was to be valued as its extent fhould
be afeertained upon a proof before the commiflioners;
but in this laft valuation, the King direfted the fifth part
to be dedufted from the proved teind, in favour of the
proprietor, which was therefore called the King’s eafe.
The proprietor fuing for a valuation gets the leading
of his own teinds as foon- as his fuit oommenoes; pro¬
viding he does not allow proteftation to be extrafted a-
gainft him for not infilling.
9. Where the proprietor infilled alfo for a fale of his
teinds, the titular was obliged to fell them at nine years
purchafe of the valued teind-duty. If the purfuer had
a tack of his own teinds, not yet expired; or if the de¬
fender was only tackfmen of the teinds, and fo could not
give the purfuer an heritable right; an abatement a^fche
price was to be granted accordingly by the commif-
fioners.
to. There is no provifion in the decrees arbitral, for
felling the teinds granted for the fulle.ntation of minifters,
univerfities, fchook or hofpitals ; becaufe thefe were to con¬
tinue, as a perpetual fund, for the maintenance of the perfons
or focieties to whom they were appropriated; and they are
exprefsly declared not fubjeft to fale, by 1690. c. 30.—
1693, c. 23. By the laft of thefe afts, it is alfo pro¬
vided
A
TiJeil, that the teinds belonging to biffiops, which had then
fallen to the crown, upon the abolifhing of epifcopacy,
fhould not be fubje<a to fafe as long as they remained
with the Crown not difpofed of; nor thofe which the
the proprietor, who had right both to (lock andtemd, re¬
ferred to himfelf, in a faie or feu of the lands.' But,
though none of thefe teinds can be fold, they may be
valued.
ii. The King, by the decrees arbitral, declared his
own right to the fuperiorities of ere&ion wkich had been
re'figned to him by the fubmiflion, referving to the titu¬
lars the feu-duties thereof, until payment by himfelf to
them of one thoufand mcrks Scots for every chalder of
feu viftual, and for each hundred merits of feu-duty,
which right of redeeming the feu-duties was afterwards
renounced by the Crown. If the church-vaflal (hould
tonfent to hold his lands of the titular, he cannot there¬
after recur to the Ccrown as his immediate fuperior.
; 2. In explaining what the confiant rent is, by which
the teind mud be valued, the following rules are obferved.
The rent drawn by the proprietor, from the fale of fub-
je<ds, that are more properly parts of the land than of
the fruits, e. g. quarries, minerals, modes, ^rc. is to
be deduced from the rental of the lands; and alfo the
rent of fupernumerary houfes, over and above what is
neceflary for agriculture; and the additional rent that
may be paid by the tenant, in confideration of the pro¬
prietor’s undertaking any burden that law impofes on the
tenant, e. g. upholding the tenant’s houfes, becaufe none
of thefe articles are paid properly on account of the fruits.
Orchards mud alfo be deduded, and mill-rent, becaufe
the profits of a mill arife from indudry ; and the corns
manufadured there*fuffer a valuation, as rent payable by
the tenant ; and therefore ought not to be valued afecond
time againd the titular as mill-rent: The yearly ex¬
pence of culture ought not to be deduded ; for no rent
can be proudeed without it: But, if an improvement of
rent is made at an uncommon expence, e. g. by draining
a lake, the proprietor is allowed a reafodable abatement
on that account.
13. Notwithdanding the feveral ways of milapplying
parochial teinds in the times of popery, fome few bene¬
fices remained entire in the hands of the parfons. The
miniders planted in thefe, after the reformation, conti¬
nued to have the full right to them, as proper beneficia¬
ries ;"but a power was afterwards granted to the patron,
to redeem the whole teind from fuch beneficiaries, upon
their getting a competent dipend modified to them ; which
teind fo redeemed,' the patron is obliged to fell to the
proprietor, at fix years purchafe.
14. Some teinds are rfiore direftly fubjeft to an alloca¬
tion for the minider’s dipend, than others. The teinds,
/in the hands of the lay titular, fall fit d to be allocated,
who, fince he is not capable toferve the cure in his own
perfon, ought to provide one who can ; and if the titular,
in place of drawing the teind, has fet it in tack, the tack-
duty is allocated : This fort is called free teind Where
the tack-duty, which is the titular’s intered in theteinds,
falls (hort, the tack itfelf is burdened, or, in other words,
the furplus teind over and above the tack-duty : But, in
this cafe, the commiffioners are empowered to recompenfc
Vcl. II. Numb. 65. 2
W. 917
the tackfman, "by prorogating his tack for filch a number
of years as they (hall judge equitable. Where this l;ke-
wiie proves deficient, the allocation fails on the teinds,
heritably conveyed by the titular, unlefs he has warranted
his grant againd future augmentations; in which cafe, the
teinds of the lands belonging in property to the titular
himfelf mud be allocated in the fird place.
ij. Where there is fufficiency of free teinds in a pa-
ri(h, the titular may allocate any of them he (hall think
fit for the minider’s dipend, (ince they are all his cvn ;
unlefs there has. been a previous decree of locality: And
• this holds, though the dipend (hould have been paid
inimemorially out of the teinds of certain particular lands.
This right was frequently abufed by titulars, who, as
foon as a proprietor had brought an ad ion of faie»,of his
teinds, allocated the purfuer’s full teind for the dipend,
whereby fuch adion became ineffedual: It was therefore
provided, that after citation in a fale of teinds it (hall
not be in the titular’s power to allocate the purfier’s
teinds folely, but only in proportion wiih the other teinds
in the paridi.
16. Miniders glebes are declared free from the pay¬
ment of teind. Lands cun dechnis inclujh are alfo ex¬
empted from teind. Butin order to exempt lands from
payment of teind, it is neseffary that the proprietor
prove his right thereto, cum decimis inclufu, as far
back as the above ad of annexation 15S7.-
17. Tzm&ss.rz debila fruttuum, not fundi. The ac¬
tion therefore/or bygone teinds is only perfonal, againd
thofe who have intermeddled, unlefs where the titular is
infeft in the lands, in fecurity of the valued teind-duty.
Where a tenant is, by his tack, bound to pay a joint duty
to his landlord for dock and teind, without didinguidiing
the rent of each, his defence of a bona fide payment of
the whole to the landlord has been fudained in a fuit at
the indance of a laic titular, but repelled where a church¬
man was purfuer. In both cafes the proprietor who re¬
ceives fuch rent is liable as imermeddler.
18. In tacks of teinds, as of lands, there is place for
tacit relocation ; to dop the effed of which, the titular
mud obtain and execute an inhibition of teinds againd the
tackfman, which differs much from inhibition of lands
{explained under the next title), and is intended merely
to interpel or inhibit the tackfman from farther inter¬
meddling. This diligence of inhibition may alfo be ufed
at the fuit of the titular, againd any other pofleffor of
the teinds ; and if the tackfman or poiTcffor (hall inter¬
meddle after the inhibition is executed, he is liable in a
(puilzie.
19. Lands and teinds pafs by different titles : A dif-
pofition of lands therefore, though granted by one who
has alfo right to the teind, will not carry the teind, un¬
lefs it (hall appear from fpecial circumdances that a fafe
of both was defigned by the parties. In lands c/mk dsci- -
mit inchtfit, where the teinds are confolidated with the
(lock, the right of both mud nece(farily go together ia
ail cafes.
Tit. 18. Of Inhibitions.
The conditution and tranfmiffion of feudal rights being
9 Y explained,
5>i8 L A
explained, and the burdens with which, they are charge¬
able, it remains to be confidered, how thele rights may
be affe&ed at the fuit of creditors, by legal diligence.
Diligences are certain forms of law, whereby a creditor
endeavours to make good his payment, either by affeding
the perfon of his debtor, or by fecuring the fubje&s be¬
longing to him from alienation, or by carrying the pro¬
perty of thefe fubje&s to himfelf. They are either real
or perfonal. Real diligence is that which is proper to
heritable or real rights; perfonal, is that by which the
perfon of the debtor may be fecured, or his perfonal ellate
affefted.. Of the firft fort we have two, viz. Inhibition
and Adjudication.
2. Inhibition is a perfonal prohibition, which pafles by
letters under the fignet, prohibiting the party inhibited
to contradt any debt, or do any deed, by which any part
of his lands may be aliened or carried off, in prejudice of
the creditor inhibiting. It mud: be executed againft the
debtor, perfonaily, or at his dwelling houfe, as fummon-
fes, and thereafter publilhed and regidred in the fame
manner with interdidlions, (fee Tit. vii. 30.)
3. Inhibition may proceed, either upon a liquid obli¬
gation, or even on an adHon commenced by a creditor for
making good a claim not yet fudained by the judge;
which lad is called inhibition upon a depending adtion.
The fummons, which conditutes the dependence, mud
be executed againd the debtor before the letters of inhi¬
bition. pafs- the fignet; for no fuit can be faid to depend
againd one, till he be cited in it as a defender : But
the effedt of fuch inhibition is fufpended, till decree
be obtained in the addon againd the debtor; and in
the fame manner, inhibitions on conditional debts have
no effedt, till the condition be purified. Inhibitions are
not granted, without a trial of. the eaufe, when they pro¬
ceed on conditional debts. And though, in other cafes,
•inhibitions now pafs of courfe, the Lords are in ufe to
day, or recal them, either on the debtor’s {hewing caufe
why the diligence {hould not proceed, or even ex officio
where the ground of the diligence is doubtful.
4. Though inhibitions, by their uniform dyle, difable
the debtor from felling his moveable as well as his heri¬
table edate, theireffedt has been long limited to heritage,
from the interruption that fuch an embargo upon move¬
ables mud have given to commerce; fo that debts con*
tradkd after inhibition may be the foundation of dili¬
gence, againd the debtor’s perfon and moveable edate.
An inhibition fecures the inhibiter againd the alienation,
not only of the lands-that belonged to his debtor when
he was inhibited, but of thofe that he.(hall afterwards
acquire ; but no inhibition can extend to fuch after-pur-
chafes as lie in a jurifdidtion where the inhibition was not
regidred ; for it could not have extended to thefe, tho’
they had been made prior to the inhibition.
.5. This diligence only drikes againd the voluntary debts
or deeds of the inhibited perfon : It does not redrain him
from granting neceflary deeds, i. e. fuch as he was o-
bliged to grant anterior to the inhibition, fince he might
have been compelled to grant thefe before the inhibiter
had acquired any right by his diligence. By this rule,
a wadfetter or annualrenter might, after being inhibited,
have effectually renounced his right to the reverfer on
W.
payment, becaufe law could have compelled him to it.;
but to,fecure inhibittrs againft the effed of fuch aliena¬
tions, it is declared by ad of federunt of the court of
Seflion, Feb. 19. 1680, that, after intimation of the inhi¬
bition to the reverfer, no renunciation or grant of redemp¬
tion Ihall be fudained, except upon declarator of re¬
demption brought by him, to which the inhibiter mull be
made a party.
6. An inhibition is a diligence fimply prohibitory, fo
. that the debt, on which it proceeds, continues perfonal
after the diligence ; and confequently, the inhibitor, in a
queftion with anterior creditors whofe debts are notllruck
at by the inhibition, is only preferable from the period at
which his debt is made real by adjudication : And where
debts are contraded on heritable fecurity, though pof-
terior to the inhibition, the inhibiter’s debt, beingperldh.!-
al, cannot be ranked with them; he only draws back
from the creditors ranked the fums contained in his dili¬
gence. The heir of the perfon inhibited is not retrained
from alienation, by theddigence ufedagainft hisanceltor ;
for the prohibition is perfonal, affeding only tue. debtor,
againft whom the diligence is ufed.
7. Inhibitions do not, of themfelycs, make, void the
pofterior debts or deeds of the perfon inhibited; they
onl/ afford a title to the ufer of the diligence to fetthem
afide, if he finds them hurtful to him : And even where
a debt is adually reduced ex capite inhibitionis, fuch rc-
dudion, being founded folely in the inhibiter’s intereft,
is profitable to him alone, and cannot alter the natural
preference of the other creditors.
8. Inhibitions may be reduced, upon legal nullities-,
arifing either from the ground of debt, or the form of
diligence. When payment is made-by the debtor to the
inhibiter, the inhibition is faid to be purged. Any credi¬
tor, whofe debt is ftruck at by the inhibition, may, upon
making payment to the inhibiter, compel him to afligti
the debt and diligence in his favour, that, he may make
good his payment the moreeffedually .againft.die common
debtor.
Tit. 19. Of Comprifings, Adjudications, and Ju¬
dicial* Sal&s..
Heritable rights may be carried from the debtor, to
the creditor, either by the diligence of apprifing (now
adjudication), or by a judicial fale carried on before the
court of Seffion. Apprifing, or comprifing, wasthefen-
tence of a fheriff, or of a meffenger who was. fpecially
conftituted {heriff for that purpofe, by which the heri¬
table rights belonging to the debtor were fold for payment
of the debt due to the apprifer; fo that apprifings were,
by their original conflitution, proper falesof the debtor’s
lands, to any purchafer who offered. If no purchafer.
could be found, the Iheriff was to apprife or tax the va¬
lue of the lands by an inqueft, (whence came the name of
apprifing), and to make over to the creditor lands to the
value of the debt.
2. That creditors may have aecefs to affeift the eftate of
their deceafed debtor, though the heir fliould Hand offfrom
entering, it is made lawful (by 15:40, c. 106.) forany credi¬
tor to charge the heir of his debtor to enter to his anceftor,
yz&r
L A
yearar.d day being pafl after the anceftor’s death, within
forty days after the charge; and, if the heir fails, the
creditor may proceed to apprife his debtor’s lands, as if
the heir had been entered. Cuftom has fo explained this
(brute, that the creditor may charge the heir, immediate¬
ly after the death of his anceitor, provided letters of ap-
prifingbe not raifed till after the expiry both of the year
and °f the forty days next enfuing the year, within which
the heir is charged to enter. But this ftatute relates only
to fuch charges on which apprifing is to be led agarnll the.
anceftor’s lands; for, in thofe which are to be barely the
foundation of a common fummons or _procefs againft the
heir, a&ion will be fuftained if the year be elapfed from
the anceftor’s death before the execution of the fummons,
though the forty days ftioyld not be alfo expired. Though
the ftatute authorifes fuch charges againft majors only,
practice has alfo extended it againft minors, and the rule
is extended to the cafe where the heir is the debtor.
One muft, in this matter,, diftinguifti between a general and
a fpecial charge. A general charge ferves only to fix the
reprefentation of the heir who is charged, fo as to make
the debt his, which was formerly his anceftor’s: But a
fpecial charge makes up for the want of a fertice, ex¬
plained Tit. xxvii. 2J. and dates the heir, juris>
in the right of the fubjedls to which he is charged to en¬
ter. Where therefore the heir is the debtor, a general
charge for fixing the reprefentation againft him is unne-
ceflary, fince the only concern of the creditor is, that his
debtor make up titles to the anceftor’s eftate, which is
done by a fpecial charge: But where the deceafed was
the debtor, the creditor muft firft charge his heir to en¬
ter in general, that it may be known whether he is
to reprefent the debtorif he does not enter within
forty days, the debt may be fixed againft him by a
decree of conftitution, on which he muft be charged
to enter heir in fpecial, upon forty days more; and
thefe muft be elapfed, before the creditor can proceed to
apprife.
3. Apprifings incourfeof time underwent feveral changes
in their form and'effeA, till at length, by aft 1672, <r» 19.
adjudications were fubftituted in their place, which direc¬
ted to proceed agaiu-ft debtors by way of aftion before
the court of Seftion. By that ftatute, fuch part of the
debtor’s lands is to be adjudged as is equivalent to
the principal fum and intereft of the debt, with the com-
pofition due to the fuperior and expences of infeftnient,
and a fifth part more in refpeft the creditor is obliged
to take land for his money, The debtor muft deliver to
the creditor a,valid right of the lands to be adjudged, or
tranfumpts thereof, renounce the pofleffion in his favour,
and ratify the decree.of adjudication : And law confiders
the rent of the lands as precifely commenfurated to the
intereft of the debt ; fo that the adju'dget- lies under no
obligation to account for the furplns rents. In this, which
is called a fpecial adjudication, the legal or time within
which the debtor may redeem, is declared, to be five
years; and the creditor attaining pofleflion upon it can
ufe no farther execution againft the debtor, ualefs the
lands he evifted from him.
4. Where the debtor does not produce a* fufficient
rigjat to the lands, or is not willing to renounce the pof-
W. 9 *9'
feilion, and ratify the decree; (which'is the cafe that has
, moft frequently happened), the ftatute makes it lawful
for the creditor to adjudge all right be'onging to the
debtor in the fame manner, and under the for.ie teverfiqn
often years, as he could, by the former laws, have ap-
pnfed it. In this laft kind, which is called a general
adjudication, the creditor muft limit his claim to the
principal fumr foie-Krft, and penalty, without demanding
a fifth part more. But no general adjudication canbe it-
fifted on, without libelling in the fummons the other al¬
ternative of a fpecial adjudication; for fpecial adjudica¬
tions are introduced by the ftatute in the place of appri¬
fings ; and it is only where the debtor refufes to comply
with the terms,thereof that the creditor can lead a general
adjudication.
5. Abbreviates are ordained to be made of all adjudi¬
cations, which muft be recorded within fixty days after
the date of the decree. In every other refpedi, general
adjudications have the fame effe&s that apprifings had ;
adjudgers in poflefiion are accountable for the furplus
rents ; a citation in adjudications renders the fubjeA liti¬
gious ; fuperiors are obliged, to enter adjudgers; the le¬
gal of adjudications does not expire during the debtor’s
minority,, tec. Only it may be obferved, that though
apprifings could not proceed before the term of payment,
yet where the debtor is vergens ad inopiam, the court
ex nobili officio admit, adjudication for the.debt before it
be payable. But this fort being founded folely in equi¬
ty, fubfifts merely as a fecurity, and cannot carry the
property to the creditor by any length- of time.
6. There are two kinds.of adjudication, which took
place at the fame, time with apprifings, and ftiil obtain;
viz. adjudications on a decree cognitionis caufa, other-
wife called contra her edit attm jacents?n, and adjudications
in implement. Where the debtor’s apparent heir, who
is charged to enter, formally renounces the fucceftion,
the creditor may obtain a decree cognitionis caufa; in
which, though the heir renouncing is cited for the fake
of form, no fentence condemnatory can be pronounced a-
gainft him, in refpeift of his renunciation ; tke only effedi'
of it is to fubjcft.the henditas jacens to the creditor’s
diligence.
7. centra kereditatem jgeentem, carry
not only the lands themfelves that belonged to the de¬
ceafed, but the rents thereof fallen due fince his death;
for thefe, as an acce(fory to the eftate belonging to the
deceafed, would have defeended to the heir if he had en¬
tered,. which rule is applied to all adjudications led on
a fpecial charge. This fort of adjudication is declared
redeemable within feven years, by any co-adjudging cre¬
ditor, either of the deceafed debtor, or of the heir re¬
nouncing. The heir himftlf, who renounces, cannot be
reftored againft his renunciation, nor confequently redeem,
if he be not a minor. But even a major may redeem in-
direftly, by granting a fimulate bond to a confident per-
fon ; the adjudication..upon which, when conveyed to
himfelf, is a good jitle to redeem all other adjudicati¬
ons againft the lands belonging to his anceftor.
8. Adjudications in implement are deduced againft thofe
who have granted deeds without procuratory of refigna-
tion or precept of feifin, .and refufe to dived themfel.ves;
to
A
$*0 L
to the end that the fubjeS: conveyed may be effe&uaHy
vefled in the grantee. Thefe adjudications may be alfo
directed a gain ft the heir of the granter, upon a charge to
enter. Here there is no place for a legal revertxon; for,
as the adjudication is led for completing the right of a
fpecial fubjedt, it mutt carry that fubjedt as irredeema¬
bly as if the right had been voluntarily completed.
9. AH adjudications led within year and day t>f that
one which has been fhade firfteffedtnal by feifin (where fei-
dfn is necefiary) or exadt diligence for obtaining feitin, are
preferable pari paffu. The year and day runs from the
date of the adjudication, and not of the feifiin or diligence
for obtaining it. After the days of that period, they are
preferable according the their dates. All the co adjud-
gers within the year are preferable paripaffa as if one ad¬
judication had been led for all their debts. This makes
the feifin or diligence on the firft adjudication a common
right to the reft, who muft therefore be refund to the
owner of that diligence his whole expence laid out in
Carrying on and completing it. And thotigh that lirft
adjudicadon fhould be redeemed, the diligence upon ftftill
fubfifts-as to the reft. This pari paffu preference, how¬
ever, does not deftroy the legal preference of adjudicati¬
ons led on debit a fundi. See Tit. xv. 15. Nor does it
take place in adjudications in implement.
10. Before treating of judicial fales of bankrupts eftates,
•the nature of fetjueftration may be ftiortly explained,
which is a diligence that generally ufhers in aftions of
fale. Sequeftratioo of lands is a judicial adt of the coart
of Seflion, whereby the management of an eftate is put
into the hands of a fadtor or fteward named by the court,
who gives fecurity, and is to be accountable for the rents
to all having intereft. This diligence is competent, ei¬
ther where the right of the lands is doubtful, if it be ap
plied for before either of the competitors has attained pof-
leftion ; or where the eftate is heavily charged with the
debts: But, as it is an unfavourable diligence, it,is ndt
admitted, unlefs that meafure Hull appear neceflary for
the fecurity of creditors. Subjedts, not brought before
the court by the diligence of creditors, cannot fall under
dequeftratiort ; for it is the competition of creditors which
alone founds the jurifdidlion of the court to take the
difputed fubjedt into their pofleffion.
11. The court of Seffion who decrees the fequeftration
Has the nomination of the fadtor, in which they are di-
redted by the recommendation of the creditors. A fadtor
appointed by the Seflion, though the proprietor had not
b?en infeft in the lands, has a power to remove tenants.
Judicial fadtors muft, within fix months after extradting
their fadtory, make up a rental of the eftate, and a lift
of the arrears due by tenants, to be put into the hands
of the clerk of the procefs, as a charge againft themfelves,
and a note of ftlch alterations in the rental as may after¬
wards happen; and muft alfo deliver to the clerk annually
a fcheme of their accounts, charge and difeharge, under
heavy penalties. They are, by the nature of their office,
bound ro the fame degree of diligence that a prudent man
adhibits in his own affairs; they are accountable for the
Intereft of the rents, which they either have, or by dili¬
gence might have recovered, from a year after their fall-
iog due. As it is much in the power of thofe fadtors to
w.
take advantage of the neceiutiesof creditors, by purcha-
fing their dffits at an undervalue, all fuch purchafes made
either by the fadtor himfelf, or to his behoof, are decla¬
red equivalent to an acquitance or extindtion of the debt.
No factor can warrantably pay to any creditor, without
an order of the court of Sellion ; for he is, by the tenor
of his commiffion, diredted to pay the rents to thofe who
'{hal! be-fqund to have heft right to them. Judicial fac¬
tors are intitled to a falary, which is generally ftated at
five per cent, .of their intromiflions; but it is feldom af-
certained till theirofficc expires, or till their accounting ;
that the court may modify a greater or fmaller falary, or
.none, in propo’rtion to the fadter’s integrity and diligence.
Many cafes occur, where the court of Seflion, without
fequeftration, name a fadior to preferve the rents from
perifhing; e. g. where an heir is deliberating whether to
enter, where a minor is without tutors, where a fuccefli-
on opens to a perfon refiding abroad ; in all which cafes,
the fadtor is fubjedled to the rules laid down in adt of fe-
derunt, Feb. 13. 1730.
12. The word bankrupt is fometimes applied to per-
fons wbofe funds are not fufficient for their debts ; and
fometimes, not to the debtor, but to his eftate. The
court of Seflion are empowered, at the fuit of any real cre¬
ditor, to try the value of a bankrupt’s eftate, and fell
it for the payment of his debts.
13. No procefs of fale, at the fuit of a creditor, can
proceed without a proof of the debtor’s bankruptcy, or at
leaft that his lands are fo charged with debts, that no
prudent perfons will buy from him; and therefore the
fummons of fale muft comprehend the debtor’s whole e-
ftate. The debtor, or his apparent heir, and all the real
creditors in poffeflion, muft be made parties to the fuit ;
but it is fufficiefit if the other creditors be called by an
edidfal citation. The fummons of fale contains a con-
clufion of ranking or preference of the bankrupt’s credi-.
tors. In this ranking, firft andfecond terms are afligned
to.the whole creditors for exhibiting in court (or produ¬
cing) their rights and diligences; and the decree of certi¬
fication proceeding thereupon, againft the writings not
produced, has the fame effeft in favour of the creditors
who have produced their rights, as if that decree had pro¬
ceeded upon an aflion of reduftion-improbation. See
Tit xxx. 5. The ranking of thefe creditors muft be
concluded by an extra&ed decree, before the aftual fale.
The irredeemable property of the lands is adjudged by
the court to* the higheft offerer at the , fale. The credi¬
tors receiving payment muft grant to the purchafer abfo-
lute warrandice, to the extent of the fum received by
them ; and the lands purchafed are declared diftnirdened
of all debts or deeds of the bankrupt, or his anceftors,
either on payment of the price by the purchafer to the
creditors according to their preference, or on confignation
of it, in cafe of their refufal, in the hands of the magi-
ftrates of Edinburgh : The only remedy provided to fuch
creditors as judge themfelves hurt by-the-fale of divifion
of the price, even though they (hould be minors, is an
aAion for recovering their fhare of the price againft the
creditors who have received it.
14. The expence of thefe proceffes is diffim fed by
the faftor out of the rents in his hands ; by which the
whole
L
wTioTe burden of fuch expence falls upon the pofrerior
creditors.
i j. Apparent heirs are intuled to bring adlions of fale
of the eftates belonging to their anceftors, whether bank¬
rupt or not; the ex pence of which ought to fall upon
the purfuer, if there is any excrefcence of the price, after
payment of the creditors.
16. As proceffes of ranking and fale are defigned for
the common intereft of all, the creditors, no diligence car¬
ried on or completed during their pendency ought to
give any preference in the competition ' pendente l.ite, ni-
iil innovandum.
17. It is a rple in all real diligences, that where a cre¬
ditor is preferable on feveral different fubje&s, he cannot
ufe his preference arbitrarily, by favouring one creditor
more than another; but tnuft allocate his univerfal or
catholic debt propo-tionally againft all the fubje&s or
parties whom it affeifts. If it'is material to fuch cre¬
ditor to draw his whole payment out of any one fund, he
may apply his debt fo as may beft fecure himfelf; but that
inequality will be redtified, as to the pofterior creditors,
who had likewife, by their rights and diligences, affedted
*he fubjedls out of which he drew his payment, by obli¬
ging him to aflign in their favour his right upon the fepa-
rate fubjedts which he did not ufe in the ranking ; by
which they may recur againft thefe feparate fubjedts for
the (hares which the debt preferred might have drawn out
-of them. As the obligation to alEgo is founded merely
in equity, the catholic creditor cannot be compelled to it,
if his afUgning (hall weaken the preference of any feparate
debt veiled in himfelf, affedting the fpecial fubjedl fought
to be affigned. But if a creditor upon a fpecial fubjedt
(hall acquire from another a catholic right, or a catholic
creditor (hall purchafe a debt affedling a fpecial fubjedf,
with a view of creating to the fpecial debt a higher de¬
gree of preference than was naturally due to it, by an
arbitrary application of the catholic debt, equity cannot
protedt him from affigning in favour of the creditor ex¬
cluded by fuch application, efpecially if, prior to the
purchafe, the fubjedl had become litigious by the procefs
of ranking; for tranfmiflions ought riot to/hurt creditors
who are no parties to them, nor to give the purchafer
any new right, which was not formerly in himfelf or his
cedent.
Tit. 20. Of Obligations and Centrafis in general.
The law of heritable rights being explained, moveable
rights fall next to be confidered, the dodtrine of which
depends chiefly on the nature of Obligations. An obli¬
gation is a legal tie, by which one is bound to pay or
perform fomething to another. Every obligation on the
perfon obliged, implies an oppofite tight in the creditor,
fo that what is a burden inregard to the one is right with
Tefpedt to the other ; and all rights founded on obligation
are called perfonal. There is this eflential difference
between a real and a perfonal right, that a jus in re,
whether of property, or of an inferior kind as fervitude,
entitles the perfen veiled with it to poffefs the fubjedl as
his own ; or if he is not in poffefHon, to demand it from
the pofTeffors; whereas the creditor in a perfonal right
Von. II. No. 6j. 2
A W. 92*
has only jus ad rem, or a right to compel the debtor to
fulfil his obligation ; without any right in the fubjedl: tt-
felf, which the debtor is bound to transfer to him. One
cannot oblige himfelf, but by a prefent adt of the will.
A bare refoiution therefore, or purpoie to be obliged, is
alterable at pleafure.
2. Obligations are either, firft, merely natural, where
one perfon is bound to another by the law of natme, but
cannot be compelled by any civil adlion to the perform¬
ance. Thus, though deeds granted by a minor having
curators, without their confent, are null, yet the minor
is naturally obliged to perform fuch deeds ; and parents
are naturally obliged to provide their Children in reafon-
able patrimonies. Natural obligations intitle the creditor
to retain what he has got in virtue thereof, without being
fubjedted to reftore it. 2. Obligations are merely civil,
which may be fued upon by an action, but are elided by
an exception in equity; tijjs is the cafe of obligations
granted through force or fear, tec. 3. Proper or full
obligations, are thofe which are fupported both by equity
and the civil fandtion.
3. Obligations may be allb divided into, j. Pure, te
which neither day nor condition is adjedted. Thefe may
be exadfed immediately. 2. Obligations {ex d/e), which
have a day adjedted to their performance. In thefe, dies
fiatem cedit, fed non venit; a proper debt arifes from
the date of the obligation, becaufe it is certain that the
day will exift ; but the execution is fufpended, till the
lapfeof that day. 3. Conditional obligations ; in which
there is no proper debt (d/Vr non cedit) till the condition
be purified, becaufe it is poffible the condition may exift ;
and which therefore are (aid to create only the hope of a
debt; but the granter, even of thefe, has no right to re¬
file. An obligation, to which a day is adje<Sed that pof-
fibly may never exift, implies a condition ; dies incertus
pro conditions habetur. Thus, in the cafe of a provifion
to a child, payable when he attains to the age of four¬
teen, if the child dies before that age, the provifion falls.
4. Obligations, when confTdered with regard to their
caufe, were divided by the Romans, into thofe arifing
from contrail, quafi contradt, deliil, and quafi-delidti
But there are certain obligations, even full and proper
ones, which cannot be derived from any of thefe fources,
and to which Lord Stair gives the name of obediential.
Such as the obligation on parents to aliment or maintain
their children; which arifes fingly from the relation of
parent and child, and may be enforced by the civil magi-
llrate. Under parents are comprended the mother, grand¬
father, and grandmother, in their proper order. This
obligation on parents extends to the providing of their
iffue in all the neceffaries of life, and giving them fuitable
education. It ceafes, when the children can earn a lively-
hood by their own induftry; but the obligation on pa¬
rents to maintain their indigent children, and reciprocally
on children to maintain their indigent parents, is perpe¬
tual. This obligation is, on the father’s death, transfer¬
red to the eldeft fon, the heir of the family; who, as
reprefenting the father, muft aliment his younger bro¬
thers and filters : The brothers are only intitled to alimo¬
ny, till their age of twenty-one, after which they are
prefumed able to do for themfelves ; but the obligation
9 21 to
922 L A
to maintain the fitters continues till their marriage. In
psrfons of lower rank, the obligation to aliment the fitt¬
ers ceafes after they are capable of fubfitting by any fer-
vice or employment.
5. All obligations, arifing from the natural duty of
reftitution, fall under this clafs : Thus, things given upoa
the view of a certain event, mutt be reftored, if that e-
vent does not afterwards exitt: Thus alfo, things given
■ob turpem caufam, where the turpitude is in the receiver
and not in the giver, mutt be reftored. And on the
fame principle, one upon whofe ground a houfe is built
or repaired by another, is obliged, without any covenant,
to reftore the expence laid out upon it, in fo far as it has
been profitable to him.
6. A contraff is the voluntary agreement of two or
more perfons, whereby fomething is to be given or per¬
formed upon one part, for a valuable confideration, either
prefent or future, on the other part. Confent, which is
implied in agreement, is excluded, i. By error in the
elfentials of the contra<ft, for in fuch cafe, the party does
not properly contraitt, but errs or is deceived; And this
may be alfo applied to contradts which take their rife
from fraud or impofition. 2. Confent is excluded by
fuch a degree of reftraint upon any of the contrading
parties, as extorts the agreement ; for where violence
or threatening are ufed againft a perfon, his will has really
no part in the contradt.
7. Loan or mutuum is that contradf which obliges a
perfon, who has borrowed any fungible fubjedt from an¬
other, to reftore to him as much of the fame kind, and of
equal goodnefs. Whatever receives its eftimation in
number, weight, or meafure, is a fungible, as corn, wine,
current coin, <bc. The only proper fubjedts of this con-
tradl are things which cannot be ufed, without either
their extindtion or alienation ; hence, the property of the
thing lent is neceffatily transferred by delivery to the
borrower, who confequently mutt run all the hazards,
either of its deterioration or its perifhing, according to
the rule, res psrit fus> domino. Where the borrower
negledts to reftore, at the time and place agreed on, the
eftimation of the thing lent muft be made according to its
price at that time and in that place; becaufe it would have
been worth fo much to the lender, if the obligation had
been duly performed. If there is no place-nor time fti-
pulated for, the value is to be ftated according to the
price that the commodity gave when and where it was
demanded. In the loan of money, the value put on it
by public authority, and not its intrinfic worth, is to be
confidered. This contradl is obligatory only on one part;
for the lendter is, fubjedled to do obligation: The only
adtion therefore that it produces, is pointed againft the
borrower, that he may reftore as much in quantity and
.quality as he borrowed, together with the damage the
lender may have fuffered through default of due perform-
8. Commodate is a fpecies of loan, gratuitous on the
part of the lender, where the thing lent may be ufed,
without either its pe; idling or its alienation. Hence, in
.this fort of loan, the property continues with the lender :
the only right the borrower acquires in the fubjedt is its
*}fej after which he muft reftore the individual thing that
w.
he borrowed: Confequently, if the fuhjedl perflhes/k
penfhes to the lender, unlefs it has perifhed by the bor¬
rower’s fault. What degree of fault or negligence makes
either of the contradting parties liable to the other in da¬
mages, is comprehended under the following rules.
Where the contradl gives a mutual benefit to both parties,
each contradter is bound to adhibit a middle fort of dili¬
gence, fuch as a man of ordinary prudence ufes in his af¬
fairs. Where only one of the parties has benefit by the
contradf, that party muft ufe exadt diligence ; and the o-
ther who has no advantage by it is accountable only for
dole, or for grofs omiffions which the law conftrues to be
dole. Where one employs lefs care on the fubjedt of any
contradt which implies an exuberant truft, than he is known
to employ in his own affairs, it is confidered as dole.
9. By thefe rules, the borrower in the contradt of com¬
modate muft be exadtiy careful of the thing lent, and re¬
ftore it at the time fixed by the contradt, or after that
ufe is made of it for which it was lent: If he puts it to
any other ufe, or negledts to reftore it at the time cove¬
nanted, and if the thing perifhes thereafter, even by mere
accident, he is bound to pay the value. On the other
part, the lender is obliged to reftore to the borrower fuch
of the expences difburfed by him on that fubjedt, as arofe
from any uncommon accident, but not thofe that natural¬
ly attend the ufe of it. Where a thing is lent gratuouC-
ly, without fpecifying any time of redelivery, it confti-
tutes the contradt of precarium, which is revokabie at
the lender’s pleafure, and, being entered into from a per-
fonal regard to the borrower, ceafes by his death.
10. Depofitation is a contradt, by which one who has
the cuftody of a thing committed to him (the depofita-
ry), is obliged to reftore it to the depofitar. If a reward
is bargained for by the depofitary for his care, it refol-
ves into the, contradt of location. As this contradt is g' a-
tuitous, the depofitary is only anfwerable for the confe-
quences of grofs negledt; but after the depofit is reder
manded, he is accountable even for cafual misfortunes.
He is intitled to a full indemnification for the lo/fes he
has fuftained by the contradt, and to the recovery of all
fums expended by him on the fubjedt.
11. An obligation arifes without formal padtion, barely
by a traveller’s entering into an inn, fuip, or liable, and
there depoliting his goods, or putting up his horfea,;
whereby the innkeeper, Ihipmafter, or ftabler, is account¬
able, not only for his own fadts and thofe of his fervants,
(which is an obligation implied in the very exercife of
thefe employments), but of the other guefts or paffengers ;
and, indeed, in every cafe, unlefs where the goods have
been loft damno fat alt, or carried off by pirates or houfe-
breakers. Not only the mailers of Ihips but their employ¬
ers, are liable each of them for the ftiare that he has in
the Ihip ; but by the prefeut cuftom of trading nations, the
goods brought into a Ihip muft have been delivered to the
mailer or mate,, or entered into the Ihip-books. Carriers
fall within the intendment of this law; and prddlice has
extended it to vintners within borough. The extent of
the damage fuftained by the party may be proved by his
own oath in litem.
12. Sequeftration, whether voluntarily confented to
by the parries, or aurhprifed by the judge, is a kind of
depoilt;
A
L
depolit; but as the office of fequeftree, to whofe care
the fubjeft in difpute is committed, is not confidered as
gratuitous, he cannot throw it up at pleafure, as a com¬
mon depofitary may do ; and he is liable in the middle
degree of diligence. Confignation of money is alfo ade-
pofit. It mky be made, either where the debt is called
in queftion by the debtor, as in fufpenfions; or where
the creditor refufes to receive his money, as in wadfets,
<bc. The rifle of the configned money lies on the confign-
er, where he ought to have made payment, and not con¬
fignation, or has configned only a part; or has chofen for
confignatory, a perfon neither named by the parties nor
of good credit. The charger, or other creditor, runs
the rifle, if he has charged for fums not due, or has with
out good reafon refufed payment, by which refufal the
confignation became neceflary. It is the office of a con¬
fignatory, to keep the money in fafe cuflody, till it be
called for: If therefore he puts it out at intereft, he mult
run the hazard of the debtor’s infolvency ; but, for the
fame reafon, though he ffiould draw ihtereft for it, he is
liable in none to the configner.
13. Pledge, when oppofed to wadfet, is a contract,
by which a debtor puts into the hands of his creditor a
fpecial moveable fubjeft in fecurity of the debt, to be re¬
delivered on payment. Where a fecurity is eftablifhed
by law to the creditor, upon afubjeft which continues in
the debtor’s pofleffion, it has the fpecial name of an hypo¬
thec. Tradefmen and ffiip carpenters have an hypothec
on the houfe or fhip repaired, for the materials and other
charges of reparation ; but not for the expence of build¬
ing a new ffiip. Owners of ffiips have an hypothec on
the cargo for the freight, heritors on the fruits of the
ground, and landlords on the invefid et Mala, for their
rents. Writers alfo, and agents, have a light of hypo¬
thec, or more properly of retention, in their conftituent’s
writings, for their claim of pains and diffiurfements. A
creditor cannot, for his own payment, fell the fubjeft
impignorated, without applying to the judge-ordinary
for a warrant to put it up to public fale or roup; and to
this application the debtor ought to be made a party;
Tit. 21. Of Obligations by 1\rord or Writ.
The appellation of verbal may be applied to all
obligations to the conllitution of which writing is not
elfential, which includes both real and conffinfual con-
trads; but as thefe are explained under feparate titles,
obligations by ’word, in the fenfe of this rubric, mud be
reftriAed, either to promifes, or to fuch verbal agree¬
ments as have no fpecial name to didinguiffi them. A-
greement implies the intervention of two different par¬
ties, wffio come under mutual obligations to one another.
Where nothing is to be given or performed but on. one
part, it is properly called a promife, which, as it is gra¬
tuitous, does not require the acceptance, of him to whom
the promife is made. An offer, which mud be didin-
guiffied from a promife, implies fomething to be done by
the other party; and confequently is not binding on the
offerer, till it be accepted, with its limitations or con¬
ditions, by him to whom the offer is made 5 after which,
k becom.es a proper agreement.
W. 9 2-3
2. Writing mud neceffiirily intervene in all obligations
and bargains concerning heritable fubjeAs, though they
ffiould be only temporary; as tacks, which, when they
are verbal, lad but for one year. In thefe no verbal
agreement is binding, though it ffiould be referred to
the oath of the party; for, till writing is adhibit¬
ed, law gives both parties a right to refile, as from an
unfiniffied bargain ; which is called ./ectcr pccnitentia.
If, upon a verbal bargain of lands, part of the price dial!
be paid by him who was to purchafe, the interventus ret,
the aAual payment of money, creates a valid obligation,
and gives a beginning to the contraA of fale : And in ge¬
neral, where-ever matters are no longer entire, the right
to refile feems to be excluded. An agreement, whereby
a real right is paded from, or redriAed, called paflum
liberatoriuni, may be perfeAed verbally; for freedom is
favourable, and the purpofe of fuch agreement is rather
to diffolve than to create an obligation. Writing is alfo
effential to bargains made under condition that theyffiall
be reduced in;o writing ; for in fuch cafes, it is pars con-
trattus, that, till writing be adhibited, both parties ffiall
have liberty to withdraw. In the fame manner, verbal
or nuncupative tedaments are rejeAed by our law ; but
verbal legacies are fudained, where they do not exceed.
L. 100 Scots.
3. Anciently, when writing was little ufed, deeds were
executed by the party appending his feal to them ; in
prefence of witneffes. For preventing frauds that might
h tppen by appending feals to falfe deeds, the fubfeription
alfo of the granter was afterwards required, and, if he
could not write, that of a notary. As it might be of
dangerous confequence, to give full force to the fu.fcrip-
tion of the parties by initials, which is more eafily coun¬
terfeited ; our praAice, in order to fudain fuch fubferip¬
tion, feerns to require a proof, not only that the granter
ufed to fubferibe in that way, but that de fatto he had
fubferibed the deed in quedion ; at lead, fuch proof is
required, if the indrumentary witneffes be dill alive.
4. As a further check, it was afterwards provided
that all writ ngs carrying-any heritable right, and other
deeds of importance, be fubferibed by the principal parties,
if they can fobferibe ; otherwife, by two notaries, be¬
fore four witneffes fpeeially defigned. The fubfequent
praAice extended this requifite of the defignation of the
witneffes to the cafe v/here the parties themfelves fub¬
feribed. Gudom has condrued obligations for fums ex¬
ceeding Z,. roo’ Scots, to be obligations of importance^
In a divifible obligation, ,ex. gr. for a dim of money,
though exceeding L. 100, the fubfeription of one notary
is fufficient, if the creditor redriAs his claim to L. 100:
But, in an obligation indivifible, e.g. for the performance
of a faA, if it be not fubferibed in terms of the datute,
it is void. When notaries thus atred a deed, the attef-
tation or doequet mud fpecially exprefs that the granter
gave them a mandate to fign ; nor isdt fufficient that this
be mentioned in the body of; the writing.
5. In every deed, the name of him who writes it,
with his dwelling place or other mark of didinAion, mult
be inferred. The witneffes mud both fubferibe as wit¬
neffes, and their names and defignatjons be inferted in
the body of the deed,: And all fubferibing.witneffes mud
know the granter, and either fee. him fubferibe, or hear
him
924 ^ A
fcim acknowledge *ms rubfcription ; otherwife they are de¬
clared punifliable as acceflbry to forgery. Deeds, de¬
crees, and other fecurities, confifting of more than one
(heet, may be written by way of book, in piace of the
former cuilom of parting together the federal flieets, and
ligning the joinings on the margin ; provided each page
be figned by the granter, and marked by its number ; and
the tefting claufe exprefs the number of pages.
6. Inltruments of feifin are valid, if fubfcribed by one
notary, before a reafonable number of witnertes ; which
is extended by practice to inrtruments of refignatioo.
Two witnefles are deemed a reafdna*ble number to every
deed that can be executed by one notary. It is not ne-
ceflary, that the witneffes to a notorial inftrument, or
execution, fee the notary or meflenger fign ; dor they are
called as witneffes to the tranfadlion which is atterted,
and not to the fubfcription of the perfon atterting.
7. A new requifite has been added to certain deeds
Cnee the union, for the benefit of the revenue: They
muft be executed on damped paper, or parchment, pay¬
ing a certain duty to the crown. Charters, inftruments
of refignation, feifins, and retours of lands holden of a
fubjedt, are charged with 2 /. 3d. of duty: Bonds, tacks,
contradls, and other perfonal obligations, paid at fi;rt 6 d.
to which a farther duty of 1 f. has been fince added.
Bail bonds, bills, tertaments, difeharges, or acquittances
.of rent or of intereft and judicial deeds, as notorial in¬
ltruments, bonds of cautionry in fufpenfions, ire. are
excepted.
8. The grantor’s name and defignation are effential,
not properly as folemnities, but becaufe no writing can
have effedt without them. Bonds were, by our ancient
pradtice, frequently executed without filling up the ci e-
ditoi’s name ; and they palled from hand to hand, like
notes payable to the bearer : But as there was no method
for the creditor of a perfon poffeffed of thefe to fecure
them for his payment, all writings taken blank in the
creditor’s name are declared null, as covers to fraud ;
with the exception of indorfations of bills of exchange.
9. Certain privileged writings do not require the or¬
dinary folemnities. 1. Holograph deeds (written by the
granter himfelf) are effedtual without witneffes. The date
of no holograph writing, except a bill of exchange, (fee
next paragr.) can be proved by the granter’s own affertion,
in prejudice either of his heir or his creditors, but muft
be fupported by other adminicle*. 2. Tertaments, if ex¬
ecuted where men of Ikill in bufinefs cannot be had, are
valid though they (hould not be quite formal: and let
the fubjedt of a teftament be ever fo valuable, one notary
ligning for the tertator, before two witneffes, is in prac¬
tice fufficient. Clergymen were frequently notaries be¬
fore the reformation ; and, though they were afterwards
prohibited to. adt as notaries, the cafe of teftaments is ex¬
cepted : fo that thefe are fupported.by the attellation of
one minifter, with two witneffes. 3. D'fcharges to te¬
nants are furtained without v. itneffes, fiom their prefunltd
rurticity, or ignorance in bufinefs. 4. Miilive letters in
re mercatoriu, commiflions, and fitted accounts in the
ceurfe of trade, and bills of exchange, though they are
not holograph, are, from the favour of commerce, fuf-
fcained without the ordinary folcmnities.
w.
10. A bill of exchange is an obligation in the form of
a mandate, whe eby the drawer or mandaht defires him
to whom it is diredted, to pay a certain fum, at the day
and place therein mentioned, to a third party. Bills of
exchange are drawn by a perfon in one country to his
coi refpondent in another ; and they have that name, be¬
caufe it is the exchange, or the value of money in one
place compared with its value in another, that generally
determines the precife extent of the fum contained in the
draught. The creditor in the bill is fometimes called the
the poffeffor, or porteur. As parties to bills are of dif¬
ferent countries, quertions concerning them ought to be
determined by the received cuftom of trading nations,
unlefs where fpecial ftatute interpofes. For this reafon,
bills of exchange, though their form admits not of wit-
peffes, yet prove their own dates, in queftions either with
the heir, or creditors of the debtor; but this dodhine
is not extended to inland bills payable to the drawer him¬
felf.
11. A hill is valid, without the defignation, either of
the drawer, or of the perfon to whom it is made payable:
It is f nough, that the drawer’s fubfcription appears to be
truly his ; and one’s being pcfl'effor of a bill marks him
out to be the creditor, if he bears the name given in the
bill to the creditor : Nay, though the perfon drawn on
fhouid not be defigned, his acceptance prefumes that it
w'as he whom the drawer had in his eye. Bills drawn
blank, in the creditor’s name, fall under the ftatutory
nullity; for though indorfations of bills are excepted from
it, bills themfelves are not. Not only the perfon drawn
upon muft fign his acceptance, but the drawer muft fign
his draught, before any obligation can be formed againft
the accepter : Yet it is fufficient in praftice, that the
drawer figns, before the bill be produced in judgment;
though it ffiould be after the death both of the creditor
and accepter. A creditor in a bill may tranfmit it to a-
nother by indorfation, though the bill ffiould not bear to
his order ; by the fame rule that other rights are tranf-
miflible by affignation, though they do not bear to af-
Jigneys.
12. The drawer, by ifigniog his draught, becomes li¬
able for the value to the creditor in the bill, in cafe the
perfon drawn upon either does not accept, or after accep¬
tance does not pay; for he is prefumed to have received
value from the creditor at giving him the draught, though
it ffiould not bear /or value received-. But, if-the drawer
was debtor to the creditor in the bill before the draught,
the bill is prefumed to be given towards payment of the
debt, unlefs it exprefsly bears for value. The perfon
drawn upon, if he refufe to accept, while he has the
drawer’s money in his hands, is liable to him in damages.
As a bill prefumes value from the creditor, indorfation
prefumes value from the indorse ; who therefore, if he
cannot obtain payment from the accepter, has recourfe
againft the indorfer, unlefs the bill be indorfed in thefe
words, •without recourfe.
13. Payment of a bill, by the accepter, acquits both
the drawer and him at the hands of the creditor; but
it intitles the accepter, if he was not the drawer’s debtor,
to an attion of recourfe againft him; and, if he was, to
L i
a ground of compenfation. Where the bill does not bear
value in the b-tnds of the perfon drawn upon, it is pre-
lumed that he is not the drawer’s debtor,, and confe-
quently he has recourfe againfl the drawer, mandato.
14. Bills, when indorle^, are confidered as fo many
bags of money delivered to the onerous indorfee ; which
therefore carry right to the contents, free of all burdens
that do not appear on the bills themfelves. Hence, a
receipt or difcharge, by the original creditor, if granted
on a feparate paper, does not exempt the accepter from
fecond payment to the indorfee ; hence • alfo, no ground
of compenfation competent to the accepter againft the
original creditor can be pleaded again!! the indorfee:
But, if the debtor {had prove, by the oath of the indor¬
fee, that he paid not the full value for the indorfation,
the indorfee is juftly confidered as but a name; and there¬
fore all exceptions, receivable againfl the original credi¬
tor, will be fuftained again!! him.
15. Bills mu!! be negotiated by the pofTeflbr, again!!
the perfon drawn upon, within a precifetime, in order to
preferve recourfe again!! the drawer. In bills payable fo
many days after fight, the creditor has a difcretionary
power of fixing the payment fomewhat fooner or later,
as his occafions ftiall require. Bills payable on a day
certain, need not be prefented for acceptance till the day
of payment, becaufe that day can neither be pr< longed
nor fhortened by the time of acceptance. For the
fame reafon, the acceptance of bills, payable on a pre-
cife day, need not be dated : But, where a bill is drawn
payable fo many days after fight, it mu!!; becaufe
there the term of payment depends on the date of the ac¬
ceptance.
16 Though bills are, in f!i i<fl law, due the very day
on which they are made payable, and may therefore be-
protefted on the day thereafter; yet there are three days
immediately following the day of payment, called days
of grace, within any of which the creditor may protef!
the bill: But if he delay protelling till the day after the
laf! day of grace, he lofes his'recourfe. Where a bill
is protefted, either for not acceptance, or not payment,
the di!honour mu!! be notified to the drawer or indorfer,
within three polls at farthef!. This llridnefs of nego¬
tiation is confined to fuch bills as may be protefted by the
pofTelfor upon the third day of grace: Where therefore
bills are indorfed after the days of grace are expired, the
indorfeee is left more at liberty, and does not lofe his
'recourfe, though he fhould not take a formal proteft for
not payment, if, within a reafonable time, he fhall give
the indorfer notice of the accepter’s refufii.g to pay.
Not only does the pofFflbr, who neglefts ftridl negotia¬
tion, lofe his recourfe again!! the drawer, where the
perfon drawn upon becomes afterwards bankrupt, but
though he fliould continue folvent; for he may, in that
cafe, recover payment from the debtor, and fo is not to
Be indulged in an unneceffary procefs again!! the drawer,
which he has tacitly renounced by his negligence. Re¬
courfe is preferved again!! the drawer, though the bill
fhouid not be duly negotiated, if the perfon drawn upon
was not his debtor; for there the drawer can qualify no
prejudice by the negleH of diligence, and he ought , not
to have drawn on one who owed him nothing.
You. II. Numb. 65. 2
l W. 925
17. The privileges fuperadded to bills by ftatute ale,
that tho’, by their form, they can have no claufe of re-
gillration, yet, if duly protefted, they are regitlrable with"-
in fix months after their date in cafe of not accep¬
tance, or in fix months after the term of payment in the
cafe of not payment; which regiftration is made the
foundation of fummary diligence, either again!! the drawer
or indorfer in the cafe of not acceptance, or again!! the
accepter in cafe of not payment. This is extended to
inland bills, /. e. bills both drawn and made payable in
Scotland. After acceptance, fummary diligence lies a-
gainft no other than the accepter; the drawer and indor¬
fer mu!! be purfued by an ordinary a£tion. It is only
the principal fum in the bill, and intereft, that can be
charged for fummarily: The exchange, when it is not
included in the draught, the re exchange incurred by
fuffering the bill to be protefted and returned, and the ex¬
pence of diligence, mu!! all be recovered by an ordinary
a<5lion; becaufe thefe are not liquid debts, and fo mull
be previoufly conftituted,
18. Bills, when drawn payable at any confiderable di-
ftance of time after date, are denied the privileges of
bills; for bills are intended for currency, and not to lie
as a fecurity in the creditor’s hands. Bills are not valid
which appear ex facie to be donations. No extrinfic fti-
pulation ought to be contained in a bill which deviates
from the proper nature of bills; hence, a bill to which a
penalty is adjefled, or with a claufe of intereft from the
date, is null. Inland precepts drawn, not for money the
medium of trade, but for fungibles, are null, as wanting
writer’s name and witneffes. It is not an agreed point
whether promiflbry notes, without writer and witneffes,
unlefsholograph, are probative. This however is certaina
that they at no rate intitle to the privileges of bills.
19. As for the folemnities elfential to deeds figned in
a foreign country, when they come to receive execution
in Scotland, it is a general rule, that no laws can be of
authority beyond the dominions of the lawgiver. Hence,
in ftri<5tnefs, no deed, though perfedled according to the
lawof the place where it is figned, can haveeffeft in another
country where different folemnities are required to a deed of
that fort. But this rigour is fo foftened ex comitate, by the
common confent of nations, that all perfonal o’ligations
granted according to the law of that country where they
are figned, are effedlual every where, which obtains even
in obligations to convey heritage, Conveyan-es them¬
felves, of heritable fubje&s, muft be perfected according
to the lawof the country where the heritage iier, and from
which it cannot be removed.
20 A writing, while the granter keeps it under bis
own power or his doer’s, has no force; it becomes obli¬
gatory, only after it is delivered to the grantee himfelf,
or found in the hands of a third perfon. As to which
laft, the following rules are. obferved.- A deed found in
the hands of one, who is doer both for the granter and
grantee, is prefumed to. have been put in his hands as
doe? for the grantee The prefumption is alfo for deli¬
very; if the deed appears in the hands of one who is a
ftranger to both. Where a deed is depofitedin the hands
of a third perfon, the terms of depofitation may be pro¬
ved by the oath of the depofitary, unlefs where they are
10 A reduced
A
W.
926 L
reduced into writing. A deed appearing in the cuftody
of the grantee himfeif, isconfidered as hisabfolute right ;
in fo much that the granter is not allowed to prove that
it was granted in truil, otherwife than by a written de¬
claration figned by the truflee, or by his oath,
21. The following deeds are efFedlual without delivery,
x. Writings containing a claufe difpenfing with the de
livery: Thefe are of the nature of revokable deeds, where
the death of the granter is equivalent to delivery, becaufe
after death there can be no revocation, 2. Deeds in fa
vour of children, even natural ones; for parents are the
proper cuflodiars or keepers of their childrens writings.
From afimilar reafon, poftnuptial fettlements by the huf-
band to the wife need no delivery. 3. Rights which
are not to take efFeft till the granter’s death, or even
where he referves an intereit to himfeif during his life ;
for it is prefumed he holds the cuftody of thele, merely
to fecure to himfeif fuch referved intereft. 4, Deeds
that the granter lay under an anrecedent natural obligation
to execute, e.g. rights granted to a cautioner for his re¬
lief. J. Mutual obligations, e.g. contra&s; for every
fuoh deed, the moment it is executed, is a common evi
dent to all the parties contra&ers. Lallly, the publi¬
cation of a writing by regiftration, is equivalent to deli¬
very.
Tit. 22. Of Obligations and Cmtratls arifing
from Conjent, and of accejfory Obligations.
Contracts confenfual, i. e. which might, by the
Roman law, be perfeAed by foie confent, without the
intervention either of things or of writing, are fale,
permutation, location, fociety, and mandate. Where the
fubjeA of any of thtfe contradls is heritable, writing is
neceflary.
2. Sale is a contraA, by which one becomes obliged to
give fomething to another, in confidfcration of a certain
price in current money to be paid for it. Things confid¬
ing merely in hope, may be the fubjeA of this contraA,
as the draught of a net. Commodities, where their im¬
portation or ufe is abfolutely prohibited, cannot be the
fubjeA of fale; and even in run goods, no aAion lies
againft the vender for not delivery, if the buyer knew the
goods were run.
3. Though this contraA may be perfeAed before deli¬
very of the fubjeA, the property remains till then with
the vender. See Tit. viii. 9. Yet till delivery, the ha
zard of hs deterioration falls on the purchafer, becaufe
he has all the profits arifing from it, after the fale. On
the other hand, the fubjeA itfelf perifhes to the vender;
j. If it Ihould perilh through his fault, or after his un¬
due delay to deliver it. 2. If a fubjeA is fold as a fun¬
gible, and not as ?n individual, or corpus, e.g. a quan¬
tity of farm-wheat, fold without diftinguilhing the parcel
to be delivered from the reft of the farm. 3. The pe-
riculum lies on the vender till delivery, if he be obliged
by a fpecial article in the contraA to deliver the fubjeA
at a certain place.
4. Location is that contraA, where an hire is ftipulated
for the ufe of things, or for the fervice of perfons. He
lybo jets his work or the ufe of his property to hire, is
the locator or leftbr ; and the other, the conduAor or
leffee. In the location of things, the leffor is obliged to
deliver the fubjeA, fitted to the ufe it was let for ; and
the leifce mult preferve it carefully, put it to no other
ufe, and, after that is over, reftore it. Where a work¬
man or artificer lets his labour, and if the work is either
not performed according to contraA, or if it be infuffi-
cient, even from mere unfkilfulnefs, he is liable to his em¬
ployer in damages, for he ought not, as an artificer, to have
undertaken a work to which he was not equal. A fer-
vant hired for a certain term, isintitled to his full wages,
though from ficknefs or other accident he fliould be dif-
abled for a part oPbis time; but, if he die before the
term, his wages are only due for the time he aAuallyfer-
ved. If a mafter dies, or without'good reafon turns off,
b-.fo'rethe term, a ferYant who eats inhishoufe, the fer-
vant is intitled to his full wages, and to his maintenance
till that term : And, on the other part, a fervant who
without ground deferts his fervice, forfeits his wages
and maintenance, and is liable to his mafter in damages.
5. Society or copartnerlhip is a contraA. whereby the
feveral partners agree concerning the communication of
lofs and gain arifing from the fubjeA of the contraA. It
is formed by the reciprocal choice that the partners make
of one another; and fo is not conftituted in the cafe of
co-heirs, or of feveral legatees in the fame fubjeA. A
copartnerlhip may be fo conftituted, that one of the part¬
ners lhall, either from his foie right of property in the
fubjeA, or from bis fuperior llcill. be intitled to a certain
(bare of the profits, without being fubjeAed to any part
of the lofs; Lut a fociety, where one partner is to bear a
certain proportion of lofs, without being intitled to any
lhare of the profits, is juftly reprobated. All the part¬
ners are intitled to (hares of profit and lofs proportion¬
ed to their feveral ftocks, wnere it is not otherwife cove¬
nanted.
6. As partners are united, iromz deleftusperfona, in
ak nd of brotherhood, no partner can, without a fpecial
power contained in the contraA. transfer any part of his
lhare to another. All the partners are bou id in folidum
by the obligation of any one of them, if he fubfcribe by
ioe. firm or focial name of the company; unlefs it be a
deed that falls not under the common courfe of admini-
ftration. The company-effeAs are the compahy property
of the fociety lu^jeAed. to its debts ; fo that no partner
can claim a divifion thereof, even after the fociety is dif-
folved, till thefe are paid: And, confequently, no cre¬
ditor of a partner can, by diligence, carry to himfeif the
property of any part of the common ftock, in prejudice
of a company-creditor: but he may, by arreftment, fe¬
cure his debtor’s lhare in the company’s hands, to be made
forthcoming to him at the clofe of the copartnerlhip, in
fo far as it is not exhaufted by the company debts.
7. Society being founded in the mutual confidence a-
mong yhefocii, isdiftblved, not only by the renunciation,
but by the death of any one of them, if it be not other-
wife fpecially covenanted. A p^tner, who renounces
upqn unfair views, or at a critical time, when his with¬
drawing may be fatal to the fociety, loofes his partners
from all their engagements to him, while he is bound to
them for all the profits he ftiall make by his withdraw-
L
ing, and for the lofs artfmg thereby to the company.
Not only natural, but civil death, e. g. arifing from a
fentence inflidling capital punilhment, makes one inca¬
pable to perform the duties of a partner, and confequent-
ly diffo'ves the fociety. In both cafes, of death and re¬
nunciation, the remaining partners may continue the co-
partnerlhip, either exprefsly, by entering into a new con-
tradl; or tacitly, by carrying on their trade as formerly,
PuMic trading companies are now every day conftituted,
with rules very different fromthofe which either obtained
in the Roman law, or at this day obtain in private focie-
ties. The proprietors or partners in thefe, though they
may transfer their fhares, cannot renounce; nor does
their death diffolve the company, but the lhare of thede^
ceafed defcends to his reprefentative.
8. A joint trade is not a copartnerfliip, but a momen¬
tary contracf, where two or more perfons agree to con¬
tribute a fum, to be employed in a particular courfe of
trade, the produce whereof is to be divided among the
adventurers, according to their feveral lhares, after the
voyage is finifhed. If, in a joint trade, that partner who
is intruded with the money for purchafing the goods,
Ihould, in place of paying them in calh, buy them upon
credit, the furnifher who followed his faith alone in the
fale, has no recourfe againft the other adventurers; he
can only recover from them what of the buyer’s lhare is
yet in their hands. Where any one of the adventurers,
in a joint trade, becomes bankrupt, the others are pre^
ferable to his creditors, upon the common dock, as long
as it continues undivided, for their relief of all the en¬
gagements entered into by them on account of the adven¬
ture.
9. Mandate is a contradl, by which one employs a-
nother to manage any bufinels for him ; and by the Ro¬
man law, it mud have been gratuitous. It may be con-
ffituted tacitly, by one’s fufft ring another to adt in a cer¬
tain br. nch of his affairs, for a tradl of time together,
without challenge. The mandatory is at liberty not to
accept of the mandate , and, as his powers are foleiy
founded in the mandant's commiffion, he mud, if he un¬
dertakes it, dridlly adhere to the direftions given him :
Nor is it a good defence, that the method he followed
was more rational ; for in that his employer was the pro¬
per judge. Where no fpeci .1 rules are prefcribcd, the
mandatory, if he adls prudently, is fecure whatever the
fuccefs may be ; and he can fue for the recovery of all
the expences reafonably dilburfed by him in the execu
tion of his office.
10. Mandates may be general, containing a power of
adminidring the mand int’s whole affairs ; but no man
date implies a power of difpofing gratuitoully of the con-
ffituent’s property ; nor even of felling his heritage for
an adequate price : But a general mandatory may fell
fuch of the moveables as mud otherwi e perilh No
mandatory can, without fpecial powers, tranfad doubt¬
ful claims belonging to his condituent, or refer them to
arbiters.
11 Mandates expire, 1. By the revocation of the
employer, though only tacit, as he (hould name ano¬
ther mandatory for the fame bufinefs. 2. By the re¬
nunciation of the mandatory ; even after he has execu-
A W. 927
ted part of his commiflion, if his office be gratuitous. 3,
By the death, either of the mandant or mandatory : But
if matters a'e not entire, the mandate continues in force,
notwithdanding fuch revocation, renunciation, or death.
Procuratories of refignation, and p;ecepts of feifin, are
made out in the form of mandates ; but, becaufe they
are granted for the foie benefit of the mandate- y, all of
them, excepting precepts of dare cenjiat, are declared
to continue after the death either of the granter or grantee.
Deeds which contain a claufe or mandate for regidration,
are for the fame reafon made regidrable after the death
of either.
12. The favour of commerce has introduced a tacit
mandate, by which maders of (hips are empowered to
contradf in name of their exercitors or employers, for
repairs, fhip-provifions, and whatever elfe may be hecef-
fary for the fhip or crew ; fo as to oblige, net themlelves
only, but their employers. Whoever has the a<Suai
charge of :he fhip is deemed the mader, though he fhould
have no commiflion from the exccitois, or fhould be fub-
dituted by the mader in the dire<dion of the fhip with¬
out their knowledge. Exercitois are liable, whether the
mader has paid his own money to a merchant for ne-
ceffaries, or has borrowed money to pwrehafe them. The
furnifher or lender mud prove that the fhip-needed re¬
pairs, provifions, fcc. to fuch an extent; but he is un¬
der no neceflity to prove the application of the money or
materials to the fliip’s ufe. If there are feveral exercitors,
they are liable firguli in folidum. In the fame manner
the undertaker of any branch of trade, manufacture, or
other land-negotiation, is bound by the contracts of the
inditors whom he fets over it, in fo far as relates to the
fubjeCt of the prapofitura,
13. Contracts and obligations, in themfelves imperfeCt,
receive drength, by the contraCter or his heirs doing any
aCt thereafter which imports an approbation of them, and
confequently fupplies the want of an original legal con-
fent. This is called homologation ; and it takes place
even in deeds intrinfically null, whether the nullity arifes
from the want of datutory folemnities, or from the in¬
capacity of the granter. It cannot be inferred, 1. By
the aCt of a perfon who was not in the knowledge
of the original deed ; for one cannot approve what he is
ignorant of 2 Homologation has no place where the
a Cl or deed wh ch is pleaded as fuch can be aferibed to
any other caufe ; for an intention to come under an obli¬
gation is not prefumed.
14. Quafi-contraffs are formed without explicit con-
fent, by one of the parties doing fomething that by its
nature either obliges him to the other party or the other
party to him. Under this clafs may be reckoned tutory,
<bc. the entry of an heir, negotiorum gejlio, indebiti
folutio, communion of goods between two or more com¬
mon proprietors, and tnercium jadiuslevond* navis caufa,
Negotiorum gejiio forms th<>fe obligations which arife
from the management of a perfon’s affairs in his abftnce,
by another, without a mandate As fuch manager aCls
without authority from the proprietor, he o ght to be
liable in exaCi diligence, unlefs he has from friend/hip
interpofed in affairs which admitted no delay; and he is
Accountable for his imromiffions with inured, On the
other
928 L
other part, he is intitled to the recovery of his neceflary
diftmrfements on the fubjedt, and to be relieved of the
obligations in whi h he may have bound hinifelf in con-
fequence of the management.
15. Indebiti folutio, c the payment to one of what
is not due to him, if made through any miftake, either
of faft, or even of law, founds him who made the pay¬
ment in an adtion againfl the receiver for repayment
(.condittio indebiti.) This adlion does not lie, 1. If the
fum paid was due ex xquitate, or by a natural obligation ;
for the obligation to reftore is founded folely in equity.
2. If he who made the payment knew that nothing was
due ; for qui confulto dut quod non debebat, prafumitur
donate.
16. Where two or more perfons become common pro¬
prietors of the fame fubjedt, either by legacy, gift or
put chafe, without the view of co partnerlhip, an obliga¬
tion is thereby created anrtong the p oprietors to commu¬
nicate the profit and lofs arifing from the fubjedf, while
it remains common : And the fubjedt may be divided at
the fuit of any having interert. This divifion, where the
queftion is among the common proprietors, is according
to the valuation of their refpettive properties : But,
where the queltion is between the proprietors and thofe
having fervitudes upon the property, the fuperfice is only
divided, without prejudice to the property. Commonties
belonging to the King, or to royal boroughs, are not di-
vifible. Lands lying runrig, and belonging to different pro¬
prietors, may be divided, with the exception of borough
and incorporated acres ; the execution of which is com¬
mitted to the judge-ordinary, or juftices of the peace.
17. The throwing of goods overboard, for lightening
a (hip in a florm, creates an obligation, whereby the
owners of the fiiip and goods faved are obliged to con¬
tribute for the relief of thofe whofe goods were thrown
overboard, that fo all may bear a proportional lofs of
the goods ejei^ed for the common fafety. - In this contri¬
bution, the'fhtp’-s provifions fuffer no eftimation. A ma¬
iler who has cut his mad,-or parted with his anchor, to
fave the {hip, is intitled to this relief; but if he has loft
them by the ftorm, the lofs falls only on the fhip and
freight. If the ejection does not fave the fhip, the goods
preferved from (hipwreck are not liable in contiibution.
Ejeftion may be lawfully made, if the mafter and a third
part of the mariners judge that meafure neceffary, though
the owner of the goods (hould oppofe it: And the goods
ejected are to be valued at the price that the goods
of the fame fort which are faved {hall be afterwards
fold for.
18. There are certain obligations, which cannot fub-
fift by themfelves, but are acceflions to, or make a part
of other obligations. Of this fort are fidejuflion, and the
obligation to pay intereft. Cautionry, or fidejufiion, is that
obligation by which one becomes engaged as fecurity for
another, that he {hall either pay a fum, or perform a deed.
19. A cautioner for a 'fum of money may be bound,
either fimply as cautioner for the principal debtor, or
conjuniftly and feverally for and with the principal debtor.
The firft has, by our cuftoms, the beneficium ordinis, or
of difcuflion ; by which the creditor is obliged to difcufs
the proper debtor, before he can infift for payment againft
A W.
the cautioner. Where one is bound as full debtor with
and for the principal, or conjun&Iy and feverally with
him, the two obligants are bound equally in the fame
obligation, each in folidum ; and confequently, the cau¬
tioner, though he is but an acceffory, may be fuedforthe
whole, without eitherdifcuffing, or even citing the principal
debtor. Cautioners for performance of fafts by another,
or for the faithful difcharge of an office, e. g. for fadtors,
tutors, &c. cannot by the nature of their engagement
be bound conjun&ly and feverally with the principal ob-
ligant, becaufe the fadt to which the principal is bound
cannot poffibly be performed by any other. In fuch en¬
gagements, therefore, the failure muft be previoufty con-
ftituted againft the proper debtor, before adtion can be
brought againft the cautioner, for making up the lofs of
the party fufFering.
20. The cautioner, who binds himfelf at the defire of
the principal debtor, has an aftio mandati, or of relief
againft him, for recovering the principal and intereft paid
by himfelf to the creditor, and for neceflary damages ;
which adtion lies de jure, though the creditor Ihould not
affign to him on payment. As relief againft the debtor
is implied in fidejulfory obligations, the cautioner, where
fuch relief is cut off, is no longer bound : Hence, the
defence of prefcription frees the cautioner, as well as the
principal debtor.
21. But, 1. Where the cautionry is interpofed to an
obligation merely natural, the relief is reftridted to the
fums that have really turned to the debtor’s profit. 2.
A cautioner who pays without citing the debtor, lofes
his relief, in fo far as the debtor had a relevant defence
againft the debt, in whole or in part. Relief is not com¬
petent to the cautioner, till he either pays the debt, or
is diftreffed for it; except, 1. Where the debtor is ex-
prefsly bound to deliver to the cautioner his obligation
cancelled, againft a day certain, and has failed ; or, 2;
Where the debtor is vergens_ad inopiam ; in which cafe
the cautioner may, by proper diligence, fecure the debt¬
or’s funds for his own relief, even before payment or
diftrefs.
22. A right of relief is competent de jure to the cau¬
tioner who pays againft his co-cautioners, unlefs where
the cautioner appears to have renounced it. In confe-
quence of this implied relief, a creditor, if he fhall grant
a difcharge to any one of the cautioners^ muft, in demand¬
ing the debt from the others, deduft that part, as to
which he has cut off their relief by that difcharge.
Where a cautioner in a bond Ggns a bond of corrobora¬
tion, as a principal obligant with the proper debtor, and
with them a new cautioner, the cautioner in the new bond
is intitled to a total relief againft the firft: cautioner, at
whofe defire he is prefumed to be bound,
23. Cautionry is alfo judicial, as in a fufpenfion. It
is fufficient to loofe the cautioner, that when he became
bound, the fufpender had good reafon to fufpend, e. gi
if the charger had at that period no title, or had not then
performed his part, though thefe grounds of fufpenfion
fhould be afterwards taken off. In all maritime caufes,
where the parties are frequently foreigners, the defender
muft give caution judicio ftjli et judicatum folvi : Such
cautioner gets free by the death of the defender before
fentence 5,
L i
fentence; but he continues bound, though the caufe
fliould be carried from the admiral to the court of feflion.
This fort of caution is only to be exacted in caufes ftridtly
maritime.
24. It happens frequently, that a creditor takes two
or more obligants bound to him, all as principal debtors,
without (idejuflion. Where they are fo bound, for the
performance of fafls that are in themfelves indivifible,
they are liable each for the whole, or Jinguli in folidum.
But, if the obligation be for a fum of money, they are
only liable pro rata ; unlefs, 1. Where they are in ex-
prels words bound conjunftly and feverally ; or, 2. In
the cafe of bills or promilTory notes! One of feveral ob¬
ligants of this fort, who pays the whole debt, or fulfils
the obligation, is infilled to a proportional relief again!!
the reft; in fuch manner, that the lofs muft, in every cafe,
fall equally upon all the folvant obligants.
25. Obligations for funis of money are frequently ac¬
companied i\ith an obligation for the annualrent or inter-
eft thereof. Intereft is the profit due, by the
debtor of a fum of money, to the .creditor, for the ufe
of it. The canon law confidered the taking of intereft
as unlawful: The law of Mofes allowed it to be exadted
from ftrangers; and all the reformed nations of Europe
have found it neceffary, after the example of the Romans,
to authorife it at certain rates fixed by ftatute. Soon af¬
ter the reformation, our legal intereft was fixed at the
rate of ten per cent, per annum : from which time, it has
been gradually reduced, till at laft, by 12. Ann. flat. 2.
c. 16. it was brought to fat per cent, and has continued
at that rate ever fince.
26 Intereft is due, either by law, or by padlion. It
is due by law, either from the force of ftatute, under
which may be included adts of federunt, or from the na¬
ture of the tranfadlion. Bills of exchange, and inland
bills, though they (hould not be protefted, carry intereft
from their date in cafe of not acceptance ; or from the
day of their falling due, in cafe of acceptance and not pay
ment. Where a bill is accepted, which bears no term of
payment, or which is payable on demand, no intereft is
due till demand be made of the fum, the legal voucher of
which is a notorial proteft. Intereft is due by a debtor
after denunciation, for all the fums contained in the dili¬
gence, even for that part which is made up of intereft.
Sums paid by cautioners on diftrefs, carry intereft, not
only as to the principal fum in the obligation, but as to
to the intereft paid by the cautioner. Fadfors named by
the court of Seffion are liable for intereft by a fpecial adt
of federunt; fee Tit. xix. 10.
27. It arifes ex lege, or from the nature of the tranf-
adtion, that apmchafer in a fale is liable in intereft for
the price of the lands bought from the term of his entry,
■though the price ftiould l\e arrefted in his hands, or tho’
the feller ftiould not be able to deliver to him a fufficient
progrefs or title to the lands ; for no purchafer can in e-
quity enjoy the fruits of the lands, while at the fame time
he retains the intereft of the price : But lawful configna-
tion of the price made by^ purchafer, upon the refufal of
the perfons having right to receive it, flops the currency
of intereft. Where one intermeddles with money be¬
longing to another which carries intereft, he ought to re-
Vol, II, No. 65. 2"
^ W. 929
ftore it cum omni obventione et caufa, and is therefore li¬
able in the intereft of it, as being truly an acceflbry of
the fubjedt itfelf. It is alfo from the nature of the tranf¬
adlion, that intereft is in certain cafes allowed to merchants
or others in name of damages.
28. Intereft is due by exprefs padtion, where there is
a claufe in a bond or obligation, by which money is made
to carry intereft. An obligation is not lawful, where it
is agreed on, that the yearly intereft of the fum lent, if
it ftiould not be paid pundlually as it falls due, fliall be
accumulated into a principal fum bearing intereft ; but an
obligation may be lawfully granted, not only for the fum
truly lent, but for the intereft to the day at which the
obligation is made payable, whereby the intermediate in¬
tereft is accumulated into a principal fum, from the term
of payment. Intereft may be alfo due by implied padtion:
Thus, where intereft upon a debt is by a letter promifed
for time pall, fuch promife implies a padtion for intereft
as long as the debt remains unpaid ; thus alfo, the ufe of
payment of intereft prefumes a padtion, and when intereft
is exprefled for one term, it is prefumed to be bargained
for till payment.
29. The fubjedt-matter of all obligations confifts ei¬
ther of things, orof fadts. Things exempted from com¬
merce cannot be the fubjedt of obligation. See Tit. viii.
-2. et feq. One cannot be obliged to the performance of
a fadt naturally impoflible ; nor of a fadt in itfelfimmoral,
for that is alfo in the judgment of law impoflible. Since
impoflible obligations are null, no penalty or damage can
be incurred for non-performance; but it is other wife, if
the fadt be in itfelf poffible, though not in the debtor’s
power; in which cafe the rule obtains, locum fafti im-
prajlabilis fubit damnum et intereffe.
30. An obligation, to which a condition is adjedted,
either naturally or morally impoflible, is in the general
cafe null; for the parties are prefumed not to have been
ferious. But fuch obligation is valid, aj^ the condition
thtrtoi ht\A pro non fcripta, 1. In tfllamen'ts; 2. Ino-
bligations, to the performance t)f which the granter lies
under a natural tie, as in bonds of provifion to a child.
Where an obligation is granted under a condition, lawful
but unfavourable, e. g. that the creditor ftrall not marry
without the confent of certain friends, no more weight
is given to the condition than the judge thinks reafonable,
A condition, which is in fome degree in the power of the
creditor himfelf, is held as fulfilled, if he has done all he
could to fulfil it. Implement or performance cannot be
demanded in a mutual contradl, by that party who himfelf
declines, or cannot fulfil the counterpart.
31. Donation, fo long as the fubjedl is not delivered
to the donee, may be juftly ranked among obligations;
and it is that obligation which arifes from the mere good
will and liberality of the granter. Donations imply no
warrandice, but from the future fads of the donor.
They are hardly revokable by our law for ingratitude,
though it ftiould be of the grofleft kind : Thofe betwixt
man and wife are revokable by the donor,' even after
the death of the donee ; but remuneratory grants, not be¬
ing truly donations, cannot be fo revoked. Thatfpecial
fort of donation, which is conftituted verbally, is called a
promife. The Roman law intitled all donors to the be-
10 B neficium
93° L A
rteficium competently, in virtue of which they might re¬
tain fuch part of the donation as was neceffary for their
own fubfidence. Our law allows this benefit to fathers,
with refpeft to the provifions granted to their children,
and to grandfathers, which is a natural confequence of
childrens obligation to aliment their indigent parents;
but to no collateral relation, not even to brothers.
32. Donations, made in contemplation of death, or
mortis caufa, are of the nature of legacies, and like them
revokable : Confequently, not being effedtual in the gran-
ter’s life, they cannot compete with any of his creditors ;
not even with thofe whofe debts were contra&ed after
the donation. They are underftood to be given from a
perfonal regard to the donee, and therefore fall by his
predeceafe. No deed, after delivery, is to be prefumed
a donatio mortis caufa; for revocation is excluded by
delivery.
33. Deeds are not prefumed, in dubio, to be dona¬
tions. Hence, a deed by a debtor to his creditor, if
donation be not expreffed, is prefumed to be granted in
fecurity or fatisfaftion of the debt; but bonds of provi-
fion to children are, from the prefumption of paternal
affection, conftrued to be intended as an additional patri¬
mony: Yet a tocher, given to a daughter in her marriage-
contraiS, is prefumed to be in fatisfaftion of all former
bonds and debts ; becaufe marriage contracts ufually con¬
tain the whole prov ifions in favour of the bride. One who
aliments a perfon that is come of age, without an exprefs
padtion for board, is prefumed to have entertained him
as a friend, unlefs in the cafe of thofe who earn their li¬
ving by the entertainment or board of ftrangers. But
alimony given to minors, who cannot bargain for them-
felves, is not accounted a donation ; except either where
it is prefumed, from the near relation of the perfon ali¬
menting, that it was given ex pielate; or where the mi¬
nor had a father or curators, with whom a bargain might
have been ma4e.
Tit. 23. Of the Diffolution or Extinfiion of 0-
bligations.
Obligations maybe diffolved by performance or
implement, confent, compenfation, novation, and con-
fufion. 1. By fpecifical performance: Thus, an obliga¬
tion for a fum of money is extinguilhed by payment.
The creditor is not obliged to accept of payment by
parts, unlefs where the fum is payable by different divi-
fions. If a debtor in two or more feparate bonds to the
fame creditor, made an indefinite payment, without
afcribing it, at the time, to any one of the obligations,
the payment is applied, x. To intereft, or to fums not
bearing intereft. 2. To-the fums that are leaf! fecured,
if the debtor thereby incurs no rigorous penalty. But,
3. If this application be penal on the debtor, e. g. by fuf-
fering the legal of an adjudication to expire, the payment
will be fo applied to as to fave the debtor from that for¬
feiture. Where one of the debts is fecured by a cau¬
tioner, the other not, the application is tp be fo made,
cateris paribus, that both creditor and cautioner may
have equal juftice done to them.
2. Payment made by thedebtor upon a miftake in faft,
w.
to one whom he believed, upon probable grounds, to
have the right of receiving payment, extinguilhes the o-
bligation. But payment made to one, to whom the law
denies the power of receiving it, has not this effeift ; as
if a debtor, feized by letters of caption, Ihould make
payment to the meffenger; for ignorantia juris neminem
excufat. In all debts, the debtor, if he be not inter-
pelled, may fafely pay before the term, except in tack-
duties or feu-duties; the payment whereof, before the
terms at which they are made payable, is conflrued to
be collufive, in a queftion with a creditor of the landlord
or fuperior. Payment is in dubio prefumed, by the
voucher of the debt being in the hands of the debtor;
chirographum, apud debitorem repertum, preefumitur
folutum.
3. Obligations are extinguifhable by the confent of the
creditor, who, without full implement, or even any im¬
plement, may renounce the right conftituted in his own
favour. Though a difcharge or acquittance, granted by
one whom the debtor bona fide took for the creditor, but
who was not, extinguilhes the obligation, if the fatisfac-
tion made by the debtor was real; yet where it is imagi¬
nary, the difcharge will not fcreen him from paying to the
true creditor the debt that he had made no prior fatisfac-
tion for. In all debts which are conftituted by writing,
the extinfHon, whether it be by fpecifical performance,
or bare confent, mull be proved, either by the oath of
the creditor, or by a difcharge in wri’ing ; and the fame
folemnities which law requires in the obligation, are ne¬
ceffary in the difcharge : But, where payment is made,
not by the debtor himfelf, but by the creditor’s intro-
miffion with the rents of the debtor’s eftate, or by deli¬
very to him of goods in name of the debtor, fuch deli¬
very or intromiflion, being/in'?/, maybe proved by wit-
neffes, though the debt Ihould have been not only confti¬
tuted by writing, but made real on the debtor’s lands by
adjudication.
4. A difcharge, though it Ihould be general, of all
that the granter can demand, extends not to debts of an
uncommon kind, which are not prefumed to have been
under the granter’s eye. This doftrine applies alfo to
general aflignations. In annual payments, as of rents,
feu-duties, intereft, &c. three confecutive difcharges by
the creditor, of the yearly or termly duties, prefume
the payment of all preceedings. Two difcharges by the
anceftor, and the third by the heir, do not infer this pre¬
fumption, if the heir was ignorant of the anceftor’s dif¬
charges. And difcharges by an adminiftrator, as a fac¬
tor, tutor, <bc. prefume only the payment of all pro¬
ceeding duties incurred during his adminiftration. This
prefumption arifes from repeating the difcharges thrice
fiicceffively ; and fo does not hold in the cafe of two dif¬
charges, though they Ihould include the duties of three or
more terms.
5. Where the fame perfon is both creditor and debtor
to another, the mutual obligations, if they are for equal
fums, are extinguilhed by compenfation ; if for unequal,
ftill the leffer obligation is extinguifhed, and the greater
diminilhed, as far as the concourfe of debt and credit
goes. To found compenfation, 1. Each of the parties
muft be debtor and creditor at the fame time. 2. Each.
of
of them muft be debtor and creditor in his own right.
3. The mutual debtsmuft be of the fame quality: Hence,
a fum of money cannot be compenfated with a quantity
ef corns; becaufe, till the prices are fixed, at which the
corns are to be converted into money, the two debts are
incommenfurable. Liftly, compenfation cannot be ad¬
mitted, where the mutual debts are not clearly afcertain-
ed, either by a written obligation, the fentence of a
judge, or the oath of the party. Where this requires
but a (hort difcuflion, fentence for the purfuer is delayed
for fome time, ex xquitate, that the defender may make
good his ground of compenfation. Where a debt for
fungibles is al'certained in money, by the fentence of a
judge, the compenfation can have no effect farther back
than the liquidation, becaufe, before fentence, the debts
were incommenfurable: But where a debt for a fum of
money is, in the courfe of a fuit, conftnuted by the oath
of the debtor, the compenfation, after it is admitted by
the judge, operates, retro, in fo far as concerns the cur¬
rency of intereft, to the time that, by the parties ac¬
knowledgment, the debt became due; for, in this cafe, the
debtor’s oath is not what creates the debt, or makes it
liquid; it only declares that fuch a liquid fum was truly
due before. Compenfation cannot be offered after decree,
either by way of fufpenfion or reduction ; unlefs it has
been formerly pleaded, andunjuftly repelled. Decrees in
abfence are excepted
6 The right of retention, which bears a near refem-
blance to compenfation, is chiefly competent, where the
mutual debts, not being liquid, cannot be the ground of
compenfation ; and it is fometimes admitted ex xquitate,
in liquid debts, where compenfation is excluded by fta-
tute: Thus, though compenfation cannot be pleaded af¬
ter decree, either againft a creditor or his afligney : yet,
if the original creditor fhould become bankrupt, the deb¬
tor, even after decree, may retain againft the afligney,
till he gives fecurity for fatisfying the debtor’s claim a-
gainft the cedent. This right is frequently founded in
the expence difburfed or work employed on the fubjedt
retained, and fo arifes from the mutual obligations incum¬
bent on the parties. But retention may be fuftained,
though the debt due to him who claims it does not arife
from the nature of the obligation by which he is debtor :
Thus, a fa&or on a land eftate may retain the fums le¬
vied by him in confequence of his fadtory, not only till
he be paid of the difburfements made on occafion of fuch
eftate, but alfo till he be diffcharged from the feparate
engagements he may have entered into on his confti-
tuent’s account.
7 Obligations are diffolved by novation, whereby one
obligation is changed into another, without changing ei
ther the debtor or creditor. The firfl obligation being
thereby extinguilhed, the cautioners in it are loofed, and
all its confequences difcharged; fo that the debtor re¬
mains bound only by the laft. As a creditor to whom a
right is once conftituted, ought not to lofe it by implica¬
tion, novation is not eafily prefumed, and the new obli¬
gation is conftrued to be merely corroborative of the old;
but, where the fecond obligation exprefsly bears to be in
fatisfafiion of the flrft, thefe words tnyft neceffanly be
explained into novation. Where the creditor accepts of
W. 93T
a new debtor, in place of the former who is difcharged,
this method of extindlion is called delegation.
8. Obligations are extinguilhed where the
debt and credit meet in the fame perfon, either by fuc-
ceflion or lingular title, e. g. when the debtor fucceedsto
the creditor, or the creditor to the debtor, or a ftranger
to both, for one cannot be debtor to himfelf. If the
fucceflion, from which the confufto arifes, happens after¬
wards to be divided, fo as the debtor and creditor come
again to be different perfons; the cinfujio does not pro¬
duce an extimftion, but only a temporary fufpenlion of
the debt.
Tit. 24. Of Aflignations.
Heritable rights, when they are cloathed with in-
feftment, are tranfmitted by difpolition, which is a wri¬
ting containing procuratory of relignation and precept of
feifin ; but thofe which either require no feifin, or on
which fe fin has aiftually followed, are tranfmiflible by
Ample allignation. He who grants the aflignation, is call¬
ed-the cedent; and he who receives it, the afligney or
ceflionary : If the afligney conveys his right to a third
perfon, it is called a tranflation ; and if he afligns it back
to the cedent, a retrocellion. Certain rights are, from
the ufes to which they are deftined, incapable of tranf-
miflion, as alimentary rights : Others cannot be afligned
by the perfon inverted in them, without fpecial powers
given to him, as tacks, reverfions: The tranfmiflion of a
third fort, is mot prefumed to be intended, without an-
exprefs conv yance ; as of paraphernal goods, which are
fo proper to the wife, that a general aflignation by her to
her hulband, of all that did or fliould belong to her at
her deceafe, does not comprehend them. A liferent-
right is, by its nature, incapable of a proper tranfmillion;.
but i:s profits may be afligned, while it fubfifts.
2. Aflignations muft not only be delivered to the aflig¬
ney, but intimated by him to the debtor. Intimations
are confidered as fo neceffaryfor compleating the convey¬
ance, that in a competition between two aflignations, the-
laft, if firft intimated, is prefeired.
3. Though, regularly, intimation to the debtor is made
by an inftrument, taken in the hands of a notary, by the
afligney or his procurator ; yet the law admits equipollen-
cies, where the notice of the aflignment given to the
debtor is equally ftrong. Thus, a charge upon letters of
horning at the ailigney’s inftance, or a fuit brought by him
againft the debtor, fupplies the want of intimation ; thefe
being judicial afts. which expofe the conveyance to the
eyes both of the judge and of the debtor; or the debt¬
or’s promife of payment by writing to the afligney, becaufe
that is in effeift a corroborating of the original debt. The
ailigney’s poffeflion of the right, by entering into payment
of the rents or intereft, is alfo-equal to an intimation;
for it imports, not only notice to the debtor, but his ac¬
tual compliance: But the debtor’s private knowledge of
the aflignment is not fuftained as intimation.
4. Certain conveyances need no intimation. 1 In-
dorfationsof bills of exchange : for thefe are not to be fet¬
tered with forms, introduced by the laws of particular
ftates. 2. Bank-notes are fully conveyed by the bare
delivery
93* L
delivery of them; for as they are payable to the bearer,
their property mull pafs with their pofTeilion. 3. Adju¬
dication, which is a judicial conveyance, and marriage,
which is a legal one, carry the full right of the fubjefts
thereby conveyed, without intimation: neverthelefs, as
there is nothing in thefe conveyances which can of them-
feives put the debtor in mala fide, he is therefore in tuto
to pay to the wife, or to the original creditor in the debt
adjudged, till the marriage or adjudication be notified to
him. Affignments of moveable fubjedls, though they be
intimated, they we m&A.z retenta pcjefiione, (the cedent
retaining the polfellion), cannot hurt the cedent’s cre¬
ditors ; for fuch rights are prefumed, in all queftions with
creditors, to be, collufive, and granted in truft for the ce¬
dent himfelf.
5. An affignation carries to the afiigney the whole right
of the fubjedf conveyed, as it was in the cedent; andcon-
fequently, he may ufe diligence, either in his cedent’s
name while he is alive, or in his own.
6. After an affignation is intimated, the debtor cannot
prove payment, or compenfation, by the oath of the ce¬
dent, who has no longer any intereft in the debt; unkfs
the matter has been made litigious by an adtion commenced
prior to the intimation : But the debtor may refer to the
oath of the affigney, who is in the right of the debt, that
the affignment was gratuitous, or in truft for the cedent;
either of which being proved, the oath of the cedent will
affedl the affigney. If the affignation be in part onerous,
and in part gratuitous, the cedent’s oath is good again!!
the affigney, only in fofar as his right is gratuitous. All
defences competent again!! the original creditor in a mo¬
veable debt, which can be proved otherwife than by his
oath, continue relevant again!! even an onerous affigney;
whofe right cam be no better than that of his author, and
muft therefore remain affefted with all the burdens which
attended it in the author’s perfon.
Tit. 25. Of Arreftments and Poindings.
The diligences, whereby a creditor may affeft his
debtor’s moveable fubjefts, are arreftment and poinding.
By arreftment is fometimes meant the fecuring of a cri¬
minal’s perfon till trial; but as it is underftood jn the ru¬
bric of this title, it is the order of a judge, by which he
who is debtor in a moveable obligation to the arrefter’s
debtor, is prohibited to make payment or delivery till
the debt due to the arrefter be paid or fecured. The ar¬
refter’s debtor is ufually called the common debtor ; be-
•caufe, where there are two or more competing creditors,
he is debtor to all of them. The perfon in whofe hands
the diligence is ufed, is ftyled the arreftee.
2. Arreftment may be laid on by the authority either
of thefupreme court, or of an inferior judge. In the firft
cafe, it proceeds either upon fpecial letters of arreftment,
or on a warrant contained in letters of horning; and it
muft be executed by a meffenget. The warrants grant¬
ed by inferior judges are called precepts of arreftment,
and they are executed by the officer proper to the court.
Where the debtor to the common debtor is a pupil, arreft¬
ment is properly ufed in the hands of the tutor, as the
pupil’s adminiftrator: This dc&rine may perhaps extend
A W.
to other general adminiftrators, as commiffioner, 6-c.
But arreftment, ufed in the hands of a fadtor or fteward,
cannot found an a ftion of forthcoming without calling the
conftituent. Where the debtor to the common debtor is
a corporation, arreliment muft be ufed in the hands of
the directors or treafarer, who reprefent the whole body.
Arreftraent, when it is ufed in the hands of the debtor
himfelf, is inept; for that-diligence is intended only as a
reftraint upon third parties.
3. Alldebts, in which one is perfonally bound, though
they ffiould be heritably fecured, are grounds upon which
the creditor may arreft the moveable eftate belonging to
his debtor. Arreftment may proceed on a debt, the term
of payment whereof is not yet come, in cafe the debtor
be vergens ad inopiam. If a debt be not yet conftituted
by decree or regiitration, the creditor may raife and exe¬
cute a fummons again!! his debtor for payment, on which
pending adtion arreftment may be ufed, in the fame man¬
ner as inhibition, which-is called arreftment upon a de¬
pendence. If one’s ground of credit be for the perform¬
ance of a fad, or if his depending procefs be merely de¬
claratory, without a conclufion of payment or delivery,
fuch claims are not admitted to be fufficient grounds for
arreftment.
4. Moveable debts are the proper fubjed of arreft¬
ment ; under which are comprehended conditional debts,
and even depending claims. For leffening the expence of
diligence to creditors, all bonds which have’not been made
properly heritable by feifin are declared arreftable. But
this does not extend to adjudications, wadfets, or other
perfonal rights of lands, which are not properly debts.
Certain moveable debts are not arreftable. 1. Debts
due by bill, which pafs from hand to hand as bags of
money. 2. Future debts ; for though inhibition extends
to adquirenda as well as adquifita, yet arreftment is li¬
mited, by its warrant, to the debt due at the time of
ferving it again!! the arreftee. Hence, an arreftment of
rents or imereft carries only thofe that have already either
fallen due, or at leaft become current. Claims, depend¬
ing on the iffue of a fuit, are not conlidered as future
debts; for the fenrence, when pronounced, has a retro-
fpedt to the period at which the claim was firft founded.
The like dedtrine holds in conditional debts. 3. Ali¬
mentary debts are not arreftable; for thefe are granted
on perfonal conliderations, and fo are not communicable
to creditors ; but the part intereft due upon fuch debt may
be arrefted by the perfon who has lurniffied the alimony.
One cannot fecure his own effedts to himfelf for his main¬
tenance, fo as they ffiallnot be affedtable by his creditors.
Salaries annexed to offices granted by the king, and par¬
ticularly thofe granted to the judges of the Scffion, and
the fees of fervants, are confidered as alimentary funds;
but the furplus fee, over and above what is neceffary for
the fervant’s perfonal ufes, may be arrefted.-
5. If, in contempt of the arreftment, the arrefteeffiall
make payment of the fum, or deliver the goods arrefted,
to the common debtor, he is not only liable criminally for
breach of arreftment, but he muft pay the debt again to
the arrefter. Arreftment is not merely prohibitoty, as
inhibitions are; but is a ftep of diligence which founds
the ufer in a fubfequent adtion, whereby the property of
L A
the fubjefl arrefteel may be adjudged to him : It therefore
does not, by our later practice, fall by the death of the
arrellee, but continues to fubfift, as a foundation for an
adtion of forthcoming againft his heir, while the fubjedt
arrefted remains in medio. Far lefs is arreftment loft,
either by the death of the arrefter, or of the common
debtor.
6. Where arreftment proceeds on a depending addon,
it may be loofed by the common debtor’s giving fecurity
to the arrefter for his debt, in the event it lhall be found
due. Arreftment founded on decrees, or on regiftred ob¬
ligations, which in the judgment of law are decrees, can¬
not be loofed, but upo.n payment or conftgnation ; e.-.cept,
i. Where the term of payment of the debt is not yet
come, or the condition has not yet exifted. 2. Where
the arreftment has proceeded on a regiftred contradf, in
which the debts or mutual obligations are not liquid. 3.
Where the decree is fufpended, or turned into a libel ;
for, till the fufpenfion be difcufled. or the pending adlion
concluded, it cannot be known whether any debt be truly
due. A loofing takes off xht nexus, which had been laid
on the fubjedt arrefted ; fo that the arreftee may thereafter
pay fafely to his creditor, and the cautioner is fubftituted
in place of the arreftment, for the arrefter’s fecurity:
Yet the arrefter may. while the fubjedt continues with
the arreftee, purfuehimin a forthcoming, notwithftanding
the loofing.
7. Arreftment is only an inchoated or begun diligence;
to perfedt it, there muft be an adtion brought by the ar¬
refter againft the arreftee, to make the debt or fubjedt ar¬
refted forthcoming. In this adtion, the common debtor
muft be called for his intereft, that he may have an op¬
portunity of excepting to the lawfulnefs or extent of the
debt, on which the diligence proceeded. Before a forth¬
coming can be purfued, the debt due by the common
debtor to the arrefter, muft be liquidated; for the ar¬
refter can be no further intitled to the fubject arrefted than
to the extent of the debt due to him by the common debt¬
or. Where the fubjedl arrefted is a fum of money, it
is, by the decree of forthcoming, diredted to be paid to the
purfuer towards fatisfying his debt; where goods are ar
refted, the judge ordains them to be expofed fale, and
the price to be delivered to the purfuer. So that in ei¬
ther cafe, decrees of forthcoming are judicial aflignarions
to the arrefter of the fubjedt arrefted
8. In all competitions, regard is had to the dates, not
of the grounds of debt, but of the diligences proceeding
upon them. In the competition of arreftments, the pre
ference is governed by their dates, according to the pri
ority even of hours, where it appears with any certainty
which isthe-firft. But, as arreftment is but a begun di
ligence, therefore if a prior arrefter ftiall negledt to infill
in an adHon of forthcoming for fuch a tifne as may be rea-
.fonably conftrued into a defertion of his begun diligence,
Iiedofes his preference. But, as derelidtion of diligence
is not eafily prefumed, the diftance of above two years,
between the firft arreftment and the decree of forthco¬
ming, was fountj not to make fuch a mora as to intitle
the pofterior arrefter to a preference. This rule of pre¬
ference, according to the dates of the feveral arreftments,
holds, by our prefent pradtice, whether they have pro-
Vol. II. Numb. 65. 2
w. 933
needed on a decree, or on a dependence; on debts not
yet payable, or on debts already payable ; provided the
pendency lhall have been clofed, or the debt have become
payable, before the ilfueof the competition.
9. In the competition of arreftments with aflignations,
an aflignation by the common debtor, intimated before
arreftment, is preferable to the arreftment. If the afiig-
nation is granted before arreftment, but not intimated
till after it, the arrefter is preferred.
10. Poinding is that diligence affetting moveable fub-
jedts, by which their property is carried diredtly to the
creditor. No poinding can proceed, till a charge be gi¬
ven to the debtor to pay or perform, and the days there¬
of be expired, except poindings againft yalfals for' their
feu-duties, and poindings againft tenants for rent, pro¬
ceeding upon the landlord’s own decree ; in which the
ancient cuftom of poinding without a previous charge con¬
tinues. A debtor’s goods may be poinded by one credi¬
tor, though they have been arrefted before by another;
for arreftment being but an imperfedt diligence, leaves
the right of the fubjedt ftill in the debtor, and fo cannot
hinder any creditor from ufing a more perfedt diligence,
which has the effedt of carrying the property diredtly to
himfelf.
11. No cattle pertaining to the plough, nor inftruments
of tillage, can be poinded in the time of labouring or till¬
ing the ground, unlefs where the debtor has no other
goods. By labouring time is underftood, that time, in
which that tenant, whofe goods are to be poinded, is
ploughing, though he Ihould have been earlier or later
than his neighbours ; but fummer-fallowing does not fall
under this rule,
12. In the execution of poinding, the debtor’s goods
muft be apprifed, firft on the ground of the lands where
they are laid hold on, and a fecond time at the market-
crofs pf the jurifdidiion, by the ftated apprifers thereof;
or, if there are none, by perfons named by the melfenger
or other officer employed in the diligence. Next, the
meflenger muft, after public intimation by three oyeffes,
declare the value of the goods according to the fecond
apprifement, and require the debtor to make payment of
the debt, including intereft and expences. If payment
(hall be offered to the creditor, or in his abfence to his
lawful attorney; or if, in cafe of refufal by them, con-
fignation of the debt ffiall be made in the hands of the
judge ordinary or his clerk, the goods muft be left with
the debtor ; if not, the meffenger ought to adjudge and
deliver them over, at the apprifed value, to the ufer of
the diligence towards his payment: And the debtor is
intitled to a copy of the warrant and executions, as a
voucher that the debt is difcharged in whole or in part
by the goods poinded.
13. Minifters may poind for their ftipends, upon one
apprifement on the ground of the lands; and landlords
were always in ufe to poind fo, for their rents. Apprife¬
ment of the goods at the. market-crofs of the next royal
borough, or even of the next head-borough of ftewartry
or regality, though thefejurifdidfions be aboliffied, is de¬
clared as Efficient as if they were carried to the head-
borough of the (hire. Poinding, whether it be confidered
as a fentence, or as the execution of a fentence, muft be
xo C proceeded
934 L . A
proceeded in between fnn-rifing and fun-fetting; or at
leaft it muft be finilhed before the going off of day¬
light. The powers of the officer employed in the execu¬
tion of poindings, are not clearly defined by cuftotn, in
the cafe of a third party claiming the property of the goods
to be poinded. This is certain, that he may take the
oath of the claimant, upon the verity of his claim ; and
if from thence it ffiall appear that the claimant’s title is
eollufive, he ought to proceed in the diligence; but, if
there remains the lead doubt, his fafelt courfe is to deliver
the goods to the claimant, and to exprefs in his execution
the reafons why poinding did not proceed
14 Any perfon who Hops a poinding via fafli, on
groundlefs pretences, is liable, both criminally, in the
pains of deforcement, (fee Tit xxxiii. ij.) and civilly,
in the value of the goods which might have been poinded
by the creditor.
Tit. 26. Of Prefcriptions.
Prescription, which is a method, both of efta
blilhing and of extinguiffiing property, is either pofitive
or negative Pofitive prTcription is generally defined,
as the Roman ufucapio, the acquifition of property (it
ftould rather be, when applied to our law, the fecuring it
againft all further challenge) by the pofiefTor’s continuing
his pofleffion for the time which law has declared fuffici-
ent for that purpofe: Negative, is the lofs or amiffion of a
right, by negle&ing to follow it forth, or ufe it, during
the whole time limited by law. The dodtrine of preferip-
tion, which is, by fome writers, condemned as contrary
to juftice, has been introduced, that the claims of negli¬
gent creditors might not fubfift for ever, that property
might be at laft fixed, and forgeries difeouraged, which
the difficulty of detedting muft have made exceeding fre¬
quent, if no length of time had limited the legal effedt of
writings.
2. Pofitive prefeription was firft introduced into our
law by 1617, c. 12. which enadfs, that whoever ffiall have
poffiefled his lands, annualrents, or other heritages, peace¬
ably, in virtue of infeftments, for forty years continually
after their dates, ffiall not thereafter be difquieted in his
right by any perfon pretending a better title. Under he¬
ritages are comprehended every right that is /undo an-
nexum, and capable of continual pofleffion. Continued
poffeffion, if proved as far back as the memory of man,
prefumes pofleffion upwards to the date of the infeftment.
The whole courfe of pofleffion muft by the adt be found¬
ed on feifins, and confequently no part thereof on the
bare right of apparency ; but forty years pofleffion, with¬
out feifin, is fufficient in the prefeription of fuch heritable
rights as do not require feifin,. The pofleffion muft alfo
be without any lawful interruption , i. e it muft neither
be interrupted via fatti, nor via juris. The prefeription
of fubjedts not exprefled in the infeftment as part and
pertinent of another fubjedt fpecially exprefled, has been
explained, Tit. xiii. 6.
3. The adt requires, that the poflcflbr produce, as his
title of pi*fcription, a charter of the lands, preceeding
the forty years pofleffion, with the feifin following on it:
and where there is no charter extant, feifins, one or more
w.
Handing together for forty years, and proceeding either
on retoui s, or precepts of dare confat. This has given
rife to a reafonable diftindtion obferved in pradtice, be¬
tween the prefeription of a Angular fucceflbr, and of an
heir. Singular fucceflbrs muft produce for their title of
prefeription, not only a feifin, but its warrant, as a charter,
difpofition, £}c. either in their own perfon, or in that of
their author : But the produdtion by an heir of feifins,
one or more, {landing together for forty years, and pro¬
ceeding on retours or precepts of dare confat, is fufficient.
The heir is not obliged to produce the retours or pre¬
cepts on which his feifins proceed, nor is t^e Angular
fucceflbr obliged to produce the ground of his charter; fo
that if the title of prefeription produced be a fair deed,
and a fufficient title of property, the pofleflbr is fecure
by the adt, which admits no ground of challenge, but
fallehood. A fpecial ftatute, for eftabliffiing the pofitive
prefeription in moveable rights, was not neceflary ; for,
fincea title in writing is not requifite for the acquiring of
thefe, the negative prefeription, by which all right of ac¬
tion for recovering their property is cut off, effedtually
fecures the poffeflbr.
4. The negative prefeription of obligations, by the
lapfe of forty years, was introduced into our law long
before the pofitive, by 1469, r. 29.—1474, c. jy This
prefeription is now amplified by the foreiaid adt 1617,
which has extended it to all adtions competent upon heri-:
table bonds, reverfions, and others whatfoever; unlefs
where the reverfions are either incorporated in the body
of the wadfet-right, or regiftred in the regifter of rever¬
fions : And reverfions fo incorporated, or regiftred, are
not only exempted from the negative prefcription, but
they are an effedtual bar againft any perfon from pleading
the pofitive.
5. A ffiorter negative prefeription is introduced by fta¬
tute, in certain rights and debts. Adtions of fpuilzie,
ejedtion, and others of that nature, muft be purfued
within three years after the commiffion of the fadt on
which the adtion is founded. As in fpuilzes and ejedtions,
the purfuer was intitled, in odium of violence, to a proof
by his own oath in litem, and to the violent profits a-
gainft the defender, the ftatute meant only to limit thefe
fpecial privileges by a three years prefeription, without
cutting off the right of adtion, where the claim is reftric-
ted to fimple reftitution. ' Under the general words, and
others of that nature, are comprehended all adtions
where the purfuer is admitted to prove his libel by his
own oath in litem.
6. Servants fees, houfe-rents, mens ordinaries, {i.e.
mony due for board,) and merchants accounts, fall un¬
der the triennial prefeription, by 1579, c. 83. There
is alfo a general claufe fubjoined to this ftatute, of other
the like debts, which includes alimentary debts, wages
due to workmen, and accounts due to writers, agents,
or procurators. Thefe debts may by this adt, be proved
after the three years, either by the writing or oath of the
debtor ; fo that they preferibe only as to the mean of
proof by witneffes ; but after the three years, it behoves
the creditor to refer to the debtor’s oath, not only the
conftitution, but the fubfiftence of the debt. In the pre¬
feription of houfe-rents, fervants fees, and alimony, each
L
term’s rent, fee, or alimony, runs a feparate courfe of
prefcription ; fo that in an aftion for thefe, the claim
•will be reltrided to the arrears incurred within the three
years immediately before the citation : But, in accounts,
prefcription does not begin till the laft article ; for a
lingle article cannot be called an account. A&ions of
removing muft alfo be purfued within three years after
the warning. Redu&ions of erroneous retours, pre-
fcribe, if not purfued within twenty years.
7. Minifters ftipends and multures prefcribe in five
years after they are due ; and arrears of rent, five years
after the tenant’s removing from the lands. As the pre¬
fcription of mails and duties was introduced in favour of
poor tenants, that they might not fuffer by neglefting to
preferve their difcharges, a proprietor of lands fubjeit to
a liferent, who had obtained a leafe of all the liferentcd
lands from the liferenter, is not intitled to plead it, nor
a tacltfman of one’s whole eftate, who had by the leafe
a power of removing tenants. Bargains concerning move¬
ables, or fums of money which are proveable by witneffes,
prefcribe in five years after the bargain. Under thefe
are included fales, locations, and all other confenfual
contrails, to the conflitution of which writing is not ne-
ceffary. But all the above mentioned debts, may. after
the five years, be proved, either by the oath or the wri¬
ting of the debtor ; of which above, § 6. A quinquen¬
nial prefcription is eftablifhed in arreftments, whether on
decrees or depending adtions : The firlt prefc ibe in five
years after ufing the arreftment, and the laft in five
years after fentence is pronounced on the depending
aition.
8. No perfon binding for or with another, either as
cautioner or co-principal, in a bond or contrail for a fum
of money, continues bound after feven years from the
date of the bond, provided he has either a claufe of relief
in the bond, or a feparate bond of relief, intimated to
the credito-, at his receiving the bond But ail diligence
ufed within the feven years againft the cautioner, Hull
ftand good. As this is a public law, intended to pre¬
vent he bad confequences of rafh engagements, its be¬
nefit cannot, before the lapfe of the feven years, be re¬
nounced by the cautioner. As it is correitory, it is
ftriilly interpreted : Thus, bonds bearing a mutual claufe
of relief pro rata, fall not under it: nor bonds of corro¬
boration, nor obligations, where the condition is not pu
rifled, or the term of payment not come within the feven
years; becaufe no diligence can be ufed on thefe. The
ftatute excludes all cautionries for the faithful difcharge
of offices ; thefe not being obligations in a bond or con-
tradl for fums of money. And pra&ice has denied the
benefit of it to all judicial cautioners, as cautioners in a
fufpenfion. Actions of count and reckoning, competent
either to m’nors againft their tutors ,r curators, or vice
verfa, prefcribe in ten years after the majority or death
of the minor
9. Holograph bonds, miffive letters, and books of ac¬
count, not attefted by witnefles, prefcribe in twenty years,
unlefs the creditor fhall thereafter prove the verity of the
fubfeription by the debtor’s oath. It is "therefore fuffi
cient to fave from the effeft of this prefcription, that the
conllitution. of the debt be proved by the party’s oath,
A W. 935
after the twenty years ; whereas in ftipends, merchants
accounts, tic. not only the conftitution, but the fubfif-
- tence of the debt, muft be proved by writing or the debt¬
or’s oath, after the term of prefcription. Some lawyers
extend this prefcription of holograph writings to all obli¬
gations for (ums not exceeding L 100 Scots, which are
not attefted by witnefles ; becaufe though thefe are in
praAice fuftained, yet they ought not to have the fame
duration with deeds attefted by witnefles. Though in
the ftiort preferiptiens of debts, the right of a&ion is for¬
ever loft, if not exercifed within the time limited; yet
where aflion was brought on any of thofe debts, before
the prefcription was run, it fubfifted, like any other right,
for forty years. As this defeated the purpofe of the aAs
eftabliffiing thefe preferiptions, all procefles upon warnings,
fpuilzies, ejections, or arreftmentsy- or for payment of
the debts contained in aft 1669, c. 9. are by the faid adt,
joined with 1685, c. 14. declared to prefcribe in five
years, if not wakened within that time ; fee Tit 30.
to. Certain obligations are loft by the lapfe of lefs than
forty years, without the aid of ftatute, where the nature
of the obligation, and the circumftances of parties, jufti-
fy it: Thus, bills which are not intended for lading fe-
curities, produce no adtion, where the creditor has been
long filent, unlefs the fubfiftence of the debt be proved
by the debtor’s oath ; but the precife time is not fixed
by pradtice. Thus alfo, a receipt for bills granted by a
writer to his employer, not infifted upon for twenty three
years, was found not produdtive of an adtion. The
preferiptions of the reftitution of minors, of the benefit
of inventory, tic, are explained in their proper places.
it. In the pofitive prescription, as eftablifhed by the
adt 1617, the continued pofleflion for forty years, pro¬
ceeding upon a title of property not chargeable with falfe-
hood, fecures the pofleflbr againft all other grounds of
challenge, and fo prefumes bona fides, prafumptions juris
et dejure. In the long negative prefcription, bona fides
in the debtor is not required : The creditor’s negledting
to infift for fo long a time, is conftrued as an abandoning
of his debt, and fo is equivalent to a difcharge. Hence,
though the fubfiftence of the debt fliould be referred
to the debtor’s own oath, after the forty years, he is not
liable.
12. Prefcription runs ds momenta in momentum: The
whole time defined by law muft be compleated. before a
right can be either acquired or loft by it ; fo that inter¬
ruption, made on the laft day of the fortieth year, breaks
its courfe The pofitive prefcription runs againft the
Sovereign himfelf, even as to his annexed property, but
it is generally thought he cannot fuffer by the negative r
He is fecured againft the negligence of his officers, in the
management of pracefles by exprefs ftatute, 1600, c. 14.
The negative, as well as the pofitiye prefcription, runs,
againft the church, though churchmen have but a tempo¬
rary intereft in thtir benefices. But becaufe the rights of
beneficiaries to their ftipends are liable to accidents,
through the frequent change of incumbents, .thirteen
years pofleffion docs, by a rule of the Roman chancery
which we have adopted, found a prefumptive title in the
beneficiary : But this is not properly preicription ; for if’
by titles recovered, perhaps out of the incumbent’s own
bands,.
93^ L A
hands, it (hall appear that he has poflefled tithes, or o-
ther Tubjeds, to a greater extent than he ought, his pof-
fellion will be rertrided accordingly. This right.mull
not be confounded with that eftabliflied in favour of
churchmen, which is confined to church lands and rents,
and conllitutes a proper prefcription, upon a poffeffiou of
thirty years.
13. The claufe in the ad 1617, faring minors from
prelcription, is extended to the pofitive, as well as to
the negative prefcription; but the exception of minority
is not admitted in the cafe of hofpitals for children,
where there is a continual fuccelfion of minors, that being
a zafus infolitus. Minors are exprefsly excepted in fe¬
deral of the fhort prefcriptions, as 1579,  1669,
c. 9.; but where law leaves them in the common cafe,
they mull be fubjed to the common rules.
14. Prefcription does not run contra non valentem a-
gere, againft one who is barred, by fome legal incapacity,
from purfuing; for in fuch cafe, neither negligence nor
derelidion can be imputed to him. This rule is, by a
favourable interpretation, extended to wives who ex re-
verentia maritali forbear to purfue adions competent to
them againft their hufbands. On the fame ground, pre¬
fcription runs only from the time that the debt or right
could be fued upon. Thus, inhibition prefcribes only
from the publilhing of the deed granted to the inhibiter’s
prejudice; and in the prefcription of removings, the years
are computed only from the term at which the defender
is warned to remove. Neither can prefcription run a-
gainft perfons who are already in poflellion, and fo can
gain nothing by a purfuit. Thus, where a perfon, who
has two adjudications affeding the fame lands, is in pof-
feflion upon one of them, prefcription cannot run againft
the other during fuch polfelTion.
15. Certain rights are incapable of prefcription : 1.
Things that law has exempted from commerce. 2. Res
tnerce facultatis, e. g. a faculty to charge a fubjed with
debts, to revoke, <bc. cannot be loft by prefcription, for
faculties may, by their nature, be exercifed at any time:
Hence, a proprietor’s right of ufing any ad of property
on his own grounds, cannot be loft by the greateft length
of time. 3. Exceptions competent to a perfon for eli¬
ding an adion, cannot prefcribe, unlefs the exception is
founded on a right produdive of an adion, e. g com-
penfation; fuch right muft be infifted on, within the years
of prefcription. 4. Obligations of yearly penfions or
payments, though no demand has been made on them for
forty years, do not fuffer a total prefcription, but ftill
fubfift as to the arrears fallen due within that period; be-
caufe prefcription cannot run againft an obligation, till it
be payable, and each year’s penfion or payment is confi-
dered as a feparate debt.
16. No fight can be loft non utendo by one, unlefs the
effed of that prefcription be to eftablifti it in another.
Hence the rule arifes, juri fanguinis nunquam prtefcri-
bitur. Hence alfo, a proprietor of land cannot lofe his
property by the negative prefcription, unlefs he who ob-
jeds it can himfelf plead the pofitive. On the fame
ground, a fuperior’s right of feu-duties cannot be loft non
utendo; becaufe being inherent in the fuperiority, it is
truly a right of lands that cannot fuffer the negative
w.
prefcription, except in favour of one who can plead the
pofitive ; which the valfal cannot do, being deftitute of
a title. This rule applies alfo to parfonage tithes, which
are an inherent burden upon all lands not fpecially ex¬
empted ; and from which therefore the perfon liable can¬
not prefcribe an.immunity, by bare non-payment: But
fuch vicarage tithes as are only due where they are e-
ftablilhed by ufage, may be loft by prefcription. In all
thefe cafes, though the radical right cannot fufFer the ne¬
gative prefcription, the bygone duties, not demanded
within the forty years, are loft to the proprietor, fuperior,
or titular.
17. Prefcription may be interrupted by any deed,
whereby the proprietor or creditor ufes his right or ground
of debt. In, ail interruptions, notice muft be given to
the polfelTor of the fubjed, or the debtor, that the pro¬
prietor or creditor intends to fue upon his right. All
writings whereby the debtor himfelf acknowledges the
debt, and all proceffes for payment brought or diligences
ufed againft him upon his obligation, by horning, inhi¬
bition, arreftmenf, fac. muft be effedual to interrupt
prefcription.
18. Interruptions, by citation upon libelled fummonfes,
where they are. not ufed by a minor, prefcribe, if not re¬
newed every feven years : But where the appearance of
parties, or any judicial ad has followed thereupon, it
is no longer a bare citation, hut an adion which fubfifts
for forty years. Citations for interrupting the prefcrip¬
tion of real rights muft be given by meffengers ; and the
fummonfes, on which fuch citations proceed, muft pafs
the fignet upon a bill*, and be regiftred within fixty days
after the execution, in a particular regifter appointed for
that purpofe : And where interruption of real rights is
made v/a fatti, an inftrument muft be taken upon it . and
recorded in the faid regifter; otherwife it can have no ef¬
fed againft lingular fgcceflbrs.
19. Interruption has the effed to cut off the courfe of
prefcription, fo that the perfon prefcribing can avail him¬
felf of no part of the former time, but muft begin a new
courfe, commencing from the date of the interruption.
Minority therefore is no proper interruption ; for it neither
breaks the courfe of'prefcription, nor is it a document or
evidence taken by the minor on his right: It is a perfonal
privilege competent to him, by which the operation of
the prefcription is indeed fufpended during the years of
minority, which are therefore difcounted from it, but it
continues to run after majority, and the years before and
after the minority may be conjoined to compleat it. The
fame dodrine applies to the privilege arifing from one’s
incapacity to ad.
20. Diligence ufed upon a debt, againft any one of
two or more co-obligants, preferves the debt itfelf, and
fo interrupts prefcription againft all of them ; except in
the fpecial cafe of cautioners, who are not affeded by any
diligence ufed againft the principal debtor. In the fame
manner, a right of annualrent, conftituted upon two fe¬
parate tenements, is preferved as to both from the nega¬
tive prefcription, by diligence ufed againft either of them.
But whether fuch diligence has alfo the effed to hinder
the poffefTor of the other tenement by lingular titles from
the benefit of the pofitive prefcription, may be doubted.
L
Tit. 27. Of Succefjion in heritable Rights.
Singular, fuccdlbrs are thofe who facceed to a per-
fon yet alive, in a fpecial fubjed by lingular titles ; but
focceflion, in its proper fenfe, is a method of tranfmitting
rights from the dead to the living. Heritable rights de¬
fend by fucceffion to the heir properly fo Galled ; move-
able rights, to the executors, who are fometimes faid to
Be heirs in moveables. Succeflion is either by fpecial
deflination, which defcends to thofe named by the pro¬
prietor himfelf; or legal, which devolves upon the per-
fons whom the law marks out for fuccdTbrs, from a pre-
fumption, that the proprietor would have named them,
had he made a deftination. The firft is in all cafes
preferred to the other, as prefumption muft yield to
truth.
2. In the fucceffion of heritage, the heirs at law are
otherwife called heirs general, heirs whatfoever, or heirs
erf line ; and they fucceed b^ the right of blood, in the
following order. Firft, defcendents fons are prefered to
daughters, and the eldeft fon to all the younger. Where
there are daughters only, they fucceed equally, and are
called heirs-portioners. Failing immediate defcendents,
grand-children fucceed; and in default of them, great-
grand-children ; and fo on in infinitum ; preferring, as
in the former cafe, males to females, and the tideft male
to the younger,
3 Next after defcendents, collaterais fucceed; among
whom the brothers of the deceafed have the firlt
place. But as, in no cafe, the legal fucceffion of heri¬
tage k, by the law of Scotland, divided'into parts, un-
lefs where it defcends to females; the immediate younger
brother of the deceafed excludes the reft, according to
the rule, heritage defcends. Where the deceafed is him¬
felf the youngeft, the fucceffion goes to the immediate
elder brother, as being the leaft deviation from this rule.
If there are are no brothers german, the fifters german
fucceed equally; then brothers confanguinean in the
fame order as brothers german ; and failing them, fifters
confanguinean Jlext, the father fucceeds Af¬
ter him, his brothers and fifters, according to the rules
already explained; then the grand-father ; failing him,
his brothers and fifttffrs; and fo upwards, as far back as
propinquity can be proved. Though children fucceed to
their mother, a mother cannot to her child; nor is there
any fucceffion by our law through the mother of the de¬
ceafed ; in fo much that one brother uterine, i. e. by the
mother only, cannot futceed to another, even in that eftate
•which flowed originally from their common mother.
4. In heritage there is a right of reprefentation, by
which one fucceeds, not. ft om any title in himfelf, but in
the place of, and as reprefenting lome of his deceafed a-
fcendents. Thus, where one leaves a younger fon, and
a grandchild by his eldeft, the grandchild, though far¬
ther removed in degree from the decafed than his uncle,
excludes him, as coming in place of his father the ekieft
ibn. Hence arifes the diftintfticn between fuceeffion in
Capita, where the divifion is made into as many equal
parts as there are capita or 1 eirs, which is the cafe of
•heirs portioners; and fucceffion in Jlirpcs, where the re-
Vol. II. Numb. 66'. 2
W. 937
meters heirs draw no more among them than the fltarebe*
longing to their afcendtnt or Jiirps, whom they icprtfent »
an example of which may be figured in the cafe of one
who leaves behind him a daughter alive, and two grand¬
daughters by a daughterdeceafed. In which cafe the two
grand-daughters would facceed equally to thathalf which
Would have belonged to their mother had fhe been alive.
5. In the fucceffion of heirs portioners, indivifible
rights, e. g titles of dignity, fall to the ddeft fifter.
A Angle right of fuperiority goes alfo to the eldeft; for it
hardly admits a divifion, and the condition of the vaffai
ought not to be made worfo by multiplying fuperiors up¬
on him. Where there are more fuch rights, the tideft
may perhaps have her eledtion of the beft , but the younger
fifters are entitled to -a recompence, in fo far as the divi-
fions are unequal; at leaft, where the fuperiorities yield
a conftant yearly rent. The principal feat of the family
falls to the eldeft, with the garden and orchard be¬
longing to it, without recompence to the younger fifters;
but all other houfes are divided amongft them, together
with the lands on which they are built, as parts and perti¬
nents of thefe lands.
6. Thofe heritable rights, to which the deceafed did
himfelf fucceed as heir to his father or other anceftor,
get fometimes the name of heritage in a ftridt fenfe, in
oppofition to the fe'uda nova, or feus ofconqueft, which
he had acquired by Angular titles, and which defeend,
not to his heir of line, but of conqueft. This djftindtion
obtains only, where two or more brothers or uncles, Or
their iffue, are next in fucceffion ; in which cafe the imme¬
diate younger brother, as heir of line, focceeds to the
proper heritage, becaufe that defcends ; whereas the con¬
queft afoends to the immediate elder brother. It has no
place in female fucceffion, which the law divides equally
among the heirs-portioners. Where the deceafed was the
younger brother, the immediate elder brother is heir both
of line and of conqueft. An eftate, difponed by a father
to his eldeft fon, is not conqueft in the fon’s perfon, but
heritage; becaufe the fon w'ould have fucceeded to it,
though there had been no difpofition. The heir of con¬
queft fucceeds to all rights affe&ing land, which require
ftifin to perfect them. But teinds goto the heir of line ;
becaufe they are merely a burden on the fruits, not on
the land Tacks do not fall under conqueft, becaufe
they are complete rights without feifin ; nor perfonal
bonds taken to heirs fecluding executors.
7. The heir of line is entitled to the focceffion, not
only of fubjedls properly heritable, but to that fort of
moveables called heirjhip, which is the be-ft of certain
kinds. This dc6trme has been probably introduced,
that the heir might not havean i.oufe and eftate to fucceed
to, quite difinantled by the executor. In that fort which
goes by pairs or dolens, the beft pair or dozen is the
heitfhip. There is no heirfliip in fungibles, or things
eftimated by quantity, as orain.hay, current money, 6c.
To intitle an heir to this privilege, the deceafed muft
have been either, 1. A Prelate: 2. A Baron, i. e. one.
who ftoed infeft at his death inlands, though hot ere&ed
into a barony; or even in a right of annualrent: Or, 3.
A burgefs; not an honorary one, but a trading lurgefs
of a toyal borough, or at leaft one intitled to enter bur-
10 D gtls.
A
91% L
gefs, in the right of his ancefto-r. Neither the heir of
conqoeft, nor of tailzie, has right to heirfhip-moveables.
8. As to fucceflion by deftination, no proprietor can
fettle any heritable ertate, in the properform of ateftament;
not even bonds fecluding executors, though thefe are not
heritable ex fua natura: But, where a tellament is in
part drawn up in the ftyle of a deed inter vivo/, fuch
part of it may contain a fettlement of heritage, though
executors ftiould be named in the teftamentary part.
The common method of fettling the fucceffion of heritage
is by difpofition, contraft of marriage, or Ample procu¬
ratory of refignation : And, though a difpofition fettling
heritage Ihould have neither precept nor procuratory, it
founds an adtion againft the heir of line to complete his
titles to the eftate ; and thereafter divert himfelf in favour
of the difponee. The appellation of tailzie, or entail, is
chiefly ufed in the cafe of a land eftate, which is fettled
on along feries of heirs, fubftituted one after another.
The perfon firft called in the tailzie, is the inftitute; the
reft, the heirs of tailzie, or the fubftitutes.
9. Tailzies, when confidered in relation to their feve-
ral degrees of force, are either, 1. Simple deftinations :
2. Tailzies with prohibitory claufes. 3, Tailzies with
prohibitory, refoiutive, and irritant claufes- That is a
fimple deftination, where the perfons called to the fuc¬
ceflion are fubftituted one after another, without any re-
ftraint laid on the exercife of their property. The heirs,
therefore, fucceeding to fuch eftate, are abfolute fiars,
and confequently may alter the deftination at pleafure.
10. In tailzies with claufes prohibitory, e.g, declaring
that it ftiall not be lawful to the heirs to contraft debts
or alien the lands in prejudice of the fucceffion, none
bf the heirs can alien gratuitoufly. But the members of
entail may contradl debts which will be effedtual to the
creditors, or may difpofe of the eftate for onerous caufes.
In both thefe forts, the maker himfelf may alter the
tailzie; except, 1. Where it has been granted for an one¬
rous caufe, as in mutual tailzies; or, 2. Where the ma¬
ker is exprefsly difabled, as well as the inftitute or the
heirs.
11. Where a tailzie is guarded with irritant and refo¬
iutive claufes, the eftate entailed cannot be carried off by
the debt, or deed, of any of the heirs fucceeding thereto,
in prejudice of the fubftitutes. It was long doubted,
whether fuch tailzies ought to be effe&ual, even where
the fuperior’s cbnfent was adhibited; becaufe they funk
the property bf eftates, and created a perpetuity of life-
rents. They were firft explicitely authorifed by 1685, c.
22. By this ftatute, the entail muft be regiftred in a
fpecial regifter eftabliflhed for that purpofe ; and the irri¬
tant and refoiutive claufes muft be inferted, not only in
the procuratories, precepts, and feifins, by which the
tailzies are firft conftituted, but in all the after convey¬
ances thereof ; otherwife they can have no force againft
lingular fucceflbrs. But a talzie, even without thefe re-
quifites, is effedtual againft the heir of the granter, or a-
gainft the inftitute who accepts of it.
12. An heir of entail has full power over the entailed
eftate, except in fo far as he is exprefsly fettered ; and as
entails are an unfavourable reftraint upon property, and
a frequent fnare to trading people, they are JlrittiJJitni
w.
juris; fo that no prohibition or irritancies are to be infer¬
red by implication.
13. Anhtir, who countera&sthcdireftions of thej^ilzie,
by aliening any part of the eftate, charging it with debt,
&c. is faid to contravene. It is not the fimple contrac¬
ting of debt that infers contravention ; the lands entailed
muft be aftually adjudged upon the debt contrafled. An
heir may, where he is not exprefsly barred, fettle ration¬
al provtfions on his wife and children, without incurring
contravention.
14. When the heirs of the laft perfon fpecially called
in a tailzie come to fucceed, the irritancies have no longer
any perfon in favour of whom they can operate; and con¬
fequently, the fee, which was before tailzied, becomes
fimple and unlimited in the perfon of fuch heirs. The
King may purchafe lands witnin Scotland, notwithftand-
ing the ftridtert entail; and where the lands are in the
hands of minors or fatuous perfons, his Majefty may pur-
chafe them from the curators or guardians. And heirs
of entail may fell to their vaflTals the fuperiorities belong¬
ing to the entailed eftate ; but in all thefe cafes, the price
is to be fettled in the fame rmnner that the lands or fupe¬
riorities fold were fettled before the fale.
15. Rights, not only of land-eftates, but of bonds,
are fometimes granted to two or more perfons in conjundt
fee. Where a right is fo granted to two ftrangers, with¬
out any fpecial cLufe adjedted to it, each of them has an
equal intereft in the fee, and the part of the deceafed
defcends to his own heir. If the right be taken to the
two jointly, and the longejl liver and their heirs, the fe-
veral lhares of the conjundt fiars are affedtable by their
creditors during their lives ; but, on the death of any
one of them, the furvivor has the fee of thetvhole, in fo
far as the Ihare of the predeceafed remains free, after
payment of his debts. Where the right is taken to the
two in conjundt fee, and to the heirs of one of them, he
to whofe heirs the right is taken, is the only fiar; the
right of the other refolves into a fimple liferent: Yet
where a father takes a right to himfelf and his fon joint¬
ly, and to the Ton’s heirs, fuch right being gratuitous
is not underftood to ftrip the father of the fee, unlefs
a contrary intention (hall plainly appear from the tenor
of the right.
16. Where a right is taken to a hufband and wife, in
conjundt fee and liferent, the huftund, as the perfotta
dignior, is the only fiar: The wife’s right refolves into a
liferent, unlefs it be prefumeable, from (pecial circumftan-
ces, that the fee was intended to be in the wife Where
a right of moveables is taken to hulband and wife, the
heirs of both fucceed equally, according to the natural
meaning of the words.
17 Heirs of provifion are thofe who fucceed to any
fubjedt, in virtue of a provifion in; the inveftiture, or o-
ther deed of fettlement This appellation is given moft
commonly to heirs of a marriage Thefe are more fa¬
vourably regarded than heirs by fimple deftination, who
have only the hope of fucceflion; for heirs of a marriage,
becaufe their provifions are conftituted by an onerous
contradf cannot be difappointed of them by any gratuitous
deed of the father. Neverthelefs, as their right is only
a right of fucceffion, which is not defigned to reftrain the
father
L
father from granting onerous or rational deeds, he con¬
tinues to have the full power of idling the fubjedf, or
charging it with debts, unlefs a proper right of credit be
given to the heir by the marriage-contrad, e. g. if the
father fhould oblige himfelf to infeft the heir in the lands,
or make payment of the fum provided againft a day cer-
t;iin, or when the child attains a certain age, for
fuch rights, wht n perfected by infeftment, or fecured by
diligence, are effedual againft all the pofterior deeds of
the father, even onerous
18. Though all provifions to children, by amarriage-
contrad conceived in the ordinary form, being merely
rights of fuccdlion, are poftponed to every onerous debt
of the granter, even to thofe contra&ed pofterior to the
provifions ; yet where a father executes a bond of provi-
fion to a child adually exiffing, whether fuch child be
the heir of a marriage or not, a proper debt is thereby
created, which, though it be without doubt gratuitous,
is not only effedual againft the father himfelf and his
heirs, but is not reducible at the inftance even of his
prior onerous cred tors, if he was folvent at the time of
granting it. A father may, notwithftanding a firft mar¬
riage-contrad, fettle a jointure on a fecond wife, or pro¬
vide the children of a fecond marriage; for fuch fettle-
ments are deemed onerous; but where they are exoibi-
tant, they will be reftrided to what is rational: And in
all fuch fettlements, where the provifions of the firft mar-
riage-contrad are incroached upon, the heirs of that
marriage have recourfe againft the father, in cafe he fhould
afterwards acquire a feparate eftate, which may enable
him to fulfil both obligations.
19. Where heritable rights are provided to the hein
of a marriage, they fall to the eldeft fon, for he is the
heir at law in heritage. Where a fum of money is fo
provided, the word heir is applied to the fubjed of the
provifion. and fo marks out the executor, who is the heir
in moveables. When an heritable right is provided to
the bairns (or. iffue) of a marriage, it is divided equally
among the children, if no divifion be made by the father;
for fuch deftination cuts off the exdufive right of the le
gal heir. No provifion granted to bairns, gives a fpecial
right of credit to any one child, as long as the father
lives : The right is granted familix; fo that the whole
muft indeed go to one or other of them ; but the father
has a power inhe’ent in him, to divide it among them,
in fuch proportions as he thinks beft; yet fo as none
of them may be entirely excluded, except in extraordi¬
nary cafes.
20 A claufe of return is-that, by which a fum in a
bond or other right, is, in a certain event, limited to
return to the granter himfelf, or bis heirs. When a
right is granted for onerous caufes, the creditor may de¬
feat the claufe of return, even graiuitoufly. But, where
the fum in the right flows from the granter, or wherer
there is any other reafonable caufe for the provifion of
return in his favour, the receiver cannot difappoint itgra-
ttiitoufly. Yet fince heis fiar, the fum may be either affign-
ed byhim for an onerous caufe; or aflreded by his creditors.
21. An heir is,, in the judgment eadem per-
fona cum defouniio, and fo reprefems the deceafed uni-
rerfally, not only in his rights, but ia his debts : In the
A. W. 939'
firft view, he is faid to be heir attivei in the fecond
pajjive. From this general rule are excepted, heirs fub-
ftitutedin a fpecial bond, and even fubftitmed in a difpo-
fition omnium bonorum, to take effefl at the granter’s
death; for fuch fubftitutes are confidered as Angular fuc*
ceflbrs, and their right as an univerfal legacy, which
does not iubjedt the legatee ultra valorem.
22. Before an heir can have an aiftive title to his an-
ceftor’s rights, he muft be entered by fer.viceand retour.
He wh® is intitled to enter heir, is, before his adhial en¬
try, called apparent heir. The bare right of apparency
carries certain privileges with it. An apparent heir may
defend his anceftor’s titles againft any third party who
brings them under challenge. Tenants may fafely pay
him their rents ; and after they have once acknowledged
him by payment, he may compel them to continue it ;
and the rents not uplifted by the apparent heir belong to
his executors, upon his death.
23 As an heir is, by his entry, fubje&ed univerfally
to his anceftor’s debts, apparent heirs have therefore a
year (annus deliberandi) allowed to them from the
anceftor’s deceafe, to deliberate whether they will enter
or not ; till the expiring of which, though they may be
charged by creditors to enter, they cannot be fued in
any procefs founded upon fuch charge. Though de¬
claratory actions, and others which contain no perfonal
conclufion, may be purfued againft the apparent heir,
withaut a previous charge; a<5tion does not lie even upon
thefe, within the year, if the heir cannot make the proper
defences without incurring a paflive title. But judicial
Tales, commenced againft an anCcftor, may he continued
upon a citation of the heir, Without waring the year of
deliberating. This annus deliberandi is computed, in
the cafe of a poflhumous heir, from the birth of fuch
heir. An apparent heir,' who by immixing with the e-
ftate of his anceftor, is as much fubjefted to his debts as
if he had entered, can have no longer a right to deli¬
berate whether he will enter or not.
24. Ail fervices proceed on brieves from the chancery^,
which are called brieves of inqueft, and have been long
known in Scotland. The judge, to whom the brief is
direfted, is required to try the matter by an ioqHeft of
fifteen fvvorn men. The inqueft, if they find the claim
verified, muft declare the claimant heir to the deceafed,
by a verdift or fervice, which the judge muft atteft, and
return the brief, with the fervice proceeding on it, to the
chancery.
25. The fervice of heirs is either general or fpecial.
A general fervice veils the heir in the right of all heri¬
table fubjefts, w'bich either do not require- feifin, or
which have not been perfefted by feifin in the perfon of
the anceftor. A fpecial fervice, followed by feifin. veils
the heir in the right of the fpecial fabjefls in which the
anceftor died infeft
26. If an heir, doubtful whether the eftate of his an¬
ceftor be fufficient for clearing bis debts, (hall at any
time within the annus dcliberaitdi, exhibit upon oath a
full inventory of all his ance(lor!s heritable fubjeifts, to the
clerk of the Ihire where the lands lie; or, if there is no.
heritage requiring feifin, 10 the clerk of the Ihire where,
he died ; and if, after the fame is fubferibed by the Ihe-
94° ^ ^
riff or fheriff depute, tlie clerk, and himfelf, and regi-
^eredinthe ftierifF’s books, the extract thereof fhall be
•"egiflered within forty days after expiry of the annus ds-
Jiberandi in the general regifter appointed for that pur-
pofe, his fubfeqnent entry will fubjeft him no farther than
to the value of fuch inventory. If the inventory be gi¬
ven up and regillred within the time prefcnbedi the heir
may ferve oh it, even after the year.
27. Creditors are not obliged to acquiefce in the value
of the eftate given up by the heir ; but, if they be real
creditors, may bring the eftate to a public fale, in order
to difcoverits true value; fince an edate is always worth
what can be got for it. An heir by inventory, as he
is, in effedl, a trudee for the creditors, mud account for
that value to which the edate may have been improved
fince the death of the ancedor, and he mud communicate
to all the cteditors the eafes he has got in tranfafting
with any one of them.
28. Practice has introdured an anomalous fort of en¬
try, without the int;erpofition of. an inqueft, by the foie
confent of the fuperior, who, if he be fatisfied that the
perfon applying to him is the next hei*-, grants him a pre¬
cept (called of dare confiat, from the fird words of its
recital), commanding his bailie to infeft him in the fub-
je<5ts that belonged to his ancedor. Thefe precepts are,
no doubt, effediual againd the fuperior who grams them,
and his heirs; and they may, when followed by fetfin,
afford a title of prefeription : But as no perfon can be
declared an heir by private authority, they cannot bar the
true heir from entering after twenty years, as a legal en¬
try would have done. . Of the fame nature is the entry
by hafp and daple, commonly ufed in burgage tenements
of houfes; by which the bailie, without calling an inqued,
cognofces or declares a perfon heir, upon evidence brought
before himfelf; and, at the fame time, infefts him in the
fiubjedt, by the fymbol of the hafp and daple of the door.
Charges given by creditors to apparent heirs to enter, dand
in the place of an adual entry, fo as to fupport the credi¬
tor’s diligence.
29. A general fervice cannot include a fpecial one ; fince
it has no relation to any fpeeial fubj dt, and carries only
that clafs of rights on which feifin has not proceeded ;
but a fpecial fervice implies a general one of the fame
kind or chara&er, and cpnfequently carries even fuch
rights as have not been perfedted by feifin. Service is
not required to edablilh the heir’s right in titles of ho¬
nour, or offices of the highed dignity; for thefe defeend
jure fanguinis.
39. An heir, by immixing with his ancedor’s edate
without entry, fubjecls himfelf to his debts, as if he had
entered; or. in our law-phrafe, incurs a paffive title.
The only paffive title by which an apparent heir becomes
liable univerfally for all his anceflor’s debts, is geflio pro
herede, or his behaving as none but an heir has ight to
do. B haviour as heir is inferred, from the apparent
heir’s int omiffion, after the death of the an .edor, with
any part of the lands or twher heritable fubjedte belonging
to the deceafed, to which he himfelf might have com-
pjeated an adtive title by entry.
31. This paffive title is excluded, if the heir’s intro-
Hiiffion be by order of law; or if it be founded on fingu-
l w.
lar titles, and not as heir to the deceafed. Bat an appa¬
rent heir’s purchafing any right to his ancedor’s edate,
otherwife than at public roup (audlion), o: his poffeiling
it in virtue of r.ghts fettled in the perfon of any near re¬
lation of the ancedor, to whom he himfelf may fucceed
as heir, otherwife than upon purphafe by public fale, is
deemed behaviour as heir.
32. Behaviour as heir is alfo excluded, where the in-
tronuffion is fmall, unlefs an intention to defraud the an¬
cedor s creditors be prefumable from the circumdances
attending it Neither is'behaviour inferred againd the
apparent heir, from the payment of his ancedor’s debt,
which is a voluntary aid, and profitable to the creditors :
nor by his .taking out of brieves to fe.ve; for one may
alte, his purpofe, while it is not compleated: nor by his
affuming the titles of honour belonging to his ancedor,
or exerciiing an honorary offi e hereditary in the family ;
for thefe are rights annexed to the blood, which may be
ufed without proper reprefentation. But the exercifing
an heritable office of piofit, which may pafs by voluntary
conveyance, and confequently is adjudgeable, may rea-
fonably be thought to infer a paffive title. Ladly, as
paffive titles have been introduced, me-ely for the fecuri-
ty of creditors ; the>efore, where quedions concerning
behaviour arife among the different orders of heirs, they
are liable to one another no farther than in valorem of
their feveral intromiffions.
33. Another paffive title in heritage, may be incurred
by the apparent heir’s accepting a gratuitous right from
the ancedor, to any part of that edate to which he himfelf
might have fucceeded as heir; and it is called prteceptio
her edit at is, becaufe it is a taking of the fucceffion by the
heir before it opens to him by the death of his ancedor.
If the right be onerous, there is no paffive title; If the
confideration paid for it does not amount to its full value,
the creditors of the deceafed may reduce it, in fo far as
it is gratuitous, but dill it infers no paffive title.
34. The heir incurring this paffive title,<is no farther
liable, than if he had, at the time of his acceptance, en¬
tered heir to the granter, and fo fubjedted himfelf to
the debts that were then chargeable againd him; but with
the poderior debts he has nothing to do, not even with
thofe contradted between the date of the right, and the
infeftment taken upon it, and he is therefore called fuc~
cejj'vr titulo lucrativopoji contraftum debitum.
35 Neither of thefe paffive titles takes place, unlefs
the fubjedt intermeddled with or difponed, be fuch as the
intromitter or receiver would fucceed to as heir, In
this alfo, thefe two paffive titles agree, that the intro-
miffion in both mud be after the death of the ancedor ;
for there can be no termini babiles of a paffive title while
the ancedor is alive. But in the following refpedt they
differ : Geftiopro herede, being a vicious paffive title found¬
ed upon a quafi delidt, cannot be objedted againd the de-
linqent’sheir, if procefs has not,been litifeonteded while
the delinquent himfelf was alive; whereas the fuccejfor
titulo lucrativo is, by the acceptan. e of the difpofit'bn,
underdood to have entered into a tacit contradl wrh the
granter’s creditors, by whiffi he undertakes the burden
of their debts ; and all adtions founded 00 contradt are
tranfiniffible againd heirs.
I. A
*§§. At) apparent lieir, ■w'ho is cited by tlie anceftor’s
creditor in a procefs for payment, if he offers any peremp¬
tory defence againft the debt, incurs a paffive title ; for
ha can have no interefl. to objeft agaimt it, but in the
■charader of heir. In the fame manner, the heir’s not
renouncing upon a charge to enter heir, infers it: But
the effect of both thefe is limited to the fpecial debt pur-
fued for, -or charged upon. This paflive title, which is
inferred from the heir’s not renouncing, has no effeft
till decree pafs againft him ; and even a renunciation
offered after decree, if the decree be in abfence, will
intitle the heir to a fufpenfion of all diligence againft
his perfon and eftate, competent upon his anceitor’s
■debts.
37. By the principles of the feudal law, an heir, when
be is to compleat his titles by fpecial fervice, muft necef-
farily pafs over his immediate anceftor, e. g. his father,
if he was not infeft; and ferve heir to that anceftor who
was laft veft and feifed in the right, and in whofe hereditas
jacens the right muft remain, till' a title -be connefled
thereto from him. As this bore hard upon creditors, who
■might think themfelves fecure in contradiing with a per¬
fon whom they faw for feme time in the poffeffion of an
eftate, and from thence conclude thatit was legally veiled
in him; it is therefore provided, that eVery perfon, paf-
ling over his immediate anceftor who had been three years
in poffeffion, and ferving heir to one more remote, (hall
be liable for the debts and deeds of the perfon interjedled,
to the value of the eftate to which he is ferved. This
being corredtory of the feudal maxims, has been ftridily
interpreted, fo as not to extend to the gratuitous deeds
of the perfon jnterjedted, nor to the cafe -where the in-
t* rjedled perfon was a naked liar, and poffcffed only ci¬
villy through the liferenter
38. Our law; from its jealoufy of the weaknefs of man¬
kind while under licknels, and of the importunity of
friends on that occafion, has declared that all deeds af-
fedting heritage, if they be granted by a perfon on death¬
bed, (/. e. after contradting that ficknefs which ends in
tleath), to the damage of the heir, areineffedtual, except
where the debts of the granter have laid him under a ne-
ceffity to alien his lands. As this law of deathbed is
founded folely in the privilege of the heir, deathbed-
deeds, when confented to by the heir, are not reducible.
The term properly oppofed to death-bed is liege poujlie,
by which is 'underftood a ftate of health ; and it gets that
name, becaufe perfons in health have the tegitima potef-
/«/, or lawful power of difpofing of their property at
pleafure.
39. The two extremes being proved, of the granter’s
ficknefs immediately before* figning, and of his death fol
lowing it, though at the greateft diftance of time, did,
by our former law, found a prefumption that the deed
was granted on death bed, which could not have been
elided, but by a pofitive proof of the granter’s convale-
fcence ; but now the allegation of death-bed is alfo ex¬
cluded, by his having lived fixty days after figning the
deed. The legal evidence of convalefcence is the grant-
er’s having been, after the date of the deed, at kirk OR
market unfupported ; for a proof of either will fecure the
deed from challenge. -.The going to kirk or market muft
Yol. II. No. 66.
W, £4*
be performed, when people are met togeth.dt in the church
or churchyard for any public meeting, civil orecclefiafti-
cal, or in the market place at the time of public market.
No other proof of convalefcence is recei veable, becaufeat
kirk and market there are always prefeut unfufpedled
witneffes, which we can hardly be fare of in any other
cafe.
40. The privilege of fetting afide deeds ex cdphe lefiu
is competent to all heirs, not to heirs of line only, but of
conqueft, tdlzie, or provifion ; not only to the immedi¬
ate, but to remoter heirs, as foon as the fucceffion o-
pens to them. But, where it is confented to or rati¬
fied by the immediate heir, it is fecured againft all chal¬
lenge. even from the remoter. Yet the immediate heir
cannot, by any antecedent writing, renounce his right of
redu&ioti, and thereby give ftrength to deeds that may
be afterwards granted in lecio to his hurt; for no private
renunciation can authorife a perfon to aft contrary to a
public law ; and fuch renunciation is,prefumed to be ex¬
torted through the fear of exheredation. If the heir
Ihould not ufe this privilege of redmftion, his creditor may,
by adjudication, transfer it to himfelf, or he may with¬
out adjudication, reduce the deed, libelling upon his in¬
terefl; as creditor to the heir : But the granter’s creditors
have no right to this privilege, in regard that the law of
death-bed was introduced, not in behalf of the granter
h-inrfelf, but -of his heir.
41. The law of death-bed ftrikds againft difpofitiohs of
every fubjed to which the heir would have fucceed-
ed, or from which he would have had any benefit, had
it not been ft> jdifponed. Deathbed-deeds granted in
confequence of a full or proper obligation in Itege poujlie,
are not fnbjed to redudrion; but, where the antecedent
obligation is merely natural, they are reducible. By
ftronger reafon, the deceafed cannot, by a deed merely
voluntary, alter the nature of his eftate on death bed to
the prejudice of Ins heir, fo as from heritable to make it
moveable ; but if he Ihould, in liege poujlie, exclude
his apparent heir, by ah irrevocable deed containing re-
ferved faculties, the heir cannot be heard to quarrel the
exercifeof thefe faculties on death-bed.
42. In a competition between the creditors of the
deceafed and of the heir, our law has juftly preferred the
creditors of the deceafed, as every m^n’s eftate ought to
be liable, in the firft place, for his own debt. But this
preferenceis, by theftatute, limited to the cafe where the
creditors of the deceafed have ufed diligence againft their
debtor’s eftatp, within three years from his death ; and
therefore the heir’s creditors may, after that period, af-
fe<S it for their own payment. All difpofitions by an heir,
of the anceftor’s eftate, within a year after his death, are
null, in fo far as they are hurtful to the creditors of the
anceftor. This takes place, though thefe creditors fhould
have ufed no diligence, and even where the difpofitions
are granted after the year: It is thought they are ineffec¬
tual againft the creditors of the deceafed who have ufed
diligence within the three years.
Tit. 28. Of Succejfion in Moveables.
It< the fucceffion of moveable rights, it is an univetfaf
10 E 3 r-ute:,
942 L A
rule, that the next in degree to the deceafed (or next of
kin) fucceeds to the whole ; and if there are two or more
equally near, all of them fucceed by equal parts, with¬
out that prerogative, which takes place in heritage, of
the eldeft fon over the younger, or of males over females.
Neither does the right of reprefentation, explained Tit.
xxvii. 4. obtain in the fucceffion of moveables, except
in the fingle cafe of a competition between the full blood
and the half blood ; for a niece by the full blood will be
preferred before a brother by the half blood, though {he
is by one degree more remote from the deceafed than her
uncle. Where the eftate of a perfon deceafed confids
partly of heritage, and partly of moveables, the heir in
the heritage has no {hare of the moveables, if there are o-
thers as near in degree to the deceafed as himfelf: But
where the heir, in fuch cafe, findsit hisintereftto renounce
his exclufive claim to the heritage, and betake himfelf to
his right as one of the next of kin, he may collate or com¬
municate the heritage with the others, who in their turn
muft collate the moveables with him; fo that the whole is
thrown into one mafs, and divided equally among all of
them. This dodtrine holds, not only in the line of de-
fcendents, but of collaterals ; for it was introduced, that
the heir might in no cafe be worfe than the other next
of kin.
2. One may fettle his moveable eftate upon whom he
pleafes, excluding the legal fucceflbr, by a teftament;
which is a written declaration of what a perfon wills to
be done with his moveable eftate after his death. No
teftamentary deed is effedfual, till the death of the tefta-
tor ; who may therefore revoke it at pleafure, or make a
new one, by which the firft lofes its force ; and hence
teftaments are called, laft or latter wills. Teftaments,
in their ftridt acceptation, muft contain a nomination of
executors, /. e. of perfons appointed to adminifter the
fucceflion according to the will of the deceafed : Yet no¬
thing hinders one from making a fettlement of moveables,
in favour of an univerfal legatee, though he {hould not
have appointed executors ; and on the other part, a te
ftament where executors are appointed, is valid, though
the perfon who is to have the right of fucceilion {hould
not be named. In this laft cafe, if the executor nomi¬
nated be a ftranger, /. e. one who has no legal intereft in
the moveable eftate, he is merely a truftee, accountable
to the next of kin; but he may retain a third of the dead’s
part (explained § 6.) for his trouble in executing the
teftament ; in payment of which, legacies, if any be left
to him, muft be imputed. The heir, if he be named
executor, has right to the third as a ftranger ; but if one
be named, who has an intereft in the legal fucceflion, he
bas no allowance, unlefs fuch intereft be lefs than a third.
Nuncupative or verbal teftaments are not, by the law of
Scotland, effedtual for fupporting the nomination of an
executor, let the fubjeft of the fucceflion be ever fo fmall:
But verbal legacies, not exceeding L. 100 Scots, are
faftained ; and even where they are granted for more,
they are ineffetfual only as to the excefs.
2. A legacy is a donation by the deceafed, to be paid
by the executor to the legatee. It may be granted, either
in the teftament, or in a feparate writing. Legacies are
not due till the granter’s death ; and confequently they
w.
can tranfmit no right to the executors of the legatee, ia
the event that the granter furvives him.
4. Legacies, where they are general, i. e. of a certain
fum of money indefinitely, give the legatee no right in
any one debt or fubjedf ; he can only infift in a perfonal
sdtion cgainft the executor, for payment out of the tefta-
tor’s effedts. A fpecial legacy, i. e. of a particular debt
due to the deceafed, or of a particular fubjed belonging
to him, is of the nature of an aflignation, by which the
property of the fpecial debt or iubjed vefts, upon the
teftator’s d ath, in the legatee, who can therefore dired-
ly fue the debtor or poffeflbr : Yet as no legacy can be
claimed till the debts are paid, the executor muft be cited
in fuch procefs, that it may be known, whether there are
free effeds fuflicient for anfwering the legacy. Where
there is not enough for payment of ail the legacies, each
of the general legatees muft: fuffer a proportional abate¬
ment : But a fpecial legatee gets his legacy entire, though
there {hould be nothing over for payment of the reft ; and
on the contrary, he has no claim, if the debt or fubjed be¬
queathed fhould perifti, whatever the extent of the free
executry m <y be.
5. Minors, after puberty, can teft without their cura¬
tors, wives without their huftrands, and perfons interdic¬
ted without their interdidors : but baftards cannot teft,
except in the cafes afterwards fet fgrth. Tit. xxix. 3.
As a certain ftiare of thegoods, falling under the communion
that is confequent on marriage, belongs, upon the hufband’s
deceafe, to his widow, jure relifta, and a certain {hare
to the children, called the legitime, portion-natural, or
bairns part of gear ; one who has a wife or children,
though he be the abfolute adminiftrator of all thefe goods
during his life, and confequently may alien them by »
deed inter vivos in liege pouflie, even gratuitoufly, if no
fraudulent intention to difappoint the wife or children
{hall appear, yet cannot impair their {hares gratuitoufty
on deathbed ; nor can he difpofe of his moveables to
their prejudice by teftament, though it {hould be made
in liege poujlie; fince teftaments do not operate till the
death of the tellator, at which period the divifion of the
goods in communion have their full effeft in favour of the
widow and children.
6. If a perfon deceafed leaves a widow, but no child*
his teftament, or, in other words, the goods in com¬
munion, divide in two ; one half goes to the widow, the
other is the dead’s part, <?. the abfolute property of
the deceafed, on which he can teft, and which falls to
his next of kin, if he dies inteftate. Where he leaves
children, one or more, but no widow, the children get
one half as their legitime ; the other half is the dead’s
part, which falls alfo to the children, if the father has
not tefted upon it. If he leaves both widow and children,
the divifion is tripartite ; the wife takes one third by her-
felf; another falls, as legitime, to the children equally a-
mong them, or even to an only child, though he {hould
fucceed to the heritage ; the remaining third is the dead’s
part. Where the wife predeceafes without children, one
half is retained by the hulband, the ether alls to her
next of kin : Where fire leaves children, the divifion
ought alfo to be bipartite, by the common rules of foci-
ety, fince no legitime is truly due on a mother’s death ;
yet
L
yet it is in pra&ice tripartite ; two thirds remain with the
furviving father, as if one third were due to him proprio
nomine, and another as adminiHrator of the legitime for
his children ; the remaining third, being the wife’s lhare,
goes to her children, whether of that or any former mar¬
riage, for they are all equally her next of kin.
7. Before a teftament can be divided, the debts owing
by the deceafed are to be deduced ; for all executry mu(t
be free. As the hulband has the full power of burden¬
ing the goods in qommunion, his debts affedt the whole,
and fo leffm the legitime and the lhare of the relift, as
well as the dead’s part. His funeral charges, and the
mournings and alimony due to the widow, are conGdered
as his proper debts ; but the legacies, or other gratuitous
rights, granted by him on deathbed, affeft only the dead’s
part. Bonds bearing intereft, due by the deceafed, can¬
not diminilh the relidl’s lhare, becaufe fuch bonds, when
due to the deceafed, do not increafe it The funeral
charges of the wife predeceafing, fall wholly on her exe¬
cutors who have right to her lhare. Where the deceafed
leaves no family, neither hulband, wife, nor child, the
telfament fufFers no diviGon, but all is the dead’s part.
8. The whole ilTue of the hufband, not only by that
marriage which was diflblved by his death, but by any
former marriage, has an equal intereft in the legitime ;
oxherwife the children of the firft marriage would be cut
out, as they could not claim the legitime during their fa¬
ther’s life. But no legitime is due, 1. Upon the death
of a mother. 2. Neither is it due to grandchildren, up¬
on the death of a grandfather. Nor, 3. To children
forisfamiliated, i. e. to luch as, by having renounced
the legitime, are no longer confidered as in famiiia, and
fo are excluded from any farther Glare of the moveable
eftate than they have already received.
9 As the right of legitime is ftrongly founded in na¬
ture, the renunciation of it is'not to be inferred by im¬
plication. Renunciation by a child of his claim of legi¬
time has the fame effedf as his death, in favour of the o-
ther children intitled thereto ; and confequently the Glare
of the renouncer divides among the reft ; but he does not
thereby lofe bis right to the dead’s part, if he doesaiot
alfo renounce his Glare in the father’s executry. Nay,
his renunciation of the legitime, where he is the only
younger child, has the effeA to convert the whole fubjedt
thereof into dead s part, which will therefore fall to rhe
renouncer bimfelf as next of kin, if the heir be not w.Jl-
ing to collate the heritage with him.
10 For preferring an equality among all the children,
who continue intitled to the legitime, we have adopted
the Roman dodfrine of coilatio bonorum; whereby the.
child, who has got a provifion from his father, is obliged
to collate it with the others, and impute it towards his
own Glare of the legitime ; but if, from the deed of pro-
viGon, the father Giall appear to have intended it as a
prttcipuum to the child, collation is excluded. A child
is not bound to collate an heritable fubjedl provided to
him, becaufe the legitime is not impaired by fuch pcovi-
fion. As this collation takes place only in queftions a-
niong children who are intiiled to the legitime, the reiidt
is not bound to collate donations given her by her huf-
bundj in order to increafe the legitime ; and on the other
A "W.
part, the children are not obliged to collate their provifi-
ons, in order to increafe her Glare.
11. As an heir in heritage muft compleat his titles by
entry, fo an executor is not veiled in the right of the
moveable eftate of the deceafed without confirmation.
Confirmation is a fentence of the Commiftary or Bifliop’s
court, impowering an executor, one or more, upon ma¬
king inventory of the moveables pertainingto the deceafed,
to recover, poflefs, and adminifter them, either in behalf
of themfelves, or of others interefted therein. Tefta*
ments muft be confirmed in the commiflariot where the
deceafed had his principal dwelling houfe at his death.
If he had no fixed refidence, or died in a foreign coun¬
try, the confirmation muft be at Edinburgh, as the com¬
mune Jorum ; but if he went abroad with an intention to
return, the commiflariot within which he refided, before
he left Scotland, is the only proper court.
12. Confirmation proceeds upon an ediil, which is af¬
fixed on the door of the parifh-church where the decea¬
fed dwelt, and ferves to intimate to all concerned the day
of confirmation, which muft be nine days at leaft after
publifiiing the editft. In a competition for the office of
executor, the Commiflary prefers, primo loco, the per-
fon named to it by the deceafed himfelf, whofe nomina¬
tion he ratifies or confirms, without any previous decer-
niture ; this is called the confirmation of a teftament-tefta-
msntary. In default of an executor named by the de¬
ceafed, univerfal difponees are by the prefent pra&ice
preferred; after them, the next of kin; then the relifl;
then creditors; and laftly, fpecial legatees All thefe
muft be decerned executors, by a femence called a de¬
cree-dative ; and if afterwards they incline to confirm, the
Commiflary authorifes them to adminifter, upon their
making inventory, and giving fecurity to make the fub-
jeA thereof forthcoming to all having intereft ; which is
called the confirmation of a teftament-dative.
13. A creditor, whofe debtor’s teftament is already
confirmed, may fue the executor, who holds the office
for all concerned, to make payment of his debt. Where,
there is no confirmation, he himfelf may apply for the
office, and confirm as executor creditor ; which intitles
him to fue for, and receive the fubjed confirmed, for his
own payment: And where one applies for a confirmation,
as executor-creditor, every co-.reditor may apply to be
conjoined with him in the office As this kind of confir¬
mation is limply a form of diligence, creditors a e ex¬
empted from the neceflity of confirming more than the a-
mount of their debts.
14 A creditor, whofe debt has not been conftituted,
or his claim not clofed by decree, during the life of his
debtor, has no title to demand diredly the office of exe¬
cutor creditor; but he may charge the next of kin
who Hands off, to confirm, who muft either renounce
within twenty days after the charge, or be liable for the
debt; and if the next of kin renounces, the purfuer may
conftitute his debt, and obtain a decree cognitionis caufa,
againft the hereditas jacent of the moveables, upon which
he may confirm . as executor creditor to the deccafei.
Where one is creditor, not to the deceafed, but to his
next of kin who Hands off from confirming, he mny af-
fuft the moveables of the deceafed, by obtaining himfelf
decerned
044 ^ A XV.
^ecerneS exeemor-clative-to tlie deceafed, as If he were his ferrant's wages far the y.ear or terra current at
creditor to hira, and not to his next of kin. his death. Thefe the executors are in fafety to pay oa
Where an executor has either omitted to give up deraahd. AH the other creditors, who either obtain
-any of the effeSs belonging to the deceafed in inventory,
or has eftimited them below their juft value, there is place
for a new confir mation, ad omiff.t, vel male apprsiiuta,
at the fuit of any having intereft ; and if it appears that
he has not omitted or undervalued any fubjefl: chlcfe, the
CommifTary will ordain the fubjeds omitted, or thedif-
fere;nce between the eftimations in the principal teftament
and the true values, to be added thereto ; but if dole
fhall be prefumed, the whole fubjefl of the teftament ad
omiffa vel male appreiiata, will be carried to him who
confirms it, to the exclufion of the executor in the prin¬
cipal teftament.
16. The legitime and relift’s ftrare, becaufe they are
rights arifing ex lege, operate ipfo jure, upon the father’s
death, in favour of the relift: and children ; and confe-
quently pafs from them, though they fhould die before
confirmation, to their next of kin : Whereas the dead’s
part, which falls to the children or other next of kin in
the way of fucceffion, remains, if they (hould die before
confirming, in ionis of the firft deceafed ; and fo does
mot defcend to their next of kin, but may be confirmed
by the perfon who, at the time of confirmation, is the
next of kin to the firft deceafed. Special aflignations,
though neither intimated, nor made public, during the
life of the granter, carry to theafligney the full right of
the fubjefts affigned, without confirmation. Special lega¬
cies are really affignations, and fo fall under this rule.
The next of kin, by the bare poffeiTion of the ip/a corpora
of moveables, acquires the property thereof without con¬
firmation, and tranfmits it to his executors.
17. The confirmation of any one fubjeft by the next
of kin. as it proves his right of blood, has been ad¬
judged to carry the whole executry out of the teftament
of the deceafed, even what was omitted, and to tranf-
xnit all to his own executors. The confirmation of a
ftranger, who is executor nominated, as it is‘merely a
truft for the next of kin, has the effeft to eftablifh the
aright of the next of kin to the fubjefts confirmed, in
the fame manner as if himfelf had confirmed them.
18 Executry, though it carries a certain degree of
Teprefentation of the deceafed, is properly an office: Exe¬
cutors therefore are not fubjefted to the debts due by the
deceafed, beyond the value of the inventory ; but, at the
fame time, they are liable in diligence for making the in¬
ventory effeftual to all having intereft An executor
creditor who confirms more than his debt amounts to, is
liable in diligence for what he confirms. Executors are
not liable in intereft, even upon fuch bonds recovered by
them as carried intereft'to the deceafed, becaufe their of¬
fice obliges them to retain the fumsnhey have made ef¬
feftual, in order to a diftribution thereof among all ha¬
ving intereft. This holds though they ffiould again lend
out the moneytipon intereft, as they do it at their own rifk.
19 There are certain debts of the deceafed called privi¬
leged debts, which were always preferable to every other.
Under that name are comprehended, medicines furniffied
to the deceafed on death-bed, pbyficians fees during that
period, funeral charges, and .the rent of his houfe, and
themfeives confirmed, or who cite the executor already
confirmed, within fix months after their debtor’s death,
are preferred, pari pafu, with thofe who have done more
timely diligence ;• and therefore no executor can either
retain for his own debt, or pay a teftamentary debt, fo
as to exclude any creditor, who ffiall ufe diligence with¬
in the. fix months, from the benefit of the pari p ijfu pre¬
ference ; neither can a decree for payment of debt be ob¬
tained, in that period, againft an executor, becaufe, tilt
that term be elapfed, it cannot be known how many ere-e
ditors may be intitled to the fund in his hands. If no
diligence be ufed within the fix months., the executor
may retain for his own debt, and pay the refidueprimo
venienti. Such creditors of the deceafed as have ufed
diligence within a year after their debtor’s death, are
preferable on the fubjeft of his teftament to the creditors
of his next of kin..
20. The only paffive title in moveables is vitious in-
tromiffion, which may be defined, an unwarrantable in¬
termeddling with the moveable eftate of a perfon deceafed,
without the orderof law. This is not confined, as the paf¬
five titles in heritage are, to the perfons interefted in the
fucceffion, but ftnkes againft all intromitters whatever.
Where an executor confirmed, intromits with more than
he has confirmed, he incurs a paffive title, fraud being
in the commoji cafe prefumed from his not giving up in
inventory the full fubjeft intermeddled with. Vitious
intromiffion is alfo prefumed, where the repofitories of a
dying perfon are not fealed up, as foon as he becomes in¬
capable of fenfe, by his neareft relations; or, if he dies
in a houfe not his own, they muft be fealed ,by the ma¬
tter of fuch houfe. and the keys delivered to the Judge-
ordinary, to be kept by him, for the benefit of all having
intereft.
21. The paffive title of vitious intromiffion does not
take place where there is any probable title or circum-
ftance that takes off the prefumption of fraud. In confe-
quence of this rule, neceffary intromiffion, or cuftod'uc
caufa, by the wife or children, who only continue the
poffeffion of the deceafed, in order to preferve his goods
for the benefit of all concerned, infers no paffive title.
Aryl upon the fame principle, an intromitter, by confirm¬
ing himfelf executor, and thereby fubjefting himfelf to .
account, before aftion be brought againft him on the paf¬
five titles, purges the vitiofity of his prior intromiffiqn:
And where the intromitter is one who is interefted in the
fucceffioH, e. g. next of kin, his confirmation, at any
time within a year from the death of the deceafed, will
exclude the paffive title, notwithftanding a prior citation.
As this paffive title was intended only for the fecurity of
creditors, it cannot be. fued upon,by legatees; andfince.
it arifes ex delitto, it cannot be pleaded againft the heir
of the intromi er. As in-delifts, any one of many de¬
linquents may be fubjefted to the whole puniffiment, fo
any one of many intromitters may be fued in folidum for
the purfuer’s debt, without cal'ing the reft*, but the in¬
tromitter who pays, hat an aftion of relief againft the o-
thers for their ffiarje of it. If the intr.omitters are lued
- jointly.
I.
jointly, they are liable, not/re rata of their feveral in-
tromiffions, but pro virili.
28. The whole of a debtor’s eftate is fubje&ed to the
payment of his debts; and therefore, both his heirs and
executors are liable for them, in a queftion with credi¬
tors; but as fucceffion is by law divided into the heritable
and the moveable eftate; each of thefe ought, in a que¬
ftion between the feveral fucceflbrs, to bear the burdens
which naturally affeft it. Aiftionof relief is accordingly
competent to the heir who has paid a moveable debt, a-
gainft the executor ; and vice verfa. This relief is not
cut off by the deceafed’s having difponed either his
iand-eftate or his moveables, with the burden of his
luhole debts ; for fuch burden is not to be conftrued as an
alteration of the legal fuccellion, but^merely as a farther
fecurity to creditors, unlefsthe contrary lhall be prefumed
from the fpecial ftyle of the difpofition.
Tit. 29. Of lajl Heirs and Baflards.
By our ancient practice, feudal grants taken to the
vaffal, and to a fpecial order of heirs, without fettling
the laft termination upon heirs nuhatfoever, returned to
the fuperior, upon failure of the fpecial heirs therein con¬
tained, but now that feus are become patrimonial rights,
the fuperior is, by the general opinion, held to be fully
divefted by fuch grant, and the right defcends to the
vaffal’s heirs at law. And even where a vaflal dies,
without leaving any heir who.can prove the remoteft pro¬
pinquity to him, it is not the fuperior, as the old law
flood, but the King, who fucceeds as laft heir, both in
the heritable and moveable eftate of the deceafed, in
confequence of the rule, S>uod niillius eji, cedit domino
Regi.
2. If the lands, to which the King fucceeds, behold¬
en immediately of himfelf, the property is confolidated
with the fuperiority, as if refignation had been made in
the Sovereign’s hands. If they are holden of a fub-
jedt, the King, who cannot.be vaffal to his own fubjedt,
names a donatory ; who, to complete his title, muft ob¬
tain decree of declarator ; and thereafter he is prefented
to the fuperior, by letters of prefentation from the King
under the quarter-feal, in which the fuperior is charged
to enter the donatory. The whole eftate of the deceafed
is, in this cafe, fubjedledtohis debts, and to the widow’s
legal provifions. Neither the King nor his donatory is
liable beyond the value of the fucceffion. Aperfon who
has no heir to fucceed to him, cannot alien his heritage
Jefto, to the prejudice-of the King, who is intitled to fet
slide fuch deed, in the charadler of ultimas heres.
3. Ahaftard can have nolegal heirs, except thofe of,his
own body; fince there is no fucceffion but by the father,
and a baftard has no certain father. The King therefore
fucceeds to him, failing his lawful iflue, as laft heir.
Though the baftard, as abfolute proprietor of his own
eftate, can difpofeofhis heritage in liege poujlie, and of
his moveables by any deed inter vivos; yet he is difabled,
ex defedu natalium, from bequeathing by teftament,
without letters of legitimation from the Sovereign. If
the baftard has lawful children, he may teft, without
fuch letters, and name tutors and curators to his ifliie.
Vou II. No. 66. 2
A W. 945
Letters of legitimation, let their claufes beever foftrong,
cannot enable the baftard to fucceed to his natural father,
to the exclufion of lawful heirs.
4. The legal rights of fucceffion, being founded in
marriage, can be claimed only by thofe who are born in
lawful marriage ; the iflue therefore of an unlawful mar¬
riage are incapable of fucceffion. A baftard is excluded,
I. From his father’s fucceffion; becaufe law knows no
father, who is not marked out by marriage. 2. From
all heritable fucceffion, whether by the father or mother ;
becaufe he cannot be pronounced lawful heir by the in-
queft, in terms of the brief; and, 3. From the moveable
fucceffion of his mother; for, though the mother be
known, the baftard is not her lawful child, and legiti¬
macy is implied in all fucceffion conferred by law. A
baltard, though he cannot fucceed jure fanguinis, may
fucceed by deftination, where he is fpecialiy called to the
fucceffion by an entail or teftament.
y. Certain perfons, though born in lawful marriage,
are incapable of fucceffion. Aliens are, from their alle¬
giance to a foreign prince, incapableof fucceeding in feu¬
dal rights, without naturalization. Children born in a
foreign ftate, whofe fathers were natural born fubjedts,
and not attainted, are held to be natural born fubjedls.
Perfons educated in, or profeffing the Popiih religon, if
they fhall negledt, upon their attaining the age of fifteen,
to renounce its doftrines by a figned declaration, cannot
fucceed in heritage; but muft give place to the next
Proteftant heir, who .will hold the eftate irredeemably, if
the Popiffi heir does not, within ten years after incur¬
ring the irritancy, fign theprefcribed by thefta-
tute 1700, c. 3.
Tit. 30. Of Attions.
Hitherto oi perfons and rights, the two firft ob-
jedts of law ; attions are its third objedt, whereby per¬
fons make their rights effedtual. An adtion may be de¬
fined, a demand regularly made and infifted in, before
the judge competent, for the attaining or recovering of
a right; and it fuffers feveral divifions, according to the
different natures of the rights purfued upon.
2. Adtions are either real or peffonal. A real adtion,
is that which arife* from a right in the thing itfelf, and
which therefore may be diredted againft all pofleflbrs of
that thing: Thus, an adtion for the recovery, even of a
moveable fubjedt, when founded on a jus in re, is in the
proper acceptation real; but real adtions are, in vulgar
fpeech, confined to fuch as are diredted againft heritable
fubjedts. A perfonal adtion is founded only on an obli¬
gation undertaken for the performance of fome fadt, or
the delivery of fome fubjedt ; and therefore can be car¬
ried on againft no other than the perfon obliged, or his
heirs.
3. Adtions are either ordinary or refciflbry. All ac¬
tions are, in the fenfe of this divifion, ordinary, which
are not refciflbry Refciflbry adtions are divided, 1. In¬
to adtions of proper improbation. 2. Adtions of reduc-
tion-improbation. 3. Adtions of Ample redudtion. Pro¬
per 'mprobations, which are brought for declaring wri¬
tings falfe or forged, are treated of below. Tit. 33.
10 F Redudtion-
946 L
Reduiflion-iinprobation is an adion, whereby a perfon
who may be hurt or affe&ed by a writing,, inhits for pro¬
ducing or exhibiting it in court, in order to have it fet
afide, or its effeift afcertained, under the certification that
the writing, if not produced, fhall be declared falfe and
forged. This certification is a fiflion of law, introduced
that the produiftion of writings may be the more effectually
forced, and therefore it operates only in favour of the
purfuer. Becaufe the fummons in this aCtion proceeds
on alledged grounds of falfehood, his Majelty’s Advo¬
cate, who is the public profecutor of crimes, mull con¬
cur in it.
4. As the certification in this procefs draws after it fo
heavy confequences, two terms are afligned to the de¬
fenders for production. After the fecondterm iselapfed,
intimation mull be made judicially to the defender, to fu-
tisfy the production within ten days; and till thefe are
expired, no certification can be pronounced. Certifica¬
tion cannot pafs againft deeds recorded in the books of
Sellion, if the defender Ihall, before the fecondterm, of¬
fer a condefcendence of the dates of their regiftration,
unlefs falfehood be objected ; in which cafe, the original
mult be brought from the record to the court. But an
extract from the inferior court is no bar to certification;
the principal writing mult be laid before the court of Sef-
fion on a proper warrant.
5. In an aCtion of fimple reduction the certification is
only temporary, declaring the writings called for, null,
until they be produced; fo that they recover their full
force after production, even againll the purfuer himfelf;
for which reafon, that procefs is now feldom ufed. Be
caufe its certification is not fo fevere as in reduCticn-im-
probation, there is but on term affigned to the defender
for producing the deeds called for.
6. The molt ufual-grounds of reductions of writings
are, the want of the requifite folemnities ; that the granter
was minor, or interdicted, or inhibited ; or that he fign-
ed the deedon death-bed, or was compelled or frightened
into it, or was circumvented ; or that he granted it in
prejudice of his lawful creditors.
7. In reductions on the head of force, or fear, or fraud
and circumvention, the purfuer mull libel the parti¬
cular circumltances from which his allegation is to be pro¬
ved. Reduction is not competent upon every degree of
force or fear; it mult be fich as would lhake a man of
conllancy and refolution. Neither is it competent, on
that fe.ar which arifes from the juft authority ofhulbands
or parents over their wives or children, nor upon the
fear arifing from the regular execution-of lawful diligence
by caption, provided the deeds granted under that fear
relate to the ground of debt contained in the diligence ;
but if they have no relation to that debt, they are redu¬
cible ex metu.
8. Alienations granted by debtors after contraCHng of
lawful debts, in favour of conjunct or confident perfons,
without juft and neceffary caufes, and without a juft
price really paid, are null. One is deemed a prior cre¬
ditor, whore ground of debt exifted before the right
granted by the debtor; though the written voucher of the
debt fliouid bear a date pofterior to it. Perfons are ac¬
counted conjunct, whofe relation to the grahter is fo
w.
near, as to bar them from judging in his caufe. Confi¬
dent perfons are thofe who appear to be in the 'granter’s
confidence, by being employed in his affairs, or about
his perfon; as a doer, fteward, or domeftic fervant.
9. Rights, though gratuitous, are not reducible, if the
granter had, at the date thereof, a fufficient fund for
the payment of his creditors. Provifions to children afe,
in the judgment of law, gratuitous; fo that their effeCt,
in a queftion with creditors, depends on the folvency of
the granter : But fettlements to wives, either in mar¬
riage contracts, or even after marriage, are onerous, its
fo far as they are rational; and confequently are not re¬
ducible, even though the granter was infolvent. This
rule holds alfo in rational tochers contracted to hulbands:'
But it muft, in all cafes, be qualified with this limitation,
if the infolvency of the granter was not publicly known ;
for if it was, fraud is prefumed in the receiver of the right,
by contraCting with the bankrupt.
10. The receiver of the deed, if he be a conjunct or
confident perfon, muft aftruCt or fupport the onerous
caufe of his right, not merely by his own oath, but by
fome circumftances or adminicles. But where a right
is granted to a ftranger, the narrative of it expreffing
an onerous caufe, is fufficient per fe to fecure it agaiiift’
reduction.
11. All voluntary payments or rights made by a bank¬
rupt to one creditor, to difappoint the more timeous di¬
ligence of another, are reducible at the inftance of that
creditor who has ufed the prior diligence. A creditor^
though his diligence be but begun by citation, may infift
in a reduction of all pofterior voluntary rights granted to
his prejudice; but the creditor who negleCts to complete
his begun diligence within a reafonable time, is not in-
titled to reduce any right granted by the debtor, after
the time that the diligence is confidered as abandoned.
12. A prohibited alienation, when conveyed by the'
receiver to another who is not privy to the fraud, fub-
fifts in the perfon of the yWe purchafer. In the cafe
of moveable rights, this nullity is receivable by exception
but it muft be declared by reduction, where the fight is
heritable.
13. By aft 1696, c- 3. all alienations by a bankrupt,
within fixty days before his bankruptcy, to one creditor
in preference to another, are reducible, at the inftance
even of fuch co-creditors as had not ufed theleaft ftep of
diligence. A bankrupt is there defcribed by the fol¬
lowing characters ; diligence ufed againft him by horning
and caption ; and infolvehcy, joined either with irbpri-
fonment, retiring to the fanftuary, abfconding, or foi“-
cibly defending himfelf from diligence. It is fufficient
that a caption is raifed againft the debtor, though it be
not executed, provided he has retired to ffiun it. It is
provided, that all heritable bondif or rights on which fei-
fin may follow, fltall be reckoned, in a queftion with the
granter’s other creditors upon this aft, to be of the date
of the feifin following thereon. But this aft was found
to relate only to fecurities fdr former debts, and not to
nova debit a.
14. Aftions are divided into rei perfecuHrice, and poe-
/tales. By the firft, the purfuer infills barely to recover
the fubjeft that is hus, or the debt due to him; and this
includes
L
includes the damage fudained; for one is as truly a
fufferer in his patrimonial intereft by that damage, as by
the lofs of the fubjeft itfelf. In penal adions, which al¬
ways arife ex dsliiio, foniething is alfo demanded by way
of penalty. .
15. Adions of fpuilzie, ejedion, and intrufion, are
penal. An adion of fpuilzie'is competent to one dif-
pofTefled of a moveable fubjed violently, or without or¬
der ol law, againft the perfon difpofleffing ; not only for
being reftored to the poireffion ol the fubjed, if extant,
or for the value, if it be deftroyed, but alfo for the vio¬
lent profits, in cafe the adion be brought within three
years from the fpoliation. Ejedion and intrufion are, in
heritable fubjeds, what fpuilzie is in moveables. The
difference between the two firft is, that in ejedion, vio¬
lence is ufed ; whereas the intruder enters into the void
poffeflion, without either a title from the proprietor, or
the warrant of a judge The adions ariling from all the
three are of the fame general nature.
16. The adion of contravention of iaw-borrows is alfo
penal. It proceedson lettersoflaw-borrows, (from
a cautioner), which contain a warrant to charge the par¬
ty complained upon, that he may give fecurity, not to
hurt the complainer in his perfon, family, or effate.
Thefe letters do not require the previous citation of the
party complained upon, becaufe the caution which the
law requires is only for doing what is every man’s duty;
but, before the letters are executed againfthim, the com¬
plainer mufl make oath that he dreads bodily harm from
him. The penalty of contravention is afcertained to a
fpecial fum, according to the offender’s quality; the half
to be applied to the fillc, and the half to the complainer.
Contravention is not incurred by theutteringof reproach¬
ful words, where they are aot accompanied, either with
ads of violence., or at leaft a real injury; and as the
adion is penal, it is elided by any probable ground of
excufe.
17 Penalties are the confeqtiences of delid, or rranf-
greflion ; and as no heir ought to be accountable for the
delid of his anceftor, farther than the injured perfior. has
really fuffered by it, penal adions die with the delinquent,
and are not tranfmiflible againft heirs. Yet the affion,
if it has been commenced, and litifconteffed in the de¬
linquent’s lifetime, may be continued againff the heir,
though the delinquent fhould.die during the dependence.
Some adions are ret perfccutori# on the part of the pur-
fuer, when he infills for Ample reftitution; which yet may
be penal in refped of the defender ; e. g the adion on
the paffive title of vitious intromifiion, by which the
purfuer frequently recovers the debt due to him by the
deceafed, though it fhou’d exceed the value of the goods
intermeddled with by the defenders.
18. The moft celebrated divifion of adions in our law,
is into petitory, pojfejfory, and declaratory. Petitory
adions are thofe, where fomething is demanded from the
defender, in confequence of a right of property, or of
credit in the purfuer: Thus, adions for reifitution of
moveables, adions of poinding, of forthcoifting, and in¬
deed all perfonal adions upon contrads or quafi contrads,
are petitory. Pojftjfory adions are thofe which are
founded, either upon pofl'dfion alone, as fpuilzies; or
A W. 947
upon polTtflion joined with another tide, as rcmcvirgs;
and they are competent either for getting into poffefiioti,
for holding it, or for recovering it; analogous to the in¬
terdicts of the Roman law, quorum honorum, utipoffidc*
tis, and ur.de vi.
16. An adion of moleflation is a pofTefibry adion,
competent to the proprietorof a land-eftate, againft thofe
who difturb his pofleffion. It is chiefly ufed in quefttons
of commonly, or of controverted marches. Where a
declarator of property is conjoined with a procefs of mo-
leftation, the feflion alone is competent to the adion.
Adions on brieves of perambulation, have the fame ten¬
dency with moleftations, viz. the fettling of marches be¬
tween conterminous lands.
20 The adion of mails and duties is fometimes peti¬
tory, and fometimes poflefibry. In either cafe, it is di-
reded againft the tenants ahd natural poffefTors of land-
effates, for payment to the purfuer of the rents remaining
due by them for part crops, and of the full rent for the
future. It is competent, not only to a proprietor whofe
right is perfeded by feifin, but to a Ample difponee, for
a difpofition of lands includes a right to the mails and
duties; and confequently to an adjudger, for an adjudi¬
cation is a judicial difpofition. In the petitory adion*
the purfuer, fince he founds upon right, not pofleffion,
muff make the proprietor, from whom the tenants derive
their right, party to the fuit; and he muft fupport his
claim by titles of property or diligences, preferable to thofe
in the perfon of his competitor. In the poflefTory, the
purfuer, who libels that he, his anceftors or authors,
have been feven years in pofleffion, and that therefore he
has the benefit of a poflefTory judgment, need produce no
other title than a feilin, which is a title fufficient to maker
the pofleflion of heritage lawful; and it is enough, if he
calls the natural poflefibrs, though he fhould negled the
proprietor. A pofleflbry judgment founded on feyetr
years pofleffion, in confequence either of a feifin or a tack,
has this effed, that though one fhould claim under a title
preferable to that of thepofleflbr, he cannot compete with
him in the poffeflion, till in a formal procefs of redufiion
he fhall obtain the poffeffor’s title declared void, ’
21. A declaratory adion is that, in which fome right
is craved to be declared in favour of the purfuer, but no¬
thing fought to be paid or performed by the defender,
fuch as declarators of marriage, of irritancy, of expiry
. of the legal reverfion, dsc. Under this clafs may be alfo
comprehended refciffory adions, which, without any per-
fonal conclufion againft the defender, tend Amply to fet
afide the rights or writings libelled, in confequence of
which a contrary right or immunity arifes to the pur¬
fuer. Decrees upon adion that are properly declaratory
confer no new right; they only declare what was the
pnrfuer’s right before, and fo have a retrofped to the
period at which that right firft commenced. Declara¬
tors, beCaufe they have no perfonal cdnclufion againft the
defender, may be puffued againft an apparent heir wixhout
a previous charge given him to enter to his anceftor; un-
lefs where fpecial circurnftances require a charge.
22. An adion for proving the tenor, whereby a wri¬
ting, which is deftroyed or amifling, is endeaved to be
revived, is in effed declaratory. In obligations that are
extinguifhahle
948 L
axtinguifliable tardy by the debtor’s retiring or cancel¬
ling them, the purfuer, before a proof of the tenor is
admitted, muft condefcend on fuclra cafus amijfioms, or
accident by which the writing was deftroyed, as {hews it
■was loft when in the creditor’s pofTeilion ; otherwife bonds
that have been cancelled by the debtor on payment,
might be reared up as ftill fubfifting againft him: But in
writings which require contrary deids to extinguifti their
efFedl, as affignations, dirpofttions,; charters, <&c. it is
fufEcient to libel that they were loft, even cafu fortuito.
23. Regularly, no deed can be revived by this afHon,
without lome adminicle in writing, referring to that
which is libelled ; for no written obligation ought to be
raifed up barely on the teftimony of witneftes. If thefe
adminicles afford fufficient convi&ion, that the deed li¬
belled did once exift, the tenor is admitted to be proved
by witneffes, who muft depofe, either that they were pre-
fent at figning the deed, -or that they afterwards faw it
duly fubfcribed. Where the relative writings contain all
the fubftantial claufes of that which is loft, the tenor is
fometimes fuftained without witnffes. In a writing which
is libelled to have contained uncommon claufes, all thefe
muft appear by the adminicles. A&ions of proving the
tenor are, on account of their importance, appropriated
to the court of Seffion ; and, by the old form, the tefti¬
mony of the witnefles could not be received, but in pre¬
fence of all thejudges.
24. The aiftion of double or multiple poinding may be
alfo reckoned declaratory^ It is competent to a debtor,
who is diftrefled, or threatened with diftrefs, by two or
more perfons claiming right to the debt, and who there¬
fore brings the feveral claimants into the field, in order
to debate and fettle their feveral preferences, that fo he
may pay fecurely to him whofe right fliall be found prefe¬
rable. This adfion is daily purfued by an arreftee, in
the cafe of feveral arreftments ufed in his hands for the
fame debt; or by tenants in the cafe of feveral adjud-
gers, all of whom claim right to the fame rents. In
thefe competitions, any of the competitors may bring an
adlion of multiple-poinding in name of the tenants, or o
ther debtors, without their confent, or even though they
Ihoulddifclaim the procefs ; fince the law has introduced
it as the proper remedy for getting fuch competitions de¬
termined : And while the fubjedt in controverfy continues
in medic, any third perfon who conceives he has a right-
to it, may, though he ftiould not be cited as a defend¬
er, produce his titles, as if he were an original party to
the fuit, and will be admitted for his intereft in the com¬
petition.
25 Certain addons may be called acceflbry, becaufe
they are merely preparatory or fubfervient to other ac¬
tions. Thus, exhibitions ad deliberandum, at the in-
ftance of an heir againft the creditors or cuftodiers of his
anceftor’s writings, are intended only to pave the way for
future procefles. An addon of transference is alfo of
this fort, whereby an addon during the pendency of
which the defender happens to die, is craved to be tranf-
ferred againft: his reprefentative, in the fame condition in
v/hich it flood formerly. Upon the purfuer’s death, his
heir may infift in the caufe againft the defender, upon
producing, either a retour or a confirmed teftament, ac-
A W.
cording as the fubjedt is heritable' or moveable. Tranf-
ferences being but incidental to other addons, can be pro¬
nounced by that inferior judge alone before whom the
principal caufe depended; but, where the reprefentatives
of the deceafed live in another territory, it is the fupreme
court which muft transfer. Obligations may be now re-
giftred fummarily after the creditor’s death ; which be¬
fore was not admitted, without a feparate procefs of re-
giftration; to which the granter was neceflarily to be made
a party.
26. A procefs of wakening is likdwife acccflbry. An
adtion is faid to fleep, when it lies over, not infifted in
for a year, in which cafe its effedt is fufpended; but e-
ven then it may, at any time within the years of prefcrip-
tion, be revived or wakened by a fummons, in which the
purfuer recites the laft ftep of the procels, and concludes
that it may be again carried on as if it had not been dif-
continued. An addon that Hands upon any of the inner-
houfe rolls cannot fleep ; nor an adiion in which decree
is pronounced, becaule it has got its full completion :
Conlequently the decree maybe extradled after the year,
without the neceffny of a wakening.
27. An addon of tranfumpt falls under the fame clal's.
It is competent to thofe, who have a partial intereft in
writings that are not in their own cuftody, againft the
pofleflbrs thereof, for exhibiting them, that they may be
tranfumed for their behoof. Though the ordinary title
in this procefs be an obligation by the defender to grant
tranfumpts to the purfuer, it is fuflicient if the purfuer
can (how that he has an intereft in the writings; but,
in this cafe, he muft tranfume them on his own char¬
ges. Addons of tranfumpt may be pnrfued before any
judge-ordinary. After the writings to be tranfumed are
exhibited, full duplicates are made out, collated, and
figned, by one of the clerks of court, which are called
tranfumpts, and are as effediual as an extradt from the
regifter.
28. Adlions proceeded anciently up,on brieves iflaing
from the chancery, diredted to the jufticiary or judge-or¬
dinary, who tried the matter by a jury, upon whole ver-
didt judgment was pronounced : And to this day, we re¬
tain certain brieves, as of inqueft, terce, ideotry, tutcry,
perambulation, and perhaps two or three others: But
fummonfes were, immediately upon the inftitution of the
College of Juftice, introduced in the place of brieves. A
fummons, when applied to adlions purfued before the fef-
fion, is a writ in the King’s name, ifluing from his fig-
net upon the purfuer’s complaint, authorifing meflengers
to cite the defender to appear before the court, and make
his defences; with certification if he fail to appear, that
decree will be pronounced againft him in terms of the cer¬
tification of the fummons.
29. The days indulged by law to a defender, between
his citation and appearance, to prepare for his defence,
are called inductee legates. If he is within the kingdom,
twenty one and fix days, for the firft and fecond diets
of appearance, muft be allowed him for that purpofe ;
and if out of it, fixty and fifteen. Defenders refiding in
Orkney or Zetland muft be cited on forty days, In cer¬
tain fummonfes which are priviledged, the inductee are
fhortened: Spuilzies and ejedionsproceed on fifteen days ;
wakenings
L J
wakenings and transferences, being but incidental, on fix;
fee the liii of'privileged fummonfes, in afl: of federunt'
June 29. 1672. A furomons muft be executed, e.
ferved againlt the defender, fo as the iaft diet of appear¬
ance may be within a year after the date of the fummons ;
and it mnft be called within a year after that diet, other-
wife it falls for ever. Offence againlt the authority of
the court, afts of malverfation in office by any member
of the college of juftice, and adtsof violence and oppreifion
committed during the dependence of a fuit by any of the
parties, may be tried without a fummbns, by a fummary
complaint.
30. Where an aftion is in part penal, e. g. a remo¬
ving. fpuilzie, <bc. a purfuer who reltrifts his demand to,
dnd obtains decree merely for reflitution, cannot tbsreaf-.
ter bring a new procefs for the violent profits'* Yet the
fame £ad may be the foundation both of a criminal and
civil aftion, becaufe thefe two are intended for different
purpofes-; the one for fatisfying the public juftice, the
other for indemnifying the private pasty: And though
the defender fhould be abfolved in the criminal trial, for
want of evidence, the party injured may bring an aftion
ad civilem effettum, in which he is intitled to refer the
.libel to the defender’s oath.
31. One lib?l or fummoris may contain different con-
clufions on the fame ground of right, refeiffory, declara¬
tory, petitory, if they be not repugnant to each o-
ther: Nay, though different- fums be due to one, upon
diftimft grounds of-debt, or even by different debtors,
the creditor may infift againft them all in' the fame fum-
mons.
32. Defences are pleas offered by a defender for eli¬
ding an aftion. They are either dilatory, which do not
enter into the caufe itfclf, and fo can only procure an ab-
folviture from the Us pendens : Or peremptory, which en¬
tirely cut off the purfuer’s right of adion. The firft, be¬
caufe they relate to the forms of proceeding, muft be of¬
fered in limine judicii, and all of them at once. But
peremptory defences may be proponed at any time before
fentence.
33. A caufe, after the parties had litigated it before
the judge, was faid by the Romans to be litifeontefted.
By litifeonteftation a judicial contrafl is underftood to be
entered into by the litigants, by which the action is per¬
petuated againft heirs, even when it arifes ex delifto. By
our law, litifeonteftafion is not formed till an aft is ex-
trafted, admitting the libel or defences to proof.
Tit. 31, Of Probation.
All allegations by parties to a fuit, muft be fiipported
by proper, proof. Probation is either by writing, by the
party’s own oath, or by witneffes. In the cafe of alle¬
gations, which may be proved by either of the three
w^ys, a proof is faid to be admitted prout de jure ; be¬
caufe, in fuch cafe', all the legal methods of probation
are competent to the party: If the proof he brings by
writing be lame, he may have recourfe either to witneffes
or to his adverfary’s oath ; but, if he Ihould firft take
himfelf to the proof by oath, he cannot thereafter ufe
any other probation, for the reafen affigned § 3, and, on
Vol. II. Numb. 66. 2
l w. 949
the contrary, a purfuer, who has brought a proof by wit-
neffes, on an extrafled aft, is not allowed to recur to the
oath of the defender. Single combat, as a fort of appeal
to Providence, was, by our ancient law, admitted as evi¬
dence, in matters both civil and criminal. It was after¬
wards reftrifted to the cafe of fuch capital crimes where
no other proof could be had ; fome traces of this blind
method of trial remained even in the reign of "f. VI,
who, by 160b. c. 12. might autborife duels on weighty
occafions.
2. As obligations or deeds figned by the party himfelf,
or his anoeftors or authors, muft be, of all evidence, the
leaft liable to exception ; therefore every debt or allega¬
tion may be proved by proper evidence in writing. The
folemnities effential to probative deeds have been already
explained. Tit. xxi. 3. et fq. Booksof account kept by-
merchants, tradefmen, and other dealers in bufinefs,
though not fubferibed, are probative againft liim who
keeps them ; and, in cafe of furnilhings by a Ihop-keeper,
fuch books, if they are regularly kept by him, fupported
by the teftimony of a fingle witnefs, afford a Jemiplena
probatio in his favour, which becomes full evidence by
his own oath in fupplement Notorial iqftruments and
executions by meffengers bear full evidence, that the fo¬
lemnities therein fet forth were ufed, not to be invalida¬
ted otherwife than by a proof of falfehood ; but they do
not prove any other extrinfic faiSs therein averred, againft
third parties.
3. Regularly, no perfon’s right can be proved by his
own oath, nor taken away by th^t of his adverfary ; be¬
caufe thefe are the bare averments of parties in their owo
favour. But, where the matter in iflus is referred by
one of the parties to the oath of the other, fuch oath,
though made in favour of the deponent himfelf, is deci-
five of the point; becaufe the reference is a virtual contract
between the litigants, by which they are onderftood to
put the iffue of the caufe upon what ftiall be depofed:
And this contract is fo ftriCtly regarded, that tire the par¬
ty who refers to the oath of the other cannot afterwards,
in a civil aCiion, plead upon any deed againft the party
depofing, inconfiftent with his oath. To obviate the
fnares that may be laid for perjury, he, to whofe oath of
verity a point is referred, may refufe to depofe, till his
adverfary fwear that he can bring no other evidence in
proof of his allegation.
4. A defender, though he cannot be compelled to
fwear to faCts in a libel properly criminal; yet may, in
trefpaffes, where the conclufion is limited to a fine, or to
damages. In general, an oath of party cannot either hurt
or benefit third parties; being, as to them, res inter alios
alia.
5. An oath upon reference, is fometimes qualified by
fpecial limitations reftriCHng it. The qualities which are
admitted by the. judge as part of'the oath, are called in-
trirtfic ; thofe which the judge rejects or feparates from the
oath, extrinfic. Where the quality makes a part of the
allegation which is relevantly referred to oath, it is in-
trinfic. Thus, becaufe a merchant, fuing for furniftiings
after the three years, muft, in order to make a relevancy,
offer to prove by the defender’s oath, not only the deli¬
very of the goods, but that the price is ftili due ; there-
10 G fore
9^0 L
fore, though the defender ftiouJd acknowledge upon oath
his having received the goods, yet, if he adds, that he
paid the price, this laft part, being a denial that the debt
iubfifts, is intrinfic, fince it is truly the point referred to
oath. Where the quality does not import an extindtion
of the debt, but barely a counter-claim, or mutua petitio,
againft the purfuer, it is held as extrinfic, and muft be
proved aliunde. Neither can a defender who in his
oath admits the conftitution of a debt, get off by adject¬
ing the quality of payment, where the payment ought
by its nature to be vouched by written evidence.
6. Oaths of verity are fometiraes deferred by the judge to
either party, ex officio; which becaufe they are not found¬
ed on any implied contradl: between the litigants, are not
finally decifive, but may be traverfed on proper evidence
afterwards produced. Thefe oaths are commonly put
by the- judge -for fupplying a lame or imperfed proof*
and are therefore called oaths in fupplement. See § 2.
7. To prevent groundlefs allegations, oaths of calumny
have been introduced, by which either party may demand
his adverfary’s oath, that he believes the fad contained in
his libel or defences to be juft and true. As this is an
oath, not of verity, but only of opinion, the party who
puts it to his adverfary, does not renounce other proba¬
tion ; and therefore no party is bound to give an oath of
calumny, on recent fads of his own, for fuch oath is
really an oath of verity. Thefe oaths have not been
fo frequent fince the ad of federunt, Feb. 1. 1715,
whereby any party, againft whom a fad ftiall be alledged,
is obliged, without making oath, to confefs or deny it ;
and in cafe of calumnious denial, is fubjeded to the ex¬
pence that the other party has thereby incurred.
8. In all oaths, whether of verity or calumny, the ci¬
tation carries, or at leaft implies, a certification, that if
the party does not appear at the day afligned for depofing,
he Ihall be held pro confeffo ; from a prefumption of his
confcioufnefs, that the fad upon which he declines to
fwear makes againft him ; but no party can be held pro
eonfeffo, if he be in the kingdom, without a previous per-
fonal citation ufed againft him. Though an oath which
refolves into a non memini, cannot be faid to prove any
point; yet where one fo depofes upon a recent fad, to
which he himfelf was privy, his oath is confidered as a
difiembling of the truth, and he is held pro confeffo, as if
he had tefufed to fwear.
9. An oath in litem, is that which the judge defers
to a purfuer, for afcertaining either the quantity or the
value of goods which have been taken from him by the
defender without order of law, or the extent of his da¬
mages. An oath in litem, as it is the affirmation of a
party in his own behalf, is only allowed where there, is
proof that the other party has been engaged in fome ille¬
gal ad, or where the public policy has made it neceffary,
fee Tit. xx. 11. This oath, as to the quantities, is not
admitted, where there is a concurring teftimony of wit-
neffes brought in proof of it. When it is put as to the
value of goods, it is only an oath of credulity, and there¬
fore it has always been fubjed to the modification of
the court.
xo. The law of Scotland rejeds the teftimony of wit-
uaeffes, 1. In payment of any fum above Z,..ioq Scots, all
A W.
which muft be proved either fcripto vsl juramento. 2„
In all gratuitous promifes, though for the fmalleft trifle.
3. In all contrads, where writing is either effential to their
conftitution, (fee Tit. xxi. 2 ) or where it is ufually adhi¬
bited, as in the borrowing of money. And it is a general
rule, fubjed to the reftridions mentioned in the next
that no debt or right, once conftituted by writing, can
be taken away by witneffes.
11. Oh the other part, probation by witneffes is ad¬
mitted to the extent of L. 100 Scots, in payments, nun¬
cupative legacies, and verbal agreements which contain
mutual obligations. And it is received to the higheft ex¬
tent, 1. In all bargains which have known engagements
naturally arifing from them, concerning moveable goods.
2. It»fads performed in fatisfadion, even of a written
obligation, where fuch obligation binds the party precifely
to the performance of them. 3. In fads which with dif¬
ficulty admit of a proof by writing, even though the ef-
fed of fuch proof flxould be the extindion of a written
obligation, efpecially if the fads import fraud or violence ;
thus, a bond is reducible ex dolo, on a proof by witneffes.
Laftly, all intromiflion by a creditor with the rents of his
debtor’s eftate payable in grain, may be proved by wit¬
neffes; and even intromiffion with the filver-rent, where
the creditor has entered into the" total poffellion of the
debtor’s lands.
12. No perfon, whofe near relation to another bars him
from being a judge in his caufe, can be admitted as a wit-
nefs for him; but he may, againft him, except a wife or
child, who cannot be compelled to give teftirnony againft
the huftand or parent, ob reverenliam perfonee, et me-
turn perjurii. Though the witnefs, whofe propinquity
to one of the parties is objeded to, be as nearly related
to the other, the objedion (lands good.
13. The teftimony of infamous perfons is rejeded, i. e.
perfons who have been guilty of crimes that law declares
to infer infamy, or who have been declared infamous by
the fentence of a judge; but infamia fatti does not difr
qualify a witnefs. Pupils are inhabile witneffes ; being,
in the judgment of law, incapable of the impreffians of an
oath. The teftimony of women is feldom admitted, where
other witneffes can be had. And in general witneffes 0-
therwife exceptionable may, where there is a penury of
witneffes arifing from the nature or circumftances of the
fad, be received cum nota-, that is, their teftimbny,
though not quite free from fufpicion, is to be conjoined
with the other evidence, and to have fuch weight given
_ it as the judge (hall think it deferves.
14.. All witneffes, before they are examined in the
caufe, are purged of partial counfel; that is, they muft
declare, that they have no intereft in the fuit, nor. have
given advice how to condud it; that they have got neither
bribe nor promife, nor have been inftruded how to de-
pofe ; and that they bear no enmity to either of the par¬
ties. Thefe, becaufe they are the points put to a witnefs
before his making oath, are called initialia tejlimonii.
Where a party can bring prefent proof of a witnefs’s par^
tial counfel, in any of the above particulars, he ought to
offer it before the witnefs be fworn ; but, becaufe fuch
objedion, if it cannot be inftantly verified, will be no bar
to the examination, la,w allows the party in that cafe to
proteft,;.
L A
protefl: for re^robator, before the witnefs is examined;
i. e, that he may be afterwards allowed to bring evidence
of his enmity, or other inhability. Reprobator is com¬
petent even after fentence, where proteftation is duly
entered ; but in that cafe, the party inlifting muft confign
L. too Scots, which he forfeits if he fuccumb. This
action muft have the concurrence of the King’s Advocate,
becaufe the concluflon of it imports perjury; and for this
reafon, the witnefs muft be made a party to it,
i 5. The interlocutory fentence or warrant, by which
parties are authorifed to bring theirproof, is either by way
of a<ft, or of incident diligence. In an adt, the Lord Or¬
dinary who pronounces it, is no longer judge in the pro-
cefs ; but in an incident diligence, which is commonly
granted upon fpecial points, that do not exhauft the caufe,
the Lord ordinary continues judge. If a witnefs does
not appear at the day fixed by the warrant of citation, a
fecond warrant is granted of the nature of a caption, con¬
taining a command to meffengers to apprehend and bring
him before the court. Where the party to whom a proof
is granted, brings none within the term allowed by the
warrant, an interlocutor is pronounced, circumducing the
term, and precluding him from bringing evidence there¬
after, Where evidence is brought, if it be upon an ad,
the Lord Ordinary on the ads, after the term for pro¬
ving is elapfed, declares the proof concluded, and there¬
upon a ftate of the cafe is prepared by the Ordinary on
concluded caufes, which muft be judged by the whole
Lords ; but if the proof be taken upon an incident dili¬
gence, the import of it may be determined by the Lord
Ordinary in the caufe.
16. Where fads do not admit a dired proof, prefump
ticns are received as evidence which, in many cafes, make
as convincing a proof as the dired. Prefumptions are
confequences deduced from fads known or proved, which
infer the certainty, or at leaft a ftrong probability, of a-
nother fad to be proved. This kind of probation is
•therefore called artificial, becaufe it requires a reafoning
to infer the truth of the point in- queftion, from the fads
that already appear in proof. Prefumptions are either,
I juris et de jure ; 2. juris ; or 3. hominis or judicis.
The firft fort obtains, where ftatute or cuftom eftablifti es
the truth of any point upon a prefumption ; and it is fo
ftrong, that it rejeds all proof that may be brought to e-
lide it in fpecial cafes. Thus, the teftimony of a witnefs,
who forwardly offers himfelf without being cited, is, from
a prefumption of his partiality, rejeded, let his charader
be ever fo fair ; and thus alfo, a minor, becaufe he is by
law prefumed incapable ofconduding his own affairs, is,
upon that prefumption, difabied. from ading without the
confent of his curators, though he fhould be known to
behave with the greateft prudence. Many fuch prefump-
tions are fixed by ftatute.
17. Prrefumptiones juris are thofe, which our la\w
books or decifions have eftablifhed, without founding any
particular confequence upon them, or ftatuting fuper pre&-
futnpto. Moft of this kind are not proper prefumptions
inferred from pofitive fads, but are founded merely on the
want of a contrary proof ; thus, the legal prefumptior.s
for freedom, for life,, for innocence, i&c are in effed fo
at any negative propofitions, that fervitude, death, and
W. ^ 9.5*
guilt, are hot to be prefumed, without evidence broughr
by him who makes the allegation. Ail of them, whether
they be of this fort, or proper prefumptions, as they are
only conjedures formed from what commonly happens,
may be elided, not only by dired evidence, but by other
conjedures, affording a ftronger degree of probability to
the contrary. Prxfumpttones hominis or judicis, are
thofe which arife daily from the circumftances of parti¬
cular cafes; the ftrength of which is to be weighed by the
judge.
18. A Jiftio juris differs from a prefumption. Things
are prefumed, which are likely to be true; but a fidioa
or law affumes for truth what is either certainly falfe, or,
at leaft, is as probably falfe as-true. Thus, an heir is
feigned or confidered in law as the fame perfon with his
anceftor. Fidions of law muft, in their efteds, be al¬
ways limited to the fpecial purpofes of equity, for which
they were introduced ; fee an example. Tit. xxx. 3.
Tit. 32. Of Sentences and their Execution.
Property would be moft uncertain, if debateable
points might, after receiving a definitive judgment, be-
brought again in queftion, at the pleafure of either of the
parties: Every ftate has therefore affixed the charader
of final to certain fentences or decrees, which in the Ro¬
man law are called res judicatx, and which exclude all
review or rehearing.
2. Decrees of the court of Seffion, are either in foro
contradittorio, where both parties have litigated the
caufe, or in abfence of the defender. Decrees of the
Selfion in foro cannot, in the general cafe, be again
brought under the review of the court, either on points
which the parties negleded to plead before fentence
(which we call competent and omitted), or upon points
pleaded and found infufficient (proponed and repelled.)
But decrees, though/'w/rn?, are reverfible by the court,
where-either they labour under eflential nullities ; e. g.
where they are ultra petita, or not conformable to their
grounds and warrants, or founded on an error in calcul,
ijc.; or where the party againft .whom the decree is ob¬
tained has thereafter recovered evidence fufficient to over¬
turn it, of which he knew not before.
3. As parties might formerly reclaim againft the fen-
tences of the fefiion, at any.time before extrading the
decree, no judgment was final till extfad; but now, a
fentence of the inner-houfe, either not reclaimed againft
within fix federunt-days after its date, or adhered'to upon
a reclaiming bill, though it cannot receive execution till
extrad, .makes the judgment final as to the court of Sef-
fiqn. And, by an order of the houfe of Lords, March-
24. 1725* , no appeal is to be received by them from fen¬
tences of the Seffion after five years from extrading the
fentence ; unlefs the perfon entitled to fuch appeal be mi-
.nor, clothed with a hufband, mv compos tnentis, im-
prifaned, or out of the kingdom. Sentences pronoun¬
ced by the Lord Ordinary have the fame effed, if not
reclaimed againft, as if they were pronounced in prefence .;
and a!! petitions againft: the interlocutor of an Ordinary,
muft: be preferred within eight federunt-days after fign-
ing fuch interlocutor.
4. Be-
952 L
4. Decrees, m aofence of the defender, hare not the
force of res judicata: as to him ; for where the defender
does not appear, he cannot be faid to have fubje&ed him-
feif by the judicial eontraih which is implied in litifcoa*
teftation : A party therefore maybe reftored againft tbefe,
alpon paying to the other his cods in recovering them.
The fentences of inferior courts may be reviewed by the
Court of Seffion, before decree, by advocation, and after
decree, by fufpeniion or reduction; which two laft are
alfo the methods of caliing in quedion fuch decrees ofthe
Seffion itfdf as can again be brought under the review
of the court.
5. Reduction is the p-oper remedy, either where the
decree has already received full execution by payment,
or where it decrees nothing to be paid or performed,
but limply declares a right in favour of the purfuer.
Sufpenlion is that form of law by which the effieCt of a
fentence condemnatory, Chat has cot yet received execu-
cution, is dayed or podponed, till the caufe be again,
conlidered. The fird dep towards fufpenfion is a bill
preferred to the Lord Ordinary on the bills. This bill,
when the defire of it is granted, is a warrant for ifTuing
letters of fufpenfion which pafs the fignet ; but, if the
prefemer of the biil ffiail not, within fourteen days after
paffing it, expedite the letters, execution may proceed
on the fentence. Sufpenfions of decrees in jor0 cannot
^pafs, but by the whole Lords in time of feffion, and by
three in vacation time ; but other decrees may be fufpend-
ed by any one of the judges.
6. As fufpenfion has the effeCt of Haying the execu¬
tion of the creditor’s legal diligence, it cannot, in the
general cafe, pafs without caution given by the fufpender
to pay the debt, in the event it lhall be found due.
Where the fufpender cannot, from his low or fufpeCted
circumdanees, procure unquedionable fecurity, the Lords
admit juratory caution, i. e. fuch as the fufpender
fwears is the bed he can offer; but the reafons of fufpen-
fion are, in that cafe, to be corfidered with particular
accuracy at paffing the bill. Decrees in favour of the
clergy, of univerfities, hofpitals, or pariffi fchoo! maders,
for their dipends, rents, or falaries, cannot be fufpend-
ed, but upon produdtion of difeharges, or on configna-
«ion of the funis charged for. A charger, who thinks
himfelf fecure without a cautioner, and wants difpatch,
may, where a fufpenfion of his diligence is fought, ap¬
ply to the court to get the reafons of fulpenfion fummari-
iy difcudVd on the bill
7. Though he, inwhofe favour the decree fufpended
js pronounced, be always called the charger, yet a decree
may be fufpended before a charge be given on it. Nay,
fufpenfion is competent even where there is no decree,
for putting a dop to any illegal a<d whatfoever: Thus, a
building, or the exercife of a power which one affumes un¬
warrantably, is a proper fubjedt of fufpenfion. Letters of
fufpenfion are confidere'd merely as a prohibitory diligence;
fo that the fufpender, ifhe would turn provoker, mud bring
an aftion of reduAion. If upon difet ffing the letters of
fufpenfion, the reafous diall be fudained, a decree is pro¬
nounced, fufpending the letters of diligence on which
the charge was given fimpliciter ; which is called a decree
£>f fulpenfion, and takes eff the effeft of the decree fuf-
W.
pended. If the reafons of fufpenfion be repelled, the
court find the letters ot diligence orderly proceeded, i. e.
regularly carried on; and they ordain them to be put to
farther execution.
8. Decrees are carried into execution, by diligence,
either againd the perfon, oragaind iheedate of the debt¬
or. The fird dep of perfonal execution is by letters of
horning, which pafs, by warrant of the court of Seffion,
on the decrees of magidrates of boroughs, Iheriffs, ad¬
mirals and GommifTarks. If the debtoi does not obey
the will ofthe letters of horning within the days of the
charge, the charger, after denouncing him rebel, and
reAdring the horning, may apply for letters of caption,
which contain a command, not only to meflengers, but
to magidraies, to apprehend and imprifon the debtor.
All meffengers and magidrates, who refufe their affidance
in executing the caption, are liable fubfidarie for the
debt; and fuch fubfidiary atfion is fupported by the exe¬
cution of the meffenger employed by the creditor, ex-
preffing that they were charged to concur, and woulcjnot.
Letters of caption contain an exprefs warrant to the mef-
fenger, in cafe he cannot get accefs, to break open all
doors, and other lock fad places.
9 Law fecurea peers, married women, and pupils,
againd pe/fonal execution by caption upon civil de.;ts.
No caption can be executed againd a debtor within the
preeinds of the King’s palace of Holyroodhoufe: But
this privilege of fanduary afforded no lecurity to crimi¬
nals, as that did which was by the canon law, confer¬
red on churches and religious houfes. Where the per¬
fonal prefence of a debtor, under caption, is neceffary
in any of our fupreme courts, the judges are empower¬
ed to grant him a protedion, for fuch time as may
be fufficient for his coming and going, not exceeding a
month.
10. After a debtor is imprifoned, he ought not to be
indulged the benefit of the air, not even under a guard;
for creditors have an intered, that their debtors be kept
under clofe confinement, that, by the fqualor carceris,
they may be brought to pay their defit: And any magi-
ftrate or jailor, who fhall fuffer theprifoner to go abroad,
without a proper attedaticn, upon oath, of the danger¬
ous date of his health, is liable fubfidarie for the debt.
Magidrates are in like manner liable, if they ffiall fuffer
a prifoner to efcape, through the infufficiency of their
prifon : But, if he ffiall efcape under night, by the ufe
of indruments, or by open force, or by any other acci¬
dent which cannot be imputed to the magidrates or jailor,
they are not chargeable with the debt; provided they
ffiall have, immediately after his efcape, made all poffible
fearch for him. Regularly, no prifoner for debt upon
letters of caption, though he ffiould have made payment,
could be releafed without letters of fufpenfion, contain¬
ing a charge to the jailor to fet him at liberty; becaufe
the creditor’s difeharge could not take off the penalty in¬
curred by the debtor for contempt of the King’s authori¬
ty: But to fave unneceffary expence to debtoi s in fmall
debts, jailors are empowered to let go prifoners where
the debt does not exceed 200 merks Scots, upon pro-
duftion of a difeharge, in which the creditor confeuts to
bis releafe.
11. Our
ii; Our law, from a confideration of compaflion, al¬
lows infolvent debtors to apply for a releafe from prifon,
upon a cefio bonorum, i. e. upon their making over to the
creditors ail their eftate, real and perfonal. This mull be
Infilled for, by way of adtion, to which all the creditors
of the prifoner ought to be made parties. The prifoner
mull, in this aftion, which is cognifable only by the
court of Seffion, exhibit a particular inventory of his e-
ftate,. and make'oath that he has no other eftate than is
therein contained, and that he has made no conveyance of
any part of it, fince his imprifonment, to the hurt of his
creditors. He muft alfo make oath, whether he has
granted any difpofuion of his effedts before his imprifon¬
ment, and condefcend on the perfons to whom, and on
the caufe of granting it ; that the court may judge, whe¬
ther, by any collulive pradtice, he has forfeited his claim
to liberty.
12. A fraudulent bankrupt is not allowed this privi¬
lege ; nor a criminal who is liable in an aflythment or
indemnification to the party injured or his executors,
though the crime itfelf Ihould be extinguilhed by a par¬
don. A difpofition granted on a cejfio bonorum is merely
in farther fecurity to the creditors, not in fatisfadlion or
in folutum of the debts. If therefore, the debtor lhall
acquire any eftate after his releafe, fuch eftate may be at¬
tached by his creditors, as if there had been no cejfio,
except in fo far as is neceffary for his fubfiftence. Debt¬
ors, who are fet free on a cefio bonorum, are obliged to
wear a habit proper to dyvours or bankrupts. The Lords
are prohibited to dilpenfe with this mark of ignominy,
uulefs, in the fummons ahd procefs of cefio, it be libel¬
led, fnftained, and proved, that the bankruptcy proceeds
from misfortune. And bankrupts are condemned to
fubmit to the habit, even where no fufpicion of fraud
lies againft them, if they have been dealers in an illicite
trade.
13. Where a prifoner for debt declares upon oath, be¬
fore the magiftrate of the jurifdi&ion, that he has not
wherewith to'maintain himfelf, the magiftrate may fet
him at liberty, if the creditor, in confequence of whofe
diligence he was imprifoned,'does not aliment him within
ten days after intimation made for that purpofe. But
the magiftrate may, in fuch cafe, detain him in prifon,
if he chufes to bear the burden of the aliment, rather
than releafe him. The ftatute authoriling this releafe,
which is ufually called the adl of grace,, is limited to the
cafe of prifoners for civil debts.
14. Decrees are executed againft the moveable eftate
of the debtor by arreftment or poinding ; and againft his
heritable eftate, by inhibition, or adjudication. If one
be condemned, in a removing or other procefs, to quit
the polfelTion of larfds, and refufes, notwithftanding a
charge, letters of ej,e<5llon are granted of con rfe, ordain¬
ing the fheriff to ejett him, and to enter the obtainer of
the, decree into pofieilion. Where one oppofes by violence
the execution of a decree, or of any lawful diligence,
which the civil magiftrate is not able by himfelf and his
officers to make good, the execution is enforced manu
militari.
15. A decree-arbitral, which is a fentence proceeding
on a fubmiffion to arbiters, has feme affinity with a ju-
Von, II. Numb. 66, 2
w. 953
dicial fentence, though in moll refpe&s the two differ.
A fubmiffion is a contraft entered into, by two or more
parties who have difputable rights or claims, whereby
they refer their differences to the final determination of
an arbiter or arbiters, and oblige themfelves to acquiefce
in what ffiall be decided. Where the day within which
the arbiters are to decide, is left blank in the fubmiffion,
pradlice has limited the arbiters power of deciding to a
year. As this has proceeded from the ordinary words
of ftyle, empoweringarbiters to determine betwixt
and the day of next to come ; there¬
fore, where a fubmiffion is indefinite, without fpecifying
any time, like all other contra&s or obligations, it fub-
lifts, for forty years. Submiffions, like mandates, expire
by the death of any of the parties-fubmitters before fen-
tence. As arbiters are not veiled with jurifdiftion, they
cannot compel witneffes to make oath before them, or ha¬
vers of writings to exhibit them ; -but this defeat is fup-
plied by the court of Seffion, who, at the fuit of the ar¬
biters, or of either of the parties, will grant warrant for
citing witneffes, or for the exhibition of writings. For
the lame reafon, the power of arbiters is barely to de¬
cide ; the execution of the decree belongs to the judge.
Where the fubmitters conient to the regiftration of the
decree-arbitral, performance may be enforced by fummary
diligence.
16. The power of arbiters is wholly derived from the
confent of parties Hence, where their powers are li¬
mited to a certain day, they cannot pronounce fentence
after that day. Nor can they fubjedt parties to a penalty
higher than that which they have agreed to in the fub¬
miffion. And where a fubmiffion is limited to fpecial
claims,'fentence pronounced on fubjedls not fpecified in
the fubmiffion is null, as being ultra vires compromif.
17. But, on the other part, as fubmiffions are defign-
ed for a moft favourable purpofe, the amicable compo-
fing of differences, the powers thereby conferred on ar¬
biters receive an ample interpretation. Decrees-arbitral
are not reducible upon any ground, except corruption,,
bribery, or falfehood.
Tit. 26. Of Crimes.
The word crime, in its moft general fenfe, includes
every breach, either of the law of God, or of our coun¬
try ; in a more reftridled meaning, it fignifies fuch tranf-
greffions of law as are puniftiable by courts of juftice.
Crimes'were, by the Roman law, divided into public and
private- Eublic crimes were thofe that were exprefsly
declared fuch by fome law or conftitution, and which, on
account of their more atrocious nature and, hurtful con-
fequences, might be profecuted by any member of the
community. Private crimes could be purfued only by
the party injured, and were generally puniffied by a pe¬
cuniary fine to be applied to his ufe. By the law of Scot¬
land, no private qiarty, except the perfon injured, or his
next of bin, can accufe criminally : but the King’s Advo¬
cate, who in tliis queftion reprefents the community, has
a right to profecute all crimes in vindittant publican/f
though.the party injured ffiould refufe to concur. Smaller
offences, as petty riots, injuries, <bc, which do not de-
jo H maud
954 L ,
rund the public vengeance, pafs generally by the appel¬
lation of delicls, and are punifhed either by fine or impri-
fonment.
2. The efience of a crime is, that there be an intention
in the ador to commit it; for an adiion in which the will
of the agent has no part, is not a proper objedt either of
rewards or puntfhments: Hence arifes the rule, crimen
dole conirahitnr. Simple negligence does not therefore
conftitute a proper crime. Yet where it is extremely
grofs, it may be punilhed arbitraly. Far lefs can we
reckon in the number of crimes, thofe committed by an
ideot or furious perfon: But leffer degrees of famity,
which only darken reafon, will not afford a total defence,
though they may fave from the poena ordinaria. Adtions
committed in drunkennefs are not to be confidered as in¬
voluntary, feeing -the drunkennefs itfelf, which was the
firft caufe of the adtion, is both voluntary and criminal.
3. On the fame principle, fuch as are in a flate of in¬
fancy, or in the confines of it, are incapable of a criminal
adlion, dolenot being incidenttotiiat age ; but the precife
age at which a perfon becomes capable of dole, being
fixed neither by nature nor by ftatute, is by our pradtice
to be gathered by the judge, as he heft can, from the un-
derftanding and manners of the perfon accufed. Where
the guilt of" a crime arifes chiefly from ftatute, the adto’-,
if he is under pube ty, can hardly be found guilty; but,
where nature itfelf points out its deformity, he may, if he
is proxirnus pubertati, be more eafily prefumed capable of
committing it: Yet, even in that cafe, he will not be pu¬
nifhed p«na ordinaria.
4. One may be guilty of a crime, not only by per¬
petrating it himfelf, but by being acceflbry to a crime
committed by another; which laft is by civilians ftyled
ope et conjilio, and, in our law-phrafe, art and part. A
perfon may be guilty, art and part, either by giving ad¬
vice or counfel to commit the crime; dr, 2. By giving
warrant or mandate to commit it; or, 3. By adtually
affifting the criminal in the execution. It is generally a-
greed by dodtors, that, in the more atrocious crimes, the
advifer is equally punifhable with the criminal; and that,
in the (lighter, the circumftances arifing from the advifer’s
lefler age, the jocular orcarelefs manner of giving advice,
&c. may be received as pleas for foftening the punilh-
ment. One who gives mandate to commit a crime, as
he is the firft fpring of adtion, feems more guilty than
the perfon employed as the inftrument in executing it ;
yet the adtor cannot excufe himfelf under the pretence of
orders which he ought not to have obeyed.
5. Alfiftance may be given to the committer of a
crime, not only in the adtual execution, but previous to
it, by furniftiing him, intentionally, with poifon, arms, or
the other means of perpetrating it. That fort of affift
ance which is not given till after the criminal adt, and Which
is commonly called abetting, though it be of itfelf crimi¬
nal, does not infer art and part of the principal crime;
as if one (hould favour the efcape of a criminal know¬
ing him to be fuch, or conceal him from juftice.
6. Thofe crimes that are, in their confequences, mod
hurtful to fociety, are puniftied capitajly, or by death ;
others efcape with a leffer puniftiment, fometimes fixed
by 'ftatute, and fometimes arbitrary, i. <?. left to the dif-
L W.
cretion of the judge, who may exercife his jurirdidHon,
either by fine, imprifonment, or a corporal puniftiment.
Where the punifhment is left, by law, to the dtferetion
of the judge, he can in no cafe extend it to death.
The (ingle efeheat of the criminal falls on convidtion,
in all capital trials, though the fentence (hould not ex-
prefs it.
7. Certain crimes are committed more immediately a-
gainft God himfelf; others, againft the ftate; and a
third kind, againft particular ^erfons. The chief crime
in the firft clafs, cognifable by temporal courts, is blaf-
phemy, under which may be included atheifm. This
crime confifts in the denying or vilifying the Deity, by
fpeech or writing. All who cuife God or any of the
perfons of the blefled Trinity, are to fuffer death, even
for a fingle adl; and thofe who deny him, if they per-
fift in their denial. The denial of a providence, or of the
authority of the holy Scriptures, is puniftiable capitally
for the third offence,
8. No profecution can now be carried on for witch¬
craft or conjuration. But all who undertake, from their
(kill in any occult fcience, to tell fortunes, or difeover
Jlolen goods, are to fuffer imprifonment for a yea •, (land
in the pillory four times in ’.hat year, and find furety for
their future good behaviour.
9. Some crimes againft the ftate are levelled diredtly
againft the fupreme power, and ftrike at the conftitution
itfelf; others difeover fuch a contempt of law, as tends
to baffle authority, or (lacken the reins of government.
Treafon, crimen maje/latis, is that crime which is aimed
againft the majefty of the ftate; and can be committed
only by thofe who are fubjeds of that ftate either by
birth or refidence. Soon after the union of the two
kingdoms in 1707. the laws of treafon, then in force in
England, were made ours by 7. An. c. 21. both with
regard to the fads conftituting that crime, to the forms of
trial, the corruption of blood, and all the penalties and
forfeitures confequent on it.
10. It is high treafon, by the law of England, to
imagine the death of the King, Queen-confort, or of the
heir apparent of the crown ; to levy war againft the King,
or adhere to bis enemies; to counterfeit the King’s coin,
or his great or privy feal; to kill the chancellor, treafu-
rer, or any of the twelve judges of England, while they
are doing their offices; which laft article is by the fore-
named ad 7. An. applied to Scotland, in the cafe of
(laying any judge of the Seffion or of Jufticiary fitting
in judgment. Thofe who wa(h, clip, or lighten the
proper money of the realm, who advifedly affirm by wri¬
ting or printing, that the Pretender has any right to the
crown, that the King and Parhament cannot limit the
fucceffion to it, or who hold coi refpondence with the
Pretender or any perfon employed by him, are alfo guilty
of treafon.
11. The forms of proceeding in the trial of treafon,
whether ag«inft Peers or Commoners, are fet forth in a fmall
treatife, publilhed by order of the houfeof L@rds in 1709,
fu' joined to a colledion of ftatutes concerning treafon.
By the convidioH upon this trial the whole ertate of the
traitor forfeits to the crown. His i lood is alfo corrupt¬
ed, fo that, on the death of an anceftor, he cannot in¬
herit ;
L
herlt; and the eftate which he cannot take, falls to the
immediate fuperior asefcheat, ob defefiurn her edit, without
diftinguifhing whether the lands hold of the crown, or of a
fubjeft. No attainder for treafon {hall, after the death of
the Pretender and alibis Tons, hurtthe right of any perfon,
Other than that of the offender, during his natural life ;
The rights of creditors and other third parties in the cafe
of forfeiture on treafon, mud be determined by the law
of England.
12 Mifprijton of treafon, from Meprendre, is the
overlooking or concealing of treafon. It is inferred by
one’s bare knowledge of the crime, and not difcovering
it to a magiftrate or other perfon intitled by his office to
take examinations; though he ffiould not in the leaft
degree affent to it. The forefaid aff 7. /In. makes the
English law of rhifprifion ours. Its puniffiment is, by the
law of England, perpetual imprifonment, together with
the forfeiture df the offender’s moveables, and of the
profits of his heritable eftate, during his life ; that is, in
the ftyle of our law, his fingle and liferent efcheat.
13. The crime of fedition confifts in the railing com¬
motions or difturbances in the date. It is either verbal
er real. Verbal fedition, or leafing making, is inferred
from the uttering of words tending to create difcord be¬
tween the King and his people. It is .punifhed either by
imprifonment, fine, or banilhment, at thedifcretion of the
judge. Real fedition is generally committed, by convo-
cating together any confiderable number of people, with¬
out lawful authority* under the pretence of redreffing
fome public grievance, to the didurbing of the public
peace. Thofe who are conviffed of this crime are pu-
niffied by the confifcation of their goods; and their lives
are at the King’s will. If any perfons, to the number of
twelve, (hall affemble, and being required by a magidrate
or condable to difperfe, {hall neverthelefs continue toge¬
ther for an hour after fuch command, the perfons dif-
©beying {hall fuffer death and the confifcation of move¬
ables.
14. Judges, who, wilfully or through corruption, ufe
their authority as a cover to injudice or oppreffion, are
puniffied with the lofs of honour, fame, and dignity.
Under this head, may be claffed theftbote (from bote,
compeafation), which is the taking a confideration in
money or goods from a thief to exempt him from puniffi¬
ment, or connive at his efcape from judice. A ffieriff
or other judge, guilty of this crime, forfeits his life and
goods. And even a private perfon, who takes theftbote,
luffers as the principal thief. The buying of difputed
claims, concerning which there is a pending procefs, by
any judge or member either of the Selfion. or of an in¬
ferior court, is puniffied by the lofs of the delinquent’s
office, and all the privileges thereto belonging.
15. Deforcement is the oppofition given, or refidance
made, to meffengers or other officers, while they are
employed in executing the law. The court of Seffion is
competent to this crime. It is punifhable with the confif¬
cation of moveables, the one half to the King, and the
other to the creditor at whofe fuit the diligence was ufed.
Armed perfons, to the number of three or more, affifting
in the illegal running, landing, or exporting of prohibi¬
ted or uncudomed goods, or any whoffiall redd, wound,
A W. 955
or maim any officer of the revenue in the execution of
office, are puniffiable with death and the confifcation of
moveables.
16. Breach of arre/lment, (fee Tit. xxv. 5.) is a crime
of the fame nature with deforcement, as it imports a con¬
tempt of the law and of our judges. It fubjeSs to an arbi¬
trary corporal puniffiment, and the efcheat of moveables ;
with a preference to the creditor for his debt, and for
fuch farther fum as {ball be modified to him by the judge.
Under this head of crimes againd good government and
police, may be reckoned the forefalling of markets ;
that is, the buying of goods intended for a public mai ket,
before they are carried there ; which for the third crimi¬
nal adt, infers the efcheat of moveables; as alfo flaying
falmond in forbidden time, deftroying plough-graith in
time of tillage, flaying or houghing horfes or cows in
time of harved, and dedroying or fpoiling growing tim¬
ber ; as to the puniffiment of which, fee datutes 1503,
c. 72,—1^87, c. 82, and 1698, c. 16—i.Geo. l.St.2.
c. 48.
17. Crimes againd particular perfons may be directed,
either againfl life, limb, liberty, chadity, goods, or re¬
putation. Murder is the wilful taking away of a perfon’s
life, without a neceffary caufe. Our law makes no dif-
tindlion betwext premeditated and fudden homicide ; both
are punilhed capitally. Cafual homicide, where the ac¬
tor is in fome degree blameable, and homicide in felf-de¬
fence, where the jud bounds of defence have been ex¬
ceeded, are punifhed arbitrarily ; but the daughter of
night-thieves, houfe-breakers, affiflants in mafterful de¬
predations, or rebels denounced for capital crimes, may
be committed with impunity. The crime of demembra¬
tion, or the cutting off of a member, is joined with that of
murder; but in practice, its puniffiment has been redric-
ted to the efcheat of moveables, and an affy hment or
indemnification to the party. Mutilation, or the dif-
abling of a mejnber, is puniffied at the diferetion of the
judge.
18. Self-murder as highly criminal as the killing our
neighbour ; and for this reafon, out law has, contrary to
the rule, crimina monte extinguuntur, allowed a proof
of the Crime, after the offendei’s death, that his Angle
efcheat might fall to the King or his donatory. To this
end, an a<5lion mud be brought, not before the Judiciary,
but the Seffion, becaufe it is only intended ad civilem
effetlum, for proving and declaring the felf murder; and
the next of kin to the deceafed mud be made a party
ta it.
19. The puniffiment of parricide, or of the murder of
a parent, is not confined, by our law, to the c iminal
himfelf. All his poderity in the right line are declared
incapable of inheriting ; _ and the fucceffion devolves on
the next collateral heir. Even the curfing or beating of
a parent infers death, if the perfbn guilty be above fix-
teen years ; and an arbitrary punifliment, if he be under
it. A prefumptive or datuto*y murder is conftituted by
1690, c, 21. by which any woman who fliall conceal her
pregnancy, during its whole courfe, and ffiall not call for,
or make nfe of help in the birth, is to be reputed the
murderer, if the child be dead, or amiffing.- This adb
was intended to difcourage the unnatural pra&ice of wo¬
men
95 <5 L A W.
men making away with their children begotten in forni¬
cation, to avoid church-cenfures.
20. Duelling, is the crime of fighting in fingle combat,
on previous challenges given and received. Fighting in a
duel, without licence from the King, is punifhable by
death; and whatever perfori, principal or fecond, {hall
-give a challenge to fight a duel, or lhall accept a chal¬
lenge, or otherwife engage therein, is punilhed by banifh-
ment and efcheat of moveables, though no aftual fighting
Ihould enfue.
21. Haimfucken, (from haim, home, Tca^focken, to
feek.or purfue,) is the aflaulting or beating of a perfon in
his own houfe. The punilhment of this crime is no where
defined, except in the books of the Majelty, which make
it the fame as that of a rape; and it is, like rape, capital
by our pradlice. The afiault mult be made in the proper
houfe of the perfon affaulted, where he lies and rifes daily
and nightly, fo that neither a public houfe, norevena
private, where one is only tranfiently, falls within the
law.
22. Any party to a law-fuit, who lhall flay, wound,
or otherways invade his adverfary, at any period of time
between executing the fummons and the compleat exe¬
cution of the decree, or lhall be acceflbry to fuch invalion,
fliall lofe his caufe. The fentence pronounced on this
trial, againft him who has committed the battery, is not
fubjeft to redudlion, either on the head of minority, or
any other ground whatever ; And if the perfon profecu-
ted for this crime lhall be denounced for not appearing,
his liferent, as well as fingle efcheat, falls upon the de¬
nunciation .
23. The crime of wrongous imprifonrnent is inferred,
by granting warrants of commitment in order to trial,
proceeding on informations not iubfcribed, or without
exprefling the caufe of commitment; by receiving or de¬
taining prifoners on fuch warrants ; by refufing to a pri-
foner a copy of the warrant of commitment; by detain¬
ing him in clofe confinement, above eight days after his
commitment ; by not releafing him on bail, where the
crime is bailable ; and by tranfporting perfons out of the
kingdom, without either their own confent, or a lawful
fentence. The perfons guilty of a wrongous imprifonment,
are punifhed by a pecuniary mulft, from L. 6000 down to
L. 400 Scots, according to the rank of the perfon de¬
tained ; and the judge or other perfon guilty, is over and
above fubjefted to pay to the perfon detained a certain
ium per diem, proportioned to his rank, and is declared
incapable of public truft. All thefe penalties may be in¬
filled for by a fummary a A ion before the feffion, and are
fubjeft to no modification.
24. Adultery, is the crime by which the marriage-bed
is polluted. This crime could, neither by the Roman
nor Jewilh law, be committed, but where the guilty wo¬
man was the wife of another: By ours, it is adultery,
if either the man or woman be married. We diftinguilh
between Ample adultery, and that which is notorious or
manifell. Open and manifeft adulterers, who continue
incorrigible, notwithftanding the cenfures of the church,
are punilhed capitally. This crime is diftinguilhed by
one or other of the following charaAers; where there is
iflue procreated between the adulterers; or where they
keep bed and company together notorioufly; or where they
give fcandal to the church, and are, upon their obftinate
refufing to lillen to their admonitions, excommunicated.
The punilhment of fimple adultery, not being defined by lla-
tute, is leftto the difcretionof the judge ; butcuftom has
made the falling of the fingle efcheat one of its penalties.
25. Bigamy, is a perfon’s entering into the engage¬
ments of a fecond marriage, in violation of a former
marriage-vow Hill fubfilling. Bigamy, on the part of
the man, has been tolerated in many Hates, before the
ellablilhment of Chrillianity, even by the Jews them-
felves; but it is prohibited by the precepts of the gofpel,
and it is punilhed by our law, whether on the part of the
man, or of the woman, with the pains of perjury.
2<SV Incejl, is committed by perfons who Hand within
the degrees of kindred forbidden in Lev. xviii. and is
puniflied capitally. The fame degrees are prohibited in
affinity, as in confanguinity, Lev. xviii. 13. et feq.
As this crime is repugnant to nature, all children, whe¬
ther lawful or natural, Hand on an equal footing: Civilis
ratio civilia jura corrumpere potejl, non vero naturalia.
It is difficult indeed to bring a legal proof of a relation
merely natural, on the fide of the father; but the mother
may be certainly known without marriage.
26. There is no explicite ftatute making rape, or the
ravilhing of women, capital; but it is plainly fuppofed
in adt 16 12, c. 4. by which the ravilher is exempted
from the pains of death, only in the cafe of the woman’s
fubfequent confent, or her declaration that Ihe went off
with him of her own fiee-will; and even then, he is.to
fuffer an arbitrary punilhment, ekher by imprifonment,
confifcation of goods, or a pecuniary fine.
28. Theft is defined, a fraudulent intermedling with
the property of another, with a view of making gain.
Our ancient law proportioned the punilhment of the theft
to the value of the goods ftolen ; heightening it gradual¬
ly, from a flight corporal punilhment to a capital, if the:
value amounted to thirty-two pennies Scots, which in
the reign of David I. was the price of two Iheep. In
feveral later afts, it is taken for granted, that this crime
is capital. But where the thing ftolen is of finall value,
we confider it, not as theft, but as pickery, which is
punilhed either corporally or by banilhment. The break¬
ing of orchards, and the dealing of green wood, is pu¬
nilhed by a fine, which rifes as the crime is repeated.
29. Theft may be aggravated into a capital crime,
though the value of the thing ftolen be trifling ; as theft
twice repeated, or committed in the night, or by landed
men ; or of things fet apart for facred ufes. The re¬
ceivers and concealers of ftolen goods, knowing them to
be fuch, fuffer as thieves.- Thofe who barely harbour
- the perfon of the criminal within forty-eight hours either
before or after committing the crime, are punilhed as
partakers of the theft. Such as fell goods belonging to
thieves or lawlefs perfons who dare not themfelves come
to market, are punilhed with banilhment and the efcheat
of moveables.
30. Theft attended with violence, is called robbery ;
and in our old ftatutes, rief or ftouthrref, under which
clafs may be includedy^rw/'/Tg', or the taking of meat and
drink by force, without paying for it, Stouthrief came
at
St laft to be committed fo audacioufly, by bands of men
alfociated together, that it was thought neceflary to vert
all our freeholders with a power of holding courts upon
forners and tievers, andxondemning them to death. Nay,
all were capitally punilhed, who, to fecure their lands,from
depredation, paid to the rievers a yearly contribution, which
got the name of black mail. An act alfo pafied, commanding
to banilhment a band of forners, who were originally from
Egypt, called Gypjier, and adjudging to death all that
Ihould be reputed Egyptians, if found thereafter within
the kingdom. Robbery committed on the leas, is called
piracy, and is punilhed capitally by the high admiral.
Several of the faifts which conftitute this crime are fet
forth in a Britilh ftatute, 8. Geo. I. c 24.
31. Falfehood, in a large fenfe, is the fraudulent imi¬
tation or fuppreffion of truth, to the damage of another.
The lateft iiatute againft this crime, punilhes it by con-
fifcation of moveables. That particular fpecies of falfe¬
hood, which confids in the falfifying of writings, partes
by the name of forgery. Our pra&ice has now of a long
time, agreeably to the Roman law, made this crime
capital; unlefs the forgery be of executions, or other
writings of fmaller moment; in which cafe, it is punilh¬
ed arbitrarily.
32. The writing muft not only be fabricated, but put
to ufe or founded on, in order to infer this crime And
though it be ftriftfy criminal, yet the trial of it is proper
to the court of Selfion ; but where improbation is moved
again!! a deed by way of exception, the inferior judge,
before whom the atflion lies, is competent to it ad civilem
ejfeftum. When it is pleaded as an exception, our prac¬
tice, to difcourage aiFedted delays, obliges the defender,
who^moves it, to confign L. 40 Scots ; which he for
feits, if his plea fhall appear calumnious.
33. V/here a perfon, found guilty of forgery by the
court of Seflion, is by them remitted to the Judiciary, an
indidtment is there exhibited againrt him, and a jury
fworn, before whom the decree of Seflion is produced, in
place of all other evidence of the crime, in refpedt of
which the jury find the pannel guilty; fo that that decree,
being pronounced by a competent court, is held as full
proof, or, in the flyle of the bar, as probatio probata.
34. Perjury, which is the judicial affirmation of a
falfehood on oath, really conrtitutes the crimenfalji; for
he who is guilty of it does, in the molt folemn manner,
fubftitute falfehood in the place of truth. To conftitute
this crime, the violation of truth muft be deliberately in¬
tended by the fwearer ; and therefore reafonable allow
ances ought to be given to forgetfulnefs or mifapprehen-
fion, according to his age. health, and other circumftan-
ces. The breach of a promiflbry oath does not infer this
crime ; foP he who promifes on-oath, may fincerely in¬
tend performance when he fwears, and fo cannot be faid
to call on God to atteft a falfehood. Though an oath,
however falfe, if made upon reference in a civil queftion,
concludes the'caufe, the perfon perjured is liable to a
criminal trial ; for the effeift of the reference can go no
farther than the private right of the parties.
35. Notwitbftanding the mifchievous confequences of
perjury to fociety. it is not punilhed capitally, but by
confifcation of moveables, imprifonment for a year, and
Vol. II. No. 66. 2
W. 957
infamy.’ The Court of Seflion is competent to perjury
incidenter, when in any examination upon oath, taken in
a caufe depending before them, a perfon appears to have
fworn fatfely; but in the common cafe, that trial is prO'
per to the Jufticiafy. Subornation of perjury ccnfilts in
tampering with perfons who are to fwear in judgment,
by direfting them how they are to depofe; and it is pu¬
nilhed with the pains of perjury.
36 The crime of Jiellionate, from ftellio, includes
every fraud which is not diftinguilhed by a fpecial name;
but is chiefly applied to conveyances of the fame numeri¬
cal right, granted by the proprietor to different difpooees.
The puniftiment of ftellionate muft neceffkrily be arbitra¬
ry, to adapt it to the various natures and different aggra¬
vations of the fraudulent a<fts The perfons guilty of
that kind of it, which confifts in granting double convey¬
ances, are by our law declared infamous, and their lives
and goods at the King’s mercy. The cognifance of
fraudulent bankruptcy is appropriated to the court of
Seflion, who may inflidl any punilhment on the offender,
that appears proportioned to his guilt, death excepted.
37. The crime of before the reformation, con¬
fided in the taking of any imereft ffer the ufe of money ;
and now in taking an higher rate of intereft than is au-
thorifed by law. It is divided into ufura manifefta, or
diredt : and vclata, or covered. One may be guilty of
the firft kind, either where he covenants with the debtor
for more than the lawful intereft on the loan-money ;
or where one receives the 'intereft of a fum before it is
due, fince thereby he takes -a confideration for the ufe of
money befdre the debtor has really got the ufe of it.
Where a debt is clogged with an uncertain condition, by
which the creditor runs the hazard of lofing his fum, he
may covenant for an higher intereft than the legal, with¬
out the crime of ufury ; for there, the intereft is not
given merely in confideration of the ufe'of the money,
but of the danger undertaken by the creditor.
38. Covered ufury, is that which is committed under
the malk, not of a loan, but of fome other contradl; e.g.
a fale, or an improper wadfet. And in general, all ob¬
ligations entered into with an intention of getting more
than the legal intereft for the ufe of money, however they
may be difguifed, are ufurious. As a farther guard a-
gainft this crime, the taking more than the legal intereft
for the forbearance of payment of money, merchandife,
or other commodities, by way of loan, exchange, or o-
ther contrivance whatever ; or the taking a bribe for the
loan of money, or for delaying its payment when lent, is
declared ufury. Where ufury is proved, the ufurious ob¬
ligation is not only declared void, but the creditor, if he
has received any unlawful profits, forfeits the treble value
of the fums or goods lent. Ufury, when it is to be pur-
foed criminally, muft be tried by the Jufticiary ; but
where the libel concludes only for voiding the debt or
reftitution, the feflion is the proper court.
39. Injury, in its proper acceptation, is the reproach¬
ing or affronting our neighbour. Injuries are either ver¬
bal or real. A verbal injury, when direfted againft a
private perfon, confifts in the uttering contumelious words,
which tend to expofe our neighbour’s charadler by making
him little or ridiculous. It does cot feem that the twit-
10 I ting
95« . L ,
ting one with natural defers, without any farcaflical re¬
flexions, though it be inhuman, falls under this defcrip-
tion, as thefe imply no real reproach in the juft opinion
of mankind. Where the injurious exprefiions have a
tendency to blacken one’s moral charaXer, or fix fome
particular guilt upon him, and are deliberately repeated'
in difFerent companies, or handed about in whifpers to
confidents, it then grows up to the crime of flander :
and where a perfon’s moral charaXer is thus attacked,
the animus injuriandi is commonly inferred from the
injurious words themfelves, unlefs fpecial circumftances
be offered to take off the prefumption ; ex. gr. that the
words were uttered in judgment in one’s own defence, or
by way of information to a magiftrate, and had fome
foundation in faX. Though the cognizance of flander is
proper to the commiflaries, who, as the judices ChriJU-
anitaiis, are the only judges of fcandal ; yet for fome
'time paft, bare verbal injuries have been tried by other
'criminal judges, and even by the Seflion. It is punifhed
either by a fine, proportioned to the condition of the
perfons injuring and injured, and the circumftances
of time and place ; or if the injury import fcandal,
by publicly acknowledging the offence ; and frequently
the two are conjoined. The calling one a bankrupt is
not, in ftriXfpeech, a verbal injury, as it does not affeX
^the perfon’s moral charaXer; yet as it may hurt his credit
in the way .of bufinefs, it founds him in aai aXion of da¬
mages, which muft be brought before the judge ordinary.
A real injury is infliXed by any faX by which a perfon’s
honour or dignity is affeXed ; as ftriking one with a cane,
or even aiming a blow without ftriking ; fpitting in one’s
face ; affuming a coat of arms, or any other mark of dif-
tinXion proper to another, <bc. The c mpofing and
publifhing defamatory libels may be reckoned of this kind.
Real injuries are tried by the judge-ordinary, and punifh
ed, either by fine or imprifonment, according to the de¬
merit of the-offenders.
40. After having fhortly explained the feveral crimes
punilhable by our law, this treatife may be concluded,
with a few obfervations on criminal jurifdiXion, the forms
of trial, and the methods by which crimes may be extin-
guifhed. Criminal jurifdiXion is founded, 1. Ratione
domicilii, if the defender dwells within the territory of
•the judge. Vagabonds, who have no certairT domicile,
may be tried where-ever they are apprehended. 2. Ra
tdone delitti, if the crime was committed within the ter-
xitory. Treafon is triable, by the Englifla law, in any
■county that the King ftiould appoint; and by a temporary
aX now expired, treafon committed in certain Scots coun
ties, was made triable by the court of Judiciary, where-
ever it fhould fit.
41. No criminal trial can proceed, unlefs the perfon
accufed is capable of making his defence. Abfents there¬
fore cannot be tried ; nor fatuous nor furious perfons,
durante furore, even for crimes committed, while they
were in their fenfes. For a like reafon, minors who had
no curators could not, by the Roman law, be tried cri¬
minally; but our praXice confiders every perfon who is
capable of dole, to be alfo fufticiently qualified for making
his defence in a criminal trial.
42. No perfon can be imprifoned in order to Hand: trial
A W.
for any crime, without a warrant in writing exprefiing
the caufe, and proceeding upon a fubfcribed information,
unlefs in the cafe of indignities done to judges, riots,
and the other offences fpecially mentioned in 1701, c. 6.
Every prifoner committed in order to trial, if the crime
of which he is accufed be not capital, is entitled to be
releafed upon bail, the extent of which is to be mo¬
dified by the judge, not exceeding 12000 merks Scots
for a Nobleman, 6000 for a landed gentleman, 2000
for any other gentleman or burgefs, and 600 for any o-
ther inferior perfon. That perfons who, either from
the nature of the crime with which they are charged,
or from their low circumftances, cannot procure bail.,
may not lie for ever in prifon untried, it is lawful to
every fuch prifonet, to apply to the criminal judge, that
his trial may be brought on. The judge muft, within
twenty-four hours after fuch application, iffue letters di-
reXed to meffengers, for intimating to the profecutor to
fix a diet for the prifoner’s trial, within fixty days after
the intimation, under the pain of wrongous imprifonment:
And if the profecutor does not infift within that time,
or if the trial is not finifhed in forty days more, when
carried on before the Judiciary, or in thirty, when before
any other judge ; the prifoner is, upon a fecond applica¬
tion, fetting forth that the .legal time is elapfed, entitled
to his freedom, under the fartje penalty.
43. Upon one’s committing any of the groffer crimes,
it is ufual for a juftice of the peace, fheriff, or other
judge, to take a precognition of the faXs, i. e- to exa¬
mine thofe who were prefent at the criminal aX, upon ths
fpecial circumftances attending it, in order to know whe-r
ther there is ground for a trial, and to ferve as a direXion
to the profecutor, how tofet forth the faXs in the libel ; but
the perfons examined may infift to have their declarations
cancelled, before they give teftimony at the trial. Ju-
ftices of the peace, ftieriffs, and magiftrates of boroughs,
are alfo authorifed to receive informations, concerning
crimes to be tried in the circuit-courts; which infor¬
mations are to be tranfmitted to the juftice-clerk forty
days before the fitting of the refpeXive courts. To dif-
courage groundlefs criminal trials, all profecutors, where
the defender was abfolved, were condemned by ftatute,
in cofts, as they fhould be modified by the judge, and
befides were fubjeXed to a fmall fine to be divided between
the fifli and the defender : And where the King’s advo¬
cate was the only purfuer, his informer was made liable,
This fufficiently warrants the prefent praXice of con¬
demning vexatious profecutors in a pecuniary mjulX, though
far exceeding the ftatutoryfum.
44. The forms of law upon criminal accufations, dif¬
fer much from thofe obferved in civil aXions, if we ex¬
cept the cafe of fuch crimes as the court of Seffion is
competent to, and of leffer offences tried before inferior
courts. The trial of crimes proceeds, either upon io-
dklment, which is fometimes ufed, when the perfon to,
be tried is in prifion; or by criminal letters iffuing from the
fignet of the Jufticiary. In either cafe, the defender
muft be ferved with a full copy of the indiXment or let¬
ters, and with a lift of the witneffesto be brought againft:
him, and of the perfons who are to pafs on the inqueft,
and fifteen free days muft intervene, between his being
L
fo ferveci, and the day of appearance. When the trial
proceeds upon criminal letters, the private profecutor
muft give fecurity, at railing the letters, that he will re¬
port them duly executed to the Justiciary, in terms of
1535-, c. 35 ; and the defender, if he be not already
in prifon', is, by the letters, required to give caution,
within a certain number of days after his citation, for
his appearance upon the day fixed for his trial : And if
he gives none within the days of the charge he may be de¬
nounced rebel, which infers the forfeiture of his moveables.
45. That part of the indictment, or of the criminal
letters, which contains the ground of the charge againft
the defender, and the nature or degreeof the punilhment
he ought to fuffer, is called the libel. All liuels muft
be fpecial, fetting forth the particular fads inferring the
guilt, and the particular place where thefe faCts were
done. The time of committing the crime may be libel¬
led in more general terms, with an alternative as to the
month, or day of the month : but as it is not practicable
in moft cafesj' to libel upon the precife circumllances of
accellion that may appear in proof, libels againlt acceflb-
ries are fufficient, if they mentioned, in general, that the
perfons profecuted are guilty art and part.
46. The defender, in a criminal trial, may raife let¬
ters of exculpation, for citing witneffes in proof of his de¬
fences again!! the libel, or of his objections again!! any
of the jury or wifoeues; which mu(! be executed, to the
fame day of appearance, with that of the. indictment or
■criminal letters.
47. The diets of appearance, in the court of Judicia¬
ry, are peremptory; the criminal letters mu!t be called
on the very day to which the defender is cited; and
hence, if no accufer appears, their efifeCt is loft,
perit, and new letters muft be raifed. If the libel, or
any of the executions, fhall to the profecutor appear in¬
formal, or if he be diffident of the proof, from the ab-
fconding of a neceffary witnefs. the court will, upona mo¬
tion made by him, defert the diet pro Led et tempore \
after which new letters become alfo neceffary. A de¬
fender, who does not appear on the day to which he is
cited, is declared fugitive; in confequenee of which, his
fingle efeheat falls The defender, after his appearance
in court, is called the pannel.
48. The two things to be chiefly regarded in a criminal
libel, are, 1. The relevancy of the faCts, i. e. their fuffi-
ciency to infer the conclufion ; 2. Their truth. The
confideration of the fir!! belongs to the judge of the court;
that of the other, to the jury or affize. If the faClsli¬
belled be found irrelevant, the pannel is difmifled from
the bar ; if relevant, the court remits the proof thereof
to be determined by the jury ; which muft confitf of 15
men picked out by the court from a greater number not
exceeding45, who have been all fummoned, and given in
lift to the defender at ferving him with a copy of the libel.
49. Crimes cannot, like debts, be referred to the de¬
fender’s oath ; for no perfon is compellable to fwear again!!
himfelf, where his.life, limb, liberty, or eftate is concern¬
ed, nor even in crimes which infer infamy; becaufe one’s
good name is, in right eftimation, as-valuable as his life.
There is one exception how ever to this rule in trying the
edme of ufury, which may be proved by the usurer’s own
A W. 949
oath, notwithftanding the rtile, nemo t:ne-tur jurare in
fuam turpitudinem. Crimes therefore are in the gene¬
ral cafe proveable only by the defender’s free confef-
fion, or by writing, or by witnefles. No extrajudicial
confeffion, unlefs it is adhered to by the pannel in judg¬
ment, can be admitted as evidence.
50. Ail objections relevant again!! a witnefs in civil
cafes, are r,!fo relevant in criminal. No witnefs is ad¬
mitted, who may gain or lofe by the event of the trial,
Socii criminis, or aflbeiates in the fame crime, are not
admitted again!! one another, except either in crimes a-
gainft the ftate, as treafon ; in occult crimes, where other
witnefles cannot be had, as forgery ; or in thefts or de¬
predations committed in the Highlands. The teftimony
of the private party injured may be received again!! the
pannel, where the King’s Advocate is the only profecu¬
tor, if, from the nature of the crime, there muft needs
be a penury of witnefles, as in rape, robbery, <bc.
51. After all the witnefles have been examined in
court, the jury are ffiut up in a room by themfelves,
where they muft continue, excluded from all correfpon-
dence, till their verdidl or judgment be fubferibed by the
foreman (or chancellor), and clerk ; and according to
this verdiift, the court pronounces fentence either abfol-
ving or condemning. It is neceflary, by the law of Scot¬
land, that a jury ffiould be unanimous in finding a perfon
guilty; the narroweft majority is as fufficient again!! the
pannel, as for him. Juries cannot be. puniffied on ac¬
count of an erroneous verdiit, either for or again!! the
pannel.
52. Though the proper bufinefs of a jury be to inquire
into the truth of the fa<fts found relevant by the court, for
which reafon they are fometimes called the inqueft; yet, in
many cTes, they judge alfo in matters of law or relevancy.
Thus, though an objettion again!! a wdtnefs ffiould be re¬
pelled by the court, the jury are under no neceffity to
give more credit to his teftimony than they think juft :
And in all trials of art and part, where fpecial fads are
not libelled, the jury, if they return a general verdid,
are indeed judges, not only of the truth, but of the rele¬
vancy of the fads that are fworn to by the witnefles. A
general verdid, is that which finds, in general terms,
that the pannel is guilty or not guilty, or that the libel or
defences are proved or not proved. In a fpecial verdid,
the jury finds certain fads proved, the import of which is
to be afterwards confxdered by the court.
53. Criminal judges muft now fufpend for fome time,
the execution of fuch fenteotes as- affed life or limb, that
fo condemned criminals, whofe cafes deferve favour, may
have accefs to apply to the king for mercy. No fentence
of any.court of judicature, fouth of the river Forth, im¬
porting either dea<h or demembration, can be executed in
lefs than thirty days ; and, if north of it, in lefs than for¬
ty days, after the date of the fentence. But corporal
punishments, lefs than death or difembering, e g. whip¬
ping, pillory, &c. may be inflided eight days after fen¬
tence on this fide Forth, and twelve days after fentence
beyond it.
54. Crimes are extinguiflied, 1. By the death of the
criminal; both becaufe a dead perfon can make no de-
ience, ,fo that his trial is ttuly a judging upon the hearing
of-
960 L A
cf one fide; and becaufe, though his guilt (hould be ever
fo notorious, he is after death carried beyond the reach
of human penalties : Such trials therefore can have no
effeft, but to punilh the innocent heir, contrary to that
molt equitable rule, cu//>a tenet fuos auttons. 2. Crimes
may be extinguilhed by a remiilion from the Sovereign.
But a remiffion, though it fecures the delinquent from the
public refentment, the exercife of which belongs to the
Crown, cannot cut off the party injured from his claim
of damages, over which the Crown has no prerogative.
Whoever therefore founds on a remiffton, is liable in da¬
mages to the private profecutor, in the fame manner, as
if he had been tried and found guilty. Even general a<5b
cf indemnity paffed in parliament, though they fecure a-
gainft fuch penalties as law inflids upon the criminal,
merely per nudum pae/ue, yet do not againft the payment
of any pecuniary fine, which is given by llatute to the
party injured, nor againll the demand of any claim com¬
petent to him in name of damages.
55. Leffer injuries, which cannot be properly faid to
affed the public peace, may be extinguilhed, either by
the private party’s exprefsly forgiving them, or by his
being reconciled to the offender, after receiving the inju¬
ry. Hence arifes the rule, dijfmulatione tollitur injuria.
But where the offence is of a higher nature, the party
injured, though he may pafs from the profecution, in fo
far as his private intereft is concerned, cannot preclude the
King’s Advocate, or Procurator-fifcal, from infilling ad
vindittarn publicam.
56. Crimes are alfo extinguilhed by prefcription,
LAY
Lawburrows, inScotsLaw. See Law, Titxxx. 16.
LAWLESS court, a court faid to be held annually on
King’s hill, at Rochford, in Effex, on the Wednef-
day morning after Michaelmas day, at cock-crowing,
where they whifper, and have no candle nor any pen
and ink, but only a coal. Perfons who owe fuit, or
fervice, and do not appear, forfeit double their rent
eveiy hour they are milling.
This fervile attendance, Cambden informs us, was
impofed on the tenants for confpiring at the like un-
feafonable time to raife a commotion. The court be¬
longs to the honour of Raleigh, and to the earl of War¬
wick ; and is called lawlefs, from its being held at an
unlawful hour.
LAWN, a fpacious plain in a park, or adjoining to a no¬
ble feat.
LAWSONIA, in botany, a genus of the oflandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix confifts of four fegments, and
the corolla of four petals; the ftamina are difpofed in
pairs; and there are four capfules containing a great
many feeds. There are two fpecies, both natives of
India.
LAWYER fignifies a counfellor, or one that is learned
or Ikilled in the law.
Lay brothers, among the Romanills, thofe pious,
but illiterate perfons, who devote themfelves, in fome
convent, to the fervire of the religious, They wear
a different habit from that of the religious, but never
w.
which operates by the mere lapfe of time, without any
adf, either of the Sovereign or of the private fufferer.
Crimes prefcribe in twenty years; but in particular
crimes, the prefcription is limited by llatute to a Ihorter
time. Nj pcrfon can be profecuted upon the adt againit
wrongous imprifonment, after three years. High trea-
fon, committed within his Majelly’s dominions, fuffers
hkewile a triennial prefcription, if indidlment be not found
againll the traitor within that time. All adtions, brought
upon any penal llatute mads or to be made, where the pe¬
nalty is appropriated to the Crown, expire in t«o years
after committing the offence ; and where the penalty goes
to the Crown or other perfecutor, the profecutor mud fue
within one year, and the Crown within two years after
the year ended. Certain crimes are, without the aid of
any llatute, extinguilhed by a Ihorter prefcription than
twenty years. By our old law, in the cafes of rape,
robbejy, and hame-fucken, the party injured was not
heard, after a filence of twenty four hours ; from a pre-
fumption, that perfons could not be fo grofsly injured,
without immediately complaining: And it is probable,
that a profecution for thefe crimes, if delayed for any
confideraby time, would be call even at this day, or at
lead the punilhment redridted. Leffer injuries fuffer al¬
fo a fhort prefcription ; law prefuming forgivenefs, from
the nature of the offence, and the filence of the party.
The particular fpace of time fufficient to edablilh this
prefumption mud be determined by the judge, according
to circumdances.
L A Z
enter into the choir, nor are prefent at the chapters ♦
nor do they make any other vow, except of condan-
cy and obedience. In nunneries, there are alfo lay-
fiders.
Lay-man, one who follows a fecular employment, or
has not entered into holy orders.
LAYERS, in gardening, are tender Ihoots, or twigs of
trees, laid or buried in the ground; till having druck
root, they are feparated from the parent-tree, and be¬
come didindl plants..
LAZAR-HOUSE, or Lazaretto, a public-building,
in the nature of an hofpital, to receive the poor and
thofe afflidted with contagious didempers. In fome
places, lazarettos are appointed for the performance
of quarramine; in which cafe, thofe are obliged to
be confined in them who are fufpedted to have come
from places infedled with the plague.
LAZARITES, ox Fathers of St Lazarus, a religious
congregation of regular clerks, indituted in France in
the feventeenth century, by M. Vincent. They take
their name from a houfe in thefuburbs of Paris, where
they have a feminary, called the feminary of good
children. The vows they make are fimple -, and, up¬
on occafion, may be difpenfed with.
LAZULI, or Lapis Lazuli, in natural hidory, one
of the ores of copper, the bafis of which is a crydalline
matter, coloured with that elegant blue which copper
gives to all alkaline liquors.
The
LEA ( 9^1 ) LEA
The lapis lazuli is foundin many parts of the world ;
but that of Afia and Africa is much fuperior both in
beauty and real value to the ESohemian and German
kind, which is too often fold in its place. .
Its great ufe, beGde the polifhing as a gem, is
the making the fine blue ufed in painting called ultra-
marine, which is obtained from it by calcination.
LEAD. See Chemistry, p. 84, 186.
LEAF, folium, in the natural hiflory of plants. See
Botany, fed. 2.
Leaf, in clocks and watches, an appellation given to the
notches of their pinions. See Watch.
LEAGUE, a meafure of length, containing more or lefs
geometrical paces, according to the different ufages and
cufloms of countries. A league at fea, where it is
chiefly ufed by us, being a land-meafure moftly pecu¬
liar to the French and Germans, contains three thou-
fand geometrical paces, or three Englifh miles.
League alfo denotes an alliance or confederacy between
princes and ftates for their mutual aid, either in attack¬
ing fome common enemy, or in defending themfelves.
LEAK, among feamen, is a hole in the fhip through
which the water comes in. To fpring a leak, is faid
of a fhip that begins to leak. To flop a leak, is to fill
it with a plug wrapt in oakam and well tarred, or put¬
ting in a tarpawling clout to keep the water out; or
nailing a-piece of fheet-lead upon the place.
LEAKAGE, the flate of a veffel that leaks, or lets wa¬
ter or other liquid ouze in or out.
Leakage, in commerce, is an allowance of 12 percent.
in the cufloms, allowed to importers of wines for the
wafle and damage it is fuppofed to have received in the
paffage : an allowance of two barrels in twenty-two is
alfo made to thebreweis of ale and beer, by the excife-
office.
LEAOTUNG, the mofl northerly part of China, in
Afia.
LEAP, in mufic, is when the fong does not proceed by
conjoint degrees, as when between each note there is
an interval of a third, fourth, fifth, &c.
Leap-year. See Astronomy, p. 489.
LEARMOUTH, a market-town of Northumberland,
fituated forty eight miles north-weft of Newcaftle, and
twelve fouth-weft of Berwick.
LEASING-making, in Scots law, the uttering of
words tending to excite difcord between the King and
his people ; alfo called verbal fedition.
LEATHER, the flcin of ftveral forts of beads dreffed
and prepared for the ufe of the various manufafturers,
whofe bufinefs it is to make them up. See Tanning.
Colouring c/"Leather.
To colour ‘white leather. Hang the ikins in chalk
or lime-water, till they are grown fupple, that the
hair or wool may be dripped off; ftretch them on ten¬
ters, or by means of lines, and fmooth them over :
then brufh them over with alum-water very warm, and
colour them with the colour you would have them, and
dry them in the fun, or in fome warm houfe, and they
will be ufeful on fundry occafions, without any further
/trouble.
Vol. II. Numb. 67. 2
To colour black leather the German ivay. Take of
the bark of the elder two pounds, of the filings or ruit
of iron the fame quantity; put them into two gallons of
rain-water, and flop them up clofe in a calk or veffel, and
let them ftand for the fpace of two months : then add to
that the liquid part of a pound of nut-galls, beaten to
powder, and a quarter of a pound of copperas, heating
them over the fire, and differing them to ftand 24 hours
after ; and then ufe the liquor with a brufh till the flcin has
taken a fine black.
To colour leather a fair red. Firft rub the leather
well in alum-water, or alum it; boil ftale urine, fcum it
till half of it is wafted: then put in an ounce of the fineft
lake, the like quantity of brazil in powder, one ounce of
alum, and half an ounce of fal armoniac; mix them well,
and keep them flirting over a gentle fire about two hours ;
and fo ufe the liquid part, to colour or tinge the fkins.
To colour leather of a curious French yellooxs. Take
one part of chalk, and another of wood-afhes, and make
of them a good lye; then ftrain out the fine liquor, and
fet it in a veffel over the fire, and put into it turmeric in
powder, and a little faffron ; and let it fimmer, till it
becomes pretty thick ; then fet it a cooling, to be ufed as
occafion requires.
To make white leather Hue. Take a quart of elder¬
berries, ftrain out the juice, and boil it with an ounce of
powder of alum, and half an ounce of indigo, or fmalt-
blue, and brufh over the leather with a fine brufh dipped
in it three times, differing it to dry between whiles, and
the bufinefs will be effected.
To colour Spanifh leather, &c. Take that which the
Dutch call pomplemelch, warm it, and rub the leather
with it ; then take of Venice tot appelen ; and having
pounded it fmall, put a quantity of water to it, and let
it foften over a gentle fire; then prefs out the water, and
rub or wafh out the fkin in it; repeating the fame feveral
times,; and after that, take the fineft fhoemakers black,
and rub the fkin over with it, having in the melting ad¬
ded a little vitriol or copperas; and letting it dry, take
goofe or hog’s greafe, and with a woollen cloth rub the
flcin over for a good while, where there is a good fire to
fupple it, and afterwards rub it over with your hands,
till it difappear ; or inftead of greafe, you may ufe lin-
feed or train-oil, and fo in. cafe of any other colour, ac¬
cording to the colours you defign.
■Dy/WJ'is/LEATHE R.
A reddijh colour. Firft wafh the fkins in water, and
wring them out well, and afterwards wet them with a fo-
lution of tartar andbay-falt in fair wafer, and wring them
out again ; then to the former diffolution add afhes of
crab fhells, and rub the fkins very well with this : after¬
wards, wafh them in common water, and wring them
out; then wafh them with tirxfture of madder in the fo-
lution of tartar and alum and the crab-fhell afhes : and
if they prove not red enough after all, wafh them with
the tinfiure of brazil.
A pure yellow. Take of fine aloes two ounces, of
linfeed-oil four pounds; diffolve or melt them; then
ftrain the liquor, and befmear the ficins with it, and be¬
ing dry varnifh them over.
10 K An
LEA
An orange. Boil fuftic-berries in alam water: but
for a deep orange ufe turmeric-root.
Blue. Boil elder-berries, or dwarf elder, in water ;
then fmear or wafh the Ikins with it; wring them out ;
then boil the berries as before in a folution of alum wa¬
ter. and wet the Ikins in the fame water once or twice ;
dry them, and they will be very blue.
A pure Jky colour. For each Ikin take indigo one
ounce; put it into boiling water, let it Hand one night;
then warm it a little, and with a brufh-pencil befmear the
fkm twice over.
Pu>ple. DifTolve roch-alum in* warm water, wet the
fki : with it, dry them ; then boil rafped brazil well in wa-
tei ; let it Hand to cool: do this three times, and after¬
wards rub the dye over the Heins with your hand; and
when they are dry, polilh them.
Green. Take fap-green and alum-water, of each a
fufficient quantity; mix and boil them a litt'e ; if you
would have the colour darker, add a litfle indigo.
Procejfes for dying Leather Red and Yellow, as prac-
tifed in Turkey; nnith direllions for preparing and
tanning the Jhins, as communicated by Mr Philippo,
a native of Armenia, <who received from the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts, See. one hundred
pounds, and alfo the gold medal of the Society, as a
reward for difeovering this fecret.
1. Firjl preparation of the Skins, both for Red and
Yellow Leather, by drejfwg them in lime. Let the Ikins,
dried with the hair on, be firft laid to foak in cleanjwater
for three days ; let them then be broken over the flelh fide,
put into frefh water for two days longer, and afterwards
hung up to drain half an hour. Let them now be broken
again on the flelh fide, limed in cold lime on the fame
fide, and doubled together with the grain fide outward.
In this ftate they muft be hung up within doors over a
frame for five or fix days, till the hair be loofe ; which
mult be then taken off1, and the Ikins returned into the
lime-pit, for about three weeks. Take them out, and
Jet them be well worked flelh and grain, every fixth or
feventh day during that time: after which, let them be
walked ten times in clear water, changing the water at
each walking. They are next to be prepared in drench, as
below mentioned.
2. Second preparation of the Skins for both the Red and
Yellow Dyes by drenching. After fqueezing the water out
of the Ikins, put them into a mixture of bran and water,
warm as new milk, in the following proportions, viz. a-
bout three pounds of bran for five Ikins, and water fuf¬
ficient to make the mixture moderately fluid, which will
be about a gallont’to each pound of bran. In this drench
let the Ikins lie three days ; at the end of which time
they muft be well worked, and afterwards returned into
the drench two days longer. They muft then be taken
out and rubbed between the hands; the water fqueezed
L E A
from them, and the bran feraped off clear from both Gdes
of the fle ns. After this they muft be again walked ten
times in clear water, and the water fqueezed out of them.
Thus far the preparatory procefs of all the Heins, whether
intended to be dyed red or yellow, is the fame ; but af¬
terwards thofe which are to be dyed red, muft be treated
as follows.
3 Preparation in honey and bran of the /kins that
are to be dyed red. Mix one pound of honey with three,
pints of luke-warm water, and ftirr them togethe till
the honey is diflblved. Then add two double handfuls
of bran ; and taking four Ikins (for which the above
quantity of the mixture will be fufficient) work them well
in it one after another. Afterwards fold up each Ikin
feparateiy into a round form, with the fleffi fide inwards,
and lay them in an earthen pan, or other proper veffel ;
if in the fummer, by the fide of each other ; but in the
winter, on the top of each other. Place the veflel in a
Hoping pofition, fo that fuch part of the fluid as may
fpontaneoufly drain from the Ikins, may drain from them.
An acid fermentation will then rife ift the liquor, and the
fltins will fwell confiderably. In this ftate they muft con¬
tinue for feven or eight days ; but the moifture that
drains from them, muft be poured off, once or twice a-
day, as occafion may require. After this a further pre¬
paration in fait is neceffary ; and which muft be perform¬
ed in the following manner.
4. Preparation in fait, of the /kins to be dyed retd.
After the Ikins have been fermented in the honey and bran,
as abovementioned, let them be taken out of that mixture
on the eighth or ninth day, and well rubbed with dry
common fea-falt, in the proportion of about half a pound
to each fltin ; the fait muft be well rubbed and worked
with them. This will make them contra# again, and
part with a further confiderable quantity of moifture ;
which muft be fqueezed out by drawing each Ikin fepa¬
rateiy through the hands. They muft next be feraped
clean on both fides from the bran, fuperfluous fait, and
moifture that may adhere to them. After which, dry fait
muft be ftrewed over the grain fide, and well rubbed in
with the hand. They are then to be doubled with the
flelh fide outwards, lengthways from neck to tail, and a
little more dry fait muft be thinly ftrewed over the flelh
fide, and rubbed in ; for the two laft operations about a
pound and a half of fait will be fufficient for each Hein.
They muft then be put, thus folded on each other, be¬
tween two clean boards, placed floping, breadthways ;
and a heavy weight laid on the upper board, in order
gradually to prefs out what moifture they will thus part
with. In this ftate of preffure, they muft be continued
two days or longer, till it is convenient to dye them, for
which they will then be duely prepared.
5. Preparation of the Red Dye, in a proper proporti¬
on for four fins. Put eight gallons of water into a cop¬
per, with feven ounces of Ikenan *, tied up in a linen bag.
Light
( 96T )
* Shenan is a drag much ufed by dyers in the Eaft; and may eafdy be procured at any of the ports of Syria and Afri¬
ca, in the Levant., It is the Eaftern-jointed call, called by botanifts felicornia ; and grows in great plenty in thofe and
other parts of the Eaft. There is a leiler Ipecies of the felicornia on our coaft, which, from its great affinity with the
lilenan, might be preftuned to have the fame qualities. On fome trials-, however, it has not appeared to anfwer the in¬
tention
LEA ( 9*3 ) LEA
Light a fire under a copper, and when the water has boil
ed about a quarter of an hour, takeout the bag of Ihenan,
and put into the boiling fluid or lixivium, ift, two drams
of alum ; sdly, two drams of pomegranate bark; 3dly,
three quarters of an ounce of turmeric; 4thly, three
ounces of cochineal; Jthly, two ounces of loaffugar.
Let the whole .mixture boil about fix minutes, then cover
the fire, and take out a quart of liquor, putting it into a
flat earthen pan; and when it is as cold as new milk,
take one fkin, folded lengthways, the grain fide outwards,
and dip it in the liquor, rubbing it gently with the hands.
Then taking out the fkin, hang it up to drain, and throw
away the fuperfluous dye. Proceed in the fame manner
with the remaining three fkins; repeating the operation
on each fkin feparately, eight times, fqueezing the fkins
by drawing them through the hands before each frefh dip¬
ing. Lay them now on one fide of a large pan, fet Hop¬
ing, to drain off as much of the moifture as will run from
them without preffure, for about two hours, or till they
are cold; then tan them as below directed.
6. Tanning tbs R:d Skins. Powder four ounces of
the beft white galls in a marble mortar, lifting it through
a fine fieve. Mix the powder with about three quarts
of water, and work the fkins well in this mixture for half
an hour or more, folding up the fkins four-fold. Let
them lie in this tan twenty-four hours ; when they muft
" be worked again as before; then taken out, fcraped clean
on both fides from the firfl galls, and put into a like
quantity of frefh galls and water. In this frefh mixture
they mud be again well worked for three quarters of an
hour ; then folded up as before, and left in the frefh tan
for three days. On the fourth day they muft be taken
out, wafhed clean from the galls, in feven or eight frefh
quantities of water, and then hur.-g up to dry.
7. Manner of drejfmg the /kins after they are tanned.
When the fkins have been treated as above, and are very
near dry, they fhould be fcraped with the proper inftru-
ment or fcraper on the flefh fide, to reduce them to a
proper degree of thicknefs. They are then to be laid on
a fmooth board, and glazed by rubbing them with a
fmooth glafs. After which they muft be oiled, by rub¬
bing them with olive oil, by means of a linen rag, in the
proportion of one ounce and an half of oil for four fkins:
then they are to be grained on a graining board, length
ways, breadthways, and cornerways, or from corner to
corner.
8 Preparation ivith Galls, for the Skins to he dyed
yello’w. After the four fkins are taken out of the drench
of bran, and clean w afhed as before directed in the fecond
article, they muft be very well worked, half an hour or
more, in a mixture of a pound and a half of the beft
white galls, finely powdered, with two quarts of clean
water. The fkins are then to be feparately doubled
lengthways; rolled up with the flefh fide outwards, laicf
in the mixture, and clofe preffed down on each other,
in which ftate they muft continue two whole days. On
the third day let them be again worked in the tan ; and
afterwards fcraped clean from the galls, with an ivory or
brafs inftrument (for no iron muft touch them.) They
muft then be put into a frefh tan, made of two pounds of
galls finely powdered, with about three quarts of water,
and well worked therein fifteen times. After this they
muft be doubled, rolled up as before, and laid in the fe¬
cond tan for three days. On the third day a quarter of
a pound of white fea-falt muft be worked into each fkin ;
and the fkins doubled up as before, and returned into the
tan, till the day following, when they are to be taken
out, and well wafhed fix times in cold water ; and four
times in water lukewarm. The water muft be then well
fqueezed out, by laying the fkins under preflure, for
bout half an hour, between two boards, with a weight
of about two or three hundred pounds laid upon the up
permoft board, when they will be ready for the dye.
9. Preparation oj the Te lonu Dye, in the proper pro~
portion for four Jkinf. Mix fix ounces of cafliari gehira*,
or dgehira, or the berries of the eaftern rhamnus, with
the fame quantity of alum, and pound them together till
they be fine, in a marble or brafs mortar, with a brafs
peftle. Then dividing the materials thus powdered,
into three equal parts of four ounces each, put one of
thofe three parts into about a pint and a half of water, in
a china or earthem veflel; and ftir the mixture together.
Let the fluid ftand to cool, till it will not fcald the hand.
Then fpreading one of the fkins flat on a table, in a warm
room, with the grain fide uppermoft, pour a fourth part
of the tinging liquor, prepared as above directed, over
the upper or grain fide, fpreading it equally over the fkin
with the hand, and rubbing it well in. Afterwards do
the like with the other three fkins, for which the mixture;
firft made will be fuffcient.
This operation muft be repeated twice more on each flcin
feparately with the remainingeight ounces of the powder
of the berries, and alum, with the abovementioned due
proportions of hot water, put to them as before direifted.
The fkins, when dyed, are to be hung up on a wooden
frame, without being folded, with the grain fide out*
wards, about three quarters of an hour to drain, when
they muft be carried to a river or ftream of running water,
and well wafhed therein fix times or moie. After this,
they muft be put under preffure for about an hour, till
the water be well fqueezed out; afterwards the.lkins muft
be bung up to dry in a warm room
This being done, the fkins are to be dreffed and grained
as before directed for thofe dyed red; except the oiling,
which muft be omitted..
Gilding
tention of the fhenan ; but it will be prudent to piirfue the examination of this further, as fome unknown circumftances in
the collefting or ufing the Engliflt fslicornia might occalion the n ii'earriage. But be this as it may, the-Eaftera fhenan
may, at all events, be ealily piocuredin any quantity,. at a very trifling expence,.,by any of the captains of Turkey fhipS
at Aleppo,. Smyrna, <bc. ’
* The cafliari gehira is the berries of an Eaftern rhamnus, or buckthorn tree, and may be Had at Aleppo, and other parts
of the Levant, at a fmall price. The common Avignon, or yellow berries, maybe fubftituted, but not with lb good an;efi¬
fe ft; the cafliari gehira being a ftronger and brighter yellow dye, both for this ufe, and alfo that of colouring paper hang¬
ings, tjc.,
LEE ' ( 9^
Gilding of Leather. Take gklr of the whites
of eggs, or gum-water, and with a brufh rub over
the leather with either of them ; then lay on the gold
- or filver, and letting them dry, burnifh them. See
the articles Gilding and Burnishing.
To drefs or cover leather with filver or gold. Take
brown red, grind or move it on a ftone with a muller,
adding water and chalk; and when the latter is diffol-
ved, rub, or lighty dawb the leather over with it, till it
looks a little whitifh ; and then lay on the leaf, filver
or gold, before the leather is quite dry, laying the
leaves a little over each other, that there may not be the
leaft part uncovered ; and when they have well clofed
with the leather, and are fufficiently dried on, and
hardened, rub them over with an ivory polilher, or the
fore-tooth of a horfe.
LEAVEN, a piece of four dough, ufed to ferment
and render light a much larger quantity of dough or
pafle.
LECHEA, in botany, a genus of the triandria trigynia
clafs. The calix confifts of three leaves, and the co¬
rolla of three linear petals; and the capfules are three,
■with three valves, and one feed. There are two fpe-
cies, both natives of Canada.
LECTICA, in Roman antiquity, a vehicle in which peo¬
ple were carried in a reclining pofture.
LECTISTERNIUM, a religious feaft or banquet of
the ancient Romans. In times of public danger or ca¬
lamity, or of thaokfgiving for fome happy event, the
i-epublic ordered folemn feafts to be made for the gods;
and this folemnity was called leftifternium, becaufe on
this occafion they fpread tables, and placed beds a-
roundthem, on which their heavenly guefts were to lie
and eat.
LECTURERS, in England, are an order of preachers
in parilh-churches, dillin<5t from the retfor or vicar.
They are chofen by tbs veftry, or chief inhabitants
of the parifh, and are ufually the afternoon preachers.
LEDBURY, a market-town of Herefordshire, thirteen
miles eaft of Hereford.
LEDGER, the principal book wherein merchants enter
their accounts. See Bo*k»keeping.
LEDUM, the Marsh-Cistus, in botany, a genus of
the decandria monogynia clafs. The calix confifts of
five fegments, and the corolla of five plain petals ; and
the capfule has five cells, opening at the bafe. There
is but one fpecies, a native of the northern parts of
Europe.
LEE, in the Tea-language, a word of various fignifica-
ttons; though it is generally underftood to mean the
part oppofite to the wind. Thus lee Jhorc, is that
fhore again!! which the wind blows. Lee-latch, or
have a care of the lee-latch, is, take care that the
{hip do not go to the leeward, or too near the fiiore.
A lee the helm, put it to the leeward fide of the !hip.
To lie by the lee, or to come up to the lee, is to bring
the fhip fo, that all her fails may lie flat againft her
marts and rtirouds, and that the wind may come right
upon her broad fide.
Lee-way, is the angle that the rhumbline, upon which
the {hip endeavours to fail, makes with the rhumb up-
cn which flie really fails. See Navigati on.
l > LEG
LEECH, in zoology; See Hirudo.
LEEDS, a Urge market town, in the weft riding of
Yorklhire, fituated on the river Aire, twenty-miles
fouth-weft of York ; it has a very great woolen trade.
LEEK. See Allium.
LEERDAM, a town in the province of Holland, feven-
teen miles north eaft of Don: E. long. 50, N. lat.
510 5 °' •
LEERWICK, a town of Scotland, in Mainland, one of
the iflinds of Shetland, in the county of Orkney: W.
long. 30', N. lat. 6i° 20’.
LEES, are the more grofs and ponderous parts of liquors,
which, being feparated by fermentation, fall to the
bottom.
LEET, a little court held within a manor, and called
the king's court, on account that its authority to
punifti offences originally belonged to the Crown, from
whence it is derived to inferior perfons.
LEEWARD, at fea, the fide oppofite to that on which
the wind blows.
Leeward-islands, in America, e name given to the
Caribbees.
LEG, in anatomy. See Anatomy, Part I. and II.
&c.
LEGACY, in Scots law, a donation by one perfon to
another, to be paid by the giver’s executor after his
death. See Law, Tit. xxviii. 3.
LEGATEE, in Scots law, the perfon to whom a lega¬
cy is provided.
LEGATE, a cardinal or bifhop, whom the pope fends
as his ambalfador to fovereign princes.
LEGATUS, in roman antiquity, a military officer who
commanded as deputy of the chief general.
LEGEND, any idle or ridiculous ftory told by the Ro-
manifts concerning their faints, and other perfons, in or¬
der to fupport the credit of their religion.
The legend was originally abook ufed in theoidRo-
milh churches, containing the leflons to be read at di¬
vine fervice ; hence the lives of the faints and martyrs
came to be called legends, becaufe chapters were read
out of them at matins, and in the refeffories of reli¬
gious houfes. Among thefe the golden legend, which
is a colleftion of the lives of the faints, was received
by the church with great applaufe, which it maintain¬
ed for two hundred years ; though it is fo full of ri¬
diculous and romantic rtories, that the Romanifts them-
felves are now afliamed of it.
LEGER-line, in mufic, one added to the ftaff of five
lines, when the afcending or defcending notes run very
high or low: there are fometimes many of thefe lines
both above and below the ftaflf, to the number of four
or five.
LEGGIARDO, or Leggiardamemte, in mufic, fig-
nifies to play or fing in a lively, brifk, and gay man¬
ner.
LEGHORN, or Livorno, a port town of Italy, in the
duchy of Tufcany, fituated on the Tufcan fea, forty,
miles weft of Florence: E. long. 11°, N. lat. 430 30 .
LEGION, in Roman antiquity, a body of foot which
confifted of ten cohorts.
The exa<ft number contained in a legion, was fixed
by Romulus at three thoufand; though Plutarch af-
fures
L E N (965
fdtres us, that after the reception of the Sabines into
Rome, he encreafed it to fix thoufand. The common
number afterwards, in the firfi times of the free ftate,
was four thoufand? but in the war with Hannibal, it
arofeto five thoufand ; and after this it is probable that
it funk again to four thoufand, or four thoufand two
hundred, which was the number in the time of Poly-
LEGISLATOR, a law giver, or perfon who eftabliihes
the polity and laws of a ftate. Such was Mofes, a-
mong the Jews ; Lycurgus, among the Lacedaemo¬
nians, ebr.
LEGITIMATION, an aft whereby illegitimate children
are rendered legitimate.
LEGITIME, in Scots law, that fiiare of th£ move-
able effefts belonging to a hufband and wife, which
upon the hufband’s death falls to the. children. See
Law, Tit. xxviii. 5.
LEGUME. See Botany, p. 637.
LEGUMINOUS, an appellation given to all plants
whofe fruit is alegume.
LEICESTER, the county-town of Leicefterlhire. It
fends two members to parliament. W. long. i° 5',
and N. lat. 52 0 40'.
LEfNINGEN, a town of Germany, feventeen miles
fouth of Worms.
LEINSTER, a province of Ireland, the capital of
which is Dublin.
LEIPSIC, a rich and populous city of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony and province of Mifnia: E.
long. 120 40', N.lat. 5i02o'.
LEITH, a port-town of Scotland, about two miles
north of Edinburgh.
LEMBURG, Leopolis, a city of Poland, and capi¬
tal of the province of Red Ruffia: E. long. 240, N.
lat. 490.
LEMMA, in mathematics, a propofition which ferves
previoufly to prepare the way for the more eafy appre-
henfion of the demonftration of fome theorem, or con-
ftruftion of fome problem.
LEMNA, in botany, a genus of the moncecia diandria
clafs. The calix of both male and female confifts of
one leaf; neither of them have any corolla ; the fe¬
male has one ftylus, and the capfule confifts of one
cell. There are four fpecies, three of which are na¬
tives of Britain, viz. the trifulca, or ivy-leaved duck’s-
' meat ? the minor, orleaft duck’s meat; andthepolyr-
hiza, or greater duck’s-meat.
LEMNOS, an ifland of the Archipelago, fituated forty-
miles fouth-weft of the entrance of the Hellefpont; E.
Ion. 26°, N. lat. 290.
LEMON, In botany. See Citrus.
LEMONADE, a liquor prepared of water, fugar,
and lemon or citron juice: it is very cooling and grate-
• ful.
LEMUR., in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds belong¬
ing to the order of primates, the characters of which
are thefe: There are four fore-teeth in the upper jaw,
the intermediate ones being remote; and fix long, com-
prefied, parallel teeth in the under jaw; the dog-teeth
are folitary, and the grinders are fomewhat Jabated.
. There are five fpecies, viz.
Vol. II. No. 67.
) L E N
1. The tardigradus, is a fmall animal, about eight
inches long; and is found in Ceylon. The head is
roundith, with a prominent nofe; the legs are long an<J
thick; and the feet referable thofe of a monkey ; the eyes
are round, and near each other ; the ears are long, and
fiiuate very low on the head. The hair on the top of
the head, the ears, the neck, the ftroulders, the back,
the fides, and the outer parts of the thighs and legs,
are of a reddilh afli-colour; there is a white line be¬
twixt the ears; the under jaw, the throat, thebreaft,
and the belly, are mixed with white and an afti colour.
It has no tail. This animal is of a very lingular con-
ftruftion. It is perhaps longer in proportion to its
thicknefs, than any other quadruped: But its natural
hiftory is but imperfeftly known.
2. The mongoz, is of a greyifh colour above, and
white below ; his body is about a foot and a half in
length ; and the tail is as long as the body. This ani¬
mal is very troublefome when kept in a domeftic date.
He takes every opportunity of cfcaping, and flies to the
woods in queft of fruits, and it is very difficult to catch
him. He bites in a cruel manner thofe with whom
he is lead acquainted. He has a great averfion at cold
and moifture. He lives upon bread and fruits. His
motions are brifk and lively. He is a native of Mada-
gafcar.
3. The macaco has a long tail, with about 30 alter¬
nate rings of black and white, and a barbed collar.
He is about a foot and four inches long, and the tail
is longer than the body. His general figure very much
refembles that of a monkey, excepting the head, which
is fomewhat triangular. The mocaco is a beautiful and
elegant animal. Although his figure refembles the mon¬
key, his difpofitions and manners are very different. He
is gentle andinoffenfiveinadomefticftaie. In a natural
ftate, he is fond of fociety: In the ifland of Mada-
gafcar, troops of 30 or 40 of them are generally found
together in the woods.
4. The catta has likewife a long tail, with black and
white rings. This is a very gentle animal; it lives upon
fruits and roots; its motion is flow; and it makes a pla¬
cid murmuring noife like a cat. It is likewife a native
of Madagafcar.
5. The volans, refembles a bat, being furnifhed
with a flrong membrane, like that animal, .by which
it is enabled to fly. It is a native of Afia; but its
hiftory is not fufficiently known.
LEMURIA, a feftival of the ancient Romans, folemnized
on the ninth of May, to pacify the manes of the dead,
who were the lemures or phantoms that came in the
night to torment the living.
LENA, a great river of Siberia running north from N.
lat. 550 to 720.
LENiEA, in antiquity, a feftival of Bacchus, firnamed
Lenasus from a vine-prefs. Befides the ufual cere¬
monies at feafts facred to this god, it was remarkable
for poetical contentions, and tragedies aftid at this
time.
LENS, in dioptrics, properly fignifies a fmall roundifti
glafs, of the figure of a lentil ; but is extended to any
optic glafs, not very thick, which either collefts the
rays of light into- a point, in their paflage through it,
10 L or
L E P ( 9^ ) L E P
or difperfes them further apart, according to the laws
of refradion. See Optics.
LENT, a folemn time of farting in the Chriftian church,
obferved as a time of humiliation before Eafter, the great
fertival of our Saviour’s refurredion.
Thole of the Romilh church, and fome of the Pro-
teftant communion, maintain, that it was always a fart
of forty days, and, as fuch, of apoftolical induction.
Others think it was only of ecclefiaftical inftitution,
and that it was varioufly obferved in different churches,
and grew by degrees from a fart of forty hours, to a
fart of forty days. This is the fentiment of Mor¬
ton, bilhop Taylor, du Maulin, Daillee, and others.
LENTISCUS, in botany. See Pistacia.
LEO, in zoology. See Felis.
Leo, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p.467.
St Leo, a town and bilhop’s fee of Italy, twenty miles
north-weft of Urbino.
LEON, the capital of the province of Leon, in Spain,
fituated on the river Efla: W. long 6° 5', N. hit.
430.
Leon is alfo the capital of the province of Nicaragua,
in Mexico, fituated at the weft end of the Lake Ni¬
caragua: W long, 910, N. lat. 110 30'.
St LEONARD, a town of France, in the province of
Guiennes, and territory of Limofin : E. long. I0 45,,
N. lat. 45° 50'.
St. LEONHART, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Auftria, and duchy of Carinthia : E. long. 1 j°, N.
lat. 47°.
LEONTICE, in botany, a genus of the hexandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of fix petals, and
the nedarium of fix leaves inferred into the ungues of
the corolla, and having an open limbus; and the calix
has fix deciduous leaves. There are four fpecies,
none of them natives of Britain.
LEONTINI, a town of Sicily, twenty miles north-weft
of Syracufe.
LEONTODON, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia
polygamia aequalis clafs. The receptacle is naked ;
the calix is caliculated ; the pappus is Ample ; and the
flofculi are in a Ample feries. There are nine fpecies,
three of them natives of Britain, viz, the taraxacum,
or dandelion ; the hifpidum, or rough dandelion ; and
the amemnale, or yellow devil’s-bit. The root of the
taraxacum is efteemed a good cathartic.
LEONURUS, lion’s tail, in botany, a genus of the
didynamia gymnofpermia clafs. The antheras are inter-
fperfed with Ihining glands. There are five fpecies,
only one of them, viz. the cardiaca, or mother-wort,
is a native of Britain.
LEOPARD. See Felis.
Leopard’s bane, in botany. See Doronicum.
LEPANTO, a port-town of European Turky, eighty
miles weft of the iflhmus of Corinth; whence the gulph
of Lepanto takes its name.
LEPASTRUM, in natural hiftory, a genus of felenitae,
compofed of plates difpofed in the form of a radiated
ftar.
I.EPIDIUM, in botany, a genus of the tetradynamia
filiculofa clafs. The pod is emarginated, cordated,.
and contains many feeds. There are 17 fpecies, three
of them natives of Britain, viz. the latifolium, or
dittander : the ruderale, narrow-leaved wild crefs, or
dittander ; and the petrseum, or mountain dittander.
LEPIDOPTERA, in zoology, an order of infeds,
with four wings, which are covered with imbricated
fquamulae. See Natural History.
LEPIUM, in natural hiftory, a genus of foflils of the
harder gypfum, compofed of very fmall particles, and
of a lefs glittering hue.
There is only one fpecies of this genus, being one
of the leaft valuable and moft impure of the clafs of
gypfums. It is of an extremely rude, irregular, coarfe
and unequal ftrudure ; a little foft to the touch, of a
very dull appearance, and of different degrees of a
greyilh white. It is burnt in plaifter for the coarfer
works ; it calcines very flowly and unequally, and
makes but a very coarfe and ordinary plaifter.
LEPROSY, a foul cutaneous difeafe, appearing in dry,
white, thin, fcurfy fcabs, either on the whole body,
or only fome part of it, and ufually attended with a
violent itching and other pains, See Medicine.
LEPTODECORHOMBES, in natural hiftory, a genus
of foffils of the order of the felenitae ; confifting of ten
planes, each fo nearly equal to that oppofite to it as
very much to approach to a decahedral parallelepiped,
though never truly or regularly fo.
Of this genus there are only five known fpecies. 1.
A thin, fine, pellucid, and flender ftreaked one, with
tranfverfe ftriae, found in confiderable quantities in the
ftrata of clay in moft parts of England, particularly
near Heddington in Oxfordihire. 2. A thin, dull-
looking opake, and flender ftreaked one, more fcarce
than the former, and found principally in Leicefter-.
fliire and Staffordlhire. 3. A thin fine ftreaked one,
with longitudinal ftrise, found in the clay-pits at Rich¬
mond, and generally lying at great depths. This has
often on its top and bottom a very elegant fmaller
rhomhoide, deferibed by four regular lines. 4. A
rough kind, with thick tranfverfe ftriae, and a fcabrous
furface, very common in Leicefterlhire and Yorkfhire.
And, 5. a very fliort kind, with thick plates, com¬
mon in the clay-pits of Northamptonfhire and York-
fhire.
LEPTOPOLYGINGLIMI, in Natural Hiftory, a genus
of foflil fliells, diftinguifhed by a number of minute
teeth at th* cardo ; whereof we find great numbers at
Harwich clifF, and in the marle-pits of Suflex.
LEPTURA, in zoology, a genus of infefts belonging to
the order of coleoptera, the chara&ers of Which are
thefe :—The feelers are briftly ; the elytra are atte¬
nuated towards the apex ; and the thorax is fomewhat
cylindrical. There are 25 fpecies, principally diftin-
guifhed by their colour.
LEPUS, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds belonging
to the order of glires. The characters are thefe :
they have two fore teeth in each jaw ; thofe in the up¬
per jaw are double, the interior ones being fmalieft.
There are four fpecies, viz.
1. The timidus, or hare, has a fttort tail ; the points
of the ears are black ; the upper-lip is divided up to
the
L E P ( 9*7 ) L E R
the noftrils ; the length of the body is generally about a
foot and a half; and the colour of the hair is reddifli,
int rfperfed with white. The hare is naturally a timid
animal. He fleeps in his form, or feat, during the day,
and feeds, copulates, &c. in the night. In a moon-light
evening, a number of them are fometimes feen fporting
together, leaping and purfuing each other: But the leal!
motion, the falling of a leaf, alarms them ; and then they
all run off feparately, each taking a different route. They
are extremely fwift in their motion, which is a kind of
gallop, or a fucceffion of quick leaps. When purfued,
they always take to the higher grounds: as their fore feet
are much (horter than the hind ones, they run with more
eafe up hill than down hill. The hare is endowed with
all thofe inftin&s which are neceffary for his own pre-
fervation. In winter he chufes a fo'rn expofed to the
fouth, and in fummer to the north He conceals himlelf
among vegetables of the fame colour with himfelf. Mr
Fouilioux fays, that he obferved a hare, as foon as he
heard the found of the horn, or the noife of the dogs,
although at a mile’s diftance, rife from her feat, fwim a-
crofs a rivulet, then lie down among the rulhes, and by
this means evade the fcent of the dogs. After being
chafed for a couple of hours, a hare will fometimes pufh
another from his form, and lie down in it himfelf. When
hard preffed, the hare will mingle with a flock of flieep,
run up an old wall and conceal himfelf among the grafs
on the top of it, or crofs a river feveral times at (mall
diftances. He never runs againft the wind, or llraight
forward ; but conftantly doubles about, in order to
make the dogs lofe their fcent.
It is remarkable, that the hare, although ever fo fre¬
quently purfued by the dogs, feldom leaves the place where
fhe was brought forth, or even the form in which ftie ufual-
iy fits. It is common to find them in the fame place next
day, after being long and keenly chafed the day before.
The females are-more grofs than the males, and have lefs
ftrength and .agility; they are likewife more timid, and
never allow the dogs to approach fo near their form be¬
fore riling as the males. They likewife p'raftife more
arts, and double more frequently, than the males.
The hare is diffufed almoft over every climate; and,
notwithftandingthey are every where hunted; their fpecies
never diminifhes. They are in a condition of propaga
ting the firft year of their lives ; the females go with
young about 30 days, and produce four or five at a time ;
and as foon as they have brought forth, they again ad¬
mit the embraces of the male; fo that they may be faid
to be always pregnant. The eyes of the young are o
pen at birth; the mother fucktes them about 20 days,
after which they feparate from her and procure their own
food. The young never go far from the place where
they were brought forth; but dill they live folitary. and
make forms about thirty paces diftant from each other :
Thus, if a young hare be found any where-, you may al-
moft be certain of finding feveral others within a very
fmall diftance. The hare is not fo favage as bis manners
would indicate He is gentle, and fufceptible of a kind
of education. He is pretty eafily-tamed, and will even
flow a kind-of attachment to the people of the houfe: But
ffill this attachment is not fo ftrong or lading as to engage
him to become altogether domeftic; for although ta*
ken when very young, and brought up in the houfe, he
no fooner arrives at a certain age, than he takes the
firft opportunity of recovering his liberty and flying to
the fields. The hare lives about feven or eight years.
He feeds upon grafs, and other vegetables. His flefti
is excellent food. See Plate CIII. fig. 2.
2. The cuniculus, or rabbit, has a very fliort tail,
and naked ears The rabbit, though it has a great re-
femblance to the hare, is very different in his manners ;
and they have fuch a rooted antipathy to one another,
that no art can engage them to have any fexual inter-
courfe. The fecundity of the rabbit is ftill greater
than that of the hare ; they multiply fo prodigioufly io
fome countries, that the produdt of the fields is hardly
fufficient to maintain them. They devour herbage of
all kinds, roots, grain, fruits, &c. They are in a con¬
dition for producing at the age of fix months ; like the
hare, the female is almoft conftantly in feafon; fhe
goes wkh young about 30 days, and brings forth from
four to eight at a litter. A few days before littering, fhe
digs a new hole in the earth, not in aftraight line, but
in a zigzag form; the bottom of the hole fhe enlarges
every way; fhe then pulls off a great quantity of hair
from her belly, of which fhe makes a kind of bed for
her young. During the two firft days after birth, fhe
never leaves them, but when preffed with hunger, and
and then fhe eats quickly and returns: In this manner
fhe fuckles and attends her young for fix weeks. All
this time, both the hole and the young are concealed
from the male; fometimes w'hen the female goes out, in
order to deceive the male, fhe fills up the mouth of the
hole with earth mixed with her own urine. But when
the young ones begin to come to the mouth of the hole,
and to eat fuch herbs as the mother brings to them, the
father feems to know them; he takes them betwixt
his paws, fmooths their hair, and careffes them with,
great fondnefs. The rabbit is foppofed not to be a
native of the northern parts of Europe, but te have
been originally brought from Greece and Spain. The
rabbit lives about feven years, and his flefh is good.
Their colour is various, fome of them being red, o-
thers white, but the moft general colour is grey. See
Plate CIII. fig. 3.
3. The capenfis, has a tail about the length of-his
head, and red legs. It is a native of the Cape of
Good Hope.
4. The brafilienfis has no tail. It is found in South-
America.
Lepos, in aft onomy, See Astronomy; p. 487.
LERI A, a city and bifhop’S fee of Portugal: W.
long. 90 15', and N. lat. 390 .
LERID'V, a city and bifhop’s fee of Catalonia in Spain:
E long: j', N. lat. 410 20,>
LERINS, two iflands on the coaft of Provence, five or
fix miles fouth of Antibes, called St. Margaret and
St. Honorat.
LERNEA, the Sea-hare*, in zoology, a fearinfetft of the
order of the gymnarthria, the body of which is of an
oblong cylindric figure, and is perforated in the forehead;,
the temacula refenfole ears. See Gymnarthria.
LE.
LET ( 968 ) LEV
LE ROY LE VEUT, the king’s aflent to public bills.
See the articles Bill, Statute, and Parlia¬
ment.
LESBOS, or Metelin, an ifland of the Archipelago,
lixty miles north-weft of Smyrna. Its chief town is
Caftro.
LESCAR, a city and bilhop’s fee of France, forty miles
e.aft of Bayonne.
LESCARD, a borough-town of Gornwal, fifteen miles
weft of Launcefton, which fends two members to par¬
liament;
LESSINES, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, four¬
teen miles north of Mons.
LESSONS, among ecclefiaftical writers, portions of the
Holy Scriptures, read in Chrilhan churches, at the
time of divine fervice.
LESTWITHIEL, aborough-town of Cornwal, twenty-
Three miles fouth-weft of Launcefton, which fends two
members to parliament.
LETHARGY, in medicine. See Medicine.
LETHE, in the ancient mythology, one of the rivers of
hell, fignifying oblivion or forgetfulnefs ; its waters
having, according to poetical fiction, the peculiar qua¬
lity of making thofe who drank of them forget every
thing that vya; paft.
LETRIM, or Leitrim, a county of Ireland, in the
province of Connaught; bounded by Fermanagh on
the north, by Cavan on the eaft, by Rofcommon on
the fouth, and by Sligo on the weft.
LETTER, a charatter ufed to exprefs one of thefimple
founds of the voice; and as the different fimple founds
areexpreffed by different letters, thefe, by being diffe¬
rently compounded, become the vifible figns or charac¬
ters of all the modulations and mixtures of founds ufed
to exprefs our ideas in a regular language.
Letter of attorney, in law, is a writing by which one
perfon authorifes another to do fome lawful adt in his
ftead ; as, to give feifin of lands, to receive debts, fue
a third perfon, &c.
The nature of this inftrument is to transfer to the
perfon to whom it is given, the whole power of the
maker, to enable him to accotnplilh the aft intended
to be performed. It is either general or fpecial ; and
fometimes it is made revocable, which is when a bare
authority is only given; and fometimes it is irrevocable,
as where debts, &c. are ailigned from one perfon to
another. It is generally held, that the power granted
to the attorney muff be ftridlly purfued; and that
where it is made to three perfons, two cannot exe¬
cute it. In moft cafes, the power given by a letter
of attorney determines upon the death of the perfon
who gave it. No letter of attorney made by any fea-
man, in any fhip of war, or having letters of
marque, or by their executors, in order to im-
power any perfon to receive any fhare of prizes, or
bounty-money, fhall be valid, unlefsthe fame be made
revocable, and for the ufe of fuch feamen, and be
figned and executed before, and attefted by, the captain
and.one other of the figning officers of the ffiip, or the
mayor or chief magiftrate of fome corporation.
Letter of mail, or marque, a letter granted to one
of the king’s fubje&s, under the privy feal, impower-
ing him to make reprifals for what was formerly
taken from him by the fubjefts of another ftate con¬
trary to the law of mart. See the article Marque.
Letters-patent, are writings fealed with the great
feal; fo called, becaufe they areopen, with the feal af¬
fixed to them. Thefe are granted to authorife a man
to do or enjoy what of himfelf he could not do.
LETTUCE, in botany. See Lactuca.
LEVANT, a name given to the eaft part of the Medi¬
terranean fea, bounded by Natolia or thelefier Afuon
the north, by Syria and Palertine on the eaft, by E-
gypt and Barca on the fouth, and by the iftand of
Candia and the other part of the Mediterranean on
the weft.
LEVATOR, in anatomy, a name given to feveral
mufcles. See Anatomy, Part II.
LEUCADENDRON, in botany, a genus of the tetran-
dria monogynia clafs. The flofeuli have two petals,
one of them being divided into fegments; the recep¬
tacle is fome what hairy; it has no proper calix ; and
the anthers are joined together. There are 15 fpe-
cies, none of them natives of Britain.
LEUCOIUM, the gxeat snow-drop, in botany, a
genus of the hexandria monogynia clafs. The corolla
is bell-lhaped, and divided into fix fegments; and the
ftigma is fimple. There are three fpedes, none of them
natives of Britain.
LEUCOMA,.in furgery, a diftemper of the eye, other-
wife called albugo. See Albugo and Medicine.
LEUCOPHLEGMATIA, in medicine, akindofdropfy,
otherwife called anafarca. See Anasarca and Me¬
dicine.
LEVEL, an inftrumeht wherewith to draw a line paral¬
lel to the horizon, by means of which the true level,
or the difference of afeent or defeent between feveral
places, may be found for conveying water, draining
fens, foe.
There are feveral inftruments of different contri¬
vance and matter, invented for the perfection of level¬
ling ; all of which, for the practice, may be reduced
to thofe that follow.
Air Level, that which fhews the line of level by means,
of a bubble or'air inclofed with fome liquor in a glafs-
tube of an indeterminate length and thicknefs, whofe
two ends are hermetically fealed. When the bubble
fixes itfelf at a certain mark, made exaCtly in the
middle of the 'tube, the plane or ruler wherein it is
fixed is leVel. When it is not level, the bubble will
rife to one end. This glafs-tube may be fet in ano¬
ther of brafs, having an apertureinthe middle, whence
the buble of air may be obferved. The liquor where¬
with the tube is filled, is oil of tartar, or aqua fecun-
da ; thofe not being liable to freeze as common water,
nor to rarefaClion and condenfation, as fpirit of wine
is. There is one of thefe inftruments with fights,
being an improvement upon that laft deferibed, which,
by the addition of more apparatus, becomes more com¬
modious and exaCt. It confifts of an air level, (fee
Plate CIV. fig. 1.) n° 1. about eight inches long, and
feven or eight lines in diameter, fet in a brafs-tube.
2. with
LEV ( 9*9 ) LEV
2. with an aperture in the middle, C. The tubes are
carried in a itrong straight ruler, a foot long; at whofe
ends are fixed two lights, 3, 3, exadtly perpendicular to
the tubes, and of an equal height, having a fquare hole,
formed by two fillets of brafs eroding each other at right
angles ; in the middle whereof is drilled a very little hole,
through which a point on a level with the inllrument rs
deferied. The brafs-tube is faltened on the ruler .by
means of two ferews, one whereqf, marked 4, ferves to
raife or deprefs the tube at pleafure, for bringing it to¬
wards a level. The top of the ball and focket is rivetted
to a little ruler that fprings, one end whereof is faftened
with ferews to the great ruler, and at the other end has
a ferew, 5, ferving to raifeand deprefs the inllrument when
nearly level.
This inllrument, however, is yetlefs commodious than
the following one ; becaufe though the holes be ever fo
fmali, yet they will Hill take in too great afpace to deter¬
mine the point of level precifely.
This inllrument confilts of an air level, with telefcope
fights: this level (Jh'd. n° 2.) is like the lall, with this
difference, that inltead of plain fights, it carries a telefcope
to determine exadly .a point of level at a good diflance.
The telefcope is a little brafs-tube, about fifteen inches
long, faftened on the fame ruler as the level. At the end of
the tube of the telefcope, marked 1, enters the little tube
1, carrying the eye-glafs and an hair horizontally placed
in the focus of the objett-glafs, 5; which little tube-may
be drawn out, or pulhed into the great one, for adjufting
the telefcope to different fights: at the 9ther end of the
telefcope is placed the objed-glafs. The ferew 3, is for
raifing or lowering the little fo^k, for carrying the hair,
and making it agree with the bubble of air, when the in-
ftrument is level; and the ferew 4, is for making the
bubble of air. D or E, agree with the telefcope: the
whole is fitted to a ball and focket. M. Huygens is faid
to be the firft inventor of this level, which has this ad¬
vantage, that it may be inverted by turning the ruler and
telefcope half round; and if then the hair cut the fame
point that it did before, the operation is juft.
It may be obfe ved; that one may add a telefcope to
any kind of level, by applying it upon or parallel to the
bafe or ruler, when there is occafion to take the level of
remote objedts.
Dr Defaguflers contrived an inftrument, by which the
difference of level of two places, which could not beta¬
ken in lefs than four or five days with the bell telefcope-
le|elsf may be taken in as few hours. The inftrument
is as follows: to the ball C (/i/V. n° 3.) is joined a re¬
curve tube B A, with a very fine bore, and a fmall
bubble at top, A, whofe upper part is open. It is
evident from the make of this inftrument, that if it
be inclined in carrying, no prejudice will be done to
the liquor, which will always be tight both in the ball
and tube when the inftrument is fet upright. If the air
at C, be fo expanded with heat, as to drive the liquor
. to the top of the tube, the cavity A will receive the li¬
quor, which will come down again and fettle at D, or
near it, according to the level of the place where the in¬
ftrument is, as loon as the air at C returns to the fame
temperament as to heat and cold. To preferve the fame
Vot. II. Numb, 67. 2
degree of heat, When the different obfervations are made,
the machine is fixed in a tin veffel E F, filled with water
up to above the ball, and a very lenlible therm'm ter
has alfo its ball under water, than one may obfeive the
liquor at D, in each experiment, when the thermometer
ftands at the fame height as before. The water is poL red
out when the inftrument is carried, which one may do
conveniently by means of the wooden frame, which is
fet upright by the three ferews S, S, S, ibid. n° 4.
and a line and plummet P P, n° 5. At the back part
of the wooden frame, from the piece at top K, hangs
the plummet P, over a. brafs point at N; M m are
brackets, to make the upright board K N continue
at right angles with the horizontal one at N. N° 6.
reprelents a front view of the machine, fuppofing the
fore part of the tin veffel tranfparent; and here the brafs-
focket of the recurve tube, into which the ball isferew-
ed, has two wings at 11, fixed to the bottom, that the
ball may not break the tube by its^endeavour to emerge
when the water is poured in as high asg h.
After the Dr had contrived this machine, he confider-
ed, that as the tube is of a very fmall bore, if the liquor
Ihould rife into the ball at A, n° 3. in carrying the in¬
ftrument from one place to another, fome of it would .ad¬
here to the fides or the ball A, and upon its defeent. in
making the experiment, fo much might be left behind,
that the liquor would not be high enough at D, to (hew
the difference of the level: therefore, to prevent that in-
conveniency, he contrived a blank ferew, to (hut up the
hole at A, as foon as one experiment is made, that in
carrying the machine, the air in A may balance that in
C, fo that the liquor (hall not run up and down the tube,
whatever degree of heat and cold may aff upon the in¬
ftrument, in going from one place to another. Now, be¬
caufe one, experiment may be made in the morning, the
water may be fo cold, that when a fecond experiment
is made at noon the water cannot be brought to the
fame degree of cold it had in the morning ; therefore, in
making the firft experiment, warm water mud be mixed
with the cold, and tVhen the water has Hood fome time
before it comes to be as cold as it is likely to be at the
warmed part of that day, obferve and fet down the de¬
gree of the thermometer at which the fpirit ftands, and
likewife the degree of the water in the barometer at D ;
then ferew on the cape at A, pour out the water, and
oarry the inftrument to the place whofe level you would
know; then pour in your water, and when the thermo¬
meter is come to the fame degree as before, open the
ferew at top, and obferve the liquor in the barometer.
The doClor’s fcale for the barometer is ten inches
long, and divided into tenths; fo that fuch an inflru-
ment will ferve for any heights not exceeding ten feet,
each,tenth of an inch anfwering to a foot in height.
The Dr made no allowance for the decreafe of denfity
in the air, becaufe he did not propofe this machine for
meafuring mountains, (though with a proper allowance
for the decreafing denfity of the air, it will do very well),
but for heights that want to be known in" gardens,
plantations, and the conveyance of water, where an
experiment that anfwers two or three feet in a diftance
of twenty miles, will render this a very ufefulinftrument.
10 M Artillery-
LEV (970
Artillery Foothi. is in form of a fquafe, having its
two legs or branches of an equal length ; at a juncture
whereof is a little hole, whence hangs a thread and
plummet playing on a perpendicular line in the middle
of a quadrant. It is divided into twice 45 degrees
'• from the middle, ibid. n° 7.
This inftrument may be ufed on other occafions, by
placing the ends of its two branches on a plane; for
when the thread plays perpendicularly over the middle
divifion of the quadrant, that plane is afluredly level.
To ufe it in gunnery, place the two ends on the piece
of artillery, which you may raife to any propofed
height, by means of the plummet, whole thread will
give the degree above the level.
Carpenters and Paviour's Level, confills of a long
ruler, in the middle whereof is fitted, at right angles,
another fpmewhat bigger, at the top of which is faften-
cd a line, which, when it hangs over a fiducial line at
right angles with the bafe, {hews that the faid bafe
is horizontal. Sometimes this level is all of one board.
Ibid. n° 8.
Gunner's Level, for levelling cannons and mortars,
confilts of a triangular brafs-plate, about four inches
high, ibid. 9. at the bottom of which is a portion
of a circle, divided into 45 degrees ; which number is
fufficient for the higheft elevation of cannons and mor¬
tars, and for giving {hot the greateft range: on the
center of this fegment of a circle is fcrewed a piece of
brafs, by means of which it may be fixed or fcrewed at
pleafure ; the end of this piece of brafs is made fo as
to ferve for a plummet and index, in order to {hew
the different degrees of elevation of pieces of artillery.
This inftrument has alfo a brafs-foot, to fet upon can¬
nons or mortars, fo as, when thofe pieces are horizon¬
tal, the inftrument will be perpendicular. The foot
of this inftrument is to be placed on the piece to be ele¬
vated, in fuch a manner, as that the point of the plum-
mtt may fall on the proper degree: this is what they
call levelling the piece.
Mafon's is compofed of three rules, fo joined
as to form an ifoceles-reftangle, fomewhat like a ro¬
man A ; at the vertex whereof is faftened a thread,
from which hangs a plummet, that paffes over a fidu¬
cial line, marked in the middle of the bafe, when the
thing to which the level is applied is horizontal; but
declines from the mark, when the thing is lower on
one fide than on the other.
Plumb, or Pendulum-’Lv.vHh, that which {hews the ho¬
rizontal lines by means of another line perpendicular
to that defcribed by a plummet or pendulum. This
inftrument, ibid.n° 10. confifts of two legs or branches,
joined together at right angles, whereof that which car¬
ries thelhread and plummet is about a foot and a half
long ; the thread is hung towards the top of the branch,
at the point 2 . The middle of the branch where the
thread pafles is hollow, fo that it may hang free every
where : but towards the bottom^ where there is a little
blade of filver, whereon is drawn a line perpendicular
to the telefcope, the faid cavity is covered by two
pieces of brafs, making as it were a kind of cafe, left
the wind {hould agitate the thread ; for which reafon
) LEV
the filver blade is covered with a glafs G, to the end
that it may be feen when the thread and plummet play
upon the perpendicular: the telefcope is faftened to
the other branch of the inftrument, and is about two
feet long: having an hair placed horizontally acrofs
the focus of the objeft-glafs, which determines the
point of the level. The telefcope muft be fitted at
right angles to the perpendicular. It has a ball and
focket, by which it is faftened to the foot, and was
invented by M. Picard.
Rejlefting Level, that made by means of a pretty long
furface of water reprefenting the fame object inverted
which we fee erefted by the eye, fo that the point
where thefe twoobje&s appear to meet is a level with
the place where the furface of the water is found.
This is the invention of M. Marriotte.
There is another refle&ing level confiding of a mir¬
ror of fteel, or the like, well polilhed, and placed a
little before the objeft-glafs of a telefcope, fufpended
perpendicularly. This mirror muft make an angle of
450 with the telefcope, in which cafe the perpendicular
line of the faid telefcope is converted into a horizon¬
tal line, which is the fame with, the line of level.
This is the invention of M. Caffini.
/Ph/er-LfivEL, that which {hews the horizontal line by
means of a furface of water or other liquor, founded
on this principle, that water always places itfelf level.
See the article Fluid.
The moft fimple is made of a long wooden trough,
or canal, whofe fides are parallel to the bafe, fo that
being equally filled with water, its furface {hews the
line of level. This is the chorobates of the ancients.
See Chorobata.
It is alfo made with two cups fitted to the two ends
of a pipe, three or four feet long, about an inch in
diameter, by means whereof the water communicates
from the one to the other cup ; and this pipe being
moveable on its ftand by means of a ball and focket,
when the two cups become equally full of water, their
two furfaces mark the line of level.
This inftrument, inftead of cups, may alfo be made
with two {hort cylinders of glafs three or four inches long,
faftened to each extreme of the pipe with wax or maftic.
Into the pipe is poured fome common or coloured wa¬
ter, which {hews itfelf through the cylinders, by means
whereof the line of level is determined ; the height of
the water, with refpeft to the center of the earth,
being always the fame in both cylinders: this level,
though very fimple, is yet very commodious for level¬
ling fmall diftances.
Level of Mr Huygens's invention, confifts of a tele¬
fcope a, ibid. n° it. in form of a cylinder, going
through a ferril, in which it is faftened by the middle.
This ferril has two flat branches b h, one above, and
the other below; at the ends whereof are faftened little
moving pieces, which carry two rings, by one of which
the telefcope is fufpended to an hook at the end of the
fcrew 3, and by the other a pretty heavy weight is
fufpended, in order to keep the telefcope in equilibrio.
This weight hangs in the box 5, which is aimoft. fill¬
ed with linfeed oil, oil of walnuts, or other matter
that
LEV ( 971 ) LEV
that will not eafily coagulate, for more aptly fettling
the balance of the weight and telefcope. The inllru-
ment carries two telefcopes clofe and very parallel to
each other; the eye glals of the one being againft the
objecl-glafs' of the other, that one may fee each way
without turning the level. In the focus of theobjedl-
glafs of each telefcope muft a little hair be drained ho¬
rizontally, to be raifed and lowered as occafion re¬
quires by a little fcrew. If the tube of the telefcope
be not found level when fupended, a ferril or ring,
4, is put on it, and is to be Aid along till it fixes to
a level. The hook on which the inftrument is hung,
is fixed to a flat wooden crofs; at the ends of each
arm whereof there is a hook ferving to keep the te¬
lefcope from too much agitation in ufing or carriage.
To the faid flat crofs is applied another hollow one,
that ferves as.3 cafe for the inftrument; but the two
ends are left open, that the telefcope may be fecured
from the weather, and always in a condition to be u-
fed. The foot of this inftrument is a round brafs plate,
to which are faftened three brafs ferils, moWeable by
means of joints wherein are put ftaves, and on this
foot is placed the box.
N° 12. marked I, is a balance level; which being
fufpended by the ring, the two fights, when in equili-
brio, will be horizontal, or in a level.
LEVELLING, the art of finding a line parallel to the
horizon at one or more ftations, if! order to determine
the height of one place with regard to another. See
the preceding article.
A truly level furface is a fegment of a fpherical fur-
face, which is concentric to the globe of the earth. A
true line of level is an arch of a great circle, which is
imagined to be defcribed upon a truly level furface.
The apparent level is a ftraight line drawn tangent to
an arch or line of true level. Every point of the ap¬
parent level, except the point of contadt, is higher than
the true level : thus let EAG (Plate CIV. fig. 2.
n° 1.) be an arch of a great circle drawn upon the
earth ; to a perfon who Hands upon the earth at A,
the line HD is the apparent level parallel to his rational
horizon RR ; but this line, the farther it is extended
from his ftation A, the farther it recedes from the cen¬
ter ; for BC is longer than AC, and DC is longer than
BC, be. The common methods of levelling are fuf-
ficient for laying pavements of walks, for conveying
water to ftnall diftances, for placing horizontal dials,
or aftronomical inftruments ; but in levelling the bot¬
toms of canals which are to convey water to the dif-
tance of many miles, the difference between the ap¬
parent and true level muft be taken into the account :
thus let IAL {ibid. n° 2.) be an arch of a great circle
upon the earth : let it be required to cut a canal whofe
bottom (hall be a true level from A to B, of the length
of 5078 feet: the common method is to place the
levelling inftrument in the bottom of the canal at A,
and looking through the fights placed horizontally at
a ftick fet up perpendicular at B, to make a mark where
the vifual ray or point of the apparent level points at
E, and then to fink the bottom of the canal at B as
much, below E as A is below D. But this will no:
give the true level : for according to Caflini’s calculation,,
at the diftance of 5078 feet the apparent level is feveir
inches above the true; and therefore, to make a true level,
B muft be funk feven inches lower than the apparent level
diredts ; fo that if A be four feet below D, B muft be
four feet feven inches below the mark E. We have here
mentioned the error which will arife from placing the
level at one end of the line to be levelled, and (hewn how
to corredt it; but in moft cafes it is better to take a fta¬
tion in the middle of the line to be levelled : thus, if the
points H and B are to be levelled, place the inftrument
in the middle at A, and fetting up fticks perpendicular at
H and B, make marks upon each ftick where the appa¬
rent level points, as E and F ; thofe points are level :
and if you fink H as much below F, as B is belpw E,
HAB will be a true level.
The operation of levelling is as follows : fuppofe the
height of the point A, (ibid. n° 3.) on the top of a
mountain above that of the point B, and at the foot
thereof, be required. Place the level about the middle
diftance between the two points as in D, and ftaffs in A
and B ; and let there be perfons inftrudted with fignals
for raifing and lowering, on the faid ftaffs, little marks
of pafteboard or other matter, the level being placed ho¬
rizontally by the bubble, be. Look towards the ftafF
AE, and caufe the mark fo raifed to be lowered till the
middle, upper edge, or other moft confpicuous part, ap¬
pear in the vifual ray. Then meafuring exaftly the per¬
pendicular height of the point E above the point A, which-
fuppofe fix feet four inches; fet that down in your book :
then turn the level horizontally about, that the eye-glals
of the telefcope may be ftill next the eye when you look-
the other way ; if you have only plain fights, the inftru¬
ment need not be turned ; and caufe the perfon at the
ftafF B, to raife or lower his mark, till fome confpicuous
part of it fall in the vilual ray, as at C : then meafure
the perpendicular height of C above B, which fuppofe
fixteen feet fix inches : fet this alfo down in the book a-
bove the other number of the firft obfervation ; fubtradl
the one from the other, the remainder will be ten feet
two inches, which is the difference of the level between
A and B, or the height of the point A above the point B.
If the point D, where the inftrument is fixed, be in
the middle between the two points A and B, there will
be no neceffity for reducing the apparent level to the true
level; the vifual ray in that cafe being raifed equally a-
bove the true level. If it be further required to know
whether there be a fufficient defeent for conveying water
from the fpring A (ibid. n° 4 ) to the point B. Here,
in regard the diftance from A to B is confiderable, it is
required that feveral operations be made. Having then
chofen a proper place for the firft ftation, as at I, fet up
a ftaff in the point A, near the fpring, with a proper
mark to Aide up and down the ftaff, as L, and meafure
the diftance from A to I, which fuppofe two thoufand
yards. Then the level being adjufted in the point I, let
the mark L be raifed and lowered till fuch time as you
fpy fome confpicuous part of it through the telefcope or
fights of the level, and meafure the height AL, which
fuppofe thirteen feet five inches. Butin regard the dif-
tance AI is two thoufand yards, you muft have recourfe
’ to
LEV C 972 ) LIB
to your table for a reduftion, fubtrafting eleven in¬
ches, which will leave the height of AL twelve feet
fix inches, and this note down in your book. Now
turn the level horizontally about, fo that the eye-glafs
of the telefcope may be towards A, and fixing up a-
nother ftaff at H, caufe the mark G to be moved up
and down till you fpy fome confpicuous part through
the telefcope or fights. Meafure the height HG,
which fuppofe feven yards one foot two inches. Mea¬
fure likewife the diftance of the points IH, which
fuppofe One thoufand three hundred yards; for which
diftance four inches eight lines mult be fubtra&ed from
the height HG, which confequently will only leave
feven yards nine inches four lines, to be taken down in
your book. This done, remove the level forwards
toforae other eminence, as E, whence the dafF H may
be viewed ; as alfo another Half at D, near the place
whither the water is to be conveyed. The level being
again adjufted in the point E, look back to the ftaff
H; and managing the mark as before, the vifual ray
will give the point F. Meafure the height HF, which
fuppofe eleven feet fix inches. Meafure likewife the
diftance HE, which fuppofe a thoufand yards, for
which there is two inches nine lines of abatement;
which being taken from the height HF, there will re¬
main eleven feet three inches three lines'; which enter
in your book. Laftly, turning the level to look at the
next ftaff D, the vifual ray will give the point D.
Meafure the height of D from the ground, which fup¬
pofe eight feet three inches. Meafure alfo the diftance
from the ftation E to B, which fuppofe nine hundred
yards, for which diftance there are two inches three
lines of abatement; which being taken from the height
BD, there will remain eight feet nine lines; which en¬
ter as before.
For the manner of entering down obfervations in your
book, obferve, that when a proper place or ftation for
the level between the two points has been pitched up¬
on, write down the two heights obferved at that ftation
in two different columns, viz. under the firft column,
thofe obferved in looking through the telefcope when
the eye was from the fpring, or towards the point,
which we may call back fights ; and under the fecond
column, thofe obferved when the eye was next the
fpring, which we call forefights. Having fummed up
the heights of each column feparately, fubtradt the
leffer from the greater, the remainder will be the dif¬
ference of the level between the points A and B. If
the diftance of the two points be required, add all the
diftances meafured together ; and dividing the differ¬
ence of height by the yards of the diftances, for each
two hundred yards you will have a defcent of about two
inches nine lines.
Dr Halley fuggefts a new method of levelling, per¬
formed wholly by means of the barometer, in which
the mercury is found to be fufpended to fo much the
lefs height, as the place is farther remote from the
center of the earth ; whence the different heights of
the mercury in two places give the difference of level.
This method has been ^ut in piadtice by fome of the
French academy.
Levelling staves, inftruments ufed in levelling, fer-
ving to carry the marks to be obferved, and at the fame
time to meafure the heights of thofe marks from the
ground. They ufually confift each of two long wooden
rulers, made to Aide over one another, and divide into
feet, inches, &c.
LEVER, or Leaver, in mechanics. See Mecha¬
nics.
LEVERET, among fportfmen, denotes a hare in the firft
year of her age.
LEVIGATION, in pharmacy and chemiftry, the re¬
ducing hard and ponderous bodies to an impalpable
powder, by grinding them on a prophyry, or the like.
LEVITE, in a general fenfe, means all the defeendants
of Levi, among whom were the Jewilh priefts them-
felves, who being defeended from Aaron, were likewife
of the race of Levi : but it is more particularly ufed
for an order of officers in that church, who were em¬
ployed in performing the manual fervice of the temple,
fuch as in fetching wood, water, and other things ne-
ceffary for the facrifices, and in finging and playing
upon inftruments of mufic.
LEVITICUS, a canonical book of the Old Teftament,
fo called from its containing the laws and regulations
relating to the priefts, Levites, and facrifices.
LEVITY, in phyfiology, the privation or want of
weight in any Itody, when compared with another
that is heavier than it, in which fenfe it ftands oppofed
to gravity.
LEVY, in law, fignifies to gather or c®lle<ft, as to levy
money'; and to levy a fine of lands, is the palling a
fine.
LEWARDEN, a city of the United Provinces, the
capital of weft Friefland : E. long. 50 35', N. lat.
530 20'.
LEWES, a borough-town of Suffex, forty miles fouth
of London, which fends two members to parliament.
LEWIS, the moft northerly ot any of the weftern ifiands
of Scotland, lying in 8° odd minutes W. long, and be¬
tween 58° and 590 odd minutes N. lat. ♦
LEXICON, the lame as dictionary, but chiefly ufed in
fpeakingof Greek dictionaries. See Dictionary.
LEYDEN, a city of Holland, in which there is a fa¬
mous univerfity, fituated twenty miles fouth of Amfter-
dam.
LEYTE, one of the Philippine illands, feparated from
the ifland Philippina by a narrow channel: E. long.
1230, N.. lat. 11°.
LIBANUS, a range of mountains in Afiatic Turky, be¬
tween Syria and Paleftine, which extend from Sidou
on the Levant, eaftward beyond Damafcus.
LIBATION, a religious ceremony among the ancient
pagans, which confifted in an effufion of liquors poured
on the head of the victims prepared for facrifice.
LIBAW, a port-town of Poland, in the duchy of Cour-
land, fituated on a bay of the Baltic : E. long. 21°,
N. laf. 56° 40'.
LIBELLULA, in the hiftory of infeCts, a genus of four¬
winged flies, called in Englilh dragon flies, or adder-
flies ; the characters of which are thefe : The mouth
is furnilhed with jaws ; the feelers are Ihortei than the
Mate ClU
rx v.1
c3! lire irs CrortciiDTrs^^'^W^
LIB (
fcreafl ; and the tail of the male terminates in a kind of
hooked forceps. There are 2 I fpecies, chiefly diftin-
guiftied by their colour.
LIBER, among botanifls, denotes the tind or inner baik
of trees.
LIBERIA, in Roman antiquity, a feftival obferved on
the fixteenrh of the calends of April, at which time
the youth laid afide their juvenile habit for the toga
virilis, or habit peculiar to grown men.
LIBERTUS, in Roman antiquity, a perfon who from
being a flave had obtained his freedom.
The difference between the liberti and libertini was
this : the liberti were fuch as had been a&ually made
free themfelves, and the libertini were the children of
fuch perfons.
LIBERTY, in general, denotes a ftate of freedom, in
contradiftinclion to flavery.
According to Cicero, liberty is the power of living
as a man pleales, or without being controlled by a-
nother.
In a legal fenfe, liberty fignifies fome privilege that
is held by charter or prefeription.
LIBRA, the Balance, in aftronomy. See Astrono¬
my, p. 487.
Libra, in Roman antiquity, a pound weight; alfo a
coin, equal in valtte to twenty denarii.
LIBRARY, an edifice or apartment delHned for holding
a confiderable number of books placed regularly on
flielves ; or, the books themfelves lodged in it.
The firft who erefted a library at Athens was the
tyrant Pififtratus, which was tranfported by Xerxes in¬
to Perfia, and afterwards brought back by Seleucus Ni-
canor to Athens. Plutarch fays, that under Eumenes
there was a library at Pergamus that contained 200,000
Books. That of Ptolemy Philadelphus, according to
A. Gellius, contained 700,000, which were all burnt
by Csefar’s foldiers. Conftantine and his fucceffors
erefled a magnificent one at Conftantinople, which in
the eighth century contained 300,000 volumes ; and a-
tnong the reft, one in which the Iliad and Odyfley were
written in letters of gold, on the guts of a ferpent:
but this library was burnt by order of Leo Ifaurus.
The moft celebrated libraries of ancient Rome, were
the Ulpian and the Palatine, and in modern Rome that
of the Vatican. The foundation of the Vatican library
was laid by pope Nicholas, in the year 1450; it was
afterwards deftroyed in the facking of Rome by the
conftable of Bourbon, and reftored by pope Sixtus V.
and has been confiderably enriched with the ruins of
that of Heidelberg, plundered by count Tilly in 1682.
One of the moft complete libraries in Europe, is that
erefted by Cofmo de Medicis ; though it is now ex
■ ceeded by that of the French king, which was begun
• by Francis I. augmented by cardinal Richelieu, and
completed by M. Colbert. The emperor’s library at
Vienna, according to Lambecius, confifts of 80,000
volumes, and 15,940 curious medals. The Bodleian
library at Oxford exceeds that of any untverfity in
Europe, and even thofe of any of the fovereigns of Eu¬
rope, except the emperor’s and the French king’s, which
• are each of them older by a hundred years. It was
Vet. II. Numb. 67. 2
973 ) LIE
firft opened in 1602, and has fince been increafed by
a great number of benefactors : indeed the Medicean
library, that of Beffai ion at Venice, and thofe juft men¬
tioned, exceed it in Greek manuferipts • but it outdoes
them all in Oriental manuferipts ; and as to printed
books, Ambrofian at Milan, andthat of Wolfembuttle,
are two of the moft famous, and yet both are inferior to
the Bodleian. The Cotton library confifts wholly of
manuferipts, particularly of fuch as relate to the hifto-
ry and antiquities of Britain ; which, as they are now
bound, make about 1000 volumes.
In Edinburgh there is a good library belofiging to
the univerfity, well furnilhed with books; which are
kept in good order, and cloiftered up with wire-doors,
that none but thekeeper can open, and are now lent out
only upon confignation of the price; a method much
more commodious than the multitude of chains ufed in
other libraries. TheVe is alfo a noble library of books
and manuferipts belonging to the faculty of Advocates.
See Advocate.
LIBRATION, in aftronomy, an apparent irregularityef
the moon’s motion, whereby fhe ieems to librate about
her axis, fometimes from the eaft to the weft, and now
and then from the weft to the eaft. See Astrono¬
my.
LIBYA, in ancient geography, a large extent of Africa,
lying fouth-weft of Egypt.
LICENCE, in law, an authority given to a perfon to do
fome lawful art.
LICENTIATE, one who has obtained the degree of a
licence.
The greateft number of the officers of juftice in
Spain, are drftinguiffied by no other title but that of
licentiate. In order to pafs licentiate in common law,
civil law, and phyfic, they muft have ftudied feven
years; and in divinity, ten. Among us, a licentiate
ufually means a phyfician who has a licence to prartife,
granted by the college ef phy&cians.
LICHEN, liver-wort, in botany, a genus of the
cryptogamia algae clafs. The receptacle is roundifli,
plain, and ffiining; and the farina is difperfed upon
the leaves. There are 85 fpecies, all natives of Bri¬
tain.
LICTORS, in Roman antiquity, the ferjcants or bea¬
dles who carried the fafees before the fupreme magi-
ftrates: it was alfo a part of their office to be the pub¬
lic executioners in beheading, fcourging,
LIDDESDALE, a county of Scotland, bounded by
Tiviotdale, on the north ; Cumberland, on the fouth-
eaft; and Annandale, on the fouth-weft.
LIEGE, in law, a term fometimes ufed for liege lord,
or one who owns no fuperior.
Liege poustie, in Scots law, is oppofed to deathbed;
and fignifies a perfon’s enjoying that ftate of health, in
which only he can difpofe of his property at pleafure.
See law, Tit. xxvii. 28.
Liege in geography, the capital of the biftiopric of the
fame name in Germany, fituated on the river Maes,
twelves miles fouth of Maeftricht; E. long. 50 36/,
N. lat. 50° 40/.
LIENTERY, is a flu-x-of the belly, in which, whatever
10 N * is
L I -G ( 974 ) L I M
is taken in is difcharged by ftool as it is fwallowed, or
very little altered either in colour or fubftance. See
Medicine.
LIEUTENANT, an officer who fupplies the place and
difcharges the office of a fuperior in his abfence. Of
thefe, fome are civil, as the lords-lieutenants of king¬
doms, and the lord-lieutenants of counties; and others
are military, as the lieutenant general, lieutenant-ge¬
neral of the artillery, lieutenant colonel, lieutenant of
the artillery of the tower, lieutenants of horfe, foot,
ffiips of war, be.
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, is properly a viceroy,
and has all the date and grandeur of a king of Eng¬
land, except being ferved upon the knee. He has the
power of making war and peace, of bellowing all the
offices under the government, of dubbing knights, and
of pardoning all crimes except high treafon; he alfo
calls and prorogues the parliament, but no bill can pafs
without the royal aflent. He is affilted in his govern¬
ment by a privy counfel; and, on his leaving the king¬
dom, he appoints the lords of the regency, who go¬
vern in his abfence.
Lords Lieutenants of counties, are officers, who, up¬
on any invafion or rebellion, have power to raife the
militia, and to give commiffions to colonels and other
officers, to arm and form them into regiments, troops
and companies. Under the lords lieutenants, are de¬
puty lietenants, who have the fame power; thefe are
chofen by the lords lieutenants out of the principal
gentlemen of each county, and prefented to the king
for his approbation.
Lieutenant-general, is an officer next in rank to
the general: in battle, he commands one of the wings;
in a march, a detachment, or a flying camp; alfo a
quarter, at a liege, or one of the attacks, when it is
his day of duty.
LIFE, is peculiarly ufed to denote the animated Hate of
living creatures, or the time that the union of their
foul and body lafts.
LIFERENT, in Scots law. When the ufe or enjoyment
of a fubjeii is given to a perfon during his life, it is
faid to belong to him in liferent. See Law, Tit.
xvi. 21.
LIGAMENT, in anatomy, a flrong compaft fubftance,
ferving to join two bones together. See Anatomy.
LIGATURE, infurgery, is a chord, band, or firing; or
the binding any part of the body with a chord, band,
fillet, whether of leather, linnen, be.
Ligatures are ufed to extend and replace bones that
are broken or diflocated; to tie the patients down in
lithotomy and amputations; to tie upon the veins in
phlebotomy, or the arteries in amputations, or in large
wounds; to fecure the fplints that are applied to frac¬
tures ; to tie up the proceffies of the peritonaeum, with
the fpermatic veflels in caftration; and, laftly, in ta¬
king off warts or other excrefcences by ligature.
LIGHT, in phyfiology, certain fubtile particles of mat¬
ter, capable of exciting in us the fenfation of colours.
See Optics.
LIGHTENING, the burfting of fire from a cloud or
the earth. See Electricity.
LIGHTER., in naval achite&ure, a large kind of boat
Ufed in the river of Thames for carrying heavy goods,
as coals, timber, be.
LIGNICENSIS terra, in the materia medica, the nam?
of a fine yellow hole, dug in many parts of Germany,
particularly about Emeric in the circle of Weftphalia,
and ufed in cordial and allringent compofitions.
LIGULATED, among botanifts, an appellation given to
fuch flofcules as have aftraight end turned down wards,
with three indentures, but not divided into fegments.
LIGUSTICUM, lovage, in botany, a genus of the
pentandria digynia clafs. The fruit is oblong, with five
furrows on each fide. There are fix Ipecies, two of
them natives of Britain, viz. the fcotticum, orScottilh
fea parfley; and the cornubienfe, or Cornwal faxifrage.
LIGUSTRUM, privet, in botany, a genus of trees
belonging to the diandria monogynia clafs. The co¬
rolla confifts of four fegments ; and the berry has four
feeds. There is but one fpecies, viz. the vulgare or
privet, a native of Britain.
LILIADEOUS, an appellation given to fuch flowers as
refemble that of the lily.
LILIUM, in botany, a genus of the hexandria mono¬
gynia clafs. The corolla is bell-ffiaped, and confifis
of fix petals, with a longitudinal ne&ariferous line; and
the valves of the capfule are connected with a lattice-
work of hair. There are nine fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain. The root of the white lily is rec¬
koned emollient and fuppurative.
LIMA, a province of'Peru, in South America ; the capi¬
tal of which, called alfo Lima, was almoft entirely de-
ftroyed by an earthquake in 1746: W. long. 76°,
and S. lat. 120 30':
LIMAX, in zoology, a genus of infeils belonging to the
order of vermes mollufca ; the charadlers of which are
thefe : The body is oblong/fitted for crawling, with a
kind of mufcular coat on the upper part; and the belly
is plain : they have a roundiffi hole in the fide, near the
neck, which ferves the purpofes of genitals, and for
voiding their excrements : they have likewife fpur
tentacula or horns, fituate above the mouth, which they
extend or retraift at pleafure. There are eight fpecies,
diftinguifhed entirely by their colour, as the black fnail;
the white fnail ; the reddiffi fnail ; the affi-coloured
fnail; be. Snails are faid to be hermaphrodites, and
mutually impregnate each other.
LIMB, in a general fenfe, denotes the border-or edge
of a thing : thus, we fay, the limb of a quadrant, of
the fun, of a leaf, be.
Limb, in anatomy, anappellation given to the extremities
of the body, as the arms and legs.
Limb, limbus, in the church of Rome, is ufed in tw<J
different fenfes. 1. The limb of the patriarchs is faid
to be the place where the patriarchs waited the re-
/'demption of mankind : in this place, they fuppofe our
Saviour’s foul continued from the time of his death to
his refurredtion. 2. The limb of infants, dying with¬
out bapufm ; a place fuppofed to be diftindFboth from
heaven and hell ; fince, fay they, children dying in¬
nocent of any adtual fin do not deferve hell, and by rea-
fon of their original (in cannot be admitted into heaven,
LIMBURG,
t I M ( 91$ ) LI N
LIMBURG, the capital of a dutchy of the fame name,
in the Auftrian Netherlands, twenty miles fouth-ead
of Liege : E. long 6° 5', and N. lat. 50° ^']>-
LIMF^. See Chemistry, p. 76.
LIMERIC, the capital of a county of the fame name
in Ireland, fituated on the river Shannon, fifty two
miles north of Cork: W. long. 8°3c/, N. lat 520 gj7.
LIMINGTON, or Lemington, a borough town of
Hampihire, twelve miles fouth-weft of Southampton.
It fends two members to parliament.
LIMIT, in a redrained fenfe, is ufed by mathematicians
for a determinate quantity to which a variable one con¬
tinually approaches ; ifi which fenfe, the circle may be
faid to be the limit of its circumfcribed and infcnbed
polygons. In algebra, the term limits is applied to
two quantities, one of which is greater, and the other
lefs, than another quantity: and in this fenfe it is ufed,
in fpeaking of the limits of equations, whereby their
folution is much fa. ilitated. See Algebra.
LIMNING, the art of painting in water-colours, in con-
tradiltin&ion to painting, which is done in oil-colours.
See Painting.
Limning is by far more ancient than painting in oil;
this laft being fird invented by John Van Eych, a Fle-
midi painter, in 1410.
In limning, all colours are proper enough, except
the white, made of lime, which is only ufed in frefco.
The azure and ultramarine mud always be mixt with
fize or gum : but there are always applied two lays of
hot fize, before the fize colours are laid on : the co¬
lours are all ground in water, each by itfelf, and, as they
are required in working, are diluted with fize water.
When the piece is fimfiied, they go over it with the
white of an egg, well beaten ; and then with varnilh,
If required.
To limn or draw a face in colours : having all the
materials in readinefs, lay the prepared colour on the
card even and thin, free from hairs and fpots, over the
place where the pidture is to be. The ground being
laid, and the party placed in a due pofition, begin the
work ; which is to be done at three fittings. At the
fird, you are only to dead-colour the face, which will
require about two hours. At the fecond fitting, go
over the work more curioufly, adding its particular
graces or deformities. At the third fitting, finilh the
whole ; carefully remarking whatever may conduce to
render the piece perfedt, as the cad of the eyes, moles,
fears, gedures, and the like.
LIMODORUM, in botany, a genus of the gynandria
diandria clafs. The nedlarium confids of one concave,
pedicellated leaf, fituate with the undermod petal.
There is but one fpecies, a native of North America..
LIMON. See Citrus.
LIMOSELLA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia-
angiofpe* mia clafs. The cafix confids of five ftgments,
and the corolla of five equal divifions ; the daminaare
approximated in pairs; and the cap!tile has one cell
and two valves, containing many feeds.
LIMPET. See Patella.
LINARIA. in ornithology. See Fringilla.
LINCOLN, the capital city of the county of Lincoln:
W. long. 27,1 N. lat, 530 16 . It fends two members
to parliament.
LINE, in geometry, a quantity extended in length only,
without any breadth orthicknefs. It is formed by the
flux or motion of a point. See Fluxions, and Ge¬
ometry.
Line, in the art of war, is underdood of the difpofition
of an army, ranged in order of battle, with the front
extended as far as may be, that it may not be flanked.
Line e>f battle, is alfo underdood of the difpofition of a
fleet on the day of the engagement, on which occafion
the veflels are ufually drawn up as much as pollible in
a draight line, as well to gain and keep the advantage
of the wind, as to run the fame board.
Ship of the Line, a veflel large enough to be drawn up
in the line, and to have a place in a fea-fight.
Line, in genealogy, a feries or fucceflion of relations in
various degrees, all defeending from the fame common
father.
Line alfo denotes a French meafure, containing the
twelfth part of an inch, or the hundred and forty-fourth
part of a foot. Geometricians conceive the line lub-
divided into fix points. The French line anfwers to
the Englifh barley corn.
Lines, in heraldry, the figures ufed in armories, to
divide the fhield into different parts, and to compofe
different figures. Thefe lines, according to their dif¬
ferent forms .md names, give denomination to the piecea
or figures w hich they form, except the draight or plaio
lines.
LINEA alba, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 192.
LINEAMENT, among painters, is ufed for the out-lines
of a face.
LINEAR numbers, in mathematics, fuch as have re¬
lation to length only ; fuch is a number which repre-
fents one fide of a plane figure. If the- plane figure be
a fquare, the linear number is called a root.
Linear problem, that which maybe folved geometri¬
cally by the interfedfion of two right lines. This is
called a fimple problem, and is capable but of one fo¬
lution.
LINEN. See Linnen.
LING, in ichthyology. See Gadus.
LINGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wed-
phalia, capital of a county of the fame name, fituated
on the river Ems, forty five miles north of Munder.
LINGUATULA, in ichthyology. See Pleuro-
nectes
LINIMENT, in pharmacy, acompofition of a confidence
fomewhat thinner than an unguent, and thicker than an
oil, uftdfor anointing diflerent parts of the body in va¬
rious intentions.
The materials proper for compofing of a liniment,
are oils, fats, balfams, and whatever enters the com-
pofition of unguents and pladers
LINLITHGOW, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Lothian, capital of the county of Linlithgow, fituated
fixteen miles wed of Edinburgh.
LINNAlA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia angio-
fpermia clafs. The calix is double ; the corolla is
bell-Ihaped ; and the berty is dry, and contains two
feeds.
LIP ( 97<S ) LIT
'feeds. There is but one fpecies, a native of Sweeden.
LINNEN, in commerce, a well-known kind of cloth,
chiefly made of flax. See Flax.
In order to fucceed in the linnen-manufafture, one
fet of people fhould be confined to the plowing and
preparing the foil, fovving and covering the feed, to
the weeding, pulling, rippling, taking care of the new
feed, and watering and grafling the flax, till it is lod¬
ged at home : others fhould be concerned in the drying,
breaking, fcutching, and heckling the flax, to fit it
for the fpinners ; and others in fpinning and reeling it,
to fit it for the weaver ; others fliould be concerned in
taking due care of the weaving, bleaching, beetling,
and finifhing the cloth for the market. It is reafon-
able to believe, that if thefe feveral branches of the
manufa&ure were carried on by diftincl dealers in Scot¬
land and Ireland, where our home-made linnens are
manufa&ured, the feveral parts would be better exe¬
cuted, and the whole would be afforded cheaper, and
with greater profit.
UNNET, in ornithology. See FriNcsilla.
LINSEED, the feed of the plant linum. Linfeed brui-
fed and fteeped in water, gives it very foon a thick
mucilaginous nature, and communicates much of its
emollient virtues to it.
UNT. See Linnen and Flax.
LINTEL, in archite&ure, a piece of ftone or timber
that lies horizontally over door-pofts 4md window-
jambs, as well to bear the thicknefs of the wall over
it, as to bind the fides of the wall together.
LINTON, a market-town of Cambridgelhire, fituated
• ten miles fouth-eaft of Cambridge.
LINTS, or Lintz, a beautiful city, capital of Upper
Auftria, with aflrong citadel.
LINUM, flax, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
pentagynia clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves,
and the corolla of five petals ; the capfule has five
valves, and ten cells; and the feerjs are folitary. There
are 22 fpecies, five of them natives of Britain, viz,
■ the ufitatiflimum, or common flax; the perenne, or blue
flax ; the tenuifolium, or narrow leaved wild flax; the
catharticum, or purging flax ; and the radiola, leall
rupture-wort, or all-feed. See Flax.
LION, in zoology. See Felxs.
LIONCELLES, in heraldry, a term ufed for feveral
lions borne in the fame coat of arms.
LIP, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 30J.
Hare-'Lw, a diforder, in which the upper lip is in a man¬
ner flit or divided, fo as torefemble the upper lip of a
hare, whence the name. See Surgery.
LIPOTHYMIA, fainting, in medicine, may arife
from feveral caufes, as too violent exercifes, fupprefiion
of the menfes or other accuftomed evacuations, <bc.
See Medicine.
LIPPIA, in botany, a geuus of the didynamia angio-
fpermia clafs. The calix confifts of four roundifti, e-
redt, and membranaceous teeth ; the capfule is ftraight,
has two valves, one cell, and two feeds. There are
two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
LIQUIDAMBER, in botany, a genus of the monoecia
polyandria clafs. The calix has four leaves; it has
no corolla, but numerous filaments : the calix of the
male coufifts of four leaves in the form of a globe ; it
has no corolla, but a couple of ftyli; and the capfules,
which are numerous, are round, with a double valve,
and contains many feeds. There are two fpecies, both
natives of America. This tree yields a fragrant refin,
called liquidamber, which refolves and opens obftruc-
tions.
LIQUOR, a name fignifying any fluid fubftance.
LIQUORICE. See Glycyrrhiza.
LIIUODENDRUM, the tulip-tree, in botany, a
genus of the polyandria polygynia clafs. The calix
confifts of three leaves, and the corolla of nine petals;
and the feeds are imbricated upon a ftrobilus. There
are two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
LISBON, the capital of Portugal, fituated on the north
bank of the Tagus, about ten miles from its mouth,
and eighty miles xeft of the frontiers of Spain ■ W.
long. 90 25', N. lat. 38° 2’)'. It is about fix miles
long, winding with the river, from whence it rifes
with an eafy afcent, and is computed to contain about
30,000 houfes, 200,000 inhabitants, forty parilh-
churches, and forty convents of both fexes.
LISIEUX, a large city and biftiop’s fee of France, in
the province of Normandy: E. long. i6,J and N. lat.
40° 14.
LISLE, or Ryssel, a large and populous city, the
capital of French Flanders, fituated on the river Deule,
twelve miles weft of Tournay : E. long. 30, and N.
lat. $oQ 42',
LIST, in commerce, the bordure of cloth, or of fluff;
ferving not only to fhew their quality, but to preferve
them from being torn in the operations of fulling, dy¬
ing, fyc.
Lift is ufed on various ocaafions ; but chiefly by
gardeners for fecuring their wall-trees.
LITANY, a folemn form of fupplication to God, in
which the prieft utters fome things fit to be prayed for,
and the people join in their interceflion, faying, U'e be-
feech thee to hear us, good Lord, &c.
LITCHFIELD, a city of Staffordlhire, one hundred
miles north-weft of London, and twelve fouth-eaft of
Stafford. This city and Coventry have one bifhop
between them ; it fends two members to parliament.
LITERATI, in general, denotes men of learning > but
is more particularly ufed by the Chinefe for fuch per-
fons as are able to read and write their language.
LITHANTHRAX, pit-coal, in natural hiftory, a
genus of foflils, defined to be folid, dry, opake, in¬
flammable fubftances, found in large ftrata, fplitting ho¬
rizontally more eafily than in any other dire<5!ion, of
a gloffy hue, foft and friable, not fufible, but eafily in¬
flammable, and leaving a large refiduum of aflics.
Of this genus there are three fpecies: 1. The hard,
dufky, black coal, known by the name of Scotch coal.
2. The hard, gloffy, black coal, known by the fame
name. 3. The friable, gloffy, black coal, called New-
caftle coal, as being chiefly dug about that town.
LITHARGE, is properly a recrement of lead, or lead
vitrified, either alone, or with a mixture of copper.
See Chemistry, p. 84.
LITHIDIA,
Tlate A CIV.
Ietex. s
./.ItAXJ
L I V ( 977 ) LOG
LITHIDIA, in natural hiftory, the name of a large clafs
of foffils, including the flint and pebble kinds.
The lithidia are defined to be Hones of a debafed cry-
ftalline matter, covered by, and furrounded with, an
opake cruft, and frequently of great beauty, and con-
fiderable brigbtnefs within, though of but a flight de
giee of tranfparency, approaching to the nature of the
femi pellucid gems, and like them found in not very
large maflcs.
LITHOGINESIA, a term ufed by fome authors for
the formation of (tones. See Stone.
LITHOMARGA, Stonc-marle, a name given by fome
authors to a fparry fubftance highly debafed by earth,
which is found in great plenty in the caves of the
Hart’s foreft in Germany, and ufed there.
L1THONTRIPTICS, medicines which either break, or
are fuppofed to have the virtue of breaking, (tones in
the urinary paflages. See Medicine.
LITHOPHYTA, the name of Linnaeus’s third order of
vermes. See Natural Hi story.
LITHOSPERMUM, Gromwell, in botany, a genus
of the pentandria monogynia clafs. The corolla is
funnel-lhaped, with a naked perforated faux ; and the
calix confifts of five fegments. There are fix fpecies,
three of them natives of Britain ; viz. the officinale, or
gromwell; the purpurocaeruleum, or iefler creeping
gromwell; and the arvenfe, or baftard alkanet. The
feeds of the officinale are accounted diuretic.
LITHOSTROTION, in natural hiftory, a name of a
fpecies of foffil coral,, compofed of a great number of
long and (lender columns, fometimes round, fometimes
angular, joined nicely to 0°^ another, and of a (tarry
or radiated furface at their tops. Thefe are found in
confiderable quantities inihe northern and weftern parts
of this kingdom, fometimes in (ingle, fometimes in
complex fpecimens.
LITHOTOMY, in furgery, cutting for the (lone. See
Surgery.
LITHOZUGIA, in natural hiftory, a genus of foffils,
compofed of a fimple (tony matter, making a kind of
cement, and holding firmly together fmall pebbles &c.
embodied in it.
LITHUANIA, a province of Poland, bounded by Sa-
mogitia, Livonia, and part of Ruffia, on the north ; '
by another part of Ruffia, on the eaft; by Volhinia
and Polefia, on the fouth ; and by Pruffia and Pola-
chia, on the weft.
LITISCONTESTATION, in Scots law. See Law,
Tit. xxx. 33.
LITURGY, a name given to thofe fet forms of prayer
which have been generally ufed in the Chriftian church.
Of thefe there are not a few afcribed to the apoftles
and fathers, but they are almoft univerfally allowed
to be fpurious. , '
LITUUS, in Roman antiquity, a ffiort ftraight rod, on¬
ly bending a little at one end, ufed by the augurs.
See Augur. *
LIVADIA, the capital of a province of European Tur-
ky, the ancient Achaia, fituated on the north fide of
the gulph of Lepanto: E. long. 23° 15', N. lat,
270 30'.
Vol. II. No. 67. 2
LIVER, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 264.
Liver wort, in botany. See Lichen.
LIVERPOOL, or Leverpool,. a port town of Lm-
caffiire, fifteen miles north of Chefter, which fends
two members to parliament.
LIVERYMEN of London are a number of men cho-
fen from among the freemen of each company. Out
of this body the common council, ffieriflF, and other fupe-
ric* officers for the government of the city are deified,
and they alone have the privilege of giving their votes
for members of parliament; from which the reft of the
citizens are excluded.
LIVONIA, a province of Ruffia, 160 miles long, and
I2obroaded ; bounded by the gulph of Finland, on the
north ; by Ingria and great Novogorod, on the eaft;
by Lithuania and Courland, on the fouth ; and by the
Baltic, on the weft its chief towns are Narva, Revel,
and Riga.
XlVONICA terra, a kind of fine bole nfed in the
(hops of Germany and Italy. Thefe earths are both
dug out of the fame pit, in the place from whence they
have their name, and in fome other parts of the world.
They are generally brought to us made up into little
cakes, and fealed with the impreflion of a church and
an efcutcheon with two crofs keys. In Spain and
Portugal they are much ufed, fometimes fingly, fome-
times mixed together, and are good in fevers and in
fluxes of ail kinds.
LIVRE, a French money of account, containing twenty
fols.
LIXIVIOUS, an appellation given to falts obtained
from burnt vegetables by lotion.
LIXIVIUM, in pharmacy, &c. a ley, obtained by
pouring fome liquor upon the affies of plants ; which is
more or lefs powerful, as it has imbibed the fixed falts
contained in the affies.
LIZZARD, in zoology. SccLacerta.
Lizzard, in geography, a cape, or promontory of Corn¬
wall, fifteen miles fouth of Falmouth: W. long. 50
47’, N. lat. 490 50'.
LOACH, in ichthyology, See Cobitis.
LOADSTONE. See Magnet.
LOAMS, in natural hiftory, are defined to be earths
compofed of diflimilar particles, hard, ftiff,denfe, and
hard and rough to the touch; not eafily du<5tile while
moift, readily diffufible in water, and compofed of
fand and a tough vifcid clay. Of thefe loams, fome
are whitiffi, and others brown or yellow.
LOBE, in anatomy, any fleffiy protuberant part, as the
lobes of the lungs, lobes of the ears,
LOBELIA, in botany, a genus of the fyngertefia mono¬
gynia clafs. The calix confifts of five fegments, and
the corolla of one irregular petal; and the capfole has
two and fometimes three cells. There are 26 fpe^cies,
only one of’them a native af Britain, v/z the dorti-
nanna, or water gladiale.
LOCAL, in law, fomething fixed to the freehold, or
tied to a certain place: thus real actions are local,
fince they muft be brought in the country where they
lie: and local cuftoms are thofe peculiar to certain
•countries and places.
10 O
Local
LOG ( 978 ) LOG
Local medicines, thofe deftined to aft upon particu¬
lar parts; fuch are fomentations, epithems, veficato-
ries, &c.
0/* Locality, in Scots law, a decree propor¬
tioning a minilter’s (tipend among the different perfons
liable in payment of it. See Law, Tit. v. 13.
LOCATELLUS’s balsam, in pharmacy, a celebra¬
ted balfam, the preparation whereof is direfted in the
Edinburgh difpenfatory thus: Take of yellow-wax,
one pound; oil olive, a pint and a half; Venice tur¬
pentine, a pound and a half; balfam of Peru, t\vo
ounces ; dragon’s blood, one ounce: melt the wax in
the oil over a gentle fire; then add the turpentine; and
having taken them from the fire, mix in the balfam of
Peru and dragon’s blood, keeping them continually
ftirring till grown cold.
This balfam is ufed in internal bruifes and hsemor-
rhages, erofions of the inteflines, ulcerations of the
lungs, dyfenteries, and in fome coughs and afthmas.
LOCHIA, in medicine, a flux from the uterus, confe-.
quent to delivery. See Midwifery.
LOCHMABEN, a town of Scotland, fifteen miles call
of Dumfries.
LOCK, a well-known inftrument ufed for faftening doors,
chefts, generally opened by a key.
LOCKMAN, an officer in the ifle of Man, who exe¬
cutes the orders of the government, much like our un¬
der fheriff.
LOCRIDA, a town ofTurky in Europe, feventy miles
fouth-eafi of Durazzo: E. long. 210, N. lat. 41.
LOCUS GEOMETRicus, denotes a line, by which a
local or indeterminate problem is folved.
A locus is a line, any point of which may equally
folve an indeterminate problem. Thus, if a right line
fuffice for the conftrudion of the equation, it is called
/ecus ad reftuni; if a circle, /ocus ad circulum; if a
parabola, locus ad parabolam ; if an ellipfis, locus ad
ellipfin ; and fo of the reft of the conk fections.
LOCULAMENT, among botanifts, denotes a cell, or
partition, in a feed pod, for the feed of a plant.
LOCUST, in zoology. See Gryllus.
LODGMENT, in military affairs, is a work raifed with
earth, gabions, fafcines, wool packs, or mantelets, to
cover the befiegers from the enemies fire, and to pre¬
vent their lofing a place which they have gained, and
are refolved, if poffible, to keep.
LOEFLINGIA, in botany, a genus of the triandria
monogyniaclafs. The calix confifts offiye leaves, and
the corolla of five fmall petals ; and the capfule has
one cell, and three valves. There is but one fpecies,
a native of Spain.
LOESELIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermia clafs. The calix confifts of four fegments ;
and the capfule has three cells. There is but one fpe¬
cies, a native of America.
LOG, in naval affairs, is aflat piece of wood, ffiaped
fomewhat like a flounder, with a piece of lead faftened
to its bottom, which makes it ftand or fwim upright
* in the water. See Plate CI1I. fig. 4.
LOGARITHMIC curve. If on the. line AN (Plate
CIII. fig. 5.) both ways indefititely extended, be ta¬
ken, AC, CE, EG, G I, I L, on the right hand.;
and alfo Ag, g P, <bc, on the left, all equal to one
another : and if at the points P g% A, C, E, G, I,
L, be eredted to the right line AN, the perpendicu¬
lars P S, £ </, A B, C D, £ F, G H, I K, L M,
which let be continually proportional, and reprefent
numbers, viz. A B, 1 ; C D, 10; E F, xoo, <bc.
then (hall we have two progreflions of lines, arithme¬
tical and geometrical: for the lines AC, A E, AG,
<bc. are in arithmetical progreffion, or as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
fac. and fo reprefent the logarithms to which the geo¬
metrical lines A B, CD, E F, <bc. do correfpond.
Forfince AG is triple of the firft line AC, the num¬
ber GH ffiall be in the third place from unity, if C D
be in the firft: fo likewife ffiall L M be in the fifth
place, fince AL = 5 AC. If the extremities of ths
proportionals S, d, B, D, F, <bc. be joined by right
lines, the figures S B M L will become a polygon, con-
fifting of more or lefs fides, according as there are more
or lefs terms in the progreffion.
If the parts A C, C E, E G, <bc. be bifedled in the
points, c, e, g, i, /, and there be again raifed the
perpendiculars c d, ef, g P, i k, l m, which are mean
proportionals between A B, C D ; C D, E F, then
there will arife a new feries of proportionals, whofe
terms, beginning from that which immediately follows
unity, are double of thofe in the firft feries, and the
difference of the terms is become lefs, and approach
nearer to a ratio of equality than before. Likewife,
in this new feries, the right lines A L, A c, exprefs
the diftances of the terms LM, c d, from unity, viz.
fince A L is ^en times greater than A c, L M ffiall be
the tenth term of the feries from unity ; and becaufe A e
is three times greater than Ac, e f will be the third
tern> of the feries if cd bz the firft, and there ffiall be
two mean proportionals between AB and ef, and between
A B and L M there will be nine mean proportionals. And
if the extremities of the lines B d, Y) f, F b, &c. be
joined by right lines, there will be a new polygon made,
confifting of more but ffiorter fides than the laft.
If, in this manner, mean proportionals he.continual*
ly placed between every two terms, the number of
terms at laft will be made fo great, as alfo the num¬
ber of the fides of the polygon, 'as to be greater than
any given number, or to be infinite; and every fide of
the polygon fo leffened, as to become lefs than any gi¬
ven right line ; and confequently.the polygon, will be
changed into a curve-lined figure ; for any curve-lined
figure may be conceived as a polygon, whofe fides
are infinitely fmall and infinite in number. A curve
defcribed after this manner, is called logarithmical.
It is manifeft from this defcription of the logarith¬
mic curve, that all numbers at equal diftar.ces are con¬
tinually proportional. It is alfo plain, that if there
be four numbers, AB, CD, IK, LM,. fueh that the
diftance between the firft and fecond be equal to the di-
ftance between the third and the fourth, let the diftance
from the fecond to the third be what it will, thefe
numbers will be proportional. For becaufe the diftan¬
ces AC, IL, are equal, AB.ffiall be to the incre¬
ment Dr, as I K is to the increment MT. Where-
fore,
L O G ( 9
fore, bycompofnion, AB : DC : : IK: ML. And,
contrariwife, if four numbers be proportional, the di-
ftance between the firft and fecondihall be equal to the
diftance between the third and fourth.
The diftance between any two numbers, is called
the logarithm of the ratio of thofe numbers ; and, in¬
deed, doth not meafure the ratio itfelf, but the num¬
ber of terms in a given feiies of geometrical propor¬
tionals,' proceeding from one number to another, and
defines the number of equal ratios by the compofition
whereof the ratio of numbers is known.
LOGARITHMS, are the indexes or exponents (moftly
whole numbers and decimal fradtions, conlifting of fe-
ven places of figures at leaft) of the powers or roots
(chiefly broken) of a given number ; yet fuch indexes
or exponents, that the feveral powers or roots they
exprefs, are the natural numbers, x, 2, 3, 4, 5, <bc.
to 10 or 100000, kc. (as, if the given number be
10, and its index be affumed 1.0000000, then the
0.0000000 root of 10, which is 1, will be the lo¬
garithm of 1 ; the 0.3O1036 root of 10, which is 2,
will be the logarithm of 2 ; the 0,477121 root of 10,
which is 3, will be the logarithm of 3 ; the 1.612060
root of 10, the logarithm of 4; the 1.041393 power
of 10 the logarithm of 11 ; the 1.079181 power of
10 the logarithm of 12, drc.) being chiefly contrived
for eafe and expedition in performing of arithmetical
Operations in large numbers, and in trigonometrical cal¬
culations ; but they have likewife been found of exteniive
fervice in the higher geometry, particularly in the me¬
thod of fluxions. They are generally founded on this
confideration, that if there be any row of geometrical
proportional numbers, as 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64,
128, 256, 6c. or 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 6c. and
as many arithmetical progrdfional numbers adapted to
them, or fet over them, beginning with o,
thus £0’ ^ 2’ 3’ 4. 6, 7, 6c. 7
n Sj £1, 2, 4,8, *6, 32, 64, 128, 6c. 5
2, 3. 4*
( iF 10, ioo, 1000, 10000, 6c. y
then will the fum of any two of thefe arithmetical
progreflionals, added together, be that arithmetical pro-
greflional which anfwers to or (lands over the geome¬
trical progreflional, which is the produdt of the two geo¬
metrical progreftionals over which the two affumed arith¬
metical progreflionals (land : again, if thofe arithme¬
tical progreifionals be fubtradled from each other, the re¬
mainder will be the arithmetical progreflional (landing
over that geometrical progreflional which is the quo¬
tient of the divifion of the two geometrical progref-
fionais belonging to the two firft affumed arithmetical ,
progreftt'onals ; and the double, triple, 6c. of any
one of the arithmetical progreflionats, ^will be the a-
rithmetical progreffional (landing over the fquare, cubs,
.6c. of that geometrical progreflional which the affu¬
med arithmetical progreflional (lands over, as well as the
-»> -f, 6c. of that arithmetical progreflional will be
the geometrical progreflibnal anfwering to the fquare
root, cube root, 6c. of the arithmetical progreflional
over it; and from hence arifes the following common,
though lame and, imperfedt definition, of logarithms;
-9 ) LOG
“ That they are fo many arithmetical prcgreflionals, anf-
fwering to the fame number of geometrical ones.” Where¬
as, if any one looks into the tables of logarithms, he will
find, that thefe do not all run on in an arithmetical pro-
greflion, nor the numbers they anfwer to in a geometri¬
cal one ; thefe laft being themfelves arithmetical progref-
fionals. Dr Wallis, in his hiftory of algebra, calls lo¬
garithms the indexes of the ratios of numbers to one
another. Dr Halley, in the phiiofophical tranfadlions,
n° 216, fays, they are the expon'ements of the ratios
of unity to numbers. So alfo Mr Cotes, in his Har-
monia Menfurarum, fays, they are the numerical mea-
fures of ratios. But all thefe definitions convey but a very
confufed notion of logarithms. Mr Maclaurin, in his
Treatife of Fluxions, has explained the natural and ge-
nefis of logarithms agreeably to the notion of their firlt
inventor lord Naper. Logarithms then, and the quan¬
tities to which they cbrrefpond, may be fuppofed to be
generated by the motion of a point; and if this point
moves over equal fpaces in equal times, the line deferi-
bed by it increafes equally.
Again a line decreafes proportionably, when the point
that moves over it deferibes fuch parts in equal times as
are always in the fame conftant ratio to the lines ftom
which they are fubdudted, or to the diftances of that
point, at the beginning of thofe lines, from a given terra
in that line. In like manner, a line may increafe pro¬
portionably, if in equal times the moving point deferibes
fpaces proportional to its diftances from a certain term at
the beginning of each time. Thus, in the firft cafe, let
a c (Plate CIV. fig. 3.) be to * c, c d to c 0, d e \.o d 0,
e f to e osfg to fo, always in the fame ratio of Q_R to
Q^S ; and fuppofe the point P fets out from a, defcubing
a c, c d, d e, effg, in equal parts of the time; and
let the fpace deferibed by P in any given time be al¬
ways in the fame ratio to the diftance of P from 0 at the
beginning of that time ; then will the right line a 0 de-
creafe proportionally.
In like manner, the'linec ff, {ibid. n° 3.) increafes
proportionally, if the point />, in equal times, deferibesthe
fpaces a c, c d, de, fg, 6c. fq that a c \% to a 0, c d to
co, deto do, 6c. in a eonftant ratio. If we now fup¬
pofe a point P deferibing the line AG {ibid. n° 4.) with
an uniform motion, while the point p deferibes a line in-
creafing or decreafing proportionally, the line A P, de¬
feribed by Pj with this uniform-motion, in the fame time
that d a, by increafing or decreafing proportionally, be¬
comes equal ro 0 p, is the logarithm’of y p; Thus A C,
A D, A E, 6c. are the logarithms oi 0 c, g d, oe, 6c.
refpeflively; and 0 # is the quantity whofe logarithm is
fuppofed equal to nothing.
We have here abftradled from numbers, that the doc¬
trine may be-the more general; but it is plain, that if
AC, AD, A E, 6c. be fuppofed, 1, 2, 3, 6c. in a-
rithmetis progreftion ; o c, 'ocf, o e, 6c. v/ill be in geo¬
metric progreliion; and. that the logarithm of 0 a, which
may be taken for unity, is nothing.
Lord Naper, in his (irft fcheme of logarithms, fuppofe;,
that while 0 p increafes or decreafes proportionally, the
uniform motion of the point P; by w'hich the logarithm
oi 0p is generated, is equal to the velocity of /> at <7; that.
is,„at the term of time when the logarithms begin to be:
generated..
LOG (9
.generated. Hence logarithms, formed after this model,
are called Naper’s Logarithms, and fometimes Natural
Logarithms.
When a ratio is given, the point p defcribes the dif¬
ference of the terms of the ratio in the fame time. When
a ratio is duplicate of another ratio, the point /> defcribes
the difference of the terms in a double time. When a
ratio is triplicate of another, it defcribes the difference
of the terms in a triple time ; and fo on. Alfo, when a
ratio is compounded of two or more ratios, the point/»
defcribes the difference of the terms of that ratio in a
time equal to the fum of the times in which it defcribes
the differences of the terms of the Ample ratios of which
it is compounded. And what is here faid of the times of
the motion of p when op increafes proportionally, is to be
applied to the fpaces defcribed by P, in thofe times, with
its uniform motion.
Hence the chief properties of logarithms are deduced.
They are the meafures of ratios. The excefs of the lo¬
garithm of the antecedent above the logarithm of the con¬
sequent, meafures the ratio of thofe terms. The meafure of
the ratio of a greater quantity to a leffer is pofitive; as this
ratio, compounded with any other ratio, increafes it. The
ratio of equality, compounded with any other ratio, nei-
-ther increafes nor diminifhes it; and its meafure is nothing.
The meafure of the ratio of a leffer quantity to a greater
is negative ; as this ratio, compounded with any other
ratio, diminifhes it. The ratio of any quantity A to u-
nity, compounded with the ratio of unity to A, produces
the ratio of A to A, or the ratio of equality; and the
meafures of thofe two ratios deflroy each other when ad¬
ded together ; fo that when the one is confidered as po¬
fitive, the other is to be confidered as negative. J3y fup-
pofing the logarithms of'quantities greater than oa (which
is fuppofed to reprefent unity) to be pofitive, and the lo¬
garithms of quantities lefs than it to be negative, the
fame rules ferve for the operations by logarithms, whe¬
ther the quantities be greater or lefs than oa. When
0/increafes proportionally, the motion of p is perpetually
accelerated ; for thefpaces ac, cd, de, fee. that are de-
feribed by it in any equal times that continually fucceed
after each other, perpetually increafe in the fame propor¬
tion as the lines oa, oc, od, he. When the point p
moves from a towards o, and o/>decreafes proportionally,
the motion of p is perpetually retarded ; for the fpaces
deferibed by-it in any equal times that continually fuc¬
ceed after each other, decreafe in this cafe in the fame
proportion as op decreafes.
If the velocity of the point p be always as the diftance
op, then will this line increafe or decreafe in the manner
fuppofed by lord Naper ; and the velocity of the point p
being the fluxion of the line op, will always vary in the
fame ratio as this quantity itfelf. This, we prefume, will
give a clear idea of the genefis, or nature of logarithms;
but for more of this doftrine, fee Maclaurin’s Fluxions.
Ccnjlruftion ^Logarithms.
The fiifl: makers of logarithms had in this a very
laborious and difficult talk to perform ; they firft made
choice of their fcale orfyftem of logarithms, that is, what
isl of arithmetical progrdlionals Ihould anfwer to fuch a
So ) LOG
fet of geometrical ones, for this is entirely arbitrary; and
they claufe the decuple geometrical progreflionals, i, 10,
100, 1000, loooo, ha and the arithmetical one, o, i, 2,
3,4. or0,000000; x.oooooo; 2,000000; 3,000000;
4,000000, he. as the mofl; convenient. After this they
were to get the logarithms of all the intermediate num¬
bers betveen 1 and 10, 10 and 100, 100 and 1000,
1000 and 10000, he. But firft of all they \vere to get
the logarithms of the prime numbers 3, 5, 7, n, 13,
17. 19, 23, he. and when thefe were once had, it w. 5
eafy to get thofe of the compound numbers made up of
the prime ones, by the addition cr fubtradlion of their
logarithms.
In order to this, they found a mean proportion be¬
tween 1 and 10, and its logarithm will be ~ that of 10;
and fo given, then they found a mean proportional be¬
tween the number firft found and unity, which mean will
be nearer to 1 than that before, and its logarithm wdl! be
4 of the former logarithm, or 4 °f that of 10 ; and ha¬
ving in this manner continually found a mean proportional
between 1 and the laft mean, and bifefted the logarithms,
they at length, after finding 54 fuch means, came to a
number 1 ©000000000000001278191493200323442,6)
near to 1 as not to differ from it fo much as
togtre-ffaoVogoco~o-o~oc6h Part> an^ found its logarithm
to be0.00000000000000005551115123125782702, and
00000000000000012781914932003235 to be the dif¬
ference whereby 1 exceeds the number of roots or mean
proportionals found by extraflion ; and then, by means
of thefe numbers, they found the logarithms of any other
numbers whatfoever ; and that after the following man¬
ner : between a given number, whofe logarithm is wanted,
and 1, they found a mean proportional, as above, until
at length a number (mixed) be found, fuch a finall matter
above 1, as to have 1 and 15 cyphers after it, which are
followed by the fame number of fignificant figures ; then
.they faid, as the laft number mentioned above is to the
mean proportional thus found, fo is the logarithm above,
viz. 0.00000000000000005551115173125782702, to
the logarithm of the mean proportional number, fuch afmall
matter exceeding 1 as but now mentioned ; and this lo¬
garithm being as often doubled as the number of mean
proportionals (formed to get that number) will be the
logarithm of the given number. And this was the me¬
thod Mr. Briggs took to make the logarithms. But if
they are to be made to only feven places of figures, which
are enough for- common ufe, they had only occafion to
find 25 mean proportionals, or, which is the fame thing,
to extrad the T-rrp3TT-rth root of 10. Now having the
logarithms of 3, 5, and 7, they eafily got thofe of 2, 4,
6, 8 and 9; for fince xf-=2, the logarithm of 2 will be
the difference of the logarithms of 10 and 5, the loga¬
rithm of 4 will be two times the logarithm of 2, the lo¬
garithm of 6 will be the fum of the logarithm of 2 and 3,
and the logarithm of 9 double the logarithm of 3. So,
alfo having found the logarithms of 13, 17 and 19, and
alfo of 23 and 29, they did eafily get thofe of all the
numbers between 10 and 30, by addition andffubtradioa
only; and fo having found the logarithms of other prime
numbers, they got thofe of ether numbers compounded of
them. But
LOG (98
But fince the way above hinted at, for finding the lo¬
garithms of the prime numbers is fo intolerably laborious
and troublefome, the more Ikilful mathematicians that
came after the tirft inventors, employing their thoughts
about abbreviating this method, had a vaftly more eafy
and Ihort way offered to them from the contemplation
and menfuration of hypetbolic fpaces contained between
the portions of an afymptote, right lines perpendicular to
it, and the curve of the hyperbola : for if EON (Plate
OIL fig. 6. n° 1.) be an hyperbola, and AD, AQ_the
afymptotes, and AB, AP, AQ^ &c. taken upon one of
them, be reprefented by numbers, and the ordinates BC,
PM, QN, &ir. be drawn from the feveral points B, P,
&c. to the curve, then will the quadrilinear fpaces
BCMP, PMNQ^ &c viz. their numerical meafures be
the logarithms of the quotients of the divifion of AB by
AP, AP by AQ^ 6v. fince when AB, AP, AQ^ &c.
are continual prophrtionals, the faid fpaces are equal, as
is demonftrated by feveral writers concerning conic fe<51:ions.
Se H yperbola.
Having faid that thefe hyperbolic fpaces, numerically
expreffed, may be taken for logarithms, we fhall next
give a fpecimen, from the great Sir Ifaac Newton, of the
method how to meafure thefe fpaces, and confequently
of the confbu&ion of logarithms.
Let CA (ibid. n° 2.) =AF be =1, and AB=Ab=x ;
r ) LOG
=0.01005033585350x4, for the terms reduced to de¬
cimals will Hand thus :
o.0100000000000000 =firft ■)
500000000000 = fecond g
3333333333 = third I ®
25000000 = fourth g.
200000 = fifth [ 2^
i667 = fixth I 3.
- i4 = feventh J «
0.0100503358535014.
Now if this difference of the areas be added to, and
fubtra&ed from their fum before found, half the agre-
gate, viz. 0.1053605156578263 will be the greater area
Ad, and half the remainder, viz. 0.0953101798043249,
will be the leffer area AD.
By the fame tables, thefe areas AD and Ai’, will be
obtained alfo when AB=A£ are fuppofed to be or
CB=i.oi, and Cfco.99, if the numbers are but duly
transferred to lower places, as
0.02000000000000O0 = firft
6666666666 = fecond ^
400000 = third
28 = fourth^
—x3+3£4—x5, drr. and —i+;c+xi4-x3+x44'**> 6'<r.
Sum =0.0200006667066694= area bD.
o.oooxoooooooooooo = firft } Term
50000000 = fecond C of the
3333 = third j feries.
and —~~—x—ax+xjx—x3w-hx4x—xJx, &c, and   
i+x i—x
=x+wx+x*x-J-x3x+x4i+xsx, 6c. and taking the flu¬
ents, we lhall have the area AFDB =
^+TT+
—, 6c. and the area AFdb, =X+"J’
x®, 6c.
Now if AB or ab be Aspx, C5being=o.9, and CB=i.i,
by putting this value of x in the equations above, we lhall
have the area M 06=0.2006706954621511 for the
terms of the feries will Hand as you fee in this table,
0.2000000000000000 = firft ') H
•6666666666666 = fecond g
40000000000 = third j G
285714286 = fourth i ^
2222222 = fifth —
18182 = fixth
154 = feventh
1 = eighth
0.2006706954621511
If the parts Ad and AD of this area be added feparate-
ly, and the leffer DA be taken from the greater dA, we
lhall have Ad—AD=x*-i h—, 6c. =
234
Vox., II. Numb. 67. 2
0.0001000050003333 = area Ad—AD.
Half the agregate o.oioo5033585350I4=A</, and
half the remainder, i>/z.0.009950330853i68i=AD.
And fo putting AB=A£=-r3?o.?r>or CB= 1.001 and C£=
0.999,there wid t>e obtained Adro.oo 1000500033 35835,
and AD=o.ooo99950oi333o835.
After the fame manner, if AB—Ab, be =0.2, or 0.02,
or 0.002, thefe areas will arife.
A</=o.2231435513142097, and
AD=o.i8232i5576939546, or
A^=o.0202027073175194, and
AD=o. 1098026272961797, or
A</=o.002002, and AD=o.ooi.
From thefe areas thus found, others may be eafily had
from addition and fubtradion only. For fince X —
0.8 0.9
=2, the fum of the areas belonging to the ratios
and (that is, infilling upon die parts of the ab-
fcifs 1.2, 0.8; and 1.2, 0.9) viz.
0.405465, 6c. and ^a?=o. 10536] 6c.
Sum=o.28768, 6c.
added tt™, j Ill’ll
Total =0.69314,
10 P
: the area of AFHG,
when
LOG ( 982 ) LOG
, _ * 1 ■ 2 , r ence of their logarithms: then the required logarithm
when CG is =2. Alfo, fince--g X2 =3, the lum dxb ^
t 2 of the number », will be had by adding d-\—- d 
1.0986122, 6(. of the areas belonging to ~ and 2, ^ t0 the logarithm of the leffer nnmber ;2 for ifdre
will be the area of AFGH, when CG=3. Again, lince
—^=5, and 2X5=10^ by adding A.d—a 2231,
tec.
numbers are reprefented by C/>, CG, CP, {ibid. n° 2.)
and the ordinates //, PQ^ be raifed ; if » be wrote for
CG, and x for GP, or G/>, the area pjQP, or —+~i
AD=o.i823, tec. and Ad—o. 1053, tec. together, their
fum is 0.5108, tec. and this added to 1.0986, tec. x3
the area of AFGH, when CG=3. You will have +J^T» will be to the area//HG, as the difference
between the logarithms of the extreme numbers, or 2d, is
I.6o93379i2434ioo4=AFGH, when CG is 5 ; and
adding that of 2 to this, gives 2.3025850929940457
=AFGH, when CG is equal to 10 : and fince 10X10=
100; and 10X100=1000; and V5X10X0.98=7, and
. ioooXi.09i_ j 1000X0 998_
10X1.1=11, and j— =13, and ^ 
499 ; it is plain that the area AFGH may be found by
thecompofitionof the areas found before, when CG=i©o,
1000, or any other of the numbers above mentioned ;
and all thefe areas are the hyperbdlic logarithms of thofe
feveral numbers.
Having thus obtained the hyperbolic logarithms of the
numbers 10, 0.98, 0.99, 1.01, 1.02 ; if the logarithms
of the four laft of them be divided by the hyperbolic lo
garithm 2.3025850, tec. of 10, and the index 2, beadd-
ed ; or, which is the fame thing, if it be multiplied by
its reciprocal 0.4342944819032518, the value of the
fubtangentof the logarithmic curve, to which Briggs’s lo
garithms are adapted, we fhall have the true tabular loga¬
rithms of 98, 99, ioo,ior, 102. Thefe are to be interpo¬
lated by ten intervals, and then we fliall have the logarithms
of all the numbers between 980 and 1020; and all between
980 and 1000, being again interpolated by ten intervals,
the table will be as it were conftrufted. Then from thefe
■we are to get the logarithms of all the prime numbers,
and their multiples lefs than 100, which may be done by
addition and fubtra&ion only: for I02°—2 ;
9945
to the difference between the logarithms of the leffer, and
of the middle one; which, therefore, will be
tec.
, tec.
tec.
2tl J2»3
, 4/98 , 99.
’ 2 7’ 9*
; -5”!=,,
16X27 ^
999. 984 989
; 2—f=4t ; --—^3 *,
27 * . 24 ^ 23
— . . 9971   9882,
TOOT
11 ’ r3 5
9—=20 • ^
2x17 7’ 32
987,
11X17
994_„.
13X13
:59;
9928-
1 8X17
2X81'
=61
9954,
7X18
996.
9949.
3X49'
:83;
= 67 ;
9968
7X16
=89 ; = an^ t*1US ^av‘n^ t^ie ^°gar‘t^rTts
of all the numbers lefs than iqo, you have nothing to
do but interpolate the feveral times, through ten inter¬
vals. ; .
Now the void places may he fdledup by the following
theorem. Tet » be a number, whofe logarithm is want¬
ed; let x be the difference between that and the two    o
neared numbers., equally diftant on each fide, whofe lo- called y. Therefore, alfo the logarithm of a number,
garithms are already found ; and let <7 be foalf the differ- which is a geometrical mean between z—1 and z+r,
will
The two firfl terms of this feries, being fuffi-
cient for the condruftion of a canon of logarithms, even
to 14 places of figures, provided the number, whofe lo¬
garithm is to be found, be lefs than 1000 ; which cannot
be very troublefome, becaufe x is either 1 or 2 : yet it is
not neceffary to interpolate all the places by help of this
rule, fince the logarithms of numbers, which are produ¬
ced by the multiplication or divifion of the number lad
found, may be obtained by the numbers whofe logarithms
were had before, by the addition or fubtradlion of their
logarithms. Moreover, by. the difference of their loga¬
rithms, and by their fecond and third differences, if ne-
ceffery, the void places may. be fiippiied more expediti-
oufly; the rule afore-going being to be applied only where
the continuation of fome full places is wanted, in order
to obtain thefe differences.
By the fame method rules may be found for the inter¬
calation of logarithms, when of three numbers the loga¬
rithm of the leffer and of the middle number are given,
or of the middle number and the greater ; and this al¬
though the numbers fhould not be in arithmetical pro-
greflion. Alfo by purfuing the fteps of this method,
rules may be eafily difeovered for the conftru<3ion of ar¬
tificial fines and tangents, without the help of the natural
tables. Thus far the great Newton, who fays, in one
of his letters to Mr Leibnitz, that he was fo much de¬
lighted with the conftru&ion of logarithms, at his firtl
fetting out in thofe ftudies, that he was afhamed to tell
to how many places of figures he had carried them at that
time : and this was before the year 1666 ; becaufe, he
fays, the plague made him lay afide thofe ftudies, and
think of other tilings.
Dr. Keil, in his Treatifeof Logarithms, at the end
of his Commandine’s Euclid, gives a feries, by means of
which may be found eafily and expeditioufly -the loga¬
rithms of Lrge numbers. Thus, let 2 be an odd number,
whofe logarithm is fought: then fhall the numbers z—1
andz-H be even, and accordingly their logarithms, and
the difference of the logarithms will be had, which let be
LOG
( 983 )
LOG
will be given, viz. equal to half the fum of the logarithms.
Now the feries rX— ,
^ 42 242*
2 5 2002 >
. J5I20Z7 13
fee. (hall be equal to the logarithm of the ratio, which
the geometrical mean between the numbers z—1 and 2+1,
has to the arithmetical mean, viz. to the number 2. If
the number exceeds 1000, the firft term of the feries, viz.
10000, the firft term will exhibit the logarithm to i3
places of figures; end fo this feries is of great ufe in
filling up the chiliads omitted by Mr Briggs. For ex¬
ample, it is required to find the logarithm of 2000! ;
the logarithm of 20000 is the fame as the logarithm of
2, with the index 4 prefixed to it; and the difference of
the logarithms of 20000 and 20001, is the fame as the
difference of the logarithms of the numbers 10000 and
10001, viz. 0.0000434272, <bc. And if this differ¬
—, is fufficient for producing the logarithm to 13 or 14
4Z
places of figures, and the fecond term will give the loga¬
rithm to 20 places of figures. But if z be greater than
0.000000000542813 ; and if the logarithm of the geometrical mean,
4.301051709302416 be added to the quotient, the fum will be
ence be divided by 42, or 80004, t^ie quotient ^ ftiall be
4.301051709845230=^6 logarithm
Wherefore it is manifeft that to have the logarithm to
14 places of figures, there is no neceflity of continuing
out the quotient beyond 6 places of figures. But if you
have a mind to have the logarithm to 10 places of figures
only, the two firft figures are enough. And if the loga¬
rithms of the numbers above 20000 are to be found by
this way, the labour of doing them will moftly confift in
fetting down the numbers. This feries is eafily deduced
from the confideration of the hyperbolic fpaces aforefaid.
The firft figure of every logarithm towards the left hand,
which is feparated from the reft by a point, is called the
index of that logarithm ; becaufe it points out the high-
eft or remoteft place of that number from the place of
unity in the infinite fcale of proportionals towards the left
hand : thus, if the index of the logarithm be 1, it ftiews
that its hightft place towards the left hand is the tenth
place from unity; and therefore all logaiithms which have
1 for their index, will be found between the tenth and
hundredth place, in the order of numbers. And for the
fame reafon all logarithms which have 2 for their index,
will be found between the hundredth and thoufandth
place, in the order of numbers, <bc. Whence univerfally
the index or charracieriftic of any logarithm is always lefs
by one than the number of figures in whole numbers,
which anfwer to the given logarithm ; and, in decimals,
the index is negative.
As all fyffems of logarithms whatever, are compofed
of fimilar quantities, it will be eafy to form, from any
fyftem of logarithms, another fyftem in any given ratio ;
and confequently to reduce one table of logarithms into an¬
other of any given form. For as any one logarithm in the
given form, is to its correfpondent logarithm in another
form; fo is any other logarithm in the given form, to its
correfpondent logarithm in the required form ; and hence
we may reduce the logarithms of lord Napier into the
form of Briggs’s, andcontrariwife. Foras 2.302585092,
&C. lord Napier’s logarithm of 10, is to 1.0000000000,
Mr Briggs’s logarithm of to; fo is any other logarithm
in lord Napier’s form, to the correfpondeyn tabular loga¬
rithm in Mr Briggs’s form ; and becaufe the two firft
numbers conftantly remain the fame ; if lord Napier’s lo¬
garithm of any one number be divided by 2.302585, tec.
or multiplied by 4342944, tec. the ratio of j.ooqo, &<■;.
to 2.30258, tec. as is found by dividing i.oooco, tec..
by 2.30258, tec. the quotient in the former, and the pro-
duff in the latter, will give the correfpondeat logarithm
of 20001.
in Briggs’s form, and the contrary. And, after the fame
manner, the ratio of natural logarithms to that of Briggs’s,
will be found=8685S89638o6.
The ufe and application of Logarithms.
It is evident, from what has been faid of the conftrnc-
tion of logarithms, that addition of logarithms muft be
the fame thing as multiplication in common arithmetick;
and fubftradtion in logarithms the fame as divifion: there¬
fore, in multiplication by logarithms, add the logarithms
of the multiplicand and muhiplier together, their fum is
the logarithm of the produft.
num. logarithms.
Example. Multiplicand 8.5 0.1294189
Multiplier 10 i.oooooco
Produft 85 1.9294189
And in divifion, fubtraft the logarithm of the divifor
from the logarithm of the dividend, the remainder is the
logarithm of the quotient.
num. logarithms.
Example. Dividend 9712 8 3.9873444
Divifor 456 2.658964.8
Quotient 21.3 1.3283796
To find the complement of a Logarithm.
Begin at the left hand, and write down what each fi¬
gure wants of 9, only what the lalt fignificant figure wants
of 10; fo the complement of the logarithm of 456, viz.
2 6589648, is 7.3410352.
In the rule of three. Add the logarithms of the fe¬
cond and third terms together, and from the fum fub¬
traft the logarithm of the firft, the remainder is the lo¬
garithm of the fourth. Or, inftead of fubtfadting a lo¬
garithm, add its complement, and the refult will be the.
fame.
To raife powers hy Logarithms.
Multiply the logarithm of the number given, by the
index of the power required, the produft will be the lo¬
garithm of the power fought.
Example. Let the cube of 32 be required by loga¬
rithms. The logarithm of 32=1.5051 500. which mul¬
tiplied by 3, is 4.5154500, the logarithm of 32768, the-
cube of 3;. Butin railing powers, viz. fquaring, cu^
c.
984 L O
bing, <bc. of any decimal fradion by logarithms, it mud
be obferved, that the firft fignificant figure of the power
be put fo many places below the place of units, as the in¬
dex of its logarithm wants of 10, 100, &c. multiplied
by the index of the power-
To extrafl the roots of powers ^Logarithms.
Divide the logarithm of the number by the index of
the power, the quotient is the logarithm of the root
fought.
Logarithm of 106:
Logarithm of 100=
G I
To find mean proportionals between any t wo numbers.
Subtradt the logarithm of the lead term from the lo¬
garithm of the greated, and divide the remainder by a
number more by one than the number of means defired;
then add the quotient to the logarithm of the lead term
(or fubtraft it from the logarithm of the greated) conti¬
nually, and it will give the logarithms of all the mean
proportionals required.
Example; Let three mean proportionals be fought,
between 106 and 100.
= 2.0253058
: 2-oooo^eo
Divide by 4)0.0253059(0.0063264.75
Logarithm of the lead term too added
2.0000000
Logarithm of the fird mean
Logarithm of the fecond mean
Logarithm of the third mean
Logarithm of the greated term
101.4673846
102.9563014
104 4670483
106
2.0063264.75
2.0126529.5
2.0189794.25
2.0253059.
LOGIC.
LOGIC, the art of uiinking and reafoning judly; or,
it may be defined the fcience or hidory of the hu¬
man mind, inafmuch as it traces the progrefs of our
knowledge from our fird and mod fimple through all their
different combinations, conceptions, and all thofe nume¬
rous deductions that refult from varioufly comparing them
one with another.
The precife bufinefs .of logic, therefore, is to explain
the nature of the human mind, and the proper manner
of conducting its feveral powers, in order to the attain¬
ment of truth and knowledge. It lays open thofe errors
and midakes we are apt, through inattention, to run in¬
to ; and teaches us how to didinguilh between truth, and
Part I. Of
The mind being furnilhed with ideas, its next dep
in the way to knowledge is, the comparing thefe ideas
together, in order to judge of their agreement or difa-
greement. In this joint view of our ideas, if the rela¬
tion is fuch, as to be immediately difcoverable by the
bare infpeftion of the mind; the judgments thence ob¬
tained are called intuitive; for in this cafe, a mere at¬
tention to the ideas compared, fuffices to let us fee, how
far they are connected or disjoined. Thus, that the whole
is greater than any of its parts, is an intuitive judg¬
ment, nothing more being required to convince us of its
truth, than an attention to the ideas of whole and part.
And this too is the reafon, why we call the ad: of the
mind forming thefe judgments, intuition ; as it is indeed
bo more, than an immediate perception of the agreement
or difagreement of any two ideas.
JBut it is fo be obferved, that our knowledge of this
what only carries the appearance of it. By this means
we grow acquainted with the nature and force of the un-
derltanding ; fee what things lie within its reach; where
we may attaincertainty and demonftration ; and when we
muff be contented with probability.
This fcience is generally divided into four parts, viz.
Perception, Judgment, Reafoning, and Method. This
divifion comprehends the whole hiltory of the fenfations
and operations of the human mind. But we mult refer the
reader for the firft part, viz. Perception, and Ideas, to
Metaphysics, where it will be more conveniently and ful¬
ly treated, and confine ourfelves in this place to the three
laft, viz. Judgment, Reafoning, and Method.
Judgment.
kind refpeCts only our ideas, and the relations between
them ; and therefore can ferve only as a foundation to
fuch reafonings as are employed in inveftigating thefe
relations. Now many of our judgments are converfant
about faCls, and the real exiftence of things, which can¬
not be tr.aced by the bare contemplation of our ideas. It
does not follow, becaufe I have the idea of a circle in my
mind, that therefore a figure anfwering to that idea, has
a real exiftence in nature. I can form to myfelf the no¬
tion of a centaur, or golden mountain, but never ima¬
gine on that account, that either of them exift. What
then are the grounds of our judgment in relation to fads ?
Experience and tejiimony. By experience we are in¬
formed of the exiftence of the feveral objeCts which fur-
round us, and operate upon our fenfes. Tejiimony is of
a wider extent, and reaches not only to objeCts beyond
the prefent fphere of our obfervation, but alfo to LCls
L O
an4 tranfaftions, wLich being now part, and having no
locger any exirtence, could not without this conveyance,
have fallen under our cognizance.
' Here then we have three foundations of human judg¬
ment, from which the whole fyftem of our knowledge
may with cafe and advantage be derived. Firlf, intui¬
tion, which refpetfs our ideas themfelves, and their re¬
lations, and is the foundation of thatfpecies of reafoning,
which we call dcmonftration. For whatever is deduced
from our intuitive perceptions, by a clear and conne&ive
feries of proofs, is faid to .be demonflrated, and pi edu¬
ces abfolute certainty in the mind. Hence the knowledge
obtained in this manner, is what we properly term fai¬
ence ; becaufe in every ftep of the procedure, it carries its
■ own evidence along with it, and leaves no room for doubt
or hefitation. And, what is highly worthy of notice, as
the truths of this clafs exprefs the relations between our
ideas, and the fame relations muft ever and invariably
fubfift between the fame ideas, our deductions in the way
of fcience, conftitute what we call eternal, neceffary, and
immutable truths. If it be true that the whole is equal
to all its parts, it muft be fo unchangeably; becaufe the
relation of equality being attached to the ideas them-
felves, muft ever intervene where the fame ideas are com¬
pared. Of this nature are all the truths of natural reli¬
gion, morality, and mathematicks, and in general, what¬
ever may be gathered from the bare view and confideration
of our ideas.
The fecond ground of human judgment is experience ;
from which we infer the exiftence of thofe objects that
furround us, and fall under the immediate notice of our
fenfes. When we fee the fun,* or caft our eyes towards
a building, we not only have ideas of thefe objeCIs with¬
in ourfelves, but aferibe to them a real exiftence out -of
the mind. It is alfo by the information of the fenfes,
that we judge of the qualities of bodies; as when we fay
that fnow is white, fire hot, or fteel hard. For as we
are wholy unacquainted with the internal ftrudture and
conftitution of the bodies that produce thefe fenfations in
os, and are unable to trace any connexion between that
IlruChire and the fenfations themfelves, it is evident, that
ive build our judgments altogether upon obfervation, a-
feribing to bodies fuch qualities, as are anfwerable to the
perceptions they excite in us. But this is not the only
advantage derived from experience; for we are likewife
indebted to it for all our knowledge regarding the co-
exiftence of fenfible qualities in objects, and the opera¬
tions of bodies one upon another. Ivory, for inftance, is
hard and elaftic ; this we know by experience, and in¬
deed by that alone. For being altogether ftrangers to
the true nature both of elafticity and hardnefs, we can¬
not by the Bare contemplation of our ideas determine,
how far the one neceflarily implies the other, or whether
there may not be a repugnance between them. But when
■we obferve theVn to exift both in the fame objetf, we are
then affured from experience, that they are not incom¬
patible; and when we alfo find that a ftone is hard and
not elaftic, and that air though elaftic is not hard,
ve alfo conclude upon the fame foundation, that the i-
deas are not neceftarily conjoined ; but may exift fepa-
rately in different objeCts.. In like manner with regard
■ Vcl. II. N° 6$. 2
G I C. 985
to the operations of bodies one upon another, it is evi¬
dent, that our knowledge this way, is all derived from
obfervation. Aqua regia diffolves gold, as has been
found by frequent trial, nor is there a-.y other way of
arriving at the difeovery. Naturalifts may tell us if they
pleafe, that the parts of aqua regia are of a texture apt
to infinuate between the corpufcles of gold, and thereby
loofen and (hake them afunder. If this is a true account
of the matter, we believe it will notwiihftanding be al¬
lowed, that our conje&ure in regard to the conformation
of thefe bodies is deduced from the experiment, and not
the experiment from the conje&ure. It was not from
any previous knowledge of the intimate ftrudlure of a-
qua regja and gold, and the aptnefs of their parts to a<ft
or be a<£ted upon, that we came by the conclnfion above
mentioned. The internal conftitution of bodies is in a
manner wholly unknown to us. and could we even far-
mount this difficulty, yet as the reparation of the parts
of gold, implies fomething like an adlive force in the men-
Jlruum, and we are unable to conceive how it comes to
be pofleffed of this aftivity ; the effedt muft be owned to
be altogether beyond our comprehenfion. But when re¬
peated trials had once confirmed it, infomuch that it was
admitted as an eftabliffied truth in natural knowledge, it
was then eafy for men, to fpin out theories of their own
invention, and contrive fuch a ftrueture of parts, both for
gold and aqua regia, as would heft ferve to explain the
phamomenon, upon the principles of that fyftem of phi-
lofophy they had adopted.
From what has been faid it is evident, that as intuition
is the foundation of what we call fcientifical knowledge,
fo is experience of natural. For this laft, being ,wholly
taken up with objects of fenfe, or thofe bodies that con¬
ftitute the natural world ; and their properties, as far as
we can difeover them, being to be traced only by a long
and painful feries of obfervations, it is apparent, that in
order to improve this branch of knowledge, we muft be¬
take ourfelves to the method of trial and experiment.
But though experience is what we may term the im¬
mediate foundation of natural knowledge, yet with re-
fpe<5! to particular perfons, its influence is very narrow
and confined. The bodies that furround us are nume¬
rous, many of them lie at a great diftance, and fome
quite beyond our reach. Life too is fhort, andfo crouded
with cares, that but little time is left for any fingle man
to employ himfelf in unfolding the myfteries of nature.
Hence it is neceffary to admit many things upon the te-
ftimony of others , which by this means becomes the foun¬
dation of a great part of our knowledge of body. No
man doubts of the power of aqua regia to diffolve gold,
though perhaps he never himfelf made the Experiment.
In thefe therefore and fuch like cafes, we judge of the
fadts and operations of nature, upon the mere ground off
teftimony. However, as we can always have recourfe to
experience, where any doubt or fcruple arifes, this is
juftly eonfidered as the true foundation of natural philofo-
phy; being indeed the ultimate fupport upon which our
alfent reds, and whereto we appeal, when the higheft de¬
gree of evidence is required.
But there are many fadts that will not allow of an ap¬
peal to the fenfes, and in this cafe teftimony is the true
10 and
9%6 L O
and only foundation of our judgments. All human ac¬
tions of whatever kind, when conlidered as already paft,
are of the nature here defcribed; becaufe having now no
longer any exiftence, both the fadts themfelves, and the
circumftances attending them, can be known only from
the relations of fuch as had fufficient opportunities of
arriving at the truth. Ttjiimony therefore is juflly ac¬
counted a third ground of human judgment ; and as from
the other two we have deduced jcientifical and natural
knowledge, fo may we from this derive hijiorical; by
which we mean, not merely a knowledge of the civil tranf-
adions of Hates and kingdoms, but of all fads whaifoever,
where teftimony is the ultimate foundation of our belief.
Of affirmative and negative proportions.
While the comparing of our ideas, is confidered mere¬
ly as an ad of the mind, affembiing them together, and
joining or disjoining them according to the refult of its
preceptions, we call it judgment; but when our judg¬
ments are put into words, they then bear the name of
propofitions. A propofition therefore is a fentence ex-
preffing fome judgment of the mind, whereby two or
more ideas are affirmed to agree or difagree. Now as
our judgments include at lead two ideas, one of which is
affirmed ordenied of the other, fo mufta propofition have
terms anfwering to thefe ideas. The idea of which we
affirm or deny, add of courfe the term expreffing that i-
dea, is called the fubjeli of the propofition. The idea
affirmed or denied, as alfo the term anfwering it is called
the predicate. Thus in the propofition, God is omnipo¬
tent: GW is the fubjedf, it being of him that we affirm
omnipotence ; and omnipotent is the predicate, becaufe we
affirm the idea exprefled by that word to belong to God.
But as in propofitions, ideas are either joined or dif-
joined ; it is not enough to have terms expreffing thofe
ideas, unlefs we have alfo fome words to denote their a-
greement or difagreement. That word in a propofition
which connefls two ideas together, is called the copula \
and if a negative particle be annexed, we thereby under-
ftand that the ideas are disjoined. The fubjlantive verb,
is commonly made ufe of for the copula, as in the above-
mentioned propofition, God is omnipotent; where// re-
prefents the copula, and fignifies the agreement of the
ideas of God and omnipotence. But if we mean to fepa-
rate two ideas: then, befides the fubftantiye verb, we
muft alfo ufe fome particle of negation, to exprefs this
repugnance. The propofition, Man is not perftfl; may
ferve as an example of this kind, where the notion of
perfeftion, being removed from the idea of >nan, the ne.
gative particle not is inferted after the copula, to fignify
the difagreement between the fubjefl and predicate.
Every propofition neceflarily confifts of thefe three
parrs, but then it is not alike needful that they be all fe-
verally expreffed in words; becaufe the copula is often
included in the term of the predicate, as when we fay, He
fits; which imports the fame as he is fitting. In the
Latin language, a fingle word has often the force of a
whole fentence. Thus, ambulat is the fame as Me eji
ambulans ; a mo, as ego fum amans, and fo in innume¬
rable other inftances; by which it appears, that we are
not fo much to regard the number of words in a fentence,
G I C.
as the ideas they reprefent, and the manner in which they
are put together. For where ever two ideas are joined or
disjoined in an expreffion, though of but a fingle word, it
is evident that we have a fubjedt, predicate, and copula,
and of confequence a complete propofition.
When the mind joins two ideas, we call it an affirma¬
tive when it feparates them, a negative ; and
as any two ideas compared together, muft neceffarily ei¬
ther agree or not agree, it is evident, that all our judg¬
ments fall under thefe two divifions. Hence like.vife, the
propofitions expreffing thefe judgments, are all either af¬
firmative or negative.
Hence we fee the reafon of the rule commonly laid
down by logicians; that in all,negative propofitions, the
negation ought to affedt the copula. For as the copula,
when placed by itfelf, between the fubjedt and the predi¬
cate, manifeftly binds them together ; it is evident, that
in order to render a propofition negative, the particle of
negation muft enter it in fuch manner, as to deftroy this
union. In a word, then only are two ideas disjoined in
a propofition, when the negative particle may be fo re¬
ferred to the copula, as to break the affirmation included
in it, and undo that connedition it would otherwife efta-
blifti. When we fay, for inftance, No man is petfeGy
take away the negation, and the copula of itfelf plainly
unites the ideas in the propofition. On the contrary, in
this fentence; The man who departs not from an upright
behaviour, is beloved of God\ the predicate beloved of
God, is evidently tfffirmed of the fubjedt an upright mm;
fo that notwithftanding the negative particle, the propo¬
fition is ftill affirmative. The reafon is plain; the nega¬
tion here affedts not the copula, but making properly a
part of the fubjedt, ferves with other terms in the len¬
ience, to form ohe complex idea, of which the predicate
beloved of God, is diredlly affirmed.
Of univerfal and particular propofitiom.
The next confiderable divifion of propofition, is into
univerfal and particular. Our ideas, are all Angular as
they enter the mind, and reprefent individual objedrs.
But as byabftradtion we can render them univerfal, foas
to comprehend a whole clafs of things, and fometimes fe-
veral claftes at once; hence the terms expreffing tbefe i-
deas, muft be in like manner univerfal. (See Meta¬
physics.) If therefore we fuppofe any general term to
become the fubjedt of a propofition, it is evident, that
whatever is affirmed of the abftradt idea belonging to that
term, may be affirmed of all the individuals to which that
idea extends. Thus when we fay. Men are mortal; we
confider mortality, not as confined to one or any number
of particular men, but as what may be affirmed without
reftridtion of the whole fpecies. By th'.s means the pro¬
pofition becomes as general as the idea which makes the
fubjedt of it, and indeed derives its univerfality entirely
from that idea, being more or lefs fo, according as this
may be extended to more or fewer individuals. But thefe
general terms fometimes enter a propofition in their full
latitude, as in the example given above; and fometimes
appear with a mark of limitation. In this laft cafe we are
given tounderftand, that the predicate agrees not to the
whole univerfal idea, but only to a part of it; as in the
propofuion.
L O
propofiticn, fomimen are wife : for here wifdom is not
affirmed of every particular man, but reftrained to a few
of the human fpecies.
Now from this different appearance of the general i-
dea, that conftitutes the fubjedt of any judgment, arifes
the divifion of propofitions into univerfaJ and particular.
An univerfal propofition is that wherein the fubjeift is
fome general term, taken in its full latitude, infomuch
that the predicate agrees to all the individuals compre¬
hended under it, if it denotes a proper fpecies; and to all
the feveral fpecies, and their individuals, if it marks an
idea of a higher order. The words all, every, no, none.
See. are the proper figns of this univerfality ; and as they
feldom fail to accompany general truths, fo they are the
tnofl obvious criterion whereby to diftinguifh them. 411
animals have a power of beginning motion. This is an
univerfal propofition; as we know from the word all, pre¬
fixed to the fubje<5t animal, which denotes that it mull
be taken in its full extent. Hence the power of begin¬
ning motion, may be affirmed of all the feveral fpecies of
animals.
A particular propofition has in like manner fome gene¬
ral term forks fubjeft, but with a mark of limitation add¬
ed, to denote, that the predicate agrees only to fome of
the individuals comprehended under a fpecies, or to one
or more of the fpecies belonging to any genus, and not to
the whole univerfal idea. Thus»y«w<? Jlones are hea¬
vier than iron; fome men have an uncommon Jhare of
prudence. In the laft of thefe propofitions, the fubjedt
fome men, implies only a certain number of individuals,
comprehended under a fingle fpecies. In the former,
where the fubjedl is a genus, that extends to a great va¬
riety of^difrindl clafles, fome Jlones may not only imply
any number of particular ftones, but alfo feveral whole fpe¬
cies of ftones; inafmuch as there may be not a few, with
the property there deferibed. Hence we fee, that a pro¬
pofition does not ceafe to be particular, by the predicate’s
agreeing to a whole fpecics, unlefs that fpecies finglyand
diftindtly confidered, makes alfo the fubjedt of which we
affirm or deny.
There is ftill one fpecies of propofitions that remains
to be deferibed ; and which the more deferve our notice,
as it is not yet agreed among logicians to which of the
two clafles mentioned above they ought to be referred,
I fngular propofitions; or thofe where the fubjedt
is an individual. Of this nature are the following : Sir
Ifaac Newton was the inventor of fluxions; This look
contains many ufeful truths. What occafions fome dif¬
ficulty, as to the proper rank of thefe propofitipns, is,
that the fubjedt being taken according to the whole of its
extenfion, they fometimes have the fame effedt in reafon-
ing, as univerfals. But if it be confidered, that they are
in truth the moft limited kind of part cular propofitions,
and that no propofition can with any propriety be called
univerfal. but where the fubjedt is fome univerfal idea; we
(hall not be long in determining to which ciafs they ought
to be referred. When we fay, Some looks contain ufeful
truths ; the propofition is particular, bccaufe the general
term appears with a mark of reftridtion If therefore we
fay, This look contains ufeful truths ; it is evident (hat
the propofition mult be ftill more particular, as the limi-
G I C. 987
tation implied in the word this is of a more confined na¬
ture than in the former cafe.
We fee therefore, that all propofitions are either af¬
firmative or negative ; nor is it lefs evident, that in both
cafes they may be univerfal ot particular. Hencej arifes
that celebrated fourfold divifion of them, into univerfal,
affirmative, and univerfal negative', particular affirmative,
and particular negative ; which comprehends indeed all
their varieties. The ufe of this method of diftinguifhing
them will appear more fully afterwards, when we come
to treat of reafoning and fyllogifm.
Of abfolute and conditional propofitions.
The objedls about which we are chiefly converfant in
this world, are all of a nature liable to change. What
may be affirmed of them at one time, cannot often at an¬
other; and it makes no fmall part of our knowledge, to
diftinguifn rightly thefe variations, and trace the reafons
upon which they depend. For it is obfervaWe, thatamidft
all the viciffitudes of nature, fome things remain conftant
and invariable; nor are even the changes, to which we
fee others liable, effected, but in confequence of uniform
and fteady laws, which when known, are fufficient to di-
redt us in our judgments about them. Hence philofo-
phers, in diftinguilhing the objedls of our perception into
various clafles, have been very careful to nbte, that fome
properties belong eflentially to the general idea, fo as not
to be feparable from it, but bydeftroying its very nature :
while others are only accidental, and may be affirmed or
denied of it in different circumftances. Thus, folidity,
a yellow colour, and great weight, are confidered as ef-
fential qualities of gold ; but whether it ffiall exift as an
uniform conjoined mafs, is not alike neceflary. We fee
that, by a proper menftruum, it may be reduced to a fine
powder; and that intenfe heat will bring it into a ftate of
fufion.
From this diverfity in the feveral qualities of things,
arifes a confiderable difference as to the manner of our judg¬
ing about them. For all fuch properties as are infepa-
rable frem ohjedb, when confidered as belonging to any
genus or fpecies, are affirmed abfolutely and without re-
ferve of that general idea. Thus we fay, Gold is very
weighty, a flone is hard, animals have a power of felf-
motion. But in the cafe of mutable or accidental quali¬
ties, as they depend upon fome other confideration, di-
ftimft from the general idea ; that alfo muft be taken into
the account, in order to form an accurate judgment.
Should we affirm, for inftance, of fome ftones, that the/
are very fufceptible of a rolling motion ; the propofition
while it remains in the general form, cannot with any ad¬
vantage be introduced into our reafonings. An aptnefs
to receive that mode of motion, flows from the figure of
the ftone ; which, as it may varynnfinitely, our judgment
then only becomes applicable and determinate, when the
particular figure, of which volubility is a confequence, is
alfo- taken into the account. Let us then bring in this- 0-
ther confideration, and the propofition will run as fol¬
lows : Stones of a fpherical form, are eafily put into a
rolling motion. Here we fee the condition upon which
the predicate is affirmed, and therefore know in what
particular cafes the propofition may be applied.
This
.9B8 L O
This confideration of propofitions, refpedHng the man-
;ner in which the predicate is affirmed of theTubjeft, gives
-rife to the divifion of them into abfotute and cmditional,
iAbfohite propositions are thofe, wherein we affirm feme
property infeparabie from the idea of the fubjedt, and
■which therefore belongs to it in all pofFnle cafes ; as,
God is Infinitely ’wife'. Virtue tends to the ultimate hap-
psnefs of man. But where the predicate is not neceflarily
connedted with the idea of the fu vjedt, unlefs upon fame
confederation ditKndt from that idea, there the proportion
is called conditional. The reafon of the name is taken
from the.fbppofition annexed, which is of the nature of a
condition, and may be expreffed as fuch'. Thus, ijfd
(lone is expofed to the rays of the fun, it will contrail
fome degree of heat. If a river runs in a very declining
channel, its rapidity will conftantly increafe.
'■ There is not any thing of greater importance in philo-
fophjr, than a due attention to this division of propositions.
If we are careful never to affirm things absolutely, but
where the ideas are infeparably conjoined; and if in our
other judgments, we diflindtly mark the conditions which
determine the predicate to belong to the fubjedt, we
(hall be the lefs liable to miSlake in applying general
truths to the particular concerns of human life. It is
bwing to the exadt obfervance of this rule, that mathe¬
maticians have been fo happy in their difcoveries, and
that what they demonstrate of magnitude in general, may
be applied with eafe in all obvious occurrences.
' The truth is, particular propositions are then known
to be true, when we can trace their connection with uni-
terfals; and it is accordingly the great bufmefs of fcience,
io find out general truths, that may be applied with fafe-
ty in all obvious inftances. Now the great advantage a-
yifing from determining with carej the conditions upon
which one idea may be affirmed or denied of another, is
this; that thereby particular propofitions really become
univerfal, may be introduced with certainty into our rea-
fonings, and ferve as Standards to condudt and regulate
6ur judgments. To illuSlrate this by a familiar inftance.
If we fay. Some water afts very forcibly ; thepropofition
is particular: And as the conditions on which this forci¬
ble adtion depends, are not mentioned, it is as yet un¬
certain in what cafes it may be applied. Let us then
fupply thefe conditions, and the propofition will run thus:
Water conveyed in fufficient quantity, along a fteep de-
fcent, arts very forcibly. Here we have an univerfal
judgment, inafmuch as'the predicate/entW/e may
be afcribed to all water under the circumftances mention¬
ed. Nor is it lefs evident, that the propofition in this
new form is of eafy application ; and in fadt we find,
that men do apply it, in inftances where the forcible ac¬
tion of water is required; as in corn-mills, arid many other
works of art.
Of fimple and compound propofitions.
Hitherto we have treated of proposition?, where
■only two ideas are compared together. Thefe are in the
general called fimple; becaufe having but one fubjedt and
one predicate, they are the effedt of a funple judgment,
that admits, of no fubdivifion. But if feveral ideas offer
themfelves to our thoughts at once, whereby we are led
G I C.
to affirm the fame thing'of different objedts, or different
things ofthefame objeft; the proportions expreffmg thefe
judgments are called compound: becaufe they may be refoi-
ved into as many others as there are fubjedts or predicates
in the whole complex determination of the mind. Thus:
God is infinitely- wifet and infnitdy.powerful. Here
there are two predicates, infinite wifdom, and infinite
power, both affirmed of the fame fubjedt; and accordingly,
the proposition may be refo’ved into two others, affirming
thete predicates feverallyk in like manner is the proposi¬
tion, nor people are exempt from death;
the,predicate is denied of both'fubjedts, and may therefore
be Separated from them, in diftindt propofitions. Nor is
it lefs evident, that if a complex judgment confifts of
feveral fubjedts and predicates, it may be refolved into
as many Simple propositions as are the number of differ¬
ent ideas compared together. Riches and honours are
apt to elate the mind, and iticreafe the number of our
defires. In. this jadgme-nt, there are two fubjedls a'nd
two predicates, and it is at the fame time apparent, that
it may be refolved into four diftindl propofitions. Riches
are apt to elate the mind. Riches are apt to increafe the
number of our dfires. And fo of honours.
Logicians have divided thefe compound propofitions
into a great many different claSTes ; but not with a due
iegard to their proper definition. Thus, conditionals,
caufals, relatives, 8cc. are mentioned as fo many diftindt
fpccies of this kind, though in fadt they are no more
than fimple propofitions. To give an inftance of a con¬
ditional : If a Jlone is expofed to the rays of the fun, it
will contrafl fame degree of heat. Here we have but one
fubjedt and one predicate ; foi* the complex expreSIion, a
Jlone expofed to the rays of the fun, constitutes the proper
fubjedt of this propofition, and is no more than one de¬
terminate idea. The fame thing happens in caufals,
Rehoboam was unhappy becaufe he followed evil counfel.
There is here an appearance of two propofitions, arising
from the complexity of the expreSIion; but when we come
to confider the matter more nearly, it is evident, that we
have but a fingle fubjedt and predicate. The purfuit of
evil counfei brought mifery upon Rehoboam. It is not
enough therefore, to render a propofition compound, that
the fubjedt and predicate are complex notions, requiring
fometimes a whole fentence to exprefs them : For in this
cafe, the comparifon is ftill confined to two ideas, and
constitutes what we call a fimple judgment. But where
there are feveral fubjedts, or predicates, or both, as the
affirmation or negation may be alike extended to them
all, the proposition expreSIing fuch a judgment, is truly a
colledtion of as many fimple ones as there are different
ideas compared. Confining ourfelves therefore to this
more ftridt and juft notion of compound propofitions, they
are all reducible to two kinds, viz. copulatives and
disjunflives.
A copulative prdpofit'on is, where the fubjedts and
predicates are fo linked together, that they may be all
Severally affirmed or denied one of another! Of this na¬
ture are the examples of compound propofitions given a-
bove. Riches and honours are apt to elate the mind, and
increafe the number of our defires. Neither kings nor
people are exempt from death. In the firft of thefe; the
LOGIC. 989
two predicates may be affirmed feverally of each fubjeft,
whence we have four diftindt propofitions. The other
furnHhes an example of the negative kind, where the
fame predicate being disjoined from both fubjedts, may
be alfo denied of them in feparate propofitions.
The other fpecies of compound propofitions are thofe
called disjundtives; in which, comparing feveral predicates
•with the fame fubjedt, we affirm that one of them necefla-
rily belongstoit, but leave the particular predicate undeter¬
mined. If any one, for example, fays, T'hij world either
exifis of itfelf, or is the work of fame all-wife and powerful
caufe; it is evident, that one of the two predicates muft
belong to the world ; but as the prppofition determines
not which, it is thereforeof the kind we call disjunTlive.
Such too are the following. The fun either moves round
the earth, or is the centre about which the earth revolves,
Friendjhip finds men equal, or makes themfo. It is the
nature of all propofitions of this clafs, fuppofing them to
be exadt in point of form, that upon determining the par¬
ticular predicate, the reft are of courfe to be removed ;
or if all the predicates but one are removed, that one ne-
ceffarily takes place. Thus in the example given a-
bove ; if we allow the world to be the work of fome'wife
and powerful caufe, we of courfe deny it to be felf-exift-
<nt; or if we deny it to be felf exiftent, we muft neceffarily
admit that it was produced by fome wife and powerful
caufe. Now this particular manner of linking the predi¬
cates together, fo that the eftablilhing of one difplaces all
the reft, or the excluding all but oneneceflarily eftabliffies
that one, cannot otherwife be effedted than by means of
disjunctive particles. And hence it is, that propofitions
©f this clafs take their name from thefe particles, which
make fo neceflary a part of them, and indeed conftitute
their very nature cocfidcred as a diftindt fpecies.
Of the divifion of propofttions into felf evident and
demonjlrablc.
When any propofition is offered to the view of the
mind, if the terms in which it is expreffed areunderftood ;
©pon comparing the ideas together, the agreement or dif-
agreement afferted is either immediately perceived, or
found to lie beyond the prefent reach of the underftand-
ing. In the firft cafe, the propofition is faid to be felfe-
vident, and admits not of any proof, becaufe a bare at¬
tention to the ideas themfelves produces full convidlion
and certainty ; nor is it poflible to call in any thing more
evident, by way of confirmation. But where the con-
nedtion or repugnance comes not fo readily under the in-
fpedlion of the mind, there we muft have recourfe to rea-
foning.; and if by a clear feries of proofs we can make
out the truth propofed, infomuch that felf-evidence ftiall
accompany every ftep of the procedure, we are then able
to demonftrate what we affert, and the propofition itfelf
h.iaad tobtdemonjlralle. When we affirm, for inftance,
that it is impojjible for the fame thing to be and not to be ;
whoever underftands the terms made ufe of, perceives at
firft glance the truth of what is afferted; nor can he by
any efforts bring himfelf to believe the contrary. The
propofition therefore is felf evident, and fuch that it is
ampoffible by reafoning to make it plainer ; becanfe there
is no truth more obvious, or better known, from which
Vol. II. No. 68. 2
as a confequence it may be deduced. But if we fay.
This world had a beginning; the affertion is indeed e-
qually true, but fttines not forth with the fame degree of
evidence. We find a great difficulty in conceiving how
the world could be made out of nothing ; and are not
brought to a free and full confent, until by reafoning we
arrive at a clear view of the abfurdity involved in the
contrary fuppofition. Hence this propofition is of the
kind we call demonjlrable, in as much as its truth is not
immediately perceived by the mind, but yet may be made
appear by means of others more known and obvious,
whence it follows as an unavoidable confequence.
From what has been faid it appears, that reafontng is
employed only about demonftrable propofitions, and that
our intuitive and felf-evident perceptions are the ultimate
foundation on which it refts.
Self-evident propofitions furniffi the firft principles of
reafoning; and it is certain, that if in our refearches
we employ only fuch principles as have this charadter of
felf evidence, and apply them accord ng to the rules to
be afterwards explained, we ffiall be in no danger of er¬
ror in advancing from one difeovery to another. For
this we may appeal to the writings of the mathematicians,
which being conducted by the exprefs model here men¬
tioned, are an inconteftable proof of the firmnefs and
ftabrlity of human knowledge, when built upon fo fare a
foundation. For not only have the propofitions of this
fcience flood the teft of ages; but are found attended with
that invincible evidence, as forces the affent of ai! who
duly confider the proofs upon which they are eftabliffied.
Firft then it is to be obferved, that they have been
very careful in afeertaining their ideas, and fixing the fig-
nification of their terms. For this purpofe they begin
with definitions, in which the meaning of their words is
fo diftimftly explained, that they cannot fail to excite in
the mind the very fame ideas as are annexed to them by
the writer. And indeed the clearnefs and irrefiftable e-
vidence of mathematical knowledge is owing to nothing
fo much as this care in laying the foundation. Where
the relation between any two ideas is accurately and juft-
ly traced, it will not be difficult for another to compre¬
hend that relation, if, in fetting himfelf to difeover it, he
brings the very fame ideas into comparifon. But if, on
the contrary, he affixes to his words ideas different from
thofe that were in the mind of him who firft advanced the
demonftration ; it is evident, that, as the fame ideas are
not compared, the fame relation cannot fubfift, infomuch
that a propofition will be rejedted as falfe, which, had
the terms been tightly underftood, muft: have appeared
unexceptionably true. Afquare, for inftance, is a figure
bounded by four equal right lines, joined together at
right angles Here the nature of the angles makes no
lefs a part of the idea, than the equality of the fides ;
and many properties demonftr ited of the fquare flow en¬
tirely from its being a redtangniar figure. If therefore
we fnppofe a man, who has formed a partial notion of a
fquare, comprehending only the equality of its fides
without regard to the angles, reading fome demonftration
that implies alfo this latter confideration ; it is plain he
would rejedl it as not univerfally true, in as much as it
could not be applied where the fides were joined to-
10 R get her
99° L O
geiher at unequal angles. For this laft figure, anfwering
Hill to his idea of a fquare, would be yet found without
the property afligned to it in the proportion. But if he
comes afterwards to correft his notion, and render his
idea complete, he will then readily own the truth and
juftnefs of the demonftration.
We fee therefore, that nothing contributes fo much to
the improvement and certainty of human knowledge, as
the having determinate ideas, and keeping them lleddy
and invariable in all our difcourfes and reafonings about
them. And on this account it is, that mathematicians
always begin by defining their terms, and dillin&ly un¬
folding the notions they are intended to exprefs. Hence
fuch as apply themfelves to thefe ftudies, having exaftly
the fame views of things, and bringing always the very
fame ideas into comparifon, readily dilcern the relations
between them.
When they have taken this firft flep, and made known
the ideas whofe relations they intend to inveftigate ; their
next care is, to lay down fome felf evident truths, which
may ferve as a foundation for their future reafonings.
And here indeed they proceed with remarkable circum-
fpeftion, admitting no principles but what flow imme¬
diately from their definitions, and neceflarily force them¬
felves upon the mind. Thus a circle is a figure formed
by a right line, moving round fome fixed point in the
fame plane. The fixed point round which the line is
fuppofed to move, and where one of its extremities ter¬
minates, is called the centre of the circle. The other
extremity, which is conceived to be carried round, until
it returns to the point whence it firft fet out, deferibes a
curve running into itfelf, and termed the circumference.
All right lines drawn from the centre to the circumfer¬
ence, are called radii. From thefe definitions compa?
red, geometricians derive this felf-evident truth. That the
radii of the fame circle are all equal one to another.
We now obferve, that, in all propofitions, we either
affirm or deny fome property of the idea that conftitutes
the fubjedl of our judgment, or we maintain that fome-
thing may be done or effefted. The firft fort are called
Jfeculative propofitions, as in the example mentioned a-
bove, the radii of the fame circle are all equal one to
another. The others are called pratlical, for a reafon
too obvious to be mentioned ; thus, that a right line
may, he drawn from one point to anothery is a praftical
propofition, inafmuch as it expreffes that fomething may
be done.
From this twofold confideration of pmpofitions arifes
the twofold divifionof mathematical principles into axioms
and poftulates. By an axiom they underftand any felf-
evident fpeculative truth : as, that the whole is greater
jhan its parts ; that things equal to one and the fame
'things are equal to one another. But a felf-evidentprac'
tical propofition is what they call a pofulate. Such are
thole of Euelid\ That a finite right line may he continued
dire ft ly forwards: That a circle may be deferibed about
G I C.
any centre with any diflance. And as, in an axiom, the
agreement or difagreement between the fubjed and pre¬
dicate muft come under the immediate infpedion of the
mind ; fo, in a pofiulate, not only the poflibility of the
thing aflerted muft be evident at firft view, but alfo the
manner in which it may be effeded. For where this
manner is not of itfelf apparent, the propofition comes
under the notion of the demonftrable kind, and is treated
as fuch by geometrical writers. Thus, to draw a right
line from one point to another, is affumed by Euclid as
a poflulate, becaufe the manner of doing it is fo obvious
as to require no previous teaching. But then it is not
equally evident, how we are to conflruci an equilateral
triangle. For this reafon he advances it as a demonftra*
ble propofition, lays down rules for theexad performance,
and at the fame time proves, that if thefe rules are fol¬
lowed, the figure will be juftly deferibed.
This leads us to take notice, that as felf evident truths
are diftinguifhed into different kinds, according as they
are fpeculative or pradical ; .fo is it alfo with demonflra-
ble propofitions. A demonftrable fpeculative propofition,
is by mathematicians called a theorem. Such is the 47th
propofition of the firft book of the Elements, viz that
in every right-angled triangle, the fquare deferibed upon
the fide fubtending the right-angle it equal to both the
fquares deferibed upon the fides containing the right-
angle. On the other hand, a demonftrable pradical pro¬
pofition,. is called a problem ; as where Euclid teaches
us to deferibe a fquare upon a given right line.
It may not be amifs to add, that befidesthe four kinds
of propofitions already mentioned, mathematicians have
alfo a fifth, known by the name of corollaries. Thefe
are ufually fubjoined to theorems, or problems, and differ
from them only in this ; that they flow from what is
there demonftrated, in fo obvious a manner, as to difeo-
ver their dependence upon the propofition whence they
are deduced, almoft as foon as propofed. Thus Euclid
having demonftrated, that in every right lined triangle
all the three angles taken together are equal to two right
angles ; adds by way of corollary, that all the three
angles of any one triangle taken together are equal to all
the three angles of any other triangle taken together :
which is evident at firft fight; becaufe in all cafes they are
equal to two right ones, and things equal to one and the
fame thing are equal to one another.
The fcholia of mathematicians are indifferently an¬
nexed to definitions, propofitions, or corollaries ; and
anfwer the fame purpofes as annotations upon a claffic au¬
thor. For in them occafion is taken to explain whatr
ev^r may appear intricate and obfeure in a train of rea-
foning ; to anfwer of je&ions ; to teach the application
and ufes of propofitions; to lay open the original and
hiftory of the feveral difeoveries made in the fcience; and
in, a word, to acquaint us with all fuch particulars as de-
ferve to be known, whether confidercd as points of cu-
riofity or profit.
Part II. G/-P* e as o n 1 n g.
It often happens, in comparing ideas together, that view, efpeoially if they are of fuch a nature as not to
their agreement or difagreement cannot be difeerned at Srft admit of an exad application one to another. When, for
iritancej
L O
taftatjee, we coihpare two figures of a different make, in
order to judge of their equality or inequality, it is plain,
that by barely confidering the figures themfelves we
cannot arrive at an exadt determination ; becaufe, by rea-
fon of their difagreeing forms, it is impoffible fo to put
them together, as that their feveral parts {hall mutually
coincide. Here then it becomes neceflary to look out for
fome third idea, that will admit of fuch an application as
the prefent cafe requires ; wherein if we fucceed, all
difficulties vaniffi, and the relation we are in quell of
may be traced with eafe. Thus right-lined figures are
all reducible to fquares, by means of which we can
meafure their areas, and determine exadfly their agree¬
ment or difagreement in point of magnitude.
But how can any third idea ferve to difcover a relation
between two others, by being compared feverally with
thefe others ? for fuch a comparifon enables us to fee how
far the ideas with which this third is compared are con-
nedted or disjoined between themfelves. In the example
mentioned above, of two right-lined figures, if we com¬
pare each of them with fome fquare whofe area is known,
and find the one exadfly equal to it, and the other lefs
by a fquare inch, we imediately conclude, that the area
of the firft figure is a fquare inch greater than that of the
fecond. This manner of determining the relation between
any two ideas, by the intervention of fome third with
which they may be compared, is that which we call rea-
fining. The greft art lies, in finding out fuch interme¬
diate ideas, as, when compared with the others in the
queflton, will furniffi evident and known truths, becaufe
it is only by means of them that we anive at the know¬
ledge of what is hidden and remote.
Hence it appears, that every adt of reafohing neceflarily
includes three diftindl judgments; two wherein the ideas
whofe relation we want to difcover are feverally compared
with the middle idea, and a third wherein they are them¬
felves connedted or disjoined according to the refult of that
comparifon. Now, as, in the firll part of logic, our judg¬
ments, when put into words, were called propofitions ; fo
here, in the fecond part, the expreffionsof ourreafonings are
termedfyllogifms. And hence it follow*, that as every adt of
reafbntng implies three feveral judgments, fo veryfyllogifni
muft include three diftindt propofitions. When a reafbning
is thus put into words, and appears in form of a fyllogifm,
the intermediate idea made ufe of to difcover the agree¬
ment or difagreement we fearch for is called the middle
term ,• and the two ideas themfelves, with which this
third is compared, go by the name of the extremes.
But as thefe things are beft illuftrated by examples ;
let us, for inftance, fet burfelves to inquire, 'whether ti/en
are accountable for their aSlions. As the relation be¬
tween the ideas of man and accountabienefi, comes not
within the immediate view of the mind, our firft care
muft be, to find out fome third idea, that will enable us
the more eafily to difcover and trace it A very fmall
raeafure of reftedtion is fufficient to inform us, that no
creature can be accountable for his actions, unlefs we
fuppofe him-capable of drftinguiffiing the good from the
bad. Nor is this alone fufficient. For what would it
avail him to know good from bad adfions, if he had no
freedgm of choice*, nor could avoid ihe one aud purfue
G I C. 99 *
the other ? hence it becomes necdTary to take in both
confiderations in the prefent cafe. It is at the fame time
equally apparent, that where-ever there is this ability of
diftinguiffiing good from bad adtions, and of purfuing the
one and avoiding the other, there alfo a creature is ac*
countable. We have then got a third idea, with which
accountablenefs is infeparably connedted, viz. reafinand
liberty; which are here to be confidered as making up
one complex conception. Let us now take this middle
idea, and compare it with the other term in the queftion,
viz. man; and we all know by experience, that it may
be affirmed of him. Having thus, by means of the in¬
termediate idea’, formed two feveral judgments, viz. that
man it pojftjfed of reafin and liberty ; and that reafin
and liberty imply accountallenefs ; a third obvioufly and
neceflarily follows, viz. that man is accountable fir his
attions. Here then we have a complete adt of reafoning,
in which there are three diftindt judgments; two that
may be ftyled previous, in as much as they lead to the o-
ther, and arife from comparing the middle idea with the
two ideas in the queftion : the third is a confequence of
thefe previous adts, and flows from combining the ex¬
treme ideas between themfelves. If now we put this rea¬
foning into words, it exhibits what logicians termafyllo*-
gifm, and runs this :
Every creature pojfejfed of redfon and liberty is ac*
countable for his altions.
Man it a creature pojfejfed of reafon and liberty.
Therefore man is accountable for his a 11 ions.
In tills fyllogifm there are three feveral propofitions,,.
expreffing the three judgments implied in the adf of rea¬
foning, and fo difpofed as to reprefent diftindtly what
paffes within the mind in tracing the more diftant rela¬
tions of its ideas. The two firft propofitions anfwer the
two previous judgments in reafoning, and are called the
premijfes, becaufe they are placed before the other. The
third is termed the conclufien, as being gained in confe-
quence of what was afterted in the premifles. The terms
exprefling the two ideas whofe relation, we inquire after,
as here man and accountablenefs, are in general called the
extremes \ and the intermediate idea, by means of which
the relation, is traced,, r/Z. a creature pojjejfidaf reafin
and liberty, takes the name of the middle term Hence
it follows, that by the premijfes of a fyllogifm we are al¬
ways to underftand the two propofitions where the middle
term is fevendly compared with the extremes ; for thefe
conftitute the previous judgments, whence the truth we
are in queft of is by reafoning deduced. The ccnclufton
is that other propofitionj in which extremes themfelves -
are joined or feparated, agreeably to what appears upon
the above comparifon.
The conclufion is made up of the extreme terms of
the fyllogifm ; and the extreme, whichferves as the pre¬
dicate of the conclufion, goes by the name of the major
term ; the other extreme, which makes the fubjeA in the
fame propofition, is-called the minor term. From this
diftinftion of the extremes, arifes alfo a diftinftion be¬
tween the premifles, . where thefe extremes are feverally
compared with the middle term. That propofition which
compares the greater extreme, or the predicate of the
cefficlufi&n, wuh the middle term, is called the major
proportion ;
992 L O C
fropafition ; the other, wherein the fame middle term is
compared with the fabjeft of the conclufion, or lefler ex¬
treme, is called the minor proportion. All this is ob¬
vious from the fyllogifm already given, where the con-
clufioa is, Man is accountable for his afliont. For here
the predicate, accountable for his aflhns, being connec¬
ted with the middle term in the fir ft of the two premifles,
every creature p'.f'fcdof reafon and liberty is accountable,
for his aft ions, gives what we call the major propoftion. In
the fecond of the premiffes, Man is a creature pojffjfcd
of reafon and liberty, we find the leffer extreme, or feb-
jedt of the conclufion, viz. man, conoedled with the fame
middle term, whence it is known to be the minor propo-
Jition. When a fyllogifm is propofed in due form, the
major propofnion is al ways placed firft, the minor next,
and the conclufion laft.
Thefe things premifed, we may in the general define
>reaforiing to be an a£l or operation of the mind, dedu¬
cing fame unknown propoftion from other previous ones
that are evident and known. Thefe previous propofitions,
in a Gmple adt of reafoning, are only two in number ; and
it is always required that they be of themfelves apparent
to the underttanding, infomuch that we afltnt to and
perceive the truth of them as foon as propofed. In the
iyllogifm given above, the preraifles are fuppofed to be
felf-evident truths, otherwife the conclufion could not be
inferred by a Angle adt of reafoning. If, for inffance,
in the major, every creature poffejfed of reafon and liberty
is accountable far his atlions, the connedtion between the
fubjedt and predicate could not be perceived by a bare at¬
tention to the ideas themfelves ; it is evident, that this
propofition would no lefs require a proof than the con-
clufion deduced from it. In this cafe a new middle term
muft be fought for, to trace the connedtion here fuppofed;
and this of courfe furnifhes another fyllogifm, by which
having eflablifhed the propofition in queflion, we are then,
and not before, at liberty to ufe it in any fucceeding train
of reafoning. And fhould it fo happen, that in this fecond
eflay there was fttll fome previous propofition whofe
truth did not appear at firft fight, we muft then have re-
courfe to a third fyllogifm in order to lay open that truth
to the mind ; becaufe, fo long as the premiffes remain un¬
certain, the conclufion built upon them muft be fo too.
When by condudling our thoughts in this manner, we at
iaft arrive at fome fyllogifm, where the previous propo¬
fitions are intuitive truths ; the mind then refts in full
fecurity, as perceiving that the feveral conclufions it has
paffed through ftand upon the immoveable foundation of
felf-evidence, and when traced to their fource terminate
in it.
We fee therefore, that in order to infer a conclufion
by a Angle adt of reafoning, the premiffes muft be intuitive
propofitions. Where they are not, previous fyllogifms
are required; in which cafe reafoning becomes a compli¬
cated adt, taking in a variety of fucceffive fteps. This
frequently happens in tracing the more remote relations
of our ideas, where many middle terms being called in,
the conclufion cannot be made out, but in confequence of
a feries of fyllogifms following one another in a train.
But although in this concatenation of propofitions, thofe
that form the premiffes of the laft fyllogifin are often
\ I c
confiderably removed from felf evidence ; yet if we trace
the reafoning backwards, we fhaJl find them the condu-
fions of previous fyllogifms, whcfe premiffes approach
nearer and nearer to intuition, in proportion as we ad¬
vance, and are found at laft to terminate in it. And if,
after having thus unravelled a demonftraticn, we take it
the contrary way; andobfervehow the mind, fetting out
with intuitive perceptions, couples them together to form
a conclufion; how, by introducing this condufioninto a-
nother fyllogifm, it ftill advances one ftep farther ; and
fo proceeds, making every new difcovery fubfervient to
its future progrefs ; we Ihall then perceive dearly, that
reafoning, in the higheft exercife of that faculty, is no
more than an orderly combination of thofe fimple adts
which we have already lb full explained.
Thus we fee, that realbning, beginning with firft prin¬
ciples, rlfes gradually from one judgment to another,
and connedts them in-fuch a manner, that every ftage of
the progreffion brings intuitive certainty along with it.
And now at length we may clearly underftaod the defini¬
tion given above of this diftinguiftiing faculty of the hu¬
man mind. Reafon is the ability of deducing unknown
truths from principles or propofitions that are already
known. This evidently appears by the foregoing account,
where we fee, that no propofition is admitted into a
fyllogifm, to ferve as one of the previous judgments on
which the conclufion refts, unlefs it is itfelf a known and
eftablifiied truth, whofe connedtion with felf evident piin-
ciples has been already traced.
Of the feveral kinds of reafoning ; and firfl of that by
which we determine the genera and fpecies of things.
All the aims of human reafon may be reduced to thefe
two : i. To rank things under thofe univerfal ideas to
which they truly belong ; and, 2. To afcribe to them their
feveral attributes and properties in confequence of that
diftribution.
One great aim of human reafon is, to determine the
genera and fpecies of things. Now, as in univerfal pro¬
pofitions we affirm fome property of a genus or fpecies,
it is plain, that we cannot apply this property to parti¬
cular objedts, till we have firft determined whether they
are comprehended under that general idea of which the >
propei ty is affirmed. Thus there are certain properties
belonging to all even numbers, which neverthelefs can¬
not be applied to any particular number, until we have
firft difcovercd it to be of the fpecies expreffed by that ge¬
neral name. Hence reafoning begins with referring things
to their feveral divifions and claffes in the fcale of our
ideas; and as thefe divifions are all diftinguifhed by pe¬
culiar names, we hereby learn to apply the terms ex-
prefling general conceptions to fuch particular objedts as
come under our immediate obfervation.
Now, in order to arrive at thefe conclufions by which
the feveral objedts of perception are brought under gene¬
ral names, two things are manifeftly neceffary. Firft,
that we take a view of the idea itfelf denoted by that ge¬
neral name, and carefully attend to the diftinguiftiing
marks which ferve to charadterize it. Secondly, that we
compare this idea with the objedt under confideration,
obferving diligently whertin they agree or differ. If
L O
the idea is found fo correfpond with the particular objeft,
■we then, without hefitation apply the general name ; but
if no fuch correfpondence intervenes, the conclufton mult
neceflarily take a contrary turn. Let us, for inltance,
take the number eight, and confider by what Heps we are
led to pronounce it an even number. Firft then we call
to mind the idea fignified by the exprelfion an even
number, viz. that it is,? number divifible into two equal
parts. We then compare this idea with the number
eight, and, finding them manifellly to agree, fee at once
the neceffity of admitting the conclufion. Thefe feveral
judgments therefore, transferred into language, and re¬
duced to the form of a fyllogifm, appear thus:
Every number that may be divided into tnxio equal
parts is an even number.
The number eight may be divided into two equal
parts.
Therefore the number eight is an even numder.
Here it may be obferved, that >> here the general idea
to which particular obje&s are referred is very familiar
to the mind, this reference, and the application of the
general name, feem to be made without any apparatus of
reafoning. When we fee a horfe in the fields, or a dog
in the ftreet, we readily apply the name of the fpecies ;
habit, and a familiar acquaintance with the general idea,
fuggefting it inftantaneoully to the mind. We are not
however to imagine on this account, that the underftand-
ing departs from the ufual rules of juft thinking. A fre¬
quent repetition of adts begets a habit; and habits are at¬
tended with a certain promptnefs of execution that pre¬
vents our obferving the feveral fteps and gradations by
which any courfe of adion is accomplilhed. But in other
inftances, where we judge not by pre-contracted habits,
as when the general idea is very complex, or lefs familiar
to the mind ; we always proceed according to the form
of reafoning eftablilhed above. A goldfmith, foHnftance,
who is in doubt as to any piece of metal, whether it be of
the fpecies called firft examines its properties, and
then comparing them with the general idea fignified by
that name, if he finds a perfedt correfpondence, no longer
hefitates under what clafs of metals to rank it.
But the great importance of this branch of reafoning,
and the necefiity of care and circumfpedHon in referring
particular objedts to general ideas, is (till farther evident
from the pradtice of the mathematicians. Every one who
has read knows, that he frequently requires us to
draw lines through certain points, and according to fuch
and fuch directions. The figures- thence refulting are
often fquares, parallelograms, or redtangles. Yet Eu¬
clid never fuppofes this from their bare appearance, but
always demonftrates it upon the ftridteft principles of
geometry. Nor is the method he takes in any thing dif¬
ferent from that defcribed above. Thus, for inftance,-
having defined a fquare to be a figure bounded by.four-
equal fides, joined together at right angles ; when fuch
a figure arifes in any conftrudiion previoas to the demon-
flration of a propofition, he yet never calls it by ihat
name, until he has ftiewn that its (ides are equal, and all
ns angles, right ones. Now this'is apparently the fame
form of reafoning we have before exhibited, in proving
eight to be an even number.
Vox,. II. N° 68.
G I C. ?93
Having thus explained the rules by which we are to*
condudb ourfelves in ranking particular objects under
general ideas, and ftiewn their conformity to the practice
and manner of the mathematicians ; it remains only to
obferve, that the true way of rendering this part of
knowledge both eafy and certain, is, by habituating our¬
felves to clear and determinate ideas, and keeping them
fteadily annexed to their refpeCtive names. For as all
our aim is, to apply general words aright; if thefe words
ftand for invariable ideas, that are perfectly known to the
mind, and can be readily diftinguilhed upon occafion,
there will be little danger of miftake or error in our rea-
fonings. Let us fuppofe, that by examining any objeCt,
and carrying our attention fucceflively from one part to
another, we have acquainted ourfelves with the feveral
particulars obfervable in it. If among thefe we find fuch
as conftitute feme general idea, framed and fettled before¬
hand by the underftanding, and diftinguiftied by a particu¬
lar name; the refemblance, thus known and perceived,
neceffarily determines the fpecies of the objeCt, and there¬
by gives it a right to the name by which that fpecies is
called. Thus four equal fides, joined together at right
angles, made up the notion of a fquare. As this is a fix¬
ed and invariable idea, without which the general name
cannot be applied, we never call any particular figure a
Jquare, until it appears to have thefe feveral conditions ;
and contrarily, where ever a figure is found with thefe
conditions, it neceflarily takes the name of a fquare.
The fame will be found to hold in all our other reafon-
irogs of this kind; where nothing can create any difficul¬
ty but the want of fettled ideas. If, for inftance. tfe have
not determined within ourfelves the precife notion de-.
noted by the word manjlaughter ; it will be impoffible for
us to decide, whether any paiticular aCHon ought to bear
that name: becaufe however nicely we examine the ac¬
tion itfelf, yet being ftrangers to the general idea vzith
which it is to be compared, weaie utterly unable to judge
of their agreement or difagreement But if we take care
to remove this obftacle, and diftindtly trace the two ideas
under confideration, all difficulties vanifh, and the refo-
lution becomes both eafy and certain.
Thus- we fee, of what importance it is, towards the
improvement and certainty of human knowledge, that we
accuftom ourfelves to clear and determinate ideas, and a,
fteady application of words.
Of Reafoning, as it regards the powers and properties
of things, and the relations of our general ideas.
We come now to the fecond great end which men have
in view in their reafonings, namely, The difeovering and
aferiking to things their feveral attributes-and properties.
And here it will be neceflary to diftinguifh between rea¬
foning as it regards the fciences, and as it concerns comi
- mon life. In the feiences, our reafon is employed chief¬
ly about univerfal truths, it being by- them alone that
the hounds of human, knowledge are enlarged. Hence
thedivifion of things into various claffes, called otherwife
genera and fpecies. for thefe univerfal ideas, being fet
up as the<reprefentatives of many particular things, w hat¬
ever is affirmed of them may be alfo affirmed of all the
individuals to which they belong. Murder, for-inftane^ .
JO S a_ i3
994 ^ O
is a general idea, reprefent^ng a certain fpecies of human
affions. Reafon tells us that the puntfhment due to it
is death. Hence every particular adfion coming under
the notion of murder, has the punilhment of death allot¬
ted to it. ’ Here then we apply the general truth to fome
obvious inftance, and this is what properly co'nftitutes the
reaioning of common life. For men, in their ordinary
tranfaCtions and intercourfe one with another, have for the
molt part to do only with particular objedts. Our friends
and relations, their charadters and behaviour, the confti-
tution of the feveral bodies that furround us, and the
■ufes to which they may be applied, are what chiefly en¬
gage our attention. In all thefe we reafon about parti¬
cular things; and the whole refult of our reafoning Is,
the applying the general truths of the fciences to the ordi¬
nary tranfadtions of human life. When we fee a viper, we
avoid it. Where-ever we have occalion for the forcible
radtion of nvater, to move a body that makes conGderable
refiftance, we take care to convey it in fuch a manner
that it fhall fall upon the objedl with impetuofity. Now
all this happens in confequence of our familiar and ready
application of thefe two general trruths. The bite of a
viper is mortal. Water falling upon a body with impe-
tmjhy, alls very forcibly towards fetting it in motion.
In like manner, if we fet ourfelves to confider any par¬
ticular charadfer, in order to determine the fhare of praife
or difpraife that belongs to it, our great concern is, to
afcertain exadlly the proportion of virtue and vice. The
reafon is obvious. A juft determination in all cafes of
this kind depends entirely upon an application of thefe
general maxims of morality: Virtuous ottions deferve
praife. Vicious allions deferve blame.
Hence it appears, that reafoning, as it regards common
life, is no more than the afcribing the general properties of
things to thofe feveral objedts with which we are more
immediately concerned, according as they are found to
be that particular divifion or dais to which the proper-
ti s belong. The fteps then by which we proceed are
manifeitly thefe. Firft, we refer the objedt under confi-
■deration to fome general idea or clafs of things. We
then recoiled! the feveral attributes of that general idea.
Andlaftly, afcribe all thofe attributes to the prefent objedt.
Thus, in confideringthecharadler of Sempronius, if we find
it to be of the kind called virtuous - when we at the fame
time refledt, that a virtuous charadter is deferving of
efteem, it naturally and obvioufly follows that Sempronius
isfotoo. Thefe thoughts put into in order to
exhibit the form of reafoning here required, run thus.
Every virtuous man is worthy of efteem.
Sempronius is a virtuous man.
Therefore Sempronius is worthy of efteem.
By this fyllogifm it appears, that before we affirm any
thing of a particular objedt, that objedt muft be referred
to fome general idea. Sempronius is pronounced worthy
of efteem, only in confequence of his being a virtuous
man. Hence we fee the neceffary connedtion of the vari¬
ous parts of reafoning, and the dependence they have one
upon another. The determining the genera and fpecies of
things is, as we have faid, one exercife of human reafon;
and here we find, that this exercife is the firft in order,
and previous to the Other, which confifts in afcribing to
G I C;
them their powers, properties, and relations. But when
we have taken this previous ftep, and brought particular
objedts under general names ; as the properties weafcribe
to them are no other than thofe of the general idea, it is
plain, that in order to a fuccefsfi*! progrefs in this part of
knowledge, we muft thoroughly acquaint ourfelves with
the feveral relations and attributes of thefe our general
ideas. When this is done, the other part will be eafy,
and require fcarce any labour of thought, as being no
more than an application of the general form of reafoning
reprefented in the foregoing/yllogfm. Now as we have
already fufficiently (hewn how we are to proceed in deter¬
mining the genera and fpecies of things, all that is farther
wanting towards a due explanation of it is, to offer fome
confiderations as to the manner of inveftigating the ge¬
neral relations of our ideas. This is the-high eft exercife
of the powers of the underftanding, and that by means
whereof we arrive at the difcovery of univerfal truths,
infomuch that our dedudtions in this way conftitute that
particular fpecies of reafoning which we have before faid
regards principally the fciences.
But that we may condudt our thoughts with fome or¬
der and method, we fhall begin with obferving, that the
relations of our general ideas are of two kinds. Either
fuch as immediately difcover themfelves, upon comparing
the ideas one with another ; or fncb as, being more re¬
mote and diftant, require art and contrivance to bring
them into view. The relations of the firft kind furnifh
us with intuitive and felf evident truths; thofe of the
fecond are traced by reafoning and a due application
of intermediate ideas. It is of this Jaft kind that we are
to fpeak here having difpatched what was neceffary with
regard to the other in the former part. As therefore, in
tracing the more diftant relations of things, we muft al¬
ways have re-ourfe to intervening ideas, and are more or
lefs fuccefsful in our refearches, according to our ac¬
quaintance with thefe ideas, and ability of applying them;
it is evident, that to make a good reafoner, two things
are principally required. Firft, an extenfive knowledge
of thofe intermediate ideas, by means of which things
may be compared one with another. Secondly, the /kill
and talent of applying them happily, in all particular in-
ftances that come under confideration.
In order to our fuccefsful progrefs in reafoning, we
muft have an extenfive knowledge of thofe intermediate
ideas by means of which things may be compared one
with another. For as it is not every idea that will anfwer
the purpofe of our inquiries, but fuch only as are pecu-
culiarly related to the obje<5ts about which we reafon, fo
as, by a comparifon with them, to furniffi evident and known
truths; nothing is more apparent, than that the greater va¬
riety of conceptions we can call into view, the more likely
we are to find fome among them that will help us to the
truths here required. And indeed it is found to hold in
experience, that in proportion as we enlarge our views of
things, and grow acquainted with a multitude of different
objeifts, the reafoning faculty gathers ftrength. For by
extending our fphere uf knowledge, the mind acquires a
certain force and penetration, as being accuftomed to ex¬
amine the feveral appearances of its ideas, and obferve
what light they caft one upon another.
L O C
Tins is the reafort, why, in'orderto excel remarkably
in any one branch of learning, it is neceffary to have at
lead: a general acquaintance with the whole circle of arts
and fcieoces. The truth isj, all the Various divifions of
hunian knowledge are very nearly related among them-
felves, and in innumerable inftances ferve to illuftrate and
fet off each other. And altho’ it is not to be denied, that,
by an obftinate application to one branch of ftudy, a man
may make confiderable progrefs and acquire feme degree
of eminence in it; yet his views will be always narrow
and contrafted, and he will want that mafterly difeern-
ment, which not only enables us to purfue our difeove-
ties with eafe, but alfo, in laying them open to others, to
fpread a certain brightnefs around them. But when our
reafoning regards a particular fcience, it is farther necef¬
fary, that we more nearly acquaint ourfelves with what¬
ever relates to that fcience. A general knowledge'is a
good preparation, and enables us to proceed with eafe
and expedition, in whatever branch of learning we apply
to. But then in the minute and intricate queftions of any
feienee we are by no means qualified to reafon with
advantage, until we have perfectly maflered the fcience
to which they belong.
We come now to the fecond thing required, in order
to a fiiccefsful progrefs in reafoning, namely, the /kill
and talent of applying intermediate ideas happily in all
particular inftances that come under confideration. Ufe and
exererfe are the beft in/trudtors in the prefent cafe. And
therefore the true way to acquire this talent is, by being
much converfant in thofe fciences where the art of reafoning
is allowed to reign in the greate/t perfection. Hence it was
that the ancients, who fo well uflderftood the manner of
forming the mind, always began with mathematicks, as
the foundation of their philofonhical ftudies. Here the
nnderltanding is by degrees habituated to truth, con¬
tracts infenfrbly a certain fondnefs for it, and learns never
to yield its aflent to any propo/ition, but where the evi¬
dence is fufficient to produce full conviction. For thir
reafon Plato has called mathematical demonftrations the
catharticks or purgatives of the foul, as being the pro¬
per means to cleanfe it from error, and re/tore that na¬
tural exercife of its faculties, in which ju/1 thinking con-
If therefore we would form our minds to a habit of
reafoning clofely and in train, we cannot take any more
certain method, than the exercififtg ourfelves in mathe¬
matical demonftrations, fo as to contract a kind of fami¬
liarity with them. Not that we look upon it as ne-
ceftary that all men fhould be deep mathematicians, but
that, having got the way of reafoning which that ftudy
rtece/Tarily brings the mind to, they may be able to tranf-
fer it to other parts of knowledge, as they /hall have oc-
eafton.
But although the ftudy of mathematicks be of all o-
thers the moft ufeful to form the mind, and give it an
early reii/h of truth, yet ought not other parts of philo-
fophy to be negletfed. For there alfo we meet with
many opportunities of exercifing the powers of the un-
derftanding: and the variety of fubjeC/s naturally leads us
to obferve all thofe different turns of thinking that are
peculiarly adapted to the feveral ideas we examine and
f I C. 995
the truths we fearch after. For this purpofe, befides the
ftudy of mathematicks, we ought to apply ourfelves di¬
ligently to the reading of fuch authors as have diltin-
gui/hed themfelves for ftrength of reafoning, and a juft
and accurate manner of thinking. For it is obfervable,
that a mind exercifed and feafoned to truth, feldom relts
fatisfied in a bare contemplation of the arguments offered
by others, but will be frequently effayihg its ownftrength,
and purlumg its difeoveries upon the plan it is rooft ac-
cuftomed to. Thus we infenfibly conuaCta habit of tra¬
cing truth from one ftage to another, and of inveftigating
thole general relations and properties, which we after¬
wards aferibe to particular things, according as we find
them comprehended under the abllraCt ideas to which
the properties belong.
Of the forms of Syilogifms.
Hitherto we have contentedourlelves with a gene¬
ral notion of fyllogifms, and of the parts of which they
confift. It is now time to enter a little more particularly
into the fubjeCZ, to examine their various forms, and lay
open the rules of argumentation proper to each. In the
lyllogiftns mentioned in, we may oblerve, that the middle
term is the lubjeCt of the major propofition, and the pre¬
dicate of the minor. This difpofitiorr, though the moft
natural and obvious, is not however neceffary; it fre¬
quently happenning, that the middle term is the fubjeCt
in both the pi emifles, or the predicate in both ; and fome-
times direCtly contrary, the predicate in the major, and
the fubjeCt in the minor. Hence the diftindion of fyllo-
giims into various kinds, called figures by logicians. For
figure, according to their ufe of the word, is nothing elfe
but the order and difpofition of the middle term in any
fytlegifm. And as this difpofition is fourfold, fo the fi¬
gures of fyllogifms thence arifing are four in number.
When the middle term is the fubjeCt of the major propo¬
fition, and the predicate of the minor, we have what is
called the firjl figure. If, on the other hand, it is the
predicate of both the premiffes, the fyllogifm is faid to be
in the fecand figure. Again, in the third figure, the
middle term is the fubjeCt of the two premiftes. And
laftly, by making it the predicate of the major, and
fubjeCt of the minor, we o.nain fyllogifms in the fourth
figure.
But befidesthis fourfold diftinCtion of /yllogifnis, there
is alfo a farther fubdivrfion of them in every figure, ari-
fing from th? quantity and quality, as they are called, of
the propofittons. By quantity we mean the confideration
of propofitions as umverfal or particular; by quality, as
affirmative or negative. Now as, in all the feveral difpo-
fitions of the middle term, the propofition of which a fyl¬
logifm confifts may be either univerfal or particular,
affirmative or negative; the due determination of thefie,
and fo putting them together as the laws of argumenta¬
tion require, conftitute what logicians call the moods of
fyllogifms. Of thefe moods there Arc a determinate num¬
ber to every figure, including all the poffible ways in
which propofitrens differing in quantity or quality can be
combined, according to any dilpofiticn of the middle term,
in order to arrive at a juft conclufion.
The divifion ©f fyllogifms according to mood and fi-
gure.
996 L O i
gate, refpe&s thofe efpecially which are known by the
name of plain fimple fyllogifms; that is, which are bound¬
ed to three propofitions, all fimple, and where the ex
tremes and middle term are connected according to the
rules laid down above. But as the mind is not tied
down to any one precife form of reafoning, butfometimes
makes ufe of more, fometimes of fewer premifles, and
often takes in compound and conditional propofitions, it
may not be amifs to take notice of the different forms
derived from this fource, and explain the rule by which
the mind condu&s itfelf in the ute of them.
When, in any fyliogifm, the major is a conditional pro-
pofition, the fyliogifm itfelf is termed Thus:
If there is a God, he ought to be ’worjhipped.
But there is a God :
Therefore he ought to be nvorfhipped.
In this example, the major is conditional, and there¬
fore the fyliogifm itfelf is alfo of the kind called by that
name. All conditional propofuions are made up of two
diftinft parts : one exprefling the condition upon which
the predicate agrees or difagrees with the fubjed, as in
this now before us, if there is a God; the other joining
or disjoining the faid predicate and fubjedl, as here, he
ought to be •worfhipped. The firft of thefe parts, or that
which implies the condition, is called the antecedent; the
fecond, where we join or disjoin the predicate and fub
jedt, has the name of the confequent.
In all propofitions of this kind, fuppofing them to be
exadt in point of form, the relation between the antece¬
dent and confequent mult ever be true and real; that is,
the antecedent mull always contain fome certain and ge¬
nuine condition, which neceffarily implies the confequent;
for otherwife the propofition itfelf will be falfe, and
therefore ought not to be admitted into our reafonings.
Hence it follows, that when any conditional propofition
is affumed, if we admit the antecedent of that propofition,
we mull at the fame time neceffarily admit the confe¬
quent 5 but if we rejedl the confequent, we are in like
manner bound to rejedt alfo the antecedent. For as the
antecedent always expreffes fome condition, which ne¬
ceffarily implies the truth of the confequent; by admit¬
ting the antecedent we allow of that condition, and there¬
fore ought alfo to admit the confequent. In like manner
if it appears that the confequent ought to be rejedted,
the antecedent evidently mult be fo too ; becaufe the ad¬
mitting of the antecedent would neceffarily imply the
admiflion alfo of the confequent.
Th.ere are two ways of arguing in hypothetical fyllo¬
gifms, which lead to a certain and unavoidable conclufion.
For as the major is always a conditional propofition,
confilling of an antecedent and a confequent ; if the
minor admits the antecedent, it is plain that the conclu
fion mull admit the confequent. This is called arguing
from the admiffion of the antecedent to the admiffion of
the confequent, and conllitutes that mood or fpecies of
hypothetical fyllogifms which is dillinguilhed in the
fchools by the name of the modus ponens, in as much as
by it the whole conditional propofition both antecedent
and confequent is eltablilhed. Thus :
Jf God is infinitely ’tcife, and ails with perfitt free¬
dom, he, does nothing but what is bcfl.
3 I c.
But God is infinitely wife', and arts with perfett free¬
dom :
Therefore he does nothing but what is heft.
Here the antecedent or firlt part of the conditional pro-
pofition is ellablilhed in the minor, and the confequent
or fecond part in the conclufion; whence the fyliogifm
itfelf is an example of the modus ponens. But if we, on
the contrary, fuppofe, that the minor rejects the confe¬
quent ; then it is apparent, that the conclufion mult alfo
rejedl the antecedent. In this cafe we are faid to argue
from the removal of the confequent to the removal of
the antedent, and the particular mood or fpecies of fyllo¬
gifms thence arifing is called by logicians the modus tol-
lens ; becaufe in it both antecedent and confequent are
rejedted or taken away, as appears by the following ex¬
ample.
If God were not a being of infinite goodnefs, neither
would he confult the happinefs of his creatures.
But God does confult the happinejs of his creatures-.
Therefore he is a being of infinite goodnefs.
Thefe two fpecies take in the whole clafs of conditional
fyllogifms, and include all the poflible ways of arguing,
that lead to a legitimate conclufion ; becaufe we cannot
here proceed by a contrary procefs of reafoning, that is,
from the emovalof the antecedent to the removal of the
confequent, or from the ellablilhing of the confequent to
the eftablifhing of the antecedent. For although the ante¬
cedent always expreffes fome real condition, which once
admitted neceffarily implies the confequent, yet it does
not follow that there is therefore no other condition
and if fo, then, after removing the antecedent, the con¬
fequent may Hill hold, becaufe of fome other determina¬
tion that infers it. When we fay : If a Jlone is expofed
fome time to the rays of the fun, it will contrad a cer¬
tain degree of heat; the propofition is certainly true ; and
admitting the antecedent, we mufl alfo admit the confe¬
quent. But as there are other ways by which a Hone,
may gather heat, it will not follow, from the ceafing of
the before-mentioned condition, that therefore the con¬
fequent cannot take place. In other words, we cannot
argue : But the Jlone has not been expofed to the rays of
the fun; therefore neither has it any degree of heat : in
as much as there a great many other ways by which
heat might have been communicated to it. And if we
cannot argue from the removal of, the antecedent to the.
removal of the confequent, no more can we from the ad¬
miffion of the confequent to the admiflion of the antece¬
dent; becaufe as the confequent may flow from a great
variety of different fuppofitions, the allowing of it does not
determine the precife fuppofition, but only that iome one
of them mufl take place. Thus, in the foregoing propo¬
fition, If a Jlone is expofed fome time to the rays oJ~ the
fun, it will contrad a certain degree of heat; admitting
the confequent, viz. that it has contraded a certain -
degree of heat, we are not therefore bound to admit the:
antecedent, that it has been fome time expofed to the rays
of thefun, becaufe there are many other caufes whence that
heat may have proceeded. Thefe two ways of arguing,,
therefore, hold not in conditional fyllogifms.
As from the major's being a conditional propofition, we
obtain the fpecies of conditional fyllogifms ; fo where it
is,
LOG
is a disjun&ive pfopofition, the fyllogifm to which it be¬
longs is alfo called disjunftivc, as in the following example :
The world is either feif-exiftent, or the work of fame
finite, or of fame infinite being.
But it is not felfexiftent, nor the work of a finite being.
Therefore it is the work of an infinite being.
Now a disjunctive propofition is that where, of feveral
predicates, we affirm one neceflarily to belong to thefub-
je£t, to the exclufion of all the rdt, but leave that par¬
ticular one undetermined. Hence it follows, that as fooh
as we determine the particular predicate, all the reft are
of courfe to be rejected; or if we rejeCt all the predicates
but one, that one neceflarily takes place. When there¬
fore, in a ditjunttive fyllogifm, the feveral predicates are
enumerated in the major; if the w'/wreftabliffies any one
of thefe predicates, the conclufion ought to remove all
the reft; or if, in the minor, all the predicates but onC
are removed, the conclufion muft neceffarily eftabliffi that
one. Thus, in the disjunfiive fyllogifm given above, the
major affirms one of three predicates to belong to the
earth, viz. felf-exijler.ce, or that it is the work of a
finite or that it is the work of an infinite being. Two
of thefe predicates are removed in the minor, viz.
felfexijlence, and the work of a finite being. Hence
the conclufion neceflarily afcribes to it the third predi¬
cate, and affirms that it is the work of an infinite being.
If now we give the fyllogifm another turn, infomuch that
the minor may eftabliffi one of the predicates, by affirming
the earth to be the produtlion of an infinite being; then
the conclufion muft remove the other two, aflerting it to
be neither felfexifient, not the work of a finite being.
Thefe are the forms of reafoning in this fpecies of fyllo-
gifms, the juftnefs of which appears at firft fight; and that
there can be no other, is evident from the very nature of
a disjunctive propofition.
In the feveral kinds of fyllogifms hitherto mentioned,
the parts are complete, that is, the three propofitions of
which they confift are reprefented in form. But it often
happens, that fome one of the premifles is not only an
evident truth, but alfo familiar and in the minds of all
men ; in which cafe it is ufually omitted, whereby we
have an imperfeCt fyllogifm, that feems to be made up of
only two propofitions. Should we, forinftance, argue in
this manner;
Every man is mortal;
Therefore every king is mortal:
the fyllogifm appears to be imperfeCf, as confifting but
of two propofitions. Yet it is really complete, only
. the minor {Every king is a man\ is omitted, and left to
the reader to fupply, as being a propofition fo familiar
and evident, that it cannot efcape him.
Thefe feemingly imperfeCt fyllogifms are called enthy-
memes, and occur very frequently in reafoning, efpecially
where it makes a part of common converfation. Nay,
there is a particular elegance in them ; becaufe, not dif
playing the argument in all its parts, they leave fomewhat
to the exercife and invention of the mind. By this means
we are put upon exerting ourfelves, and feem to ffiare in
the difcovery of what is propofed to us. Now this is the
great fecret of fine writing, fo to frame and put together
our thoughts, as to give full play to the reader’s imagina-
Vol. II. No. 68. 2
I C. 997
tion, and draw himinfenfiblyintoour very views and courfe
of reafoning. This gives a pleafure not unlike to that
which the author himfelf feels in compofing. It befides
ffiortens dicourfe, and adds a certain force and livelinefs
to odr arguments, when the words in which they are con¬
veyed favour the natural quicknefs of the mind in its
operations, and a fingle expreflion is left to exhibit a
whole train of thoughts.
But there is another fpecies of reafoning with two
propofitions, which feems to be complete,in itfelf, and
where we admit the conclufion without fuppofing ally
tacit or fupprefled judgment in the mind from which it
follows fyllogiftically. This happens between propofi¬
tions where the connection is fuch that the admiflion
of the one neceflarily and at the firft fight implies the
admiffion alfo of the other. For if it fo falls out, that
the propofition on which the other depends is felf-evident,
we content ourfelves with barely affirming it, and infer
that other by a direCt conclufion. Thus, by admitting an
univerfal propofition, we are forced alfo to admit of all
the particular propofitions comprehended under it, this
being the very condition that conftitutes a propofftion
univerfal. If then that univerfal propofition chances to
be felf-evident, the particu’ar ones follow of courfe,
without any farther train of reafoning. Whoever allows,
for inftance, that things equal to one and the fame things
are equal to one another, muft at the fame time allow’,
that two triangles, each equal to a fquare whofe fide is
three inches, are alfo equal between themfelves. This
argument therefore,
Things equal to one and the fame thing are equal to one
another;
Therefore thefe two triangles, each equal to theifquare
of a line of three inches, are equal between them¬
felves,
is complete in its kind, and contains all that is neceflary
towards a juft and legitimate conclufion. For the fim
or univerfal propofition is felf-evident, and therefore
requires no farther proof. And as the truth of the
particular is infeparably connected with that of the uni¬
verfal, it follows from it by an obvious and unavoidable
confequence.
Now in all cafes of this kind, where propofitions are
deduced one from another, on account of a known and
evident connection, we are faid to reafon by immediate
confequence. Such a coherence of propofitions, manifeft
at fit ft fight, and forcing itfelf upon the mind, frequently
occurs in reafohing. Logicians have explained at fome
length the feveral fuppofitiOns upon which it takes place,
and allow of all immediate confequences that follow in
conformity to them. It is however obfervable, that
thefe arguments, though feemingly complete, becaufe
the conclufion follows neceflarily from the fingle propo¬
fition that goes before, may yet be confidered as real
enthymemet, whofe waycr, which is a conditional propofi¬
tion, is wanting. The fyllogifm but juft mentioned, when
reprefented according to this view, will run as follows :
If things equal to one and the fame thing are equal
to one another ; thefe two triangles, each equal to a
fquare whofefide is three inches, are alfo equal between
themfelves.
xo T
But
998 L O
But things equal ta one and the fame thing, are equal
to one another;
Therefore alfo thefe triangles, &c. are equalhet’ween
themfelves.
This obfervation will be found to hold in all itnmediate
confequences whatfoever, infomuch that they are in fa«ft
no more than enthymemes of hypothetical fyllogifms.
But then it is particular to them, that the ground on
which the conclufionrefls, namely, its coherence with the
minor, is of itfelf apparent, and feen immediately to flow
from the rules and reafons of logic.
The next fpecies of reafoning we ftiall take notice of
is what is known by the name of a forites. This is a
way of arguing, in which a great number of propofitions
are fo linked together, that the predicate of one becomes
continually the fubjed of the next following, until at lafl
a conclufion is formed, by bringing together the fubjeft
of the firft propofition, and the predicate of the laft. Of
this kind is the following argument.
God is omnipotent.
An omnipotent being can do every thing pofible.
He that can do every thing pofible, can do •whatever
involves not a contradiction.
Therefore God can do •whatever involves not a contra¬
diction.
This particular combination of propofltions, may be
continued to any length we pleafe, without in the lead
weakening the ground upon which the conclufion refts.
The reafon is, becaufe the forites itfelf may be refolved
into as many fimple fyllogifms as there are middle terms
in it; where this is found univerfally to hold, that when
fuch a refolution is made, and the fyllogifms are placed
in train, the conclufion of the laft in the feries is alfo
the conclufion of the forites. This kind of argument
therefore, as it ferves to unite feveral fyllogifms into
one, mud fland upon the fame foundation with the fyllo¬
gifms of which it confids, and is indeed, properly fpeak
ing, no other than a compendious way of reafoning fyl-
logidically.
What is here faid of plain fimple propofitions, may be
as well applied to thofe that are conditional; that is, any
number of them may be fo joined together in a feries,
that the confequent of one fhail become continually the
antecedent of the next following; in which cafe, by eda-
blifliingthe antecedent of the fird propofition, we edablilh
the confequent of the lad, or, by removing the lad confe¬
quent, remove alfo the fird antecedent. This way of
reafoning is exemplified in the following argument.
If •we love any perfon, all emotions of hatred towards
him ceafe.
If all emotions of hatred towards a perfon ceafe, we
cannot rejoice in his misfortunes.
If we rejoice net in his misfortunes, we certainly wifh
him no injury.
Therefore if we love a perfon, we wifh him no injury.
It is evident that this forites, as well as the lad, may
be refolved into a feries of diflindt fyllogifms; with this
only difference, that here the fyllogifms are all condi¬
tional.
We come now to that kind of argument which logi¬
cians called induction ; in order to the right underdand-
& I c.
ing of which, it will be necefiary fo obferve, that our
general ideas are for the molt part capable of various
fubdivifions. Thus the idea of the lowed fpecies may
be fubdivided into its feveral individuals, the idea.of any
genus into the different fpecies it comprehends, and fo
of the red. If then'we fuppofe this didribution to be
duly made, and fo as to take in the whole extent of the
idea to which it belongs; then it is plain, that all the
fubdivifions or parts of any idea together conditute that
whole idea. Thus the feveral individuals of any fpecies
taken together conditute the whole fpeeies, and all the
various fpecies comprehended under any genus make up
the whole genus. This being allowed, whatever may be
affirmed of all the feveral fubdivifions and claffes of any
idea, ought to be affirmed of the whole general idea to
which thefe fubdivifions belong. What may be affirmed
of all the individuals of any fpecies, may be affirmed of
the whole fpecies, and what may be affirmed of all the
fpecies of any genus may be alfo affirmed of the whole
genus; becaufe all the individuals taken together are the
fame with the fpecies, and all the fpecies taken together
the fame with the genus.
This way of arguing, where we infer univerfally con¬
cerning any idea what we had before affirmed or denied
feparately of all its feveral fubdivifions and parts, is call¬
ed reafoning \oq induction. Thus if we fuppofe the whole
tribe of animals, fubdivided into men, hearts, birds, in¬
fers, and fiffies, and then reafon concerning them after
this manner : All men have a power of beginning motion ;
all beajls, birds, and infeCis, have a power of beginning
motion; all fifhes have a power of beginning motion;
therefore all animals have a power of beginning motion t
the argument is an induction. When the fubdivifions
are jurt, fo as to take in the whole general idea, and the
enumeration is perfedt, that is, extends to all and every
of the inferior clafles or parts; there the induction is
compleat, and the manner of reafoning by induction is
apparently conclufive.
The lartfpecies of fyllogifms we lhall take notice of, is
that commonly diftinguiffied by the name of a dilemma.
A dilemma is an argumeet, by which we endeavour to
prove the abfurdity or falfehood of fome aflertion. In
order to this we affume a conditional propofition, the an¬
tecedent of which is the aflertion to be disproved, and the
confequent a drsjunfhve prcpofitiOn, enumerating all the
pofiibio' fuppofitions upon which that aflertion can take
place. If then it appears, that all the feveral fuppofitions
ought to be rejected, it is plain that the antecedent or
aflertion itfelf muft be fo too. When therefore fuch a
propofition as that before-mentioned is made the major-
of any fyllogifm ; if the minor rejedts all the fuppofitions
contained in the confequent, it follows neceflarily, that
the conclufion ought to rejedt the antecedent, which, as
we have faid, is the very aflertion to be difproved. This
particular way of arguing is that which logicians call a
dilemma ; and from the account here given of it, it ap¬
pears, that we may in the general define it to be a hypo¬
thetical fyllogifm, where the confsquent of the major is
a disjunctive propofition, which is wholly taken away or
removed in the minor. Of this kind is the following :
If God did not create the world perfect, in its kind, it
muft
G
L O
mufi either proceed from want of inclination, or
from want of power.
But it could not proceed either from want of inclina¬
tion, or from want of power :
Therefore he created, the world perfefl in its kind; or,
which is the fame thing, It is abfurd to fay that he
did not create the worldperfett in its kind.
The nature then of a dilemma is univerfally this.
The major is a conditional propofition, whofe confequent
contains all the feveral fuppofitions upon which the ante¬
cedent can take place. As therefore thefe fuppofitions
are wholly removed in the minor, it is evident that the
antecedent muft be fo too ; infomuch that we here always
argue from the removal of the confequent to the removal
of the antecedent. That is, a dilemma is an argument
in the modus tollens of hypothetical fyllogifms, as logi¬
cians fpeak. Hence it is plain, that if the antecedent of
the major is an affirmative propofition, the conclufion of
the dilemma will be negative ; but if it is a negative pro¬
pofition, the conclufion will be affirmative.
Of Demonf ration.
Having difpatched what feemed neceffary with regard
to the forms of fyllogifms, we fhall now explain their
ufe and application in reafoning. We have feen, that in
all the different appearances they put on, we ftill arrive
at a juft and legitimate conclufion : now it often happens,
that the conclufion of one fyllogifm becomes a previous
propofition in another, by which means great numbers of
them are fometimes linked together in a feries, and truths
are made to follow one another in train. And as in fuch
a concatenation of fyllogifms, all the various ways of
reafoning that are truly conclufive may be with fafdty
introduced ; hence it is plain, that in deducing any truth
from its firft principles, efpecially where it lies at a con-
fiderable diftance from them, we are at liberty to combine
all the feveial kinds of arguments above explained, ac¬
cording as they are found beft to fuit the end and purpofe
of our inquiries. When a propofition is thus, by means
of fyllogifms, collefted from others more evident and
known, it is faid to be proved; fo that we may in the
general define the proof of the proportion to be a fyllo¬
gifm, or feries of fyllogifms, collefting that propofition
from known and evident truths. But more particularly,
if the fyllogifms of which the proof confifts admit of no
premifles but definitions, felf-evident truths, and propo-
fitions already eftablilhed, then is the argument focon-
ftituted called a dtmonjlration ; whereby it appears,
that demonftrations are ultimately founded on definitions
and felf-evident propofitions.
All fyllogifms whatfoever, whether compound, multi¬
form, or defedtive, are reducible to plain fimple fyllogifms
in fome one of the four figures. But this is not all.
Syllogifms of the firft figure in particular, admit of all
poffible conclufions : that is, any propofition whatfoever,
whether an univerfal affirmative, or univerfal negative,
a particular affirmative, or particular negative, which
fourfold divifion embraces all their varieties ; any one
of thefe may be inferred, by virtue of fome fyllogifm in
the fifft figure. By this means the fyllogifms of all the
other figures are reducible, alfo to fyllogifms of-the.fi:ft
I C,
figure, and may be confidered as (landing on the fame
foundation with them. We cannot here demonftrate and
explain the manner of this redudtion. It is enough to
take notice, that the thing is univerfaily known and al¬
lowed among logicians, to whofe writings we refer fuch
as defire farther fatisfadlion in this matter. This then
being laid down, it is plain, that any demonlftation what¬
foever may be confidered as compofed of a feries of
fyllogifms, all in the firft figure. For fince all the fyllo¬
gifms that enter the demonftration are reducible to fyllo¬
gifms of fome one of the four figures, and fince the fyllo¬
gifms of all the other figures are farther reducible to fyllo¬
gifms of the firft figure, it is evident, that the whole de¬
monftration may be refolved into a feries of thefe laft fyl¬
logifms. Let us now, if poffible, difcover the ground upon
which the conclufion refts, in fyllogifms of the firft fi¬
gure ; becaufe, by fo doing, we ffiall come at an univer¬
fal principle of certainty, whence the evidence of all de¬
monftrations in all their parts may be ultimately derived.
The rules then of the firft figure are thefe. The mid¬
dle term is the fubjeift of the major propofition, and the
predicate of the minor. The major is always an univer¬
fal propofition, and the minor always affirmative. Let
us now fee what effedt thefe rules will have in reafoning.
The major is an univerfal propofition, of which the mid¬
dle term is the fubjedt, and the predicate of the conclu-
fton the predicate. Hence it appears, that in the major,
the predicate of the conclufion is always affirmed or de¬
nied univerfally of the middle term. Again, the minor
is an affirmative propofition, whereof \\\z fuljeti of the
conclufton is the fubjedt, and the middle term the predi¬
cate, Here then the middle term is affirmed of theya£-
jefl of the conclufton ; that is, the fuhjeii of the cor.clu-
Jion is affirmed to be comprehended under, or to make a
part of the middle term. Thus then we fee what is done
in the premiffes of a fyllogifm of the firft figure. The
predicate of the conclufton is univerfally affirmed or de*
nied of fome idea. The fubjell of the conclufien is affir¬
med to be or to make a part of that idea. Hence it nar
turally and unavoidably follows, that the predicate of the
conclufton ought to be affirmed or denied of the fubjedl.
To illuftrate this by an example, we fhall refume one of
the former fyllogifms.
Every creature pojfejfed of reafon and liberty is ac¬
countable for his aft ions.
Man is a creature po/efed of reafon and liberty.
Therefore man is accountable for his aflions.
Here, in the firft propofition, the predicate of the con¬
clufion, accountablenefs, is affirmed of all creatures that
have reafon and liberty. Again, in the fecond propofition,
man, the fubjedt of the conclufion, is affirmed to be or
to make a part of the clafs of creatures. Hence the con¬
clufion neceflarily and unavoidably follows, viz. that man
is accour. able for his ad ions ; becaufe if reafon andliberty
be th. • which conftitutes zcrtature accouttlable, and man
has reafon and liberty, it is plain he has-that which confti¬
tutes him accountable. In like manner, where themajor is
a negative propofition, or denies the predicate oftlte conclu¬
fton xxriwtrlAWy of the middle term, as the minor always af-
ferts the fubjed of the conclufion, to be or make a part of
that middle term, it is no lefs evident, that the predicate of
the-
looo LOG
the conclufton ought in this cafe to be denied of the fub-
jeft. So that the ground of reafoning in all fyllogifms
of the firft figure is manifeftly this. Whatever may be
affirmed univerfally of any idea, may be affirmed of every
or any number of particulars comprehended under that
idea. And again : Whatever may be denied univerfally
of any idea, tnay be in like manner denied of every or
any number of its individuals. Thefe two propofitions
are called by logicians the difturn de otnni, and difturn de
nullo, and are indeed the great principles of fyllogiftic
reafoning, inafmuch as all conclufions whatfoever either
reft immediately upon them, or upon propofitions deduced
from them. But what adds greatly to their value is,
that they are really felf-evident truths, and fuch as we
cannot gainfay without running into an exprefs contra-
ididtion. To affirm, for inftance, that no man is perfeft,
and yet argue that fame men are perfeft ; or to fay that
all men are mortal, and yet that fome men are not mortal,
is to aflert a thing to be and not to be at the fame time.
And now we may affirm, that in all fyllogifms of the
firft figure, if the premiffies are true, the conclujion muft
needs be true. If it be true that the predicate of the
conclujion, whether affirmative or negative, agrees univer¬
fally to fome idea, and if it be alfo true that the fubjeft
cf the conclujion is a part of or comprehended under that
idea, then it neceffiarily follows, that the predicate of the
conclufton agrees alfo to the fubjeft. For to affert the
contrary, would be to run counter to fome one of the
two principles before eftabliffied ; that is, it would be to
maintain an evident contradiftion. And thus we are
come at laft to the point we have been all along endea¬
vouring to eftabliffi, namely, That every propofition
which can be demonftrated is neceffarily true. For as
every demonftration may be refolved into a feries of fyl¬
logifms all in the firft figure, and as, in any one of thefe
fyllogifms, if the premiffes are true, the conclufion muft
be fo too; it evidently follows, that if all the feveral
premifles are true, all the feveral conclufions are fo, and
confequently the conclufion alfo of the laft fyllogifm,
which is always the propofition to be demonftrated. Now
that all the premifles of a demonftration are true, will
eafily appear from the very nature and definition of that
form of reafoning. A demonftration is a feries of fyllo¬
gifms, all whole premiffies are either definitions, felf-evi¬
dent truths, or propofitions already eftabliffied. Defini¬
tions are identical propofitions, wherein we connedt the
defcription of an idea with the name by which we chufe
to have that idea called ; and therefore as to their truth
there can be no difpute. Self-evident propofitions appear
true of themfelves, and leave no doubt or uncertainty in
the mind. Propofitions before eftabliffied are no o-
ther than conclufions gained by one or more fteps from
definitions and felf-evideht principles, that is, from true
premiffes, and therefore muft needs be true. Whence all
the previous propofitions of a demonftration being mani
fedtly true, the laft conclufion or propofition to be de¬
monftrated muft be fo too. So that demonftration not
only leads to certain truth, but We have here alfo a clear
view of the ground'and foundation of that certainty.
For as, in demonftrating, we may be faid to do nothing
more than combine a feries of fyllogifms together, all
I c
•efting on the fame'bottom ; it is plain, that one uniform
ground of certainty runs through the whole, and that the
conclufions are every where built upon fome one of the
two principles before eftabliffied as the foundation of ail
our reafoning. Thefe two principles are eafily reduced
into one, and may be expreffed thus. Whatever predi¬
cate, 'whether affirmative or negative, agrees univerfally
to any idea, the fame mujl needs agree to every or any
number^ of individuals comprehended under that idea.
And thus we have reduced the certainty of demonftration
to one fimple and univerfal principle, which carries its
own evidence along with it, and which is indeed the ul¬
timate foundation of all fyllogiftic reafoning.
Demonftratiort therefore ferving as an infallible guide
to truth, and (landing on fo fure and unalterable a bafis,
we may now venture to affert, that the rules of logic
furniffi a fufficient criterion for the diftinguiffiing between
truth and falfehood. For fince every propofition that can
be demonftrated is neceffarily true, he is able to dillin-
guilh truth from falfehood, who can with certainty judge
when a propofition is duly demonftrated. Now a de¬
monftration is nothing more than a concatenation of
fyllogifms, all whofe premiffes are definitions, felf-evident
truths, or propofitions previoufly eftabliffied. To judge
therefore of the validity of a demonftration, we muft be
able to diftinguiffi, whether the definitions that enter it
are genuine, and truly defcriptive of the ideas they are
meant to exhibit; whether the propofitions affumed with-
out proof as intuitive truths have really that felf-evidence
to which they lay claim ; whether the fyllogifms are
drawn up in due fqjm, and agreeable to the laws of ar¬
gumentation ; in fine, whether they are combined to¬
gether in a juft and orderly manner, fo that no demon-
ftrable propofitions ferve any where as premiffes, unlefs
they are conclufions of previous fyllogifms. Now it is
the bufiqf fs of logic, in explaining the feveral operations
of the triftodf fully to inftru<ft: us in all thefe points. It
teaches the nature and end of definitions, and lays down
the rules by which they ought to be framed. It unfolds
the feveral fpecies of propofitions, and diftinguiffies the
felf evident from the demonftrable. It delineates alfo the
different forms of fyllogifms, and explains the laws of
argumentation proper to each. In fine, it defcribes the
manner of combining fyllogifms, fo as that they may form
a train of reafoning, and lead to the fucceffive difcovery
of truth. The precepts of logic therefore, as they en¬
able us to judge with certainty when a propofition is
duly demonftrated, furniffi a fure criterion for the dif¬
tinguiffiing between truth and falfehood.
But perhaps it may be obje&ed, that demonftration is
a thing very rare and uncommon, as being the preroga¬
tive of but a few fciences, and therefore the criterion
here given can be of no great ufe. But where ever, by
the bare contemplation of our ideas, truth is difcoverable,
there alfo demonftration may be attained. Now that is
an abundantly fufficient criterion, which enables us to
judge with certainty in all cafes where the knowledge of
truth comes within our reach ; for with difcoveries, that
lie beyond the limits of the human mind, we have pro¬
perly no bufinefs. When a propofition is demonftrated,
we are certain of its truth. When, on the contrary, our
ideas
ideas are fuch as have no vifible connedion nor repug¬
nance, and therefore furaifh not the proper means of
tracing their agreement or difagreement, there we are
fure that fcicntifical knowledge is not attainable. But
where there is fome foundation of reafoning, which yet
amounts not to the full evidence of demonftration, there
the precepts of logic, by teaching us to determine aright
of the degree of proof, and of what is ftill wanting to
render it full and complete, enable us to make a due
eftimate of the meafures of probability, and to proportion
our aflent to the grounds on which the propofition Hands.
And this is all we can poffibly arrive at, or even fo much
as hope for, in the exercife of faculties fo imperfed and
limited as ours.
We conclude it may not be improper to take notice of
the diftindion of demonflration into dirett and indireft.
A diredl dsmonftration is, when beginning with definiti¬
ons, felf-evident propofitions, or known and allowed
truths, we form a train of fyllogifms, and combine them
in an orderly manner, continuing the feries through a
variety of fuceeffive HepSj^pntil at laft we arrive at a
fyllogifm, whofe conclufion is the propofition to be de-
monftrated. Proofs of this kind leave no doubt or un¬
certainty behind them, becaufe all the feveral premifles
being true, the-conclufions muft be fo too, and of courfe
the veVy laft conclufion or propofition to be proved. The
other fpecies of demonftration is the irdirefi, or, as it is
fometimes called, the apogagical. The manner of pro¬
ceeding here is, by afiuming a propofition which diredly
contradids that we mean to demonflrate, and thence by
a continued train of reafoning, in the way of a dired de-
monftration, deducing fome abfurdity or manifeft untruth.
For hereupon we conclude that the propofition afiumed was
falfe, and thence again, by an immediate confequence, that
the propofition to be demonftrated is true Thus Euclid,
in his third book, being to demo nitrate, that circles which
touch one another inwardly have not the fame centre, af
fumes the dired contrary to this, viz. that they have the
fame centre, and thence by an evident train of reafoning
proves that a part is equal to the whole. That fuppofi-
tion therefore, leading to this abfurdity, he concludes to be
falfe, viz. that circles touching one another inwardly have
the fame centre, and thence again immediately infers
that they have not the fame centre.
Now becaufe this manner of demonftration is ac¬
counted by fome not altogether fo clear and fatisfadory,
we lhall therefore endeavour here to Ihew, that it equally
with the other leads to truth and certainty. Two propo¬
fitions are faid to be contradiflory one of another, when
that which is afferted to be in the one is alferted not to
be in the other. Thus the propofitions, circles that
touch one another inwardly have the fame centre, and
circles that touch one another inwardly have not the fame
centre, are contradiftories ; becaule the fecond aiferts
the dired contrary of what is aflerted in the firft. Now
in all contradidory propofitions this holds univerfally,
that one of them is neceffarily true, and the other necef-
farily falfe. For if it be true, that circles which touch
one. another inwardly have not the fame centre, it is un¬
avoidably falfe that they have the fame centre. On the
other hand, if it be falfe that they have the fame centre.
Vox.. Id. N° 68.
I C. loot
it is necelTarily true that they have not the fame centre.!
Shice therefore it is impollible for them to be both true
or both falfe it the fame time, it unavoidably follows,
that one is neceflarily true, and the other neceflarily falfe.
This then being allowed, if any two contradidory pro*
politicos are afiumed, and one of them can by a clear
train of reafoning be demonftrated to be falfe, it neceffa-
rily follows that the other is true. For as the one is
neceffarily true, and the other neceflarily falfe, when we
come to difcover which is the falfe propofition, we therei
by alfo know the other to be tiue.
Now this is precifely the manner of an indired demon¬
flration, For there we affume a propofition, which di¬
redly contradids that we mean to demonflrate, and
having by a continued feries of proofs (hewn it to be falfe,
thence infer that its contradidory, or the propofition to
be demonflrated, is true. As therefore this lafl conclu¬
fion is certain and unavoidable, let us next inquire, after
what manner we come to be fatisfied of the falfehood of
the affumed propofition, that fo no poffible doubt may
remain as to the force and validity of demonflrations of
thjs kind. The manner then is plainly this. Beginning
with the affumed propofition, we, by the help of definitions,
felf-evident truths, or propofitions already eflabliflied,
continue a feries of reafoning in the way of a dired.de¬
monflration, until at length we arrive at fome abfurdity
or known falfehood. Thus Euclid, from the fuppofition
that circles touching one another inwardly have the fame
centre, deduces that a part is equal to the whole. Since
thereforei by a due and orderly procefs of reafoning, we
come at lall to a falfe conclufion, it is manifeft that all
the premifles cannot be true. For were ail the premifles
true, the lafl: conclufion muft be fo too. Now as to all
the other premifles made ufe of in the courfe of reafoning,
they are manifeft and known truths by fuppofition, as be¬
ing either definitions, felf-evident propofitions, or truths
previoufly eftablilhed. The aflumed propofition is that
only as to which any doubt or uncertainty remains. That
alone therefore can be falfe, and indeed, from what has
been already fhewn, muft unavoidably be fo. And thus
we fee, that, in indired demonftrations, two contradidory
propofitions being laid down, one of which is demonftra¬
ted to be falfe, the other, which is always the propofition
to be proved, muft neceflarily be true ; fo that here, as
well as in the dired way of proof, we arrive at a clear
and fatisfadory knowledge of truth.
This is univerfally the method of reafoning in all a-
pogogical or indired demonftrations ; but if any propo¬
fition is aflumed, from which in a dired train ot reafon¬
ing we can deduce its contradidory, the propofition fo
aflumed is falfe, and the contradidory one true. For if
we fuppofe the aflumed propofition to be true, then,
fince all the other premifles that enter the demonftration
are alfo true, we Ihall have a feries of reafoning, confift-
ing wholly of true premifles ; whence the laft conclufion
or contradidory of the aflumed propofuion mull be true
likewife. So that by this meaus we fltould have two
contradidory propofitions both true at the fame time,
which is manifeftly impofible. The aflumed propofition
therefore, whence this abfurdity flows, muft neceflarily
be falfe, and confequently its contradidory, which is
' 10 U here
1002 L O C
here the propofition deduced'from'it, muft be true. ' If
then any propofition is propofed to be demonftrated, and
we ajfume the coniradiftory of that- prjpofition, and
thence direftly inf'en the propofition to be demonftrated,
by this very means we know that the propofition fo in¬
ferred is true. For. fince from an afiumed propofition we
have deduced its coatradiftory, we are thereby certain
that the affumed propofition is falfe ; and if fo, then hs
contradictory, or that-deduced from it, which in this
cafe is the fame with, the propofition to be demonftrated,
muft be true.
We have acurious inftanceeftbis in the twelfth propo¬
fition of the ninth book of the elements. Euclid ihzrt
propofes to demonftrate, that in any fetie's of numbers,
rijing from unity in geometrical progrejjion, all the prime
numbers that meafure the lafi term in t'he feries •will
alfo meafure the nexU-Mfter, unity. ■ In order to this, he
aflumes the contradictory of the propofition to be dehiort-
ftrated, namely; that fame prime number meafuring the
laji term in the feriss, does not meafure the next after
unity; and thence, by a^continued train of reafoning, proves,
that it actually does meafure it . Hereupon -he concludes
the affumed propofition to be falfe, and-that which is de¬
duced from it, or its contradictory, which is the very
propofition he propofed to demonftrate; to be true. Now
Part III. C
r I C.
that this is a juft and conclufive way of reafoning, is a*
bundantly manifeft front what we havefo clearly eftablifh-
ed above.
Having thus fufficicntly evinced the certainty of de-
monftration in all it? branches, and fhewn the rules by
which we ought to proceed, in order to arrive at a juft
conclufion, according to. the various ways of arguing made
of ; it is needlefs to enter upon a particular confide-
ration of tjiofe feveral fpecies of falfe reafoning, which
logicians diftinguifh by the name of fophifrns. He that
throughly underftands the form and ftruChire of a good
argument, will.of himfejf readily dif-ern eivsry deviation
from it. And although fophifms have been divided into
many clafies, which are all called by founding names, that
therefore carry in them much appearance of learning; yet
are the errors themfelves fo very palpable and obvious,
that it is loft labour to write for a man eapable of being
mifled by them. Here therefore we chufe. to-conclude
this fecond part of logic, and (hall in the next part give
feme account of method, which, though infeparable from
reafoning, is neyerthe.lefs always ponfidered by logicians
as a diftinCt operation of the mind ; becaufe its influence is
not confined to the mqrp exercife of the-reafoning-faeulty,
but extends,in femp degree to all the tranfadlions of the un-
d erftanding.
/’Method.
Of method in general*-and the divijton’of it into analy-
tick and fynthetick.
We have now done with tlfe two firft operations of the
mind, whofe office it is to fearch after truth,'and enlarge
the bounds of human knowledge. There is yet a third,
which regards the difpofal and arrangement of our thought^,
when we endeavour fe .to put them together that their
mutual connexion and dependence may be clearly feen.
This is what logicians ‘call method, and place always the
laft in order in explaining the powers of the underftand-
ing ; becaufe it neceffarily feppofes a previous exercife of
our other faculties, and feme prbgrefs made in know¬
ledge, before we can exert it in any extenfive degree.
In this view it is plain, that we muft be before-hand
well acquainted with the truths we are to combine toge¬
ther ; otherwife how cohid we difcern their feveral con-
nedfions and relations, or fe difpofe of them as their mu¬
tual dependence may require ? Bat it often happens, that
the underftanding is employed, not in the arrangement and
compofition of known truths, but in the fearch and difco-
very of fuch as are unknown. And here the manner of
proceeding is very different. We affemble at once our
whole ftock of knowledge relating to any fubjedt; and,
after a general furvey of things, begin with examining
them feparately and by parts. Hence it comes to pafs,
that whereas, at our firft fetting out, we were acquainted
only with feme of the grand ftrckes and outlines of truth,
by thus purfuing her through her feveral.windings and
receffes we gradually difcover thofe more inward and fi¬
ner touches whence (he derives all her ftrength, fymme-
try, and beauty. And here it is, that when, by a narrow
fcrutinyinto things, we have unravelled any pait of know¬
ledge, and traced it to its firft and original principles, in-
fomuch that the whole frame'and contexture of it lies
open to the view of the mind; here jt is, that taking it
the contrary way, and beginnipg vmh *hefe principles; WC
can fe adjuft and put together the; parts, as the order and
method of fcience requires.
But as thefe things are beft underftflod when illoftrated
by examples , let us fuppofe any machine, for rnffahce a
watch, prefented to us, whofe ftrmfture and compofition
we are as yet unacquainted with,' but want if poffible to
difcover. The manner of proceeding in this cafe is, by
taking the whole to pieces, and examining the paits' fepa-
rately one after another. When by fuch a fcrutiny we
{save throughly informed ourfelves of the frame and con¬
texture of each, we then compare them together, in order*
to judge.of their mutual adlion and influence. By this
means we gradually trace but the; inward make and dflm-
pofition of the whole, and come at length to difcern, how
parts of fuch a form, and fe put together, as we found in
unravelling and taking them afunder, conftitnte that par¬
ticular machine called a watch, and contribute to all the
feveral motions and phsenomena obfervable in it. This
difcovery being made, vie can take things the contrary way,
and, beginning with the parts, fe difpofe and conheift them,
as their feveral ufes and ftruftures require, until'at length
we arrive at the whole itfejf, from the unravelling of which
thefe parts refelted.
And as it is in tracing and examining the works of art,
fo is it in a great meafure in unfolding any part of human
knowledge. For the relations and mutual habitudes of
things do net always immediately .appear* upon compa¬
ring them one with another. Hence we have recourfe to
intermediate ideas, and by means of them are furniffied
L O
with thofe previous propofitions, that lead to the conclu-
fion we are in queft of. And if itfo happen, that the pre¬
vious propofitions themfelves are not fufficiently evident,
we endeavour by new middle terms to afcertain their
truth, ftiil tracing things backward in a continued feries,
until at length we arrive at fome fyllogifm where the
premiffes are firft and'lelfevhknt principles. This done,
we become perfectly fatisfied as to the truth of all the
conclufions we have gaffed through, in as much as they
are now feen toftand upon the firm and immoveable foun¬
dation of our intuitive perceptions. And as we arrived at
this certainty by tracing things backward to the original
principles whence they flow, fo may we at any time renew
it by a direct contrary procefs-, if, beginning with thefe
principles, we carry the train of our thoughts forward,
until they lead us by a connedfed chain of proofs to the very
laft conclufion of the feries.
Hence it appears, that in difpofing arid putting together
our thoughts, either for cur own ufe, that the difcove-
ries we have made may at all times lie open to the review
of the mind, or where we mean to communicate and un¬
fold thefe difcoveries to others, there are twb ways of
proceeding equally within our choice. For we may fo
propofe the truths rela^ing-to any part of knowledge, as
they prefented themfelves to the mind in the manner of
iuveftigation, carrying ori the-feries of proofs in a reverfe
order, until they at laft terminate in firft principles: or,
beginning with thefe principles, we may take the contrary
way, and from them deduce, by a diredt train of reafoning,
all the feveral propofitions we want to eftablifh. This
diverfity in the manner of arranging our thoughts gives
rife to the twofold divifion of method eftablifhed 'among
logicians. For method, according to theibufe of the word,
is nothing elfe but the orderand difpofition of our thoughts
relating to any fuhjedl. When truths are-fo propofedand
put together, as they were or might have beeu difeovered,
this is called the ana ly tick method,' ot the but hod of re-
folution ; in as much as it traces things backward to their
fource, and refolves knowledge into its fird and original
principles. When, on the other hand, they are deduced
from thefe principles, and conn'edted according to their
mutual dependence, infomuch that the truths firft in or¬
der tend always to the demonftration of thofe that follow,
L O L
LOHOCH, or Loch, in pharmacy, a compofition of a
middle confidence between a frift eleCtuary and a fyrup,
principally ufed in diforfiers of the lungs.
There are feveral kihdS' of lohochs, denominated
from the principal ingredient that entersinto their com-
pouticn. The common lohoch is made thus : take of
frefh drawn oil of fweet almonds, and of peCtoral or
balfamic fyrup, one ounce £ white-fugarj two drams : :
mix, and make them into a lohoch.
LOINS, in anatomy, the two lateral parts'of thC umbi*
lical region of the abdomen. See AxATOMY.
LOIRE, the larged river in France, Tifes in the moun¬
tains of the Cevennes, and, after rurining a coiirie of
about five hundred miles, falls into the bay of Bifcay.
LOLIUM, darsel, in botany, a genus of the triandna
G I C. 1003
this conditutes what we call the fynthetick methodptiv
method of compofuion; for here we proceed by gathering
together the feveral fcattered parts of knowledge, arid'
combining, them into one whole fydem, in fuch manner,
that the underdanding is enabled diftmCtly to fellow truth
through all her different dages and gradations. ■
There is this farther to. be taken notice of, in relation
fo thefe two fpecies of. method y that the fird has alfo
obtained the name of the method, of invention, becaufe it
obferves the order in which our thoughs fucceed one ano¬
ther in tht invention or difeovery of truth. The other
again is often denominated ;the method of dofirinc or in-
Jiruftion ; in as much as, in laying our thoughts before o-
thers, we generally chufe to proceed in the fynthetick
manner, deducing them from their fird principles. For
we are to obferve, that although there is great pleafure
in purfuing truth in the method of rnvedigation, becaufe
it places us in the condition of. theunventor, and fhews
the particular train and procefs of thinking by which :he
arrived at his difcoveries; yet.is itnptfo well accommo¬
dated to the purpofes of evidence and conviAion. For at
our fird fetting out, we are commonly unable to divine
where the analyfis will lead us, infoaiuch that our re-
fearches are for fome time little better, than a mere gro¬
ping the dark. And even after light begins to beak in up¬
on us, we are dill obliged to many reviews, and a freqrient
comparifon of the feveral deps of the invedigation among
themfelves. Nay, when we have unravelled the whole,
and reached the very foundation on which our difcoveries
dand, all our certainty in regard to their truth wilTbe
found in a great meafure to arife from that connection we
are now able- to difeern between them and fird principles
takep in. the order of cpmpofition. But in the fynthetick
manner of difpofing our thoughts, the cafe is quite dif¬
ferent. For as we here begin with intuitive truths, and
advance by regular deductions from-them, every dep of
the procedure brings evidence and conviction-along with
it; fo that in our progrefs from one part-of knowledge to
another, vve have always a clear perception of the groiind
on which our affent reds. In-.communicating therefore
our difcoveries to others, this method is apparently to be
chofen, as it wonderfully improves and enlightens the un-
dentanding, and leads to an immediate perception of truth.
L 0 N
digynia clafs. The involucrum confids of one leaf; it
hasnocalix; and the dipula confids of many flowers.
There are three fpecief, two of them natives of Britain,
vip, _the pexenne, or perennial darnel-grafs ; and the
temulentum, or annual darnel-grals,
LOMBARDY, a kingdom which comprehended almbd :
all. Italy. It was ereCted by the Lorigobards, or Lom¬
bards, a German nation, about the year y98, and lad¬
ed, fill CharJemain put ah erid to it about the year 760.
LOMMOND, a lake in the county of Lenox, in Scot¬
land, which runs almod the whole length of the county.
L'ONCHITIS, spleen-wort, in botany, a genus of
the cryptogamia filicum clafs of plants, the fructifica¬
tions of which are arranged into lunulated feries, and
difpofed feparately under the finufes of the leaves.
There
LON ( 1004 ) LON
There are four fpecies, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
LONDON, the metropolis of Great Britain, wherethe
firft meridian is fixed on the Britiih maps, lies in
510 32/ N. lat. on the river Thames, and the greateft
part on the north fide of that river. The form of
London, including Weftminfter and Southwark, comes
pretty near an oblong fquare, five miles in length, if
meafured in a diredl line from Hyde-Park to the end
of Limehoufe, and fix miles if we follow the windings
of the ftreets ; the greateft breadth is two miles and a
half, and the circumference of the whole fixteen or
Seventeen miles, but it is not eafy to meafure it exadt-
Jy, on account of its irregular form. The principal
ftreets are generally level, exceeding well built, and
extended to a very great length ; thefe are inhabited
by tradefmen, whofe houfes and (hops make a much
better figure than thofe of any tradefmen in Europe.
People of diftindtionufually refide in elegant fquares, of
which there are great numbers at the weft end of the
town near the court. What moftly contributes to the
riches and glory of this city, is the port, whither fe-
veral thoufand fhips of burden annually refort from ail
countries, and where the greateft fleets never fail to
meet with wealthy merchants ready to takeoff the rich-
eft cargoes. The number of perfons in the whole
place are computed to be about eight hundred thoufand.
LONDONDERRY, a city of Ireland, in the province
of Ulfter, and county of Londonderry, fituated on the
river Mourn, near its mouth, in W. long. 70 40', N.
lat. 540 ja'.
LONG, an epithet given to whatever exceeds the ufual
ftandard of length ; thus, we fay a long-boat, long ac¬
cent, &c.
LONGEVITY, length of life.
Lord Bacon obferves, that the fucceffion of ages,
and of the generation of men, feems no way to fhorten
the length of human life, fince the age of man, down
from Mofes’s time to the prefent, has flood at about
eighty years, without gradually declining, as one might
have expe&ed. The greateft inftances of longevity in
thefe our iflands, are that of old Parr, who lived al-
moft 153 years; of Jenkins, of Yorkfhire, who lived
169 years; or of the countefs Defmond, or Mr Ec-
klefton, both of Ireland, who each exceeded 140
years.
LONGFORD, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Leinfter, bounded by the county of Letrim and Cavan
on the north, by Meath on the eaftand fouth, and by
Rofcommon on the weft.
LONG-island, an ifland belonging to New York in
North America, lying between 71° and 74° W. long,
and in 410 30' N. lat.
LONGIMETRY, the art of meafuring lengths, both
acceffible and inacceffible. See Geometry.
LONGINICO, a town of the Morea, in Europe, fitua¬
ted on the river Alpheus, fifty miles fouth of Lepanto:
being the ancient Olympia, where Hercules inftituted
theOlympic games.
LONGISSMUS DORsi, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
p. 218.
LONGITUDE of a Jiar, in aftronomy, an arch of the
ecliptic, intercepted between the beginning of aries, and
the point of the ecliptic cut by the liar’s circle of lon¬
gitude. *
Longitude pAw. See Geography.
In the philofophical tranfattions, n° 1, we have an
account of a fuccefsful experiment in finding the lon¬
gitude at fea, made with two pendulum-watches by ma¬
jor Holmes, in a voyage from the coaft of Guinea home¬
wards. This and fome other fuccefles encouraged Mon-
fieur Huygens fo far, that, after he hadpmproved the ftruc-
ture of thefe watches, he publilhed an account at large
for the (hewing how and in what manner thefe watches
are to be ufed in finding the longitude at fea, with di¬
rections for adjufting of them and keeping a journal by
them; which account the curious reader may fee at
large in the Philofophical tranfaCtions, n° 47.
The chief objection againft pendulum clocks and
watches, is the effects that heat and cold have upon
the fpring and pendulum, which make the fpring in
watches draw ftronger at fome times than at other times,
and caufes the pendulum to lengthen and (horten, ac¬
cording as the weather is hotter or colder ; but thefe
effects are fo regular, that without doubt they may be
accounted for.
But the moft ingenious and fuccefsful machines for
this purpofe have been invented by Mr. John Harrifon,
who, at different times, contrived three different time¬
pieces for determining the longitude at fea.
The firft of Mr. Harrifon’s machines was tried in
May 1736, when it was put on board a man of war;
and by its exaCt meafure of time, in its return from Lif-
bon, correCled an error of almoft a degree and an half
in the computations of the reckoning of a (hip. In
1739, Mr. Harrifonfinilhedhisfecond machine, which,
from various experiments made upon it, was fufliciently
regular and exaCl for finding the longitude of a (hip
within the neareft limits propofed by parliament. Up¬
on the fuccefs of this, Mr. Harrifon, in 1741, under¬
took ftill a more advantageous machine, which he fi¬
nilhed in 1758, when he applied to the commillioners
of longitude for orders to make a trial of that inllru-
ment to fome part in the Weft Indies, as directed by
the ftatutes for the difcovery of the longitude at fea.
In confequenee of this application, Mr. Harrifon re¬
ceived orders for his fon to proceed from Portfmouth
to Jamaica, in one of his majefty*s Ihips of war, with
his third inftrument, in November 1761; and the com-
miflioners having directed that every requifite ftep and
precaution Ihould be taken, for making, with care, the
proper experiments, and afcertaining their accuracy, not
only going to Jamaica, but in the return, it appears,
from the calculations made from the experiments in go¬
ing to Jamaica, that the difference betwe'en the longi¬
tude, as found by the time-piece, and calculated by the
obfervations of the tranfit of mercury in 1 743 at Ja¬
maica and London, is five feconds of time, which at
Jamaica is little more th:yi a geographical mile.
During the voyage, Mr. Harrifon’s time-piece cor¬
rected the (hip’s reckoning, which fometimes e«red a-
bout a degree and a half: and in going from Madeira
LOP ( 1005 ) LOT
to Jamaica, it alfo corre<fted the errors of tlie log, and
fliewcd the longitude fo exadly, that the (hip made
the ifland of Defeada, and all the other iflands, until
they arrived at Jamaica, as foretold by the time-piece.
At the arrival at JamaTca, the obfervations for finding
the time were made by equal altitudes; and the longi¬
tude (hewn by the time piece, being within 5" of time
of the longitude (hewn by the moft accurate obfet va-
tions of mercury in its tranfit over the fun in the year
1743, and with which all the obfervations at London
and Paris agreeing within 2^’, amounts to a demon-
Pration, that Mr. Harrifon has-performed all that is
required by the ftatute of the 12th of queen Anne, to
entitle him to the greateft reward mentioned in that a<ft.
In returning from Jamaica, the weather was very tem-
peftuous, fo that the time piece was forced to be placed
on the counter, to avoid being perpetually expofed to
the fea water; there it fuffered continual violent agita¬
tions, which, though they neceflarily retarded its mo¬
tion, yet d'd not occafion any fuch confiderable error,
as would have made Mr. Harrifon’s right to the greateft
reward-queftionable, had it depended on this voyage
only; for the time-keeper, in its going and return, loft
only 1' 54" andj, which, in thelatitude of Portfmouth,
amounts to about eighteen geographical miles or mi¬
nutes of a great circle, whereas the aft required only
that it (hould come within the diftance of thirty geo¬
graphical miles or minutes of a great circle.
LONGITUDINAL, in general, denotes fomething pla¬
ced lengthwife; thus fome of the fibres of the veifels
in the human body are placed longitudinally, others
tranfverfely ui •
LONGUEVILLE, atownofNormandyin France/twen¬
ty miles north of Rouen : E. long. i° to', N. lat. 490
50'
LONICERA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of one irregular pe¬
tal ; and the berry of two cells containing many feeds.
There are 13 fpecies, only one of which, v/z. the pe-
riclymenum, or common honey-fuckle, is a native of
Britain.
LOOP, in the fea language, is a term ufed in various
fenfes: thus, the loof of a (hip is that part of her aloft,
which lies juft before the cheft-tree; hence the guns
which lie there are called loof-pieces: keep your loof,
(ignifies, keep the (hip near to the wind; to loof into
a harbour, is to fail into it clofe by the wind; loof up,
is to keep nearer the wind ; to fpring the loof, is when
a (hip that was going large before the wind, is brought
clofe by the wind.
EOOKING-g lasses, are nothing but plain mirrours of
glafs ; which being impervious to the light, refleft the
images of things placed before them ; for the theory
whereof, fee Optics.
LOOM, a frame compofed of a variety of parts, ufed in
all the branchesof weaving. See Weaving.
LOOSING of arreftment, in Scots law. See Law,
Tit. sxv. 6.
LOPHIU8, in zoology, a genus of the brnncbioftegious
order of fifties, whofe head is in fize equal to all the
reft of the body : the head and body are both of ade-
Vol. II. No. 68. 2
prefled form: there are a number of flcftiy pirmufe*
cr apendages furrounding the whole body of the fi(h.
There are three fpecies.
LORANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the hexandrfa
monogynia clafs. The margin of the calix is entire;
the corolla confifts of fix fegmems folded backwards ;
and the berry contains one feed. There are five fpecks,
none of them nativ es of Britain.
LORD, a title of honour, given to tbofe who are noble,
either by birth or creation ; in this fenfe it amounts to
much the fame as peer of the realm, or lord of Parlia¬
ment. This title is, by courtefy, alfo given to all the
fons of dukes and marquifes, and to the eldeft fons
of earls ; and it is alfo a title of honour beftowed on
thofe who are honourable by their employmentSi as
lord advocate, lord chamberlain, lord chancellor,
<bc.
LORETTO, a city of Italy, in the marquifate of An¬
cona, in the pope’s territories, 145 miles eaft of Rome.
This place is famous for the chamber of the blqfled
Virgin, which, according to the Roman catholic tra¬
dition, was brought by angels from Paleftine to Dal¬
matia, and from thence tranfported over into Italy, and
fixed at Loretto.
LORN, the north part of Argylefttire in Scotland, bound¬
ed by Lochabar on the north, by Broadalbin on the
eaft, by the reft of Argylefttire on the fouth, and by
the fea on the weft.
LORRAIN, a duchy formerly belonging to the circle
of the Upper Rhine in Germany, but now united to
the crown of France. It is bounded by the duchy of
Luxemburg on the north ; by Alfatia, the duchy of
Deux ponts, and the palatinate of the Rhine, on the
eaft ; by the county of Burgundy, on the fouth ; and
by Champaign, on the weft.
LOTHIAN, a county of Scotland, bounded by the frith
of Forth on the north; by the German fea, on the eaft ;
by Clydefdale, Tweedale, and Merfe, on the fomh ;
and by Stirling, on the weft. The capital of this coun¬
ty is Edinburgh.
LOTION is, ftriftly fpeaking, fuch waftiing as concerns
beautifying the (kin, by deanfing -t.of thofe deformi¬
ties which a diftempered blood ^betimes throws upon
it, or rather are made by a preternatural fecretion :
for according to Quincy, generally thofe diftempers of
the (kin, commonly accounted figns of afoul blood, are,
from thofe falls which are natural in the beft conftitu-
tion, thrown off by the cutaneous glands, which ought
to be walked away through the kidney ; fo that inftead
of thofe infignificant and ridiculous tribes of fweeteners,
which in this cafe are frequently ufed, promoting the
urinary difeharge, or rectifying that of the fttin by pro¬
per wadies, friftions, or ointments, or both together,
is the only way to get rid of fuch diforders.
LOTTERY, a kind of public game at hazard, frequent
in Britain, France, and Holland, in hrder to rai(e mo¬
ney for the fervice of the (late; being appointed with
us by the authority of parliament, and managed by
commiflioners appointed by the lords of the treafury
for that purpofe. It confifts of feveral numbers of
blanks and prizes, which are drawn out of wheels, one
10 X of
L U B ( ic
of which contains the numbers, and the other the cor-
refponding blanks or prizes.
LOTUS, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia decandria
clafs. The legumen is cylindrical; the wings are con-
nivent above; and the calix is tubular. There are 17
fpecies, only one of which, viz. the corniculata, or
birds-foot trefoil, is a native of Britain.
LOVAGE, in botany. See Ligusticum.
LOVE apple. See Solanum.
LOUIS, or Knights of St. Louis, the name of a mi¬
litary order in France, inftituted by Louis XIV. in 1693.
Their collars are of a flame colour, and pafs from left
to right; the king is their grand mailer. There are
in it eight great crolfes, and twenty four commanders ;
the number of knights is not limited. At the time of
their inllitution, the king charged his revenue with a
fund of three hundred thoufand livres for the penfions
of thecommanders and knights.
LOUISIANA, or New France, a country of north A-
merica, bounded by the river and lake of Ulenois on
the north, North Carolina on the call, and the gulph
of Mexico on the fouth.
LOUSE, in zoology. See Pediculus.
LOUTH, a county of Ireland, in the province of Lein-
Iler, bounded by Monaghan and Armagh on the north,
by the Irilh Channel on the call, by Eall Meath on
the fouth; and by Cavan on the weft.
LOUVAIN, a city of the Auftrian Netherlands, in the
province of Brabant, fituated on the river Dyle, fif¬
teen miles north-call of Bruflels.
LOWERING, among diftillers, a term ufed to exprefs
the debafing the ftrength of any fpiritous liquors, by
mixing water with it.
LOXIA, in zoology, the name of a genus of birds of the
order of the pafferes ; the diftinguilhing characters of
which are, that the tongue is plain, equal and whole;
the beak large, thick, and Ihort, and crooked and con¬
vex both ways. There are 48 fpecies, principally di-
ftinguilhed by their colour.
LOZENGE, in heraldry, a rhombus, or figure of equal
fides, but unequal angles, refembling a quarry of glafs
in our old windows, placed ereft, point ways. It is
in this figure that all unmarried gentlewomen and
widows bear their coats of arms, becaufe, as fome
fay, it was the figure of the Amazonian Ihield ; or,
as others, becaufe it is the ancient figure of the fpin-
dle. Plate CM. fig. 8. reprefents an ordinary of loz¬
enges
The lozenge differs from the fufil, in that the latter
is narrower in the middle, and not foftiarp at the ends.
LUBEC, a city and port town of Germany, in the circle
of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Holftein, fituated
ten miles fouth-weft of the Baltic fea: E. long. io°
35', N lat. 540 70'.
LUBEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, and marquifate of Lufatia: E. long. 140 25',
N. lat. 520.
LUBLIN, a city of Poland, in the palatinate of the .
fame name: E. long. 220 N lat. 510 30'.
LUBOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Cracow:
E. long. 200 3.0', N. lat. 4.9<i 3o'.
>06 ) L U L
LUC, a town of Provence, in France, twenty-three
miles north-eaft of Toulon.
LUCAR, or St Lucar, a port-town of Spain, in the
province of Andalufia: W. long 6° 38, N. lat. 36° 42'.
St Lucar is alfo a town of Andalufia, in Spain: W.
long 8° 12. N. lat. 370 20.
St Lucar is alfo the name of another town of Spain,
fifteen miles weft of Seville.
LUCARNO, a town of the duchy of Milan, fituat¬
ed on the lake of Maggiore, but fubjedt to Switzer¬
land.
LUCCA, the capital of the republic of the fame name
in Italy, fituated twelve miles eaft of the Tufcan fea:
E. long. 11° 20', N. lat. 430 45'.
LUCERN, the capital of the canton of the fame name in
Switzerland, fituated on the lake Luccrn, to which it
gives its name : E. long. 8° 12', N. lat. 470.
LUCERNE, in botany. See Medicago. For the
culture of lucerne, fee Agriculture, p. 65.
LUCIA 1 slands, one of the Caribbee iflands in Ame¬
rica, fituated feventy miles north-weft of Barbadoes,
being twenty-two miles long, and eleven broad.
St. Lucia, one of the Cape Verd iflands in Africa,
lying in W. long. 250, N. lat. 160 30'.
LUCIOPERCA, in ichthyology. See Perca.
LUCIUS, in ichthyology. SeeEsox.
LUCONIA, or Manilla, the chief of the Philippine
iflands, fituated between 1170 and 1230 E. long, and
between 120 and 190 of N. lat.
LUDLOW, a borough of Shroplhire, fituated on the
river Corve; eighteen mites fouth of Shrewfbury. It
fends two members to parliament.
LUDWIGIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of four petals,
and the calix of four fegments; the capfule has four
fides and four cells, with many feeds. There are
two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
LUES, among phyficians, is, in general, ufed for a
difeafe of a^y kind ; but, in a more particular fenfe,
is reftrained to contagious and peftilential difeafes:
thus, the lues gallica, or venerea, fignifies the venereal
difeafe. See Medicine.
LUGGERSHAL, a borough-town, ten miles north
of Salifbury. It fends two members to parliament.
LUGO, a city and biftiop’s fee of Spain, fixty miles
eaft of Compoftella : W. long. 70 50', and N. lat.
43°
LUKE, or gofpel of St. Luke, a canonical book of the
New Teftament.
Some think it was properly St. Paul’s gofpel, and
that when that apoftle fpeaks of his gofpel, he means
what is called St. Luke’s. Irenaeps fays, that St. Luke
digefted into writing what St. Paul preached to the
Gentiles ; and Gregory Nazianzen tells us, that- St.
Luke wrote with the affiftance of St. Paul.
St. Luke the evangelijl's day. a feftival in the Chriftian
church, obferved on the 18th of October.
Lula-lapmark, a province of Sweden, bounded on
the north by that of Tome; on the eaft, by the Bothnis
gulph ; on the fouth, by Pithia-lapmark; and on the
weft, by Norway.
LUMBAGO.
L U R ( 1007 ) L U T
LUMBAGO, in medicine, denotes a pain about the loins,
as that preceding fevers, agues, and the rheurnatifm.
LUMBARIS, a name given to the arteries and veins
which fpread over the loins. See Anatomy.
LUMBRICAL, a name given to four mufcles of the
fingers, and to as many of the toes. See Anatomy,
part II.
LUMBRICUS, the earth-worm, in zoology, a ge¬
nus of infers belonging to the order of veimes in-
teftina. The body is cylindrical, annulated, with an e-
levated belt near the middle. There is but one fpecies of
this animal. It Jives underground, and feeds upon the
feeds and roots of plants. It comes above ground in
the night, or during rain, for the purpofe of copula¬
tion. For the effects of thefe animals in the human
body, and the method of expelling them, fee Medi¬
cine.
LUMME, in ornithology. SeeCoLYMBUS.
LUMP-FISH. See Cyclopterus.
LUNA, in aftronomy, the moon. See Astronomy.
LUNAR, fomething belonging to the moon ; thus we
fay, lunar month, lunar year, &c.
LUNARIA, honesty, in botany, a genus of the
tttradynamia filiculofa clafs. The filicula, or pod, is
entire, elliptical, and comprefled ; with plain, equal,
parallel valves. There are two fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
LUN ATIC, a perfon affe&ed with lunacy. See Medi¬
cine.
LUND, or Lunden, a city of Sweden, in the pro¬
vince of Gothland, the capital of the territory of
Schonen, fituated thirty miles call of Copenhageo.
LUNDY, a little ifland in the mouth of the Briltol-
channel: W. long. 40 50', N. lat. 510 25'.
LUNENBURG, the capital of the duchy of the fame
name, thirty miles fouth-eaft of Hamburg : E- long,
to0 20', N. lat. 530 35'.
LUNGS. See Anatomy, p. 280.
Lungwort, in botany. See Pulmonaria.
LUNISOLAR year., in chronology, the fpace of $32
common years ; found by multiplying the cycle of the
fun by that of the moon.
LUNULA, in geometry, a plane figure like a crefcent
or half moon.
LUPERCALIA, a feftival of the ancient Romans in
honour of the god Pan, obferved on the 15th of Fe¬
bruary, and fo called from luperci, the priefts of that
fabulous deity.
LUPINUS, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia decam
dria clafs. The calix conlifts of two lips ; five of the
antherae are oblong, and the. other five round ; and
the pod is coreaceous. There are feven fpecies, none
of them natives of Britain.
LUPULUS, in botany, &c. See Humulus..
LUPUS, in zoology. See Can is.
Lupqs marinus. See Anarrichas.
Lupus, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 487.
LURE, in folconry, a device of leather, in the form of
a bird, with two wings ftuck with feathers, and baited
with a piece of flefh ; wherewith to reclaim or call
hack a hawk, when , at a considerable diftance.
LUSATIA, a marquifate of Upper Saxony, bounded
by Brandenburg, on the north ; by Silefia, on the
eaft ; by Bohemia, on the fouth ; and by the duchy
of Saxony, on the weft : it is fubjefl to the king of
Poland.
LUSTRATION, in antiquity, facrifices or ceremonies
by which the ancients purified their cities, fields, armies,
or people, defiled by any crime or impurity.
Some of thefe luftrations were public, others private.
There were three fpecies or manners of performing
luftration, viz. by fire and fulphur, by water, and by
air; which laft was done by fanning and agitating the
air round the thing to be purified. Some of thefe
luftrations were neceffary, that is, could not be dif-
penfed with, as luftrations of houfes in time of a plague,
or upon the death of any perfon ; others again were
done out of choice, and at pleafure. The public luf¬
trations at Rome were celebrated every fifth year, in
which they led a vi&im thrice round the place to be
purified, and in the mean time burnt a great quantity
of perfumes.
LUSTRE, the glofs or brightnefs appearing on any
thing, particularly on manufaftures of filk, wool, or
ftuff. It is likewife ufed to denote the compofition or
manner of giving that glofs.
The lull re of iilksis given them by waftiing in foap,
then clear water, and dipping them in alum water cold.
To give ftuffs a beautiful luftre, for every eight pounds
of fluff allow a quarter of 1 pound of linfeed ; boil it
half an hour, and then ftrain it through a cloth, and
let it ftand till it is turned almoft to a jelly ; afterwards
put an ounce and a half of gum to diffolve twenty four
hours ; then mix the liquor, and put the cloth into
this mixture ; take it out, dry it in the fhade, and
prefs it. If once doing is not fufikient, repeat the
operation. Curriers give a luftre to black leather firll
with juice of bar-berries, then with gum arabic, ale,
vinegar, and flanders-glue, boiled together. For co¬
loured leather, they ufe the white of an egg beaten in
water. Moroccoes have their luftre from juice of
bar-berries and lemon or orange. For hats, the luftre
is frequently given with common water, fometimes a
little black dye is added : the fame luftre ferves for
furs, except that for very black furs they fometimes
prepare a luftre of galls, copperas, Roman alum, ox's
marrow, and other ingredients,
LUSTRUM, in Roman antiquity, a general mufter and'
review of all the citizens and their goods, which was
performed by the cenfors every fifth year, who after¬
wards made a folemn Juftration. See Lustration.
LUTE, or Luting, among chemifts. See Chemis¬
try, p. 116;
Lute, is alfo a mufical inftrument with firings.
The lute confifts of four parts, viz the table; the
body or belly,, which has nine or ten fides; the neck,,
which has nine or ten flops or divifions, marked with
firings ; and the head, or crofs, where the fcrew for
railing and lowering the firings to a proper pitch of
tone are fixed. In the middle of the table there is a
rofe or paffage for the found ; there is alfo a bridge
that the firings are faftened to, and a piece of ivory
bet weea-
I, IT T f 1008 V . L T
between tbe head and the neck to which the other ex¬
tremities of the firings are fitted. In playing, the
firings are flruck with the right hand, and with the
left the (lops are preiTed. The lutes of Bologna are
efleemed the bell, on account of the wood, which is faid
to have an uncommon difpofition for producing afweet
found.
'LUTHERANS, the Chriflians who follow the opinions
of Martin Luther, one of the principal reformers of
the church in the fixteenth century.
This fed took its rife from the diflafle taken at the
•indulgences which were granted in 1517, by pope
Leo X. to thofe who camr.ibuted towards finifhing St.
Peter’s church at Rome. John Stuptize, vicar gene¬
ral of the Auguflines in Germany, was the firft who
took occafion to declare againfl thefe abufes, for which
purpofe he made ufe of Martin Luther, the mod learn
ed of all the Auguflines. Luther was a native of
Eifleben, in the county of Mansfield in Saxony, and
taught divinity at the univerfity of Wirtemberg ; he
mounted the pulpit, and declaimed vehemently againfl
the abufe of indulgences, and even fixed 'ninety-five
propofitions upon the church-doors of Wtrtemberg. in
order to their being confidered and examined in a pub¬
lic conference : againfl thefe John Tetzel, a Domini¬
can, publifhed a hundred and fix pofitions at Francfort
upon the Oder ; and by virtue of his office of inquifitor,
ordered thofe of Luther to be burnt; when his ad¬
herents, to revenge the affront, publicly burnt at Wir¬
temberg thofe of Tetzel. Thus war was declared be¬
tween the Dominicans and Auguflines, and foon after
between the Roman catholic and the Lutheran party.
In 1520, Luther fent his book De Libertate Cbtif-
tiana, to the pope ; in which he grounds juflification
upon faith alone, without the afliflance of good works ;
and afferts, that Chriftian liberty refcues us from the
bondage of human traditions, and particularly the
flavery of papal impofttions ; and afterwards, in a re-
monflrance written in high Dutch, he proceeded to
deny the authority of the church of Rome. He was
the fame year excommunicated by the pope ; upon
which Luther caufing a large fire to be made without
the walls of Wirtemberg, threw the pope’s bull into
it with his own hands, together with the decretals,
extravagants, and clementines ; and this example was
followed by his difciples in other towns. The next
year the emperor Charles V. ordered his books to be
burnt, and put him under the ban of the empire as a
heretic and (chifmatic; and about this time king
Henry VIII. of England wrote againfl him in defence
of the feven facraments, to which Luther wrote a reply.
The eleftor of Saxony, who had for fome time kept
him concealed in his caflle of Wefburg, now gave him
leave to reform the churches of Wirtemberg as he
thought fit; when this reformer propofed, that the
biffiops, abbots, and monks, ffiould be expelled ; that
all the lands and revenues of the biffioprics, abbey s, and
jnonafleries, ffiould efcheat to the refpetfive princes ;
and that all the convents of mendicant friars fhould be
turned into public fchools and hofpitals : this year,
Luther had the fatisfaclion to fee a league contraded
between Guflavus king of Sweden, and Frederick king
of Denmark, who both agreed to eflabliih Lutheraniim
in theirdominions: and now Luther’s perfuafion, which
from the Upper Saxony had fpread into the northern
provinces, began to be perfe&ly fettled in the duchies
of Lunenburgh, Brunfvvtck, Mecklenburgh, and Po¬
merania, and in the archbiffioprics of Magdeburgh and
Bremen ; in the towns of Hamburgh, Wifmar, Ro-
flock, and along the Baltic as far as Livonia and
Prufiia. Luther maintained the dodlrine of confubflan*
tiation ; and at a general a. , at Ratifbon for recon¬
ciling both parties, the divines could agree to no more
than five or fix articles concerning juflification, free¬
will, original fin, baptifm, good works, and epif-
copacy.
LUTHERN, in archite&ure, a kind of window over the
corniche, in the roof of a building; Handing perpen¬
dicularly over the naked of a wall, and ferving to illu¬
minate the upper (lory.
Lutherns are of various forms, as fquare, femi-cir
cular, round, called bulls-eyes, flat arches, ^rc.
LUTON, a market town, fourteen miles fouth of Bed
ford.
LUTRA, in zoology. SccMustela.
LUXATION, in furgery, is when any bone is moved
out of its place, or articulation, fo as to impede or
deflroy its proper motion or office, , See Surgery.
LUXEMBURG, the capital of the duchy of the fame
name, fituated an hundred miles fouth-eafl of Bruf-
fels, is a fmall but ftrong fortrefs: E. long. 6° 8', N,
lat. 490 45'.
LYBIA, a name anciently given to all the coafl of Bar¬
bary, efpecially that part lying weftward of Egypt.
LYCEUM, in Grecian antiquity, an academy fituated
upon the banks of the Iliffus at Athens. It was com-
pofed of porticoes and walks, where Ariflotle taught
philofophy; walking there conflantly every day till
the hour of anointing, whence he and his followers
were called peripatetics,
LYCHNIS, in botany, a genus of the decandria penta-
gynia clafs. The calix confifls of one oblong fmooth
leaf, and the corolla of five unguiculated petals, with
a bifid limbus ; and the capfule has three cells.
There are feven fpecies, three of them natives of Bri¬
tain, viz. the flos cuculi, meadow-pinks, or cuckow-
flower ; the vifcaria, or red German catchfly; and the
dioica, or white campion.
LYCIUM, in botany, a genus of the petandria monogy-
nia clafs. The corolla is tubular, the faux being ffiut
up by the beard of the filaments ; and the berry has
two cells. There are three fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
LYCODONTES, in natural hiflory, the petrified teeth
of the lupus-pifcis, or wolf-fiffi, frequently fpund
foffile. They are of different ffiapes; but the mod
common kind rife into a femiorbicular form, and are
hollow within, fomewhat refembling an acorn-cup :
this hollow is found fometimes empty, and fometimes
filled with the flratum in which it is immerfed. Many
of them have an outer circle,'of a different colour from
the reft.
LYCO-
L Y M ( 1009 ) L Y T
LTCCPERDON, in botany, a genus of tbe cryptoga-
ara tungi clafs : It is roundiih, and replete with fari¬
naceous feeds There are ten fpecies, fix of them
natives of Britain, viz. the tuber, or folid puff balls ;
the cervinum, or branny puff-ball; the boviffa, or
common puff-ball : the fteilatum, or liar puff-ball ;
the fornicatum, or turret puff-uail; and tbe peduacu-
Jatum, or (talked puff-ball. v
LYCOPODIUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptogatnia
mufci clafs. The anthera is double-valved, and feflile;
the calyptra is wanting There are 24 fpecies, of
which fix are natives of Britain, viz the clavatum, or
common club roofs ; the inundatum, or marflt club-
roofs ; the arroorinum, or Welfh club-roofs ; the alpi-
r.um, or m urrtain club-roofs : the felago, or firr c!ui>-
mofs ; and the felaginoides. or prickly club-roofs.
LYCOPSIS, in botany, a genus of the pentand.ria mo-
nogyma clafs. Tbe tube of the corolla is incurvated.
There arc feven fpecies, only one of which, viz the
arvenfis, or fmall wild buglafs, is a native of Britain.
LYCOPDS, in botany, a genus of the diandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla confifts of Tour fegments,
■one of them emarginated ; the ftamina are diftant ;
and there are four feeds. There are two fpecies ; only
one of them, viz. the europeus, or water-borehouod,
is a native of Britain.
LYDIA, an ancient province of JefferAfia, in which was
the city of Philadelphia.
LYCEUM, in botany, a genus of the triandria mono-
gynia clafs. The fpatha confifts of one leaf; there
are two corollse above the fame germen ; and the nut
has two cells. There is but one fpecies, a native of
Spain.
LYING in women. See MrowiFERir
LYME, a borough and port town of Dorfetlhire, E.loog.
30 5', and N. lat jo° 44'.
It fends two members to parliament.
LYMPH, a fine fluid, feparated in the body from tbe
mafs of blood, and contained in peculiar veffels.
Dr Keil fays, that the lymph being chemically ex¬
amined, will be found to contain agreat deal of volatile,
but no fixed fait, feme phlegm, foroe lulphur and a
little earth. The ufe of the lymph he obferves, may
be gathered from the confideration of the parts into
which it difeharges itfelf: that which comes from the
head, neck and arms, is thrown into the jugular and
fubclavian veins ; all the lymphatics which the parts
2
in the cavity of the thorax fend out, empty themfelves
into the thoracic duift ; and the lymph from all the reft
of the body, flows to'the receptacle of the chyle ; fo
that there can be no doubt bi^t its chief ufe is to dilute
and perfect the chyle before it mixes with the blood.
See Anatomy, Part HI.
LYMPHATICS, in anatomy. See AnaYom y, p. 308.
LYNN-REGIS, a port-town of Norfolk, fituated at the
mouth of the river Gufe, on a bay of the German fea,
thirty-two miles weft of Norwich.
It fends two members to parliament.
LYNX, in zoology. See Pel is
LYONS, the capital of the Lyonois, a province of
France, bounded by Orleanors and Burgundy on the
north, by la Breffe and Dauphine on the eaft, by
Languedoc and Guienne bn the fouth and by ano¬
ther part of Guienne and Orleanois oh The weft. This
city lies upon the confluence of the rivers Rhone and
Soan, in E. Ion. 40 55', and N. lat. y° jo'. Next
to Paris, it is efteemed the place of greateft trade ia
France. ^
LYRA, in ichthyology. See Callyonimus.
LYRE, a mufical inftrument of the ftring-kind, much
ufed by the ancients.
Ltre, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 486.
LYRIC, in general, fignifies fomething fung or played
on the lyre : but it is more particularly applied to the
ancient odes and ftanzas, anfwering to our airs and
fongs, and may be played on inftruments. This fpecies
of poetry was originally employed in celebrating the
praifes of gods and heroes, though it was afterwards
introduced into feafts and public diverfions.
LYSIMACHIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The calix is rotated ; and the cap-
fule is roundifh, with a (harp point, and contains ten
valves. There are eleven fpecies, five of them natives
of Britain, viz. the vulgaris, or yellow willow-herb;
the thirfiflora, or tufted loofe-ftrife ; the nemorum, or
yellow pimpernel] of the woods; the nummularia, or
money wort; and the tenella, or purple money-wort.
LYTHRUM, in botany, agenusof the dodecandria mo-
nogynia clafs The calix confifts of twelve fegmems,
and the corolla of fix petals infertedinto the calix; and
the cajjfule has two cells. and many feeds. There are ten
fpecies, two of them natives of Britain, viz. the fali-
caria, or purple fpiked loole-ftrife} and the hyffopifolia,
or fmall hedge-hyffop.
End of the Second Volume.
E
K
A
T
A
I!
End of the article CATASTROPHE. For Sse Epic
emdX)%kvikTiC compofitions, read, S'^Composition.
CHEVRON. Read Plate LXV.
CIRCUMDUCTION. Yor addigeamus, read alledge-
ances ;—and for Pobation, read Probation.
DECLIN ATURE of judges. For legal obligation,
read legal objection.
Page 424. column 2. line 39. For fig- read fg. 3.
P. 425. col. 1. In paragr. 4. there (hould have been a re¬
ference to/?a. 6.—N. B. In any Treatife, or long ar¬
ticle, illuftrated by plates, when a figure is referred to
without repeating tire N° of the plate, let it be under-
ftoodthat the plate laft mentioned is meant.
P. 426. col. 1. 1. 35:. For fig. 9. read /?£. 3.—N. B.
Fol. 425 & 426 are, by overfight, twice repeated.
P. 429. col. 1. 1. 41. For Fig. 5. read Fig. 3.
P. 437. col. 2. 1. 12. Yot gait, rea&gate.
DIODON. Omitted the reference to the figure, viz.
Plate LXVIII. fig. 4.
DJPONDIUS. Yox two fparrows, read /fur fparrows.
DRACO. Omitted to refer to Plate LXVili. fig. 5.
ECHENEIS. Omitted to refer to Plate LXXIV.
fig. 4.
P. 477. col. x. I. 43. Yor Plate LXXV. Plate
P. 616. eol. i.l. ult. Read P/a/e LXXX.fig. 3.
P. 684. col, 1. By rniftake Florida is placed under the
Spaniflt empire, and Canada under that of France ;
wherea? they were both ceded to Britain by the late
treaty of peace.
GIRONNE'. For fig. 5. read fig. 4.
GORE. For/£. 4. read 5.
P. 729. col. 2. 1. 28. For as to language, read as ef-
ftntial to language.
P. 731. col. 2. 1. penult. For remain changed, read
remain unchanged.
P. 73;. col. 1. 1. 43. For A? write, read to unite.
P. 742. col. 1. 1 26. Yorwasitnot, read it was not.
GRYLLUS. Yorfig. 3, 4, 5. read fig. 4, 5, 6.
GULES. For Plate CL fig. 6. read Plate XCV1I.
fig 7-
P. 805. col 2. 1. 29. Yor fig. 4 readj.
INTERLOCUTOR. For extaCled, read ext rafted.
P. 863. col. 1. 1 40. For increafe. However, the
voice," &c. read “increafe; and the voice," &c.
P. 864. col. I. Inftead of 1. 17, 18, 19. read thus :
But although it may be confidered as a general rule,.
“ that the language of any nation is a very exafl irs-
“ dex of the (late of their mind, yet it admits of fotrae
“ particular exceptions ; for as man,” &c.
Ibid. 1. 9. Dele the words in time.
Ibid. col. 2. Inflead ofl. ir, 12. read thus :—“ little
“ advantage from it, as the antiquity of a language
“ does not necefiarily imply any degree of excellence,
“ feeing we all know that fome nations,”
P. 865. col. 2. 1. 34. For word, read words.
P. 866. col. 1.1. 6. For cne, read on ;—and in 1. 24.
dele the word all.
Ibid. col. 2. 1. 22. For <c and thepluperfeft in issem
“ and ero,” read “ the pluperfeft issem, and the
“ future in ero.”
Ibid col. r. and 2. Delete L'queo, Odio, Loqus bam,
Odie-ham, with the Englifh words accompanying them;
—and for Faceo, Pona bam, Obie-bam, Gaudie bam,
and Abflinie-bam, read Facio, Pone bam, Obi bam,
Gaude-bam, and Abftine bam.
P. 868. For “Tu, Tytere, lentis in umbra," &c. read.
“Tu, Tityre, lentus in umbra," See.
Ibid. col. i.l. 28. For contra ft, read contrajl;—1. 37.
for pajion, read pajfion ;—and delete the fyllable con
at the beginning of 1. 47.
P. 869. col. 2. 1. 7. from the bottom. For as they
ought to have, read as they might have.
P. 870 col 2. lines 22, 23., 24, 25, and 26- read thus :
“ For all their nouns in um of the fecond declenfion,
“ in e of the third, and in u of the fourth, have each
“ their nominative and accufative Angular alike. Nor
“ in. the plural number is there any diltin&ion between
“ thefe two cafes,” &c.
Ibid. col. 2. 1. 19. from the bottom. For language,
rtai languages.
P.872, col. i.l. 13. Yor by accumulated, toad by the
accumulated;—and 1. 25. for any grammatical errors,
read any conjiderable grammatical errors.
P. 873- col. 1. 1. 10. from the bottom: iar commutation,
read communication ;—col. 2. 1. J. for more natural-
ly adapted to the genius of the language, read more a-
greeahle to the genius of the language in which he
wrote ;—and col. 2. 1. 38. for that, read their.
P. 874 col. 2, 1. 23. Fur languages far lefs capable,
read languages, far lefs capable.—Ibid. 1. penult, for
quite, read too.
P. 875. col. 2. 1. 24. For into, read in.
P. 877.
ERR
F.8'7f.. e©1;2,!,3>t. TorMWO-minMed/boutdat thh junc¬
ture partake, read new-moulded at this juncture Jhould
partake.
T. 876. col. 1.1. 15. TorJIanzas, readfcenest,—col. 2.
1. %. for is it pojjible, read, is it, as use imagine,
pojftble;—and 1. 16. for is it, read it is.
P. 877- col. 1. 1. 10. T-zzA Madam Hejhouliers.
P. 883. col. 2. 1. 7. from the bottom, read thus:
“ Hence, as one ftatute may be explained or repealed
“ by another,” —and in 1. 6. delete the words or
repealed.
p. 885. col. 1.1. 13. from the bottom. For enexed, read
annexed.
P. 887. col. 1. 1. n. from the bottom. For 1972,
read 1672.
P. 889. col. 1. 1. 16. Tor give, read given.
P. 890. col. 1. I. 43. For confirmed, rend conferred.
P.895. c°l* I* 31* Tor" of the tocher and the ’wife,"
&c. read, “ of the tocher ; and the luife," 8cc.
P.904 col. 2.1. 8, 9. For “ ’ward'ho/ding'was in dubio,”
read “ ward-holding 'was in dubio prefumed"
P. 905. col. 2.1 32. Tor commijion, rtzd commifioners.
P. 908. col. 1. 1. 5. For eftablijh as the full right,
read ejlablijhes the full right.
P. 909. col. 2. I. 8. For again, read againft;—1. 9,
10. for hypothec p yment, read hypothec for payment;
—and in 1. 41. for 1755, read 1756.
A T A.
P. 914. col. r.J. 2. Tor brought, read bought;—1. 10;
for of general terms, read in general terms and
1.11. for in the fervitude, read of the fervitude.
P. 916. col. 2. 1. 13. For p. 159, read/>. 259.
P. 920. col. 1. 1. 18. Delete the word be-,—and in
col. 2. 1. 6. from the botom, for of divifion, read or
divifion.
P. 921. col. 2. 1. 26. For Jlatem, read Jlatim
and in 1. 3 1. for tnay exijl, read may never exijl.
P. 931. col. 2.1. 18. For feifm has adlually followed,
read feijin has not a finally followed.
P. 947. col. 2. 1. n. from the bottom. For attion,
read aflions.
P. 951. col. 2. 1. 13. For or law, reads/-law.
P. 953. col. 2, For Tit. 26. read Tit. 33.;—and in
1. 5. from the bottom, for hin, read kin.
P. 958. col. 2. 1. 12. from the bottom. Tor forms of
law, read forms of trial.
The page following 958 is numbered 949 inftead of
959. In col. 2. 1. 25. of faid page, for It is necef-
fary, read It is not necejfary.
LOGIC. Read lines 3d, 4th, and jth, of the (irftpa^
ragraph thus : “ Inafmuch as it traces the progrefs
“ of our knowledge from our firft and moft fimple con-
“ ceptions through alt their different combinations,
“ and all thofe numerous deductions,” <tsc.