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ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA.
VOLUME the FIRST.
**■*
'
,T S :u -I >;j .1 M U a C V'
.
A
ARTS and SCIENCES,
COVI PILED UPON A NEW PLAN.
IN WHICH
The diferent Sciences and Arts are dioefted into
" O
diflinct Treatifes or Syitems;
AND
. The \irious Technic a lTerms, <&c. are explained as they occur
in the order of the Alphabet.
ILLUSTRATED WITH ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY COPPERPLATES.
fry a Society of GENTLEMEN in Scotland.
IN THREE VOLUME S.
VOL. I.
EDINBURGH:
Printed for A. Bell and C. Macearquhar;
Aid fold by C o l i n M a cf a r q.u h a r, at his Printing-office, N.coifon-HreeL
\l965r.
SCO,-
PREFACE
UTILITY ought to be the principal intention of every publication.
Wherever this intention does not plainly appear, neither the books
nor their authors have the finalleft claim to the approbation of mankind.
To diffufe the knowledge of Science, is the profefled defign of the fol¬
lowing work. What methods, it may be alked, have the compilers em¬
ployed to accomplilh this delign ? Not to mention original articles, they
have had recourle to the belt books upon almoft every lubjedt, extracted
the ufefiil parts, and rejected whatever appeared trifling or lefs intereft-
ing. Inftead of difinembering the Sciences, by attempting to treat them
intelligibly under a multitude of technical terms, they have digefted the
principles of every Icience in the form of lyftems or diftindl treatifes, and
explained the terms as they occur in the order of the alphabet, with re¬
ferences to the Iciences to which they belong.
As this plan differs from that of all the Dictionaries of Arts and Scien¬
ces hitherto publifhed, the compilers think it neceflary to mention what
they imagine gives it a fuperiority over the-common method. A few
words will anfwer this purpofe. Whoever has had occafion to confidt
Chambers, Owen, fee. or even the voluminous French Encyclopedic, will
have difeovered the folly of attempting to communicate fcience under the
various technical terms arranged in an alphabetical order. Such an at¬
tempt is repugnant to the very idea of fcience, which is a connected fe-
ries of conclufions deduced from felf-evident or previoufly difeovered prin¬
ciples. It is well if a man be capable of comprehending the principles
and relations of the different parts of fcience, when laid before him in
one uninterrupted chain. But where is the man who can learn the prin¬
ciples of any fcience from a Dictionary compiled upon the plan hitherto
adopted? We will, however, venture to affirm, that any man of ordi¬
nary parts, may, if he chuffs, learn the principles of Agriculture, of A-
ftronomy, of Botany, of Chemiftry, fee. fee. from the En cy clop^edia
Britann i ca.
In the execution of this extenfive and multifarious undertaking, the
Compilers laboured under many difadvantages, partly ariflng from the
nature of the work, and partly owing to the following circumflance.
The
vi PREFACE.
Th e Editors, though fully fen&ble of the propriety of adopting the
prelent plan, were not aware of the length of time neceflary for the ex¬
ecution, but engaged to begin the publication too early. However, by
the remonftrances of the Compilers, the publication was delayed for twelve
months. Still time was wanted. But the fublcribers pufhed the Editors,
and they at laft perfuaded the Compilers to confent to the publication.
If time had been allowed, the Compilers defigned to have compleated the
Iciences before proceeding to the technical terms; and by that means to
have guarded againft omifiions, and made all the references from the terms
to the fciences more particular. The confequence was unavoidable.
All the references to any feience that occur in the alphabet previous to
the name of the fcience itfelf, are general: thole that follow are parti¬
cular ; pointing out, not only the name of the Icience, but the number
of the page.
We mull further acknowledge, that, in feme inftances, we have de¬
viated from the general plan; but, we hope, not without reafon. Forex-
ample, under the words Botany and Natural History, it would have
been an endlels, and perhaps an ulelels talk, to have given the generic
diltincnons of every plant, and of every animal. Thefe are to be found
under the names of the plants and animals themfelves. The fame obler-
vation may be made with refjpect to Mineralogy, Materia Me die a. Pa¬
thology, Phyfiology, and therapeutics. Thele are fo interwoven with
Anatomy, Botany,. Chemiftry, and Medicine, that, in a. work of this kind,
it was almoh impoffible, without many none cellary repetitions, to
treat them as diiiincd fciences. Indeed, properly Ipeaking, they are not
Iciences, but parts or accclTorics of leiences, which, by the dexterity ol
teachers and authors, have been long exhibited under that form.
With regard to errors in general, whether falling under the denomi¬
nation of mental, typographical, or accidental, we arc conlcious of being
able to point out a greater number than any critic whatever. Men who
are acquainted with the innumerable dilFiculties attending the execution
of a work of fuch an extendve nature will make proper allowances. 7 o
thele we appeal, and fliall refl latlsfied with the judgment they pronounce.
In order to give fome idea of the materials of which this Dictionary is
corapoled, we lhall conclude the preface with a lift oi the principal au¬
thors made life of in the compilation.
L I S T
L I S T of A U T H O R S, &c.
Albini tabule anatomies,
Alfton’s ‘Tirocinium botanieum.
 Effay an the fexes of plants.
Bacon’s fylv-a fjlvarmn.
Balky Laurentiiy Adolpho-Fredericianum,
in Anivn. Acad.
Balfour’s philofophical effays.
Barrow’s ditftionary of arts and
fciences.
Bertfoud fur Bart de conduirc ct de re-
gler les pendules et les montres.
Bartlet’s farriery.
Bielfield’s univerfal erudition.
Brookes’s practice of phyfic.
 natural hiftory.
Brown de ortu animalium caloris.
BoufFon’s hifoire naturelle.
Byrom’s lliort-hand writing.
Calmet’s dictionary of the bible.
Campbell’sdiffertation on miracles.
Catelhy’s natural hiftory of Carolina,
Florida, &c.
Chambers’s dictionary of arts and
fciences.
Chambers’s architecture.
Cheflelden’s anatomy.
Cotes’s hydroftatical lectures.
Cowper’s miotomia reformata.
Crocker’s dictionary of arts and
fciences.
Cullen’s fmopfis nofologm methodic#..
 MS. 1 ctures.
Derham’s phyfico-theology.
Dickfbn’s agriculture.
Le Dran’s furgery.
Duncan’s moral philofbphy.
 Eogic.
Edwards’s natural hiftory.
Elmgren’s termini botanici.
Le Grand Encyclopedic.
Erfkine’s inftitutes of the law of
Scotland.
Effays on hufbandry.
Foreign eflays on agriculture.
Effays phyfical and literary.
Euclid’s elements.
Eufiachii tabul# anatomic#.
Franklin on electricity, fee.
Fergufon’s aftronomy.
  Mechanics.
 Hydroftatics and hydraulics.
 Dialling.
 :—Principles of geography.
 Optics.
 Pneumatics.
Goguet’s origin of laws, arts, and
fciences.
Gregory’s practical geometry.
Grew’s anatomy of plants.
Ha art-man deplantis hybridis, in Amain.
Acad.
Du Hamel’s elements of agriculture.
Harris’s Hermes.
Haflelquift’s travels
 de viribus plantarum.
Haft Rudolphi, Amphibia Gyllenborp-
ana, in Amain. Acad..
Heifter’s furgery.
Hill’s Eden.
Hiorth de plantis efculentisy in Amain,.
Acad.
Kiftory of arts and fciences.
Hook* s’s philofophical experiments. ,
liudfbn’s Flora Anglica..
Hume’s eftays.
Home’s principi a medic in#.
Home
LIST of AUTHORS, &c.
viji
Home on bl acking.
Jack’s conic feCtions.
JohnJioni hijloria naturalis.
Jortin de -plantis tinBoriis, in Am am.
Acad.
Lord Kaims’s elements of criticifm.
 abridgment of the ftatutes.
Langley’s builder’s adiftant.
Lee’s botany,
Lewis’s difpenfatory,
Linntei JyJlema nature.
 Amccnitates academics.
 Pbilofophia botanica.
 Genera plantarum.
■ Species plantarum.
 Fundamenta botanica.
Locke on the humanunderftanding.
Maclaurin’s fluxions.
 Algebra.
Macqueer’s chemiftry.
Macdowal’sinftitutes of Scots law.
Mail ’s Book-keeping.
 Arithme tic k.
Miller’s gardener’s dkftionary.
Monro’s ofteology.
 Junior de venis I'jmphaticis val¬
val ofis.
^Muller’s fortification.
Mufeum rujiicum.
Newtoni principia.
 Letfiones optica:.
Owen’s dictionary of arts and Icien-
ces.
Patoun’s navigation.
Earl of Pembroke on horfemanfliip.
Pennant’s Britifli zoology.
Philofbphical tranfaCtions.
Polygraphic dictionary.
Preceptor.
Prieftley’s hiftory of eleCtricity.
Raii fynopfis Jlirpium Britannic arum.
Rudborgi dijfertatio depeloria, in Amain.
Acad.
Rutherforth’s natural philotbphy.
Sale’s Koran and life of Mahomed.
Sandeman de Rbeo palmato.
Sebe rerum naturalium tbefaurus.
Sharp’s fiirgery.
Sloane’s natural hiftory of Jamaica.
Smellie’s midwifery.
Smith’s optics.
Sir James Stewart’s political oeco-
nomy.
Swan’s architecture.
Sundii Surinamenfia Grilliana, in Amam.
Acad.
Tournefort’s fyftem of botany.
Trydell’s theory and practice of mu-
fick.
Ulloa’s voyages.
Voltaire’s eflay on tafte.
Wablbomii fponfalia plantarum, in A-
mam. Acad.
Dr Whytt’s works.
Wildman on bees.
'Willoughby’s ornitbologia.
 1chtbj agraphia.
Window’s anatomy.
Worcefter’s natural philofbphy.
Young on compofition.
*** Gazetteers, Pamphlets, Magazines, and other periodical publications; be-
fides many books mentioned in the work itfelf.
Encyclopaedia Britannica;
Or, A NEW a
D I C T I
o
ARTS and S
A B
A A, the name of feveral rivers in different parts
of the world, viz, i. of one in Solagne, in
France; 2. of one in French Flanders; 3, of
three in Switzerland; 4. of five in the Low
Countries; 5, of five in Weftphalia; 6. of
one in Livonia.
AABAM, a term, among alchemifts, for lead,
AACH, the name of a town and river in Swabia. It is
alfo a name fometimes given toAix-la-chapelle.
AADE, the name of two rivers, one in the country of
the Grifons in Switzerland, and the other in Dutch
Brabant.
AAHUS, a fmall town and diftrift in Weftphalia.
AAM, a Dutch meafure for liquids, containing about
63 lb. avoirdupoife.
A AM A, a province in Barbary, very little known.
AAR,, the name of two rivers, one in Weftphalia, and one
in Switzerland, It is likewife the name of a fmall
ifland in the Baltic fea.
AARSEO, a town inAfrica, fituated near the mouth of
the river Mina.
AATTER, or At ter, a province of Arabia Felix, fi¬
tuated on the Red-fea.—N. 'B. All other places which
begin with a double A, but more generally with.a
Angle one, will be inferted according to the laft ortho¬
graphy.
AB, the eleventh month of the civil year of the Hebrews.
It correfponds to part of our June and July, and con-
fifts of 30 days. On the firfi of this month the Jews
commemorate the death of Aaron by a fall: they fall
alfo on the ninth, becaufe on that day both the temple
of Solomon and that erefted after the captivity were
burnt. The fame day is alfo remarkable for the publi¬
cation of Adrian’s edi£t, prohibiting the Jews to look,
back, even when at a dillance, upon Jerufalem, or to
Vol. I. No., x.
D COMPLETE
O N A R Y
F
C I E N C E S.
ABA
lament its defolation. The lamp of the fanfluary, m
the time of Ahaz, was extinguifhed on the night of the
18th, for which reafon the Jews fall that day. See
Astronomy, Of the divijion of time.
AB, in the Syriac kalendar, is the name of the laft fum-
mer-month.
ABACATUAIA, in ichthyology, a barbarous name of
the zeus vomer, a fifh belonging to the thoracic order
ofLinnasus. See Zeus.
ABAC AY, a barbarous name of a fpecies of the pfittacus,
or parrot. See Psittacus.
ABACH, a town in Bavaria, fituated on the Danube,
a little above Ratilbon.
ABACISCUS. See Abacus.
ABACO, a term, among ancient writers, for arithmetic.
AB ACOA, the name of one of "the Bahama iflands.
See Bahama.
ABACOT, the name of an ancient cap of ftate worn by
the kings of England, the upper part whereof was in
the form of a double crown.
ABACTORES, or Abactors, a term for fuch as
carry offer drive away a whole herd of cattle by Health.
ABACTUS, an obfolete term, among phyficians, for a
mifearriage procured by art.
ABACUS, a table ftrewed over with duft or fand, upon
which the ancient mathematicians drew their figures,
It alfo fignified a cupboard, or buffet.
ABACUS, in architeflure, fignifies the fuperior part or
member of the capital of a column, and ferves as a
kind of crowning to both. It was originally intended
to reprefent a fquare tile covering a bafket. The form
of the abacus is not the fame in all orders: in the
Tufcan, Doric, and Ionic, it‘is generally fquare; but
in the Corinthian and Compofite, its four fides are
arched irAvards, and embellilhed in the middle with
A fome
ABA
fome ornament, as a rofe or other flower, Scammozzi
ufes abacus for a concave moulding on the capital of
the Tufcan pedefial; and Palladio calls the plinth a-
bove the echinus, or boultin, in theTufean and Doric
orders, by the fame name. See plate I. fig. i. and
Architecture.
Abacus is alfo the name of an ancient inftrument for
facilitating operations in arithmetic. It is vadoully
contrived. That chiefly ufed in Europe is made by
drawing any number of parallel lines at the di(lance of
two diameters of one of the counters ufed in the cal¬
culation. A counter placed on.the lowed line, fignifies r;
on the sd, 10; on the 3d, 100; on the 4th, 1000, &c.
In the intermediate fpaces, the fame counters are efli-
mated at one Jialf of the value of the line immediately
fuperior, viz. between the id and 2d, 5; between
the 2d and 3d, 50, &c. See plate I. fig. 2. A B,
where the fame number, 1768 for example, is reprefent-
ed under both by different difpofitions of the counters.
Abacus harmonious, among muficians, the arrangement
of the keys of a mufical indrument.
Abacus logijlicus, a right-angled triangle, whofe fides
forming the right angle contain the numbers from 1 to
60, and its area the fafta of every two of the numbers
perpendicularly oppofite. This is alfo called a canon
of fexagefimals.
Jk^&cus Pythagvricus, the multiplication-table, or any
table of numbers that facilitates operations in arith¬
metic.
ABADAN, a town, of Perfia, fituatednear the mouth of
the Tygris.
ABADDON, from abaci, to dedroy; a name given by
St John, in the Revelations, to the king of the locults.
ABADIR, a title which the Carthaginians gave to gods
of the fird order. In the Roman mythology, it is the
name of a done which Saturn fwallowed, believing.it
to be his new-born fon Jupiter: hence it became the
object of religious worfhip.
ABACRE, a town in the defarts of Arabia.
ABAFT, a fea-term, fignifying towards the Jiern: for
indance, abaft the mizzen-jnaft, implies, that the ob-
Jedf is between the mizzen-mad and the.dern.
ABAI, in botany, a fynonime of the calycanthus prtecox,
a genus of plants belonging to the icofandria polygynia
clafs of Linnaeus. See Calycanthus.
ABAISSE. See Abased.
ABALIENATION. See Alienation.
ABANBO, a river of Ethiopia which falls into the Nile.
ABANCAI, or Abancays, a town and river of Peru,
in the didridt of Lima.
ABANO, a fmall town in Italy, fubjedt to Venice, and
fituated five miles fouth-wed of Padua.
ABAPTISTON, or Anabaptiston, an obfolete term
for the chirurgical indrument called a trepan. See
Surgery, and Trepan.
ABARCA, a (hoe made of raw hides, formerly worn
by the peafants in Spain.
ABARTICULATION, in anatomy, a fpeeies of arti¬
culation which is now termed diarthrofts. See Ana¬
tomy, Part I. and Diarthrofs.
ABAS, a weight ufed in Perfia for weighing pearls. It is
l-8th lefs than the European carat. *'
ABB
ABASCIA, the country of the Alcas. SccAlcas.
ABAISED, Abaijfe, in heraldry, an epithet applied to
' the wings ofe&gies, &c. when the tip looks downwards
to the point of the (liield, or. when the wings are (hut;
the natural way of bearing them being extended.
ABASING, in the fea-language, fignifies the fame as
driking.
ABASSI, or Abassas, a filver coin current in Perfia,.
equivalent in value to a French livre, or tenpence half¬
penny Sterling. It took its name from Schaw Abas II.
king of Perfia, under whom it was-druck.
ABATAMENTUM, in law, is an entry to lands by in-
terpofition, i. e. when a perfon dies feized, and another
who has no right enters before the heir.
ABATE, from abatre, to dedroy ; a term ufed by the
writers of the common law, both in an a<5tive and neu¬
tral fenfe ; as, to abate a cadle, is to dedroy or beat it
down.; to abate a writ, is, by fome exception to ren¬
der it null and void.
Abate, in the manage, implies the performance of any
downward motion properly. Hence a horfe is faid ta
abate, or take down his curvets, when he puts both
his hind-legs to the ground at once, and obferves the
fame exaftnefs in all the times.
ABATEMENT, in heraldry, implies fomething added
to a coat of arms in order to lefl’en its dignity, and point
out fome .imperfe&ion or dain in the char after of the
wearer.
Abatement, in law. See Abate.
Abatement, in commerce, fignifies an allowance or
difcount in the price of certain commodities, in conii-
deration of prompt payment; a diminution in the dipu-
lated quantity or quality of goods, or fome fuch cir-
cumdance.
Abatement, in the cudoms, an allowance made upon
the duty of goods, when the quantum damaged is deter¬
mined'by the judgment of two merchants upon oath,
and afcertained by a certificate from the furveyor and
land-waiter.
ABATIS, an ancient term for an officer of the dables.
AB ATOR, in law, a term applied to a perfon who enters
to a houfe or lands, void by the death of the lad pof-
feflbr, before the true heir.
ABAVO, in botany, a fynonime of the adanfonia, a
(hrub belonging to the monadelphia polyandria of Lin¬
naeus. See Adansonta.
ABAYANCE. See Abeyance.
ABB, a term, among clothiers, applied to the yarn of a
weaver’s warp. They alfo fay Abb-wool in the fame
fenfe.
ABBA, in the Syriac and Chaldee languages, literally
fignifies * father; and figuratively, a fuperior, reputed
as a father in refpeft of age, dignity, or affe&ion. It is
alfo a Jewifti title of honour given to fome of the clafs
called Tanaites.
ABBAT. See Abbot.
ABBATIS. See Abatis.
ABBEFORD, a fea-port town in Norway, in 58. 44.
N. lat.
ABBESS, the fuperior of an abbey or convent of nuns,
over whom (he has the fame authority as the abbots over
the monks. Their fex indeed hinders them from per¬
forming
( ^ )
ABB (
forming the fpiritual.fun&ions; but in the 12th century
there were abefl'es in Spain who gave bencdi&ions, and
confefled people of both fexes.
ABBEVILLE, a large city of Piccardy in France, ly¬
ing 90 miles north of Paris, in 50. 7. N. lat. and
2. o. E. long.
ABBEY, a religious houfe, governed by an abbot, where
perfons retire from the world, to fpend their time in
folitude and devotion. By the invention of mafies
for the living and the dead, difpenfations, jubilees,
indulgences, &c. the abbeys procured fuch large pri¬
vileges, exemptions, and donations, that, when thefe .
houfes were totally abolifhed in England by Henry
VIII. to the number of 190, an yearly revenue of
L. 2,§53,000 reverted to the crown.
ABBEY-BOYLE, a town in the county of Rofcom-
mon in Ireland.
ABBOT, the fuperior of an abbey or convent of monks.
In the firft ages of Chriftianity, the abbots were plain
difinterefted men, and lived contented with the go¬
vernment of their monafteries, which were generally
erected in the moll folitary parts: but being called
from their defects to oppofe the herefies in the church,
they foon began to entertain fentiments of ambition,
and endeavoured'to (hake off their dependency on the
bifhops. Hence arofe the diltindhons of mitred abbots,
crofiered abbots, oecumenical abbots, cardinal abbots,.Si.c.
The principal diftindticn which fubfifts at prefent among
abbots, is that of regular and commendatory; the former
of which take the vow, and wear the habit of the. or¬
der ; the latter are feculars, though they are obliged
to take orders at the proper age. Before the Refor¬
mation in England, there were abbots ele&ive and re-
prefentative ; fome mitred, aind others not. The mi¬
tred abbots were invefted with epifcopal authority
within their own limits, independent of the bilhop;
but the others were fubjedt to the diocefan in all fpi-
ritual government. The mitred abbots were Lords of
parliament, of which number Sir Edward Coke rec¬
kons 27, who fat in parliament, befides two Lords
Priors.
ABBREVIATE of adjudications, in Scots law, an ab-
ftradl or abridgment of a decreet of adjudication, which
is recorded in a regifter kept for that purpofe. See
Scots Law, title, Adjudications.
ABBREVIATION, or Abbreviature, implies the
fubftitution of a fyllable, letter, or charadter, for a
whole word..
ABBREVIATOR, a perfon who abridges any large
book into a narrower compafs.”
ABBREVIATORS, a college of 72.perfons in the chan¬
cery of Rome, who draw up the pope’s brieves, and
reduce petitions into proper form.
ABBREVOIR, a term in mafonry, expreftive of cer¬
tain indentures made in the joints or beds of ftones,
which being filled with the cement or mortar, bind
them firmer together.
ABBROCHMENT. See Abrochment.
ABBUTTALS, fignify the buttings or bouridings of
land towards any point. Limits were anciently diftin-
guifhedby artificial hillocks, which were called boten-
) ABE
tines, and hence butting. In a defcription of the fite
of land, the fides on the breadth are more properly
adjacentes, and thofe terminating the length are abbu.-
tantes; which, in old furveys, were fometimes ex-
prefled by capitare, to head; whence abbuttals-are
now called head lands.
ABCASSES, a people or country in Afia, fituate be¬
tween Circaflia, the Black-fea, and Mingrelia.
ABCDARIA, in botany, a fynonime of the verbefina
acmella. See Verbesina.
ABCDARY, or Abcdarian, an epithet applied to com-
pofitions, whofe parts are difpofed in an alphabetical
order.
ABDALS, or fervants of God, in the Eaftern coun¬
tries ; furious enthufiafts, who frequently run about
the llreets, deftroying all who differ from them in re¬
ligious opinions.
ABDELAVI, in botany, a name ufed by Arabian wri¬
ters for a fpecies of cucumis. See Cucumis.
ABDEST, a term ufed for the legal purifications by
water, pradlifed among the Mahometans and Perfians
before they begin their religious ceremonies.-
ABDICARIAN propofition, in logic, the fame with a
negative one. See Logic, and Propojition.
ABDICATION, the adtion of renouncing or giving up
an office.
ABDOMEN, in anatomy, is that part of the trunk of
the body which lies between the thorax and the bot¬
tom of the pelvis. See Anatomy, part VI.
ABDUCTION, a form of realbning among logicians,
which confifts in drawing conclufions from certain and-
undeniable propofitions. See Logic.-
Abduction, in furgery, a fpecies of fradture wherein
the broken parts of the bone recede from each other.
' See Surgery, Of fraftures.
ABDUCTOR, in anatomy, the name of feveral mufcles-
which ferve to open or draw back the parts to which
they are fixed. See Anatomy, Part VI.
ABEL-TREE, or Abele-tree, an obfolete name for
a fpecies of the poplar. See Populks.
ABELIANS, Abeloites, or Abelonians, afedlcf
heretics that fprung up near Hippo in Africa during
the reign of Arcadius. They had one diftinguiffiing
and extraordinary tenet, which was to marry, but ne¬
ver to confummate.
ABELMOSCH, or Abelmusch, in botany, the trivial
name of a fpecies of the hibifcus. See Hibiscus.
ABENSBURG, ovAbensperg, a fmall town in Ba¬
varia, on the river Abenae, near the Danube.
ABERBROTHOCK, one of the royal boroughs of
Scotland, fituated in the county of Angus; about 40
miles-north of Edinburgh. Its weft long, is 2. 20.
and N. lat. 56. 30. There was formerly one of the
richeft monafteries in Scotland in this town. It was
founded by King William of Scotland about the year
11 /,o, in honour of Thomas Becket Archbiffiop of
Canterbury, with whom he is faid to have been in¬
timately acquainted. This monaftery received confi-
derable donations from Gilchrift Earl of Angus,» and
Gilbred his fon. It was poffeffed by the monks of St
Ilennet. The inhabitants of Aberbrothock, for. the:
fake
A B E. ( ^
fake of their monaftery, were made deniforts of all
England (London excepted) by King John.
ABERDEEN, the name of two cities in Scotland, call¬
ed the Old and New Towns, fituated on the German
Ocean, in i 45. W. ion. and 57. n, N. lat.
The old town lies awont a mile to the north of the
- new, at the mouth of the river Don, over which is a
.■fine bridge, of a Angle arch, which refts at both fides
on two rocks. The old tov/n was formerly the feat of
the biihop, and had a large cathedral church, com-
monly called St Macher's. This cathedral had an-
. ciently two rows of Hone pillars acrofs .the church,
and three turrets ; the fteeple, which was the largeft of
thefe turrets, felled upon an arch, fupported by four
pillars. In this cathedral there was a fine library;
but about the year 1560 it was almoft totally delboyed
But the capital building is the King’s-college, on the
fouth fide of the town, which is a large and (lately fa¬
bric. The fteeplc is vaulted with a double crofs arch,
above which is an imperial crown, fupported by eight
ftone pillars, and clofed with a globe and two gilded
crolfes. In the year 1631 this fteeple was thrown down
by a ftorm, but was (bon after rebuilt in a more (late¬
ly form. This college was founded by Bifhop El
• phindpn in the year 1500; but James IV. claimed the
patronage of it, and it has fince been called the King's
Colldge. This college, and the M.arifiiall-college in
the new town, form-one univerfity, called the Univer-
Jity of King Charles.
The new town is the capital of the (hire of Aberdeen.
For largenefs, trade, and beauty, it greatly exceeds
any town in the North. It (lands upon a hill or rifing
ground. The buildings are generally four (lories high,
and have, for the mod part, gardens behind them, which
gives it a beautiful appearance. On tire high dreet is
a large church, which formerly belonged to the Fran-
cifcans. This church was begun by Bp William El-
phindon, and finifhed by Gavinus Dunbar, Bidiop of
Aberdeen, about the 1500. Bp Dunbar is faid like-
wife to have built the bridge over the Dee, which Con-
fids of feven arches.. The chief public building in
the new town is the Maridrall-college, founded by
George Keith Earl of Mar (hall, in the year 1593;
but has fince been greatly augmented with additional
buildings. In both the Mariihali and King’s-college
the languages, mathematics, -natural philofophy, divi¬
nity, (be. are taught by very able profefi'ors
ABERDOUR, a fmall town in Fifdhire, Scotland, on
the frith of Forth, about ten miles N. W. of Edin¬
burgh.
ABERGAVENY, in Monmouthfhire, England, a well-
built town, lying 142 miles W. by N, of London, in
51. 50. N. lat. and 36. 5 W Ion. This town Con-
fids of about 500 houfes, has a Weekly market on the
Tuefdays, .and another on the Fridays; and three
fairs for horfes, (beep, and black cattle.
ABERMURDER, an old law-term for murder, proved
in a judicial manner, which could not be atoned for
with money.
ABERRATION, in adronorrty, a fmall apparent mo¬
tion of the fixed dars, fird difeovered by Dr Bradley
> Ant
and Mr MoHineux, and found to be owing to the pro-
grefiive motion of light, and the earth’s annual mo¬
tion in its orbit. If a lucid objeft be fixed, and the
eye of the obferver moving along in any other direc¬
tion than that of a dreight line from the eye to the
objeifl, it is plain, that the objedt mud have an appa¬
rent motion, greater or lefs, according to the velocity
with which the eye is moved, and the didance of the
objefl from the eye. See Astronomy.
ABERRATION, in optics, a deviation of the rays of
light which prevents their uniting in the fame focal
point, and is occafioned by their being refradted by a
fpherical lens, or reiledted by a fpherical fpeculum.
See Optics.
ABERYSWITH, a market-town in Wales, lying 199
miles V/. S. W. of London, in 52. 30. N. lat. and
40 15 W. long.
ABESTA, the name of one of the facred books of the
Perfian magi, which they aferibe to their great found-
.•er Zeroader The abeda is a commentary on twt) o-
thers of their religious books called Zend mi. Pazend\
the three together including the whole fydem of the
Ignicold, or worlhippers of fire
ABESTON, a blundering way of writing Abedus. See
Abestus.
ABETTOR, a law-term, implying one who encourages
another to the performance of fome criminal adlion,
or who is. art and part in the performance itfelf. Trea-
fon is the only crime in which abettors are excluded by
law, every individual concerned being confidered as a
principal. It is the fame with art and part in'the
Scots law.
ABEVACUATION, in medicine, a gentle evacuation.
See Evacuation.
ABEX, the name of a large trad! of land, lying along
the wed coad of the Red-fea, fouth of Egypt, fubjedt
to the Ottoman Porte.
ABEYANCE, in law, the expedtancy of an edate.
Thus if lands be leafed to one perfon for life, with
reverfion to another for years, the remainder for years
is an abeyance till the death of the leflee.
ABHEL, in botany, an obfolete name of the fabina or
favin. See Juniper and Sabina.
ABIB, fignifying an ear of corn, a name given by the
Jews to the fird month of their ecdefiadical year, af¬
terwards called Nifan. It commenced at the vernal
equinox, and, according to the courfe of the moon, by
which their months were regulated, anfwered to the
latter part of our March, and beginning of April.
ABIDING by a writing, in Scots law : When aperfoa
founds upon a writing alledged to be falfe, he may be
obliged to declare judicially, whether he will dand or
abide by it as a true deed. As to the confequences
of abiding by, or paflingfrom, a falfe' deed, fee Scots
Law, title, Crimes.
ABIES, the fir-tree, in botany, belongs to the monaecia
monadelphia clafs of Linnieus. For its charadters, fee
Pinus, of which it is a (pecies,
ABIGEAT, an old law-term, denoting the crime of
dealing cattle by droves or herds. This crime was
more feverely punifiied than furittm, the delinquent
being
3
A B L (5
being often condemned to the mines, banishment, and
fometimes capitally.
AB1GEATUS, or Abactus, among phyficians, figr
nifies a mifearriage effected by art.
ABIG1ES, a term in the Roman law, applied to one
who had been guilty of the crime Abig eat ; which fee.
ABILITY, a term in law, denoting a power of doing cer¬
tain actions in theacquifition or transferring of property.
ABINGDON, a town of Berklhire, England, feated
on the Thames, about 55 miles W. of London, and
gives title of Earl to the noble family of Bertie.
AB-INTESTATE, in the civil law, is applied to a
perfon who inherits the right of one who died inte-
ffate, or without making a will. See Intestate.
ABISHERING, a term found in old law books, deno¬
ting a liberty or freedom from all amerciaments, .and
a right to exa<5t forfeitures of others.
ABIT, or Aboit, obfolete terms for cerufe or white
lead. See Ceruse and Chemistry.
ABJURATION, in our ancient cuftoms, implied ;an
oath, taken by a perfon guilty of felony, and who had
fled to a place of fanffuary, whereby he folemnly en¬
gaged to leave the kingdom for ever.
Abjuration, is now.ufed to fi'gnify the renouncing,
declaiming, and denying, upon oath, the Pretender to
have any kind of right to the crown of thefe kingdoms.
Abjuration of herefy, the folemn recantation of any
doftrine as falfe and wicked.
ABLAC, a fmall river in Swabia, which falls into the
Danube not far from Furftenburg. .
ABLACTATION, the w'eaning a child from the bread.
See Weaninc.
Ablactation, in gardening, fignifies grafting by ap¬
proach. See Grafting and Garden i ng.
ABLACQUEATION, an old term in gardening, fig¬
nifies the operations of removing the earth and baring
the roots of trees in winter, to expofe them more freely
to the air, rain, fnows, foe.
ABLATIVE, is the 6th cafe in Latin grammar, and
peculiar to that language. It is oppofed to the dative,
which expreffes the a&ion of giving, and the ablative
that of taking away.
ABLAY, or Abl ai, a country of Great Tartary, whofe
inhabitants, called Bochars, are vaffals of tire Ruf¬
fians. It lies to thaeaft of the Intis, and extends 500
leagues along the fouthern frontiers,4of Siberia. :
ABLECTI, in Roman antiquity, a feleht body of foldiers
chofen from among thofe called Extraord inaiui i,
which Fee.
ABLEGMINA, among the ancient Romans, hgnified
thofe parts in the intrails-cf vi&ims which were fprihk-
led with flour, and biirnt.upon the altar, in facrificing
to the gods.
ABLET, or Ablen, an obfblete name of the fidi cal¬
led See CyprlxCs.
ABLUENTS, in medicine, are the fame with.diluters.
ABLUTION, a ceremony ufed by the ancient Romans
before they began the facrifice, which confided in wafh-
ing the body. They very probably learned this cere¬
mony from the Jews, as have iilfo the Mahometans,
who dill piactife it with the-utmod drictnefs.
Vol. I. No. x.
) A B R
Ablution, among chemids, the fweetening anymatter
impregnated with falts, by repeatedly walhing it with
pure water. See Chemistry.
Ablution, with phylicians, is either the wafliing of a-
ny external part by bathing, or of the domach and iu-
tedines by.diluting liquors.
ABO, a city of Sweden, capital of Finland, feated at
the mouth of the river Aurojoks on the gulph of Both¬
nia, 24. o. N. E. of Stockholm, in lat. 60. 30, N.
and long. 21. 30. E.
ABOARD, fignifies any part on the deck or infide of a
diip; hence any perfon who goes on the deck, or into
the apartments of a fhip, is faid to go aboard.
ABOLITION, implies the adt of annulling, dedroying,
making void, or reducing to nothing. In law', it fig-
nilies the repealing any law or datute.
ABOLLA, the name of a military garment worn by
the Greeks and Romans.
ABOMASUS, Abomasum, or Abomasius, names of
the fourth domach of ruminating animals. The fird
domach is called venter, the fecond reticulum, the
third omafus, and the fourth abonuifts. Tire third
domach, omafis, is endued with the lingular quality
of curdling milk. But the truth is, the domachs of
aimed all animals, whether they ruminate or not, will
produce the fame effedt, though, not perhaps in an e-
qual degree, as the domachs of calves or lambs.
See Milk, Runnet.
ABOMINATION, a term ufed in feripture to exprefs
idols, idolatry, foe.
ABORIGINES, an epithet applied to the original or
fird inhabitants of any country, but particularly ufed
to fignify the ancient inhabitants of Latium, or coun¬
try now called Campagna di Roma, when iEneas with
his Trojans came into Italy.
ABORTION, in midw'ifery, the birth of a foetus before.,
it. has acquired a fufficient degree of perfedtion to en¬
able it to perform refpiration and the other vital func¬
tions. See Midwife;ry, title, Of abortions.
Abortion,, among gardeners, fignifies fuch fruits as,
being produced too eafy, never arrive at maturity.
ABORTIVE, in a general fenfe, implies any thing
which comes before its proper time, or mifearries in
the execution.
ABOY, a fmall town in Ireland, in the province of Lein-
der.
ABRA, a filver coin of Poland, in value nearly equiva¬
lent to an Englifli Hulling.
ABRACADABRA, a magical word or fpell, which be¬
ing written as many times as the word contains letters,
and omitting the lad letter of the former every time,
was, in the ages of ignorance and fuperdition, vvyrn
about the neck, as an antidote againd agues andfeve-
ral other difeaies
ABRAHAM’r balm, in botany, See Cannabis.
ABRAHAMITES, an order of monks exterminated
- for idolatry by Theophilus in the ninth century. Alfo
the name of another fedt of heretics who had adopted
the errors of Paulus. See Paulicians.
ABRAMIS, an obfclete name for the filh cyprinus. See
Cyprinus,
B Abrasa,
A B R (6
ABRASA, in furgery, ulcers, where the Ikin is fo ten¬
der and lax as to render them fubjeft to abrafion.
ABRASION, in medicine, the corroding of any part by
acrid humours or medicines.
ABRAUM, an obfolete name of a certain fpecies of clay,
called by fome authors Adamic earth, on account of
its red colour.
ABRASAX, or Abraxas, a myftical term found in
the ancient theology and philofophy of Balilides’s fol¬
lowers.
ABRAX, an antique (tone with the word abraxas engra¬
ved on it. They are of various fizes, and molt of
them as old as the third century.
ABREAST, a fea-term. In an attack, purfuit, .or re¬
treat at fea, the fquadrons or divilions of a fleet are
often obliged to vary their difpofitions, and at the
fame time obferve a proper regularity, by failing in
right or curved lines: when they fail at a proper di-
ftance from each other, and are all equally forward,
they are then faid to have formed the line abreajl.
ABRENUNCIATION See Renunciation.
ABRIDGEMENT, in literature, a term fignifying the
redudtion of a book into a fmaller compafs. — The art
of conveying much fentiment in few words, is the
happieft talent an author can be poflefled of. This
talent b peculiarly neceflary in the prefent ftate of li¬
terature ; for many writers have acquired the dexte¬
rity of fpreading a few tritical thoughts over feve-
ral hundred pages. When an author hits upon a
thought that pleafes him, he is apt to dwell upon it,
to view it in different lights, to force it in improperly,
or upon the flightefl: relations. Though this may be
pleafant to the writer, it tires and vexes the reader.
There is another great fource of diffufion in compo-
fition. It is a capital object with an author, whatever
be the fubjedt, to give vent to all his beft thoughts.
When he finds a proper place for any of them, he is
peculiarly happy. But, rather than facrifice a thought
he is fond of, he forces it in by way of digreflion,
or fuperfluous illuftration. If none of thefe expe¬
dients anfwer his purpofe, he has recourfe to the mar¬
gin, a very convenient apartment for all manner of
pedantry and impertinence. There is not an author,
however corredb, but is more or lefs faulty in this
refpedf An abridger, hov/ever, is notfubjed to thefe
temptations. The thoughts are not his own; he views
them in a cooler and lefs affedionate manner; he difeo-
vers an impropriety in fome, a vanity in others, and a
want of utility in many. His bufinefs, therefore, is
to retrench fuperfluities, digreffions, quotations, pe¬
dantry, and to lay before the public only what is
really ufeful. This is by no means an eafy employ¬
ment : To abridge fome books, requires talents equal,
if not fuperiour, to thofe of the author. The fads,
manner, fpirit, and reafoning, muft be preferred; no¬
thing effential, either in argument or illuftration, ought
to be omitted. The difficulty of the talk is the prin¬
cipal reafon why we have fo few good abridgements :
Wynne’s abridgement of Locke’s Effay on the Hu¬
man Underftanding is, perhaps, the only unexception¬
able one in cur language.
) A B R .
Thefe obfervations relate folely to fuch abridge¬
ments as are defigned for the public. But,
When a perfon wants to fet down the fubftance of
any book, a (hotter and lefs laborious method may be
followed. It would be foreign to our plan to give ex¬
amples of abridgements for the public : But, as it may
be ufeful, efpecially to young people, to know how
to abridge books for their own ufe, after giving a
few diredions, we (hall exhibit an example or two,
to ffiew with what eafe it may be done.
Read the book carefully ; endeavour' to learn the
principal view of the author; attend to the argu¬
ments employed: When you have done fo, you will
generally find, that what the author ufes as new or
additional arguments, are in reality only collateral
ones, orextenfions of the principal argument. Take
a piece of paper, or a common-place book, put down
what the author wants to prove, fubjoin the argu¬
ment or arguments, and you have the fubftance of the
book in a few lines. For example.
In the Effay on Miracles, Mr Hume'’s defign is to
prove, That miracles which have not been the imme¬
diate objeds of our fenfes, cannot realbnably be be¬
lieved upon the teftimony of others.
Now, his argument, (for there happens to be but
one), is,
“ That experience, which in fome things is vari-
“ able, in others uniform, is our only guide in rea-
“ foning concerning matters of fad. A variable ex~
“ perience gives rife to probability only; an uniform
“ experience amounts to a proof. Our belief of any
“ fad from the teftimony of eye-witneffes, is deri-
“ ved from no other principle than our experience
“ in the veracity of human teftimony. If the fad
“ attefted be miraculous, here arifes a conteft of
“ two oppofite experiences, or proof againft proof.
“ Now, a miracle is a violation of the laws of na-
“ ture ; and as a firm and unalterable experience has
“ eftabliffied thefe laws, the proof againft a miracle,
“ from the very nature of the fad, is as complete as'
“ any argument from experience can poflibly be ima-
“ gined; and if fo, it is an undeniable confequence,
“ that it cannot be furmounted by any proof what-
“ ever derived from human teftimony.”
In Dr Campbell’s Differtation on Miracks, the au¬
thor’s principal aim is to ffiew the fallacy of Mr Hume’s
argument; which he has done moft fuccefsfully by an¬
other fingle argument, as follows :
“ The evidence arifing from human teftimony is
“ not folely derived from experience : on the contra-
“ ry, teftimony hath a natural influence on belief an-
“ tecedent to experience. The early and unlimit-
“ ed affent given to teftimony by children gradually
.“ contrads as they advance in life: it is, therefore,
“ more confonant to truth, to fay, that our diffidence
“ in teftimony is the refult of experience, than that
“ our faith in it has this foundation. Befides, the.
“ uniformity of experience, in favour of any fad, is
“ not a proof againft its being reverfed in a particular
“ inftance. The evidence arifing from the fingle te-
“ ftimony of a man of known veracity will go far to
“ eftabliffi
A B R (
“ eftablidi a belief in its being actually reverfed: If
“ his teftimony be confirmed by a few others of the
“ fame character, we cannot with-hoid our a (lent to
“ the truth of it. Now, though the operations of na-
“ ture are governed by uniform laws, and though we
“ have not the teftimony of our fenfes in favour of a-
“ ny violation of them , ftill, if, in particular inftan-
. “ ces, we have the teftimony of thoufands of our fel-
“ low-creatures, and thofe too men of ftrid integri-
“ ty, fwayed by no motives of ambition or intereft,
“ and governed by the principles of common fenfe,
“ That they were aftually eye-witnefles of thefe vio-
“ lations, the conftitution of our nature obliges us to
“ believe them.” •*
Thefe two examples contain the fubftance of about
400 pages. —Making private abridgements of this
kind has many advantages; it engages us to read with
accuracy and attention; it fixes the fubjeft in our
minds-; and, if we Ihould happen to forget, inftead
of reading the books again, by glancing a few lines,
we are not only in pofieffion of the chief arguments,
but recall in a good meafure the author’s method and
manner.
Abridging is peculiarly ufeful in taking the fub
ftance of what is delivered by Profefibrs, <bc. It is
impoffible, even with the alliftance of Ihort-hand, to
take down, verbatim, what is faid by a public fpeak-
er. Befides, although it were practicable, fuch a ta¬
lent would be of little ufe. Every public fpeaker has
circumlocutions, redundancies, lumber, which deferve
not to be copied* All that is really ufeful may be
comprehended in a fhort compafs. If the plan of the
difcourfe, and arguments employed in fupport of the
different branches be taken down, you have the whole.
Thefe you may afterwards extend in the form of a
difcourfe dreffed in your own language. This would
not only be a more rational employment, but would
likewife be an excellent method of improving young
men in compofition, an object too little attended to in
all our univerfities. Befides, it would be more for the
honour of profeffors ; as it would prevent at leaft fuch
immenfe loads of disjointed and unintelligible rubbifh
from being handed about by the name of fuch a man’s
lectures.
Abridgement, inlaw, fignifies the making a declara¬
tion or plaint Ihorter by leaving out fomething
Abridgement, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic, 6/'
vulgar frattions
Abridgement, in algebra. See Aegebra, Of equa¬
tions.
ABROBANIA, a town and diftrict in Tranfylvania.
ABROCHMENT, 'an old law term which fignifies fore-
ftalling. See Forestalling.
ABROGATION, fignifies annulling, making void, or
repealing a law.
ABROLKOS, the name of certain ftielves, or banks of
fand, about 20 leagues from the coaft of Brazil
ABRON, a river of France which falls into the Loire
not far from Nevers
ABRONO. See Abrugi.
ABROTANOIDES, the name of a fpecies of coral call-
7 ) A B S
z&porus. It is alfo a fynonime of the artemifia. See
Artemisia.
ABROTANOIDES, a wine mentirosd by Diofcorides,
impregnated with futhernwood.
ABROTANUM, in botany, a fynonime of feveral plants.
See Artemisia, Filago, Santolina.
ABRUPTION, in furgery. See Abduction.
ABRUS, in botany, the trivial name of the glycine. See
Glycine.
ABRUZZO, in geography, the name of two provinces
belonging to the K. of Naples, on the gulph of Ve¬
nice, diftinguilhed by Nearer and Farther Abruzzo,
from their pofition with refpcft to Naples,
ABSCEDENTIA, in furgery, a term applied to decay¬
ed parts of the body, which, in a morbid ftate, are
feparated from the found, or lofe that union which
was preferred in a natural ftate.
ABSCESS, in medicine and furgery, an impofthume, or
any tumor or cavity containing purulent matter. See
Surgery, Of tumours or abfcefes.
ABSCHARON, a town in Afia, fituated on the weftern
ftiore of the Cafpian fea.
ABSCISSE, in mathematics. See Conic Sections,
ABSCISSION, a figure in rhetoric, whereby the fpeak¬
er ftops Ihort in the middle of his difcourfe, leaving
the audience to make the inference.
Abscission, in furgery, the fame with amputation.
ABSCONSA, a dark lanthorn ufed by the monks at
the ceremony of burying their dead.
ABSENCE, in Scots law: When a perfon cited before
a court does not appear, and judgment is pronounced,
that judgment is faid to be in abfence No perfon
can be tried criminally in abfence. See Law, title,
Sentences and their execution.
ABSINTHIATED medicines, fuch as are impregnated
with abfinthium or wormwood.
ABSINTHIUM, in botany, the trivial, name of the
common wormwood or artemifia. It is alfo a fyno¬
nime of the tanacetum incanum, the fenecio incanum,
the anthemis montana, the achilloea egyptiaca, and of
the parthenium hyfterophorus. See Artemisia, <bc.
ABSIS, in aftronomy,, the fame with Apsis, which fee.
ABSOLUTE, in a general fenfe, denotes a thing’s be¬
ing independent of, or unconnefted with, any other;
it is alfo ufed to exprefs freedom from all limitation.
A*%olvt-z government, is that wherein the prince, un¬
limited by the laws, is left folely to his own will. See
Government.
Absolute^-in phyfics, is the whole force by which,
a body is urged downwards. See Mechanics.
Absolute, in metaphyfics, denotes a being that pof-
feffes independent exiftence.
ABSOLUTION, in^general, is the pardoning or forgi¬
ving a guilty perfon.'
Absolution, in civil Jaw, is a fentenee whereby the
party accufed is declared innocent of the crime laid
to his charge.
Absolution, in the canon law, is a juridical a6l where¬
by the ecclefiaftical officers remit or forgive the peni¬
tent offender, or declare him reftored to the privileges
of innocence ia- confideration of his repentance.
ABSORBENT
A B S C 8 ) A B Y
ABSORBENT medicines, teftaceous powders, as chalk,
crabs-eyes, <bc. which are taken inwardly for drying
up or abforbing my acrid or redundant humours in
the ftomach or inteftines, They are likewife applied
outwardly to ulcers or fores with the fame intention.
Absorbent veff'els, in anatomy, a name given promif-
cuoully to the lacteal veifels, lymphatics, and inhalent
arteries. See Anatomy.,
Absorbent veffeh, is alfo a name ufed for the fmall
fibrous roots of plants.
ABSORPTION, in the animal oeconomy, is the adt
whereby the abforbent vefTeis imbibe the juices, &c.
ABSTEMIOUS, an epithet applied to perfonsvery tem¬
perate in eating and drinking. It is likewife applied
to chofe who could not partake of the eucharilt on ac¬
count of their averfion to wine.
ABSTENTUS, in law, an heir who is with-held by his
tutor from entering upon his inheritance.
ABSTERGENT medicines, thofe employed for refol-
ving obftrudtions, concretions, <bc, fuch as foap, he.
ABSTINENCE, the refraining from fomething we have
a propenfity to. It commonly imports a fpare diet.
ABSTINENTS, in church hiftory, a fort of people in
the ancient church who carried their abftinence and
mortification very far. ' They have 'beeri claffed with
heretics, though we have no certain account of their
particular opinions.
ABSTRACT idea, in metaphyfics, is a partial idea of
a complex object, limited to one or more of the com¬
ponent parts or properties, laying-afide or abftradling
from the reft. Thus, in viev/ing an objedt with the eye,
ox recollecting it in the mind, we can eafily abftradt
from fome of its parts or properties, and attach our-
felves to others: we can attend to the rednefs of a
cherry, without regard to its figure, tafte, or confift-
ence. See Abstraction, Metaphysics.
Abstract terms, words that are ufed to exprefs ab-
ftraft ideas. Thus beauty, uglinefs, whitenefs, round-
hefs, life, death, are abftradt terms.
Abstract mathematics, fometimes denominated pure
mathematics, treat of magnitude or quantity abfolute-
ly and generally confidered, without regard to any par¬
ticular fpecies of magnitude.
Abstract fuch as have no particular applica¬
tion.
Abstract, is alfo a term in literature to fignify a con-
cife, yet general view or analyfis of fome. larger work.
It differs from an abridgment, in being ftiorter and more
fuperficial; and from an extra#, as this laft is a copy
of fome part or paffage of it.
ABSTRACTION, the operation of the mind when oc¬
cupied by abftra# ideas. A large oak fixes our atten¬
tion, and abftracts us from the ftirubs that furrouncT it.
In the fame manner, a beautiful woman in a crowd,
abftraAs our thoughts, and engroffes our attention fole-
ly to herfelf. Thefe are examples of real abftraclion :
when thefe, or any others of a fimilar kind, are recalled
to the mind, after the objefts themfelves are removed
from our fight, they form what is called ahjiracl ideas,
or the mind is faid to be employed in abftra# ideas.
But the power of abftra#ion is not confined to ob-
3
jecls that are feparable in reality as well as mental¬
ly: the fize, the figure, the colour ,'of a tree are irtfe-
parably connected, and cannot exift independent of
each other; and yet we can mentally confine our ob-
fervations to any one of thefe properties, neglecting or
abftrading from the reft.
Abstraction, in chemillry, the evaporating or drawing”
off the menftruum from any fubjedt.
ABSTRACTITIOUS,anobfolfcte term, among chemifts,
for a vegetable fpirit obtained without fermentation.
ABSTRUSE, a terpn applied to any thing that is hard
to be underftood, whether the obfeurity arifes from
the difficulty of the fubjedt, or the confufed manner
of the writer.
ABSURD, an epithet for any thing that contradidls an
apparent truth.
ABSURDITY, the name of an abfurd addon or fenti-
ment.
ABSUS, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies of the.;
caffia. i-'' Js”
ABSYNTHfUM. See Absinthium.
ABUAI, one of the Philippine ifles. See Philipptne.
ABUCCO, Abocco, or Aboochi, a. weight ufed in
the'kingdom of Pegu, equal to i cRteCcaiis ; two a-
buccoS make an agiro; and two agiri make half a bika,
which is equal to 2 lb ,5 oz. of the heavy weight of Ve¬
nice.
ABUKESO. SccAslani.
ABUNA, the title of the Archbiffiop or Metropolitan
of Abyffinia.
ABUNDANT numbers, fuch whofe aliquot parts ad¬
ded together exceed the number itfelf; as 20, the
aliquot parts of which are, 1, 2, 4, J, to, and make 22.
ABU SAN, an ifland on the coaft of Africa, in 35 35.
N lat dependent on the province of Caret, in the
kingdom of Fez.
ABUSE, implies the perverting of any thing from its
original intention.
ABUTIGE, a town in Upper Egypt, famous for produ¬
cing the heft opium.
ABUTTALS. See Abbuttals.
ABUTILON, in botany, the trivial name of feveral
fpecies of the fida. See Si da. Abutilon is alfo a
fynonime of the melochia tomentofa, and melochia de-
preffa, two American plants of the monadelphia pen-
tandria clafs. It it is likewife a fynonime of the la-
vatora, malva, and hibifeus.
ABYSS, in a general fenfe, fignifies any unfathomable
gulph. It is alfo the name of a vaft cavern filled with
water, fuppofed to exift near the centre of the earth.
Abyss, in fcripture, is fometimes ufed for hell.
Abyss, in antiquity, a name given to the temple of
Proferpine,
Abyss, among alchemifts, fignifies the receptacle of the
feminal matter, and fomttimes the feminal matter it¬
felf.
ABYSSINIA, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on the
N. by that of Sennar, or Nubia; on the E. part¬
ly by the Red fea, and partly by Dancala; on the
YV, by Gorham and Gingirb; and on the S. by A-
laba and Ommo-Zaidi. It was formerly of greater
extent-
A C A (9
extent than it is at prefent, becanfe fereral provinces
have revolted, and the Turks have made encroach¬
ments to the eaft. The land is fertile in many places,
and the air is very hot, except in the rainy feafon,
and then it is very temperate. For four months in the
year, greatet rains fall there than perhaps in any other
part o? the world, which occafion the fwelling of the
river Nile, that has its fource in this country. It con¬
tains mines of all forts of metal, except tin ; but the
inhabitants make no great advantage thereof. The
fields are watered by feveral ftreams, except in the
mountainous parts. The emperor, or king, is called
Negus ; and he has been commonly taken for Prelter
John. Kis authority is abfolute, and he often dwells
with his whole court in tents. However, AbyfEnia is
not without cities, a* fome pretend; for Gondar is a
large place, where the king commonly refides when
he is not in the field. The inhabitants are black, or
very near it; but they are not fo ugly as the negroes.
They make profeffion of the Chriftian religion, but it
has a mixture of Judaifm. The habit of perfons of
quality is a filken veil, with a fort of fcarf; but the
common people wear nothing but a pair of drawers.
ABYSSINIAN church, that ellablilhed in the empire of
Abyfiinia. It is a branch of the Copts or Jacobites;
a left of heretics, who admit but one nature in Jefus
Chrift.
AChCALOTL, the Brafilian name of a fpecies of the
Corvus. SeeCoavus.
ACACIA, in botany^ a fynonime of the poinciana,
genifta, mimafa, robinia, guaicum, ijc. See tliefe
articles.
ACacia, in the materia medica, the infpiflitated juice
of the unripe fruit of the acacia. This juice is
brought from Egypt in roundiih pieces, wrapt up in
thin bladders, and is ufed as a mild allringent.
Acacia germanica. See Pruna.
Acacia, among antiquaries, fomething refembling a
roll or bag, feen on meijds, as in the hands of feveral
confuls and emperors. Some take it to reprefent a
handkerchief rolled up, wherewith they made fignals
at the games; others a roll of petitions or memorials;
and fome a purple bag full of earth, to remind them of
their mortality.
AC AC IANS, in ecdefialHcal hilfory, the name of fe¬
veral fe&s of heretics; fonae of whom maintained,
that the Son was only a fimilar, not the fame, fub-
ftattce with the Father; and others, that he was not
only a diftinit, but a diffimilar fublfance. Two of thefe
feds had their denomination from Acacias bifhop of
Ctefarta, who lived in the fourth century, and changed
his opinions, fo as, at different times, to be head of
both. Another was named from Acacius.patriarch of
Gonftantinople, who lived in the clofe Of the fifth cen¬
tury.
ACADEMIC, Academician, or Academist, a
member of an academy. Sec Academy in the mo¬
dern fenfe.
ACADEMICS, or Acabemists, a denomination gi¬
ven to the cultivators of a fpecies of philofophy oiigk*
eally derived from Sornates; aid afottwaids iliuflrsied
Von. I. No i. 3
) A C A
and inforoedby Plato, who taught in a grove near A-
thens, confecrated to the memory of Academus an A-
thenian hero; from which circumffance this philofophy
received the name of academical. Before the days of
Plato, philofophy had, in a great meafure, fallen into
contempt. The conttadidory fyfleitis and hypothefes
that had fuccellively been urged upon the world, Were
become fo numerous, that, from a view of this ineon-
ftancy and uncertainty of human opinions, many were
led to conclude, that truth lay beyond the reach of our
comprehenfion. Abfolute and univerfal feeptieifm was
the natural confequeftce of this conciufion. In otder
to remedy this abufe of philofophy and of the hufnan
Faculties, Plato laid hold of the principles of th’e aca¬
demical philofophy, and, in his Phaedo, reafonS m the
following manner: “ If we ate unable to difeover
“ truth, (fays he), it mnft be owing to two circtam-
“ (lances; either there is no truth in the nature df
“ things, or the mind, from a defed in its powers,
“ is not able to apprehend it. Upon the latter luppo-
“ (ition, all the uncertainly and fiuduation in the opi-
“ nions and judgments of mankind admit of an eafy
“ folution: Let us therefore be model!, and afefibe
“ our errors to the real weaknefs of our own rnirtds,
“ and not to the nature of things tbremfelves. Truth
“ is often difficult of acoefs: in order to come at ir,
rt We mull proceed with camion and diffidence, care-
*c fully examining every ftep ; and after all cur labdur,
“ we will frequently find our greateft efforts difap-
“ pointed, and be obliged to confefs Our ignorance
“ and weaknefs.”
Labour and caution in our refearcb.es, in oppofitioh to
raffi and hafty decifions, were the diftinguifhing charac-
teriftics of the difciples of the. anoient academy. A
philofophcr pofTeffed of thefe principles, will be flow
in his progrefs, but will fjridom fall into errors, or
have occalion to alter his opinion after it is once form¬
ed. Vanity and precipitance are the great fourccs’of
fcepticifm : hurried on by thefe, inftead of attending to
the cool and deliberate principles recommended by the
academy, feveral of our modern philofophers have plun¬
ged themfclves into ah abfurd and ridiculous kind of fcep¬
ticifm. They pretend to diferedit things that are plain,
fimple, and eafily comprehended; but give peremptory
and decifive judgments upon fubjetfs that evidently ex¬
ceed the limits of oor capacity. Of thefe Berkley ifnd
Hume are the mod confiderable. Berkley denied the
exigence of every thing, excepting his own ideas. Mr
Hume has gone a (lep further, and quediohed even the
CxiftenCe of ideas; but at the fame time has not htfi-
tated to give determined opinions with regard to etfer-
mty, providence, and a future (late, miraculous inttr-
politions of the Deity, <bc. fubjedh far above the
reach of our faculties. In his feffay on the academical
or fceptical philofophy, he has confounded two vdry
oppofite fpecies of pirilofephy. After the days :of
Plato, indeed, the principles of the firfl academy weie
grofsly corrupted by Arcefrlas, Carneades, &c. This
might lead Mr Hume into the notion that the etcade-
Tuical and fceptical philofophy were fynrouimous ternis.
But ao principles can be of a more oppofite natfire
C thao.
A C A (
than thofe which were inculcated by the old academy
of Socrates and Plato, and the fceptical notions which
were propagated by Arcefilas, Carneades, and the o-
ther difciples of the fucceeding academics.
ACADEMY, in antiquity, a garden or villa, fituated
within a mile of Athens, where Plato and his follow¬
ers held their philofophical conferences. It took its
name from one Academus, or Ecademus, a citizen of
Athens, who was the original owner of it, and made
it a kind of gymnafium : he lived in the time of Tne-
feus. . Cimon embellilhed it with fountains, trees,
and walks ; but Sylla, during the liege of Athens,
employed thefe very trees in making battering-engines
againft the city. Cicero too had his villa, or place
of retirement, near Puzzuoli, which he alfo named an
academy, where he compofed his Academical que-
Jlions, and his book De natura deorum.
Academy, among the moderns, is moll commonly ufed
to fignify a fociety of learned men, eftablilhed for the
improvement of any art or fcience. Charlemagne was
the firft that eltablilhed an academy in Europe. Moll
nations have lince followed his example; but Italy
has by far the greatefl: number. In the cities of
Piedmont, Ferrara, and Milan, Jarckius reckons 550.
We have but few in Britain. In England thofe of
note are, the Royal Society, the Antiquarian Society,
Society for the encouragement of arts, and the Aca¬
demy of Painting; in Scotland, the Edinburgh So¬
ciety, College of Phylicians, and Mufical Society;
all which fee in their proper places.
The French have leveral academies; as, the Royal
Academy of Sciences, for the improvement of phy-
fics, mathematics, and chemillry. It was firft inlli-
tuted in 1666, by the afliftance of Mr Colbert,
comptroller-general of the finances, but was not con¬
firmed by the French king till the year 1696, who,
by a regulation dated the 26th of January, new-mo¬
delled and put it on a better footing. According to
this regulation, the academy was to be compofed of
ten honorary academicians, eight Grangers aflbciates,
twenty penfionaries fellows, twenty eleves orfcholars,
and twelve French affociates; thefe were to be divi¬
ded into fix clafles, viz geometricians, aftronomers,
mechanics, anatomifts, chemifts, and botanifts; the
honorary academifls to be all inhabitants of France,
the penfionaries and eleves all to refide at Paris.
In the year 1716, the duke of Orleans, then re¬
gent, made an alteration in their conftitution, aug¬
menting the number of honoraries and affociates to
twelve, admitting regulars among fuch affociates, fup-
preffing the clafs of eleves, and efiablifhing in lieu
thereof a new clafs of twelve adjuncts to the fix feve-
ral kinds of fcience cultivated by the academy; and,
lafily, appointing a vice-prefident, to be chofen yearly
by the king out of the honorary members, and a di-
tedlor and fub-dire&or out of the penfionaries.
The academies of Florence and Bologne, of Mont-
pel ier and Bourdeaux, of Leipfic and Berlin, and of
late thofe of Petersburg and Seville, were formed up¬
on the fame model with the Royal Academy of Sci¬
ences.
10 ) A C A
French Academy, a fociety of forty, efiabli/hed for
improving the French language.
This academy' was founded by Cardinal Richlieu,
and confirmed by the edi& of Lewis XIII. in 1635.
They have compiled a di&ionary, intitled, Le Dic-
tionaire de l'academic Francoife. This work was
begun in 1637, and finilhed in 1694. They have a
diredtor and chancellor, who are drawn by lot every
three months, and a fecretary who is perpetual. They
meet at the old Louvre, on the Mondays, Thurfdays,
and Saturdays, all the year round, and hold an ex¬
traordinary meeting at the reception of a new mem¬
ber, and on St Lewis’s day, when the prizes of elo¬
quence and poetry are adjudged.
Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. This fo¬
ciety was founded about the year 1648'. The mem¬
bers were at firll about twenty-five in number, viz.
twelve officers, called ancients, eleven private mem¬
bers, and two fyndics; but at prefent it confifts of
forty painters and fculptors. There are four perpe¬
tual redtors, nominated by the king; a diredtor and
chancellor; a fecretary, who keeps the regifter, and
counterfigns the difpatches; a treafurer, twelve pro-
felfors, adjuncts to the redtors - and profeffors, fix
counfellors, a profeffor for the part of anatomy that
belongs to painting and fculpture, and another for
geometry and perfpedtive.
There is alfo an academy of painting, fculpture,
iyc. at Rome, eftablilhed by Lewis XIV. wherein
thofe who have won the annual prize at Paris, are en¬
titled to be three years entertained for their further
improvement.
Academy of Medals and Infcriptions, called alfo The
academy of belles lettres, was eredted by Lewis XIV.
for the ftudy and explanation of ancient monuments,
and to perpetuate the remembrance of great events,
by medals, relievos, infcriptions, <bc. The plan of
this academy was formed by Mr Colbert, and efta-
bliffied in 1663. In its firft inftitution it confifted
only of four or five members ; but in 1701, they were
increafed to forty, viz. ten honoraries, ten penfiona¬
ries, ten aflbciates, and ten novices or eleves, under
the diredtion of a prefident and vice-prefident, who
are annually appointed by the king.
Their chief employment has been upon the medal-
lie hiftory of the reign of Lewis their founder. But
the learned are indebted to this academy for many
volumes of eflays on other parts of hiftory, publiffied
under the title of Memoirs, &c.
Academy of Architetiure, eftabliffied about the end of
the year 1671 by Mr Colbert, confifted at firft only
of fix architedts ; but their number is fince confiderably
increafed.
Academy of Politics, is compofed of fix perfons, who
meet at the Louvre, in the chamber where the papers
relating to foreign affairs are lodged. But as the
kings of France are unwilling to truft any, except their
minifters, with the infpedtion of foreign affairs, this
. academy is of little ufe to the public.
Royal Academy of Dancin’ was eftab iffie by the King
of France in 1661. It coafifts ot thorvcen able d ncing-
mafters.
A C A ( i
mafters, who meet once a-month ; and two of the aca-
de’mifts teach by turns the art of dancing, ancient and
modern.
The French have alfo academies in moft of their
great cities, as, the Academy of Sciences at Mont¬
pelier, that of the Lanternifts at Thouloufe; befides
others at Nifmes, Arles, Angiers, Lyons, Caen in
Normandy, &c.; and the Chirurgical Academy at
Paris is a modern inilitution for the general improve¬
ment of the art, and to compile and publilh the an¬
cient and modern hiftoryof it.
Royal SpaniJlj Academy at Madrid, has for its objedl
the cultivation of the Caftilian tongue, and was efta-
blilhed in 1714 by the Duke d’Efcalona, v/ith the ap¬
probation of the King of Spain. It conlifts of twenty-
four academifts, including the. director and fecretary.
In Portugal, John V. founded an hiftorical academy
at Lilbon, in the year 1720, for collecting and afcer-
taining the hiftory of his own dominions. It confifts
of fifty members, a director, f ur cenfors, and a fe¬
cretary.
In Germany, they have the Academy of Naturae
Curioji, otherwife called the Leopoldine Academy^
founded in 1652 by Jo. Laur. Baufch a phyfician,
and, in 1670, taken under the protection of the Em¬
peror Leopold. The defign of this fociety was to
promote medical knowledge. They began in 1684 to
publilh their obferv itions, under the title of Epheme-
rides ; which publication has been continued annually,
with fome interruptions, and under different titles.
This academy conlifts of a prefident, two adjuncts or
fecretaries, and colleagues or members without limi¬
tation.
Berlin Academy, was founded by Frederick I. the
late King of Pruflia, in the year 1700. It has for
its objeCts the improvement of natural knowledge, and
the belles lettres. The charter of this fociety was
amended in 1710, and by it the prefident is to be no¬
minated by the king. The members are divided into
four claffes ; 1. for phyfic, medicine, and chemiftry;
2. for mathematics, aftronomy, and mechanics; 5. for
the German language, and the hiftory of the country;
4. for Oriental learning, particularly what relates to
the propagation of the gofpel among infidels. The
great promoter of this foundation was the celebrated
Mr Leibnitz.
Ruffian Academy was founded by Czar Peter the Great,
at Peterlburg, upon the plan of the Academy of Sci¬
ences at Paris ; befides which, they take in the Ruf¬
fian language.
Academy is alfo a term for fchools and other feminaries
of learning among the Jews, where their rabbins and
doctors inftruCted their youth in the Hebrew language,
and explained to them the Talmud, and the fecrets of
the Cabbala: Thofe of Tiberias and Babylon have
been the moft: noted.
Academy is often ufed with us to denote a kind of col¬
legiate fchool, where youth are inftruCted in arts and
fciences. There is one at Portfmouth for teaching
navigation, drawing, <kc.; another at Woolwich, for
fortification, gunnery, <bc.
i ) A C A
Academy is likewife a name given to a riding-fchool,
where young gentlemen are taught to ride the great
horfe, <bc. and the ground allotted for it is ufually
called the Menage.
Academy figure, a drawing of a naked man or wo¬
man, taken from the life, which is ufually done on
paper with red or black chalk, and fometimes with
paftils or crayons.
ACADIE, or Acadia, in geography, a name former¬
ly given to Nova Scotia, one of our American colo¬
nies. See Nova Scotia.
ACANA, in antiquity, a Grecian meafure of length,
being a ten feet rod, ufed in meafuring their lands.
ACAIABA. See Acajou.
ACAJA, in botany, a lynanime of the fpondias lutea,
an American tree. See Spondias.
ACAJOU, in botany, a fynonime of the anacardium oc-
cidentale, or calhew-nut-tree. See Anacardium.
ACALEPTIC, in ancient profody, a complete verfe.
ACALIS, in botany, an obfolete name of the Cerato-
nia. See Ceratonia.
ACALYPHA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging
to the monoecia monadelphia clafs. There are only
four fpecies of this plant; the acalypha virginica,
which is a native of Ceylon; the virgata, indica, and
auftralis, all natives of America. Sir Hans Sloatt
ranks this plant with the nettle, under the name of ur-
tica minor iners fipicata.
ACAMATOS, a word ufed to exprefs the beft fhape of
the human body.
ACAMBOU, a kingdom on the coaft of Guinea in A-
frica.
ACAMEEH, among fome of the old chemifts, the fco-
riae of filver; as- alfo a fuperfluity of the humidum ra-
dicale.
ACANACEOUS plants, fuch as are armed with
prickles.
ACANAPHORA, in botany, an obfolete name of the
centaurea jacea, or knapweed. See Centaurea.
ACANES, in geography. SccAkanis.
ACANGIS, that is, ravagers ox adventurers', a name
which the Turks give their huffars or light-troops,
who are generally fent out in detachments to procure
intelligence, harafs the enemy, or ravage the country.
ACANNY, an inland country on the gold coaft of Gui¬
nea in Africa, which affords the beft gold, and in
great plenty. There is a town or village of the fame
name, W. Jong. o. 5. lat. 8. 30.
ACANTHA, in botany, the prickle of any plant.
Acantha, in zoology, a term for the fpine or prickly
fins of fifties.
ACANTHA, in anatomy, an obfolete term for the fpi-
nal proceffes of the back.
ACANTHABOLUS, in furgery, an inftrument for
pulling thorns, or the like, out of the fldn.
ACANTHACEOU ', among ancient botanifts, an epi¬
thet given to thirties and other prickly plants.
ACANTHE, in botany, an obfolete name for the Cy-
nara or artichoak. SccCynara.
ACANTHIAS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of fqualus. See Scualus.
ACAN-
A C A ( i
AC A NTHINE, any thing refembling or belonging to
the herb acantiuis, Acanthine garments, among the
ancients, are faid to be made of the down of thiftles ;
others think they were garments embroidered in imi¬
tation of the acanthus.
ACANTHIUM, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of onopordum. See Onopqrdum.
ACANTHOIDES, in botany, a fynonime of the car-
lina, or carline-thiftle. See Carlina.
ACANTHOPTERYGIOUS fijhes, a term ufed .by
Linnaeus and others for thofe fiihes whofe back-fins are
hard, offeous, and prickly.
ACANTHUS, bears-breach, or brank-urfine, in bota-
ny, a genus of plants belonging to the didynamia an-
giofpermia clafa. There are only five fpecies of this
plant,'all of which are natives either of Italy or the
Indies. For its figure, which is extremely beautiful,
fee plate,I. fig. 3. The leaves of the acanthus are
famous for having given rife to the capital of the Co¬
rinthian order of architecture.
Acanthus is likewife ufed by Theophraftus as a. fyno-
nime of the acacia.
Acanthus, in architedhire, an ornament reprefenting
the leaves of the acanthus, ufed in the capitals of the
Corinthian and Compofite orders. See Architec¬
ture.
AC ANUS, in botany, a fynonime of the carduus cafa-
bonas of Linnaeus. See Carduus.
ACAPATLI, the American name of the piper longum,
or long pepper. See Pi pep..
ACAPNON, in botany, an obfolete name of the origa¬
num or marjoram. See Origanum.
ACAPULCO, in geography, a fea-port town in North
America, in 102. o. W. long. 17. 3. N. lat. fituated
in the province of Mexico, on a fine bay of the South-
fea, from whence a (hip fails annually to Manilla in
the Philippine iflands.
ACARA, in ichthyology, an obfolete name of the perca
chryfoptera. See Perca.
ACARA-AYAj in ichthyology, an obfolete name of a
fpecies of the cyprinus or carp. See Cyprinus.
ACARA-PEBA, in ichthyology, an ohtolete name of
the fparus. See^SpARus.
ACARA-PINIMA, in ichthyology, an obfolete name
of the fparus cantharus. See Sparus.
AC ARA-PITAMBA, in ichthyology, an obfolete name
of a ;pecies of the mugil. See Mucin.
ACARAI, a town in Paraguay in South America, built
by the Jefuits in 1624, 1x6. 40-. long. 26. a. S. lat.
ACARI. SccAcarus.
ACARICOBA, in botany, a fynonime of the hydroco-
tyle umbellata. See Hvdrocotyle.
ACARNA, in botany, a fynonime of the carduus caufa-
bonse, of the emeus, of the carhrra lanata, corymbo-
fa, racemofa, and cancellata. Acarna is abb ufed by
Vaillant as a term for cynaracephalous or astiehoak-
headed plants, •
ACARNAN, an obfolete name of the fparus erythry-
mis. See Sparus.
ACARON, the name of the god ©f flies. The Ekron-
ites called him Baalzebub.
2 ) ' A C A
ACARUS, a genus of in feds belonging to the order of
aptera, or fuch as have no wings. The acarus has 8
legs, 2 eyes, one on eafch fide of the head, and two
jointed tentaculalike feet. See plate I, fig, 4. There
are thirty-one fpecies of the acarus. 1. The elephan-
tinus, is about the fize of a white lupin feed, has a
deprefled orbicular livid body, thickeft at the edges,
with three furrows on each fide of the belly, and a
black oval trifid fpot at the bafe or end of the body.
It is a native of India. 2. The segyptius, is of an
oval fhape, yellowilh colour, and a v/hite edge or
margin. It is a native of the Halt. 3. The redu-
vius is plain and oval, with an oval fpot at the bale.
It lives on oxen and dogs. 4. The americanus, is
reddiih and oval, with the fcutellum and joints of the
feetwhite It is a native of America. 4.The fanguifu-
gus. The hinder part of the abdomen is crenated, the
fcutellum is oval and yellowilh, and the beak is trifl'd.
It is a native of America, and flicks fo faft on the kgs
of travellers, fucking their blood, that they can hard¬
ly be extracted. 6. The ricinus is ^globular, and has
a round fpot at the bafe ; the feelers are clubbed. It
inhabits the bodies of dogs and oxen. 7. The can-
croides, with nippers like a crab, and an oval depreff-
ed belly. It is found in the fhady places of Eu¬
rope. 8. The fcorpioides, with crab-hke nippers, a
cylindrical belly, and a fmaii pendulous head. It is
of a yellowifh colour; and its bite is venomous. It
is a native of America, 9. The craffipes has the fe-
coad pair of legs lhaped like thofe of a crab, and is a
native of Europe, xo. The paflerinus has the third
pair of legs remarkably thicker than the reft. It in-
fefts feveial fpecies of fparrows. 11. The motato-
rius has the firft pair of legs very long and n.mble.
and frequents the woods. 12. The aphidioides has
the firfl pair of feet longeft, and two fmaii horns; at
the hinder part of the belly. It is a native of Eu¬
rope. *3. The coleoptratus is black, and the (ides
are a little cruftaceous. It is a native of Europe.
14. The tel arias is of a greenifti yellow Colour It
has a fmaii fling or weapon, with which it wounds
the leaves of plants, and occafions them to fold back¬
ward. They are very frequently to be met with in
the autumn, inclofed in the folded leaves of the lime-
tree. 1 j. The firo has lob-like fides ; the four hin¬
der feet are longeft; the head and thighs are of an
iron colour, and the belly is briflly. It inhabits
the farinaceous plants of Europe and America. 16.
The exulcerans has very long fetaceous legs, but the
two firft are fhort. It inhabits the fcabies. 17. The
geniculatus, is black, and the joints of the thighs are
globular. 18. The aquaticus has a depreffed red
belly, and the hinder part of it obtufe. It inhabits
rite freftt waters of Europe. 19. The boiofericeus
has the fame characters with the farmer, only it dees
not live in water. 20 The baccarum, has a red di-
ftended belly, and lives on goofeberries, eyr. 21. The
mufeorum, is of a yellowiih red colour, and the hin¬
der kgs are long and threed-like. It inhabits mof-
fies. 22. The batatas, is of a blood-colour, and a
little rough; the fore pair of kgs are as long as the
body.
ACC (13 ) ACC
body. It inhabits the potatoes of Surinam. 23. The
gymnopterorum, is reddifh, with two fcarlet fpots on
each fide. It inhabits bees, 24. The coleop-
tratorum, is reddifii, with a white anus. It inhabits
the fcarabaeus. 25. The rupeftris, is yellowilh, with
a double coloured line on the back. It is a native of
Europe. 26. The longicornis, is red, and the feel¬
ers are longer than the fnout. It is a native of Eu¬
rope. 27. The littoralis, is of a tawny yellowifh co¬
lour, and has blood-red legs. It frequents the /bores
of Europe. 28. The fungorum is of a yellowifii co-
. lour, and has a globular clammy belly. It inhabits
the mulhroom. 29. The fcaber, is alhrcoloured, and
deprefled; the fides are fcurfy. It is a native of Eu¬
rope. 30. The falicinus, is red, with two yellow
lines on. the back; it is forked before. It dwells on
the willows. 31. The croceus, is yellow, with a
reddifh fpot on each fide of the breaft.
ACATALECTIC, a term, in the ancient poetry, for
fuch verfes as have all their feet or fyllables, in con-
' tradiftindtion to thofe that have a fyllable too few.
ACATALEPSY, fignifies the impoffibility of compre¬
hending any thing.
ACATALIS, a name given by the ancients to the juni¬
per-berry. «
ACATASTATOS, with phyficians, fignifies the irre¬
gular paroxyfms of a difeafe.
ACATERY, or Accatry, an officer 6f the king’s
houfehold, defigned for a check betwixt the clerks of
the kitchen and the purveyors.
ACATHARSIA, an impurity of the blood or humours.
4 ACATHISTUS, in an ecclefiaflical fenfe, a folemn
hymn anciently fang in the Greek church on the Sa¬
turday of the fifth week of Lent, ip honour of the
Virgin, for having thrice delivered Conftantinople from
the invafions of the barbarous nations.
ACATItJM, in antiquity, a kind of boat ufed in mili¬
tary affairs, and was a fpecies of the naves aftuariae.
SeeAcruARiAt Naves.
ACATSIA-VALLI, in botany, a fynonime of the caf-
fithafiliformis. See Cassjtha.
ACAULIS, in botany, fignifies plants that have no cau-
lis or ftem.
ACCALIA, in antiquity, folemn feafts held in honour
of Acca Laurentia, nurfe to Romulus. They were
otherwife called Laurentalia. To the fame Ac¬
ca is alfo afcribed the inftitution of the fratres ar-
vales.
ACCAPITARE, inlaw, the adt of becoming vaffal of
a lord, or of yielding him homage and obedience. See
Vassal andHoMAGE.
ACCAPITUM, fignifies the money paid by a vaffal up¬
on his admiffion to a feud.
Accapitum, in our ancient law, was ufed alfo to ex-
prefs the relief due to the chief lord. See Relief.
ACCEDAS ad curiam, in the Engliffi law, a writ ly¬
ing, where a man has received, or fears falfe judg¬
ment, in an inferior court; it lies alfo for jullicd de¬
layed, and is a fpecies of the writ recordare.
ACCEDONES. See Accendones.
ACCELERATED, implies, in a general fenfe, quick-
Vol.LNo. 1. 3
ened, continually increafing. Thus, accelerated mo¬
tion is a motion continually increafing. See Mecha¬
nics.
ACCELERATION, an increafe of velocity in the mo¬
tion of a body; it is oppofed to retardation, which is
a diminution of motion.
Acceleration, is alfo a term ufed by ancient aftro-
nomers, with whom it fignified the difference between
the revolution of the primum mobile, and that of the
fun, computed to be three minutes and fifty-fix fe-
conds.
ACCELERATOR, in anatomy, the name of two muf-
cles of the penis, which ferve for ejecting the urine or
femen. See Anatomy, Part VI.
ACCENDENTES, a lower order of minifters in the
Romiffi church, whofe .office is to light and trim the
candles.
ACCENDONES, in Roman antiquity, a &rt of glar
diatbrs, whofe office was to excite and animate the
combatants during the engagement. See Gladiator.
ACCENSI, among the ancient Romans., a kind of fu-
pernumerary foldiers, who ferved to fill the places of
thofe who were killed or difableffby their wounds.
Accensi ferenfes, among the Romans, an inferior or¬
der of officers, who attended the magiilrates in the
manner of our ufhers, ferjeants, or tipftaffs,
ACCENSION, in chemiftry, the a&ion of fetting a bo-'
dy on fire : thus the accenfion of tinder is effected by
ftriking fire with Hint and fteel.
ACCENT, or accenting, in reading or fpeaking : When
we raife the tone higher in founding any particular
word or fyUable, that word or fyllable is faid to be
accented, or graced with an accent. In hexameters
there is a capital accent in every line, eafily diltiu-
guiffiable from the reft by a-good ear. Thus,
Nec bene promeritis capit&r, nec tangitur ira.
Accents either in profe or poetry have a double effedt :
They contribute to the melody, by giving it air and
fpirit; they contribute not lefs to the fenfe, by diftin-
guilhing words of importance from others. Accent¬
ing is entirely confined to long fyllables ; for a ffiofit
fyllable is not capable of an accent. Every word in
an hexameter line that has a long fyllable may be ac¬
cented, unlefs the fenfe interpofe, which rejedts the
accenting a word that makes no figure by its fignifica-t
tion. But, notwithftanding this circumftance, there
is conftantly one accent in every line which makes a
greater figure than any of the reft. Thus,
Smooth flow the wdves, the zephyrs gently play,
Belinda fmil'd, and all the world was gay.
In order to facilitate the reading of dead languages,
grammarians have adopted various characters for di-
ftinguiffiing the accents belonging to particular fylla-:
bles; fuch as the acute, marked thus, ('), the grave
thus ('), and the circumflex thus (w),ior(*), &c. The
.. acute denotes that the voice is to be raifed; the
grave, that it is to be lowered or flattened ; and the
circumflex, that the fyllable is to be lengthened or.
dwelt upon.
Accent
ACC ( 14 ) ACC
Accent, in raufic, is a certain modulation of founds to
exprefs a paffion, whether by the voice or inftrumeats.
See Music.
ACCENTER, in mufic, one of the three fingers in a
trio, viz. the perfon who fings the highcft part. See
Trio.
ACCEPTANCE, in Scots law, denotes either a per-
fon’s adhibiting his fubfcription to a bill or draught,
by which he fabjedta himfelf to the payment of it; or
accepting or agreeing to offers made in bargaining, by
which the bargain is concluded.
Acceptance, in the church of Rome, is put for recei¬
ving the Pope’s conftitutions.
Acceptance, in commerce, is the fubfcrihing, fign-
ing, and making one’s felf debtor for the fum contain¬
ed in a bill of exchange, or other obligation. See
Bills.
ACCEPTATION, in grammar, the fenfe or meaning
wherein any word is taken.
ACCEPTER, or Acceptor, the perfon who accepts
a bill of exchange, (be-
ACCEPTION, the lame with acceptation.
ACCEPTILATION, among civilians, an acquittance
or difeharge given by the creditor to the debtor with¬
out the payment of any value.
ACCESS, the approach of one perfon or thing to an¬
other. It is alfo ufed by phyficians for the beginning
of a paroxifm.
ACCESSARY, or Accessory, inlaw. See Acces¬
sory.
ACCESSIBLE, fomething that may be approached, or
that accefs may be had to. Thus we fay. Such a
place is acceilible on one fide, be.
ACCESSION, in Scots law, is a method of acquiring
property, by which, in things that have a clofe con¬
nexion or dependence upon one another, the property
of the principal thing draws after it the property of the
acceffory. Thus, the owner of a cow becomes like-
wife the owner ot the calf. See Law, title, Divi-
fion of rights. It fometimes Itkewile fignifies con-
fent or acquiefcence.
Accession, among phyficians, is ufed for a paroxyfin
of a difeafe; among politicians, it fignifies a prince’s
fucceeding to the government upon the death- of his
predeceffor.
ACCESSORY, in Scots law, is the fubje<fi acquired
by acceffion; or, in crimes, it fignifies, the perfon by
whofe affiilance, advice, or command, the crime was
committed: In this latter fenfe, it is the fame with
accomplice, art and part, be.. See Law, title. Crimes.
Accessory nerve. See Anatomy, Part V.
ACCIB, a name given by fome authors to lead.
ACCIDENT, in a general' fenfe, denotes any cafual e-
vent.
Accident, in logic, fignifies fecondary qualities, or
fuch as do not ed end ally belong to any fubjedt.
Accident, in grammar. See Grammar.
Accident, in heraldry, an additional point or mark
in a coat of arms, which may be either omitted or re¬
tained without altering the effence of the armour:
fuch as, abatements, differences, and tinfture.
Accident, among phyfieians, an obiblete term for t
fymptom.
ACCIDENTS, ip aftrology, the moll remarkable oc¬
currences in a man’s life.
Abfolute Accident, in the Romilh church, an accident
which may poffibly fublift, at leall miraculoufly, with¬
out a lubjeft; which is unintelligible jargon.
Accidental, fomething that happens by accident, or
a mode that is not effential to its iubjed.
Accidental /w»/, in perfpedtive. See Perspective.
Accidental dignities and debilities, in aftrology, cer¬
tain cafual difpofitions of the planets, whereby they
are fuppofed to be either ftrengthened or weakened.
ACCIPENSER, in ichthyology, a genus of filhes be¬
longing to the Amphibia Nantes of Linnasus. The ac-
cipenfer has a fmgle linear noftril: the mouth is in the
under part of the head, and contains no teeth; the
cirri are below the fnout, and before the mouth.
There are four fpecies of this genus, viz. 1 The
fturio, or fturgeon, with 4 cirri, and 11 fquamous pro¬
tuberances on the back. It inhabits the European
feas. This filh was fo greatly efteemed in the time of
Severus, that he ordered it to be carried to his feafts
by fervants crowned with garlands, and trumpets play¬
ing before. See Plate I. fig. 5. 2. The ruthenus
has 4 cirri, and 15 fquamous protuberances. It is a
native of Ruflia. 3. The hufo has 4 cirri ; the bo¬
dy is naked, i. e. has no prickles or protuberances.
The Ikin of the hufo is fb tough and ftrong, that it
is employed for ropes in carts and other wheel-car¬
riages. Ifinglafs is alfo made of the Ikin of this filh,
and its eggs are fometimes made into pickles. It in¬
habits the Danube, and the rivers of Rufiia. See
Plate I. fig. 6. 4. The plecoftomus, which is diftin-
guilhed from the other three by having only 2 cirri.
It is a native of Surinam. The whole four fpecies are
viviparous.
ACC1PENSIUS. See Accipenser.
ACCIPITER, the name of Linnaeus’s firft order of birds.
The birds belonging to this order have crooked Leaks.
This order comprehends only four genera, viz. The
vukur, falco, llrix, and lanius. Sec Vvltur, be.
ACCIPITRINAi an obfolete name of the hierachium
or hawkweed. See Hierachium.
ACCISMUS, in antiquity, fignifies a feigned refufal of
what one eameftly defires.
Accjsmus, in rhetoric, is accounted a fpecies of iro¬
ny. See Irony.
ACCLAMATION, any exprelfien of joy, or applaufe,
whereby the public teftifies its approbation.
Acclamation is alfo ufed, in a bad fenle, for expref-
lions of deteftation.
Acclamation, in rhetoric* a figure, the fame witR E~
FIPHONEMA, which lee.
Acclamation medals, among antiquaries, fuch as re~
prefent the people expreffing their joy in the polture
of acclamation.
ACCLIVUS, in anatomy, a fynonime of the obliquus
afeendens mufcle. See Anatomy, Part II.
ACCLIVITY, the rife or afeent of a hill, in oppofi-
tion to the declivity or. defeent of it. Some wri¬
ters
ACC ( :
tm in fortification ufc it for the talus of a rampart.
■ACCLOYED, in farriery, fignifies pricked. Thus a
horfe’s foot pricked in (hoeing, is faid to be accloyed.
ACCOL.A, among the Romans, fignihed that a perfon
lived near fome place.
ACCOLADE, in antiquity, one of the forms of con¬
ferring knighthood, in which the prince laid his arms
about the neck of the young knight, embraced him,
and, fome fay, gave him a blow on the cheek, neck,
or (boulder, in imitation of the form of manumiffiou
among the Romans.
ACCOLEE, fometimes fynonomous with Accolade,
which fee. — It is alfo ufed in divers fenfes in herald¬
ry : Sometimes it is applied to two things joined; at
other times, to animals with crowns, or collars a-
bout their necks, as the lion in the Ogilvy’s arms ;
and laftly to kews, battons, maces, fwords, &c. pla¬
ced faltier-wife behind the (hield.
ACCOMMODATION, making two or more things a-
gree with one another.—Among divines, it is apply¬
ing what is originally faid of one peffon, or thing, to
another : Thus the words of Ifaiah to the Jews of his
time, are, by our Saviour, accommodated to his con-
tempories, and by St Paul to his.—In law, it fignifies
the amicable iiTue of a debate, which is effected
fometimes by mediation-of friends, fometimes by fub-
mitnon, and fometimes by a divifion of the fubjedt in
debate.
ACCOMPAGNAGE, a term in the filk manufatfures,
fignifying a fine woof of the fame colour with the gild¬
ing, helping to enrich the ground under which it paf-
fes, and to hinder it from (triking crofs the gilding it-
felf, which would diminifli its glofs and'luftre. All
wch (luff's, the warps whereof are of a colour diffe¬
rent from the gilding, fhould be accompanied.
ACCOMPANIMENT, fomething attending or added
as a circumftance to another, either by way of orna¬
ment, or for the fake of fymmetry. See Circum¬
stance.
Accompaniment, in mafic, thefe parts that are ad¬
ded to render the harmony more full and complete, as
arr initrument accompanying a voice. Among the mo¬
derns, the accompaniment frequently plays a different
melody from the fong it accompanies; but authors are
not agreed whether it was fo among the ancients.
See Music.
Accompaniment, in painting, denotes fuch objedts as
are added, either by way of ornament, or probability,
as dogs, guns, game, be, in a hunting piece. See
Painting.
Accompaniment, in heraldry, any thing added to a
(hieM by way of ornament; as the belt, mantling,
fupporters, be. It is alfo applied to feveral bear¬
ings about a principal one; as a faltier, bend, fefs,
chevron, be.
ACCOMPLICE, in law. See Accessory.
ACCOMPLISHMENT, the entire execution or fut-
fiiiing of any thing.
Accomplishment, is alfo ufed for any mental or per-
f fonal endowment.
ACCGMPT. See Account.
5 D ACC
ACCOMPTANT. See Accountant.
ACCORD, in mafic. See Concord.
Accord, in law, an accommodation between parties at
variance, by means of an offer made by the one, and
accepted by the other.
Accord, in painting, is the harmony that reigns among
the lights and (hades of a pidture.
ACCORNED, in heraldry : When any figure of an ani¬
mal, in an efcutcheon, has horns of a different colour
from thofe of the real animal, then it is faid to be
ctccorned.
ACCOUNT, orAccoMPT, in a general fenfe, a com¬
putation or Reckoning of any thing by numbers. Coi-
ledtively, it is ufed to exprefs the books which mer¬
chants, traders, bankers, Cc. ufe for recording their
tranfadfions in bufinefs. See Book-keeping.
Account in company, is an account betwixt partners
relating to the tranfadtions of their joint concern. See
Book-keeping.
Account of fains, is an account given by one mer¬
chant to another, or by a fadtor to his principal, of
the difpofal, charges, commiffion, and nett proceeds of
certain merchandifes fent for the proper or company
account of him that configned them to fuch fadtor or
vender. See Book-keeping.
Account current,—of goods. See Book-keeping.
Account in bank, a fund which it is common for
merchants or others to furnifn themfelves with in the
ca(h of a bank, to be in readinefs for the payment of
bills of exchange, purchafes, be.
Auditing an Accowrn, is the examining and palling
an account by an officer appointed for the purpofe. See
Auditor.
Chamber ef Accovhts, in the French polity, Is a fo-
vereign court of great antiquity, which takes cogni¬
zance of, and regiders the accounts of the king’s re¬
venue. It is nearly the fame with the Engliffi Court
of Exchequer ; which fee.
Account in the remembrancer's office, in the exche¬
quer, is the (late of any branch of the king’s revenue;
as the account of the mint, of the wardrobe, of the
army, navy, be.
Account, in law, the adlion that lies againft a perfon
who is accountable by office to another, but refufes to
render the account.
Account, is aHb taken fometimes, in a particular fenfe,
for the computation of time; as we fay. The Julian
account, the Gregorian account, be. in which fenfe
it is equivalent to ftyte.
Account is alfo u(ed in funriry mercantile forms of
expreffion for advantage, hazard, Jofs, be.
ACCOUNTABLE, a term tried to denote a perfon’s
being liable to render an account for any thing.
ACCOUNTANT, or Accomptant, in the mod ge¬
neral fenfe, is a. perfon (killed in accounts. In a more
redrifted fenfe, it is applied to a peifon, or officer,
appointed to keep the accounts of a public company,
or office, as the South-fea, the India company, the
bank, the excife, be*
ACCOUNTANTSHIP, the art of keeping and balan¬
cing accounts. See Book-keebing,
•ACCOUNT-
ACC ( 16 ) ACE
ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL, a flew officer in the
court of Chancery appointed by aft of parliament to
receive all moneys lodged in court inftead of the ma-
fters, and convey the fame to the bank of England for
fecurity.
ACCOUNTING-HOUSE, counting-houfe, or compt-
ing-houfe, is a houfe, or office, fet apart by a mer¬
chant, or trading-company, for tranfadting their bufi-
nefs, as well as keeping their books, accounts, vouch¬
ers, &c.
ACCOUTREMENT, an old term, applied to the fur¬
niture of a foldier, knight, or gentleman.
ACCRETION, in phyfics, the increafe, or growth, of
an organical body, by the acceffion of new parts.
Accretion, among civilians, the property acquired
in a vague or unoccupied thing, by its adhering to
or following another already occupied; thus, if a le¬
gacy be left to two perfons, one of whom dies before
the teftator, the legacy devolves to the furvivor by
right of accretion.
ACCROCHE, in heraldry, denotes a thing’s being hook¬
ed with another.
ACCROCHING, in old law-books, is incroaching up¬
on, or ufurping another man’s right.
ACCRUE, in law, any thing that is connefted to ano¬
ther as an appendage.
ACCURATION, in antiquity, the pofture ufed by
the Greeks and Romans at table. The body was ex¬
tended, and the head refting on a pillow, or on the
elbow.
The Romans at their meals made ufe of a low round
table, around which two or three couches were placed in
proportion to the number of guefts; and hence it was
called biclinium, or triclinium. Thefe were covered
with a fort of bed-cloaths, and furnilhed with quilts and
pillows fo«leaning on. The guefts reclined on the left
fide, the firft at the head of the bed, with his feet be¬
hind the back of the fecond, <bc. Before they came
to table, they changed their cloaths, for what they
called the ctenatoria vejles, the dining garment, and
pulled off their fhoes to keep the couch clean.
ACCUBITOR, an ancient officer of the emperors of
Conftantinople, whofe bufinefs was to lie near the em¬
peror. He was the head of the youths of the bed¬
chamber, and had the cubiculariu: and procubitor un¬
der him.
ACCUMULATION, in a general fenfe, the aft of
heaping or amaffing things together. Among lawyers
it is ufed in fpeaking of the concurrence of feveral ti¬
tles to the fame thing, or of feveral circumftances to
the fame proof.
Accumulation of degrees, in an univerfity, is the ta¬
king feveral of them together, or at fmaller intervals
than ufual, or than is allowed by the rules of the uni¬
verfity.
ACCURATE. See Exactness.
ACCURSED, denotes fomething that lies under a curfe,
or is deteftable. It is likewife ufed for an excommu¬
nicated perfon.
ACCUSATION, in law, the charging any perfon with
a criminal aftion, either in one’s own name, or that
of the public. It differs, little from impeachment or
iridiftment.
ACCUSATIVE. See Grammar.
AC-DENGHIS, a name given to the Archipelago by
the Turks.
ACE, a term among gamefters, fignifying a card or die
marked with a fingle point.
ACENTETUM, or Acenteta, names ufed by the
ancients for the pureft rock cryftal. See Crystal.
ACEPHALI, or Acephalitas, a name given, in ec-
clefiaftical hiftory, to feveral fefts that were deftitute
of any head or leader; as alfo, to fuch biffiops as
were exempted from the jurifdiftion of a patriarch.
ACEPHALOUS, in our ancient law-books, an appel¬
lation given to fuch perfons as held nothing of any
fuperior.
ACEPHALUS, without a head.
Acephalus, an obfolete term for the tenia, or tape¬
worm. See Tenia.
Acephalus, is alfo ufed to exprefs a verfe defeftivein
the beginning.
ACER, in botany, the maple or fycomore tree, a ge¬
nus of the polygamia dioecia clafs. There are ten fpe-
cies of this genus. The calix of the female is quin-
quifide, the corolla pentapetalous, the ftamina eight,
one piftil, and two feed-capfules. The calix of the
male is alfo quinquifide, the corolla pentapetalous, and
the ftamina eight. There are only two fpecies of the
acer which are reckoned natives of England, viz. the
pfeudo-platanus, and the campeftre.
ACERB, a four rough aftringency of tafte, fuch as that
of unripe fruit. See Astringent,
ACERENZA, See Cirenza.
ACERIDES, fignifies a plafter without any wax in its
compofition.
ACERINA, an abfolete name of a fpecies of the perch,
a filh of the thoracic order. See Perca.
ACERNO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,
with a bilhop’s fee. It is 17 miles S. W. of
Conza, and 12 N. E. of Salerno, long. 14. 23.
lat 40. 55.
ACERRA, in antiquity, an altar erefted, among the
Romans, near the gate of a perfon deceafed, on which
his friends daily offered incenfe, till'his burial.—The
Chinefe have ftill a cuftom like this ; they ereft an al¬
tar to the deceafed in a room hung with mourning,
and place an image of the dead perfon on the altar-,
to which every one that approaches it bows four times,
and offers oblations and perfumes.
Acerra, in geography, a town of Italy in the kingdom
of Naples, and in the terra di Lavoro. It ftands on
the river Agno, 7 miles N. E. of Naples, and 20
S. W. of Benevento, Ion. 14. 23. lat. 40. 55.
ACERRAl, ■ th^ pots wherein incenfe was burnt.
ACERSECOMES, long-haired, a name of Apollo, be-
caufe he was ufually painted fo.
ACESTIDES, in foundery, a name given by the an¬
cients to the chimneys of their furnaces wherein brafs
was made.
ACETABULUM, in antiquity, a little vafe or cup ufed
at table to ferve up fauces or feafoning. It alfo de¬
notes’
Plate I.
Plate JT,
A C H ( 17 ) AC H
notes a Roman meafure, both for Irquid, and dry
things, equal to a cyathus and a half.
ACETABULUM, in anatomy, a cavity in any bone for
receiving the protuberant head of another, and thereby
forming that Ipecies of articulation called enartbrdfis.
See Anatomy, Part I.
Acetabulum, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
of the peziza, or cup-peziza, a fungus belonging to
the cryptogamia fungi of Linnajus. It has got the
name of acetabulum from the re&mbiance its leaves
bear to a cup. Bee.Peziza. *
ACETARY. Nehemiah Grew, in his anatomy of plants,
applies this term to a pulpy fubftance in certain fruits,
e. g. the pear, which is inclbfed in a congeries of fmall
calculous bodies towards the bafe of the fruit, and is
always of an acid tafte. See Agriculture, Se&. 1.
ACETIFICATION, a term ufed by chemilts for the
making of vinegar.
ACETOSA, in botany, a fynonime of the rumex, or
forrel. See Rumex.
ACETOSE, or Acetous, an epithet applied to fuch
fubftances as are four, or partake of the nature of vi¬
negar.
ACETUM, vinegar, the vegetable acid of the chemife.
See Chemistry, title, t)f acids,
Acetum dijlillatum, in chemiftry, diftilled vinegar.
Acetum efuriens, in chemiftry, a diftilled vinegar, rec-
tifTed by the help of verdigreafe.
Acetum radicatum. Boerhaave thinks the tartacus
regenerate is the acetum radicatum of the old che-
mifls.
ACGIAH-SARAI, a towp on the north ftiore of the
Cafpian fea.
ACH, or Ache, in medicine, a term ufed for any fe-
vere pain, ashead-ach, tooth-ach, ice. See Medi¬
cine.
ACHAC, a barbarous name of a fpecies of the tetrao,
a bird of the order of gallinae. See Tetrao.
ACfLEINUS. See Ac hi ends.
ACHAIA, a province of Turkey in Europe, now called
Livadia, of which Athens was anciently the capital,
at prefent named Saithinei or Setines. See Li-
r VADIA.
ACHALACTLI, in ornithology, a barbarous name of
the columba cyanocephala. See Columba.
ACHAM, a country in the E. Indies, bounded on the
N. by Bouton, on the E. by China, on the S. by A-
va, and on the W. by Patan and Jefuat in Bengal.
It is very little known to the Europeans.
ACHANE, in Perfian antiquity, a corn-meafure, equal
to forty-five Attic mediami. See Medimni.
ACHANDES. See Remora.
ACHAOVA, in botany, an obfolete name of the marum
matricaria, die. See Marum.
ACHASSES, a river of Languedoc in France.
ACHAT, in the law-French, fignifies a contra# or
bargain, efpecially by way of purchafe.
ACHAT. See Agat.
ACHATOR, in the old law-books, is ufed for Pur¬
veyor, which fee.
Vol. I. No. 1. 3
ACHBALUG-MANGI, a town in the northern confines
of China.
ACHE, in medicine. See Ach.
ACHECAMBEY, one of the Bahama iflands. See
Bahama.
ACHELO, a town near the Euxine fea.
AGHEN, or Ac hem, a capital town of a kingdom of
the fame name, in the N. part of the ifknd of Suma¬
tra, in the E. Indies. It extends as far as the line.
The inhabitants are generally very fuperftitious. It
has for a confiderable time been a noted place for
trade ; and was formerly governed by a queen; but
in 1700, a Said, or Preacher, found means to ufurp
the government. Its principal produce is gold dull,
which is exceeding good. They punifh theft very fe-
verely; yet robbery and murder are very frequent a-
raong them. This town is feated by the fide of a ri¬
ver, and the king’s palace is in the middle of the
town, and is well fortified. It is 450 miles N. W.
of Malua, and 1000 S. E. of Fort St George, 95.55.
E. long. 5. 30. lat.
ACHERNER, in aflronomy, a flar of the firft magni-
tudd*in the fouthern extremity of the conftellation E-
ridanus. See Eridanus, and Astronomy.
ACHETA, an obfolete name of the gryllus or cricket.
See Gryllus.
ACHIAR, a Malayan v/ord, fignifying a fort of fruit
or roots pickled with vinegar and fpice. See Bamboe.
ACHIENUS, a name given by the ancients to the cer-
vus or flag. See Cervus.
ACHILLJSA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging to
the fyngenefia polygamia fuperflua clafs. Of this genus
there are 21 fpecies, only two of which are natives of
Britain, viz. the achilkea millefolium, or common
yarrow, (fee Plate II. fig. 1.) and the achillaea ptar-
mica, or fneezewort.
Ac hill as a, a name frequently given by the ancients to
the gum called dragons blood. See Dragons-
blood.
ACHILLEID, Achilleis, a celebrated poem of Sta¬
tius, in which that author propofed to deliver the
whole life and exploits of Achilles ; but being pre¬
vented by death, he has only treated of the infancy
and education of his hero.
Tendo ACHILLIS. See Anatomy, Part II.
ACHIMENES, in botany, a fynonime of the columnea
fcandens, a genus of the didynamia angiofpermia clafs.
- See Columnea.
ACHIOTE. See Achiotte.
ACHIGTL, a name given to the drug achiotte.
ACHIOTTE, an American drug, ufed in.dying and in
r' ’ j chocolate. It is produced from the mitella
11a, a tree which grows in North America, Be¬
ts the fin ail filaments or leaves of this.tree, little
grams of a vermilion colour are found, which the In¬
dians make into cakes, and fend in this form to Eu¬
rope ; it is fuppofed to promote urine.
ACHIROPOETOS, a name given, by ancient writers,
to certain pidures ofiChrifl and the Virgin fuppofed
to have been miracdoufly made without hands.
E ACHLAR,
A C I ( i
ACHLAR, a river in America, called Jrax'u by the
ancients.
ACHLIS. See Machlis,
ACHLYS, in medicine, a dimnefs of fight, arifing from
any fear remaining after an. ulcer in the cornea. It
. is alfo ufed for the diforder called a fuffufton of the
uterus.
ACHMETSCHET, a town of the peninfula of the
Crimea, the refidence of the fultan Galga, who is eld-
ell fon of the Khan cfTartary, 5 1.2Q. long. 45. o. lat.
ACHONRY, a fmall town of Ireland in the province' of
Connaught, and county of Sligo, feated on the river
Shannon.
ACHOR, in medicine, fmall ulcers on the face which
difeharge a vifeid humour. See Medicine.
ACHRAS, in botany, a genus of the hexandria mono-
gynia clafs. It bears a fruit not unlike the pear.
There are only three fpecies of the achras, viz. the
mimofa, the fapota, and the falicifolia, all natives of
America.
ACHRONICAL, Achronycal, or Acronychal.
See Acronical-
ACHYR, a flrong town and caftle of the Ukrain, fub-
je& to the Ruffians fmee 1667.. It flands on the river
Uorlklo near the frontiers of Ruffia, 127 miles W. of
Kiow, 36. o. long. 49. 32. lat.
ACHYRANTES, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. There are feven fpecies of the achy-
rantes, moft of them natives of the Indies.
ACHYRANTHA, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of the illecebrum. See Illecebrum.
ACHYRONIA, in botany, an obfolete name of a genus
of the diadelphia decandria clafs.
ACHYROPHORUS, in' botany, a fynonime of the fe-
riola. See Seriola.
ACIA, a term in the Roman furgery, about the mean¬
ing of which phyficians and commentators are greatly
divided; fome taking it for the needle, and others for
the thread.
ACICULT, the fmall fpikes or prickles of the hedge¬
hog, echinus marinus, <bc.
ACIDS, fubftances which give a four, fharp, or tart
tafte. Among the chemilis, the acid falls are dilfin-
guifned into the nitrous, vitriolic, muriatic, and vege¬
table. See Chemistry, title. Of acids.
Acids, in the materia medica, are fueh medicines as
poflefs an acid quality; fuch as vinegar, fpirit of vi¬
triol, Thefe being powerful antifeptics, are e-
lleemed good in all purtrid and malignant difeafes, and,
by their cooling virtue, are no lefs efficacious in fe-
verilh and inflammatory cafes.
ACIDITY, that quality whieh renders bodies acid,
ACIDOTON, in botany, is both a fynonime and the
trivial name of a fpecies of the adefia. See Adelia.
ACIDULfE, a term for water or any fobftance impreg¬
nated with an acid.
ACIDULATED, a name given to medicines that have
an acid in their compofition.
ACIERNO, a town in the Hither Principality, in the
kingdom of Naples; with a bifirop’s fee. It is 15 miles
E. cf Salerno, 37. 0. E. long. 40. 52. lat.
8 ) a n 6
ACINAIES, in antiquity, a kind of cutlafs, or feime-
ter, in ufe among the Perfians.
ACINARIA, in botany, a fynonime of the focus acina-
rius, belonging to the cryptogamia algse of Linnteus.
See Frctrs.
ACINI, in botany, a fynonime of the thymus alpinus.
See Thymus.
AC1NIFORMIS/aw/otf, in anatomy. See Uvea.
AC1NODENDRION, in botany, the trivial name of
a fpeties of the melaltoma. See Melastoma.
ACINODENDRUM, in botany, a fynonime of two
• fpecies of the melafloma.
ACINOIDES, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
of the ziziphora. See Ziziphora.
ACINOS, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies of the tu-
nila. SeeCuNiLA.
ACINUS, in botany; fignifies grapes or berries growing
in cluflers.
ACISONTHERA, in botany, both a fynonime and the
trivial narhe of a fpecies of therhexia. SeeRnExiA.
ACITLI, in ornythology, the American name of the
colymbus criflatus, a bird of the order of anferes. See
Col ymbus.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT, in a general fenfe, is a per¬
forms owning or confeffing a thing; but, more parti¬
cularly, is the expreffion of gratitude for a favour.
Acknowledgment-zw#?)', a certain fum paid by te¬
nants in feveral parts of England, on the death of
their landlords, as an acknowledgment of their new
lords.
ACLIDES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of miffive wea¬
pon, with a thong affiked to it, whereby to draw it
back. Molt authors deferibe it as a fort of dart or
javelin ; but Scaliger makes it roundifti or globular,
with a flender wooden (tern to poife it by.
ACLOWA, in botany, a barbarous name of a fpecies of"
colutea. It is ufed by the natives of Guinea to cure
the itch. See Colutea,
ACME, or Aexme, the top or height of any thing. It
is ufually applied to the maturity of an animal juft be¬
fore it begins to decline; and phyficians have ufed it
to exprefs the utmoft violence or crifis of a difeafe.
ACMELLA, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies of
the verbefina. See Verbesina.
ACNIDA, in botany, a genus of the dicecia pentandria *
elafs. There is only one fpecies of it, viz. the ae-
nida canabina. It is a native of Virginia.
ACNDA, in Roman antiquity, fignified a certain mea-
fure of land,' near about the Englifli rood, or fourth
part of an acre. See Rood.
ACOBA, a fmall town cf Portugal in the province of
Eftremadura.
ACOEMETAE, or Acoemeti, in church hiftory, or
men who lived without fleep; a fet of monks who
chaunted the divine fervice night and day in their pla¬
ces of worfliip. They divided tbemfelves into three
bodies, who alternately fucceeded one another,, fo that
their churches were never filent. This practice they
founded upon the precept, Pray without ceajim. They
, flourifhedin the eaft about the middle cf the fifth cen¬
tury. There are a kind cf accemeti ftill fubfilling in
AGO ( i
Roman church, viz. the religious of the holy facra-
ment, who keep up a perpetual; adoration, home one
or other of them praying before the holy facrament,
; day and night.
ACOL ASTRE, a fmall river of France in the Nivernois.
ACOLCHICHI, in ornythology, a barbarous name of
the phoenicopterus, a bird of the order of grallae. See
Phoenioopterus.
ACOLIN, an obfolete name of a fpecies of the tetrao,
of the order of gallinae See Tetrao.
Acolin, in geography, a river of France which takes
its rife in the Bourbonnois.
ACOLUTHI, a term applied to perfons who were
firm and fteady in their opinions, and particularly, to
• the ftoics, who were remarkably tenacious of their re-
folutions and principles.
In church-hiftory, the term acolythus, or acolythijl,
is peculiarly applied to candidates for the miniftry who
continually attend the bifhops.
ACOLYTHIA, in the Greek church, denotes the of¬
fice or order of divine fervice; or the prayers, cere¬
monies, hymns, fac. whereof the Greek fervice is
compofed."
ACOMA, a town of N. America, in New-Mexico,
feated on a high mountain, with a ftrong caftle: It is
the capital of the province, and was taken by the Spa¬
niards in if99, 108. 35. W. long. 35. o. lat.
ACOMAC, a county of Virginia, in N. America, be¬
ing a peninfula, bounded on the N. by Maryland; on
the E and S. by the ocean, and on the W. by the
bay of Chefe-peak. Cape Charles is at the entrance
■ of the bay, being the moft fouthern promontory of this
county.
ACONE, a fpecies of whet-ftone. See Cos.
ACON1TUM, in botany, a genus of the polyandria
trigynia. There are feven fpecies of the aconitum. 1.
The lyccdlonum, is a native of Lapland, Switzerland,
and'other-hilly countries of Europe. 2. The unci-
■ natum, is a native of Philadelphia. 3. The variega-
tum grows on the Italian and Bohemian mountains.
4. The napellus, is a native of Switzerland, Bava¬
ria, and France. 5. The Pyrenaicum, is a native of
Siberia, Tartary, and the Pyrenaean mountains. See
plate II. fig. 2. 6. The cammarum, and, 7. The
anthora, are both natives of Taurus and the Pyre-
nsean mountains. The Englilh name of the aconitum
is •wolfsbane or monkshood. Each fpecies is highly a-
crid, and extremely dangerous when, taken into the.
ftomach, as it generally occafions convulfions, and fre¬
quently a mortification in that organ.
ACONTIAS, in zoology, an obfolete name of the an-
guisjaculus, or dart-fnake, belonging to the order of
amphibia ferpentes. See Angitis.
Acontias, is alfo a name applied by fome writers to a
kind of comet or meteor, whofe head appears roundifh
or oblong, and its tail long and flender, like a dart or
arrow.
ACONTIUM, in ancient writers, a kind of Grecian
dart or javelin, fomewhat refembling the Roman pilum.
ACOPA, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpecies of
. the trifolium, SbeTrifolium.
9 ) A C CV
Acopa, ' alfo fignifies medicines for refrelhing the body
after great fatigue.
ACOPAM. See Acopa.
ACOPIS, a kind of foflil, mentioned by Pliny.
ACOPUM, among ancient phylicians, a topical medicine
compofed of warm and emolhent ingredients for allay¬
ing the fenfe of wearinefs.
ACORES, in geography. See Azores.
ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree. See Quercus.
ACORUM, in botany, afynonimeof the acorus. See
Acorus.
ACORUS, in botany, the fweet-fmelling flag or cala¬
mus, a genus of the hexandria monogynia clafs. It’
is a native of this as well as other European countries.
There are three varieties of this genus, viz. the aco¬
rus calamus; the vulgaris, or aromaticus of the (hops ;
and the verus, which chiefly grows in the Indies.
Acorus, in mat. med. a name fometimes given to the
great galangal. See Galangal
Acorus, in botany, is likewife a fynonime of the iris,
pfeudacorus. See Iris.
ACOUSMATICI, fometimes alfo called Acoujlici, in
Grecian antiquity, fuch difciples of Pythagoras as had
not completed their five years probation. See Py¬
thagorean philofophy.
ACOUSTIC, in general, denotes any thing that relates
. to the ear, or the fenfe of hearing.
Acoustic du£l, in anatomy, the fame with meatus au-
ditorius, or the external paflage of the ear. See A-
natomy, Part VI.
Acoustic injirument, an inftrument made in the form
of a horn, perforated at the fmall end, to aflift hear-
Acoustic nerve, the fanfe with ^the auditory nerve.
See Anatomy, Part V. zads Auditory nerve.
ACOUSTICS, with phyficians, medicines for curing
deafnefs.
ACQS, a town at the foot of the Pyrenaean mountains
in the government of Foix'in France. It takes its
name from the hot waters in thefe parts; 1. 25. E.
long. 43. o. lat.
ACQUA, a town in the Grand Dutchy of Tufcany,
where there are warm baths, 12. 5. E. long. 43.
45. lat.
ACQUA-CHE-TAVELLA, a celebrated fountain of
Italy, in Calabria-citerior, a province of Naples. It
is near the mouth of the' river Grata, and the ruins
commonly called Sihari rovinaia. It has been faid to
beautify thofe who wafhed in it.
ACQUAPENDENTE, a pretty large town of Italy,
in the territory of the church, and patrimony of St
Peter, with a bifhop’s fee. It is feated on a mountain,
near the river Paglia, 10 miles W. of Orvieto, and
57 N. by W. of Rome, 11. 53. E long. 42- 43. lat.
ACQUARIA, a fmall town of Italy, in Frigana, a di-
flriri: of Modena, which is remarkable for its medici-
. nal waters. It is 12 miks foath of the city of Mo¬
dena, 11. 17. E. long. 44. 24. lat.
ACQUAVIVA, a fmall town in the Terra di Bari, a
province in the kingdom:of Naples, 17.25,. E. long.
41.10-la.U
ACQUEST,
A C 11 ( 20
ACQUEST, or Acquist, inlaw, Gguifies goods got
by purcliafe or donation. See Conquest.
ACQUI, a town of Italy, in the Dutchy of Montfer-
rat, with a biihop’s fee, and commodious baths. It
was taken by the Spaniards in 1745, and retaken,by
the Piedmontefe in 1746; but after this, it was taken
again and difmantled by the French, who afterwards
forfook it. It is feated on the river Bormio, 2 5 miles
N. W. of Genoa, and 30 S. of Cafal, 8. 30. E. long.
44. 40. lat.
ACQUIESCENCE, in commerce, is the confent that
a ptrfcn gives to the determination given either by ar¬
bitration, or by a conful.
ACQUIETANDIS plcgiis, in the Englilh law, is a
writ that lies for a furety, againd a creditor, who re-
fufes to acquit the complainant after the debt is paid.
ACQUIETANTIA de Jkiris ft hundredis, in England,
fignifies the privilege of being free from fuit and fer-
vice in (hires and hundreds.
ACQUISITION, in general, denotes the obtaining or
procuring fomething. Among lawyers, it is ufed for
the right or title to an eftate got by purchafe or dona-
ACQUITARE, in ancient law-books, fignifies to dif-
charge or pay off the debts of a perio'n deceafed.
ACQUITFAL, a difcharge, deliverance, or fetting of
a perfon free from the guilt or fufpicion of an offence.
ACQUITTANCE, a releafe or difcharge in writing
for a fum of money.
ACRA, a town of Africa, on the coaft of Guinea, where
the Engiifh, Dutch, and Danes, have ftrong forts,
and each fort its particular village, o. 2. W. long,
j. o. lat.
ACRASIA, among phyficians, fignifies the predominan¬
cy of one quality over another.
ACRE, or Acra, a fea-port town in Syria. It was
formerly called Ptolemais, and is a biihop’s fee. It
was very famous in the time of the crufadoes, and un¬
derwent feveral lieges both by the Chrilbans and Sara¬
cens. It is now an inconfiderable town, being entire¬
ly fupported by its harbour, which is frequented by
Ihips of feveral nations. It is 20 miles S. of Tyre,
and 37 N. of Jerufalem, 39. 25. E. long. 32.
40. lat.
Acre, in the Mogul’s dominions, the fame with lack,
and fignifies the fum of 100,000 rupees ; the rupee is
of the value of the French crown of 3 livres, or 30
Ibis of Holland; an 100 lacks of rupees make a cou-
ron in Indoftan, or 10,000,000 rupees ; the pound
Sterling is about 8 rupees; according to which pro¬
portion, a lack of rupees amounts to 12,500 pounds
Sterling.
Acre, a meafure of land ufed in feveral provinces of
Fraqce, particularly in Normandy, It Is larger or
lefs according to the different places ; but commonly
contains 160 perches.
The Acre of woods in France, confills of four roods,
called verg 'es ; the rood is 40 perches, the perch 24
feet, the foot 12 inches, the inch 12 lines.
Acre, the univerfal meafure of land in Britain. An
acre in England contains 4 fquare roods, a rood 40
) A C R
perches or poles of i6| feet each by ftatute. Yet this
meafure does not prevail in all parts of England, as
the length of the pole varies in different counties, and
is called cujiornary meafure, the difference running
from the 16' feet to 28. The acre.is alfo divided in¬
to 10 fquare chains, of 22 yards each, that is 4840
fquare yards. An acre in Scotland contains 4 fquare
roods ; 1 fquare rood is 40 fquare falls; 1 fquare fall,
36 fquare ells; 1 fquare ell, 9 fquare feet, and 73
fquare inches; 1 fquare foot, 144 fquare inches.
The Scots acre is alfo divided into 10 fquare chains ;
the meafuring chain Ihould be 24 ells in length, divi¬
ded into 100 links, each link 8TJ’| inches; and fo
1 fquare chain will contain 10,000 fquare links.
The Englilh ftatute acre is about 3 roods and 6 falls
ftandard meafure of Scotland.
A CREME, in old law-books, fignifies ten acres of land.
ACRIBEIA, fignifies great accuracy.
ACRID, a name for any thing that is of a (harp .or
pungent tafte.
ACRIDOPHAGI, fignifies locufl-eaters. It has been
much difputed whether the inhabitants of Arabia, E-
thiopia, tic. ever eat locufts. We (hall give the fub-
ftance of what Hafl'elquift fays on this fubjecl, who
travelled in Syria and Egypt fo late as the year 1752.
This ingenious gentleman, who travelled with a view
to improve natural hiftory, informs us, that he allied
Franks, and many other people who had lived long in
thefe countries, whether they had ever heard that the
inhabitants of Arabia and Ethiopia, tic. ufed locufts
as food. They anfwered that they had. He like-
wife arked the fame queftion of Armenians, Cophtes,
and Syrians, who lived in Arabia, and had travelled
in Syria and near the Red-fea; fome of whom faid
they heard of fuch a pradtice, and others that they
had often feen the people eat thefe infedts. He at
laft obtained complete fatisfadtion on this head from a
learned Iheck at Cairo, who had lived fix years in
Mecca. This gentleman toldJhim, in prefence of M.
le Grand, the principal French interpreter at Cairo,
and others, that a famine frequently rages at Mecca
when there is a fcarcity of corn in Egypt, which obli¬
ges the inhabitants to live upon coarfer food than or¬
dinary: That when corn is fcarce, the Arabians grind
the locufts in hand-mills, or ftone mortars, and bale
them into cakes, and ufe thefe cakes in place of
bread: That he has frequently feen locufts ufed by
the Arabians, even when there was no fcarcity of
corn; but then they boil them, itew them, with but¬
ter, and make them into a kind of fricaflee, which he
fays is not difagreeably tailed; for he hid fometimes
tailed thefe locuft-fricaffees out of curiofity. From
this account, we may fee the folly of that difpute a-
mong divines about the nature of St John’s food in
the wildernefs. Some of them fay that locufts were
the fruits of certain trees, others that they were a
kind of birds, tic.; but thofe who adhered to the li¬
teral meaning of the text were at leaft the molt ortho-,
dox, although their arguments were perhaps not fo
ftrong as they might have been, had they had an op¬
portunity of quoting fucli an author as llaffclquift..
A C R ( 21
ACRIFQLIUM, in botany, a iharp or prickly leaf.
ACRIMONY, that quality in bodies which renders
them, acrid to the tafte.
ACRIVIOLA, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies of
tropssolum or Indian crefs. See Tropjeolum.
ACROAMATIC, or Acroatic, in general, denotes
a thing fuMime, profound, or abftrufe. Ariftotle’s
ledlures to his favourite difciples and intimate friends
bore this denomination, in oppofition to his exoteric
lectures, • or thofe- accommodated to a popular audi¬
ence.
ACRQBATICA, or Acrobaticum, in Grecian anti¬
quity, an enginowhereby the people were raifed aloft,
that they might fee .further, or with greater advan¬
tage. It was much the fame v/ith the fcanforium of
the Latins.
ACROCHIRISMUS, in Grecian antiquity, a kind of
gynjnaftic exercife, performed with the lifts, without
doling at all.
ACROCHORDON, a painful wart, which is very pro¬
minent and pendulous.
ACROCQRION, in botany, an obfglete name of the
crocus. See Crocus.
ACRQMATIC, or Achromatic, in optics, a term
applied to a particular kind of telefcope, the meft per-
fe(ftof the refrading kind. See Optics and Tele¬
scope.
ACROMION, in anatomy, the upper part of the fca-
pula. See Anatomy, Part I.
ACROMONOGRAMMATICUM, in poetry, a kind
of poem,, wherein every ftthfet^uent verfe begins, with
the letter wherewith the immediately preceding one
terminated.
ACRON, a territory on the gold coaft of Guinea in A-
frica, bordering on th.e Fantynean country. The
Dutch have a fort here, called Fort Pat knee. The
inhabitants apply themfelves principally to hulbandry.
They are a very ignorant people, and go naked like
the reft of the negroes.
ACRON, among ancient botanifts, fignifies the top or
flower of plants of the thiftle kind.
ACRONICAL, Achronycal, or Achronical, in
aftronomy, is a term applied to the riling of a ftar,
when the fun is fet in the evening; but has been pro-
mifcuqufly ufed to exprefs a ftar’s rifing at funfet, or
fetting at funrife.
ACROSPIP^E, a vulgar term for What the botanifts call
the plume. See Agriculture, Of vegetation.
AQROSPIRED, in mait-making, is the grain’s Ihoot-
ing both at the root and blade end. See Malt.
ACROSTIC, Acrosticum, in poetry, a poem dif-
pofed in fuch a manner, that the initial letters of the
verfes make fome perfon’s name, title, motto, <bc.
ACROSTICUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptoga-
mia Alices, of which there are qo fpecies, but only
three of them are natives of Britain, viz. the fepten-
trionale, or horned fern; the ilvenfe, or hairy fern y
and the thelypteris, or marlh fern.
ACROSTOLIUM, in ancient naval archite&ure, the
extreme part cf the ornament ufed on the prows of
theft Imps, which was" fometimes in the lhape of a
Vol. I. No. i. 3
)' ACT
buckler, helmet, animal, ire.; but more frequently
circular, or Ipiral. It was ufuai to tear diem from
the prows of vanquifaed veflels, and fix them to the
conquerors, as a lignal of viflory.
ACROTELEUTIC, among ecclellaftic writers, an ap¬
pellation given to any thing added to the end of a pfalm,
as the Gloria Pan i or doxology.
ACRQTERI, a town in the illand of Santorin, that
lieB in the fea of Candia, 25. 26. E. long. 3d.
25. I t.
ACROTERIA, in architedure, fmall pedeftals, ufually
without bafes, anciently placed at the middle and the
two extremes of pediments or frontifpieces, fervirg to
fupport the ftatues, It alfo fignifies the figures
placed as ornaments on the tops of churches, and the
Iharp pinnacles that {land in ranges about flat build¬
ings with rails and ballufters.
Among ancient phyficians, it fignified the larger ex¬
tremities of the body, as the head, hands, and feet.
It has alfo been ufed for the tips of the fingers, and
fometimes for the eminences or procefl'es of bones.
ACRITHYMIA, in furgery, a large tumour relent-
bling a wart, though fometimes flat and deprefied.
See Surgery, title, Of. tumours.
ACSOR, a town in the river Nile in Egypt, filmed for
its earthen ware.
ACSU, a town in Afiatic Tartary, fituated in 40. 30.
N.lat.
ACT, in general, denotes the exertion of power; and
differs from power, as the efFedt from the caufe.
Act, among lawyers, is an inftrument in writing for
declaring or juftifying the truth of any thing. In
Which fenfe, records, decrees, fentences, reports, cer¬
tificates, <bc. are called Atts.
Acts, alfo denote the deliberations and refolutions cf
an aflembly, fenate, or convocation, as, Adis of par¬
liament, he.
Act of faith, auta da fe, in the Romifh church, is a
fort of jail delivery, for the punifhment of heretics,
and the abfolution of thofe who are found to be inno¬
cent. The culprits are firft led to church, wheris
their fentence, either of condemnation or abfolution,
is pronounced, and the guilty are delivered over to the
fecular power, with an earneft interceflion for. them,
that no blood may be fhefl. But if they perfift in
their fuppofed errors, they are burnt alive. See In¬
quisition. , x
Acts, in dramatic poetry, are the parts or divifions in¬
to which tragedies and comedies are generally fplit.
Dramatic compolitions ufually confift of five adts. But
this divifion is not eflentially neceffary, but may be
varied according to the humour of the author, or the
nature of the fubjedt. See Drama.
Act of grace. See Grace.
ACTiEA, in botany, a gepus of the polyandria mono-
gynia clafs. There are three fpecies of this plant,
viz. the adftea fpicata, or bone-berries, which is a
native of Britain; the racemofa, which is a native of
America; and the cimicifuga, which is a native of Si¬
beria.
ACTIAN games, In Roman antiquity, were folemn
F games
ACT (22
games infUtuted by Auguftus, in memory of bis vic¬
tory over Marc Anthony at Aftium, held every fifth
year,, and celebrated in honour of Apollo, fmce called
Acliur. Hence Adi an years, an sera commencing
from the battle of Adium, called the JEra of Au-
■ 'guflus.
ACTION, in a general fenfe. See Act,
Action, in mechanics, the motion produced by the im-
pulfe of one body upon another. See Mechanics.
Action, in ethics, denotes the external figns or expref-
fions of the fentiments of a moral agent. See Et h i cs,
Metaphysics.
Action, in poetry, the fame with the fubjed or fable.
Critics generally diftinguilh two kinds, the principal
and the incidental. The principal adion is what is
generally called the fable; and the incidental an epi-
fode. See Dr.Ama.
Action, in oratory, is the outward deportment of the
orator, or the accommodation of his countenance,
voice, and gefture, to the fubjed of which he is treat¬
ing. See Bloquence.
Action, in a theatrical fenfe, is much the fame with
adion in'oratory; the one adapts his adion to an af¬
firmed chabader, the other is fuppofed to feel in rea¬
lity what he fexpreffes.
Action, in painting and fculpture, is the pofture,of a
ftatue or pidure, ferving to exprefs fame pat lion, 6 c.
Action, among phyficians. See Motions.
Action, in commerce, is a term ufed abroad for a
part or lhare in a company’s flock or capital.
Action, in Scots law, is a demand made before a
judge for obtaining what we are legally intitled to de¬
mand, and is more commonly known by the name of
law-fuit or procefs. See Law, tide, Attions.
ACTIONARY, or Actionist, a proprietor of flock
in a trading company.
ACTIONS, among merchants, fometimes fignify move-
able efleds; and we fay the merchant’s creditors have
feized on all his adions, when we mean that they have
taken pofleffion of all his adive debts.
ACTIVE, denotes fomething that communicates adion
or motion to another; in which acceptation it ftands
oppofed to paffive.
Active, in grammar, is applied to fuch words as ex¬
prefs adion; and is theref ore oppofed to paffive. The
adive performs the adion, as the paffive receives it-.
herwr. principles, in chemiftry, fuch as are fuppofed
to ad without any affiflance from others ; as mercury,
falpliur, <fcc. See Chemistry. /
ACTIVITY, in general, denotes the power of ading,
or the adive faculty. See Active.
Sphere of Activity, the whole fpace in which the vir¬
tue, power, or influence of any objed is exerted
ACTIUS, in mythology,: a firname of Apollo, from
Adium, Where he was worfhipped.
ACTOR, in general, fignilies a perfon who ads or per¬
forms fomething.
Actor, in the drama, is a perfon who reprefents fome
part or charader upon the theatre. The drama in
its original only cqnfifled of a Ample chorus, who
) A C U
fung hymns in honour of Bacchus ; fo that the primi¬
tive adors were only lingers and muficians. Thefpis
was the fir A who introduced a perjona, or aft or, to
eafe the chorus, by reciting the adventures of fome
of their heroes. iEfchylus introduced a fecond, and
changed the ancient recitals into dialogues. Sopho¬
cles added a third, in order to reprefent the variety of
incidents in a more natural manner. And here the
Greeks flopped; at leaft we do not find, in any of
their tragedies, above three perfons in the fame Icene,
though, in their comedies, they took a greater liber¬
ty. The ancient adors were malked, which muft
have been a great difadvantage to their adion, as they
were thereby deprived of all the variety of expreffion
the countenance is capable of. Adors were as much
honoured at Athens, as they were defpifed at Rome.
The French have, in this particular, adopted the
manner of the Romans, and the Englilh that of the
Athenians. See Drama.
ACTORUM tabula, in antiquity, were tables inflkuted
by Servius Tullius, in which the births of children
were regiflered. They were kept in the treafury of
Saturnus.
ACTRESS, a woman who performs a part upon the
ftage. Women adors wene unknown to the ancients.
ACTUAL, fomething that is real and effedive, or that
exifts truly and abfolutely.
ACTUARIAL naves, a kind of fliips among the Ro¬
mans, chiefly defigned for fwift failing
ACTUARIES, ofActarius, a notary or officer ap¬
pointed to write the ads or proceedings of a court, or
the like. In the Eaftern empire, the aduarii were
properly officers who kept the military accounts, re¬
ceived the corn from i\\e fufceplores, or ftore-keepers,
and delivered it to the foldiers.
ACTUATE, to bring into ad, to put a thing in motion,
Or to-ftir up a perlpn to adion.
ACTUS, in ancient.architcdure, a meafure in length e-
qual to 120 Roman feet. In ancient agriculture, the
word fignified the length of one furrow, or the diftanee
a plough goes before it-turns.
Actus minimus, was a quantity of land 120 feet in
length, and four in breadth.
Actus major, or Actus quadratus, a piece of ground
in the fquare form, whofe fide was equal to 120 feet,
equal to half the jugerum.
Actus intervicenalis, a fpace of ground four feet in
breadth, left between the lands as a path or way.
ACUANITES, or Acuanit*:, a branch of thofe an¬
cient heretics who bore the general name of Maniehees.
This branch took their diflinguiffiing title from Acua,
a difciple of Thomas.
ACUBENE, in aflronomy, the Arabic name of a ftar
of the fourth magnitude, in the fouthern forceps of
Cancer; by Bayer marked A. See Astronomy
and Cancer.
ACUHYTLI, a barbarous name of afpecies of ferpent.
ACUITION. See Acutition.
ACULEATE, or Aculeati, a term applied to any
plant or animal armed with prickks.
ACU-
ADA ( '
ACULEATUS, in ichthyology, a fynonime of the ga-
fterofteus or ftickle-back. See Gasterosteus.
ACULEI, the prickles of animals or of plants.
ACULEOSA, in botany, a fynonime of the gorteria
ciliaris and the roella ciliata. See Gorteria, Ro-
ELLA.
ACULE R, in the menage, is ufed for the motion of a
horfe, when, in working upon volts, he does not go
far enough forward at every time or motion, fo that
his Ihoulders embrace or take in too little ground, and
his croupe comes too near the centre of the volt.
Horfes are naturally inclined to this fault in making
demi-volts.
ACUMEN, in the ancient mufic, a found produced by
the intention or raifing of the voice.
ACUMINA, in antiquity, a kind of military omen, moll
generally fuppoled to have been taken from the points
or edges of darts, fwords, or other weapons.
ACUMULO, a hnail town in Abruzzo Ulterior, a
province of the kingdom of Naples, 17. 15. long. 39.
30. lat.
ACUPUNCTURE, the name of a furgical operation
among the Chinefe and Japanefe, which is performed
by pricking the part affected with a filver needle.
They employ this operation in head-achs, lethargies,
convullions, colics, 6 c.
ACUS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
fyngnathus. See Syngnathus.
ACUTE, as applied to angles, triangles, cones, <bc.
See thefe articles.
Acute accent, in grammar. See Accent.
Acute, in mufic, fignifies a tone that is lharp, fhrall,
or high, in refpect of fome other, and is oppofed to
grave.
Acute difeafes, fuch as come fuddenly to a crifis.
This term is ufed for all difeafes which do not fall
under the head of chronic difeafes.
ACUTITION, among phyficians, the ftiarpening or in-
creafing the force of any medicine.
ACYROLOGIA,' fignifies an improper word, phr^fe,
or expreffion.
AD, a Latin prepofition, originally fignifying to, and
frequently ufed in compofition both with and without
the d, to exprefe the relation of qne thing to another.
Ad beftias, in antiquity, is the punilbment of criminals
• condemned to be thrown to wild beaffs.
Ad hominetn, in logic, a kind of argument drawn from
the principles or prejudices of thefe with whom we
argue.
Ad ludos, in antiquity, a fentence upon criminals among
the Romans, whereby they were condemned to enter¬
tain the people either by fighting with wild beaffs, or
with one another, and thus executing juffice upon
themfelves.
Ad met alia, in antiquity, the punilhment of fuch cri¬
minals as were condemned to the mines, among the
Romans j and therefore called Metallic-i.
Av> quiddities, among fchoolmen. See Quiddities.
Ad valorem, a term chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the du¬
ties or cuftoms paid for certain goods : The duties on
: 3 ) ADA
fome articles are paid by the number, weight, mea-
fure, tale, ©c. and others are paid ad valorem, that
is, according to their value.
ADA, a large town of Alia, inhabited chiefly by Arme¬
nians.
ADACA-MANGEN, in botany, a fynonime of the
fpbaeranthus. See Sphairanthus.
ADAGE, a proverb, or ftiort fentence, containing fome
wife obfervation or popular faying.
ADAGIO, in mufic, an Italian adverb, fignifying fofily,
leifurely ; and is ufed to denote the flowed: of all times,
except the grave.
ADAJA, a river in Spain which falls into the Duro.
ADALIDES, in the Spainifh policy, are officers of ju-
ftice for matters touching the military forces, efpeci-
ally on expeditions.
ADAMANT, a name fometimes given to the diamond.
See Diamond. It is likewife applied to the fcoriae
of gold, the magnet, dye,
ADAMANTIC, in church hiftory, a name given to the
followers of Origen, firnamed Adamantius.
ADAMBOE, in botany, a fynonime of the ipomoea cam-
panulata, an Indian plant, belonging to the pentandria
monogynia clafs. See Ipomoea.
ADAML/>oot«w, or Adam's apple, in botany, an obfo-
lete name of a fpecies of the citrus or orange. See
Citrus.
Adam 1 pomum, in anatomy, the convex part of the firft
cartilage of the larynx. See Anatomy, Part VI.
ADAMIC earth, a name given to common red clay,
alluding to that fpecies of earth of which the firft man
is fuppofed to have been made.
ADAMITES, in church hiftory, .a name fometimes u-
fed for the defeendents of Adam by Seth, who are
more ufually called Sethites. But the name Adamites
is more particularly ufed, by ecclefiaftical writers, for
a fe<5t of ancient heietics, who took upon them to imi¬
tate the nakednefs’of Adam, and pretended to be re-
inftated in his original innocence.
ADAMSHIDE, a diftrhft of the circle of Raftenburg,
belonging to the King of Pruifia, Which, with Dom-
brolken, was bought, in 1737, for 42,000 dollars.
ADAM's peak, a high mountain of the E. Indies, in
the ifland of Ceylon, on the top of which they be¬
lieve the firft man was created; and there is the ft ape
of a man’s foot, cut out of the rock, about five or fix
feet in length, which they pretend is the print of his
foot, 80. 50. E. long. .5 53. lat.
ADANA, an ancient town of Natolia, with a biftop’s
fee. It ftands on the river Choquen, 25 miles N. E.
of Tarfus, 36. 25. long. 38. 10. lat.
ADANSONIA, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia
polyandria clafs. It is a native of Senegal and E-
gypt- "t
ADAOUS, or Adows, a people of Guinea in Africa.
ADAPTERS, in chemiftry, machines for fitting a reci¬
pient to the capital. See Chemistry.
ADAR, the name of a Hebrew month, anfwering to the
end of February and beginning of March, the 12th of
their facred, and 6th of their civil year. On the
7th
A D D ( 2 >
^th da^ of if, the Jews keep a fp.ft for the death of
Mofes; on the 13th, they have the fall of Efther;
and on the 14th, they celebrate the feat! of Purim,
for their deliverance frora Haman’s confpiracy,.
ADARCE, a kind of concreted falts found on reeds and
other vegetables, and applied by the ancients as a re¬
medy in feveral cutaneous difeafes.
AD ARGON, in Jewilh antiquity, a gold coin mention¬
ed in fcripture, about the value of which authors are
. not agreed,
ADARJK,. a fmall town of Ireland, in the county of
Limmerick.
ADARME, in comraere, a fmall weight in Spain, which
is alfo ufed at Buenos-Aires, and in all Spanilh Ame¬
rica. It is the 16th part of an ounce, which at Paris
is called the demi-gros. But the Spanifh ounce is fe-
ven per cent, lighter than that of Paris. Stephens
renders it in Englilh by a. dram.
AD ARTICULATION, in anatomy, the fame with
diarthrofis. See Djas. thro sis.
ADATAIS, Adatis, or Adatys, in commerce, a
muflin or cotton-cloth, very fine and clear, of which
the piece is ten French ells long, and three quarters
broad. It comes from the E. Indies; and the fined
is made at Bengal. See Mu sun.
ADCHER, in the materia medica, a name given by
fome to the fchcenanth. See Scoenanth.
ADCORDABILES denarii, in ancient law-books, is
money paid by the vaffal to his lord, in the nature of
a fine, upon felling ©r exchanging a feud.
ADCRESCENTES, among the Romans, denoted a
kind of lotdiery, entered in the army, but not yet put
on duty; from thefe the {landing forces were recruited.
See Accensi.
ADDA, in geography, a river of Switzerland and Italy,
which rifes in mount Braulio, in the country of the
Grifons, and palling through the Valteline, traverfes
the lake Como and the Milanefe, and falls into the
Pp, near Cremona.
ADD ACE, in natural hiftpry, a name the Africans give
to the common antelope. See Gazella.
ADDEPHAGIA, in medicine, a term ufed by fpme
phyficians, for gluttony, or a voracious appetite.
ADDER, in zoology, a vulgar name for the Viper;
which fee.
ADDERS-TONGUE, in botany, the Englilh name
of the ophicgloffum. See Ophioguossum.
ADDER-WORT, in botany, the Englilh name of the
polygonum billata. See Polygonum.
ADDEXTRATORES, in the court of Rome, the pope’s
mitre-bearers, fo called according to Ducange, be-
. caufe they walk at the pope’s right-hand, when he
rides to vifit the churches.
ADDICE, or Adze, a kind of crooked ax ufed by
Ihip-wrights, carpenters, coopers, <&c.
ADDICTI, in antiquity, a kind of Hayes, among the
Romans,, adjudged to ferve fome creditor whom they
could not otherwife fatisfy, and whofe Haves they be¬
came till they could pay, or work out the debt.
ADDICTION, among the Romans, was the making
over goods to another, either by fale, or by legal fen-
1 ) y ^ A D E
tence ; the goods fo delivered were called von a addicr
ta. Debtors were fometimes delivered over in- the
fame manner; and thence called fervi additti.
ADDICTIO in diem, among the Romans, the adjud¬
ging a. thing to a. perfem for a certain price, unlefs by
fuch a day the owner, or fome other, give more
for it.
ADD1TAMENT, a term fometimes ufed by chemifts
and phyficians, for the addition of any new ingredient
to increafe the ftrength of a menltruum or compofi-
tion.
ADDITION, is the joining together or uniting two or
more things, or augmenting a thing by the acceflion
-of others thereto.
Addition, in Arithmetic, Algebra, Loga¬
rithms, &c. fee thefe articles.
Addition of ratios, a term fometimes ufed for com-
pofition of ratios.
Addition, in mufic, a dot marked on the right fide of
a note, fignifying that it is to be founded or length¬
ened half as much more as it would have been with¬
out fuch mark.
Addition, in law, is. that title or defiguation which is
given to a man, over and above his proper name, and
firnarae, to {hew .of what eftate, degree, occupation,
or place he is.
Additions, in heraldry, fome things added to a coat
of arms, as marks of honour; and thereforedireftly
oppofite to abatements. Among additions we reckon
Bo rdure, Quarter, Canton,Gyron, Pile, <&c.
See thefe articles.
Addition, in diltillery, a general name given to fuch
things as are added to the wadi or liquor while ferment¬
ing, to increafe the vinofity and quantity of the fpirit,
or give it a particular reliia,
ADDITIVE, in general, fomething to be added. Thus,
mathematicians fpeak of additive ratios, aftronomers
of additive equations. See.
ADDOU, one of the Maldivian iHands.
ADDRESS, a term often ufed to exprefs the {kill and
propriety with which an affair is condu&ed or mana¬
ged.
An Address, in a particular acceptation, is a congra¬
tulation, petition, or remonftrance, prefented to a fo-
perior, efpccially to the king.
ADDUCENT mufclcs, or Adductors. See Ad¬
ductor.
ADDUCTION, in anatomy, the motion or aftion of
the adducent mufcles.
ADDUCTOR, in anatomy, the names of all mufcles
which pull one part of the body towards another. See
Anatomy, Part II.
ADEA, in geography, a province of Annian, on the eaft-
ern coaft of Africa, called alfo Adel.
ADEB, a large and uncertain Egyptian weight, ufed
chiefly for rice.
ADEL, or Adea, in geography, a kingdom of Africa,
called alfo Zeila, from its capital town. It lies o»
the S. coaft of the ftrait of Babelmandel. There i»
feldom any rain here, and yet the country is fruitful,
it being well watered with rivers. It abcuids with
wheat.
.Plate JIL,
Ado nis Adpkxixa
V
f Ay.
AXcAITDA. <
A D E ( 2
wheat, -millet, frankincenfe, and pepper. Their reli¬
gion is the Mahometan.
KwL-fiJh, an obfolete name of the falmo albula, be¬
longing to therorder of abdominales. . See Sal mo.
ADEL-ODAGAM, in botany, a fynonime of the jufti-
cia biyalvis. See Justicia. ,
ADELIA, in botany, a genus of the dioecia monadel-
phia clafs. Of this genus there are three fpecies ; the
bernardia, a native of America; and the ricinella
and acidoton, both natives of Jamaica.
ADELPHIANI, in church hiftory, a fed of ancient
heretics, fo called from their leader Adelphius. They
keep the fabbath as a faft.
ADELSCALC, in antiquity, a fervant of the king; from
the German, add, noble, and fcalc, a fervant. They
feem to have been the fame with royal thanes among
the Saxons, and the minijlri regis in ancient char¬
ters.
ADELSPERG, a fmall town of Germany, in lower
Carniola. •
ADEMPTION, in law, is the revocation of a donation,
or grant, either diredly by a deed or writ, or indi-
redly by otherwife difpofing of the fubjed of it. See
Rescission.
ADEN, formerly a rich and confiderable town of Ara¬
bia the Happy It is feated by the fea-fide, a lit¬
tle eaftward of the llraits of Bebelmandel.
ADENANTHERA, in botany, a genus of the decan-
dria monogynia clafs. There are only two fpecies of
this plant, the pavonina and the faleataria, both na¬
tives of India.
ADENBURG, or Aldenburg, in geography, a town
of Weftphalia, and in the dutchy of Burg, fubjed to
the Eledor Palatine. It is 12 miles.N. E. of Cologne,
and 17 W. of Bonn, 7. 2J. E. long. 51. 2. lat.
ADENDUM, a fmall town of Africa, in the kingdom
of Fez.
ADENOGR APHY, that part of anatomy which treats
of the glandular parts.
ADENOIDES, in anatomy. See Prostates.
ADENOLOGY. See Adenography.
ADENOS, a kind of cotton otherwife called marine
cotton. It comes from Aleppo by the way of Marfeilles,
where it pays 20 percent, duty, according to the tariff
of the year 1766. Its valuation, according to the fame
tariff, is 76 livres i6fols.
ADENOSE abfeefs, a term fometimes ufed for a hard
tumour relembling a gland.
ADEONA, in mythology, the name of a goddefs invoked
by the Romans when they fet out upon a journey.
ADEPHAGIA, in mythology, the goddefs of glutto¬
ny, to whom, the Sicilians paid religious worlhip.
ADEPS, in anatomy, the fat found in the abdomen.
It alfo fignifies animal-fat of any kind.
ADEPTS, a term among alchemifts for thofe who pre¬
tended to have found out the panacea or philofophers-
ftone.
ADEQUATE, fomething equal to or exadly corre-
fponding with another.
Adequate idea, fignifies a diftind or perfed concep¬
tion of all the. qualities of any objed.
Vol. I. No. 2.
5 ) ADI
ADERBERG, a town of Pomerania, fituate on the Ci¬
der.
ADERBIGAN, a province of Perfia, bounded on the
N. by Armenia Proper, on the S. by Irac-Agemi, -on
the E. by Ghilan, and on the W. by Curdillan. The
principal town is Tauris, from 42. to. 48. long, from
36. to 39. lat.
ADERNO, a fmall place in the Val di Demona in the
kingdom of Sicily, 15. 25. E. long. 28. 5. lat.
ADESSENARIANS, AdesSenarii, in church-hilto-
ry, a fed of Chriftians, who hold the real prefence
of Chrilt’s body in the eucharift, though not by way
of tranfubftantiation. They differ confiderably as! to
this prefence, fome holding that the body of Chrift is
in the bread; others, that it is about the bread; and
others, that it is under the bread.
ADFECTED equation. See Algebra.
ADFILIATION, a Gothic cuflom, whereby the chil¬
dren of a former marriage are put upon the fame
footing with thofe of the fecond. This is alfo cal¬
led unto proliutn, and (till retained in fome parts of
Germany.
ADHATODA, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies of
ruelia, acanthus, and of two fpecies of jufticia.
Aftion of ADHERENCE, in Scots law, an adion com-,
petent to a hufband or wife, to compel either party to
adhere, in cafe of defertion. See Law, title, Mar¬
riage. .
ADHERGAT, a town of Syria, near the frontiers of
Arabia.
ADHESION, implies the Ricking or adhering of two
bodies together.
Adhesion, in logic, fignifies tenacioufnefs to an argu¬
ment, without regard to any evidence of its truth.
Adhesion, in anatomy, a term for one part flicking to'
another, which in a natural Rate are feparate.
ADHOA, in ancient cufloms. See Relief.
ADJA, or Adga, a town of Guinea on the coafl of
Fantin.
ADJACENT, an appellation given to fuch things as are
fituate near, or adjoining to each other...
ADIANTHUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptoga-
mia filices, of which there are 19 fpecies, and only *
two of them natives of Britain, viz. the adianthum
capillus veneris, or true maiden-rhair, and the trapezi-'
forme, or fhining maiden-hair.
ADIAPHORISTS, Adiaphoristje, or Adiapk-o-
rites, in church-hiflory, a name importing lake-;
warmnefs, given, in the fixteenth century, to the mode¬
rate Lutherans, who embraced the opinions of Me-,
landhon, whofe difpofition was vaftly more pacific than
that of Luther.
ADJAZZO, in geography, a handfome town and caftle
of Corfica in the Mediterranean, with a bilhop’s fee,,
and . a good harbour. It is populous, and fertile in
wine. Some call it Agaccio. It is 27 miles S. W.
of Corte, 8. 53. E. long. 41. 54. lat.
ADJECTIVE, in grammar, when joined to a fubftan-
tive, imports fome quality, or accident, or circum-
• fiance belonging to that fubflantive.
ADIGE, in geogtaphy, a river in Italy, which taking -
G its
3
ADM (21
Its rife S. of the lake Glace, among the Alps, runs S.
by Trent, then E. by Verona in the territory of Ve¬
nice, and falls into the gulph of Venice, N. of the
mouth of the Po.
ADJOURNMENT; the word imports putting off
fomething to another day or time.
ADIPOSE, a term ufed by anatomifts. for any cell,
membrane, tec-, that Is remarkable for its fatnefs.
ADVIRBEITSAN, in geography, a province of Per-
fia, in Alia, and part of the ancient Media. It is
bounded on the N. by the province of Shirvan, :on
the S. by Irac-Agemi and Curdiftan, on the E. by Gi-
kn and the Caipian fea, and . on the W. by Turco-
mania.
ADIT, in general, fignifies the palfage to, or entrance
of any thing, as the adit of a mine, &c.
ADJUDICATION, in Scots , law, the name of that
adion by which a creditor attaches the heritable eftate
of his debtor, or his debtor’s heir, in order to appropri¬
ate it to himfelf, either in payment ar fecurity of his
debt; or, that addon by which the holder of an heri¬
table right, labouring under any defedt in point of
form, may fupply that defect. See Law, title, Com-
prifings and adjudications.
ADJUNCT, fomething added or joined to another. In
rhetoric and grammar, they fignify certain words or
things added to others, to amplify or augment the
force of the difcourfe.
ADJUTANT, in the military art, is an officer whofe
bufinefs it is to affift the major. Each battalion of
foot and regiment of horfe has an adjutant, who re¬
ceives the orders every night from the brigade-major ;
which, after carrying them to the colonel, he delivers
out to the ferjeants. When detachments are to be
paade, he gives the number, to be furniffied by each
company or troop, and affigns the hour and place of ren¬
dezvous. He alfo places the guards, receives and di-
ftributes the ammunition to the companies, <bc. and
by the major’s orders, regulates the prices of bread,
beer, and other provifions.—The word is fometimes
ufed by the French for an aid-du-camp.
hmxs T&KT$rgenerai, among the Jefuits, a felecft num¬
ber of fathers, reliding with the general of the order,
each of whom has a province or country affigned him,
as England, Holland, <bc. and their bulinefs is to in¬
form the father-general of ftate-oceurrences in fuch
countries.
ADJUTORIUM, .a term ufed by phyfjcians for any
medicine in a prefcription but the capital one.
Ax>jutorium, in anatomy, the fame with the humerus
or fnoulder^blade. See Humerus.
ADLE-EGGS, fuch as have not received an impregna¬
tion from the femen of the cock.
ADLOCUTION, in Roman antiquity, is chiefly under-
ftood of fpeeches made by Roman generals, to their
armies, to. animate .them with courage, before a battle.
ADMINICLES, in Scots law, fignifies any writing or
deed referred to by a party in an action of law, for
proving his alledgeances or aflertions.
A dm inicles, among antiquarians, the ornaments where¬
with Juno is reprefented on medals.
5 ) ADM
ADMINICULATOR, an ancient officer of the church,
whofe bufinefs. it was to attend to, and defend- the
caufe of widows, orphans, and others deftitute ofhelp,
ADMINISTRATION, in general, the government,
direiSion, or management of affairs, and particular¬
ly the exercife of diftributive juitice; among eccle-
fiaftics it is often ufed to exprefs the giving or dilpen-
fing the facraments, tie.
Administration, is alfo the name given by the Spa¬
niards in Peru, to the ilaple magazine, or warehoiife,
eilablifhed at Callao, a fmall town on the S. Sea, which
is the port of Lima, the capital of that part of S. A-
merica, and particularly of Peru. The foreign fhips,
which have leave to trade along that coaft, are obliged
to unload here, paying 13 per cent, of the price they
fell for, if the cargo be entire, and even 16 percent.
if otherwiieq befides which they pay 3 per lodo,
duty for confulftiip, and feme other fmall royal rights
and claiins.
Administration, a term ufed by anatomifts for the
art of differing with propriety.
ADMINISTRATOR, in Scots law, a perfon legally
impowered to aft for another whom the law prefumes
incapable of afting for himfelf. Thus tutors or cura¬
tors are fometimes ftyled adminijlrators in lavs to pu¬
pils, minors, or.fatuous perfons. But more generally
the term is ufed to imply that power which is confer¬
red by the law upon a father over the perfons and e-
ftates of his children during their minority. See Law,
title. Minors, and their tutors and curators.
Administrator, is fometimes ufed for the prefident
of a province; for a perfon appointed to receive, ma¬
nage, and diftribute the revenues of an hofpital or re¬
ligious houfe ; for a prince who enjoys the revenues
of a fecularized biftiopiick; and for the regent of a
kingdom, during a minority of the prince, or a va¬
cancy of the throne.
ADMINISTRATRIX, a woman who afts as admini-
ftrator.
ADMIRABILIS, in botany, a fynonime of the mirabi-
lis. See Mirabilis,
ADMIRABILIS fal, the fame with Glauber’s fait. See
Glauber’s salt .
ADMIRAL, in maritime affairs, a great officer who
commands the naval forces of a kingdom or ftate.
High Admiral, in the law of Scotland, a judge in¬
verted with fupreme jurifdiftion in all maritime caufes
within Scotland. See Law, title. Supreme judges,
and courts of Scotland.
Admiral alfo denotes the commander in chief of a fingle
fleet or fquadron; or, in general, ary flag-officer what¬
ever. In the Britifli navy, befides the admiral who
commands in chief, there are the vice-admiral, who
commands the fecond fquadron ; and the rear-admiral,
who commands the third. The admiral carries his
flag at the main-top-maft-head; the vice-admiral at
the fore-top-maft-head; and the rear-admiral at the'
mizen-top-maft-head. See Flag.
F/Cif-ADMiRAL likewife denotes an officer inverted with
the jurifdiftion of an admiral, within a certain diftrift.
There are a number of fuch in G. Britain.
Admiral,
ADO
Apmiral is alfo an appellation given to the mod con-
liderable Ihip of a fleet of merchant-men, or of the
vefleb employed in the cod-fifliery of Newfoundland.
This laft has the privilege of chufing what place he
pleafcs on the fhore to dry his fifli; gives proper or¬
ders, and appoints the filhing places to thofe who come
after him; and as long as the fiftiing-feafon continues,
he carries a flag on his main-mart.
Admiral, in zoology, the Englifli name of a fpecies of
the voluta, a (hell fifti belonging to the order of ver¬
mes tertacea. See Voluta.
High Court of ADMIRALTY, in Scotland, the court 4
in which the high-admiral is judge. See Admi¬
ral.
ADMIRATION, in general, denotes furprife, wonder,
or aftoniflufient at any extraordinary event. Some¬
times alfo it fignifies the expreffion of wonder.
ADMISSION, among ecclefiaftical writers, is the a<rt of
a bifliop’s allowing axlerk to be properly qualified for
ferving a cure.
ADMITTENDO clerico, in the Englifli law, a writ
granted to a perfon who has recovered his right of pre-
fentation againft the bifhop, <bc. in the common pleas,
by which the bifliop, or metropolitan 's ordained to ad¬
mit his clerk.
Admittendo in focium, in the Englifli law, a writ
for the aflbciation of certain perfons to juftices of af-
fize formerly appointed.
ADMONITION, in ecclefiaftical difcipline, is a formal
warning of an offender of his irregularities, and ad-
vifing him to reform.
ADMONITIO;/"«/?/'aw, among the Romans, a milita¬
ry punifliment, not unlike our whipping, only it was
performed with vine-branches.
ADMORTIZATION, in the feudal cuftoms, the re-
duftion of the property of lands or tenements to mort¬
main. See Mortmain.
ADNATA, inanatomy, one of the coats of the eye, which
is alfo called conjundiva and albuginea. See Ana¬
tomy, Part VI.
Adnata, is alfo ufed for any hair, wool, or the like,
which grows upon animals or vegetables.
ADNOUN," a term ufed by feme giammarians for an
adjediive.
AD o/flo, implied the higheft degree of perfeflion, among
ancient philofophers.
ADOLESCENCE, the flower of youth, or time of
growth in the human fpecies, commencing at infancy,
and terminating in manhood.
ADOLPH Fredrick's Schacht, a filver-mine in Sweden,
which, from 1742 to 1747, produced a great deal of
fllver.
ADOM, in geography, a populous village in the pro¬
vince of-Stuhl-Weiffenberg, belonging to Hungary.
It lies in a fruitful country, towards the river Da¬
nube, 19. 20. long. 47. 30. lat.
ADONAI, one of the names of the Supreme Being in
the feriptures. The proper m .aning of the word is
my lords, in the plural number, as Adoni is my lord
in the Angular.
ADONIA, in mythology, feftivals in honour of Venus,
A D P
and in memory of Adonis, with whom flie is faid to
l?ave been in love.
ADONIAS, in botany, an obfolete name of the anemone.
See Anemone.
ADONIDES, in botany, a name given to botanifts who
deferibed or made catalogues of plants cultivated in
any particular place.
ADONION, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpecies of
fouthernwood.
ADONIS, in zoology. See Exocoetus.
Adonis, in botany, a genus of the polyandria poly-
gynia clafs. The Englifli names are, adonis-flower,
pheafant’s eye, red maithes, or red morocco. The
calix of this genus is pentaphyllous, the petals are
five, and the leeds are naked. There are five fpecies
of the adonis, viz. the aeftivalis, autumnalis, verna-
lis, appennina, and capenlis; none of which are natives
of Britain, excepting the autumnalis. See Plate III.
fig. 1. which reprefents the adonis appennina.
Adonis A?/;?, in antiquity, an ancient beverage made
of wine, mixed with flower of roafted adon. It was
the fame with cyceon.
ADOPTIANI, in church hiftory, a fedt/Of antient he¬
retics, followers of Felix of Urgel, and Elipand of
Toledo, who, towards the end of the eighth century,
advanced the notion, that Jefus Chrift, in his human
nature, is the Son of God, not by nature, but by adop¬
tion.
ADOPTION, a folemn adt whereby any one takes an¬
other man’s fon into his family, and makes him his
heir, inverting him -with all the rights and privileges
of a fon.
ADOPTIVE, in general, fignifies any thing adopted.
Thus we fay, adoptive children, &c.
Adoptive arms, in heraldry, or, arms of adoption,
thofe which a perfon enjoys by the gift or concelfion of
another, and to which he was not otherwife intitled.
ADOPTIVE See Adoptiani.
ADORATION, is the homage and fubmiflion due to
the Supreme Being.
ADOSSEE,in heraldry, fignifies two figures or bearings,
being placed back to back. - Thus the arms of the
dutchy of Bar are two bars adojfee, or back to back.
ADOUR, the name of a river of France, which rifes in
the mountains of Bigorre, and running N. by Tarbes
through Gafcony, afterwards turns E. and, palfing by
Dax, falls into the bay of Bifcay, below Baycnne.
ADOXA, or Tuberose Moschatel, in botany, a
. genus of the odlandria tetragynia clafs. There is on¬
ly one fpecies of the adoxa, which is a native of Bri¬
tain and other parts of Europe.
ADPERCEPTION, a term uled by Leibnitz for the aft
whereby the mind becomes ccnfcious of its perceptions.
AD pondus omnium, among phyficians, an abbreviation
in their preferiptions, fignifying that the. laft mention¬
ed ingredient is to weigh as much as all the reft to¬
gether.
AD quod damnum, in the Englifli law, a writ direcled
to the IheriiF, commanding him to enquire into the da¬
mage which may befal from granting certain privileges
to a place, as a fair, market, or the like.
( 27 )
ADRA,
ADRA, in geography, a fea-port town of Spain, in the
kingdom of Granada,. 37 miles_ S. E. of Granada,
and 12 S. W. of Almeria, 1. 10. W: long. 36. o. lat.
ADRACANTH. See Tkagacanth.
ADRACHNE, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpecies
of arbutus. See Arbutus.
ADRAMMELECH, in antiquity, or mythology, a
deity worfhipped by the inhabitants of Sepharvaim, a
people planted in the Holy Land by the kings of Af-
fyna, after Salmanazar had taken Samaria, and put
a final period to the kingdom of Ifrael. The wor-
fhippers of Adrammeleeh burnt their children in the
fire to the honour of that idol. The name is Perfian,
and fignifies the magnificent king.
ADRIUNE, in botany, an obfolete name of the cycla¬
men. See Cyclamen.
ADROBE, the name of two rivers in that part of Afia-
tic Tartary which is fubjeft to Mofcovy : They both
, fall into the Wolga beneath Cazan.
ADSCRIPTS, a term ufedby fome mathematicians for
the natural tangents. See Tangent.
AD SI DELL Aj in antiquity, the table at which the
flamens fat during the facrifices.
ADSTAT, a fmall town belonging to Denmark in the
ifiand of Iceland, not far from Holar.
ADSTRICTION, among phyficians, a term ufed to de¬
note the rigidity of any part.
ADVANCE, in the mercantile ftyle, denotes money
paid before goods are delivered, work done, or bufi-
nefs performed.
ADVANCED ditch, in fortification, is that which fur-
rounds the'glacis or efplanade of a place.
Advanced guard, or vanguard, in the art of war, the
firft line or divifion of an army, ranged, or marching
in order -of battle; or, it is that part which is next
the enemy, and marches firft towards them.
Advanced guard, is more paticularly ufed for a fmall
party of horfe ftationed before the main-guard.
ADVANCER, among fportfmen, one of the ftarts, or
branches of a buck’s attire, between the back antler
and the palm.
ADUAR, in the Arabian and Moorifh cuftoms, a kind
of ambulatory village, confifting of tents, which thefe
people remove from one place to another, as fuits their
conveniency.
ADVENT, in the kalendar, properly fignifies the ap¬
proach of the feaft of the Nativity. It includes four
fundays, which begin on St Andrew’s day, or on the
Sunday before or after it. During advent, and to the
end of the oflaves of Epiphany, the folemnizing of
marriage is forbid, without a fpecial licence.
ADVENTITIOUS, an epithet applied to any thing that
is accidental or fortuitous.
AD VENTREM infpiciendum, in law, a writ by which
a woman is to be fearched v/hether fhe be with child
by a former hufband, on her with-holding of lands
from the next, failing iffue of her own body.
ADVENTURE, in a general fenfe, fome extraordina¬
ry or accidental event. It alfq denotes a hazardous
or difficult undertaking.
Bill ^Adventure, among merchants, a writing fign-
ed by a merchant, teftifying the goods mentioned in
it to be (hipped on board a certain veffel belonging
to another perfon, who is to run all hazards; the
merchant only obliging himfelf to account to him for
the produce.
ADVENTURER, in a general fenfe, denotes one who
hazards fomething. •
ADVERB, in grammar, a word joined to verbs, ex-
preffing the manner, time, 'be. of an adtion: thus,
in the phrafe, he ny'as warmly attached to the interejl
cf his majler, the'word warmly is an adverb. See
Grammar.
ADVERSARIA, among the ancients, a book of ac¬
counts, not unlike our journals, or day-books. It is
more particularly ufed for a kind of common-place-
book. See Common-place-book.
ADVERSARY, a perfon who is an enemy to, or oppo-
fes another.
ADVERSATIVE, in grammar, a word expreffingfome
difference between what goes before and what follows
' it. Thus, in the phrafe, he is an honejl man, but a
great enthujiafi, the word but is an adverfative con¬
junction.
ADVERSATOR, in antiquity, a fervant who attended
the rich in returning from fupper, to give'them notice
of any obftacles in the way, at which they might be apt
to ftumble.
ADVERTISEMENT, in a general fenfe, denotes any
information given to perfons interefted in an affair;
and is more particularly ufed for a brief account of an
affair inferred in the public papers, for the information
of all concerned.
ADULT, an appellation given to any thing that is ar¬
rived at maturity : Thus we fay, an adult perfon, an
adult plant, be. Among civilians, it denotes a youth
between fourteen and twenty-five years of age.
ADULTERATION, the adt of^ebafing, by an impro¬
per mixture, fomething that v/as pure and genuine
ADULTERY, an unlawful commerce between one mar¬
ried perfon and another, or between a married and un¬
married perfom See Scots Law, titles, Marriage,
and Crimes.
ADVOCATE, among the Romans, a perfon who un¬
dertook the defence of caufes. The term is ftill kept
up in all countries where the civil law obtains.
King's Advocate, is the principal crown-lawyer in
Scotland. His bufinefs is to adt as a public profecu-
tor, and to plead in all caufes that concern the crown;
but particularly in fuch as' are of a criminal nature.
The office of King’s advocate is not very ancient: It
feems to have been eftabjilhed about the beginning of
the 16th century. Originally he had no power to
profecute crimes without the concurrence of a private
party; but in the year 1597, he was impowered to
profecute crimes at his own inftance.
Faculty ^/’Advocates, in Scotland, a refpedlable bo¬
dy of lawyers, who plead in all caufes before the
Courts of Seffion, Judiciary, and Exchequer. They
are alfo intitled to plead in the houfe of peeis, and o-
ther fupreme courts in England.
In the year 1660, the faculty founded a library
upon
A D V ( i
upon a very extenfive plan, fuggefted by that learned
and eminent lawyer Sir George M'Kenzie of Rofe-
haugh, advocate to King Charles II. and King James
VII. who enriched it with many valuable books. It
has been daily increafing finee that time, and now con¬
tains not only the belt collection of law-books in Eu¬
rope, but a very large and feleCt collection of books on
all fubjeCts. Befides, this library contains a great
number of original manufcripts, and a vaft variety of
Jewifh, Grecian, Roman, Scots, and Englilh coins
and medals. \ ,
A candidate for the office of an advocate undergoes
three feveral trials: The firft is in Latin, upon the ci¬
vil law and Greek and Roman antiquities ; the fecond,
in Englilh, upon the municipal law of Scotland; and
in the third, he is obliged to defend a Latin thefis,
which is impugned by three members of the faculty.
Immediately before putting on the gown, the candidate
makes a Ihort Latin Ipeech to the lords, and then takes
the oaths to the government and de fide It.
The faculty at prefent confifts of above 200 mem¬
bers. As an advocate or lawyer is elteemed the gen-
teeleft profeffion in Scotland, many gentlemen of for¬
tune take the degree of advocate, without having any
intention of praCtiling at the bar. This circumftance
greatly increafes their number, gives dignity to the
profeffion, and enriches their library and public fund.
It is from this refpeCtable body, that all vacancies on
the bench are generally fupplied,
Fifcal Advocate, fifci advocatus, in Roman antiqui¬
ty, an officer of ftate under the Roman Emperors, who
pleaded in all caufes wherein the fifcus, or private trea-
fury, was concerned.
Conjijlorial Advocates, officers of the confiftory at.
Rome, who plead in all oppofitions to the difpofal of
benefices in that court; they are ten in number., ,
Advocate of a city, in the German polity, a magi-
ftrate appointed in the Emperor’s name to adminifter
juftice.
Bill of ADVOCATION, in Scots law, a writing drawn
up in the form of a petition, whereby a party, in an ac¬
tion before an inferior court, applies to the fupreme
court, or court of Seffion, for calling the action from
the inferior court before itfelf. See Law, title, Ju-
rifdiftion, and judges in general.
Letters of Advocation, in Scots law, the decree or
warrant of the court of Seffion upon cognifance of the
fafts fet forth in the bill, drawn up in the form of a
fummons, and paffing under the fignet, difcharging the
inferior judge and all others from further procedure in
the caufe, and advocating it to itfelf. See- Bill of
Advocation.
ADVOCATIONE decimarum, a writ which lies for
claiming a fourth part fqr tidres, or upwards, belong¬
ing to any church.
ADVOUSON, orAnvouzEN. SeeAnvowzoN.
AD VOU, in law, fignifies the patron of a church, or
he who has a right to prefent to a benefice.
Paramount ADVOWEE, is ufed for the king, as be¬
ing the higheft patron.
ADVOWING. See Avowing,
Vol. I, No, 2.
9 ) iE G I
ADVOWTRY, a term ufed in fome old law-books for
adultery.
ADVOWZON, in law, is the right of patronage, or
prefenting to a vacant benefice,
ADUST, among phyficians, a term applied to the blood,
&c. when too hot and fiery.
ADUSTION, among phyficians, the fame with inflam¬
mation.
ADYTUM, in pagan antiquity, the moft retired and fa-
cred place of their temples, .into which none but the
priefts were allowed to enter.
ADZEL, a fmall town of Livonia, fituated on the fouth-
fide of the river Aa, about ten German leagues fouth-
weft of Dorpt.
.ZEACEA, in Grecian antiquity, folemn feftivals and
games celebrated at ZEgina, in honour of ZEacus ; who,
on account of his juftice upon earth, was thought to
to have been appointed one of the judges in hell.
ZECHMALOTARCHA, in Jewifh antiquity, the title
given to the principal leader or governor of .the Hebrew
captives refiding in Chaldea, Aflyria, and the neigh¬
bouring countries.
iEDES, in Roman antiquity, befides its more ordinary
fignification of a houfe, likewife fignified an inferior
kind of temple, confecrated to fome deity.
AiDICULA, a term ufed to denote the inner part of
the temple, where the attar and ftatue of the deity flood.
rEDILATE, the office of jedile, fometimes called adt-
liiy. See the next article,
ZEDILE, in Roman antiquity, a magiftrate whofe hu»
finefs it was to fuperintend buildings of all kinds, but
more efpecially public ones, as temples, aqusedufis,
high-ways, bridges, fee..
ALDITUUS, in Roman antiquity, an officer belonging
to the temples., who had the charge of the offerings,
treafure, and facred utenfils. The female deities had
a woman-officer of this kind called eeditua.
ZEGAGIfOPILA, a ball compofed of a fubftance refem-
bling hair, generated in the ftomach of the chamois-
goat. This ball is of the fame nature with thofe found
in cows, hogs, fee.
ZEGILETHRON, in botany, an obfolete name of the
mercurialis. See Mercurial is,
ZEGIAS, among phyficians, a white fpeck on the pupil
of the eye, which occafions dimnefs of fight.
JEGILOPS, among phyficians, a lpecies of abfeefs. See
Surgery, title. Of abfeeffes, oe tumors.
AEgilqps, in botany, a genus of the polygamia monoecia
clafs. There are five fpecies of this plant, which is a
kind of grafs, viz. the ovata, caudata, fquarrofa,
triuncialis, and incurvata, only the laft of which is a
native of Britain, and grows by the fea-fhore. The
Englifh name is fea-hard-grafs.
iEGINETIA, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies of oro-
banche. See Orobanchx.
AEGIPAN, in heathen mythology, a denomination given
to the god Pan, becaufe he was reprefented with the
horns, legs, feet, fee. of a.goat.
AEGIS, in heathen piythology, is particularly ufed for
the fliield or cuirafs of Jupiter and Pallas.
AEGIUCHUS, in heathen mythology, a firname of Ju-
H piter.
3
iE O N (3
piter, given him on account of his having been fuckled
by a goat.
iLGLEFINyS, or Haddock, in ichthyology, a fpe-
ciesofthe gadus. See Gadus.
iEGOCEPHALUS, in ornithology, an obfolete name
of a fpecies of tringa. See Tringa.
iSGOCERAS, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpecies
of ononis. See Ononis.
iEGOCERATOS, in botany, a fynonime of the hugo-
nia. See Hugonia.
iEGOLETHRON, in botany, an obfolete name of the
rhododendron hirfiuum. See Rhododendron.
AiGONICHUS, in botany, an obfolete name of the li-
thofpermum. See Lithospermum.
iEGOPHTHALMUS, a name given to any of the fe-
mipellucid gems with circular fpots in them, refembling
the eye of a goat.
.ZEGQPOGGN, in botany, an obfolete name of the'tra-
gapodon. See Tragapodon.
iEGOPGDIUM, a genus of the pentandria digynia
clafs. There is but one fpecies of this plant, which
is a native of Britain and other parts of Europe.
The Englifh name is herb-gerurd, gout-weed, or ajh-
weed.
A.GYPTIACUM, in pharmacy, the name of feveral
detergent ointments.
iEGYPTILLA, the name of a flone variegated with
■different colours, and faid to be capable of giving wa¬
ter the colour and tafte of wine.
iElNAtJTvE, in antiquity, a denomination given to
the fenators of Miletus, becaufe they held their deli¬
berations on beard a flap, and never returned to land
till matters had been agreed-on.,
jELURHS, in Egyptian mythology, the deity or god of
cats; reprefented fometimes like a cat, and foinetimes
like a man with a cat’s head.
iEHEATORES, in Roman antiquity, a general name
for tiie muficians of an army.
iENIGMA, denotes any dark faying, wherein fome well*
known thing is concealed under obfeure language. ,
JEN GMATOGRAPHY, or AEnigmathology, the
art of refolving, or making {enigmas.
AEOLIC, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething belong¬
ing to AEolis.
AEolic dialt-tt, among grammarians, one of the five
yhale&s of the Greek tongue, agreeing in moft things
with the Doric dialed. See Doric.
JE-OLi-e wr/c, in prolady, a verfe, confilling of an iam¬
bus, or fpondee; then of two anapells, feparated by a
long fyl’abie; and kffly, of another fyllable. Such as,
0 Jtelliferi ccnditor erbis.
AEOLIPILE, a hollow metalline ball with a flender
neck, tr pipe ; wliich after being filled with water,
and a great degree of heat applied to it, the water
ifines out with great velocity in the form of an elaffic
vapour. See Pneumatics.
JEOLlS, in ancient geography, a country lying upon the
wefttrn coaft of Afia Minor,
iFOLLS, the god of the winds.
JEON, fignifies the age or duration of any thing.
o ) A E R
AEon, among the Platonills, was ufed to denote any vir¬
tue, attribute, or per-fedion.
AEon, in mythology, the firli woman, according to the
Phoenician writers.
AEon, among anatomills, an obfolete name for the fpinal
marrow.
AEON! AN, in botany, an obfolete name of the fedum ma-
jus. See Sed um.
ARA, in chronology, a feries of years commencing from
a certain fixed point of time, called an epoeba ; thus
we fay, the Chnftian aera, that is, the number of years
elapfed fince the birth of Chrift. See Astronomy,
Of the divifion of time.
AEra of Nabe?ia£dr. See Nabonassar.
AEra of the Hegira. See Hegira.
ARARIUM, in Roman antiquity, the treafury or place
where -the public money was depolited.
AEr a r i u m privatum, was the emperor’s privy purfe, or
place where the moneys arifing from his private patri¬
mony were depofited.
ARARIUS, in a general fenfe, denotes any perfon em¬
ployed in coining or managing the public monies.
Ararius was more particularly ufed by the Romans
for a degraded citizen, whofe name had been ftruck off
the lift of his century.
The asrarii were fo called on account of their being
liable to all the taxes and other burdens of the ftatc,
without enjoying any of its privileges. Hence, inter
ararios referri, was a more fevere punifhment than
trihu moveri. *
AERIAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething parta¬
king of the nature of air; thus, aerial fubftance, aeri¬
al particles, tec.
AERlANS, in church-hiftory, a branch of Arians, who,
to the dodrines of that fed, added fome peculiar dog¬
mas of their own ; as, that there is no difference be¬
tween bifhops and priefts ; a dodrine maintained by
many modern divines, particularly of the prelbyterian
and reformed churches.
AERICA, in ichthyology, a fynonime of the clupea he¬
re ngus, or herring. See Clupea.
Flos AERIS, among alchemifts, fmall feales procured
from copper melted by a ftrong heat; it is fometimes
ufed far aerugo or verdegris.
AEROGRAPHY fignifies a defeription of the air, efpe-
cially of its dimenfions, and other moft obvious pro¬
perties ; in which fenfe it differs but little from aero¬
logy, which is a fcientifical account of the nature and Ids
obviens properties of air. See Pneumatics.
AEROMANCY, a fpecics of divination performed by
means of air, wind, tec. It is alfo ufed for the ait
of foretelling the, various changes of the air and wea¬
ther, by means of barometers, hygrometers, tec.
AEROMETRY, the art ofmeafuring the motion, gra¬
vity, elafticity, tarefadion, cpndenlation, tec. of air.
See Pneumatics.
AEROPHOBIA, among phyficians, fignifies the dread
of air.
AEROPHYLACEA, a term ufed by naturalifts for ca¬
verns or refervoirs of air, fuppofed to exift in the
bowels of the earth.
ARRA,
iE S T
iERRA, a fmall town of Portugal, in the province of
Eftramadara, fituated upon the river Zatas.
AERESCHOT, a town of the Dutch Netherlands, fi¬
tuated in Brabant, about fifteen miles call ward of
Mechlin.
iERUGINOUS, in ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of falco. See Falco.
^Eruginous, an epithet given to fuch things are re-
femble or partake of the nature of the rult of cop¬
per.
iERUGO, properly fignifies the raft of copper, or ver-
degris; but is applied indifferently t» ruft of any kind.
AERUGO falis, a kind of reddilh fiimy matter, fepara-
ted from Egyptian natrum; probably a mixture of
bitumen and a red earth.
.fE.RUSCAT@RES, in antiquity, a kind of ftrolhng
beggars, not unlike gypfies, who drew money from
the credulous by fortune-telling, <bc. It was alfo a
denomination given to gripping exaclors, or colledors
of the revenue.
AERY, or Airy, among fportfmen. See Airy.
iES, properly fignifies copper, or money coined of that
metal. See Copper.
Ais favum, yellow Copper, among the Romans, an ap¬
pellation given to the coarfer kinds of brafs. See
Brass.
JEs caldarium, the name of a -certain regulus of antimo¬
ny, employed in preparing the fine blue colour called
f?nalt.
Ms uftuvi, a preparation of copper, by expofing plates
of it in a reverberatory furnace, till they crumble in¬
to a powder, which is called as ujhtm. It is ufed for
colouring glafs, eating off dead fielh, or cleanting foul
ulcers.
fESALON, in ornithology, an obfolete name of a fpecies
of falco. See Falco.
jESCH, in ichthyology, an obfolete name of a fpecies of
falmo. See Sal mo.
AESCHYNOMENE, in botany, a genus of the diadel-
phia decandria dais. There are feven fpecies of this
genus, none of which are natives of Britain. The’ca-
lix of the asfchynomene is bilabiated, and the pod joint¬
ed. It is alfo a fynonime of feveral fpecies of the mi-
mofa, or fenfitive plant. See Mimosa.
iESCULANUS, or jEres, in mythology, adeitywho
prefided over the coinage of copper-money.
AESCULAPIUS’/ ferpent, or Coluber ZEsculapIi.
‘ See Coluber.
ifc.SCULUS, in botany, a genus of the heptandria nio-
nogynia clafs. There are only two fpecies of it, viz.
the cattanum, and the pavia, both- natives of India.
The calix of the asfculus is mondphyilous with five
teeth ; the corolla has five petals unequally coloured,
and inferted into the calix.
jESTIM ATIQ capitis, a term met with in old law-books
for a fine anciently ordained to be paid for offences
committed againft perfons of quality, according to their
feveral degrees.
jESTIVAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething cbn-
ne&ed with, or belonging to fumraer. Hence, ssffival
fign, seftival fo’ftice, 6c-.
iE T H
iESTUARIA, in geography, denotes an arm of the
lea, which runs a good way within land. Such is the
Briftol channel, and many of the friths of Scotland.
tESTUARIES, in ancient baths, were fecret palfages
from the hypocauftum into the chambers. See Bath,
and Hypocaustum.
.ESTUARY, among phyficians, a vapour-bath, or any
other inftrument for conveying heat to the body.
ETH, or Ath, a llrong little' town in the. Auftrian
Netherlands, and province of Hainault, fituated on
the river Dender, about twenty miles S. W. of Braf-
fels.
ETHALE, a term ufed by the ancients for the cadmia
fornacum. See Cadmia.
ETHALIES, a name given by the Greeks to the fedum.
See Sedum.
ETHER, the name of an imaginary fluid, fuppofed by
feveral authors, both ancient and modern, to be the
caufe of gravity, heat, light, mufcular motion, fenfa-
tion, and, in a word, of every phasnomenon in nature.
Anaxagoras maintained that aether was of a fimilar na¬
ture with fire; Perrault reprefents it as 7200 times
more rare than air; and Hook makes it more dehfe
than gold itfelf. Whoever has an inclination to know
the various hypothefes concerning aether, may conudt
Shebbere, I'errault, Hook’s pofthumous works, Aft.
Erucl. Lipf. 1716, Bernouilli’s Cogitat. degravitate
at her is, &c. &c^
Before the method of philofophifing by indudlion was
known, the hypothefes of philolbphers were wild, fan¬
ciful, ridiculous. They had recouife to aether, occult
qualities, and other imaginary cables, in order to ex¬
plain the various phaenomena of nature: But fihee
the days of the great Lord Verulam, who may be ftyled
the parent of genuine philofophy, a contrary courfe has
happily been followed. He convinced the world, that
all knowledge muft be derived from experiment and
obfervation; and that every attempt to inveftigate
caufes by any other means muft be unfuccefsful. Since
his time, the belt philofbphers have followed the trait
Vhich he pointed out. Boyle, Locke, Newton, Hales,
and a few others, in little more than one centujry,
have improved and extended fcience far beyond what
the accumulated force of all the philofophers fince fhe
creation had been able to effedluate : A ftriking pypof
both of the comprehenfive genius of Bacon, and of the
folidity of his plan of inveitigation.
It muft indeed be acknowledged, that there is a pro-
penfity in the human mind, which, unlefs it be pro¬
perly reftrained,' has a direft tendency both to corrupt
fcience, and to retard our progrefs in it. Not costented
with the examination of objeds which readily fall with¬
in the fphere of cur obfervatioh, we feel a ftrong de¬
fire to account for things which, from their very na¬
ture, muft, and ever will, elude our riefearelies. Even
Sir Ifaac Newton himfelf was not proof againft this
temptation. It was not enough that he had difeovered
the nature of light and colours, the application of gra¬
vity to the motions of the heavenly bodies, 6c. he muft
go further, and attempt to ailign the caufe of gravity, it-
ielf. But, how does he proceed in this matter ? Not in
the
( )
i£ T H ( 32
the way Q^esperiment, which had led him to his former
difcoveries, but in the way of conjefture, which will
never lead any man to truth. He had recourfe to a
fubtile elaftic scther, not much different from that of
the ancients, and by it accounted for every thing he
did not know, fuch as the caufe of gravitation, mufcu-
lar motion, fenfation, lire.
Notwithftanding the reputation of Sir Ifaac, philo-
fophers have generally looked upon this attempt as the
foible of a great man, or, at lead, as the mod ufelefs
part of his v/orks ; and accordingly perufe it rather as
a dream or a romance, than as having any connexion
with fcience. But v/e are forry to find, that fome
late attempts have been made to revive this doftrine of
sether, particularly in a differtation De ortu animaliu.ni
caloris, publilhed in May lad.
As the revival of an old do&rine becomes in fome
meafure a new one, we (hall plead no other apology
for inferting a fpecimen of the method of reafoning
employed in this differtation.
The author makes frequent ufe of a fpecies of ar¬
gument termed dilemma by logicians. For example,
in the fird part of the work, after endeavouring to
prove that animal heat cannot be owing to fermenta¬
tion, the motion of the fluids, and other caufes that
have ufually been affigned, he draws this conclufion:—
64 If none of thefe caufes are fuffeient to produce jthe
“ effeft; therefore^ by dilemma,” fays he, “ it ,mud be
44 fought for in the nature and aCtion of the nerves.”
—This is a new fpecies of dilemma: —If the author
had proved, that the caufe of heat in animals could
not poflibly exid any 'inhere, but either in fermenta¬
tion, the motion of the fluids, <bc. or in the nerves,
after having difprpved its evidence in all the red, his
conclufion in favour of the nerves would have been jud;
but, as he has not fo much as attempted this, the
conclufion is not only falfe, but ridiculous.
However, upon the authority of this dilemma., the au¬
thor fird gives what he calls a Corapend of a new doc¬
trine concerning the nerves, and then proceeds to inquire
in what manner the nerves produce animal heat: He
tells us,44 That thought [c-ogitatio) and fenfation depend
44 uponimpulfes either on the extremities of the nerves,
44 or the fenforium commune, and the confequent mo-
44 tions produced by thefe impulfes: That thefe motions
are fo quick, as to be almod indantaneous: That as
44 all motion is mechanical; therefore thought, fen-
44 fation, and mufcular motion, mud likewife be me-
44 chanical: That fuch quick motions cannot be p.ro-
44 duced without the intervention of fome extreme-
44 ly eladic power; and, as Sir Ifaac Newton has
44 fhown, that the impulfes which occafion the diffe-
44 rent fenfations mud be owing to an elaflic power;
44 therefore the mufcular motions of animals mud be
44 occafioned by the ofcillations offome eladic power.”
44 But,” fays he, 44 as this eladic power cannot ex-
44 id in the folid nervous fibres, nor in any ineladic
“ fluid; therefore, by dilemma, it mud exid in an
44 eladic fluid; and hence alfo, by the former dilemma,
44 this eladic fluid mud be feated, either in the nerves,
C4 or in their medullary fubdance,”
) M T H
Here again the'author calls Sir Ifaac into his aflid-
ance.—44 What confirms this opinion,” fays he, 44 is
44 the Newtonian aether, which pervades all nature,
44 and which, with a few variations in its modification,
44 Sir Ifaac has Ihown to be the caufe of cohefion, e-
ladicity, gravity, eledlricity, magnetifm, &c. in
44 the following manner: 1. As the rays of light,
44 when refiefted, do not touch the folid parts of bo-
44 dies, but are reflefted a little before they reach
44 them, it is plain that the aether not only fills the
44 pores of bodies, but likewife floats upon their fur-
44 faces ; and hence it becomes the caufe of attradlion
44 andrepulfion.— 2. All metals, and ineladic fluids,
44 are non-ele&rics ; on the other hand, all folid bo-
44 dies, metals excepted, are eleftrics, i. e. proper for
44 accumulating aether. But aether, thus accumulated
44 in fuch a variety of bodies, may produce various
44 motions in the parts of thefe bodies, without indu-
44 cing any change in the bodies themfelves. Hence
44 aether, with fome variations in its modification, is
44 fufficient to account for all the phaenomena of elec-
44 tricity. 3. As iron, by accumulating aether around
44 it, exhibits all the wonders -of magnetifm ; fo this
44 magnetical aether is more analogous to the nervous
44 aether of animals than any-other kind of it. For,
44 as the magnetical aether paffes along iron without
44 changing any part of the iron ; fo the nervous aether,
44 in like manner, paffes along the medullary fubdance
44 of the nerves, and excites motion in any part; that is
44 continuous with them, without inducing any change
44 in the nerves.— 4. The irritability and life of
44 plants, which very much refemble thofe in animals,
44 cannot be explained by any ineladic caufe, and
44 mud therefore be attributed to an astherial one.
44 Ladly, As the common asther is differently modi-
44 filed in each of the fubdances above taken notice
44 of, and alfo produces various motions or effects pe-
44 culiar to each, it likewife varies and has fome pe-
44 culiar qualities when refiding in animal bodies ; fo
44 that the nervous or animal aether is not exactly the
44 fame, but differs in fome refpefts from thofe fpecies
44 of aether which give rife to cohefion, gravity, mag-
44 netifm, electricity,” &c.
Having thus explained the nature and qualities of
sether, our author darts a very important quedion, viz.
44 Whence is aether derived ? and whether does it leave
any body after .haying once got poffeflion of it ?”
In anfwer to this,' he ohferves, 44 That certain bodies
44 have the power of 'collecting the electrical matter
44 from every circumjacent body, and of accumula-
44 ting it in their pores and on their furfaces, but do
44 not differ it again to tranfinigrate into any other
44 body. There are other fubdances of an oppofite
44 nature, which do not accumulate the eleCtric mat-
44 ter, butindantly allow it to pafs into others, unlefs
44 prohibited by an ele&ric. Hence,” fays he, 44 no-
44 thing more is neceffary for fubdances of the former
44 kind, but to be in fuch circumdances as allow them
44 to accumulate the ele&ric matter. In the fame
44 manner,” proceeds our author, 44 the nervous sether,
44 which is diffufed through every part of nature,
44 flows
JE T H (33
« flows copioufly into the medullary part of the nerves,
“ when no obttacle Hands in its way : but, when once
“ it has got there, it keeps firm poffeflion, and never
“ afterwards leaves it. Now,” fays he, “ a quan-
“ tity of aether probably conftitutes one of the flami-
“ nal parts of animal bodies, and increafes in propor-
x‘ tion to their age and growth: For nothing is more
“ ridiculous than to fuppofe that what is .commonly
“ called the nervous fluid can be daily wafted by-la-
“ hour a.nd exercife, and daily repaired by a new fe-
“ cretion from the brain. To refute this vulgar no-
“ tion, nothing more is neceflary than to fay. That
“ it is one of Boerbaave's theories, and mujl be falfe,
“ as all Boerhaave’s other theories have been proved
“ to be ill-founded ! But aethgr is of a more fixed
“ and determinate nature ;t whenever it gets pofleflion
f‘ of any fubftance, it never forfakes it, unlefs the
“ texture and conftitution of the body itfelf be chan-
“ ged. Hence,” continues our author, “ the tether
ce of an acid body remains as long as the body conti-
‘£ nues to be acid; the fame obfervation holds with
“ regard to the aether of an alkaline body: But, if
“ thefe two be blended together into a neutral fait,
“ the tether muft .likewife be changed into a neutral;
<£ and therefore, in the formation of the medullary
“ or ftaminal part of animals, the aether v/hich before
“ belonged to, or had the properties of fome other fub-
“ ftance, is inftantaneoufly changed into animal Kther,
“ and remains fo till the diflblution of that animal.”
Our author next obferves, “ That bodies require to
“ be in a certain ftate or condition in order to the for-
“ mation of an aether that is proper for them. This
“ condition of bodies is called an excitedfate: Thus,
“ as fulphur, when fluid, does not receive the eleftric
“ matter, but, when folid, inftantly receives it; in
“ the fame manner, the nerves, though properly
“ formed, do not admit an aether adapted to their
“ nature, unlefs they be in an excited ftate. Hence,”
fays he, “ the xther of a dead, and that of a living
“ perfon, are very different, although the texture and
“ figure of the nerves be the fame. The ftate necef-
“ fary for conftituting the xther of a living animal,
£! feems to depend on heat and moifture; becaufe thefe
“ things are abfolutely neceflary in the conftitution of
“ life: And hence,” concludes our author, “ the ex-
“ cited ftate of the- nerves depends on heat and moi-
“ fture. There are alfo certain circumftances,” fays
he, “ which contribute to render the ftate of the
“ nerves more or lefs apt for accumulating xther: A
fpafmodic fever, for example, renders the nerves of
“ the whole body .lefs pervious to the motion of the
“ xther ; and hence, in cafes of this nature, health,
“ and all the vital fund ions, muft be injured.”
££ Thefe,” our author obferves, “ are the outlines
“ of a neon dodtrine concerning the nature and func-
“ tions of the nerves;” and, upon this foundation,
proceeds to give his new theory of animal heat.
££ From the foregoing reafoning," fays he, “ the
“ heat, as well as all the fundtions of animals, feem
“ to be occafioned by the ofcillations of the nervous
“ xther betwixt the extremities of the fentient nerves
Vol. I. No. 2. 3
) iE T H
“ and the brain, or, more properly, betwixt the brain
“ and mufcles. But eledtrical xther, as above ob-
“ fcrved, varies a little from common xther; all in-
“ elaftic fluids, as was.likewife formerly remarked,
“ are non-eledtrics ; and all fclid bodies, metals ex-
“ cepted, are eledtrics: Thefe circumftances,” fays
our author, “ feem to he owing to the ofcillations of
££ the eledtric matter in bodies. In the fame manner,”
fays he, “ the nature of animals may be fuch, and the
“ nerves may be fo conftituted, as to form an xther ad-
“ apted to their nature, and to excite thofe ofcillations
“ which occafion animal heat. The wonderful effedls
“ of heat and cold upon the nerves,” continues our
author, (f confirms this theory: Every adtion, and
“ even life itfelf, requires a certain degree of heat;
“ for, as the heat of the external air is fo variable, it
“ was abfolutely necefiary that animal bodies Ihould
*£ be endowed with the faculty of producing a degree
££ of heat fuited to their nature, independent of ex-
££ ternal circumftances : Hence we fee the reafon why
“ the degree of heat fo feldom varies in the fame fpe-
“ eies of animals. However, although the nervous
“ xther is always ready for exciting heat by its ofcil-
“ lations ; yet, in order to bring about this effedt fuc-
“ cefsfully, external Jlimuli ate neceflary, otherwife
“ the xther would be in danger of Jlagnating, which
“ would occafion fleep, a palfy, and, laft of all, death.
C£ The moft permanent of thefe ftimuli is the-pulfa-
“ tion of the arteries; which is the reafon why heat
“ is fo connedted with the circulation of the blood,
“ and why many authors have miftaken it for the true
“ caufe of animal heat.”
Our author now concludes with obferving, “ That
“ by his theory, the varieties of heat in different parts
“ of the body, the heat and fluffing of the face from
“ ftiame, and all the other phxnomena of heat in ani-
“ mal bodies, admit of abetter explanation, than by
“ any other theory hitherto invented.”
Having thus given a pretty full account of an at¬
tempt to explain the moft abftrufe operations of na¬
ture, as nearly as poflible in the very words of the
author, we cannot deny ourfelves the liberty of ma¬
king a few obfervations.
To give a formal refutation of this author’s reafon¬
ing, is no part of our plan. It is, perhaps, wrong
to fay that he has reafoned; for the whole hypothe¬
tical part of his eflay is a mere farrago of vague afier-
tions, non-entities, illogical conclufions, and extra¬
vagant fancies. His xther feems to be an exceedingly
tradlable fort of fubftance: Whenever the qualities of
one body differ from thofe of another, a different mo¬
dification of at her at once folves the phxnomenon.
The xther of iron muft not, to be fare, be exadtly
the fame with the nervous xther, otherwife it would
be in danger of producing fenfation in place of mag-
netifm. It would like wife have been very improper
to give the vegetable xther exadlly the fame quali¬
ties with thofe of animal xther; for, in fuch a cafe,
men-would ruii great rifle of ftriking root in the foil,
and trees and hedges might eradicate "and run about
the fields. Nothing can be more ludicrous than :o fo:
I a
JE T H (3
a writer treating a mere exs rationis as familiarly as if
it were an objeft of our fenfes: The notion of com¬
pounding the sether of an acid and that of an alkali^
in order to make a neutral of it, is compleatly ridi¬
culous. But if men take the liberty of fublHtuting
names in place of facts and experiments, it is an eafy
matter to account for any thing.
By this method of philofophifing, obfcurity is for
ever banifhed from the works of nature. It is impof-
fible to gravel an astherial philofopher. A fit him what
queftions you pleafe, his anfwer is ready —“ As 'we
“ cannot find the caufe any nuhere elfe ; ergo, by di-
“ lemma, it muft be owing to aether !” For example,
alk one of thofe fages. What is the caufe of gravity ?
he will anfwer, ’Tis nether! A lit him the caule of
thought, he will gravely reply, “ The folution of
“ this cjueftion was once univerfally allowed to ex-
“ ceed the limits of human genius: But now, by
“ the grand difcoveries we have lately made, it is
“ as plain as that three and two make five:—Thmight
“ is a mere mechanical thing, an evident effeft of cer-
“ tain motions in the brain produced by the ofcilla-
“ tions of afubtile elaltic fluid called nether l" This
is indeed aftonilhing!
Such jargon, however, affords an excellent leiTon
to the true philofopher. It (hows to what folly and
extravagance mankind are led, whenever they de¬
viate from experiment and obfervation in their inqui¬
ries into nature. No fooner do we leave thefe only
faithful guides to fcience, than we inllantly land in a
labyrinth of nonfenfe and obfcurity, the natural pu-
nilhment of folly and prefumption.
When endeavouring to account for that propenfity
in the human mind which prompts us to attempt the
folution of things evidently beyond our reach, we re-
coiie&cd a palfage in Swift’s v/orks, which explains
it in the moll fatisfaetory manner.
Let us next examine (fays the Dean) the great
“ introducers of new fchemes in philofophy, and
“ fearch till we can find from what faculty of the foul
" the difpofltion arifes in mortal man, of taking it
into his head to- advance new fyftems, with fuch an
“ eager zeal, in things agreed on all hands impofible
“ to be known; from what feeds this difpofition
“ fprings, and to what quality of human nature thefe
“ grand innovators have been indebted for their num-
“ ber of difciples ; becaufe it is plain, that feveral of
“ the chief among them-, both ancient and modern,
“ were ufually miftaken by their adverfaries, and ia-
“ deed by all except their own followers, to havebeen
“ perfons crazed, or out of their wits; having gene-
“ rally proceeded, in the common courfe of their
“ words and aftions, by a method very different from
“ the vulgar didates of unrefined reafon ; agreeing,
“ for the niatft part, in their feveral models, with
“ their prefent undoubted fucceffors in the Acade-
“ my of modern Bedlam. Of this kind were Epi-
“ cunts, Diogenes, Apollonius, Lucretius, Paracel-
, “ fus, Des Cartes, and others; who, if they were
“ now in the world, tied fall, and leparated from
“ their followers, would, in this undijlinguijhing age.
f ) iE T H
“ incur manifeft danger of phlebotomy, and whips,
“ and chains, and dark chambers, arid ft raw. For
“ what man, in the natural Hate or courfe of think-
“ ing, did ever conceive it in his power to reduce the
“ notions of all mankind exa&ly to the fame length,
“ and breadth, and height of his own ? Yet this is
“ the firft humble and civil delign of all innovators in
“ the empire of reafon. Now, I would gladly
“ be informed, how it is poffible to account'for fuch
“ imaginations as thefe in particular men, v/ithout re-
“ courfe to my phenomenon of vapours, (i. e. aether),
“ afeending from the lower faculties to overlhadow
“ the brain, and there dillilling into conceptions, for
“ which the narrownefs of our mother-tongue has not
“ yet alfigned any other name befides that of madnefs
“ or phrenzy. Let us therefore now conjeflure bow
“ it comes to pafs that none of thefe great projectors
“ do ever fail providing themfelves and their notions
“ with a number of implicit difciples; and I think
“ the reafon is eafy to be aifigned.—For there is a
“ peculiar firing in the harmony of human underfiand-
“ ing, which, in feveral individuals, is exaCtly of the
“ fame tuning. This if you can dextroully fereou
“ up to its right key, and then ftrike gently upon it,
“ whenever you have the good fortune to light among
“ thofe of the fame pitch, they will, by a fecret ne-
“ ceffary fympathy, llrike exactly at the fame time.
‘ “ And in this one circumftance lies all the fill or
“ luck of the matter: For if you chance to jar the
“ firing, among thofe who are either above or be-
“ low your own height, inftead of fubferibing to your
“ doCtrine, they will tie you fijl, call you mad, and
“ feed you with bread and water. It is therefore a
“ point of the niceft conduCt, t6 difiinguifh and adapt
“ this noble talent with refpeCi to the difference of
“ perfons and of times.—For, to fpeak ahold truth,
“ it is a fatal mifearriage fo ill to order affairs as to
“ pafs for a fool in one company, when in another
“ you might be treated as a philofopher : Which I de-
“ fire Jome certain gentlemen of my acquaintance to
“ lay up in their hearts as a very fee finable innu-
“ endo.”
We would not have dwelt lb long upon this article,
had it not been to guard, as far as our influence ex-,
tends, the minds of thofe who may be unacquainted
with the genuine principles of philofophy, from being
led into a wrong track of inveftigation.
./Ether, in chymiftry, a name given to any volatile fpi-
rit. The fpirit which generally goes by that name is
procured by difiilling fpirit of wine with oil of vitriol,
and then precipitating with an alkali. See Chemi¬
stry.
iETHERIAL, an epithet for any thing partaking of the
nature of aether.
/ETHIOPIS, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies of fal-
via. See Salvia.
ALTHIOPS mineral, a preparation of mercury made
by rubbing equal quantities of quickfilver and flour of
fulphur in a mortar, till the mercury wholly difappears,
and a fine black pov/der remains.
jEthiops albus, a preparation of mercury made by
rubbing
A F F (3
rubbing, quickfllver with a double quantity of crabs-
eyes or candied fugar, till it is extinguifhed.
^.THiOPS of Dr Plumber, a medicine prepared by
levigating fulphur auratum Intimonii with an equal
quantity of calomel.
jETHUSA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria di-
gynia clafs. The voiucrum is dimidiated, triphyl-
lous, rand pendulous. There is but one fpecies, viz.
the aethufa fynapium, or fools-parfley, a native of Bri-
AETIANS, in church-hiftory, a branch of Arians who
maintained, that the Son and Holy Ghoft are in all
things diffimilar to the Father.
AETIOLOGY, that branch of phyfic which afiigns the
caufes of difeafes.
AsTITjE, or AiTiT.es, a name given to pebbles or
rtones of any kind which have a loofe nucleus rattling
in them, called, in Englifh, Eagh-Jiones.
iETNA, ‘a famous burning mountain or volcano of Si¬
cily. It is one of the higheft mountains of the whole
ifiand, and fituated on the eaftern coaft not far from
Catania. It is remarked of this mountain, that its
eruptions ceafed immediately when thofe of Vefuvius
began. See Vesuvius.
./Etna fait, a name ufed by fome authors for faline
fubftances, found near the opening of mount ./Etna
and other volcanos.
AiTOLARCHA, in Grecian antiquity, the principal
magillrate or governor of the Akolians.
AFFA, a weight ufed on the gold-coaft of Guinea, and
equal to an ounce.
AFFECTIO bovina, a diforder incident to cattle, occa-
lioned by a fmall worm wrhich eats its way all over the
body.
AFFECTION, in a general fehfe, denotes an attribute
infeparable from its fubje€t, or an eflential property of
it. Thus, quantity, figure, weight, &c. are affec¬
tions of all bodies.
Affections e/" the viind. See Passions, and Mo¬
rals.
AFFEERERS, or Affeerors, in law, perfons ap¬
pointed in court-leets, courts-baron, &c. to fettle,
upon oath, the fines to be impofed upon thofe who
have been guilty of faults arbitrarily punilhable.
AFFERI, inlaw. See Averia.
AFFETUOSO, or Affetto, in the Italian mufic,
intimates, that the part to which it is added ought to
be played in a tender moving way, and, confequehtly
rather How than fall.
AFFIANCE, in law, denotes the mutual plighting of
troth between a man and a woman to marry each
other.
AFFICHE, a term ufed by the French for bills or ad-
vertifements hung or parted up in public places to
make any thing, known. *
AFFIDATIO domino) urn, in old law-books, denotes
an oath of allegiance taken by the lords in parliament.
AFFIDATUS, or Affidiatus, in old law-books,
fignifies a tenant by fealty, or one who put himfeif
under the protection of his lord, vov/ing fealty to him.
AFFIDAVIT, fignifies an oath in writing, fworn be-
5 ) A F R
fore fome perfon who is authorifed to take the lame.
AFFILIATION, a term ufed by fome for adoption.
See Adoption.
AFFINAGE, a term fbmetimes met with in old law¬
books, for the refining of metals.
AFFINITY, in Scots law, the connection formed by
marriage betwixt one of the married perfons and the
blood-relations of the other. See Law, title, Mar¬
riage.
Affinity, is alfo ufed to denote conformity or agree¬
ment : Thus we fay, the affinity of languages, the af¬
finity of words, the affinity of founds, <bc.
Affinity of bodies. See Chemistry, chapter. Of
eieflive attradions.
AFFIRMATION, in logic, the afferting the truth of
any propofition.
Affirmation, is alfo ufed for the ratifying or con¬
firming the fentence or decree! of fome inferior court:
thus we fay, the houfe of lords affirmed the decree of
the lord-chancellor, or the decree of the lords of fef-
fion.
AFFIX, among grammarians, denotes much the fame
with prefix. See Prefix.
AFFLATUS, among heathen mythologifts and poets,-
denotes the infpiration of fome divinity,
AFFORAGE, in the French cuftoms, a duty paid to
the lord of a diftritt, for permiffion to fell wine or
other liquors within his feigniory. It is alfo ufed for
the rate or price of provifions fixed by the provort
of Paris, or by the (heriffk..
AFFORCEMENT, among old law-writers, denotes a
fortrefs or place of ftrength.
AFFOR.CIAMENTUM curia, a term ufed in old
charteraly for the fummoning a. court in an extraordi¬
nary manner.
AFFORESTING, in old law-books, is the turnings
lands into a foreft ; as the converting a foreft to other
ufes is called dijafforefing, or deaf orejiing.
AFFRAY, or Affrayment, inlaw, formerly fignified
the crime of affrighting other perfons, by appearing
in unufual armour, brandiffiing a weapon, <bc. but at
prefent, affray denotes a Ikirmifh or fight between
two: or more.
AFFREIGHTMENT,, a term ufed in fome law-books
for the freight of a ffiip.
AFFRI, or Afra, a term met with in old law-books
for horfes, bullocks, or any heart ufed in ploughing,
AFFRONTEE, in heraldry, an appellation given to a-
nimals facing one another on an.efcutcheon, a kind of
bearing, which is otherwife- called, confrontee, and
ftands oppofed to adojfee.
AFFUIAGE, in ancient cultoms, denotes, the right or.
privilege of cutting-wood in a foreft for.fuel.
AFI-LIATION, See Affiliation.
AFOBA, in botany,, an obfolete name of the phaffeolus-
or kidney-bean. See Phaseolus.
AFRA wv/'j, an obfolete name of the meleagris, or tur¬
key. See Meleagris.
Afra, or Afrum, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies
of gnaiacitm. See Guaiacum.
AFRICA, one of the four principal 'divifiohs of "the;
AFT ( 36 ) A G A
earth ; divided from Europe on die N. by the Medi¬
terranean fca ; from America on the W. by the At¬
lantic ocean ; from the countries towards die fouth-
pole, by the Great South-fea ; from the ifland of
Madagafcar in the E. by the Mozambique channel ;
and from Alia alfo on the E. by the Red-fea. It is
alfo joined to Afia by a narrow neck of land betwixt
the Mediterranean and Red-fea, called the ijihmus of
Suez : Hence Africa is a peninfula fomewhat refem-
bling a pyramid, whofe bafe from Tangier to the ifthmus
of Suez is about 2.000 miles; its perpendicular, from
the vertex at the cape of Good Hope to Buria, 3600
miles; and from cape Verd, to cape Guard a Fui, it
is 3500. The'fituation of this quarter on the globe
is betwixt 35. o. S. and.36. o. N. lat. and betwixt
17. 35. W. and 53. 21. E. long. Hence it lies,
for the mod: part, within the- tropics ; by which
means, in many places, the heat is almotl infupporta-
ble. Along the coafts, it is in general reckoned abun¬
dantly fruitful, and its produce excellent. The Ro¬
mans very jultly confidered Africa as the patria fc-
r a rum, for there is no other place breeds the number
or the variety. In this quarter there are feveral defarts,
feme of them of vait extent, covered with fand, by
Which whole caravans have been fometimes fmothered.
The principal rivers are the Nile and the Niger, the
fir ft of which difembogues itfelf into the Mediterranean,
after traverfing Abyffinia, Nubia, and Egypt; and the
laft into the Atlantic ocean, by a weftern courfe from
Upper Ethiopia. Geographers are not yet agreed a-
bout the fources of either of thefe rivers ; according to
fome, their fources are not far didant from each other.
There are fome mountains in Africa remarkably high,
particularly in Abyffinia and Barbary, in which lad is
the famous mount Atlas, which feparates Barbary from
Biledulgerid. The prevailing religions here, are Ma-
hometanifm and Paganifm: Chridianity only takes
place among the Abyffinians and European fettlements.
The government in Africa is in general defpotic, and
the inhabitants black. In the divifion, geographers
have gone varioudy to work; we lhall confine our-
felves to the more general, wz. Egypt, Barbary,
Guiney, Congo, Capfraria, Abyssinia, Nu¬
bia, and Nigritia, with the idands that furround
it; for which, fee thefe articles.
Africa, is alfo a confiderable fea-port town of Barba¬
ry, about feventy miles S of Tunis.
Africa, Afrique, is likewife a fmall tov/n of France,
fituated in the province of Gafcony, and ^generality of
Montauban.
AFRICAN company, a fociety of merchants, edablidied
by King Charles II. for trading to Africa; which
trade is now laid open to all his majedy’s fubjedts,
paying 10 per cent, for maintaining the forts,
AFSAGERS, perfons appointed by the burgo-maders
of Amderdam, to prefide over the public fales made
in that city.
AFT, in the fea-language, the fame with abaft. See
Abaft.
AFTER-BIRTH, in midwifery. See Midwifery, and
^ecundines.
AFTER-MATH, in hufbandry, dgnifies the grafs which
fprings or grows up after mowing.
AFTER-PAINS, in midwifery, pains in the groin, <bc.
after child-birth. See Midwifery, title. After-
pains.
AFTER-SWARMS, in the management of bees, are
thofe which leave the hive fome time after the fird has
fwarmed. See Apis.
AFTO, in botany. See Erysimum.
AGA, in the Turkilh language, fignifies a great lord or
commander. Hence the Aga of the janiffaries is the
commander in chief of that corps; as the general of
the horfe is denominated fpahiclar aga. See Janis¬
saries, and Spahi.
AGADES, or Agdes, a people or kingdom of Africa,
lying on the northern bank of the river Niger, betwixt
the kingdoms of Cano on the E. and Tombut on the
W. with that of Zaara on the N.
Agades, or Andegast, the capital city of the laid
kingdom.
Agades, is alfo the Moorilh name for the town of San-
ta-Cruz, in the the kingdom of Sus.
AG AG, or Argaga, a kingdom of Africa, dependent
on the kingdom of Monomotapa.
AGAI, in commerce. See Agio.
Agai, is alfo the name of a people of Ethiopia, inhabi¬
ting near the fource of the Nile, and profefiing a kind
of Chridanity.
AGALLOCHA, in botany, the trivial name of the ex-
ccecaria. See Excoecaria.
AGALMATA, in antiquity, a term originally ufed for
any kind of ornaments in a temple, but afterwards for
the datues only.
AGANIPPIDES, in ancient poetry, a defignation given
to the mufes, from a fountain of mount Helicon called
Aganippe.
AGAPAu, or Agapes, in church-hidory, certain love-
feads kept by the ancient Chridians, as a token of
brotherly charity and mutual benevolence.
However innocent the original intention of thele
fedivals might have been, abufes in time got footing
in them, and gave great occafion to fcandal; fo that
it became neceffary to forbid the kifs of charity be¬
tween different fexes, as well as to have any beds or
couches in the place where they affembled.
AGAPETiE, in church-hidory, a kind of nuns among
the primitive Chridians, who attended on and ferved
the clergy.
At fird there was nothing fcandalous in thofe fo-
cieties, though they gave great offence afterwards,
and were wholly abolijhed by tbe council of Lateran,
in II39-
AGARENI, a name ufed by fome writers for the A-
rabs, as being defeended from Agar, or Hagar, Abra¬
ham’s hand-maid.
AGARICO-/a^ar, in botany, a fynonime of the agari-
cus alneus, or alder-agaric.
Agar i c o-pylorus, a fynonime of the boletus verficolor.
See Boletus.
AGARICUS, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia fun¬
gi. Of this genus there are 28 fpecies, 24 of which
are
AGE (3
are natives of Britain^ Several fpecies of the agaric
grow upon the trunks of the larch, the oak, and other
trees. It is of a fpungy fubftance, refembling the
jnulhroom, and irregular in its figure and fize. This
plant has of late been tried for flopping haemorrhages
after amputations : but the fuccefs has not been fo re¬
markable as to bring it into general ufe.
Mineral Agaric, a marley earth refemblinjg the vege¬
table of that name in colouijr and texture. It is found
in the fiffures of rocks, and on the roofs of caverns;
and is fometimes ufed as an aflringent in fluxes, hae¬
morrhages, fac.
AGASYLLIS, a name ufed by the Greeks for ammo¬
niac. See Ammoniac.
AGAT, is a ftone refembling the onyx in colour, but,
in place of zones, is adorned with lines or fpots of
various colours, which run into fo many figures, as
to referable trees, flowers, fruits, herbs, <bc. Of
the agat there are feveral fpecies, diflinguifhed from
each other chiefly by their colour; as, the white-
veined agat, the lead-coloured agat, the flefh-colour-
ed agat, tec.
Agat, is alfo the name of an inftrument ufed by gold-
wire-drawers, fo called from the agat in the middle of
it, which forms its principal part.
‘AGATA, or St Agata di Goti, a city and bilhop’s
fee of Naples, and province of Principato, fituated
almoft in the middle between Gapua and Beneventum.
AGATONSI, a fmall ifland of the Archipelago, fitu¬
ated between that of Lefoos and the continent.
AGATTON, a town of Africa, on the coaft of Gui-
ney, fituated near the mouth of the fiver Formofa, a-
bout eighty miles fouth of Benin.
AGATY, in botany, a fynonime of the sefehynomene.
See Avschynomene.
AGAVE, in botany, a genus of the hexandria mona-
gynia clafs. Under this genus Linnseus ranks 4 fpe-.
cies of the Aloes, viz. the america, vivipara, virgi-
nica, and foetida. See Aloe.
AGAZES, a name given to the inhabitants of Paraguay
in S. America.
AGDE, a fmall but well inhabited city of France, in
the province of Languedoc, near the mouth of the
river Eraut, about thirty miles S. W. of Montpelier.
It is the fee of a bifliop.
AGE, a certain portion or part of duration applied to
the exigence of particular objefis: thus we fay, the
age of the world, the age of Rome, &c. that is, the
time or number of years elapfed fince the creation of
the world, or the building of Rome. See Astro¬
nomy, 0/ the divifion of time.
The ancient poets alfo divided the duration of the
world into four ages or periods; the firft of which
they called the golden age, the fecond die Jilver age,
the third the hrazen age, and the fourth the iron age.
Age, in law, figniges a certain period of life, when
perfons of both fexes are enabled to do certain ads :
thus, a man at twelve years of age ought to take the
oath of allegiance to the king in a leet; at fourteen
he may marry, chufe his guardian, and claim his
lands held in foecage.
Vol.I. No. 2.
7 ) AGE
Twenty-one is called, full age, a man or v/oman be¬
ing then capable of ading for themfelves, of mana¬
ging their affairs, making contrads, difpofing of their
eftates, and the like.
Age-prier, tet at sm precar i, inlaw, is when an adion
being brought againft a perfon under age, for lands
defeended to him, he, by motion or petition, (hews
the matter to the court, praying the adion may be
(laid till his full age; which the court generally a-
grees to.
Age of the moon, in afironomy, the time elapfed fince
her laft conjundion with the fun. See Astronomy.
AGEDA, in geography, a fmall town and river of Por¬
tugal, fituated in the province of Beiran, between the
cities of Oporto and Coimbra.
AGEMA, in Macedonian antiquity, was a.body of fol-
diery, not unlike the Roman legion. See Legion.
AGEMOGLANS, or Agjamoglans, or Azamo-
glans, in the Turkiflr cuftoms, Chriftian children
raifed every third year, by way of tribute, from the
Chriflians tolerated in the Turkifli empire.
AGEN, an ancient city of France, in the province of
Guienne, fituated on the river Garronne, about fixty
miles S. E. of Bourdeaux. It is a biftiop’s fee, and
the capital of the Agenois.
AGENDA, among philofophers and divines, fignifies
the duties which a man lies under an obligation to
perform: thus, we meet with the agenda of a Chri-
(tian, or the duties he ought to perform, in oppofition
to the credenda, or things he is to believe.
Agenda, among merchants, a term fometimes ufed for
a memorandum book, in,which is fet down all the btv-
finefs to be tranfaded during the day, either at home
or abroad.
AGENHINE, the fame with hogenhine. See HogeN-
hine.
AGENOIS. See Agen.
AGENGRIA, in mythology, the goddefs of courage
and induilry, as Vacuna was of indolence.
AGENT, in a general fenfe, denotes any adive power
or caufe. Agents are either natural or moral. Na¬
tural agents are fuch inanimate, bodies as have a power
to ad upon other bodies in a certain and determinate
manner, as gravity, fire, <bc. Moral agents, on the
contrary, are rational creatures, capable of regulating
their adions by a certain rule.
Agent, is alfo ufed to denote a perfon intruded with
the management of an affair, whether belonging to a
fociety, company, or private perfon.
Agents of bank and exchange, in the commercial po¬
lity of France, are much the fame with our exchange-
brokers.
Agent and patient, in law, is faid of a perfon who is
the doer of a thing, and alfo the party to whom it is
done.
Agents in rebus, in antiquity, fignifies officers employ¬
ed under the empeiors of Conftantinople, and differ¬
ing only in name from the frumentarii, whom they
fucceeded. See Frumentarii.
AGER, in Roman antiquity, a certain portion of land
allowed to each citizen. See Agrarian Law.
- K Acer,
3
A G H ( 38 ) A G M
•Acer, is alfo ufed by middle-age writers, for an acre of
land. See Acre.
Acer mineralium, among chemifts, Cgnifies the element
of water, as water is fuppofed to be the origin of mi¬
nerals.
Acer natura, a name fometimes applied to the uterus,
as it nourilhes the femen in the lame manner as the
earth nourilhes feeds.-
Aoer, in geography, a fmall town of Catalonia in Spain,
fituated near the fource of the river Noguera.
AGERATUM, or Maudlin, in botany, a genus of
the fyngenefia polygamia sequalis clafs. The recep¬
tacle is naked; the pappus has five ariftse or auns ; the
calix is oblong; and the ftylus a little longer than the
flower. There are three fpecies of the ageratum, viz.
the conyzoides, the ciliare, and the altiffimum, all na¬
tives of America.
AGERATU S lapis, a Hone ufed by the ancients in
dying and dreffing leather.
AGERIUM. See Agistment.
AGGA, or Agonna, a Britilh fettlement on the gold-
coaft of Guiney. It is fituated under the meridian of
London, in 6 degrees of N. lat.
Agger,, in the ancient military art, a bank or rampart,
compofed of various materials, as earth, boughs of
trees, 6c.
The agger of the ancients was of the fame nature
with what the moderns call lines.
AGGERHUYS, a city of Norway, capital of the pro¬
vince of the fame name. It is lubje^t to Denmark,
and fituated in 28-. 35. E. long, and 59. 30. N. lat.
AGGIA-SARAI, a town fituated on the lliore of the
Cafpian fea, between Turkeltan and the country of
Bulgar.
AGGLUTINANTS, in pharmacy, medicines of a glu¬
tinous or vifcid nature, given with a view to ftrengthen
the folids.
Agglutinants, among furgeons. See Vulnera-
ries.
AGGLUTINATION, in a general fenfe, denotes the
joining two or more things together, by means of a
a proper glue or cement.
Agglutination, among phyficians, the adherence of
new fubllance, or the giving a glutinous, quality to; the
animal fluids.
Agglutination, is alio-a term ufed by aflronomers
to denote the meeting of two or more liars in the
fame part of the zodiac, or the feeming coalition of
feveral liars.
AGGRAVATION, a term ufed to denote whatever
heightens a crime, Or renders it more black.
AGGREGATE, in a general fenfe, denotes the fum of
feveral things added together, or the colle&ion-of them
into one whole. Thus, a houfe is an aggregate of
Hones, wood, mortar, 6c. It differs, from a mixed
or compound, inafmuch as the union in thefe lalt is
more intimate than between the parts of an aggregate.
See Chemistry, Qf.jnixts.
AGGRESSOR, among lawyers, denotes the. perfon
who began a quarrel, or made the firll affault.
AG HER, Ac her, or Aug her, a town of Ireland,
which fends two members to parliament. It is fitua¬
ted in the fouthern part of Uliler, not far from Clo-
gher.
AGHRIM, a town of Ireland, in the county of Wick¬
low, and province of Leinfter, fituated about thirteen
miles fouth-weft of Wicklow.
AGL4.DES, in the Turkilh armies, a kind of pioneers
employed in fortifying camps, and the like offices.
AGIASMA. See Hagiasma.
AGIGENSALON, a town of Turkey, upon the road
from Conltandnople to Ifpahan, about a day’s journey
from the city of Tocia.
AGILD, or Agilde, in old law-books, denotes a per¬
fon of fo little account, that whoever killed him was
liable to no fine or other punilhment.
AGILITY, an aptitude of the feveral parts of the bo¬
dy to motion; or it may be defined, the art or talent
of making the bell ufe of our ftrength.
AGILLARIUS, in old law-books. See Hayward.
AGINCOURT, a village of the French Netherlands ;
. famous on account of the victory obtained by Henry V.
of England over the French, in 141J .
AGIO, in commerce, a term chiefly ufed in Holland
and at Venice, where it denotes the difference between
the value of bank-ftock and the current coin.
Agio of affurance, the fame with what we call policy
of ajfurance. See Policy of ajfurance.
AGIST. See the next article.
AGISTMENT, Agistage, or Agistation, in law,
the taking in other people’s cattle to graze at fo much
per week. It is alfo ufed in a metaphorical fenfe, for
any tax,'burcLn, or charge; thus, the tax levied-for
repairing the banks of Romney marffi was called agi-
ftamenium.
AGISTOR, or Agistator, an officer belonging t®
foreftsj who has the care of cattle taken in to be gra¬
zed, and levies the moneys due on that account.
AGI STALIA animalium in frefta, in old law-books,,
fignifies the drift of.cattle or ^eafts in a foreft.
AGITATION, the aft of ffiaking a body, or tofling it
backwards and forewards.
AGITATOR, in antiquity, a term fometimes ufed for
a charioteer, efpecially thofe who drave in the circus'
at the curule games.
AGITATORS, in the Englifb hiftory,. certain officers
let up by the army, in 1647, to take care of its in-
terefls.
Cromwell joined the agitators, only with a view to
ferve his own ends; which being once accompliffied,
he found means to get them abolifhed.
AGLA, or AqurLA, a town of Africa in the kingdom
of Fez, fitnated not far from the river Guarga.
AGLAOPHOTIS, in botany,, an obfolete name of,the
pasonia. See P.«:onia.
AGLECTS, Aglets, or Agljjeds, in botany. See
Anthers..
AGLIA, in geography, a fortrefs of Peidmont, with
the title of marquifate, fituated in the Canavois.
AGMOT, or Agmxt, the name of a town, difiiiff,
and river of Africa, in the empire of Morocco.
AGMEN, in the Roman art of war, denoted an army.
A G . O ( s
of father a part of it, in march : Thus we read of the
prinntm agvicn, or van-guard ;. medium agmen, or
main body; and the pojlremum agmen, or rear-guard.
AGMONDESHAM, in geography. See Amersham.
AGNABAT, a town of Tranfylvania, fubjeft to the
houfe of Auftria, fituated about ten miles north-eaft
of Hermanftadt.
AGNANO, a lake of the kingdom of Naples, in the
province of Lavoro.
AGNANTHUS, in botany, a fynonime of the cornu-
tia. See Cornutia.
AGNATE, in Scots law, any male relation by the fa¬
ther’s fide. See Law, title, Minors, and their tu¬
tors and curators.
AGNEL, an ancient French coin, otherwife called mou-
ton d'or. See Moot on
AGNELET, an ancient French coin, worth about twen¬
ty fols.
AGNO, a river of Naples, which, taking its rife in the
mountainous parts of Terra di Lavoro, walhes the
town of Acerra, and, palling between Capua and A-
verfa, falls into the Mediterranean, about feveri miles
N. of Puz^oli.
AGNOETiE, in church-hiftory, a feA of heretics, fo
called on account of their maintaining, that Chrill,
with refpeft to his human nature, Was ignorant of
many things, and particularly of the day of judgment,
an opinion which'they built upon the text, Mark
xiii. 32.
AGNOMEN, in Roman antiquity, a kind of fourth or
honorary name, given to a perfon on account of fome
extraordinary addon, virtue, or other accomplilhment.
Thus, the agnomen Africanus was bellowed upon
Publius Cornelius Scipio, on account of his great at-
chievements in Africa.
AGNON, a fmall river of Bourgogne in France, other-
wife called Ignon.
AGNONE, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in the pro¬
vince of the Hithet Abruzzo, called by fome Anclone.
AGNOS, in ichthyology, an obfolete name of the ura-
nofcopus. See Uranoscopus.
AGNUS, or Lamb, in zoology^ the young of the ovis
or Iheep. See Ovis.
Agnus cajltts, in botany, the trivial name of a'fpecies
of the vitex. See Vitex.
Agnus Dei, in the church of Rome, a cake of wax
llamped with the figure of a lamb fupporting a crofs.
Thefe being confecrated by the pope with great fo-
lemnity, arid diftribated among the people, are fup-
pofed to have great virtues ; as, to preferve thofe who
carry them worthily,- and with faith, from all manner
of accidents; to expel evil fpirits, &c. It is alfo a
popular name for that part of the mafs, where the
prieft ftrikes his bread thrice, and fays the. prayer be¬
ginning with the words Agnus Dei.
AGNUS Scythicur, in botany, the name of a fidlitious
plant faid to grow in Tartary, refembling a lamb.
AGOBEL, a fmall town of Africa, in the empire of
Morocco, and province of Hea.
AGOGA, among ancient naturalifts, denoted a drain for
carrying eft water from a mine.
9 ) AGO
AGOGE, among ancient muficians, a fpecies of modu¬
lation, wherein the notes proceeded by contiguous de¬
grees.
AGON, in the public games of the ancients, a term ufed
indifferently for any conteft or difpute, whether re-
fpedting bodily exercifes, or accomplilhments of the
mind. Thus poets, muficians, fac. had their agones,
as well as the athletse. It was alfo ufed for one of
the minilters employed in the heathen facrifices, whofe
bufinefs it was to ftrike the virilim.
Agon, in Roman antiquity, a place near the Tiber,
where the curule games were celebrated, otherwife.
called circus Flammineus.
Agon, among phyficians. See Agony.
AGONALIS, in Roman antiquity. See Salii.
AGONALIA, in Roman antiquity, feftivals celebrated
in honour of Janus, or of the god Agonius, whom the
Romans invoked before undertaking any affair of im¬
portance.
AGONENSES. See Salit.
AGONISMA, in antiquity, denotes the prize given to^
the vidtor in any combat or difpute.
AGONISTARCHA,-in antiquity, the officer who di-
redted the preparatory exercifes of the athletse ; tho’’
fome make him the fame with the agonotheta. See
Agonotheta.
AGONISTICA, a term ufed to denote the fcience of
whatever belonged to the agones, or public exercifes
of the ancients.
AGONISTIC!, in church-hiftory, a name given by
Donatus to fuch of his difciples1 as he fent to fairs,,
markets, and other public places, to propagate his
dodtrine.
AGONISTICON, a term ufed by phyficians for cold
water, as being fuppofed to combat the febrile heat..;
AGONIUM, in Roman antiquity, was ufed for the day
on which the rex facrorurn facrificed a victim, as well;
as for the place where the games were celebrated,
otherwife called Agon.
AGONOTHETA, or Agonothbtes, in Grecian
antiquity, was the prefidenu or fuperintendant of the
facred games.; who not only defrayed the expences
attending them, but infpedted the manners and dif-
ci-pline of the athletse, and adjudged the prizes to tile
victors.
AGONUS, in ichthyology, a. fynonyme. of the clupea
alofa. See Clupea.-
AGONY, any extreme pain. It is alfo ufed for the pangs
of death.
AGONYCLITiE, or Agonyclites-, in church-ht-
ftory, a fedt of chriftians, in the fevqnth century, who
prayed always Handing,, as thinking it unlawful to
kneel.
AGGR/EUS, in heathen antiquity, an appellation given
to fuch deities as had ftatues in the market-places ;
particularly Mercury, whofe ftatue was-to be feen in
almoft every public place.
AGORANOMUS, in Grecian antiquitv, a magifirate of
Athens, who had the regulation of weights and mea-
furesj of the pnees of proviuons,
AGGUGE3,
A G R (4
AGOUGES, a river of France, which, after watering
part of Auvergne, falls into the Sible.
AGRA, a city of the Hither India, and capital of a king¬
dom of the fame name. It is fkuated on the river
Jemma, and is a large, populous, and beautiful city,
where the Mogul frequently refides.
AGRAM, a city and bifliop’s fee of Hungary, fituated
near the frontiers of Carniola.
AGRARIAN laws, among the Romans, thofe relating
to the divifion and diftribution of lands; of which
there were a great number; but that called the Agra¬
rian law, by way of eminence, was published by
Spurius Caffius, about the year of Rome 268, for di¬
viding the conquered lands equally among all the citizens,
and limiting the number of acres which each citizen
might enjoy.
AGRARIUM. See Agistment,
0 ) A G R
AGREDA, a town of Spain, in old Caftile, near the
frontiers of Arragon, and about three leagues fouth-
weft ofTaracon.
Agreda, is alfo a town of South America, fituated at the'
foot of the mountains in the kingdom of Popaian.
AGREEMENT, in law, fignifies the confent of feveral
perfons to any thing done or to be done.
AGRESSES, or Ogresses, in heraldry, a term fomfe-
times ufed for pellets. See Pellets.
AGRESTfE, among phyficians, denotes unripe grapes,
faid to be of a cooling nature.
AGRI, or Acri, a river of the kingdom of Naples,
which arifing in the Apennine mountains, not far from
Marfico Nuovo, falls into the gulph of Tarento.
AGRL%, a town and river of Upper Hungary. The
town is a bifhop’s fee, and fituated about thirty-five
miles N. E. of Buda.
AGRICULTURE.
AGRICULTURE is the art of a {lifting the earth,
by means of culture, manure, be. to bring forth
plants in greater quantity, and likewife of a larger
fize and better quality, than it would produce with¬
out thefe aftiftances.
Agriculture is an art of fuch confequence to man¬
kind, that their very exiftence, efpecially in a ftate of
fociety, depends upon it. A compendious view, there¬
fore, of every material difeovery that hath hitherto
PAR
Of Vegetation,) and the
r| ^ H E vegetation and ceconomy of plants is one of
thofe fubje&s in which our knowledge is extremely
circumfcribed. Many hypothefes have been invented ;
as many have been, or may eafily be, refuted. Hypo¬
thefes in matters that evidently exceed our powers do
much hurt: But they are likewife of fome ufc. They
incite to further inquiries ; and thefe inquiries are car¬
ried on with greater fpirit, becaufe they are intended for
the purpofe of confuting. It is true this fpirit is not the
moft friendly to impartial obfervation ; but it makes us
more indefatigable in our refearches.
Retailing theories is no part of our plan. A total in¬
attention to the ftru<fture and ceconomy of plants is the
chief reafon of the fmall progrefs that has been made in
rhe principles of vegetation, and of the inftability and
iiuftuation of our theories concerning it.
To recall the. attend on of philofophers and cultivators,
to the only fource from which any folid theory can ever
be formed on this fubject, we fhall give a fhort deferip-
been made in this art, muft be ufeful both to the farm¬
er and philofopher.
To accomplifti this end with the greater perfpicuity,
the fubjeft fhall be divided into two parts. Under
the firft. Vegetation, and the Smnfture of Plants, (hail
be confidered. The fecond will contain the various
Operations upon the Soil, in order to prepare it for the
reception and nouriihmerit of plants.
For the eafe of the reader, each of thefe parts ftiali
be fubdivided into a number of fedions.
T I.
Structure of Plants.
tion of the ftrudure of plants, beginning with the feed,
and tracing its progrefs and evolution to a ftate of ma¬
turity.
S e c t. I. Of Seeds.
The feeds of plants are of various figures and fizes.
Moft of them are divided into two lobes; though fome,
as thofe of the creft-kind, have fix; and others, as the
grains of corn, are not divided, but intire.
But, as the eflential properties of all feeds are the
fame, when confidered with regard to the principles of
vegetation, our particular deferiptions fhall be limited to
one feed, viz. the great garden-bean. Neither is the
choice of this feed altogether arbitrary; for, after it be¬
gins to vegetate, its parts are more confpicuous than ma¬
ny others, and confequently better calculated for invefti-
gation.
Tlfis feed is covered with two coats or membranes.
The
A G R I C U
The outer coat is extremely thin, and full of pores ;
but may be eafily feparated from the inner one, (which
is much thicker), after the bean has been boiled, or lain
• a few days in the foil. At the thick end of the bean,
there is a fmall hole vilible to the naked eye, immediately
over the radicle or future root, that it may have a free
paffage into the foil. Plate IV. fig. i. A. When thefe
coats are taken off, the body of the feed appears, which
is divided into two fmooth portions or lobes. The
fmoothnefs of tire lobes is owing to a thin'film or cuticle
with which they are covered.
At the bafrs of the bean is placed the radicle or future
root, Plate IV. fig. 3. A. The trunk of the radicle,
juft as it enters into the body of the feed, divides into
two capital branches, one of which is inferred into each
lobe, and fends off fmaller ones in all direftions through
the whole fubftance of the lobes, Plate IV. fig. 7. A A.
Thefe ramifications become fo extremely minute towards
the edges of the lobes, that they require the fineft glaf-
fes to render them vifible. To thefe ramifications Grew
and Malpighius have given the name of feminal root;
becaufe, by means of it, the radicle and plume, before
they are expanded, derive their principal nouriftiment.
The plume, bud, or germ, Plate IV. fig. 3. is in-
clofed in two fmall correfponding cavities in each lobe.
Its colour and confiftence is much the fame with thofe
of the radicle, of which it is only a continuation; but
having a quite contrary direction: For the radicle de-
fcends into the earth, and divides. into a great number
of fmaller branches or filaments ; but the plume alcends
into the open air, and unfolds itfelf into all the beautiful
variety of ftem, branches, leaves, flowers, fruit, 6'c. The
plume in com ftioots from the fmaller end of the grain,
and, among maltfters, goes by the name of acrofpire.
The next thing to be taken notice of is the fubftance,
or parenchymatous part of the lobes. This is not a mere
concreted juice, but is curioufly organifed, and confifts
of a vaft number of fmall bladders refembling thofe in the
pith of trees, Plate IV. fig. 4.
Befides the coats, cuticle, and parenchymatous parts,
there is a fubftance perfectly diftihft from thefe, diftribu-
ted in different proportions through the radicle, plume,
and lobes. This inner fubftance appears very plainly in
a tranfverfe feftion of the radicle or plume. Towards
the extremity of the radicle, it is one entire trunk ; but
higher up, it divides into three branches.; the middle
one runs direcftly up to the plume, and the other two pafs
into the lobes on each fide, .and fpread out into a great
variety of fmall branches through the whole body of the
lobes, .Plate IV. fig. 7. This fubftance is very proper¬
ly termed the feminal root: for when the feed is fown,
the moifture is firft abforbed by the outer coats, which are
every where furniflied with fap and air-veffels; from
thefe it is conveyed to the cuticle; ’ from the cuticle it
proceeds to the pulpy part of the lobes ; when it has got
thus far, it is taken up by the mouths of the fmall
branches of the feminal root, and paffes from one branch
into another, till it is all collefteft into the main trunk,
which communicates both with the plume and radicle,
the two principal involved organs of the future plant.
After this the fap, or vegetable food, runs in two oppo-
Vol.I. No.2.
L T U R E. , 41
fite diredtions ; part of it afcends into the plume, and pro¬
motes the growth and expanfion of that organ ; and part
of it Jefcends into the radicle, for nourifhing and evol¬
ving the root and its various filaments. Thus the plume
and radicle continue their progrefs in oppofite directions,
till the plant arrives at maturity.
It is here worth remarking, that every plant is really
pofleffed of two roots, both of which are contained in the
feed. The plume and radicle, when the feed is firft
depofited in the earth, derive their nouriftiment from the
feminal root: but, afterwards, when the radicle begins to
ftioot out its filaments, and to abforb fome moifture, not,
however, in a fufficient quantity to fupply the exigencies
of the plume, the two lobes, or main body of the feed,
rife along with the plume, aflume the appearance of two
leaves, refembling the lobes of the leed in fize and
ftiape, but having no refemblance to thofe of the plume,
for which reafon they have got the name of dijjimilar
leave's.
Thefe, diflimilar leaves defend the young plume from
the injuries of the weather, and at the fame time, by
abforbing dew, air, <bc. aflift the tender radicle in nou-
riftiing the plume, with which they have ftill a connec¬
tion by means of the feminal root above defcribed. But,
when the radicle or fecond root has defcended deep e-
nough into the earth, and has acquired a fufficient num¬
ber of filaments or branches for abforbing as much ali¬
ment as is proper for the growth of the plume; then the
feminal, or diflimilar leaves, their utility being entirely
fuperfeded, begin to decay and fall off.
Plate IV. Fig. j. A, The foramen, or hole in the
bean through which the radicle
ftioots into the foil.
Fig. 2. A tranfverfe fedlion of the bean ;
the dotes being the branches
of the feminal root.
Fig. 3. A, The radicle.
B, The plume or bud.
Fig. 4. A, A longitudinal fe&ion of on,e
of the lobes of the bean a lit¬
tle magnified, to ffiow the final!
bladders of which the pulpy
or parenchymatous.part is com-
pofed.
Fig. 5, 6. A, A tranfverfe feclion of the
radicle.
B, A tranfverfe fe&ion of the
plume, ffiowing the organs or
veffels of the feminal root.
Fig. 7. A, A view of the feminal root
branched out upon the lobes.
Fig. 8. The appearance of the radicle,
plume, and feminal root, when
a little further advanced in
growth.
Having thus briefly defcribed the -feed, and traced its
evolution into three principal organic parts, viz. the
plume, radicle, and feminal leaves, we ffiall next take an
anatomical view of the root, trunk, leaves, <bc.
L Sect.
42
A G R I C
U
S e c t. II. Of the Root.
In examining the root of plants, the firft thing that
prefents itfelf is the flcin, which is of various colours in
different plants. Every root, after it has arrived at a.
certain age, has a double Ikin. The fir ft is coeval with
the other parts, and exifts in the feed: but afterwards
there is a ring fent off from the bark, and forms a fe-
cond'lkin; e g. in the root of the dandelion, towards
the end of May, the original or outer (kin appears thri¬
veted, and is eafily feparated from the new one, which
is frefher, and adheres more firmly to the bark. Peren¬
nial plants are fupplied in this manner with a new fkin
every year; the outer one always falls off in the autumn
or winter, and a new one is formed from the bark in
the fucceedteg fpring. The Ikin has numerous cells
or veffels, and is a continuation of. the parenchymatous
part of the radicle. However, it does not confift folcly
of parenchyma; for the microfcOpe fhews that there are
many tubular lignous veffels interfperfed through it.
When the fkm is removed, the true cortical fubftance
or bark appears, which is alfo a continuation of the pa¬
renchymatous part of the radicle, but greatly augment¬
ed. The bark is of very different fizes. In molt trees,
it is exceeding thin in proportion to the wood and pith.
On the other hand,"In carrots, it is almoft one half of the
femidiameter of the root; and, in dandelion, it is near¬
ly twice as thick as the woody part.
i. The Bark is compofed of two fubftances ; the pa*
renchyma, or pulp, which is the principal part; and a few,
'fcoody fibres. The parenchyma is exceedingly porous,
and has a great refemblance to a fpunge; for it Ihrivels
confiderably when dried, and dilates to its former dimen-
fions when infufed in water. Thefe pores or veffels are
not pervious fo as to communicate with each other, but
confift of diftindt little cells or bladders, fcarcely vifible
without the afiiftance of the microfcope. In all roots, thefe
cells are conftantly filled with a thin watery liquor. They
are generally of a fpherical figure; though in fome roots,
as die buglofs and dandelion, they are oblong. In many
roots, as the horfe-raddilh, peony, afparagus, potatoe, <fac,
the parenchyma is of one uniform ftrufture. But in o-
thers it is more diverfified, and puts on the fhape of rays
running from the centre towards the circumference of
the bark. Thefe rays fometimes run quite through the
bark, as in loyage ; and Ibiwetimes advance towards the
middle of it, as in melilot and moft of the Leguminous and
umbelliferous plants. Thefe rays generally ftand at an
equal diftance from each other in the fame plant; but
the diftance'varies greatly in different plants. Neither are
t hey of equal fizes : In carrot they are exceedingly fmall,
and fcarcely difcernible ; in melilot and cherval, they
aie thicker. They are likewife more numerous in fome
plants than in' others. Sometimes they are of"the fame
thjeknefs from one edge of the bark to the other; and
fonie grow wifer as they approach towards the Ikin. Thn
veffels with which thefe rays are amply furnilhed, are
fuppofed to be air-veffels, becaufe they are always found
to be dry, and not fo tranfparent as the veffels which e-
vidcntly contain the lap.
L T U R E.‘
In all roots, there are lignous veffels dilperfed in dif¬
ferent proportions through the parenchyma of the bark.
Thefe lignous vefiels run longitudinally through the
bark in the form of fmall threads, which are tubular, as
is evident from the rifing of the fap in them when a root
is cut tranfverfely. Thefe lignous fap-veffels do not run-
in dired lines through the bark, but, at fmall diftances,
incline towards one another in fiich a manner, that they
appear to the naked eye to be inofculated; but the mi¬
crofcope difeovers them to be only contiguous, and bra¬
ced together by the parenchyma. Thefe braces -or co-
ardations are very various both in fize and number in
different-roots; but in all plants tliey are moft nume¬
rous towards the inner edge of the bark. Neither are
thefe veffels Angle tubes, but, like the nerves in animals,
are bundles of twenty or thirty fmall contiguous cylin¬
drical tubes, which , uniformly run from the extremity,
of the root, without fending off any branches, or fuf-
fering any change in their fize or ftiape.
In fome roots, as parfnip, efpecially in the ring next,
the inner extremity of the bark, thefe vefiels contain a
kind of lymph, which is fweeter than the fap contained
in the bladders of the parenchyma. From this circum-
ftance they have got the name of lymph-dufis.
Thefe lymph-duds fometimes yield a mucilaginous,
lymph, as in the comphrey; and fometimes a white milky
glutinous lymph, as in the angelica, fonchus, burdock,
fcorzonera, dandelion, ere. The lymph-duds are fup¬
pofed to be the veflels from which the gums and bal-
fams are fecerned. The lymph of fennil, when expofed
to the air, turns into a clear tranfparent balfam; and
that of the fcorzonera, dandelion, <bc. condenfes into a
gum.
The fituation of the veffels is various. In fome plants,’
they ftand in a ring or circle at the inner edge of the
bark, as in afparagus ; in others, they appear in lines,
or rays, as in berage; in the parfnip, and feveral other
plants, they are moft confpicuous toward the outer edge
of the bark; and in the dandelion, they are difpofed
in the form of concentric circles.
2. The Wood of roots is that part which appears
after the bark is taken off, and is firmer and lefs porous
than the bark or pith. It confifts of two diftind fub¬
ftances, viz. the pulpy, or parenchymatous, and the
lignous. The wood is conneded to the bark by laVge
portions of the bark inferred into it. Thefe infertions
are moftly in the form of rays, tending to the centre of
the pith,, which are eafily difcernible by the eye in a tranf-
verfe fedion of moft roots. Thefe infertions, like the
bark, confift of many veffels, moftly of a round or, oval
figure. ,
The lignous veffels are generally difpofed in collateral-
rows running longitudinally through the root. Some of
thefe contain air, and others fap. The a:r-veffels are lo
called, becaufe they contain.no liquor. 7’^tfe air-vef-
fels are diftinguiftied by being whiter than the others.
3. The Pith is the centrical part of the root. Some
roots have no pith, as the ftramonium, nicotiana,
others have little or none at the extremities of the roots,
but have a confiderable quantity of it near the top.
The pith, like every other part of a plant, is derived
from
Plafr> V;
AGRICULTURE. 4?
from the feed: But in feme it is more immediately deii-
ved from the bark. For the infertions of the bark run¬
ning in betwixt the rays of the wood, meet in the centre,
and conilitute the pith. It is owing to this circumftance,
that among roots which have no pith in their lower
parts, they are amply provided with it towards the top,
as in columbine, lovage, 6v,
The bladders of the pith are of very different fizes,
and generally of a circular figure. Their pofition is_
more uniform than in the bark. Their fides are not
mere films, but a compofition of fmall fibres or threads ;
which gives the pith, when viewed with a microfcope,
the appearance of a piece of fine gauze, or net-work.
We fhall conclude the defcription of roots, with ob-
ferving, that their whole fubftance is nothing but a con¬
geries of tubes and fibres, adapted by nature for the ab-
ferption.of nourifhment, and of courfe the extenfion and
augmentation of their parts.
Plate IV. Fig. 9. A tranfverfe fedtion of the root
of wormwood, as it appears
to the naked eye.
Fig. 10. A fe&ion of fig. 9. magnified.
A A, The fkin, with its veffels.
B B B B, The bark. The round
holes, C C C, <bc. are the
lymph-dudts of the bark.
All the other holes are lit-
. tie cells and fap-veffels.
D D D, Parenchymatous infer¬
tions from the bark, with
tire cells, <bc.
E E E E, The rays of the wood,
in which the holes are the
air-veffels.
N. B. This root has no pith.
Sect. III. Of the Trunks Stalk, or Stem.
In deferibing the trunks of plants, it is neceffary to
prerqife, that whatever is faid-with regard to them, ap¬
plies equally to the branches,
The trunk, like the root, confifts of three parts, viz.
the bark, wood, and pith. Thefe parts, though fub-
ftantially the ^fame in the trunk as in the root, are in
many.cafes very different in their texture and appearance. '
r . The fkin of the bark is compofed of very minute
bladders, incerfperfed with longitudinal woody fibres, as
in the nettle, thiille, and moft herbs. The outfide of the
fkin is vifibly porous in feme plants, particularly the cane.
The principal body of the bark is compofed of pulp
or parenchyma, and innumerable veffels much larger than
thofe of the fkin. The texture of the pulpy part, tho’
the fame fubftance with the parenchyma in roots, yet fel-
dom appears in the form of rays running towards the
pith ; and when thefe rays do appear, they do not ex¬
tend above half way to the circumference. The veffeis.
gf the bark are very differently fituated, and deftined for
various purpofes in different.plants. For example, in the
bark of the Pine, the inmoft are lymph-dufts, and ex¬
ceedingly fmall; the outmofl are gum or refinifc rods vef¬
fels, deftined for the fecretion of turpentine ; and are fe
large, as to be diflindly vifible to the naked eye.
2. The Wood lies betwixt the bark and pith, and
confifls of two parts, viz. a parenchymatous, and lig-
nous. In all trees, the parenchymatous part of the wood,
though much diverfified as to fize and confidence, is uni¬
formly difpofed in diametrical rays, or infertions running
betwixt fimilar rays of the lignous part.
The true wood is nothing but a congeries of old dried
lymph-dudts. Between the bark and the wood a new
ring of thefe dudts is formed every year, which gradually
looies its foftnefs as the cold feafbn approaches, and, to¬
wards the middle of winter,' is condenfed into a felid
ring of wood, Thefe annual rings, which are diftindtly
vifible in moft trees when cut through, ferve as natural
marks to diftinguifh their age. Plate V. fig. 1, 2.
The rings of one year are femetimes larger, fometimes
fefs, than thofe- of another, probably owing to the favour-
ablenefs or unfavourablenefs of the feafon.
3. The Pith, though of a different texture, is ex¬
actly of the fame fubftance with the parenchyma of the
bark, and the infertions of the wood. The quantity of
pith is various in different plants. Inftead of being in-
creafed every year like the wood, it is annually dimi-
niihed, its veffels drying up, and affuming the appearance,
and ftrudture of wood; in fo much that in old trees there
is fearce fuch a thing as pith to be difcerned.
A ring of fap-veffels ape ufually placed at the outer,
edge of the pith, next the wood. In the pine, fig, and
walnut, they are very large. The parenchyma of the
pith, is compofed of fmall cells or bladders, of the fame,
kind with thofe of the bark, only of a larger fize. The
general figure of thefe biadders is circular; though in
feme plants, as the thiftle, and borage, they are angular..
Though the pith is originally one connedted chain of
bladders ; yet as the plant grows old, they ftrrivel, and
open in different diredions. In the walnut, after a cer¬
tain age, it appears in the form of a regular tranfverfe-
hollow divifion. In feme plants, it is altogether want¬
ing ; in others, as the fenchus, nettle, fyc. there is only
a tranfverfe partition of it at every joint. Many other
varieties might be mentioned ; • but thefe-muft be left to
the cbfervation of the reader,.'.
Plate V. Fig. 1. A tranfverfe fedtion of . a
branch of afh, as it appears
to the eye.-
Fig. 2. The fame fedtion magnified.
A A, The bark.
B B B, An arched ring of fap-
veffels next the Ikin.
C C C, The parenchyma, of the.:
bark with its cells, and ano¬
ther arched ring of lap-yejf-
S D, A circular line of lymph-
dudis1 immediately below the
above arched ring,
E E, The wood.
F, The firft year’s growth.
G, The fecond.
H,. The
44 A G R I C I
Plate V, Fig. 2. H, The third year’s growth.
I I I, The true wood.
K K, The great air-veffels,.
L L, The leffer ones.
M M M, The parenchymatous
infertions of the bark repre-
fented by the white rays.
N, O, The pith, with its blad¬
ders or cells.
L T U R E.
perly fpeaking, the flotvers of this year, but of the laft.
For example, mezereon generally flowers in January;
but thefe flowers were completely formed in the month
of Auguft preceeding. Of this faft any one may fatis-
fy himfelf by feparating the coats of a tulip root about
the beginning of September; and he will find that the
two innermoft form a kind of cell, in the centre of
which (lands the young flower, which is not to make its
appearance till the following April or May.
Sect. IV. Of the Leaves.
The leaves of plants confift of the fame fubftance with
that of the trunk. They are full of nerves, or woody
po/tions, running in all directions, and branching «ut in¬
to innumerable fmall threads, interwoven with the Pa¬
renchyma like fine lace or gauze.
The (kin of the leaf, like that of an animal, is full of
pores, which both ferve for perfpiration, and for the
abforption of dews, air, fcc. Thefe pores, or orifices,
differ both in (hape and magnitude in different plants,
which is the caufe of that variety of texture or grain pe¬
culiar to every plant.
The pulpy or parenchymatous part, corififts of very
minute fibres, wound up into fmall cells' or bladders.
Thefe cells are of various fizes in the fame leaf.
All leaves, of whatever figure, have a marginal fibre,
by which all the reft are bounded. The particular
(hape of this fibre determines the figure of the leaf.
The veffels of leaves have the appearance of inofcula-
,ting; but, when examined by the microfcppe, they are
found only to be interwoven, or laid along each other.
What is called air-veffels, or thofe which carry no
fap, are vifible even to the naked eye in fome leaves.
When a leaf is (lowly broke, they appear like fmall
woolly fibres, connected to both ends of the broken
piece.
Plate VI.
Fig. 1. The appearance of the air-vef¬
fels to the eye, in a vine leaf
drawn gently afunder.
Fig 2. A fmall piece cut off that leaf.
Fig. 3. The fame piece magnified, in
which the veffels have the
appearance of a fcrew.
Fig. 4. The appearance of thefe veffels
as they exift in the leaf be¬
fore they are ftretched out.
Sect. V. Of the Flower.
It is needlefs here to mention any thing of the tex¬
ture, or of the veffels, ire. of flowers, as they are pret¬
ty fimilar to thofe of the leaf. It would alfo be foreign
to our prefent purpofe, to take any notice of the charac¬
ters and diftindtions of flowers. Thefe belong to .the
fcience of Botany, to which the reader is referred.
There is one curious fad, however, which muft not
be omitted, viz. That every flower is perfe&ly formed in
all its parts many months before it appears outwardly ;
that is, the flowers which appear this year, are not, pro-
Plate VI. Fig.;. Exhibits a view of the tulip-root
when diffeCled in September,
with the young flower toward*
the bottom.
S E c T. VI. Of the Fruit.
In deferibing the ftrudure of fruits, a few exam¬
ples (hall be taken from fuch as are mod generally
known.
1. A Pear, befides the (kin, which is a production
of the (kin of the bark, confifts of a double parenchyma
or pulp, fap, and air-veffels, calculary, and acetary.
The outer parenchyma is the fame fubftance continued
from the bark, only its bladders are larger and more fuc-
culent.
It is every where interfperfed with fmall globules or
grains, and the bladders refpeCl thefe grains as a kind
of centres, every grain being the centre of a number of
bladders. The fap and air-veffels in this pulp are ex¬
tremely fmall.
Next the core is the inner pulp or parenchyma, which
confifts of bladders of the fame kind with the outer, only
larger and more oblong, cprrefponding to thofe of the
pulp, from which it feems to be ^derived. This inner
pulp is much fourer than the other, and has none of the
fmall grains interfperfed through it; and hence.it has
got the name of acetary.
Between the acetary a^nd outer pulp, the globules or
grains begin to grow larger, and gradually unite into a
hard ftony body, efpecially towards the corculum, or (tool
of the fruit; and from this circumftance it has been cal¬
led the calculary.
Thefe grains are not derived from any of the organi-
cal parts of the tree, but feem rather to be a kind of
concretions precipitated from the fap, fimilar to the pre¬
cipitations from wine, urine, and othei liquors.
The core is a roundiflt cavity in the centre of the
pear, lined with a hard woody membrane, in which the
feed is inclofed. At the bottom of the core there is a
fmall duCt or canal, which runs -up to the top of the
pear; this canal allows the air *0 get into the core, for
the purpofe of drying and ripening the feeds.
Plate VII. Fig. I. A tranfverfe fe&ion of a pear,
as it appears to the naked
eye.
A, The (kin, and a ring of fap-
veffels
B, The outer parenchyma, or
pulp.
Plate TI
Plate Til.
agricultu
pulp, with its veflels, and
lignous fibres interfperfed.
Plate VII. Fig. t.< C, The inner parenchyma, orace-
tary, with its vefl’els, which
are larger than the outer one.
D, The core and feeds.
Fig. i. A piece cut off fig. i.
Fig. 3. Is fig. 2. magnified.
AAA,Thefmall grains or globules
with the veffels radiated from
them.
Fig. 4. A longitudinal feffion of the pear,
Ihewing a different view of the
fame parts with thofe of fig. 1.
A, The channel, or du<5t, which
runs from the top of the pear
to the bottom of the core.
2. In a Lemon, the parenchyma appears in thr.ee dif¬
ferent forms. The parenchyma of the rind is of a coarfe
texture, being compofed of thick fibres, woven into large
bladders. Thofe neared the furface contain the effential
oil of the fruit, which burlls into a flame when the Ikin
is fqueezed over a candle. From this outmod parenchy¬
ma nine or ten infertions or lamellae are produced, which
run between as many portions of the pulp, and unite in¬
to one body in the centre of the fruit, which correfponds
to the pith in trunks or roots. At the bottom and top
of the lemon, this pith evidently joins with the rind,
without the intervention of any lamellae. This circum-
ftance (hows, that the pith and bark are actually con-
neftedin the trunk- and roots of plants, though it is dif¬
ficult to demondrate the connexion, on account of the
clofenefs of their texture, and the minutenefs of their
fibres. Many veffels are difperfed through the whole of
this parenchyma; but the larged ones dand on the inner
edge of the rind, and the outer edge of the pith, jud at
the two extremities of each lamella.
The fecond kind of parenchyma is placed between
the rind and the pith, is divided into didimft bodies
by the lamellae ; and each of thefe bodies forms a large
bag.
Thefe bags contain a third parenchyma, which is a
cluder of fmaller bags, didinft and unconnedted with
each other, having a fmall dalk by which they are fixed
to the large bag. Within each of thefe fmall bags are
many hundreds of bladders, compofed of extremely mi¬
nute fibres. Thefe bladders contain the acid juice of
the lemon.
From this fliort fketch of the drudhire and compofi-
tion of vegetables, both the farmer and .philofopher may
draw very ufeful and important conclufions. Some of
them will perhaps be taken notice of in the courfe of this
treatife.
Plate V. Fig. 3. A longitudinal fedtion of a le-
' . mbn.
AAA, The rind with the vef¬
fels that contain the effential
j oil.
B 13, The fubftance correfpond-
Vol. I. No. 2. 3
RE. 45
ing to the pith, formed by the
union of the lamella, or infer¬
tions.
Plate V. Fig. 3. C C, Its continuation and con-
nedtion with the rind, inde¬
pendent of tihe infertions.
Fig. 4. A tranfverfe feclion of the lemon.
B B B, &<\ The nine pulpy bags,
or fecond parenchyma, placed
between the rind and the pith;
and the clufter of fmall bags,
which contain the acid juice,
inclofed in the large ones.
C C, The large veffels that fur-
round the pith.
D D, Two of the large bags laid
• open, (hewing the feeds, and
their connedtion with the la¬
mellae or membranes which
form the large bags.
Sect. VII. Of the nature and motion of the
Sap.
The veffels in the roots of plants abforb moiflure from
the earth, and convey ft to the trunk, branches, leaves,
&c. This juice, when it firft. enters into the root, is
crude ; but as it afcends into the other parts of the plant,
it undergoes feveral changes, by means of the different
configurations of the veflels peculiar to each part. Thus
the leaves, flowers, fruit, and feed, have all fomething
peculiar in the ftrudlure and arrangement of their veffds,
vjhich produces confiderable changes in the nature of the
fap. It is not known how thefe changes are produced:
but how the flomachs of animals make chyle from ani¬
mal and vegetable fubftances, or how urine, faliva, bile,
<bc. is fecreted from the common mafs of blood, is aS
little known. The fap likewife moves in a lateral or ho¬
rizontal diredtion.
Philofophers are greatly divided about what they call
the circulation of the fap. Some contend, that it re¬
turns to the root betwixt the bark and wood. But Hales,
who has made many accurate experiments on the fubjedt,
has fliown, that it does not circulate, but afcends and
defcends in the fame veffels; that it afcends in hot wea¬
ther, and defcends in cold, like the fpirits in a thermo¬
meter.
Vegetables begin to abforb fap about the beginning of
Spring, and foon after Ihoot out their buds, leaves, and
flowers.
When plants are in a (late of vegetation, efpecially in
hot weather, there is a great deal of fuperfluous fap ab-
forbed; but the fuperfluous parts are carried off by tran-
fpiration. Every part of a plant tranfpires; but the
greateft quantity paffes by the leaves.
Some have afligned the tranfpiration of plants, as the
caufe of the motion of the fap. It is undoubtedly one
caufe of this motion; becaufe, if the tranfpiration be
'flopped, at a time when all the veffels are full, the mo¬
tion of the fap me ft flop of courfe. But then there is a
previous and principal caufe, viz. that power in the vef-
M fels.
46 A G R I C U
fels, whatever it i&, that firft puts the Tap in motion, be¬
fore any tranfpiration has commenced.
Heat, moifture, and air, are the three chief circum-
ftances that promote the afcent of the fap. Hence no¬
thing is more favourable to vegetation than warm Weather
accompanied with rain: on the other hand, cold dry
weather is its greateft enemy. In a wet, cold feafon,
every thing rots; and in hot dry weather every thing is
parched. But the circumftances moft favourable to ve¬
getation are cloudy, hot weather, inclinable to thunder,
Succeeded by plentiful rains.
Sect. VIII. Of the Food of Plants.
It is thought to be an important queftion in agriculture,
whether the feveral kinds of plants require the fame, or
different nourifhment.
Upon a fuperficial view of this queftion, it would appear
very improbable, that the fame matter could nourifh fuch
a variety of plants, differing fo effentially in fmell, tafte,
figure, <&c. Much, however, may depend upon the in¬
ternal ftrudlure and arrangement of the veffels. One
thing is certain, that if the veffels in any plant be un¬
commonly fmall, parts will be reje&ed by that plant
which would be abforbed by one whofe veffels are larger.
Nay, changes may be made in the crude homogeneous
nourifhment, by a fmall difference, in the figure or action
of the veffels.
It is given out as a fadt, by writers on this fubjedt,
that one plant will ftarve another, by robbing it of its
nourifhment. This does not feem to affedt either fide of
the queftion; for it may ftarve its neighbour, either by
extending its roots, and requiring a greater quantity of
nourifhment than the other; or it may abforb the pecu¬
liar food which is neceffary for the growth of the other
plant. In either cafe, the plant is deprived of a proper
quantity of nourifhment.
It is likewife propofed as a difficulty, Why a poifonous
plant and its antidote will grow in the fame foil, and very
near each others This argument is of the fame nature
With the former. It may be owing either to thefe plants
imbibing different juices from the earth, or to peculiari¬
ties in the ftrudlure and adtion of their vefTeJs. Thefe,
and many other ambiguous fadls, (have been advanced on
both fides of this queftion, which we fhall not fpend time
iii enumerating.
The argument drawn from grafted plants, feems more
diredl and decifive. A ftalk of a lemon, grafted on a
branch of an orange-tree, grew, ripened its fruit, and
preferved the figure and all the other qualities belong¬
ing to a lemon. This plainly indicates, that the or¬
ganisation of the lemon had given a different modifica¬
tion to the juices of the orange, through the interven¬
tion of which it received its nourifhment.
It is alfo certain, that the different parts of the fame
L T U R E.
plant have frequently various fmells, taftes, <bc. although
the nourilhment derived from the root muft be the fame.
This is an evidence, that the different ftiudUire of parrs
in the fame plants is capable of producing very fenfible
changes in the nature and quality of the fap.
Repeated experiments fhow, .that many plants of very
oppofite qualities, and even trees, have been nourifhed
and brougjht tq maturity by the pureft water alone.
It is obferved, op the other hand, that different plants
require different foils.. This is certainly true: But what
then ? Does not this difference in foil rather depend up¬
on the greater or leffer quantity, than any peculiar qua¬
lity in the food ? Thyme grows heft in a dry foil; but
it will grow equally well in earth carried from a marfh
to the top of a mountain.
The roots of plants are fitted to abforb every fluid that
comes within their reach. They have been found by
experiment to imbibe fluids that actually poifon them.
From this circumftance it may be fairly concluded, that
they have not, like animals, the fagacity of chufing the
food that is moft proper for nourifhing them, and reject¬
ing that which is either hoxious or lefs nourifiiing.
Mr Dickion, author of an excellent treatife on agri¬
culture, publi/hed in 1765, has endeavoured to fix the
particular ingredients that enter into the compofition of
the food of vegetables. He contends, that neither earth,
water, air, oil, nor fait, can be called the food of plants ;
' but he thinks that it confifts of a combination of all thefe
fubftances. His arguments in fupport of this theory are
chiefly drawn from the chemical analyfis, which Ihows,
•that all thefe fubftances may be extorted from vegetables
by the force of fire; and from a confideration that a due
admixture of .thefe .fubftances (or fuch things as con¬
tain them) is favourable, and even neceffary, to vegeta¬
tion.
His laft argument is good : But whoever attempts to
difcover the properties of plants, or the ingredients of
their food, from a chemical analyfis, will probably never
do much fervice to the fcience of agriculture. Fire and
a retort is capable of torturing either animals or vege¬
tables into forms and qualities which never exifted either
in theft bodies, or in their food.
We fhall conclude this fedtion with obferving, that the
farmer, in nourifhing his plants, fhould be direfted entire¬
ly by experience. If he knows, that putrid animal
and vegetable fubftances, that lime, foot, marie, foe.
when applied with judgment, aflift the growth of his
plants, and augment his crop, it is of little confequence
whether he be acquainted with their chemical analyfis,
or the particular mode of their operation. We do not
mean that he fhould continue obftinately in the old beat¬
en track, as it is called ; but rathe/r that he fhould try
whether he can by any means improve upon the old
method, and that his pra&ice fhould be diredted accord¬
ing to the fuccefs of theft trials.
PART
AGRICULTURE. 47
PART II.
Of the various Operations upon the Soil, in order to prepare it for the Recsp-'
tion and Nourijhment of Plants.
S e c t. I. Of Manures.
TG'Very fubftance which promotes the growth of plants
■*"'* is denominated a manure.
As to the operation of manures, fome maintain, that
they give to the earth an additional quantity of the vege¬
table food; others, that they are of no other ufe than
to divide the foil, and therefore that tillage may be fub-
ftituted’in their place. This lafl opinion was embraced
by Mr Tull, and is the fundamental principle in his
horfe-hoeing hulbandry. A minute divilion of the foil
will da. a great deal; but the experience of all ages
fhows that it will do much more by the addition of ma¬
nure.
In Scotland, it is the univerfal practice to dung lands,
that are in conftant tillage, at leal! once' in five years ;
and it eonfifts with obfervation, that the ground is con-
fiderably enriched the fir ft year, but that the crops gra¬
dually decline till the virtues of the dung are entirely ex-
haufted.
Some manures lofe their virtue by being long expofed
to the air. If dung be kept after it is fufficiently rotted,
the moft valuable part of it will evaporate. Others, as
lime and marks, are of an oppofite nature: the longer
they are expofed to the air, their utility to the land is
improved, fftom this circumftance it is probable, that
marks and lime attraA fomething from the air which ren-
. ders them more favourable to vegetation.
There is a great variety of fubftances which, when
laid upon land, adl as manures. But the moft ufual ma¬
nures in this country are dung, lime, marks, afhes, foot,
fea-weed, fhells, tic.
Of Dung.
Dung is properly the excrement of animals ; but what
commonly goes by that name, is a mixture of excre-
■ ments, putrefied vegetable and animal fubftances. If
dunghills be kept after they are fufficiently rotted, the
oily and more volatile parts, which are the beft ingre¬
dients, fly off. They fhould likewife be placed in a
dry fituation, and raifed high at the fides, to prevent
thefe parts from being carried off by water ; for much
urater prevents the uniform putrefasftion of dunghills of
this mixed kind.
To promote a proper putrefadlion, the dung fhould
not be laid in fmall heaps, but fpread thick upon the dung¬
hill ; for by this means the fermentation commences foon-
er, the natural fap is preferved, and the dung is prevent¬
ed from being burnt, or f.re-fanged, as it is termed by
farmers. Dung, when burnt in this manner, is dry,
white, and ufekfs as a manure. It is agreed, that dung¬
hills ought to be covered, to prevent the exhalation of
vegetable food. But the difficulty is, how to execute it.
-Some propofe a thin layer of earth for this purpofe;
others, that a pit fhould be dug, built with flags at the
fide, and covered with a roof. The former would an-
fwer very well, -were it not for the additions that are
conftantly making to dunghills; and the latter is fo
expenfive, that few people will chufe to make trial of
it. When dung comes from the liable or byre, it is mixed
with ftraw; which abforbs the moifture, and prevents it
from exhaling till the ftraw itfelf putrefies. When in
this fituation, if it be laid thick upon the top of the
dunghill, there being but a fmall furface expofed to the
air, the juices will be tolerably well preferved.
As dung thus lofes its beft qualities by being expofed
to the fun and weather, it ought to be plowed in as foon
as poflibk, after being laid upon land. If fufficiently
putrefied, it ffiould be plowed in with a fhallow furrow,
as its juices are waffied down by the rain : It fhould like¬
wife be fpread very equally; for when large pieces lie
fcattered up and down, they become a nidus to infedts
■ and vermin.
Of Lime.
Lime being of an alkaline nature, attra&s acids:
Hence it is fuppofed to communicate to the foil a power
of attradHng the vegetable food from the air. Lime
is a heavy fubftance, and penetrates deep into the foil;
it fometimes even 'finks below the reach of the plow.
By fermenting with acids, it breaks down and divides
the foil into fmall particles, and makes it foft, mellow^
and evidently in a ftate of fermentation. It likewife dif-
folves oils, and all animal and vegetable fubftances, and
converts them into vegetable food. This quality ren*.
ders it peculiarly ufeful in deftroyirg root-weeds.
Thefe being the general properties of lime, it is fup¬
pofed to have a twofold operation upon land. When a
large quantity is ufed, efpecially after being long expo-
fed to the air, it promotes vegetation by giving a kind of
ftimulus to the foil, and making it exert itfelf. This,
operation of lime is not merely hypothetical; for expe¬
rience fhews, that land thoroughly limed may be reduced
to a poorer condition by cropping, than if it had nor
been limed at all. It is even poffibk to reduce limed
land to a caput mortuum; and the more frequently and
the better the land is plowed, it is the fooner reduced
to this ftate.
Lime alfo enriches land, by augmenting the vegetable
aliment. When intended for this purpcfe, only a fmail
quantity fhonld be employed; as a fmall quantity of
hme is fuftkient to impregnate a large quantity of earth,-
and
49 A G R I C U
and to communicate to It as high a degree of an abforb-
ing quality as it is capable of receiving.
Thefe different operations of lime is confirmed by
experience, and agreeable to the pfa&ice in thofe parts of
Scotland where lime is moft ufed. When employed for
the purpofe of improving barren lands, it is laid on in
large quantities, to give a flimulus to the foil, and make
it exert all its vigour; and when applied to land already
improved, it is ufed in fmall quantities, and repeated
once every third or fourth year, to prevent too great
an exertion, and impoveriiliing the land, by exhauft-
ing too much of the vegetable food.
The lands in Scotland capable of the greatefi: im¬
provement by lime, are the out-field and muir lands.
The out-field land is generally kept three years in tillage,
and carries three crops of oats ; it is then allowed to
reft fix years, and after that is brought again into tillage.
This method of cultivating out-field land is found, by
calculation, to be fufficiently able to bear the expence,
and allow a reafonable profit to the farmer, befides the
improvement the lands derive from the lime.
Is England, lime is fometimes ufed as a top dreffing
for wheat. The method is this: They fow their wheat
without laying on any manure ; and in the beginning of
February, for every acre of land, they take 20 bulhels of
unflaked lime, and 4 bufhels of fand, or brick-rubbilh.
Towards the end of the month, the lime is flaked and
mixed with the fand: In the laft week of the month, this
is fcattered by way of top-drefling over the green wheat;
and as rain generally fucceeds, it is foon waflied down
to the roots of the plant, and gives them a vigour and
ftrength of grov/yh that is aftonifhing to people who have
never feen this method pradfifed. But, if the weather
inclines to be dry, the quantity of fand muft be doubled,
to prevent the plants from being burnt by the corrofive
quality of the lime.
Of Maries.
The general characters by which marie is beft diftin-
guilhed, are thefe : It attracts and ferments with acids,
and does not bake in the fire like potter’s earth, which
diftinguiflies it fufficiently from clay; upon being expo-
fed for fome time to the air and weather, it diflblves like
qmck-lime, and falls intp a fine powder; when dry, it
is friable and undtuous like lead-ore ; when wet, it is
foft and flippery to the touch; whereas virgin-earth
is rough and gritty.
x There are a great variety of marks ; but they are
generally reduced to three kinds: The clay, the ftone,
and the fhell marie.
The clay and ftone marks are nearly of the fame na¬
ture ; but the fliell-maile differs from both.
Of Clay and Stone Maries.
Though plants will not grow in thefe marks, when
pure; yet, when mixed with foil, they become an excel¬
lent manure.
Stone and clay marks are poffeffed of much the fame
qualities with lime, anfl confequently aft nearly in the
L T U R E.
fame manner upon the foil. They communicate to the
foil a power of attradling the vegetable food from the
air, diflblve the vegetable food, and prepare it for en¬
tering the roots of plants. They likewife attradt oils
fo ftrongly, that they are frequently ufed for extracting
greafy fpots out of cloth; they are therefore fuppofed to
attract oil from the air and earth, which is the chief in¬
gredient in the nourifhment of plants.
Both the clay and ftone marks are long of diffolving.
Large pieces of the ftone-mark are fometimes found un-
difiblved many years after'it has been laid on the land
This renders it neceffary to lay on a large quantity o.
them, left their effedts Ihould not at firft appear.
As mark may ‘be ufed with fafety in greater quanti¬
ty than lime, it muft communicate to the foil a ftronger
power of attracting the vegetable food, and confequently
it ought always to be preferred. Mark is likewife pre¬
ferable to lime in this refpedt, that it is longer of diffol¬
ving; and therefore the land will continue to carry bet¬
ter crops for feveral years longer after it has been marled.
However, if the foil be foft and fpungy, the mark, like
lime, will fink below the reach of the plough, and pre¬
vent thofe advantages which might naturally be expecced
from it.
Though marie is preferable to lime as a manure; yet it
muft be confidered, that their operation upon the earth
is the fame; confequently, when markd land has been
exhaufted with crops, it cannot receive much benefit
from an immediate application of mark a fecond time;
for the fame reafon, it can receive as little advantage from
lime : Dung therefore, as it contains a great propor¬
tion of the vegetable food, which lime and marks dimi-
nifh, is the moft proper manure for markd or limed
lands exhaufted with crops.
What was faid with regard to the application of lime,
in fmaller or larger quantities, to barren lands and lands
in good o^'er, may be faid with equal propriety with
regard to ftone and clay marks.
Of Shell-marle.
This mark is of a different nature from the ftone
and clay marks. It does not diffolve with water, but
abforbs and fwells with it like .a fpunge: It attracts acids
more forcibly. But the principal difference betwixt the
(hell-mark and the other marks confifts in this, that
the (hell-mark contains a great quantity of oil.
.This mark is therefore luppofed to promote vegeta¬
tion, by increafing the food of plants, by communicating
to the foil a power of attracting this food from the air,
by dividing the foil into fmall particles, and by preparing
the vegetable food for being abforbed by their roots.
As (hell-mark does not exhauft land like lime and the
other marks, it may be repeated as often as the huf-
bandman pleafes. Its effects are likewife more fudden.
Of Apes.
The afhes of vegetables contain a large quantity of
alkaline fait: Hence they attraCt acids more ftrongly
than any other fubftances.
The
T U R E.
49
A G R I C U L
The operation of alhes upon the foil muft therefore be
of the fame nature with that of lime, only it is more vio¬
lent and fuddea, and confequently it is fooner over.
This is confirmed by experience. After land has been
manured with alhes, the firll crop is commonly very lux¬
uriant; but a fecond crop almoft entirely, exhaulis the
land. Hence alhes Ihould be laid on in fmall .quantities,
and Ihould not be applied to land exhaulted by lime or
marie; neither Ihould they be repeated, or followed by
thefe manures.
Burnt turf is generally recommended as a manure.
Turfs are chiefly compofed of vegetables ; their alhes,
therefore, mull; be of the fame nature with thofe of wood
or any other vegetable fubltance. It is found by experi¬
ence, that the burning of turfs turns out to advantage
in proportion to the number of roots they contain; and
therefore land, with a tough fward of grals, is m ft
proper to be improved in this manner.
In burning turf, the heaps mull be Covered in fuch a
manner as to prevent the flame from breaking out; o-
therwife the moft ufeful part of the alhes will fly off.
To prevent burnt land from being exhaufted, one or
two crops only Ihould be. taken, and then the land
ought to be laid out in grafs. Its fertility will be
greatly increafed, if a little dung be added after the
firft crop.
Of Soot.
Soo r contains oil, fait, and earth. It promotes ve¬
getation in the fame manner as dung or Ihell-marle.
Soot is generally applied in the Spring as a top-drefling
to winter corn or grafs. The effects of foot ufed in this
way are fo fudden, that they evidently appear after the
firft rain. But its virtues are commonly exhaufted by a
fingle crop. However, when the effefts of foot are o-
ver, the foil is not exhaufted, as by allies or lime;.it may
therefore be repeated as often as the farmer thinks pro¬
per ; or it may be followed with advantage by alhes,
lime, or marie.
Of Sea-weed.
All plants that grow upon rocks, within reach of the
fea, are good manures. Thefe are frequently loofened
and driven a-lhore by the tide. They are of a foft pul¬
py nature, and foon putrefy.
Sea-weeds promote vegetation in the fame manner as
dung or foot; but their effects are not fo lafting as dung.
However, they are preferable to dung in this refpeft, that
they do not produce fo many weeds.
They may be applied to land in any fituation, and are
peculiarly proper for land that is exhaufted by lime or
alhes. When their effects ceafe, the land is not injured,
and any kind of manure may bp ufed after them.
The oftener fea-weeds are applied, the land becomes
the richer. This is confirmed by experience. The
lands npar the Ihores, where the weeds have been long
ufed as manures, are among the richeft in Scotland, and
have been kept almoft conftantly in tillage.
Vol. I. No. 3. 3
Of Shells.
Beds of IheJls are to he met with in many places, but
particularly near the fea-lhore.
Thefe Ihells ferment with acids, and, like other ani-
mal-fubftances, contain oil, fait, and earth. Their ope¬
ration is fuppofed to be of the fame kind with that of
Ihell-roarle : But, as they take a long time to dilfolve,
their effefts muft be flower and weaker: They ought
therefore to be applied in large quantities, otherwife
their operation will be hardly perceptible.
Shells exhauft the land, but not near fo much as lime
or afhes; it is therefore improper to ufe them immedi¬
ately after thefe manures.
When Ihells are found below the furface of the ground,
as they generally are, they Ihould be expofed to the air
for feme time before they are ploughed in: This not
only aflifts their fermentation, but promotes their pu¬
trefaction.
Of Vegetables in an entire State, or fown for
Manure.
It is a practice in many places, particularly in Eng¬
land, to few turnip, peafe, buck-wheat, <&c. and to
plough them down for manuring the land.
This practice is thought by feme people to be attend¬
ed with no advantage; becaufe the plants, when plough¬
ed down, can convey no more food to the foil than they
take from it. But it ought to be confidered, that feme
of the plants employed in this manner pufti their roots
below the reach of the plough, and fuck up the food to
the furface; the feed that is fown likewife contains a
great-proportion of vegetable food; befides what the
plants, when growing, may derive from the air, <fyc. Froot
thefe circumftances it may be inferred, that they actual¬
ly return more nourifliment to the foil than they extraCt
from it. The covering of the furface is alfo an advan¬
tage : Every farmer knows, that when the foil has been
covered for a confiderable time by a ftrong crop of peafe,
or any other corn laid down, the foil, though natural¬
ly hard and ftiff, becomes foft, mellow, and free.
Of Water.
Rain-water contains a confiderable quantity of ve¬
getable food. When it falls upon land that has a defeent,
by running off, it muft carry along with it feme of the
fineft particles of the foil and the vegetable food contain¬
ed in them. If this water, then, is let in upon a field, and
allowed to fettle, the land will receive from it not only
the vegetable food contained in the water itfelf, but
likewife what is contained in the particles of earth carried
off from the higher grounds.
This method of manuring can only be ufed in fields
which lie on the fides of rivers, or fuch as can be eafily
drained. In praCtifing it, the water muft not be allowed
to run off violently, otherwife it does more hurt than
good. Land in grafs is moft proper for this kind of
N manuring.
$0 A G R I C t
manuring. The firmnefs of the furface prevents any of •
the foil from being carried off when the water is drain¬
ing, and the grafs intangles the mud, <&c. and hinders
them from going along with the water.
This operation Ihould be performed in the fpring. In
that feafon grafs-lands fuffer lead from being •over¬
sowed.
Sect. Ill, Of Soils with respect to
Manures.
Soils are very different in their natures, and compo-
fed of Very different ingredients: Some foils contain
more, and others lefs, of the food neceflVny for the nou-
riihment of plants. It is neceflary to inquire into thefe
differences, in order to difcoyer what manures are moft
proper for each kind.
The foils moft common in Scotland are the black
loamy, the clay, the fandy, and the moffy. Of thefe
there are many varieties, according to the different pro¬
portions of that particular kind of earth from which they
are denominated. Some foils are even fo blended, that
it is difficult to determine what kind of earth moft pre¬
vails in them.
Of the black Loamy Soil.
Pure loam feems to be nothing elfe but the earth of
putrefied vegetables, accumulated by the fucceffive de¬
cay of natural or artificial crops. In cultivated lands,
dung and other manure greatly increafe the quantity of
the loam.
The principal qualities of loam are thefe : When al¬
lowed to reft, it acquires a degree of cohefion, but ne¬
ver becomes fo hard and tough as clay: When turned
up and expofed to the air, it becomes free and open,
and eafily crumbles down : When, dry, it readily admits
water, and fwells and retains it like Ihell-marle; how¬
ever, it only retains a proper quantity, and allows the
reft to run off. It alfo contains oil, fermentswith acids,
and is of an abforbent nature.
There is no foil altogether pure; but that foil which
has loam in its compofition ..poffeffes in feme degree all
the qualities of loam; and thefe qualities are unqueftion-
ably the moft proper for nourifhing plants.
Its oils and falts afford food to the plants ; the abfor¬
bent quality of which it is poffeffed, alfo attrads vegetable
food from the air; its friablenefs, aad fermenting with
' acids, give an eafy paffage to. the roots to acquire this
food.
Experience, the only fare guide in fubje<fts of this
kind, fhows that a loamy foil is inoft fruitful. Some
lolls, when well limed or dunged, may bear as great
crops as the loamy foil; but then they require a fupply
inuch fooner.. The loamy foil has likewife another ad¬
vantage pver every o^her : It does not fuffer fo much
from drought or rain, as clay and fandy foils.
All land called in-field land has a certain quantity of
loam in. its compofition, probably owing to the dung
‘ L T U R E.
which is laid from time to time upon it. This is the on¬
ly diftinfiion betwixt out-field and in-field land.
The foil which contains a great proportion of loam, re¬
quires very little manure. It may be kept coriftantly in
good heart by proper tillage and good management.
The common loarny foil ‘requires manure, and no
kind of manurh is improper for it; dung, however, is
unqueftionably the heft. Lime, unlefs managed with
care, is in danger of hurting a loamy foil by exhauft-
ing it.
Of the Clay-Soil.
The richeft kind of clay-foil is that which confifts of
clay and loam. To difcover the nature of this foil, it
is necelfafy to know the qualities of clay.
Clay is a very folid body, and its parts adhere firmly
together: It does not eafily admit water, but is capable
of containing a great quantify, fwells but little, and does
not eafily part with it. When dry. Clay- is very hard,
and becomes the harder the more fuddenly it is dried.
In the procefs of drying, it contracts unequally, and
breaks out into rents or fiflures where the cohefion is
weakeft. It ferments v/ith acids, but has no oil in its
compofition.
From £ flight view of thefe qualities it appears, that
a clay-foil is not fo well adapted for the nouriftiment of
plants as the loamy: it is more fubjedt to receive in¬
juries from drought or rain. In a rainy feafon, as it is
averfe to part with the water after it once admits it, the
roots of plants will be much weakened or deftroyed by
being long foaked in the water. On the other hand, in
a very (jry feafon, it becomes fo hard, that the roots
cannot penetrate deep enough to fearch for food.
Thefe obfervations are fully confirmed by experience.
For it is well known to the hufbandman, that the pro¬
duce of clay-foils are extremely uncertain, as they are
liable -to be deftroyed by dry or wet feafons. Thefe foils
labour under another difadvantage; as they repel water,
efpecially when it falls in fmall quantities, they reap no
benefit from dews or flight {bowers.
The clay-foil is faid to contain vegetable food, but does
not allow it to be eafily diffolved: and hence lime, marks,
or aflies, are the moft proper manures for it, as they divide
it into fmall particles. . Thefe manures likewife commu¬
nicate to it a greater power of abforption ; and therefore
they will enable it both to receive andtranfmit water more
readily, and of courfe make it lefs fubject to be injured
by the weather. Clay-foils, when mixed with loam,
are very rich ; but, when mixed with fand or till, they
are very poor. Poor clay-foils require fuch manures as
contain the greateft quantity of vegetable food; there¬
fore dung, fhell-marle, fea-weed, 6c. are the belt ma¬
nures for them.
Of the Sandy Soil.
There are two kinds of fand that enter into the com¬
pofition of foils; .the one confifts of fmall particles of
flint, the other of broken fir ells.
The
L T U R E.
-Si
A G R I C U
1 The fandy-fsll which is compofed of flinty particles,
'eafily receives- and tranfmits water; and confequently is
hot capable of containing a fufficient quantity for promo¬
ting the growth of plants: Its particles do not adhere,
and is therefore unable to fupport plants that have few
roots and grow high. Belides, it is firfjeptible of great¬
er heat from the fun than any othgr foil, which is apt to
pare!*! the plants. As this foil contains no oil, it mult
be very defective in vegetable food; and, as it has no
abforbent quality, it will receive but a fmall fupply from
the air.
From the qualities of this foil, the manures moll pro-
■per for it are eafily difeovered. = Clay will make it firmer,
and enable it to retain the water; but clay contains lit¬
tle vegetable food. Dung will fupply it with the food
of plants; but will not render it firm, or make it retain
water, Mofs will help it to retain water, and fupply it
with vegetable food; but will not make it firmer. A
mixture of clay and dung, or of clay and mofs,. feems
therefore to be the moft proper manure for this foil.
The qualities of a fandy foi,l compofed of broken
fliclls, are-nearly the fame with thofe of the former
kind. The only differences are, that it ferments with
acids,- contains oil, and is capable of being' diflblved.
Hence this foil mud have h larger quantity of vegetable
food, and muft alfo receive a greater fupply from the
air.-~.Ajn^xture ^ dung-and clay, or of mofs and clay,
is likewHe the mod proper manure for this foil: But if
any fubdance could be found that could reduce the par¬
ticles of the fliells to a date of puprefaftion, it would
be preferable to any thing hitherto known for improving
a foil of this kind.
Of the Moffy Soil.
Moss principally confids either of Jive or at lead
uncorrupted vegetables. It mud therefore have fait and
oil in its compofition. It does not eafily putrefy, and
prevents other bodies from putrefying. It fwells with
water like a fpunge, and does not eafily part with it.
To render the mofly foil fit for nourifhing plants, the
-vegetables in it mull be reduced to a date of putrefa&icn.
This will not only fupply it with vegetable food, but
Jikewife render it firmer, and make it more eafily part
with water. Hence thole manure's which ferment mod
violently with acids, as the clay and done marles, feem
to be the mod proper for this foil. Thefe marles will
not only raife a violent fermentation, but fill up the
pores, and make the foil more folid. When the mofs is
deep, or has not a folid bottom, lime is improper, be-
caufe it will foon penetrate beyond the reach of the
plough-; but, if it has a folid bottom, lime will anfwer
very well.
It is improper to fow upon this foil till the fermen¬
tation raifed by the manure is completely finilhed; for
the violence of the fermentation fometimes throws the
feeds, a (id even the roots, out of the ground.
Frequent ploughings make the moffy foil run much
into weeds; and from this circumdance, the praciice of
ploughing it but feidom is found to anfwer better.
Sect. IV. Of the Impediments to Ve¬
getation.
■i. Weeds, as an Impediment to Vegetation.
Every vegetable that grows in afield, different from
the particular plant that is intended to be cultivated, may
be called a vjeed.
Weeds injure the plants we defire to cultivate, by rob¬
bing them of part of their nourifhment, and by preventing
the fpreading of their roots. Some weeds, as quicken¬
ing grafs, extend and interweave their roots in fuch a
manner that it is difficult to pulverife the foil by tillage.
It is therefore of great importance to the farmer to know
how weeds may be dedroyed. Weeds are generally di¬
vided into three claffes, viz. thofe that are propagated
by the feed ; thofe that are propagated by the roots;
and ffirubs.
Of deflroying Weeds that are propagated by
Seed.
Weeds are very different in their natures. Some,
if prevented from vegetating,-die in a few years by lying
moid in the earth ; others will lie many years in this
fituation, without lofing the power of vegetating.
The fird kind may be dedroyed, by turning the land
infeded with them into graft Jor five or fix years; and
both kinds may be rooted out by allowing them to vege¬
tate, and then tearing up the young plants before they
begin to flower.
In order to promote the vegetation of the weeds that
are intended to be dedroyed, the land ought to be well
ploughed; if a little dung, or other manure, be applied,
the crop of" weeds will be increafed, and their dedruc-
. tion will be rendered more general.
Several weeds, as the thidle, dandelion, rag-weed, ire.
. are furniffied with a kind of down, by which they float
in the air, and are:carried to great didances by the wind.
Farmers ffiould be as careful to root out all weeds of
this kind from the roots of hedges, banks of fences, <bc.
as from their arable land; for although they may have
the appearance of being inoffendve in that fituation, they
are trarffported from thence in great quantities by the
wind into the adjacent fields.
There is another great fource of weeds, but too little
attended to by farmers. It is a general practice, to
throw the feeds that are feparated from the corn in win¬
nowing upon the dung-hill; and by this means they are-
carried out with the dung, and again fown upon the land.
Of deflroying Weeds that are propagated by
the Rost.
There are many different kinds of weeds propagated
by the roots. Some of them infed land that is in til¬
lage, and others land that is in graft.
Thole that infefi: land in tillage may be deftroyed by
turning it into graft for fome years. This is the moff
/ effectual
52 A G R I C U
efFedual means of rooting out quicken-grafs, and other
root-weeds of the fame nature,. If the foil be hard and
Hi IF, it is the fooner cleared of weeds by being laid Out
in grafs; But a foft fpungy foil requires to be in grafs
fix or feven years before the weeds are deftroyed.
Thofe weeds that infeft lands in grafs, are eafiefl de¬
ftroyed by turning the land into tillage. Neither is it
necefTary to continue it long in this fituation ; for the
weeds commonly difappear after the firft ploughing.
But as, in fome cafes, it may he inconvenient to turn
a field infefted with weeds from tillage into grafs, or
from grafs into tillage, it ’is neceffary to confider whether
the fame may not be accomplifhed, without altering the
fituation of the land.
When land is in tillage, the weeds may be deftroyed
by frequently ftirring and turning it over in dry weather;
for when the weeds are difplaced, the drought prevents
them from taking root again.
Land cannot be made too fine, nor the furface too
fmooth, when it is intended to be freed of feed-weeds ;
becaufe by that the greateft number are brought to ve¬
getate : But, when intended to be freed of root-weeds,
the rougher the furface, the weeds are the more eafily
deftroyed; becaufe the drought has the eafier accefs to
their roots.
If grafs-lands be infefted with weeds, and it is incon¬
venient to turn them into tillage, the only way of de-
ftroying the weeds, is to ait them frequently, or pull
them up by the roots.
Some lands, after being in grafs a few years, are lia¬
ble to be over-run with fog: In this .cafe, rolling, by
making the furface firmer, will be of great ufe in de-
ftroying the fog. This weed, as well as others, may
be deftroyed by depriving it of air. This may be done
by covering the furface with a crop of peafe, potatoes, or
other plants that lie thick on the furface. A deep
trenching will, in fome cafes, anfwer the fame intention.
0/' dejlroylng Shrubs, as Furze, Broom, Bram¬
ble, &c.
i. FURZE.
The common method of deftroying furze (or whins)
is by grubbing them out with a hoe. But it is impoflible
to root them out fo compleatly as to prevent their
fpringing again, efpecially if the 'land be continued in
grafs. The moft effectual method, therefore., is to bring
the land into tillage immediately after the whins have
been grubbed up. As long as it continues in tillage, no
whins will appear; but if turned into grafs, they grow
as numerous as ever.
To prevent this return of whins, the young plants that
appear after the land is turned into grafs, fhould be pul¬
led up by the roots. Unlefs they are very thick, this is
neither troublefome nor expenfive : When the ground is
moift, it may be performed by young boys. If any of
them rife afterwards, which is commonly the cafe, the
lame operation muft be repeated every feafon till the
land is compleatly cleared of them.
There is another fcheme of management which in a
L T U R E.
few years will effedtually deftroy whins. It is certain
that the feeds of whins will not vegetate unlefs they are
allowed to lie in the earth undifturbed for a confiderable
time. As long as land is left in tillage, although there
be many whin-feeds in it, yet they never vegetate.
Whin-plants do not even appear till two years after the
land has been allowed to reft, or has been turned into
grafs. Now, if a fcheme of management be fallowed, by
which the land is turned from tillage into grafs, and
from grafs into tillage, the whins by degrees will be
wholly eradicated.
It was obferved above, that before lands infefted with
whins can be improved, the whins muft be grubbed
up. This operation is both tedious and expenfive.
The following method of rooting them out by the plough
is more expeditious, Ids expenfive, and has been tried
with fuccefs.
This work muft be performed by a ftrong Scotch
plough, with a well redd beam. As it requires great
force to tear up the roots, fix horfes ihould be yoked in
pairs. Two drivers are likewife neceflary, to prevent the
horfes from ftepping afide. As the whins in rifing are
apt to entangle or choke the beam, another man is alfo
neceflary to pulh them off with a pitch-fork. A plough
yoked and attended in this manner, will plow down
whins near three feet high, with roots above four feet
long, and an inch in diameter. This operation ftiould
be performed in the winter, when the land is well foaked
with rain.
After the land has been -ploughed in this manner, it
Ihould be allowed to lie till fummer, wdien the whins
torn up by the plough may be burned, the land harrow¬
ed, and the roots gathered. Afterwards the land may
be drefled according to the judgment of the farmer; only
the fecond ploughing ftiould be acrofs, that any roots
which have been left may be torn up.
But when the whins are fo ftrong that it is impoflible to
plough them down, they may be burned ; and if the land
be allowed to lie a few years after, it may be ploughed
without much difficulty.
2. BROOM.
Broom is not fo bufhy, and does not cover the fur¬
face fo much as whins; and therefore land infefted
with it is more eafily cleared. Though the methods re¬
commended for deftroying whins will mod effeftually
deftroy broom, a more Ample and lefs expenfive one will
-fufficiently anfwer the purpofe.
If broom, efpecially When it is old, be cut fo low as
to take away all the leaves, it will never fpring again,
A kind of fcythe has lately been invented, by which
broom may be cut in this manner with great expedition.
If this method be obferved, it is unneceflary to bring
land from grafs into tillage in order to clear "it of
broom.
3. BRAMBLE.
Thi s plant is of a very different nature from whin or
broom. The root finks deep into the earth, and fpreads
very wide. Though cut in the winter, it rifes and
comes to fuch perfection as to carry fruit in the fummer.
It
A G R r C 1
It is therefore a difficult matter to clear land of bram¬
ble, efpecially when it is ftony; for the bramble puihes
and interweaves its roots among the ftones, which renders
it necefi'ary to dig out the ftones before it can be fuffi-
ciently rooted up by ploughing or tearing. How¬
ever, digging out the ftones, and ploughing the land in
fuch a manner as is moft proper for cutting and tearing
up the roots of bramble, may be the more liifely recom¬
mended, as they at the fame time ferve many other
ufeful purpofes.
2. Of Water, as an Impediment to Vege¬
tation.
Some plants require a greater, and fome a lefler pro¬
portion of water in their food. The plants ufually cul¬
tivated in our fields are of the latter kind, and are eafi-
ly injured by an over-proportion of water. Hence, wa¬
ter may be confidered as an impedement to vegetation;
and it becomes neceffary to confider the moll proper me¬
thods of conveying it off the land.
Of draining Land.
Some lands are wet from their fituation, being expo-
fed to overflowings from higher grounds, and having no
proper defcent to allow the water to run off.
The bottom of fome land is of fuch a nature as to
force out, in fprings, the water that runs below the fur-
face. Springs fometimes bieak out, becaufe the chan¬
nels, in which they run, reach the furface; and fome¬
times becaufe they are interrupted.in their courfe, which
makes them force their way above ground.
The wetnefs of land is fometimes occafioned by vio¬
lent and frequent rains; and.fcmetimes all thefe caufes
may concur in rendering land wet.-
Land that is wet from its fituation may be drained in
this manner : Although the wet land be fo low, as to
render it difficult to carry off die-water; yet the water
may be intercepted by a-drain, before it reaches the low
ground.
Land, w^et by fprings, lies generally in a Hoping dr-
reftion, which makes it the more eafy to drain. When
the water runs near the furface, before it breaks out, it
may be intercepted by a drain* drawn acrofs the decli¬
vity, a little above the place where it fir ft makes its ap¬
pearance. But, if the channel lies deep, the drain ffiould
be drawn direttly acrofs where it fprings up.
But, when the wetnefs of the land is owing to the
climate, or a rainy feafon, the U'ater cannot be inter¬
rupted by drains • however, obllrudHons may be remo-
,ved, fo as to allow the water to run off as quickly as
poffible. To drain land in this fituation, it is neceffary
to lay it up in ridges properly placed, and to cut fmali
drains acrofs thefe ridges, communicating with each o-
ther, and with the furrows. By this method all the
furrow's betwixt the ridges become drains; the water,
as it falls upon the ridges, immediately makes its way
to the furrows; and, if it meets with an interruption in
any of them, it is conveyed by the drains acrofs the
Von. I. No! 3. 3
L T U R E. 55
ridges into fome other furrow, along which it is carried
off the field.
There are two kinds of drains, viz. open drains, and
hollow drains. Hollow drains differ from open ones,
in being filled with loofe Hones, covered with turff, brufh-
wood, or ftraw, and a layer of earth thick enough to al¬
low a plough to go’eafily through above. Thefe hollow
drains are attended with two advantages; no land is
loll by them, and they are no impediment in ploughing.
Open drains, however, are in moft cafes preferable to
hollow ones: They alone are capable of intercepting 0-
verflowings from higher grounds, and for carrying off
water that falls in tain. The water in thefe cafes being
always on the furface, will run freely over hollow drains,
efpecially when fituated on a declivity. But hollow drains
may be ufed with advantage in land wet by fprings ; be¬
caufe nothing more is required than to continue the chan¬
nels of the water below ground, and not allow it to
break out, till it arrives at a place where it can do no
harm.
It will not be improper here to mention, that fome
foils retain water much longer than others, and confe-
quently are more liable to be damaged by water. Soils
that have a large proportion of clay, or of mofs, are of
this kind. As thefe foils naturally retain water like a
ipunge, calling drains, and laying the land up in ridges,,
will not convey it away. To drain fuch lands, their na¬
ture, and power of retaining water, muft be changed by
culture.
The clay-foil can only be drained by frequent ftirring, and
the application of fuch manures as raife a fermentation,
Thefe operations open the pores of the foil, and thereby
afford a free paflage to the water.
The moffy foil, on the other hand, is too open and
porous, but is poffefied of an abforbing quality, by which
it retains the water. To drain this foil, it is neceffary
to condenfe it, and, if poffible, to deftroy its quality of
retaining water. Frequent ftirrings, and fdch manures as
raife a fermentation, and tend to putrefy the mofs, are
faid to render it firm and folid, and thereby both pre¬
vent it from receiving fo large a quantity of—water, and
deftroy the quality of retaining it.
Of draining Marifbes.
The foil of mariffies, being compofed of diffolved ve¬
getables, dull blown in by the winds, and earth waffied
down from the high grounds with which they are gene¬
rally furrounded, is light and fpungy, but very rich and
valuable when drained.
In draining a mariffi, all the ftagnating water Ihould
be firll carried off' by a large open drain, with a fufficient
fall, and as deep as the bottom of the mariffi. When
the ftagnating water is conveyed away, the earth by de¬
grees will fubfide, and become folk!; and £bme land
will thus be gained on each fide: The bottom likewife
foon becomes firm enough to allow the drain to be gra¬
dually carried forward through the middle of the mariih.'
If the fprings, which fupply the water, rife near the
middle of the mariffi, tiffs principal drain, with a few
bi .inches on each fide, where the firings are large!! or
O moli
54 AGRICULTURE.
moft numerous, will, be fufficient. But, if the fprings
be irregularly difperfed through the whole marilh, as is
frequently the cafe, fide-drains parallel to the principal
one will be nece/Tary to intercept the water that comes
from the higher grounds and fepplies the fprings. Crofs
drains, communicating with the parallel and principal
drains, are likewife neceffary; and fhould all be kept o-
pen till the foil hath fully fubfided, and become firm;
then the fide-drains and crofs-drains may be convert¬
ed into hollow-drains, in the manner above defcribed.
But the principal drain, efpecially if the marifii be ex-
tenfive, ftiould always remain open.
S e c t. V. Of Tillage.
Tillage is the operation of breaking the foil into
fmall particles, by (Hrrihg and turning it over, laying it
tip in ridges, lire. In this part of agriculture, it is ne-
cefiary to be acquainted with the different foils proper
for nourifhing plants; the indruments beft adapted for
ftirring and turning them over; and the conftruftion and
manner of ufing thefe inflruments.
Soils, with refped; to tillage, may be divided into
ftiff and light, wet and dry, deep and {hallow. This
divifion is the more proper on this account, that the me¬
thod of performing the operation of tillage has always
a reference to one or more of thefe qualities of foil, and
to no other.
The indruments employed in tillage are various ; as
the plough, the harrow, the roller, ire. which are a-
gain greatly diverfified by differences arifing from their
condruftion and particular ufes.
i. Of the Scots Plough.
In Scotland, this plough is dill the mod common
and the mod generally underdood. If properly made,
it is the bed plough for anfwering all purpofes, when
only one is ufed; though others are, perhaps, more pro¬
per for fome particular purpofes.
The parts of which this plough is .compofed are, the
head, the beam, the fheath, the wred, the mold-board, the
two handles, the two rungs, the fock, and the coulter;
the two lad are made of iron, and all the red of wood.
The Head, Plate VIII. fig. i. is defigned for open¬
ing the ground below. The length of the head from
A to B is about twenty inches, and the breadth from
A to D about five inches; C is the point upon which the
fock is driven,' and the length from B to C is about fix
inches ; a is the mortoife into which the larger handle is
fixed; and b is the mortoife into which the {heath is fixed.
The head is that part of the plough which goes in
the ground; therefore the fhorter and narrower it is, the
friffion will be the left, and the plough more eafily
drawn; but the longer the head is, the plough goes
more deadily, and is not fo eafily put out of its direc-
-tion by any obftnndions that occur. - Twenty inches is
confidered as a mean length; and five inches as the mod
convenient breadth.
The Skeath, fig. 2. E, is driven into the mortoife,
fig. i. b, and thus fixed to the head A B. It is not
perpendicular to the head, but placed obliquely, fo as
to make the angle formed by the lines A B and E B
about 60 degrees. The {heath is about 13 inches long,
befides what is driven into the mortoife b; about three
inches broad, and one inch thick.
The {heath is fixed to the mold-board, as in fig. 11. E,
in the fame manner as the wred is fixed to the head in
fig- 7-
The Mold-board is defigned to turn over the earth
of the furrow made by the plough ; and it is obvious,
that, according to the pofition of the {heath, the mold-
board will turn over the earth of the furrow more or left
fuddefily. Befides, when it forms a left angle with the
head than 60 degrees, the plough is in great danger of
being choked, as the farmers term it.
The Larger Handle, fig. 3. F A, is fixed to the head,
by driving it into the mortoile a, fig. 1. It is placed in
the fame plane with the head; and its length from A F
is about five feet four inches, and its diameter at the
place where it is fixed to the beam is about two inches
and a half, and tapers a little to the top F. About ten
inches from A, there is a curve in the handle, which,
when F is raifed to its proper height, makes the lower
part of it nearly parallel to the {heath E B. This curve
is defigned to ftrengthen the handle. The proper pofi¬
tion of the handle is, when the top F is about three feet
two inches higher than the bottom of the head A B.
The longer the handles, the plough is the more eafily
managed, becaufe the levers are more diftant from the
centre of motion. The higher the top of the handles,
the plough is more eafily raifed out of the ground, pro¬
vided they be no higher than the lower part of a man’s
breaft. v
The Beam, fig. 4. is fixed to the larger handle and
the {heath, all of which are placed in the fame plane
with the head. The length of it, from H to I, is a-
bout fix feet; its diameter is about four inches. When
the plough is in the ground, the beam ftiould be juft high
enough not to be incommoded by any thing on the fur-
face.
The pofition of the beam depends on the number of
cattle in the plough. When two horfes are yoked, the
beam ftiould be placed in fuch. a manner as to make the
perpendicular diftance betwixt the bolt-hole of the beam
and the plane of the head about 21 inches; when four
horfes are yoked, two a-breaft, this diftance ftiould only
be about 18 inches.
The Sock, fig. 5. B P, is fixed to the end of the head,
and is about two feet long. In fitting the fock to the
head, the point ought to be turned a little to the land
or left fide ; becaufe otherwife> it is apt to come out of
the land altogether. When turned to the left, it like¬
wife takes off more land; when turned upwards, the
plough goes {hallow; and when downwards, it goes
deeper.
The Coulter, fig. 6. is fixed to the beam, and is
about two feet ten inches long, two inches and a half
broad, (harp at the point and before, and thick on the
back, like a knife. It is fixed and diredted by wedges,
fo as to make the point of it equal to, or rather a little
before
AGRICULTURE. 55
before the point of the Took, and upon a line with the
left fide of the head. This oblique pofition enables it
10 throw roots, <bc. out of the land, which requires lefs
force than cutting or puihing them forward.
The Wrest, fig. 7. B D, is fixed to the head, and
is about 26 inches long, two broad, and one thick. It
is fixed to the head at B, in fuch a manner as to make
the angle contained between the lines A B and B D
about 2J degrees. The wreft is feldom or never placed
in the lame plane with the head, but gradually raifed
from the place where it is fixed to it; that is, from B
to K, as in fig. 8. The pofition of the wreft determines
the nature of the furrow. When the wreft is wide and
low fet, the furrow is wide; and when it is narrow and
high fet, the furrow is narrow.
Fig. 9. reprefents the two Handles, fixed together
by the two rungs. The larger handle has been already
defcribed; the Idler one is a few inches Ihorter, and
does not require to be quite fo ftrong. The diftance of
the handles at the little rung depends on the pofition of
the wreft. Their diftance at M and P is about two feet
fix inches. The lefler handle is fixed to the mold-board
at M, fig 10. and to the wreft K B, at L.
Fig. ir. reprefents the plough complete, by joining
together figures 6. and 10. in the Iheath E B. The wreft
B K is fuppofed to make an angle with the head A B,
as in fig. 7.. and the handles joined together, as in fig. 9.
After having given fuch a particular defcription of all
the parts and proportions of the Scots plough, it will ea-
fily appear how it feparates, raifes, and turns over the
earth of the furrow. If it had no coulter, the earth
would open above the middle of the fock, and in a liae
before the fheath; but as the coulter opens the earth in
a line with the left fide of the head, if the foil has any
cohefion, the earth of the furrow will be wholly raifed
from the left fide, and as the fock moves forward, will
be throwrt on the right fide of the ftieath, and by the
calling out of the mold-board, or the raifing of the wreft,
will be. turned over.
This plough, though the beft general one, is not alto¬
gether perfedt. As the fock is high in the middle, and
round on the fides, and as the point of it is in a line
with the middle of the head, a great force is necefiary
■to raife the earth of the furrow. Befides, as the {heath
is nearly in a line with the point of the fock, and to the
right of the lefr fide of the head, the earth of the fur¬
row, as it is raifed, muft ftrike againft the {heath, and a
part of it, inftead of being turned wholly to the right,
will fall to the left fide. Thefe defedts make the plough
heavy to draw; and, befides, this pofition of the {heath
renders the Scots plough improper for hoeing, as the
earth that falls to the left buries the young plants in the
rows.
To remedy the defedls arifing from the fock, it fiiould
be made ftraight on the land-fide, fo as to be in a line
v/ith the land or left fide of the head; and ftraight alfo
below, fo as to be in a line with the under fide of the
head, {loping on the furrow or left fide; and likewife on
the upper fide from the point, fo as to make it, at the
root, about feven inches broad, and three inches, thick ;
at the fame time flcping all the way from the land to
the furrow, fo as to form the furrow-fide into a {harp
edge. It is obvious, that this fock will meet with
lefs refiftance than the common one, will raife the earth
of the furrow wholly from the left fide, and turn it as it
is raifed.
To remedy the defedt 'arifing from the {heath, it {hould
be brought a little nearer the larger handle, and another
{heath {hould be fixed a little before it, to the left or
land-fide of the head and beam ; to this {heath the mold-
board {hould be fixed. If this be done, the earth of
the furrow, as it is raifed, will be refifted by the mold-
board only, and wholly turned to the right.
The Bridle, or Muzzle, is another article belong¬
ing to the plough. It is fixed to the end of the beam,
and the cattle are yoked by it. The muzzle commonly
ufed is a curved piece of iron, fixed to the beam by a
bolt through it. In fig. 12. ABC is the muzzle, A C
the bolt by which it is fixed to the beam; D is the
fwingle-tree, or crofs-tree, to which the traces are fix¬
ed ; and B is a hook, or cleek, as it is commonly called,
which joins the muzzle and fwingle-tree.
Someufe another kind of muzzle, fig. 13. A B C D.
It is fixed to the beam by two bolts, and has notches by
which the cleek of the fwingle-tree may be fixed either
to the right or the left of the beam. There are alfo dif¬
ferent holes for the hind-bolt to pafs through, by which
the draught may be fixed either above or below the beam.
A D is the fore-bolt upon which the muzzle turns ; on
B C are four notches, betwixt any two of which the
cleek of the fwingle-tree may be fixed. When the cleek
is fixed at B, the plough is turned towards the firm land,
and takes off a broader furrow; and' when fixed at C,
it is turned towards the ploughed land, and takes off a
narrower furroty. E and F are the holes on each fide
through which the hindmoft bolt paffes. When the bolt
is put through the higheft two, thefe holes being thereby
brought to the middle of the beam, the fore-part of the
muzzle is raifed above the. beam, and the plough is made
to go deeper; and when put through the loweft two, the
fore-part of the muzzle is funk below the beam, and the
plough is made to go ftiallower. This muzzle may be fo
conftrufted as to have the fame play with the common
one. Fig. 16. A is the end of the beam; B a plate of
iron funk into it, and, with a fimilar one in the other fide,
is rivetted into it by bolts; C is the muzzle fixed to
thefe plates of iron by the bolt D, which bolt may be
put through any of the holes E E. From the conftruc-
tion of this muzzle it is plain, that it has the fame play
with the common one, and that by it the land of the
plough may be altered at pleafure.
Of the Plough with the curved Mold-board.
The mold-board of the Scots plough is not quite
ftraight, but is call out above, and more and more fo as
it approaches the leffer handle.
Ploughs with a curved mold-board commonly have no
wreft, the mold-board ferving for both. The under-
pa,t of it, which ferves in place of the wreft, becomes
parallel to the plane of the head as it approaches the
handle; and fometimes, after alias paffed the handle.
S6 A G II I C U
is made to turn inwards; and the fore-part of it, which
is ftraight below, is more and more curved the further
up it comes, refembling the bow of a fhip/j
If one mold-board be preferable to another, it mufi
be either becaufe it throws the earth of the furrow more
properly, or makes the plough more eafily drawn. Now,
the ufe of the mold-board is to raife the earth, turn it
over, and, if it be taken off narrow, to ftiift it a little
to the right hand. The common mold-board, when
right made, performs all thefe operations gradually. But
the curved- mold-board, as it is call out above in the
fore-part, prevents the furrow from rifing, and turns it
over fuddenly. In land that eafily breaks in pieces, the
common mold-board has the advantage, becaufe it raifes
the earth of the furrow higher than the other, and leaves
it more loofe and open. But the curved mold-board
is preferable in land that is not eafily broke, for, by
turning over the earth fuddenly, it is apter to tear it
afunder.
The plough is more eafily drawn by the common
mold-board, as it has lefs fridion than the curved one.
Of the Plough with the feathered Sock.
The difference between the feathered and the com¬
mon fock will be bell underftood by comparing their fi¬
gures. Fig. 14. is the common fock, and fig. 15, the
feathered one.
From the conftrudion of the feathered fock, it is ob¬
vious, that it mufi meet with greater refiftance than the
common fock. However, when the plough takes off the
earth of the furrow broader than that part of the fock
which goes upon the head, it is more eafilydrawn than the
plough wjth the common fock; for the earth whiter the
common fock leaves to be opened by the wreft, is more
eafi’.y opened by the feather of the other fock. In lea,
the feathered fock makes the plough go more eafily, be-
caufe the roots of the grafs, which go beyond the reach
of the plough, are more eafily cut by the feather than
they can be torn afunder by the common fock. The fea¬
thered fock is alfo of great ufe in cutting and defiroying
root-weeds. The common fock, however, anfwers much
better in ftrong land.
It is proper here to add, that in fitting the feathered
fock to the head, the point of it Ihould be turned a little
from the land, or a little to the right hand.
Of the Wheeled Plough.
Th e Scots wheeled plough is formed by adding wheels
to the old Scots plough, and giving it a curved mold-
board, or feathered fock, according to the inclination of
the farmer. The advantage or disadvantage of the
wheels is therefore the only thing to be ccnfidered in
this place.
The following are the principal advantages of wheel's
to a plough of this kind. Wheels regulate the plough;
tlpey make it go to a certain depth, take off the earth of
the furrow of a determinate breadth, and make the
plough very eafy to manage. Wheels likewife make it
L T U R E.
eafy for the ploughman to keep the ridges ftraight, which
it is difficult to do without them.
The difadvantages attending a wheeled plough are
nearly equal to its advantages. It has too much-ma¬
chinery, which is an inconvenience in any inftrurnent... It
is improper for ploughing ridges acrofs. It is'-uifo very
inconvenient for ploughing narrow ridges; for it- Wnrft
be frequently altered in ploughing out a ridge. - The
wheel that goes in the furrow being higher than the o-
ther, when both wheels are going upon the furfircc, the
beam muft be changed from its ordinary pofiticn, and
placed in fuch a manner as to keep th§ plough even, and
to make it go a little deeper than ordinary. When a
furrow is made for the wheel to go in, the'be am muft
be altered again to its ordinary pofition ; and when the
ridge is near finilhed, fo that both wheels- are going irj
furrows, the pofition of the beam muft be changed, to
keep the plough even, and to prevent it from going too
.deep.
Of the Four-coultered Plinigh.
In England, this plough is faid to be ufed with fuc-
cefs. But after repeated trials by thofe who attempted
to ufe it in Scotland, they have been obliged to give
it up.
So many coulters in the ground at once muft meet
with many obftacles, which will give different direftions
to the plough, according to the different parts of the
coulters to which the refiftance is applied. Befides, it is
difficult to place the planes of the coulters exadlly paral¬
lel to each other; and if this be not done, they will be
continually a (Sling upon the plough in different directions.
When this plough is employed for breaking up grafs-
grounds, which is the chief defign of it, the oblique po¬
fition of the coulters is apt to raife the turf in fuch q.
manner as to intangle it betwixt them, and thereby en¬
tirely ftop the plough.
This plough ftiould always be made with wheels for
regulating its direction; the planes of the coulters flioukl
be exactly parallel to each other: The firft coulter muft
be fet almoft perpendicular, and (hot!Id not go above two
inches deep; the fecond ftiduld Hope a little, and go
fomewhat deeper than the firft, and fo on to the laft.
Soft meadow-land, free from ftones^ is beft adapted
to the nature of this plough.
Of the Iron Plough.
This plough is formed upon the model of the old Scots
plough; only the feveral parts of it are fliorter, and'the
head and fock are of one piece like the Englifh plough-
.ftiare.
ITiis plough is lighter, and cenfequently more eafily
drawn than any other plough ufed in Scotland ; and, as
it is {hotter, the friction is alfo diminiffied. Neither is
the earth fo apt to ftick to it, and clog it while going.
But thefe are only feeming advantages ; for thelightnefs
and ftiortnefs of it render it extremely fubjeCt to change
its direction upon meeting with the ieaft obftruCtion. -Soft
land.
II
A G R I C U
land, vith few flrbnes, therefore, is the only land in which
it can be employed with advantage.
The iron plough is fubjed to another iriconveniency.
When any thing goes wrong, it cannot be redified on
the field, but muft be carried to the fmithy, which is
often at a confiderable diftance.
Of yoking Cattle in Ploughs.
It is not eafy to determine whether horfes or oxen, or
both together, are moft proper for drawing ploughs ; be-
caufe, in this country, fuch a determination depends on
circumftances almoft as various as the number and.fitu-
ation of farms in it. If, indeed, real labour alone was
fufficient to determine this point, oxen would be prefer¬
red ; becaufe they will Hand to the draught, and over¬
come a refiftance which horfes would yield to. We
fhall therefore confine this head to the manner of
yoking cattle, without regard to the kind of cattle em¬
ployed.
The chief queftion on this fubjed is, Whether cattle
fliould be yoked in pairs, or in a line before one an¬
other ?
The mod common way of yoking cattle is in pairs.
Though this, upon the whole, be the beft method, yet
it is fubjed to fome difadvantages. In ploughing the
furrows betwixt the ridges, the cattle go upon the
ploughed land, and tread it down with their feet, which
is peculiarly hurtful to wet land : When there is but as
much of the ridge unploughed as the cattle have hardly
room to go upon, they frequently give the plough a
wrong diredion by going into the oppofite furrow; or,
which is ftill worfe, they are apt to juftle the furrow-
cattle upon the ploughed land.
To remove thefe inconveniencies, yoking the cattle in
a line has been recommended. But this method has
been attended with greater inconveniencies than thofe it
is intended to remedy. When yoked in this manner,
they go all in the furrow, which makes it neceflary to
give the plough more land than ordinary, either by
means of the fock or muzzle ; and confequently makes
the draught too heavy. Befides, when cattle are yoked
in a line, it gives fome of them an opportunity of throw¬
ing the chief burden upon the others. There is ftill an¬
other inconveniency attends this method. When the
cattle are all in a line, the whole force is applied to the
diredion of the traces of the hindmoft horfe; and confe¬
quently it cannot have fuch an effed'on the plough as
when a part of it is in a more horizontal diredion.
Each of thefe methods, however, may he ufed with
advantage in certain circumftances; yoking in pairs, as it
is certainly the ftrongeft draught, fhould be preferred in
ploughing ftifF land. On the other hand, yoking in a
line anfwers beft in wet land, which is liable to be much
hurt by the treading of the cattle.
Of Ploughing.
Ploughing is the adion of the plough in ftirring
and turning over the foil. By opening the foil and en-
iarging the furface, it gives it an opportunity of extrad-
Vol. I. No.3. 3
L T U R E. 57
ing the vegetable food from the air; and confequently
increafes the food of plants. Ploughing likewife dif-
folves and reduces to a ftate of putrefadion the dung,
oils, and vegetable fubftances that happen to be mixed
with the foil, and prepares them for entering the roots
of plants. When properly managed, ploughing de-
ftroys weeds, and drains the land when too wet. Hence,
ploughing is one of the moft important operations in
agriculture, and therefore merits the greateft atten¬
tion.
When ploughing is defigned to enrich the land, or in-
creafe the food of plants, the furface cannot be made too
uneven; becaufe the more of it is by this means expofed
to the influence of the air.
But when the intention of ploughing is to deftroy feed-
weeds, the furface cannot be made too fmooth, nor the
mold too much, broken ; becaufe, by this management,
their vegetation is promoted, and confequently they may
be more completely deftroyed by ploughing them in.
Again, if you plough with a view to remove wetnefs,
the land muft be laid up in high ridges; for the greater
the number of furrows, and the higher the ridges, the
water is more expeditioufty carried off.
Thus the manner of ploughing muft always depend on
the objedt in view. It frequently happens indeed, that
two or more of thefe objedts require our attention in
ploughing the fame piece of land. But the methods a-
bove mentioned are perfedtly confiftent with each, and
may be combined fo as to anfwer any intention that may
occur.
In ploughing, there are fome general rules to be obfer-
ved, whatever be the objedt in view. Thus, land ftiould
never be ploughed when it is wet, becaufe the intention
of it will be fruftrated, whatever may be the nature of
the foil. A ftiff foil, when ploughed wet, dries fud-
denly, and becomes hard. If a light foil be ploughed wet,
the water hinders it from being reduced to fmall enough
particles. Befides thefe difadvantages, the labour be¬
comes very fevere on the cattle, and the land is much
hurt by their treading.
With regard to ploughing lee, or opening up grafs-
grounds, the common pradtice in Scotland is to plough
it as fhallow and narrow as pofiible, and to let the turf
upon its edge. After this fingle furrow, the land is
fown, and if it be good, a profitable crop may be ex-
pedted; and the turf will be completely rotten before,
next feafon.
On the contrary, in breaking up of barren land, it
fhould be ploughed deep, and the turf turned on its
back.
Of Ridges.
It was formerly obferved, that ploughing in ridges
removes wetnefs, enlarges the furface, and confequently
affords more fpace for the plants to extradt nourifhment
from the foil.
When the foil is wet, the ridges ought to be narrow,
and fteep; becaufe, by this means, the number of drains-
is increafed, and the water finds its way more eafily into
the furrows. They fhould Hkewife be raifed high in the
P middle
58 A G R I C U
middle or crown ; for the higher they are raifed, the
more is the furface enlarged. Howe-ver, if the foil be
fhallow, the ridges (hould not be raifed high, as they de¬
prive the furrows of foil.
But, in low flat-lying ground, the ridges flfould be
ft'iade flat, in order to raife the furrows ; for, in fome
cafes, the higher the furrows are raifed, it is the more
eafy to find a fall for carrying off the v/ater. Flat
ridges are alfo capable of being fown with greater ex-
aftnefs.
It is impracticable to give any general rule for laying
out ridges. In fome fituations, narrow ridges are pre¬
ferable to broad ones ; in others, flat ridges are better
than fteep ones, <bc. In laying out of ridges, therefore,
every perfon muft be determined in this point by the na¬
ture and fituation of the foil, and the advantages or
difadvantages of the different kinds of ridges.
But, whatever be the nature or fituation of the foil,
the ridges fhould always be made flraight. Id plough¬
ing crooked ridges, the cattle mud often go in a diffe¬
rent direction from the plough, and are obliged to take
fhort turnings, which hurt the land by the treading of
the cattle. Befides, when the ridges are crooked, the
fall for the water is diminished. In all foils too, the
ridges fhould be made of the fame breadth throughout,
and equal to one another. When they are unequal, it is
difficult to fow them with exaCbnefs, or to alter them
when neceffary ; and the plough mud often turn in the
middle of the ridge, which hurts the land by the tram¬
pling of the cattle.
Of the Pofition of the Ridges.
It is a matter of fome confequence to know how
ridges fhould be placed, fo as bed to anfwer the fituation
of the land.
In lands that have a Hope, the ridges are commonly
placed in a draight line from the top to the bottom of
the declivity. -When the declivity is gentle, this pofi¬
tion is very proper, as it drains the land of water. But
when the declivity is great, this pofitiott allows the foil
to be wafhed away by the rain ; and the quantity of foil
carried off will always be in proportion to the violence
with which the current runs: Hence, in a foil fituated in
this manner, the ridges fhould be placed acrofs the de-
clivity, to prevent the foil from being carried down by the
water. Making the ridges very narrow will, in a good
meafure, anfwer the fame purpofe'; however, it is not
fo proper as placing them acrofs the declivity.
When land is very dry, crofs ridges are alfo of great
mfe; for they retain the water, and prevent the foil from
being wafhed away.
Of ploughing in Ridges.
There are three different ways of ploughing in
ridges, viz. gathering, carting, and cleaving.
By gathering, the crown and furrows of the ridge are
kept in the fame pofition in which they were before :
the plough begins in the crown, and plows out the ridge,
turning the earth towards the crown,, where it firft en-
L T U R E.
tered. Every ridge is ploughed by itfelf; or the halves
of two contiguous ridges may be ploughed together. By
this method, as the earth on each fide is turned upon
the crown, and thrown up out of the furrows, the ridge
muft be raifed higher.
By cajling, the crowns and furrows are likewife kept
in they- former pofition: The ridges are ploughed in
pairs : The plough may enter in the furrow betwixt the
ridges, and plough out the ridges, turning the earth to¬
wards the furrow where it entered; or, the plough may
enter in the furrov/ on the right fide of the two ridges,
then turn to the One on the left, and plough out the
ridges, turning the earth to thefe furrows, and from the
furrow that is betwixt them. By this method of plough¬
ing, the ridges are kept of the fame height in the crown,
and one of the furrows made a little higher, and the o-
ther a little lower than before.
Cleaving is the reverfe of gathering. The plough
enters in the furrow on the right-fide of the ridge, turns
to the furrow on the left-fide, and ploughs out the
ridge, turning the earth from the crown towards the fur¬
rows. Every ridge is ploughed by itfelf, or the halves
of two contiguous ridges may be ploughed together. If
the ridge be raifed in the crown, this method of plough¬
ing makes it flatter, by throwing fome of it into the
furrows. ,
There is another method of ploughing ufed in fome
places, called ribbing. This method is performed by
making furrows about two feet dirtant from each other.
One half of the furface is untouched by the plough ; and
the other half, which the plough turns up in making the
furrows, is thrown on the top of what remains fart. The
land may be ploughed in this manner either without re¬
gard to ridges, or the plough may be1 made to enter and
turn, as in gathering, carting, or cleaving. This kind
of ploughing is feldom practifed, but in the beginning of
winter, and upon land to be fown with barley, after two
additional clean ploughings. Although fome modern im¬
provers have condemned ribbing, it certainly has its ufes :
It keeps the land dry ; the rain that falls is confined to
the furrows, from whence it is eafily carried off; it pro¬
motes the rotting of the ftubble, and expofes a greater
part of the foil to the influence of the air.
, Of Harrows.
The harrow is an inftrument employed for ftnoothing
the furface after the land is ploughed. One horfe is fuf-
ficient to draw the harrow commonly ufed in Scotland.
Sometimes two of them go a-breaft, and fometimes three.
When the furface is very rough, two are reckoned fuffi-
cient for the attention of one perfon : But when three
can be ufed, they make better work, and are nearly e-
qual to two pair.
There are feveral kinds of harrows ufed in Scotland.
The common one is fo well known that it needs no de-
feription.
When the land is rough, the harrows are apt to ftam,
and get a-top of each other. To prevent this, fome fix
pieces of crooked timber to the out-fide bulls that are
contiguous to one another, which, by ftretching a little
over.
A G R I C U
over, keep the harrows in their proper place. Others
couple the harrows in fuch a manner as to allow them
to go before and fall back of each other, and at the fame
time turn upon a hinge.
When ftiff land is ploughed wet, it rifes in large
pieces, which, when dry, become fo hard, that the
common harrows make no impreffiori on them. To re¬
duce this kind of land, a large harrow, called a break,
has been contrived. The break-harrow is fometimes
made of the fame figure with the common harrow, and
fometimes in a triangular form. Both kinds are made
heavier or lighter according to the nature of the foil for
Which they are intended. Some of them are fo heavy
as to require fix or eight cattle to draw them. But the
heavieft kind are very improper for land infefted with
large faft Hones ; becaufe their weight hinders them from
flarting over the Hones; and therefore they are often in
danger of being torn afunder by the cattle.
There is another harrow, which, though little ufed,
will be found to be very ufeful in many cafes. It is of
the fame form with the common harrow, but much
broader. The bulls are at a greater diHance, and con-
fcquently' the teeth thinner placed ; the teeth are longer
than thofe of the common harrow, but very little thick¬
er ; and thofe in the fore-part Hope forward. It is made
of fuch a weight as to be eafily drawn by a couple of
horfes. This harrow goes deeper, opens land better,
fcovers the feed deeper, and is more proper for tearing
up roots than the common harrow.
The French harrow is of a triangular form, with a
joint near the angle, to which the draught is fixed. It
has two handles, by which it is either made to go deep
br fhallow, as occafion requires. Its principal ufe is to
level Heep ridges, which it does mod eflefiually. It is
drawn acrofs the ridges: When, at the crown of the
ridge, by preffing on the handles, the harrow finks down,
and carries earth along with it to the furrows; and,
When at the furrow*, by lifting up the handles, the har¬
row is brought out of the ground, and leaves the earth
behind. This operation, however, is extremely impro-
fier, unlefs the land be in a very dry fituation, and not
iable to be damaged by water.
Of Harrowing.
Harrowing fmooths the furface, deHroys weeds,
and covers the feed after it is fawn.
When the intention of harrowing is to deHroy root-
weeds, the harrows fhould be drawn acrofs the ridges.
However, if fuch weeds are not fully tofn up, the liar¬
rowing, by filling up the hollows, and defending the
toots from the drought, rather promotes their grov/th.
For this reafon, harrowing is improper for deilroying
root-weeds, excepting after a fpring-fallow, when the
land is foon after to be ploughed for feed.
But the fmoother the furface is made, and the more
the mold is broke, the vegetation of the feed-weeds is
the more effeftually promoted, and of courfe they are
the more liable to be defiroyed by harrowing. If the
feafon be favourable, the land may be harrowed feveral
times, and as many crops of weeds deflroyed.
L T U R E. 59
A light fpungy foil can hardly get too much harrow¬
ing ; for the more it is harrowed, it becomes the firiher.
But if the foil be Hiff, the lefs harrowing it gets, the
better, provided the purpofes propofed can be anfwered.
The common method of harrowing after the feed is
fown, is firfl along the ridges, then acrofs, and then a-
long again. When the ridges are flat, they maybe har¬
rowed either along or acrofs; and the work may be be¬
gun or ended either way. But when the ridges are
Heep, it is improper to begin by harrowing acrofs, be¬
caufe too much of the feed will be drawn into the fur¬
rows.
Of the Roller.
The roller is intended for fmoothing the furface, and
making the land firmer. Rollers are fometimes made of
Hone, fometimes of wood, and fometimes of iron : but
the only eflential difference of rollers lies in their weight.
As rollers, in different circumflances, require to be
lighter and heavier, they are generally confiru&ed fo
that their weight can Cither be augmented or diminiflied.
The common roller, in turning, is very fevere upon
the cattle, for it does not move on its axis, but is drag¬
ged along the furface. To remove this inconvenience,
a roller has lately been conflrufted with a divifion in the
middle, as if two rollers were joined together. In
turning, both parts of this roller move round their axis,
the one forward, and the other back.
Of Rolling.
Rolling is pradtifed with advantage, both on land
lying in grafs, and in tillage. It preffes down mole¬
hills, fmooths the furface, and makes paHure-grafs Hool,
and grow thicker.
Rolling upon land in tillage, not only fmooths the fur¬
face, but breaks clods that the harrow cannot reduce.
In a light foil, the roller fliould be applied immediately
after the feed is fown; it is peculiarly ufeful to this
kind of foil, by condenfing and making it firmer.
, Of Sowing.
It is remarked by farmers, that the corn which is ear-
Jitfl fown is in general fooriefl ripe. However, as this
operation depends on the nature of the weather, and a
number of other circumHances, no precife time can be
fixed for performing it.
The pradticC of fbwing wheat, oats, barley, &c. at
different times of the year, feems not to depend fo much
on the different natures of thefe grains, as on the incon-
veniencies which would attend the fowing them all at the
fame time. It may however be obferved, that wheat,
the only grain in this country which is fown before win¬
ter, fhould be fown as early as poflible, that its roots and
leaves may be put forth before the frofl comes on.
The niofl common method of fowing is by the hand.
This method requires great fkill and addrefs in the fower:
lor, at the fame time that he gives his arm a circular
motion, to cafl the feed with Hrength, he mufl open his
hand
6o A G R I C U L T U R' E.
hand gradually, that it may not fall in a heap, but be
pr.perly fcattered and fpread. It is remarkable, that
good fowers, by the force of habit, take their handful
out of the fheet fo very exactly, that they will fow any
quantity of feed on an acre, according as it is defigned
to be thinner or thicker. , But this dexterity in a few
fowers, is itfelf an objection to the method of fowing
by the hand; becaufe long pratfice and obfervation are
neceffary to make a good lower: This remark is too well
juftified by experience; for good fowers are extremely
rare, and, in fome places of the country, hardly to be
got. Befides, in fowing by the hand, efpecially when
the land is uneven, the feed rebounds on the clods, falls
into the cavities, and often the greateft part of it is col-
ledted in the furrows.
DifFer-ent plants require to be fown at different depths.
The fame feeds, however, may be laid deeper in light
than in ftrong foils. Wheat requires to be placed two
inches and a half or three inches below the furface:
And it may be laid down as a general maxim in fowing,
that fmall feeds Ihould always be placed nearer the fur-
face than fuch as are larger. Belides the unequal di-
ftribution of the feed when fown by the hand, too large
a quantity of it may be ufed; for, as it is placed at dif¬
ferent depths, that which is too deep never comes up,
and that which lies on the furface, which may be obfer-
ved on the bell harrowed land, is eat up by the birds.
When feed is fown thin, and placed at equal diftances by
a drill, a lelfer quantity of it, by leaving room to fpread
and branch out, will produce even a better crop than a
larger quantity fown irregularly by the hand. The fad
has been confirmed by repeated experiments both in our
own country and in France,
Sect. VI. Of the Culture of par¬
ticular Plants.
Of the Culture of Wheat.
Though wheat be the moll: valuable grain that is
cultivated in Scotland, there are many places where it
cannot be fown with advantage; for it requires not only
a rich foil, but a warm climate.
The Englilh writers mention about 13 or 14 different
kinds of wheat; but in Scotland we feldom ufe more
than two, viz. the white and the red wheat. The laft
is reckoned the moll hardy plant, and fucceeds in fome
foils and climates where the white kind fails. Bearded
wheat is ufed in fome places. This is likewife a hardy
plant, and is not fo apt to lodge, or to be Ihaken out by
the wind, as the other kinds. It fucceeds very well in
wet land, and the grain produces a great quantity of
flour.
The white wheat moft commonly ufed in Scotland, is
not a particular fpecies, but a mixture of all the fpecies
cultivated in England. This mixture is probably occa-
fioned by want of care in providing ourfelves with fo¬
reign feed. It is found by experience, that, in this
country at leaf!, wheat degenerates ; for which reafon a
freih fupply is every year brought from the Englilh gra¬
naries, which generally confifts of a mixture of all the
kinds. Now it is at leaft very probable, that thefe dif¬
ferent kinds of wheat require different foils; and there¬
fore the farmer Ihould endeavour to provide himfelf an¬
nually with a quantity of unmixed wheat, of fuch kinds
as are found to fucceed bell in Scotland.
Wheat is commonly fown either upon land that has
been fummer-fallowed, or after a crop of peafe. In the
latter cafe, the feed cannot be fown till O&ober; but in
the former, it is generally fown in Auguft. However,
in Scotland, we fow wheat from the beginning of Augult
till the middle of November. Some have tried fowing
wheat in the fpring; but the plants were neither fo vi¬
gorous, nor the grain fo large, as thofe that were fown
in autumn. The fowing of oats in autumn has likewife
been tried; but, though the crop was bulky, the quan¬
tity of grain was not in proportion. Upon the whole,
the month of O&ober feems to be the moft proper time
for fowing. wheat; when it is either earlier or later, it is
fubjed to a number of dangers.
The quantity ufually fown upon a Scots acre, is from
three to five firlots, Linlithgow meafure, which is the
meafure always meant in this treatife. The proper quan¬
tity, however, muft always depend upon the fituation of
the land: in proportion as it is clean and rich, a fmaller
quantity of feed is requifite; and in proportion as it is
poor and full of weeds, a larger quantity becomes necef¬
fary.
A wet bed is moft proper for wheat-feed. In the
month of Auguft, or even the beginning of September, it
is dangerous to fow,' if there be not as much moifture in
the land as to make the feed vegetate, efpecially if the feed
has been fteeped in brine, and dried with lime. But
though the danger' be great in fowing when the land is
very dry, yet the belt fituation of land for receiving feed
is when it contains no more moifture than is fufficient to
make the feed vegetate.
When wheat-land is light, or well reduced by fal¬
lowing, the feed Ihould be plftughed in, or the land al¬
lowed to lie fome time after it is ploughed before the
wheat be fown. By this the land acquires a degree of
firmnefs before the harrows go upon it, and the feet of
the cattle are prevented from prefling the feed too deep
into it.
Wheat-land Ihould be ploughed fo as to raife the
ridges higher in the crown than is neceffary on other oc-
cafions, in order to prevent it from being damaged by wa¬
ter : If the ridges are made narrower than ordinary, the
fame end will be ferved, becaufe the water finds its way
more eafily to the furrows. Hence the old praftice in
Scotland, of cleaving for peafe, and gathering for wheat,
was well founded.
When the wheat is fown, and the land harrowed, the
field fhould be carefully water-furrowed; and if there
be ridges at the ends for the ploughs to turn upon in
ploughing, a water-furrow fhould likewife be drawn be¬
twixt them and the ridges, and the communication be¬
twixt thefe and the furrows opened up.
A G R I C
U
Of the Culture of Rye.
Rye is a winter-grain, and thrives very well on land
that is improper for wheat. As there is hardly a good
market for this grain in Scotland, it is but Jittle cultiva¬
ted. In fome places, the land is prepared for it by a
fallow, and good crops are reaped in this way. It may
be fown in O&ober, November, or early in the fpring.
It may be fown after peafe or barley; but it is improper
to fow it after wheat or oats, as this would encourage
the growth of root-weeds, and greatly exhaufl the land."
Rye is fometimes fown as a grafs-feed. If it.be fown
wi^Ji this view in September, upon'a well-prepared fal¬
low, it will afford good feeding for fheep in March and
April; and after it is cut down, the land may be plough¬
ed, and fown with barley. This practice, however, will
not anfwer in wet land.
Of the Culture of Barley.
There are four kinds of barley ufed in Scotland,
the common barley, the Lincolnfhire barley, the High¬
land barley, more commonly called rough bear, and the
Thanet.
Thefe different kinds are fown at different feafbns.
The Lincolnfhire barley may be fown any time during
the winter, or in the fpring; the common barley and
Thanet may be fown in April, the beginning of May,
or even later; and the rough bear may be fown in May,
or the beginning of June: but the precife time of fow-
ing muff be determined by the weather and the fituation
of the land. When the feafon is favourable, the land
free from weeds, and not too w'et, Lincolnfhire barley
may be fown in February, and the other kinds fooner
than the periods above mentioned.
When barley is fown in winter, or early in the fpring,
•the land ought to be ploughed fome time before; but
when fown lat£ in the fpring, or in the beginning of fum-
mer, it ought to be fown immediately after it is plough¬
ed. In winter; or early in the fpring, land is in no dan¬
ger of becoming too dry; but in fummer, land is ve¬
ry liable to become too dry for the purpofes of vegeta¬
tion. The farmer ftxould therefore endeavour to have
all his feed fown before the feafon be too far advanced.
The quantity of barley fown on an acre is from two
to four firlots. When the land is clean and rich, two
firlots are fufficient $. but when it is infefted with weeds,
a larger quantity is neceffary.
Barley has tender roots, and is not able to pufh them
far in quell of food; it is therefoi'e neceffary to bring
land deltined for barley into good tilth, and to enrich it
either by manures or frequent ploughings. Barley is
often fown upon land that has been fallowed, or after a
crop of peafe. In fome places it is fown after a crop of
oats ; and fbmetimes it is repeated for two or three years
fuccelhvely upon the fame land.
When barley is to be fown upon fallow, in ftiff land
not much infelted with annual weeds, it fhould be dreffed
in November in the fame manner as for wheat; fo that
Lincolnfhire barley may be fown, if the winter be favour-
Vol. I. No. 3. 3
L T U R E. 61
able, or Ipring barley upon the winter-furrow, if the
feafon proves unfavourable. But when barley is to be
fown after wheat, peafe, or oats, the land fhould be
ploughed as foon after harveft as poffible, and laid up in
fuch a manner as to be beft expofed to the air and frofl,
and to fecure it againfl damage from rain. To anfwer
thefe purpofes, barley-land is fometimes ribbed at this
feafon: But ribbing flirs only a fmall quantity of the foil;
and therefore it is better to gather it into narrow ridges
of four or fix furrows each, and to make proper drains
for carrying off the water. As the firft ploughing for
barleydand is defigned to cover the ftubble, increale the
vegetable food, and keep the land dry, it need: not be
very deep, but ought to be as broad as poflible, provided
it be clean ploughed.
If it be propofed to dung barley-land, the dung may
be laid on during the winter-frofi, and ploughed in as foon
as the land is in proper condition. When, the dunging is
delayed till immediately before the iaft ploughing, dr
feed-furrow, the land, efpecially if it be of a ftiff na¬
ture, is in danger of being battered fo as to rife in large
clods when ploughed.
In fleering, the ploughing fhould be as deep as the
plough can go, and the foil allows : For by deep plough¬
ing at this feafon, part of the earth that has been expo-:
fed to the air through the winter, and part of it turned
up by the ordinary ploughing, are mixed together for the
nourifhment of the crop. In fleering, the. furrows,
fhould not be fo broad as in the former ploughing; on
the contrary, the narrower they are the better. Crofs-
pioughing is very proper at this feafon, if the land be fa
dry as to allow it.
After fleering, the land fhould be well harrowed. It
makes the weeds fpring, retains die fap, and, if the laml
be tolerably dry, takes out the roots of the quickening-
grafs. But, if the land be in no danger of lofing the
fap, the harrowing may be delayed for fome time after it
is ploughed; for by this method a greater number of
weeds are deflroyed.
Though, in general, frequent plpughings are benefi¬
cial, yet ploughing when the land is wet is deflruffive.
When the fpring is wet, the barley-land in many places'
is not in a proper condition to be fown. In this cafe,
the fleering-furrow muff be omitted, and the land fhould
get the feed-furrow as foon as it is in a proper condi-.
tion.
When barley is to be .fown a fecond time upon the
fame land, without any other crop intervening, two
ploughings are fufficient.
As our fummers in Scotland are fbmetimes very wet,
barley-land fhould be water-furrowed, and drefied up in
the fame manner as wheat-land.
Of the Culture of Oats.
The pat is a very hardy plant, and its roots are
ftrong, which enables it to procure food where many
other plants would ftarve; and hence the praffice of gi¬
ving lefs culture to oats than to1:any other grain.
There are three kinds of oats ufed in Scotland, the
white, the black, and the grey. The white is the moff
common,
AGRICULTURE.
common, and ufed in all the low countries ; the black is
the hardieft, and is ufed in the cold hilly countries ; and
the grey is often fown with fuccefs upon light gravel or
fand. The white is again divided into two kinds, called
cold feed and hot feed. There is fcarcely any difference
in appearance betwixt thefe; but the hot feed ripens
eight or ten days before the cold. Experience muft de¬
termine which of them ought to be chofen for feed.
Though the oat be a hardy plant, and does not eafily
degenerate, yet the changing of feed is univerfally al¬
lowed to be a good praftice. This change fhould always
be made from a warm foil to a cold, and from a cold to
a warm.
Oats are often fown upon grafs-ground newly broken
up, or, which is the fame thing, upon lee once plough¬
ed. They are likewife often fown after barley, fome-
times after wheat, fometimes upon fallotv, and fome-
times they are repeated for leveral years fucceflively upon
the fame land.
In ploughing lea for oats, when the land is foft and
mellow, the plough fhould go as fhallow as poffible ; and
the earth of the furrows fhould be fet upon its edges, to
allow the harrows to have the greater impreffion in tearing
k. But when the land is ftiff, or the turf very tough,
it is neceffary to plough deeper, and to turn the turf ful¬
ly over, fo that the harrows may raife a kind of mold
upon its back to fill up the hollows, and to nourifh the
feeds. When oats are to be fown upon lee, the land
ought to be ploughed early in v/inter, that it may receive
the greater benefit from the air and froft.
It is ufual to lime lea-ground intended for oats. This
is a very good cuftom; for lime promotes the corruption
of the grafs-roots, by which the land is fooner reduced.
It is likewife common to fpread the lime upon the fward
fome time before the land is ploughed : This is alfo very
proper; for the lime is intangled in the fward, and is not
io apt to penetrate too deep.
Oats are generally fown after barley ; and the land is
ploughed as foon as the wheat-feed is made, and the bar-
ley-labd has got the firfl furrow. The ilifr land, and
land in danger of being damaged by wetnefs, fhould be
firfl: ploughed, to give the one the benefit of the winter-
frofl, and to put the other out of danger. It is likewife
an advantage to light and dry land to be ploughed early
in the.feafon, as it makes the flubble rot fooner, and ex-
pofes the foil longer to the air.
It was formerly obferved, that oats are fometimes fown
upon fallow. In the hilly countries, they often fallow the
land that has been in lea for fome years ; and they find
that this pradlice rdoes better than giving it only one
ploughing in the winter before the feed is fown. In the
low countries, this praftice of fallowing for oats is found
to fucceed very well. The fallow for oats fhould be ma¬
naged through the fummer in the fame manner as if for
barley or wheat. Before winter, it ought to get the
laft furrow, and be laid up in proper ridges, to preferve
it dry during the winter.
Oats may be fown in any of the winter-months, or in
the month of March. Some people have fown oats fo
early as the beginning of November, and have had
good crops. But, if the land be properly laid up in
winter, it is better to delay the fowing till March.
The quantity of oats generally fown upon an acre, is
from four to five firlots ; and fhould always get a
dry bed.
Of the Culture of Peafe.
The pea is a grain very different from any of thofe
already mentioned. A crop of it is not fo valuable,
though it is much ufed in fome places for bread.
The ftraw of peafe is reckoned better for feeding hor-
fes than the ftraw of any other grain. A crop of peafe
does not require fuch a quantity of nourifnment as a crop
of any of the other grains mentioned above. When the
crop is good, the ftraw covers the ground, and deftroys
all the fmall weeds by depriving them of a free commu¬
nication with the air. Peafe likewife minutely divide
the particles of the foil; befides, they pufh their roots
much deeper than any of the white grains, and extraA
part of their nOurifhment from belovv the reach of the
plough.
There are two kinds of peafe cultivated in Scotland,
the white and the grey. The white is njoft common,
and confifts generally of a mixture of feverai kinds. All
of thefe kinds feem to be fpecies of the pea cultivated
in our gardens. The grey pea feems to be a fpecies of
the vetch or tare. This is the hardieft plant of the two,
and thrives on foils where the white pea does not fucceed.
The ftraw of the grey peafe, and the peafe them-
felves, are better for horfes than thofe of the white.
The farmer Ihould therefore cultivate this pea where th$
other does not thrive, although the value of the grain be-
inferior.
The whke pea, like the oats, is divided into hot
feed and cold feed. The fowing of the hot feed may be
delayed three weeks after the cold feed is fown, and yet
the peafe will come as foon to maturity.
The time of fowing is from the firft of February to the
end of April. The early fown peafe have the beft chance
to produce a crop of corn, and the late fown to produce
a crop of ftraw. However, when the land is clean and
in good heart, the peafe may be fown early; becaufe, on
fuch land, a good crop both of corn and ftraw may be
expedled. But if the land be foul or wet, the fowing
of peafe ftiould be delayed, as long as poffible; becaufe
on fuch land the crop is more precarious, and the failing
of a crop of peafe gives fuch encouragement to weeds,
as to endanger the following crops likewife. In fuch a
cafe, to prevent the bad confequences that may follow,
the crop ftiould be ploughed in; for when a bad crop of
peafe is allowed to ftand, it does more harm to the land
than all the value of the crop.
The quantity of peafe fown upon an acre, is from 4
to 5' firlots. If the intention of fowing peafe be to ob¬
tain ftraw, and" enrich the land, they Ihould be thick
fown; becaufe in that cafe they have a better chance to
deftroy the weeds, and to cover the furface. But when
the principal defign is to have a crop of corn, they ftiould
be thinner fown ; for, when thin fown, they have more
air, and fill better.
Peafe are commonly fown after oats or barley, and
fometimes
A G R I C 1
fbmetimes after wheat. Seldom more than one plough¬
ing is given to peafe, and they are ufually fov/n imme¬
diately after it. The reafon of this practice is, that
the feed may be better covered; for the fooner that a-
ny grain is fown after ploughing, it is always the deep¬
er covered. If rain fails foon after peafe are fown, it
makes them fwell and come above-ground, and then they
are in danger of fplitting, and of being deftroyed by
vermin.
Sometimes peafe are fov/n and ploughed in. This an-
fwers very well in light land, particularly'after a crop
pf barley, the culture of which opens the foil.
Land deligned for peafe is generally cloven. This is
a good pradlice when the ridges are-fteep, as ail of them
were formerly. As,wheat or barley are commonly fown
after peafe, the land mull be ploughed before winter. Ga¬
thering is the moll proper way of ploughing before win¬
ter, and this follows belt after cleaving. But if the ridges
be not high, calling is die belt method of ploughing for
peafe ; or, if the ridges be flat and narrow', the land may
be ploughed in the ordinary way, reverflng the former
ploughing^ and turning the furrows into the crowns.
Though peafe are generally the lowell-priced grain, yet
fometimes they rife to a great price, when the prices of
other grains are moderate. This makes the faring of
feed an article of great importance. By fowing in drills,
one firlot will ferve for an acre as compleatly as four in
the bread call-way: But the advantages of drilling fall
to be conlidered afterwards.
Of the Culture of Beat:?.
What has been faid with regard to die culture of
peafe, may be applied to beans. However, it is necef-
£ary to pbferve, that the bean pulhes its roots further
down than the pea; and therefore requires a deeper
foil. The lands in Scotland, wdiere beans are moll com¬
monly fown, and where they fucceed bell, are deep and
wet clays.
In fome lands, the crops of beans are very great, and
almoll as valuable as any grain. There is no crop fuc-
ceeds better in the drill-hulbandry than a crop of beans.
Of the Culture of Rye-grafs.
Rye-grass is the moll common of all the artificial
grades cultivated in Scotland, and not the Icall valu¬
able. It is a fibrous-rooted plant, and binds the foil ;
this circurnflance has led many to think, that it greatly
impoverilhes land. However, the culture of this grafa
is attended with feveral peculiar advantages. It deltroys
weeds, particularly the quickening-grafs, and grows up¬
on foils which w'ill not anfwer for any of the other arti¬
ficial grafles. A fliallow, wet, Ipungy foil, or one
which has a mixture of mofs in it, is unfit for clover of
every kind ; but experience fliows, that rye-grafs, when
unmixed with clover, will fucceed upon any of thefe foils.
Rye-grafs is ufually fown along with a crop of barley
or oats. When fown along with barley, the field fhould
be rolled, or well harrowed, to preferve the fap at the
dry feafon of the barley-feed. This precaution is not
r L T U R E. 63
fo necefTary, when the rye-grafs is fown along with oats ;
becaufe the land on which oats are fown is generally
firmer, the fowing feafon is earlier, and confequently
not fo liable to be too dry.
This grafs feldom hurts the crop of corn. On the
contrary, when the foil is loofe and open, it makes it
firm, and prevents the corn from lodging.
Though the common method is to fow rye-grafs with
corn, yet, when the land is poor, it is better to fow it
by itfelf, and Hill better to fummer-fallow, and fow it
in autumn. But, as the land by fallowing is made open
'and loofe, and as the ploughing and fowing are near the
rainy feafon, cattle ought not -to be allowed to paflure
upon it during the winter, except in the time of hard
froll. Even when fown in the fpring, the farmer fliould
not allow much pailuring on it, efpecially in wet weather.
But, if fown by itfelf, cattle may fafely pallure upon it
in the winter, as the roots, having nothing to obilrudt
their progrefs, penetrate deeper, and fpread wider, than
when any other grain grows along with it. This prac¬
tice, however, can only be followed with fafety in very
clean land ; otherwife weeds are apt to rife along with
it, and prevent the furface from being covered; which,
of courfe will keep the foil open.
Rye-grafs is fometimes fown for hay, and fometimes
for paflure. When for hay, from two to four firlots are
Commonly fawn upon an acre.
Rye-grafs rifes very early in the fpring, and, if ths
foil be dry and warm, affords good paflure all the win¬
ter. It is very hardy. Hands the frofl, and, if continued
in paflure, does not weir out in many years. The bell
way of managing it is, to eat it down in the fpring and
beginning of fummer, and then to let it reft till autumn.
When allowed to get up in fummer, it runs to feed,
and becomes difagreeable to the cattle. Befides, by this
method of managing rye-grafs, a good crop may be ex-,
pe&ed in autumn.
When propei ly managed, rye-grafs makes very good
hay ; - and there is fuch a demand for the feed, that tho
farmer is often tempted to let it ftand till the feed is
perfefted, and then to threfh it. When this is done,
the hay can never be good; becaufe the fap is cxhaufled,
the ftalk becomes dry and withered, and affords little
Bourifhment to cattle. The hay ought therefore to be
always cut before the. feed ripens. This pradtice not on¬
ly makes the heft hay, but is likewife of great advantage
to the land; for, when plants are allowed to perfect
their feeds, the land is much more exhaufted, than when
they are cut before that period.
Of the Culture of Clover.
Though clover be ufed for the fame purpofes as rye-
grafs, it is, however, a plant of a very different nature.
It has a large tap-root, which penetrates the foil perpen¬
dicularly downward, and opens the earth and makes it
free : The roots of clover cannot penetrate the foil, un-
lefs it be free and open. Hence, a dry, open, deep
foil, free from quicken-grafs, is the moll proper for this
plant.
There arc feveral kinds of clover cultivated in Scot¬
land,
64 A G R I C I
land, diuing'.iiihed by the colour of their flowers, viz.
the red, the v/hite, and the yellow. The red is the
largeft plant, has the ftrongeft {talk, and broaddl leaves.
The yellow fometimes grows tall, but the ftalk is fmall;
The white is the fmalleh plant,, and is fometimes called
lop-clover,- from the refemblance its flowers bears tb thofe
of the hop.
Both the feafons and methods of flowing clover are
various. * Moft of the Engiifh writers recommend the
autumn. It has frequently been tried, at this fleafon, in
Scotland without fuccefs. When flown in fpring, it an-
i-vers much better in this country.
The common way of Towing clover, both in Scotland
and England, is* along with wheat, oats, or barley, in
the fpring. This method is fometimes attended with
di fad vantages. The clover fometimes hurts the corn,
and the corn the clover. However, thefe difadvantages
are probably more than over-balanced by the corn’s pro-
tcriing the clover from drought when very young, which
it is much expofed to, efpecially when fown in the fpring.
As the lodging of corn deflrtys all plants that are be¬
low; to prevent this, the corn fown along with clover
ought to be fown thin, and the la'nd made very clean of
weeds. •• «;
Sometimes, in a wet fe;>fon, the clover gets a-top of
the corn, and deflroys the crop. This feldom happens
when it is fown with barley or wheat; becaufe it is much
later in the feafon when fown with barley than when
fown with oats, and therefore is not fo far advanced at
harvefl:; and the wheat is advanced fo far before the clo¬
ver-feed is fown, that the clover can never get the better
of it. To prevent, the clover, then, from hurting the corn,
it may be town early in the feafon with wheat, or late in
the feafon with barley. The Thanet barley, from the
flxength of its roots and ftalk, is not fo apt to lodge as
the common barley; and, of courfe, it is the moft pro¬
per kind to be Town along with clover. But, as all
kinds of barley are more apt to lodge than oats, and as
the feafon for flowing oats is more proper for fowing clo¬
ver than the Teafon of fowing barley, the farmer, when
it is equally convenient Tor him, fliould prefer the fow¬
ing of clover with oats.^
When clover is fown with barley or oats, after thefe
grains are fown, and the land harrowed, the clover-feed
is thin fown, and then the land is again harrowed or
rolled. When the clover is Town with a crop of wheat,
the clover is Town in the fpring, and afterwards the
wheat is rolled. It is common to Tow clover-feed with¬
out any preparation given to tbe land; but it is better
to harrow it before fowing. The harrowing does no
harm to the wheat, and it makes the roller cover the feed
more effe&ually. Clover-feed may be fown in the fame
manner amongft oats or early-fown barley. Some- time
after the corn has come up, the land may be harrowed,
and the clover fown. If the weather be dry, the dif¬
ferent parts of the operation fliould fucceed one another
as quickly as poffible. The harrows Ihould be imme¬
diately followed by the fower, and the fower by the
roller, to prevent the drought from penetrating too deep.
The Englifli writers differ widely as to the quantity
c-f clover-feed proper to be fown on an acre. However,
L T . U R E.
the farmers in Scotland, who fow clover with oats or
barley, find, that from xo to 16 lb. of red, oi from
12 to x8 lb. of white clover on the acre, produces a ve¬
ry good crop.
Clover, like rye-grafs, is fometimes fown for hay,
fometimes for pafture, and fometimes for both. The red
clover is the moft proper for hay, the white for pafture ;
and, when both are intended, a mixture of the two an-
fwers beft. When red clover is fown without being
mixed with any other kind, the" farmer ought to bring
his land into tillage again in two or three years: For, af¬
ter the fecond year, a crop of this kind of clover is of
little value.
When white clover is fown by itfelf, the farmer muft:
not expedt a crop of hay ; for it foldom rifos to fuch a
height as to produce a good crop: But, to balance this,
the field may be kept long in pafture, as this clover con¬
tinues till wore out by the natural grafs of the foil.
When a mixture of the two are fown, feme crops of
hay may be taken, and then the land may be allowed to
lie fome years longer for pafture. The red clover af¬
fords the crops of hay ; and the white remains till the
natural grafs rifes. In this cafe, there is commonly
fown upon the acre, from 8 to 12 lb. of red clover,
and from 6 to 8 of white. But thefe proportions may
be varied according to the judgment of the farmer.
In Scotland, feldom more than one crop of hay in the
feafon fucceeds. The fecond crop is commonly fo late,
that it is very difficult to get-the hay properly made. It
may therefore be paftured on, or cut green for cattle.
When clover is cut green for cattle, it is a proper way
to feed them upon a field that needs dung. This me¬
thod is preferable to feeding them in ftalls ; it faves the
expence of carrying out the dung, and procures to the
land the benefit of the urine, which is a very rich ma¬
nure.
Before coxicluding this article, it muft be obferved,
that red clover, while green, is dangerous to blade cat¬
tle and flneep, when firft given them, efpecially if wet
with dew or rain. They ought therefore to be allowed
it only fparingly at firft, and brought to it by degrees/
After being accuftomed to it for a few days, the danger
is over, and they may be allowed to ufe as much of it
as they pleafe.
Of the Culture of Clover mixed with Rye-grafs,
Red clover makes the beft green forage Tor cattle.
An acre of it will maintain more cattle than three or
four acres of common grafs: But then it is not fo proper
for hay. Clover-hay is very troublefome in making, and
is not reckoned fo good for feeding as fome other kinds
of hay. It likewife hurts the land, by encouraging the
grov/th of quickening:grafs. To remedy thefe difadvan¬
tages, it is common to fow rye-grafs along with it. Clo¬
ver, when mixed with rye-grafs, is eafier made into
hay; the hay itfelf is much better; and the rye-grafs,
by covering the furface, prevents the growth of the
quickening-grafs. The quantity fown upon the acre in
this way is from 8 to 12 lb. of clover, and from 1 to 3
firlots of rye-grafs. r r
A G R I C U
Of the Culture of St-Foin.
The writers on agriculture reckon this grafs prefer¬
able to clover in many refpeds: They fay, that it pro¬
duces a larger crop; that it does not hurt cattle when
eaten green; that it makes better hay ; that it continues
four times longer in the ground ; and that it will grow
on land that will bear no other crop. Thefe are great
advantages: But, as we have fo little of that kind of
grafs in Scotland, it cannot be expefted that any direc¬
tions can be given concerning the manner of cultivating
it, founded Upon experience. We mud therefore confine
ourfelves to fuch facts as are mentioned by authors of the
bed credit.
St-foin has a very long tap-root, which is able to
pierce very hard earthf The roots grow very large, and
the larger they are, they penetrate to the greater depth;
and hence it may be concluded, that this grafs, when it
thrives well, receives a great part of- its nourifliment
from below dieJiaple of the foil: of courfe, a deep dry foil
is bed for the culture of St-foin. When plants draw
their, nourilhment from that part of the foil that is near
the furface, it is not of much confequence whether their^
number be great or fmall. But the cafe is very different
when the plants receive their food, not only near, but
alfo deep below the furface. Befides, plants that fhoot
their roots deep are often fupplied with moidure, when
thofe near the furface are parched with drought.
To render the plants of St-foin vigorous, it is necef-
fary that they be fbwn thin. The bed method of doing
this is by a drill; becaufe, when fown in this manner,
not only the weeds, but alfo the fupernumerary plants,
can eafiiy be removed. It is feveral years -before St-foin
comes to its full drength ; and the number of plants fuf-
ficient to dock a field, while in this imperfecd date, will
make but a poor crop for the fird year or two. It is
therefore necefl'ary that it be fown in fuch -a manner
as to make it eafy to take up plants in fuch numbers, and
in fuch' order, as always to leave in the field the proper
number in their proper,places. This can only be dona
with propriety, by fowing the plants in rows by a drill.
Supponng a field to be drilled in rows at ten inches di¬
dance,. the partitions may be hand-hoed, and the rows
dreffed in fuch a mannpr as to le&ve a proper number of
plants. In this fituation the field may remain two years;
then one fourth of the rows may be taken out in pairs,
in fuch a manner as to make the beds of fifty inches,
with fix rows in each, and intervals of thirty inches,
which may be ploughed. Next year, another fourth of
the rows may be taken out in the fame manner, fo as to
leave double rows with partitions of ten inches, and in-'
tervals of thirty: All of which may be hoed at once or
alternately, as it may be found mod-convenient.
The'great quantity of this grafs which the writers oft
this iubjett a*fure us may be raifed upon an acre, and the
excellency and great value of the hay made of it, Ihould
induce farmers to make a complete trial of it, and even
to ufe the fpade in place of the hoe, dr hoe-plough, if
neceflary.
The plants taken up from a field of St-foin may be fet
Vol. I. No. 3. 3
L T U R E. 65
in another field; and if the tranfplaming of this grafs
fucceeds as w'dl as the tranfplanting of lucern has done
with Mr Lunin de Chateauvieux, the trouble and ex¬
pence will be fufficiently recompenfed by the largenefs of
the crops. In tranfplantiog, it is necefiaty to cut off great
part of the long tap-root: this will prevent it from dri-
king very deep into the foil, and make it pudi out large
roots in a doping direftion from the cut end of the tap¬
root. St-foin managed in this manner, will thrive even
on diallow land that fias a Wet bottom, provided it be not
overdoeked with plants.
Whoever inclines to try the culture of this grafs in
Scotland, Ihould take great pains in preparing the 'land,
and making it as free from weeds as pofiible.
Of the Culture of Lucern.
The writers on agriculture, ancient as well as mo¬
dern, bedow the highed encomiums upon this grafs, as
affording excellent hay, and producing very large crops.
Lucern remains at lead ten or twelve years in the gr#ind,
and produces about eight tons of hay upon the Scots
acre. There is but little of it cultivated in Scotland.
However, it has been tried in feveral parts of this coun¬
try; and it is found, that, when the feed is good, it
comes up very well, and dands the winter-frod. But
the chief thing that prevented this grafs frorh being more
ufed in this country, is the difficulty of keeping the foil
open, and free from weeds. In a few years the furface
becomes fo hard, and the turf fo drong, that it dedroysJ
the lucern before the plants have arrived at their greateft
perfection: fo that we cannot hope to cultivate lucern
with fuccefs, unlefs we fall upon fome method of de-
droying the natural grafs, and prevent the furface from
becoming hard and impenetrable. This cannot be done
effectually by any other means than horfe-hoeing. Thi$
method was fird propofed by Mr Tull, and afterwards
pradtfed fuccefsfully by M. de Chateauvieux near Geneva;
It may be of ufe therefore to give ^ view of that gem*
tleman’s method of cultivating lucern.
Pie does not mention any thing particular as to the
manner of preparing the land; but only obferves in ge¬
neral, that no pains ihould be fparedin preparing it. He
tried the fowing of lucern both in rows upon the beds
where it was intended to dand, and likewife the fowing
it in a nurfery, and afterwards tranfplarrting it into the
beds prepared for it. He prefers tranfplanting; becaufe,
when tranfplanted, part of the tap-root is cut off, and
the plant (hoots out a number of lateral branches front
the cut part of the root, which makes it fpread its roots
nearer the furface, atid confequently renders it more eafiiy
cultivated-: befides, this circumdance adapts it to a dial-
low foil, in which, if left in its natural date, it would
not grow.
The tranfplanting of lucenn is attended with many ad¬
vantages. The land may be prepared in the fummer for
receiving the plants from the niirlery in autumn; by which
means the field mud be in a much better fituation than if
the feed had been fown upon it in the fpring. By tranf¬
planting, the rows can be made more regular, and the
intended didances more exactly obferved; and confe-
R quently
66 AGRICULTURE.
quently the hoeing can be performed more perfectly, and
with lefs expence. M. Chateauvieux likewife tried the
lucern in Angle beds three feet wide, with Angle rows ;
in beds three feet nine inches wide, with double rows ;
and in beds four feet three inches wide, with triple rows.
The plants in the Angle rows were Ax inches afunder,
and thofe in the double and triple rows were about eight
or nine inches. In a courfe of three years he found, that
a Angle row produced more than a triple row of the fame
length. The plants of, lucern, when cultivated by
tranfplantation, Aiould be at leaft Ax’inches afunder, to
allow them room for extending their crowns.
He further obferves, that the beds or ridges ought to
be raifed in the middle; that a fmall trench, two or
three inches deep, fhould be drawn in the middle; and
that the plants ought to be fet in this trench, covered
with earth up to the neck. He fays, that if the lucern
be fown in fpring, and in a warm foil, it will be ready
for tranfplanting in September; that, if the weather be
too hot and dry, the tranfplanting fhould be delayed till
October; and that, if the weather be unfavourable during
both thefe months, this operation muft be delayed till fpring.
He further diredts, that the plants ftiould be carefully
taken out of the nurfery, fo as not to damage the roots;
that the roots be left only about Ax or feven inches long;
that the green tops be cut off within about two inches of
the crown; that they be put into water as foon as taken
up, there to remain till they are planted; and that they
fhould be planted with a planting-ftick, in the f^me man¬
ner as cabbages.
He does not give particular diredtions as to the times
of horfe-hoeing; but only fays in general, that the in¬
tervals fhould be ftirred once in the month during the
whole time that the lucern is in a growing ft ate. He
likewife obferves, that great care ought to be taken not
to fufter any weeds to grow among the plants, at leaft
for the Arft two or three years; and for this purpofe,
that the rows, as well as the edges of the intervals
where the plough cannot go, fhould be weeded by the
hand. _
Of the Culture of Potatoes.
The potatoe is one of the moft ufeful roots that are
cultivated in this country, and is raifed in a very differ¬
ent manner from any of the other roots. It has a num¬
ber of eyes in it, each of which produce a feparate plant.
The largeft potatoes are the beft for feed; becaufe, when
cut according to the eyes, and properly fown, the plants
are not in danger of crowding each other. The plant
fends out roots in every diredtion to a conftderable di-
ftance, and upon thefe the potatoes are formed.
There are feveral kinds both of the white and red po¬
tatoes. They fucceed beft in a light dry foil; and
though there be but a fmall mixture of loam in it, if to¬
lerably rich and properly cultivated, it feldom fails to
produce a good crop. But a good crop is not to be ex-
pedted from a ftiff wet foil, unlefs it be laid up in ridges
fo as to make it dry, and a conftderable quantity of dung
laid on to render it open.
When the crop of potatoes is the chief point in view,
the land fhould have a ploughing before winter, efpe-
ciallyif the foil be not very free and open. If dung be
neceffary, the proper time for laying it on is before this
ploughing. When the potatoes are to be planted, which
may be done any time in March or beginning of April;
the land muft again be ploughed in narrow furrows, and
the potatoes dropped into every fecond furrow. But if
the land be open and very loofe, they may be dropped
into every furrow; and as the plough opens the furrow
for the fecond row, it buries the Arft row at a proper
depth. The furrow fhould not be very deep ; and two
horfes are fufEcient. It is better in this cafe to make
the horfes go a-breaft than in a, line; becaufe, as one of
them only goes in the furrow, the potatoes are not fo liable
to be hurt or difplaced. This method of planting them
by the plough is greatly preferable to the dibble or plant¬
ing-ftick.
When a fmall quantity is intended to be cultivated,
they may be planted with the fpade. A fmall crofs-
trench or furrow fhould be opened with the fpade at the
end of the ridge. Into this furrow drop the potatoes
at proper diftances ; and, in making the next furrow,
the roots laid in the Arft will be covered in the fame man¬
ner as is done by the plough.
According to the diftance of the rows made by the
plough,, the diftance of the plants in the rows fhould be
regulated: One plant in a fquare foot is fufficient to al¬
low them to be properly hoed. When planted in every
fecond furrow ploughed narrow, the rows will be about
12 or 14 inches afunder. The plants may he placed at
the fame diftance in the rows.
It is unneceffary to harrow uhe land after the po¬
tatoes are planted: This operation may be delayed till
the weeds appear, which gives the farmer an opportunity
of deftroying them without any additional labour. Tho’
potatoes be planted early in the fpring, or even before
winter, they do not come up till May. Before that time,
the weeds are far advanced; and, if they be not deftroyed
by the harrows, the land muft be hoed. Indeed, the
goodnefs of the crop depends fo much upon preventing
the weeds from coming to any height, that it is necefl’a-
ry to hoe potatoes frequently. If the rows be wide, a
kind of breaft-hoe may be ufed to throw the earth a lit¬
tle on each Ade, by which it will be raifed about the
plants.
When two or three plants are in one piece, as often
happens in light land, they fhould be cleaned with tire
hand at the root, and only one ftalk left to each plant.
This not only gives air to the roots, but alfo prevents
much of the nourifhment from going into the ftalks.
When the hulk that contains the feed, or the apple,
as it is commonly called, is completely formed, the ftalks
may be cut down and given to cows. Milk-cows have
been tried with this food ; they eat it very freely, and it.
gives no bad flavour to the milk.
The time of taking up potatoes is commonly regulated
by the market. But, if nothing be in view but the
largenefs of the crop, they ought to ftand till Odtober,
or as long as they can be conveniently taken up before the
froft fets in. The moft expeditious method of taking,
them up is by the plough: Eight or nine perfons to
attend
L
T U R E.
67
A G R I C U
attend the plough are fufficient. After the field is once
ploughed, it ought to be harrowed, by which fome of
the potatoes will be raifed ; and, when thefe are gather¬
ed, it ftiould be ploughed a fecond time.
Of the Culture of Turnips.
Turnips have been long cultivated in England, and,
in fome places, are efteemed one of the moft valuable
crops that can be raifed. The trials made in Scotland
have been very fuccefsful, which gives great encourage¬
ment to proceed.
The goodnefs of the crop depends more on the open-
nefs of the foil than its richnefs. Land newly broke up
is particularly proper for turnips. Though this kind of
land be naturally poor, yet, with the afiiltance of a lit¬
tle dung, it feldom fails to produce an excellent crop.
The land intended for turnips Ihould be ploughed and
laid up in ridges before winter, that it may have the
benefit of the froft. This winter-ploughing, however,
is unheceifary when the land is dry and light: The
fpring is early enough for this kind of land. It may
get a fecond ploughing in the end of May, and a third
in the middle or end of June, when the feed is to be
fown. Though three ploughings are here mentioned,
no particulur number is intended ; for the land ought to
be ploughed over and over,- till it be thoroughly pul-
verifed. If dung be ufed, it fhould be well rotted, and
laid on before the laft ploughing.
Turnip-feed is ufually fown by the hand; and about
half a pound is fufficient for an acre. It ffiould be mix¬
ed with fand; that it may be fcattered the more equally.
But fowing by a drill is'better than fowing by the hand,
as, in this way, the plants can be more eafily hoed, and
thinned. Turnips fhould be hoed as foon as the. plants
can be eafily diftinguifhed; for they gsow quickly,
and, if they meet with any obftrudrion from, weeds,
they are apt to become fickly* and, when this happens,
they can never be recovered fo as to produce a good
crop.
Turnips may be cultivated with great fuccefs by the
new hulbandry. They have been tried in ilngle, double,
and triple, rows, and, in alleys, from four to fix feet
wide, according to the fituation of the land. The poor¬
er the land is, or the more difficult to be reduced, the
alleys ought to be the wider. After the ridges are form¬
ed, the turnip ffiould be drilled upon the crowns; and,
as foon as they come up, and are pad all danger from
the fly, they ffiould be horfe-hoed.
The turnip is proper food, either for ffieep or black
cattle. When the land is dry and needs manure, the
ffieep may be folded on it: But the fold mull be removed
every day; for it is improper to allow them to eat more
at once than they can confume in that time. When
the land is wet, or very rich, the turnip may be pulled,
and the ffieep fed with them on another field that needs
manure. But, when defigned for black cattle, they
muft be pulled up and given them, either in flails or
in another field, ■ as the farmer ffiall find moft conve¬
nient.
Of the Culture of Carrot.
The carrot is but rarely cultivated in our fields : In¬
deed, the prefent market does not encourage the cultiva¬
tion of this plant. But they have lately been found to be
excellent food for horfes; they eat them greedily, and
are well fed by them. Carrots are not difficult to raife;
a very fmall field is fufficient, and the trial may eafily be
made by any farmer, at a very fmall expence.
The beft crops of carrots, in our gardens, are produ¬
ced by trenching. When the foil is hard below, though
it be well dunged, it does not produce a good crop.
Whenever the roots reach the hard foil, they become
forked, e. the roots divide, which prevents them from
growing large. Trenching makes the earth deep, and,
by throwing what was on the furface into the bottom of
the trench, lays good foil below for the roots to extend
themfelve^ into. Something like this muft be done in
our fields before we can expedt a good crop.
M. de Chateauvieux tried to raife a crop of carrots
by the horfe-hoeing hufbandry, and was very fuccefsful.
He fowed them in beds fix feet broad, on the 4th of
May. He ftirred the alleys with the fpade on the 15th
and 27th of July, and a third^ime on the 6th of Septem¬
ber. They were digged up on the 8th of November,
meafured from 18 to 2 J inches in length, and from two
to four in diameter, and weighed from 25 to 33 ounces.
Land that has a hard bottom of clay or till is improper;
and it is vain to expedt that fuch land can be prepared
for carrots by the plough, without great trouble and ex¬
pence. But, when land has a foft bottom, a good crop
of carrots may be raifed at a fmall expence by horfe-
hoeing.
As the feed, in this country, muft be fown in March,
the land ffiould get a ploughing before winter, and bo
laid out in beds or ridges of the breadth propofed when
the carrots are to be fown; the furrows betwixt thefe
ridges ffiould be made as deep as poffible, becaufe it is'
upon thefe furrows that the rows of carrots are to be
fown. A fecond ploughing in Winter fhould reverfe the
firft, and turn the furrows into crowns; and,, before
the carrots are fown, one bout of the plough may raife
the crown of the ridge ftill higher. Upon thefe crowns
the feed muft be fo\vn out of the hand, into a fmall
trench, drawn as ftraight as poffible, and covered with a
rake.
When the weeds firft appear, the remaining part of
the ridges may be ploughed out, turning the earth to the
rows, and taking care not to go fo near as to cover the
plants. Before the feed is fown, which is fome time in
March, inftead of ploughing the whole ridge, the plough
ffiould only go once about on the crown, to prevent the
bad effects of too much moifture.
As foon as the plants can be eafily diftinguiffied,- they
ffiould be hand-hoed, and thinned where they ftand too
thick; and after this the alleys muft be regularly hoed,
as diredled in the culture of turnips.
It is natural to expecft, that carrots raifed in this way
ffiould be freer from worms, and much better every
way.
6n AGRICULTURE.
way,' than thofe railed in our gardens, except fuch as are
fown upon newly trenched ground.
Sect. VI. Principles and Advanta¬
ges of the New Husbandry.
The general principles of the new hufcandry may be
reduced to two, viz? the promoting the growth of
plants by hoeing, and the faring of feed; both of
which are equally profitable to the farmer.
But, before illuflrating thefe principles and advanta¬
ges, it will be neceilary to defcribe the imiruments that
are commonly ufed in cultivating land by this new me¬
thod.
Plate IX. fig. i. is a marking plough. The principal
-life of this plough is to {height and regulate the ridges.
The firit line is traced by the eye, by means of three
poles, placed in a ftreight line. The plough draws the
firft furrow ih the diredlion of this line; and, at the
fame time, with the tooth A, fixed in the block of wood
near the end of the crofs-poll or Aider B B, marks the
breadth of the ridge at the diliance intended. The
ploughman next traces the fecond line or rutt made by
the tooth, and draws a fmall furrow along it; and con¬
tinues in this manner till the whole field is laid out in
ftreight and equidiftant ridges.
—Fig. 2. is a plough forbreakingup lee, or turning up
the bottom of land when greatly exhaufted. By its con-
ftru&ion, the width and depth of the furrows can be re¬
gulated to a greater certainty than by any other hitherto
known in this country. Its appearance is heavy; but
two horfes are fulRcient to plough with it in ordinary
free land; and" only four are neceffary in the ftiffeft clay-
jfoils. This plough is likewife eafily held and tempered.
A, is the fword .fixed in the fizers B, which runs thro’
a mortoife at the- end of the beam E, and regulates the
depth of the furrow, by raifing or depreffing the beam ;
it is fixed by putting the pin D, through the beam and
fword, and is moveable at E.
-r—Fig. 3. is a jointed break harrow with 24 teeth Iha-
ped like coulters, and (landing at about an angle of 80,
degrees. By this inftrumentthe land is finely pulverifed,
and prepared for receiving the feed from the drill. It
requires four horfes in ftiff, and two in open land. This
harrow is likewife ufed for levelling the ridges; this is
done by preffing it down by the handles where the ridge
is high, and raifing it up when low.
—Fig. 4. is an angular weeding harrow, which may
follow the break when neceflary. The feven hindmoft
teeth fliould (land at a more acute angle than the reft,
in order to colleft the weeds, which the holder can drop
at pleafure, by raifing the hinder part, which is fixed to
the body of the harrow by two joints.
—Fig. 5. is a pair of harrows with lhafts. This har-
rowis ufed for covering the feed in the drills, the horfe
going in the furrow.
-—Fig. 6. is a drill-plough, cor.ftrucled in fuch a man¬
ner as to fow at once two rows of beans, peafe, or wheat.
This machine is eafily wrought by two horfes. A, is
the happer for containing the feed; B, circular boxes
for receiving the feed from the happer; C C, two fquare
boxes which receive the feed from fmall holes in the cir¬
cular boxes, as they turn round; and lift of all, the feed
is dropped into the drills through holes in the fquare
boxes, behind the coulters D. The cylinder E fol¬
lows, which, together with the wheel F, regulates the
depth of the coulters, and covers the feed; the harrow G
comes behind all, and covers the feed more completely.
H H, two Aiders, which, when drawn out, prevent the
feed from falling into the boxes ; and, I, is a ketch which
holds the rungs, and presents the boxes from turning,
and lofmg feed at the ends of the ridges.
—Fig. 7. is a fingle hoe-plough of a very Ample con-
ftruclion, by which the earth, in tlse intervals, is ftir-
red and laid up, on both fides, to the roots of the plants,
and, at the fame time, the weeds are deftroyed. A A
the mold-boards, which may be raifed or deprefled at
pleafure, according as the farmer wants to throw the
earth higher or lower upoh the roots.
Advantages of Horfe-hoeing.
The advantages of tillage before fowing have already
been pointed out. In this place we muft, confine our-
felves to the utility of tillage after fowing. This kind
of tillage is moft generally known by the name of horfe-
hoeing.
Land fowed with wheat, however well it may be culti¬
vated in autumn, finks in the winter; the particles get
nearer together, and the weeds rife; fo that in fpring,
the land is nearly in the fame fituation as if it never had
been ploughed. This, however, is the feafon when it
Aiould branch and grow with moft vigour; and confe-
quently ftands moft in need of ploughing or hoeing, to
deftroy the weeds, to fupply the roots with frefii earth,
and, by dividing anew the particles of the foil, to allow
the roots to extend and coiled: nourilhment. .
It is well known, that, in gardens, plants grow with
double vigour after being hoed or tranfplanted. If
plants growing in Arable land could be managed with eafe
and fafety in this manner, it is natural to exped, that
their growth would be promoted accordingly. Expe¬
rience Ihows, that this is not only praftie^ble, but at¬
tended with many advantages.
In the operation of hoeing wheat, thoughTome, of the
roots be moved or broke, the plants receive no injury;,
for this very circumftance makes them fend forth a greater
number of roots than formerly, which enlarge their pa-
fture, and confequently augment their growth.
Sickly wheat has often recovered its vigour after a
good hoeing, efpecially when performed in weather not
very hot or‘dry.
Wheat, and fuch grain as is fown before winter, re¬
quires hoeing more than oats, barley, or other grain
fown in the fpring ; for, if the land has been well
ploughed before the fowing of fpring-corn, it neither has
time to harden nor to produce many weeds, not having
been expofed to the winter’s mow and rain.
Tlate.lX.
A G R I C
U
Of4 Sowing.
As, in the praftice of the new hufoandry, plants grow
with greater vigour than by the old method, the land
fhould be fowed thinner. It is this principle of the new
hufbaodry that has been chiefly objected to; for, upon
obferving the land occupied.by a fmall number of plants,
people are apt to look upon all the vacant fpace as loft.
But this prejudice will foon be removed, when it is con-
fidered, that, in the belt land cultivated in the common
method, and fown very thick, each feed produces but.
one or two ears; that, in the fame land fown thinner,
every feed produces two or three ears; and that a fingle
feed fometimes produces eighteen or twenty ears.
In the common method, as there are many more
plants than can find fuflicient nourilhment, and as it is
impoflible to aflift them by hoeing, numbers die before
they attain maturity, the greateft part remain fickly and
drooping; and thus part of the feed is loft. On the con¬
trary, in the new method, all the plants have as much
food as- they require; and as they are, from time to
time, kffifted by hoeing, they become fo vigorous as to
equal in their production the numerous, but fickly plants
cultivated in the common method.
Gf Hoeing.
The new hulbandry is abfolutely impracticable in
lands that are not eafily ploughed. Attempting to cul¬
tivate land according to this hulbandry, without attend¬
ing to this circumftance, that it is practicable in no land,
excepting fuch as have already been brought into good
tilth by the old method, lias gone far to make it con¬
temptible in many places.
When a field is in good tilth, it Ihould be fown .fo
thin as to leave fuffieient room for the plants to extend
their roots. After being well ploughed and harrowed,
it muft be divided into rows, at the diftance of 30 inches
from one another. On the fides of each <Jf thefe rows,
two rows of wheat muft be fowgd fix inches diftant from
each other. By this means there will be an interval of
two feet wide betwixt the* rows, and every plant will
have room enough to extend its roots, and to fupply it
with food. The intervals will likewife be fufficient for
allowing the earth to be hoed or tilled without injuring
the plants in the rows;
The firft hoeing, which Ihould be given before the
winter, is intended to drain away the wet, and to dif-
pofe the earth to be mellowed by the frofts. Thefe two
ends will be anfwered by drawing two fmall furrows at
a little diftance from the rows, and throwing the earth
taken from the furrows into the middle of the intervals.
Tiiis firft hoeing ftiould be .given when the wheat is in
leaf.
The fecond hoeing, which is intended to make the
plants branch, .ftiould be given after die hard frofts are
over. To do this with advantage, after furring the
earth a little, near the rows, the earth which was thrown
in the middle of the intervals ftiould be turned back in¬
to the furrows. This earth, having been mellowed by the
Vol. I. No. 3. 3
L T IT R E. 69
winter, fupplies the plants with excellent food, and makes
the roots extend.
The third hoeing, which is intended to invigorate the
ftalk, ftiould be given when the ears of the corn begin
to ftiew themfelves. This hoeing may, however, be very
flight.
But the laft hoeing is of the greateft importance, as
it enlarges the grain, and makes the ears fill at their ex¬
tremities. This hoeing ihould be given when the wheat
is in bloom ; a furrow muft be drawn in the middle of
the interval, and the earth thrown to the right and left
on the foot of the plants. This fupports the plants,
prevents them from being laid, and prepares the ground
for the next fowing, as the feed is then to be put in the
middle of the ground that formed the intervals.
By this fucceilive tillage, or hoeing, good crops will
be obtained, provided the weather is not very unfavour¬
able.
But as ftrong, vigorous plants are longer before they
arrive at maturity, corn railed in the new way is later
in ripening than any other, and muft therefore be fown
earlier.
In order to prepare the intervals for fowing again,
fome v/ell-rotted dung may be laid in the deep furrows
made in the middle of the intervals; and this dung muft
be covered with the earth that was before thrown to¬
wards the rows of wheat. But, if the land does not re¬
quire mending, the deep furrow is filled without any
dung. This operation fhould be performed immediately
after harveft, that there may be time to give the land a
flight ftirring before the rows are fowed; which fliould
occupy the middle of the fpace which formed the inter¬
vals during the laft crop. The intervals of the fecond
year take up the fpace occupied by the ftubble of the
firft.
Suppofing dung to be neceflary, which is denied by
many, a very fmail quantity is fufficient; a fingle layer,
put in the bottom of each furrow, will be enough.
Summary cf the Operations necejfary in execu-
tingthe New Husbandry with tlx Plough. -
r. It is indifpenfibly neceftary that the farmer be
provided with a drill and hoe-plough.
2. The new hufbandry may be begun either with the
winter or fpring corn.
3. Tire land muft be prepared by four good plough-
ings, given at different times, from the beginning of A-
pril to the middle of September.
4. Thefe ploughings muft be done in dry weather, to
prevent the earth from kneading.
5. The land muft be harrowed in the fame manner as
if it were fowed in the common way.
6. The rows of wheat fhould be fowed very ftraight.
7. When the field is not very large, a line muft be
ftrained acrofs it, by which a rill may be traced with a
hoe for the horfe that draws the drill to go in; and,
when the rows are fown, fifty inches muft be left betwixt
each rill. But, when the field is large, flakes at fiye
feet diftance from each other, muft be placed at the two
ends. The workman muft then trace a fmall furrow,
S with
yo A G . R I C U
with a plough that has no mold-board, for the horfe to
go in that draws the drill, direfting himfelf with his eye
by the flakes.
8. The flowing fhould be fmifhed about the end of
September, or beginning of October.
9. The furrows muft be traced the long way of the
land, that as little ground as poffible may be loft in head¬
lands i
10. The rows, if it can be done, ftiould run down
the'flope of the land, that the water may get the ca¬
ller off.
11. The feed-wheat muft be plunged into a tub of
lime-water, andftirred, that the light corn may come to
the furface and be Ikimmcd off.
12. The feed muft next be flpread on a floor, and fre¬
quently ftirred, till it is dry enough to run through the
valves of the happer of the drill.
13. To prevent fmut, the feed may be put into a lye
of alhes and lime.
14. After the happers of the drill are filled, the
horfe muft go flowly along the furrow that was traced.
That a proper quantity of feed may be fown, the a-
perture of the happer muft be.fuited to the fize of the
grain.
15. As the drill is feldom well managed at firft, the
field Ihould be examined after the corn has come up, and
the deficiencies fupplied.
16. Stiff lands that retain the wet, muft be ftirred or
hoed in Offober. This Ihould be done by opening a fur¬
row in the middle of the intervals, and afterwards filling
it up by a furrow drawn on each fide, which will raife
the earth in the middle of the intervals, and leave two
fmall furrows next the rows,, for draining off the water,
which is very hurtful to wheat in winter.
17. The next ftirring muft be given about the end of
March, with a light plough. In this ftirring, the fur¬
rows made to drain the rows muft be filled up by earth
from the middle of the intervals.
A G R
AGRIFOLIUM, in botany. See Aquifolium.
AGRIMONIA, Agrimony, in botany, a genus of
the dodecandriadigynia clafs. There are three fpecies
of this genus, viz. the eupatoria, repens, and agri-
monoides; of which the eupatoria only is a native of
Britain. The calix of the eupatoria is quinqueden-
tated; it has five petals, and two feeds in the bottom
of the calix. It is faid to be good in obftru&ions of
the liver, &c.
AGRIMONOIDES, in botany, the trivial name of a
fpecies of the agrimonia.
AGRIMONY. See Agrimonia.
iAw/i Agrimony. See Eupatorium.
Water-hemp-Agrimony. See Bidens.
AGRIOCINARA, in botany. See Cinara.
AGRIPPA, in midwifery, a term applied to children
brought forth with their feet foremoft. See Mid¬
wifery.
r L T U R E.
18. Some time in May, the rows muft be evened,
which, though troublefome at firft, foon becomes eafy,
as the weeds are foon kept under by tillage.
19. In June, juft before the wheat is in bloom, ano¬
ther ftirring muft be given with the plough. A deep
furrow muft be made in the middle of the intervals, and
the earth thrown upon the fides.of the rows.
20. When the wheat is ripe, particular care moft be ta¬
ken in reaping it, to trample as little as poflible on the
ploughed land.
21. Soon after the wheat is carried off the field, the
. intervals muft be turned up with the plough, to prepare
them for the feed. The great furrow in the middle
..muft not only be filled, but the earth raifed as much as
poflible in the middle of the intervals.
22. In September, the land muft be again fowed with
a drill, as above directed.
23. In Odober, the ftubble muft be turned in for
forming the new intervals; and the fame management
muft be obferved as direded in the firft year.
We pretend not to determine whether the old or new
■ hufbandry be preferable in every country.
With regard to this point, the climate, the fituatibn
of particular land, fltill and dexterity in managing the
machinery, the comparative expeuce in raifing crops, and
many other circumftances, muft be accurately attended
to before a determination can be given. One obferva-
tion, however, may be made in favour of the new huf¬
bandry :—Though the particular modes of cultivating
land by it are perhaps too limited to be univerfally ad¬
opted ; yet it has been of great ufe in raifing fufpicions
concerning the old method, and in turning the views of
philofophers and farmers towards improving in general.
Many real improvements in agriculture have been the
confequences of thefe fufpicions; and as this fpirit of
inquiry remains in full vigour, particularly in our own
country, a folid foundation is laid for expedting ftill fur¬
ther improvements in this ufeful art.
A G R
AGRIUM, in nat. hift. See Natrum.
AGROM, the name of a difeafe incident to the inhabi¬
tants of the Eaft-Indies, by which their tongues chap
and cleave in different places.
AGROPOLI, a fmall town in the kingdom of Naples,
and province of the Hither Principato.
AGROSTEMMA, or Cockle, in botany, a genus of
the decandria pentagynia clafs. The calix is mono-
phyllous ; the petals are five, and ungulated; and
the capfule one-valved. There are four fpecies of
the agroftemma, viz. the githago, a native of Bri¬
tain; the coolirofa, a native of Sicily; the coronaiia,
a native of Italy; and the flos Jovis, a native of Swit¬
zerland.
AGROSTIS, bent-grofs, in botany, a genus of the
triandria digynia clafs. The calix has two valves,
terminated by a beard or aun. There are fifteen fpecies
of the anroftis, eight of which are natives of Britain.
AGROS-
A G Y (71
AGROSTOGRAPHIA, fignifles the hiftory or defcrip-
tion of graffes.
AGRYPNIA, a term with phyficians for watching, or
an inaptitude to deep.
AGUALVA, in geography, the name of a river of
Portugal, and of a town in the ifland of Tercera.
AGUAPECACA, in ornithology, a barbarous name of
a fpecies of the tetrao. See Tetrao.
AGUARA-QUIYA, in botany, a barbarous name of
the folanum. SccSolanum.
AGUARA-PONDA, in botany, a barbarous name of
a fpecies of the viola. See Viola.
AGUARICO, a river of S. America,, which, arifing in
the mountains of Cordeleras, falls into the river of
the Amazons.
AGUBER, a river of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez,
which lofes itfelf in the Beber. See Beber.
AGUE, axgeneral name for all kipds of periodical fe¬
vers. See Medicine, title. Of agues or intermit¬
tent s.
AGUE-/r?r, in botany. See Sassafras.
AGUEPER.SE, a town of France, fituated in the Ly-
onnois, about fifteen miles north of Clermont.
AGUER, the name of Santa-croix, before it fell into
the hands of the Portuguefe.
AGUGLIA, a name ufed by fome. travellers for the o-
. belilks of Egypt. See Obelisk.
AGUIGAN, one of the Marian iflands. SccMarian
ijlands.
•AGUILAR, a town of Spain, in the province of Na¬
varre, about twenty-four miles weft of Eftella.
Aguilar Del Campo, a town of Old Caftile, with the
title of marquifate, about fifteen leagues north of the
city of Burgos.
AGUE, in botany, a fynonime of the hedyfarum. See
Hedy sarum.
AGURAH, in Jewifh antiquity, the name of a filver
coin, otherwife called gerah, and kejhita.
AGURANDE, a fortified town of France, in the
country of Berry, about four leagues fouth of Char¬
tres.
AGUSADURA, Agusage, incur old cuftoms, acer-
tain fee paid by vafials to their lord, for the Iharpen-
ing of their plough-tackle.
AGUTI, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
the moufe, belonging to the mammalia glires of Lin-
nams. See Mus.
AGUTI-GUEPA, in botany. See Sagittarium.
Aguti-treva, in botany, a barbarous name of afpecies
of the citrus. See Citrus.
AGUTIGVEPO-OBI, in botany, a fynonime of the
thalia. See Thalia.
AGUZ, a river of Africa, in the empire of Morocco,
and province of Duquela.
AGWANA, a kingdom of Africa, upon the golden
coaft, lying northwards of Aquemboe.
AGYEI, in antiquity, a kind of obehlks, facred to A-
pollo, erected in the veftibles of houfes, by way of
fecurity.
AGYNIANI, in church-hiftory, a fed of heretics who
condemned all carnal commerce with women.
) AID
AGYRTdE, in Grecian antiquity, a kind of ftrolling
vagabonds, not unlike our modern gypfies.
AHdETULLA, the trivial name of a fpecies of the co¬
luber, belonging to the order of amphibia ferpentos.
See Coluber.
AHALOTH. See Xylo-aloes.
AHANIGER, in zoology. See Acus.
AHAUSEN, in geography, the fame with Ahuys. See
Ahuys.
AHICCYATLI, in zoology, the Indian name of a fer-
pent refembling the rattle-fnake, only it wants the
rattles. See Coluber.
AHMELLA, in botany. See Bide ns.
AHOUAI, in botany, a fynonime, and alfo the trivial
name of a fpecies of the cerbera. See Cerbera.
AHRENSBOECK, a fortrefs of Holftein, on the road
from Lubec to Kiel.
AHUAS, a confiderable town and diftrid of Perlia, in
the province of Khureftan or Chufiftan.
AHUN, a town of France, in the higher Marche, fi¬
tuated upon the river Creufe.
AHUS, a town of Germany, in the bilhoprick of Mun-
fter, capital of a confiderable diftrid.
AHUYS, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the province
of Gothland, fituated in 32. 14. E. long, and 56. o.
N. lat.
AIA, the name of a fmall river of Italy, which falls in¬
to the Tiber, near the village Magliano.
AIAIA, in ornithology, a fpecies of the platalea, a
bird of the order of grallae. See Platalea.
AJAJOUNI, the name given by the Turks to a town
of Lefler Afia, otherwife called Hagia.
A JAN, or Ay an, the name of a large maritime coun¬
try of Africa, lying fouth wards of the mouth of the
Red-fea, the natives of which are white.
AJANTIA, in antiquity, an annual -feftival celebrated
in the ifland of Salamis in honour of Ajax.
AJASALOUE, the modern name by which the Turks
call Ephefus. _See Ephesus.
AJAX, in Grecian antiquity, a kind of dance reprefent-
ing the madnefs of Ajax after his defeat by Ulyfles.
AJAZZO, the name of two towns, the one in the ifland
of Corfica; and the other in Leffer Afia, about fifty
miles weft of Aleppo.
AICHMALOTARCHA. See the article AEchmalo-
tarcha.•
AICHSTAT, a city of Germany in the circle of Fran¬
conia, about fourteen miles N. W. of Ingolftat.
AID, in a general fenfe, denotes any kind of alfiftance
given by one perfon to another.
Aid, ovAyde, in law, denotes a petition made in court
to call in help from another perfon who has intereft in
land, or any other thing contefted.
Aio-de-campp in military affairs, an officer employed to
receive and carry the orders of a general.
Aio-major, the French term for an adjutant. See the
article Adjutant.
Aid, auxiliutn, in ancient cuftoms, a fubfidy paid by
vaffals to their lord on certain occafions.
Such were the aid of relief, paid upon the death of
the Lord Mefne to his heir; the a;d che-ja!, or ca¬
pital
AIN ( 5
pita! aid, dwe to the chief lord on feveral occafions,
as, to make his eldeft fon a knight, to make up a por¬
tion for marrying his daughter, &c.
Royal Aid, an appellation lometimes given to the land-
A1DS, in the French cuftoms, certain duties paid on all
goods exported or imported into that kingdom.
Ceurt of Kins, in France, a fovereign court ellablilhed
in fcveral cities, which has cognizance of all caufes
relating to the taxes, gabels, and aids.
Aids, in the menage, are the fame with what fome
writers call cherijbings, and ufed to avoid the neceffi-
ty of corre&ions.
The inner he'd, inner leg, inner rein, i&c. are call¬
ed inner aids ; as the outer heel, outer leg, outer
rein, are called ou/er aids.
Aids of aflizers cf wood. See Assizer.
A1DINELLI, or Aidin-ili, the modern or Turkilh
name of Natolia, or Leffer Afia. See Natolia.
AIELO, or Aiello, a fmall town of the kingdom of
Naples, in the Farther Abruzzo, with the title of
Dutchy.
AIGHENDALE,, the name of a liquid meafure ufed
in Lancafliire, containing feven quarts.
A1GITHALUS, in ornithology, an obfolete name of
the parus or titmoufe. See Parus.
A1GLE, in geography, the name of a town of France,
in the Higher Normandy; alfo of a promontory in Pro¬
vence, lying fouthward of the city of Ciotad; and of
a town and diftrift of Switzerland, in the canton of
Bern.
AIGR.E, a river of France, otherwife called Egre. See
1 the article Egre.
AIGLETTE, in heraldry. Eaglet.
AIGRETTA, in ornithology, an obfolete name of the
ardea alba. See Ardea.
AIGUE-~marine. See Aqua marina.
AIGUILLON, orEcuiLLON’, a fmall town of France,
in the province of Guienne, fituated at the conflux of
the rivers Garonne and Lot.
AIGUISCE, Aiguisse, orEcuiscE, in heraldry, de¬
notes a crofs with its four ends lharpened, but fo as
to terminate in obtufe angles.
It differs from the crofs fitchee, in as much as the
latter tapers by degrees to a point, and the former
only at the ends.
AILE, or Aiel, in law, a writ which lies where a
fierfon’s grandfather, or great-grandfather, being
eifed of lands, tec. in fee Ample the day that he
died, and a flranger abates or enters the fame day,
and difpoflefles the heir of his inheritance.
AILESBURY, the county town of Buckinghamshire,
.fituated near the Thames, about forty-four miles W.
of London. It fends two members to parliament,
and gives the title of earl to the noble family of
Bruce. W. long. 16. 55. N. lat. 51. 40.
AIM ARGUES, a fmall towm of France, in the pro¬
vince of Languedoc, and diocefe of Nifraes.
AIN, a river of France, which, after watering part of
Ftanche Comte and Brefle, falls into the Rhone, a-
bout four leagues above Lyons.
2 ) AIR
AIPIMIXIRA, in ichthyology, the American name of
a filh called pudano.
AIR, a thin trapfparent fluid which encompafles the
globe of the earth to a confiderable height. For the
weight, pcelfure, elafticity, 6c. of air, fee Pneu¬
matics.
Air, in medicine, one of the fix non-naturals, and as
eflential to the life of animals as food, or any of the
ordinary evacuations.
Air, in mythology, was adored by the heathens under
the names of Jupiter and Juno ; the former reprefent-
ing the fuperior and finer part of the atmofphere,
and the latter the inferior and grofler part. The au¬
gurs alfo drew prefages from the clouds, thunder,
lightning, 6c.
Air, in painting, 6c. denotes the manner and very
life of aftion; or it is that which exprefles the difpo-
fition of the agent.
It is fometimes alfo ufed in a fomewhat fynonymous
fenfe with gefture or attitude.
Air, in mufic, denotes the melody proper for fongs,
odes, and the like; being ufually quick and lively.
Sometimes it is ufed for the fongs themfelves, call¬
ed by the Romans aera, from which the modern term
air is derived.
AIRS, in the menage, are the artiScial motions of taught
horfes, as the demivolt, curvet, capriole, 6c. See
De.mivolt, 6c.
AiK-bladder, a veficle in the bodies of mofl: fifltes, by
which, being filled with air, they are enabled to fink
or raife themfelves in the water, by comprefling or ex¬
panding the air contained in this bag, and thereby
rendering their bodies at pleafure fpecifically heavier
or lighter than water*
Ai in-gun, a machine for exploding balls by means of con-
denfed air. See Pneumatics.
Ais. pump, a machine by which the air contained in a
proper veflel may be exhaulled, or drawn out. See
Pneumatics.
AiK-Jhafts, among miners, are holes made to meet
the adits, and fupply them with frelh air. Thefe,
when the adits are long, or exceeding thirty or
forty fathom, become highly neceflary, as well to
give vent to the damps and noxious vapours, as to let
in frelh air.
A\K-threads. See Gossamer.
AiK-veJfels, arefpiral dudts in the leaves, 6c. of plants,
fuppofed to be analogous to the lungs of animals, in
fupplying the different parts of a plant with air.
AIRA, in botany, a genus of the triandria digynia
clafs. There are 14 fpecies of the aira, nine of which
are natives of Britain. The Englilh name is hair-
graft.
A1REBA, in ichthyology, a fynonime of the raja pafti-
naca. See Pastinaca,
AIRANI, in church-hillory, a branch of Arians, who,
befide the common dogma of that feft, denied the
confubftantiality of the Holy Ghoft with the Father
and Son.
AIRE, in geography, a fea-poft town in Scotland, fi¬
tuated in 4. 40. W. long, and 55. 30. N. lat. at
the
A I Z (7
the mduth of a river of the fame name, which dif-
charges itfelf into the frith of Clyde. Aire is the
chief town of the county, and very ancient. About
a mile north from the town, there is a lazar-houfe,
commonly called tke King's chapel, which King Ro¬
bert de Bruce fet apart for the maintenance of lepers.
Aire, is alfo the name of two towns of France, the
one fituated in the province of Gafcony, about fixty-
five miles S. of Bourdeaux; and the other in Artois,
about thirty-five miles Si E. of Calais.
AIRESHIRE, a county of Scotland, the capital of
which is the town of Aire. It lies eaftward of the
frith of Clyde.
AIRING, a term peculiarly ufed for the exertifing hor-
fes in the open air.
AIRON< a river of France in the Nivernois.
AIRONO, a town of Italy, in the dutchy of Milan.
AIROU, a river of France in the province of Normandy.
AIRY, or Aery, among fportfmen, a term exprefling
the nefl of a hawk or eagle.
Airy triplicity, among afhologers, denotes the three
figns, gemini, libra, and aquarius.
AISE, in geography. See AisuE.
AISIAMENTA, in law, the fame with eafement. See
Easement.
AISNE, or Aise, a river of France which rifes on the
frontiers of Lorrain, near -Clermont, and falls into
the Oyfe, a little below SoifcnS.
AITOCZU, a confiderable river of Leffer Afia, which,,
arifing in the mountain Taurus, falls into the fouth
part of the Euxine fea.
AJUGA, in botany, a genus of the dklyriamia gymno-
fpermia clafs. There are foun fpecies of the ajuga,
of wnich the reptans or bugle, and the pyramidaiis
or mountain bugle, are natives of Britain.
AJURU-ca/inga, in ornithology, the Indian name of a
fpecies of the pfittacus or parrot. See PsittacuS.
AjvRU-curat/, in ornithology, the Indian name of two
fpecies of Brafilian parrots, beautifully variegated with
blue, green, red, yellow, and black.
AjURU-para, another parrot refembling the ajuru-catin-
ga, but fmaller.
AJUTAGE, or Adjutage, a kind of tube fitted to
the mouth of the velfel through which the water of a
fountain is to be played. To the different form and
ftrudture of ajutages, is owing the great variety of
fountains. See Fountain.
AIX, in geography, the name of feveral places, viz. of
a large city of France, the capital of Provence; of a
fmall town of Savoy, about eight miles N. of Cham-
berry ;■ of an ifland on the coafi of Gafcony, between
that of Oleron and the main-land; and of a village of
Champagne, fituated in the generality of Chalons.
A1X-LA-CHAPELLE, otherwife called Kach, Ach,
and A ken, an imperial city of Germany, in the dutchy
of Juliers. It is large and populous ; being much re-
forffed to by foreigners, as well as by the Germans,
on account of its hot baths.
AIZOON,. in botany, a genus of the icofandria pentan-
dria clafs. The cup is divided into five parts ; the
flowers confifts of one leaf ; the Capfule or feed-veflei
Vol.T. No. 4. 3
3 ) ALA
has five cells ; and the flower-cup reds on the top of
the fruit. There are three fpecies of the aizoon, viz.
- the canarienfe, the hifpanicum, and the paniculatum,
which laft is a native of Africa. This plant refembles
the fedum or houfe-leek.
AKISSAR, or Ak-hissar, a town of Leffer Afia,
fituated upon the river Hermus.
AKOND, in the Perfian affairs, the chief judge in all
cafes of contracts and other civil affairs. He is at the
head of the lawyers, and has his deputies in all courts
of the kingdom.
AKROCZIM, a town of Poland, with a oaftle of con¬
fiderable ftrength, fituated in the Palatinate of Maf-
fovia.
AKSTADT, in geograghy. See the article Aich-
STAT.
AL, an Arabic particle prefixed to words, and fignify-
ing much the fame with the Englifli particle the:
Thus they fay, alkermes, alkoran, Ac. e. the ker-
mes, the koran, <bc.
An, or Ann, a Saxon term frequently prefixed to the
names of places, denoting their antiquity, as Aid-
borough, Aldgate, <bc.
ALA, a Latin term properly fignifying a wing; from a
refemblance to which feveral other things are called by
the fame name : Thus,
Ala, in botany, is ufed in different fenfes; fometimes it
denotes the hollow between the ftalk of a plant and
the leaves ; fometimes it is applied to the two fide-
petals of the papilionaceous flowers ; others ufe it for
the flender membranaceous expanfions found in the
Items of plants, thence denominated alatedJlalks.
Ala., in botany, an obfolete name of the helenium. See
Helenium.
ALM, in anatomy, a term applied to the lobes of the
liver, the cartilages of the noftril, &c.
Alje, in the Roman art of war, were the two wings
or extreme parts of the army drawn up in order of
battle.
ALABA, in geography, the name of a kingdom of Afri¬
ca, dependent on the empire of Abyffinia, or Ethi¬
opia, the capital of which is called by the fame name.
ALABASTER, in natural hiftory, a genus of foflils re¬
fembling marble, which are bright, brittle, and do
not give fire with fleel; they ferment with acids, and
readily calcine with heat. There are three fpecies of
alabafter; 1. The fnow-white fhining alabafter, or
lygdinum of the ancients, is found in Taurus in pieces
large enough to make difhes, or the like. It cuts
very freely, and is capable of a fine polilh. 2. The
yellowilh alabafter, or phengites of Pliny, is found in
Greece, and is of a foft loofe open texture, pretty
heavy, and nearly of the colour of honey. This fpecies
has likewife been found in Germany, France, and in
Derbyfhire in England. 3. Variegated, yellow, and
reddifti alabafter. This fpecies is the common ala-*
bafter of the ancients, and is fo foft that it may be'
cut with a knife: It is remarkably bright, and almoft
tranfparent; admits of a fine polifli, and confifts of
large angular fparry concretions. It is not proof a-’
gainft: water; it ferments violently with aqua-fortis, and
T burns
ALA (7
burns to a pale yellow. The colour of this fpecies is
a clear pale yellow refembling amber, and variegated
with undulated veins; fome of which are pale red,
others whitiih, and others of a pale brown. It was
formerly brought from Egypt, but is now to be met
with in feveral parts of England. The alabafters are
frequently ufed by ftatuaries for fmall ftatues, yafes,
and columns. After being calcined and mixed with
water, they may be caft in any mould like plafter of
Paris,
Alabaster, in antiquity, a term not only ufed fora
box of precious ointment; but alfo for a liquid mea-
fure, containing ten ounces of wine, or nine of oil.
ALABASTRA, in botany, a name ufed by the ancients
for the calix or cup of flowers.
ALABASTRUM dendroide, a kind of laminated ala-
bafter, beautifully variegated with the figures of Ihrubs,
trees, <bc.
ALADINISTS, a feft among the Mahometans, an-
fwering to free-thinkers among us.
ALADULIA, in geography, the moft eafterly divifion
of Lefler Afia, comprehending the ancient Cappado¬
cia, and Armenia fylinor.
ALAGON, a fmall town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Arragon, fituated near the conflux of the river Xalon
with the Ebro.
ALAIS, a confiderable town of France, in the province
of'Languedoc, fituated on the river Garden, at the
foot of the Cevennes.
ALAISEE, in heraldry, the fame with humetty. See
Humetty.
ALALCOMENIUS, in Grecian antiquity, the Boeo¬
tian name of the month called, by the Athenians, Ma-
maflerion. See Mjemacterion.
ALAMIRE, or A-la-mi-re, among muficians, a note
of the modern fcale of mufic. See Scale.
ALAMODALITY, in a general fenfe, is the accom¬
modating a perfon’s behaviour, drefs, and actions to
the prevailing tafle of the country or times in which
he lives.
ALAMODE, in commerce, a thin glofly black filk,
chiefly ufed for womens hoods, and mens mourning
fcarfs.
ALAN, a fmall river of England in the county of Corn¬
wall, which falls into the Briftol channel.
Alan, is alfo a fmall town of France, with a very fine
caftle, fituated in the Caftern divifion of Gafcony.
ALANA^eWtf, a name by which fome writers call the
yellowifti tripoli. See Tripoli.
ALAND, or Alandt, an ifland of the Baltic fea,
fituated betv/een 18. and 20. degrees of long, and be¬
tween 59. and 61. degrees of lat.
ALANGUER, or Alenguer, a town of Portugal,
in the province of Edremadura, and about feven leagues
from Lilbon.
ALANORARIUS, in our old cufioms, was a keeper of
fpaniels, fetting-dogs, <bc. for the ufe of fportfmen.
The word is derived from alati, a gothic term for a
grey-hound.
AL ANTE JO, in geography. See the article Alen-
tejo.
* ) ALA
ALAPOULI, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpecies
of the averrhoa. See Averrhoa.
ALAQUECA, a done brought from the E. Indies in
fmall glofiy fragments, faid to dop haemorrhages By
external application.
ALARAF, among Mahometans, denotes the partition-
wall which feparates heaven from hell.
ALARBES, or Alarabes, a name given to thofe A-
rabians who live in tents, and didinguilh themfelves
by their drefs from the others who live in towns.
ALARES, in Roman antiquity, an epithet given to the
cavalry, on account of their being placed in the two
wings of the army.
ALARES mufeuli. See Pterygoideus.
ALARM, in the military art, denotes either the appre-
henfion of being fuddenly attacked, or the notice there¬
of, fignified by firing a cannon, firelock, or the like.
Falfe alarms are frequently made ufe of to harrafs
the enemy, by keeping them condarttly under arms.
Sometimes alfo this method is taken to try the vigi¬
lance of the/piquet-guard, and what might be expect¬
ed from them in cafe of real danger.
Alarm-W/, that rung upon any hidden emergency, as
a fire, mutiny, or the like.
Alarm-/>3/?, or Alarm-^Lci?, the ground for drawing
up each regiment in cafe of an alarm. This is other-
wife called the rendezvous.
Alarm, in fencing, is the fame with what is otherwife
called an appeh orchallenge. See Challenge.
ALATAMAHA, a large river of N. America, which,
rifing in the Apalachian mountains, runs fouth-ead
through the province of Georgia, and falls into the
Atlantic ocean, below the town of Irederica.
ALATED annuals, fuch as are furniflied with wings.
Abated leaves, in botany, fuch as are compofed of fe¬
veral pinnated ones. See Pinnated.
ALATERNOIDES, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies
of the myrica. See Myrica.
ALATERNUS, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
of the rhamnus. See Rhamnus.
AJ-ATRI, or Alatro, a town of Italy in the Campagna
di R oma, fituated near the frontiers of Naples.
ALAVA, or Alabro, in geography, a territory of
Spain, being the fouth-ead divifion of the province of
Bifcay.
ALAUDA, or Lark, in ornithology, a genus of birds
of the order of palferes ; the characters of which are
thefe : The beak is cylindrical, fubulated, flrait; and
the two mandibles or chaps are of equal fize. The
tongue is bifid, and the hinder claw is draigbt, and
longer than the toe. There are nine fpecies of the a-
lauda. 1. Alauda-arvenfis, or common jfey-lark,
which rifes in the air almod perpendicularly, and be¬
gins to fing early in the fpring, and generally leaves
off about midfummer. See Plate III. fig. 2. 2. A-.
lauda-pratenfis, or tit-lark, has the two outward fea¬
thers of the wing edged with white, and frequents
the meadows. 3. The arborea, or wood-lark, is a
native of Europe, and is didinguilhed by an annular
white fillet about the head. 4. The campedris, has
one half of its chief feathers of the wings brown,
except
ALB ( 7
except two in the middle which are white, and the
throat and bread are yellowiih. 5. The trivialis,
whofe chief feathers on the tail are brown, only half
of the outermoft is white, and the feqond is white at
the end, in the fliape of a wedge ; there is likewife a
double whitilh line on the wings, it is a native of
Sweden, and perches on the tops of trees. 6. The
criftata; the chief tail-feathers are black, but the
two outermoft are edged with white, and the head
is crefted. It is a native of Europe. 7. The fpino-
letta, the chief tail-feathers are black, only the out-
moft two are obliquely half white. It is a native of
Italy. 8. The alpeftris ; the chief wing-feathers are
half white, the throat yellow, and it has a black ftreak
under the eyes and on the bread. It is a native of
N. America. 9. The raagna, is yellow on the belly,
with a crooked black dreak on the bread, and the
three lide-feathers of the tail white. It is a native of
Africa and America.
Alauda marina, dint, or water-ouzel, in ornithology,
an obfolete name of a fpecies of the'^durnus. See
Sturnus.
Alaujja, in ichthyology, an obfolete name of a fpecies
of the blennius. Scc Blennius.
ALAUSA, in ichthyology. See Alosa.
ALAUTA, a confiderable river of Turky in Europe,
which, after watering the north-ead part of Tranfyl-
vania, and part of Wallachia, falls into the Danube ai¬
med oppofite to Nicopolis.
ALB, or Albe, in the Romirti church, a vedment of
white linen hanging down to their feet, and anfwering
to the furplice of our clergy. In the ancient church,
it w'as ufual, with thofe newly baptized, to wear an
alb, or white vedment; and hence the Sunday after
eader was called dominica in albis, on account of the
albs worn by thofe baptifed on eader-day.
Alb is alfo the name of a Turkilh coin, otherwife called
afper. See Asper.
ALBA finna, or Album, in our old cudoms, denoted
rent paid in filver, and not in corn, which was called
black-mail.
Alba terra, one of the numerous names for the philo-
fopher’s done.
ALBAHURIM, figura fen dec ini laterum, a figure of
great importance according to adrological phyficians,
who built their prognodics on it.
ALBANENSES, in church-hidory, the fame with Al-
bigenfes. See Albigenses.
ALBANI, in Roman antiquity, a college of the falii,
or prieds of Mars, fo called from mount Alhanus the
place of their refidence. See Salii.
ALBikNIA, a province of Turky in Europe, fituated
on the ead-fide of the gulph of Venice.
ALBANO, a town of Italy, in the Campagna di Roma,
about twelve miles fouth-ead of Rome, 13.0. E.long.
41. 35. N. lat.
ALBANS, or St Albans, a town of Hertfordthire,
fituated about 20 miles north-wed of London. It re¬
turns two members to parliament, and gives the title
of duke to the noble family of Beauclerc, 51. 40.
N. lat.
5 ) ALB
ALBANUM, a term ufed by fome chemids for fait of
urine.
ALBANY, a town of N. America, in the province of
New-York, fmiated on Hudfon’s river, in 74. o. W.
long, and 43. o. N. lat.
ALBARA, among phyficians, a malignant itch, nearly
allied to the leprofy.
ALBARAZIN', a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Ar-
ragon, fituated upon the river Guadalavir, about one
hundred and ten miles ead of Madrid.
ALBARDEOLA, in ornithology. See Platalea.
ALBARIUM opus, in Roman antiquity, a kind of pla-
der made of mere lime, ufed for covering the ceilings
of houfes.
ALBATI equi, an appellation given to fuch horfes, in
the games of the ancient circus, as wore white furni¬
ture, in condradiltindlion from the veneti, praftni,
and ruffeti. See Veneti, Prasini, <bc.
ALBAZIN, a town of Greater Tartary, with a drong
cadle : It is fituated upon the river Amur, or Yamour,
in 54. o. of N. lat. and belongs to theMufcovites.
ALBE, a fmall piece of money, current in Germany,
worth only a French fol and feven deniers.
ALBELLUS, in ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of the mergus. See Mergus.
ALBEMARLE, a town of France, in the province of
Normandy, from whence the noble family of Keppel
takes the title of earl, in 2. o. E. long. 49. 45. N.lat.
Albemarle is alfo the nanys of the mod northerly di-
dria of N. Carolina. See Carolina.
ALBENGA, a fea-port town of Italy fituated on the
Mediterranean, about fifteen miles north-ead of One-
glia.
ALBERTUS, a gold coin, worth about fourteen French
livres: it was coined during the adminidration of Al-
bertus archduke of Audria.
ALBESIA, in antiquity, a kind of fliields otherwife
called decumana. See Decumana.
ALBICILLA, in ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of the falco. See Falco.
ALBIGENSES, in church-hidory, a fe& of Chridians
which appeared in the 12th and 13th centuries. They
are ranked among the grofled heretics, the Maniche-
ans, by Roman Catholics; from which charge Proted-
ants generally acquit them, though with fome limita¬
tion. See Manicheans.
At the time of the Reformation, thofe of the Albi-
genfes who remained embraced Calvinifm.
Albigenses is alfo a name fometimes, though impro¬
perly, ufed for a fed more ufually known by that of
Waldenfes. See Walden ses.
ALBIGEOIS, a fmall didrid of France in the higher
Languedoc, containing the diocefes of Albi and Ca¬
dres.
ALBII, in church-hidory, the fame with Albigenfes.
See Albigenses.
ALBINOS, the name by which the Portuguefe call the
white Moors, who 2re looked upon by the negroes as
monders. They are the ilfue of a white man and
black woman, and at a didanee might be taken for
Europeans; but, when you come near them, their
white
ALB ( 76 ) . A L C
white Colour appears like that of perfons affefted with
with a leprofy.
ALBION, the ancient name of Britain. See Britain.
Nsw Albion, a name given by Sir Francis Drake to
California. See California.
ALBLASSERWAERT, a diftrid of South Holland,
lying eaftward of Dort, between the rivers Meufe and
Leek.
ALBOGALERUS, in Roman antiquity, a white cap
worn by the flamen dial is, on the top of which was an
ornament of olive branches.
ALBONA, Albono, or AlboGna, a river of Italy
in the dutchy of Milan, which waters the Novarefe
hnd dillrid of Laumello.
ALBORAK, amongft the Mahometan writers, the heart
on which Mahomet rode, in his journeys to heaven.
ALBORAN, a fmall ifiand of Africa, lying on the
coaft of the kingdom of Fez.
ALBOURG, or Albl’RG, a fea-port town of N. Jut¬
land, in the kingdom of Denmark.
ALBRET, or Albrit, a fmall town of France, in
the province of Gafcony, about thirty-five miles S. of
Bourdeaux.
ALBUCA, in botany, a genus of the hexandria mono-
gynia ciafs. There are only two fpecies of this plant,
viz. the major, with lanceolated leaves; and minor,
with fubulated leaves; both natives of the Cape of
Good Hope.
ALBUCUS, in botany, an obfolete name of a fp'ecies
of afphodelus.
ALBUGINEA tunica, in anatomy, the third or inner-
mort coat or covering of the teftes; it is likewife the
name given to one of the coats of the eye. See Ana¬
tomy, Part VI.
ALBUGINEUS, in anatomy, a term fometimes applied
to the aqueous humour of the eye.
ALBUGO, in medicine, a diftemper occafioned by a
white opaque fpot growing on the cornea of the eye,
and obftruding vifion.
ALBULA, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpecies
ofthefalmo. See Salmo.
Albula indica, in ichthyology, an obfolete name of
the falmo bimaculatus. See Salmo.
ALBUM, in antiquity, a kind of table, or regifter,
wherein the names of certain magirtrates, public tranf-
aefions, <bc. were entered. Of thefe there were va¬
rious forts; as the album fenatorum, album judicum,
album prtetoris. See.
Album. See Albumen, Ceruss.
Album grcecum, among phyficians, the white dung of
dogs, formerly preferibed for inflammations of the
throat, 'be. but now jullly defpifed.
Album nigrum, a term for mice-dung.
Album oculi, the white of the eye. See Albuginea,
Adnata.
ALBUMEN, among phyficians, the white of an egg.
See Egg.
ALBUQUERQUE, a city of Spain, in the kingdom
of Leon and province of Eftremadura, fifuated on
the frontiers of Portugal, 7. <5. W. long. 30. o.
N. lat.
ALBURN, the Englifh name of a compound colour,
being a mixture of white and red, or reddifii brown.
ALBURNUM, that part of the wood which is next the
bark of trees.
ALBURNUS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of the Cyprinus. See Cyprinus.
Alburnus lacujlris, an obfolete name of the cyprinus
bailerus. See Cyprinus.
ALBUS pifeis, an obfolete name of the cyprinus grifla-
gine. See Cyprinus.
ALBY, or Alb 1, a city of France in the province of
Languedoc, fituated in 0.40. E. long, and 43. 50.
N. lat.
ALCA, in ornithology, a genus of the order of an-
feres. The beak of this genus is without teeth,
Ihort, convex, comprefled, and frequently furrowed
tranfverfely ; the inferior mandible is gibbous near
the bafe ; the feet have generally three toes. The
fpecies of the alca are fix. 1. The tordo, or ra¬
zor-bill, with four furrows oil the bill, and a white
line on each fide running from the bill to the eyes.
Great numbers of them hatch together in the caverns
of rocks, and lay but one egg at a time. a. Th*
impennis, or northern penguin, with a comprefied
bill furrowed On each fide, and an oval fpot on each
fide of the eyes. 3. The ar&ica, Or puffin, with a
comprefied bill and four furrows; the orbit of the
eyes and temples are white. 4. The lomvia, or fea-
hen, with a fmooth oblong bill, and the upper mandi¬
ble yellow on the edges. 5. The grylle, or Green¬
land dove, with a fmooth fubulated bill, and a large
white fpot on the belly and wings; the feet are red.
6. The alle, or black and white diver, with a fmooth
conical bill, a white ftreak on the belly and wings,
and black feet. All the fpecies of this genus frequent
the northern ffiores of Europe.
ALCACER de Sal, or Alcarez, a town of Portugal
in the province of Eftremaduia, about forty-five miles
fouth-eaft of Lifbon; 9.0. W. long. 38. 30. N. lat*
ALCAICS, in ancient poetry, a denomination given to
feveral kinds of verfe, from the inventor Alcseus.
ALCAID, Alcayde, or Alcalde, in the polity of the
Moors, Spaniards, and Portuguefe, a magiftrate, or of¬
ficer of juftice, anfwering nearly to the French provort,
and die Britiffi juftice of peace.—The alcaid among
the Moors is verted with fupreme jurifdiftion, both
in civil and criminal cafes.
ALCALA de Guadiara, a town of Spain in the pro¬
vince of Andalufia, about fix miles S. of Seville.
Alcala de Her.ares, a town of Spain, in the province
of New Caftile, about fixteen miles E. of Madrid.
Ai.csLi.fii de Real, a city of Spain, in the province of
Andalufia, about fifteen miles north-weft of the city of
Granada.
ALCALY. See Alkali.
ALCANITZ, a fmall town of Spain, in the kingdom
of Arragon, fituated on the river Guadaloupe.
ALCANNA, in commerce, a powder prepared from
the leaves of the Egyptian privet, in which the peo¬
ple of Cairo drive a confiderable trade. It is much ufed
by the Turkilh women, to give a golden colour to
their
Plate.X.
A L c ( :
their nails and hair. In dying, it gives a yellow co¬
lour, when fteeped with common water; and a red
' one, when infufed in vinegar. There is alfo an oil ex-
tradled from the berries of alcanna, and ufed in me¬
dicine as a calmer.
Alcanna. See Ichthyocolla.
ALCANTARA, a city of Spain, in the province of
Eftremadura, on the frontiers of Portugal; 7. o.
W. long. 39. 10. N. lat.
Knights of Alcantara, a military order of Spain,
which took its name from the above-mentioned city.
The knights of Alcantara make a very confiderable
figure in the hiftory of the expeditions againft the
Moors.
ALCARAZ, a town of Spain, in the province of New-
Caftile, fituated on the river Guadarema; 3. o. W.
long. 38. 3. N. lat.
ALCAZAR de Sal, a fmall town of Portugal, in the
province of Eftremadura, near the confines of that of
Alantejo.
ALCE, ocAlces, in zoology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of the cervus, belonging to the order of mam¬
malia pecora. See Cervus.
ALCEA, or Vervain-mallow, in botany, a genus
of the monodelphia polyandria clafs. There are only
two fpecies of this genus, viz. the rofea and ficifolia.
This genus differs little from the common mallow,
either in figure or medical virtues, excepting that
the leaves of the alcea are more deeply divided.
Alcea veftcaria, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpe¬
cies of the ketmia. See Ketmia.
ALCEDO, or the Kings-fisher, in ornithology, a
genus of the order of picae. The alcedo has a long,
ftrait, thick, triangular bill; with a flelhy, plain, Ihort,
flat tongue. There are. feven fpecies of the alcedo,
viz. 1. The ifpjda, or common kings-fifher, with a
fliort tail, blue above, and yellowifli below. It haunts
the fhores of Europe and Afia. 2. The erithaca,
with a fliort tail, a blue back, a yellow bill, a purple
head and rump, and the throat and oppofite part of
the neck white. It is a native of Bengal. 3. The
alcyon, with a fliort black tail, white belly, and fer¬
ruginous breaft. It is a native of America. 4. The
todus, with a fliort green tail, a blood-coloured throat,
and a white belly. It is a native of America; and is
the green fpatrow, or green humming-bird of Edwards,
y. The fmyrnenfis, with a ftiort green tail, ferrugi¬
nous wings, and green back. It is a native of A-
frica and Afia. 6. The rudis, with a brown fliort
tail variegated with white. It is a native of Perfia
and Egypt. 7. The dea, with two very long fea¬
thers in the tail, a blackifti blue body, and greenifti
wings. It is a native of Surinam. All the fpecies
of this genus dive in. the water, and catch fifti with
their long beaks.
ALCHEMILLA, or Ladies-mantle, a genus of the
tetrandria monogynia clafs. The leaves of this genus
are ferrated. The cup is divided into eight fegments ;
the flowers are apetalous, and colledted in bunches
upon the tops of the ftalk ; the feed-capfules general-
Vol. I. No. 4. 3
7 ) A L C
ly contain two conic feeds in each. There are only
three fpecies of the alchemilla, viz. the vulgaris of
the (hops, which is efteemed a powerful vulnerary; the
minor, or leaft ladies-mantle; and the alpina, or
cinque-foil ladies-mantle; all of which are natives of
Britain.
ALCHEMIST, a practitioner in alchemy. See Al¬
chemy.
ALCHEMY, that branch of chemiftry which had for
its principal objedts the tranfmutation of metals into
gold; the panacea, or univerfal remedy; an alkaheft,
or univerfal menftruum; an univerfal ferment; and
many other things equally ridiculous. See Chemi¬
stry, Introdufcion.
Alchemy is alfo fometimes ufed as a fynonymous term
for chemiftry in general.
A.LCHIMILLA. See Alchemilla.
ALCHIMY, Alchymy, and Alchymist. See Al¬
chemy, and Alchemist.
ALCHITRAM, or Alchitran, a term among alche-
mifts for the oil of juniper, <bc.
ALCIBIUM, or Alcibiadum, in botany, an obfolete
term of a fpecies of echium. See Echium.
ALCMAER, a town of N. Holland, remarkable for the
fine paftures in its neighbourhood, and the great quan¬
tities of butter and cheefe made there.
ALCMANIAN, in ancient lyric poetry, a kind of verfe
confifting of two dadtyles and two trochees ; as,
VirginiXbus pue\rifque\ canto.
ALCOA arbor, the name of a tree in St Helena, faid
to emulate ebony.
ALCOBACO, a fmall town of Portugal, in the pro¬
vince of Eftremadura: It is defended by a pretty
ftrong caftle ; but what makes it moft remarkable, is
the abbey of St Bennet, which is the burying-place of
moft of the kings of Portugal.
ALCOHOL, or Alkool, in ehemiftry, fpirit of wine
highly redtified. It ij alfo ufed for any highly redti-
fied fpirit.—Alcohol is extremely light and inflamma¬
ble : It is a ftrong antifeptic, and therefore employee!
to preferve animal ftlbftances. For tlie other qualities
of alcohol, fee Chemistry.
Alcohol is alfo ufed for any fine impalpable powder.
ALCOHOLIZATION, among chemifts, the procefs
of redtifying any fpirit. It is alfo ufed for pulveriza¬
tion.
ALCOLA, a term among chemifts for the tartar of u-
rine.
ALCORAN, or Alkoran, the name of a book held
equally facred-among the Mahometans, as the Bible is
among Chriftians.
The word alkoran properly fignifies reading; a ti¬
tle given it by way of eminence, juft as we call the
Old and New Teftaments Scriptures. See Mahome¬
tanism.
Alcoran, in a figurative fenfe, is an appellation given
to any books full of impoftures or impiety.
Alcoran, among the Perfians, is alfo ufed for a nar¬
row kind of fteeple, with two or three galleries, where
U ,the
A L D (7
the priefts, called Moravites, fay prayers with a loud
voice.
ALCORA^STS, among the Mahometans, an appel¬
lation given to thofe who adhere clofely to the alco-
ran as the ultimate rule of faith: Such are the Per-
fians, in contradiftin&ion from the Turks, Arabs, drc.
who admit a multitude of traditions befides the alcoran.
ALCOST, an obfolete name of a fpecies of tanfey.
ALCOVE, among builders, a recefs, or part of a cham¬
ber feparated by an eltrade, or partition of columns,
and other correfponding ornaments, in which is placed
a bed of date, and fometimes feats to entertain com-
• pany.
Thefe alcoves are frequent in Spain, and the bed
' raifed two or three afcents, with a rail at the foot.
ALCOYTIN, a fmall town of Portugal, in the province
of Algarva, defended by one of the ftrongeft caftles
• in that kingdom.
ALCYON, the trivial name of a fpecies of alcedo. See
Alcedo.
ALCYONIUM, in obfolete name of a fubmarine plant.
It is alfo ufed for a kind of coral, or altroites, fre¬
quently found foflile in England.
ALDABARAM, in anatomy. See Sesamoidea.
ALDARU, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpecies of
piftachia. See Pi stachia.
ALDBOROUGH, a fea-port town of Suffolk, which
fends two members to parliament; i, 40. E. long.
‘ 52. 20. N. lat.
Ald boro ugh, is alfo a market-town of Yorkfhire, a-
bout fifteen miles north-weft of the city of York.
ALDEA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Eftre-
madura, about ten miles S.ofLifbon^
ALDEBAC, the Arabian term for bird-lime.
ALDEBARAN, in aftronomy, a ftar of the firft mag¬
nitude, called, in Englifh, the bull’s eye, as making
the eye of the confteilation Taurus.
ALDEGO, a river of Italy, in the territories of Venice,
which lofes itfelf in the Adige.
ALDENAER, a fmall town of Germany in the electo¬
rate of Cologn, fituated on the river Aar.
ALDENBURG. See Altenburg.
ALDER-/rer, in botany. See Be tula.
ALDERMAN, in the Britifh policy, a magiftrate fub-
ordinate to the lord-mayor of a city or town-corporate.
The number of thefe magiftrates is not limited, but
is more or lefs according to the magnitude of the place.
In London they are twenty-ViX; each having one of
the wards of the city committed to his care. This
office is for life; fo that when one of them dies, or
idigns, a ward-mote is called, who return two per-
fons, one of whom the lord-mayor and aldermen chufe
to fupply the vacancy. By the charter of the city of
London, all the aldermen who have been lord-mayors,
together with the three eldeft ones not arrived at that
. dignity, are juftices of the peace.
Alderman, among our Saxon anceftofs, was a degree
of nobility anfwering to earl or count at prefent.
.AldeRma'n was alfo ufed, in the time of king Edgar,
for a judge or juftice; in which fenfe Alwin is called
aldtrmannus iotius Anglia,
B ) ALE
ALDERNEY, or Aurigni, an iiland on the coaft of
Normandy, fubjedt to the crown of Great Britain.
ALDII, an appellation given to thofe fervants who at¬
tended their mafters to the wars.
ALDROVANDA, in botany, a genus of the pentan-
dria pentagynia clafs; of which there is but one fpecies.
The calix is divided into five parts; the petals are
five ; and the capfule has five valves, with ten feeds.
It is a native of Italy and the Indies..
ALE, a fermented liquor, obtained from an infufion of
malt; and differing only from beer in having -a lefs
proportion of hops. See Brewing.
Ale is thought to be the fame kind of liquor with
the cerevifia, zythum, and curmi of the ancients.
Medicated Ales, thofe wherein medicinal herbs have
been infufed, or put to ferment: Such are the cere¬
vifia cephalica, cerevifia epileptica, d?rr.
A\.v-berry, the popular name for ale that is boiled with
bread and mace, fweetened, ftrained, and drunk hot.
Ah'E.-connor, an officer in London whoinfpefts the mea-
fures of public houfes. They are four in number,
and chofen by the common-hall of the city.
AisV-Jilver, a tax paid yearly to the lord-mayor, by all
who fell ale within the city.
Ax.’s.-meafure. See Measure.
ALEA, in Roman antiquity, denotes in general all man¬
ner of games of chance; but, in a more reftii&ed
fenfe, was ufed for a particular game played with dice
and tables, not unlike our backgammon. See Ba.ck-
gammon.
ALEATORIUM, a place in the ancient gymnafia, where
they played at the al;ae.
ALEC, in ichthyology, an obfolete name a fpecies of__
fparus. See Sparus.
ALECOST. SccAlcast.
ALECTORIA, a ftone faid to be formed in the gall¬
bladders of old cocks, to which the ancients afcnbed
many fabulous virtues.
ALECTORICARDITES, the name of a ftone refem-
bling a pullet’s head.
ALECTORIUS lapis. See Alectoria.
ALECTOROMANTIA, in Grecian antiquity, a fpe¬
cies of divination performed by means of a cock, in
the following manner: A circle being defcribed on the
% ground, and divided into twenty-four equal portions,
in each of thefe fpaces was written one of the letters
of the alphabet, and on each of the letters was laid a
grain of wheat; after which a cock being turned loofe
in the circle, particular notice was taken of the grains
picked up by the cock, becaufe the letters under them,
being formed into a word, made the anfwer defired.
ALEAGAR, or Aleger, the name of a kind of vi¬
negar made of ale inftead of wine.
ALEGRETTE, a town of Portugal, in the province
of Alantejo, fituated on the river Caya; 7. 50. W.
long. 39. o. N. lat.
ALEIPHA, among ancient phyficians, the name of ani¬
mal or. vegetable oils, when ufed as unguents.
ALEMBIC, in chemiftry.. See Chemistry.
ALEMBROTH, an obfolete name of a kind of fixed
alkaline fait.
ALENGNER,
ALE ( 79 ) A L G
ALENGNER, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Eftremadura, about twenty-feven miles N. E. of Lif-
bon.
ALENON fa/f, an obfolete name of the oil of almonds.
ALENTEJO, a province of Portugal, lying foutlnvard
• of Tagus.
ALENZON, a drong city of Normandy, fituated under
the fame meri.dian with London, in 48. 32. N. lat.
It is the capital of the dutchy of the fame name.
ALEORE, among ancient phyficians, denoted the in-
: ter-vals of eafe that alternately fucceed acute pains.
ALEPPO, a large city of xlliaticTurky, fituatedinE.
long. 37. 4. and N. lat. .36. 30.
It is an inland town, lying almoft in the middle be¬
tween the river Euphrates and the Levant lea. The
Chriftians, who are allowed the free exercife of their
religion, have their houfes and churches in the fuburbs.
, The beglerbeg of Aleppo commands the whole ex¬
tent of country, between the Levant-fea and the Eu¬
phrates.
ALERION, or Allerion, in heraldry. See Alle-
RiON..
ALESSANO, a town of the kingdom of Naples, fitu¬
ated about twelves miles weft of the city Otranto.
ALESSIO, a town of European Turky, in the pro¬
vince of Albania, lituated near the mouth of the river
Drtnio.
ALET, or Aleth, a city of France, fituated in the
Upper Languedoc, at the foot of die Pyrennees, about
thirty-two miles fouth-weft of Narbonne, 2. o. E. long.
43. 10. N. lat.
ALETRIS, in botapy, a genus of the hexandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla is tunnel-fnaped, the ftamina
are inferred into the bafe of the petals ; and the capfule
confifts of three .cells. There are only three fpecies of
the aletris, viz. the farinofa, a native of America.;
the capenfis, a native of the Cape of Good Hope ; and
the fragrans, a native of Africa. The two firft are
perennial plants, and the laft is a fruit-bearing Ihrub.
Thefe are all ranked among the aloes of different au¬
thors. See Aloe.
ALEUROMANCY, a fpecies of divination performed
by means of meal or flour.
ALEXANDERS, in botany. See Smyrnium.
ALEXANDRETTA, in geography, the fame with
Scanderoon. See the article Scanderoon.
ALEXANDRIA, a fea-port town of Egypt, fituated in
31. xy. E. long, and 30. 40. N. lat. about fourteen
miles weftward of the moft wefterly brmch of die ri¬
ver Nile.
Alexandria is alfo the name of a city of Italy, fitu¬
ated on the river Tanaro, about forty miles N. W.
of Genoa, 8. 52. E. long. 44. 45. N. lat.
ALEXANDRIAN, or Alexandrin, in poetry, a
kind of verfe, confiding of twelve, or of twelve and
thirteen fyllables alternately; fo called from a poem
on the life of Alexander, written in this kind of verfe
by fome French poet.
Alexandrines are peculiar to modern poetry, and
feem well adapted to epic poems. They are fome-
times ufed by moft nations of Europe, but chiefly by
the French, whofe tragedies are generally compofed
of Alexandrines.
ALEXANDRINUM, the name of a plnfter defcribed
by Celfus.
ALEXICACUS. See Alexeterial.
Alexicacus was alfo a name under which the fiftier-
men ufed to invoke Neptune, to preferve their nets
from being torn to pieces by the fword-fifti.'
ALEXIPHARMICS, among phyficians, properly figni-
fy medicines which correft or expel poifon.
ALEXITERIAL. See the laft article.
ALFAQUES, among the Moors, the name generally
ufed for their clergy, or thofe who teach the Maho¬
metan religion, in oppofition to the Mojabites, who
anfwer to monks among Chriftians.
ALFELD, a town of Germany, in the biflioprick of
Hildelheim, and circle" of Lower Saxony, fituated
about ten miles S. of Hildeftieim, in 9'. 50. E. long,
and 52.0. N. lat.
ALFET, in our old cuftoms, denotes a caldron full of
boiling water, wherein an accufed perfon, by way of
trial or purgation, plunged his arm up to the elbow.
ALGA, in botany, the trivial name of the lichen, fu-
cus, and feveral other plants of the cryptogamia
clals.
ALGAROT, in chemiftry, an Arabic term for an e-
metic powder, prepared from regulus of antimony,
diffolved in acids, and feparated by repeated lotions
in warm water.
ALGARVA, the moft foutherly province of the king¬
dom of Portugal.
A L G E B R A.
ALGEBRA is a general method of computation by
_ certain figns and fymbols, which have been con¬
trived for this purpofe, and found convenient. It
is called an Universal Arithmetic, and proceeds
by operations and rules fimilar to thofe in common arith¬
metic, founded upon the fame principles. But as a
number of fymbols are admitted into this fcience, being
neceffary for giving it that extent and generality which
is its greateft excellence, the import of thofe fymbols
muft be clearly ftated.
In geometry, lines are reprefented by a line, triangles
by a triangle, and other figures by a figure of the fame
kind: Bur, in algebra, quantities are reprefented by
the fame letters of the alphabet; and various figns have
♦ been
Bo A L G E
been imagined for reprefenting their affefitions, relations,
and dependencies.
The relation of equality is.exprefled by the fign =;
thus, to exprefs that the quantity reprefentedby a is equal
to that which is reprefented by b, we write a — b. But
if vve would exprefs that a is greater than we write
a b ; and if we would exprefs. algebraically that a is
lefs than b, we write a b.
Quantity is what is made up of parts, or is capa¬
ble of being greater or lefs. It is increafed by addition,
and diminilhed by fubtrattiou ; which are therefore the
two primary operations that relate to quantity. Hence
it is, that any quantity may be fuppofed to enter into al¬
gebraic computations two different ways, which have con¬
trary efFefls; either as an increment, or as' a decrement
that is, as a quantity to be added, or as a quantity to be
fubtradled. The fign + {plus') is the mark of addition,
and the fign — {minus) of ftiblraSiion. Thus the quan¬
tity being reprefented by a, + a imports that a is to be
added, or reprefents an increment; but, — a imports
that a is to be fubtra&ed, and reprefents a decrement.
When feveral fuch quantities are joined, the figns ferve
to Ihew which are to be added and which are to be fub-
tradfed. Thus ab denotes the quantity that arifes
when a and b are both confidered as increments, and
therefore expreffes the fum of a and b. But a — b
denotes the quantity that arifes, when from the quantity
a The quantity b is fubtradled; and expreffes the excefs
of a above b. When a is greater than b, then a — 5 is
itfelf an increment; when a = £, then a — £ = o ; and
when a is lefs than b, then a — b is itfelf a decrement.
As addition and fubtradlion are oppofite, or an incre¬
ment is oppofite to a decrement, there is an analogous
oppofition between the affedlions of quantities that are
confidered in the mathematical fciences; as, between
excefs and defedt; between the value of effedls or mo¬
ney due to a man, and money due by him. When two
quantities, equal in refpedl of magnitude, but of thofe
oppofite kinds, are joined together, and conceived to
take place in the fame fubjedl, they deftroy each other’s
effedl, and their amount is nothing. Thus, tool, due
to a man and i oo /. due by him balance each other,
and in eftimating his flock may be both negledted. "When
two unequal quantities of thofe oppofite qualities are join¬
ed in the fame fubjedl, the greater prevails by their dif¬
ference. And, when a greater quantity is taken from a
leffer of the fame kind, the remainder becomes of the
oppofite kind.
A quantity that is to be added is likewife called a po-
fitive quantity ; and a quantity to be fubtradled is faid
to be negative : They are equally real, but oppofite to
each other, fo as to take away each other’s effedt, in a-
ny operation, when they are equal as to quantity. Thus,
3 — 3 = o, and a — a — o. But though + a and
— a are equal as to quantity, we do not fuppofe in al¬
gebra that + « = — a ; becaufe, to infer equality in this
fcience, they mufl not only be equal as to quantity, but
of the fame quality, that in every operation the one may
have the fame effedt as the other. A decrement may be
equal to an increment, but it has in all operations a con¬
trary effedt; a motion downwards may be equal to a rno-
B R A.
tion upwards ; and the depreffion of a ftar below the ho-
rjrfon may be equal to the elevation of a flat above it:
But thofe pofitions are oppofite, and the diflance of the
flats is greater than if one of them was at the horizon, fo
as to have no elevation above it, or deprellion below it.
It is on account of this contrariety, that a negative quan¬
tity is faid to be lefs than nothing, becaufe it is oppo¬
fite to the pofitive, and ckminifhes it when joined to it;
whereas the addition of o has no effedl. But a negative
is to be confidered no lefs as a real quantity than the po¬
fitive. Quantities that have no fign prefixed to them are
undefflood to be pofitive.
The number prefixed to a letter is called the numeral
coefficient, and (hews how often the quantity reprefented
by the letter is to be taken. Thus 2 a imports that the
quantity reprefented by a is to be taken twice; 3 a that
it is to be taken thrice; and fo on. When no number is
prefixed, unit is underflood to be the coefficient. Thus
1 is the coefficient of a or of b.
Quantities are faid to be like or ftmilar, that are re¬
prefented by the fame letter or letters equally repeated.
Thus -4- 3 « and — 5 « are like; but a and b, or a and
« 0 are unlike.
A quantity is faid to confifl of as many terms as there
are parts joined by the figns + or —; thus a-\-b con-
fifls of two terms, and is called a binomial; a-\-b-\- c
confifls of three terms, and is called a trinomial. Thefe
are called compound quantities : A ftmple quantity con¬
fifls of one term only, as + rf, or a b, or a b c.
. Chap. I. Of Addition.
CASE I. To add quantities that are like, and
have like figns.
Rule. Add together the coefficients, to their fum pre¬
fix the common fign, and fubjoin the common letter
or letters.
Example. To +50 to —kb to a-\-b
Add -f 4 0 add — 2 b add 3 0 + $ £
Sum +90 Sum — Sum 40+6£
Case II. To add quantities that are like, but have
unlike figns.
Rule. Subtract the leffer coefficient from the greater,
prefix the fign of the greater to the remainder, and
fubjoin the common letter or letters.
Examp. To —40 j +j£ — kc
Add + 70 I — 3 ^ + 8 r
Sum + 30 2^ + 20
This rule is eafily deduced from the nature of pofitive
and negative quantities.
If there are more than two quantities to be added to¬
gether, firfl add the pofitive together into one fum, and
then the negative (by Cafe I.); then add thefe two fums
together (by Cafe II.)
Case
R
A.
Case ^11, To add quantities that are unlike.
Rule. Set them all down one. after another, with
their figns and coefficients prefixed.
Exa MPLE. To '+ 2* I + 3 <
Add + 35 — 4 *
Sum 2 « + 3 £
Chap. II. Of Subtraction.
General Rule. “ Change the figns of the quan¬
tity to be fubtrafted into their contrary figns, and
then add it fo changed to the quantity from which
it was to be fubtrafted, (by the rules of the laft chap¬
ter) : the fum arifing by this addition is the remain¬
der.” For, to fubtraft any quantity, either pofitive
or negative, is the fame as to add the oppofite kind.
Examp. From + 54 8a — q b
Subtraft -j-ga. 3a+45
a — 11 b
Remaind. $ a —^ a, or 2 «. S
It is evident, that to fubtraft or take away a decre¬
ment is the fame as adding an equal increment. If we
take away — b from a — b, there remains a; and if
we add + b fo a — b, the fum is like^ife a. In gene¬
ral, the fubtraftion of a negative quantity is equivalent
to adding its pofitive value.
Chap. III. O/^ Multiplication.
In Mutiplicatiojn, the general rule for the figns is.
That when the figns of the fatlors are like, (i. e. both
-F, or both —), the fign of the product is 4-; but when
the figns of the faftors are unlike, the fgn of the pro-
dud is —.
Case I. When any pofitive quantity, 4- a, is multi¬
plied by, any pofitive number, ft- n, the mean-
is. That 4- a is to be taken as many times as
there are units in n; and the produft is evi¬
dently n a.
Case II. When — a is multiplied by «, then — a is
to be taken as often as there are units in n,
and the produft muft be — » a.
Case III. Multiplication by a pofitive number implies a
repeated addition: But multiplication by a
negative implies a repeated fubtraftion. And
whep 4- a is to be multiplied by — », the
meaning is, That 4“ « is to be fubtrafted as
often as there are units in «: Therefore the
produft is negative, being ■— n a.
Case IV. When — a is to be multiplied by —n, then
- ■— a is to be fubtrafted as often as there are
units in n ; but (by chap. II.) to fubtraft — a
is equivalent to adding 4* a, confequemly the
produft is -J- « 4.
Vox. I. No.'4. 3
Th.e lid and IVth Cafes may be illuftrafed in the fol¬
lowing manner.
By the definitions, -\- a —■ a ~ o; therefore if we
multiply ^* a —■ a by «, the produft: muft vaniffi, or be
o, becaufe the faftor a — a is o. The firft term of the
produft is 11 a (by Cafe I.) Therefore the fecond
term of the produft rauft be — n a, which deftroys
4- /? a ; fo that the’ whole produft: muft be 4* « « — « a
— o. Therefore — a multiplied by 4" « gives — n a.
In like manner, if we multiply a — a by— n,
the firft term of the produft being — n a, the latter term
of the produft muft be 4" » ^; becaufe the two toge¬
ther muftdeftroy each other, or their amount be o, fince:
one of the faftors (viz. a •— d) is o. Therefore — a
multiplied by — n, muft give + « a.
In this general doftrine, the multiplicator is always
confidered as a number. A quantity of any kind may1
be multiplied by a number.
If the quantities to be multiplied are fmple quanti¬
ties, “ find the fign of the produft by the laft rule; af-
“ ter it place the produft of the coefficients, and then
“ Tet down all the letters after one another as in one
“ word.”
Examp. Mult. a I —- 2 «
By 4- * I + 4 *
6x
5a
Prod. + ab
Mult. g x
By — 4 a
4- 3*
— so
Prod. 4-32 ax —lyaa^t
To multiply compound quantities, you muft “ multiply ‘
“ every part of the multiplicand by all the parts of the
“ multiplier, taken one after another, and then colleft ’
“ all the produfts into one fum: That fum ffiall be the .
“ produft required.”
Examp. Mult, ab
By a + b
Prod,
'•{"is
b-trbb
^8aa
i — 3 5
' + S*
— 12 a b
4- xoab —
\Sbb
Sum a a 2 a b-\- bb 8 a a — 2 a
Mult, a a + a b -\-b b
By a — b
Prod.
\ —aa
b -^abb
b-abb — bbb
Produfts that arife from the multiplication of two,
three, dr more quantities, as a b c, are faid to be of
two, three, Or more dimenfions; and thofe quantities
are called faftars or roots.
If all the faftors are equal, then thefe produfts are
called powers ; as a a, or a a a, are powers of a.
Powers are exprelfed ■ fometimes by placing above the
X root,
3
B
82
A L G E
R A.
root, to the right hand, a figure exprefling the number
of faftors that produce them. Thus,
a v. J3 f ift Power of the^-^
aa r-a S2C^ r root<?, andVa*
aaa V^Kgdv is (hortly
a a a a X S A4thX expreflfed C a*
a a a a ^ yth-^ thus, ' a5
Thefe figures which exprefs the number of faftors that
produce powers, are called their indices or exponents;
thus 2 is the index of a2. And powers of the fame root
are multiplied by adding their exponents. Thus a2 X a3
Sometimes it is ufeful not actually to multiply com¬
pound quantities, but to fet them down with the fign of
multiplication (X) between them, drawing a line over
each of the compound factors. Thus a + £ X a — b
exprefles the product of a + multiplied by a — b.
Chap. IV. 0/* Division.
The fame rule for the figns is to be obferved in divi-
fion as in multiplication ; that is, “ If the figns of the
dividend and divifor are like, the fign of the quotient
“ muft be +; if they are unlike, the fign of the quo-
“ tient mult be —.” This will be eafily deduced from
the rule in multiplication, if you coufider, that the quo¬
tient mult be fuch a quantity as, multiplied by the divi¬
for, fhall give the dividend.
The general rule in divifion is, “ to place the dividend
“ above a fmall line, and the divifor under it, expun-
“ ging any letters that may be found in all the quanti-
“ ties of the dividend and divifor, and dividing the co-
“ efficients of all the terms by any common meafure.”
Thus, when you divide \o a b 15 a c\sy io a d, ex¬
punging a out of all the teims, and dividing all the
coefficients by 5, the quotient is
2i+i£ and
4 d
“ Powers of the fame root are divided by fubtrafting
“ their exponents, as they are multiplied by adding
“ them.” Thus, if you divide a% by /*2, the quotient
is a5-2 or a3. And b6 divided by gives b6—* or £2;
and a7 V divided by a2 bl gives a5 £2 for the quotient.
“ If the quantity to be divided is compound, then
“ you mull range fts parts according to the dimenfions of
“ fome one of its letters, as in the following example.”
In the dividend a2 + 2 a A -p £2, they are ranged ac¬
cording to the dimenfions of a, the quantity a2, where
a is of two dimenfions, being placed firft, 2 a b, where
it is of one diinenfion, next, and bl, where a is not at
all, being placed lall. “ The divifor muft be ranged
“ accorcfing to the dimenfions of the fame letters; then
“ you are to divide the firft term of the dividend by the
“ firft term of the divifor, and to fet down the quotient,
“ which, in this example, is a; then multiply this quo-
“ tient by the whole divifor, and fubtratt the product
“ from the dividend, and the remainder (hall give a new
“ dividend, which, in this example, is a b + b1
a + b) a* + 2 a 5 + i2 (a + £
a2 + a A
a b + b'
a b b%
o . o.
“ Divide the firft term of this new dividend by the
“ firft term of the divifor, and fet down the quotient,
“ (which in this example is £), with’ its proper fign.
“ Then multiply the whole divifor by-this part of the
“ quotient, and fubtradl the produdt from the new divi-
“ dend; and if there is no remainder, the divifion is fi-
“ niffied:” If there is a remainder, you are to proceed
after the fame manner, till no remainder is left; or till
it appear that there will be always fome remainder.
Some examples will illuftrate this operation.
Examp. I. a + £) a2 — i2 (a — b
a1 a b
— ab — bx
•— a b — b*
o . o .
Examp. II. a—3) aaa—3aa3+3a33—333(aa—2alfbb
aaa— aab
—2aa3-j-3a33—333
—2aa3+2a33
abb—bbb
abb—bbb
o . o .
It often happens, that the operation may be continued
without end, and then you have an infinite feries for the
quotient; and by comparing the firjl three or four terms
you may find what law the terms obferve: by which
means, without any more divifion, you may continue the
quotient as far as you pleafe. Thus, in dividing 1 by
j — a, you find the quotient to be i+a+aa-j-aaa
a a a a + &c. which feries can be continued as far as
you pleafe, by adding the powers of a.
The operation is thus :
l — a) 1 (ift-tf + aa-f-aaa, .
1 —a
+ a
+ a — a a
a a
+ a a — aaa
+ a a a
ft-aaa — a a a a
+ a a a a, &e.
Note, The fign -f- placed between any two quanti¬
ties,
A L G
ties, exprefles the quotient of the former divided by the
latter. Thus, a-\- b -r- a — xis the quotient oi a b,
divided by a — x.
Chap. V. 0/'Fractions.
In the laft chapter it was faid, that the quotient of any
quantity a, divided by b, is exprelfed by placing a a-
bove a fmall line, and b under it, thus, —. Thefe
0
quotients are alfo called frattivns; and the dividend, or
quantity placed above the line, is called the numerator
of the fraction, and the divifor, or quantity placed un¬
der the line, is called the denominator,
“ If the numerator of a fradion be equal to the de-
“ nominator, then the fradion is equal to unity. Thus,
“ and — are equal to unit. If the numerator is
*? greater than the denominator, then the fradion is
“ greater than unit.” In both thefe cafes, the fradion
is called improper. But “ if the numerator is lels than
“ the denominator, then the fradion is lefs than unit,”
and is called proper. Thus, is an improper frac¬
tion; but-3-and-j- are proper fradions. A mixt
quantity is that whereof one part is an integert and the
■ other a frattion. As 3 -j- and 5 and a -1-
PROBLEM I.
To reduce « M 1 x t quantity /<? «» I m p a o P E R
Fraction.
Rule. Multiply the part that is an integer by the de¬
nominator of the fradional part; and to the produd
add the numerator ; under their fum place the former
denominator;
Thus 2 j- reduced to an improper fradion gives V5 »
.a1 ab+a* , a1 ax a1 x*
a + -r—   ; and a — x + = —=—.
b b x x
PROBLEM II.
To reduce in Improper fraction to a
Mixt Qu a n t i t y.
Rule. Divide the numerator of the fradion by the
denominator, and the quotient (hall give the integral
part; the remainder fet over the denominator (hall
be the fradional part.
Thus il= 2 a2±£. = * + ll.
S S b b
PROBLEM III.
To reduce frafiions of different denominations to
frati ions of equal value that Jhall have the fame de¬
nominator.
E B R A. 83
Rule. Multiply each numerator, feparately taken, in¬
to all the denominators but its own, and the produds
(hall give the new numerators. Then multiply all the
denominators into one another, and the produd (hall
give the common denominator. Thus,
The fradions 4-’ —»
bed
are refpedively equal to
thefe fradions --C-’ -r—f which have the
bed bed bed
fame denominator bed. And the fradions y, y, £, are
refpedively equal to thefe £•§, £§•
PROBLEM IV.
7b A d d and Subtract fradions.
Rule. Reduce them to a common denominator, and
add or fubtrad the numerators; the fum or difference
fet over the common denominator, is the fum or re¬
mainder required.
a \ c % d   a de-\-bce-\-dlb a  
b d e b d e » b d
ad—be. 2 3 _ 8 + 9 __ 17 _3 
b d ’ ■$ 4 12 12 11 4 J
_ 9—8 _ J_ . j_ 3_ _ 16—-1; _ J_ .  
12 12 ’ 5 4 20 20 ’ a
x _ 3 X ■— 2 X _ X
3 6 6 ‘
PROBLEM V.
To Multiply fradions.
Rule. Multiply their numerators one into another to
obtain the numerator of the produd ; and their deno¬
minators multiplied into one another (hall give the de¬
nominator of the produd. Thus,
If a mixt quantity is to be multiplied, firfl: reduce it
to the form of a fradion (by Prob. I.) And, if an in¬
teger is to be multiplied by a fradion, you may reduce
it to the form of a fradion by placing unit under it.
Examp. 5 JLx J- = LI x JL = iJ-.
3 4 3 4 12
PROBLEM VI.
To Divide Fradions.
Rule. Multiply the numerator of the dividend by the
denominator of the divifor, their produd (hall give
the numerator of the quotient. Then multiply the
denominator of the dividend by the numerator of the
divifor, and their produd (hall give the denominator.
Thus,
±\ (if. J_\ J_( 35 .
5 / 3 V12’ 7/8 V 24’ d) b \c b’
To,
G
E
84 A L
V R O B LEM VII.
7"9 find the great eft common meafure of two num¬
bers ; that is, the greateft number that can divide them
both without a remainder.
Rule. Firfi divide the greater number by the lefler,
acd if ,there is ne remainder, the lefTer number is the
greateu common divifor required. If there is a re¬
mainder, divide your laft divifdr by it; and thus pro?
ceed continually, dividing the latt divifor by its re-'
Bi/uider, till there is no remainder left, and then the
Lift divilbr is the greateft common meafure required. .
Thus, the-greateft common meafure of 4; and 63
is 9 ; and the greateft common meafure of 256
and 48 is 16.
45) 63 (1 48) 256 (5
45 2 4°
T8) 4r(2 16) 48 (3'
36 48
- 9) 18 (2 o
1 18
o
Much after the fame manner the greateft common
meafure of algebraic quantities is difcovered; only the
remainders that arife in the operation are to be divi¬
ded by their ftmple divifors, and the quantities are al¬
ways to be ranged according to' the dimenftons of the
fame letter.
Thus to find the greateft common meafure of a% — bx
and a* — 2 a b fi- b* •
a* — £*) ax — 2 a b fi-b* (1
a7‘ —
— 2 a b 2 V Remainder,
which divided by —2 b is reduced to
a — V) a*—b* (a fir b
a* — b1
0*0.
Therefore a — b is the greateft common meafure re¬
quired.
The ground of this operation is, That any quantity
that meafures the divifor and the remainder (if there is
any) muft alfo meafure the dividend; becaufe the dividend
is equal to the fum .of the divifor multiplied into the quo¬
tient, and of the remainder added together. Thus, in
the laft example, a—b meafures the divifor a* —b*,
v and the remainder — 2 a h fi-2. b\ it muft therefore like-
wife meafure their fum a? — 2 abfi-b1. You muft ob-
ferve in this operation to make that the dividend which
has the higheft powers of the letter, according to which
the quantities are ranged.
PROBLEM VIII.
To reduce any fraflion to its low eft terms.
Rule. Find the greateft comrtion meafufe of the nu¬
merator and denominator; divide them by that com-
B R A.
mon meafure, and place the quotients’ in their room,
and you ftiall have a fraflion equivalent to the given
ffattion exprefled in the lead: terms. .
Thus 25 M Vjabc = _ 156 a a + 156 a b_
2slc)i25bcx 5 x 7 Sl2aa—5l2ab
T -M-t-S*
IX a — lib'
When unit is the greateft common meafure of the
numbers and quantities, then the fraction is already in its
loweft terms. Thus cannot be reduced lower.
e, da
And, numbers whofe greateft common meafure is
unit, are faid to be prime to one another.
• If a vulgar fraflion is to be reduced to a decimal (that
is, a fraftion whofe denomination is 10, or any of its
powers,) “ annex as many cyphers as you pleafe to the
“ numerator, and then divide it by the denominator, the
“ quotient ftiall give a decimal equal to the vulgar frac-
“ tion propofed.” Thus,
—= .66666, tec. -2- = .6 ;
3 5
-y = .2857142, £}C.
Thefe fractions are' added arid fubtrafled like whole
numbers; only care muft be taken to fet Jimilar places
above one another, as units above units, and tenths a-
bove- tenths, be. They are multiplied and divided as
integer numbers; only there vtuft be as tnany decimal
places in the produfi as in both the multiplicand and
multiplier; and in the quotient as many as there are in the
dividend more than in the divifor. And in divifion the
quotient may be continued to any degree of exaflnels
you pleafe, by adding cyphers to the dividend. The-
ground of thefe operations is eafily underftood from the
general rules for adding, multiplying, and dividing
fraftions.
C h a p. VI. Of the Involution of
Qu ANTITIES.
The produfls arifing from the continual multiplica¬
tion of the fame quantity were palled (in Chap. III.)
the powers of that quantity. Thus, a, az, az, be.
are the powers of a; and a b, a% bx, a3 b>, be. are
the powers of a b. In the fame chapter, the rule for
the multiplication of powers of the fame quantity is, “ To
“ add the exponents, and make their fum the exponent
“ of the produft.” Thus a4 X «s = a5, ; and a3 hl X
a6 b1 — a9 b*. In Chap. IV. you have the rule for di¬
viding powers of the fame quantity, which is “ To fub-
“ tradl the exponents, and make the difference the expo-
“ nent of the quotient.”
Thus, ~=afi-4=a1; and ^-f-3=a5—^ i3”1
a4 7 a4 b
If you divide a lejfer power by a greater, the expo¬
nent of the quotient muft, by this rule, be negative.
Thus,
A L G I
Thus, p-=ra4~.<5 = « —*. But, ~ ^ ; and
hence ~ is exprefled alfo by a1 with a negative ex¬
ponent.
It is alfo obvious, that — — a' ~xzzaa ; but— = x,
a a
and therefore a0 = x. After the fame manner — = — =
a a
— <*°—} =: a—3; fo that the quantities a, i, —, —’
J-, —, fee. may be expreffed thus, a1, a°, a-1,
a * a 4
a-"1, a—3, a—4, frc. Thofe are called the negative
powers of a which have negative exponents ; but they
are at the fame time pofitive powers of — or a~x.
Negative powers (as well as pojitive) are multiplied
by adding, and divided by fubtrafling their exponents.
Thus the product of a—1 (or multiplied by
(or is tf-1—'3 =: a —s (or -i- ; ^ alfo a—6 X
a* = a — 6 + 4= «“"* (or-L;j and a — 3 X
a3 — a° — i. And, in general, any pojitive power of
a multiplied by a negative power of of an equal expo¬
nent gives unit for the produft; for the pofitive and
• negative deftroy each other, and the produdt gives aa,
which is equal to unit.
Likewife -—•, =r a— c + 2 = a~3 = ; and —- =
a—* a3 a—3
a — 2+y = a3. But alfo, ^—? = —  =
a—5 a—1 X a—3
—therefore -^—.zra}: And, in general, “ A-
a J a 1
“ ny quantity placed in the denominator of a fraction
“ may be tranfpofed to the numerator, if the fign of its
“ exponent be changed.” Thus = «~3, and —3
=r a3.
The quantity am exprelfes any power of a in general,
the exponent (m) being undetermined; and ar—m ex-
prefies —, or a negative power of a of an equal expo-
ponent: and am x a—m — am—m~a° ~ i is their pro-
dud:. an exprefies any other power of a ; a’" X a" =
am-\-n ;s the projdud of the powers am and a”, and
am—n js theij- quotient.
To raife any fimple quantity to its fecond, third, or
fourth power, is to add its exponent twice, thrice, or
four times to itfelf; therefore the fecond power of any
quantity is had by doubling its exponent, and the third
by trebling its exponent; and, in general, the power
exprejfed by m of any quantity is had by multiplying the
exponent by m, as is obvi us from the multiplicat on of
powers. Thus the fecond power or fquare of a is
Von. I, No. 4. 3
^ B R A. 85
a" ^ '—ax ; its third power or cube is a 3X'^ra?; and the
«th power of a is a '"X =a”'. Alfo, the fquare of a4
is a IX4=ra8 • the cube of a4 is a3 X4=:a,x ; and the
mVa power of a4 is a W. The fquare of a £ c is
a1 bx c1, the cube is a3 b3 cs, the zwth power ambm cvt.
The raifing of quantities to any power is called invo¬
lution, and any fimple quantity is involved by multiply¬
ing the exponent by that of tire power required, as in the
preceding examples.
The coefficient mufl alfo be raifed to the fame power
by a continual multiplication of itfelf by itlelf, as often
as unit is contained in the exponent of the power requi¬
red. Thus the cube of 3 a £ is 3 x 3 x 3 x a3 £3 =
27 a3 b*.
As to the figns. When the quantity to be involved is
poftive, it is obvious that all its powers mufi be poftive.
And, when the quantity to be involved is negative, yet all
its powers, whofe exponents are even numbers, muf be po¬
ftive : for any number of multiplications of a negative,
if the number be even, gives a pofitive; fince — x —
= +, therefore — x-^—x — x — = + x + = +; and
— x — x — x — x — x — = + x + x + = +.
The power then only can be negative when its expo¬
nent is an odd number, though the quantity to be invol¬
ved be negative. The powers of — a are -— a, + a1,
— a3, +«4, —a5, ere. Thofe whofe exponents are
2, 4, 6, isc. are pofitive; but thofe whofe exponents
are 1, 3, 5, 6v. are negative.
The involution of compound quantities is a more diffi¬
cult operation. The powers of any binomial a + 3 are
found by a continual multiplication of it by itfelf, as fol¬
lows :
a + 3 = Root.
Xa + 3
a1 + a 3
+ a3 + i*
«1 + 2«3 + 3xcr the fquare or 2d power*
X* +3
a3 + 2 ax 3 + a 3l
+ a1 3 + 2 a 31 + 33
a3 + 3 as 3 + 3 a 3X + 33 = cube or 3d power, <bc.
If the powers of a — 3 are required, they will be
found the fame as the preceding, only the terms in which
the exponent of 3 is an odd number, will be found ne¬
gative ; “ becaufe an odd number of multiplications of
“ a negative produces a negative.” Thus, the cube of
a — 3 will be found to be a3 — 3 a* 3+3 a 3Z — 33:
Where the 2d and 4th terms are negative, the exponent
of 3 being an odd number in thefe terms. In general,
“ The terms of any power of a — 3 are pofitive and
“ negative by turns.”
It is to be obferyed. That “ in the fir ft term of any
power of a 3, the quantity a has' the exponent of
the power required; that in the following terms, the
exponents of a decreafe gradually by the fame differ-
Y ence
86
ALGEBRA.-
ence (viz. unit), and that in the laft terms it is never
found. The powers of b are in the contrary order; it
is not found in the firft term, but its exponent in the fe-
cond term is unit, in the third term its exponent is 2 ;
and thus its exponent increafes, till in the laft term it
becomes equal to the exponent of the power required.”
As the exponents of a thus decreafe, and at the
fame time thofe of b increafe, “ the fum of their
“ exponents is always the fame, and is equal to the
“ exponent of the power required.” Thus, in the
6th power of a b, viz. a6 + 6 b 15 «4 bx
+ 20 tf2 3 b* + 15 a4 £4 + 6 a £s + £ 6, the exponents
of a decreafe in this order, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0 ; and
thofe of b increafe in the contrary order, o, 1,2, 3, 4,
5, 6. And the fum of their exponents in any term is
always 6.
To find the coefficient of any term, the coefficient of
the preceding term being known, you are to “ divide the
V coefficient of the preceding term by the exponent of
<c b in the given term, and to multiply the quotient by
“ the exponent of a in the fame term, increafed by u-
“ nit.” Thus to find the coefficients of the terms of
the 6th power of a + you find the terms are
a6, a5 b, a4 bx, a3 P, ax b\ «bs, b6 ;
and you know the coefficient of the firft term is unit;
therefore, according to the rule, the coefficient of the
fecond term will be — X 5 + 1 = 6; that of the third
term will be —X 4ft-x = 3X 5 = 15; that of the
fourth term will be—X34-1 = 5X4 = 20; and
thofe of the following will be 15, 6, 1, agreeable to the
preceding table.
In general, if a + £ is to be raifed to any power m,
the terms, without their coefficients will be am, am—'b,
am—ib\ am 3A5, am—4A4, m—%bs, &c. continued till
the exponent of b becomes equal to vi.
The coefficients of the refpe&ive terms, according to
the laft rtile, will be
I, m.
'i X --
-, X
- x '
-3
3
1 X —
  <-=2x ^=4,
3.4 2 3 4 .5
&c. continued until you have one coefficient more than
there are units in m.
It follows therefore by thefe laft rules, that a bm
— am + m am—b -f vi X —— X 4-w X——1
2 2
X —ix am 3 i3 + X X X X
3 234
X am—4 b* +, &c. which is the general theorem for
railing a quantity confifting of two terms to any power »/.
If a quantity confifting of three or more terms is to be
involved, “ you may diftinguifti it into two parts, confi-
dering it as a binomial, and raife it to any power by
the preceding rules; and then, by the fame rules, you
may fubftitute, inftead of the pdwers of thefe compound
parts, their values.” Thus,
ab c'—a+b Ar c = «-f £ ' + 2 c X
— ax-\-2ab-\-bxAr2ac-ic2bc-\-cx.
In thefe examples, a Ar b c is confidered as com-
pofed of the compound part aArb and the fimple part c;
and then the powers of * ft- £ are formed by the prece¬
ding rules, and fubftituted for aArb1 and <T+i4.
Chap. VII. 0/* Ev glut ion.
The reverfe of involution, or the refolving of powers
into their roots, is called evolution. The roots of fingle
quantities are eafily extra&ed “ by dividing their expo-
“ nents by the number that denominates the root re-
“ quired.” Thus, the fquare root of a8 is ai = a4 ; and
the fquare root of a4 b8 cx is «4 b4 c. The cube root of
£3 is = a1 i; and the cube root of x9 y6 s14 is
x% y'1 z4. The ground of this rule is obvious from the
rule-for involution. The powers of any root are found
by multiplying its exponent by the index that denominates
the power ; and therefore, when any power is given, the
root muft be found by dividing the exponent of the given
power by the number that denominates the kind of root
that is required.
It appears, from what was faid of involution, that
“ any power that has a pofitive fign may have either a
“ pofitive or negative root, if the root is denominated
“ by any even number.” Thus the fquare-root of A~a 1
may be or'—a, becaufe A~aX+^ or —aX—a gives
2 for the product.
But if a power have a negative fign, “ no root of it
“ denominated by an even number can be be afligned,”
fince there is no quantity that multiplied into itfelf an
even number of times can give a negative produtt. Thus
thefquare root of—«4 cannot be affigned, and is what we
call an impojjible or imaginary quantity.
But if the root to be extrafted is denominated by an
odd number, then ftiall “ the fign of the root be the fame
as the fign of the given number whofe root is required.”
Thus the cube root of'—«5 is •—ay and the cube root of
If the number that denominates the root required is a
divifor of the exponent of the given power, then ftiall the
root be only a lo-iuer power of the fame quantity. As the
cube root of a11 is a4, the number 3 that denominates
the cube roof being a divifor of 12.
But if the number that denominates what fort of root
is required is not a divifor of the exponent of the given
power, “ then the root required (hall have a fraction for
its exponent.” Thus thefquare root of a3 is a\-, the cube
root of as is rf-f* and the fquare root of a itfelf is a\.
Thefe powers that have fraftional exponents are called
imperfect poolers or furds; and are otherwife exprefied
by placing the given power within the radical fign \/ ,
and placing above the radical fign the number that deno¬
minates what kind of root is required. Thus
a^—n/a* ; and a7—\/am. In numbers the fquare root
of 2 is exprefled by 4/ 2, and the cube root of 4 by 4/ 4*
The
A L G E
The fqiure root of any compound quantity, as «2+
2 a b + b1 is difcovered after this manner. “ Firil:,
“ take care to difpofe the terms according to the dimen-
“ (ions of the alphabet, as in divifion ; then find the
“ fquare root of the firft term a which gives a for the
“ firfi: member of the root. Then Ihbtradt its fquare
“ from the propofed quantity, and divide the firfl: term
« of the remainder by the double of that mem-
“ ber, viz., 2a, and the quotient Ms the fecond member
“ of the root. Add this fecond member to the double
“ of the firft, and multiply their fum {za+b), by the fe-
“ cond member b, and fubtraft the product (2<jA+^2)
“ from the forefaid remainder (2«i+^1) and ifmothing
“ remains, then the fquare root is obtained;” and in this
example it is fouud to be « + A
The manner of the operation is thus,
a2+2ab+bz {a+b
2a-\-b\2ab'\-b'1
y.b) 2ab-\-b2 .
0.0
“ But if there had been a remainder, you muft have
“ divided it by the double of the fum of the two parts
“ already found, and the quotient would have given the
“ third member of the root.”
Thus, if the quantity propofed had been ax-\-2abAr
2&c-\-b2-\-2bc-\'c2, after proceeding as above, you would
have found the remainder 2ac-\-2bc-\-c2, which divided
by 2a-\-2b gives e to be annexed to a-\-b as the gd mem¬
ber of tb£ root. Then adding eto 2a-\-2b, and multiply¬
ing their fum 2a-\-2bJrc by c, fubtradt the produdt 2^e-(-
zbc+c2 from the forefaid remainder ; and fince nothing
now remains,, you conclude that a+b+c is the fquare
root required.
The fquare root of any mTmber is found out after the
fame manner. If it is a number under ioo, its neareft
fquare root is found by the-following table ; by which al-
fo its cube root is found if.it be under iooo, and is bi¬
quadrate if it be under ioooo.
jThe rootj
[Square J
jCube i
(Biquad.j
But if it is a number above loo,, then its fquare root
will confift of two or more figures, which mull be found
by different operations by the following
R U L E.
“ To find the fquare root of any number, place a
“ point above the number that is in the place of units,
“ pafs the place of tens, and place again a point over that
“ of hundreds, and goon towards the left hand placing a
“ point over every 2d figure; and by thefe points the
“ number will be dillinguifhed into as many parts as
“ there are figures in the root. Then find the fquare
“ root of the firll part, and it will give the firft figure of
BRA. 87
the root; fubtradl its fquare from that part, and an¬
nex the fecond part of the given number to the re¬
mainder. Then divide this new number (negledting
its laft figure) by the double of the firft figure of the
root, annex the quotient to that double, and multiply
the number thence arifing by the faid quotient, and if
the product is lefs than your dividend, or equal to it,
that quotient lhall be the fecond figure of the root.
But if the product is greater than the dividend, you
muft take a lefs number for the fecond figure of
the root than that quotient.” Much after the fame
manner may the other figures of the quotient be found,
if there are more points than two placed over the given
number.
To find the fquare root of 99856, firft point it thus,
99856; then find the fquare root of 9 to be-3, which
therefore is, the firft figure of the' root; fubtradf 9, the
fquare of 3, from 9, and to'the remainder annex the fe¬
cond part 98, and divide (negledling the laft figure 8) by
the double of 3, or 6, and place the quotient after 6,
and then multiply 61 by 1, and fubtradl the produdt 61
from 98. Then to the remainder (37) annex the laft
part of the propofed number (56), and dividing 3756 (ne-
gleding the laft figure 6) by the double of 31, that is by
62, place the quotient after, and multiplying 626 by the
quotient 6, you will find the produdt to be 3756, which
fubtradted from the dividend, and leaving no remainder,
the exadt root muft be .316.
Examp. 99856 (316
_.9_
61x98
X1J61
626x3756
x6/3.7:56_ -
o
In general, to extradt any root out of any given quan¬
tity, “ Firft range that quantity according to thedimen-
“ fions of its letters, and extradt the faid root out of the
“ firft term, and that fhall be the firft member of the
“ root required. Then raife this root to a dimenfion
“ lower by unit than the number that denominates the
“ root required, and multiply the power that arifes by
“ that number itfelf; divide the fecond term of thq
“ given quantity by the produdl, and the quotient fliall
“ give the fecond member of the root required.”
Thus to extradl the root of the 5th power out of/7y-|-
^a4b-i-ioa3b1+ioa2b3-j-sab4+bs, I find, that the root
of the 5th power out of as gives a, which I raife to the
4th power, and multiplying by 5, the produdt is 5a4 ;
then dividing the fecond term of the given quantity
by 5«4v I find b to be the fecond member ; and raiftng,
a+b to the 5th power, and fubtradting it, there being no
remainder, I conclude that a-j-b is the root required. If
the root has three members, the third is found after the,
fame manner from the firft two confidered as one mem¬
ber, as the fecond member was found from the firft
which may be eafily underftood from what w as faid of
extradling the fquare root.
 ?l 8 ?
_LI_4 _9! Jbj Ji' 361 ■ 4.9]' 64 81
llJ: 27| 64I125I 216 343| 51-2 729
1 116 8ij256|6g5i 12961 24011 4096 6?6i
In
88
algebra.
In extraS ir,? roots it will often happen that the exa&
root cannot he found in finite terms; thus the fquare
root of <* * ~j- *1 is found to be
a +  5^ .
2ti 8a} i6a* 128a7 *
The operation is thus;
&c.
(a+— —
8a *
<bc.
*h)=*'+^
'a 8a')
8a') 4a* 8<
8a4 ^ 64ae
,f found lefs than the two firft periods of the given num-
“ her, the fecond figure of the root is right. But, if
“ it be found greater, you muft diminifh the fecond fi-
“ gure of the root till that power be found equal to or
“ lefs than thofe periods of the given number. Sub-<
“ traft it, and to the remainder annex the next period;
“ and proceed till you have gone through the whole gi-
“ ven number, finding the third figure by means of the
“ two firft, as you found the fecond by the firft; and
“ afterwards finding, the fourth figure (if therf be a
“ fourth period) after the fame manner from the three
“ firft.”
Thus to find the cube root of 13824, point it 13824;
find the greateft cube in 13, viz. 8, whofe cube foot 2 is
the firft figure of the root required. Subtrad 8 from 13,
and to the remainder 5 annex 8, the firft figure of the fe¬
cond period; divide 58 by triple the fquare of 2, viz.
12, and the quotient is 4, which is the fecond figure of
the root required, fince the cube of 24 gives 13824, the
number propofed. After the fame manner the cube root
of 13312053 is found to be 237.
13824 (24
Subtr. 8 = 2x2x3
£C The general theorem which we gave for the invq-
“ lution of binomials will ferve alfo for their evo}u-
“ tion;” becaufe to extrad any root of a given quan¬
tity is the fame thing as to raife that quantity to a
power whofe exponent is a fradion that has its denomi¬
nator equal to the number that exprefles what kind of
root is to be extraded. Thus, to extrad the fquare
root of a b is to raife a b to a power whofe expo¬
nent is
The roots of numbers are to be extraded as thofe of
algebraic quantities. “ Place a point over the units,
“ and then place points over every third, fourth, or
“ fifth figure towards the left hand, according as it is
“ the root of the cube, of the 4th or jth power that is
“ required; and, if there be any decimals annexed to
“ the number, point them after the fame manner, pro-
“ ceeding from the place of units towards the right-
“ hand. By this means the number will be divided in-
“ to fo many periods as there are figures in the root re-
“ quired. Then inquire which is the greateft cube,
“ biquadrate, or yth power in the firft period, and the
“ root of that power will give the firft figure of the root
“ required. Subtrad the greateft cube, biquadrate, or
“ 5th power, from the firft period, and to the remainder
“ annex the firft figure of your fecond period, which
“ fhall give your dividend.
“ Raife the firft figure already found to a power lefs
“ by unit than the power whofe root is fought, that is,
“ to the 2d, 3d, or 4th power, according as it is the
‘c cube root, the root of the 4th, or the root of the
“ jth power that is required, and multiply that power
“ by the index of the cube, 4th, or 5th power, and di-
“ vide the dividend by this produd, fo ftiall the quo-
“ tient be the fecond figure of the root required.
“ Raife the part already found of the root, to the
“ power whofe root is required, and if that power be
3x4=12) 58 (4
Subtr. 24x24x24=13824
Rem. ... o . „
. In extrading of roots, after you have gone through
the number propofed, if there is a remainder, you may
continue the operation by adding periods of cyphers to
that remainder*, and find the true root in decimals to any
degree of exadnefs.
Chap. VIII. Cy Proportion.
When quantities of the fame kind are compared, it
may be confidered, either how much the one is greater
than the other, and what is their difference; or, it may
be confidered how many times the one is contained in
the other; or, more generally, what is their quotient.
The firft relation of quantities is expreffed by their a-
rithmetical ratio ; the fecond by their geometrical ra¬
tio. That term whofe ratio is inquired into is called the
antecedent, and that with which it is compared is called
the confequent.
When of four quantities the difference betwixt the
firft and fecond is equal to the difference betwixt the
third and fourth, thofe quantities are called arithmetical
proportionals \ as the numbers 3, 7, 12, 16. And the
quantities a, a-\-b, e, effb. But quantities form a fe-
ries in arithmetical proportion, when they “ increafe or
“ decreafe by the fame conftant difference.” As thefe,
a, a+b, a-\-2b, a+33, rf+4£, 'be. x, x—b, x—2b, be.
or the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, J, be. and 10, 7, 4, 1, —2,
—y, —8, be.
In four quantities arithmetically proportional, “ the
“ fum of the extremes is equal to the fum of the mean
“ terms.”
ALGEBRA. 89
4< terms.” Thus, a, a-\-i, e, e-\-b, are arithmetical
proportionals, and the fum of the extremes is
equal to; the fum of the mean terms {a-{-b-\-e). Hence,
to find the fourth quantity arithmetically proportional to
any three given quantities; “ Add the fecond and third,
“ and from their fum fubtradt the firlt term, the remain-
“ der (hall give the fourth arithmetical proportional re-
“ quired. ”
In a feries of arithmetical proportionals, “ the fum of
“ the firft and laft terms is equal to the fum of any two
“ terms equally diflrant from the extremes.” If the firft
terms are a, a+b, a-{-2b, <bc. and the laft term x, the
laft term but one will be ,v—6,^the laft but two x—2b,
the laft but three x—%b, So that the firft half of
the terms, having thofe that are equally diftant from the
laft term fet under them, will (land thus;
a, a+b, a+2b, a+^b, a+qb, „■
x, x—b, x—2b, x—3b, x—4b,
a+x,a-4-x, a-j-x, a + x, a + x, &c.
And it is plain, that if each term be added to the term
above it, the fum will be a-j-x, equal to the fum of the
firft term a and the laft term. x. From which it is plain,
that “ the fum of all the terms of an arithmetical pro-
“ greflion is equal to the fum of the firft and laft taken
“ half as often as there are termsthat is, the fum'of
an arithmetical progreflion is equal to the fum of the firft
and laft terms multiplied by half the number of terms.
Thus, in the preceding feries, if « be the number of
terms, the fum of all the terms will be « + x X —
2 ‘
The common difference of the terms being b, and b
not being found in the firft term, it is plain that “ its
“ coefficient in any term will be equal to the number of
• ‘ terms that precede that term ” Therefore in the laft
term x youmuft have 71—1 X£, fo that x muft be equal
to a-\-n— 1 X£. And the fum of all the terms being
a -fr-xX—•, it •will alfo be equal 10 —or
to a-\ ^—X«. Thus for example, the feries 1+2
+3+4+5, &c. continued to a hundred, muft: be equal
2 XIOO+ IOOOO IOO
to   —=5050.
Tf a feries have {o) nothing for its firft term, then
“ its fum (hall be equal to half the produdt of the laft
“ term multiplied by the number of terms.” For then
a being = 0, the fum of the terms, which is in general
rt + xx —, will in this cafe be—. From which it
is evident, that “ the fum of any number of arithmetical
“ proportionals beginning from nothing, is equal to half
£< the fum of as many terms equal to the greateft term.”
Thus,
o+i+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9=
_ 9+9+9+9+9+9+9+9+9+9 _ioX9__
~ .2 2 -
“ If of four quantities the quotien t of the firjl and fe¬
cond be equal to the quotient of the third and fourth,
Vol. I No. 4. 3
“ then thofe quantities are faid to be in geometrical
“ proportion.'" Such are the numbers 2, 6, 4, 12;
and the quantities a, ar, b, br ; which are expreifed af¬
ter this manner;
2 : 6 :: 4 : 12.
a : ar :: b : br.
And you read them by faying, As 2 is to 6, fo is 4 to 12 j
or, as a is to ar, fo is b to br.
In four quantities geometrically proportional, “ the
“ product of the extremes is equal to the produdl of the
“ middle terms.” Thus, axbr=arxb. And, if it is
required to find a fourth proportional to any three given
quantities, “ multiply the fecond by the third, and di-
“ vide their produd by the firft, the quotient (ball give
“ the fourth proportional required.” Thus, to find a
fourth proportional to a, ar, and b, multiply ar by b,
and divide the produd arb by the firft term a, the quo¬
tient br is the fourth proportional required.
In calculations it fometimes requires a little care to
place the terms in due order; for which.you may ob-
ferve the following
'Rule. Firft fet down die quantity that is of the fame
kind with the quantity fought; then confider, from the
nature of the queftion, whether that which is given is
greater or lefs than that which is fought; if it is
greater, then place the greateft of the other two quan¬
tities on the left hand; but if it is lefs, place the lead
of the other two quantities on the left hand, and
the other on the right.
Then (hail the terms be in due order; and you are to
proceed according to the rule, multiplying the fecond by
the .third, and dividing their produd by the firft.
Examp. “ If 30 men do any piece of work in 12
“ days, how many men (hall do it in 18 days?”
Becaufe it is a number of men that is fought, firft fet
down 30, the number of men that is given: you will
eafily fee that the number that is given is greater than the
number that is fought; therefore place 18. on the left
hand, and 12 on the right; and find a 4th proportional
„ . 30 X 12
to 18, 30, 12, viz. —--3 — — 20,
When a feries of quantities increafe by one common
multiplicator, or decreafe’ by one common divifor, they
are faid to be in geometrical proportion continued.
As, a, ar, ar1, ar3, ar*, ar;, See. or,
a — — — a a Sc
The common multiplier or divifor is called their com¬
mon ratio.
In fuch a feries, “ the produd of the firft and laft
ce is always equal to the produd of the fecond and laft
“ but on.e, or to the produd of any two terms equal-
“ ly remote from the extremes.” In the feries, a, ar,
ar2, ar3, &c. if y be the laft term, then (hall the four
laft terms of the feries be r, A. A A • now it is
r r1 73 7
plain, that aXy—arY, -
, &c. '
“ The
Z
90 ALGEBRA.
‘‘ The fum of a feries of geometrical proportionals
“ wanting the firft term, is equal . to the fum of all
“ but the laft term multiplied by the common ratio.”
For ar+ar'-\-ar\&c. + £-+p: +-y+J =
zzrXa-{-ar-\-arl, &c. + +
fA ri r
Therefore if j be the fnm of the feries, j — a will be e-
«jual to /—jXr; that is, / — a — sr—yr, ov sr — f —
, yr—a
yr—a, and j = ——-.
Since the exponent of r is always increafing from the
fecond term, if the number of terms be n, in the lad
term its exponent will be n—i. Therefore ;
and x T—arn ; and/ = f^—?\-=za——So
\ r—i / r—i
that having the firft term of the feries, the number of
the terms, and the common ratio, you may eafiiy find
the fum of all the terms.
If it is a decreafing feries whofe fum is to be found,
as of A- +A. + ^7> &c. + r?r} +
and the number of the terms be fuppofed infinite, then
ihall a, the laft term, be equal to nothing. For, be-
caufe », and confequently r"—1 is infinite, a=o.
The fum of fuch a feries ; which is a finite
fum, though the number of terms be infinite. Thus,
I +4r + i + -ff-{'-5r5,"K StC. = ^ ~ —2.
and l+-m-KV + Tr+>
Chap. IX. Of Eq^uat i oks that involve
only one unknown Quantity.
An equation is “ a propofition afTerting the equality
“ of two quantities.” It is exprefled moft common¬
ly by fetting dov/n the quantities, and placing the figa
{ — ) between them.
An equation gives the value of a quantity, when that
quantity is alone on one fide of the equation: and that
value is known, if all thofe that are on the other fide are
known. Thus if I find that xzz—— = 8, I have a known
3
value of x. Thefe are the laft conclufions we are to feek
in queftions to be refolved; and if there be only one
unknown quantity in a given equation, and only one di-
menfion or it, fuch a value may always be found by the
following rules.
Rule I. Any quantity may be tranfpofed from one
fide of the equation to the other, if you change its
fign.
For to take away a quantity from one fide, and to place
it with a contrary fign on the other fide, is to fubtratt it
from both fides; and it is certain, that “ when from e-
qua] quantities you fubtraft the fame quantity, the re¬
mainders muft be equal.”
By this, rule, when the known and unknown quantities
are mixed in an equation, you may feparate them by
bringing all the unknown to one fide, and the known to
the other fide of the equation ; as in the following exam¬
ples.
Suppofe 5x+50=4x-f56
hy Tranfpofit. jx—4X=56—50, or, x=6
And if 2x+a =x-M
2X'—rx or, x~l—a.
Rule II. Any quantity by which the unknown
quantity is multiplied tnay be taken away, if you di¬
vide all the other quantities on both fides of the equa¬
tion by it.
For that is to divide both fides of the equation by the
fame quantity, and when you divide equal quantities by
the fame quantity, the quotients muft be equal. Thus,
If ax=b
then x—— ;
and if 3x+12=2 7
by Rule ift. jx—27—12=15
and by Rule 2d. =5
Rule III. If the unknown quantity is divided by any
quantity, that quantity may be taken away if you mul¬
tiply all the other members of the equation by it.
Thus,
then fhall x=ii+5i
By this rule, an equation whereof any part is a frac-
• t;ion may be reduced to an equation that (hall be expref-
fed by integers. If there are more fradlions than one in
the given equation, yon may, by reducing them to a
common denominator, and then multiplying all the other
terms by that denominator, abridge the calculation
thus;
If T+T=*—7
then 3i±I*=x-7
15
and by this Rule gx-fjxeriyx—105
and by R. 1. and 2. xzz 13.* =15.
Rule IV. If that member of the equation that in¬
volves the unknown quantity be a furd root, then the
equation is to be reduced to another that fliall be free
from any furd, by bringing that member firft to ftand
alone upon one fide of the equation, and then taking
away the radical fign fropi it, and raifing the other
fide of the equation to the power denominated by, the
furd.
Thu? if V 4X+16=12
4x4-16=144
and 4X=i44—16=128
arjd x=,i8=32.
Rule
A L G E
Rule V. If that fide of the equation that contains the
unknown quantity be a compleat fquare, cube, or other
power; then ext raft the fquare root, cube root, or the
root of that power, from both fides of the equation,
and thus the equation ft all be reduced to one of a
lowfer degree.
BRA. pi
If their produft muft be 1640, then , 640.
If tlieir quotient mufl: be 6, then . , JL~6.
If their proportion is as 3 to 2, then x: jr: ; 3 : 2 or
2x=3j; becaufe the produft of the extremes is equal
to the produft of the mean terms.
If x*+6x-H9=20
then x+3~'l~:v/20
and x—rt:^/20—3.
Rule VI. A proportion may be converted into an
equation afferting the produft of the extreme terms
equal to the produft of the mean terms; or,any one of
the extremes equal to the produft of the means divi¬
ded by the other extreme.
If x 2—x 5 —-:: 4 • 1
2
then 12—x—2x ... 3x=i2 . . . and x=4.
Or if 20—x : x : : 7 : 3
then 60—3x2=7x .... iox=6o . . . and x=6.
Rule VII. If any quantity be found on both fides of
the equation with the fame fign prefixed, it may be ta¬
ken away from both : Alfo, if all the quantities in the
equation are multiplied or divided by the fame quan¬
tity, it may be ftruck out of them all. Thus,
If 3x+fc=a+i . . . 3x=dr . . . and x= —. ,
Rule VIII. Inftead of any quantity in an equation, you
may fubllitute another equal to it.
Thus if 3 x+/=2 4
and ^—9
then 3x+9=24 ... x= —$•
The further improvements of this rule ftall be taught
in the following chapter.
Chap. X. Solution c/'Quest ions
that produce S imple Equat i ons.
Simple equations are thofe “ wherein the unknown
quantity is only of one dimenfion.” In the| folution of
which, we are to obferve the following direftions.
Direct. I. “ After forming a diftinft idea of the
“ queftion propofed, the unknown quantities are to be
“ expreffed by letters, and the particulars to be tranfla-
“ ted from the common language into the algebraic
“ manner of expreffing them, that is, into fuch equations
“ as ftall exprefs the relations or properties that are
“ given of fueh quantities.
Thus, if the fum of two quantities mull be 60, that con¬
dition is expreffed thus, . . . • x+ji=66.
If their difference muft be 24, that condition
gives . . . . . . x——2 4.
Direct. II. “ After an equation is formed, if yon.
“ have one unknown quantity only, then, by the rules
“ of the preceding chapter, bring it to ftand alone on
“ one fide, fo as to have only known quantities on the
u other fide thus you ftail difcover its value.
Examp. “ A perfon being alked what was his age,
“ anfwered that ^ of his age multiplied by TV of his age
“ gives a produft equal to his age. J%u. What was
“ his age ?”
It appears from the queftion, that if you call his age
x, then ftall ... — * —= x
and by Rule 3. . . . 3xz=48x
and by R. 7. . . . 3.y:=48
whence byR. 2. . , . x=i6.
Direct. III. “ If there are two unknown quanti-
“ ties, then there muft be two equations arifing from the
“ conditions of the queftion : Suppofe the quantities x
* ‘ and y; find a value of x or ^ from each of the equa-
w tions, and then, by putting thefe two values equal to
“ each other, there will arife a new equation involving
“ one unknown quantity ; which muft be reduced by the
“ rules of the former chapter.”
Ex amp. I “ Let the fum of two quantities be
“ and their difference rf. Let s and d be given, and let
“ it be required to find the quantities themfelves.”
Suppofe them to be x and j’, then, by the fuppofition.
x+y-t
whence
Examp. II. “ A privateer running at t!ie rate of icr
“ miles an hour, difcovers a flxip 18 miles off making
“ way at the rate of 8 miles an hour: It is demanded
“ how many miles the ftip can run before fte be over-
“ taken ?”
Let the number of miles the ftip can run before fte be
overtaken be called x, and the number of miles the pri¬
vateer muft run before fte come up with the ftip bey ;
then ftall (by fupp.) . . y=x+i8 . . . and x: 8 : xo-
' ~ s whence
L
G
92
A
E B R A.
whence iox=B>' . . . .v=2- . . and x—y—18. whence
j—x8==^- and y=qo . . x—y—18=72.
To find the time, fay. If 8 miles give 1 hour, 72 miles
will give 9 hours . . thus, 8 : 1 :: 72 : 9. *
Examp. III. “ Suppofe the dillance between London
“ and Edinburgh to be 360 miles; and that a courier fets
“ out from Edinburgh, running at the rate of 10 miles
“ an hour; another fets out at the fame time from Lon-
“ don, and runs 8 miles an hour: It is required to know
“ where they will meet ?”
Suppofe the courier that fets out from Edinburgh runs
x miles, and the other y miles, before they meet, then
(hall.
4
360—jr
-—■=360—y
f+j=36o
4
0^=1440
,v=3 60—-y=2 00
Examp. IV. “ Two merchants were copartners;
“ the fum of their flock was 300 1. One of their flocks
“ continued in company 11 months, but the other drew
“ out his flock in 9 months; when they made up their
“ accounts they divided the gain equally, What
“ was each man’s flock?” Suppofe the flock of the
firfl to be x, and the flock of the other to be ; then,
by fuppof. £7^°°
^=77=300—J-
h>’+9/=33oo
20^=3300
= 16 5... x=3 00—j=135.
Direct. IV. “ When in one of the given equa^
“ tions the unknown quantity is of one dimenfion, and
“ in the other of a higher dimenfion; you mu ft find a
“ value of the unknown quantity from that equation
“ where it is of one dimenfion, and then raife that va-
M lue to the power of the unknown quantity in the other
“ equation; and by comparing it, fo involved, with the
“ value you deduce from that other equation, you fhall
“ obtain an equation that will have only one unknown
“ quantity, and its powers.”
That is, when you have two equations of different
dimenfions, if you cannot reduce the higher to the fame
dimenfion with the lower, you muft raife the lower to
the fame dimenfion with the higher.
Examp. V. “ The fum of two quantities, and the
“ difference of their fquares, being given, to find the
“ quantities.” Suppofe them to be x and y, their fum
/, and the difference of their fquares d. Then,
lx'-y'=d
x—s—y
X*^1—2{H-/* y~~2T
x’lxzd-\-y%, whence * . j*4-d
and *= —'
*</4-/=ya—2fy+y*
d~s1—2sy
2iy~s1—d
s%—d
Direct. V. If there are thfee unknown quanti-
“ ties, there muft be three equations in order to deter-
“ mine them, by comparing which, you may, in all cafes,
“ find two equations involving only two unknown quan-
“ titles; and then, by Direct. 3d, from thefe two you
“ may deduce an equation involving only one unknown
“ quantity; which may be refolved by the rules of the
“ laft chapter.”
From three equations involving any three unknown
quantities, x, y, and z, to deduce two equations, invol¬
ving only two unknown quantities, the following rule
will always ferve.
Rule. “ Find three values of x from the three gi¬
ven equations; then, by comparing the firft and fe-
cond value, you will find an equation involving only
y and z ; again, by comparing the firft and third, you
will find another equation involving only y and z;
and, laftly, thofe equations are to be refolved by
Dir. 3.
Examp. VL
Suppofe
x+y+z=i2-\ ri2— y—^
x+2y+3Z=2o/then, > 20—2>—32/2d/ ^
12—y—2=20—2y—32
31
Thefe two laft equations involve only y and 2, and
are to be refolved by Direft. 3d, as follows,
C 2y—y+3Z—2=20—12=8
l y~\~2z~8
36—3y—62=24—2y—22
I2=H-4Z
whence y=z $ 8-22 .. ift value
y £ 12—42 . . 2d value
8—22=12—42
22=12—8=4
and 2=2
^(=8—22)=4
x(=i2—y—2)=6.
This method is general, ,and will extend to all equa¬
tions that involve 3 unknown quantities: but there are
often
often eafier and rttorter methods to dedace an equation
involving one unknown quantity only ; which will be belt
learned by practice.
Examp. VII. ("x4-)=«
Supp. <
0+25=C
x=a—y
a—-y-\-z=b
y-{-z=c
a-\-0+2Z—b+c
2z=b+c—a
f  b-\-c-—a
<A~-
(=a.
.2) =
c+a—b
2
a+b—c
A.
THEOREM I.
93
It is obvious from the 3d and jth direftions, in what
manner you are to work if there are four, or more, un¬
known quantities, and four, or more, equations given.
By comparing the given equations, you may always at
length difcover an equation involving only one unknown
quantity; which, if it is a fimple equation, may always
be refolved by the rules of the Taft chapter. We may
conclude then, that “ When there are as many fimple
equations given as quantities required, thefe quantities
may be difcovered by the application of the preceding
rulesi”
If indeed there are more quantities required than e-
quations given, then the queftion is not limited to deter¬
minate quantities; but is capable of an infinite number
of folutions. And, if there are more equations given
than there are quantities required, it may be impoffible to
find the quantities that will anfwer the conditions of
the queftion ; becaufe fome of thefe conditions may be
inconfiftent with, others.
Chap. XI. Ccntainingfome general UnzcyMMs
for the exterminating unknown Quant ities
in given Equations.
In the following Theorems, we call thofe coefficients
of the fame order that are prefixed to the fame unknown
quantities in the different equations. Thus in Theor.
2d, a, d, g, are of the fame order, being the coefficients
of x; alfo b, e, h, are of the fame order, being the coef¬
ficients of y : and thofe are of the fame order that affedt
no unknown quantity.
But thofe are called oppojite coefficients that are taken
each from a different equation, and from a different or¬
der of coefficients : As, a, e, and d, b, in the firft theo¬
rem ; and a, e, l, in the fecond; alfo, a, h. f; and d,
b, k, See.
Suppofe that two equations are given, involving two
unknown quantities, as,
C ax+by=c
ldx+ey=f
af-—dc
then ffially—~—>
where the numerator is the difference of the produdfs
of the oppofite coefficients in the orders in whichy is not
found, and the denominator is the difference of the pro-
dudts of the oppofite coefficients taken from the orders
that involve the two unknown quantities.
For, from the firft equation, it is plain, that
axzzc—by . . and x——~
f-—ey
from the 2d, dx—f—ey . . and x——~~
therefore and cd—dbyzzaf—aey
a d
whence aey—dbyzzaf-—cd,
, af—cd
and y— 
J ae—db
c , r ci—bf
after the fame manner, x=——
Supp.
, 5x80—3x100 too 5
then j’=     = =5-2-
J 5x8—3x7 19 > I?
THEOREM II.
Suppose now that there are three unknown quan¬
tities and three equations, then call the unknown quanti¬
ties x, y, and z.
Thus,
C ax-\-by-{-cz=:m
<dx+ey+fzz=n
(gx+hy+kr=p
aep—ahn-\-dhtn—dbp-\-gbn—gem
ask—ahff-dhc—dbk-\-gbf-—gee ’
Vol. I. No. 4.
Then ffiall z--
where the numerator confifts of all the different pro-
dudts that can be made of three oppofite coefficients
taken from the orders in which z is not found, and the
denominator confifts of all the produdts that can be made
of the three oppofite coefficients taken from the orders
that involve the three unknown quantities.
Chap. XII. Of Quadratic E qu a t i o n s.
In the folution of any queftion, where you have got
an equation that involves one unknown quantity, but in-
A a voltes
94
L
volves at the fame time the fquare of that quantity, and
the produd of it multiplied by fome known quantity,
then you have what is called a Quadratic equation;
which may be refolved by the following
R y l e.
x. “ Tranfport all the terms that involve the unknown
“ quantity to one fide, and the known terms to the o-
“ ther fide of the equatiom
2. “If the fquare of the unknown quantity is multi-
“ plied by any coefficient, you are to divide all the terms
“by that coeffient, that the coefficient of the fquare of'
“ the unknown quantity may be unit.
3. “ Add to both fides the fquare of half the coeffici-
“ ent prefixed to the unknown quantity itfe If, and the
“ fide of the equation that involves the unknown quan-
“ tity will then he a compleat fquare.
4. “ Extrafl the fquare root from both fides of the
“ equation; which you will find, oh one fide, always to
“ be the unknown quantity, with half the forefaid coef-
“ ficient fubjoiiied to it; fo that, by tranfpofing this
“ half, you. may obtain the value'of the unknown quan-
“ tity expreffed in known terms.” Thus,
Suppole jiz-j-aj=6
Add the fquare ofto? J+^+^_
both fides . . O 4 4
Extra# the root, y+—
Tranfpofe—,   —•
2 42
The fquare root of any quantity, as + aa, may be
or -—a; and hence, “ All quadratic equations ad¬
mit of two folutions.” In the laft example, after finding
that >>2
  4
=+'' '
, it may be inferred that/-)- -
/ 6+ — or to —y i+ —
   4 4
b-\ gives H-~—• as well as 4-^4-—5
fince -
b+—y.~
4 
yf
as well as +v x+r b-\—-•
T 4 ^ 4
There are therefore two values of y; the one gives/=
IjJL — the other,/=—
4 2 4 2
Since the fquares of all quantities are pofitive, it
is plain that “ the fquare root of a negative quantity is
imaginary, and cannot be affigned.” Therefore there are
fome quadratic equations that cannot have any folution.
Eor example, fuppcfe
then /1—ay——3 a1
extra# the root, v =h
2
and y— -^-=±3^
i \a
BRA.
whence the two values of y mull be imaginary or impofli-
ble, becaufe the root of — iif— cannot poffibly be af-
4
figned.
Suppofe that the quadratic equation propofed to be
refolved is y7—ay—b .
then /"—ay+ —
4 4
and y— If the fquare root of
1 2 4
b-\- — cannot be extra#ed exa#ly, you mull, in order
to determine the value of y, nearly approximate to the
value of ^b-Ar—, by the rules in chap. 7. The fol-
4
lowing examples will illuftrate the rule for quadratic
equations. ’
Examp. I. “ To find that number which if you
“ multiply by the produ# fhall be equal to the
“ fquare of the fame number having 12 added to it.”
Call the number/, then
y7+i2—%y
tranfp. y7—8/=—12
add the Sq. of q,?1—S/-)-i6=—I2-H6=4
extra# the R. /—4—_L:2
tranfp. /=4=±r2=6 or 2.
■ Examp. II. “ To find a number fuch, that if you
“ fubtra# it .from id, and multiply the remainder by
“ the number itfelf, the produft lhall give 21.’’
Call it/. Then
10—/ X/~ 21
that is, IO/—yy—2 I
tranfp. /**—ioy——;21
add thefq. of y,/1—10/4-25=—214-25=4
extra#, /—5=t=v/4=—2
and /=5=t:2=7 or 3.
Examp. III. “ A company dining together in an inn,
“ find their bill amounts to 175 ffiillings; two of them
“ were not allowed to pay, and the reft found that their
“ Ihares amounted to 10 r. a man more than if all had
“ paid. Qu. How many were in company ?”
Suppofe their number x; then if all had paid, each
man’s ftiare would have been ——: but now the lhare
x
of each perfon is ———, feeing x—2 is the number of
thofe that pay. It is therefore, by the queftion,
-LTj—
X 2 x
and i75x-^i75x4-350 = iox*—20X
that is, iox2—20x=350
and x1—2x=35
add 1 .^x1—2x4-5=354-1=36
extr. y" .. x—1—=1=6
x=i:±:6=7> or, —5,
A L G E B R
95
It is obvious, that the pofitive value 7 gives the folu-
tion of the queftion; the negative value —5 being, in
the prefent eafe, ufelefs.
Any; equation of this form where the
greatefl index of the unknown quantity^, is double to the
index of j in the other term, may be reduced to a qua¬
dratic zl -i-az — i, by putting j/m = z, and confequently
y2,ntz^zt. And this quadratic refolved as above gives
2 s/b 4 '    
And feeing yw—2= — rAr b + — , y —
Examp. “ The produdt of two quantities is a, and
“ the Turn of their fquares b. Shi. The quantities?”
Supp. ’ y y*
. . x*—b—y*
whence b—y*=jpr„
mult, byy* . . by1—-y^zza1
tranfp. y4*—^y*=—•z*-
Put nWy'* =*.*•. . and confeq. . .y4=2i, and it is
add —-
4
ext. y'~
—iz -j = a x
4
2 V 4
—- =±= — n4 and, feeingy=-y/'A,
Chap. XIII. 0/ Surds.
If a iefler quantity meafures a greater fo as to leave
no remainder, as la mcafures 10.?, being found in it five
times, it is faid to be an aliquot part of it, and the
greater is faid to be a multiple of the Idler. The lefier
quantity in this cafe is the -greatejl common meafure of
the two quantities : for as it meafures the greateft, fo
it alfo meafures itfelf, and no quantity can meafure it
that is greater than itfelf.
When a third quantity meafures any two propofed
quantities, as 2a meafures ba and 10a, it is faid to be a
con.mon meafure of thefe quantities; and if no greater
quantity meafure them both, it is called their greatejl
common meafure.
Thofe quantities are faid to be commsnfurable which
have any common meafure ; but if there can be no quan¬
tity found that meafures them both, they are faid to be
incommenfurable \ and if ahy one quantity be called ra¬
tional, all others that have any common meafure with
it, are alfo called rational: But thofe that have no Com¬
mon meafure with it, are called irrational quantities.
If any two quantities a and b have any common mea¬
fure x, this quantity x fliall alfo meafure their fum or
difference a=+=.b. Let x be found in a as many times as
unit is found in m, fo that a — m x, and in b as many
times as unit is found in «, fo that b-=nx-, then lhall
a-z+zb—mx-=+inx—inz^=MY.x; fo that x fhall be found in
q—yrb, as often as unit is found in m—yzn : now lince m
and n are integer numbers, niz+zn mull be an integer
number or unit, and therefore x mull meafure a=fzb.
It is alfo evident, that if x meafure any number as a,
it mult meafure any multiple of that number. If it be
found in a as many times as unit is found in m fo that
a—mx, then it will be found in any multiple of a, as na,
as many times as unit is found in mn; for na—tnnx.
If two quantities a and b are propofed, and b meafure
a by the units that are in m (that is, be found in a as
many times as unit is found in ni) and there be a remain- ■
der c, and if x be fuppofed to be a common meafure of
a and b, it (hall be a'lfo a meafure of c. For by the fup-
pofition a—?nb-\-c, fince it contains b as many times as
there are units in w, and there is c befides of remainder.
Therefore a—mb—c. Now x is fuppofed to meafure a
and b, and therefore it meafures mb, and conlequently
a—mb, which is equal to c .
If c meafure b by the units in r., and there be a re¬
mainder d, fo that b—nc-\-d, and b—nc—d, then lhall
x alfo meafure d; becaufe it is fuppofed to meafure b,
and it has been proved that it meafures c, and confe¬
quently nc, and b — nc which is equal to d. Whence,
as, after fubtra&ing b as often as poffible from a, the re¬
mainder c is meafured by x; and, after fubtradling c as
often as pollible from b, the remainder d is alfo meafured
by x; fo, for the fame reafon, if you fubtrad; d as of¬
ten as poffible from c, the remainder (if there be any)
muft ftill be meafured by x: and if you proceed. Hill
fubtrading every remainder from the preceding remain¬
der, till you find fome remainder, which, lubtraded
from the preceding, leaves no further remainder, but
exadly meafures it, this laft remainder will ftill be mea-
fnred by x, any common meafure of a and b.
The laft of thefe remainders, viz. that which exadly
meafures the preceding remainder, muft be a common
meafure of a and b: fuppofe that d was this laft remain¬
der, and that it meafured c by the units in r, then ftiall
c—rd, and we lhall have thefe equations,^
a — mh-f-c
b=nc + d
c — rd.
Nowit is plain that fince d meafures>, it muft alfo- ‘
meafurc nc, and therefore muft meafure nc-\-d, or b. '
And fince it meafures b and c, it muft meafure ??ib-\-cy
or a \ fo that it muft be a common meafure of a and b.
But further, it muft be tiaPir greatefl common meafure ;
for every common meafure of a and b muft meafure d,
by the laft article; and the greateft number that mea¬
fures d, is itfelf, which therefore is the greateft com¬
mon meafure of a and b.
But if, by continually fubtrading every remainder
from the preceding remainder, you can never find one that
meafures that which precedes it exadly, no quantity can
be
9 6 A L G E
be found that •will meafure both a and b; and therefore
they will be incommenfurable to each other.
For if there was any common meafure of thefe quan¬
tities, as Xj it would neceffarily meafure all the remain¬
ders c, d. See. For it would meafure a—mb, or c, and
confequently b—nc, or d, and fo on; now thefe remain¬
ders decreafe in fuch a manner, that they will neceflarily
become at length lefs than x, or any afltgnable quantity.
For c muft be lefs than ; becaufe c is lefs than b, and
therefore lefs than mhi and confequently lefs than 4-r +
i^mb, or 4^* In like manner d muft be lefs than \b; for
d is lefs than c, and confequently lefs than \d\-^uc, or
44. The third remainder, in the fame manner, muft be
lefs than 4c, which is itfelf lefs than 4« •• Thus thefe
remainders decreafe, fo that every one is lefs than the
half of that which preceded it next but one. Now if
from any quantity you take away more than its half,
and from the remainder more than its half, and proceed
in this manner, yon will come at a remainder .lefs than
any aftignable quantity. It appears therefore, that if
the remainders c, d, Sec. never end, they will become lefs
than any affignable quantity, as x, which therefore can¬
not poffibly meafure them, and therefore cannot be a
common ineafure of a and b.
In the fame way the greateft common meafure of two
numbers is difeovered. Unit is a common meafure of all
integer numbers, and two numbers are faid to be prime
to each other when they have no greater common mea¬
fure than unit; fuch as 9 and 25. Such always are
the leaft numbers that can be affumed in any given pro¬
portion ; for if thefe had any common meafure, then the
quotients that would arife by dividing them by that
common meafure would be in the fame proportion, and,
being lefs than the numbers themfelves, thefe numbers
would not be the leaft in the fame proportion; againft
the fuppofition.
The leaft numbers in any proportion always meafure
any other numbers that are in theAfame proportion.
Suppofe a and b to be the leaft of all integer numbers in
the fame proportion, and that c and d are other num¬
bers in that proportion, then will a meafure c, and b
meafure d.
For if a and b are not aliquot parts of c and d, then
they muft contain the fame number of the fame kind of
parts of c and d; and therefore dividing a into parts of c,
and b into an equal number of like parts of d, and call¬
ing one of the firft nt, and one of, the latter n; then as
m is to n, fo will the fum of all the m'% be to the fum
of all the »’s ; that is, m : n :: a •. b, therefore a and b
will not be the leaft in the fame proportion; againft
the fuppofition. Therefore a and b muft be aliquot parts
of c and d. Hence we fee that numbers which are prime
to each other are thedeaft in the fame proportion; for if
there were others in the fame proportion lefs than them,
thefe would meafure them by the fame number, which
therefore would be their common meafure againft the
fuppofition, for wre fuppofed them to be prime to each
other.
If two numbers a and b are prime to one another, and
a third number c meafures one of them <7, it will be
prime to the.other b. For if c and b were not prime tp
B R A.
each other, they would have a common mcafure, which,
becaufe it would jneafure c, would aifo meafure a, which
is meafured by c, therefore a and b would have a com¬
mon meafure, againft the fuppofition.
If two numbers a and b are prime to c, then lhall their
produdf ab be alfo prime to c: For if you fuppofe them
to have any common meafure as d, and fuppofe that d
meafures .<i£ by the units in e, fo that de—ab, then fliall
d •. a w b \ e. But fince d meafures c, and c is fuppofed
to be prime to a, it follows that d and a are prime to
each other; and therefore d muft meafure b; and yet,
fince d is fuppofed to meafure c which is prime to b, it
follows that d is aifo prime to b; that is, d is prime to
a number which it meafures, which is abfurd.
It follows from the laft article, that if a and c are
prime to each other, then a' will be prime to c : For
by fuppofing that a is equal to b, then ab will be equal to
a1; and confequently a1 will be prime to c. In the
fame manner r* will be prime to a.
If two numbers a and £ are both prime to other two
c, d, then (hall the product ab be prime to the product
cd; for ab will be prime to c and aifo to d, and there¬
fore, by the fame article, cd will be prime to ab.
From this it follows, that if a and c are prime to each
other, then ftiall a1 be prime to cl, by fuppofing, in
the laft, that a—b, and c=.d. It is aifo evident that
will be prime to c3, and in general any power of a to
any power of c whatfoever.
Any two numbers, a and b, ,being given, to find the
leaft numbers that are in the fame proportion with them,
divide them by their greateji common meafure x, and the
quotients c end d Jhall be the leaf numbers in the fatne
proportion nuith a and b.
For if there could be any other numbers in that pro¬
portion lefs than c and d, fuppofe them to be e and f,
and thefe being in the fame proportion as a and b would
meafure them: And the number by which they would
meafure them, would be greater than x, becaufe e and f
are fuppofed lefs than c and d,, fo that x would not be
the greateft common meafure of a and b-, againft the
fuppofition.
Let it be required to find the leaft number that any
two given numbers, as a and b, can meafure. Firft, “ If
“ they are prime to each other, then their produdt ab is
“ the leaft number which they can both meafure.”
For if they could meafure a lefs number than ab as c,
fuppofe that c is equal 10 ma, and to nb; and fince c is
lefs than ab, therefore tna will be lefs than ab, and m
lefs than b; and nb being lefs than ab, it follows that n
muft be lefs than a; but fince ma—nb, and confequently
a '. b \ •. n •. m, and * and b are prime to each other, it
would follow that a would meafure n, and b meafure in,
that is, a greater number would meafure a lefs, which is
abfurd.
But if the numbers a and h are not prime to each o-
ther, and their greateft common meafure is x, which
meafures a by the units in in, and meafures b by the u-
nits in n, fo that a—mx, and b—nx, then lhall an (which
is equal to bm, becaufe a:b:: rnx t ax ; tu : n, and there¬
fore an—bni) be the leaft number that a and b can both
meafure. For if they could meafure any number c lefs
than
97
B R
A.
than na\ fo that crr-Ia—kh, then a \ l \ : m : n :: k : l •,
and bee^fe x is fuppofed to be the greateft common
iheafure of a and b, it follows that m and n are the lealt
pf all numbers iii the fame proportion, and therefore in
meafares k, arid n meafures /. But as c is fiippofed to
be lefs than fta, that is, Ifefs than ha, therefore l is
lefs than n, fo that a greater would naeafure a leffer,
which is abfurd, Therefore^* and b cannot meafure any
number lefs than an; v/hicll they both meafure, becaufe
na—mb.
It follows from this reafpning, that if a and b mea-
fure any quantity c, the leaft quantity na, which is mea-
fltred by « and b, will alfo meafure c. For if you fup-
pofe, as before, that c—la, you will find, that n muft
meafure /, and na muft meafure la or c.
Let a exprefs any integer number, and — any frac¬
tion reduced to its loweft terms, fo that m and n maybe
prime to each other, and confequently an-\-m alfo prime
to «, it will follow that an-^-m1 will be prime to. n2, and
a common meafure, as v/ 2 is the common meafure of
both, then their ratio is reduced to an expreflion in the
leaft terms, as that of commenfurable quantities, by di¬
viding them by their greateft common; sneafure. . This
common meafure is found as in commenfurable quanti¬
ties, only the root of the common meafure is to be made
Thus, ;
V 3
zy'4 =2, and
their common divifor.
\/iSa .
2
A rational quantity may be reduced to th© form of
any given furd, by raifing the quantity to the power that
is denominated by the name of the furd, and then fet-
ting the radical fign over it thus, a—*/a2 —.\/a! a*
1 » . j 4 s
—A/a'—s/ani and 4=v'l6=:y'64==y'256=^ 1024 —
V'4n-
As furds may be confidered as powers with fraflional
exponents, “ they are reduced to others of the fameva-
“ lue that Ihall have the fame radical fign, by reducing
tc thefe fractional exponents to fractions having the fame
“ value and a common denominator.” Thus,
A/a=za”r, and ■“=“» ”= and therefore a/a and
a/a, reduced to the fame radical fign, become
and y’tf’V If y°u are to reduce 4/3 and 4/2 to
the fame denominator, confider, 4/3 as equal to 3"*', the
4/2 as equal to 2T, whofe indices reduced to a common
denominator, you have 3^ and 2T —2s, and con-
leaft terms; it would follow, that fquared would fequently V1—Vand 4/2=v/2* =4/4 ; fo
confequently a—J^ will be a fraction in its leaft terms,
and can never be equal to an integer number. There¬
fore the fquare of the mixt number «*f"~ is ftill a mixt
number, and never an integer. In the fame manner, the
cube, biquadrate, or apy power of a mixt number, is
ftill a mixt number, and never an integer. It follows
from this, that the fquare root of an integer mujl be an
integer or an incommenfurable. Suppofe that the inte¬
ger propofed is B, and that the fquare root of it is lefs
than tf-i-i, but greater than a, then it muft be an in¬
commenfurable ; for if it is a commenfurable, let it be
where — reprcfents any fraction reduced to its
give an integer number B, the contrary of which we
have demonftratjed.
It follows from the laft article, that the fquare roots
of all numbers but of 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 8r,
100, 121, 144, &c. (which are the fquares of the inte¬
ger numbers r, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, xo, 11, 12, &c.)
are inconmenfurables : after, the fame manner, the cube
roots of all numbers but of the cubes of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
7, 8, 9, &c. are incommenfurables; and quantities
that are to one another in the proportion of fuch num¬
bers muft allb have their fquare roots or cube roots in¬
commenfurable.
The t oots of fuch numbers being incommenfurable are
exprefled therefore'by placing the proper radical fign o-
ver them; thus, 4/ 2, 4/ 3, 4/5, 4/ C, 4/ 7, 4/S,
4/ 10, &c. exprefs numbers incommeniurahle with unit.
Thefe numbers, though they are incommenfurable theih-
felves with unit, are commenfuraobe in power with it,
becaufe their powers are integers, that is, multiples
of unit. . They may alfo be commenfurable fometnnes
with one another, as the 4/ 8, and the 4/ 2, becaufe
they are to one another as 2 to x : And when they have
Von. 1. No. $. 3
that the propofed furds 4/3 and 4/2 are reduced to other
equal firds 4/27 and 4/4, having a common radical
fign.
Surds of the fame rational quantity are multiplied by
adding their exponents, and divided by fit bt railing them;
* 3 * * 1±2 r
thus 4/tf X4/rf=<frXT 6 =as~/l/a:‘\ and
a/a as j , y__
4/« aT
m n m-\-n
4^X4/*=*— ; * =
Afa
T=v*x;
4/2X4/2=4^2J=
« 4/2 6
4/32; 7— =4/2.
4/2
If the furds are of different rational quantities, as
and 4/^3, and -have the fame fign, “ multiply
“ thefe rational quantities into one another, or divide
B b “ them
98 A L G E
“ them by one another, andfet the common radical fign
“ over their product or quotient.” Thus, Xy'Zi5 :=
If the furds have not the fame radical fign, “ reduce
5‘ them to fuch as (hall have the fame radical fign, and
m n nm a/ a
“ proceed as before,” \^aX\/b—\/a’'bm ; » ~
V x
/— ; a/2 Xa/4 =2 rX4^=2'<fX4T
V xm
V'8xi6=a/i28. If the furds have any rational coeffi¬
cients, their prcdudf; or quotient muft be'prefixed; thus,
2a/~io\/18.
The powers of furds are found as the powers of other
quantities, “ by multiplying their exponents by the in-
“ dex of the power required ;”'thus the fquare of a/2 is
B
R
dufts. But when any compound furd is propofed, there
is another compound furd 'which multiplied iprfjit gives
a rational product. Thus, /fa-Arnfb multiplied by if a
—\/A gives a—by and “ the inveftigation of that furd
“ which multiplied into the propofed furd will give a
“ rational product,” is made eafy by the following the-
THEOREM I.
Generally, if you multiply am—bm by a” — m f-
an—xmjjm _^.an—imfoim , gCCi continu¬
ed till the terms be in number equal to —, the pro-
du<5t fhall be an —bn ; for
>'a’n—bm
ar+an —mbtn+an—z«‘b1 w+a,&c.
—an —mbm.—an—xmb'm—*»—3m£3,„, &c<—yn
THEOREM II.
2t 2 ~2t =y^4i ^ctibeof a/5—^=5:i'=a/i2S.
Or you need only, in involving furds, “ raife the quan-
« tity under the radical fign to the power required, con-
“ tinuing the fame radical fign ; unlefs the index of that
“ power is equal to the name of the furd, or a multiple
“ of it, and in tfiat-cafe the power of the-furd becomes
“ rational.” Evolution is performed “ by dividing-the
“ fraftion which is the exponent of the furd by the
“ name of the root required.” Thus the fquare root
3   . 3   e  
of aAj4 is a/<3z or a/<j4.
ati—m—an—tmbm+an—lmbim.—an~*mbtmt &c. muf-
tiplied by a>n-\-bm gives a’‘z+zbn> which is demonilrated
as the other. Here the fign of b» is pofitive, when —
is an odd number.
When any binomial furd is propofed, “ fuppofe the
“ index of each number equal to m, and let n be the
“ leaf! integer number that is meafured by m, then Ihall
“ qn—m^tzan—*tiibm-\.an~'i>nbrni, &c. give a compound
“ furd, which multiplied into the propoftd furd a»r^=.bm
“ will givexa rational product.” Thus to find the furd
The furd A/tf”1* ~ ; and in like manner, if a
power of any quantity of the fame name with the furd
divides the quantity-under the radical fign without a re¬
mainder, as here am divides a,nx, and 2 5 the fquare of
5 divides 75 the quantity under the fign in y/? 5 without
a remainder, then place the root of that power rationally
before the fign, and the quotient under the fign, and thus
the furd will be reduced to a more Ample expreflion.
Thus, a/75==5a/3; a/4s=V'3Xi6=4'v/3 i V'2i =
3  3
V 27X3=3 y/ 3’
When fords by the. lafl .article are reduced to their
leaft expreifions, if they have the fame irrational part,
they are added or fubtrafted, “ by adding or fubtradling
“ their rational coefficients, and prefixing the fum or
“ difference to the common irrational part.” Thus,
A/75+v/48=5vf3+4V/3=9*/3; a/3 1+a/s4-34/3
3 3
-^-2A/’:^:5A/3•
Compound fards are fuch as confill of two or more
joined together. The fimple furds are commenfurable
in power, and by being multiplied into themfelves give
at length rational quantities; yet compound furds multi¬
plied into themfelves commonly give itili irrational pro-
which multiplied by fa—fb, will give a rational quan¬
tity. Here tu—i^ and the lead number which is mea¬
fured by -f is unit ; let n—i, then IhsJl an—
bhi+an—'inb1™, 8cc. =aI~T-+-a1 } br+ac hr=ar-j-aSr
which multiplied by fa—
fb gives a—b.
To find the furd which multiplied by ffifffT—
a\-\-b\, gives a rational product. Here and n—.%,
and »—an—imbm+an—lmb*m} See. =a\ ^—a^~*
bl b^—al-l b%=„%-a*bl+aibZ-b%=f79—
—ffbi+fJW—fT9*
THEOREM III.
'LetaOK±sbl be multiplied by at1—pi Jf-«»—»m
-l
h*l-ynt*—*mb-U. and the produdl fliall give an~d=:b™ ;
“ therefore » muft be taken the leaft integer that fnail
“ give — alfo an- integer.
Dem.
I,
G
Dem. an--nz+Xtn'T1mbi-)ran-r*r»li‘llz4zat,—Amb*i . . . .
Xa«=±=i5{ . . . . &c,
—i>0
!0bm
= ^5+^2;
attz+zan—mbl-ba”— &c.
—I
—K~an-—rn\,l—an—& z±zbm
E B R A. 99
arifing to/7/ be that of the propofd quantity divided by
the binomial fund, exprejfed in its leaf terms. Thus,
 J   _ 3 V' 5 + g \/2 _
V A — a/ 2 3
 A/6 _V>42 + -y/i8
Vi — Vd - 4
When the fquare root of a furd is required, it may
be found nearly by extruding the root of a rational quan¬
tity that approximates to its value. Thus to find the
fquare root of 3+2^2, we firlt odculate ^2=1, 41421;
and therefore 3+2v/,2=j, 82842, whofe root is found
to be nearly 2, 41421 : So that ^3 +2^/2 is nearly
2,41421. But fometimes we maybe able to exprefs-
an * * * =t=bm
nl n
The fign of bm is pofitive only when rn is an odd n
ber, and the binomial propofed is am-\-bl. .         ^ ^
If any binomial^ furd is propofed whofe two numbers the roots of furds exadtly by other furds; as in this*"ex-
have dilferent indices, let thefe be m and /, and take n ampie the fqliare root 0f 34-2^2 forT+V2X
equal to the leaft integer number that is meafure&l by m j ’ ‘ V
and by — ; and an—™-^an— zmb!-~\-an—3 mb' h=fza»~-4>n In order to know when and how this may be found,
/ . , r , , • , , • .Iet us fuPPofe that x+y is a binomial furd, whofe fquare
bV, &c. lhall give a compound furd, which multi- will be xJ-(-> J+2.yy .• If x andy are quadratic furds then
plied by the propofed a>n=tzbl fliall give a rational wiH be rational, and 2xy irrational; fo that 2xy
prodmS. Thus j~a—l/l being given, fuppofe ^11 always be lefathan x^+yS.becaufe the difference
and — =4, therefore you have «=3, and is x^+y^-s^x-y which is always pofitive Sup-
T / 3 pole that a propoied lurd confiding of a rational part A,
an—mJlr2n-**mbl+an-'™b11-\-«,,—Anibu+&c.=ai—'*- ™ A ^ A“ ^
al~~1b\+a*~^b^-\-ali~llb'>rai~libl\-a6b!v=:ai[:+a*b\ quations. Chap. 12th,
+«TG+^+^T+^4c=,!/«J+',IXA/^+V/«3Xv/d‘ + yi—A—X1^:—and therefore,
=a*'V/«+rt'sXV,^-i-«V/'3Xv/^+ a r ^ E1 , B1
3 3  # # ® —— and —Ax*1-}-—zi! q.•
ab-^-bifaX*/b-\-bX.\/b** which multiplied by the \/a— ,4  4 ’
t/b gives an—bfn =a'-b\ frorn whence we have ^
By thefe theorems any binomial furd whatfoever be- A—V^A3—B' . rp, f .
ing given, you may find a furd which multiplied by it 2  1 ^erefore when a quantity partly
lhall give a rational proctucl. rational, partly irrational, is propofed to have its root*
Suppofe that a binomial furd was to be divided by an- extra&ed, sail the rational part A, the irrational B
other, as ^20+^12, by ^5 - ^>3, the quotient may °f ths root f^11 ^
be exprefi’ed by But it may be ex- ——  , and the fquare 'of the defer part/hall
prefled in a more limple form by multiplying both nume- j}g A—-y A1—B ’•
rat or and denominator by that furd 'which, multiplied
- and an irrational part B, coincides with this, then xJ+
y*=A and x;- —A B : Therefore by what was faid of o
and y* =r
And as often as the fquare root of
y/ 20+-y/ 12 _ a/ 20 + f 12 f 5 4- y/g _
Vs—Vb a/5—^/3 a/ 5 + A/3
y/ IOO + 2 y/do +6 16 4-24/60 g_p.2y/i 5
pofed binomial furd may be exprelfed itfelf as a bi¬
nomial lurd. For example, if 34-24/2 is propo¬
fed, then A=3, B-2f2 and A2 —B1=9 8=x.
S 3 2 . . , Therefore xi — ^-f-y^A2 B* _ ^ t _
In general, when any quantity is divided by a bmo- 2 — * * u / —
mial furd, as amz±zb!, where m and / reprefent any
fraAions whatfoever, take n the leaf integer number   ^ — r* Therefore x4-y=i4-y/2.
that is meefired by m ana —, multiply loth nutnerator To find the fquare root of—i-}-ydg} fuppofe A — ’
and denominator by att—m 4. an —f^bH-a0 — &c. .—i,B=y/—8, fo that Aa B*—0 and ^jlA/A2—B*
and the denominator of the produd n ;// become rational, ' * 2
and equal to an — b —; then divide all the members of — f— — I, and ^—T"1 3  
the numerator by this ratio,id quantity, and the quote therefore tlie root required is i+y/ 
2 oo A L O 1
But though x and y are not quadratic furds or roots
of integers, if they are the roots of like furds, as if they
are equal to and where m and n are
integers, then A = #-'-ir«*Vz an(l j-B~
A5—Xz and x* =   
II
A.
«~r» Xz4-w—«j^Xz _
: jn*/ z, y
- A—a/A2—B1
Ay/z, and x+y = \/r«v'z.+ 'V/«v,z- The part A here
eafily diftirguUhes itfelf from B by its being greater,
if x and_y are equal to a/nuyz and thenx*+
Wy'z-|-«y//-(-2V',/;;';V/2/^ So that if z or /
be not multiples one of the other, or of fome number
that meafures them both by a fquare number, then will
A jtfelf be a binomial.
Let x-\-y-\-z exprefs any trinomial furd, its fquare x*-{-
yi-\-z7l-t-2xy+2xz-{-2yz may be fuppofed equal to A+B
as before. l3ut rather multiply any two radicals as nx/
by zxz, and divide by the third zyz which gives the
quotient 2X1 rational, and double the fquare of the furd
x required. The fame rule ferves when there are four
quantities x2+ry2-hzi+rx+2xj’d-2XJ+2xz-i-2jz-{-2^/d-
!zjy multiply 2xv by ax/, and the produft qx^sy divided
by 2sy gives 2x° ^ rational quotient, half the fquare of
2x. In like manner zxy'X.zyz—qy'xz, which divided by
axz another member gives 2>*, a rational quote, the
half of the fquare of 2>. In the fame manner z and s
may be found; and -their fum x~\-y-\-z-\-j, the fquare
root of the feptinomial x*+g'2+za-i--fz+25y+2k/-|-2xz-H
2_yz+2>/, difcoveved.
For example, to find the fquare root of ib+v^24+
^■40+4/60; I try which I find to be
^/i6=4, the half of the fquare root of the double of
which, viz. 4Xy'3=V'2, is one member of the fquare
root required; next — 6, the half of the
V4°
fquare root of the double of which is V 3 another mem¬
ber of the root required; laflly, — =10, which
gives 4/5 for the third member of the root required :
from which we conclude, that the fquare root of 10+
V24+-1/40+60. is /2+/3+/S 5 and trying, you
find it fucceeds, fince multiplied by itfelf it gives the pro-
pofed quadrinomial.
For extracting the higher roots of a binomial, whofe
two members being fqnated are commenfurable numbers,
there is the following
Rule.' “ Let the quantity be Az±=B, whereof A is
“ the greater-part, and -r the exponent of the root
“ required. Seek the lead number n whdfe power
“ -nc is divifible by AA—BB, the quotient being
Compute / A+B X-v/m the- neareft integer
“ number, v/hich fnppofe to be r. Divide A/Q_by
“ its greateft rational divi’for, and Jet the quotient be /,
M and let f + ~T in the'hearefi: integer number, be
“ t, fo fliall the root required be —^~t~—— , i^-
“ the c root of A=!=B can be extraCled.
Examp. I. Thus to find the cube root of /qhS
-F25, Vre have A*—Bi=343-, whofe divifors are 7, 7, 7,
whence «=7, and Q=i. Further, A-f-BX/Q^ that
is, /968+2 5 is a little more than 56, whofe neareft
cube root is 4. Wherefore rz=4. Again,-dividing 4/968
by its greatell rational divifor, we have A 4/ Q^=22/2,
and the radical part 4/2=/; and r+ T~- or —, in
the neareft integers, is 2 —t. And laftly, ts — 2^/2,
—«=i, and X\/Q_= v' 1=1. Whence2/2+j
is the root, whofe cube, upon trial, I find to be 4/968
+ 25-  
Examp. II. To find the cube root of 68—4/4374,
we have Ax—whofe divifors are 5, 5, 5, 2.
Thence »=5X2=iO, and Q34, and 4/A+BX4/Q^ °r
/68+4/4J74X2 is nearly 7-r; again A4/Q^ or 68X
4/4=13 6X/1, that is, j=i, and ;' + or —'
is nearly =4=/. Therefore ts—q, —/;=4/6,
and 4/0^4/4—-'/2, whence the root to be tried is
4-/6
Chap. XIV. Of the Genesis ffwa? Resolu¬
tion of in general; and the
number of Roots an Equation of any Degree
may have.
After the fame manner, as the higher powers are
produced by the multiplication of the lower powers of
the fame root, equations of fuperior orders are genera¬
ted by the multiplication of equations of inferior orders
involving the fame unknown quantity. And “ an equa-
et tion of any dimenfion' may be confidered as produced
“ by the multiplication of as many firople- equations as
“ it has dimenfions, or of any other equations what-
“ foever, if the fum of their dimenfions is equal to the
“ dimenfion of that equation.” Thus,’ any cubic equa¬
tion may be conceived as generated by the multiplication
of three fimple equations, or of one quadratic and one
fimple equation. A biquadratic is generated by the
multiplication of four jimpte equations, or of /wo qua¬
dratic equations, or, laftly, of one cubic and one fimple
equation.
If the equations which you fuppofe multiplied by one
another are the fame, then the equation generated will
be nothing elfe but fome power of thofe equations, and
the operation is merely iia)t,luti-n; of which we have
treated already : arm, when any fuch equation is given,
the fimple equation by whofe multiplication it is produ,-
ced is found by evolution, or the extraction of a root.
But wfien the equations that ■ are fitppeftd to be mul¬
tiplied
A L G E
tiplied by each other are different, then other equations
than powers are generated; which to refolve .into the
fimple equations whence they are generated is a diffe¬
rent operation from involution, and is what is called,
the refolution of equations.
But as evolution is performed by obferving and tracing
back the fteps of involution; fo to difcover the rules for
the refolution of equations, we muft carefully obferve
their generation.
Suppofe the unknown quantity to be x, and its values
in any fimple equations to be a, b, c, d, &c. then thofe
fimple equations, by bringing all the terms to one fide,
become x—a—a, x—b=o, x—cr=o. See. And, the
produ<5t of any two of thefe, as x—axx—b=o will give
a quadratic equation, or an equation of two dimen-
fions. The produdt of any three of them, as x—a X
x—b X x—c — o, will give a cubic equation, or one of
three dimenfions. The produdt of any four of them will
give a biquadratic equation, or one of four dimenfions, as
x—ax.x—bxx—c x x — d—o. And, in general,
“ in the equation produced, the higheft dimenfion of
“ the unknown quantity will be equal to the number
“ of fimple equations that are multiplied by each o-
“ ther.”
When any equation, equivalent to this biquadratic
x — tfXx — by. x — cX x — d—o, is prOpofed to be re-
folved, the whole difficulty confifts in finding the fimple
equations x—a — o, x — b—o, x—c—o, x-—d—o,
by whofe multiplication it is produced; for each of thefe
fimple equations gives one of the values of x, and one fo-
lution of the propofed equation. For, if any-of the va¬
lues of x, deduced from thofe fimple equations, be fub-
ftituted' in the propofed' equation in place of x, then
all the terms of that equation will vanilh, and the whole
be found equal to nothing. Becaufe, when it is fuppo-
fed that x—a, or x=b, or x=<r, ox x—d, then the produdt
x—aXx—bXx — cXx-—does vaniffi, becaufe one
of the fadtors is equal to nothing. There are therefore
four fuppofitions that give aT—aXx — bX x—cXx—d
= o according to the propofed equation; that is, there
are four roots of the prepofed equation. And after the
fame manner, “ any other - equation admits of as many
“ folutions as there are fimple equations multiplied by
“ one another that produce it, or, as many as there are
“ units in the higheft dimenfion -of the unknown quanti-
“ ty in the propofed equation.”
But as there are no oth r quantities whatfoever bo¬
lides thefe four ( -, b, c, d,) that fubftituted in. the pro-
dudt x—aXx — bXx — c X x—d, in the place of x,
will make the produdt vanilh; therefore the equation
x — «Xx — bXx — cXx — dz=o, cannot pofiibly have
more than thefe four roots, and cannot admit of more
folutions than four. If you fubftitute in that produdt a
quantity neither equal to a, nor b, nor c, nor d, which
fuppofe e, then fince neither e—a, e—b, e—-c, nor
e—d is equal to nothing; their produdt e — a Xe— by
e-—cXe—d cannot be equal to nothing, but niuft be
fome real produdt: and therefore there is no fuppo-
fition befide one of the fqrefaid four that gives a juft
Vol. I No. 5. 3
B R A. 101
value of x according to the propofed equation. So
that it can have no more than thefe four roots. And af¬
ter the fame manner it appears, that “ no equation can
“ have more roots than it contains dimenfions of the un-
“ known quantity.”
To make all this ftillplainer by an example, in numbers;
fuppofe the equation to be refolved, to be x4 — iox3 -f-
35X1—50x-(-24 = o, and that you difcover that this e-
quation is the fame with the produdt of x— 1 X x-—2X
x — 3XX:—4, then you certainly infer that the four
values of x are 1, 2, 3, 4 ; feeing any of thefe numbers
placed for x makes that produdt, and confequently x4—
iox3+35x1—50x4-24, equal to nothing, according to
the propofed equation. And it is certain that there can
be no other values of x befides thefe four: fince when
you fubftitute any other number for x in thofe fadtors
x—1, x—2, x—3, x—4, none of the fadtors vanifir;
and therefore their produdt cannot be equal to nothing,
according to the equation.
It may be ufeful fotnetimes to confider equations as
generated from others of an inferior fort befides fimple
ones. Thus a cubic equation may be conceived as ge¬
nerated from the quadr -tic x*—/>x-\-q=o, and the fim¬
ple equation x—a—o, multiplied by each other ; whofe
produdt ^
X * t ^ ~ may exprefs any cubic e-
quation whofe roots are the quantity [a) the value of x
in the fimple equation, and the two roots of the qua¬
dratic equation, viz. and .
2 2
as appears from Chap. 12. And, according as thefc
roots are real or impcffible, two of the roots of the cubic
equation are real or impojjihle.
In' the dodtrine of involution, We ffiewed, that " the
“ fquare of any quantity, pofitive or negative, is always
“ pofitive;” and therefore “ the fquare root of a nega-
“ tive is impoffible or imaginary.” For example, 'the
tfa' is either -b?, or —a ; but can neither be +a
nor —a, but muft be imaginary. Hence is undeiftood,
that “ a quadratic equation may have no impoffible
“ expreffion in its coefficients ; and yet, when it is re-
“ folved into the fimple equations that produce it, they
“ may involve impoffible expreffions.” Thus, the qua¬
dratic equation-x*-|-«1:=9 has no impoffible coefficient;
but the fimple equations from which it is produced,
viz. x-f-v/—a’1—o) and x—y/-—al—o, both, involve
an imaginary quantity ; as the fquare —az is a real
quantity, but its fquare root is imaginary. After the
fame manner, a biquadratic equation, when refolved,
may give foW fimple equations, each of which may give
an impoffible value for the root: and the fame may be
faid of any equation that Can be produced from quadratic
equations only, that is, whofe dimenfions are of the even
numbers.
But, “ a cubic equation (which cannot be generated
“ from quadratic equations only, but requires one fim-
“ pie equation befides to produce it) if none of its coef-
“ ficients are impoffible, 'will have, at leaft, one real
“ root,” the fame with the root of the fimple equation
C c whence^
*\ON4(
%|-
'°OS i°V
E
B
R
A;
102 A L G
whence it is produced. The fquare of an impoflible
quantity may be real, as the fquare of y'—a* is —a"1;
but “ the cube of an impoffible quantity is ftill impofli-
“ b!e,” as it ftill involves the fquare root; of a negative:
as, y”—a* X V—Xy'—a^—^—a6 —a*\/—i, is
plainly imaginary. From which it appears, that though
two fimple equations involving impoffible expreffions,
multiplied by one another* may give a produdt where no
impcffible expreffion may appear; yet “ if three fuch
“ fimple equations be multiplied by each other, the im-
“ poffible expreffion will not difappear in their produdh”
And hence it is plain, that though a quadratic equation
whofe coefficients are all real may have its two roots im¬
poffible, yet “ a cubic equation whofe coefficients are
real cannot have all its three roots impoffible.”
In general, it appears, that the impoffible expreffions-
cannot difappear in the equation produced, but when
their number even; that there are never in any equa¬
tions, whofe coefficients are real quantities, fingle impof¬
fible roots, or an odd number of impoffible roots, but
that the roots become impoffible in pairs, and that
“ an equation of an odd number of dimenfions has al-
“ ways one real root.”
“ The roots of equations are either pojitive or negative,
“ according as the roots of the fimple equations whence
“ they are produced are pofitive or negative.” If you
fuppofe x=—ra, x=—b, x——c, x~—d, &c. then ffiall
x-\-,r~o, x-\-b—o, .v-|-c=o, x+A=o ; and the equation
a+« Xx-M X*-f cXx + ^ = o will have its roots,
•—a, —b, —c, —d. See. negative.
But to know when the roots of equations are pofitive,
and when negative, and how many there are of each
kind, ffiall be explained in the next chapter.
Chap. XV. Of the Signs and Coeffi¬
cients of Equal, ons.
When any number of fimple equations are multiplied
by each other, it is obvious that the higheft dimenfion of,
the unknown quantity in their produdt is equal to the
numbet of thofe fimple equations - and the term involving
the higheft dimenfion is called the firji term of the equa¬
tion generated by this multiplication. The term invol¬
ving the next dimenfion of the unknown quantity, lefs
than the greateft by unit, is called the fccond term of
the equation'; the 'term involving the next dimenfion of
the unknown quantity, which is lefs than the greateft by
two, the third term of the equation, <bc. ; and that
term which involves no dimenfion of the unknown-quan¬
tity,, but is fome known quantity, is called the lujl term
of the equation.
“ The number of terms is always greater than the
“ higheft dimenfion of the unknown quantity by unit.”
And when any term is wanting, an afterilk is marked in
its place. The figns and coefficients of equations will be
underftood by confidering the following, table, where the
fimple equations x-—a, x—h, 8cc. are multiplied by one
another, and produce fucceffively the higher equations.
X —12=0
Xx —6=o
=Xt~6x+ah } =°> a
—6^- Xx4+<7c^ Xx—a cubie.
—c ^ -\-bc J
Xx —d=o
•\-bc
+bd!
+cdj
>Xx
—abe'j
—^yXx+abcd=°,
—bedj
biqua¬
dratic.
+ab\
+ae
Xx4+adj
+bc)
+bd X
+be
+de)
-.:bc'
•—abd
—abe
—acd
3—ade\
—ace
—bed
—bee
—bde
—cdt)
&c.
-\~abcd ^
-\-abce /
-\-abdey xx—clcde-C,
-\-acde\
l-\-bcdeJ
{*furfolid.\
From the infpeftion of thefe equations it is plain, that, ‘
the Coefficient of the firft term is unit.
The coefficient of the fecond term is the fum of all
the roots (a, b, c,*d, e,) having their Jigns changed.
The coefficient of the third term is the fum of all the
produfts that can be made by multipying. any two of the
roots (a, b, c, d,' e,) by one another.
The coefficient of the fourth term is the fum of all the
produtts that can be made by multiplying into one an¬
other any three of the roots, with their Jigns changed.
And after the fame manner all the ether coefficients are
formed.
The laft term is always the produ ft of all the roots ha¬
ving their figns changed, multiplied by one another.
Although in the table fuch fimple equations only are
multiplied by one another as have pofitive roots, it is
eafy to fee, that “ the coefficients will be formed ac-
“ cording to the fame rule when any of the fimple equa-
“ tions have negative roots.” And, in general, if x3~~
px^+qx—r=o reprefent any cubic equation, then.ffiall p
be the fum of the roots ; q the fum of the produfts made
by multiplying any two of them; r the produft of all
the three : and, if —p, -j-y, —r, -J-r, —t, -\-u, See. be
the coefficients of the ad, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 6r.
terms of any equation, then ffiall / be the fum of all the
roots, q the fum of the produfts of any two, r the fum
of the produfts of any three, s the fum of the produfts
of any four, t the fum of the produfts of any five, « the
fum of the produfts of any fix, &c.
When
I03
A L G E
When therefore any equation is propofed to be refol-
ved, it is eafy to find the fum of the roots, (for it is e-
qual to the coefficient of the fecond term having its fign
changed); or to find the fum of the produfts that can
be made by multiplying any determinate number of
them.
But it 'is alfo eafy “ to find the fum of the fquares, or
“ of any powers, of the roots.
The fum of the fquares is always />’'—2q. For call¬
ing the fum of the fquares-Z?, fince the fum of the roots
is p; and “ the fquare of the fum of any quantities is
“ always equal to the fum of their fquares added to
“ double the products that can be made by multiplying
“ any two'of them,” therefore pi—B-\-7.g, and confe-
quently Z?=:/>z —2y. For example,
B
li
A.
&c. =o. will exprefs the equation to be pro¬
duced ; all whofe terms will plainly be pofitive ; fo that,
“ when all the roots of• an equation are negative, it is
“ plain there will be no changes in the figns of the terms
“ of that equation.”
In general, “ there are as many pofitive roots in any e-
“ quation as there are changes in the figns of the terms
from + to —, or from — to +; and the remaining
“ roots are negative.” The rule is general, if the im-
pofiible roots be allowed to be either pofitive or negative;
and may be extended to all kinds of equations.
In quadratic equations, the two roots are either both
pofitive, as in this
(.v—rfX.v—b—) x2—ax+ab—o,
—bx
c'-Sriab+T.ac+'ibe; thatis,/>2=-5-|-2y. Anda+H-Hr^’ where there are two changes of the figns: Or they are
that is, a-
gain, p'—B+iq, or B—pz—2?. And fofor any other
number of quantities. In general therefore, “ B the
“ fum of the fquares of the roots may always be found
“ by fubtra&ing, 2q from />2 ;” the quantities p and q
being always known, fince they are the coefficients in the
propofed equation.
“ The fum of the cubes of the roots of any equation
is equal to />3—or f° Bp—/,y+3^.” For
both negative, as in this
{x+«Xx-M=) x2+^ x+^_0}
where there is not any change of the figns: Or there is.
one pohtive and one negative, as in
where there is necefiarily one change of the figns; be-
~B qXp gives always the excefs of the fum of the cubes caufe the firft term is politive, and the kit negative, and
of any. quantities above the triple fum of the produfts there can be but one change whether the 2d term be +
that can be made by fnultiplying any three of them,
Thus, tf2-H2-f-t2—ab—ac—bcY.a-\-b-\-c {=B — qX.p)-=.
—^abc. Therefore if the fum of the cubes
is called <7, then ffiaH B—q'Ap—C—^r, and C—Bp—qp
(becaufe B—p1—2y)=/>3—Ipq+Y-
After the fame manner, if D be the fum of the 4th
powers of the roots, you will find that D—pC—qB+pr
—4/, and if E be the fum of the 5th powers, then ffiall
E—pD—qC+rB—pj+qt- And after the fame manner
the fum of any powers of the roots may be found; the
progreffion of thefe expreffions of the fum of the powers
being obvious.
As for the figns of the terms of the equation produ¬
ced, it appears, from infpeftion, that the.figns of all. the
terms in any equation in the table are alternately + and
—: thefe equations are generated by multiplying conti¬
nually x—a, x—b, x—c, x—d, &c. by one another.
The firlt term is always fome pure power of x, and is
pofitive; the*fecond is a potver of x multiplied by the
quantities —a, —b, >—r, &c. And fince thefe are all
negative, that term mult therefore be negative. The
third term has the produds of any two of thefe quanti¬
ties (—a, —b, —c, See.) for its coefficient; which pro-
duZtS are all pofitive, becaufe —X— gives +. Far the
like reafon, the next coefficient, confiiting of ail the
products made by multiplying any three of thefe quanti¬
ties mull be negative, and the next pofitive. So mat
the coefficients, in this cafe, will be pofitive and negative
by turns. But, “ in this cafe the roots are all pofitive
fince x=a, x=b, x=c, x=d, x—e. See. are the afiumed
fimple equations. It is plain then, that “ when all the
“ roots are pofitive, the figns are alternately -j- and —-d*
But if the roots are all negative, then x+aX^+^X
Therefore the rule given in the lafl: paragraph extends
to all quadratic equations.
In cubic equations, the roots may be,
i°. All pofitive, as in this-, x—aXx — bXx—c^=ot
ip which the'figns are alternately + and —, as appears
from the table; and there are three changes of the figns. -
2°. The roots may be all negative, as in the equation
x-^-aXx-^-bXx -+-c=o, where there can be no change of
the figns. Or,
3°. There may fee two pofitive roots and one negative,
as in the.equation x—a>'x—bXx-{-c=:o; which gives
.
Here there mull be two changes of the figns; becaufe if
a-\-b is greater than c, the fecond term mu ft be negative,
its coefficient being —a—b-{-c.
And if a+b is lefs than c, then the third term muft
be negative, its coefficient +ab—ac-—■lc{ab—cXa+b) *
being in that cafe negative. And there cannot poffibly be
three changes of the figns, the firft and laft terms having
the fame fign.
40. There may_be one pofitive root and two negative,
as in the equation x-^raXx-\-bXx—c—o> which gives
*3-bo +*n
-f/’ V x1—ac V x-—abc~Q,
where
 * Becaufe the red angle aXb is lefs than the fquare
a-t-bXa-j-b, and therefore much lefs than a-fbXc.
104 A L G E
where there mud be always one change of the figns,
fmce the fad term is pofitive and the lad negative. And
there can be but one change of the figns, fince if the ad
term is negative, or a-\-b lefs than ct the third mud be
negative alfo, fo that there will be but one change of the
figns. Or, if the fecond term is affirmative, whatever
the third term is, there will be but one change of the
figns. It appears therefore, in general, that in cubic e-
quations, there are as many affirmative roots as there are
changes of the figns of the terms of the equation.
There are feveral confeftaries of what has been al¬
ready demondrated, that are of ufe in difcovering the
roots of equations. But before we proceed to that, it
will be convenient to explain fome transformations of
equations, by which they may often be rendered more
fimple, and the invedigation of their roots more eafy.
Chap. XVI. Of the Transformation of E-
quatiom ; and exterminating their interme¬
diate Terms.
We now proceed to explain the transformation of e-
quations that are mod ufeful: and, fird, “ The affirma-
“ tive roots'of an equation are changed into negative
“ roots of the fame value, and the negative roots into
“ affirmative, by only changing the figns of the terms
“ alternately, beginning with the fecond.” Thus, the
roots of the equation x4—x3——30=0 are
+1, -f-2, -H3> —5 5 whereas the roots of the fame e-
quation having only the figns of the fecond and fourth
terms changed, viz. x44-x3—i9xl4-49**-—30=0 are
—i» —2, —3, +5-
To underdand_ the reafon of this rule, let us afiume
an equation, as x—aXx—l>Xx—tXx—dXx—e, See. =0,
whofe roots are +a, +b, -fc, +d, See. and ano¬
ther, having its roots of the fame value, but affedted with
contrary figns, as x+tiXx-ftXx+cXx+dXx+s, See. =0.
It is plain, that the terms taken alternately, beginning
from the fird, are the fame in both equations, and have
the fame fign, f‘ being products of an even number
“ of the roots;” the produd of any two roots having
the fame fign as their produd when both their figns are
changed; as-faX——aX+t.
But the fecond terms, and all taken alternately from
them, becaufe their coefficients involve always the pro-
duds of an odd number of the roots, will have contrary
figns in the two equations. For example, the produd
of four, viz. abed, having the fame fign in both, and
one equation in the fifth term having"a^X-l-f, and
the other hbcdX—e, it follows, that their produd abede
mud have contrary figns in the two equations : thefe two
equations therefore that have the fame roots, but with
contrary figns, have nothing different but the figns of the
alternate terms, beginning with the fecond. From
which it follows* “ that if any equation is given, and
u you change the figns of the alternate terms, begin-
“ ning with the fecond, the new equation will have roots
“ of the fame value, but with contrary figns.”
It is often very ufeful “ to transform an equation into
B II A.
“ another that d^all have its roots greater or lefs than
“ the roots of the propofed equation by fome given dif-
“ ference.”
Let the equation propofed be the cubic x3—px1 -\-qx
—r=o. And let it be required to transform it into ano¬
ther equation whofe roots ffikll be lefs than the roots of
this equation by fome given difference (?), that is, fup-
pofey=zx—e, and confequently x—j+e • then, indead of
x and its powers, fubditute j+e and its powers, and
there will arife this new equation.
(•^ll3+3^,+3<?>4- <?5'> '
"fyl~2pe}ZPe>=o,
+ V+ie C
whofe roots are lefs than the roots of the preceding e-
quation by the difference (e).
If it had been required to find an equation whofe roots
ffiould be greater than thofe of the propofed equation by
the quantity (e), then we mud have fuppofed /=x4-<%.
and confequently x==y—e, and then the other equation
would have had this form.
{B)y'—yy'+y%y— e'\
— Pf+lpey—pe'C —q
+ qy—qe r
If the propofed equation be in this form x'+px'+qx
4-'—o, then, by fiippofing x+e=y, there will arife an e-
quation -agreeing in all refpetts with the equation {A),
but that the fecond and fourth terms will have contrary
figns.
And by fuppofing x—e—y, there will arife an equation
agreeing with (i?)'in all refpects, but that the fecond
and fourth terms will have co'ntrary figns to what they
have in (Z?).
The fird of thefe fuppofitions gives this equation,
*3 ■)
4- py1—2pey +pe1 (
4- qy -qe Xf0'
+ r J
The fecond fuppofition gives the equation,
(Z>)j34-3<9-i4-3<?yF <r3^
+ py'+irpy+pt'C-n
+ qy+q? C
+ r )
The fird ufe of this transformation of equations is to
ffiew “ how the fecond (or other intermediate) term may
“ be taken away out of an equation.”
It is plain, that in the equation (d) whofe fecond
term is je—pXy', if you fuppofe and confequently
3«'—p=o, then the fecond term will vaniffi.
In the equation (C) whofe fecond term is —Ze+pXy*,
fuppofing the fecond term alfovaniffies.
Now the equation (yZ) was deduced from x3—px*+
qx—r—o, by fuppofing y—x—e: and the .equation (C)
was deduced from x3-j-px2+qx-{-r=o; by fuppofing
From whidh this rule may eafily be deduced for
exterminating the fecond term out of any cubic equation.
Rule.
A L G E
Rule. Add to the unkntnvn quantity of ’the given e-
quation the third part of the coefficient of the fecond
term with its proper fign, viz. and fuppofe this
aggregate equal to a new unknown quantity (/). From
this value of y find a value of x by tranfpofition, and
fubllitute this value of x and its powers in the given
equation, and there will arife a new equation that ffiall
want the fecond term.
Examp. Let it be required to exterminate the fe¬
cond term out of this equation, x3—qx'+sfix—34=0,
fuppofe x—3==>', or y+3—x ; and fubfiituting according
to the rule, you will find
B R A. 105
=0, then, according to the rule, fuppofe"y-}-]p—x, and
fubflituting this value for x, you will find,
—py—lp2 > =0,
+ y 3
J>% *—ipl+q=0.
And from this example the ufe of exterminating the 2d
term appears: for commonly the folution of the equa¬
tion that wants the sd term is more eafy. And, if you
can find the value of y from this new equation, it is eafy
to find the value of x, by means of the equation _>>+4/=rx.
For example,
>5+9y’+27y+27')
“9/—54T-8I C-o
,+26^+78 r-°
—34A
yi * —-y  10=0.
In which there is no term where y- is of two dimeofions,
and an afterilk is placed in the room of the ad term, to
ffiew it is wanting.
Let the equation propofed be of any number of di-
menfions reprefented by («); and let the coefficient of
the fecond term with its fign prefixed be —p, then fup-
pofing x—and confequently x=j/+—, and fubfti-
tuting this value for jc in the given equation, there will
arife a new equation that ffiall want the fecond tern).
It is plain from what was demonflrated in chap. 15.
that the fum of the roots of the propofed equation is
+p; and fince we fuppofe y—x—^—, it follows, that, in
the new equation, each value of y will be lefs than the
refpe&ive value of x by -A; and, fince the number of
the roots is n, it follows, that the fum of the values of
y will be lefs than + p, the fum of the values of x, by
«X—, the difference of any two roots, that is, by
•" therefore the fum of the values of y will be +
p—p=o.
But the coefficient of the fecond term of the equation
of y is the fum of the values of y, viz. +/—p, and
therefore that coefficient is equal to nothing; and confe¬
quently, in the equation of y, the fecond term vaniffies.
It follows then, that the fecond term may be extermi¬
nated out of any given equation by the following
Rule. Divide the coefficient of the fecond term of
the propofed equation by the number of dimenfions of
the equation ; and affuming a new unknown quantity
y, add to it the quotient having its fign changed;
Then fuppofe this aggregate equal to x the unknown
quantity in the propofed equation; and for x and its
powers, fubftitute the aggregate and its powers, fo
ffiall the new equation that arifes want its fecond
term.
If the propofed equation is a quadratic, as .v*—px^-q
Vol. I. No. 5. 3
Since y'l-\-q—|^*=o, it follows, that
y'^p'—q, and y=tz*/^p y, fo that
x=y+ip=ip=s=*/T[pl —q;
which agrees with what we demonftrated, chap. 12.
If the propofed equation is a biquadratic, as x4—px}
-\-qxz—rx+/=o, then, by fuppofing x—-^p—y or x—y
an equation ffiall arife having no fecond term.
And if the propofed equation is of 5 dimenfions, then
you mud fuppofe x—yr±=.±p. Andfoon.
When the fecond term in any equation is wanting, it
follows, that “ the equation has both affirmative andne-
“ gative roots,” and that “ the fum of the affirmative
“ roots is equal to the fum of the negative roots:” by
which means the coefficient of the 2d term, which is the
fum of all the roots of both forts, vaniffies, and makes
the fecond term vaniffi.
In generaly “ The coefficient of the 2d term is the
“ difference between the fum of the affirmative roots
“ roots and the fum of the negative rootsand the
operations we have given ferve only, to diminiffi all the
roots when the fum of the affirmative is greateft, or in-
creafethe roots when the fum of the negative is greatell,
fo as to balance them, and reduce them to an equality.
It is obvious, that in a quadratic equation that wants
the fecond term, there muft be one root affirmative and-
one negative; and thefe muft be equal to one another..
In a cubic equation that wants the fecond term, there
muft be either two affirmative roots equal, taken toge¬
ther to a third root that muft be negative; or, two ne¬
gative equal to a third that muft be pofitive.
“ Let an equation x'—pxl+qx—,~o be propofed,
“ and let it be now required to exterminate the third
“ term.”
By fuppofing f=zx—e, the coefficient of the 3d term
in the equation of y is found (fee equation A) to be
—2ps+q. Suppofe that coefficient equal to nothing,
and by refolving the quadratic equation ^e1—2pe-\-q—o,
you will find the value of which fubftituted for it in
the equation yz=.x—e> will ffiew how to transform the
propofed equation into one that /hall want the third term.
The quadratic 3?1—2/H-£=o, mves v/7,‘—'3?.
So that the propofed cubic will be transformed into an
equation wanting the third term by fuppofing y—x—
A-VA*—37> oxyzzx
If
106 A L G E
If the propofed equatiorr is of n dimenfions, the value
of e, by which the 3d, term may be taken away, is had
B
R
A.
by refolving the quadratic equation <?’
=0, fuppofing —p and to be the coefficients of the
2d and 3d terms of the propofed equation.
The 4th term of any equation may be taken away by
folving a cubic equation, which is the coefficient of the
4th term in the equation when transformed, as in the
former-part of this chapter. The fifth term may be ta¬
ken away by folving a biquadt atic; and after the fame
manner, the other terms can be exterminated if there
are any.
There are other tranfmutations of equations that, on
fome occafions, are ufeful.
At>equation, as x3—pxz+qx—r=o, “maybetranf-
“ formed into another that ffiall .have its roots equal to
“ the roots of this equation multiplied by a given quan-
“ tity,” as by fuppofing and confequently'
and fubftituting this value for x in the propofed
equation, there will arifej^   —r=o, and mul¬
tiplying all by . . y*—-ft>y'l-\-f?'qy—y3r=o, where
the coefficient of the 2d term of the propofed equation
multiplied into f, makes the coefficient of the 2d term
of the transformed equation; and the following coeffi¬
cients are produced by the following coefficients of the
propofed equation, (as q, r, &c.) multiplied into the
powers of / (/*,/3, &c.).
Therefore to transform any equation into another
whofe roots ffiall be equal to the roots of the propofed.
equation multiplied by a given quantity (/),” you need
only multiply the terms of the prbpofed equation, begin¬
ning at the 2d term, by /, /l, /J, /4, &c. and put¬
ting y inftead of x, there will arife an equation having
its roots equal to the roots of the propofed equation mul¬
tiplied by (/) as required.
The transformation mentioned above is of ufe when
the high ell term of the equation has a coefficient dif¬
ferent from unity; for, by it, the equation may be ttanf-
formed into one that ffiall have the coefficient of the high-
eft term unit.
If the equation propofed is ax1—-/x^-fyx—•r—o, then
transform the equation into one whofe roots are equal to
the roots of the propofed equation multiplied by (a).
That is, fuppofe y=ax or x-l- and there will arife
fo that
y l—py*+qiy—ra*=o.
From which we eafily draw this
Rut.E. Change the unknown quantity x into another /,
prefix no coefficient to the higheft term, pafs the 2d,
multiply the following terms, beginning with the 3d,
by a, a1, a3, a4, &c. the powers of the coefficient
of the higheft term of the prppofed equation, refpec-
tively.
Thus the equation 3X3—^x^iqx+id^o, is tranf-
formed into the equation/3—I3/i-{-I4X3Xx-}-i6X9=0»'
or/3—i3/z+42x-i-i44=o.
Then finding the roots of this equation, it will eafily
be difeovered what are the roots of the propofed equation,
fince 3X=/, or x=4/. And therefore, fince one of the
values of / is —2, it follows, that one of the values of
x is y.
By the laft rule, “ an equation is eafily cleared of
“ fraftions.” Suppofe the equation propofed is x3—
 Multiply all the terms by the
produdt of the denominators, you find
MneXx3—nspXx1-\-meqXx—mnr=o.
Then (as above) transforming the equation into one that
ffiall have unit for the coefficient of the higheft terra,
you find
/3—nepXy‘i-\-m1eznqXy—tnin'ie'lr=o.
Or, neglefting the denominator of the laft term—
you need only multiply all the equation by mn, wffiich
will give
mnXx3—tipXx1-JtmqX.x——-=0. And
then /3—npXy1 +?«1 «?X/——r=o.
Now after the values of y are found, it will be eafy
to difeover the values of x; fir.ee, in the firft cafe,
X—-2— ; in the fecond, x~—.
For example, the equation
x3*—4x—‘/t =0, is firft reduced
to this form 3X3*—4X—*p“=o, and then transformed
into / ’ *— 12/— 146=0.
Sometimes, by thefe transformations, “ furds are ta-
“ ken away.” , As for example,
The equation x3—-p*/aXx^+qx—nja—o, by putting
y^z^/axx, orx~.A.. , is transformed into this equation,
yV
 pA/aX^~-rqx^}- —r»/a—o. Which, by multi-
a*/ a a \/a
plying all the terms by an/a, becomes/3—pay*+qay
—ra^—o, an equation free of fords. But in order to
make this focceed, the ford (yfo) muft enter, the alter¬
nate terms, beginning with the fecond.
“ An equation, asx3—/ix'+yx-—r=ro, may be tranf-
“ formed into one whofe roots ffiall be the quantities re-
“ ciprocal of x;” by foppefing/=—, and /= —, or.
(by one foppofition), x=—, becomes z3—qz1-{-prz—
z
r*=o.
In the equation of/, it is manifeft, that the order of
the coefficients is inverted; fo that, if the fecond term
had been wanting in the propofed equation, the laft but
one ffiould have'been wanting in the equations of/ and z.
If the 3d had been wanting in the equation propofed,
the laft but two had been wanting in the equations of /
and z.
Another ufe of this transformation is, that the great-
A L G E
eft root in the one it trdnsfortned into the leajl root in
the other. For fince x = —, andv=—, it is plain,
y *
that when the value of x is greafeft, the value of y is
leaft, and converfely.
How an equation is transformed fo as to have all its
roots affirmative, ffiall be explained in the following'
chapter.
Chap. XVII. Offinding the Roots of Equa¬
tions when two or more of the Roots are e-
qual to each other.
. Befo r e we proceed to explain how to refolve equa¬
tions of all forts, we ffiall firft demonftrate hoiu ah equa¬
tion that has tiuo or more roots equal, is deprejfed to a
looser dimenfion; and its refolution made, confequently,
more eafy. And ffiall endeavour to explain the grounds
of this and many other rule's we ffiall give in the remain¬
ing part of this treatife, in a.'more fimple and concife
manner than has. hitherto been done.
In order to this, we mull look back to the laft: chapter,
where we find, that if any equation, asx3—px^-^qx—r~o,
is propofed, and you are to transform it into another that
ftall have its roots Lfsthanthe values of x by any given
difference, as e, you are to affume y = x—e, and fublti-/
tudiig for'x its value you find the transformed
equation,
y*d-iey' + o,e'y +
—fyz—2pey—pe* ('
+ qy -^qe
Where we are to obfenm,
i0". That the-lafl term (e3—pet-\-qe—r) is/the very
equation that uras propofed, having e in place of x.
2°. The coefficient of the lalt term but one is •3le^—
2pe-\-q, which is the quantity that arifes by multiplying
every term of the lad coefficient e%—pe,,-\-qe—r by the
index of e in each term, and dividing the produdt pc3—
o.pe'L-\-qe by the quantity e that is common to all the
terms.
30. The coefficient of the lafl: term but two is, y—p,
which is the quantity that arifes by multiplying every
term 6f the coefficient laft found (31?*—2/’e+?) by the
index of e in each term, and dividing the whole by 7e.
§ 2. Thefe fame obfervations extend to equations of all
dimenfions. If it is the biquadratic x4—px^+qx1 — rx-f-
s—o that is propofed, then by fuppofing y—x—e, it will
be transformed into this other,
y*+Aeys+6e1yz + /ie*y +
—fy 3—Mly x—3Pe 'y—pe3 /
+£>'1 iqey + qeiy>—0
Where again it is obvious, That the laft term is the equa¬
tion that was propofed, having e in place of x : That
the laft term but one has for its coefficient the quantity
B R
107
that arifes by multiplying the terms of the laft quantity
by the indices of e in each term,' and dividing the pro-
dudl by e: That the coefficient of the laft term but two,
{viz. 6e*—Ipe+q) is deduced in the fame manner from
the term immediately following, that is, by multiplying
every term of 41?}—o)pez-\-2qe—r by the index of e in
that term, and dividing the whole by e multiplied into
the index ofy in the term fought, that is, by eX2 : And
the next terjn is 4?—.X2 .
The demonftration of this may eafily be made general
by the theorem for finding the powers of a binomial,
fince the transformed equation confifts of the powers of
the binomial y-{-e that are marked by the indices of e in
the laft term, multiplied each by their coefficients 1,
•—p, -\-q, —r, +/, &c. refpedHvely.
§3. From the laft two articles we can e^fily find the terms
of the transformed equation without any involution. The
laft term is had by fubftituting e inftead of x in the pro¬
pofed equation; the next' term, by multiplying every
part of that daft term by the index of e in each part, and
dividing the whole by <?; and the following terms in the
manner defcribed in the foregoing article ; the refpe<5live
divifors being the quantity e multiplied by the index of
y in each term.
The demonftration for finding when two or more roots
are equal will.be eafy, if we add to this, that “ when
“ -the unknown quantity enters all the terms of any eqqa-.
“ tion, then one of its values is equal to nothing.” As
in the equation x3—px1-\-qx—o, where x—0=0 being-
one pf the fimple equations that produce x3—/>xi -j-
g.x=o, it follows that one of the values of x<is o. In
like manner, two of the values of x are equal to nothing;
in this equation x3 —px* =o;i and three of them vaniffi
in the equation x4—pxi=o.
It is alfo obvious {converfely') that “ if v does not en-"
“ ter all the terms of the equation, i. e. if the laft term
“ be not wanting, then*none of the values of x can be
“ equal to nothing,” for if every term be not multiplied
by x, then.x—o cannot be a divifor of the whole equa¬
tion, and confequently o cannot be one of the values
-of x. If xl does not enter into all the terms of the equa¬
tion, then two of the values of x cannot be equal to no¬
thing. If x3 does not enter into all the terips of the-
equation, then three of the values of x cannot be equal to
nothing, &c.
§ 4. Suppofe now that two values of x are equal to one.
another, and to e; then it is plain that two values-of
in the transformed equation will be equal to nothing:
fince y=x—<?. And confiequently, by the laft article,
the two laft terms of the transformed equation muft va¬
niffi.
Suppofe it is the cubic equation of § 1. that is pro¬
pofed, viz. x3—px2-j-qx — r — o ; and becaufe jve
fuppofe x=e, therefore the laft term of the transformed
equation, viz. e3—pe2+ge—r will vanift. And fince
two values of y vaniffi, the laft term but one, viz.
3?*y—opey-rqy will vaniffi at the fame time. So that
3e*—2pe-rg~o. But, by fuppofition, e=x • therefore,
when two values of x, in the equation, x3.—px2g-qx—
r=o, are equal, it follows, that —2px-j-g=o. And
thus.
i o8 A L G
thus, “ the pro'pofed cubic is depreffed to a quadratic
‘t that has one of its roots equal to one> of the roots of
(f that cubic.”
If it is the biquadratic that is propofed, viz. x*—
ftxi+qx1,—rx-^-s—o, and two of its roots be equal;
then fuppofmg e=x, two of the values of y muff vanifh,
and the equation of § 2. will be reduced to this form.
y+40l,+6eij>1l
——‘hPey*\_ * * — o. So that
+ s’ >’1 y
-t-zge—r~o; or, becaufe x =
4.V3 — 3/’xi -f2?x — r—c.
In general, when two values of x are equal to each
other, and to e, the two laft terms of the transformed
’equation vanifli: and confequently, “ if you multiply
“ the terms of the propofed equation by the indices of
“ x in each term, the quantity tljat will arile will be =0,
“ and will give an equation of a lower dimenfion than
“ the propofed, that (hall have one of its roots equal
“ to one of the roots of the propofed equation.”
That the lall two terms of the equation vanifh when
the values of x are fuppofed equal to each other, and to
f, will alfo appear by confidering, that fince two values-
of ji then become equal to nothing, the product of the
values ofy niuft, vanilh, which is equal to the laft. term
of the equation; and becaufe two of the four values of
y are equal to nothing, it follows alfo that one of any
three that can be taken out of thefe four muft be =0 ;
and therefore, the produfts made by multiplying" any
three muft vanifh; and confequently the coefficient of
the laft term but one, which is equal to the fum of thefe
products, muft vanifh.
§5. After the fame manner* if there are three equal roots'
in the biquadratic x4—•y>x3+ j'xl—rx-h-t^o, and if <r be
equal to one of them, three values of y (=x—s) will
vanifh, and confequently y5 will enter all the terms of
the transformed equation; whkh will have this form,
y +40’ ? # * * =0# go that here
— ’ 5
Se1—B/’f+S—O; or, fince e=x, therefore,
6x*—3/>xff-g=o: and one of the roots of this qua¬
dratic will be equal to one of the roots of the propofed
biquadratic.
In this cafe, two of the roots of the cubic equation
4X3—o)pxx-\-2qx—r=o are roots of the propofed biqua¬
dratic, becaufe the quantity 6x*—^px-\-q is deduced
from 4X3—3/xi-|-2§,x—r, by multiplying the terms by
the indexes of x in each term.
In general, “ whatever is the number of equal roots
“ in the propofed equation, they will all remain but one
“ in the equation that is deduced from it, by multiplying
“ all the terms by the indexes of x in them ; and they
“ will all remain but two in the equation deduced in the
“ fame manner from that;” and fo of the reft.
§ 6. What we obferved of the coefficients of equations
transformed by fuppofing y—X—e, leads to this eafy de-
monftration of this rule; and will be applied in the next
chapter to demonftrate the rules for finding the limits of
equations.
E B R A.
It is obvidus, however, that though we make ufe of
equations whofe figns change alternately, the fame rea-
foning extends to all other equations.
It is a confequence alfo of what has been demonftra-
ted, that “ if two roots of any equation, as,
“ x3—/’x’+j'x—r=o, are equal, then
“ multiplying the terms by any arithmetical feries, as,
“ «+3^, a-\“2b, a-\-b, a, the produdl will be =0.”
For, fince
ax3—-apx'l‘\-aqx~arz=o ;, and
3X1—2px-\-qX.bx—o, it follows that
tfX 3ff-3^x i~—apx'1—~2bpx'1 -\-aqx-\-bqx—ar~o.
Which is the product that arifes by multiplying the
terms of the propofed equation by the terms of the fe¬
ries, a+3#, a-\-2b, a-\-b, a\ which may reprefent any
arithmetical progreffion.
Chap. XVIII. Of the Limits of Equations,
We now proceed to (hew how to difcover the limits
of the roots of equations, by which their folutiou is
much facilitated,
. Let any equation, as x3—/x^+yx—r=o be propofed;,
and transform it, as above, into the equation
yt+w'+P'y+e
—Pj1—2pey—pe
+ qy + q
Where the values of y are lefs than the refpective values
of x by the difference e. If you fuppofe <? to be taken
fuch as to make all the coefficients of the equation of y
pofitive, viz. e1—pe'+qe—r, 3?1—2pefq, —p ;
then there being no.variation of the figns in the equa¬
tion, all the values of y muft be negative; and confe¬
quently, the quantity e, by which the values of x are
diminifhed, muft be greater than the greateft 'pofitive value
of x; ancf confequently muft be the limit of the roots of
the equation x3—px:L-\-qx—r=o.
It is fufficient therefore, in order to find the limit, to
“ inquire what quantity fubftituted for x in each of thefe
“ expreflions x3—/>x*+yx—3x*—2px-\-q, 3X—p,
“ will give them all pofitive;” for that, quantity will be
the limit required.
How thefe expreflions are formed from one another,
was explained in the beginning of the laft chapter.
Examp. If the equation x! — 2x4 — iox3+30xl+
63x+I20=0 is propofed; and- it is required to deter¬
mine the limit that is greater than any of the roots; you
are to inquire what integer number fubftituted for x in the'
propofed equation, and following equations deduced from
it by § 3. chap. 17. will give, in each, a pofitive quantity,
yx4—8x3—3ox*+6ox+63
yx3—6x1— i^x-j-iy
yx1—4x—y
yx —2.
The lead integer number which gives each of thefe
pofitive, is 2 ; which therefore is the limit of the roots
of
A L G
of the propofed'equation; of a number that exceeds the
greateft pofitive root.
If the limit of the negative roots is required, you may
(by chap. 16.) change the negative into pofitive roots, and
then proceed as before to find their limits. Thus, in the
example, you will find, that —3 is the limit of the nega¬
tive roots. So that the five roots of the propofed equa¬
tion are betwixt —3 and -f-2.
Having found the limit that furpafies the greatefl: po¬
fitive root, call it And if you afiiime y—m—x, and
for x fubftitute m—y, the equation that will arife will
have all its roots pofitive; becaufe m is fuppofed to fur-
pafs all the values of x, and confequently m—x (==y) muft
always be affirmative. And, by this mekns, any equa-
tisn may be changed into one that Jhall have all its roots
affirmative.
Or, if —n reprefent the limit of the negative roots,
then by afiuming the propyofed equation ffiall be
transformed into one that ffiall have all its roots affirma¬
tive ; for +« being greater than any negative value of x,
it follows, that/=x-f-» mud be al ways pofitive.
The greateft negative coefficient of any equation in-
creafed by unit, always exceeds the greatejl root of the
equation.
To demonftrate this, let the cubic x3—/>x*—yx—-
rrso be propofed; where all the terms are negative ex¬
cept the firft. Affuming^=x—e, it will be transformed
into the following equation;
i°. Let us fuppofe that the coefficients p, q, r, are
equal to each other; and if you alio fuppofe e=/>d-i,
then the lad equation becomes
(B)y}-¥2pyt+pzy+l')
+3J,Z +3^ >=Q;
where all the terms being pofitive, ft follows that the
values of y are all negative, and that confequently e, or
p-jrl, is greater than the greateft value of x in the pro¬
pofed equation.
2°. If q and r be not —p, but lefs than It, and for e
you ftiil fubftitute/H-i (fince the negative part (—qy—qe\
—H
becomes. lefs, the pofitive remaining undiminiffied,) a for¬
tiori, all the coefficients of the equation (y?) become
pofitive. And the fame is obvious if q and r have pofi¬
tive figns, and not negative figns, as we fuppofed. It
appears therefore, “ that if, in any cubic equation, p
“ be the greateft negative coefficient, the© p-\-i muftfur-
“ pafs the greateft value of x.”
30. By the fame reafoning it appears, that if q be
tire greateft negative coefficient 'of the equation, and
e—q-\-\, then there will be no variation of the figns in
the equation ofy for it appears from the laft article,
that if all the three {p, q, r,) were equal to one another,
and e equal to any one of them increafed by unit, as to
f+i, then all the terms of the equation (/f) would be
Vol. I. No. J. 3
E B R A. 169
pofitive. Now if e be fuppofed ftill equal to £-}-f, and
p and r to be lefs than q, then, a fortiori, all thefe
terms will be pofitive, the negative part, which involves
p and r being diminiffied, while the pofitive part and the
negative involving q remain as before.
40. After the fame manner it is demonftrated, that If
r is the greateft ne'gative coefficient in the equation, and
e is fuppofed =7-4-1, then all the terms of the equation
(y^) of7 will be pofitive; and confequently r+i will be
greater than any of the values of x.
What we have faid of the cubic equation x't—p-ff
qx-~r—o, is eafily applicable to others.
In general, we conclude, that “ the greateft negative
“ coefficient in any equation increafed by unit, is always
“ a limit that exceeds all the roots of that equation.”
But it is to be obfetved at the fame time, that the
greateft negative coefficient increafed by unit, is very
feldom the neareJl linM-. that is beft discovered by the
rule in the beginning of this chapter.
Having (hewn how to change any propofed equation
into one that ffiall have all its roots affirmative; we ffiall
only treat of fuch as have all their roots pofitive, in what
remains relating to the limits of equations.
Any fuch equation may be reprefented by x—a Xx—6
Xx—cX x — d, &c. =0, whofe roots are a, b, c, d. See.
And of all fuch equations two limits are eafily difeo-
vered from what precedes, viz. o, which is lefs than the
lead, and e, found as directed in the beginning of this
chapter, which furpaffes the greateft root of the equation.
But, befides thefe, we ffiall now (hew how to find c-
fher limits bethuixt the roots thimfeldes. And, for this
purpofe, will fuppofe a to be the leaft root, b the fecond
root, c the third, and'fo on'; it.being arbitrary.
If you fubftitute o in place of the unknown quantity,
putting x=o, the quantity that will arife from that fup-
pofition is the laft . term of the equation, all the others
that involve x vaniffiing.
If you fubftitute for x a quantity lefs than the leaft
root a, the quantity refulting will have the fame fign as
the laft: term; that is, will be pofitive or' negative ac¬
cording as the equation is of an even or odd number of
dimenfions. For all the faftors x—a, x—b, x—c. See.
will be negative, and their product will pofitive or ne¬
gative according as their number is even or odd.
If you fubftitute for x a quantity greater than the leaft
root a, but lefs than all the other roots, then the fign of
the quantity refulting will be contrary to what it was be¬
fore ; becaufe one fadtor (x — a) becomes now pofitive,
all the others remaining negative as before.
If you fubftitute for x a quantity greater than the two
leaft roots, but lefs than all the reft, both the fadtors
x—a, x—b, become pofitive, and the reft remain as
they were. So that the whole produdt will have the
fame fign as the laft term of the equation. Thus fuccef-
fively placing inftead of x quantities that are limits be¬
twixt the roots of the equation, the quantities that re-
fult will have alternately the figns + aijd —. And,
converfely, “ if you find quantities which, fubftituted'in
“ place of x in the propofed equation, do give alter-
“ nately pofitive and negative refults, thofe quantities
- are the limits of that equation.”
E c
It
no A L G E
It is ufeful to obferve, that, in general, “ when, by
fubftituting any two numbers for x in any equation,
“ the refults have contrary figns, one or more of the
“ roots of the equation mull be betwixt thofe numbers.”
Thus, in the equation, x1—2x2—5=o, if you fub(ti-
tute 2 and 3 for x, the refults are —5, +4; whence it
follows, that the roots are betwixt 2 and 3 : for when
thefe refults have different figns, one or other of the
factors which produce the equations muft have changed
its fign ; fuppofe it is x—<?, then it is plain that ^ muft
be betwixt the numbers fuppofed equal to x.
Let the cubic equation x}—px7'-)-qx—r=o be, pro-
pofed, and let it be transformed, by affuraing —£-,
into the equation
—Py1 2pey —pe 2 f n >
+ W +F:C
Let us fuppofe e equal fucceffively to. the three values
of x, beginning with the leaft value; and becaufe the
Jaft term —pez-\-qe—■> will vaniflt in all thefe fuppofi-
tions, the equation will have this form,
—py —^P6 c =°»
+ ? 3
where the laft term 3<?2—2pe-\~q is, from the nature of
equations, produced of the remaining values of y, or of
the excefles of two other values of x above what is fup¬
pofed equal to f; fince always jc=x—e. Now,
i°. If ^ be equal to the leaf! value of x, then thofe
two exceffes being both pofitive, they will give a pofitive
product, and confequently 3s1—2pe-\-q will be, in this
cafe, pofitive.
2°. If e be equal to the fecond value of x, then, of
thofe two exceffes, one being negative and one pofitive,
their produft 3?*—2pe-\-q, will be negative.
30. If e be equal to the third and greateft value of x,
then the two excefles being both negative, their produft
3^—2pt-\-q is pofitive. Whence,
If in the equation qe*—2/^+9’=o, you fubftitute fuc¬
ceffively in the place of e, the three roots of the equa¬
tion e}—pez-\~qe—r=o, the quantities refulting will
fucceffively have the figns -}-, —, +; and confequently
the three roots of the_ cubic equation are the limits of
the foots of the equation 3^—2pe-\-q~o. That
is, - the leaft of the roots of the cubic is lefs than the
leaft of the roots of the other ; the fecond root of
the cubic is a limit between the two roots of the other;
and the greateft root of the cubic is the limit that ex¬
ceeds both the roots of the other.
We have demonftrated, that the roots of the cubic
equation e*—pe^-f-qe—r~o are limits of the quadratic
3^1—2pe-\-q", whence it follows (converfeiy) t\\xt the
roots of the quadratic 3^—2peJrq—o are the limits be¬
tween the firft i.and fecond, and between the fecond and
third roots of the cubic el—pe'+qe—r=o. So that if ybu
find the limit that exceeds the greateft root of the cubic,
by die beginning of this chapter you will have (with o.
BRA.
which is the limit lefs than any of the roots) four li¬
mits for the threeroots of the propofed cubic.
It was demonftrated in chap 17. §3. how the quadratic
36'2—2pe-\-q is deduced from the propofed cubic <?J—-
pe1-\-qe—r—o, viz. by multiplying each term by the
index of e in it, and then dividing the whole by e; and
what we have d.emonftrated of cubic equations is ealily
extended to all others ; fo that we conclude “ that the
“ laft term but one of the transformed equation is the
“ equation for determining the limits of the prdpofed
“ equation.” Or, that the equation arifing by multi¬
plying each term by the index of the unknown quantity
in it, is the equation whofe roots give the'limits of the
propofed equation ; if you add to them the two mention¬
ed in p. 109. col. 2. par. 4.
For the fame reafon, it is plain that the root of the
Ample equation 3?—p—o, (/. e. \p) is die limit be¬
tween the two roots of the quadratic 3e1—2pe-3rq—o.
And, as qe3—3pf1+2?v—r—o gives three limits of the
equation tf4—pel-\-qsx—re-f-jzzo, fo the quadratic
6ex—3/.'H-y=o gives two limits that are betwixt the
roots, of the cubic t.e3—%pe%.+ 2qe—r — o \ and
41?—p—o gives one limit that is.betwixt the two roots
of the quadratic 6e2—^pe+q’—o. So that we have a
complete feries of thefe equations arifing from a fimple
equation to the propofed, each of which determines the
limits of the following equation.
If two roots in the propofed equation are e?u;d,
then “ the limit that ought to be betwixt them muft,
" in this cafe, become equal to one of the equal roots
“ themfelves.” Which perfectly agfees with what was
demonftrated in the laft chapter, concerning the rule for
finding the equal roots of equations.
Apd, the fame equation that gives the limits, giving
alfo one of the equal roots, when two or more are equal,
it appears, that “ if you fubftitute a limit in place of
“ the unknown quantity in an equation,” and, inftead
of a pofitive or negative refult, it be found =0, then you
may conclude, that “ not only the limit itfelf is a root
“ of the equation, but that there are two roots in that
“ equation equal to it and to one another.”
It having been demonftrated, that the roots of the
equation x' —pxx-\-qx—r—o are the limits of the roots
of the equation qx1—2px4-qz=o, the three roots of the
cubic equation, which fuppofe to be a, b. c, fubftituted
for x in the quadratic 3.x2—rapx-f-q, muft give the re¬
fults pofitive and negative alternately. Suppofe thefe
three refults to be -f-N, •—M> +L; that is, 3'2-—
zpa+q—N, 3^2—zpb-f-q——M, 3c2—2pc-\-q=-L ; and
fince a3—pa*-\-qa—r—o, and 3//3—2pa1-\-qa—N'><.at
fubtrafting the former multiplied into 3 from the latter,
the remainder is pa1-—2qa\-^r=N'><.a. In the fame
manner pb1—2qb-\-o)r=—MY>b, and pc1—2pc-(-3> —+
LXr. Therefore px1—2q --Jr2)r is fuch a quantity, that
if, for x, you fubftitute in it fucceffively a, b, c, the re¬
fults will be -f/VX , —MXb, ft-iXc. Whence a, b, c,
are limits of the equation p 2—2qx-\-q)r—o, by p. 109.
cpl. 2. par. 8. and, converfely, the roots of the equation
px 2—2qx-\~^r~6 are limits between the firft and fecond,
and between the fecond and third roots of the cubic x3—
p.K1Jrqx—r=o. Now the equation /x2—2qx-\-y=o a-
111
A L G E
rifes from the propofed cubic by multiplying die terms
of this latter by the arithmetical progreffion o, —i, —2,
.—3. And, in the fame manner, it may be ftiewn that
the roots of the equation px*—iqx'+^rx—4/1=0 are
limits of the equation x*—■/’.v 1 — rx-}-/=o.
Or, multiply the terms of the equation
—px1-\-qx—r=o
by a+jt, a+2b, a-^-b, a
ax3 —apx1 -%-aqx—ar (=0) _
3^x3 —2bpx1 -\-bqx (=3x1—2pxJrq'Kbx,)
Any arithmetical feries where a is the leaft term, and b
the common difference, and the products (if you fubfti-
tute for x, fucceffiveiy, a,'bTc, the three roots of the pro¬
pofed cubic) {hall be -j-A^X^x, —M'Xbx+L.Y.bx. For the
firft part of the product aXx3—px^-Yqx—r—o ; and
<?, b, c, being limits in the equation 3X1—2px-\-q~o,
their fubflitution muff give refults N, M, L, alternately
pofitive and negative.
. In general, the roots of the equation x” —/>xa—I-l-
qXn—t—rx»—t -|-} &c.'=:o are limits of the roots of the
equation «>"—1—«—iX/>x'!——2X9X"—3—n—3X
rx"—4-4-» &c. =0: or of any equation that is deduced from
it by multiplying its terms by any arithmetical grogref-
fion, az+zb, «z+z2b, ctz+z^b, a-=^z.\b, &c. And, c<j«-
verfely, the roots of this new equation will be limits of
the propofed equation
x"—■pxn—’-f-yx”—*—, &c. =0.
“ If any roots of the equation of the limits are im-
poffible, then muff there be feme roots of the propofed
** equation impoffible.” For as (inp. no. col. 1. par. 2.)
the quantity 3<?1—a/’z-j-y was-demohftrated to be equal to
the produft of the exceffes of two values of x above the
third fuppofed equal to if any irhpoffible expreffion
be found in thofe excefles, then there will of coniequence
be found impoflible cxpreffions in thefe two values of x.
And “ from this obfervation rules may be deduced for
“ difcovering when there are impoffible roots in equa-
V tions.” Of which we fhall treat afterwards.
Befides the method already explained, there are others
by which limits may" be determined which the roof of
an equation cannot exceed.
Since the fquares of all real quantities are affirmative,
it follows, that “ the fum of the fquares of the roots of
“ any equation muff be greater than thefquareof the
“ greateif root.” And the fquare root of that fum will
therefore be a limit that muff exceed the greateft root of
the equation.
If the equation propofed is x”—px"—1 -pyx” 3 —
rx"—3-p, &c. =0, then the fum of the fquarps of the
roots (p. 103. col. 1. par. 1.) will be p1—2y. So that
V'/>1—2y will exceed the greateft root of that equation.
Or if you find, by p. 103. col. 1. par. 4. the fum of
the 4th powers of the roots of the equation, and extraft
ths biquadratic root of that fum, it will alfo exceed the
greateft root of the equation.
If you find a mean proportional between the fum of
the fquares of any two roots, b} and the fum of their
BRA.
biquadrates (a4+£4,) this mean proportional will be
>/a<:'-\-alb*-\-a*b'l+b6. And the fum of the cubes is
«3+£3. Now, fince a*—2ab-\-b1 is the fquare o( a—b,
it mull be always pofitive; and if you multiply it by a' b"1,
the produdt —2«3^3H-^1i4 will alfo be pofitive;
and confequently will be always greater than
2tfJi3. Add a6-\~b6 and we have a6a"'b7--\-a*b*-^-b^
greater than a6+2a'bl-^-b'•, and extrading the root
greater than <i3-H3. And the
fame may be demonftrated of any number of roots what¬
ever.
Now, if you add the fum of all the cubes taken affir-
7natively to their fum with their proper figns,, they will
give double the fum of the cubes of the affirmative roots.
And if you fubtrad the fecond fum from the firft, there
will iremain double the ium of the cubes of the negative
roots. Whence it follows, that “ half the fum of the
“ mean proportional betwixt the fum of the fquares
“ and the fum of the biquadrates, and of the fum
“ of the cubes of the roots with their proper figns, ex-
“ ceeds the fum of the cubes of the affirmative roots:”
and.‘* half their difference exceeds the fum of the cubes
of the negative roots.” And, by extrading the cube,
root of that fum and difference, you will obtain limits
that ffiall exceed the fums of the affirmative and of the
negative roots. And fincc- it is eafy,. from what has
been already explained, to diminim the roots of an equa¬
tion fo that they all may become negative but one, it ap¬
pears how, by this means, you may approximate very
near to that root. But this does not ferve when there
are impoffible roots.
Several other rules like thefe might be given for limi¬
ting the roots of equations. We {hall give one not men¬
tioned by other authors.
In a cubic x3—pxz-\-qx—r=o, find y*—2/r, and call
it e*; then {hall the greateft root of the equation always
 £ 4 __
be greater than 4 3, or / — • And,
v 3
In any equationlx"—I+yx'1—*—/■x”~3-|-,&c.:=Cj,
find and extrading the root of the 4th
power out of that quantity, it {hall always be lefs than
the greateft root of the equation. ....
Chap. XIX. Of the Refolution of Equatlonsr
all viboje Root are commenfurate.
It was demonftrated in chap. 15. that the laft term of
any equation is the produd of its roots : from which it
follows, that the roots of an equation, when commenfu-r
rable quantities, will be found among the divifors of the
laft term. And hence we have, for the refolution of, e-
1 qua tions, this
Rule. Bring all the terms to one fide of the equation,
find all the divifors of the laft term;1 and fubftitute
them fucceffiveiy for the unknown quantity in the equa¬
tion. So {hall that divifor which, fubitituted in this
maimer.
in A L G E
manner, gives the refalt ~o, be the root of the pro-
pofed equation.
For example, fuppofe this equation is to be refolved,
x5——2a1b')
- bx'+SabX 5 -°'
where the laft term is 2a1 b, whofe fimple literal divifors
are a, b, 2a, 2b, each of which may be taken either
pofitively or negatively: but as here we find there are
variations of figns in the equation, we need only take
them pofitively. Suppofe x—a the firft of the divifors,
and fubftituting a for x, the equation becomes
So that, the whole vanifiiing, it follows, that a is one
of the roots of the equation.
After the fame manner, if you fubftitute b in place of
x, the equation is
b*—2abz-\-2a*b—2a* b~)
—b'+zab* 5"0'
which vanifhing, (hews b to be another root of the equa¬
tion.
Again, if you fubftitute 2a for x, you will find all
the terms deftroy one another fb as to make the furh =0.
For it will then be
8«5—I2aj+4<J5—2azb') 
—b-\-(>a.1 b y °*
Whence we find, that 2a is the third root of the equa¬
tion. Which, after the firft two (+?, +£,) had been
found, might have been colledted from this, that the laft
term being the produft of the three roots, -r«, be¬
ing known, the third muft neceflarily be equal to the laft
term divided by the prodqdt ab, that is, =^-7-^=2<2.
ab
Let the roots of the cubic equation
x5—2xl—33x-i-90=o be required.
And firft the divifors of 90 are found to be 1, 2, 3, 5,
6, 9, to, 15, 18, 30, 4J, 90. If you fubftitute 1 for
x, you will find x3—ax1—33X+90—56; fo that 1 is
not a root of the equation. If you fubftitute 2 for x,
the refultwill be 24: but, putting x=3, you have
x3—2x*——18—99+90—117—117=0.
So that three is one of the roots of the propofed equa¬
tion. The other affirmative root is +5 ; nnd after you
find it, as it is manifeft from the equatioiiv that the other
root is negative, you are not- to try any more divifors ta¬
ken pofitively, but to fubftitute them, negatively taken,
for x: and thus you find, that —6 is the third root.
For putting x=—-6, you have
x3—2x1—33x4-90=—216—72+198-1-90=0.
This laft root might have been found by dividing the
laft term 90, having its fign changed by 15, the product
of the two roots already found, ,
When one of the roots of an equation is found, in
order to find the reft with lefs trouble, divide the propo¬
fed equation by the fimple equation which you are to de-
B
R
A.
dace from the root already found, and the quotient ffiall
give an equation of a degree lower than the propofed;
whofe roots will give the remaining roots required.
As for example, the root+3, firft found, gave x=3,
or x—3=0, whence dividing thus.
The quotient (hall give a quadratic equation x’+x—30
=0, which mult be the produdt of the other two fimple
equations from which the cubic is generated, and whofe
roots therefore muft be two of the roots of that cubic.
Now the roots of that quadratic equation are eafily
found, by chap. 12. to be + 5 and—6. For,
x1+v=30
add £ . . x1 +x+i=30 -l;|=
and . . x=~r-x^-—^=+5 or —6.
After the fame manner, if the biquadratic x4—2*3—
25x1+26x+i20=0 is to be refolved; by fubftituting
the divifors of 12a for x, you will find, that +3, one
of thofe divifors, is one of the roots; the fubftitutioa of
3 for x giving 81—54—225+78+120=279—279=0.
And therefore, dividing the propofed equation by x—3,
you muft inquire for the roots of the cubic xJ+**—2 ax
—40=0, and finding that +5, one of the divifors of
40, is one of the roots, you divide that cubic by x—5,
and the quotient gives the quadratic x I+6x+8=o, whofe
two roots are —2, —4. So that the four roots of the.
biquadratic are +3, +5, —2, —4.
This rule fuppofes that you can find all the divifors of
"the laft term; which you may always do thus.
“ If it is a fimple quantity, divide it by its lead divi-
“ for that exceeds unit, and the quotient again by its
“ leaft divifor, proceeding thus till you have a quotient
“ that is not divifible by any number greater than unit..
“ This quotient, with thefe divifors, are the firft or
“ fmple divifors of the quantity. And tire products of
“ the multiplication of any 2, 3, 4, <bc. of them are
“ the eompound divifors.”
As to find the divifors of 60; firft I divide by,2,
and the quotient 30 again by 2, then the the next quo-
15 by 3, and the quotient of this divifion 5 is not farther
divifible by any integer above units; fo that the finiple
divifors are,
2, 2, 3. 5;
The produdls of two, 4, 6, xo, 15.
The produdls of three, 12, 20, 30.
The produdt of all four, ........ 60.
The divifors of 90 are found after the fame manner;
Simple
A L G E B R A.
rig
, Simple divifors, 2, 3j 5* •
The produfts of two, . . 6, 9, 10., .15.
The produets of three, . , 18, 30, 45.
The produdt of all four,  90.
The divifors of nabb.
The fimple divifors, 3, 7, b, b.
The produtts of two, 21, 3#, 3/^, 7^, 7$, ab, bb;
The produils of three, • sitf, 21^' '^ab, ^hb; 'jab,
•jbh, abb.
The produdts of four, 2iab, 2lbb, .^abb, Jabb.
The produdts of the five, ... . 2iabb.
But as the laft term may have very many divifors, and
the labour maybe very great to fublKtute them all for
the unknown quantity, we (hall now (hew how it may be
abridged, by limiting to afmall number the divifors you
are to try. And, firft, it is plain, from p. 109. col. 1.
pur. 4. that “ any divifor that exceeds the greateft nega-
f‘ tive coefficient by unity is to be neglcdted.” Thus, in
refolving the equation ur4—2*3—2 5vI+26x+i20=o, as
25 is the'greateft negative coefficient, we conclude, that
the divifors of 120 that exceed 26 may.be negleded.
But the labour may be ftill abridged, if we make ufe of
the rule in the beginning of ch. i£.; that is, if we find the
number which fubilituted in thefe following exprellions,
x*—2-r3—2 5.v14-26x+i20,
2*3—3 V*—25V +13,
6*1——25,
2x —I,
will give in them all a pofitive refult: for that number
will be greater1 than the greateft root, and all. the divifbrs
of 120 that exceed it may be negleded.
That this inveftigation may be eafier, wejought to be¬
gin always v/ith that expreffion where the negative roots
feem to prevail moft; as here in the quadratic expreflion
—6x—25; where finding that 6 fubftituted for x
gives that expreffion pofitive, and gives all the other ex-
preffions at the fame time pofitire, I conclude, that 6 is
greater than any of the Toots, and that all the divifors
of 120 that exceed 6 may be negle&ed.
If the equation ^r3oat—72=0 is propofed,
the rule of p. 109. col. 1. par. 4. does not help to abridge
the operation; the laft term itfelf being the greateft nega¬
tive term. But, by chap. 18.. we inquire'what number
fubftituted for x will give all thefe expreffions pofitive.
x'+ux^+iox—72-
2,X1-+22x-\-lQ'
3*-f-li.
Where the labour is very fhort, fince We need only at¬
tend to the firft expreffion; and we fee immediately that
4 fubftituted for x gives a pofitive r.efult, whence all the
divifors of 72 that exceed 4 are to be rejected;' and thus
by a few trials, we find, that 4*2 is the pofitive root of
the equation'. Then dividing the equation by *—2, and
refolving the quadratic equation that is the quotient of
the diviiion, you find the other two roots to be —9, and
But there is another method that reduces the divifors
of the laft term, that can be ufeful, . ftill to more narrow
limits,
Suppofe the cubic equation x^—px'+qx—r—o is pfo-
pofed to be refolved. Transform it to an equation whole
roots ffiall be lefs than the values of * by. unity, aifu-
ming' >—*—x. And the laft term of the transformed
equation will be i—p+q—r; .which is found by fubfti-
tuting unit, the difference of x and9, for x, in the pro¬
pofed equation; as will eafily appear from p. 106. col. 1
par. 4. where, when 9=*—e, the laft term of the tranf-
forrhed equation was e3-—pe^-^cqi—r.
Transform again the equation —p t-\-q- —r-—0, by
affuming y—A-f-i, into an equation whofe roots ffiall ex¬
ceed the values of * by unit, and the laft term of the
transformed equation will be —1—p-—q—r, the fame
that arifes by fubftituting — t, the difference betwixt x
and^, for x, in the propofed equation.
Now the values of x are feme of the divifors of r,
which is’the term left when you fuppofe x=o ;• and the
values of the /s are feme of the divdors of +1—p+q
—/•, and of —1—/>—y—r, refpeedively. And thefe
values are in arithmetical progreffion increafing by the
common difference unit; becaufe x—1, x, x-ri, are in
that progreflion. And it is obvious the fame reafonirig
may be extended to any .equation of whatever degree.
So that this gives a general method for the refoiution of
equations whole roots are commenfurabie.
Rule. Subftitute, in place of the unknown quantity,
fucceffively the terms of the prpjyeffion, 1, o, —1,
&c. and find all the divifors of the fums that refult;
then take out all the arithmetical progreffions you can
find among thefe divifors, whofe common difference is
unit; and the values of x will be among the divifors
arifing from the fubftitutions of x=o that belong to
thefe progre0ions. The values of x will be affirmative
when the arithmetical progreffion increafes, but nega¬
tive when it decreafes.
Examp. "Let it be required to find one of the roots
of the equation x3—x*—iox-)-6=o. The operation is
thus;
Where the fuppofitions of x=i, x=6> x=—1, give the
quantity x3—-x*—iox4-6 equal to—4, 6, 14; among
v/hofe divifors we find only one arithmetical progreflion
Vol. I. No. 5. 3
4, 3, 2 ; the term of which, oppofite to the fuppofition
of x=G, being 3, and the feries decreafing, we try if
•—3 fubftituted for x makes the equation vanilh; which
F f , fucceeding
114 ALGEBRA.
fucceeding one of its roots muft be —3. Then divi- If it is required to find the roots of the equation
ding the'equation by we find the roots of the x3 — 3** — — ']2 = b, the operation will be
(quadratic) quotient x1—4X-|-2=o are 2. thus ;
Suppof\R'fu\ts
P rogreffions.
X = I; 120 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,10,12,15,20,24,30,40,60,120
= 0— 72 i,2,^3,446,8,9,12,18,24j36,72.
=—t— 301,2,3,5,6,10,15,30.  
8 3 4 .5
9234
■O I 2 3
Of thefe four arithmetical progreflions having their
common difference equal to unit, the firft gives x=9, the
others give x——2, x=-^3, x==—4; all which fuc-
ceed except x=—3 : fo that the three values of x are
+9> —2, —4.
Chap. XX. 0/ the Refolution of Equations
by/finding the Equatfons of a lower Degree
that are their Divifors.
To find the roots of an equation is the fame thing as
to find the fimple "equations, by the multiplication of
which into one another it is produced, or, to find the
fimpls equations that divide it without a remainder.
If fuch fimple equations' cannot be found, yet if we
can find the quadratic equations from which the propofed
equation is produced, we may difcover its roots after¬
wards by the refolution of thefe quadratic equations.
Or, if neither thefe fimple equations, nor thefe quadra¬
tic equations can be founds yet, by finding & cubic or
biquadratic that is a divifor of the pfopofed equation,
we may deprefs it lower,, and make the folution more
eafy.
Now, in order to find the rules by which thefe divi¬
fors may be difcovered, we fliali fuppofe, that
tnx—n (*fimple
mx1—nxAgr C are the < quadratic »
mx"*—wx^-ffx—rj (cubic .
divifors of the propofed equation; and if E reprefent
the quotient arifing by dividing the propofed equation by
that divifor, then
Eyhn . *—jix/t.
Or, EXmx'1—nx'/rx—s, will reprefent the. propofed
equation itfelf. \\ here it is plain, that “ fince is the
“ coefficient of the higheft term of the divifors, it muft
,, be a divifor of the coefficient of the Kigheft term of
' the propofed equation.”
Next we are to obferve, that, fuppofing the equation
has a fimple divifor mx—«, if we.fubiHtute in the equa¬
tion EXmx—», in place of x, any quantity, as a, then
the quantity that will refult from this fubflitution will
necefiarily have ma—n f r one of its divifors: fince, in
.this fubflitution, mx—« becomes 771a—n. •
If. we fubflitute fucceffively for x, any arithmetical
progreffion, a, a—e, a—2e, &c. the quantities that will
refult from thefe fublUtutions will have among their di¬
vifors
7n a—71,
via—-me-—71,
ma—277ie—n, which are alfo'in arithmetical pro¬
greffion, having their common difference equal to me.
If, for example, we fubflitute for x the terms'of this
progreifion, 1, o, —1, the quantities that refult have a-
mong their divifors the arithmetical progreffion rn—n,
—n, —m—n ; or, changing the figns, 7,—m, n, n-\-7n ‘
Where the difference of the terms is m, and the term
belonging to the fuppofition of x=o is n.
It is manifefl therefore, that when an equation has any
fimple divifbr, if you^fubflitute foryv the prdgreffion 1,
o, —1, there will be ?ound amongfl the divifors of the
fums that refult from thefe fubltfuitions, one arithmetical
progreffion at leafl, whole common difference, will be unit
or a divifor m of the coefficient of the higheft term, and
which will be the coefficient of x in the fimple divifor re¬
quited: and whofe term, arifing from the iiippofition
of x—o, will be n, the other member of the fimple di¬
vifor mx—71.
From which this rule is deduced for difeovering fuch
a fimpie divifor, when there is any.
Rule. Subftitnte for x in the propofed equation fuc-
eeffively the numbers 1, o, —1. Find all the divi¬
fors of the fums that refult from this fubftftution, and
take out all the arithmetical progreffions you can find
amongft them, whofe difference is unit, or fome divi¬
for of the coefficient of the higheft term of the equa¬
tion. Then fuppofe 71 equal to that term of any one
progreffion that arifes from the fuppofition of,x’—o,
and m— the forefaid divifor of the coefficient of the
higheft term of the equation, which m is alfo the dif¬
ference of the terms of this progruffion; fo fhall you
have rnx—11 for the divifor required.
You may find arithmetical progreffions giving divifors
that will not fucceed; but if there is any divifor, it will
be found thus by means of thefe arithmetical prqgreffions.
If the equation propofed has the coefficient of its
higheft term==i, then it will be w=i, and the divifor
will be x—n, and the rule will coincide with that given
in the end of the laft chapter, which we demonftj ated
after a different manner; for the divifor being x—n, the
value of x will be -\ n, the term of the progreffion that
is a divifor of the fum that arifes from fuppofing x=o.
Of this cafe we gave examples in the laft chapter; and
though it is eafy to reduce an equation whofe higheft:
term has a coefficient different from unit, to-one where
that coefficient ffiall be unit, by p. ;o6. col. 1. par. 6. ;
yet, without that redu&ion, the equation may be refolved
by this rule, as in the following
Examp.
B
A.
l5
A L G E
Examp. Suppofe 8vJ—26x-i+ii.v+io=Oj and
that it is required to find the values of x} the operation
is thus;
Suppof.\
Jlefultf.
, . C+3
= o “26/V*-lri i*+'io— A +10
=—i'  C—3?
\Divifors.\Progr
i.3-
.2,.5,1.0.
'5»7»35
The difference of the terms of the laid arithmetical
progreffion is 2, a divifor of 8, the coefficient of the
higheft term x% of the .equation, therefore fuppofitig
m~2, J, we try the divifor 2x—5 ; which fucceed-
ing, it follows, that 2X—5=0, or x—2i.
The quotient is the quadratic qx3—3X—2=0, whofe
‘roots are and fo that the three
roots of the propofed equation are 2^, 2—,
3—V41
The other arithmetical progrefiion gives
x+2 for a divifor ; but it does not fucceed.
If the propofed equation has no fimple divifor, then
we are t© inquire if it has nor fome quadratic divifor
(ifitfelf is an equation of more than three dimenfions.)
An equation having the divifor wx2—nx-\-r may be
-exprefled, as in the firft article of this chapter, by
Ey.mx1' — n.\ -f-v ; and if we fubftitute for x any known
quantity a, the fum that will refult will.have mu1—na-\~r
for one of its divifors; and,' if we fubflitute fucceffively
for x the pr ogre (Ron a, a—f, —2?, a—y, &c„ the
fums that arife from this fubilitution will have
ma'l—ria-\-r
-nY.a — e-\-r
—nY.a—2e+r
m'Aa—y z—«X.;—3?+r,
R
4m—2«+r
rn — « -1-r
. +r
?n + n + r, which fubtrafted from 4;;?,
m, o, m, leave 2«—r
—n—r, an arithmetical progreflion
whofe difference is +«; and whofe term, arifing from
the fubftitution of o for x, is —r.
From which it follows, that by this operation, if the
propofed equation has a quadratic divifor, you will find
an arithmetical progreifion that will determine to you n
and r, the coefficient ?n being fuppofed known ; fince it
is unit, or a divifor of the coefficient of the higheft term
of the. equation. Only you are to obferve, that if the
firft term w/xz of tRe quadratic divifor is negative, then
in order to obtain an arithmetical progreffion, you are
not to fubtrad, but add the divifors —Am—2nr,
—m—+r, —to the terms 4772, m, o, m.
The general rule therefore, deduced from what we
had faid, is,
“ SuBftitute in the propofed equation for x the terms
“ 2, 1,0, —1, fucceffively. ’ Find all the divifors
“ of the fums that refult, adding and fubtrading them
“ from the fquares of thefe numbers 2, 1,0, —1, foe.
“ multiplied by a numerical divifor of the higheft term
“ of the propofed equation, and take but all the arith-
“ metical progreffions that can be found amofigft thefe
“ fums and differences. Let r be that term in any'
“ progrellion that arifes from the fubftitution of x—o,
“ and let =+=« be the difference arifing from fubtrading
“ that term from the preceding terrain the progreffion ;
“ laftly, let m be the forefard divifor of the higheft.
“ term; then ffiall mx*z±znx—r be the divifor that
“ ought to be tried.” And one one or other of the di-
vifors found in this manner will fucceed, jf the propofeef
equation has a quadratic divifor.
among their divifors refpedively.
Thefe terms are not now, as in the laft cafe, in arith¬
metical progreffion ; but if you fubtrad them from the
fquares of the terms a, a—e, a—2e, •—y. Sic. mul¬
tiplied by nt a divifor of the higheft term of the propo¬
fed equation, that is from
ma z
mbba-r—e *
wiYa—:<* 1
vi'Yci—jT)1, &c. the remainders.
na—r
nXa—e—r
wXrf—2e—r
; n-\-a—7,e-—r, See. ffiall be in arithmetical
progreffion, having their common difference equal to ,nXe.
If, for example, we fuppofe the affirmed progr.effion
a, a—e. a—2et a—y> See. to be 2, x, o, —x, the di-
-vifors will be
Chap. XXI. Of the Method* by which yen
may approximate to the Roots of Numeri¬
cal Equations by their Limits.
When any equation is propofed to be refolved, firffi
find the limits of tire roots (by chap, vf.) as for ex¬
ample, if the roots of the equation x2—i6x-\-^=<y
are required, you find the limits are b, 8. and 17, by
p. no. col. 2. par. 2.: that is, the leaft root is between
o and 8, and the greateft between 8 and 17.
In order to find the firft of the roots, I confider, that
if I fubftitute o for x in > 2—idx+yy,; the refult is pefi-
tive, viz. +55, and confequently any number betwixt
c and 8 that gives a- pofitive refult, mu.ft be lefs than the
leaft root, and any number- that gives a negative refult
mult be greater. Since o and ,8 are the limits, I try
4, that is, the mean betwixt them, and fuppofing
x — 4> *2—64+55=7, from which L
conclude that the root is greater than 4. So that now
we have the root limited between 4 and. 8. Therefore
I
A, L O E B II A.
I next try 6, and fjbftituting it for x we find —i6x-J~
$5=36—96+5.5 =>—? 5 which refillt. being negative, I
conclude that 6 is greater than the root required, which
therefore is limited now between^ and 6. And fub/li-
tuting 5, the mean between them, in place ofi x, I find
Xs'—i6x+55—25—r&o+j5=o; aftd confequently 5 is
the leaf! root* of the equation. After the fame manner
you will difeover 11 to be the greateft root of that equa¬
tion.-
Thus by diminifning the greater, or inereafing the
leffer limit, you._ma}r difeover the trtje root when it is a
commehfurable quantity. But, by proceeding after this
manner, when you have two limits, the one greater than
the root, the other lyfier, that differ from one another
but by unit, then'you .may conclude the root is incom-
iiietifur-able. ■ •
We may'however, by continoiifg the operation in
fraflions, approximate to it. As if the equation propofed
is x1—6-v+7=o, if we fuppofe .,v = 2, the refult is
4—-12+7=—1', which being negative, and the fuppofi-
tion x—o giving a pofirive refult, it follows that the root
is between 0 and 2. Next we fuppofe x=i; whence
x*—6x+7—1—6+7~+2, which being pofitive, we in¬
fer the rodt is betwixt 1 and 2, ahd Aonfequently in-
commenfurable. In order to .approximate to it, we fup-„
pofe and find x1 — 6x.+ 7=2^ — 9+ 7 — t 5 an£I
this refult being pofitive, we infer the root muft be be¬
twixt 2 and 14-. And therefore we try 1 + and find
x1—6x+7-4-§—V+7=3t6— 1 o-V+7=—tV> which
is negative ; fo that we conclude the root to be betwixt
and ii. And therefore we try next -i-|, which gi¬
ving alfo a negative refult, we conclude the root is be¬
twixt 14- (or 14) and 1^. We try therefore i-nr> and
the refult being pofitive, we conclude that the root muft
be betwixt x^-tand ahd therefore is nearly i44«
Or you.niay approximate more eafily by transforming
the equation propofed into another whofe roots fhall be
equal to 10, 100, or ioco times the roots of the for¬
mer, by p. xo6. col. 1. par. 4. and taking the limits
greater in the fame proportion. This transformation
is eafy; for you are only to multiply the 2d term by
10, 100, or xoooj the 3d term by their fquares, the
4th by their cubes, e^c.. The equation of the laft ex¬
ample is thus transformed into xz—6oox+7oooo=o,
whofe roots are 100 times the roots of the propofed e-
quatioa, and whofe limits are x.oo and 200. Proceed¬
ing as before, we try 150, and find x4—6oox+7oooo=
22500—90000+70000=:2 500, fo that 150 is lefs than
the root. You next try 175, which giving a negative
refult muft be greater than the root: and thus proceed¬
ing,you find the root to be betwixt 158 and 159 : froxh
which you infer, that the leaft root of the propofe-d equa¬
tion x1—6x+7=:o is betwixt 1.58 and 1.59, being the
hundredth part of the root of x1—6cox'+70oCio=o.
If the cubic equation x3—1 jxi+63x—50=0 is pro¬
pofed tq be r'efolvedy the equation of the limits will be
(byp. 110. col.2. par.2.) 3v2—^ox+63=o,>or xa—-iox,
+21=0, whofe roots are 3, 7 ; and’by fuhftitutirig o for
x, the value of x3-—x —50 is negative; and by
fuoftituting 3 for x, that quantity becomes pofitive.
x=x gives it negative, and x=2 gives it pofitive, fo that
the root is between 1 and 2, 'and therefore incommen*
furable. You may proceed as in the foregoing examples
to.approximate to the root. But there are other me¬
thods by which you may do that more eafily and readi¬
ly; which we proceed to explain.
When you have difeovered the value of the root to he.
lefs than an unit (as, in this.example, you know it is a
little above 1), . fuppofe the difference betwixt its real
value and the number that you have found nearly equal
to it, to be reprefented by /: as in this example. , Let
x ~ i --pf. Subftitute this value for x in the equation,
thus,
i+3/+3/2+^5
—1 30/—ij/1
+ 63*= 63+65/.
—50=—50
x3— 1 sxJ+63 x—50-—1+36/— 12/2 +/3 =0.
Now becaufe / is fuppofed lefs than unit, its powers.
/2,/3, may be negledied in this approximation; fo
that afiuming only the two firft terms, we have — 1 +
36/—6, or f = ^*5-~.027 ; fo that x will be nearly
1.027.
You may have a/1 carer value of x by confidering, that
feeing —1+36/—i2/2+/5=o, it follows that
36—i2/i-/:
= (by . fubftituting -yS for /)
— = *02803.
nearly = - , — - , . - —
36 I2XT^+T5-X-r?-
But the value of / may be corredted and determi¬
ned more accurately, by fuppofing g to be the difference
betwixt its real value and that which we laft found
nearly equal to it. So that /=.02803+0-. Then by
fubftituting this value for/ in the equation
/3—12/2+36/—1=0, it will ftand as follows..
/3 — 0.0000220226+ 0.0023 57^ +o.oSqo^1 +^3
—12/* ——.00942816 —0.67272^-—I2gz
+ 36/ = 1.00908 +36^
=—0.0003261374+35.329637^—IX.9i95^1+i-3=o.
Of which the firft two terms, negledting the reft, give
35.329637X^=o.ooo326x374, andg=.^2231^13.13 =
■0.00000953127.
35-329637
So that /=o.028o3923X2 7 ; and
.x=:i+/=i.o28o3923I27; which is very near the true
root of the equation that was propofed. *
If ftil! a greater degree of exadtnefs is required, fup¬
pofe h equal to the difference betwixt the true value, of g
and
A L G
and that we bare already found, and proceeding as a-
bove you may correct the value of g.
It is not only one root of an equation that can be ob¬
tained by this method, but, by making ufe of the other
limits, you may difcover the other roots in the fame
manner. The equation of p. 116. col. 2. par. 1. x3~
—50=0, has for its limits o, 3, 7, 50. We
have already found the leaf! root to be nearly 1.02803<5.
If it is required to find the middle root, you proceed in
the fame manner to determine its neared limits to be
6 and 7; for 6 fubftituted for x gives a pofitive, and 7
a negative refult. Therefore you may fuppofe
and by fubdituting this value for x in that equation,
you find p+zf1—9/+4=o, fo that /=£ nearly. Or,
fince f— ^ , it is (by fubftituting £ for f)
9—3/1-/1
f—  iwhence nearly. Which
9 T It
value’ may dill be corroded as in the preceding articles.
After the fame manner you may approximate to the value
of the highed root of the equation.
“ In all thefe operations, you will approximate fooner
H to the value of the root, if you take the three lad
“ terms of the equation, and extraft: the root of the
“ quadratic equation confiding of thefe three terms.”
Then, in p. 116. col. 2. par. 2. indead of the two
lad terms of the equation p — i2/'*+36y"—1=0, if
you take the three lad, and extract the root of the
quadrartic 12/^—36/H-i=o» you will find y=.028o3i,
which is much nearer the true value than what you dif¬
cover by fuppofing 36/^—1=0.
It is obvious that this method extends to all equations.
“ By affuming equations affedted with general coeffi-
“ cients, you may, by this method, deduce general
“ rules or theorems for approximating to the roots of
“ propofed equations of whatever degree.”
Chap. XXII. Of the Rules fer finding the
Number of Impojfible Roots in an Equation.
The number of impojjible roots in an equation may,
for mod part, be found by this
Rule. Write down a feries of fractions whofe deno¬
minators are the numbers in this progreflion, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5. <bc. continued to the number which expref-
fes the dimenfion o«f the equation. Divide every
fraftion in the feries by that which precedes it, and
place the quotients in order over the middle terms of
the equation. And, if the fquare of any term mul¬
tiplied into the fraction that (lands over it gives a
product greater than the redtangle of the two adjacent
. terms, write under the term the fign +, but if that
, product fs not greater than the redtangle, write —;
and the- figns under the extreme terms being +, there
will be as many imaginary roots as there are changes
of the figns from + to —> and from — to +•
Thus, the given equation being x3+/>xx + 3/dx —
q — o,\ divide the fecond fraction of the feries -f,
Vol. I. No. 5. 3
E B R A. 117
by the fird, and the third by the fecomd, and place
the quotients and -f, over the middle terms in this
manner,
T T
?=o
+ — + +
Then becaufe the fquare of the fecond term multiplied
into the.fradlion that (lands over it, that is, \Xp2x ',■ is
lefs than 3j»1*4 the redtangle under the firft and third
terms, I place under the fecond term the fign —: but as
(=:3p4x>) the fquare of the third term multi¬
plied into its fradtion is greater than nothing, and con-
fequently much greater than —pqxz, the negative pro-
dudt of the adjoining terms, I write under the third term
the fign +. I write + likewife under x3 and —q the
fird and lad terms ; and finding in the figns, thus mark¬
ed, two changes, one from + to —, and another from
— to I conclude the equation has two impoffible
roots.
When two or more terms are. wanting in the equation,
under the fird of fuch terms place the fign —, under the
fecond +, under the third —,’and fo on alternately; on¬
ly when the two terms to the right and left of the defi¬
cient terms have contrary figns, you are always to write
the fign under the lad deficient term.
As in the equations
xs+ax* * * * +a*=o
+ + — + — +
and xs+ax* * * * —as=zo
+ +--++ +
the fird of which has four impofilhle roots, and the 0-
ther t'M.'o.
Hence too we may difcover if the imaginary roots lie
hid among the affirmative, or among the negative roots.
For the figns of the terms which dand over the figns be¬
low that change from -j- to —, and — to +, (hew, by
the number of their variations, how many of the impofii-
ble roots are to be reckoned affirmative; and that there
are as many negative imaginary rdots as there are repeti¬
tions of the fame fign.
As in the equation
xJ—4x4+4*s—2X*—5.*—4=0
+ + — + + +
the figns ( 1 ) of the terms —4X4 + 4X3 —2x*
which dand over the figns -| )- pointing out two affir¬
mative roots, we infer that two impoflible roots lie a-
mong the affirmative : and the three changes of the
figns in the equation (-j—*—  —) giving three
affirmative roots and two negative, the five roots will
be one real affirmative, two negative, and two imagi¬
nary affirmatives. If the equation had been
x5—4X4—4X3—2X1—5X—4=0
+ + — - -b +
the terms—4X4—4X3 that dand over the frd vaca¬
tion -1 , (hew by the repetition of the fign —, that
one imaginary root is to be reckoned negative, and the.
G g te ms
118 A L G
terms —2-r1 — 5* that ftand over the laft variation
 K give, for the fame reafon, another negative
impofiible root ; fo that the figns of the equation
(-4 ) giving one affirmative root, we con-
A L H
ALGENEB, a fixed flat of the fecond magnitude on
the right fhoulder of Perfeus. See Perseus.
ALGHER, or Algeri, a city on the north-weft coaft
of the ifland of Sardinia, fituated in E. long. 8° 40 y
and N. lat. 410 3c/.
ALGIABARII, among the Mahometans, the name of
a feA of predeftinarians. See Predestination.
ALGIERS, a kingdom of Africa, fituated between
30° and 370 of N* lat. and between i° W. and
90 E. long. It is bounded by the Mediterranean on
the north, by the kingdom of Tunis on the eaft, by
mount Adas on the louth, and by the river Mulvia,
which feparates it from the empire of Morocco, on
the weft; extending 600 miles, from eaft to weft, a-
long the Babary coaft.
The Turks, who are mafters of this kingdom, are
but few in number in comparifon of the Moors, or
natives, who have no fhare in the government. The
Arabs, who live in tents,- are diftind from either. The
dey of Algiers is an abfoiute, though an elective mo¬
narch. He is chofen by the Turkifh foldiers only,
and is frequently depofed, or even put to death by
them.
Algiers is alfo the name of the capital of the above-
mentioned kingdom, fituated near the mouth of the
the river Safran, on' the Mediterranean fea, oppofite
to the ifland of Majorca; its E. long, being 30 2 7 ,
and its N. lat. 36° 49'.
ALGOIDES, in botany. See Zannichellia.
ALGOL, the name of a fixed ftar of the third magni¬
tude in the conftellation Perfeus, otherwife called Me-
dufa’s head. See Astronomy, Of the fixed Jiars.
ALGONQUIN, one of the two principal languages
fpoken in N. America, viz. from the river of St Lau¬
rence to that of Miffifiippi; the other which is called
Haron, being fpoken in Mexico.
ALGOR, with phyficians, an unufual coldnefs in any
part of the body.
ALGORITHM, and arabic word expreflive of nume¬
rical computation. See Arithmetic, Chap. I.
ALGOSAREL, in botany, an obfolete name of the
daucus. See Daucus.
ALGUAZIL, in the Spanilh policy, an officer whofe
bufinefs it is to fee theMecrees of a judge executed.
ALHAGI, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies of
hedyfarum. See Hydesarum.
ALHAMA, a fmall town of Granada in Spain, fur-
rounded with hills, and fituated about twenty-five
miles S. W. of Granada, W. long. 4VN, lat. 370.
ALHANDAL, among Arabian phyficians, a name ufed
for colocynth. See Colocynth.
ALHEAL, in botany. See Galeopsis, Stachys.
! B R A.
elude that of the four negative roots two are imaginary.
This always holds good, unlefs, which fometiraes
may. happen, “ there are more impofiible roots in the
“ equation than are difcoverable by the rule.”
A L I
ALHENNA, in botany, a fynonime of the Lawfonia.
See Lawsonia.
ALHIDADE, or Alidade, a term of Arabic origin,
fignifying the index or diopter of a mathematical in-
ftrument for taking heights and diftances. See Di¬
opter.
ALJAMEIA, the name by which the Morifcoes of
Spain called the Spanifh language.
ALICANT, a large fea-port town of Spain, in the
province of Valencia, wdth a very ftrong caftle. It
i§ fituated in W. long, , and N. lat. 38° 37/,
ALICATA, a mountain of Sicily, near the valleys
Mazara and Noto, upon which was fituated (as is ge¬
nerally thought) the famous Daedalion, where the ty¬
rant Phalaris kept his brazen bull.
ALICE, a cape of the Hither Calabria in the kingdom
of Naples, called in Latin Alicium proviontorium.
ALICES, an obfolete name of the fpots that precede
the eruption of the fmall-pox.
ALICULA, in Roman antiquity, a kind of chlamys
worn by children, which fome call tunica manicata.
ALICUR, a very fmail ifland in the Tufcan fea, about
fifteen miles weft from the Lipari, on the coaft of Sicily.
ALIDADE. See Alhidade.
ALIDES, among the Mahometans, a defignation given
to the defeendents of Ali; between whom and the
Ommiades,. there was a warm difpute about tfie kali-
phate See Kaliphate.
ALJEMBUT, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpecies
of mimofa. See Mimosa.
ALIBI, in Scots law; when a perfon purfued for the
commiflion of a crime, libelled to have been commit¬
ted at a certain place, and upon a certain day, proves
in his defence, that he was elfewhere at the time li¬
belled, he is faid to have proved alibi. See Law,
tit. Crimes.
ALIEN, in Scots law, a perfon who owes allegiance
to a foreign prince; and who, on that account, can¬
not hold any feudal right in Scotland without being
naturalized. See Law, title, Conjlitution of heritable
rights.
Alienan import laid on all. goods imported by a-
liens, over and above the cuftoms paid for fuch goods
imported by Britifti, and on Britifh bottoms.
K'Li'ES-priories,, a kind of inferior monafteries, formerly
very numerous in England, and fo called from their
belonging to foreign abbeys. _
ALIENABLE, denotes fomething that may be aliena¬
ted. See Alienation.
ALIENATION, in law, denotes the a<ft of making o-
ver a man’s property in land, tenements, &c. to an¬
other perfon.
Alie-
A L I (it
Alienation, in mortmain, is making over lands, te¬
nements, fee. to a body politic, or to a religious
houfe, for which the king’s licence mud firft be ob¬
tained, otherwife the lands, fee. alienated will be
forfeited. See Mortmain.
ALIFANUS, in botany, a fynonime of the rhexia. See
Rhexia.
ALIFORMIS, in anatomy, the name of a pair of muf-
cles. See Anatomy, Part II.
Aliformis procejfus, the name given by fome to the
prominencies of the os cuneiforme. See Anatomy,
Part I.
ALIM A, a kind of fand found in gold mines, of which
they make lead.
ALIMENT, whatever promotes the growth or nourilh-
ment of animal or vegetable bodies. See Food.
Obligation of Aliment, in Scots law, the natural obli¬
gation on parents to provide their children with the
( neceffaries of life, fee. See Law, titles, Marriage,
and Obligations and contrails in general.
ALIMENTARY, an epithet for every thing that be¬
longs to aliment or food.
Aliment.ary debt, in Scots law, an obligation come
under by one perfon to pay a certain fum annually for
the maintenance of another, either grajuitoufly, in
confideration of a fum of money funk, or by way of
■ wages. See Law,- title, Arrejhnent and poinding.
Alimentary children, in Roman antiquity, an apeiia-
tion given to thofe educated in houfes not unlike our
hofpitals.
AnMENTAR.Y-Vtfw, among, the Romans, that whereby
children were obliged to maintain their aged parents.
ALIMENTATION, a term ufed by feme writers, par¬
ticularly Lord Bacon, for what is commonly called
nutrition. See Nutrition.
ALIMONY, inlaw. See ^Aliment.
ALIMOS, in botany, an obfolete name of the glycir-
rhiza. See Glycirrhiza.
ALIOS-BATON, in ichthyology, an obfolete name of
a fpecies of rana or frog. See Rana.
ALIPILARIUS, or Alipilus, in Roman antiquity,
a fervant belonging to the baths, whole bufinefs it was,
by means of waxe» plafters, and an inftrument called
volfella, to take .off the hairs from the arm-pits, and
even arms, legs, fee. this being deemed a point, of
cleanlinefs.
ALIPTA, in Grecian antiquity. See Iatrauptra.
AL1PTERIUM, in the ancient gymnafia, the lame with
ekeothefium. See El^othesium.
ALIPOW mantis ceti, a kind of white turbith, found
in Languedoc, ufed as a purgative. See Turbith.
ALIQUANT parts, thofe parts which one number can¬
not meafu re. See Arithmeric.
ALIQUOT parts, thofe parts which one number can
meafure. See Arithmetic.
ALISE, or Alize, afmall town of France, in the di-
ftrid of Auxois.
Alise, or Elise, is a fmall illand in the Irilh fea, not
far from the mull of Galloway.
ALISMA, in botany, a genus of the hexandria polygy-
nia clafs. The characters of the alifma arc thefe.
9 ) ALL
The.calix confills of three pieces or leaves; the flower
has three petals ; and the feeds are numerous. There
are feven fpecies of this plant, viz. the plantago, or
great water-plantain,, which grows in all the marlhy
parts of this country; the rahunculoides, or leffer wa¬
ter-plantain ; the natans, or creeping water-plantain;
the damafonium, or liar-headed water-plantain; all
of which are natives of Britain: the Hava, cordifolia,
and fubulata, are natives of America.
ALITES, in Roman antiquity, a defignation given to
fuch birds as afforded matter of auguries by their flight;
in which fenfe they are contradillinguilhed from thofe
called ofeines. See Os c i n e s.
ALIZE, in geography. See Alise.
ALKA, in ornithology. See Alca.
ALKAHEST, oeAlcahest, in chemiftry, anuniver-
fal menltruum capable of refolving all bodies into their
full principles. Van Helmont pretended he was pof-
feffed of fuch a menllruum; but, however credulous
people might be impofed on in his days, the notion is
now become as ridiculous as the philofophers Hone, the
perpetuum mobile, fee. It is likewife ufed by fome
authors for all fixed falls volatilized.
ALKAHESTIC, an epithet applied to all powerful men-
ftruums.
ALKALI, in chemillry, a name for all fubllahces which
ferment with acids. See Chemistry, Of Alkalis,
or alkaline fuhjlances. Alkali originally fignified-Only
the fait of the kali.
ALKALINE, an epithet for every body which poffefles
any of the qualities of an alkali.
ALKALIZ ATION, in chemiftry, the impregnating any
liquor with alkaline bodies.
ALKALY. See Alkali.
ALKANET, in botany, the Englifli name of the an-
chufa. See Anchusa.
ALKEKENGI, in botany, a fynonime of feveral fpe¬
cies of the atropa and phyfalis ; it is alfo the. trivial
name of a fpecies of the phyfalis. See Physalis,
and Atropa.
ALKERMES, in pharmacy, a compound cordial medi¬
cine made in the form of a confedion. The principal
ingredient is the"kermes. See Kermes.
ALK1N, a city of Arabia Felix, feven days journey, S.
from Mecca.
ALKOOL. See Alcohol.
ALKY of lead, a fweet fubftance obtained by the che-
mifts from lead. . '
ALL-HALLOWS, the fame with All-faints. Seethe
next article
ALL-SAINTS, a feftival obferved by moft denomina¬
tions of Chriftians, in commemoration of all the faints
in general. It is kept on the firft of November.
All-saints bay, or baiha de todos fanitos, a fpacious
ha'rbour near St Salvador in Brazil, in S. America,
on the Atlantic Ocean, W. long. 40°, S. lat. 120.
ALL-SOULS, a feftival kept in commemoration of all
the faithful deceafed, on the fecond of November.
ALLA, or Allah, the name by which all the profef-
fors of Mahomctanifm call the Supreme Being.
The term alia is Arabic, derived from the verb alah,
to
ALL ( 120 )
to 'adore. It is tire fame with the Hebrew cloak, which'
fignifies the adorable Being.
ALLANTOIS, or Allantoides, a gut-ftiaped veficle
inverting the foetus of cows, goats, flieep, <&c. filled
with a liquor conveyed to it from the urachus.
ALLAY, See Alloy.
ALLEGATA, in Roman antiquity, a kind of fubfcrip-
tion ufed by the emperors, importing tire writings to be
verified.
ALLEGATION, in matters of literature, is the quo¬
ting an author in regard to the fubjedt in hand.
ALLEGIANCE, in law, denotes the obedience which
every fubjedt owes to his lawful fovereign.
Oath of Allegiance, in the Britilh policy, that taken
in acknowledgment of the king as a temporal prince;
as the oath of fupremacy acknowledges him for the
fupreme head of the church.
ALLEGORICAL, a term applied to whatever belongs,
to, or partakes of, tlje nature of an allegory. See
Axlegory.
ALLEGORIST, one who deals in allegories: fuch
were many of the Chriftian fathers.
ALLEGORY, in compofition, confirts in chufing a ie-
condary fubjedt, having all its properties and circum-
ftances refembling thofe of the principal fubjedt, and
defcribing the former in fuch a manner as to reprefent
the latter. The principal fubjedt is thus kept out of
view, and we are left to difcover it by refiedtion. In
other words, an allegory is, in every refpedt, fimilarto
an hicroglyphical painting, excepting only that words
are ufed inftead of colours. Their effedts are precife-
ly the fame : An Hieroglyphic taifes two images in the
mind; one feen, that reprefents one that is not feen :
An allegory does the fame; the reprefentative fubjedt
is defcribed; and the refemblance leads us to apply
the defcription to the fubjedt reprefented. .
There cannot be a finer or-more corredt allegory
than the following, in which a vineyard is made to re
ptefent God’s own people the Jews
“ Thou haft brought a vine out of Egypt; thou
“ haft cart' out the heathen, and planted it. Thou
“ didft caufe it to take deep root, and it filled the
“ land. The hills were covered with its ftiadow, and
“ the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars.
“ Why hart thou then broken down her hedges, fo
“ that all that pafs do pluck her ? The boar out of
V the wood doth wafte it, and the wild heart doth de-
“ vour it. Return, we befeech thee, O God of horts:
“ Jook down from heaven, and behold, and vifit this
“ vine and the vineyard thy right hand hath planted,
“ and the branch thou madeft ftrong for thyfelf.”
Pfal. Ixxx.
Nothing gives greater pleafure than an allegory,
•when the reprefentative fubjed bears a ftrong analogy,
in all its circumftances, to that which is reprefented.
But moll writers are unlucky in their choice, the ana¬
logy being generally fo faint and obfcure, as rather to
puzzle than to pleafe. Allegories, as well as meta¬
phors and fimilies, are unnatural in exprefling any fe-
vere palfion which totally occupies the mind. For
this reafon, the following fpeech of Macbeth is julily
A I. L
condemned by the learned author of the Elements of
Criticifm:
Methought I hea/d a voice cry, Sleep no more !
Macbeth doth murther Sleep ; the innocent fleep ;
Sleep that knits up the ravell’d fleeve of Care,
The birth of each day’s life, fore Labour’s bath,
Balm of hurt minds, great Nature’s fecond courfe.
Chief nourilher in life’s feaft. A<3: ii. Sc. 3.
ALLEGRO, in mufic, an Italian word, denoting that
the part is to be played in a fprightly, brilk, lively,
and g..y manner.
Piu Allegro, fignifies, that the part it is joined to
Ihould be fung or played quicker; as
Paco piu Allegro, intimates, that the part to which it
refers, ought to be played or fung only a little more
brifldy than allegro alone requires.
ALLEGRET See Alegrette.
ALLELENGYON, in antiquity, a tax paid^by the rich
for the poor, when abfent in the army.
ALLELOPHAGI, a term ufed by fome authors for 3
kind of flies which are laid to feed upon each other.
ALLELUJAH, in botany, an obfolete name for the
oxys, SeeOxvs.
Allelujah, among ecclefiaftical writers. See Hal¬
lelujah.
ALLEMAND, a fort of grave folemn mufic, widi good
meafure, and a flow movement. It is aifo a brilk
kind of dance, very common in Germany and Swit¬
zerland.
ALLEMANNIC, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing
belonging to the ancient Germans. Thus, we meet
with Allemannic hiftory, Allemannic language, Ai-
lemannic law, &c.
ALLENDORF, a little city in the Landgravate of
Hefle-Caflel in Germany, fituated upon the river We-
fer; E long. io°, N. lat. 510 30'
ALLER, a river which runs through the Dutchy of
Lunenburg, and falls into the Wefer, a little below1
Verden.
Aller, or Alder, a term ufed in our old writers to
denote the fuperlative degree. Thus, aller-good fig¬
nifies the greatefl good
ALLERION, or Alerion, in heraldry, a fort of eagle
without beak or feet, having nothing perfedt but the
wings. They differ from martlets by having .their
wings expanded, whereas thofe of the martlet are
clofe; and denote imperialifts vanquifhed and difarm--
ed ; for which reafon they are more common in French
than in German coats of arms.
ALEU, or Allode. See Allodial, and Allo¬
dium.
ALLEVIARE, in old records, fignifies to levy or raife
, c an accuftomed fine or impofition.
/ALLEVIATION, is the adt of making a thing lighter,
or more eafy to be borne.
ALLEVEURE, a fmall brafs Swedifli coin, worth a-
bout 2-JA Englilh money.
ALLEY, in gardening, a flraight parallel walk, bound¬
ed on both fides with trees, ihrubs, <bc. and ufually
covered with gravel or turf.
Covered
ALL ( I2i
■Covered AhhtY, that over which the branches of trees
meeting, form a (hade.
Alley of compartment, that which divides the fquares
of a parterre. See Parterre.
Alley, among builders, denotes a narrow pafiage lead¬
ing from one place to another
Alley, in perfpe&ive, that which, in order to have a
greater appearance of length, is made wider at the en¬
trance than at the termination
ALLIANCE, in the civil and canon law, the relation
contradted between two perfons or two families by
marriage.
Alliance is alfo ufed for a treaty entered into by fove-
reign princes and hates, for their mutual fafety and
defence.
) ALL
In this fenfe, alliances may be diftinguiihed into
fuch as are offenfive, whereby the contra&ing parties
oblige themfelves jointly to attack fome other power;
and into defenlive ones, whereby they bind themfelves
to hand by and defend each other, in cafe they are*at-
tacked by others.
Alliance, in a figurative fenfe, is applied to any kind
of union or conneftion: thus we fay, there is an alli¬
ance between the church and hate.
ALLIGATI, in Roman antiquity, the bafefl: kind of
(laves, who were ufually kept fettered. See Slave.
ALLIER, a river of France, which, arifing in Langue¬
doc, waters part of Auvergne and Bourbonnois, and
falls into theJLoire, a little below Nevers.
ALLIGATION,
A LLIGATION, the name of a method of folving
all queftions that relate to the mixture of one in¬
gredient with another. Though writers on arithmetic
generally make alligation a branch of that fcience; yet,
as it is plainly nothing more than an application of the
common properties of numbers, in order to folve a few
queftions that occur in particular branches of bufinefs,
we chufe rather to keep it diftind from the fcience of
arithmetic.
Alligation is generally divided into medial or alter¬
nate.
I. Alligation Medial.
Alligation medial, from the rates and quantities of the
ftmples given, difcovers the rate of the mixture.
Rule. As the total quantity of the fimples.
To their price or value ;
So any quantity of the mixture.
To the rate.
each an equal quantity, viz. at 50 s. at yq s. and at
60 s. per Cwt. the rate of the mixture will be 54 s. 8 d.
/(?rCwt.; for,
/. s. d.
5°+J4+6o—164, and 3)164(54 8
. Note 2. If it be required to increafe or diminifti the
quantity of the mixture, fay. As the fum of the given
quantities of the fimples, to the feveral quantities given;
fo the quantity of the mixture propofed, to the quanti¬
ties of the fimples fought.
Note 3. If it be required to know how much of
each (imple is in an alligned portion of the mixture, fay.
As the quantity of the mixture, td the feveral quantities
of the fimples given ; fo the quantity of the alligned por¬
tion, to the quantities of .the (imples fought. Thus,
Suppofe a grocer mixes 10 lb. of raifms, with 30 lb.
of almonds, and 46 lb. of currants, and it be demand¬
ed, how many Ounces of each fort are found in every
pound, or in every fixteen ounces of the mixture, fay.
Examp. A grocer mixeth 30 lb. of currants, at
4d. per lb. with 10 lb. of other currants, at 6A. per
lb : What is the value of 1 lb. of the mixture. Anf.
4Td.
lb. d. d.
30, at 4 amounts to 120
ro, at 6 —— 60
4° 180
lb. . d. lb. d.
If 40 : 180 :: 1 : 4J
Note 1. When the quantity of each (imple is the
fame, the rate of the mixture is readily found by adding
the rates of the (imples, and dividing their fum by the
number of fimples, thus.
Suppofe a grocer mixes feveral forts of fugar, and of
Vol. I. No. 6, 3
80 : 10 : : 16 : 2 raifins.
80 : 30 : : 16 : 6 almonds.
80 : 40 : : 16 : 8 currants.
Proof 16
Note 4. If the rates of two fimples, with the total
value and total quantity of the mixture be given, the
quantity of each fimple may be found as follows, viz.
multiply the lefler rate into the total quantity, fubtradt
the produft from the total value, and the remainder will
be equal to the produdt of the excefs of the higher rate
above the lower, multiplied into the quantity of the high¬
er-priced fimple; and confequently the faid remainder,
divided by the difference of the rates, will quote the
faid quantity. Thus,
Suppofe a grocer has a mixture of 400 lb weight, that
coft him 7 1. 10 s. confifting of raifins, at 4 d. per lb,
H h and
122 A L L I G
and almonds at 6 d. how many pounds of almonds were
in the mixture ?
lb. Rates,
400 6 d. -
X. s. d. 44 d.
7 10 = 1800    
1600 i6ood. 2d.
  L. s.
2)200(100 lh. of almonds at 6d. is, 2 10
And 300 Itr. of raifins, at 4 d. is, 5 o
Total 400 Proof 7 10
II, Alligation Alternate.
Alligation alternate, .being the con^erfe of alligation
medial, from the rates of the fimples, and rate of the
mixture given, finds the quantities of the fimples.
RULES.
I. Place the rate of the mixture on the left fide of a
brace, as the root; and on the right fide of the brace fet
the rates of the feveral fimples, under one another, as
the branches.
II. Link or alligate the branches, fo as one greater,
and another lefs than the root may be linked or yoked
together.
III. Set the difference betwixt the root and the fe¬
veral branches, right againfi: their refpediye yoke-fel¬
lows. Thefe alternate differences are the quantities re¬
quired.
JVate 1. If any branch happen to have two or more
yoke-fellows, the difference ketwixt the root and thefe
yoke-fellows mult be placed right againft the faid branch,
one after another, and added into one fum.
Arote 2. In fome queftions, the branches maybe al-
ligated more ways than one; and a queftion will always
admit of fo many anfwers, as there are different ways of
linking the branches.
Alligation alternate admits of three varieties, v/z.
1. The queftion may be unlimited, with refped both to
the quantity of the fimples, and that of the mixture.
2. The queftion may be limited to a certain quantity of
one-or more of the fimples. 3. The queftion may be li¬
mited to a certain quantity of the mixture.
Variety I.
When the queftion is unlimited, with refped both to
the quantity of the fimples, and that of the mixture, this
is called Alligation Simple.
Examp. A grocer would mix fugars, at 5 d. yd.
and 10 d. per lb. fo as to fell the mixture or compound
at 8*d. per lb: What quantity of each muft he take ?
lb.
Here the rate of the mixture 8 is placed on the left
A T I O N.
fide of the brace, as the root; and on the right fide of
the fame brace are fet the rates of the feveral fimples,
viz- 7> 10, under One another, as the branches;
according to Rule I.
The branch 10 being greater than the root, is alligated
or linked with 7 and 5, both thefe b^eing lefs than the
root; as direded in Rule II.
The difference, between the root 8 and the branch 4,
viz. 3, is fet right againft this branch’s yoke-feilow 10.
The difference between' 8 and 7 is likewife fet right a-
gainft the yoke-fellow 10. And the. difference betwixt
8 and 10, viz. 2, is fet right againft: the two yoke-fel¬
lows 7 and 5 ; as preferibed by Rule III.
As the branch 10 has two differences on the right, viz.
3 and 1, they are added ; and the anfwer to-the queftion
is, that 2 lb. at 5 d. 2 lb. at 7 d. and 41b. at 10 d. will
make the mixture required.
The truth and reafon of the rules will appear by con-
fidering, that whatever is loft upon any one branch is
gained upon its yoke-fellow. Thus, in the above ex¬
ample, by felling 4 lb. of 10 d. fugar at 8 d, per lb.
there is 8 d. loft: but the like fum is gained upon its
two yoke-fellows; for by felling 2 lb. of 5 d. fugar at
8 d. per lb. there is 6 d. gained; and by felling 2 lb.
of 7 d. fugar at 8 d. there is 2 d. gained; and 6 d. and
2 d. make 8 d.
Hence it follows, that the rate of the mixture muft
always be mean or middle with refpedl to the rates of
the fimples; that is, it muft be lefs than the greateft,
and greater than the leaft; otherwife a folution would
be impdllible. And the price of the total quantity mix¬
ed, computed at the .rate of the mixture, will always be
equal to the fum of the prices of the feveral quantities
call up at the refpedive rates of the fimples.
Variety II.
When the queftion is limited to a certain quantity of
one or more of the fimples, this is called Alligation
Partial.
If the quantity of one of the fimples only be limited,
a’ligate the branches,, and take their differences, as if
there had been no fiich limitation; and then work by the
following proportion.
K\ the difference right againft the rate of the fimple
whofe quantity is given.
To the other differences refpe&ively;
So the quantity given.
To the feveral quantities fought.
Examp. A diftiller would, with 40 gallons of bran¬
dy at 12 s. per gallon," mix rum at 7 s. per gallon, and
gin at 4 s. per gallon: How much of the rum and gia
muft he take, to fell the mixture at 8 s. per gallon ?
Gal.
C1i, 4 I 5 ! 40 of brandy.^
8 < ^ J4 4 32 of rum. C Anf.
C 4—''4 I 4 I 32 of gin. 3
The operation gives for anfwer, 5 gallons of brandy,
4 of
A L L I G
4 of rum, and 4 of gin. But the queftion limits the
quantity of brandy to 40 gallons ; therefore fay,
If 5 : 4 :: 40 : 32
The quantity of gin, by the operation, being alfo 4,
the proportion needs not be repeated.
Variety III.
When the queflion is limited to a certain quantity of
the mixture, this is called Alligation Total.
After linking the branches, and taking the differences,
work by the proportion following,
As the fum of the differences.
To each particular difference;
So the given total of the mixture,
To the refpedtive quantities required.
Examp. A vintner hath wine at 3 s. per gallon, and
ALL
ALLIGATOR, in zoology, a fynonime of thelace-ta
crocodilus. See Lacerta.
ALLIGATOR-/><?rf>-, in botany. See Pyrus.
ALLIONIA, in botany, a genus of the.tetrandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The characters of which are : The
common calix is oblong, limple, and three flowered ;
the proper calix is above the fruit, and obfolete; the
corolla is irregular; and the receptacle without a-
. ny covering. There are only two fpecies of the alli-
onia, viz. the violacea, and incarnata, both natives
of America.
ALLIOTH, a ftar in the tail of the greater bear, much
ufed fqr finding the latitude at fea.
ALLIUM garlick, in botany, a genus of the hexandria
monogynia clafs. The characters are : The corolla is
open, and divided into fix parts; the fpatha is multi¬
florous ; the capfule is above the flower; and the
flowers are in the form of an umbell. There are no
Jeis than 37 fpecies of the allium, only five of which,
viz. the ampeloprafum, or great round-headed gar-
lick; the arenarium, or abroad-leaved mountain-gar-
lick ; the vineale, or crow-garlick; the oleraceum, or
wild garlick with 3n herbaceous ffriated flower; and
the urfinum, or ramfon, are natives ot Britain. Al¬
lium is a powerful diuretic, and, along with honey,
has good effefts in-affhmas.
ALLOA, a port-town of Scotland, fituated on the ri¬
ver Forth, remarkable for the coal-mines in its neigh¬
bourhood. W. long. 30 45', N. lat. 56° io\
ALLOCATION denotes the admitting or allowing of
an article of an account, efpecially in the exchequer.
Hence,
Allocatione facienda is a writ directed to the lord trea-
furer, or barons of the exchequer, commanding them
to allow an accountant fuch films as he has lawfully
expended in the execution of his office.
ALLOCATjP cotnita. u, a new writ of exigent allow¬
ed, before any other county court held, on-a former
not being complied with. See Exigent.
A T I O N. 123
would mix it with water, fo as to make a compofition.of
144 gallons, worth as. 6d. /rr gallon: How much
wine, and how much water muff he take ?
Cal.
06,30 120 of wine. 7 j *
5 £ oy 6 24 of water. 3 J
36 144 total.
120 X 36 = 4320
24 X o = o
Proof 144)4320(30
As 36 : 30 :: 144 : 120
As 36 : 6 : : 144 : 24
There being.here only two fimples, and the total of
the mixture limited, the queftion admits but of one an-
fwer.
ALL
ALLOCUTION, in Roman antiquity, denotes an ha»
rangue made by a general to his army, frequently
mentioned on ancient medals.
ALLODIAL goods, in Scots law, are fuch as are enjoyed
by the owner, independent of any other. Lands are
likewife faid to be allodial, when they are held with¬
out the neceflity of acknowledging a fuperior. See
Law, title, Conjlitution of heritable rights.
ALLODIUM, or Alleud, denotes lands which are
the abfolute property of their owner, without being
obliged to pay any fervice or acknowledgement what¬
ever to a fuperior lord.
sALLOGIA, a term found in old writers on military
affairs, for winter-quarters.
ALLOM. See Alum.
ALLONGE, in, fencing, denotes a thruft or pafs at
the adverfary. See Pass.
ALLOPHYLLUS, in botany, a genus of the oCfan-
dria monogynia clafs. The characters are : The calix
is four leaved; the leaves are globular; the flower
confifts of four petals, lefs than the calix; and the
ftigma is forked. There is only one fpecies, which
» is found in Zeylon.
ALLOTTING, or Allotment of goods, in com¬
merce, is the dividing a {hip’s cargo into feveral parts,
which are to be purchafed by feveral perfons, whofe
names being written upon as many flips of paper,* are
applied by an indifferent perfon to the feveral lots; by
which means the goods are divided without partiality,
each man having the parcel upon which his name is
fixed,
ALLOWANCES, at the cuftom houfe, to goods rated
by weight, are two, viz. draught and tare. See
Draught and Tare.
ALLOY, or Allay, a proportion of a bafer metal
mixed with a finer one. Thus all gold coin has an
- alloy of filver and copper, as filver coin has of copper
alone ; the proportion in the former cafe, for ftandard
gold, being two carrats of alloy in a pound troy of
. g°ld;
A I Z (i
goM; and, in the latter, eighteen penny-weight of al¬
loy for a pound of filver.
ALLUM. See Alum.
ALUMNIOR, in forae of our old ftatutes, a perfon
whofe trade it is to colour, or paint upon paper or
parchment.
ALLUSION, in rhetoric, a figure by which fomething
is applied to, or underftood of another, on account of
feme (imilitude between them.
ALLUVION, in law, denotes the gradual increafe of
land along the fea-ftiore, or on banks of rivers. See
Law, title, Divifion of rights.
ALLY, in matters of polity, a fovereign prince or ftate
that has entered into alliance with others. See Al¬
liance.
ALMACANTARS. See Almucantars.
ALMACARRON, a port-town of Spain, in the pro¬
vince of Murcia, at the mouth of the Guadalentin ;
W. long. i° 15', N. lat. 370 40,.
ALMADE, a town of Spain, in the province of la Man¬
cha, in the kingdom of Cafiile, fituated upon the top
of a mountain, where are the mOft ancient, as well as
1 the richeft filver mines in Europe.
ALMADIE, a kind of canoe, or fmall vefl'el, about
four fathoms long, ufually made of bark, and ufed by
the negroes of Africa.
Almadie is alfo the name of a kind of longboats, fitted
out at Calicut, which are eighty feet in length, and
fix or feven in breadth. They are fexceeding fwift,
and are otherwife called cat hurt.
ALMAGEST, in matters of literature, is particularly
ufed for a collection or book compofed by Ptolemy,
containing various problems of the ancients both in
geometry and altronomy.
Almagest is alfo the title of other collections of this
kind. Thus, Riccioli has publifhed a book of aftro-
nomy which he calls the New Almageft; and Plucke-
net, a book which he calls Almagejirum Botanicum.
ALMAGRA, a fine deep red ochre. See Ochre.
ALMAN-FURNACE, the fame with almond-furnace.
See Almond.
ALMANAC, in matters of literature, a table contain¬
ing the kalendar of days and months, the rifing and
fetting of the fun, the age of the moon,_ <bc.
Regiomontanus is allowed to have been the firfl who
reduced almanacs to their prefent form.
Cmjlruttion of Almanacs. The fir ft thing to be done
is, to compute the fun’s and moon’s place for each
day of the year, or it may be taken from fome ephe-
merides and entered in the almanac; next, find the
dominical letter, and, by means thereof, diftribute
the kalendar into weeks ; then, having computed the
time of eafter, by it fix the other moveable feafts ;
adding the immoveable ones, with the names of the
martyrs, the rifing and fetting of each luminary, the
length of day and night, the afpeCts of the planets,
the phafes of the moon, and the fun’s entrance into the
'Cardinal points of the ecliptic, i. e. the two equi¬
noxes and folftices. .
ALMANDINE, a name given by ancient naturalifts to
the carbuncle. See Carbuncle.
4 ) ALA
ALMANZA, a little town in the province of New Ca~
ftile in'Spain, remarkable for the defeat of the confe¬
derate army by the French, in 1707; W. long. i° i</,
N. lat. 390.
ALMARIA, a term found in fome ancient records for
the archives of a church, monaftery, and the like.
ALMARIC herefy, one broached in France in 1209,
the diftinguilhing tenet of which was. That no Chri-
ftian could be faved unlefs he believed himfelf to be a
member of Chrift.
ALMEDA, a town in the province of Beira in Por¬
tugal.; W. long. 90 40', N.lat. 3S0 4c/.
ALMEDIA, a frontier- town in the province of Tra-
los Montes, in Portugal ; W. long. 70 10', N. lat.
40° 40 .
ALMEHRAB, in the Mahometan cuftoms, 'a nich in
their mofques, pointing towards the kebla or temple of
Mecca, to which they are obliged to bow in praying.
See Kebla.
ALMELILETU, a term ufed by Avifenna, for a pre¬
ternatural heat which fometimes remains after a fever
is gone.
ALMENE, in botany, an obfolete name of the lotus.
See Lotus.
Almene, in commerce, a weight of two pounds ufed to
weigh laffron in feveral parts of the continent of the
E. Indies.
Almendine, Almemdine, or Albandine, a fpecies
of ruby. See Ruby.
ALMERIA, a fea-port town of Spain in the kingdom
of Granada, fituated at the mouth of the river Almo-
ria, or Bolciduy.
ALMERY. See Ambery.
ALMIGGIM-toW, is thought, to be that of the Indian
pine-tree, which being light and white, was greatly
efteemed for making-mufical inftruments.
ALMISSA, a city of Dalmatia, fubjedt to the Vene¬
tians, and called by the Sclavonians Omifch.
ALMIZADIR, an obfolete term among chemifts for
verdigris, fac.
ALMODIA, a kind of very long and narrow boat, ufed
in the E. Indies.
ALMOGIZA, a term ufed by Arabian writers for the
limb of the aftrolabe. 'See Astrolabe.
ALMOIN, or/rawi-Almoin, in law. See Frank-
Almoin.
ALMOND, the fruit of the almond-tree. See Amyg-
dalus.
Almond-/^. See Amygdalus.
Egyptian Ahmoxto, in botany. See Brabejum.
Almond, in commerce, a meafure by ■\frhich the Portu-
guefe fell their oil; twenty-fix almonds make a pipe.
ALMONDS, in anatomy. See Amygdalae.
AmoKvfvrnace, among refiners, that in which the
flags of litharge, left in refining filver, are reduced to
lead again, by the help of charcoal.
Almond is alfo the name of a fpecies of rock-cryftal, u-
fed by lapidaries in adorning candlefticks, &r. on ac¬
count of their refemblance to the fruit of that name.
ALMONDBURY, a village in England, in the weft
, riding of Yorklhire, fix miles from Haliifax.
A L N
ALMONER, an officer appointed to diftribute alms to
the .poor.
ALMONRY, Aumbry, Ambry. See Ambry.
ALMS, a general term for what is given out of chari¬
ty to the poor.
In the early ages of Chriftianity,' the alms of the
charitable were divided into four parts; one of which
was allotted to the biffiop, another to the priefls, and
a third to the deacons and fub-deacons, which made
their whole fubfiftence ; the fourth part was employed
in relieving the poor, and in repairing the churches.
Alms, alfo denotes lands or other effefts left to churches
or religious houfes, on condition of praying for the
foul of the donor. Hence,
Free Alms was that which is liable to no rent or fer-
vice.
Reafonable Al m s was a certain portion of the eftates of
inteftate perfons, allotted to the poor.
Alms-^x; or Alms-cA?/?, in churches, and hofpitals,
ebc. a llrong box, with a hole or flit in the upper part,
to receive the alms of the charitably difpofed.
A^wis-feoth, or Alhihs-feoth, a term anciently ufed for
Peter’s pence. See Peter’s Pence.
Ahvi&-houfe? a kind of hofpital for the maintenance of a
certain number of poor, aged, or difabled perfons.
ALMSTAD, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland, four miles E. of Chriflianftad.
ALMOXARIFARGO, an old duty paid upon the Bri-
tifh woollen manufadtures in old Spain : Alfo a duty
of 2t per cent, paid in Spanifh America, upon the ex¬
portation of bulls hides in European veflels.
ALMUCANTARS, in aftronomy, an Arabic word de¬
noting circles of the fphere palling through the center
of the fun, or a ftar, parallel to the horizon, being
the fame as parallels of altitude. See Parallels of
Altitude.
ALMUCIUM, denotes a kind of cover for the head,
worn chiefly by monks and ecclefiaftics: It was of a
f^uare form, and feems to have given rife to the bon¬
nets of the fame fliape, ftill retained in univerfities and
cathedrals.
ALMUCIA, is fometimes alfo ufed for the furs, or
muffs, worn by the ancient canons on their left arms.
ALMUG-TREE, mentioned in Scripture, is fuppofed to
be the fame with that which produces the gum arabic.
ALMUNECAR, a port-town of Granada, in Spain,
fituated upon the Mediterranean: W. Ipng. 30 45'.
N. lat. 36° 40'.
ALMUTAZAPHUS, a magiflrate of Arragon, whofe
office it was to infpedt meafures and weights, and
fearch houfes for ftolen goods.
ALMUTHEN, in aftrology, the planet which furpaf-
fes the reft with refpedt to dignities. See Dignity.
ALNABATI, in botany, an obfolete name of the filiqua.
See Siliqjja.
ALNAGE, or Aulnage, in the Englilh polity, the
meafuring of woollen manufadtures with an ell, and
the other fundtions of the alnager.
ALNAGER, in the Englifh polity, a public fwom officer,
whofe hufinefs is to examine into the affize of all
woollen cloth made throughout the kingdom, and to
Vol. I. No. 6. 3
A L O
fix feals upon them. Another branch of his office is
to colledl an alnage-duty to the king.
ALNAM, in botany, an obfolete name of the Pule glum.
See Pulegium.
ALNEY, a fmall ifland formed by the branches of the
Severn, near Glocefter, in England; called alfo the
Eight.
ALNUS, in botany, a fynonyme of a fpecies of betula,
or alder-tree. See Betula.
Alnus, in the ancient theatres, that part which was
moft diftant from the ftage.
ALNWICK, the county-town of Northumberland, in
England, fituated upon the alne.
ALOA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival kept in honour of
Ceres by the hufbandmen, and fuppofed to refemble
our harveft-home.
ALOE, in botany, a genus of the hexandria monogynia
clafs. The charadters are : The corolla is eredt, open
at the top, and the nedtarium at the bottom of it; the
filaments of the ftamina are inferred in the recepta¬
cle, the leaves are thick, fucculent, and for the . moft
part befet with briftles ; the fruit is oblong and cylin¬
drical, and divided into three cells, which contain flat
femicircular feeds. There are eight fpecies of the
aloe, viz. the perfoliata, variegata, difticha, fpi-
ralis, vifcofa, pumila, uvaria, and retufa, moft of
them natives of Africa. The retufa, or pearl aloe, is
a very beautiful plant. It is fmaller than moft of the
aloe kind. The leaves are fhort, very thick, ffiarp
pointed, and turning down with a large thick end, ap¬
pear there triangular. The colour of the leaves is a
fine green, ftriped in an elegant manner with white,
and frequently tipped with red at the point. The
flower-ftalk, which rifes in the midft of the leaves, is
round, fmooth, of a purple colour, and generally about
eight inches high. When the plant has been properly
cultivated, the flowers are ftriped with green and
white; and fometimes they are entirely white. This
aloe is Angular in not having the bitter reflnous juice
with which the leaves of moft others abound; when
a leaf of this fpecies is cut, what runs from it is wa¬
tery, colourlefs, and perfectly inflpid. Linnaeus fays
that this plant thrives beft in a clay foil, and that it
grows wild in the clay-grounds of Africa. See plate
XL fig. 1.
The infpiffated juice of the aloe is a ftimulating
cathartic bitter, and is ufed in various forms, for
cleanfing the primae viae, attenuating and refolving
vifcid juices, for promoting the uterine and hemor¬
rhoidal fluxes, killing worms, fac.
ALOE-WOOD. See Xylo-Aloes.
ALOEDARY, an ohfolete name of a purging medicine,
whofe chief ingredient is aloes.
ALOETICS, the name of all medicines whofe chief in¬
gredient is aloes.
ALOGIANS, in church-hiftory, a fe<£t of ancient here¬
tics, who denied that Jefus Chrift was the Logos, and
confequently rejeaed the gofpel of St. John.
ALOGOTROPHIA, among phyficians, the unequal
growth or nouriftment of any part of the body, as in
the rickets.
I i 'ALOIDES,
( 125 )
ALOIDES, In botany, an obfolete name of the ftrati-
otes. See Stratiotes.
ALOOF, in fea-language, a word of command from the
» perfon who conns to the matt at the helm, to keep
the fhip near the wind, when failing upon a quarter-
wind.
ALOPECIA, ig medicine, fignifies a falling off of the
hair, occafioned either by want of nourifhment, or a
bad ftate of the h*umours. It is alfo ufed by Galen
for a change in the colour of the hair.
ALOPECIAS, in zoology, an obfolete name of a fpe-
cies of the fqualus or ihark. See Squalus.
ALOPECOPITHECUS, in zoology, an obfolete name
of a fpecies of the didelphis. See Didelphis.
ALOPECURUS, or Fox-tail grass, in botany, a
genus of the triandria digynia clafs. The calix is
bivalved, and the flower confxfts of one hollow valve,
with a long awn inferted near the bate on the back
part. There are feVen fpecies of the alopecurus, viz.
the pratenfis, or meadow fox-tail grafs; the bulbo-
fus, or bulbofe fox-tail grafs; the geniculatus, orflote
fox-tail grafs; and' the myofuroides, or field fox-tail
grafs; the above four grow wild in Britain : the
. agredis, the monfpelienfis, the paniceus, and the hor-
deiformis, ail native^ of France, and the fouthern parts
of Europe, except the laft, which is a native of India.
ALOSA, the fhad, or mother of herrings, a fpecies of
the clupea. See Clupea.
ALOST,atown in the Andrian Flanders, upon the river
Dender, half-way between Bruflels and Ghent.
ALP, in ornithology, an obfolete name of a fpecies of
the loxia. See Loxia.
ALPHA, among grammarians, the name of the fird let¬
ter of the gre.ek alphabet, anfwering to our A.
ALPHABET, in matters of literature, the natural or
accudomed feries of the feveral letters of a language.
See Language, and Character.
Alphabet's alfo ufed for a cypher, or table of the ufual
letters of the alphabet, with the correfponding fecret
characters, and other blank fymbols intended to render*
the writing more difficult to be ,decyphered. See
De CYPHERING.
ALPHABETICAL, fomething belonging to, or parta¬
king of the nature of an alphabet. Thus we fay, al¬
phabetical order, method, Sc.
ALPHENIC, a name fometimes ufed for white barley-
fugar, or twided fugar.
ALPHESERA, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpecies
ofbryonia. See Bryonia-.
ALPHESTES, in ichthyology, an obfolete name of a
fpecies cfiabrus. See Lasrus.
ALPHETA, in affronotny, the fame withlucida coronas.
See Lucida Coron.e.
ALPHITIDION, a term for a fradture, wherein the
bone is crufhed to pieces. .
ALPHITOMANCY, a fpecies of divination, other-
wife called aleuromancy. See Aleuromancy.
ALPKONSIN, in forgery, an indrument ufed in ex¬
tracting bullets,in gun-lhot-wouhds. See Surgery,
Of Gtin-JJoot wounds.
ALPHONSINE TABLES, adronomical tables, cal-
) A L S
culated by order of Alphonfus king of Cadile, in the
condruCtion of which that prince is fuppofcd to have
contributed his own labour.
ALPHOS, among phyficians, adifeafe of the fkin, which
is rough, and Iprinkled with white fpots.
ALPINE, fomething belonging to the Alps. See Alps.
ALPINIA, in botany, a genus of the monandria mono-*
gynia clafs, of which there is but one fpecies. The
flower is tubulous, and divided into fix legments ; the
capiule, which becomes a fruit, is divided into three
cells, each containing one feed. It is a native of
America.
ALPS, a chain of exceeding high mountains, feparating
Italy from France and Germany.
ALQUIER, a liquid meafure, uled in Portugal to mea-
fure oil, two of which make an almond. See Al¬
mond.
ALRAMECH, in adronomy, the name of a dar of the
fird magnitude, otherwiie called arCturus. See Arc-
turus, and Astronomy.
ALRUM, in botany, an obfolete name of the tree from
which the gum bdellium is procured. SeeBoELLiuM.
ALSACE, a province formerly belonging to Germany, but
aimed entirely ceded to France-by the peace of blun¬
der ; is fituated between the river Rhine on the ead,
and Lorrain on the wed, Switzerland on the iouth,
and the palatinate of the Rhine on the north.'
ALSADAF, in materia'jnedica, an obfolete name of the
unguis odoratus. See Unguis.
ALSAHARATICA, in botany, an obfolete name of the
parthenium. See Partherium.
ALSEN, an ifland in the lefl’er belt, at the entrance of
the Baltic fea, between Slefwic and Funen. E. long.
io° \2 , N. lat. yj0 i2/.
ALSCHARCUR, in materia medica. See Skink.
ALSFIELD, or Asfield, a town of Heffe Caflel, in
Germany. E. long. 90 5'. N. lat. 50° 40'. ‘
ALSIMBEL, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpecies
of nardus. See Nardus.
ALSINA, in botany, a fynonyme of the theligonum.
See Theligonum.
ALSINASTRUM, in botany, the trivial name and alfo a
fynonyme of the elatine. See Elatine.
ALSINE, Chickweed, in botany, a genus of the pentan-
dria trigynia clafs : The calix is divided into five parts ;
the flowers confifi of five petals divided in the middle;
and the capfule has three valves. There are three fpecies
of the alfine~,*©;z. the media, dr common duckweed, a
native of Britain ; the mucronata, a native of Switzer¬
land ; and the fegetalis, a native of France.
The alfine media has fometimes been recommended
in hedical cafes.
ALSIRAT, in the Mahometan theology, derates a
bridge laid over the middle of hell, the palfage or
path whereof is (harper than the edge of a fword;
over which every body mull pafs at the day of judge¬
ment, when the wicked will tumble headlong into
hell, whereas the good will fly over it like the wind.
ALSONE, a fmall city of Languedoc in France, upon
the river Frefquel, between Carcaffone and St.
Papoul.
ALSWANGEN,
ALT ( 127
ALSWANGEN, a town of Livonia, in the dutchy of
Courknd, fituated upon the Baltic.
ALT, in mufic, a term applied to the high notes in the
- fcale. See Music.
ALTAMURA, a city in the kingdom of Naples, at the
foot of the Apennines. E. long. 17°. N. lat. 410.
, ALTAR, a place upon which lacrifices were anciently
offered to fome deity.
The heathens at firft made their altars only #f turf;
afterwards they were made of done, of marble, of
wood, and even of horn, as that of Apollo in Dtlos.
Altars differed in figure as well as in materials. Some
were round, others fquare, and others oval. All of
them were turned towards the eaft, and flood lower
than the ftatues of the gods, and were generally ad¬
orned with fculpture, inferiptions, and the leaves and
flowers of the particular tree confecrafed to the deity.
Thus, the altars of Jupiter were decked with oak,
thofe of Apollo with laurel, thofe of Venus with myr¬
tle, and thofe of Minerva w ith olive.
The height of altars alfo differed according to the
different gods to whom they facrificed. Thoie of the
celeftial gods were raifed to a great height above the
ground; thofe appointed, for the terreflrial, were al-
mofl on a level wdth the furface of the earth. On
the contraryj they dug a hole for the altars of the in¬
fernal gods.
Before temples were in ufe, altars were, eredfed
fometimes in groves, fometifties in the highways, and
fometimes on the tops of mountains ; and it was a
cuftom to engrave upon them the name, enfign, or
char after of the deity to whom they were confe-
crated.
In the great temples of ancient Rome, there were
ordinarily three altars: The firfl was placed in the,
fanftuary, at the foot of the flatue of the divinity,
upon which incenfe was burnt, and libations offered ;
the fecond was before the gate of the temple, and
upon it they facrificed the viftims ; and the third was
* a portable altar, upon which W'ere placed the offering
and the facred veffels.
Befides thefe ufes of altars, the ancients fwore
upon them, and fwore by them, in making alliances,
confirming treaties of peace, and other fojemn occa-
;fions. Altars alfo ferved as places of refuge to all
thofe who fled to them, whatever crime they had
committed.
Among the Jews, altars in the patriarchal times were
▼ery rude. The altar which Jacob fet up at Bethel
was nothing but a ftone, which ferved him inflead of a
bolder • that of Gideon, a done before his houfe;
and the fird which God commanded Mofes to ereft
yas probably of earth, or unpolilhed dones, without
any iron ; for if any ufe was made of that metal, the
altar was declared impure.
The principal altars of the Jews were thofe of in¬
cenfe, of burnt-offering, and the altar, or table, for
the Jhetw-bread.
The altar of incenfe was a fmall table of fhittim-
wood, covered with plates of gold, of one cubit in
length, another in width, and two in height.
) ALT
At the four corners, were four kinds of horns, and
all round a little border or crown over it. This was
the altar hidden by Jeremiah before the captivity; and
upon it the officiating pried offered, every morning
and evening, incenfe of a particular compofition. See
plate XL fig. 2.
The altar of burnt-offerings was made of Shittim-
wood, and carried upon tire fhoulders of the prieds by
daves of the fame wood, overlaid with brafs. In the
time of Mofes, this altar was five cubits fquare, and
three high ; but in Solomon’s temple it was much lar¬
ger, being twenty, cubits fquare, and ten in height. It
was covered with brafs; and at each corner was a horn
or fpire wrought out of the fame wood with the altar, to
which the facrifiies were tied. Within the hollow
v/as a grate of brafs, on which the fire was made ;
through it fell the affies, and were received in a pan
below. At the four corners of the grate were four
rifigs, and four chains, which kept it up at the horns.
This altar was placed in the open air, that the fmoke
of the burnt-offerings might not fully the infide of the
tabernacle. See plate XI. fig. 3.
The altar, orjable for the fhew-bread, was like-
wife of ffiittim-wood, covered tilth plates of gold,
having a little border round it, adorned with fculp¬
ture. It was two cubits long, one wide, and one and
an half in height. Upon this table, which flood in
the holy of holies, were put, every fabbath-day, twelve
loaves, with fait and incenfe.
The Jewifh altars, after the return from the capti¬
vity, and the building of the fecond temple, were in
fome refpefts different from thofe deferibed above.
That of burnt-offerings v/as a large pile, built of
unhewn hones, thirty-two cubits fquare at the bot¬
tom, and twenty-four fquare at the to'p. The afeent
was by a gentle rifing, thirty-two cubits, in length, and
fixteen in breadth.
Altar is alfo ufod among Chriftians for the commu¬
nion-table. See Communion-table.
Altar is fometimes alfo ufed to denote the offerings
made at the altar, in contradiflinftion from the fettled
revenues of a church.
Altar, in aftronom^. See Ara,
ALTAR-THANE, in old law books, an appellation
given to the prieft or parfon of a parifh, to whom
the altarage belonged. See Altarage.
ALTARAGE, in law, altars erefted in virtue of dona¬
tions, 'before the Reformation, within a parochial
church, for the purpofe offinging of mafs for deceaftd
friends. See Scots Law, Ecclefaflicalperfons.
Altarage likewife fignifies the profits arifing to the
prieff on account of the altar.
ALTARIST, the fame with altar-thane. See Al¬
tar-thane.
ALTEA, a fea-port town of Spain, fituated upon the
Mediterranean, in the province of Valencia, about 45
miles fouth of the city Valencia, W. Ion. \f. N. lat.
38°. 40'.
ALTEMBURG, a town of Tranfilvania, fubjeft to the
houfe of Aufhaa, fituated in 230 E. long, and 46°
25' N. lat.
Altemburg,
ALT ( 128 ) ALT
Altemburg is alfo ufed by ibme for Altenburg. See
Altenburg.
ALTENA, a port-town of-Holftein, in Germany, fitu-
ted on the river Elbe. It belongs to the Dane§, and
is the place where all their Ead India goods are fold.
ALTENBURG, a town of Mifnia, in the upper Sax¬
ony, about 25 miles S. of Leipiic, and fubjedt to the
duke.of Saxe Altenburg. E. long. 120 44', N. lat.
50° 52'.
ALTENBURG-OWAR, a fortified town of lower
Hungary, fituated on the river Danube, and fubjedt to
the houfe of Auftria. E. long. 170 20^, N. lat. 48°
1 s'- -
ALTENSPACH, a city of Germany, in the circle of
Swabia, fituated between the lakes of Conftance and
Zeill.
ALTERANTS, or Alterative medicines, fuch as
corredt the bad qualities of the blood and other hu¬
mours, without occafioning any fenfible evacuation.
ALTERATE, in mulic and geometry. See Sesqui .
ALTERATION, in a general fenfe, denotes fome va¬
riation in the qualities or circumftances of a thing,
without wholly changing its nature.
Alteration, in medicine, is particularly ufed to de¬
note the adtion of alterant medicines. See Alte¬
rants.
ALTERCUM, in botany, an obfolete name of the
Hyofciamus. See Hyosciamus.
ALTERDOCHAON, a town of Portugal, in Eftre-
madura, three leagues S. W. of Portalegre.
ALTERITY, a term ufed by fome philofophers for
what is more ufually called diverfity. See Diver¬
sity.
ALTERN-BASE, in trigonometry, a term ufed in
contradiftindlion to the true bafe. Thus in oblique
triangles, the true bafe is either the fum of the fides,
and then the difference of the fides isealled the altern-
bafe; or the true bafe is the difference of the fides,
and then the fum of the fides is called the altem^
bafe.
ALTERNATE,- in a general fenfe, a term applied to
fuch perfons or things as fucceed each other by turns.
Thus, two who command each his day, are faid to
have an alternate command, or to command alter¬
nately.
Alternate, in heraldry, is faid in refpedl of the fitu-
ation of the quarters.
Thus the firft and fourth quarters, and the fecond
and third, are ufually of the fame nature, and are call¬
ed alternate quarters.
Alternate, in botany, when the leaves or branches of
plants arife higher on oppofite fides alternately.
Alternate angles. See Geometry.
Alternate ratio. See Algebra, and Arithme¬
tic.
ALTERNATION, properly fignifies a fucceffion by
turns. See Alternate.
ALTHAEA, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia po-
lyandria clafs. The calix of the althaea is double, and
the outer one is divided into nine fegments; and the
capfules are numerous, each containing but one feed.
There are three fpecies of this genus, viz, the offi¬
cinalis, a native of Britain, the root and leaves of
which are fup’pofed to be balfamic, pectoral and flo-
machic ; the cannabina, a native of Hungary; and
the hirfuta, a native of France, Italy, fee.
ALTINGAR, the name of a flux-powder, ufed in the
fufion of metals. - See Flux, and Chemistry,
ALTIN, a kingdom of Afia, in great Tartary, be¬
tween the fources of the Irtich and the Oby. It is
bounded on the north by the Kirgifes, on the eafl by
the Amaduners, on the fouth by the kingdom of
Eluth, and on the. weft by the Irtich, which feparates
it from Barabinfkoi.
Altin, is alfo the capital of the kingdom of that name,
fituated in the northern part of the kingdom, at the
head of the river Kilam.
Altin, in commerce, a kind of money current in Muf-
covy, worth three copies.
ALTITH. See Asa-foetida.
ALTITUDE, acceffible, and inacceffible. See Prac¬
tical Geometry.
Altitude, of a figure, is the neareft diflance of its
vertex from its bafe, or the length of a perpendicular
let fall from the vertex to the bafe.
Altitude in optics, is the height of an objeft above A
line, drawn parallel to the horizon from the eye of the
obferver.
Altitude of the eye, in perfpe&ive, is its perpendicu¬
lar height above the geometrical plane.
Altitude of a ftar, &c. in aftronomy, is an arch of
a vertical circle, intercepted between the ftar and
the horizon. See Astronomy.
Altitude of motion, according to Dr Wallis, is its
meafure eftimated in the line of direction of the moving
force.
Altitude, in aftrology. See Exaltation.
Altitude of fluids, is more ufually expreffed by the
term depth. See Depth.
Determinative Altitude, that from whence a heavy
body falling, acquires a certain velocity by its natural
acceleration.
ALTKIRK, a town of Alface in Germany, fituated on
the river 111, in N. lat. 47° 4c/, and E. Ion. 70 if.
ALTMORE. a town of Ireland, in the county of Ty¬
rone, and province of Ulfter, fituated in N. lat. 540
34', and W. long. 70 2 .
ALTMUL, a river of Germany, which arifing in Fran¬
conia, runs S. E. by the city of Anfpach ; and conti¬
nuing its courfe E. by Pappenheim and Aichftet, falls
into the Danube at Kelheim, about 12 miles above
Ratilbon.
ALTO, and Basso, inlaw, denotes the abfolute fub-
miflion of all differences high and low to fome arbi¬
trator.
ALTOM, a name given, in feveral parts of the Turkifh
dominions, to what the Europeans call a fequin.
See Sequin.
ALTO-MONTE, a town of the hither Calabria, in the
kingdom of Naples, at the foot of the Apennines, ten
miles from Caffano.
ALTO-RELIEVO. See Relievo.
ALTO-
e f/'f/- /.
Ax*033 flr>ribus uilabiatis
or I’lF.Al^Tv
JPlaf <\ Xt.
A L V ( i
ALTO'RIPIENO, in mufic, the tenor of the great
chorus which fings and plays only now and then in
ibrae particular places.
ALTORF, a town of Germany, in the circle of Swa¬
bia, fituated in N. lat. 47° and E. long. q° gj'.
Altorf, is likewife the name of a town in the circle
of Franconia, fituated in N. lat. 490 20', andE. long.
11° 20'.
Altorf, is alfo the capital of the canton of Uri, in
Switzerland, fituated on the lake Lucern, in N. lat.
46° jo', and E. long. 8° 3c/.
ALTRINGHAM, a town of Chefhire in England,
upon the borders of Lancafhire, feven miles from
Manchefter.
ALTRIP, a fmall town of Germany, in the diocefe of
Spire, fituated upon the Rhine, a little above Man-
heim.
ALTUMAL, a term fometimes ufed to denote the mer¬
cantile ftyle or dialed.
ALTUS, in mufic. See Counter-tenor.
ALTZHEIM, or Altzky, a town of Germany, fitu¬
ated in N. lat. 490 45', and E. long. 70 52', about
42 miles N. W. of Heidelberg.
ALVA de Tormes, a tov/n of Spain, in the province of
Leon, fituated on the river Tormes, in N. lat. 410,
and W. long. 6°, about 16 miles S. E. of Salamanca.
ALVAH, among the Mahometans, the name by which
they call the wood wherewith Mofes fweetened the
waters of Marah.
ALVAHAT, a province of higher Egypt, fituated un¬
der the tropics.
ALVARID, in the hiftory of Spain, a kind of magi-
ftrate or judge, differing very little from the alcaid.
See Alcaid.
ALVARISTS, in church hiftory, a branch of Thomifts,
fo called from Alvares their leader ; who afferted fuf-
ficient grace, inftead of the efficacious grace of the
ancient Thomifts. See Thomists.
ALU CO, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
ftrix. See Strix.
ALUDE, a kind of fheep’s leather, one fide of which
has the wool on.
ALUDELS, in chemiftry, earthen pots ranged one a-
bove another, for retaining the flowers which afcend
in the procefs of fublimation. The loweft aludel is
fitted to the pot which contains the matter to be fu-
blimed, and at the top is a clofe head for cofteding
the flowers which afcend higheft. See Chemistry.
'*• ALVEARIUM, in anatomy, the hollow of the outer
ear. See Ana-tomy, Part VI.
Alvearium, in matters of literature, is ufed in a figu¬
rative fenfe for a colledion or thefaurus.
ALVEOLUS, in natural hiftory, the name of the waxen
cells in bee-hives. See Apis.
Alveolus, in anatomy, the fockets in the jaws where¬
in the teeth are fixed. See Anatomy, Part I.
Alveolus, in botany, the name of the cells in which
the feeds of feveral plants are ranged.
Alveolus, in natural hiftory, a fea foflile of a conic
figure, compofed of a number of cells, like bee-hives,
v joined into each other, with a pipe of communication.
Vol. I. No. 6. t 3
■ 9 ) ALU
ALVEUS, in anatomy, a name fometimes given to the
tumid ladeal veffels proceeding from the receptaculum
chyli.
Alveus, is alfo ufed in Roman antiquity,for a kind'of
boat, fafhioned out of the trunk of a Angle tree :
Such was that in which Romulus and Remus were
expofed.
ALVIDONA, a town of Calabria, in the kingdom of
Naples, upon the gulph of Roffano.
ALYlflttxus, among phyficians. See Diarrhoea.
Qbjiruftio Alvi, a Latin phrafe for coftivenefs. See
COSTIVENESS.
ALVIDUCAp among phyficians, a term for laxative
medicines.
ALUM, or Alumen, in natural hiftory, a peculiar kind
of fait, fometimes found pure, but oftner feparated
from feveral fubftances, as a foft reddifh ftone in Ita¬
ly, feveral kinds of earth, and, in England, from a
whitifh or bluiflt ftone, called Irifli flate. Alum, in
medicine, is a powerful aftringent. In'dying, it fixes'
the colours upon the fluff. See Chemistry.
Procefs of making Alum. At Whitby, in Yorkftftre,
alum is made thus : Having burnt a quantity of the
ore with whins, or wood, till it becomes white, then
they barrow it in a pit, where it is fteeped in water
for eight or ten hours. This liquor, or lixivium, is
conveyed by troughs to the alum-houfe, into cifterns,
and from them into the pans, where it is boiled about
24 hours. They add a certain quantity of the lee of
kelp ; the whole is drawn off into, a fetder ; whefe
having remained about an hour, that the ftilphur and,
other dregs may have time to fettle to the bottom, it
is conveyed into coolers. This done, to every tun of
the liquor they add about eight gallons of urine;
and having flood four days and nights, till quite cool,
the alum begins to cryftallize on the fides of the vef-
fel, from which being fcraped off, it is waflied with
fair water, and then thrown in a bing, to let the
water drain off. After this it is thrown into a pan,
called the roching pan, and there melted; in which
ftate it is conveyed by troughs into tuns, where it
Hands about 10 days, till perfectly condenfed. Then
ftaving the tuns, the alum is takeaout, chipped, and
carried to the ftore-houfes.
This is what we commonly call roche or rock alum,
as being prepared from ftones cut from the rocks of
the quarry ; and ftands contradiftinguifhed from the
common alum, or that prepared from earths.
Artificial Alum, that prepared by art, in contradi-
ftindion from the native alum. It is alfo ufed for
alum produced by caufing burnt earthen veffels imbibe
a large quantity of oil of vitriol; the effect of which
is, that they are thereby reduced to a mucilage,
which, being expofed to the open air, affords cryftals
of pure alum. Tobacco-pipes, wetted with fpirit of
fulphur, likewife afford beautiful cryftals of plumole
alum.
Burnt Alum, is -that melted in a fire-lhovel, or crucible,
where it is allowed to bubble till it becomes a white
hard fubftance.
The watery part of the alum being thus expelled,
K k the
A L Y ( . 13°
the remainder is left pofieffed of all its acids, lefs
clogged, and more in a condition to exert its effeifts.
It proves a gentle efcharotic, and is ufed in fmall
quantities, mixed with other ingredients, in tooth-
powders.
Crude Alum, that which has undergone no other refine¬
ment than what it receives at the alum-works.
Native Alum, or Foffile Alum, that formed by na¬
ture, without the affiftance of art.
There are ftill mines of native alum in the ifland of
Chio, confifting of a kind of vaults, or apartments
crufted over with alum, which may be looked upon as
exfoliations from the rock.
Plumofe Alum, or Plume Alum, a kind of natural
alum, compofed of a fort of threads, or fibres, refem-
bling feathers ; whence it has its name.
Prepared Alum, or Purified Alm, that which is dif-
folved in hot rain-water, and afterwards made to cry-
ftalize, by evaporating the water.
Roche--Ar.vM, or Rock-Ai.V'M. See the article, Proctfs
of making Alum, fupra.
Roman Alum, a fort of rock-alum, of a reddilh colour,
made in the country near Rome.
Saccharine Alum, is a compofition of common alum with
rofe-water, and the whites of eggs, which being boiled
to the confidence of a pade, is formed in the lhape of a
fugar-loaf; it is ufed as a cofmetic.
Set file Alum, the fame with plumofe alum.
ALUMEN, the Latin name of alum.
Alumen cat ini, a name fometimes ufed for the fait of
the kali.
Alumen fcaglioU, a name fometimes ufed for lapis fpe-
cularis.
ALUMINOUS, an epithet for things that partake of
the nature of alum,
ALUMTA, in botany. See Luteola.
ALUS, or Alum, in botany, an obfolete name of the
fymphymm. See Symphytum.
ALVUS, in anatomy, a term ufed fos the belly in ge¬
neral, but more frequently applied to the bowels.
ALWAIDII, a fedt of Mahometans who believe all great
crimes to be unpardonable.
ALYPIAS, the name of a kind of white turbith. See
Turbith.
ALPUM, in botany, a fynenyme and likewife the tri¬
vial name of a fpecies of globularia. See Globu¬
lar! a.
ALYSSOIDES, in botany, a fynonyme of the alyfium.
See Alyssum.
ALYSSUM, or Aly.sson, in botany, a genus of the
tetradynamia filiculofa. The dowers of the alyffum
confid of four leaves in the form of a crofs : The cap-
fule is iliort and finooth, and contains a number of
roundilh feeds. There are 14 fpecies of the alyflum,
none of which are natives of Britain.
ALYTARCHA, a pried of Antioch in Syria, who, in
the games indituted in honour of the gods, prefided
over the officers who carried rods to clear away the
crowd, and keep order.
In the Olympic games, the alytarches had the fame
) A M A
command, and obliged every perfon to preferve order
and decency.
ALZACHI, in botany, an obfolete name of the an-
guria. SeeANGURiA.
ALZAGI, orAuzEGi. See Zegi.
ALZARAC, the Arabian name of a coarfe kind of cam¬
phor.
ALZIRA, a town of Spain, in the province of Valen-
tia, fituated on the river Xucar, about 18 miles S of
the city of Valencia, W. long. 20°, N. lat. 39° 10'.
ALZIZ, among Arabian phyficians. See Ziz.
ALZUM. See Bdellium.
AMA, among ecclefiadical writers, denotes a veflel in
which wine or water were kept for the fervice of the
.eucharid.
Am a, is fometimes alfo ufed for a wine-meafure, as a
pipe, or the like.
AMABYR, or Amvabyr, a cudom which formerly
prevailed in Wales, and fome other parts of the king¬
dom ; being a certain fine, or fum of money, paid to
the lord upon marrying a maid within his manor.
Amacaches, a people of Brazil, in S. America, near
the government of Rio Janeiro.
AMACUSA, an ifland of Japan, feparated by a narrow
drait from Saicoco, or Ximo.
Amacusa, is alfo the capital of the province of that
name.
AMACAO. See Macoa.
AMADABAT, a large populous trading city in the E.
Indies, the capital of the province of Guzurat, or
Cambay, and fituated in 720 E. long, and 230 40'
N. lat.
AM AD AN, or Hamadan, in geography. See Ha-
1 MADAN.
AMADANAGER, a town in the higher peninfula of
India, fituated in 74° 15' E. long, and 180 N. lat,
AMADIA, a city of Afiatic Turky, in the province of
Curdedan, fituated on a high mountain, in 430 E.
long, and 370 N. lat.
AMAIN, or Amayne, in the fea-language, a term im¬
porting to lower fomething at once. Thus, to drike
amain, is to‘lower, or let fall, the top-fails ; to wave
amain, is to make a fignal, by waving a drawn fword,
or the like, as a demand that the enemy drike their
top-fails.
AMAK, or Amaka, an ifland of Denmark, lying in
130 5' E. long, and 550 29' N. lat. and feparated by
a very narrow channel from Copenhagen.
AMALFA, a city of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,
and province of the hither Principato. It is the fee
of an archbiffiop, and remarkable for giving birth to
Flavius Blendus, inventor of the feaman’s compafs.
E. long. 1-50 20, N. lat. 48° ycA
AMALGAM, mercury united with fome metal. See
Chemistry.
AMALGAMATION, in chemidry, the operation of
making an almalgam, or mixing mercury with any me¬
tal. See Chemistry.
Amalgamation, is alfo ufed by fome, in a lefs proper
fenfe, for a folution of fulphur with mercury.
AMAN,
A M A ( I3I
AMAN, a port of Africa, in the kingdom of Morocco,
upon the Atlantic ocean, between, cape Ger, and
cape Cantin.
Aman, is aifo the name of a kingdom, near the middle
of the ifland of Sumatra, in the £. Indies,.
AMANCE, a town of Lorrain, fituated in .6° ro' E.
long, and 48° 4c/ N. lat. about feven miles N. E. of
. Nancy.
AMAND, or St Amand, the name of two towns, one
lituated in the duchy of Bourbon, in the province of
Lyonnois in France; and the other in French Flanders,
about fix miles N. of Valenciennes.
AMANTEA, a fea-port town and biihop’s fee of the
kingdom of Naples, fituared near the bay of Euphe-
mia, in the province of Calabria, in 160 20' E. long,
and 390 15' N. lat.
AMAPALLA, a. fea-port town of Mexico, in the pro-
, vince of Guatimala, fituated on the Pacific ocean, in
930 W. long, and N. lat.
AMARACUS, in botany, a fynonyme of the origa¬
num. See Origanum.
AMARANTA, or Amaranth, an order of knight¬
hood, inftituted in i6J3, by Chriftina Queen of Swe-
. den, in memory of a mafquerade, wherein fhe had af-
fumed that name, which fignifies unfading, or immor¬
tal. Her nobility likewife aflumed different charac¬
ters, viz. of gods, goddeffes, Ibepherds, nymphs, <bc.'
and fo well pleafed' was the Queen with the diver-
fion, that flie inftituted this order in memory of it,
confifting of 16 lords, and as many ladies, with the
motto, Dolce nella memoria.
AMARANTH, in botany. See Amaranthus.
AMARANTHOIDES, in botany, the trivial name of
a fpecies of illecebrum. See Illecebrum.
AMARANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the monascia
pentandria clafs. The flowers have no petals ; the
. calix is multifid; and the feeds are contained in mem¬
branaceous velfels, and very numerous. There are 22
fpecies of amaranthus, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain, except the blitum, or leffer blite ; all the others
are fmmd in the Indies. The amaranthus is faid to
be aftringent.
AMARYLLIS, in botany, a genus of the hexandria
monogynia clafs. The fpatha of the amaryllis confifts
of one leaf, the flower, like other liliaceous plants,
has fix petals, and the ftigma is trifid. There are 12
fpecies of the amaryllis, ail of them natives of the
warm climates. Fig. 1. of plate XII. reprefents the
orientalis, a native of theE. Indies.
AMASIA, the northern divifion of lefter Afia, lying
on the S.. fhore of-the Euxine fea.
Amasia, is alfo-the name of the capital city of the
above province, fituated in 36° E. long, and 420 N.
lat. about 70 miles S. of the Euxine fea.
AMASTRIS, or Amastro, a city of Turky in Afia,
in the province of Brefangil, fituated on the Black
Sea.
AMATIDES, a name ufed by fome for an incombufti-
ble ftone. See Amianthus.
AMATITLAN, a town of N. America, fituated in
the valley of Mixco, in the province of Guatimala.
) A M B
AMATORII mufculi, in anatomy, a term fometimes
ufed for the obliquus fuperior and obliquus inferior
mulcles of the eye, as thefe mufcles affift in og¬
ling or drawing the eye Tideways. See Anatomy,
part VI.
AMATRICE, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in the
farther Abruzzo, upon the confines of the pope’s ter¬
ritories, and the marquifate of Ancona.
AMAUROSIS, in medicine, a diftemper in the eye, oc-
cafioned by an infenfibility of the retina. See Medi-
AMAUSA, a term ufed by chemifts for paftes counter¬
feiting gems.
AMAXOBII, the fame with hatnaxohii.
AMAZON, in a general fcnfe, denotes a bold, daring
woman.
AMAZONS, were an ancient nation of women, inha¬
biting that part of lefier Afia now called Amalia!
See Amasia,
The Amazons are faid to have killed all their male
children, and to have cut off the right breafts of their
females, to fit them for martial exercifes. The ex-
iftence, however, of fuch a nation is controverted" by
many judicious authors, and defended by others, par¬
ticularly Mr Petit, who has publifned a diflertation on
the fufcjeft, wherein are feveral curious inquiries con¬
cerning their arms, drefs, dv.
We alfo read of Scythian Amazons, of German Ama¬
zons, of Lybian Amazons, and Amazons of America,
living on the banks of the great river which bears
their name, who are reprefented as governed by a
queen, no man being permitted to live among them;
only, at a certain feafon, thofe of the neighbouring
nations are fuffered to vifit them for the fake of pro¬
creation. The. Amazons of Lybia are famous for
their wars with another female nation called Gorgons.
See Gorgons.
On medals, the buft of the Amazons is ordinarly re¬
prefented armed with a little battle-ax, Called by the
Remans biceps, or fecuris, which they carried on
their fhouldv*;- with a fmall buckler, in form of a
half moon, diftinguifhed by the name of fella, upon
their left arm.
Amazons, in a figurative fenfe, an appellation given to
bees, as being governed by a queen.
Amazon, in geography, a great river in S. America,
which riling in Peru, near the equator, runs caft-
ward a courfe of more than 3009 miles; and, like
other rivers between the tropics, annually overflows
its banks, at which feafon it is about 150 miles
broad where it falls into the ocean.
AMAZONIAN, denotes Line thing belonging to the
amazons.
AMBACHT, a term ufed in fome parts of Germany
and Flanders, for the magiftracy of a city, or the
diftridl or territory belonging to it.
AMBADAR, a city of Africa, in the upper Ethiopia,
fituated upon the Nile, between the provinces of Dai n-
bea and Savea.
AMBAGES. See Circumlocution.
AMBAMARJAM, or Ambara, the capital city of
Abylfinia,
A M B ( 132 ) A M 6
AbyfTinia, ov higher Ethiopia, fituated on the fide of
a lake, out of which the river Nile ifl’ues-; 350 E.
long, and 13° S. lat.
AMBARVALIA, in antiquity, a ceremony among the
Romans, when, in order to procure from the godg
an happy harveft, they conduced the victims thrice
round the corn-fields in proceflion, before facrificing
them. Ambarvalia were either of a private or pu¬
blic nature : the private were performed by the mafter
of a family; and the public by the prielts who offici¬
ated at the folemnity, called fratres arvales. The
prayer preferred on this occafion, the formula of which
we have in Cato, de Re Ruft. cap. cxlii. was called
carmen ambarvale.
At thefe fealls they facrificed to Ceres a fow, a
Iheep, and a bull, or heifer, whence, they take the
name oifuovetauriiia'.
The method of celebrating them, was to lead a
viclim round the fields, while the peafants accompa¬
nied it, and one .of their number, crowned with oak,
hymned forth the praifes of Ceres, in verfes compo-
fed on purpofe.
This feftival was celebrated twice a-year, at the end
of January, according to fome, or in April, according
to others; and for the fecond time in the month of
July.
AMBARVALIS, in botany, an obfolete name of the
polygala. See Polygala.
AMBE, in furgery, an inftrument for reducing dif-
located bones.
Am be, in anatomy, a term for the fuperficial jutting
out of a bone.
AMBER, fuccinitm,' or elettrum, in natural-hiflory, a
hard bituminous inflammable fubftance, brittle, fome-
what tranfparent, generally of a yellowilh colour, and
when warm fends forth a fragrant bituminous odour.
Amber is likewife endowed with an electrical virtue;
when rubbed, it'attracts draws or other light bodies.
The tafte of amber is acrid, bituminous, and fome-
what adringent. It does not effervefce with acids,
and is foluble in fpirit of wine and effential oils.
When fubjedted to a chemical analyfis, it firfl yields a
fubacid water, afterwards .a yellow fetid oil, and a vo¬
latile fait; w-hat remains in the retort, is a black,
light, friable matter, refembling the bitumen Judai-
cum.
Amber is chiefly found in Pruflia, and in the Bal¬
tic fea, near the ffiore of Sudavia, where it is found
fwimming on the furface of the water, and is taken in
nets. It is edeemed a pov/erful medicine in hyderic
and hypochondriac cafes.—Naturalids are much divi¬
ded about the origin of amber : Some maintaining it
to be an animal fubdance, others, a refinous juice
oozing from poplars and firs near the flrore, and run¬
ning into the fea. But it has lately been found to be
a true bitumen ; the veins of which were difcovered,
by the Pruflians, in the bowels of the earth, in the
marffi near Eudrin.
Amber, in geography, a river, which rifing in the S.
W. part, of Bavaris, runs N. E. by Lanfperg and
Dachan, and falls into ifer, aiittk above Landfhut.
Amberg, a fortified town of Bavaria, fituated on the
river Ils, about 30 miles "N. of Ratidron, in 120 E.
long, and 490 25/ N. lat.,
AMBERGREASE, or Ambergrise, in natural hi-
dory, is a folid, opaque, affi-coloured, fat, inflamma¬
ble fubdance, variegated like marble, remarkably
light, rugged and uneven in its furface, and has a fra¬
grant odour when heated. It does not effervefce with
acids; melts freely over a fire, into a kind of yellow
rofin, and is hardly foluble in fpirit of wine. Amber-
grife is greatly ufed by perfumers on account of its
fweet fmell. In medicine it is ufed for nervous com¬
plaints. It is found in great quantities in the In-
dian ocean, near the Molucca dies, as alfo near Afri¬
ca, and fometimes near the northern parts of England,
Scotland, and Norway. There has been many dif¬
ferent hypothefes concerning the origin of ambergreafe,
but the mod probable is that which fuppofes it to be a
foffile bitumen, or naphtha, exfuding out of the bow¬
els of the earth, in a fluid form, and diddling into
the fea, where it hardens, and floats on the furface.
AMBERING, a term ufed by fome wiiters for giving
the fcent of amber to any thing.
AMBER F, a city of France, in the lower Auvergne,
remarkable for its manufa&ures in paper and cam-
blets.
AMBETTUWAY, in botany, a barbarous name of a
tree, the leaves of which, when boiled in wine, are
faid to create an appetite, and is u&d by the people
in Guinea with that intention.
AMBIAM, a kingdom of Ethiopia, fituated betweeri
the Nile, and a river which rifes out of the lake
Zaffan.
AMBIDEXTER, a perfon who can ufe both hands
with the fame facility and for the fame purpofes that
the generality of people do their right hands.
AMBIEGN/E over, in the heathen lacrifices, an appel¬
lation given to fuch ewes as, having brought forth
twins, were facrificed together with their two lambs,
one on each fide. We find them mentioned among
other facrifices to Juno.-
AMBIENT, a term ufed for fuch bodies, efpecially
fluids, as encompafs others on all fides: thus, the air
is frequently called an ambient fluid, becaufe it is dif-
fufed round the earth.
AMBIERLE, a city of France, three leagues from
Rouanne, and 15 from Lyons, on the borders of the
Lionnois,
AMBIGENAL hyperbola, a name given by Sir Ifaac
Newton to one of the triple hyperbolas of the fecond
order, having one of its infinite legs falling within
an angle formed by the aflymptytes, and the other
without.
AMBIGUITY, in rhetoric and grammar, a defied! of
language, whereby words are rendered ambiguous;
See the next article.
AMBIGUOUS, a term applied to a word or expreflion
which maybe taken in different fenfts.
AMBILLON, a village of France, in Touraine, where
there is a great quarry for mill-ftones.
AMBIT, in geometry, is the fame with what is ether-
A M B ( i
wife called the perimeter of a figure. ' See Peri¬
meter.
AMBITUS, in Roman antiquity, the fetting up for
fome magiftraey or office, and formally going round
the city to folicit the intereft and votes of the people.
On thefe occafions, it was not only ufual to folicit the
Uitereft of their friends and others with whom they
were perfonally acquainted, but the candidates, being
attended by perfons of an extenfive acquaintance, who
fuggefted to them the names of the citizens, and thence
called nomenclatores, or interpretes, made their ap¬
plication to all they met. This method of fuing for
offices was deemed allowable, and therefore never pro¬
hibited by law; but to redrain all undue influence,
whether by bribery, or exhibiting, games, fhews, and
the like, many laws were enadted, and fevere fines im-
pofed.
AMBLE, in horfemanffiip, a peculiar pace by which
a horfe’s two legs of the fame fide move at the fame
time.
AMBLETEUSE, a fmall fea-port-town of Picardy
in France, fituated about five miles north of Bou¬
logne.
AMBLYGON, in geometry, denotes an obtufe angled
triangle, or a triangle one of whofe angles confifts
of more than ninety degrees.
AMBLYOPY. See Gutta Serena.
AMBO, or Ambon, in ecclefiaftical antiquity, a kind
of pulpit or reading-defk, where that part of the divine
fervice called the gradual was performed.
AMBOHETSMENES, a province in the ifland of
Madagafcar, near the mountains of the fame name.
AMBONUM. SeeOcuLus Belu
AMBOINA. See Amboyna.
AMBOISE, a town of Orleanois, in France, fituated
on the river Loire, about ten miles eaft of Tours,
in i° E. long, and 47° 25' N. lat.
AMBOYNA, an ifland of theE. Indies, lying between
the Molucca ifles and thofe of Banda, in 126°. E.
long, and 30 40' S. lat.
In this ifland, which is about feventy miles in cir¬
cumference, the Dutch have a ftrong fort, garrifoned
by feven or eight hundred men. What makes it the
more remarkable, is the cruel ufage and expulfion of
the Englifli fadtors by the Dutch, in the reign of
K. James I.
AMBOSINE, a province of Africa, in the kingdom of
Benin.
AMBOTE, a town of Poland, in Samogitia, upon the
river Wardaria, two Polilh miles from Siade, and
nine from the Baltic fea.
AMBOULE, a large country in the ifland of Madagaf¬
car, to the north of Carcanofli.
Amboule is alfi^tbe name of a confiderable village in
in that country.
AMBOURNAY, a fmall town of France, upon the ri¬
ver Ain, on the road from Lyons to Geneva.
A.MBRA, or Ambragrisia. See Ambergrease;
AMBRASI, a river of Africa, which, after wafhing
the kingdom of Congo, falls into the Ethiopian
Ocean.
Vol, I. No. 6.
53 ) A M B
AMBRES, a city of France, in the Upper Languedoc,
in the diocefe of Caftres.
AMBRESBERRY, a market-town in Wiltfliire, about
fix miles north of Salilbury, and fituated in i° 40'
W. long, and 510 20 N. lat.
AMBROSE, or St Ambrose in the wood, an order of
religious, who ufe the Ambrofian office, and wear an
image of that faint engraven on a little plate : in other
refpedts they conform to the rule of the Auguflins.
' See Ambrosian Office, and Augustins,
AMBROSIA, in heathen antiquity, denotes the folid
food of the gods, in contradiflindlion from the drink,
which was called nettar. It had the appellation am-
brofta, as being fuppofed to render thofe immortal who
fed thereon.
Ambrosia, is alfo a term for rough or crude wax, fup¬
pofed to be the food of bees.
Ambrosia, in Grecian antiquity, a name fometimes u-
fed for a feftival of Bacchus, otherwife called, lencea'.
See Lenzea.
Ambrosia, in botany, a genus of the monoecia pentan-
dria clafs. The male flofcules of the ambrofia have
no petals ; the fruit of the female is prickly, and flia-
ped-like a club, containing one oblong feed in each.
There are four fpeeies of ambrofia, via. the trifida, e-
latior, and the artemififolia, all natives of America;
and the maritima, a native of Greece.
AMBROSIAN office, in church-hiftory, a particular,
formula of worfhip in the church of Milan, which
takes its name from St Ambrofe, who inftituted that
office in the fourth century. Each church originally
had its particular office ; and when the pope, in after-.
times, took upon him to impofe the Roman office upon
all the weftern churches, that of Milan flickered it-
felf under the name and authority of St Ambrofe;
from which time the Ambrofian ritual has prevailed.
AMBROSIN, a coin formerly (truck by the dukes of
Milan, reprefenting St Ambrofe on horfeback, with a
whip in his- right hand.
AMBRUN, in geography, the fame with Embrun. See
Embrun.
AMBRY, a place in which are depofited all utenfils ne-
ceflary for houfe-keeping. In the ancient abbeys and
priories,, there was an office under this denomination,,
wherein were laid up all charities for the poor.
AMBUBAJiE, in Roman antiquity, were immodeft wo¬
men, who came from Syria to Rome, where they li¬
ved by proflitution, and by playing on the flute.
AMBUBEJA, in botany, an obfolete name of the ci-
chorium. See Cichorium.
AMBUILA, or Amboila, a country of Africa, in the
kingdom of Congo, between the lake Aquelonde and
St Salvador,
AMBULATION. See ab king.
Ambulation, in furgery, a term ufed for the fpread-
ing of a gangrene or mortification.
AMBULATORY, a term applied to fuch courts as were
not fixed, but removed fometimes to one place, fome¬
times to another.
AMBURBIUM, in Roman antiquity, aproceffion made
by the Romans round the city and pomoerium, in which
L 1 they
3
A M E (134
they led a vidtim, and afterwards facriiked if, in or¬
der to avert fome calamity that threatened the city.
AM BURY, or Anbury, among farriers, denotes a tu¬
mor, wart, or fwelling, which is foft to the touch,
and full of blood.
This diforder of horfes is cured by tying a horfe-
hair very hard about its root, and, when it has fallen
„ off, which commonly happens in about eight days,
brewing fome powder of verdcgris upon the part, to
prevent the return of the complaint. If the tumor
be fo low that nothing can be tied about it, they cut
it out with a knife, or elfe burn it off with a fliarp
hot iron; and, in finewy parts, where a hot iron is
improper, they eat it away with oil of vitriol, or white
fublimate.
AMBUSCADE, or Ambush, in the military art, pro¬
perly denotes a place where foldiers may lie concealed,
till they find an opportunity to iurprife the enemy.
AMBUSTION, with phyficians, the fame with a burn.
AMBY, a town of the Au(Irian Netherlands, in the
province of Limburg, fitnated oppofite to Maefiricht,
on the eaft-fide of the river Maefe, in 50 45' E. long,
and 50° 56', N.lat.
AMED, or Amida, a city of Afia in Mefopotamia:
the Arabians call it Diarbtker, and the Turks Kara-
Amed.
AMEDEWAT. See Am adabat.
AMEDIANS, in church-hiftory, ,a congregation of re¬
ligious in Italy, fo called from their profeiiing them-
felves amanies Deutn, lovers of God; or rather, a-
wlati Deo, beloved of God.
AM El V A, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
lacerta. See Lacerta.
AMEL, a term frequently ufed by Mr Boyle, in a fy-
nonimous fenfe with enamel. See Enamel.
AMEL AND, an ifland of the United Provinces, in the
German* Ocean, near the coaft of Friezland, from
which it is feparated by a ftraight called the Wadt.
AMELBURG, in geography, the fame with Ommen-
burg. See Ommenburg.
AMELIA, a city of Italy, fitnated on a mountain about
fifty miles N. E. of Rome, in 130 20' E. long, and
42 0 4c/ N. lat. _
AME'LLUS, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia poly-
gamia fuperfiua clafs. The receptacle of the amellus
is paleaceous; the calix is fquarrous; and the rays of
the corollulse undivided. There are only two fpecies
of this, genus, viz. the lychnitisj a native of the Cape;
and the umbellatus, a native of Jamaica.
AMEN, in the fcripture-language, a folemn formula or
conclufion to all prayers, fignifying. So be it.
AMEND, or Amenoe, in the French cuftoms, a pe¬
cuniary punilhment impofed by a judge for any crime,
falfe proiecution. Or groundlefs appeal.
Amende honorable, an infamous kind of punilhment in-
flifted in France upon traitors, parricides, or facrile-
gious perlbns, in the following manner : The offender
being delivered into the hands of the hangman, his
Ihirt is llripped off, and a rope put about his neck,
and a taper in his hand; then he is led into court,
where he muft beg pardon of God, the king, the
) A M E
court, and his country. Sometimes the puniflimCnt
ends here ; butfometimes it is only a prelude to death,
or banilhment to the gallies.
Amende honorable is a term alfo ufed for making recan¬
tation in open Court, or in prefence of the peifon in¬
jured.
AMENDOLARA, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in
the Hither Calabria.
AMENDMENT, in a general fenfe, denotes fome al¬
teration or change made in a thing for the better.
Amendment, inlaw, the correction of an error com¬
mitted in a procefs, which may be amended after judg-*
ment, unlefs the error lies in giving judgment, for in
that cafe it is not amendable, but the party mult bring
a writ of error.
A bill may be amended on the file at any time be-
fore the plea is pleaded; but not afterwards, without
motion and leave of the court.
Amendment of a bill, in parliament, is fome alteration
made in the firft draught of it.
AMENTACEOUS, in botany, an epithet applied to
fuch plants as are furnilued with an amentum. See
Amentum.
AMENTUM, in botany, the name of a fpecies of ca¬
lix, confifting of valves, and hanging down in differ¬
ent dire&iohs from the caulis. Common oats afford a
good example of the amentum.
Amentum, in Roman antiquity, a thong tied about the
middle of a javelin or dart, and faltened to the fore¬
finger, in order to recover the weapon as foon as it was
difeharged The ancients made great ufe of the a-
meatum, thinking it helped to inforce .the blow. It
alfo denotes a latchet that bound their fandals.
AMERADE, the fame with emir. See Emir.
AMERCEMENT, or Amerciament, in law, a pe¬
cuniary punilhment impofed upon offenders at the mer¬
cy of the court.
AMERGO, or Mergo, a city of Africa, in the king¬
dom of Fez, three leagues from Beni-Tudi.
AMERIA, in geography. See Amelia.
AMERICA, one of the four parts of the world, and
by much the large!!, extending near 9000 miles in
length, and about 3000 in breadth. It is fituated be¬
tween 3s0 and 1450 of W. long, and between 5-80
* S. and 8o° N. lat.; bounded by the lands and Teas
about the arflic pole on the north; by the Atlantic O-
cean, which divides it from Europe and Africa on the
weft ;;by the vaft Southern Ocean on the fouth ; and
by the vaft Pacific Ocean, which divides it from Afia
on the eaft. Although it is faid to have taken its name
from Americus Vefpucius, a Florentine, it feepis in-
difputable that it was firft difeovered by Chriftopher
Columbus, a Genoefe, anno 1491 ; unlefs fome con-
je&ures, much more ancient, be admitted, that it was •
firft vilited by a Carthaginian fleet, who afterwards
fettled in Mexico. It is certain, that its^roduiftions,
whether animal or vegetable, differ greatly-from thofe of
any other country ; and its original inhabitants, the Ef-
kimaux only excepted, feem to have ail the fame origi- -
nal, for they agree in every particular, from-Hudfpn’s
Buy, to the Straits of Magellan, excepting only where
difference
A M H ( 135
difference of circumftances may make fome diflimila-
rity. They have all originally a red copper colour,
and every part of their bodies without hair, except
the, head, where it is black, ftraight, and coarfe. In
the Spanifh and portuguefe fettlements, gold is found
in great plenty. Its remarkable rivers are, St Lau¬
rence and the Miihfippi, in N. America; and the A-
mazons and Rio de la Plata in S. America. The An¬
des, which bound Chili on the eaft, are the highell
mountains in the world.
AMPRICIMA, in zoology, an obfolete name of a fpe-
cies of lacerta. See Lacerta.
AMERSFORT, a town of the Dutch Netherlands, in
the province of Utrecht, fituated on the river Ems,
about fourteen miles north-eall of Utrecht, in j° 2c/
E. long, and 520 2*,' N. lat.
AMER.SHAM, a market-town of Buckinghamfnire, a-
bout twenty-feven miles well ward of London. It is
fituated in 4c/ W. long, and 510 40' N. lat. and
fends two members to parliament.
AMETHYSTUS, amethyft, a trahfparent gem of a pur¬
ple colour, arifing from a mixture of red and blue.
However, their colour is ^various : Some have a
mixture of yellow, and fome refemble red wine and
water ; but the bell kind is tranfparent and colourlefs,
and refembling fo much the diamond, that the differ¬
ence can only be diilinguilhed by the foftnefs of the
amethyft. This gem is found of various fizes, from
the bulk of a fmall vetch, to an inch and an half in
diameter. Its ftiape is fometimes foundilh, fometimes
oblong, and fometimes flatted a little on one fide; but
its moft common figure is that of a cryftal, compofed
of four planes, and terminated by a flat Ihort pyra¬
mid. The aniethyft is-found in India, Arabia, Ar¬
menia, Ethiopia, Cyprus, Germany, Bohemia, and
Mifhia; but as they are generally as foft as cryftal,
they are not much valued. It may be counterfeited
many ways ; but the Germans hardly think it worth
the counterfeiting.
AMETHYST, in heraldry, a term for the purple colour
in the coat of a nobleman, in ufe with thofe who bla¬
zon by precious ftones, inftead of metals and colours.
This, in a gentleman’s efcutcheon, is called Purpure,
and in thofe of fovereign princes, Mercury.
AMETHYSTEA, in botany, a genus of the diandria
mbnogynia clafs, of which there is hut one fpecies,
viz. the caerulea, a native of the mountains of Sibe¬
ria. The corolla of this plant is r uinquefide, the ca-
lix a little bell-fhaped, and the capfole contains four
gibbous feeds.
AMETHYSTINE, in a general fenfe, an appellarion
given to whatever partakes of the nature, or emulates
the colour of the amethyft.'
AMEY, a city of Savoy, fituated in a plain, upon the
lake Nicy.
AMGAILA, or Amgailam, an obfblete name of a
foecies of acanthus. See Acanthus.
AMHAR, or Amh ara, a kingdom of Abylfinia in Afri¬
ca, fubjedt to the great'Negus. It is bounded on thb.
north by the kingdom of Bajemder; on the eaft, by
that of Angote j on the fouth, by the kingdom of
) AMI
Walaca; and on the weft, by the Nile, which fepa-
rate.s it from the kingdom of Gojam. This country
is remarkable for the mountains Ghefghen and Amb^-
cel, where the children and near relations of the kings
of Abylnnia were, formerly confined; upon which ac¬
count it is regarded as the native country of the mo¬
dern emperors.
AMIA, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
fehomber. See Schomber.
AMIANTHUS, or earth-lax, in natural hiftory, a fi¬
brous, flexile, elaftic mineral fubftance, confifting of
ftiort, abrupt, and interwoven filaments. It is found
in G ermany, in the ftrata of iron ore, fometimes form¬
ing veins of an inch in diameter.' There is another-kind
of amianthus, which is to be met with in the marble
quarries of Wales. But this kind Linnaeus affirms to
be an albedos. The amianthus does not give fire with
ft Cel, nor ferment with acids. It endurqs an intenfe
heat without injury to its-texture.
AMICABLE, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing done
in a friendly manner, or to promote peace.
Amicable tawin Roman antiquity, were, accorct-
ing to Pitifcus, lower and lefs honourable feats allot¬
ted for the judices pe-danei, or inferior judges, who,
upon being admitted of the emperor’s council, were
dignified by him with the title amici.
AMICITIA, or tenure in Amicitja; tensre in aniici-
tiam, in the feudal cuftoms, were lands granted freely
to be enjoyed only fo long a« the donor pleafed.
AMICTUS, in Roman antiquity, was any upper gar¬
ment worn over the tunica.
Amictus, among ecdefiaftical writers, the uppermoft
garment anciently worn by the clergy; the other five,
being the alba, fingulum, ftola, manipulus, and planeta.
The amictus was a linen garment, of afquare figure^
covering the head, neck, and fhouiders, and buckled
or clafped before the breaft. It is ftill worn by the
religious abroad.
AMICULUM, in Roman antiquity, a woman’s upper
garment, which differed from the pala. It was worn,
both by- matrons and courtezans.
AMICUS curia-, a law-term,'to denote a by-ftander
who informs the court of a matter in law that is doubt¬
ful or miftaken.
AMIENS, the capital city of Picardy, in France, fitua-
ted on the river Somme, ituE. long. 20 3a, and N\
lat. 490 50'. It is a beautiful town, and a biflrop’i
fee, under the arChbiffiop of Rheims. Here too is an
univerlity of confiderable note.
AMIGDALUS, in botany; See Amygdalus.
AMIESTIES, cotton cloths, which come from the E^
Indies.
AMILICTI, in the ancient Chaldean theology, one of
the triads of psrfons in the third order of the divine
hierarchy. See Hierarchy.
AMINA, a city of Ethiopia in Africa, nine miles from
Albcar.
AMINEUM criuni, the name of a vinegar .made of the
v/ine of A mi rife, a town of Campania in Italy.
AMIRANTE, in the Spanilh polity, a great officer of
ftate, aafwering to Our lord high-admiral.
AMIS I A,
AMISIA, or Ami
AMISS, or drawing
Drawing.
Amissa, or iex amij/d. See Lex.
AMITTERE legem terra, among lawyers, a plxrafe
importing the loi's of liberty of fwearing in any court.
AMMA, infurgery. See Hamma.
Amma, among ecclefiallical writers, a term ufed to de¬
note an abbefs or fpiritual mother.
AMMAA, in geography. See Amed.
AMMAN, or Ammant, in the German and Belgic po¬
licy, a judge who has the cognizance of civil caufes.
Ammant, is alfo ufed among the French for a pu¬
blic notary, or officer who draws up inftruments and
deeds.
AMMANNIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of four petals
inferred into the calix, v/hich has eight teeth. The
capfule has four cells. There are three fpecies of
ammannia, viz. the latifolia, and ramofior, both na¬
tives of America; and the baccifera, a native of China.
AMMERGAW, or AMMERLAND, a fmall territory in
Weftphalia, belonging to the King of Denmark.
AMMI, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia
clafs. The involucrum is pinnated; and the flowers
are all hermophradite, with radiated petals. There
are twro fpecies of the ammi, viz. the majus and glau-
cifolium, both natives of Europe.
AMMINIEiE uva, a name fometimes given to a fpecies
of vine. See Vitis.
AMMITES, in natural hiftory, the name of a congeries
of ftalagmitse. See Stalagmite.
AMMOCOETUS, in ichthyology. SccAmmodytes.
AMMOCHRYSOS, the name of a fpecies of mica, a
ftone common in Germany. See Mica.
AMMODYTES, or Sand-eel, in ichthyology, a ge¬
nus of fiflies belonging to the order of apodes. This
fiffi refembles an eel, and feldom exceeds a foot in
length. The head of the ammodytes is comprefled,
and narrower than the body ; the upper jaw is larger
than the under; the body is cylindrical, v'ith fcales
hardly perceptible. There is but one fpecies of the
the ammodytes, v/z. the tobianus, a native of Europe.
This fiffi gathers itfelf into a circle, and pierces the
fand with its head in the centre.
AMMON, or Hammon, in heathen antiquity. See
Hammon.
Cornua AMMONIS, in natural hiftory. See Snake-
stones.
AMMONIAC, the name of a gum-refin extraded from
■ an African plant. It is tranfported hither in the form
of drops or granules, and fometimes in large mafles
compofed of thefe granules adhering together. The
heft kind of it is that which is freeft of drofs, of a
yellowifh colour, and a bitterifti tafte. It is much u-
fed in obftrudions of the vifcera.and infardions of the
lungs.
£«/Ammoniac. See Armoniac.
AMMONITE. See Snake-stones.
.AMMUNITION, a general term for all warlike provi-
flons, but more efpecially ppv/der, ball, <&c. -r .
A U O
Ammunition, arms, utenfils of war, gun-powder,
imported without licence from his Majefty, are, by
the law's of England, forfeited, and triple the value.
And again, luch licence obtained, except for fur-
niftiing his Majefty’s public ftores, is to be void, and
the offender to incur a premunire, and to be difabled
to hold any office from the crown.
Ammunition bread4, Jhoes, &c. fuch as are ferved out
to the foldiers of an army or garrifon.
AMNA, among ancient phyficians. See Amnis.
AMNESTY, in matters of policy, an ad by which two
parties at variance promife to pardon and bury in obli¬
vion all that is paft.
Amnefty is either general and unlimited, or parti¬
cular and reftrained, though moft commonly univerfal,
u'ithout condition or exceptions ; fuch as that which
pafled in Germany at the peace of Ofnaburg in the
year 1648.
Amnesty, in a more limited fenfe, denotes a pardon
granted by a prince to his rebellious fubjeds, ufually
with fome exceptions : fuch was that granted by
Charles II, at his reftoration.
AMNIMODAR, in aftrology, denotes the planet which
redilies a nativity, or rather the method of doing k.
AMNIOS, in anatomy, a thin pellucid membrane which
furrounds the foetus in the womb. See Anatomy,
Tart VI.
AMNIS alcalifatur, a term for water impregnated with
an alkali. See Alkali.
AMOER, in geography, the fame with Amour. See
Amour.
Amoer is alfo an ifland fituated eaft from Niulham,
and north-weft from the land of Yeffo.
AMNITES. See Ammites.
AMOEBiEUM, in ancient poetry, a kind of poem, re-
prefenting a difpute between two perfons who are
made to anfwer each other alternately; fuch are the
third and feventh of Virgil’s eclogues.
AMOL, a city of Thabariftan in Afia upon the Gihun.
See Gihun.
AMOMUM, in botany, a genus of the monandria mo¬
nogynia clafs. The corolla of- the amomum is cut into
four fegments, one of which fpreads open. There
are four fpecies of this genus, viz. the zinziber, ze-
rumbet, cardamom, and grana paradifl, all natives of
the Indies. See Cardamom, and Gra^na Para-
disi.
AMORBACH, a fmall city of Franconia, in Germany,
belonging to the eledor of Mentz.
AMORGO, an illand of the Archipelago, about ninety
miles north of Candia, lying in E. long. 26° 15 , and
N. lat. 370,
AMORPHA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia de-
candria clafs, of which there is but one fpecies, viz.
the fruticofa. The vexillum of the corolla is ovated
and concave; it has no alse or carina. It is a native'
of Carolina, and is fometimes called barba Jovis A-
meric ma.
AMORTIZATION, in law, the alienation <jf lands' or
tenements to a corporation or fraternity ana their fuc-
. cefibrs. See M o r r m a 1 h .
k AMOSSON,
A M M ( 136 )
>SA, in geography. See Amasia.
amiss, among fportfmen. See
AMP (
AMOSSON, a river of France, in the province.of Lan¬
guedoc.
AMOVING, the ad of expelling a perfon from his place
-or office. •
AMOUR, a large river of Alia, which, arifing in Sibe¬
ria, runs eaftward through Chinefe Tartary, and falls
into the bay of Corea in the Indian Ocean.
AMOY, an illand on the fouth-weft coaft of .China, fi-
utated in E. long. xi8°, N. lat. 250.
AMPANA, in botany, an obfolete name of the boraflus.
See Borassus.
AMPELIS, in botany. See Vitis.
AMPELITES, Cannel-coal, a hard, opaque, foffile,
inflammable fubltance, of a black colour. It does
not effervefce with acids; it is capable of a fine po-
lifii, and for that reafon is turned into a number of
toys, as fnuff-boxes, and the like.
AMPER, or Ampor, an Eflex term for a phlegmon.
See Phlegmon.
AMPEZO, a town in the Tyroleze, belonging formerly
to the Venetians, but now to the houfe of Auftria.
AMPHERES, in antiquity, a kind of veflels wherein
the rowers plied two oars at the fame time, one with
the right hand, and another with the left.
AMPHIARTHROSIS, in anatomy, a term for fuch
jundures of bones as have an evident motion, but dif¬
ferent from the diarthrofis, &c. See Diarthrosis.
AMPHIBIA, in zoology, the name of Linnasus’s third
clafs of animals, including all thofe which live partly
in water, and partly on land. This clafs is fubdivided
into three orders, viz. 1. The amphibia reptiles; the
amphibia ferpentes; and the amphibia nantes. See
Natural History.
AMPHIBIOUS, in botany, the fame with aquatic.
See Aquatic.
AMPHIBLESTROIDES, in anatomy, a name by
which fome call the retina of the eye. See Retina.
AMPHIBOLIA. See the next article.
AMPHIBOLOGY, in grammar and rhetoric, a term
ufed to denote a phrafe fufceptible of two different in¬
terpretations. Amphibology arifes from the order of
the phrafe,'rather than from the ambiguous meaning
of a word.
AMPHIBRACHYS, in anciept poetry, the name of a
foot confiding of three .fyllables, whereof that in the
middle is long, and the other two ffiont; fuch is the
word [[abide].
AMPHICTYONS, in Grecian antiquity, an affembly
compofed of deputies from the different fates of
Greece, and refembling, in fome meafurq, the diet of
the German empire.
The amphiftyons met regularly at Delphi twice
a-year, viz. in fpring and autumn, and decided all
differences between any of the Grecian fates, their
determinations being held facred and inviolable.
AMPHIDROMIA, in antiquity, conf ituted part of the
lufration of infants. See Lustration.
AMPHIDRYON, in ecdefiafical writers, denotes the
veil or curtain which w^. drawn before the door of
the bema in ancient churches.
AMPHIMACER, in ancient poetry, a foot confifing
Vol. I. No. 6. 3
137 ) AMP
of three fyllables, whereof the firfl and laf are long,
and that in the middle ffiort : fuch is the word
[caflitas].
AMPHIPNEUMA, with phyficians, fignifies great dif¬
ficulty of breathing.
AMPHIPGLES, in antiquity, the principal magifrates
of the city of Syracufe in Sicity, called Archons at
Athens. See Archon.
AMPHIPOLIS, or Strymon, a town of European
Turky, once the capital of Macedonia, fituated in E.
long. 40°5', and N. lat. 410 30'.
AMPHIPPII, in Grecian antiquity, foldiers who, in
war, ufed two horfes without faddles, and were dex¬
terous enough to leap from one to the other.
AMPHIPRORiE, in the naval affairs of the ancients,
vefiels with a prow at each end. They were ufed
chiefly in rapid rivers and narrow channels, where it
was not eafy to tack about.
AMPHIPROSTYLE, in the archite&ure of the an¬
cients, a temple which had four columns in the front,
and as many in the face behind.
.AMPHISBAlNA, in zoology, a genus of ferpents be¬
longing to the order of amphibia ferpentes, fo called
from the falfe notion of its having two heads, becaufe
it moves with either end fofemoft.
The head of the amphilbaena is fmall, fmooth, and
blunt; the noftrils are very fmall; the eyes are mi¬
nute and blackiffi ; and the mouth is furnifted with a
great number of fmall teeth. The body is cylindri¬
cal, about a foot long, and divided iiito about 200
annular convex fegments like thofe of a worm ; and
it has about 40 longitudinal ftreaks, of which 12 on
each fide are in the form of fmall croffes like the Ro¬
man X; the anus is a tranfverfe flit; and the laft ring
or fegment of the belly has eight fmall papilla?, form¬
ing a tranfverfe line before the anus; the tail, i. e.
all the fpace below the anus, is ffiort, confifting of
thirty annular fegments, without being marked with
the crofs-lines, and is thick and blunt at the point.
The colour of the whole animal is black, variegated
with white; but the black prevails moft on the back,
and the white on the belly. It has a great refem-
blance to a worm, living in the earth, and movin'* e-
qually well with either end foremoft. There are but
two fpecies, viz. 1. the fuliginofa, which anfwers
exaftly to the above defeription, and is found dn Ly-
bia, and in different parts of America. 2. The ri¬
ba, which is totally white, is a native of both the
Indies, and is generally found in ant-hillocks. The
bite of the amphiffisena is reckoned to be mortal by
many authors; but as it is not furniffied with dog-
fangs, the ufual inftruments of cpnveying the poifon
of ferpents, later writers efteem it not to be poifonous.
They feed upon ants and earth-worms, but particularly
the latter. See plate XI. fig.'2.
AMPHISCII, among geographers, a name applied to
the people who inhabit the torrid zone.' The Am-
phifeii, as the word imports, have their- ffiadows one
part of the year towards the north, and at the other
towards the fouth, according to the fun’s place in the
ecliptic. They are alfo called Afcii. See Ascii.
Mm AMPHIS-
A M P ( 138 ) AMS
AMPHISMILA, a diffe&ing-knife, with a double edge.
AMPHITANE, among ancient naturalifts, a ftone faid
to attract gold, as the loadftone does iron.
AMPH1TAPA, in antiquity, a garment frized or fhag-
ged on both fides, which was laid under perfons going
to lleep.
AMPHITHEATRE, in antiquity, a fpacious edifice,
built either round or oval, with a number of rifing
feats, upon which the people ufed to behold the com¬
bats of gladiators, of wild beads, and other fports.
Amphitheatres were at fird only of wood; and it
was not till the reign of Augudus, that Statilius Tau¬
rus built one, for the fird time, of done. The lowed
part was of an oval figure, and called arena, becaufe,
'for the conveniency of the combatants, it was ufually
drewed with fand; and round the arena were vaults
' diled cavea, in which were confined the wild beads
appointed for the {hews.
Above the- caveae was ere&ed a-large circular pe-
ridyle, or podium, adorned with columns. This was
the place of the emperors, fenators, and other perfons
of didinchon.
The rows of benches were above the podium.. Their
figure was circular { and they were entered by avenues,
at the end of which were gates, called vomitoriae.
The mod perfeft remains we now have of amphi¬
theatres, are that of Vefpafian, called the colifeum,
that at Verona in Italy, and that at NifmeS in Lan¬
guedoc/
Amphitheatre, in-gardening, a temple ere&ed on a
rifing ground, of a iemicircular figure. Thefe amphi¬
theatres are formed of ever-greens, obferving always
to plant the diorted growing trees in the front, and
the tailed behind. They are alfo made of dopes on the
ikies of hills, and covered with turf, being formerly
edeemed great ornaments in gardens; but they are now
generally excluded, as the natural dope of fuch hills
is, to perfons of true t5.de, far more beautiful -than
the diff angular dopes of thefe amphitheatres.
AMPHITHURA, in the ancient churches, was the veil
or curtain fepayating the chancel from the ted of the
church.
AMPHODONTA, a term for animals who have teeth
in both jaws. (
AMPHORA, in antiquity, a liquid meafure among the
Greeks and Romans. The Roman amphora contained
forty-eight fextaries, and was equal to about feven gal¬
lons one pint Englilh wine-meafure ; and the Gre¬
cian or Attic amphora contained one third more.
Amphora was alfo a dry meafure, likewife in ufe a-
mong the Romans, and contained three bufhels.
Amphora, among the Venetians, the larged meafure
ufed for liquids.' It contains four bigorzas, the bigor-
za being four quarts, the quart four fachies, and each
fachie four leras; but, by wholefale, the amphora is
fourteen quarts, and the bigorza three quarts and a
half.
Amphora, in adronomy, a name fometimes ufed for
one of the twelve figns of the zodiac, more ufually
called aquarius. See Aquarius.
AMPHOTIDES, in antiquity, a kind of armour or
covering for the ears, worn by the ancient pugiles»
to prevent their adverfaries from laying hold of that
part.
AMPHTHILL, a pretty town in the heart of Bedford-
{hire in England.
AMPLIATION, in a general fenfe, denotes the a<d of
enlarging or extending the compafs of a thing.
Ampliation, in Roman antiquity, was the deferring
to pafs fentence in certain caufes. This the judge did,
by pronouncing the word amplius; or by. writing the
letters N. L. for non liquet; thereby fignifyiug, that
as the caufe was not clear, it would be neceifary to
bring further evidence.
AMPLIFICATION, in rhetoric. See Exaggera-
AMPLITUDE, in adronomy, in arch of the horizon
intercepted between the ead or wed point, and the
centre of the fun, or .a planet at its rifing and fetting,
and lb is either north and fouth, or ortive and Qccafive.
See Astronomy.
Mngnetieal Amplitude, the different rifing or fetting
of the fun from the ead or welt points of the compafs.
It is found by obferving the fun, at his rifing and fet¬
ting, by an amplitude-compafs.
Amplitude of the range of a prejeflile, the horizontal
line, {ubtending the path in which the projetfile moved.
AMPULL A, in antiquity, a round big-bellied vefiel which
the ancients ufed in their baths, to contain oil for an¬
ointing their bodies. It was alfo a cup made of glafs,
and fometimes of leather, for drinking out of at tabje.
AMPULLACEiE concha, in naturai hidory. See
Doha.
AMPURIAS, a town of Spain, capital of the diftriid
of Ampouzdan in Catalonia, and fituated in E. long.
2° 50', and N. lat. 420 15'.
AMPUTATION, in forgery, the cutting off a limb,
or any part, from the body of an animal. See Sur¬
gery, title. Of amputation.
AMRAS, a drongcadlein the Tyroleze, E. long. 12°
10', N. lat. 470.
AMSDORFI ANS, in church-hidory, a fed: of Proted-
ants in the XVIth century, who took their name from
Amfdorf their leader. They maintained, that good
works were not only unprofitable, but were obdacles
to falvation.
AMSEGETES, in Roman antiquity, thofe whofe land
bordered upon a public road.
AMSTERDAM, a large and beautiful city of Holland,
fituated on the river Amdel, and an arm of the fea,
called Wye, a little eadward of the Zuyder-fea, in
4° 30' E. long, and 520 20 N. lat.
It is computed to be half as big as London ; and, in
point of trade, equal to any town in the known world;
there being people in it of almod every nation and re¬
ligion of Europe, who apply themfelves with the ut-
mod diligence to heap up wealth, not with a view to
enjoy it, but to have the pleafure of dying rich.
Amsterdam, is alfo the name of a town of the Cura-
coes, in America: likewife the name of three ifiands,
one of which lies in the Indian ocean, between New
Holland and Madagafcar; the fecond between Peru
and
A "N A
and the iflands of Solomon ; and the third in the
. Chinefe fea, between Japan, and the ifland Formofa.
AMULET, a charm againft witchcraft, or difeafes, &c.
1 Thefe amulets were made of ftone, met;il, fimples,
animals, and, in ihort, of every thing that imagination
could fugged. Amulets fometimcs confided in drange
unmeaning words,,characters and fentences.—The an¬
cients were extremely fond of amulets. Notwith-
ftanding the progrefs of learning and refinement, there
is not any country in Europe, even a\ this day, who do
not believe in home charm or other.
Amulet, in cookery. See Omelet.
AMULETICS, among phyficians,. a name given to all
medicines which are fivppofed to adt as charms.
AMURCA, the name of an antiquated medicine, prepa¬
red by boiling the recrement or dregs of oil of olives
to the confidence of honey, and ufed as an adringent.
Amurca, in anatomy. See Capful a atrabilaria.
Amuy, a city of India, beyond the Ganges, near the
lake Chiamai, on the borders.of the kingdom of Kan-
duana.
AMY, in law, the next friend or relation to be entruded
for an infant. See Prochen.
Alien Amy, fignifies a foreigner here, fubjedl to fome
foreign prince,-or power, in friendfhip with us.
AMYGDALA, the fruit of the almond-tree.
Amygdala is likewife ufed for a fpecies of echinus
marinas, a died fifh. See Echinus.
AMYGDALAE, in anatomy. See Tonfillae.
AMYGDALOIDES lapis, in Nat. hid. a foffile fub-
dance, refemhling the kernel of an almond.
AMYGDALUS, or Almond-tree, in botany, a genus
of the icofandria monogynia clafs. The calix is di¬
vided into five Jegments; and the corolla confids of
five petals. The fpecits are three, viz, the perfica,
or peach-tree ; the comnunis, a native of Mauritania;
and the nana, a native of Afia. Almonds are ufed
in medicine as^emollient, isc.
AMYLON, - or Amylum, a term given to darch. See
Starch.
AMYRBERIS, in botany. See Berberis.
AMYRIS, in botany, a genus of the decandi ia monogy¬
nia clafs. The flower confids of four oblong petals.
The dygmia is quadrangular ; the fruit is a berry of
the drupa kind. There are- four fpecits of this ge¬
nus, viz. The elemifera, maritima, toxifera, and bal-
famifera, all natives of America.
AMYTHAONIS emplaftrum, a plader compofed of
gum ammoniac, wax, bdellium, 6v.fuppofed by the an¬
cients to be ufeful in convulfions,
AMZEL, in ornithology, the Englifli name of a fpecies
of turdus. SeeTuRDus.
AN jour <?«d waste, in law, fignifies a forfeiture of
lands for a year and a day to the king, by perfons
committing petit treafon and felony, and afterwards
the land falls to the lord.
ANA, among phyficians, denotes a quantity equal to that
of the preceding ingredient. It is abbreviated thus,
aa, or a.
Ana, among occCtlt philofophers, a term uftd to' denote
( 139 ) ANA
the human mind, from whence fome will have anafap-
ta, a daemon invoked By fick perfons, to be derived.
ANABAO, one of the Molucca idands, S. W. from
Timor.
ANABAPTISTON, the fame with abaptidon. See
Abapti STON.
ANABAPTISTS, a fed! or denominatiofi of Chridians,
who deduce their original from the apodolic age.
This name was given them by their opponents, foon af¬
ter the Reformation, by way offcorn, and imports r*-
baptizing\ but this charge they difclaim, by denying
that the fprinkling, or pouring of water, upon infants
has any relation at,all to the fcripture-ordinance of
baptifm, either as to hs fuijefts or mode.
Though they believe the falvation of eledt infants ;
yet they deny their being the proper fubjedls of bap¬
tifm : Becaufe they can find neither precept nor ex¬
ample for fuch a pradtice in the N. Tedament: Be¬
caufe Chrid’s commiflion to baptize appears to them
to redridt this ordinance to fuCh only as are taught, or
made difciples, and believe the gofpel, Mat. xXviii.
19. Mark xvi. 16.: Becaufe the apodles, in execu¬
ting Chrid’s commiffion, never baptized any but thofe
who were fird indrudted in the Chridian faith, andpro-
fefled their belief of it, Adis ii. 41. viii.-12. xviii. g,:
And becaufe the nature and defign of the ordinance is
fuch as can be of no advantage to infants, it being a
fign and reprefentation of fpiritual blefiings, intended
to imprefs the mind of the perfon baptized with a com¬
fortable fenfe of what is fignified thereby, 1 Pet. iii.
21.; and as infants can neither difeern the fign nor
the thing fignified, fo they think they can reap no be¬
nefit from it, any more than from the Lord’s dipper,
or any other ordinance of the gofpdl.
They repel! the argument drawn from circumcifion,
by didinguifhing betwixt the Old and New Tedament
difpenfations, and betwixt the natural and fpiritual
feed of Abraham, Rom. ix. 8. Gal. iv. 22,23,28,31.
and maintain, that as circumcifion belonged to the car¬
nal birth, fo fcaptifm belongs only to the fpiritual
birth, or thefe who are of faith. Gal. iii 7. t)ur
Lord’s words in Mark x. 13, 14. they corfider as
having no relation to infant-baptifm, as he there nei¬
ther injoins nor exemplifies it; and they diltinguifli be¬
twixt thofe who may be fubjefts of the kingdom of
heaven in God’s fight, and thefe whom he points out
to us as proper vilible fubjedls of gofpel-oidinances.
The argument from the apodles their baptizing whole
houfes, they anfwer, by fhewing that thefe Jioufes
heard the word, believed, were comforted, and abound¬
ed in good works, Adis xvi. 32, 34, 40. and xviii.
8. 1 Cor. xvi. 15, 16. and fo could not be infants.
The mode or manner of baptifm they aflirm to be
dipping cr 'nnmerfing the whole body in water. This,
they lay is the primary and proper meaning of the ori¬
ginal word Babtizo, to dip, ivnnerfe, or plunge. In
fupport of this fenfe of the word, they produce other
places in the N. Tedament where it is fo rendered, as
Mat. xxvi. 23. Luke xvi. 24. John xiii. 26. Rev.
,xix. 13, as aifo the circumdances cf our Lord’s bap-
ANA ( u
tifm in Jordan, Mat. iii. 16. Mark i. 9, 10. and of
the eunuch’s, Afts viii. 38, 39. and the reafon of
John’s baptizing in Enon, John iii. 23. Hence they
affirm, that no other mode can be called baptifm,or fo
fitly reprefent communion with (Thrift in his death,
burial, and refurre&ion, which is exprefsly the defign
of baptifm, Rom. vi. 3,4, 5.
Great troubles were occafioned in Germany by fome
who profefled this tenet.; but of all places where they
prevailed, none fuffered fo much by them as the town
of Munfter. The Anabaptifls, however, of Holland
and Frizland difapp roved of their feditious behaviour:
and at prefent, though this fedt ftill fubfifts, as well in
Britain as abroad, yet they no longer pretend to be di¬
vinely infpired; they no longer oppofe magiftrates, nor
preach up a community of goods. Thofe of them in
England differ very little from the Proteftant diffent-
ers, except in rejefting infant-baptifm; as appears
from their conleffion of faith publifhed 1689.
Within thefe four years, the Anabaptifts have form¬
ed a congregation in Edinburgh, (which is the firft ap¬
pearance they ever made in Scotland)^ and feem to be
a ferious inoffenfive people. They pray for the king
and all inferior magilfrates, and fubjedt themfelves (in
civil matters) to' every ordinance of man, for the
Lord’s fake. They confider the kingdom of Chrift
to be fpiritual, and not of this world; and are ftridfly
upon the congregational or independent plan, admitting
of no jurifdidtion or authority (in matters of'religion)
but that of the Great Lawgiver. Their church-offi¬
cers are bifhops (or elders) and deacons, and thefe
they generally chufe from among themfelves. They
make the reading of the fcriptures a part of their pu¬
blic fervice, and eat the Lord’s fupper every fabbath-
day. Their difciples, before they are admitted into
communion, are firft baptized in the Water of Leith,
which they do at all feafons of the year; and, on thefe
occafions, they are generally attended by a great num¬
ber of fpedtators *.
ANABLEPS, in'ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of cobitis. See Cobitis.
ANABOLiEUM, or Anabole, in antiquity, a kind of
great or upper coat, worn over the tunica. See Tu¬
nica.
ANABOLEUS, in antiquity, an appellation given to
grooms of the liable, or equerries, who aflilted their
mailers in mounting their horfes. As the ancients
had no ftirrups, or inftruments that are now in ufe for
mounting a horfe, they either jumped upon his back,
or were aided in mounting by anabolei.
ANABROCHISMUS, an obfolete term among phyfici-
ans, for removing offenfive hairs from the eye-lids.
# ds rwe chufe to avoid every kind of mifreprefenta-
tion, efpecially in matters of religious opinion ; and as
the n/oji genuine and fatisfattory account of the origin
and principles of any fett is to be e pefted from them-
fclves; swe applied to the preachers of the Anabaptijl
congregation at Edinburgh, from •whom we had the
above account—'The fame conduit will be obferved with
.regard to every other fell of any note.
[O ) ANA
ANABROSIS, fignifies a corrofion by acrid humours.
ANACA, in ornithology, an obfolete name of a fpecies
of pfittacus. Psittacus.
ANACALYPTERIA, in antiquity, feftivals among the
Greeks on the day that the bride was permitted to lay
alide her veil, and appear in public. The word is de¬
rived from a verb which fignifies to uncover.
ANACAMPSEROS, in botany, a fynonyme of the
portulaca, and feveral other plants.
ANACAMPTERIA, in ecclefiaftical antiquity, a kind
of little edifices adjacent to the churches, defigned for
the entertainment of ftrahgers and poor perfons.
ANACAMPTIC, a name applied by the ancients to that
part of optics which treats of reflection, being the
fame with what is now called catoptrics. See Cat¬
optrics.
ANACARDIUM, or Cashew-nut-tree, in botany,
a genus of the decandria monogynia clafs, of which
there is but one fpecies, viz. the occidentale, a native
of the Indies. The calix is divided into five parts ;
the flower confifts of one quinquefide petal; the fruit
is a kidney-lhaped nut, inclofed in a fleftiy receptacle.
The kernel is of the fame nature with an' almond:
The acrid juice contained between the kernels is re¬
commended for tetters and other cutaneous difeafes".
ANACATHARSIS, fignifies a faiivation, or difeharge
of noxious humours by fpitting.
ANACATHARTICS, properly fignify fuch medicines
as promote the difeharge of faliva.
ANACEPHALALOSIS, in rhetoric, the fame with re¬
capitulation. See Recapitulation.
ANACHIMOIJSSI, a country in the iiland of Mada-
gafear, bordering on the fouth with Manaboule.
ANACHORET, in church-hiftory, denotes a hermit, or
fblitary monk, who retires from the fociety of man¬
kind into fome defart, with a view to avoid the temp¬
tations of the world, and to be more at leifure for me¬
ditation and prayer.
Such were Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion, the firft
founders of monaftic life, in Egypt and Paleftine.
Anachorets, among the Greeks, confift principally
of monks, who retire to caves or cells, with the leave
of the abbot, and an allowance from the monaftery;
or who, weary of the fatigues of the monafttry, pur-
chafe a fpot of ground, to which they retreat, never
appearing again in the monaftery, unlefs on folemn oc¬
cafions.
ANACHRONISM, in matters of literature, an error
with refpedt to chronology, whereby an event is placed
earlier than it really happened, in which fenfe it Hands
oppofed to •Paracbronifm.
ANACL ASTICS, that part of optics wdiich confiders the
refradlion of light. See Refraction, and Optics.
ANACLASTIC glaffes. See Glass.
ANACLETERIA, in antiquity, a folemn feftival • cele¬
brated by the ancients when their kings or princes
came of age, and affumed the reins of government.
It is fo called, becaufe proclamation being made ' of
this event to the people, they went to fahite their
prince during the anacleteria, and to congratulate him
upon his new dignity.
ANA*
ANA (
ANACLINOPALE, among the ancient athlete, a kind
of wreftjing, performed on the ground.
ANACLINTERIA, in antiquity, thofe parts of the
triclinear couches on which a cufhion was placed for
fupporting the head.
ANACOLLEMA, a compofition of aftringent powders,
applied by the ancients to the head, to prevent deduc¬
tions on the eyes.
ANACREONTIC verfe, in ancient poetry, a kind of
verfe, fo called from its being much ufed by the poet
Anacreon. It confifts of three feet and an half, ufu-
ally fpondees and iambufes, and fometimes anapefts :
Such is that of Horace,
Lydia, die per otnnes.
ANACRISIS, among civilians, an inveftigation of truth,
interrogation of witneffes, and inquiry made into any
fa£t, fcfpecially by torture.
ANACUICS, in geography, a people of Brazil in Ame¬
rica.
ANACYCLUS, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia po-
lygamia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle of tne ana-
cyclus is paleaceous; the pappus emarginated; and
the feeds have membranaceous edges. There' are
three fpecies of this genus, viz. the creticus, orienta-
lis, and valentinus, all natiyes of the eafl.
ANADAVADyEA, in ornithology, a barbarous name of
a fpecies of aland a. See Alauda.
ANADEMA, in antiquity, denotes the fillet which the
kings of Perfia wore round their head. It denotes
alfo a kind of ornament which women wore on their
heads like a garland.
ANADIPLOSIS, in rhetoric and poetry, a repetition
of the hid word of a line, or claufe of a fentonce, in
the beginning of the next: Thus,
Pierides, vos hec facietis maxima Gallo :
Gallo, cujus amor, 8cc.
Ft matuthiis accredula vocibus injlat,
Vocibus inftat, ip ajfiduas jacit ore querelas,
ANADOLI, the name by which the Turks call Natclia.
SeeNAToniA.
Anadoli hijfari, a name given by the Turks to the
caftle of the Dardanelles, on the Afiatic fide.
ANADOSIS, among phyficians, the dihribution of the
aliment over the body.
ANADROMOUS, among ichthyplogifts, a name given
to fuch fifhes as go to the fea from the fielh waters
at ftated feafons, and return back again, fuch as the
falmon, fee. See Salmon.
ANiEDEIA,. in Grecian antiquity, a fiool whereon the
accufed perfon was placed to make his defence.
ANAESTHESIA, fignifies a privation of thelenfes.
ANAGALLIS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla cf this plant ccn-
fifls of one rotated petal. There are four fpecies
of anagallis, viz. the arvenfis, or male pimpernel, a
native of Britain.; fne monelli, a native of Verona;
the latifolia and the linifolia, both natives of Spain.
The anagallis is fuppofed to be deterfive and healing.
ANAGARSKAYE, a city of Mufcovitilh Tartary, in
Vol. I. No. 6. a
i ) ANA
the province of Dauria, near the fource of the river
Amour. See Amour.
ANAGLYPHICE, or Anaglyptice, denotes the art
of emboffing. See Embossing.
ANAGNI, a town of Italy in the Campagna>di Roma,
fituated about 32 miles E. of Rome, in 130 45' E.
long, and 420 N. lat.
ANAGNOSTA, or Anagnostes, in antiquity, a kind
of literary fervant, retained in the families of perfbns
of diliindtion, whofe chief bufinefs was to read to them
during meals, or at any other time when they were at
, leifure. .
ANAGOGICAL, fignifies myfterious, tranfporting, and
is ufed to exprefs whatever elevates the mind.
ANAGOGY, or Anagoge, among ecclefialtical writers,
the elevation of the mind to things celeftial and eteo-
nal.
ANAGRAM, in matters of literature, a tranfpofition of
the letters of fome name, whereby a new word is form¬
ed, either to the advantage or difadvantage of the per¬
fon or thing to which the name belongs. Thus from
Galenus, is formed Angelas; from James, Simea;
and fo of others.
ANAGRAMMATIST, a perfon who compofes or deals
much, in anagrams.
ANAGROS, in commerce, a meafure for grain ufed in
fomejpties of Spain, particularly at Seville; 46 ana-
gros make about 10^ quarters of London.
ANAGYRISjin botany, a genus of the decandria mono¬
gynia clafs. This plant has a papilionaceous vexil-
lum, the alas of which are fhorter than the carina.
The capfule is a legumen. There is only fpecies
of anagyrif,. viz. the faetida, a native of Spa^feicily,
arid Italy. The-kaves are faidto be laxative, and the
feeds emetic.
ANALABE, in the Greek church, a part cf the drefs
of the eaftern monks, anfwerable to the fcapular of
the weft. See Scapular.
AN.cLECTA, or Analectes, in antiquity, a fervant
whofe employment it wjs to gather up the off-falls of
tables.
Analecta, atialetts, in a literary fenfe, is ufed to de¬
note a colledtion of fmall pieces, as effays^ remarks, fee.
ANALEMMA, in geometry, a projettion of the
fphere on the plane of the meridian, orthographically
made by ftraight lines and ellipfes, the eye being fup¬
pofed at an infinite diftance, and in the eaft or weft
points of the horizon.
Analemma, denotes like wife an inftrument of brafs
or wood, upon which this kind of projeftion is drawn,
with an horizon and curfor fitted to it, wherein the
folftitial colure, "End all circles parallel to it, will be
concentric circles all circles oblique to the eye, will
be ellipfes; and all circles whofe planes pafs through
the eye, will be right lines.
The ufe of this inftrument is tp ftiew the common
aftronomical problems, which it will do, though not
very exadlly, unlefs it be very large.
ANALEPSIS, the augmentation or nutrition of an ema¬
ciated body.
ANALEPTICS, reftorative or nourifhing medicines.
N n ANA-
ANA ( i
ANALOGICAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething
belonging to, or partaking of the nature of analogy.—
Hence,
Analogical fyllogyfm, is one whofe force chiefly
depends on the analogy between the two premifles.
ANALOGISM, among logicians, the arguing from the
caufe to the effect.
ANALGISTA, among civilians, denotes a tutor who is
not obliged to give an account of his conduct.
ANALOGY, in matters of literature, a certain relation
and agreement between two or more things, which in
other refpefts are entirely different.
.There is likewife an analogy between beings that
have fome conformity or refemblance to one another;
for example, between animals and plants ; but the
analogy is ftill ftronger between two different fpecies
of certain animals.
Analogy enters much into all our reafoning, and
ferves to explain and illuflrate. A great part of our
philofophy has no other foundation than analogy, the
utility of which confifts in foperfeding all rieceffity of
examining minutely every particular body; for it fuf-
fices us to know that every thing is governed by gene¬
ral and immutable laws, in order to regulate our con-
du£t with regard to all fimilar bodies, as we may rea-
fonably believe that they are all endowed with the
fame properties: Thus, we never doubt that the fruit
of the fame tree has the fame taftc.
Analogy, among geometricians, denotes a fonilitude of
ratios. See Ratio.
Analogy, in medicine, the refemblance obfervable be¬
tween different difeafes, which indicates a fimilar
treatment.
Analogy, among grammarians, is the correfpondence
which a word or phrafe bears to the genius and re¬
ceived forms of any language.
Analogy of doClrine, among critics, is the explaining
the paffage of an author, in a manner confiftent with
the fyflem which he is known to have generally fob
lowed.
Analogy, in rhetoric, a figure of fpeech, otherwife cal¬
led comparifon. See Comparison.
ANALYSIS, in a general fenfe, is the refolution of
fomething compounded, into its conflituent parts.
Hence,
Analysis, among logicians, is the refolving of know¬
ledge into original principles, by tracing things back¬
ward to their caufes.
Analysis, among mathematicians, the art of difeove-
ring the truth or falfehood of a propofition, or its pof-
fibility or impoflibility. This is done by fuppofing the
propofition, fuch as it is, true ; and examining what
follows from, thence, until we arrive at fome evident
truth, or fome impoffibility, of which the firft pro¬
pofition is a neceffary confequence; and from thence
eftablifh the truth or impoffibility of that propofition.
Analysis, in chemiftry, the reducing of an heteroge¬
neous or mixt body, into its original principles or
component parts. See Chemistry.
Analysis, is alfo ufed to fignify the anatomical dif-
fedion of an animal. See Anatomy.
(.2 ) ANA
Analysis, among grammarians, is the explaining the
etymology, conflrudion, and other properties of
words.
Anlysis of powers, is the operation of refolving them
into their roots, otherwife called evolution. See
Algebra, and Arithmetic.
Analysis, is alfo ufed for a brief, but methodical il-
lullration of the principles of a fcience; in which fenfe
it is nearly fynonymous with what we otherwife call
a fynopfis.
Analysis, likewife denotes-a table of the principal
heads of a continued difeourfe, difpofed in their natu¬
ral order.
ANALY ST, a perfon who makes ufe of the analytical
method of refolving problems.
ANALYTIC, or Analytical, in a general fenfe, de¬
notes fomething belonging to the analyfis. See Ana¬
lysis. It is more particularly ufed for the mathe¬
matical and logical analyfis, above explained.
ANAMNESTICS, among phyficians, figns or fymp-
toms from which the prefent ftate of the body is dif-
covered.
ANAMORPHOSIS, in perfpedive, and painting, a
monflrous projedion, or reprefentation of an image, on
a plane or curve furface, which, beheld at a proper
difiance, lhall appear regular, and in proportion. See
Perspective.
ANANAS, fn botany, the trivial name of a fpecies of
bromelia. SeeBROMELiA.
ANANCITIS, in antiquity, a kind of figured ftone,
otherwife called Jynocbitii, celebrated for its magical
virtue of-'raifing the fhadows of the infernal gods.
ANANTHOCYCLUS, in botany. See Colutea.
ANAPEST, in ancient poetry, a foot confiding of two
foort fyllables, and one long: Such is the word fco-
piifos. It is juft the reverfe of the dadyl. See
Dactyl.
ANAPALSTIC verfes, thofe confifting wholly or chief¬
ly of anapaefts.
ANAPES, a town in Flanders, fituated upon the river
Marque, fomething more than a league’s diftance from
Lifle.
ANAPHORA, in rhetoric, the repetitfon of the fame
word or words in the beginning of a fentence, or verfe :
Thus Virgil,
Pan etiam Arcadia mecum fe judice certet.
Pan etiam Arcadia dicat fe judice viclum.
Anaphora, among phyficians, the throwing off puru¬
lent matter by the mouth.
ANAPHRODISIA, fignifies impotence, or want of
power to procreate.
ANAPLASIS, fignifies the replacing or fetting a frac¬
tured bone.
ANAPLEROSIS, among phyficians. See Plethora.
ANAPLEROTICS, medicines that promote the growth
or granulation of the flefh, in wounds, ulcers, &c.
ANAPODOPHYLLUM, in botany. See Podophyl¬
lum.
ANAPULA, a province of Venezuela in South Ame-
AMPHI CTiETSTA
f /. AivlARXi.Li-S' or Ci-imfcm orient a! Xilly
I’lafeXIC.I]
ANA < i.
ANAQUITO, a country of Peru, in South America, in
the government of Quito.
ANARCHY, in matters of polity, fuch a confufion in
the ftate, that no fupreme authority is lodged either in
the prince or other rulers, and confequently the peo¬
ple live at large, without fubordination, or any refpeft
for the laws.
ANARICHAS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties of
the order of apodes. The head of .the anarichas is a
little obtufe; the teeth are thick fet and roundifti.
The fix fore ones, both above and below, are conical
and diverging; the inferior and palate molares are
round ; the branchioftege membrane has fix rays ; the
body is fomewhat cylindrical; the "tail-fin is diflinth
There is one fpecies of this genus; viz. the anari¬
chas lupus, or fea-wolf. It grows generally tp four, or
five feet in length. The lapis bufonites or lycodentes
is the teeth of the anarichas petrified. It is a native
of the northern coaft of England.
ANARRHINON, in botany. See Antirrhinum.
ANARRHOPIA, among phyficians, a tendency of the
humours to the head or fuperior parts.
ANAS, in ornithology, a genus of birds belonging to
the order of anferes. The beak of this genus is a lit¬
tle obtufe, covered with an epidermis or ikin, gibbous
at the bafe, and broad at the apex; the tongue is ob¬
tufe and fleftiy; the feet are webbed and fitted for
fwimming. Under this genus Linnasus comprehends
38 fpecies, viz. 1. The cygnus, or fwan, with a fe-
micylindrical black bill, yellow wax, and a white bo¬
dy. It is the wild fwan of Englifti authors, and a na¬
tive of Europe and N. America. Linnaeus fays, they
frequently vifit Sweden after a thaw; and they are
caught with apples in which a hook is concealed.
2. The cygnoides, with a femicylindrical bill, gibbous
wax, and tumid eye-brows: It is the fwan-goofe of
Ray, from Guinea. There is likewife a variety of
this fpecies, of a lefs fize, called the goofe of Muf-
covy. ' 3. The tadorna,. with a flat bill, a comprefted
forehead, a greenifti black head, and the body is va¬
riegated with white. It is the (hell-drake of Ray, and
frequents the fea-coafts of Europe. 4. The fpec-
tabilis, has a comprefled bill, gibbous at the bafe, a
black feathery carina, and a hoary head. It is the
grey-headed duck of Edwards, and is a native of Swe¬
den and Canada. 5. The fufca, is of a blackiih co¬
lour, has a white fpot behind the eyes, and a white line
on the wings. The male of this fpecies is diftinguifh-
ed by a gibbofity at the bafe of the bill. It is the
black duck of Ray, and a native of the European feas.
6. The nigra, is totally black, and has a gibbofity
at the bafe of the bill; the tail refembles a wedge;
the female is brownifti. It is the lefler black duck of
Ray, and a native of Britain and Lapland, 7. The
. anfer, has a femicylindrical bill; the upper part of the
body is afti-coloured, .but paler below; and the neck is
(Leaked. It is the wild-goofe of Ray, and is a native
of Europe and America. There is a variety of this
fpecies from America, which Edwards calls the laugh-
ing-goofe; it has a white ring at the bafe of the bill,
and its neck is (Leaked. The anferes migrate in large
3 ) ANA
troops. 8. The erythropus, is of a grey colour, and
has a white forehead. It inhabits the north of Eu¬
rope. 9. The canadenfis, is brown, the neck and
head are black, and the throat white. It is a native of
Canada. 10. The coerulefcens, is greyifti above,
and white underneath; the covert feathers of the
wings and back are bluifti. It is the blue-winged goofe
of Edwards, and a native pf Canada. 11. The
bernicla, is of a brown colour; with the head, neck,
and bread black; and a white collar. It is the
brent-goofe of Ray, and is a native of the northern
parts of Europe. 12. The molliflima, or cutbert-
duck of Ray, has a cylindrical bill, and the wax is
divided behind and wrinkled. The feathers, which
are very foft and valuable, fall off during incubation.
The male is white above, but black below and behind ;
the female is greenifti. It is a native of the north of
Europe. 13. The mofchata, or Mufcovy duck of
Ray, has a naked papillous face, and is a native of
India. 14. The bahamenfis, or Bahama duck, is
grey, with a lead-coloured bill. It has a tawny fpot
on the fides, and a green yellowiftv fpot on the wings.
It is a native of Bahama. 15. The albeola, or little
black and white duck, has a black back and wings;
the head is bluifti, and white on the hinder-part. It
is a native of America. 16. The clypeata, or ftiove-
ler of Ray, has the end of its bill broad and rounded,
and a crooked nail at the end of it. It is found neat
the European (bores. 17. The (Lepera, or flat-bill¬
ed duck of Aldrovandus, has the wings variegated with
black, white, and red. It frequents the frefli waters
of Europe. iS. The bucephala, or lefler duck of
-Catefby, has the back and wings black ;- and the head,
both above and below, is interfperfed with (hining fii •
ky feathers. It frequents the frefti waters of N. A -
merica. to. The clangula, or golden-eye of Ray, is
variegated with black and white, and the head is in ¬
terfperfed with blackifti green feathers ; it has a white
fpot near the mouth. It dives much in queft of (hell-
fifti; the eyes are of a (hining gold colour. 20. The
ruftica, is brownifti, or afti-coloured, with a white
fpot on the ears and wings. It is a native of N. A-
merica. 21. The perfpicillata, or great black dtick,
is white on the top of the head and of the neck, and
has a black fpot on the bill, immediately behind the
noftrils. It is a native of Canada. 22. The glau-
cion, or greater wild-duck of Ray, has the iris of the
eyes yellow, a grey head, and white collar. It fre-
xjuents the northern (hores of Europe. 23. The pe-
nelops, or widgeon of Ray, has aiharpifti tail, black
below; the head is brown, and the forehead white.
It inhabits the marfliy parts of Europe. 24. The a-
cuta, or fea-pheafant of Ray, has a long acuminated
tail, black below, and a white line on each fide of
the back part of the head. It is a native of Eu¬
rope. 25. The hyemalis, or long-tailed duck, has a
tail (haped like a wedge, and long tail-feathers; the
body is grey, and the temples white. It is a native
of Europe and America. 26. The ferina, or red¬
headed widgeon of Ray, has a(h-coloured wings, and
a black-rump. It frequents the maritime parts of Eu¬
rope.
ANA ( 144 ) ANA
rope. 27. The querquedula, or firft teal of Aldro-
vandus, has a green fpot on the wings, and a white
line above the eyes. It frequents the frefh waters of
Europe. 28. Tiie crecca, or common teal, has a
green fpot on the wings, and a white line both above
and below the eyes. It frequents the freih waters of
Europe. This fpecies is to be met with in Dudding-
Iton-loch, a freih-water lake, within a mile of Edin¬
burgh. 29. The hiftrionica, or duiky-fpotted duck
of Edwards, is of a brown colour, variegated with
white and blue; has a double line on the ears and
temples ; the collar is white, and there is a white
ftreak on the neck. It is a native of America.
90. The minuta, or little brown and white duck of
Edwards, is of a greyifli colour, wl!h white ears, and
the prime leathers of the wings blackifll. It is a na¬
tive of Canada. 31. The circia, or fummer-teal of
Ray, with the wings variegated with white fpots, a
white line above the eyes, and the beak and feet of an
alh-colour. It frequents the lakes of Europe. 32.
The autumnalis, or red-billed whirling duck of Ed¬
wards, is of a grey colour, with the prime feathers of
the wings, the tail, and belly black; and the area of
the wings yellow and white. It is a native of Artie-
rica, 33. The bofchas, or common wild-duck of
Ray; the intermediate tail-feathers of the drake are
turned backward, and the bill is llrait. It frequents
the lakes of Europe. This duck feeds upon frogs and
feveral forts of infedls.—The wild duck builds its nelt
among ruihes or heath, near the water, and lays 12 or
14 eggs;. At moulting-time, when they cannot fly,
great numbers of them are taken with nets. Birds
with flat bills, that And their food by groping, have
three pair of nerves that extend to the end of. their
btlls: thefe nerves are remarkably confpicuous in the
head 'and bill of the wild-duck; and are larger than
thofe of a goofe, or any other bird yet known : This is
the reafon they grope for food more than any other bird
whatever.—34. The adunca, or hook-billed doraeftic
duck of Ray, has the fame characters with the bofchas,
excepting that the bill is croaked. 3 5. The galericulata,
or Chinefe teal of Edwards, has a hatfging creft; and
on the hinder part of the back, on both fides, there is
a crooked, flat, elevated feather; the creft is green and
red; and the back is brown, and fpotted with blue;
the erect feathers on the back are red and blunt; one
edge of the inmort wing-feather, when the wings are
ilrut, is raifed over the back, and is red, and like a
flekle before. It is a native of China. 36. The
fpsofa, or fummer-duck of Catefby, has a depending
green creft, variegated with blue and white ; the back
islikewife variegated with blue and white; the breafi
is grey, and fpotted with white; and the throat is
white. It is a native of N. America. 37. The ar-
borea, or black-billed whiflling-duck of Edwards, is
of a reddifli bro wn colour, with a fort of crefl on the
head; the belly is fpotted with black and white. It
is a native of America. Sloane informs us, that this
duck perches on trees; that it is about 20 inches long,
from the end of the bill to the point of the tail; that
it makes a kind of whUilfng noife, from which cir-
cumflance it has received its name. See plate XII. fig.
3. 38. The fuligula, or tufted-duck of Ray, has a
hanging crefl:, a black body, and the wings and bel¬
ly fpotted with white. It is a native of Europe. The
male of this fpecies difappears during the incubation
of the female.
Anas eampejiris, in ornithology. SccTetrao.
ANASCAPTA, among phyficians. See Ana.
ANASARCA, in medicine, a fpecies of dropfy, in
which the fltin is puffed up and fwelled, and the im-
preflion of the fingers remain, for fome time, in the
part to which they are applied, but principally in the
legs. See Medicine, title, Dropfy.
ANASSA, or Anas sis, in botany, a fynonime of a
fpecies of bromelia. See Bromelia.
ANASTALTICS, in pharmacy. See Styptics.
ANASTASIS, a term among ancient phyficians, for a
rifing up to go to ftool. It alfo fignifies the paflage of
any humour, when expelled from one part, and obli¬
ged to remove to another.
ANASTATIC A, or rofe of Jericho, in botany, a gemrs
of the tetradynamia filiculofa clafs. The flower con-
fifls of four roundifli petals, difpofed in the form of a
crofs ; the feed is a fhort bilocular pod, containing in
each cell a Angle roundifh feed. There are two fpecies
of the anaftanca, viz. the hierodruntica, a native of
the fandy parts of Paleftine, and the (bores of the
Red-fea; and the Syriaca, a native of Syria.
ANASTOCCHICGSIS, fignifies a refolution of the fo-
lids and fluids.
'ANASTOMASIS, or Anastomosis, in anatomy, the
opening of the mouths cf vdfels, in order to dif-
charge their contained fluids. It is likewife ufed for
the communication of two veflels at their extremities;
as the inofculation of a vein with a vein, of an artery
with an artery, or of an artery with a vein.
ANASTOMATICS, medicines fuppofed to have the
power of .opening the mouths of the veflels, and pro¬
moting the circulation; fuch as deobfthuent, cathartic,
and fudofific medicines.
ANASTROPHE, in rhetoric, denotes the inverfion of
the natural order of words.
ANATHEMA, among ecclefiaftical writers, imports
whatever is fet apart, feparated, or divided; but is
moft ufually meant to exprefs the cutting off a perfon
from the privileges of fociety, and communion with
the faithful.
The anathema differs from excommunication in the
circumftances of being attended with curfes and exe¬
crations, It was prahlifed in the primitive church a-
gainft notorious offenders; and the form of that pro¬
nounced by Synecius againft one Andronicus, 15 as fol¬
lows : “ Let no church of God be open to Andro-
“ nicus, but let every fandtuary be (hut againft him.
“ I admonifh both private men and magiftrates, nei-
“ ther to receive him under their roof, nor to their
“ table; andpriefts more efpecially, that they neither
“ tonverfe v/ith him living, nor attend his fun:ral
“ when dead.”
Several councils alfo have pronounced anathemas a-
gainft fuch as they thought corrupted the purity of
the
I’lafe Kill
f
ANA C 145 ) ANA
the fhith, and their decifions have been conceived in
the following form: Si quis dixepit. See. anathe¬
ma Jit.
There are two kinds of anathemas, the one ju¬
diciary, and the other abjuratory. The former can
only be denounced by a council, a pope, or a bilhop;
the latter makes a part of the ceremony of abjuration,
the convert being obliged to anathematize the herefy
he abjures.
Anathema, in heathen antiquity, was an offering or
prefent made to fome deity, and hung up in the temple.
Whenever a perfon left off his employment, it was u-
fual to dedicate the tools to the patron-deity of the
trade. Perfons too who had efcaped from imminent
danger, as /hipwreck and the like, or had met with
any other remarkable inftance of good fortune, fel-
dom failed to teftify their gratitude by fome prefent
of this kind.
Anathema likewife denotes Chriftian offerings, other-
wife called donations. See Donations.
ANATHEMATIZING, the aft of pronouncing an a-
nathema againft fome perfon. See Anathema.
ANATICULA, little duck, in the ancient Roman cu-
ftoms, a term of fondnefs ufed by lovers.
ANATIFERA concha, the trivial name of a Ijjecies of
thelepas, a teftaceous animal. See Lepas.
ANATOLIA, in geography, the fame with Natolia.
See Natolia.
ANATOMICAL, an epithet applied to any thing be¬
longing to anatomy. See Anatomy.
ANATOMY.
AN ATOMY is the art of diffefting the folid parts of
animal bodies, with a view to difeover their ftruc-
ture, conneftion, andufes.
Anatomy is not only the bafis of all medical know¬
ledge, but is a very interefting objeft to the philofopher
and natural hi (tori an.
PAR
OF THE
\
Sect. I. Of the Bones in general.
TO efore we examine the ftrufture of the bones, the
periofteum, a membrane with which they are co¬
vered, muff be deferibed.
The periofteum can be divided into layers of fibres.
The exterior ones, compofed of the fibres of the mufcles
connefted to the .bones, vary in their number, fize, and
direftion, and confequently occafion a very great dif¬
ference in the thicknefs and ftrength of the periofteum
of different bones. The internal layer is every where
nearly of a fimilar ftrufture, and has its fibres in the
fame direftion with thofe of the bone to which they are
contiguous.
Except where mufcles, cartilages, or ligaments, are
inferted into the periofteum, its external furface is con¬
nefted to the furrounding parts by thin cellular mem¬
branes, which can eafily be ftretched confiderably, but
Vol. I. No.' 7. ' 3’
In treating this ufeful fubjeft, we lhall divide it into
the following parts: I. Of the Bones. II. Of the
Musclcs. III. Of the Arteries.- IV. Of the
Veins. V. Of the Nerves. VI. Of fuch parts of
the body as are not comprehended in any of the above,
e. g. The Brain, Thorax, Abdomen, <bc.
T I.
BONES.
fhorten themfelves whenever the ftretching force is re
moved.
When the periofteum is torn off from bones, we fee a
great number of white threads produced from that mem¬
brane into them; and after a fuecefsful injeftion of the
arteries with a red liquor, numerous veffels are not only
feen on the periofteum, but moft of the fibres fent from
the membrane to the bone (hew therafelves to be veffels
entering it, with the injefted liquor in them ; and when
they are broken, by tearing off the periofteum, the fur-
face of the bone is almoft covered with red points.
The great fenfibility of the periofteum in the deep-
feated Ipecies of paronychia, in exoftofes, nodi, tophi,
and gummata, from a lues venerea, or whenever this
membrane is in an inflamed ftate, is a fufficient proof
that it is well provided with nerves; though they are
perhaps too fmall to be traced.
The chief ufes of the periofteum are: 1. To allow
the mufcles, when they contraft or are ftretched, to move
O o and
146 A N A T
and flide eafily upon the bones. 2. To keep in due or¬
der, and to 'fupport the veflels in their paffage to the
bones. 3. By being firmly braced on the bones, to af-
fift in fetting limits to their increafe, and to check their
overgrowth.. 4. To ftrengthen the cqnj'T.idtion of the
hones with their epiphyfer, ligaments,’ and cartilages,
which are eafily feparated in young creatures, when this
membrane is taken away, i 5. To afford convenient ori¬
gin and infertion to feveral mufcles which are fixed to
this membrane. And,, laftly, to warn us when any in¬
jury is offered to the parts it covers.
The Bones are the moft hard and folid parts of the
body, and generally of a white colour j only in a living
creature they are bluifit, which is owing to the blood in
the fmall vefieis under their furface. . .
Bones are compofed of a great many plates, each of
which is made up of fibres or firings united by final ler fi¬
brils; which being irregularly difpofed and interwoven
v/ith the other larger fibres, make a reticular work, 
This texture is plainly feen in the boness of fcetufes,
which have not their parts clofely compa&ed, and in the
bones of adults, which have been bnrnt, long expofed
to the weather, or whofe compofition has been made
loofe by difeafes.
The plates are faid to be firmly joined to each other
by a great number of claviculi, or finall bony procefles,
which, rifing from the inner plates, pierce through fome,
and are fixed into the more external ones.
Though the exterior part-of bones is compofed of firm
compact; plates, yet they are all more or lefs cavernous
internally. In fome, the folid fides are brought fo near,
that little cavity can be feen; and in others, the cavities
are fo large, that fuch bones are generally efteemed to
be hollow or fifiular. But the internal fpongy texture is
mofi evident in young animals.
This fpongy, cavernous, internal part of bones, is ge¬
nerally called their cancelli or lattice-work.
The twilling and windings which thefe cancelli make,
and the interftices which they leave, differ confiderably
in figure, number, and (ize; and therefore form little
cells, v/hich are as different, but communicate with each
other.
The cancelli fufcain the membranous bags of the mar¬
row which arc ftretched upon them, and thereby hinder
thefe membranous parts from being torn or removed out
of their proper places, in the violent motions and dif¬
ferent poftures which the bones are employed in.
The depreffions between the fibres of the external
plates of bones appear like fo many furrows on their fur-
face, into each of which the periofteum enters.
Both on the ridges and furrows, numerous little pits
or orifices of canals are to be feen, by which the veffels
pafs to and from the bones.
After a fuccefsful injection, the arteries can be traced
in their courfe from the pits to the plates and fibres.
We may conclude, from arteries being accompanied
with veins, fo far as we can trace them in every other
part of the body, that there are alfo veins in the bones.
The bones of a living animal axe fo infenfible that they
can be cut, tafped, or burnt, without putting the crea¬
ture to pain, and the nerves diftributed in their fubftahee
O M Y. Part I.
cannot be (hewn by difleftion; from ivifich it mlghti be
inferred, that they have.no nerves diftributed to them ;
But the general tenor of nature, which befiows nerves
to all the other parts, ftiouid prevent our drawing fuch a
conclufion.
T he vafcular texture of bones mull make them fubjedt
to obftrudtions, ecchymofes, ulcers, gangrenes, and moft
other difeafes which the fofter parts are affetted with;
and therefore there may be a greater variety of caries
than is commonly deferibed.
On the internal furface of the folid parts of bones,
there are orifices of canals, which pafs outwards through
the plates to open into other canals that are in a longitu¬
dinal diredtion, from which other tranfverfe paffages go
cut to terminate in other longitudinal canals ; and this
ftrudhire is continued through the whole fubftance of bones,
both thefe kinds of canals becoming finaller gradually as
they approach the.outer furface.—Thefe canals are to be
feen to the beft advantage in a bone burnt till it is
white: When it is broken tranfverfely, the orifices of
the longitudinal canals are in view; and when we fepa-
rate the plates, the tranfverfe ones are to be obferved.
Moft bones have one or more large oblique canals
formed through their fides for the paffage of the medul¬
lary veffels.
The bones fuftain and defend the other parts of the
body.
Bones are lined within, as well as covered externally,
with a membrane; which is therefore commonly called
periojleum. internum.
The internal periofteum is an extremely fine mem¬
brane ; nay, frequently it has a loofe reticular texture;
and therefore it is compared by fome to the arachnoide
coat of the fpinal marrow : fo that we Cannot expedt to
divide it into layers as we can divide the external perio¬
fteum. We can, however, obferve its proceffes enter¬
ing into the tranfverfe pores of the bones, where proba¬
bly they are continued to form the immediate canals for
the marrow diftributed through the fubftance of the
bones; and along with them veffels are feet, as from
the external perioftetxm, into the bone. Thefe proceffes
being of a very delicate texture, the adhefion of this
membrane to the bone is fo fmall, that it feparates .com-
monly more eafily from the bone than from the marrow
which it contains.
From the internal furface of the internal periofteum,
a great number of thin membranes are produced ; which,
paffing acrofs the cavity, unite with others of the fame
kind, and form fo many diftindt bags, which communi¬
cate with each other; and thefe again are fubdivided into
communicating veficular cells, in which the marrow is
contained.
The Marrow is the oily part of the blood, feparated
by fmall arteries, and depofited in thefe cells. Its co¬
lour and confidence may there foie vary according to the
ftate of the veffels, and their diftribution on the mem¬
branes of the cells.
Befides the arteries already mentioned as being fent
from the bones to the marrow, there'is at lead one ar¬
tery for each bone; feveral bones have mere, whole prin¬
cipal ufe is to convey and fecern this oily matter.
The
Part I. ANATOMY. 14.7
The blood, which remains after the fecretion of the them; while their hollownds increafes th@ir diameter,
marrow, is returned by proper veins, which are colledted
from the membranes into one or two large trunks, to
pafs out at the fame holes at which the arteries enter.
The veffels of the marrow, wrapt up in one common
coat from the periolteum, pafs through the bones by pro¬
per canals ; the moft conGderable of which are about the
middle of each bone, and are very oblique.
From the (IrufUrre of the contents of the bones, we
may judge how thefe parts, as well as others, may be
fubjeft to oidema, phlegmon, eryfipelas, fchirrhus, &c.
and may thence be led to a cure of each, before the com¬
mon confequence, putrefa&ion, takes place, and fre¬
quently occafions the lofs of the limb, if not of the pa¬
tient.
The marrow is of very confiderable ufe to the bones;
for by entering their tranfverfe canals, and palling from
them into the longitudinal ones, it is communicated to all
the plates, to foften and connedt their fibres, whereby
they are preferved from becoming too brittle.
When the marrow, after having ferved the ufes men¬
tioned, is reaffumed into the mafs of blood, ir corrects the
too great acrimony communicated to the faline particles
cf our fluids by their circulation and heat; in the fame
manner as lixivial falls are blunted by oil m making foap.
Since it is the nature of all oil to become thin and
rancid when expofed long to heat, and bones have much
oil in their firm hard fubftance, we may know why an
ungrateful fmell, and dark-coloured thin ichor, proceed
more from corrupted bones than from other parts of the
body; and we can underhand the reafon of the changes
of colour which bones undergo, according to their differ¬
ent degrees of mortification.
Though bones fo far agree in their llruchire and an¬
nexed parts, yet we may obferve a confiderable differ¬
ence among them in their magnitude, figure, fituation,
fubftance, connexion, ufes, Of thefe we Ihall only
mention two, viz. that fome bones are broad and flat,
while others are long and round.
The broad bones have thin fides, by the plates being
foon and equally fent off to form the lattice-work ; which
therefore is thicker, and nearly of an equal form all
through. By this ftrudture, they are well adapted to
their ufes, of affording a large enough furface for the
mufcles to rife from, .and move upon, and of defending
fufficiently the parts which they inclofe.
The round bones, have thick ftrong walls in the mid¬
dle, and become very thin towards their ends, which is
Owing to very few plates feparating at their middle ; where,
on that account, the cancelli r.re fo.fine and fmaJl that
they are not taken notice of: But fiich bones are faid to
have a large refer voir of oil in this place. Towards
their ends the lattice-woik becomes very thick, and ra¬
ther more complete than in the other fort cf bones.—
Thefe round bones having ftrong forces naturally applied
to them, and being other wife expofed to violent; irjuries,
have need of a cylindrical figure to refill external pref-
fure, and of a confiderable. quantity cf oil to preferve
them from becoming too brittle. Befides which, they
are advantage v iy provided with thick fides towards their
middle, where the greateft forces are applied to injure
and confequently their ftrength, to refill forces applied
to break them tranfverfely.
Many bones have protuberances, or procefles, rifing
out from them. If a procefs (lands out in a roundilh
ball, it is called caput, or head.—If the head is flatted,
it obtains the appellation of condyle.- A rough une¬
qual protuberance is called tuberojlty. When a prq-
cefs rifes narrow, and then becomes large, the narrow
or fmall part is named cervix, or neck. Long ridges
of bones are called fpines. Such proceffes as termi¬
nate in a ftiarp point, have the general name of cororne,
or coronoid, bellowed on them, though moft of them
receive particular names from the refemblance they have,
or are imagined to have, to other fubftances, e. g. via-
fioid, Jlyloid, &c. Such proceftes as form brims of
cavities, are called fupercilia.
Proceffes ferve for the advantageous origin and infer-
tion of mufcles, and render the articulations firm and
liable.
In children thefe proceftes are real epiphyfes, or di-
ftind: bones, which are afterwards united to the other
parts ; fuch are the (lyloid proceffes of the temporal
bones, precedes of the vertebras, trochanters of the
thigh, <bc.
On the furfaces of a great many of the bones there
are cavities, or depreffians: If thefe are deep, with
large brims, authors name them cotyla-; if they are
fuperficial, they obtain the defignation of glena:, or gle¬
noid. Thefe general clafl'es are again divided into feve-
ral fpecics :—Of which pits are fmall roundilh channels
funk perpendicularly into the bone;—-furrows are lonn-
narrow canals, formed in the furface ;—nit dies or notches,
fmall breaches in the bont‘,i—fnuo/iiics, broad, but fu¬
perficial depreflions without brims ;—-fojfa, large deep
cavities, which are not equally furrounded by high
brims ^—finufes, large cavities within the fubftance of
the bones, with filial 1 apertures ■—feramina, or holes,
canals that pierce quite through the fubftance of the
bones. When this laft fort of cavity is extended any
long way within a bone, the middle part retains the
name of canal, and its ends are called botes. •
The cavities allow the heads of bones to play in them ;
they lodge and defend other parts ; they afford fafe paf-
fage to veffels, mqfcles, &c.
To far the greater number of bones, uhofe ends are
not joined to other bones by an immoveable articula¬
tion, there are fmaller ones annexed, which afterwards
become fcarce diflinguifliable from the fubftance of the
bone itfelf. Thefe are called epiphyfes, or appendices.
Some bones have one, others have two, three, or four
of thefe appendices annexed by the means of cartilages,
which are of a confiderable thicknefs in children, but by
age become thinner.
Several proceffes {e. g. trochanters of the thigh,
of the fcapula, &c.) have epiphyfes; and proceffes fre¬
quently rife out from epiphyfes ; for example, at the
lower end of the femur, ulna, tibia, fcc.
The epiphyfes are united chiefly to fuch bones as are
deftined for frequent and violent motion ; and for this
purpofe they are wifely framed of a larger diameter than
the
i43 A N A
the hone they belong to; for by this means, the furface
of contatt between the- two bones of any articulation be¬
ing, increafed, .their ccnjunfliori becomes'firmer, and the
mufcles interred irko them aft with greater force, by rea-
• fon of theh axes being further removed from the center
of motion.
The foftnefs of the ends^ of bones may be of fome
advantage in the womb, and at birth, after which the of-
fification begins at different points to form epiphyfes,
before the offification can extend from the middle to the
' ends of the bones.
However folid and compaft adult bones are, yet they
were once cartilages, membranes, nay, a mere jelly.
This needs no further proof, than- repeated obfervations
of embryos when diffefted: And how much more tender
•-muft the bones be before that time, when neither knife
nor eye is capable to difeover the leaft rudiments of
them? By degrees they become more lolid, then affume
the nature of griftles, and at laft offify ; the cohefion of
their plates and fibres always increafing in proportion to
their increafed folidities ; as is evident from the time
neceffary to unravel the texture of Bones of people of
different ages, or of denfe and of fpongy bones, or of
the different parts of the fame bone, and from the more
tedious exfoliations of the bones -of adults than of
children.
The offification of bones depends principally on their
; veffels being fo difpofed, and of fuch diameters," as to fe-
parate a liquor, which may eafily turn into a bony fub-
flance, when it is deprived of its thinner parts; as
: feetns plain from the obfervation of the callous matter
feparated after fraftures and ulcers, where part of the
bone is taken out: For in thefe cafes,the veffels extend¬
ing themfelves, and the liquors added to them, are
gradually formed into granulated fifth ; which fills up all
the fpace where the bone is taken from, then hardens,
till it becomes as firm as any other part of the bone.
This happens frequently, even when the ends of the
difeafed bone are at a confiderable diftanee from each
other.
The induration of bones is alfo greatly a {lifted by their
being expofed, more,than any other parts, to the ftrong
preflure of the great weights they fupport, to the violent
' contraftion of the -mufcles fixed to them, and to the force
of the parts they contain, which endeavour to make
- way for their own further growth. By all this prefling
'force, the folid fibres and veffels of bones are ^ thru ft
ciofer ; and fuch particles of the fluids coqveyed in thefe
veffeis as are fit to be united to the fibres, are fooner
• and more firmly incorporated with them, while the re¬
maining fluids are forcibly driven out by the veins, to
be mixed with the mafs of blood. In confequence of
this, the veffels gradually diminifh as the bones harden.
From which again we can underftand one reafon, why
the bones of young anipials fooner re-unite after a frac-
" ture than thofe of old ; and why cattle that are put too
foon to hard labour, feldom are of fuch large fize as
others of the fame brood, who are longer kept from
labour.
From the effefts of preffure only it is, that we can ac¬
count for the bones of old "people having their fides
T O M Y. Part I.
much thinner, yet more denfe and folid, while the cavi¬
ties are much larger than in thofe of young people; and
for the prints of mufcles, veffels, &c. being fo much
more ftrongly marked on the furfaces of the former than
of the latter, if they belong to people of near the fame
condition in life.—Preffure muft likewife be the caufe,
which, in people of equal ages, makes thefe prints
ftronger in the bones of thofe who had much labour and
exercife, than they are in people who have led an indo¬
lent unaftive life.
Having thus confidered the bones when fingle, we
fhall next {hew the different manner of their conjunc¬
tions. To exprefs thefe, anatomifts have contrived a
great number of technical terms; about the meaning,
propriety, and claffmg of which, there has been a variety
of opinions. Some of thefe terms it is neceffary to re¬
tain, fince they ferve to exprefs the various circumftan-
ces of the articulations, and to underftand the writers on
this fubjeft.
The Articulations are moft commonly divided
into three claffes, viz. fymphyfis, fynarthrofis, and diar-
throfis.
Symphyfb, which properly fignifies the concretion or
growing together of parts, v?hen ufed to exprefs the ar¬
ticulations of bones, does not feem to comprehend, un¬
der the meaning generally given to it, any thing relating
to the form or motion of the conjoined bones ; but by
it moft authors only denote the bones to be connefted by
fome other fubftance ; and as there are different fubftan-
ces which ferve this purpofe, therefore they divide it in¬
to the three following fpecies:
1. Synchondrojif, when a cartilage is the connefting
fubftance: Thus the ribs are joined to the fternum; thus
the bodies of the vertebra; are connefted to each other;
as are likewife the ofla pubis.
2. SynneuroJij, or fyjidefmofis, when ligaments are
the connefting bodies, as they are in all the moveable
articulations.
i). SyjJ'arcofu, when mufcles are ftretched from one
bone to another, as they muft be where there are move-
" able joints. ' x
The frond clafs of articulations, the fynarthrofti,
which is faid to be the general term by which the im¬
moveable conjunftion of bones is expreffed, is divided
into three kinds.
1. The future is that articulation where two bones
are mutually indented into each other, or as if they
were fewed together. Thus the bones of the head are
joined'; thus epiphyfes are joined to the bones, before
their full conneftion and union with them.
2. Gomphojis is the fixing one bone into anoth ;r, as
a nail is fixed in a board : Thus the teeth are fecured in
their fockets.
3. Sckindylefis, or ploughing, when a thin lamella of
one bone is received into a long narrow furrow of ano¬
ther : Thus the proceflus azygos of the fphenoid, and
the nafal procefs of the ethmoid bone; are received by
the vomer.
The third clafs,. or diarthrojisj is the articulation
where the bones are fo loofely connefted as to allow
large motion. This is fubdivided into three kinds.
The
Part T. A N A r
. The fir ft is ena'rthrofu, or the ball and focket, when
a large head is received into a deep cavity; as the
head of the os femoris is ii\to the acetabulum coxen-
dicis.
The fecond is arthrodia, when a round head is re¬
ceived into a fuperficial cavity; as in the articulation of
the arm-bone and fcapula. Thefe two Ipecies of diar-
throfis allow motion to all fides.
The third is g 'niglimus, which properly fignifies the
hinge of a door or window; in-it the parts of the bones
mutually receive and are received, and allow of motion
two ways : Workmen call \icharnal.
*The ginglimus is generally divided into three kinds,
to which fome give the names of contiguous, dijlant,
;and cosnpound. ■ ,
The firft kind of ginglimus is, when a bone has feve-
ral protuberances and cavities, which anfwer to as many
cavities and procefles of the other bone, with which it is
articulated; as in the conjunftion of the femur with the
tibia.
The fecond Ipecies is, when a bone receives another at
one end, and is received by the fame bone at the other
end ; as in the radius and ulna.
The laft fort is, when a bone receives another, and is
received by a third; as in the oblique procefles of the
vertebrae.
If the moveable bones are not connedted and kept firm
by fome ftrong fubftance, they would be luxated at every
motion of the joints: and if their hard, rough, unequal,
furfaces were to play on each other,, their motion would
not only be difficult, but the lofs of fubftance from attri¬
tion would be great. Therefore ligaments are made to
obviate the firft:, and cartilages to prevent the other in-
conveniency. But becaufe ligaments and cartilages turn
rigid, inflexible, and rough, unlefs they are kept moift, a
fufficient quantity of proper liquor is fupplied for their
lubrication, and to preferve them in a flexible ftate.
Seeing then thefe parts are fo neceflary to the articula¬
tions, we fball next’ confider their ftrudture, fituation,
and ufes, fo far as they are fubfervient to the bones, and
their motions. \
Ligaments are whiteflexiblebodies, thicker and firm¬
er than membranes, and not fo hard or firm as cartilages,
without any remarkable cavity in their fubftance, difficult¬
ly ftretehed, and with little elafticity ; ferving to conned!
one part to another, onto prevent the parts to which they
areffixed from being removed out of that fituatjon which
is ufeful and fare.
. After maceration in water, the ligaments can eafily
be divided; and each ligamentous layer appears compofed
of fibres, the largeft of which are dijpofed in a longitu-
** dinal diredtkm.
The arteries of ligaments, are very confpicuous after a
tolerable injediion, and the larger trunks of their veins
are fometimes to be been full of blood
Such ligaments as form the fides of cavities, have nu¬
merous orifices of their arteries opening upon their inter-
nalfturface, which keep it always moift: If we rub'off,
that moifture, and then prefs the ligament, we can fee
the liquor buzing, out from fmall pores; and v/e can
You. I. No. 7. 3
1 O M Y. 149
farce thin liquors, injedled by tqe arteries, into the- cavi¬
ties formed by ligaments.
Thefe exhalent arteries muft have correfponding ab-
forbent veins, otherwife the cavities would foon be too
full of liquor.
Ligaments then muft be fubjedt to the difeafes com¬
mon to other parts, where there is a circulation of fluids,
allowance always being made for the fize of veffels, na¬
ture of the fluids, and firmnefs of the texture of each
part.
Some authors have alledged, that ligaments are infen-
fible, and confequently that they have no nerves. But
the violent racking pain felt on the leaft motion of a
joint labouring under a rheumatifm, the feat of which
difeafe feems often to be in the ligaments, and the infuf-
ferable torture-occafioned by incftions of ligaments, and
by a colledHon of acrid matter in a joint, or by tophi in
the gout, would perfuade us, that they are abundantly
fupplied with nerves.
The ligaments which conned! the moveable bones
commonly rife from the conjundlion of the epiphyfes of
the one bone, and are inferred into the fame place of
the other; or where epiphyfes are not, they come out
from the cervix, and beyond the fupercilia of the arti¬
culated bones; and after fuch a manner, in both cafes*
as to include the articulation in a purfe or bag; with this
difference, depending on their different motions:, that
where the motion is only to be in two diredlions, the li¬
gaments are ftrongeft on thofe fides towards which the
bones are- not moved; and when a great variety of mo¬
tions is defigned to be allowed, the ligaments are weak¬
er than in the former fort of articulations, and are near¬
ly of the fame ftrength all round.
Part of the capfular ligaments is compofed of’ the pe-
riofteum, continued from one bone to another, and tlieir
internal layer is continued- on the parts of the bone or
■cartilage which the ligament includes.. . '
Befides thefe common capfular ligaments of the joints*
there are particular ones in feveral places, either for
the firmer connection of the articulated bones, or for
reftraining and. confining the motion to fome one fide ;
fuch are the crofs and lateral ligaments of the knee, the
round one of the thigh, ibc.
From this account of the ligaments, we may conclude*,
that, cateris paribus, in whatever articulation the liga--
ments are few, long, and weak, the motion is more free
and quick; but luxations happen frequently: And, on
the contrary, where the ligaments are numerous, ffiort,
and ftrong, the motion is more confined ; but 'fuch a
joint is lefs expofed to luxations.—Whence we may
judge'how neiceffary it is to attend to the different liga¬
ments, and the changes which have been made on them',
by a luxation, when it is to be reduced.
Ligaments alfo fupply the place of bones in feveral ca¬
fes to advantage : Thus the parts in the pelvis are more
fafely fupported below by ligaments, than they could,
have been by bone.-—'T he ligaments placed in the great
holes of the offa'innominata, and between the bones of
the fore-arm and leg, afford convenient origin to muf-
clesi—Immoveable bones are firmly connedied bv them ;.
P p ' of.
I50 A N A T
of which the cor.junfdon of the os facrum and innomi*
natum is an example.—They afford a focket for move-
able bones to play in, as we fee part of the aftraga-
'lus does on the ligament flretched from the heel-bone to
the fcaphoid.
Numerous inconveniencies may arife from too long or
fhort, ftrong or weak, lax or rigid ligaments.
Cartilages are folid, fmooth, white elaftic fub-
flances, between the hardnefs of bones and ligaments,
and covered with a membrane, named perichondrium,
which is of the fame ftru&ure and ufe to them as the pe-
riofteum is to the bones.
Cartilages are compofed of plates, which are formed
of fibres, difpofed much in the fame way as thofe of
bones are ; as might be reafonably concluded from obfer-
ving bones in a cartilaginous flute before they oflify, and
from feeing, on the other hand, fo many cartilages be¬
come bony. This may be flill further confirmed, by
the exfoliation which cartilages are fubjeft to, as well as
bones.
The perichondrium of feveral cartilages, for example,
thofe of the ribs and larynx, has arteries which can be
equally well injedted with thofe of the periofleum.
The granulated flelh which rifes from the ends of me¬
tacarpal or mctatarfal bones, when the cartilage exfoli¬
ates, after a finger or toe has been taken off at the firfl
joint, is very fenfible, from W'hich the exiflence of nerves
in cartilages may be inferred.
While cartilages are in a natural flate, it is to be re¬
marked, firft. That they have no cavity in their middle
for marrow. Secondly, That their outer furface is foft-
Cft, which renders them more flexible. Thirdly, That
they do not appear to change their texture near fo much
by acids as bones do. And, laflly, That as the fpecific
gravity of cartilages is near a third lefs than that of
bones, fo the cohefion of their feveral plates is not fo
ftrong as in bones ; whence cartilages laid bare in wounds
©r ulcers, are not only more liable to corrupt, but exfo¬
liate much fooner than bones do.
Cartilages feem to be principally kept from edifying,
either by being fubjedted to alternate motions of flexion
and extenfion, the effedls of which are very different from
any kind of Ample preffure, or by being conftantly moif-
tened: Thus, the cartilages on the articulated ends of
^he gjreat bones of the limbs, and the moveable ones
placed between the moving bones in fome articulations,
which are obliged to fuffer many and different flexions,
mid are plentifully moiftened, fcarce ever change into
bone ; while thofe of the ribs and larynx are often of-
fified.
The cartilages fubfervient to bones, are fometimes
found on the ends of bones which are joined to no other;
but are never wanting on the ends, and in the cavities of
fuch bones as are defigned for motion.
The ufes of cartilages, fo far as they regard bones,
are, to allow, by their fmoothnefs, fuch bones as are de¬
figned for motion, to Aide eaflly without detrition, while,
by their flexibility, they accommodate themfeives to the
feveral figures neceffary in different motions, and, by
their elafticity, they recover their natural pofition, and
lhape as foon as the preflure is removed.— 
O M Y. Part I
This fpringy force may alfo afiift the motion of the
joint to be more expeditious, and may render fiiocks in
running, jumping, be. lefs. To thefe cartilages we
chiefly owe the fecurity of the moveable articulations :
For without them the bony fibres would fprout out, and
intimately coalefce with the adjoining bone; whence a
true anchylofis mud neceffarily follow ; which never fails
to happen when the cartilages are eroded by acrid mat¬
ter, or oflified from want of -motion or defedt of liquor,
as we fee often happens after wounds of the joints, pai-
darthrocece, fcrophula, and fpina ventofa, or from old
age, and long immobility of joints. The moveable car¬
tilages interpofed in joints, ferve to make the motions
both freer and more fafie than they would otherWife be.
 Thofe placed on the ends of bones that are not ar¬
ticulated, as on the fpine of the os illium, bafe of the
fcapu!a, 6'c. ferve to prevent the bony fibres from grow¬
ing out too far.—■—‘Cartilages fometimes ferve as liga¬
ments, either to fallen together bones that are immove-
ably joined, fuch are the cartilages between the os fa¬
crum and offa illium, the offa pubis, <bc. or to connedt
bones that enjoy manifefl motion, as thole do which are
placed between the bodies of the true vertebrae, be.—
Cartilages very often do the office of bones to greater
advantage, than thefe lad could, as in the cartilages of
the ribs, thofe which fupply brims to cavities, be.
Too great thicknefs or thinnefs, length or fhortnefs,
bardnefs or fupplenefs of cartilages, may therefore caufe
great diforders in the body.
The liquor, which principally ferves to moiden the li¬
gaments and cartilages of the articulations, is fupplied
by glands, which are commonly fituated in the joint, after
fuch a manner as to be gently preffed, but not dedroyed
by its motion. By this means, when there is the great-
ed neceffity for this liquor, that is, when the mod fre^
quent motions are performed, the greated quantity of it
mud be feparated. Thefe glands are foft and pappy, but
not friable : fn fome of the large joints they are of the
conglomerate kind, or a great number of fmall glandules
are wrapt up in one common membrane. Their excre¬
tory duffs are long, and hang loofe, like fo many frin¬
ges, within the articulation; which, by its motion and
preffure, prevents obdruffions in the body of the gland
or its excretories, and promotes the return of this li¬
quor, when fit to be taken up by the abforbent veffels,
which mud be in the joints, as well as in the other cavi¬
ties of the body ; and, at the fame time, the preffure on
the excretory duffs hinders a fuperfluous unneceflary fe*
cretion, while the fimbriated difpofition of thefe excre¬
tories does not allow any of the fecreted liquor to be
puffied back again by thefe canals towards the glands.
Very often thefe fountains of flimy liquor appear only
as a net-work of veffels. Frequently they are aimed
concealed by cellular membranes containing the fat;—and
fometimes fmall fimple mucous folliculi may be feen.
The different joints have thefe organs in different
numbers and fizes ; the conglomerate ones don’t vary
much, efpecially as to fituation, in the fimilar joints
of different bodies ; but the others are more uncer-
Upon prefling any of thefe glands with the finger, one
Fart I. AHA'
ean fquceze oat of their excretories a mucilaginous li¬
quor, which fomewhat refembles the white of an egg,
or ferum of the bloocl; but it is manifeftly fait to the
tafte. It does not coagulate by acids or by heat, as the
ierum does, but by the latter turns firft thinner, and,
when evaporated, leaves only a thin fait £kn.
The veffels which fupply liquors for making the fe-
eretion of this mucilage, and the veins which bring
back, the blood remaining after the fecretion, are to be
feen without any preparation; and, after a tolerable
rnjedlion of the arteries, the glands are covered with
them.
In a found Hate, we are not confcious of any fenfibili-
ty in thofe glands ; but, in fome cafes, when they in-
fiame and fuppurate, the moft racking pain is felt in
them : a melancholy, though a fure proof that they have
nerves.
Thefe mucilaginous glands are commonly lodged in a
cellular fubftaace ; which is alfo to be obferved in other
parts of the bag formed by the ligaments of the articu¬
lation ; and contains a fatty matter, that mull neceflari-
iy be attenuated, and forced through the including mem¬
branes into the cavity of the joint, by the preflure which
it fuffers from the moving bones.
After the liquor of the articulations becomes too thin
and unferviceable, by being conftantly pounded and rub¬
bed between the moving bones, it is realfumed into the
mafs of:blood by the abforbent veflels.
S e c t. II. Of the Skeleton.
Among anatomifts, Skdeton is univerfally underfood
to fignify the bones of animals connedcd together, after
the teguments, mufcles, bowels, glands, nerves, and vef¬
lels are taken away.
A fkeleton is laid to be a natural one, when the bones
are kept together by their own ligaments; .and it is cal¬
led artificial, when the bones are joined with wire, or
any other fubilance which is not part of the creature to
which they belonged.
The human fkeleton is generally divided into the
Head, the Trunk, the Superior and the Inferior
Extremities.
OF THE HEAD.
By the HeaJis meant all that fpheroidal part which
is placed above the fiiit bone of the neck. It therefore
comprehends the cranium and bones of the face.
The cranium, helmet, or brain-cafe, conGfs of feveral
pieces, which form a vaulted cavity, for lodging and de¬
fending the brain and cerebellum, with their membranes,
vefi'els, and nerves.
The cavity of the cranium is proportioned to its con¬
tents. Hence fuch a variety of its fize is obferved in
different fnbjeifls ; and hence it is neither fo broad -nor
fo deep at its fore-part, in which the anteriar lobes of
the brain are lodged, as it is behind, where the large
poflerior lobes of the brain, and the whole cerebellum,
arc'contained.
r O M Y. T5I
The external furface of the upper part of the cranium
is very fmooth, and equal, being only covered with the
perioileum, (common to all the bones; but in the fkull,
diflinguiflred by the name of pericranium), the thin front-
tal and occipital mufcles, their tendinous aponeurofis,
and with the common teguments of the body; while the
external furface of its lower part has numerous rifrngs,
depreffions, and holes, which afford convenient origin
and infertion to the mufcles that are conne&ed to it, and
allow fafe pafiage for the velfels and nerves that run
through and near it.
The internal furface of the upper part of the fkull is
commonly fmooth, except where the veflels of the dura
mater have made furrows in it, while the bones were
foft. Surgeons fhould be cautious when they trepan
here, left, in fawing or raifmg the bone where fuch fur¬
rows are, they wound thefe veffels. In the upper part
of the internal furface of feveral fkulls, there are like-
wife,pits of different magnitudes and figures, which feem
to be formed by fome parts of the brain being more luxu¬
riant and prominent than others. Where thefe pits
are, the Ikull is fo much thinner than any where elfe,
that it is often rendered diaphanous, the two tables be-*
ing clofely compacted without a diploe; the want of
which is fupplied by veffels going from the dura mater
into a great many fmall holes obfervable in the pits. *
The knowledge of thefe pits ftiould teach furgeons to faw
cautioufly and flowly through the external table of the
fkull, when they are performing the operation of the tre¬
pan; fince, in a patient whole cranium has thefe pits,
the dura mater and brain may be injured, before the in-
ftrument has pierced near the ordinary thicknefs of a
table of the Ikull. The internal bafe of the fkull is
extremely unequal for lodging the feveral parts and ap¬
pendices of the brain and cerebellum, and allowing paA
fage and defence to the veffels and nerves that go into,
or come out from.thefe parts.
The bones of the cranium are compofed of two tables,-
and intermediate cancelli, commonly called their diploe.
The external table is thickeft; the inner, from its thin-
nefs and confequent brittlenefs, has got the name of tv-
trea.
The diploe has much the fame texture and ufes in the:
fkull, as the cancelli have in other bones.
The diploe of feveral old fubjefts is fo obliterated,
that fcarce any veftige of it can be feen ; neither is it ob¬
fervable in fame of the hard "craggy bones at the hafe of
the Ikull. Hence an ufeful caution to furgeons who truft
to the bleeding, want of refiftance, and change of found,
as certain marks, in the operation cf the trepan, fun
knowing when their inftrument has fawed through the
firft table, and reached the diploe.
The cranium confifts of eight bones, fix of which are
faid to be proper, and the other two are reckoned com¬
mon to it and to the face.—The fix proper are, the os
frontis, two effa pnrietaiia, two offa temporum, and the
os occipitis. The common are, the cs ethmoides, and-
fphenoides.
The os frontis forms the whole fore-part of the vault;
the two offa parietalia form the upper and middle part of
it; the offa iemporum compofe the lower cart of the
fides;
152 A N A 1
fides; the'os occipitis malces the whole hinder-part, and
ibme of the bafe ■ the ps ethmoides is placed in the fore¬
part of the bafe ; and the os fphenoides is in the middle
•of it.
Thefe bones are joined to each other by five futures ;
the names of which ate, tlte coronal, iambdoid, fagittal,
and two fquamous.
The coronal future is extended over, the head, from
within an inch or fo of the external canthus of one eye,
to the like diftance from the.other; which being near
the place where the ancients wore their vittse, coronas, or
garlands, this future has hence got its name.—-Though
the indentations of this future are confpicuous in its up¬
per part, yet an inch or more of its end on each fide has
none of them ; for it is fquamous and fmooth there.
- The lamb’doidal future begins fome way below, and
farther back than the vertex or crown of the head,
whence its two legs are ftretched obliquely downwards,
and to each fide, in the form of the Greek letter a, and
are generally faid to extend themfelves to the bafe of the
fkull.
This future is fometimes very irregular, being made
up. of a great many fmall futures, which furrbund fo
many little bones that are generally larger and more con¬
fpicuous on the external furface of the' flcull than inter¬
nally. Thefe bones are generally called triquetra, or
iVormiana.
The fagittal future is placed longitudinally, in the
middle of the upper part of the fkull, and commonly ter¬
minates at the middle of the coronal, and of the lamb-
doid futures; between which it is faid to be placed, as
an arrow is between the firing and bow.—However,
tliis future is frequently continued through the middle of
the os frontis, down to the root of the nofe; which oft-
ener happens in women than men.
The fquamous agglutinations, or falfe futures, are one
on each fide, a little above the ear, of a femicircuiar fi¬
gure, formed by the overlopping (like one fcale upon an¬
other) of the upper part of the temporal bones, on the
lower part of the parietal, where, in both bones, there
are a great many fmall rifings and furrows, which are in¬
dented into each other; though thefe inequalities do not
appear till the bones are feparated
The bones of the ficull are joined to thofe of the face
-by fchyndekfis and futures.—The fchyndelefis is in the
partition of the nofe.—*—The futures faid to be common
to the cranium and face are five, viz. the ethmoidal,
fipheneidal, tranfverfe, and two zygomatic.—Parts how¬
ever of thefe futures are at the junction of only the bones
of the fkull.
The ethmoidal and fphenoidal futures furround the
bones of thefe names; and in fotne places help to make
up other futures, particularly the fquamous and trarif-
verfe ; and, in other parts, there is but one future com¬
mon to thefe two bones..
The tranfverfe future is extended quite crofs the face,
from the external canthus of. one orbit, to the fame place
.of the other.
The zygomatic futures are one on each fide, being
fnort, and flanting from above obliquely, downwards and
backwards, to join a.procefs of the cheek-bone to one of
O M Y, Parti.
the temporal bones, which advances towards the face;
fo that the two proceffes thus united, form a fort of
bridge or jugum, under which the temporal mufcle paffies;
on which account the proceffes, and futures joining them,
have been called zygomatic.
The advantages of the futures of the cranium are
thefe: 1. That this capfula is more eafily formed and ex¬
tended into a fpherical figure, than if ithadbeen one conti¬
nued bone. 2. That the bones which are at fome difiance
from each other at birth might then yield, andallow to the
head a change of fhape, accommodated to the paffage it is
engaged in. Whence, in hard labour of child-bed, the
bones of the cranium, inftead of being only brought into
contaft, are fometimes made to mount one upon the o-
ther. 3. That the dura mater may be more firmly fu-
fpended by its procefles, which infinuate themfelves into
this conjuniflion of -the bones; for doing this equally,
and where the greateft neceflity of adhefion is, the fu¬
tures are difpofed at nearly equal diftances, and the large
refervoirs of blood, the finufes, are under or near them.
4. That fracfiures might be prevented from reaching fo
far as they would in a continued bony fubftance. 5. That
the connedion at the futures being capable of yielding,
the bones might"be allowed to feparate; which has given
great relief to patients from the violent fymptoms which
they had before this reparation happened.
Having gone through the general ftrudure of the cra¬
nium, we now proceed to examine each bone of which
that brain-cafe confifts.,
The Os Frontis has its name from its being the on¬
ly bone of that part of the face we calf the forehead,
though it reaches a good deal further. It has fome re-
femblance in finape to the fhell of the concha bivalvis,
commonly called the cockle ; for the greatefi-part of it is
convex externally, and concave internally, with a ferra-
ted circular edge; while the fmaller part has procelfes
and depreffions, which make it of an trregular figure.
The external furface of the os frontis is fmooth at its
upper convex part; but feveral procefl’es and cavities are
obfervable below: for, at each angle of each orbit, the
bone jutts out to form four proceffes, two internal, and
as many external; which, from this fituation, may well
enough be named angular. Between the internal and
external angular procefies of each-fide, an arched ridge
is extended, on which the eye-brows are placed.—Very
little above the internal end of each of thefe fuperciliary
ridges, a protuberance may be remarked, in moft Ikulis,
where there are large cavities, called Jnuifei, within the
bone.—Betwixt the inteiaial angular procefles, a fmall
procefs rifesy which forms fome Ihare of the nofe, and
thence is named nafil.—:—vSome obferve a protuberant
part on the edge of the bone, behind each external an¬
gular procefs, which they call temporal prdeeffes; but
thefe are ineonfiderable. From the under part of the
fuperciliary ridges, the frontal bone runs a great way
backwards; which parts may jufily enough be called or-
bitar proceffes. Thefe, contrary to the reff of this bone,
are concave externally, for receiving-the globes of the
eyes, with their mufcles, fat, :<bc. .
In each of the orbitar proceffes, behind the middle of
the fuperciliary ridges, a confiderable finuofityis obferved,
where
Part I. ANA
where the glandula innominata Galeni, or lachryma-
lis, is lodged.—Behind each internal angular procefs, a
fmall pit may be remarked, where the cartilaginous pully
of the mufculus obliqaus major of the eye is fixed. 
Betwixt the two orbitar procefles, there is a large difcon-
tinuation of the bone, into which the cribriform part of
the os ethmoides is incafed.'—The frontal bone frequent¬
ly has little caverns formed in it here where it is joined
to the ethmoid bone. Behind each external angular
procefs, the furface of the frontal bone is confiderably de-
prefled where part of the temporal mufcle is placed.
Thtforamina, or holes, obfervable on the external
furface of the frontal bone, are three in each fide.' 
One in each fuperciliary ridge, a little removed from its
middle towards the nofe; through which a twig of the
ophthalmic branch of the fifth pair of nerves pafles out of
the orbit, with a fmall artery, from the internal carotid,
to be diftributed to the teguments and mufcles of the
forehead.—Thefe veffels in fome fculls make furrows in
the os frontis, efpecially in the bones of children ; and
therefore we ought to beware of tranfverfe incifions on
either fide of the os frontis, which might either open
thefe Velfels or hurt the nerves, while they are yet in part
within the bone; for, when veflels are thus wounded, it
is difficult to flop the htemorrhagy, becaufe the adhe-
fion of a part of the artery to the bone hinders its con-
rraction, and confequently ftyptics can have, little ef¬
fect; the fides of the furrow keep off compreffing fub-
ftances from the artery; and we would wiffi to ffiun cau¬
teries or efcharotics, becaufe they make the bone cari¬
ous; and nerves, when thus hurt, fometimes produce
violent fymptoms.-^But we mull remark, that often,
inftead of a hole, a notch only is to be feen: Nay, in
fome fkulls, fcarce a veftige evemof this is left; in others,
both hole and notch are obfervable, when the nerve and
artery run feparately. Frequently a hole is found on
one fide, and a notch on the other; at other times we
fee two holes; or there is a common hole without, and
two difiinff entries internally. Near the middle of. the
infide of each orbit,, hard by, or in the tranfverfe future,
there is a fmall hole for the paffage of the nafal twig of
the firft branch of the fifth^pair of nerves, and of a
•branch of the ophthalmic artery v This hole is fometimes
entirely formed in the os frontis ; in other Ikulls, the
fides of it are compofed of this laft bone, and of the
os planum. It is commonly known by the name of
orbitarium internum, though anterius fliould be ad¬
ded, becaufe of the next, which is commonly omitted.
—This, which may be called orbitarium internum po-
Jlerius, is fuch another as the former ; only fmaller, and
about an inch deeper, in the orbit: through it a fmall
branch of the ocular artery pafles to the nofe.--Befides thefe
fix, there are a great number of fmall holes obfervable on
the outer furface of this bone, particularly in the two
protuberances above the eye-brows. Moft of thefe pe¬
netrate no further than the finufes, or than the diploe,
if the finufes are wanting. Thft place, fize, and number
of them, are however uncertain: They generally ferve
for the tranfmiflipn of fin all arteries or nerves.
The internal furface of the os frontis is concave, ex¬
cept at the orbitar procefles, which are convex, to fup-
Vol. I. No. y. ' 3
T O M Y. 153
port the anterior lobes of the brain. This furface is not
fo fmooth as the external; for the larger branches of
the arteries of the dura mater make fome furrows in its
fides and back-parts. The finuofities from the luxuri¬
ant rifings of the brain, mentioned when defcribing the
general ftru&ure of the cranium, are often very obfer¬
vable on its upper part; and its lower and fore parts are
marked with the contorfions of the anterior lobes of the
brain. Through the middle of this internal furface,
where always in children, and fometimes in old people,
the bone is divided, either a ridge (lands out, to which
the upper edge of the falx is faftened, or a furrow runs,
in which the upper fide of the fuperior longitudinal finus
is lodged ; on both thefe accounts chirurgical authors
jultly difcharge the application of the trepan here.
Immediately at the root of this ridge or furrow there
is a fmall hole, which fometimes pierces through the firfl:
table, and, in other flculls, opens into the fuperior finus
of the ethmoid bone within the nofe. In it a little pro¬
cefs of the falx is lodged, and a fmall artery, and fome¬
times a vein, runs ; and the fuperior longitudinal finus
begins here.—This hole, however, is often not entirely
proper to the os frontis; for in feveral flculls, the lower
part of it is formed in the upper part of the bafe of the
crifta galli, which is a procefs of the ethmoid bone.
The os frontis is compofed of two tables, and an in¬
termediate diploe, as the,other bones of the cranium are,
and in a middle degree of thicknefs between the os oc-
cipitis and the parietal bones.
The diploe is alfo exhaufled in that part above the
eye-brows, where the two tables of the bone feparate,
by the external being protruded outwards, to form two
large cavities, called Jinus front ales.—Thefe are divided
by a middle perpendicular bony partition.—In fome
flculls, befides the large perpendicular feptum, there are
feveral bony pillars, or ffiort partitions, found in each
finus; in others thefe are wanting.—For the mod: pari;
the feptum is entire ; at odter times it is difcontinued,
and the two finufes communicate.—Each finus com¬
monly opens by a roundiflt fmall hole, at the inner and
lower part of the internal angular procefles, into a finus.
formed in the nofe, at, the upper and back part of the os
unguis; near to which there are alfo fame other fmall
finufes of this bone, the greater part of which open fe¬
parately nearer the feptum narium, and often they termi¬
nate in the fame common canal with the large ones.
In a natural and found (late, thefe cavities are of con-
fiderable advantage; for the organ of fmelling being thus
enlarged, the effluvia of odorous bodies more difficultly
efcape it; and their impreffions being more numerous,
are therefore ftrongcr, and affecl the organ more. 
Thefe and the other cavities which open.into the nofe,
inereafe the found of our voice, and render it more me¬
lodious, by ferving as fo many vaults to refound the
potes. Hence people labouring under a coryza, or flop-,
page of the nofe from any other caufe, when they at e
by the vulgar, though falfely, (aid to fpeak through
their nofe, have fuch a difagreeableharfn voice.—The li¬
quor feparated in the membrane of thefe finufes, drills.
down upon the membrane of the nofe to keep it moift.
From the defcription of thefe finufes, it is evident
Q^q how
154 A N A T
how ufelefs, nay, how pernicious it muft be, to apply a
trepan on this part of the Ikull; for this inftrument, in-
ftead of piercing into the cavity of the cranium, would
reach no further than the finufes.
The upper circular part of the os frontis is joined to
the ofla parietalia, from one temple to the other, by the.
Coronal future. From the termination of the coronal fu¬
ture to the external angular procefles, this bone is con-
nefted to the fphenoid by the fphenoidal future. At
the external canthi of the eyes, its angular proce/Tes are
joined by the. trarrfverfe future to the olfa malarum, to
which it adheres one third down the outfide of the or¬
bits ; whence to the bottom of thefe cavities, and a little
tip on their internal fides, thefe orbitar procefies are con-
neiled to the fphenoidal bone by that fame future.—
On the infide of each orbit, the orbitar procefs is indent¬
ed between the cribriform part of the ethmoid bone, and
the os planum and unguis. The tranfverfe future af¬
terwards joins the frontal bone to the fuperior nafal pro-
cefles of the ofla maxillaria fuperiora, and to the nafal
bones. And, laftly, its nafal procefs is conne'&ed to the
nafal lamella of the ethmoid bone.
The frontal bene ferves to defend and fupport the an¬
terior lobes of the brain: It forms a confiderable part
of the cavities that contain the globes of the eyes, helps
to make up the feptum narium, organ of fmelling, &c.
From the defeription of the feveral parts, the other ufes
of this bone are evident.
In a ripe child, the frontal bone is divided through the
middle ; the fuperciliary holes are not formed ; often a
i'mall round piece of each orbitar procefs, behind the fu¬
perciliary ridge, is not oflified, and there is no finus to be
feen within its fubllance.
dEach of the two Os sa Parietalia, or bones fer-
ving as walls to the encephalon, is an irregular fquare;
its upper and fore fides being longer than the one behind
dt below. The inferior fide is a concave arch; the mid¬
dle part receiving the upper round part of the temporal
bdhe.—The angle formed by this upper fide and the fore
one, is to extended, as to have the appearance of a pio-
ce's.
The external furface of each os parietale is convex.
Upon it, fomewhat below the middle beighth of the
bone, there is a rranfverfe arched ridge, of a whiter co¬
lour generally than any other part of the bone; from
which, in bones that have ilrong prints of mufcles, we
fee a great many converging furrows, like fo many radii
drawn from a circumference towards a centre. From
this ridge of each bone the temporal mufcle rifes; and,
by the preflure of its fibres, occafions the furrows juft:
now mentioned.—Below thefe, we obferve, near the fe-
micircular edges, a great many rifings and depreflions,
which are joined to like inequalities on the infide of the
temporal bone, to form the fquamous future. The tem¬
poral bone may therefore ferve here as a buttrefs, to
prevent the lower fide of the parietal from ftarting out¬
wards when its upper part is prefled or ftruck.
Near the upper fides of thefe bones, towards the hind
part, is a fmall hole in each, through which a vein pafles
from the teguments of the head to the longitudinal finus.
—In feveral fkulls, one of the ofla parietalia has not this
O M Y. Part I.
hole ; in others, there are two in one bone ; and in fome
not one in either. Moft frequently this hole is through
both tables ; at other times the external table is only
perforated.—The knowledge of the courfe of thefe vefi-
lels may be of ufe to furgeons, when they make any in-
cifion near this part of the head, left, if the veflels are
rafhly cut near the hole, they {brink within the fubftance
of the bone, and fo caufe an obftinate hsemorrhagy, which
neither ligatures nor medicines Can flop.
On the inner concave Furface of the parietal bones,
we fee a great many deep furrows, difpofed fornewhat
like the branches of trees: The furrows are largeft and
deepeft at the lower edge of each os parietale, efpecial-
ly near its anterior angle, where fometimes a full canal
is formed. They afterwards divide into fmall furrows;
in their progrefs upwards.—In fome fltulls a large fur¬
row begins at the hole near the upper edge, and divides
into branches, which join with thofe which come upwards,
ftiewing the communications of the upper and lower vef-
fels of the dura mater.—In thefe furrows we frequently
fee paflages into the diploe. On the infide of the upper
edge of the ofla parietalia", there is a large finuofity, fre¬
quently larger in the bone of cne fide than of the other,
where the upper part of the falx is faftened, and the fu¬
perior longitudinal finus is lodged.—Generally part of the
lateral finufes makes a depreilion near the angle, formed
by the lower and pofterior fides of thefe bones ; and the
pits made by the prominent parts of the brain are to be
feen in no part of the fkull more frequent, or more
confiderable, than in the internal furface of the parietal
bones.
The offa parietalia are amongft the thinneft bones of
the cranium; but enjoy the general ftruttufe of two ta¬
bles and diploe the completeft, and are the moft equal
ahd fmooth.
Thefe bones are joined at their fore-fide to the os
frontis by the coronal future ; at their long inferior an¬
gles, to the fphenofd bone, by part of the future of this
name ; at their lower edge, to the ofla tempomm, by the
fquamous future, and its pofterior additamentum ; be¬
hind, to the os occipitis, or offa triquetra, by the lamb-
doid future ; and above, to one another, by the fagittal
future.
In a child born at. the full time, none of the fides of
this bone are completed ; and there never is a hole in the
oflified part of it near to the fagittal future.
The large unoflified ligamentous part of the cranium
obfervable between the parietal bones,.and the middle of
the divided os frontis of new-born children, called by the
vulgar the open of the head, was imagined by the anci¬
ents to ferve for the evacuation of the fuperfluous moi-
fture of the brain ; and therefore they named it bregma,
or the fountain; fometimes adding the epithet putfatilis,
or beating, on account of the pulfation of the brain felt
through this flexible ligamento-cartilaginous fubftance.
Hence very frequently the parietal bones are called oft
bregmatis.
AH the bregma is generally oflified before feven years
of age. Several authors fay, they have obferved it un¬
oflified in adults ; and phyficians, who order the applica¬
tion of medicines at the meeting of the coronal and fagit¬
tal
Part I. A N A 1
tal futures, feem yet to think that a derivation of noxi¬
ous humours from the encephalon is more eafily procured
at this part than any other of the fkull; and that medi¬
cines have a -greater effedt here, than elfewhere, in the
internal diforders of the head.
Ossa Tempo rum, fo named, fay authors, from the
hair’s firft becoming grey on the temples, and thus dif-
covering peoples ages, are each of them equal and fmooth
above, with a very thin femidrcular edge ; which, from
the manner of its connexion with the neighbouring bones,
is diilinguiihed by the name of os fquamdftun.—Behind
this, the upper part of the temporal bone is thicker, and
more unequal, and is fometimes defcnbed as a diftindt
part, under the name of pars mammillaris. T owardS
the bafe of the llcull, the temporal bone appears very
irregular and unequal; and this part, inftead of being
broad, and placed perpendicularly, as tire others are, is
contradied into an oblong very hard fubdance, extended
horizontally forwards and inwards, which in its progrefs
becomes frnaller, and is commonly called cs petrofum.
Three external proceffes cf each temporal bone are
generally defcribed.—The firfi, placed at the lower and
hind-part of the bone, from its refemblance to a nip¬
ple, is called majloidcs, or mammillaris. It is not fclid,
but within is compofed of cancelii, or fmall cells, which
have a communication with the large cavity of the ear,
the drum ; and therefore founds, being multiplied ii^this
vaulted labyrinth, are increafed, before they are applied
to the immediate organ of hearing. Into the maftoid
procefs, the llenomaftoideus mufcle is inferted; and to
its back-part, where the furface is rough, the trachelo-
maftoideus, and part of the fplenius are fixed.—About
an inch farther forward, the faortd procefs begins to rife
out from the bone; and having its origin continued o-
bliquely downwards and forv/ards for feme way, it be¬
comes fmaller, and is Ifretched forv/ards to join with the
os malae; they together forming the bony jugnm, under
which the temporal mufcle pafFeS. Hence this procefs
has been named zygomatic. Its upper edge has the
ffrong aponeurofis of the temporal mufcle fixed into it;
and its lower part gives rife to afhare of the maffeter.—
The fore part of the bafe cf this procefs is an oblong
tubercle, which in a recent fubjedt is covered with a
fmooth polifhed cartilage, continued from that which
lines the cavity immediately behind this tubercle.-  
From the under craggy part of the os temporum, the
third procefs hands out obliquely forwards. The fhape
of it is generally faid to refemble the ancient ftylus ferip-
torius ; and therefore it is calied the Jlyloid procefs.
Several mufcles have their origin from this procefs, and
borrow one half of their name from it ; as fiylo-ploffvs.,
Jlylo-hycideus, Jlylo-pharyngeuS: to it a ligament of the
os hyoides is fometimts fixed ; and another is extended
from it to the infide of the angle of the lower jaw.
This procefs is often, even in adults, not entirely ofiificd,
but is ligamentous at its root, and fometimes is compofed
of two or three diPnndt pieces. Round the root of it,
efpecially at the fore-part, there is a remarkable rifingof
the os petrofum, which fome have efleemed a procefs ;
and, from the appearance it makes with the ftyliform,
have named it vaginalis. Others again have, under
’ O M Y. 155
the name of auditory procefs, reckoned among the ex¬
ternal proceffes that femicircular ridge, which, running
between the root of the malloid and zygomatic procefles,
forms the under part of the external meatus auditorius.
The finuofities or depreffions on the, external furface
of each os temporum are thefe : A long foffa at the
inner and back part of the root of the mammary procefs,
where the pofterior head of the digadric mufcle has its
origin.—Immediately before the root of the zygomatic
procefs, a confiderable hollow'is left, for lodging the
crotaphite mufcle. Between the zygomatic, audito¬
ry, and vaginal procefles, a large cavity is formed;
through the middle of which, from top to bottom, a fif-
fure is obfervable, into which part of the ligament that
fecures the articulation of the lower jaw with this bone
is fixed. The fore-part of the cavity being lined with
the fame cartilage which covers the tubercle before it,
receives the condyle of the jaw; and in the back-part a
fmall fliare of the parotid gland, and a cellular fatty
fubftance, are lodged.—At the infide of the root of the
ftyloid apophyfe, there is a thimble-like cavity, where
the beginning of the internal jugular vein, or end of the
lateral fines, is lodged.—Round the external meatus au¬
ditorius, feveral fmuofities are formed for receiving the
cartilages and ligaments of the ear, and for their firm
adhefion.
The holes that commonly appear on the outfide of
each of thefe bones, and are proper to each of them, are
five.—The /fr/?, fituated between the zygomatic and ma-
ftoid procefles, is the orifice of a large funnel-like canal,
which leads to the organ of hearing; therefore is called
meatus auditorius externus.- The Jeccnd gives paffag£
to the portia dura bf the feventh pair of nerves ; and,
from its fituation between the mafloid andflyloid procefles,
is called foramen Jfylo majloi'deum.—Some way before,
and to the infide of the ftyloid procefs, is the third hole;
the canal from which runs firft upwards, then forwards,
and receives into it the internal carotid artery, and the
beginning of the intercoftal nerve ; where this canal is
about to make the turn forwards, one, or fometimes twd
#ery fmall holes go off towards the cavity of the ear. cal¬
led tympanum : through thefe Valfalva affirms the pro¬
per artery or arteries of that cavity are fent.—On the an¬
terior edge of this bone, ntar the former, fourth hoXe. is
obfervable, being the orifice of a canal which rjans out¬
wards and backwards, in a horizontal diredion, till it
terminates in the tympanum. This, in .the recent fub-
jed, is continued forward and inward, from the parts
which were mentioned juft now as its orifice in the fkeleton,
to tire fide of the noftrils: being partly cartilaginous,
and partly ligamentous. The whole canal is named.
Iter a palaio ad aurem, or Eujlachian lube.—On the
external fide of the bony part of this canal, and a-top cf
the chink in the cavity that receives the condyle of the
lower jaw, is the courfe of the little nerve faid com¬
monly to be refleded from the lingual branch of the fifth
pair, till it enters the tympanum, to run acrofs this ca¬
vity, and to have the name of chorda tyinpani. The
fifth hole is vfery uncertain, appearing fometimes behind
the maftoid procefs; fometimes it is common to the
temporal and occipital bones; and in feveral fculls there
15/5 ANA
is no fuch hole. The ufe of it, when found, is for the
tranfinilfion of a vein from the external teguments to
the lateral fmus :.But, in fome fubje&s, a branch of the
occipital artery paffes through this hole, to ferve the;
back-part of the dura mater.
The internal furface of the ofia temporum is unequal;
the upper circular edge of the fquamous part having nu¬
merous fmall ridges and furrows for its conjundtion with
the parietal bones ; and the reft of it is irregularly mark¬
ed with the convolutions of the middle part of the brain,
and with furrows made by the branches of the arteries of
the dura mater.
From the under part of this internal furface, a larger
tranfverfe, hard, craggy protuberance runs horizontally
inwards and forwards, with a fharp edge above, and two
flat fides, one facing obliquely forwards and outwards,
and the other as much backwards and inwards. To the
ridge between thefe two fides, the large lateral procefs of
the dura mater is fixed.
Sometimes a fmall bone, akin to the fefamoid, is found
between the fmall end of this petrous procefs and the
iphenoid bone.
Towards, the back-part of the infide of the os tem-
porum, a large deep fofla is confpicuous, where the late¬
ral finus lies; and frequently on the top of the petrous
ridge, a furrow may be obferved, where a fmall fmus is
fituated.
The internal proper foramina of each of thefe bones
are, firft, the internal meatus auditorius in the pofterior
plain fide of the petrous procefs. This hole foon divides
into two ; one of which is the beginning of the aquredudt
of Fallopius: the other ends in feveral very frnall canals,
that allow-a paflage to the branches of the portio mollis
of the feventh pair of nerves, into the veftibule and
cochlea. Through it alfo an artery is fent, to be diftri-
buted to the organ of hearing. The fecond hole,
which is on the anterior plain fide of the craggy procefs,
gives paflage to a refletted branch of the fecond branch
of the fifth pair of nerves, which joins the portio dura
of the auditory nerve, while it is in the aqusedud, fmall
branches of blood-veflels accompanying the nerves, or
palling through fmaller holes near this one.—The paflage
of the cutaneous vein into the lateral finus, or of a
branch of the occipital artery, is feen about the middle
of the large fofla for-that finus; and the orifice of the
canal of the carotid artery is evident at the under part
of the point of the petrous procefs.
The upper round part of the fquamous bones is thin,
■ but equal; while the low petrous part is thick and ftrong,
but irregular and unequal, having the diftin&ion of tables
and diploe -confounded, with feveral cavities, prpeefles,
and bones within its fubftance, which are parts of the
organ of hearing. See the defeription of the bones,
mufcles, fee, of the ear, in part VI.
The temporal bones are joined above to the parietal
bones by the fquamous futures, and their pofterior addi-
tamenta: Before, to the fphenoid bone by the future of
.that name; to the cheek-bones by the zygomatic futures :
Behind, to the occipital bone, by the lambdoid future
audits additamenta; and they are articulated with the
T O M Y. Parti.
lower jaw in the manner which lhall be deferibed when
this bone is examined.
Os Occipitis, fo called from its fituation, is con¬
vex on the outfide, and concave internally. Its figure is
an irregular fquare, or rather rhomboid; of which the
angle above is generally a little rounded; the two late¬
ral angles are more finifhed, but obtufe; and the lower
one is ftretched forward in form of a wedge, and thence
is called by fome the cumiform procefs.
The external furface is convex, except at the cunei¬
form apophyfe, where it is flatted. At the bafe of this
triangular procefs, on each fide of the great hole, but
more advanced forwards than the middle of it, the large
oblong protuberances, named the condyles, appear, to
ferve for the articulation of this bone with the firft ver¬
tebra of the neck. The fmootb furface of each of thefe
condyloid procefles is longeft from behind forwards,
where, by their oblique.fituation, they come much near¬
er to each other than they are at their back-part. Their
inner fides are lower than the external, by which they
are prevented from Aiding to either fide out of the cavi¬
ties of the firft vertebra.— Round their root a fmall de-
prefiion and fpongy roughnefs is obfervable, where the
ligaments .for furreunding andfecuring their articulations
adhere.—Though the motion of the head is performed
on the condyles, yet the centre of gravity of that globe
does, not fall between them, but is a good way further
forward; from which mechanifm it is evident, that ,the
mufcles which pull the head back muft be in a conftant
ftate of contraction: which is ftronger than the natural
contradtion of the proper flexors, elfe the head would
always fall forwards, as it does when a man-is afleep, or
labours under a palfy, as well as in infants, where the
weight of the head far exceeds the proportional ftrength
of thefe mufcles.
All round the great foramen the edges are unequal,
for the flrmer adhefion of the ftfong circular ligament
which goes thence to the firft vertebra.—One end of each
lateral or moderator ligament of the head, is fixed to a
rough furface at the fore-part of each condyle, and the
perpendicular one is connefted to a rough part of the
edge of the great hole between the two condyles.
On the inner furface of the os occipitis we fee two
ridges; one Handing perpendicular, the other running
horizontally acrofs the firft. The upper part of the per¬
pendicular limb of the crofs, to which the falx is fixed,
is hollowed in the middle, or often on one fide, for the
reception of the fuperior longitudinal finus, and the low¬
er part of it has the fmall or third procefs of the dura
mater faftened to it, and is fometimes hollowed by the
occipital finus. Each fide of the horizontal limb is made
hollow .by the lateral finules inclofed in the tranfverfe
procefs of the dura mater; the fofla in the right fide be¬
ing generally a continuation of the one made by the lon¬
gitudinal finus in the perpendicular limb, and therefore is
larger than the left one.——P,ound the middle of the
crofs there are four large depreflions feparated by its
limbs; the two upper ones being formed by the back-
part of the brain, and the two lower ones by the cere¬
bellum. Farther forward than the laft mentioned de-
prefiipns.
Part I. ANA
preffions, is the lower part of the fofia for the lateral fi-
nus on each fide. 'The inner furface of the cuneiform
apophyfe is made concave for the reception of the me¬
dulla oblongata, and of the bafilar artery.—A furrow is
made on each fide, near the edges of this procefs, by a
finus of the dura mater, which empties i’tfelf into the
lateral finus.
The holes of this bone are commonly five proper, and
,two common to it and to the temporal bones.—The firit
of the proper holes, called foramen magnum, from its
fize, is immediately behind the wedge-like procefs, and
allows a paflage to the medulla oblongata, nervi acceflb-
rii, to the vertebral arteries, and fometimes to the ver¬
tebral veins. -At each fide of this great hole, near
its fore-part, and immediately above the condyles, we
always find a hole, fometimes two, which foon unite a-
gain into one that opens externally; through thefe the
ninth pair of nerves go out of the fkull.—The fourth
and fifth holes pierce from behind the condyle of each
fide, into the folfae of the lateral finufes; they ferve for
the paffage of the cervical veins to thefe finufes. Oft*-
en one of thefe holes is wanting, fometimes both, when
the veins pais through the great foramen. Befides
thefe five, we frequently meet with other h&les near the
edges of this bone, for the tranfmifiion of veins; but
the:-' number and diameter are very uncertain. The two
common foramina are the large irregular holes, one in
each fide, between, the fides of the cuneiform procefs,
and the edges of the petrous bones. In a recent fubjedf,
a ftrong membrane runs crofs from one fide to the other
of each of thefe holes.
The occipital bone is among the thickeft of the cra¬
nium, though unequally fo; for it is ftronger above,
where it has no other defence than the common tegu¬
ments, than it is below, where, being prefled by the
lobes of the brain and cerebellum on one fide, and, by
the addon of the mufcles on the other, it is fo very thin,
as to be diaphanous in many Ikulls.
The occipital bone is joined above to the ofla parieta-
lia and triquetra when prefent, by the lambdoid future;
—laterally to the temporal bones, by the additamenta of
the lambdoid future;—below to the fphenoid bone, by
the end of its cuneiform procefs, in the fame way that
epiphyfes and their bones are joined. The os occipi-
tis is joined by a .double articulation to the firfl: vertebra
of the neck, each condyle being received into a fuperior
oblique procefs of that vertebra.
Os Ethmoides, or the fieve-like bone, has got its
name from the great number of fmall holes with which
that part of it firfl: taken notice of is pierced. When
this bone is entire, the figure of it is not eafily defcri-
bed ; but, by a-detail of its feveral parts, fome idea may
be afforded of the whole; and therefore we fhall diflin-
guiflr it into the cribriform lamella with its procefs, the
nafal lamella, celluke, and ofla fpongiofa.
The thin horizontal lamella, is all (except its back-
part) pierced obliquely by a .great number of final] holes,
through -which the filaments of the olfadtory nerves pafs.
 From tlse middle of the internal fide of this plate,
a thick procefs rifes upwards, and, being highefl at the
fore-part, gradually becomes lower, as it. is extended
VIol. I. No. 7. 3
T O M Y. 157
backwards. From fome refemblance which this procefs
was imagined to have to a cock’s comb, it has been call¬
ed crifla galli. The falx is conned!ed to its ridge, and
to the unperforated part of the cribriform plate. 
When the crifta is broke, its bafe is fometimes found to
be hollow, with its cavity opening into the nofe.
From the middle of the outer furface of the cribri¬
form lamella, a thin folid plate is extended downwards
and- forwards, having the fame common bafe with the
crifta galli. Generally it is not exadtly perpendicular,
but is inclined to one fide or other, and therefore divides
the cavity of the nofe unequally. Its inclination to one
fide, and flexure in the middle, is fometimes fo great,
that it fills up a large ftiare of one of the noftrils, and
has been miftook for a polypus there.—It is thin at its
rife, and rather ftill thinner in its middle; yet after¬
wards, towards its lower edge, it becomes thicker, that
its conjumflion with the bones and middle cartilage of the
pofe might be firmer.
At a little diftance from each fide of diis external pro¬
cefs, a cellular and fpongy bony fubflance depends from
the cribriform plate. The number and figure of the cells
in this irregular procefs of each fide, are very uncertain;
only the cells open into each other, and into the cavity
of the nofe: The uppermoft, which are below the aper¬
ture of. the frontal finufes, are formed like funnels. 
The outer furface of thofe cells is fmooth and plain,
where this bone aflifts in compofing the orbit; at which
place, on each fide, it has got the name of os planum;
on the upper edge of which, a fmall notch or two may
fometimes be obferved, which go to the formation of the
internal orbitar holes.
Below the cells of each fide, a thin plate is extended
inwards, and then bending down, it becomes thick, and
of a fpongy texture. This fpongy part is triangular)
with a ftreight upper edge placed horizontally, an ante¬
rior one flaming from above,'downwards and forwards,
‘ and with a pendulous convex one below.—The upper and
lower edges terminate in a ’fltarp point behind.—The fide
of this pfendulous fpongy part next to the feptum narium
is convex, and its external fide is concave. Thefe two
procefles of the ethmoid bone have got the name of offa
fpongiofa, or turhinata fuperior a, from their fubftance,
figure, and fituation.
All the prominencies, cavities and meanders of this
ethmoid bone, are covered with a continuation of the
hiembrane of the noftrils, in a recent fubjeft. Its ho¬
rizontal cribriform plate is lodged between the orbifar
procefles of the frontal bone, to which it is joined by the
ethmoid future, except at the back-part, where it is con-
nefted with the cuneiform bone, by a future common to
both thefe bones. Where the ofla plana are contigu¬
ous to the frontal bone within the orbit, their cenjundtioa
is reckoned part of the tranfverfe future. -Farther
forward than the ofla plana, the cells are covered by the
ofla unguis, which are not only contiguous to thefe cells,
but cannot be feparated from them, without breaking the
bony fubftance.—Below the ofla unguis and plana, thefe
cells and ofla fpongiofa are overlopped by the maxillary
bones. The cellular part of each palate-bone is con-
vtiguous to each os planum and ceils backwards.—The
R r lower
158 A N A T
lower edge of the nafal perpendicular plate is received
into the furrow of the vomer. -Its pofterior edge is
joined to the fore-part of the proceffus azygos of the
fphenoid bone. Its upper edge joins the nafal procefs
of the frontal and nafal bones, and its anterior one is
connected to the middle cartilage of the nofe.
From all which the ufes of this bone are evident, viz.
to fuftain the anterior lobes, of the brain; to give paffage
to the olfadory nerves, and attachment to the falx ; to
•enlarge the organ of fmelling, by allowing the membrane
of the nofe a great extent; to ftraiten the pafiage of the
air through the nofe, by leaving only a narrow winding
canal, on the fenfible membranous Tides of which the fub-
flances conveyed along with the air mud ftrike, to form
part of the orbit of the eyes and feptum narium; -while
all its parts are fo light as not to be in hazard of fepara-
ting by their weight; and they are fo thin, as to form a
large furface, without occupying much fpace.
Os Sphenoides, or wedge-like bone, fo called be-
caufe of its fituation in the middle of the bones of the
cranium and face, is of an irregular figure, and bears
ibme faint refemblance to a bat with its wings extended.
When we view the external furface of the os fphenoi-
des, two or three remarkable proceiles from each fide of
it may be obferved; which are all of them again fubdivi-
ded. The firft pair is the two large lateral proceffes
or wings; the upper part of each of which is called the
Temporal procefi, bccaufe they join with the temporal
bones in farming the temples, and the feat for fome
ihare of the crotaphite mufcles. That part of the wings
which jutts out towards the inftde, fomewhat lower than
the temporal apophyfes, and is Ifnooth and hollowed,
where it makes up part of the orbit, is thence named or-
hitcur procejifes. Behind the edge feparating thefe two
procefles, there is often a fmafl groove, made by a
branch of the fuperior maxillary nerve, in its padage to
the temporal mufcle. The lowed and back-part of each
wing, which runs out fharp to meet the offa petrofa, has
been ftyled the fpinoas procefs : from near the point of
which a fharp pointed procefs is frequently produced
downwards, which fome call Jlyliform, that affords ori¬
gin to the ptery-flaphylinus externus mufcle. From this
ilyloid procefs a very fmall groove is extended along the
edge of the bone to the hollow at the root of the inter¬
nal plate of the following proceffes, which forms part of
the Euflachian tube.—The fecond pair of external pro-
ceffes of the cuneiform bone is the two which Hand out
almoft perpendicular to the bafe of the fkull. Each of
them has two plates, and a middle folia facing backwards,
and are named pterygoid ox aliform proceffes. The ex¬
ternal plates are broadeft, and the internal are longed.
From each fide of the external plates, the pterygoid
mufcles take their rife. At the root of each internal
plate, a fmall hollow may be remarked, where the muf-
culus ptery-daphylinus internus, or circumflexus palati,
rifes, and fome fhare of the cartilaginous end of the Eu-
dachian tube reds; and, at the lower end of the fame
plate, is a hook-like riling or procefs, round which the
tendon of the lad named mufcle plays, as on a pulley.
• To thefe another pair may be added, to wit, the
little triangular thin procefs, which comes from each fide
O M Y. Part I.
of the body of the fphenoid bone, where the pterygoid
proceffes are riling from it, and are extended over 'the
lower part of the aperture of the linus, as far as to join-
the ethmoid bone, while their body hangs down into the
nares.—Befides thefe pairs of procefles, there is a lharp
ridge which dands out from the middle of its bafe : Be-
caufe it wants a fellow, it may be called proceffus azygos.
The lower part of this procefs, where it is received into
the: vomer, is thick, and often not quite perpendicular,
but inclining more to one fide than the other. The_ fore¬
part of this procefs, where it joins the nafal plate of the
os ethmoides, is thin and dreight.
The depreflions, finuofities, and foffae, on the exter¬
nal furface of this fphenoid bone, may be reckoned up
to a great number, viz. two on the temporal apophyfes
where the crotaphite mufcles lodge,—;Two on the orbitar
‘prbceffes, to make; Way for the globes of the eyes.- 
Two between the temporal and fpinous procefi’es, for re¬
ceiving the temporal bones. Two between the plates
of the pterygoid proceffes, where the mnfculi pterygoidei
interni and ptery-daphylini interni are placed. Two
between the pterygoid and orbitar proceffes, for forming
the holes common to this and to the cheek and maxillary
bones. Two on the lower ends of the aliform pro¬
ceffes, which the palate-bones enter into.—"■—Two at the
roots of the temporal and pterygoid proceffes, wher - the
larged fiiare of the external pterygoid mufcles have their
rife. Two at the fides of the proceffus azygos, for
forming part of the nofe, <bc.
What was deferibed under the name of temporal and
fpinous proceffes on the outfide of the fltull, are likewife
feen on its infide, where they are Concave, for receiving
part of the brain ; and commonly three apophyfes on the
internal furface of the Iphenoid bone are only mentioned.
  Two rifing broad from the fore-part of its body,
become fmaller, as they are extended obliquely back¬
wards,. The third ftanding on a long tranfverfe bafe,
near the back-part of the body of this bone, rifes nearly
ere<fl, and of an equal breadth, terminating often in a
little knob on each fide. The three are called clinoid,
from fome refemblance which they were thought to have
to the fupporters <Sf a bed. From the roots of the
anterior clinoid proceffes, the bone is extended on each
fide outwards and forwards, till it ends in a lharp point,
which may have the name of the trasifoerfe fpinohs pro¬
ceffes. Between, but a little farther back than the
two anterior clinoid proceffes, we fee a protuberance con-
fiderably fmaller than the pofterior clinoid procefs, but
of its lhape.—Another procefs from between the tranf¬
verfe proceffes, often forces itfelf forwards into the os
ethmoides.
Within the lltul), thefe are two finuofities in the in¬
ternal part of each wing of the fphenoid bone, for re¬
ceiving the. middle part of the brain. —One between
the tranfverfe fpinous proceffes, for lodging the part of
the brain where the crura medullas oblongata; are.—Im¬
mediately before the third .or middle clinoid procefs, a
fingle pit generally may be remarked, from which a foffa
goes out on each fide to the holes through which the op¬
tic nerves pafs. The pit is formed by the conjoined op¬
tic nerves ; and in the foils thefe nerves are lodged, as
they
Part I. ANA
they run dmde4 within .the fltull.—Between that third
protuberance and the pofterior clinoid proceis, the larger
pit for the glandula pituitaria may be remarked. This
cavity, becaufe of its refemblance to a Turkifh faddle,
is always defcribed under the name of fella Turcica, or
ephippium. On the fides of the pofterior clinoid pro-
cefs a fofia may be remarked, that ftretches upwards,
then is continued forwards along the fides of the fella
Turcica, near to the anterior clinoid procefl'es, where a
pit on each fids is made. Thefe fo/fe point out the
courfe of the two internal carotid arteries, after they
have entered the fkull.
The holes on each fide of the os fphenoides are fix pro¬
per, and three common.; —The jirjl is the round one
immediately below the anterior clinoid proceffes, for the
pafiage of the optic nerve, and of the branch of the in¬
ternal carotid artery that is fent to the eye.^ The fe-
cond is the foramen lacerum, or large flit between the
tranfverfe fpinous and orbitar procefies : Through it the
third, fourth, the firfl: branch of the fifth, and the greater
fliare of the fixth pair of nerves, and an artery from the
internal carotid, go into the orbit. Sometimes a fmaJJ
branch of the external carotid enters near its end, to be
diflributed to the dura mater, and a vein, fome call it
the venous dud?, or Nuck’s aquadudl, returns through it
to the cavernous finus.- The third hole, fituated a
little below the one jult now defcribed, is called rotun-
dum, from its drape. It allows pafiage to the fecond
branch of the fifth pair of nerves, or fuperior maxillary
nerve, into the bottom of the orbit. The fourth is
the foramen ovale, about half an inch behind the round
hole. Through it the third branch of the fifth pair, or
inferior maxillary nerve, goes out; and fometimes a vein
from the dura mater pafies out here. Very near the
point of the fpinous procefs is xht fifth hole of this bone :
It is fmall and round, for a pafiage to the largeft artery
of the dura mater, which often is accompanied with a
vein. -The fxth proper hole cannot be well feen, till
the cuneiform bone is feparated from all the other bones
pf the cranium ; for one end of it is hid by a fmall pro¬
tuberance of the internal plate of the pterygoid procefs,
and by the point of the procefius petrofus of the temporal
bone. Its canal is extended above the inner plate of the
pterygoid procefs ; and where it opens into the cavity of
the nofe, it is concealed by the thin laminous part of
the palate-bone. Through it a confiderable branch of
the fecond branch of xhtt fifth pair of nerves is reflecled.
  Often in the middle of the fella Turcica, a fmall
hole or two pierce as far as the cellular fubflance of the
bone; and fometimes at the fides of this fella, one or
more fmall holes penetrate into the fphenoidal finufes.
The firfl of the common holes is that unequal fifiure
at the fide of the fella Turcica, between the extreme
point of the os petrofum and the fpinous procefs of the
cuneiform bone. The fecond common hole is the
large difcontinuation of the external fide of the orbit, left
between the orbitar procefles of the cuneiform bone, the
os maxi!tare, vtalx, and palati. In this large hole the
fat for lubricating the globe , of the eye and temporal
mufcle is lodged, and branches pf the fuperior maxillary
nerve, with fmall arteries from the carotid and veins, pafs.
T O M Y. 159
 The third hole is formed between the bafe of this
bone and the root of the orbitar procefs of the palate-
bone of each fide. Through this a branch of the exter¬
nal carotid artery, and of the fecond branch of the fifth
pair of nerves, are allowed a paflage to the noftrils, and
a returning vein accompanies them.
Under the fella Turcica, and fome way farther for¬
ward, but within the fubftance of the fphenoid bone, are
two finufes, feparated by a bony plate. Each of them
is lined with a membrane, and opens into the upper and
back part of each noftril by a round hole, which is at their
upper fore-part. This hole is not formed only by the
bs fphenoides, which has an aperture near as large as any
tranfverfe febtion of the finus, but alfo by the palate-
bones which are applied to the fore-part of thefe finufes,
and clofe them up, that hole only excepted, which was
already mentioned. Frequently the two finufes are of
unequal dimenfions, and fometimes there is only one
large cavity, with an opening into one noflril.
As this bone is extremely ragged and unequal, fo its
fubftance is of very different thicknefs, being in fome
places diaphanous; in others it is of a middle thicknefs,
and its middle back-part furpafies the greatefl fhare of
the cranium in thieknefs.
The os fphenoides is joined, by its wings, to the pa¬
rietal bones above, to the os frontis and ofla malarum
before, to the temporal bones behind;—by the fore-part
of its body and fpinous procefies, to the frontal and eth¬
moid bones ;—by its back-part, behind the two finufes,
to the occipital, where it. looks like a bone with the epi-
phyfes taken off;—to the palate-bones, by the ends
of the pterygoid procefies, and ftill more by the fore¬
part of the internal plates of the pterygoid procefles, and
of the finufes;—to the maxillary bones, by the fore-part
of the external pterygoid plates ;—to the vomer and na-
fal plate of the os ethmoides, by the procefius azygos.
All thefe conjundtio'ns, except the laft, which is a fchin-
dylefis, are faid to be by the future proper to this bone;
though it is at firft fight evident, that feveral other fu¬
tures, as the tranfveife, ethmoidal, <&c. are confot/nded
with it.
We fee now how this bone is joined to all the
bones of the cranium, and to rhoft of the upper jaw-;
'aind therefore obtained the name of the nuedge-fike
bone.
The Face is the irregular pile of bones, compoftng
the fore and under part of the head, which is divided
into the upper and lower maxillae or jaws.
The fuperior maxilla is the common defignation given
to the upper immoveable fhare of the face. The fhape
of the fuperior jaw cannot eafily be expreffed ; nor is it
neceffary, provided the fhape and fituation of all the
bones which compofe it are defcrjbed. It is bounded
above by the tranfverfe future, behind by the fore-part of
the fphenoid bone, and below by the mouth.
The upper jaw confifts of fix bones on each fide, of
a thirteenth bone which has no fellow, placed in the mid¬
dle, and of fixteen teeth. The thirteen bones are, two
offa naf, two effa unguis, two ojja malaruni, two offa
maxillaria, two ojfa falati, two offa fpongiofa inferior a,
and the vomer.
The
i6o
The o/Ta nafi are placed at the upper part of the nofe;
—the olTa unguis are at the internal canthi of the orbits;
:—o)Ta malarum form the prominence of the cheeks ;—of-
fa biaxillaria form the fide of the nbfe, with the whole
lower and fore part of the upper jaw, and the greatell
fhare of tire roof of the mouth ;—ofla palati are (ituated
at the back-part of the palate, noftrils, and orbit;—
ofla fpongiofa are feen in the lower part of the nares ;—
and the vomer helps to feparate thefe two cavities.
The bones of the upper jaw are joined to the bones
of the fltulLby the fchindylefis and futures already de-
fcribed as common to the cranium and face, and they are
connedted to each other by gomphofis and fifteen fu¬
tures.
The gomphofis only is where the teeth are fixed in
their fockets, and the fchindylefis is only, where the edges
of the vomer are joined to other- bones.
The firfl: is the anterior nafal, which is ftreight,
and placed longitudinally in the middle fore-part of the
Bpfe.
The fcconb and third are the lateral nafal, which are
at each fide of the nofe, and almofl: parallel to the firfl:
future.
Each of the two lacrymal is almofl: femicircular, and
is placed round the lacrymal •groove.
The fixth and feventh are the internal orbitar: each
of which is extended obliquely from the middle of the
lower fide of an orbit to the edge of its bafe.
The two external orbitars are continued, each from
the end of the internal orbitar, to the under and fore¬
part of the cheek.
The tenth is the myjlachial, which reaches only from
the lower part of the feptura narium to between the two
middle dentes incifores.
The longitudinal palate future flretches from the
middle of the foremoft teeth through the middle of all
the palate.
The tranfverfe palate one runs acrofs the palate, near¬
er the back than the fore-part of it.
Each of the two falato-ntaxillary is at the back-part
of the fide of each noftril.
The fifteenth is the fpinous, which is in the middle of
the lower part of the noftrils. This may perhaps be
rather thought a double fchindylefis.
Thefe futures of the face have not fuch confpicuous
indentations as thofe of the fkull have.
Ossa Nasi, fo named from their fituation at the root
of the nofe, are each of an irregular oblong fquare figure,
being broadeft at their lower end, narroweft a little
higher than their middle; and becoming fomewhat larger
at the top, where they are ragged and thickeft, and have
a curvature forwards, that their connexion with the fron¬
tal bone might be ftronger. Thefe bones are convex
externally, and thereby better refill: any violence from
without; and they are concave internally, for enlarging
the cavity of the nofe.
The lower edge of thefe bones is unequal, and is
ftretched outwards and backwards, to join the cartilages
of the noftrils.—Their anterior fide is thick, efpecially
above, and unequal, that their conjunction to each other
might be ftronger; and a final! rifing may be remarked'
Part I.
on their inner edge, where they are fuflained by the fep-
tum narium. Their pofterior fide, at its upper half,
has externally a depreffion, where it is overlopped fome
way by the maxillary bones, while its lower half covers
thefe bones: By which contrivance, they do not yield
eafily to preflure applied to their fore-part or fides.
A- fmall hole is frequently to be obferved on their ex¬
ternal furface, into which two, three, or four holes,
which appear internally, terminate for the tranfmiflioij
of fmali veins; fometimes the holes go no further than
the cancelli of the bones.
The nafal bones are firm and folid, with very few cells
or cancelli in them.
They are joined above to the frontal bone, by the
middle of the tranfverfe future ;—behindv to the maxil¬
lary bones, by the lateral nafal futures ;—below, to the
cartilages of the nofe;—before to one another, by the
anterior nafal future ;—internally, to the feptum narium.'
Thefe bones ferve to cover and defend the root of the
nofe.
Ossa Unguis, or Lacrymalia, are fo named, be-
caufe their figure and magnitude are fomething near to
thofe of a nail of one’s fingure, and becaufe the tears pafs
upon them into the nofe.
Their external furface is compofed of two fmooth con¬
cavities and a mid 1? ridge. The depreffion behind
forms a fmall fhare of the orbit for the eye-ball to move
on, and the one before is a deep perpendicular canal, or
fofla, larger above than below, containing part of the la¬
crymal fac and duCl. This is the part that ought to be
pierced in the great operation for the fiftula lacrymalis.
—This fofla of the bone is cribriform, or has a great
number of fmall holes through it, that the filaments
from the membrane which lines it, infinuating themfelves
into thefe holes, might prevent a feparation of the mem¬
brane, and fecure the bone in its natural fituation. The
ridge between thefe two cavities of the os unguis, is the
proper boundary of the orbit at its internal canthus ; and
beyond which-furgeons fhould not proceed backwards in
performing operations here. The internal or pofterior
furface of this bone confifts of a furrow in the middle of
two convexities.
The fubftance of the os unguis is as thin as paper,
and very brittle ; which is the reafon that thofe bones
are often wanting in fkeletons, and need little force to
pierce them in living fubjects.
Each of thefe bones is joined, above, to the frontal
bone, by part of the tranfverfe future;—behind, to the
os planum of the ethmoid bone, by the fame future;—.
before, and below, to the maxillary bone, by the lacry-'
mal future;—internally, the ofla unguis cover fome of
the finus ethmoidales.
Thefe unguiform bones cofnpofe the anterior internal
parts of the orbits, lodge a fhare of the lacrymal fac and
duft, and cover the eithmoid cells.-——Their fituation
and tender fubftance make a rafh operator in danger of
deftroying a confiderable fiiare of the organ of fmelling,
when he is performing the -operation of the fiftula lacry¬
malis.
Ossa Malarum are the prominent fquare bones
which form the cheek on each fide, Before, their fur- ‘
-face
A N A T O M Y.
Part I.
face is convex and fmooth ; backward, it is unequal and
concave, for lodging part of the crotaphyte mufcles.
The four angles of each of thefev bones have been
reckoned procefi'es by fome. The one at the exter¬
nal canthus of the orbit, called the fuperitr orbitar pro-
cefs, is the longed and thickert. The fecond termi¬
nates near the middle of the lower edge of the orbit in a
(harp point, and is named the inferior\rbitar procefs.
 The third, placed near the lower part of the cheek,
and thence called maxillary^ is the ihorted, and neared
to a right angle. The fourth, which is called zygo¬
matic, becaufe it is extended backwards to the zygoma
of the temporal bone, ends in a point, and has one fide
dreight, and the other flopping.—Between the two or¬
bitar angles there is a concave arch, which makes about
a third of the external circumference of the orbit, from
which a fifth procefs is extended backwards within the
mbit, to form near one third of that cavity ; and hence
it may be called the internal orbitar procefs.—From
the lower edge of each of the ofla malarum, which is
between the maxillary and zygomatic procefles, the muf¬
fler mufcle takes its origin; and from the exterior part
of the zygomatic procefs, the mu/culus dijlorfor oris
riles ; in both which places the furface of the bone is
rough.
Oh the external furface of each cheek bone, one or
more fmall holes are commonly found, for the tranfmif-
fion of fmall nerves or blood-veflels from, and fometimes
into the orbit. On the internal furface are the holes
for the paflage of the nutritious vefiels of thefe bones.
 A notch on the outfide of the internal orbitar pro¬
cefs of each of thefe bones aflifls to form the great flit
common to this bone and to the fphenoid, maxillary,
and palate-bones.
The lubdance of thefe bones is, in proportion to their
bulk, thick, hard, and folid, with fome cancelli.
Each of the olfa malarum is joined, by its fuperior and
internal orbitar procelfes, to the os frontis, and to the
orbitar procefs of the fphenoid bone, by the tranfverfe
future. By the edge between the internal and infe¬
rior orbitar procefles, to the maxillary bone", by the in¬
ternal orbitar future.—By the fide between the maxilla¬
ry and inferior orbitar procefs, again to the maxillary
bone, by the external orbitar future.—By the zygoma¬
tic procefs, to the os temporum, by the zygomatic fu¬
ture.
Ossa Maxillafua Superiora, are the largeft
bones, and conflitute the far greater part of the upper
jaw.
The procefles of each os maxiilare may be reckoned
feven.—The firll is the long nafal one at its upper and
fore-part, which is broad below,-and turns fmaller, as it
rifes upwards, to make the fide of the nofe. At the
root of this, a tranfverfe ridge may be obferved within
die noftrils, which fupports the fore-part of the upper
edge of the os fpongiofum inferius.—The fecond is pro¬
duced backwards and outwards, from the root of the
nafal proeds, to form the lower fide of,the orbit ; and
"therefore may be galled orbitar.—The edge of this orbi¬
tar procefs, and the ridge of the nafal one, which \s cpn-
S tir.ued from it, make a confiderable portion of the exter-
Vol. I. No. 7. 3
O M Y. 161
nal circumference of the orbit.—From the proper orbi¬
tar procefs, a very rough triangular furface is extended
downwards and outwards, to be connected to the cheek¬
bone ; and therefore may be called the malar procefs,
from the loweft: protuberant part of which fome fhare of
the mafleter mufcle takes its rife. Behind the orbitar
procefs, a large tuberofity or bulge of the bone appears,
which is efleemed the'fourth procefs. On the inter¬
nal part of this we often meet with a ridge, almoft of
the fame height with that in the nafal procefs, which
runs tranfverfely, and is covered by a fimilar ridge of
the palate-bone, on which the back-part of the upper
edge of the os fpongiofum inferius refls. The convex
back-part of this tuberofity is rough for the origin of
part of the external pterygoid mufcle, and more inter¬
nally is fcabrous, where the palate and fphenoid bones
are joined to it. That fpongy protuberance at the
lower circumference of this bone, where the fockets for
the teeth are formed, is reckoned the fifth.—The fixth
is the horizontal plate, which forms! the greater part of
the bafe of the noftrils, and roof of the mouth; its up¬
per furface, which belongs to the noftrils, is very fmooth,
but the other below is arched and rough, for the ftrong-
er adhefion of the membrane of the mouth, which is
ftretched upon it, and in chewing, fpeaking, drr. might o-
therwife be liable to be fe pa rated.—^The feventh'rifes
like a fpine from the inner edge of the laft, and forms a
fmall part of the partition of the noftrils.
The depreffions in each maxillary bone are, 1. Afinu-
ofity behind the orbitar procefs, made by the temporal
mufcle. 2. A pit immediately before the fame procefs,.
where the origin of the muflculus elevator labiorum com¬
munis, and elevator labii fuperioris, with a branch of
the fifth pair of nerves, are lodged fecurely. 3. The
hollow arch of the palate. 4. The femicircular great
notch, or entry to the lower part of the noftrils, be¬
twixt the root of the nafal procefs and fpine of the pa¬
late-plate. 5. Sockets for the teeth: The number of
thefe fockets is uncertain. 6. The lacrymal fofla in the
nafal procefs, which aflifts the os unguis to form a paf-
fage for the lacrymal dudh Immediately on the out¬
fide of this, there is a fmall depreffion, from which the
inferior or lefler oblique mufcle of the eye has its origin.
7. The canal on the upper part of the great tuberofity
within the orbit, which is almoft a complete hole ; in
this a branch of the fuperior maxillary nerve pafles'. 
Befides thefe, the fuperior furface of the great bulge is
concave, to. receive the under part of the eye.—Immedi¬
ately above the tranfverfe ridge in the nafal procefs, a
fmall hollow is formed by the os fpongiofum.
The holes of this bone are two proper and two com¬
mon, which are always to be found, befides feveral o-
thers, whofe magnitude, number, 6c. are uncertain. 
The firft of the proper is the external orbitar, immedi¬
ately below the orbit, by which the infra-orbitar branch
of the fecond branch of the fifth pair of nerves, and a
fmall artery, come out, after having palfed in the canal,
at the bottom of .the orbit, deferibed Numb. 7. of the
depreflions.—The fecond is xhe. foramen incifivusn, juft
behind, the fore-teeth, which, at its under part, is one
irregular hole common to both the maxillary bones when
S i they
A N A T
162 A N. A T
they are joined; but, as it afcends, Toon divides into
two, three, or fometimes more holes; Tome of which
open into each noftril. Through them fmall arteries and
veins, and a twig of the fecond branch of the fifth pair of
nerves pafs, and make a communication between, or join
the lining coats of the nofe and mouth.
The firft common hole is that , which appears at the
inner fide of the back-part of the tuberofity and of the
fockets of the teeth, and is formed by a fplfa in this
bone, and a correfponding one in the os palati: through
it a nerve, which is a branch of the fecond branch of
the fifth pair, runs to the palate. The other com¬
mon hole is the great flit in the outfide of the orbit de-
fcribed already, as the fecond common hole of the fphe-
noid bone.
All the body of the maxillary bone is hollow, and
leaves a large finus akin to the frontal and fphenoid,
which is commonly, but unjuflly, called antrum High-
morianum.—At the bottom of this cavity, we may oft¬
en obferve feme protuberances, in which the fmajl points
of the roots of the teeth are contained.—This cavern
and the fockets of the teeth are often divided by the in-
terpofition only of a very thin bony plate, which is lia¬
ble to be eroded by acrid matter colledled in the antrum,
or to be broke in drawing a tooth. The fymptdms of a
colle&ion of a matter here naturally lead us to the prac¬
tice of pulling out the teeth, and piercing through this
plate into the antrum, to procure an evacuation of the
collefted matter.
The maxillary finufes have the fame ufes as the fron¬
tal and fphenoidal; and the fituation of the. finufes is
fuch, that the liquor drilling from them, from the cells
of the ?>.hmoid and palate-bones, and from the lacrymal
tiudls, may always moiften all the parts of the membrane
of the nares in the different fituations which the head
is in.
The fubflance of the ofla maxillaria is compaft and
firm, except at the inferior proceffes, in which the teeth
are lodged, where it is very fpcngy.
The maxillary bones are joined above by the upper
ends of their nafal procefles to the os fronds, by the
tranfverfe future;—at the fides of thefe procefl’es, to the
ofla unguis, by the lacrymal futuresto the nafal bones,
by the lateral nafal futures;—by their orbitar procefies,
to the cheek-bones, by the external orbitar futures;—
by the internal fides of the internal orbitar proceffes, to
the ofla plana, by part of the ethmoidal future;—by
the back-part of the tuberofities, to the palate bones,
by the futuras palato-maxillares;—by the pofferior edges
of their palatine lamella;, to the offa palati, by the
tranfverfe palate-future;—by their nafal fpines, to the
vomer, by the fpinous future;—by their fockets, to the
teeth by gomphofis ;—by the internal edge of the palate-
plate, to one another, by the longitudinal palate-future ;
on the upper and fore-part of which a furrow is left for
receiving the cartilage which forms the partition of the
noftrils; -— between the fore-part of the noftrils and
mouth, to each other, by the myftachial future; —
fametimes they are connected to the offa fpongicfa infe-
riora, by a plain concretion or union of fubffance.
O M Y. Part I.
Thefe bones form the greater part of the nofe and of
the .roof of the mouth, and a conliderable fliare of the
prbit. They contain fixteen teeth, give rife to mufcles,
tranfmillion to nerves, isc. as mentioned in the defcrip-
tion of their feveral parts.
Ossa Palati are commonly defcribed as two fmai!
fquare bones, at the back-part of the palate or roof of
the mouth, though they are of much greater extent,
jjeing continued up the back-part of the noffrils to the
orbit. Each palate-bone may therefore be divided into
four parts, the palate fquare bone, the pterygoid pro?
cefs, nafal lamella, and orbitar procefs.
The fquare bone is unequally concave, for enlarging
both the mouth and cavity of the nofe. The upper part
of its internal edge rifes in a fpine,. after the fame man¬
ner as the.palate-plate of the maxillary bone does, to be
joined with the vomer. Its anterior edge is unequally
ragged, for its firmer connexion with the palate-procefs
of the os maxillare.-—The internal edge is thicker than
the reft, and of an equal furface, for its conjunction with
its fellow of the other fide. Behind, this bone is
fomewhat in form of a crefcent, and thick, for the firm
connedtion of the velum pendulum palati; the internal
point being produced backwards, to afford origin to the
palato-ftaphyiinus, or azygos-mufcle. This fquare
bone is well diftinguiftied from the pterygoid procefs by a
perpendicular foffa, which, applied to fuch another in
the maxillary bone, forms a pafiage for the palatine
branch of the fifth pair of nerves; and by another fmall
hole behind this, through which a twig of the fame nerve
paffesi
The pterygoid procefs is fomewhat triangular, having
a broachbafe, and ending fmaller above. The back-part
of this procefs has three foffae formed in it; the two la¬
teral receive the ends pf the two plates of the fphenoid
bone, that are commonly compared to a bat’s wing; the
middle fofia makes up a part of what is commonly called
the foJ)'a pterygoidea ; the fore-lide of this palatine pte¬
rygoid procefs is an irregular concave, where it receives
the back-part of the great tuberofity of the maxillary
bone. -frequently feveral fmall holes may be obferved
in this triangular procefs, particularly one near the mid- •
die of its bafe, which, a little above, communicates with
the common and proper holes of this bone already taken
notice of.
The nafal lamella of this bone.is extremely thin and
brittle, and rifes upwards from the upper fide of the ex¬
ternal edge of the fquare bone, and from the narrow ex¬
tremity of the pterygoid procefs; where it is fo weak,
and at the fame time fo firmly fixed to the maxillary
bone,- as to be very liable to be broken in feparating the
bones. From the part where the plate rifes, it runs
up broad on the infide of the tuberofity of the maxillary
bone, to form a confiderable fhare of the fides of the
maxillary finus, and to clofe up the fpace between the
fphenoid and the great bulge of the maxillary bone,
where there would otherwife be a large flit opening into
the noftrils. From the middle internal fide of this thin
plate, a crofs ridge, placed on fuch another of the maxil¬
lary bone, is extended; on it the back-part of the os
fpongiofum
Part L A N A T
fpongio/um' inferius rcfts. Along the outfide of this
plate, the perpendicular foffa made by the palate-nerve
•is obfervable.
At the upper part of this nafal plate, the palate-bone
divides into two procefles, which were already named or-
bilar;—between which and the body of the fphenoid
bone, that hole is formed, which was mentioned as the
laft of the holes common to the fphenoid bone. Some¬
times this hole is wholly formed in the os palati, by a
crofs plate going from the one orbitar procefs to the o-
ther. A nerve, artery, and vein belonging to the no-
ftrils, pafs here.—The anterior of the two orbitar pro-
cefles is the large!!, and has its fore-part contiguous to
the back-part of the maxillary finus, and its upper fur-
face appears in the bottom of the orbit, behind the back-
part of the os maxillare and planum,.—It has cells be¬
hind, refembling thole of the ethmoid bone, to which it
is contiguous; it is placed on the aperture of the finus
fphenoidalis, fo as to leave only a round hole at its upper
fore-part*—The other part of the orbitar procefs is ex¬
tended along' the internal fide of the upper back-part of
the maxillary tuberofity, to the bafe of the fphenoid bone,
between the root of the proceflus azygos and the ptery¬
goid procefs.
The palate-bones are joined to the maxillary, by
the fore-edge of the palate fquare-bone, by the tranf-
verfe palate-future ~By their thin nafal plates, and part
of their orbitar procefies, to the fame bones, by the pa-
lato-maxiliares futures :—By their pterygoid precedes,
and back-part of the nafal plates, to the alae vefpertilio-
num, by the fphenoid future :—By the tranfverfe ridges
of the nafal plates, to the ofia fpongiofa inferiora, by
.contad:; hence frequently there is an intimate union of
the fubftance of thefe bones in old llculls : By the
erbitar procefles, to the ofla plana and cellulse ethmoi-
deae, by the ethmoid future: To the body of the
■fphenoid bone, by the fphenoid future:——By the inter¬
nal edge of the fquare-bones, to each other, by the lon¬
gitudinal palate-future ; and by their nafal fpines, to the
vomer, by the fpinous future.
The palate-bones form part of the palate, nofirils, or¬
bits, and foflae, pterygoidea:, and they cover part of the
finus maxillares, fphenoidales, and ethmoidei.
Ossa Turbinata, or fpongiofa inferiora, refemble
the fuperior ofla fpongiofa in Ihape and fubflante, but
have their anterior and upper edges contiguous to the
tranfverfe ridges of the nafai procefles of the maxillary
and palate-bones. From their upper ftreight edge,
two fmall procefles ftand out: the pefterior, which is the
broadeft, defeends to cover feme of the antrum Highmo-
rianum; the anterior rifes up to join the os unguis, and
to make part of the lacrymal dud.
Below the fpongy bones already mentioned, there are
fbmetimes two others, one in each noftril, which feem
to be a produdion of the fldes of the maxillary finus
turned downwards. When this third fort of fpongy
bones is found, the middle one of the three in each no-
firil is the large!!, and the lowefi is the fmalle!!. Be-
fidcs all thefe, there are often feveral other fmall bones
flaoding out into the noitrils, that, from their fnape,
O M T. 163
might alfo deferve the name of turbinata, but are uncer¬
tain in their bulk, fituation, and number.
They are joined to the ofla maxillaria, palati, and un¬
guis, efpedally in old fubjeds.
Their ufe is, to ftraiten the nofti ils, to afford a large
furface for extending the organ of fmelling, to cover
part of the antra maxillaria, and to aflift in forming the
under part of the lacrymal duds, the orifices of which
into the nofe are concealed by thefe bones.
Vomer, or bone refembling a ploughftiare, is the
thirteenth of the upper jaw, without a fellow, forming
the lower and back-parts of the partition of the nofe.
The figure of this bone is an irregular rhomboid.—■
Its fides are flat and fmooth.—•—Its pofterior edge ap¬
pears in an oblique diredion at the back-part of the no-
firils. The upper one is firmly united to the bafe of
the fphenoid bone, and to the nafal plate of the eth¬
moid ; and, when it can be got feparated, is hollow, for
receiving the proceflus azygos of the fphenoid. The
anterior edge has a long furrow in it, where the middle
cartilage of the nofe enters.^ The lower edge is firm¬
ly united to the nafal fpines of the maxillary and palate-
bones.- Thefe edges of this bone are much thicker
than its middle, which is as thin as the fine!! paper.
Its fituation is not always perpendicular, but often in¬
clined and bended to one fide, as well as the nafal plate
of the ethmoid-bone.
The vomer is convex at its upper part, and then is
ftreight as it is extended downwards and forwards, where
it is compofed of two plates; the edges of which have a
great number of fmall proceites, difpofed fomewhat like
the teeth of a law, but more irregularly, and feveral of
them are refledted back. Between thefe plates, a deep
fofta is left, which, fo far as the top of the curv.ature,
is wide, and has ftrong fides, for receiving the proceflus
azygos of the fphenoid-bone. Beyond the arch for¬
wards, the fofia is narrower and (hallower gradually to
the point of the bone, receiving for fome way the nafal
lamella ethmoidea, which is fo cloftly united to the vo¬
mer, by the little proedfes piercing into its fubftance, as
to prevent any feparation. The middle cartilage of the
nofe fills up what remains of the fofla at its fore-part.
 The pofterior edge of the vomer, which appears a-
bove the back-part of the palate-bones, is broader above;
but as it defeends forwards, becomes thinner, though it
is ftill folid and firm. The lower edge of this bone,
which refts on the nafal fpine of the palate and maxil¬
lary bones, has a little furrow on each fide, of a fmall
middle ridge, anfwering to the fpines of the bones of
different fides, and the interftice between them. This
edge and the upper one meet in the pointed fore-end of
this bone.
The body of the vomer has a fmooth furface, and fi>
lid, but thin fubftance ; and towards its fides, where it
is thickeft, fome canctlli may be obferved, when the
bone is broken.
It is joined above to the fphenoid and ethmoid bones,
and to the middle cartilage of the nofe, by fchindylefis;
—below, to the maxillary and palate-bones, by the fpi-
ncus future.
The
1^4 A N A T
The vomer divides the noftrils, enlarges the organ of
fmelling, by allowing ylace for expanding the membrane
of the nc'fe on its fides, and fuftains the palate-plates of
the maxillary and palate-bpnes.
■ Maxilla Inferior, the lower jaw, confifts only of
one moveable bone, and fixteen teeth incafed into it.
This bone, which is- fomewhat of the figure of the
Greek letter v, is fituated at the lower part of the face,
fo as its convex middle part is forwards, and its legs are
ftretched back. It is commonly divided into the chin,
fides, and proceffes.—The chin is the middle fore-part,
the ejctent of which to each fide is marked on the exter¬
nal furface by the holes obfervable there, and internally,
by the beginning ofi an oblique ridge.—Beyond thefe,
the fides appear, and are continued till the bone, by
bending upwards, begins to form the procefles.
On the fore-part of the chin, a tranfverfe ridge appears
in the middle, on each fide of which the mufculi quadra- ,
ti, or deprelfores labii inferioris, and the levatores labii
inferioris, deprefs the bone: And below thefe prints, a
fmall rifing may be obferved, where the depreflqres com¬
mence.—On the back-part of the chin, fometimes three,
always two, fmall protuberances appear in the middle.
To the uppermoft, when it is feen, the frxnum of the
tongue is conne&ed. From the middle one, the mufculi
gemoglodi rife ; and from the lowed, the geniohyoidei
have their origin.
At the lower and fore-part of the external furface of
each fide of the lower jaw, a fmall eminence may be
obferved, where the depreffor labiorurn communis rifes.
Near the upper edge of the fide a ridge runs length-ways,
to which the under part of the mufculus buccinator is
conn'efted. Internally, towards the upper edge of
each fide, another ridge appears, from which the mylo-
hyoidei have their origin, and to which the internal mem¬
brane of the gums adheres.
In the upper edge of both chin and fides are a great
many deep pits or fockets, for receiving the roots, of the
teeth. The number and magnitude of thefe fockets are
various, becaufe of the different number, as well of the
teeth themfelves, as of their roots, in different people.
Thefe fockets in this lower jaw, as well as in the upper
one, are lefs deep as old age comes on; when freed from
the teeth by any means, they are fome' time after filled
up with an offeous net-work, which at laft becomes en¬
tirely folid, and as fmooth as any other part of the bone;
fo that in a great many old jaws .one cannot obferve a
veftige of the fockets: But then the jaw becomes lefs,
and much narrower.—Hence we may know why thp chin
and nofe of edentulous people are much nearer than be¬
fore the teeth were-loft ; while their lips either fall in
towards the mouth, or ftand prominent forwards. 
When new teeth are protruded, new fockets are formed.
  The lower edge of the chin'and fides is fmooth. and
equal, and is commonly called the bafe of the lower jaw.
./—iThe ends of the bafe, where the jaw turns upwards,
are called its angles ; the external furface of each of
which has feveral inequalities upon it, where the mafle-
ter mufcle is inferred; as the internal furface alfo has,
where the pterygoideus internus is inferted, and a liga-
O M Y. Part I.
ment, extended from the ftyloid procefs of the temporal
bone, is fixed.
The procefles are two on each fide. The anterior
fliarp thin coronoid ones have the crotaphyte mufcles in¬
ferted into them. The pofterior proceftes, or con¬
dyles, terminate in an oblong fmooth head, fupported by
a cervix. The heads, whofe greateft length is tranfverfe,
and whofe convexity is turned forwards, are tipped with
a cartilage, as the articulated parts of all other moved
bones are.—The fore-part of the root and neck of thefe
condyloid procefles are a little hollow and rough, where
the external pterygoid mufcles are inferted.
The holes of the lower jaw are two on each fide;
one at the root of the proceftes internally, where a large
branch of the third branch of the fifth pair of nerves en¬
ters with an .artery, and a vein returns: A fmall /harp
procefs frequently jutts out backwards-from the edge at
, the fore-part of this hole, to which a ligament, extended
ftom the temporal bone, is fixed, which faves the nerve
and veflels from being too much prefied by the ptery¬
goid mufcles. From tlie lower fide of this hole, ei¬
ther a fmall fuperficial canal or a furrow defcends, where
a branch of the nerve is lodged, in its way to the mylo-
hyoideus mufcle and fublingual ^tand. The other
hole is external, at the confines of the chin, where
branches of the nerve and veflels come out. The ca¬
nal betwixt thefe two holes is formed in the middle of
the fubftance of the bone, and is pierced by a great num¬
ber of fmall holes by which the nerves and blood-veflels
of the cancelli and teeth pafs.
The lower jaw generally receives the roots of fixteen
teeth into its fockets, by gomphofis ; and its condyloid
procefles, covered with cartilage', are articulated with
the temporal bones.
The Teeth are the hard white bodies placed in the
fockets of both jaws. Their number is generally fix¬
teen above, and as many below ; though fome people
have more, others have fewer.
The broad thick part of each tooth which appears
without the focket, is the bafe, or body. The fmall-
er procefles funk into the maxillae, are the roots or fangs,
which become gradually-fmaller towards the end fartheft
from the bafe, or are nearly conical, by which the fur¬
face of their fides divides the preflure made on the bafes,
to prevent the foft parts, which are at the final! points
of the foekets, to be hurt by fuch preflure.
Without the gums the teeth are covered with no mem¬
brane, and they are find to have no proper periofteum
within the fockets; but that is fupplied by the reflefted
membrane of the gums ; which, after a good injection,
may be?evideiitly feen in a young fubjeA, with the veflels
from it penetrating into the fubftance of the teeth ; and
it may be difcovered in any tooth recently pulled, by ma¬
cerating it in water. The adhefiqn of this membrane to
■ thefe roots is ftrengthcned by the fmall furrov/s obfer¬
vable on them.
Each tooth is compofed of its cortex, or enamel, and
an internal bony fubftance. The cortex has no cavity or
place for marrow; and is fo folid and hard, that faws or
files can with difficulty make impceffion on it. It is
thicTTeft
Part I. ANA'
thickeft upon the bafe, and gradually, as the roots turn
fmaller, becomes thinner. The hbres of this enamel
are all perpendicular to the internal fubllance, and are
ftreight on the bafe, but at the fides are arched with a
convex part towards the roots; which makes the teeth
refill: the compreffion of any hard body between the jaws,
with lefs danger of breaking thefe fibres, than if they had
been fituated tranfverfely. The fpongy fockets in which
the teeth are placed fikewife ferve better tq.prevent fuch
an injury, than a more folid bafe would have done.
The bony part of the teeth has its fibres running
ftreight, according to the length of the teeth. When it
is expofed to the air, by the breaking or falling off of
the hard cortex, it foon corrupts. And thence carious
teeth are often all hollow within, when a veryfmall hole
appears only externally.
The teeth have canals formed in their middle, where¬
in their nerves and blood-veliels are lodged; which they
certainly need, being conftantly wafted by the attrition
they are fubjefted to in manducatipn, and for their fur¬
ther growth, not only after they firft appear, but even in
■adults; as is evident when a tooth is taken out: For
then the oppofite one becomes longer, and thofe on each
fide of the empty focket turn broader; fo that when
the jaws are brought together, it is fcarce obfervable
-where the tooth is wanting.
The veffels are eafily traced fo long as they are in the
large canal, hut can fcarce be obferved in their diftribu-
tion from that to the fubftance of the teeth of adults.
 This plentiful fupply of veffels muft expofe the
teeth to the fame diforders that attack other vafcular
parts.
Every root of each tooth has fuch a diftimft canal,
with vefiels and nerves in it. Thefe canals in the teeth
with more than one root, come nearer each other, as
they approach the bafe of the tooth : and at laft are
only feparated by very thin plates, which being general¬
ly incomplete, allow a communication of all the canals;
and frequently one common cavity only appears within
the bafe, in which a pulpy fubftance, compofed of nerves
and veffels, is lodged.
The entry of the canals for thefe veffels is a fmall
hole placed a little to a fide of the extreme point of
each rootfometimes, efpecialty in old people, this hole
is entirely clofed up, and confequently the nerves and
blood-veffels are deftroyed.
The teeth are feen for a confiderable time in form of
mucus contained in a membrane; afterwards a thin cor¬
tical plate, and fome few offeous layers appear within
the membrane, with a large cavity filled with mucus in
■the middle; and gradually this exterior ftiell turns thicks
er, the cavity decreafes, the quantity of mucus is leffen-
ed, and this induration proceeds till all the body is
formed ; from which the roots are afterwards produced.
In young fu^jefts, different ftamina, or rudiments of
tqeth, are to be obferved. Thole next the gums hinder
ordinarily the deeper-feated ones from making their way
out, while thefe prevent the former from fending out
roots, or from entering deep into the bony fockets of
the jaws; by which they come to be lefs fixed.
Children are feldom born with teeth ; but at two
Vol. I. No. 7. ~ 3
r O M Y. 16$
years of age they have twenty ; and their number does
not increafe till they are about feven years old, when the
teeth that firft made their way through the gums are
thruft out by others that have been formed deeper in the
jaw, and fome more of the teeth begin to difeover them-
felves farther back in the mouth. About fourteen years
of age, fome more of the firft crop are (bed, and the
number is inereafed. This Ihedding of the teeth is of
good ufe ; for if the firft had remained, they would have
ftood at a great diftance one from another ; becaufe the
teeth are too hard in their outer cruft, to increafe fo fait
as the jaws do. Whereas both the fecond layer, and the
teeth that come out late, meeting, while they are foft,
with a confiderable refiftance to their growth in length,
from thofe fituated upon them, neceffarily come out broad,
and fit tp make that clofe guard to the mouth, which
they now form.
The teeth are joined to the fockets by gomphofis, and
the gums contribute to fix them there ; as is evident by
the teeth falling but when the gums are any way de¬
ftroyed, or made too fpongy; as in the feurvy or falt-
vations : Whence fome clals this articulation with the
fyffarcofis.
The ufes of the teeth are to mafticate our ali¬
ment, and to aflift us in the pronunciation of feveral
letters.
Though the teeth fo far agree in their ftruffure, yet,
.becaufe of fome things wherein they differ, they are
generally divided into three claffes, viz. incifores, canim,
and niolares.
The incifores, are the four fore-teeth in each jaw, re.-
ceiving their name from their office of cutting, our ali¬
ment ; for which they are excellently adapted, being each
formed into a lharp-cutting edge at their bafe, by their
fore-fide turning inwards there, while* they are flopped
down and hollowed behind ; fo that they have the form
of v/edges; and therefore their power of adting muft be
confiderably increafed.
The incifores of the upper jaw, efpecially the two
middle ones, are broader and longer generally than thofe
of the under jaw.
Canini, from the refemblance -to dogs tulks, are one
on each fide of the incifores in each jaw. The two
in the upper jaw are called eje-leeih, from the commu¬
nication of nerves which is faid to be betwixt them and
the eyes. The two in the lower jaw are named an¬
gular, or •wike-tt'eth, becaufe they fupport the angles of
the mouth.
The canini are broader, longer, and ftronger, than the
incifores. Their bales are formed into a lharp edge,
as the incifores are ; only that the edge rifes into a point
in the middle. Each of them has generally but one
long root, though fometimes they have two. The roots
are crooked towards the end.——The canini of the up¬
per jaw are larger, longer, and with more crooked roots,
than thofe of the under jaw.
The dentes molares, or grinders, which have got their
name becaufe they grind our food, ate generally five in
each fide of each jaw; in all twenty. Their bafes are
broader, more fcabrous, and with a thinner cortical fub¬
ftance, than the other teeth. They have alfo more
T 1 roots.
166
ANATOMY. Part f.
roots, and as thefe root's generally divaricate from each
other, the partitions of the fockets between them bear
a large (hare of the great preffure they fuffer, and hin¬
der it to adt on their points.
The numerous roots of the dentes molares prevent
their loofening by the lateral preiTure they fuffer in grind¬
ing ; and as the fockets in the upper jaw are more fpon-
gy, and the teeth are more liable, by their fmiation, to
fall out, the grinders there have more numerous and
more deparated roots than in the lower jaw.
, According to the divifion made of the ikeleton, we
fhould now proceed to the defer!ption of the trunk of the
body. But muft -firft confider a bone, which cannot well
be faid to belong to either the head or the trunk; nor is
it Immediately joined to any other, and therefore is very
feldom preferved with Ikeletons.
The Os Hyoides, which is fituated horizontally
between the root of the tongue and the larynx. It is
properly enough named hyoides, from the refemblance it
bears to the Greek letter v, and may, for a clearer de-
monftration of its ftruffure, be diftinguiftied into its body,
cornua, and appendices.
The body is the middle broad part, convex before,
and hollow behind.——The convex fore-part is divided
into two, by a ridge, into the middle of which the mylo-
hyoidei, and into the fides the •ftylo-hyoidei, mufcles
are inferred. Above the ridge, the bone is horizontal,
but pitted in the middle by the infertion of the two ge-
nio-hyoidei mufcles, and a little hollowed more laterally
by the bafiogloffi.—■—Below the ridge, it is convex, but
a little flatted in the middle by the fterno-hyoidei, and
pitted more externally by the coraco-hyoidei -The
concavity behind faces backwards and downwards to re¬
ceive the jhyroid cartilage, when the larynx and the os
hyoidcs are pulled towards each other by the aftion of
the fterno-hyoidei and hyothyroidei mufcles; and to its
upper edge, the ligamentous membranes of the epiglotis,
tongue, and thyroid cartilage, are fixed;
The cornua of the os hyoides are ftretched backwards
from each fide of its body, where often a fmall furrow
points out the former feparation. Thefe cornua are
not always ftreight, nor of equal length ; their two
plain furfaces (land obliquely flopping from above, out¬
wards and downwards. Into the external, the cerato
gloffus is inferted above, and the thyro-hyoideus mufcle
below; and to the one behind, the ligamentous mem¬
brane of the tongue and larynx adheres. Each of the
cornua becomes gradually fmaller, as it is extended from
the bafe; but ends in a round tubercle, from which a
moveable cartilage ftands out, which is connefted to the
upper procefs of the cartilage thyroidea.
Where the body of the os hyoides joins on each fide
with its cornua, a fmall ftyliform procefs, called appen¬
dix, rifes upwards and backwards, into which the muf-
culi flylo-hyoidei alteri, and part of the hyo-glofli muf¬
cles are fixed.
The fubftance of the os hyoides is cellular, but cover¬
ed with a firm external plate, which is of fufficient
ftrength to bear the affions of fo many mufcles as are in¬
ferted into it.
It is not articulated with any bone of the body, ex¬
cept by means of the mufcles and ligaments men¬
tioned.
The ufe of the os hyoides, is to ferve as a folid lever
for die mufcles to aff with, in -railing or depreffing the
tongue and larynx, or in enlarging and diminifhing the
capacity of the fauces.
OF THE TRUNK.
The Trunk confifts of the fpine, pelvis, and
thorax.
The Spine is the long pile of bones extended from
the condyles of the occiput to the end of the rump. It
fomewhat refembles two unequal pyramids joined in a
common bafe. It is not, however, ftreight; for its up¬
per part being drawn backwards by ftrong mufcles, it
gradually advances forwards, to fupport the cefophagus,
veffels of the head, &c. Then it turns backwards, to
make place enough for the heart and lungs. It is next
bended forwards, to fupport the vifcera,of the abdomen.
It afterwards turns backwards, for the enlargement of
the pelvis. And, laftly, it is reflefted forwards, for fu-
ftaining the lowed great gut.
The fpine is commonly divided into true and falfe
vertebrae; the former conftituting the long upper .pyra¬
mid, which has its bafe bafe below, while the falfe ver¬
tebra; make the ftiorter lower pyramid, whofe bafe is
above.
The True Vertebrae are the twenty-four upper
bones of the fpine, on which the feveral motions of the
trunk of our bodies are performed; from which ufe they
have juftly got their name.
Each of thefe vertebras is compofed of its body and
proceffes.
The body is the thick fpongy fore-part, which is con¬
vex before, concave backwards, horizontal and plain in
mod of them above and below. Numerous fmall
holes, efpecially on the fore and back-part of their fur-
face, give paffage to their veffels, and allow the ligaments
to enter their fubdance. The edges of the body of
each vertebra are covered, efpecially at the fore-part,
with a ring of bone firmer and more folid than the fub¬
dance of the body any where elfe. Thefe rings are of
great ufe in preventing the fpongy bodies from being
broken in the motions of the trunk.
Between the bodies of each two adjoining vertebra,
a fubdance between the nature of ligament and, cartilage
is interpofed; which feems to confid of concentrical
curve fibres, when it is cut horizontally; but when it is
divided perpendicularly, the fibres appear oblique and de-
cuffating each other. The outer part of the interver¬
tebral ligaments is the mod folid and hard ; and they gra¬
dually become fofter till they are almod in the form of a
glairy liquor in the centre ; and therefore thefe fub-
dances were not improperly called muons ligaments by
the ancients. Tire external fibrous part of each is capa-
bleof being greatly extended, and of being compreffedinto
a very fmall fpace, whild the middle fluid part is incom-
preflible, or nearly fo ; and the parts mf this ligament
between the circumference and centre approach in their
properties to either, in proportion to their more folid
Part I. ANATOMY. 167
or more fluid texture. The middle point is therefore a
fulcrum or pivot, on which the motion of a ball and
focket may be made, with fuch a gradual yielding of the
fubftance of the ligament, in whichever diredion our
fpines are moved, as faves the body from violent (hocks,
and their dangerous confequences. This ligamento-
cartilaginous fubftance is firmly fixed to the horizontal
furfaces of the bodies of the vertebrse, to conned them,
in which it is aflifted by a ftrong membranou^igament,
which lines all their concave furface, and uy ftill a
ftronger ligament, that covers all their anterior convex
furface.
From each fide of the body of each vertebra, a bony
bridge is produced backwards, and to a fide ; from the
pofterior end of which, one flanting procefs rifes and an¬
other defcends ; the fmooth, and what is generally the-
flatteft fide of each of thefe four procefles, which are
called the oblique, is covered with a fmooth ,cartilage;
and the two lower ones of each vertebra, are fitted to,
and articulated with the two upper or afcending oblique
procefles of the vertebra below, having their articular
ligaments fixed into the rough line round their edges.
From between the oblique procefles of each fide the
vertebra is ftretched out laterally into a procefs that is
named tranfverfe.
From the back-part of the roots of the two oblique,
and of the tranfverfe procefs of each fide, a broad ob¬
lique bony plate is extended backwards, where thefe
meet, the feventh procefs of the vertebra takes its rife,
and (lands out backwards: This being generally (harp
pointed, and narrow edged, has therefore been called
fpinal procefs ; from which this whole chain of bones
has got its name.
Befides the common ligament which lines all the in¬
ternal furface of the fpinal procefles, as well as of the
bodies, there are particular ligaments that connect the
bony bridges and procefl'es of the contiguous vertebra to¬
gether.
The fubftance of the procefles is confiderably ftronger
and firmer, and has a thicker external plate than the bo¬
dies of the vertebra have.
The feven procefles form a concavity at their fore¬
part, which, joined to the one at the back-part of the
bodies, makes a great hole, and the holes of all the ver¬
tebrse form a long large conduit, for containing the fpi¬
nal marrow. In the upper and lower edge of each la¬
teral bridge, there is a notch. Thefe are fo adapted to
each other in the contiguous vertebra, as to form a
round hole in each fide between each two vertebra,
through which the nerves that proceed from the fpinal
marrow and its blood-veflels pafs.
The articulations then of thefe true vertebra are
plainly double ; for their bodies are joined by the inter¬
vening cartilage above defcribed, and their oblique pro¬
cefles being tipped with cartilages, are fo connedted by
their ligaments, as to allow a finall degree of motion to
all (ides.
The true vertebra ferve to give us an eredt pofture ;
to allow fufficient and fecure motion to the head, neck,
and trunk of the body, and to fupport and defend the
bowels, and other foft parts.
Though the true vertebra agree in the general ftruc-
ture which we have hitherto defcribed ; yet becaufe of
feveral fpecialities proper to a particular number, they
are commonly divided into three clafles, viz. cervical,
dorfal, and lumbar.
The cervical are the feven uppermoft vertebra ; which
are diftinguiftied frpm the reft by thefe marks. Their
bodies are fmaller and more folid than any others, and
flatted on the fore-part, to make way for the oefophagus;
or rather this flat figure is owing to the preflure of that
pipe, and to the adtion of the longi colli and anterior
recti mufcles. They are alfo flat behind, where fmall
procefles rife, to which the internal ligaments are fixed.
 The upper furface of the body of each vertebra is
made hollow, by a (lanting thin procefs which is raifed
on each fide :—The lower furface is alfo excavated, but
in a different manner; for here the pofterior edge is rai¬
fed a little, and the ohe before is produced a confider-
able way. Hence we fee how the cartilages between
thofe bones are firmly connedted, and their articulations
are fccure.
The cartilages between thefe vertebrae are thick, e-
fpecially at .their fore-part; which is one reafon why
the vertebra advance forward as they defcend, and have
larger motion.
The oblique procefles of thefe bones of the neck more
juftly deferve that name than thofe.of any other vertebra.
They are fituated (lanting; the upper ones having their
fmooth and almoft flat furfaces facing obliquely back¬
wards and upwards, while the inferior oblique proceiTes
have their furfaces facing obliquely forwards and down¬
wards.
The tranfverfe. procefles of thefe vertebra are framed
in a different manner from thofe of any other bones of
the fpine : For befides the common tranfverfe procefs
riling from between the oblique procefles of each fide,
there is afecond one that comes out from the fide of the
body of each vertebra; and thefe two procefies, after
leaving a circular hole for the paflage of the cervical ar¬
tery and vein, unite, and are confiderably hollowed at
their upper part, with rifing (ides, to protedt the nerves
that pafs in the hollow; and at laft each fide terminates
in an obtufe point, for the infertion of mufcles.
The fpinal procefles of thefe cervical bones (land
nearly (freight backwards, are (horter than thofe of any
other vertebra, and are forked or double at their ends ;
and hence allow a more convenient infertion to mufcjes.
So far moft of the cervical vertebra agree ; but they
have fome particular differences, which oblige us to con-
(ider them feparately.
The firft, from its ufe of fupporting the head, has the
name of atlas ; and is alfo called epijlropkea, from the
motion it performs cn the fecond.
The atlas, contrary to all the other vertebra of the
fpine, has no body; but, inftead of it, there is a bony
arch. In the convex fore-part of which, a fmall
rifing appears, where the muiculi longi colli are inferr¬
ed ; and, on each fide of this protuberance, a fmall ca¬
vity may be obferved, where the redi interni minores
take their rife. The upper and lower parts of the
arch are rough and unequal, where the ligaments that
conned
i6S
conne<£i this vettebra to the os occlpitis, and to the fe-
cond vertebra, are fixed. The back-part of the arch
is conCave, fmooth, and covered with a cartilage, in a
recent fubjeft, to receive the tooth-like procefs of the
fscond vertebra. In a firft vertebra, from which the
fecon'd has been feparated, this hollow makes the paf-
lage for the fpinal marrow to feem much larger than it
really is : On each fide of it a fmall rough finuofrty may
fee remarked, where the ligaments going to the fides of
th.e rooth-like procefs of the following vertebra are fatt¬
ened ; and on each fide, a fmall rough protuberance and
depreffion is obf'errable,. where the tranfverfe ligament,
which fecurcs the tooth-like procefs in the finuofity, is
fixed, and hinders that procefs from injuring the medul¬
la fpinalis in the fleftions of the head.
The atlas has as little fpinal procefs as body ; but in-
ftead thereof, there is a large bony arch, that the muf-
clcs which pafs over this vertebra at that place might
not be hurt in extending the head.
The fuperior oblique procelfes of this atlas are large,
oblong, hollow, and more horizontal than in any other
vertebra. ^They rife more in their external than in¬
ternal brim; by which their articulations with the con¬
dyloid of the os occipitis are firmer; Under the ex¬
ternal edge of each of thefe oblique proceffes, is the fofi-
fa, or deep open channel, in which the vetebral arte¬
ries make the circular turn, as they are about to enter
the great foremen of the occipital bone, and where the
tenth pair-of nerves goes out. ^-The inferior oblique
precedes extending from within outwards and down¬
wards, are large, concave, and circular. So that this
vertebra, contrary to the other fix, receives the bones
with which it is articulated both above and below.
The tranfverfe proceffes here are not much hollowed
or forked, but are longer and larger than thofe of any
other vertebra of the neck, for the origin a^d infertion
of feveral mufcles.
The hole for the fpinal marrow is larger in this than
in any other vertebra, not only on account of the mar¬
row being largett here, but alfo to prevent its being hurt
by the motions of this vertebra on the fecond one. 
This large hole, and the long traverfe proceffes, make
this the broadeft vertebra of the neck.
The condyles of the os occipitis move forwards and
backwards in the fuperior oblique proceffes of this verte¬
bra; but from the figure of the bones forming thefe
joints, it appears, that very little motion can here be al¬
lowed to either fide ; and there mutt be ttill lefs circular
motion.
The fecond vertebra colli is called dentata, from the
tooth-like procefs on the upper part of its body.
The body of this vertebra is fomewhat pyramidical,
being large, and produced downwards, efpeciaily at its
fore-fide, to enter into a hollow of the vertebra below ;
while the upper part has a fquare procefs with a fmall
point ftanding out from it. This it is that is imagined
to refemble a tooth, and has given name to the verte¬
bra.—The fide of this procefs, on which the hollow of
the anterior arch of the firtt ‘vertebra plays, is convex,
fhiooth, and covered with a cartilage; and it is of the
iaroe form behind, for the ligament, which is extended
Part I.
tranfverfely from one rough protuberance of the firft ver¬
tebra to the other, and is cartilaginous in the middle, to
move on it.
The fijperior^oblique proceffes of this vertebra den¬
tata are large, circular, very nearly in an horizontal po-
fition, and fiightly convex, to be adapted to the inferior
oblique proceffes of the firft. vertebra.
The tranfverfe proceffes of the vertebra dentata are
fhort, vjjy little hollowed at their upper part, and not
forked at their ends; and the canals through which the
cervical arteries pafs, are refle&ed outwards about the
middle fubftance of each proceft; fo that the courfe of
thefe veffels may he direfted towards the tranfvede pro¬
ceffes of the firft: vertebra.
The fpinal procefs of this vertebra tendata is thick,
ftrong, and ftiort, to give fufficient origin to the mufeuli
redti majores, and obliqui inferiores, and to prevent the
contufion of thefe and other mufcles, in pulling the head
back.
The third vertebra of the neck is by fome called axis;
but this name is applied to it with much lefs reafon than
to the fecond. This third, and the three below, have
nothing particular in their ftrintture; but all their parts
come under the general defeription formerly given, each
of them being larger as they defeend.
The fever.th vertebra of the neck is near to the form
of thofe of the back, having the upper and lower furfaces
of its body lefs hollow than the others:—The oblique
proceffes are more perpendicular;—neither fpinal nor
tranfverfe proceffes are forked.—This feventh and the
fixth vertebra of the neck have the hole in each of their
,tranfverfe proceffes, more frequently divided by a fmall
crofs bridge, that goes between the cervical vein and ar¬
tery, than any of the other vertebras.
The twelve dorfal may be diftinguilhed from the, other
vertebras of the fpine by the following marks.
Their bodies are of a middle fize, betwixt thofe of
the neck and loins;—they are more convex before than
either of the other two forts; and are flatted laterally
by the preffure of the ribs, which are inferted into fmall
cavities formed in their fides. This flatting on their fides,
which makes the figure of thefe vertebrae almoil an half
oval, is of good ufe; as it affords a firm articulation to
the ribs, allows the trachea arteria to divide at a fmail
angle, and the other large veffels to run fecure from the
a<ftion of the vital organs. Thefe bodies are more
concave behind than any of the other two claffes. 
Their upper and lower furfaces are horizontal.
The cartilages interpofed between the bodies of thefe
vertebrse'are thinner than in any other of the true verte¬
bras ; and contribute to the concavity of the ffpine in the
thorax, by .being thinneft at their fore-part.
The oblique proceffes are placed almott perpendicular;
the upper ones flaming but a little forwards, and the low¬
er ones flanting as much backwards.—They have not as
much convexity or concavity as is worth remarking. 
Between the oblique proceffes of oppofite fides, feveral
ftrarp proceffes ftand out from the upper and lower parts
of the plates which join to form the fpinal procefs ; into
thefe (harp proceffes ftrong ligaments are fixed, for con-
nefting the vertebras.
The
A N A T O M Y.
Part T. A N A 1
The tranfverfe procefTes of the dorfal vertebras are
long, thicker at their ends than in the middle, and turn¬
ed obliquely backwards.
The fpinal procefi'es are long, fmall pointed, and Ho¬
ping downwards and backwards; from their upper and
back-part a ridge rifes, which is received by a fmall
channel in the fore-part of the fpinal procefs immediate¬
ly above, which is here connected to it by a ligament.
The conduit of the fpinal marrow is here more circu¬
lar, but, correfponding to the fize of that cord, is fmall-
er than in any of the other vertebrae, and a larger (hare
of the holes in the bony bridges, for the tranfinilTion of
the nerves, is formed in the vertebra above, than in the
one below.
The connexion of the dorfal vertebrae to the ribs, the
thinnefs of their cartilages, the eredt fituation of the o-
blique procelfes, thelength, Hoping, and connection of the
fpinal procefles, all contribute to 'refrain thefe vertebrae
from much motion, which might difturb the actions of
the heart and lungsand, in confequence of the little
motion allowed here, the intervertebral cartilages fooner
(hrivel, by becoming more folid: And therefore, the ffrft
remarkable curvature of the fpine obferved, as people
advance to old age, is in the lead Hretched vertebrae of the
back ; or old people firft become round-fliouldered. *
The bodies of the four uppermoft dorfal vertebrae de¬
viate from the rule of the vertebrae, becoming larger as
they defcend; for the firfl of the four is the largeft, and
the other three below gradually become fmaller, to allow
the trachea and large veflels to divide at fmaller angles.
The two uppermoft vertebrae of the .back, inftead of
being very prominent forwards, are flatted by the adtion
of the mufculi longi colli and redti majores.
The proportional fize of the two little depreffions in
the body of each vertebra, for receiving the heads of
the ribs, feems to vary in the following manner ; the de-
preHion on the upper edge of each vertebra decreafes as
far down as the fourth, and after that increafes.
The tranfverfe proceHes are longer in each lower ver¬
tebra to the feventh or eighth, with their fmorith fur-
faces, for the tubercles of the ribs, facing gradually
more downwards; but afterwards, as they defcend, they
become (hotter, and the fmooth furfaces are diredted more
upwards.
The fpinous procefles of the vertebrae of the back be?
come gradually longer and more Hunting from the firft,
as far down as the eighth or ninth vertebra; from which
they manifeftly turn fhorter and more eredt.
The firft vertebra, befides an oblong hollow in its low¬
er edge, that alfifts in forming the cavity wherein the fe-
cond rtb is received, has the whole cavity for the head
of the firft rib fonp£d in it/
The fecond has the name "of axillary, without any
thing particular in its ftrudture.
The eleventh often has the whole cavity for the ele¬
venth ri£> in its body, and wants the fmooth furface on
each tranfverfe procefs.
The twelfth always receives the whole head of the laft
rib, and has no fmooth furface on its tranfverfe procefles,
which are very (hort. The fmooth furfaces of its in¬
ferior oblique procefles face outwards as the lumbar do.
Vql. I. No. 8. 3
O M Y. i69
 And we may fay in general, that the upper vertebra
of the back lofe gradually their refemblance to thofe of
the neck, and the lower ones come nearer to the figure
of the lumbar.
The lowed: order of the true vertebra is the lumbar,
which are five bones, that may be diftinguiftied from any
others by thele marks: i. Their bodies, though eft" a
circular form at their fore-part, are fbmewhat oblong
from one fide to the other; which may be occafioned by
the prefiure of the large veflels, the aorta and cava, and
of the vifeera. The epiphyfes on their edges are larger,
and therefore the upper and lower furfaces of their bo¬
dies are more concave than in the vertebra of the back,
2. The cartilages between thefe vertebra are much the
thickeft of any, and render the fpine convex within the
abdomen, by their greateit thicknefs being at-their fore¬
part. 3. The oblique procefles are ftrong and deep;
thofe in oppofite fides being almoft placed in parallel
planes; the fuperior, which are concave, facing in¬
wards, and the convex inferior ones facing outwards:
and therefore each of thefe vertebra receives the one a-
bove it, and is received by the one below ; which is not
fo evident in the other two dalles already deferibed.
4. Their tranfverfe procefles are fmall, long, and al¬
moft ered, for allowing large motion to each bone, and
fufficient infertion to mufcles, and for fupporting and de¬
fending the internal parts. 5. Betwixt the roots of the
fuperior oblique and tranfverfe procefies, a fmall protu¬
berance may be obferved, where fome of the mufcles
that raife the trunk of the body are inferted. 6. Their
fpinal procefies are ftrong, ftreight, and horizontal, with
broad flat fides, and a narrow edge above and below;
this laft being deprefl'ed on each fide by mufcles. And
at the root of thefe edges, we fee rough furfaces for fix¬
ing the ligaments. 7. The canal for the numerous
cords, called cauda equina, into which the fpinal mar¬
row divides, is rather larger in thefe bones than what
contains that marrow in the vertebrse of the back.
8. The holes for the paflage of the nerves are more e-
qually formed out of both the contiguous vertebra than
in the other clafles; the upper one furniflies however the
larger (hare of each hole.
The thick cartilages between thefe lumbar vertebra,
their deep oblique procefles, and their ereft fpinal pro¬
cefles, are all (it for allowing large motion; though it
is not fo great'as what is performed in the neck; which
appears from comparing the arches which the head de-
feribes when moving on the neck, or the loins only.
The lumbar vertebra, as they defcend, have their ob¬
lique procefles at a greater diftance from each other, tyid
facing more backwards and forwards.
Both tranfverfe. and fpinal procefles of the middlemoll
vertebrse of the loins are longeft and thickeft; in the ver¬
tebra above and below they are lefs: fo that thefe pro¬
cefles of the firil and fifth are the lead, to prevent their
ftriking on the ribs or ofl'a ilium, or their bruifing the
mufcles in the motions of the fpine.
The ephiphyfes round the edges of the bodies of the
lumbar vertebra are moft raifed in the two loweft, which
confequently make them appear hollower in the middle
than the others are.
U u
The
i7o A N A T
The body of the fifth vertebra is rather thinner than
that of the fourth. The fpinal proc'cfs of this fifth is
fmaller, and the oblique procefles face more backwards
and forwards than in any other lumbar vertebra.
The False Vertebrae compofe the under pyramid
of the fpine. They are diftinguifhed from the bones al¬
ready defcribed juftly enough by this epithet of falfe ;
becaufe, though each bone into which they can be di¬
vided in young people, refembles the true vertebrae in
figure, yet none of them contribute to the motion of the
trunk of the body ; they being intimately united to each
other in adults, except at their lower part, where they
are moveable; whence they are commonly divided into
two bones, os facrum and eoccygh.
Os Sacrum, is fo called from being offered in facri-
fice by the ancients, is of an irregular triangular fhape,
broad above, narrow below, convex behind, for the ad¬
vantageous origin of the mufcles that move the fpine
and thigh backwards; and concave behind, for enlar¬
ging the cavity of the pelvis. Four tranfveffe lines
of a colour different from the reft of the bone, which
are feen on its fore-part, are the marks of divifion of
the five different bones of which it confifts in young per-
fons.
The fore-part of the os facrum is fmooth and flat, to
allow a larger fpace for the contained bowels, without a-
ny danger of hurting them.—The back-part of it is al-
moft ftreight, without fo large a cavity as the vertebrae
have.—The bridges between the bodies and proceffes of
this bone, are much thicker, and in proportion fhorter,
than in the former clafs of bones.—The ftrength of thefe
crofs-bridges is very remarkable in the three upper
bones, and is well-proportioned to the incumbent weight
of the trunk of the body, which thefe bridges fuftain in
a tranfverfe, confequently an unfavourable, fituation,
when the body is eredt.
There are only two oblique proceffes of the os facrum ;
one ftanding out on each fide from the upper part of the
firft bone. Their plain eredi furfaces face backwards,
and are articulated with the inferior oblique proceffes of
the laft vertebra of the loins, to which each of thefe pro¬
ceffes is connedted by a ftrong ligament, which rifes from
a fcabrous cavity round their roots, where mucilaginous
glands are alfo lodged.—Inftead of the other oblique
proceffes of this bone, four rough tubercles are to be
feen on each fide of its furface behind, from which the
■mu feu!us facer has its origin-.
The tranfverfe proceffes here are a1! grown together
into one large firong oblong procefs on'each fide ; which,
fo far as it anfwers to the firft three bones, is very thick,
and divided into two irregular cavities, by a long perpen¬
dicular ridge. The foremoft of the two cavities has
commonly a thin cartilaginous Ikin covering it in the re¬
cent fubjedt, and is adapted to the unequal protuberance
of the os ilium, and a ftrong ligament connedts the cir¬
cumference of thefe furfaces of the two bones. The
Cavity behind is divided by a tranfverfe ridge into two,
where ftreng ligamentous firings that go from this bone
to the os ilium, with a cellular fubftance containing mu¬
cus, are lodged.
The tranfverfe proceffes of the two laft bones of the
O M Y. Part I.
os facrum are much fmaller than the former. At
their back-part, near their edge, a knob and oblong flat
furface give rife to two ftrong ligaments which are ex¬
tended to the os ifehium ; and are therefore called facro-
fciatic.
The fpinal proceffes of the three uppermoft bones of
the os facrum appear Ihort, lharp, and almoft eredt,
while the two lower ones are open behind; and fome-
times a little knob is to be feen on the fourth, though
generally it is bifurcated, without the two legs meeting
into a fpine; in which condition alfo the firft is often to
be feen. The mufculus latiflimus, and longiffimus dorfi,
facrolumbalis, and glutseus maximus, have part of their
origins from thefe fpinal proceffes.
The canal between the bodies and proceffes of this
bone, for the cauda equina, is triangular ; and becomes
fmaller as it defeends, as the cauda alfo does. Be¬
low the third bone, this paffage is no more a complete
bony canal, but is open behind; and is only there de¬
fended by a ftrong ligamentous membrane ftretched over
it, which, with the mufcles that cover it, and are very
prominent on each fide, is a fufficient defence for the
bundle of nerves within.
At the root of each oblique procefs of this bone, the
notch is confpicuous, by which, and fuch another in the
laft vertebra of the loins, a paffage is left for the twenty-
fourth fpinal nerve; and, in viewing the os facrum,
either before or behind, four large holes appear in each
fide, in much the fame height., as where the marks of
the union of its feveral.bones remain. Some of the lar-
geft nerves of the body pafs through the anterior holes;
and fuperficial grooves running outwards from them in
different diredtions, (hew the courfe of thefe nerves. 
From the intervals of thefe grooves, xhe pyriformis muf-
cle chiefly rifes. The holes in the back-part -of the
bone are covered by membranes which allow fmall nerves
to pafs through them. The two uppermoft of thefe
holes, efpecially on the fore-fide, are the largeft; and
as the bone defeerids, the holes turn fmaller. Some¬
times a notch is only formed at the lower part in each
fide of this bone; and in other fubjedts there is a hole
common to it and the os coccygis, through which the
twenty-ninth pair of fpinal nerves paffes ; and frequently
a bony bridge is formed on the back-part of each fide by
a procefs.fent up from the back-part of the os coccygis,
and joined to the little knobs which the laft bone of the
os facrum has inftead of a fpinal procefs. Under this
bridge or jugum, the twenty-ninth pair of fpinal nerves
runs in its courfe to the common holes juft now de¬
fcribed.
The fubftance of the os facrum is very fpongy, with¬
out any confiderable folid external plates, and is lighter
proportionally to its bulk than any other bone in the bo¬
dy; but is fecured from injuries by the thick mufdes
that cover it behind, and by the ftrong ligamentous
membranes that clofely adhere to it.
This bone is articulated above to the laft vertebra of
the loins, in the manner that the lumbar vertebrae are
joined; and therefore the fame motions may be perform¬
ed here. The articulation of the lower part of the os
facrum to the os coccygis feems well enough adapted for
allowing
Part I. ANA'
allowing confiderable motion to this laft bone, was it not
much confined by ligaments. Laterally, the os facrum
is joined to the ofl'a ilium by an immoveable fynchon-
drofis.
The ufes of the os facrum are, to ferve as the com¬
mon bafe and fupport of the trunk of the body, to guard
the nerves proceeding from the end of the Ipinal mar¬
row, to defend the back-part of the pelvis, and to af¬
ford fufficient origin to the mufcles which move the trunk
and thigh.
Os Coccygis, or rump-bone, is that triangular
chain of bones depending from the os facrum; each bone
becoming fmaller as they defcend, till the laft ends almoft
in a point. The os coccygis is convex behind, and con¬
cave before ; from which crooked pyramidal figure,
which was thought to referable a cuckow’s beak, it has.
got its name.
This bone confifts of four pieces in people of middle
age:—In children, very near the whole of it is carti¬
lage : In old fubjefts, all the bones are united, and
become frequently one continued bone with the os fa¬
crum.
The higheft of the four bones is the largeft, with
/boulders extended farther to each fide than the end of
the os facrum;—the upper furface of this bone is a little
hollow. From the back of that bulbous part called its
Jboulders, a procefs often rifes up on each fide, to join
with the bifurcated fpine of the fourth and fifth bones
of the os facrum, to form the bony bridge mentioned in
the defcription of the os facrum. Immediately below
the fhoulders of the os coccygis, a notch may be remark¬
ed in each fide, where the thirtieth pair of the fpinal
nerves paffes. The lower end of this bone is form¬
ed into a fmall head, which very often is hollow in the
middle.
The three lower bones gradually become fmaller, and
are fpongy; but are ftrengthened by a ftrong ligament
which covers and connects them. Their ends, by
which they are articulated, are formed in the fame man¬
ner as thofe of the firft bone are.
The lower end of the fourth bone terminates in a
rough point, to which a cartilage is appended.
To the fides of thefe bones of the os coccygis, the
coccygaei mufcles, and part of the levatores ani, and of
the glutaei maximi, are fixed.
The os coccygis ferves to fuftain the inteftinum rec¬
tum ; and, in order to perform this office more effectu¬
ally, it is made to turn with a curve forwards; by which
alfo the bone itfelf, as well as the mufcles and tegu¬
ments, is preferved from any injury, when we fit with
our body reclined back.
The fecond part of the trunk of the fkeleton, the
Pelvis, is the cylindrical cavity at the lower part of
the abdomen, formed by the os facrum, os coccygis,
and offa innominata ; which laft therefore fall now in
cotirfe to be examined.
The Ossa Innominata are two large broad bones,
which form the fore-part and fides. of the pelvis, and the
lower part of the fides of the abdomen.—In children
each of thefe bones is evidently divided into three;
which are afterwards fo intimately united, that fcarce
r O M Y. 171
the leaft mark of their former reparation remains : not-
withftanding, they are deferibed as confifting each of
three bones, to wit, the os ilium, ifehium, and pubis.
Os Ilium, or haunch-bone, is fituated higheft of the
three, and reaches as far down as one third of the great
cavity into which the head of the thigh-bone is received.
The external fide of this bone is unequally convex,
and is called its dorfum;—the internal concave furface
is by fome (but improperly) named cojla. The femi-
circular edge at the higheft part of this bone, which is
tipped wdth a cartilage in the recent fiubjedt, is named
the fpine, into which the external or defeending oblique
mulcje of the abdomen is inferted; and from it the in¬
ternal afeending oblique and the tranfverfe mufcles of the
belly, with the glutreus maximus, quadratus lumborum,
and latiffimus dorfi,.have their origin.—The ends of the
fpine are more prominent than the furface of the bone be¬
low them; therefore are reckoned procefles. From
the anterior fpinal procefs, the fartorius and fafcialis
mufcles have their rife, and the outer end of the doubled
tendon of the external oblique mufcle of the abdomen,
commonly called Fallopius'% or Poupart's ligament, is
fixed to it. The infide of the pofterior fpinal pro¬
cefs, and of part of the fpine forward from that, is made
flat and rough where the facro-lumbalis and lopgiffimus
dorfi rife ; and to its outfide ligaments, extended to the
os facrum and tranfverfe proceffes of the fifth and fourth,
vertebras of the loins, are fixed. Below the anterior
fpinal procefs another protuberance Hands out, which,
by its lituation, may be diftinguilhed from the former,
by adding the epithet of inferior, where the mufculus.
redlus tibke has its origin.—Betwixt thefe turn anterior
procefles the bone is hollowed where the beginning of
the fartorius mufcle is lodged. Below the poftefior
fpinal procefles, a fecond protuberance of the edge of
this bone is in like manner obfervable, wdiich is clofely
applied to the os facrum. Under this laft procels a
confiderable large niche is obfervable in the os ilium ;
between the fides of which and the ftrong ligament that
is ftretched oyer from the os facrum to the ftiarp-pointed
procefs of the os ifehium of the recent fubjeft, a large
hole is formed, through which the mufculus pyriformis,
the great fciatic nerve, and the pofterior crural veflels,
pals, and are prote&ed from comprelfion.
The external broad fide, or dorfum of the os ilium, is -
a little hollow towards the fore part; farther back it is as
much raifed; then is confiderably concave ; and, laltly, it is
convex. Thele inequalities are occafioned by the actions
of the mufcles that are fituated on this furface.—From
behind the upperraoft of the two anterior fpinal procefles,.
in fuch bones as are ftrongly marked by the mufcles, a
femicircular ridge is extended to the hollow paflage of
the fciatic nerve. Between the fpine and this ridge, the
glutsEUS medius takes its rife. Immediately from above
the loweft of the anterior fpinal procefles, a fecond ridge
is ftretched to the niche. Between this and the former
ridge, the glutasus minimus has its origin.^ On the
outlide of the pofterior fpinal procefles, the dorfum of
the os ilium is flat and rough, where part of the mufcu¬
lus gluteus maximns and pyriformis rifes.——-The low-
eft. part of this bone is the thickeft, and is formed into a.
172 A N A T
large cavity with high bo-ima, to aflift in coropofing the
great acetabulum.
The internal furface <3f the os ilium is concave in its
broadeft fore part, where the internal iliac mufcie has its
origin, and feme (hare of the inteftinum ilium and. colon
is lodged. 'From this large hollow, a fmall Gnuofity is
continued obliquely forwards, at the inGde of the anterior
inferior fpinal procefs, where part of the pfoas and iliacus
mufcles, with the crural veffels and nerves, pafs.—■—-
The large concavity is bounded below by a (harp ridge,
which runs from behind forwards , and, being continued
with fuch another ridge of the os pubis, forms a line of
partition between the abdomen and pelvis. Into this
ridge the broad tendon of the pfoas parvus is inferted.
All the internal furface of the os ilium, 8ehind this
ridge, is very uheqnal : For the upper part is flat, but
fpongy, where the facro-lumbalis and longiffinftis dorG
rife.- Lower down, there is a tranfverfe ridge from
which ligaments go out to the os facrum. Immedi¬
ately below this ridge, the rough unequal cavities and
prominences are placed, which are exactly adapted to
thofe deferibed on the Gde of the os facrum. In the
fame manner, the upper part of this rough furface is po¬
rous, for the Grmer adhdiqn of the ligamentous cellular
fuhftance ; while the lower part is more folid, and co¬
vered with a thin cartilaginous (kin, for its immoveable
articulation with the os facrum.
Os Ischium, or hip-bone, is of a middle bulk between
the two other parts of the os innominatum, is Gtuated
lowed of the three, and is of a very irregular Ggure.—
Its extent might be marked by an horizontal line drawn
near through the middle of the acetabulum; for the up-
pCr bulbous part of this bone forms fome lefs than the
lower half of that great cavity, and the fmall leg of it
rifes to much the fame height on the other fide of the
great hole common to this bone and the os pubis.
From the upper thick part of the os ifehium, a (harp
procefs, called by fome fpinous, (lands out backwards,
from which chiefly the mufculus coccygaeus and fuperior
gemellus, and part of the levator ani, rife; and the an¬
terior or internal facrofciatic ligament is fixed to it. 
Immediately below this procefs, a GnuoGty is formed for
the tendon of the mufculus obturator internus. In
a recent fubjeid, this part of the bone, which ferves as
a pully on which the obturator mufcie plays, is co¬
vered with a ligamentous cartilage, that, by two or
three fmall ridges, points out the interllices of the
fibres in the tendon of this mufcie. The outer fur¬
face of the bone at the root of this fpinous procefs is
made hollow by the pyriformis, or iliacus externus
mufcie.
Below the GnuoGty for the obturator mufcie, is the
great knob or tuberoGty, covered with cartilage or ten¬
don. The upper part of the tuberofity gives rife to
the inferior gemellus mufcle. To a ridge at the infide
of this, the external or poflerior facrofciatic ligament is
fo fixed, that between it, the internal ligament, and the
Gnuofvty of the os ifehium, a pafiage is left for the inter¬
nal obturator mufcie. The upper thick fmooth part
of the tuber, called by fome its dorfum, has two ob¬
lique impreflions on it. The inner one gives origin to
O M Y. Fai t T.
the long head of the biceps flexor tibiae and feminervofus
mufcles., and the femimembranofus riles from the exte¬
rior one, which reaches higher and nearer the acetabu¬
lum than the other. The lower, thinner, more fca-
brous part of the knob which bends forwards, is alfo
marked with two flat furfaces, whereof the internal is
what we lean upon in fitting, and the external gives rife to
the largeft head of the triceps addu&or femoris. Be¬
tween the external margin of the tuberofity, and the great
hole of the os innominatum, there is frequently an obtufe
ridge extended down from the acetabulum, which gives
origin to the quadrants femoris.—As the tuber advances
forwards, it becomes fmaller, and is rough, for the ori¬
gin of the mufculus traV'verfalis and eredtor penis. 
The fmall leg of it, which mounts upwards to join the
os pubis, is rough and prominent at its edge, where the
two lower heads of the triceps or quadriceps addudto^
femoris take their rife.
The upper and back part of the os ifehium is broad
and thick; but its lower and fore-part is narrower and
thinner.
The os ilium and pubis of the fame fide are the only
bones which are contiguous to the os ifehium.
The Os Pubis, or jhare-hone, is the lead of the
three parts of the os innominatum, and is placed at the
upper fore-part of it.——-The thick larged part of this
bone is employed in forming the acetabulum; from which,
^becoming much fmaller, it is dretched inwards to its fel¬
low of the other fide, where again it grows larger, and
fends a fmall branch downwards to join the end of the fmall
leg of the os ifehium.—>—The upper fore-part of each os
pubis is tubgrous and rough where the mufculus reft us
and pyramidalis are inferted. From this a ridge is ex¬
tended along the upper edge of the bone, in a continued
line with fuch another of the os ilium, which divides
the abdomen and pelvis. The ligament of Fallopius is
fixed to the internal end of this ridge, and the fmooth
hollow below it is made by the pfoas and iliacus internus
mufcles palling with the anterior crural veflels and nerves
behind the ligament. Some way below the former
ridgej another is extended from the tuberous part of the
os pubis downwards, and oupwards towards the acetabu¬
lum ; between thefe two ridges the bone is hollow and
fmooth, for lodging the head of the peftineus mufcie. 
Immediately belovi', where the lower ridge is to take the
turn downwards, a winding nitch is made, which is com¬
prehended in the great foramen of a (keleton, but is
formed into a hole by a fubtended ligament in the re¬
cent fubjeft, for the paflage of the poflerior crural nerve,
an artery, and a vein. The internal end of the os
pubis is rough and unequal, for the firmer adhefion of
the thick ligamentous cartilage that connefts it to its fel¬
low of the other fide:—The prweefs which goes down
from that to the os ifehium is broad and rough before,
where the gracilis and upper heads of the triceps, or ra¬
ther quadriceps adduftor femoris, have their origin.
Betwixt the os ifehium and pubis a very large irregu¬
lar'hole is left, which, from its refemblance jo a door
or (hield, has been called thyroides. This hole is all,
except the nitch for the pofterior crural nerve, filled up,
in a recent fubjeft, with a llrong ligamentous membrane,
that
Part I. A N A T
that adheres very firmly to its circumference. From
this membrane chiefly the two obturator mufcles, exter¬
nal and internal, take their rife. The great defign of
this hole, befides rendering the bone lighter, is to allow
a ftrong enough origin to the obturator mufcles, and
fufficient fpace for lodging their bellies, that there may
be no danger of difturbing the fun&ions of the contained
vifcera of the pelvis by the adKons of the internal, nor
of the external being bruifed by the thigh-bone, efpecial-
ly by its lefler trochanter, in the motions of the thigh
inwards.' -The bowels fometimes- make their way
through the nitch for the veffels, at the upper, part of
this thyroid hole, which caufes a hernia in this place.
In the external furface of the ofl’a innominata, near
the outfide of the great hole, a large deep cavity is form¬
ed by all the three bones conjunftly: For the os pubis
conllitutes about one fifth ; the os ilium makes fomething
lefs than two fifths, and the os ifchium*as much more
than two fifths. The brims of this cavity are very high,
and are (till much more enlarged by the ligamentous car¬
tilage, with which t^iey are tipped in a recent fubjedt.
From this form of the cavity it has been called acetabu¬
lum ; and, for a diftinguilhing charadter, the name of the
bone that conflitutes the largeft fhare of it is added;
therefore acetabulum oflis ifchii is the name this cavity
commonly bears.——Round the bafe of the fupercilia
the bone is rough and unequal, where the capfular liga¬
ment of the articulation is fixed. The brims at the
upper and back-part of the acetabulum are much larger
and higher than any where elfe ; which is very necefl’ary
to prevent the head of the femur froth flipping out of its
cavity at this place, where the whole weight of the bo¬
dy bears upon it, add confequently would otherwife be
conftantly in danger of thrufting it out. As thefe
brims are extended downwards and forwards,, they be¬
come lefs; and at their internal lower part a breach is
made in them; from the one fide of which to the other,
a ligament is placed in the recent fubjedt; under which a
large hole is left, which contains a fatty cellular fubftance
and vefidls. Befides this difference in the height of
•the brims, the acetabulum i§ otherwife unequal: For
the lower internal part of it is deprefled below the carti¬
laginous furface of the upper-part, and is not covered
with cartilage; into the upper-part of this particular de-
preflion, where it is deepelt and of a femilunar form, the
ligament of the thigh-bone, commonly called the round
one, is inferted; while in its more fuperficial lower part
the large mucilaginous gland of this-joint is lodged. The
largeft: fhare of this feparate depreflion is formed in the
os ifehium.
* The ofla innominata are joined at their back-part to
each fide of the os facrum by a fort of future, with a Very
thin intervening cartilage, which ferves as fo much glue
to cement thefe bones together ; and ftrong ligaments go
from the circumference of this unequal furface to con-
nedt them more firmly. The offa innominata are con-
nedted together at their fore-part by the ligamentous car-
tilage^interpofed between the two ofla pubis.—Thefe bones
can therefore have no, motion in a natural ftate, except
what is common to the trunk of the body, or to the os
facrum.
• Voi.. I. No. 8.
O M Y. 173
Each os innominatum affords a focket (the acetabu¬
lum) for the thigh-bones to move in, and the trunk of
the body rolls here fo much on the heads of the thigh¬
bones, as to allow the moft confpicuous motions of the
trunk, which are commonly thought to be performed by
the bones of the fpine.
The pelvis then has a large opep above where it is
continued with the abdomea, is ftrongly fenced by bones
on the fides, back, and fore-part, and appears with a
wide opening below, in the Ikeleton; but, in the recent
fubjedi, a confiderable part of the opening is filled by
the facrofciatic ligaments, pyriform, internal obturator,
levatores ani, gemini, and coccyg.xi mufcles, which fup-
port and protedf the contained parts better than bones
could have done; fo that fpace is only left at the loweft
part of it, for thd large excretories, the vefica urinaria,
inteftinum redtum, and in females, the uterus, to dif-
charge themfelves.
The T,hor ax, or chejl, reaches from below the neck
to the belly; and, by means of<the bones that guard it,
is formed into a large cavity : The figure of which is
fomewhat conoidal.
The bones which form the thorax are the twelve dor-
fal vertebra; behind, the rihs on the fides, and the Jler-
num before.
The vertebra have already been deferibed as part of
the fpine.
The- Ribs, or cofia, (as if they were cujlodei, or
guards, to thofe principal organs of the animal machine,
the heart and lungs), are the long crooked bones placed
at the fide of the cheft, *in an oblique diredfion down¬
wards in refpedt of the back-bone. Their number is
generally twelve on each fide; though frequently eleven
or thirteen have been found.
The ribs are all concave internally ; where they
are alfo made fmooth by the adtion of the contain¬
ed parts, which, on this account, are in no dangef of
being hurt by them; and they are convex externally,
that they might refift that part of the preflure of the at-
mofphere, which- is not balanced by the air within the
lungs, during infpiration. The ends of the ribs next
the vertebrae are rounder than they are after thefe bones
have advanced forwards, when they become flatter and
broader, and have an upper and lower edge, each of
which is made rough by the addon of the intercoftal muf¬
cles, inferted into them.—The upper edge of the ribs is
morei obtufe and rounder than the lower, which is depref-
fed on its internal fide by a long fofla, for lodging the
intercoftal veflels and nerves; on each fide of which
there is a ridge, to which the intercoftal mufcles are
fixed. The fofla is not obfervahle however at either end
of the ribs: for, at the pofterior or root, the veflels have
not yet reached the ribs ; and, at the fore-end, they are
fplit away into branches, to ferve the parts between the
ribs.
At the pofterior end of each rib, a little head is
formed, which is divided by a middle ridge into two
plain or hollow furfaces ; the loweft of which is the
broadeft and deepeft in moft of them. The two plains
are joined to the bodies of two different vertebra, and
the ridge foroes itfelf into the intervening cartilage.—
3
174 A N A 1
A little way from this head, we find, on the external
furface, a Imall cavity, where mucilaginous glands are
lodged; and round the head, the bone appears fpongy,
where the capfular ligament of the articulation is fixed.
  Immediately beyond this a flatted tubercle rifes,
with a fmall cavity at, and roughnefs about its root, for
the articulation of the rib with the tranfverfe procefs of
the loweft of the two vertebrae, with the bodies of which
the head of the rib is joined.—Advancing further on
this external furface, we obferve in moll: of the ribs an¬
other fmaller tubercle, into which ligaments which con¬
ned the ribs to .each other, and to the tranfverfe procef-
fes of the vertebrae, and portions of the longiffimus dorfi,
are inferred. Beyond this the ribs are made flat by
the facro-lumbalis mufcle, which is inferred into the
part of this flat furface farthefi from the fpine, where
each rib makes a confiderable curve, called by fome its
angle. Then the rib begins to turn broad, and con¬
tinues fo to its anterior end, which is hollow and fpongy,
for the reception of, and firm coalition with the carti¬
lage that runs thence to be inferted into the fternum,
or to be joined with fome other cartilage.
To the fore-end of each rib a long broad and ftrong
cartilage is fixed, and reaches thence to the fternum, or
is joined to the cartilage of the next rib. This courfe,
however, is not in a ftreight line with the rib; for gene-
jally the cartilages make a confiderable curve, the con¬
cave part of which is upwards ; therefore, at their infer-
tion into the flernum, they make an obtufe angle above,
and an acute one below.—Thele cartilages, as all others,
are firmer and harder internally, than they are on their
external furface.
The ribs then are articulated at each end, of which
the one behind is doubly joined to thfr vertebra;; for the
head is received into the cavities of two bodies of the
vertebra, and the larger tubercle is received into the de-
preffion in the tranfverfe procefs of the lower vertebra.
Hitherto we have laid down the general flru&ure and
conne&ion of the ribs, and fhall next mark their differ¬
ences.
In viewing the ribs from above downwards, their fi¬
gure is ftill ftreighter; the uppermoft being the moft
crooked of any.—Their obliquity, in refpedt of the fpine,
increafes as they defcend; fo that though their diftan-
ces from each other is very little different at their back-
part, yet at their fore-ends the diftances between the
lower ones muft increafe.
The length of the ribs increafes from the firft and
nppermoft rib, as far down as the feventh ; and from
that to the twelfth, as gradually diminifhes. The fu-
perior of the two plain, or rather hollow furfaces, by
which the ribs are articulated to the bodies of the ver¬
tebra, gradually increafies from the firft to the fourth
rib, and is diminilhed after that in each lower rib. -
The diftance of their angles from the heads always in¬
creafes as they defcend to the ninth, becaufe of the
'greater breadth of the facro-lumbalis mufcle.
The ribs are commonly divided into true and falfe.
The true coftae are the feven upper ones of each fide,
whofe cartilages are all gradually longer as the ribs defcend,
and are joined to the breaft-hone; fo that being preffed
O M Y. Part I.
conftantly between two bones, they are flatted at both
ends, and are thicker, harder, and more liable to offify,
than the other cartilages that are not fubject to fo much
preflure. Thefe ribs include the heart and lungs; and
therefore are the proper or true cuftodes of life.
The five inferior ribs of each fide are the falfe or ha-
Jlard, whofe cartilages do not reach to the fternum ;
and therefore, wanting the refiftance at their fore-part,
-they are there pointed; and, on this account, having
lefs preffure, their fubftance is fofter.- The cartilages
of thefe falfe ribs are ftiorter as the ribs defcend. 
To all thefe five ribs the circular edge of the diaphragm
is connected; and its fibres, inftead of being ftretched
immediately tranfverfely, and fo running perpendicular
to the ribs, are preffed fo as to be often, efpecially in
expiration, parallel to the plane in which the ribs lie.
The firft rib of each fide is fo fituated, that the flat
fides are above and below, while one edge is placed in¬
wards, and the other outwards, or nearly fo; there¬
fore fufficient fpace is left above it for the fubclavian vef-
iels and mufcle; and the broad concave furface is eppo-
fed to the lungs : But then, in confequence of this litu-
ation, the channel for the intercoftal veftels is not to be
found, and the edges are differently formed from all the
other, except the fecond •, the lower one being rounded,
and the other fharp. The head of this rib is not di¬
vided into two plain furfaces by a middle ridge, becaufe
it is only articulated wiih the flrft vertebra of the tho¬
rax. Its cartilage is oflified in adults, and is united to
the fternum at right angles.—Frequently this firft i bhas
a ridge riling near the middle of its pofterior edge, where
one of the heads of the fealenus mufcle rifes. f ar¬
ther forward it is flatted, or fometimes depreffed by the
clavicle.
The fifth, fixth, and feventh, or rather the fixth,
feventh, eighth, and fometimes the fifth, fixth, feventb,
eighth, ninth ribs, have their cartilages at leaft contigu¬
ous ; and frequently they are joined to each other by
crofs cartilages; and moft commonly the cartilages of
the eighth, ninth, tenth, are connedted. to the former,
and to each other, by firm ligaments.
The eleventh, and fometimes the tenth rib, has no tu¬
bercle for its articulation with the tranfverfe procefs of
the vertebra, to which it is only loofely fixed by liga¬
ments.—The foffa in its lower edge is not fo deep as in
the upper, ribs, becaufe the veffels run more towards the
interftice between the ribs.—Its fore-end is fmaller than
its body, and its Ihort final! cartilage is but loofely con¬
nected to the cartilage of the rib above.
The twelfth rib is the fhorteft and ftreighteft.—Its
head is only articulated with the laft vertebra of the
thorax ; therefore is not divided into two furfaces.—-
This rib is not joined to the tranfveife procefs of the
vertebra, and therefore has no tubercle, being often pul¬
led neceffarily inwards by the diaphragm, which an arti¬
culation with the tranfverfe procefs would not have al¬
lowed.—The foffa is not found at its under edge, be¬
caufe the veffeis run below it.—The fore-part of this rib
is fmaller than its middle, and has only a very findll-
pointed cartilage fixed to it.—To its whole internal
fide the diaphragm is connected.
The
Part I. A N A T
The Sternum, or breaft-bone, is the broad flat bone
or pile of bones, at the fore-part of the thorax.—In
adults of a middle age, it is compofed of three bones,
which eafily feparate after the cartilages conne&ing them
are deftroyed. Frequently the two lower bones are
found intimately united; and very often in old people,
the fternum is a continued bony fubftance from one end
to the other; though we ftill obferve two, fometimes
three, tranfverfe lines on its furface; which are marks of
the former divisions.
When we coufider the fternum as one bone, we find it
broadelt and thickeft above, and becoming fmaller as it
defcends. The internal furface of this bone is fomewhat
hollowed for enlarging the thorax; but the convexity on
the external furface is not fo confpicuous, becaufe the
fides are preffecL outwards by the true ribs ; the round
heads of whofe cartilages are received into feven fmooth
pits, formed in each fide of the fternum, and are kept
firm there by ftrong ligaments, which, on the external
furface, have a particular radiated texture.—The pits at,
the upper part of the fternum are at the greateft d:ftance
one from another, and, as they defeend, are nearer; fo
that the two lowed are contiguous.
The firft of the three bones that compofe the fternum,
all agree, is fomewhat of the figure of a heart, as it is
commonly painted ; only it does not terminate in a fharp
pcinr. This is the uppermoft thickeft part of the
lienutm.
The upper middle part of this firft bone, where it is
thickeft, is hollowed, to make place for the trachea ar-
teria; though this cavity is principally formed by the
bone being raifed on each fide of it, partly by the cla¬
vicles thrufting it inwards, and partly by-the fterno-ma-
ftoidei mufcles pulling it upwards. On the cutfide of
each tubercle, there is an oblong cavity, that, in view¬
ing it tranfverfely from before backwards, appears a little
convex: Into thefc glente the ends of the clavicles are re¬
ceived.—In the fide of the under end of this firft bone,
the half of the pit for the fecond rib on each fide is
formed. The upper part of the furface behind is co¬
vered with a ftrong ligament, which fecures the cla¬
vicles.
The fecond or middle divifion of this bone, is much
longer, narrower, and thinner than the fiift; but, ex¬
cepting that it is a little narrower above than below,
it is nearly equal all over in its dimenfions of breadth
or thicknefs. In the fides of it are complete pits for
the third, fourth, fifth, and fixth ribs, and an half of
the pits for the fecond and feventh.
Tire third bone is much lefs than the other two, and
has only one half of the pit for the feventh rib formed
in it; wherefore it might be reckoned only an appendix
of the fternum. In young fubjeds it is always carti¬
laginous, and is better known by the name of cartilage
y'tpboides, or enfiforntis, than any other; though the an¬
cients often called the whole Jlernum e>:ftforme.—This
third bone is feldom of the fame figure, magnitude, or
fituation in any two fubjeds; for fometimes it is a plain
triangular bone, with one of the angles below, and per¬
pendicular to the middle of the upper fide, by which it
U conneded to the fcccnd bone.—■—In other people, the
O M Y. 175
point is turned to one fide, or obliquely forwards or back¬
wards.—Frequently it is all nearly of an equal breadth,
and in feveral fubjeds it is bifurcated; whence Come wri¬
ters give it the name of furcella, or furcula inferior-,
or elfe it is unoflified in the middle. In the greateft
number of adults it is oflified, and tipped with a carti¬
lage ; in fome, one half of it is cartilaginous; and in o-
thers, it is all in a cartilaginous ftate.—Generally feveral
oblique ligaments, fixed at one end to the cartilages of
the ribs, and by the other to the outer furface of the xi¬
phoid-bone, conned it firmly to thofe cartilages.
The ufes of the fternum are, to afford origin and in-
fertion to feveral mufcles; to fuftain the mediaftinnm,
to defend the vital organs, the heart and lungs, at the
fore-part; and, laftly, by ferving as a moveable fulcrum
of the ribs, to aifift confiderably in refpiration.
OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITIES.
Each fuperior extremity is divided into the Jhoulder,
arm, fore-arm, and hand.
The Shoulder confifts of the clavicle and fcapulci
Clavicula, or collar-bone, is the long crooked bone,
in figure like like an Italic /, placed almoft horizontally
between the upper lateral part of the fternum, and what
is commonly called the top of the ftioulder, which, as a
ckvis or beam, it bears off from the trunk of the body.
The clavicle, as well as other long round bones, is
larger at its two ends than in the middle. The end next
to the fternum is triangular: The angle behind is confi¬
derably produced, to form a ftiarp ridge, to which thS
tranfverfe ligament extended from one 'clavicle to the o-
ther is fixed.—The fide oppofite to this is fomewhat
rounded.—The middle of this protuberant end is as ir¬
regularly hollowed, as the cavity in the fternum for re¬
ceiving it is raifed; but, in a recent fubjeff, the irregu¬
lar concavities of both are fupplied by a moveable carti¬
lage, which is not only- much more elofely conneded
every where, by ligaments, to the circumference of the
articulation, than thofe of the lower jaw are; but it
grows to the two bones at both its internal and externrd
ends ; its fubftance at the internal end being foft, but
very ftrong, and refembling the intervertebral cartilages.
From this internal end the clavicle, for about two fifths
of its length, is bended obliquely forwards and down¬
wards. On the upper and fore-part of this curvature a
fmall ridge is feen, with a plain rough furface before it;
whence the mufculus fterno-hyoideus and fterno-maftoi-
deus have in part their origin.—Near the lower angle, a
fmall plain furface is often to be remarked', where the firft:
rib and this-bone are contiguous, and are connedcd -by a
firm ligament. From this a rough plain furface is ex¬
tended outwards, where the pedoral mufcle has part of
its origin. Behind, the bone is made fiat and rough
by the infertion of the larger (hare of the fubclaviari
mufcle. After the clavicle begins to be bended
backwards, it is round, but foon after becomes broad and
thin; whichfhape it retains to its external end. A-
long the external concavity, a rough finuofity runs, from
which fome part of the deltoid mufcle takes its rife:
‘ -Gppofite to this, on the convex edge, a -fcabrous
176 A N A T
ridge'gives infertioa to a (hare of the cucullaris mufcle.
The upper fur face of the clavicle here is fiat; but the
loy/er is hollow, for lodging the beginning of the muf-
culus fubclavius; and towards its back-part a tubercle
rifes, to which, and a roughnefs near it, the ftrong fhort
thick ligament connefting this bone to the coracoid pro-
cefs of the fcapula is fixed.
The external end of this bone is horizontally oblong,
fmooth, Hoping at the polterior fide, and tipped in a re¬
cent fubjedt with a cartilage, for its articulation with the
acromion fcapulm.
The medullary arteries, having their direction oblique¬
ly outwards, enter the clavicles by one or more fmall
paffages in the middle of their back-part.
The triarigular unequal interior end of each clavicle,
has the cartilage above deferibed interpofed betwixt it
and the irregular cavity of the fternum.—■—The liga¬
ments, which furround this articulation to fecure it, are
fodhort and ftrong, that little motion can be allowed any
way; and the ftrong ligament that is ftretched acrofs the
upper furcula of the fternum, from the pofterior promi¬
nent angle of the one clavicle, to the fame place of the
other clavicle, ferves to keep each of thefe bones more
firmly in their place. By the nfliftance, however, of
the moveable intervening cartilage, the clavicle can, at
this joint, be raifed or deprefted, and moved backwards
and forwards fo much, as that the external end, which
is at a great diftance from that axis, enjoys very confpi-
cuous motions.
The ufes of the clavicles are, to keep the fcapulas,
and confequently all the fuperior extremities, from falling
in and forward upon the thorax.
Scapula, or Jhouldcr-blade, is the triangular bone
fituated on the outfide of the ribs, with its longeft fide,
called its bafe, towards the fpinal proceiTes of the verte¬
brae, and with the angle at the upper part of this fide
about three inches, and the lower angle at a greater di¬
ftance from thefe proceffes.—The back-part of the fca¬
pula has nothing but the thin ends of the ferratus anticus
major, and fubfcapularis mufcles, between it and the
ribs: But as this bone advances forwards, its diftance
from the ribs increafes.—The upper, or {horteft fide, call¬
ed thefuperior cojla of the fcapula, is nearly horizontal, and
parallel with the fecond rib.—The lower fide, which is
named the inferior cofia, is extended obliquely from the
third to the eighth rib. The inferior angle of the
fcapula is very acute; and-the upper one is near to a right
angle. The body of this bone is concave towards the
ribs, and convex behind, where it has the name of dor~
fiim. Three procefles are generally reckoned to pro¬
ceed from the fcapula. The firft is the. large fpine
that rifes from its convex furface behind, and divides it
unequally. The fecond procefs ftands out from the
fore-part of the upper fide; and, from its imaginary re-
femblance to a crow’s beak, is named coracoides. 
The third procefs is the whole thick bulbous fore-part of
•the bone.
After thus naming the feveral conftituent parts of the
fcapula, the particular defeription will be-more eafily un-
derftood.
The bafe, which is tipped with cartilage, .is not all
o M Y. Part I.
ftreight: For, above the fpine, it runs obliquely for¬
wards to the luperior angle; that here it might not be
too protuberant' backwards, and fo bruife the mufcles and
teguments: Into the oblique fpace the mufculus patientiae
is inferred. At the root of the fpine, on the back-
part of the bafe, a triangular plain furface is formed, by
the preflure of the lower fibres of the trapezius.  
Below this the edge of the fcapula is fcabrous and rough,
for the infertion of the ferratus major anticus, and rhom¬
boid mufcles.
The back-part of the inferior angle is made fmooth by
the latiffimus doth palling over it. This mufcle alfo al¬
ters the diredHon of the inferior cofta, fome way forwards
from this angle: and fo fat it is flatted behind by the o-
rigin of the teres major. As the inferior cofta ad¬
vances forwards, it is of confiderable thicknefs, is (light¬
ly hollowed and made fmooth behind by the teres minor,
while it has a fofla formed into it below by part of the
fubfcapularis ; and between the two a ridge, with a fmail
depreffion, appears^ where the longus extenfor ciibiti has
its origin.
The fuperior cofta is very thin; and near its fore-part
there is a femilunar nitch, from one end of which to
the other a ligament is ftretched; and fometimes the
bone is continued, to form one, or fometimes two holes,
for the paflage of the fcapular blood-veflels and nerves.
■—-—Immediately behind this femilunar cavity,.-the cora-
co-hyoid mufcle has its rife. From the iritch, to the
termination of the foffa for the teres minor, the fcapula
is narrower than any where elfe, and fupports the third
procefs. This part has the name of cervix.
The whole dorfum of the fcapula is always faid to be
convex; but, by reafon of the raifed edges that furround
it, it is divided into two cavities by the fpine, which is
ftretched from behind forwards, much nearer to the fu¬
perior than to the inferior cofta.. The cavity above
the fpine is concave where the fupra-fpinatus mufcle is
lodged ; while the furface of this bone below the fpine,
on which the infra-fpinatus mufcle is placed, is convex,
except a fofla that runs at the fide of the inferior cofta.
The internal or anterior furface of this bone is hollow,
except in the part above the fpine, which is convex. 
The fubfcapularis mufcle is extended over this furface,
where it forms feveral ridges and intermediate depref-
fions, commonly miftaken for prints of the ribs; they
point out the interftices of the bundles of fibres of which
the fubfcapularis mufcle is coatpofed.
The fpine rifes fmall at the bafe of the fcapula, and
becomes higher and broader as it advances forwards. 
On the fides it is unequally hollowed and crooked, by
the aftions of the adjacent mufcles. Its ridge is di¬
vided into two rough flat furfaces: Into the upper one,
the trapezius mufcle is inferted; and the lower one has
part of the deltoid fixed to it. The end of the fpine,
called acromion, or top of the fhoulder, is broad and
flat, and is fometimes only joined to the fpine by a car¬
tilage. The anterior edge of the acromion is flat,
fmooth, and covered with a cartilage, for its articulation
with the external end of the clavicle; and it is hollowed
below, to allow a paflage to the infra and fupra-fpinati
mufcles, and free motion to the os humeri.
The
Part I. ANA'
The coracoid procefs is crooked, with its point incji-
ning forwards ; fo that a hollow is left at the lower fide
of its root, for the paffage of the infra-fcapularis mufcle.
 The end of this procefs is marked with three plain
furfaces. Into the internal, the ferratus minor anticus
is inferred: From the external, one head of the biceps
flexor cubiti rifes; and from the lower one, the coraco-
brachialis has its origin. At the upper part of the
root of this procefs, immediately before the femilunar
cavity, a fmooth tubercle appears, where a ligament from
the clavicle is fixed. From all the external fide of this
coracoid apophyfe, a broad ligament goes out, which be¬
comes narrower where it is fixed to the acromion.
From the cervix fcapulas the third procefs is produced.
The fore-part of this is formed into a glenoid cavity,
which is of the fhape of the longitudinal fefHon of an
egg, being broad below, and narrow above,.—Between the
brims of this hollow, and the fore-part of the root of the
fpine, a large finuofity is left, for the tranfmiflion of the
fupra and infra-fpinati mufcles ; and, on the upper part of
thefe brims, we may remark a fmooth furface, where the
fecond head of the biceps flexor cubiti has its origin.- 
The root of the fiapercilii is rough all round, for the
firmer adhefion.of the capfular ligament of the articu¬
lation, and of the cartilage which is placed on thefe
brims, where it is thick, but becomes very thin as it is
continued towards the middle of the cavity, which it
lines all over.
The medullary veflels enter the fcapula near the bafe
of the fpine.
The fcapula and clavicle are joined by plain furfaces,
tipped with cartilage; by which neither bone is allowed
any confiderable motion, being tightly tied down by the
■common capfular ligament, and by a very ftrong one
which proceeds from the coracoid procefs; but divides
into two before it is fixed into the clavicle, with fuch a
direction, as either can allow this bone to have a fmall
rotation, in which its pofterior edge turns more back¬
wards, while the anterior one rifes farther forwards ; or
it can yield to the fore-part of the fcapula moving down¬
wards, while the back-part of it is drawn upwards; in
both which cafes, thfe oblong fmooth articulated furfaces
of the clavicle and fcapula are not in the fame plane, but
Hand a little tranfverfely, or acrofs each other, and
thereby.preferve this joint from luxations, to which it
would be fubjedt, if either of the bones was to move on
the other perpendicularly up and down, without any ro¬
tation.—The fcapula is connected to the head, os hyoi-
des, vertebras, ribs, and arm-bone, by mufcles, that
have one end fattened to thefe bones, and the other to
the fcapula, which can move it upwards, downwards,
backwards, or forwards; by the quick fucceffion of thefe
motions, its whole body is carried in a circle.
The ufe of the fcapula is, to ferve as a fulcrum to the
arm : and, by altering its pofition on different occafions,
to allow always the head of the os humeri a right fitua-
ted focket to move in; and thereby to aflift and to en¬
large greatly the motions of the fuperior extremity, and
to afford the mufcles which rife from it more advanta¬
geous actions, by altering their diredtions to the bone
which they are to move,
Vol. I. No.'S.
r O M Y. I77
The Arm has only one bone, bett known by the La¬
tin name of ex humeri; which is long, round, and near¬
ly ftreight.
The upper end of this bone is formed into a large,
round, fmooth head, whofe middle point is not in a
ftreight line with-the axis of the bone, but ftands oblique¬
ly backwards from it.—a—The extent of the head is di-
ftinguilhed by a circular foffa furrounding its bafe, where
the head is united to the bone, and the capfular ligament
of the joint is fixed. Below the fore-part of its bafe
two tubercles ftand out: The fmalleft one, which is fi-
tuated moft to the infide, has the tendon of the fubfca-
pularis mufcle inferted into it. The larger more ex¬
ternal protuberance is divided, at its upper part, into
three fmooth plain furfaces; into the anterior of which,
the mufculus fupra-fpinatus ; into the middle or largcft,
the infra-fpinatus; into the one behind, the teres mi¬
nor, is inferted. Between thefe two tubercles, ex-
adUy in the fore part of the bone, a deep long foffa
is formed, for lodging the tendinous head of the bi¬
ceps flexor cubiti. On each fide of this foffa, as it
defcends in the os humeri, a rough ridge, gently flat¬
ted in the middle, runs from the roots of the tuber¬
cles. The tendon of the pedtora! mufcle is fixed into
the anterior of thefe ridges, and the latiflimus dorfi, and
teres major, are inferted into the internal one. A lit¬
tle behind the lower end of this laft, another rough ridge
may be obferved, where the coraco-brachialis is inferted.
 From the back-part of the root of the largeft tu¬
bercle, a ridge alfo is continued, from which the brevis
extenfor cubiti rifes.- This bone is flatted on the in¬
fide, about its middle, by the belly of the biceps flexor
cubiti. In the middle of this plain furface, the en¬
try of the medullary artery is feen flanting obliquely
downwards. At the fore-fide of this plane, the bone
rifes in a fort of ridge, which is rough, and often has a
great many fmall holes in it, where the tendon of the
ftrong deltoid mufcle is inferted; on each fide of which
the bone is fmooth and flat, where the brachioeus inter-
nus rife's. The exterior of thefe two flat furfaces is the
largeft; behind it a fuperficial fpiral channel, formed by
the mufcular nerve and the veffels that accompany it,
runs from behind forwards and downwards.—The body
of the os humeri is flatted behind by the extenfors of the
fore-arm. Near the lower end of this bone, a large
fliarp ridge is extended on its outfidc, from which the
mufculqs fpinator radii longus, and the longeft head of
the extenfor carpi radialis rife.—Oppofite to this, there
is another final! ridge, to which the aponeurotic tendon,
that gives origin to the fibres of the internal and external
brachioei mufcles, is fixed; and from a little depreifion on
the fore-fide of it, the pronator radii teres rifes.
The body of the os humeri becomes gradually broader
towards the lower end, vhere it has feveral proceffes;
at the roots of which there is a cavity before, and ano¬
ther behind. The anterior is divided, by a ridge, into
two; the external, which is the leaft, receives the end
of the radius; and the internal receives the coronoid
procefs of the ulna in the flefnon of the fore-arm,
while the pofterior deep triangular cavity lodges the ole¬
cranon in the extenfions of that member.—The fides of
Y y the
3
178 A N A T
the pofterior cavity are flretched out into two procefles,
one on each fide: Thefe are called condyles ; from each
of which a ftrong ligament goes out to the bones of the
fore-arm.—The external condyle, which has an oblique
direction alfo forwards in refpeft of the internal, when -
the arm is in the molt natural pofture, is equally broad,
and has an obtufe fmooth head'rifing from it forwards.—
From the rough part of the condyle, the inferior head
of the bicornis, the extenfor digitorum communis, ex-
tenfor carpi ulnaris, anconceus, and fome part of the fu-
pinator radii brevis, take their rife; and on the fmooth
head the upper end of the radius plays.—Immediately
on the outfide of this, there is a finuofity made by the
fliorter head of the bicornis mufcle, upon which the muf-
cular nerve is placed. The internal condyle is more
pointed and protuberant than the external, to give origin
to fome part of the flexor carpi radialis, pronator radii
teres, palmaris longus, flexor digitorum fublimis, and
flexor carpi ulnaris.—Between the two condyles, is the
trochlea or pully, which confifts of two lateral protube¬
rances, and ^middle cavity, that are fmooth, and co¬
vered with cartilage.—Wheij the fore-arm is extended,
the tendon of the internal brachioeus mufcle is lodged in
the fore-part of the cavity of this pully.—The external
protuberance, which is lefs than the other, has a (harp
edge behind; but forwards, this ridge is obtufe, and on¬
ly feparated from the little head, already defcribed, by
a fmall fofla, in which the joined edges of the ulna and
radius move.—The internal protuberance of the pully is
largeft and higheft; and therefore, in the motions of the
ulna upon it, that bone would be inclined outwards, was
it not fupported by the radius on that fide. Between
this internal protuberance and condyle, a finuofity may
be remarked, where the ulnar nerve pafies.
The round head at the upper end of this bone is arti¬
culated with the glenoid cavity of the fcapula; which
being fuperficial, and having long ligaments, allows the
arm a free and extenfive motion.
The motions which the arm enjoys by this articulation,
are to every fide; and by the fucceffion of thefe differ¬
ent motions, a circle may be defcribed. Befides which,
the bone performs a fmall rotation round its own axis.
The Fore-arm confills of two long bones, the ulna
and radius ; whofe fituation, in refpett of each other, is
oblique in the leaft firaining or moft natural pofture ; that
is, the ulna is not dire&ly behind, nor on the outfide of
the radius, but in a middle fituation between thefe two,
and the radius croffes it.—In the following defcription,
by the term pojlerier is meant that part which is in the
fame diredtion with the back of the hand; by anterior,
that anfwering to the palm; by internal, that on the
fame fide with the thumb; by external, the fide neareft
the little finger.
Ulna, fo named from its being ufed as a meafure, is
the longeft of the two bones of the fore-arm, and fitua-
ted on the outfide of the radius.
At the upper end of the ulna are two proceffes.—The
pofterior is the largeft, and formed like a hook, whofe
concave furface moves upon the pully of the os humeri,
and is called olecranon, or top of the cubit.—The con¬
vex back-part of it is rough and fcabrous, where the lon-
O M Y. Partr.
gus, brevis, and brachioeus externus, are inferted. The
olecranum makes it unneceffary that the tendons of the
extenfor mufcles ftiould pafs over the end of the os hu¬
meri; which would-have been of ill confequence in the
-great fledtions of this joint, or when any confiderable
external force is applied to this part.—The anterior pro-
cefs is not fo large, nor does it reach fo high as the one
behind; but is (harper at its end, and therefore is named
coronoid.—Between thefe two procefits, a large femicir-
cular or figmoid concavity is left; the furfacd of which,
on each fide of a middle rifing, is flanting, and exadlly
adapted to the pully of the bone of the arm. Acrofs
the middle of it, there is a fmall finuofity for lodging
mucilaginous glands ; where, as well as in a fmall hollow
on the internal fide of it, tbe cartilage that lines the reft
of its furface is wanting.— Round the brims of this con¬
cavity the bone is rough, where the capfular ligament
of the joint is implanted. Immediately below the ole¬
cranon, on the back-part of the ulna, aflat, triangular,
fpongy furface appears, on which we commonly lean.—
At the internal fide of this, there is a larger hollow fur¬
face, where the mufcidus anconoeus is lodged; and the
ridge at the infide of this gives rife to the mufculus fu-
pinator radii brevis. Between the top of the ridge
and the coronoid procefs, is the femijunated fmooth ca¬
vity, lined with cartilage, in which, and a ligament ex¬
tended from the one to the other end of this cavity, the
. round head of the radius plays.—Immediately below it,
a rough hollow gives lodging to mucilaginous glands.—
Below the root of the coronoid procefs, this bone is fca¬
brous and unequal, where the brachiceus internus is in¬
ferted.—On the outfide of that, we obferve a fmooth con¬
cavity, where the beginning of the flexor digitorum pro¬
fundus fprouts out.
The body of the ulna is triangular.—The internal an¬
gle is very (harp where the ligament that connects the
two bones is fixed;—the fides, which make this angle,
are flat and rough, by the aftion and adhefion of the ma¬
ny mufcles which are fituated here.—At the diftance of
one third of the length of the ulna from the top, in. its
fore-part, the paffage of the medullary veffels is to be
remarked flanting upwards.—The external fide of this
bone is fmooth, fomewhat convex, and the angles at
each edge of it are blunted by the preffure of the muf¬
cles equally difpofed about them.
As this bone defcends, it becomes gradually fmaller;
fo that its lower end termihates in a little head, ftanding
on a fmall neck. Towards the fore but outer part
of which laft, an oblique ridge runs, that gives rife to the
pronator radii quadratus. The head is round, fmooth,
and covered with a cartilage on its internal fide, to be
received into the femilunar cavity of the radius ; while a
ftyloid procefs rifes from its outfide, to which is fixed a
ftrong ligament that is extended to the os cuneiforme and
pififorme of the wrift.—Bet\veen the back-part of that
internal fmooth fide and this procefs* a finuofity is left
for the tendon of the extenfor carpi ulnaris, —On the
fore-part of the root of the procefs, fuch another depref-
fion may be remarked for the paffage of the ulnar arte¬
ry and nerve.—The end of the bone is fmooth, and co¬
vered with a cartilage.—Between it and the bones of
Part I. ANA
the wrift, a double concave moveable cartilage is interpo-
fed; which is a continuation of the cartilage that covers
the lower end of the radius, and is connedted loofely to
the root of the ftyloid procefs, and to the rough cavity
there, in which mucilaginous glands are lodged.
The ulna is articulated above with the lower end of
the os humeri, where thefe bones have depreffions and
protuberances correfppnding to each other, fo as to al¬
low an eafy and fecure extenfion of the fore-arm to al-
moft a flreight line with the arm, and fledtion to a very
acute angle; but, by the llanting pofition of the pully,
the lower part of the fore-arm is turned outwards in the
extenfion, and inwards in the flection ; and a very fmall
kind of rotation is likewife allowed in all pofitions, efpe-
cially when the ligaments are moft relaxed by the fore¬
arm being in a middle degree of fledtion. The ulna
is alfo articulated with the radius and carpus, in a man¬
ner to be related afterwards.
Radius, fo called from its imagined refemblance to a
fpoke of a wheel, is the bone placed at the infide of the
fore-arm. Its upper end is formed into a circular little
head, which is hollowed for an articulation with the tu¬
bercle at the fide of the pully of the os humeri; and the
half of the round circumference of the head next to the
ulna is fmooth, and covered with a cartilage, in order
to be received into the feinilunated cavity of that bone.
 Below the head, the radius is much fmaller; there¬
fore this part is named its cervix, which is made round
by the aftion of the fupinator radii brevis. At the
external root of this neck, a tuberous procefs rifes ; in¬
to the outer part of which the biceps flexor cubiti is in-
ferted. From this a ridge runs downwards and in¬
wards, where the fupinator radii brevis is inferted; and
a little below, and behind this ridge, there is a rough
fcabrous furface, where the pronator radii teres is
fixed.
The body of the radius is not ftreight, but convex on
its internal and pofterior furfaces; where it is alfo made
round by the equal preffure of the circumjacent mufcles,
particularly of the extenfors of the thumb ; but the fur-
faces next to the ulna are flatted and rough, for the ori¬
gin of the mufcles of the hand ; and both terminate in a
common fharp fpine, to which the Itrong ligament ex¬
tended betwixt the two bones of the fore-arm is fixed.
A little below the beginning of the plain furface, on its
fore-part, where the flexor rnufcle of the laft joint of
the thumb takes its origin, the paflage of the medullary
veffels is feen flanting upwards. The radius becomes
broader and flatter towards the lower end, efpecialiy on
its fore-part, where its pronator quadratus mufcle is fi-
tuated.
The lower end of the radius is larger than the fupe-
rior ; though not in fuch a difproportion as the upper
end of the ulna is larger than its lower end. Its back-
part has a flat ftrong ridge in the middle, and folfe on
each fide. In a fmall groove immediately on the out-
fide of the^ ridge, the tendon of the extenfor tertii inter-
nodii pollicis plays.—In a large one beyond this, the ten¬
dons of the indicator and of the common extenfor rhuf-
cles of the fingers pafs.—Contiguous to the ulna, there,
is a fmall deprefiion made by the extenfor minimi digiti.
T O M Y. i79
—On the outfide of the ridge there is a broad depreffion*
which feems again fubdivided, where the two tendons of
the bicornis, or extenfor carpi radialis, are lodged.—The
internal fide of this end of the radius is alfo hollowed by
the extenfors of the fir ft and fecond joint of the thumb ;
immediately above which, a little rough furface fhews
where the 1'upinator radii longus is inferted.—The ridges
at the fides of the grooves, in which the tendons play,
have an annular ligament fixed to them, by which the fe-
veral (heaths for the tendons are formed.—The fore-part
of this end of the radius is'alfo deprefled, where the
flexors of the fingers and flexor carpi radialis pafs. 
The external fide is formed into a femilunated fmooth
cavity, lined with a cartilage, for receiving the lower
end of the ulna.—The loweft part of the radius is form¬
ed into an oblong cavity ; in the middle of which is a
fmall tranfverfe rifing, gently hollowed, for lodging mu¬
cilaginous glands ; _whiie the rifing itfelf is infinuated in¬
to the conjundion of the two bones of the wrift that are
received into the cavity.—The internal fide of this arti¬
culation is fenced by a remakable procefs of the radius,
from which a ligament goes out to the wrift, as the fty¬
loid procefs of the ulna with its ligament guards it x>n the
outfide.
The ends of both the bones of the fore-arm being
thicker than the middle, there is a confiderable diftance
between the bodies of thefe bones ; in the larger part of
which a ftrong tendinous, but thin ligament, is extend¬
ed, to give a large enough furface for the origin of the
numerous fibres of the mufcles fituated here, that are
fo much funk between the bones, as to be proteded from
injuries, which they would otherwife be expofed to.
As the head of the radius receives the tubercle of
the os humeri, it is not only bended and extended along -
with the ulna, but may be moved round its axis in any po¬
fition ; and that this motion round its axis may be fuffi-
ciently large, the ligament of the articulation is extended
farther down than ordinary on: the neck of this bone, be¬
fore it is connected to it; and it is very thin at its upper
and lower part, but makes a firm ring in the middle. 
This bone is alfo joined to the ulna by a double articu¬
lation ; for above, a tubercle of the radius plays in a
focket of the ulna ; whilft below, the radius gives the foc-
ket, and the ulna the tubercle : But then the motion per¬
formed in thefe two is very different; for, at the upper
end, the radius does no more than turn round its axis
while, at the lower end, it moves in a fort of cycloid
upon the round part of the ulna; and as the hand is arti¬
culated and firmly connedled here with the radius, they
muft move together.—When the palm is turned upper-
moft, the radius is faid to perform the fupination; when
the back of the hand is above, it is faid to be prone.
The Hand comprehends all from the joint of the
wrift to the points of the fingers. Its back-part is con¬
vex, for greater firmnefs and ftrength; and it is con¬
cave before, for containing more furely and convenient¬
ly fuch bodies as we take hold of.
The hand is. commonly divided into the carpus, me¬
tacarpus, and fingers.
The Carpus is compofed of eight fmall fpongy
bones, fituated at the upper part of the hand, viz. the
i8o A N A T
os fcaphoides, lunare, cnneiforme, fijiforme, trapezium,
trapezoides, magnum, unciforme.
The fcaphoides is fituated moft internally of thofe that
are articulated with the fore-arm.—The lunare is imme¬
diately on the outfide of the former.—The cuneiforme
is placed ftill more externally, but does not reach fo high
up as the other two.—The pififorme Hands forwards in¬
to the palm from the cuneiforme.—The trapezium is the
firft of the fecond row, and is fituated betwixt the fca¬
phoides and firlf joint of the thumb.—The trapezoides is
immediately on the outfide of the trapezium.—The os
'magnum is ftill more external.—The unciforme is far¬
ther to the fide of the little finger.
Os fcaphoides is the largeft of the eight except one.
It is convex above, cOncave and oblong below; from
which fmall refemblance of a boat it has got its name.—
Its fmooth convex furface is divided by a rough middle
foffa, which runs obliquely crois it.—The upper largeft
divifion is articulated with the radius.—Into the fofla
the common ligament of the joint of the wrift is fix¬
ed; and the lower divifion is joined to the trapezium
and trapezoides.—-The concavity receives more than an
half of the round head of the os magnum.—The external
fide of this hollow is formed into a femilunar plane, to
be articulated with the following bone.—The internal,
pofterior, and anterior edges are rough, for fixing the
ligaments that conned it to the furrounding bones.
Os lunare has a fmooth convex upper furface, by
which it is articulated with the radius. The internal
fide, which gives the name to the bone, is in the form of
a crefcent, and is joined with the fcaphoid ;-—the lower
furface is hollow, for receiving part of the head of the.
os magnum. On the outfide of this cavity is an¬
other fmooth, but narrow oblong finuofity, for receiving
the upper end of the os unciforme:—On the outfide of
which a final! round convexity is found, for its con-
nedion with the os cuneiforme. Between the great con¬
vexity above, and the firft deep inferior cavity, there is
a rough foffa, in which the circular ligament of the joint
of the wrift is fixed.
Os cuneiforme is broader above, and towards the back
of the hand, than it.is below and forwards : which gives
ft the refemblance of a -wedge. The fuperior flightly
convex furface is included in the joint of the wrift, be¬
ing oppofed to the lower end of the ulna.—Below this,
the cuneiform bone has a rough foffa, wherein the liga¬
ment of the articulation of the wrift is fixed.—On the
internal fide of this bone, where it is contiguous to the
os lunare, it is fmooth and fiightly concave.—Its lower
furface, where it is contiguous to the os unciforme, is ob¬
long, fomewhat fpiral, and concave.—Near the middle
of its anterior furface, a circular plane appears, where the
os pififorme is fuftained.
Os pififorme is almoft fpherical, except one circular
plane, or flightly hollow furface, which is covered with
cartilage for its motion on the cuneiforme bone, from
which its whole rough body is prominent forwards into
the palm; having the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris,
and a ligament from the ftyloid procefs of the ulna, fixed
to its upper part; the tranfverfe ligament of the wrift is
£oone<fted to its internal fide; ligaments extended to the
O M Y. Part I.
unciform bone, and to the os metacarpi of the little fin¬
ger, are attached to its lower part; the abdudlor mini¬
mi digiti has its origin from its fore-part; and, at the
internal fide of it, a fmall depreffion is formed, for the
paffage of the ulnar nerve.
Trapezium has four unequal fides and angles in its
back-part, from which it has got its name.——Above,
its furface is fmooth; flightly hollowed, and femicir-
cular, for its conjundlion with the os fcaphoides. Its
external fide is an oblong concave fquare, for recei¬
ving the following bone. The inferior furface is
formed into a pulley ; the tv/o protuberant fides of
which are external and internal. On this pulley the
firft bone of the thumb is moved. At the exter¬
nal fide of the external protuberance, a fmall oblong
fmooth furface is formed by the os metacarpi indicis.
-—The fore-part of the trapezium is prominent in the
palm, and, near to the external fide, has a finuofity in
it, where the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis is lod¬
ged ; on the ligamentous flieath of which the tendon of
the flexor tertii internodii pollicis plays: And ftill more
externally the bone is fcabrous, where the tranfverfe li¬
gament of the wrift is conne&ed, the abdudtor and flexor
primi internodii pollicis have their origin, and ligaments
go out to the firft bone of the thumb.
Os trapezoides, fo called from the irregular quadran¬
gular figure of its back-part, is the fmalleft bone of the
wrift, except the pififorme.—The figure of it is an irre¬
gular cube.—It has a fmall hollow furface above, by
which it joins the fcaphoides; a long convex one inter¬
nally, where it is contiguous to the trapezium ; a fmall
external one, for its conjunction with the os magnum ;
and an inferior convex furface, the edges of which are
however fo raifed before and behind, that a fort of pul¬
ley is formed, where it fuftains the os metacarpi indicis.
Os magnum, fo called becaufe it is the largeft bone of
the carpus, is oblong, having four quadrangular fides,
with a round upper end, and a triangular plain one be¬
low.—The round head is divided by a fmall rifing, op-
pofite to the connection of the os fcaphoides and lunare,
which together form the cavity for receiving it.—On the
infide, a flrort plain furface joins the os magnum to the
trapezoides.—On the outfide is a long narrow concave
furface, where it is contiguous to the os unciforme. 
The lower end, which fuftains the metacarpal bone
of the middle finger, is triangular, flightly hollowed,
and farther advanced on the internal fide than on the
external, having a c'onfiderable oblong depreflion made
on the advanced infide by the metacarpal bone of the
fore-finger; and generally there is a fmall mark of the
os metacarpi digiti annularis on its external fide.
Os unciforme has got its name from a thin broad pro¬
cefs that Hands out from it forwards into the palm, and
is hollow on its infide, for affording paffage to the ten¬
dons of the flexors of the fingers. To this prtcefs alfo
the tranfverfe ligament is fixed, that binds down and
defends thefe tendons; and the flexor and abduCtor
mufcles of the little finger have part of their origin from
it.-»-The upper plain furface is fmall, convex, aad join¬
ed with the os Junare:—The internal fide is long, and
flightly convex, adapted to the contiguous os magnum :
Part I. A N A T
The external furface is oblique, and irregularly convex,
to be articulated with the cuneiform bone :—The lower
end is divided into two concave furfaces ; the external
is joined with the metacarpal bone of the little finger,
and the internal one is fitted to the metacarpal bone of
the ring-finger.
The ufes of the carpus are, to ferve as a bafe to the
hand, to protect its tendons, and to afford it a free large
motion.
Metacarpus coafifts of four bones, which fuftain the
fingers. Each bone is long and round, with its ends
larger than its body. The upper end, which fome
call the bafe, is flat and oblong, without any confiderable
head or cavity ; but it is however fomewhat hollowed,
for the articulation with the carpus : It is ‘made flat and
fmooth on the fides where thefe bones ire contiguous to
each other. Their bodies are flatted on their back-
part by the tendons of the extenfors of the fingers. 
The anterior furface of thefe bodies is a little concave,
efpecially in their middle; along which a fliarp ridge
Hands out, which feparates the mufguli interoffei placed
on each fide of thefe bones, which are there made flat
and plain by thefe mufcles.
Their lower ends are raifed into large oblong fmooth
heads, whofe greateft extent is forwards from the axis
of the bone.—At the fore-part of each fide of the root
of each of thefe heads, one or two tubercles Hand but,
for fixing the ligaments that go from one metacarpal
bone to another, to preferve them from being drawn a-
funder Round the heads a rough ring may be remark¬
ed, for the capfular ligaments of the firfl joints of the
fingers to be fixed to; and both fides of thefe heads are
flat, by prefling on each other.
The concavity on the fore-part of thefe metacarpal
bones, and the placing their balls on the arched carpus,
caufe them to form a hollow in the palm of the hand,
which is ufeful often to us.—The fpaces between them
lodge mufcles, and their fmall motion makes them fit
fupporters for the fingers to play on.
Though the offa metacarpi fo far agree, yet they may
be difHnguifhed from each other by the following marks.
The os metacarpi indicis is generally the longefl.—
Its bafe, which is articulated with the os trapezoides,
is hollow in the middle. ’The fmall ridge on the in¬
ternal fide of this oblong cavity is fmaller than the one
oppofite to it, and is made flat on the fide by the trape¬
zium. The exterior ridge is alfo fmooth, and flat on
its outfide, for its conjunfHon with the os magnum ; im¬
mediately below which, a femicircular fmooth flat furface
{hews the articulation of this to the fecond metacarpal
bone.—The back-part of this bafe is flatted, where the
long head of the extenfor carpi radialis is inferted; and
its fore-part is prominent, where the tendon of the flexor
carpi radialis is fixed.—The external fide of the body
of this bone is more hollowed by the adtion of mufcles,
•than the internal.—The tubercle at the internal root of
its head is larger than the external.—Its bafe is fo firm¬
ly fixed to the bone it is conneded with, that it has no
motion.
Os metacarpi medii digiti is generally the fecond in
length.—Its Safe is a broad fuperficial cavity, flanting
Vox.. I. No. 8. " 3
O M Y. 181
outwards ; the internal pofierior angle of which is fb
prominent, as to have the appearance of a procefs. 
The internal fide of this bafe is made plain in the fame
way as the external fide of the former bone, while its
external .fide has two hollov/circular furfaces, for join¬
ing the third metacarpal bone; and between thefe fur¬
faces there is a rougfy fofl'a, for the adhefion of a liga¬
ment, and lodging mucilaginous glands. The (horter
head of the bicornis is inferted into the back-part of this
bafe. The two fides of this bone are almofl equally
flatted ; only the ridge on the fore-part of the body in¬
clines outwards. The tubercles at the fore-part bf
the root of the head are equal. The motion of this
bone is very little more than the firfl: metacarpal one has ;
and therefore thefe two firmly refill bodies preffed again!!
them by the thumb. Or fingers, or both.
Os metacarpi digiti annularis is {horter than the fe¬
cond metacarpal bone.—Its bafe is femicircular and con¬
vex, for its conjunbHon with the os unciforme.—On its
internal fide are' two fmooth convexities, and a middle
foffa, adapted to the lecond metacarpal bone.—The ex¬
ternal fide has a triangular fmooth concave furface to
join it with the fourth one. The anterior ridge of its
body is fituated more to the out than to the in-fide.—*•
The tubercles near the head are equal.—The motion of
this third metacarpal bene is greater than the motion of
the fecond.
Os metacarpi minimi digiti is the finallefi: and Iharp-
elh—Its bafe is irregularly convex, and rifes flanting
outwards.—Its internal fide is exadlly adapted to the
third metacarpal bone.—The external has no fmooth
furface, becaufe it is not contiguous to any other bone;
but it is prominent where the extenfor carpi ulnaris is
inferted.—As this metacarpal bone is furnilhed with a
proper moving mufcle, has the plaineft articulation, is
moft loofely connected and leaft confined, it not only
enjoys a much larger motion than any~of the reft, but
draws the third bone with it, when the palm of the hand
is to be made hollow by its advancement forwards, and
by the prominence of the thumb oppofite to it.
The Thumb and four Fingers are each compofed
of three long bones.
The thumb is fituated obliquely in refpedl of the fin¬
gers, neither oppofite dire&ly to them, nor in the fame
plane with them.—All its bones are much thicker and
ftronger in proportion to their length, than the bones of
the fingers are: Which was extremely neceffary, fince
the thumb counterafts all the fingers.
The firft bone of the thumb has its bafe adapted to
die double pulley of the trapezium.—The edge at the
fore-part of this bafe is produced farther than any other
part; and round the back-part of the bafe a rough folia
may be feen, for the connedlion of the ligaments of this
joint.—The body and head of this bone are of the fame
ftiape as the offa metacarpi: only that the body is {hort¬
er, and the head flatter, with the tubercles at the fore¬
part of its root larger.
The articulation of the upper end of this bone is un¬
common : For though it has protuberances and depref-
fions adapted to the double pulley of the trapezium ; yet
it enjoys a circular motion, as the joints do where a
Z z round
182 a N A T
round head of one bone plays in the orbicular focket of
another ; only it is fomewhat more confined and lefs ex¬
peditious, but ftronger and more fecure, than fuch joints
generally are.
The fccond bone of the thumb has a large bafe form¬
ed into an oblong cavity, whofe greateft length is from
one fide to the other.—Round it feveral tubercles may
be remarked, for the infertion of ligaments.—Its body
is convex, or a half-round behind; but flat before, for
lodging the tendon of the long flexor of the thumb,
which is tied down by ligamentous (heaths that are fixed
on each fide to the angle at the edge of this flat furface.
The articulation and motion of the upper end of this
fecond bone is as lingular as that of the former,!—For its
cavity being joined to the round head of the firft bone,
it would feem at firfl: view to enjoy motion in all di-
redtions; yet, becaufe of the (Irength of its lateral liga¬
ments, oblong figure of the joint itfelf, and mobility of
the firfl: joint, it only allows fledtion and extenfion; and
thefe are generally much confined.
The third bone of the thumb is the fmallefl, with a
large bafe, whofe greateft extent is from one fide to the
other. This bafe is formed into two cavities and a
middle protuberance, to be adapted to the pulley of the
forlner bone. Its body is rounded behind; but is
flatter than in the former bone, for fuftaining the nail.—
It is flat and rough before, by the infertion of the flexor
tertii internodii. This bone becomes gradually fmal-
ler, till near the lower end, where it is a little enlarged,
and has an oval fcabrous edge.
The motion of this third bone is confined to fledtion
and extenfion.
The orderly difpofition of the bones of the fingers in¬
to three rows, has made them generally obtain the name
of three phalanges. All of them have half-round
convex furfaces, covered with an aponeurofis, formed by
the tendons of the extenfors, lumbricales, and interoflei,
and placed diredtly backwards, for their greater ftrength ;
and their flat concave part is forwards, for taking hold
more furely, and for lodging the tendons of the flexor
mufcles.- The ligaments for keeping down thefe
tendons are fixed to the angles that are between the con¬
vex and concave fides.
The bones of the firfl phalanx of the fingers anfwer
to the defeription of the fecond bone of the thumb : on¬
ly that the cavity in their bafe is not fo oblong; nor is
their motion on the metacarpal bones fo much confi¬
ned ; for they can be moved laterally or circularly, but
have no rotation, or a very fmall degree of it, round their
axis.
The fecond bone of the fingers has its bafe formed
into two lateral cavities, and a middle protuberance;
while the lower end has two lateral protuberances, and a
middle cavity; therefore it is joined at both ends in the
fame manner, which none of the bones of the thumb are.
The third bone differs nothing from the defeription of
the third bone of the thumb, excepting in the general
diftinguhhing marks ; and therefore the fecond and third
phalanx,of the fingers enjoy only flection and extenfion.
All the difference of the phalanges of the feveral fin¬
gers confifts in their magnitude. The bones of the
O M Y. Part I.
middle-finger being the longeft arid largeft.—Thofe of
the fore-finger come next to that in thieknefs, but notin
length, for thofe of the ring-finger are a little longer.
The little finger has the fmallefl bones. Which difpofi¬
tion is the beft contrivance for holding the largeft bodies;
becaufe the longeft fingers are applied to the middle lar-
geft periphery of fuch fubftances as are of a fperical fi¬
gure.
The ufes of all the parts of our fuperior extremities
are fo evident in the common actions-of life, that it is
needlefs to enumerate them here ; and therefore we (hall
proceed to the laft part of the fkeleton.
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES.
The Inferior Extremities depend from the a-
cetabula of the offa innominata; are commonly divided
into three parts, viz. the thigh, leg, and foot,.
The Thigh -has only one bone ; which is the longeft
of the body. The fituation of it is not perpendicular ;
for the lower end i$ inclined, confiderably inwards : So
that the knees are almoft contiguous, while there is a
confiderable diftance between the thigh-bones above :
Which is of good ufe to us, fince fufficient fpace is there¬
by left for the external parts of generation, the two great
cloacE of urine and fceces, and for the large thick mufr
cles that move the thigh inwards : And, at the fame
time, this fituation of the thigh-bones renders our pro-
greflion quicker, furer, ftreighter, and in lefs room.
The upper end of the thigh-bone, is not continued in a
(freight line with the body of it, but is fet off obliquely
inwards and upwards, whereby the diftance here between
thefe two bones at their upper part is confiderably irl-
creafed. This end is formed into a large fmooth
round head, which is the greater portion of afphere-un-
equally divided. Towards its lower internal part, a
round rough fpongy pit is obfervable, where the ftrong
ligament, commonly called the reaW one, is fixed, to
be extended from thence to the lower internal part of
the receiving cavity, where it is confiderably broader
than near to the head of the thigh-bone. The fmall
part below the head, called the cervix, of the 6s femoris,
has a great many large holes, into which the fibres of the
ftrong ligament, continufed from the capfular, enter, and
are thereby furely united to it; and round the root of
the neck, where it rifes from the bone, a rough ridge is
found, where the capfular ligament of the articulation it¬
felf is connedted. Below the back-part of this root,
the large unequal protuberance, c&Wci: trochanter major,
(lands out; the external convex part of which is diftin-
guiflred into three different furfaces, whereof the one on
the fore-part is fcabrpus and rough, for the infertion of
the glutseus minimus; the fuperior one is fmooth, and
has the glutasus medius inferted into it; and the one be¬
hind is made flat and fmooth by the tendon of the glu-
•tasus maximus palling over it. The upper edge of
this procefs is (harp and pointed at its back-part, where
.the glutjeus medius is fixed; but forwards it is more-ob-
tufe, and has twm fuperncial pits formed in it: Into the
fuperior of thefe, -the piriformis is implanted; and the
obturator internus and gemini are fixed into the lower
Parti. A N A T
one. From the backmoft prominent part of this
great trochanter, a rough ridge runs "backwards and
downwards, into which the quadratus is inferted. 
In the deep hollow, at the internal upper fide of this
ridge, the obturator externus is implanted. More in¬
ternally, a conoid procefs, called trochanter minor, rifes,
for the infertion of the mufculus pfoas and iliacus inter-
nus, and the pedtineus is implanted into a rough hol¬
low below its internal root. The mufcles inferted in¬
to thefe two procefles being the principal inltruments of
the rotatory motion of the thigh, have occafioned the
name of trochanters to the procelfes.
The body of the os femoris is convex on the fore-part,
and made hollow behind, by the adtion of the mufcles
that move it and the leg, and for the conveniency of fit¬
ting, without bearing too much on thefe mufcles. 
The fore-part of the thigh-bone is a little flatted above
by the beginning^of the crurseus mufcle, as it is alfo be¬
low, by the fame mufcle and the redtus.— Its external
furface is likewife made flat below by the vaftus externus,
where it is feparated from the former by an obtufe ridge.
 rThe valtus internus depiefies a little the lower part
of the internal furface. The pofterior concave fur-
face has a ridge rifing in its middle, commonly called li-
nea afpera, into which the triceps is inferted, and the
Ihort head of the biceps flexor tibiae rifes from it. 
At the upper part of it, the medullary veflels enter by a
fmall hole that runs obliquely upwards.—A little above
which, there is a rough fofia or two, where the tendon
of the glutaeus maximus is fixed. The lower end of
the linea afpera divides into two, which defeend towards
each fide. The two valli mufcles have part of their >
origin from thefe ridges; and the long tendon of the tri¬
ceps is fixed to the internal, by means of part of the
fafeia aponeurotica of the thigh. Near the beginning
of the internal ridge, there is a difeontinuation of the
ridge, where the crural artery pafles through the apo-
neurofis. Between thefe two rough lines, the bone
is made flat by the large blood-yeflels and nerves which
pafs upon it; and near the end of each of thefe ridges,
a fmall fmooth protuberance may often be remarked,
where the two heads of the external gaftrocnemius muf¬
cle take their rife ; and from the fore-part of the inter¬
nal tubercle, a ftrong ligament is extended to the infide
of the tibia.
The lower end of the os femoris is larger than any o-
ther part of it, and is formed into a great protuberance
on each fide, called its condyles; between which a confi-
derable cavity is found, efpecially at the back-part, in
which the crural veflels and nerves lie immerfed in fat.
 The internal condyle is longer than the external.—
Each of thefe procefles leans to be divided in its plain
fmooth furface. The mark of divifion on the external
is a notch, and on the internal a fmall protuberance.
The fore-part of this divifion, on which the rotula moves,
is formed like a pulley, the external fide of v/hich is
higheft. Behind, there are two oblong large heads,
whofe greatefl: extent is backwards, for the motion of the
tibia; and from the rough cavity between them, but near
to the bafe of the internal condyle, the ftrong ligament,
commonly called the crofs one, has its rife. A little
O M Y. 183
above which, a rough protuberance gives infertion to the
tendon of the triceps. The condyles, both on the
outer and inner fide of the knee, are made flat by the muf¬
cles palling along them. On the back part of the in¬
ternal, a flight depreflion is made by the tendons of the
gracilis and fartorius ; and on the external, fuch another
is formed by the biceps flexor cruris behind which, a
deep folia is to be obferved, where the poplitaeus mufcle
has its origin. From the tubercle immediately before
this cavity, a Itrong round ligament goes out to the up¬
per part of the fibula. Round this lower end of the
thigh-bone, large holes are found, into which the liga¬
ments for the fecurity of the joint are fixedv and blood-
veflels pafs to the internal fubltance of the bone.
The thigh-bone being articulated above with the aceta¬
bulum of the ofia innominata, which affords its round
head a fecure and extenfive play, can be moved to every
fide; but is rellrained in its motion outwards by the high
brims of the cavity, and by the round ligament; for 0-
therwife the head of the -bone would have been frequent¬
ly thru!! out at the breach of the brims on the infide,
which allows the thigh to move confiderably inwards.
 The body of this bone enjoys little or no rotatory
motion, though the head moll commonly moves round
its own axis; becaufe the oblique progrefs of the neck
and head from the bone is fuch, that the rotatory motion
of the head can only bring the body of the bone for¬
wards and backwards. The os femoris is articulated
below to the tibia and rotula in the manner afterwards to
be deferibed.
The nearnefs of the fmall neck to the round head of
the diigh-bone, and its upper end being covered with very
thick mufcles, make greater difficulty in diltinguilhing
between a luxation and fra&ure here, than in any other
part of the body.
The Leg is compofed of three bones, tihia, fibula-,
and rotula.
Tibia, fo called from its refemblance to an old mulh-
cal pipe or flute, is the long, thick, triangular bone, fi:-
tuated at the internal part of the leg, and continued in
almolt a ftreight line from the thigh-bone.
The upper end of the tibia is large, bulbous, and
fpongy, and is divided into two cavities by a rough irre,-
gular protuberance, which is hollow at its molt prominent
part, as well as before and behind. T he anterior of the
two ligaments that compofe the great crofs one, is in¬
ferred into the middle cavity, and the depreflion behind
receives the pollerior ligament.—The two broad cavities
at the tides of this protuberance are not equal; for the
internal is oblong and deep, to receive the internal con¬
dyle of the thigh-bone; while the' external is more fu-
perficial and rounder, for the external condyle. In
each of thefe two cavities of a recent fubjeft, a femilu-
nar cartilage is placed, which is thick at its convex edge,,
and becomes gradually thinner towards the concave or
interior edge. The middle of each of thefe cartilages
is broad, and the ends of them turn narrower and thin¬
ner, as they approach the middle protuberance of the ti¬
bia. The thick convex edge of each cartilage is con¬
nected to the capfular and other ligaments of the articu¬
lation, but fo near to their rife from the tibia, that the
cartilages
1^4 A N A T
cartilages are not allowed to change place far ; while the
narrow ends of the cartilages, becoming almoft ligaments,
are fixed at the infertion of the ftrong crofs ligament in¬
to the tibia, and feem to have their fubilance united with
it; therefore a circular hole is left between each cartilage
and the ligament, in which the moft prominent convex
part of each condyle of the thigh-bone moves. The
circumference of thefe ca.vities is rough and unequal, for
the firm connedion of the ligaments mf the joint. Im¬
mediately below the edge, at its back-part, two rough
flatted protuberances ftand out: Into the internal, the
tendon of the femimembranofus mufcle is inferred ; and
a part of the crofs ligament is fixed to the external. 
On the outfide of this lad tubercle, a fmooth flightly-
hollowed furface is formed by the adion of the poplitaeus
.mufcle.
Below the fore-part of the upper end of the tibia, a
confiderable rough protuberance rifes, to which the ItrOng
tendinous ligament of the rotula is fixed. On the in¬
ternal fide of this, there is a broad, fcabrous, fiightly-
hollowed furface, to which the internal long ligament of
the joint, the aponeurofis of the vaftus internus, and the
tendons of the feminervofus, gracilis, and fartorius, are
fixed.—Below the external edge of the upper end of the
tibia, there is a circular flat furface, covered, in a recent
fnbjed, with cartilage, for the articulation of the fibula;
•—between.which and the anterior knob, there is a rough
hollow, from which the tibialis anticus, and extenfor di-
gitorum longus, take their origin.—From the fmooth flat
furface, a ridge runs obliquely downwards and inwards,
to give rife to part of the folseus, tibialis pofticus, and
flexor digitorum longus, and infertion tp the aponeurofis
of the femimembranofus which covers the poplitseus, and
to fome of the external fibres of this laft named mufcle.
—At the infide of this ridge an oblique plain furface is
left, where the greateft part of the mufculus poplitaeus
is inferted.—The remaining body of the tibia is triangu-
gular.—The anterior angle is very (harp, and is com¬
monly called the fpine or Jhin. This ridge is not
ftreight; but turns firft inwards, then outwards, and
laftly inwards again.—The plain internal fide is fmooth
and equal, being little fubje&ed to the aftions of muf-
cles ; but the external fide is hollowed above by the tibi¬
alis anticus, and below by the extenfor digitorum longus,
and extenfor pollicis longus.—The two angles behind
thefe fides are rounded by the adtion of the mufcles ;—
the pofterior fide comprehended between them is not fo
broad as thofe already mentioned, but is more oblique
and flatted by the aflion of the tibialis pofticus and flexor
digitorum longus.—Some way above the middle of the
bone, the internal angle terminates, and the bone is
made round by the preflure of the mufculus folxus.—
Near to this, the. paflage of the medullary veflels is feen
flanting obliquely downwards.
The lower end of the tibia is made hollow, but fo as
a ftnall protuberance rifes in the middle.—The internal
fide of this cavity, which is fmooth, and, in a recent
fubjedt, is covered with cartilage, is produced into a con¬
fiderable procefs, commonly named malleolus internus \
the point of which is divided by a notch, and from it li¬
gaments are fent out to the foot. The external fide
O M Y. Part I.
of this end of the tibia has a rough irregular femilunar
cavity formed in it, for receiving the lower end of the fi¬
bula. The pofterior fide has two lateral grooves, and
a fmall middle protuberance. In the internal depreilion,
the tendons of the mufculus tibialis pofticus, and flexor
digitorum lohgus, are lodged; and in the external, the
tendon of the flexor longus pollicis plays. From the
middle protuberance, ligamentous ihsaths go out, for
tying down thefe tendons.
Fibula is the fmall long bone, placed on the outfide
of the leg, oppofite to the external angle of the tibia ;
the fhape of it is irregularly triangular.
The head of the fibula has a fuperficial circular cavity
formed on its infide, which, in a recent fubjed:, is cover¬
ed with a cartilage, but fo clofely connedted to the tibia
by ligaments, as to allow only a fmall motion backwards
and forwards.—This head is protuberant and rough on its
outfide, where a ftrong round ligament, and the mufculus
biceps, are inferted ; and, below the back-part of its in¬
ternal fide, a tubercle may be remarked, that gives rile
to the ftrong tendinous part of the folasus mufcle.
The body of this bone is a little crooked inwards and
backwards, which figure is owing to the adtions of the
mufcles ; but is (till further increafed by nurfes, who oft¬
en hold'children carelefsly by the legs. The ftiarpeft
angle of the fibula is forwards, on each fide of which
the bone is confiderably, but unequally, deprefled by the
bellies of the feveral mufcles that rife from, or aft upon
it; and, in old people, thefe mufcles make diftinft finuo-
fities for themfelves. The external furface of the fi¬
bula is depreffed obliquely from above downwards and
backwards, by the two peronsei. Its internal furface
is unequally divided into two narrow longitudinal planes,
by an oblique ridge extended from the upper part of the
' anterior angle, to join with the lower end of the inter¬
nal angle. To this ridge the ligament ftretched between
the two bones of the leg is connefted. The anterior
of the two planes is very narrow above, where the ex¬
tenfor longus digitorum, and extenfor longus pollicis, a
rife from it; but is broader below, where it has the print
of the nonus Vefalii.—The poftericr plane is broad and
hollow, giving origin to the larger (hare of the tibialis
pofticus.—The internal angle of this bone has a tendi¬
nous membrane fixed to it, from which fibres of the flexor
digitorum longus take their rife.—The pofterior furface
of the fibula is the plaineft and fmootheft, but is made
flat above by the folasus, and is hollowed below by the
flexor pollicis longus.—In the middle of this furface the
canal for the medullary veflels may be feen flanting down¬
wards.
The lower end of the fibula is extended into a fpongy
oblong head, on the infide of which is a convex, irre¬
gular, and frequently a fcabrous furface,,that is recei¬
ved by the external hollow of the tibia, and fo firmly
joined to it by a very thin intermediate cartilage and ftrong
ligaments, that it fcarce can move.—Below this, the fi¬
bula is ftretched out into a coronoid procefs, that is
fmooth, covered with cartilage on its internal fide, and
is there contiguous to the outfide of the firft bone of the
foot, the aftragalus, to fecure the articulation. This
precefs, named malleolus externus, being fituated farther
back
Part I. A N A T
back than the Internal malleolus, and in an oblique di-
reftion, obliges ns naturally to tarn the fore-part of the
foot outwards. At the lower internal part of this pro-
cefs, a fpongy cavity for mucilaginous glands may be re¬
marked ; from its point, ligaments are extended to the a-
flragalus, os calcis, and os naviculare, bones of the foot;
and from its infide, Ihort ftrong ones go out to the altra-
galus. On the back-part of it, a finuofity is made by the
tendons of the peronaei mufcles.—When the ligament
extended over thefe tendons from the one fide of the
depreflion to the other is broke, (Iretched too much, or
made weak by a fprain, the tendons frequently ftart for¬
wards to the outhde of the fibula.
The conjundtion of the upper end of the fibula with
the tibia is, by plain furfaces, tipped with cartilage; and,
at its lower end, the cartilage feems to glue the two bones
together, not, however, fo firmly in young people, but
that the motion at the other end of fuch a long radius is
Very obfervable.
The principal ufe of this bone is to afford origin and
infertion to mufcles; the diredlion of which may be a
little altered, on proper occafions, by its upper part
/huffiing backwards and forwards. It likewife helps
to make the articulation of the foot more fecure and
•firm.
Rotula is the fmall flat bone fituated at the fore-part
•of the joint of the knee. Its (hape refemhles the
common figure of the heart with its point downwards.—
The anterior convex furface of the rotula is pierced by a
great number of holes, into which fibres of the ftrong li¬
gament that is fpread over it enter. Behind, its fur-
face is fmooth, covered with cartilage, and divided by a
middle convex ridge into two cavities, of which the ex¬
ternal is largeft, and both are exa<5tly adapted to the pul¬
ley of the os femoris, on which they are placed in the
moft ordinary unftraining poftures of the leg; but when
•the leg is much bended, the rotula defcends far down
on the condyles; and when the leg js fully extended,
•the rotula rifes higher, in its upper part, than the pulley
of the thigh-bone. The plain fmooth furface is fur-
rounded by a rough prominent edge, to which the capfu-
lar ligament adheres :—Below, the point of the bone is
fcabrous, where the ftrong tendinous ligament from the
tubercle of the tibia is fixed.—The upper horizontal part
of this bone is flatted and unequal, where the tendons of
the extenfors of the leg are inferted.
The fubftance of the rotula is cellular, with very thin
external firm plates: But then thefe cells are fo fmall,
and fuch a quantity of bone is employed in their forma¬
tion, that fcarce any bone of its bulk is fo ftrong. Be-
fides, it is covered all over with a thick ligament, to con-
netfl its fubftance, and is moveable to one fide or other;
therefore is fufficiently ftrong to refill the ordinary aftions
of the large mufcles that are inferted into it, or any com¬
mon external force applied to it.
The parts which conftitute the joint of the knee being
now defcribed, let us examine what are its motions, and
how performed. The two principal motions are flec¬
tion and extenfion. In the former of thefe, the leg
may be brought to a very acute angle with the thigh, by
the condyles of the thigh-bones being round and made
* Von. I. No. 8. 3
O M Y. 185
fmooth far backwards. In performing this, the rotula
is pulled down by the tibia. When the leg is to be
extended, the rotula is drawn upwards, confequently
the tibia forwards, by the extenfor mufcles ; which, by
means of the protuberant joint, and of this thick bone
with its ligament, have in effe<5t the chord, with which
they aft, fixed to the tibia at a confiderable angle, there¬
fore aft with advantage; but are reftrained from pulling
the leg farther than to a ftreight line with the thigh, by
the pofterior part of the crofs ligament, that the body
might be fupported by a firm perpendicular column : For
at this time the thigh and leg are as little moveable in a
rotatory way, or to either fide, as if they were one con¬
tinued bone. But when the joint is a little bended,
the rotula is not tightly braced, and the pofterior liga¬
ment is relaxed; therefore this bone may be moved a lit¬
tle to either fide, or with a fmall rotation in the fuperfi-
cial cavities of the tibia; which is done by the motion
of the external cavity backwards and forwards, the in¬
ternal ferving as a fort of axis. Seeing then one part of
the crofs ligament is fituated perpendicularly, and the
pofterior part is ftretched obliquely from the internal
condyle of the thigh outwards, that pofterior part of
the crofs digament prevents the leg’s being turned at all
inwards; but it could not hinder it from turning out¬
wards almoft round, was not that motion confined by the
lateral ligaments of this joint, which can yield little.
The Foot is divided into three parts, viz. tarfji,
vietaiarfus, and toes : In the defeription of which, the
broad of the foot fhali be called fuf trior; the foie, in¬
ferior ; the fide on which the great toe is, internal; that
where the little toe is, external
The tarfus confifts of feven fpongy bones ; to wit, the
ajlragalus, os calcis, naviculare, cuboides, cuneiform?
externut/i, cuneiforme medium, and cuneiforms in-
ternum.
The aftragalus is the uppermoft of thefe bones.  
The os calcis is below the aftragalus, and is confiderably
prominent backwards beyond the other bones, to form
the heel. The os naviculare is in the middle of the
internal fide of the tarfus. The os .cuboides is the
molt external of the row of four bones at its fore-part.
 The os cuneiforme externum is placed at the infide
of the cuboid. The cuneiforme medium is between
the external and internal cuneiform bones, and the inter¬
nal cuneiform is put at the internal fide of the foot.
In the defeription of thefe bones, let it be obferved,
That where-ever a ridge is mentioned, without a parti¬
cular ufe afligned, a ligament is underftood to be fixed to
it: or where a fpongy rough cavity, depreflion, or ^pffa,
is remarked, without naming its ufe, a ligament is in¬
ferted, and mucilaginous glands are lodged.
The upper part of the aftragalus is formed into a large
fmooth head, which is flightly hollowed in the middle;
and therefore refembles a fuperficiai pulley, by which' it
is fitted to the lower end of the tibia. The iiternal
fide of this head is flat and fmooth, to play on the inter¬
nal malleolus. The external fide has alio inch a fur-
face, but larger, for its articulation with the external
malleolus. Round the bafe of this head there is a
rough foffa; and, immediately before the head, as alfo
3 A below
i86 A N A T
below its internal fmooth furface, we find a confiderable
rough cavity.
The lower furface of the aftragalus is divided by an
irregular, deep, rough fofla; which, at its internal end,
is narrow, but gradually widens, as it ftretches obliquely
outwards and forwards.—The fmooth furface, covered
with cartilage, behind this fofi'a, is large, oblong, ex¬
tended in the fame oblique fituation with the fofla, and
concave, for its conjundion with the os calcis. The
back-part of the edge of this cavity is produced into two
fliarp-pointed rough procefles, between which is a depref-
fion, made by the tendon of the flexor pollicis longus.
—The lower furface before the fofla is convex, and com-
pofed of three diftinft fmooth planes. The long one
behind, and the,exterior or ftiortefl, are articulated with
the heel-bone ; while the internal, which is the moft con¬
vex of the three, reds and moves upon a cartilaginous
ligament, that is continued from the calcaneum to the os
fcaphoides.
The fore-part of this bone is formed into a convex
oblong fmooth head, which is received by the os navi-
culare.— Round the root of this head, efpecially on the
upper furface, a rough fofl’a may be remarked.
The aftragalus is articulated above to the tibia and fi¬
bula, which together form one cavity. Though, in this
articulation, the bones have prominences and cavities fo
fmall, as might allow motions in all directions; yet the
fleCtion and extenfioa are the molt confiderable, the o-
ther motions being confined by the malleoli, and by the
Itrong ligaments which go out from the points of thefe
procefles to the aftragalus and os calcis. The aftragalus
is joined below to the os calcis; and before, to the os
uaviculare, in the manner to be explained when thefe
bones are defcribed.
Calcaneum is the largeft bone of the feven.'—Behind,
it is formed into a large knob, commonly called the heel:
The furface of which is rough behind, where the tendo
Achillis is inferted into it; and above, it is hollow and
fpongy. Farther forwards, on the upper furface of the
calcaneum, there is an irregular, oblong, fmooth con¬
vexity, adapted to the concavity at the back-part of the
aftragalus : And beyond this a narrow fofla is leen, which
divides it from two final! concave fmooth furfaces, that
are joined to the fore-part of the aftragalus.—Behind
the pofterior of thefe fraooth furfaces, which is the lar¬
geft, a fmall finuofity is made by the tendon of the flexor
digitorum longus ; at the fore-part of which a fmall
rough protuberance appears, that gives rife to the muf-
culus extenfor digitorum brevis.
T'he external fide of this bone is flat, with a fuperfi-
cial fofla running horizontally, in which the tendon of
the mufculus peronseus longus is lodged.—The internal
fide of the heel-bone is hollowed, for lodging the origin
of the mafia cornea Jac. Sylvii, and for the fafe paflage
of tendons, nerves, and arteries.—Under the fide of the
internal fmooth concavity, a particular groove is made
by the tendon of the flexor pollicis longus; and from
the thin protuberance on this internal fide, the cartilagi¬
nous ligament that fupports the aftragalus, goes out to
the os naviculare; on which ligament, and.on the edge
of this bone to which it is fixed, the groove is form-
O M Y. Part T.
ed for the tendon of the flexor digitorum profundus.
The lower furface of this bone is prefled flat at the
back-part, by the weight of our bodies; and immedi¬
ately before this plane, there are two tubercles, from
the internal of which the mufculus abdu&or pollicis,
flexor digitorum fublimis, as alfo part of the aponeurofis
plantaris, and of the abdudtor minimi digiti, have their
origin ; and the other part of the abdudlor minimi digiti
and aponeurofis plantaris, rifes from the external. 
Before thefe protuberances this bone is concave, for
lodging the flexor mufcles ; and at its- fore-part we may
oblerve a rough depreflion, from which, and a tubercle
behind it, the ligament goes out that prevents this bone
to be Separated from the os cuboides.
The fore-part of the os calcis is formed into an ob¬
long, pulley-like,, fmooth furface, which is circular at
its upper external end, but is pointed below. This
fmooth furface is fitted to the os cuboides.
Though the furfaces by which the aftragalus and os
calcis are articulated, feem fit enough for motion; yet
the very ftrong ligaments by which thefe bones are con-
neifted, prevent it, and render this principal part of our
bafe, which refts on the ground, to wit, the os calcis,
firm.
Os naviculare, is fomewhat circular.—It is formed in¬
to an oblong concavity behind, for receiving the anterior
head of the aftragalus.—On the upper furface, there is
a rough folfa.—Below, the os naviculare is very unequal
and rough ; but hollow for the fafety of the mufcles.—
On its infide, a large knob rifes out, from which the
abduiftor pollicis takes in part its origin, the tendon of
the tibialis pofticus is inferted into it, and to it two re¬
markable ligaments are fixed; the firft is the ftrong one,
formerly mentioned, which fupports the afti agalus; the
fecond is ftretched from this bone obliquely crofs the
foot, to the metatarfal bones of the middle toe, and
of the toe next to the little one.—On the outfide of the
os naviculare, there is a femicircular fmooth furface,
where it is joined to the os cuboides.—The fore-part of
this bone is all covered with cartilage, and is divided
into three fmooth planes, fitted to the three ofia cunei-
formia.
The os naviculare and aftragalus are joined as a ball
and focket, and the.naviculare moves in all directions in
turning the toes inwards, or in raifing or deprefling either
fide of the foot, though the motions are greatly reftrain-
ed by the ligaments which conned this to the other bones
of the tarfus.
Os cuboides is a very irregular cube. Behind, it
is formed into an oblong unequal concavity, adapted
to the fore-part of the os calcis.—On its internal fide,
there is a fmall femicircular fmooth cavity, to join the os
naviculare.—Immediately before which, an oblong fmooth
plane is made by the os cuneiforme externum. Be¬
low this, the bone is hollow and rough.—On the internal
fide of the lower furface, a round protuberance and fofla
are found, where the mufculus adduCtor pollicis has its
origin. On the external fide of this fame furface, there
is a round knob, covered with cartilage; immediately
before which, a fmooth fofla may be obferved, in which
the tendon of the peronseus primus runs obliquely crofs
Part I. A N A T
the foot; and on the knob, the thia flat cartilage proper
to this mufcle plays; in place of which, fornetimes a
bone is found:—More externally than the knob, a rough
hollow is made, for the ftrong ligaments ftretched be¬
twixt this bone and the os calcis.—Before, the furface
of the os cuboides is flat, fmooth, and flightly divided
into two planes, for fuftaining the os metatarli of the
little toe, and of the toe next to it.
The form of the back-part of the os cuboides, and
the ligaments connedting the joint there with the os cal¬
cis, both concur in allowing little motion in this part.
Os cuneiibrme externum, is much of the fliape of a
wedge, being broad and flat above, with long fides run¬
ning obliquely downwards, and terminating in a fliarp
edge.—The upper furface of this bone is an oblong
fquare.—The one behind is nearly a triangle, but not
complete at the inferior angle, and is joined to the os na-
viculare.—The external fide is an oblong fquare, divided
as it were by a diagonal: The upper half of it is fmooth,
for its conjundlion with the os cuboides: The other is a
fcabrous hollow ; and in its fuperior anterior angle, a
fmall fmooth impreffion is made by the os metatarfi of
the toe next to the little one.—The internal fide of this
bone is alfo quadrangular, with the foi e-part of its edge
made flat and fmooth by the os metatarfi of the toe next
to the great one; and the back-part is alfo flat and fmooth,
where the os cuneiforme medium is contiguous to it.—
The fore-part of this bone is an oblong triangle, for fu¬
ftaining the os metatarfi of the middle toe.
Os cuneiforme medium, or minimum, is flill more ex¬
actly the fhape of a wedge than the former. Its up¬
per part is fquare.;—its internal fide has a flat fmooth
furface above and behind, for its conjundHon with the
following bone; with a fmall rough fofla below ; and a
confiderable fhare of it is rough and hollow.—The ex¬
ternal fide is fmooth and a little hollowed, where it is
contiguous to the laft defcribed bone.—Behind, this bone
is triangular, where it is articulated with the os navicuiare;
and it is alfo triangular at its fore-part, where it is conti¬
guous to the os metatarfi of the toe next to the great one.
Os cuneiforme maximum, or internum, differs from
the two former in its fituation, which is more oblique
than theirs.—Befides, its broad thick part is placed be¬
low, and the fmall thin point is above and outwards;
while its under broad furface is concave, for allowing a
fafe paflage to the flexors of the great toe.—-The fur¬
face of this os’ cuneiforme behind, where it is joined to
the os navicuiare, is hollow, fmooth, and of a circular
figure below, but pointed above.—The external fide
confifts of two fmooth and flat*furfaces, whofe diredtion
is nearly at right angles with each other. With the po-
fterior, that runs obliquely from below forwards and up¬
wards, the os cuneiforme minimum is joined; and with
the anterior, whofe direction is longitudinal, the os me-
tatarfi of the toe next to the great one is connedted.—
The fore-part of this bone is femilunar, but flat and
fmooth, for fuftaining the os metatarfi of the great toe.
-—The internal fide is fcabrous, with two remarkable
tubercles below, from which the mufculus abdudfor pol-
licis rifes, and the tibialis anticus is inferted into its up¬
per part.
O M Y. I&7
The three cuneiform bones are all fb fecured by liga¬
ments, that very little motion is allowed in any of them.
Thefe feven bones of the tarfus, when joined, are
convex above, aftd leave a concavity below, for lodging
fafely the feveral mufcles, tendons, veffels, and nerves
that lie in the foie of the foot.—In the recent fubjedi,
their upper and lower furfaces are covered with ftrong
ligaments, which adhere firmly to them ; and all the bones
are fo tightly connedfed, by thefe and the other liga¬
ments, which are fixed to the rough ridges and fofias
formerly mentioned, that, notwithftanding the many
furfaces covered with cartilage, fome of which are of
the form of the very moveable articulations, no more
motion is here allowed, than only to prevent too great a.
fhock of the fabric of the body in walking, leaping, fee.
by falling on too folid a bafe.
Metatarsus is compofed. of five bones, which, in
their general charadters, agree with the metacarpal
bones ; but may be diftinguifhed from them by the
following marks : i. They are longer, thicker, and
ftronger. 2. Their anterior round ends are not fo
broad, and are lefs in proportion to their bafes. 3. Their
bodies are fharper above and flatter on the fides, with
their inferior ridge inclined more to the outflde. 4. The
tubercles at the lower parts of the round head are larger.
The firft or internal metatarfal bone is eafily diltin-
guifhed from the reft by its thicknefs.—The one next to
it is, the longeft, and with its fharp edge almoft perpen¬
dicular. The others are fhorter and more oblique, as
their fituarion is more external.
Os metatarfi pollicis is by far the thickeft and ftrong-
eft, as having much'the greateft weight to fuftain. Its
bafe is oblong, irregularly concave, and of a femilunar
figure, to be adapted to the os cuneiforme maximum.—
The inferior edge of this bafe is a little prominent and
rough, where the tendon of the peronseus primus muf¬
cle is inferted. On its outfide, an oblique circular de-
preflion is made by the fecond metatarfal bone. Its
round head has generally on its fore-part a middle ridge,
and two oblong cavities, for the offa fefamoidea; and
on the external fide, a deprefiion is made by the following
bone.
Os’metatarfi of the lecond toe, is die longeft of the
five, with a triangular bafe fupported by the os cunei¬
forme medium and the external fide produced into a prq-
cefs; the end of which is an oblique fmooth plane, join¬
ed to the os cuneiforme externum. Near the internal
edge of the hafe, this bone has two fmall depreflions,
made by the os. cuneiforme maximum, between which is
a rough cavity.—Farther forwards, we may obferve a
fmooth protuberance, which is joined to the foregoing,
bone. On the outfide of the bafe are two oblong;
fmooth lurfaces, for its articulation with the following
bone ; the fuperior fmooth furface being extended longi¬
tudinally, and the inferior perpendicularly ; between
which there is a rough folia.
Os metatarfi of the middle toe, is the fecond in length.
■—Its bafe, fupported by the os cuneiforme externum,
is triangular, but flanting outwards, where it ends in a
lharp-pointed little prcctfs ; and the angle below is. not
completed.
The
i S3 A N A T
The internal fide of this bafe is adapted to the pre¬
ceding bone ; and the external fide has alfo two fraooth
furfaces covered with cartilage, but of a different figure;
for the upper one is concave, and, being round behind,
turns fmaller as it advances forewards; and the lower
furface is little, fmooth, convex, and very near the edge
of the bafe.
Os metatarfi of the fourth toe, is near as long as the
former, with a triangular flanting bafe, joined to the os c‘u-
boides, and made round at its external angle, having one
hollow fmooth furface on the outfide, where it is preffed
upon by the following bone, and two on the internal
fide, correfponding to the former bone ; behind which
is a long narrow furface impreffed by the os cuneiforme
externum.
Os metatarfi of the little toe, is the Ihorteft, fituated
with its two flat fides above and below, and with the
lidges laterally. The bale of it, part of which reds
on the os cuboides, is very large, tuberous, and produ¬
ced intp a long-pointed procefs externally, where.part
of the abduftor minimi digiti is fixed; and into its up¬
per part the peronaeus fecundus is inferted. Its infide
has a flat conoidal furface, where it is contiguous to the
preceding bone.
When we Hand, the fore-ends of thefe metatarfal
bones, and the os calcis, are our only fupporters; and
therefore it is neceffary they Ihould be ftrong, and ftiould
have a confined motion.
The bones of the Toes are much akin to thofe of the
thumb and fingers; particularly the two of die great
toe are precifely formed as the two laft of the thumb;
only their pofition, in refpedt of the other toes, is not
oblique; and they are proportionally much fixonger, be-
caufe they are fubje&ed to a greater force; for they fu-
ftain the force with which our bodies are pulhed forwards
by the foot behind at every ftep we make; and on them
principally the weight of the body is fupported, when we
are raifed on our tiptoes..
The three bones in each of the other four toes, com¬
pared to' thofe of the fingers, differ from them in thefe
particulars.- They are lefs, and fmaller in proportion
to their lengths: — Their Safes are much larger than
their anterior ends: Their bodies are more narrow above
and below, and flatter on the fides.—The firft phalanx
EXPLANATION
Figure L A Male Skeleton.
A, Os frontis. B, Os parietale. C, Os temporum.
D, Os occipitis. E, Offa nafi. F, Os malae. G, Os
maxillare fuperius. H, Os maxillare inferius. I, The
teeth, which are fixteen in each jaw. ]£* The feven
vertebra of the neck, with their intermediate carti¬
lages. L, <bc. The twelve dorfal vertebra, with
their intermediate-cartilages. M, The five lumbar
vertebra, and, N,Their intermediate cartilages*.-O, Gs
O M Y. part!.
is proportionally much longer than the bones of the fe-
cond and third, which are very (hort.
Of the four, the toe next to the great one has the
largeft bones in all dimenfions, and more externally the
toes are lefs.—The little toe, and frequently that next
to it, have the fecond and third bones intimately uni¬
ted into one; which may be owing to their little motion,
and the great preffure they are fubjedled to.
The toes are of good ufe to us in walking; for, when
the foie is raifed, they bring our body, with its centre
of gravity, perpendicular to the advanced foot.
The only bones now remaining to complete the de-
fcription of the Ikeleton, are the fmall ones, which are
found at the joints of the fingers and toes, and in fome
other parts, called
Ossa Sesamoidea, which are of very different fi¬
gures and fizes, though they are generally faid to refera¬
ble the feed of the fefamum.- -They feem to be no¬
thing elfe than the ligaments of the articulations, or the
firm tendons of firong mufcles, or both, become bony,
by the compreflion v/hich they fuffer. Thus the fefa-
moid bones at the beginning of the gaftrocnemii mufcles,
are evidently compofed of the tendinous fibres only.—
Thefe, at the firfi joint of the great toe, are’ as plainly
the fame continued fubftance with the ligaments and the
tendons of the addudtor, flexor, brevis, and abduftor.—£-
That which is fometimes double at the fecond joint of
that .toe, is part of the‘capfular ligament; and if we e-
numerate the other fefamoid bones that are at any time
found, we may obferve all of them formed in this man¬
ner. Their number, figure, fituation, and magnitude,
are fo uncertain, that it were in vain to infill on the dif¬
ferences of each; and therefore we lhall only in general
remark,
x. That where-ever the tendons and ligaments are
firmeft, the addons of the mufcles llrpngeft, and the
compreflion greateft, there fuch bones' are moll common¬
ly found.
2. Thar, cneteris paribus, the older the fubjedt is in
which they are fought, their number is greater, and their
fize is larger.
3. The more labour any perfon is inured to, he has,
cateris paribus, the moil numerous and largell offa fefa-
moidea.
of PLATE XIII.
facrum. P, Os coccygis. 0> Os ilium. R, Os pu¬
bis. S, Os ifchium. T, The leven true ribs. U, Thfe
five falfe ribs. V, The fternum. X, The clavicle.
Y, The fcapula. Z, The os humeri, a, Ulna, b, Ra¬
dius. c. The eight bones of the carpus, d. The
five metacarpal bones, e. The phalanges of the fin-r
gers. f, TEe os femoris. g, The patella, h, The
tibia, i, The fibula, k, The feyen bones of the tar-
fus. 1, The five metatarfal bones, m, The phalan¬
ges of the toes.
Parti. A N A T
Fig. 2. The internal view of the Os Frontis.
a, The fuperior ferrated edge, which aflifts to form the
coronal future, b, The external angular procefs.
c, The internal angular procefs. d, The nafal pro¬
cefs. e, The orbitar procefs. f, The frontal finus.
g, The fagittal future, which (as here) is fometimes
continued to the nofe.
Fig. 3. The internal fide of the left Parietal bone.
a, Its fuperior edge, which, joined with the other, forms
the fagittal future, b, The anterior edge, which af-
fifts in the"’ formation df the coronal future, c, The
inferior edge for the fcjaamous future, d, The pofte-
rior edge for the lambdoid future, e, A deprefilon
made by the lateral finu$. f. The prints of the prin¬
cipal artery of the dura mater.
Fig. 4. The internal view of the Occipital bone.
a a, The two fides, which aflifi: to form the lambdoid
future, b, The extremity of the cuneiform procels,
where it joins the fphenoid bone, c c. The two con¬
dyloid proceifes, which articulate the hea^with the
fpine. d d, The prints made by the polterior'lobes
of the brain, e e, The prints made by the lobes of
the cerebellum, f, The cruciform ridge, g, The
foramen magnum, through which the fpinal marrow
paffes. h, The foramen linguale, for the pafiage of
the ninth pair of nervjes.
Fig. 5. The internal fide of the right Temporal bone.
a. The upper edge which forms the fquamous future,
b, The pars mammillaris. c. The pars patrofa. d, The
zygomatic procefs. e, The ftyloid procefs. f, The
entry of the auditory nerve.
Fig. 6. The internal view of the Sphenoid bone.
a a, The temporal procelfes. b b, The pterygoid pro-
ceffes. c c, The fpinous procefles. d d, The pofterior
clinoid procefles. e e. The anterior clinoid procefies.
f, The fella turcica, for lodging the glandula pituitarra.
g. The anteHor procefs, which joins the ethmoid bone.
Fig. 7. The exterior view of the Ethmoid bone.
a. The pars plana, which forms part of the orbit,
b, The os fpongiofum fuperius. c, The nafal lamel¬
la. d, The ethmoid cells, e, Crifta galli.
Fig. 8. The polterior view of the Ossa. Nasi.
a, Their fuperior fides. b, Their inferior fides. c, Their
exterior fides. d. Their joining.
Fig. 9. The fide of the Os Unguis next to the nofe.
a, The orbitar part, b, The lachrymal part, c, The
furrov/ between thsfe two convex parts.
Fig. 10. The poltarror view of the right Os Mala:.
a. The fuper-ior orbitar procefs. b, The inferior orbi-
Vol. I. No. 8. 2
O M Y. 189
tar procefs. c. The malar procefs. d,- The zygo¬
matic procefs. e, The internal orbitar procefs.
Fig. 11. A view of the lower^part, and fide next to
the nofe, of the right Os Maxillare, with the Pa¬
late-bone, and Os Spongiosum Inferius.
a, The nafal procefs. b, The tuv\er, at the top of which
is the orbitar procefs, and within it, k. The antrum
maxillare. c, The nafal fpine. d. The os fpongio¬
fum inferius. e, The palate-plate, f, The os paia-
ti. g, The two dentes incifofes. h. The dens ca-
ninus. i, The five dentes molares.
Fig. 12. The right Palate-Bone.
a. The palate-plate, b, The pterygoid jirocefs. c. The
nafal lamella, d, 7 he orbitar proeefs.
Fig. 13. A view of the fide next to the mouth of
the left fide of the lower jaw.
a, The fubftance in the middle of the chin, b, The
bafe. c, The angle, .d. The Coronoid procefs. e. The
condyloid procefs. f, The entry of the nerve and
blood-velfels. g. The five molares.
Fig. 14. A Tooth-cut perpendicularly.
a, The fibres of the enamel, b. The offeous part, c, The
entry at the point of the root, to d. The channel for
the nerve and blood-vefi’els.
Fig. 15. A view of the interior furface of the Base
of the Skull.
AAA, The two tables of the Ikull, with the diploe.
B B, The orbitar procefles of the frontal* bone.
C, The crifta galli, with the cribriform-plate of the
et%moid bone on bach fide of it. D, The cuneiform
procefs of the os occipitis. E, The cruciform ridge.
F, The foramen magnum for the paflage of the me¬
dulla fpinalis. G, The zygoma, made by the join¬
ing ofnhe zygomatic procefles of the ofla temporurh
and cccipitis. H, The pars fquamofa of the os tem-
porum. I, The pars mammiHaris. K, The pars pe-
trofa. L, The temporal procefs of the fphenoid hone.
M, The anterior clinoid procefs. of the right fide.
N, The pofterior clinoid procefs of the right fide, and
between them, O, The feila turcica. 1. The fora-
• men opticum of the left fide. 2. 77ie foramen kce-
runi. 3, The foramen rctundum.
Fig. 16. The frontal, occipital, fphenoid, and ethmoid
bones, being cut perpendicularly through the'middle,
and the nafal, maxillary, and palate.bones feparated
from each other, the interior view of the left fide‘of
the Cranium, and bones of the Upper Jaw, are re-
prelented.
A A, The two tables and diploe of the frontal and occi¬
pital bones. B, The coronal future. 'C, The ferra¬
ted edges of the parietal, for forming the fagittal fu¬
ture. D, 7 h. lambdoid-future. E,'The fquamous
3 B future.
ipo A .N A T
future. F, The furrows made by the veflels of the
dura mater. G, The frontal finus. H, The crifta
galli. I, The nafal lamella . of the ethmoid bone.
K, The temporal procefs of the fphenoid bone. L, The
fella turcica. M, The fphenoid Gnus. N, The vo¬
mer. O, The palate-plate of the fuperior maxillary
bone ; and from it the proceffus alveolaris, which con¬
tains the teeth. P, The os nafi. Q^The paffage
into the left noftril. i. The meatus auditorius in-
ternus, for the paffage of the auditory nerve. 2. The
paflage of the ninth pair of nerves. 3. The foramen
incifivum.
Fig. 17. The external furface of the bafe of the
Cranium and Upper Jaw.
A A, The lambdoid future. B, The fuperior horizon¬
tal ridge of the occipital bone, which is oppofite to
the cruciform ridge, where the fuperior longitudinal
EXPLANATION
Fig. 1. A pofterior view of the Sternum and Cla¬
vicles, with the ligament conne&ing-the clavicles to
each, other.
a, The pofterior furface of the fternura. b b, The bro¬
ken ends of the cavicles. c c c c. The tubercles near
the extremity of each clavicle, d. The ligament
connefting the clavicles.
Fig. 2. A fore view of the Left Scapula, and of
a half of the Clavicle, with their ligaments.
a. The fpine of the fcapula. b, The acromion, c, The
inferior angle, d, Inferior cofta. e, Cervix, f. Gle¬
noid cavjty, covered with cartilage for the arm-bone,
g g, T'he capfular ligament of the joint, h, Coracoid
procefs. i, The broken end of the clavicle, k, Its
extremity joined to the acromion. 1, A ligament co¬
ming out Angle from the acromion to the coracoid pro¬
cefs. m, A ligament coming out fingle from the a-
cromion, and dividing into two, which are fixed to the
coracoid procefs.
Fig. 3. The joint of the elbow of the Left Arm,
with the ligaments.
a. The os humeri, b. Its internal condyle, c c. The
two prominent parts of its trochlea,, appearing through
the capfular ligament, d, The ulna, e. The radius,
f, The part ox’ the ligament including the head of the
radius.
Fig. 4. The Bones of the Right-hand, with the
Palm in view.
a. The radius, b. The ulna, c. The fcaphoid bone
pf the carpus, c, The'os lanare. e. The oacunei-
forme. f. The os pififorme. g, Trapezium, h,Tra-
pezoides. i, Capitatum. k, Uncifofme. 1, The
four metacarpal bones of the fiegers. m. The fall
O M Y. Part I.
finus divides to form the lateral finufes. C, The per¬
pendicular ridge. D, The inferior horizontal ridge.
E, The foramen magnum, for the paffage of the me¬
dulla fpinalis. F F, The two condyles. G, The
cuneiform procefs. H H, The zygomatic procefs
of the temporal bone. I I, The maltoid proceffes.
K, The vomer, which forms the back-part of the fep-
tum nali. L L, The ftyloid proceffes. M M, The
foiffx at the root of the maftoid proceffes, for the po¬
fterior belly of the digaftric muicle. N N, The ca¬
vities for receiving the condyles of the lower jaw.
O O, The offa palati. P, The longitudinal palate-
future. The tranfverfe palate-future. R, The
alveoli, or Ipongy fockets for the teeth. S, The zygo¬
matic procefs of the offa malar urn. T T, The zy¬
gomatic future. 1. Meatus auditorius externus.
2. Hole for the internal carotid artery. 3. For the
artery of the dura .mater. 4. Foramen ovale, for the
third branch of the fifth pair, to the upper jaw.
of P L„A T E XIV.
phalanx, n. The fecond phalanx. o, The third
phalanx, p, The metacarpal bone of the thumb,
q, The firft joint, r, The fecond joint.
Fig. 5. The pofterior view of the Bones of the Left
Hand.
The explication of Fig. 4. ferves for this figure; the
fame letters pointing the fame bones, though in a dif¬
ferent view.
Fig. 6. The upper extremity of the Tibia, with the
femilunar cartilages of the joint of the knee, and fome
ligaments.
a. The ftrong ligament which connects the rotula to the
tubercle of the tibia, b b, The parts of the extremi¬
ty of the tibia, covered with cartilage, which appear
within the femilunar cartilages, c c, The femilunar
cartilages, d, The two parts of what is called the
crofs ligament.
Fig. 7. The pofterior view of the joint of the
Right Knee.
a. The os femoris cut. b, Its internal condyle, c. Its
external condyle. d, The back-part of the tibia,
e, The fuperior extremi y of the fibula, f, The edge
of the internal femilunar cartilage, g, An oblique li¬
gament. h, A larger perpendicular ligament, i, A
ligament conne&ing the femur and fibula.
Fig. 8. The anterior view of the joint of the
Right Knee.
b, The internal condyle. c, Its external condyle:
d, The part of the os femoris, on which the patella
moves, e, A perpendicular ligament, f f. The two
parts of the crucial ligaments, g g, The edges of
the two moveable femilunar cartilages. h> The tibia..
i. The
Part I. ANATOMY. 191
i, The ftrong ligament of the patella.—The back-part
of it where the fat has been diffedted away. 1, The
external depreffion. m, The internal one. n, The
cut tibia.
Fig. 9. A view of the inferior part of the bones of
the Right Foot.
a, The great knob of the os calcis. b, A prominence
on its outfide. c. The hollow for the tendons, nerves,
and blood-vefiels. d, The anterior extremity of the
os calcis. e. Part of the aftragalus. f. Its head co¬
vered with cartilage, g. The internal prominence of
the os naviculare. h. The os euboides. i, The os
cuneiforme internum; k,—Medium; 1, —Exter¬
num. m, The metatarfal bones of the four lefl’er toes,
n, The firfc— o, The fecond— p, The third phalanx
of the four lefler toes, q, The metatarfal bones of
the great toe. r. Its firft— s, Its fecond joint.
Fig. 10. The inferior furface of the two large Sesa¬
moid Bones, at the lirft joint of the great toe.
Fig. 11. The fuperior view of the bones of the
Right Foot.
a, b, as in Fig. 9. c. The fuperior head of the aftra¬
galus. d, as in Fig. 9.
Fig. 12. The view, of the Sole-of the Foot with
its ligaments.
a. The great knob of the os calcis. b. The hollow for
the tendons, nerves, and blood-veffels. c. The {heaths
of the flexores pollicis and digitorum longi opened.
4# The ftrong cartilaginous ligament fupporting the
head of the aftragalus. e, h. Two ligaments which
unite into one, and are fixed to the metatarfal bone of
the great toe. f, A ligament 'from the knob of the os
calcis to the metatarfal bone of the little toe. g, A
ftrong triangular ligament, which fupports the bones
of the tarfus. i, The ligaments of the joints of the
five metatarfal bones.
Fig. 13. a, The head of the thigh-bone of a child,
b, The ligamentum rotundum conne&ing it to the ace¬
tabulum. c, The capfular ligament of the joint with
its arteries injedted. d. The numerous vefl’els of the
mucilaginous gland injedted.
Fig. 14. The back view of the cartilages of the La¬
rynx, with the Os Hyoides.
a, The pofterior part of the bafe of the os hyoides.
b b. Its cornua, c. The appendix of the right fide.
d, A ligament fent out from the appendix of the left
fide, to the ftyloid procefs of the temporal bone.
e. The union of the bafe with the left cornu, f f. The
pofterior fides of (g) the thyroid cartilage, h h. Its
fuperior cornua. i i, Its inferior cornua, k, The
cricoid cartilage. 1 1, The arytenoid cartilages,
m, The entry into the lungs, named glottis, n. The
epiglottis, o o, The fuperior cartilages of the tra¬
chea. p, Its ligamentous back-part.
Fig. 15. The fuperior concave furface of the Sesa¬
moid Bones at the firft joint of the great toe, with
their ligaments.
a, Three fefamoid bones, b, The ligamentous fubftance-
in which they are formed.
PAR T 11.
OF THE
Sect. T. Of the Muscles in general.
r|’',IiE mufcles are bundles of fibres of different fi gures
-*• and fizes, and for the moft part conlifting of two
different portions ; one whereof is thick, foft, and more
or lefs red, forming what is called the body, fleftty fub-
ftance, or belly of the mufcle. The other is thin and
fmall, of a clofe contexture, and very white, forming
the extremities, termed by anatomiils tendons or apeneu-
rofes. Botli portions are coveted by a particular mem¬
brane.
The fibres are, for the meft part, ranked in fafei-
culi, in a lateral fituation with refpeft to each other, and
diltinguifhed by membranous, cellular,. or adipefe fepta,
as by ie> many particular vaginae.
MUSCLES.
Thefe fibres are connetfed to each other, and to the
intermediate fepta, by a great number of very fmall fine
filaments, the capillary extremities of arteries, veins, and
nerves running over them; and they are inclofed in a
thin membranous, cellular covering,, called the proper
membrane of the mufcle, being a continuation of the
fepta or vaginae already mentioned.
The diljiofition of the fibres is various: fome are dif-
pofed like radii; others form planes more or lefs incurva-
ted; and fome form complete circumferences,'the two
extremities meeting and uniting together.
The difference of mufcles is very confidexable, and
depends on many circumftances; the chief of which are,
the fize, figure, direftion, fituation, ftrudture, connec¬
tion, and ule; and it is from thefe differences that the
names- of the gicateft part of the mufti;3 are taken.
From
Part I-
i p2 A N A T
From their fize they are termed great, middle, [mail,
long, broad, thin : From their figure, triangular, fca-
hnous^ fquare. See. From their direction, f.rait, ob¬
lique, tranfverfe . From their {■W.xxzxiO'a, fliperior, infe¬
rior, external. See.
With refpedt to their ftrudture, mufcles are either
fimple or compound. Simple mufcles- are thofe whofe
flefhy fibres, or rather the fiefhy portions of their mo¬
ving fibres, are all uniformly difpdfed, arid terminate in
tendons lying either in a (trait or oblique line.
Compound mufcles are thofe whofe flefhy fibres are
difpofed obliquely in'feveral particular ranks, reprefent-
ing the fame number of fimple mufcles, with their fibres,
lying in oppofite directions. In proportion to the num¬
ber of thefe ranks or feries, the mufcle is faidto be more
or lefs compounded,
Whefi the compbund mufcle is, made up of two fimple
mufcles only, thefe are fo difpofed as to reprefent a fea¬
ther, and the compound mufcle is from- thence termed
pe uniform.
Some are made up of two mufcles more or lefs, in a
lateral fituation with refpect to each other, and united at
one extremity: others are made up of three or four'muf-
cles, fituated in the’fame manner ; and if they are united
at that extremity which the,ancients called the head of the
mufcle, they are called hicipites, tricipites, ^cc.-accord¬
ing to the number of tfiefe heads; but if they are joined
at the other extremity, they are termed bicornes, tricor¬
nes, See.
The mufcles are fixed by their extremities to different
parts, and in different places of the human body. The
, greateft jfart of them are inferted in bones alone. Some
are fixed partly to bones, and partly to> cartilages; as
thofe of the ear and nofe: fome partly to bones, and
partly to the integuments ; as feveral mufcles of the face.
The names taken from the conne&ions and infertions
o^ mufclcs are generally of two kinds; one common,
and referred to fome confiderable part of the body; as
when we fay, the mufcles of the head, of the thorax,
abdomen, 6"c. ; the other proper, fpecifying more par¬
ticularly the infertions of each mufcle, as the maftoideus,
fternormaftoideue, &c.
The general ufe of the mufcles is to move all the parts
of the body, whether hard, foft, or fluid. Mod of the
hjrd and foft parts are mdved by thefe powers being fix¬
ed to them, and they move the reft without any fuch in-
fertion.
' The aCtion of the mufcles in, general, confifts chiefly
in the contraction or fhortening of their flelhy portion;
.by which the extremities of the .mufcle are brought near¬
er to, each other, and confequently the parts are moved
to which tKefe extremities are fixed.
The principal phenomena of mufcular aCtion are
thefe The fiefiry portion appears harder and more fwell-
ed in the time of action than of inaction, as may be rea¬
dily perceived by touching it in both ftates: The hard-
nefs of this (welling iucreafes in proportion as the mo¬
tion is continued, as is likewife evident by the touch;
and it likewife increafes by merely adding to the weight
or refiftance of the part moved, though its (Ituation docs
jiot continue to be changed.
O M Y.
Sect. II. The Muscles of the Abdomen.
By the mufcles of the abdomen, or lower belly, we
mean thofe which form principally , the fides or circum¬
ference of that cavity. They are commonly ten in num¬
ber, five on each fide £ eight whereof are very large, the
other two very fmall.
OBLIQJJUS EXTERN US.
The obliquus externus is a broad thin mufcle, flefiiy
on its upper and back-part, and tendinous on the ante¬
rior and greateft portion of the lower part. It reaches
from half the lateral and inferior part of the thorax, to
aimoft half the lateral and fuperior part of the pelvis; and
from the back-part of the regio lumbaris to the linea alba.
It is fixed, by its upper part, to the ribs; by the
lower, to the .os ilium, ligamentum Fallopii, and o§ pu¬
bis ; and, by the fore-part,' to the linea alba. The po-
fterior portion next the vertebrae of the loins has com¬
monly no true mufcular inlertions.
OBLIQJJUS INTERNUS.
The internal oblique is a broad thin mufcle like the
former, having neatly the fame extent and infertions;
that.is, in the lower ribs above ; in the crifta of the os
ilium and ligamentum Fallopii, below; and in the linea
alba, before: but it differs from it in this, that its low¬
er part is more flefny than the upper.
One portion of its lov/er extremity, which is entirely
flefhy, is fixed, by very (hort tendinous fibres, in the
middle fpace between the tw'o labia of the crifta oftis ili¬
um, from the back-parr of the tubefofity o! that crifta,
near the fymphyfis of the os facrum, aimoft all the way
to the fuperior and anterior fpine of the os ilium; fo
that its infertion reaches farther back than that of the
external oblique.
The fleftiy fibres thus fixed, run up firft a little oblique¬
ly from behind forward, and then this obliquity increafes
proporticnably as the fibres lie more anterioily, and they
crofs thofe of the fleftiy portion of the external oblique,'
being afterwards inferted exterioiiy in the lower edges of
the cartilages of all the falfe ribs, and thofe of the two
loweft true ribs; reaching to die extremity of the ca/ti-
lago enfiformis.
This mufcle is likewife called obliquus, defeendens', for
the fame reafon that the former is termed ufeendens, ob¬
liquus inferior, and obliquus minor, becaufe it does not
reach fo high, and is not quite fo large as the external
oblique.
MUSCULI RECTI.
The redli are long narrow mufcles, thicker than the
obliqui. They lie'near each other like fwo large bands,
from the lower part of'the thorax, to the os pubis, the
linea alba coming between them. Their broadd^dimi-
niihes, and their thicknefs increafes gradually from above
downwaxd. . . » .
The
Tlate IX\r
Part II. A N A
The fuperior extremity of each mufcle is fixed to a
part of the lower extremity of the fternum, to the three
lowed true ribs, and to the firft falfe rib, by the fame
number of digitations, of which that which is fartheft
from the ftemum is the broadeft.
The body of the mufck lies in the vagina, formed by
t-He aponeurofis of the broad mufcles of the abdomen.
Exteriorly, it is divided into feveral portions, refembling
diilinft mufcles placed endways, by tranfverfe tendons,
termed enervations, which commonly are all above the
umbilicus, very feldom below it, and they adhere very
clofe to the vagina.
The lower extremity of this mufcle is narrower than
the upper, and ends in a thin tendon fixed in the inter¬
nal labium of the upper edge of the os pubis, near the
fymphyfis, and there it touches the tendon of the other
jredus.
MUSCULI PYRAMIDALES.
At the lower part of the red'd, we meet commonly
with two fmall mufcles, which at firft feem to be a por¬
tion or appendix of the former. They are named pyra-
midales from their figure; and by Fallopius, fuccentu-
riati.
At the lower extremity, they are broad and thick,
being there fixed to the upper edge of the offa pubis,
immediately before the redd. They decreafe gradually
in breadth and thicknefs as they afcend, and end by a
point in the Imea alba, a little way below the umbilicus.
TRANSVERSALES.
The tranfverfe mufcles are nearly of the fame breadth
with the obliques. Each of them is fixed to the ribs a-
bove.; below, to the os ilium, and ligamentum Fallo-
pii; before, to the linea alba; and behind, to the ver¬
tebras.
The upper part of this rnufcle is fixed to the lower
part of the inner furface of the cartilages of the two
lowed true ribs, and of all the five falfe ribs, by flelhy
digitations, the fibres of which run more or lefs tranf-
verftly tov/ard the linea alba, at fome diftance from
which they become tendinous.
The middle part is fixed to the three firfl: vertebrae
of the loins, by a double aponeurofis, or two tendinous
planes, one internal or anterior, the other external or
pdfterior. •
The inferior part of this mufcle is fixed by an infer-
tion wholly fleftiy to the internal labium of the crifta of-
fis ilium, and to a great part of the ligamentum Fallopii.
From thence many of its fibres run towards the linea al¬
ia, the reft to the os pubis, all of them becoming more
or lefs tendinous before their infertion.
USES of the ABDOMINAL MUSCLES.
The common ufes are, to fuftain the vifcera of the ab¬
domen, and to counterbalance the perpetual motions of
•ordinary refpiration, and thereby gently and continually
to *<51 on the vifcera; which aftion may be reckoned a
Vol. I. No. 9. 3
r O M Y. 193
fort of trituration, of great importance to the animal ce-
conomy. They Comprefs the abdomen, in order to clear
it of what ought to pafs off by tbe natural outlets; to
relieve the ftojnach,. by vomiting, from whatever might
be hurtful to it; and, laftly, to drive out, by a violent
expiration, whatever may incommode the organs contain¬
ed in the thorax.
The mufculi refli ferve to fupport the trunk of the
body when inclined backward, and to bend or bring it
forward again; to raife the body up when lying ; and,
laftly, to climb.
The pyramidales feem only to aflift the adtion of the
refti; though, when we confider the oblique direflion
of their fibres toward the liftea alba, there may be fome
reafon to think that they comprefs the bladder, efpecially
when very full of urine.
The tranfverfales feem to have no other ufe than that
of bracing or girding the abdomen in different degrees.
Sect. III. ’The Muscles which move the
Bones of the Shoulder upon the Trunk,
TRAPEZIUS.
The trapezius is a large, broad, thin, fleftiy plane,
fifuated between the occiput and lower part of the back,
and from thence extending to the Ihoulder, in the figure
of a large irregular fquare. From this figure the ancient
Greeks took its name, and, together with the trapezius
of the other fide, it forms a kind of lozenge.
Above, it is fixed in the fuperior tranfverfe line of
the os occipitis, by a thin feries' of fleftiy fibres, reach¬
ing to the mufculus occipitalis,, and appearing to cover
that mufcle by a kind of aponeurofis. Behind, it is fix¬
ed to the five fuperior fpinal apophyfes of the neck, by
means of the pofterior cervical ligament, and immediate¬
ly to the extremities-of the two loweft fpinal apophyfes
of the neck, and of all thofe of the back.
This mufcle covers immediately the fplenius or maftoi-
daeus fuperior, part of the complexus major, the angula-
ris,-rhomboides, and part of the latiflimus dorfi.
RHOMB 01 DES.
This mufcle is a thin, broad, and obliquely fquare
fleftiy plane, fituated between the bafis of the fcapula and
the fpina dorfi ; and it is from its figure that-it has been
termed rhomboides.
It may be divided into two portions, one fuperior, the
other inferior, which fometimes appear feparate. The
fuperior portion is fixed, by an infertion wholly flefhy,
in the two or three loweft fpinal apophyfes of the neck,
and partly in the pofterior cervical ligament. The infe¬
rior portion is fixed, by a tendinous plane, in the three
or four uppermoft fpinal apophyfes of the back.
Thefe two portions, of which the inferior is by much
the broadeft, being united, are inferred in the edge of
the bafis fcapulae, from the fmall triangular fpace to the
inferior angle, the fuperior portion covering a fmall part
of the infertion of the angularis.
This
194 ANA
This whole raufcle is covered by the trapezius, and
covers immediately the ferratus pofticus fuperior, being
joined to each of thefe mufcles by a filamentary or cellu-
lous fubftance.
Angularis, vulgo LEVAraa Scapula Proprius.
This is a long, and pretty thick mufcle, about two
fingers in breadth, lying above the fuperior angle of the
fcapula, along the poflerior lateral part of the neck of
that bone.
It is inferred above in the extremities of the tranfverfe
apophyfes of the four firlf vertebrae of the neck, by four
flefliy branches, ending in Ihort tendons; fometimes the
fecond, fometimes the third, or both, and fometimes the
fourth of thefe branches, is wanting; thefe defedls being
made up by the largenefs of the rett.
From thence thefe branches run down a little oblique¬
ly, and then uniting together, they are inferred in the
fuperior angle of the fcapula, and in the edge of its ba-
fis, from thence to the finall triangular fpace, being there
covered a little by the rhomboides.
This mufcle is eafily divided into two through its
whole length. It is covered by the trapezius, and its
infertions in the neck are fometimes mixed with thofe of
the neighbouring mufcles.
PECTORALIS MINOR.
This is a fmall flelhy mufcle, fomething of a triangu¬
lar fhape, fituated at the fuperior, lateral, and anterior
part of the thorax.
By its bafis it is inferred in the external labium of the
upper edge of the fecond, third, fourth, and fifth true
ribs ; near their union with the cartilages, by the fame
number of digitations or feparate flefhy portions, becaufe
of the intervals between the ribs ; and for that reafon it
has been called ferratus minor anticus.
From thence thefe portions run up, more or lefs, ob¬
liquely toward the Ihoulder, and form a flefhy belly,
which contrails as it paffes before the two firft ribs, and
then becoming a fhort, flat, and broad tendon, is infert-
t d in the upper part of the apophyfis coracoides of the
fcapula, reaching all the way to the point of that
procefs.
This mufcle is covered by the pefloralis major, and
adheres very clofely to the external interccflal mufcles.
SERRATUS MAJOR.
This is a broad, flefhy, and pretty thick mufcle, ly¬
ing on the lateral part of the thorax, between the ribs
and fcapula, hy which it is covered. Its figure is that of
an irregular fquare, its greateft breadth being in the
hack-part, where it terminates by digitations of unequal
lengths, in a radiated difpofition, their extremities de¬
scribing an arch or curve; and from thefe digif'ations its
name is taken.
It is inferred backward in the internal labium of all the
bafis of the fcapula, from the fuperior to the inferior
angle. Front thence running forward wholly flefhy, it
T O M Y. Part II.
increafes gradually in breadth, and is inserted in all the
true ribs, and often in one or two of the falfe ribs, by the
fame number of digitations.
S U B*C L A V I U S.
Th i s is a fmall oblong mufcle, lying between the cla¬
vicle and firft rib. It is fixed by one end in all the mid¬
dle lower portion of the clavicle, at the diftance of about
an inch from each extremity; and by the other in the
cartilage and a fmall part of the bone of the firft rib.
It feems likewife to adhere to the extremity of the cla¬
vicle next the fternum, by a kind of broad thin ligament.
Uses of the Muscles 'which move Bones of the
Shoulder on the Trunk.
The mechanifm of the fcapula, in relation to its mo¬
tions and changes of fituation, is very different from that
of all the other bones of the body, except the os hy-
oides. AH the other bones have fohd fulcra or fixed
points, on which they are either moved or fixed by the
mufcles; but the motions of the fcapula, its changes of
fituation, and its continuance in any one given attitude,
are brought about without the help of any folid fulcrum.
The mufcles alone fuflain it and brace it down, in all its
different motions and fituations.
The fcapula has this peculiarity likewife belonging to
it, that it is the fulcrum and bafis of all the motions of
the os humeri, of fome motions of the fore-arm, and
even of all the moft violent efforts made with thefe
bones, without being itfelf either moved or fixed on any
folid bafis.
The ufe of the trapezius is to raife the fhoulder, and
to keep it from finking.
The ferratus major raifes the fhoulder or top of the
fcapula, brings it forward, and hinders it from finking.
In all thefe, it is the principal adlor; and it is impoffible
to conceive how labourers raife and fupport, by the
fhoulder alone, the heavy burdens with which they are
loaded, without the affiftance of this mufcle.
According to the infertions and dire&ion of the rhom¬
boides, its general ufe muft be, to draw backward and
upward the fub-fpinal portion of the bafis fcapuias.
It is likewife a moderator to the trapezius and ferratus
major, when they raife the fhoulder, or carry the aero-
mium upward; and it brings the fcapula back to its na¬
tural fituation, when the aftion of thefe mufcles ceafes.
The angularis, by its infertion in the fuperior angle of
the fcapula, moderates the defeent of that angle, while
the trapezius and ferratus major raife the acromium.
Afterwards, when thefe two mufcles ceafe to ail, the
angularis raifes the fuperior angle, and by that means de-
prefies the acromium.
The pe&oralis minor aflifts the rhomboides and angu¬
laris, as moderators of the aflion of the trapezius and
ferratus major, in turning the point of the acromium up¬
ward, the fuperior angle downward, and the inferior
angle forward.
It is likewife an a flirt ant to the rhomboides arid angu-
laris, in rertoring the fcapula to its natural fituation,
when
Part II. ANA
when the trapezius and ferratus major ceafe to aft ; by
drawing downward the apophyfis coracoides, in which it
is inferted.
The fubclavius can have no other ordinary ufe, but to
bring down the clavicula, after it has been raifed, toge¬
ther with the acromium, by the adlion of the trapezius
and ferratus major.
Sect. IV. The Muscles which move the
Os Humeri on the Scapula.
D E L T O I D E S.
This is $ very thick mufcle, covering the upper part
of the arm, and forming what is termed the. flump of the
flioulder. It is broad above, and narrow below, in a
triangular form ; and its name is taken from the refem-
blance it bears to the Greek letter A delta.
It is made up of eighteen or twenty fmall fingle muf-
cles, in an oppofite fituation with refpe<S to each other,
and united by middle tendons ; fo that, taken all together,
they form feveral penniform mufcles. The outer furface
appears almoft wholly flefliy, but on the inner furface we
fee the feveral tendons.
Above, it is fixed in the whole inferior labium of the
fpina fcapulae, in the convex or long edge of the acro-
mium, and in the third part of the anterior edge of the
clavicle next that apophyfis. It furrounds the angle
formed by the articulation of thefe two bones, by a par¬
ticular flope and fold contrived for that purpofe.
From thence it runs down above one third of the
length of the os humeri, where it is inferred, by a thick
tendon, in-the large mufcular rough impreflion below the
bony ridge which goes from the great tuberofity of the
head of the bone.
PECTORALIS MAJOR.
This is a large, thick, and flefhy mufcle, covering
the fore-part of the breafl, from the fternum, where it
is very broad, to the axilla, where it contrails in its paf-
fage to the arm.
The infertions in the fternum end by a great number
of very Ihort tendons which run toward the middle of
the bone,' meeting and decuflating thofe from the fame
mufcle on the other fide. The lower Infertions are
moft diflinilly digitated, and they mix with thofe belong¬
ing to the reilns and obliquus externus of the abdomen,
there being likewife feveral fafciculi of fibres common to
the peftoralis with thefe mufcles. This portion is alfo fix¬
ed to the ribs by internal flelhy ftrata covered by die ex¬
ternal infertions, and forming, together with them, the
thicknefs of the mufcle.
From thence all the flelhy fibres contrail in breadth,
and appfcoach each other, in their paffage to- the arm.
The fuperior fibres run downward, joining thofe of the
clavicular portion ; thofe next them run lefs obliquely ;
the following more or lefs tranfverfely; and the inferior
run upward, in the fame manner.
This mufcle, together with the deltoides, fends off
T O M Y. 195
an aponeurofis, which, joining that of the biceps, is
fpread over the mufcles of the arm.
LATISSIMUS DORSE
This is a broad, thin, and moftly flefhy mufcle, lying
between the axilla, where it is very narrow, and the
back on which it expands itfelf by radiated fibres, both
in length and breadth, from the middle of the back all
the way to the lower part of the regio lumbaris; and
from this fituation it has its name.
Its infertions are partly tendinous, and partly flefhy.
In the firft place, it is fometimes, but not always, fixed
in the inferior cofta of the fcapula near the angle, by a
fafciculus of flefhy fibres. In the next place, it is fixed
by an aponeurofis, in the fpinal apophyfes of the fix or
feven, and fometimes eight loweft vertebrae of the back,
in thofe of all the vertebrae of the loins, in the fuperior
fpines and lateral parts of the os facrum, and. in the ex¬
ternal labium of the pofterior part of the os ilium.
TERES MAJOR.
This is a long, thick, flat mufcle, fituated a little
obliquely between the inferior angle of the fcapula, and
the upper part of the arm.
It is fixed by its pofterior flefhy extremity in all the
large angular furface on the outfide of the fcapula, in the
inferior colta of that bone, and near the. angle. From
thence it advances with longitudinal fibres toward the up¬
per quarter of the os humeri, terminating in a broad
flat tendon intermixed with fome fiefhy fibres, which at
the upper edge are continued all the way to the infertion,
lying in the fame place with the tendon.
It is inferted, by. its anterior extremity, at the lower
part of the bony ridge of the fmall tuberqfity, along the
edge of the channel, almoft oppofite to, and fometimes a
little lower than the infertion of the peftoralis major. It
lines the cavity of the channel by a tendinous elongation,
which joins that from the petftoralis, and feems to be
continued with it.
TERES MINOR.
This is. a very flefhy mufcle, refembling the t^res
major, but narrower and fhorter. It lies above the laft
named mufcle, between die cofta inferior of the fcapula,
and the head of the os humeri.
It is fixed by one end to all the middle part of the in¬
ferior cofta of the fcapula, and to the long particular fur¬
face immediately above that cofta, reaching from the
great angular furface near the neck of the bone. From
thence it runs wholly fiefhy, till it changes into a.flat ten¬
don, which is inferted in the pofterior or inferior furface
of the great tuberofi ty of the head of the bone, and like -
wife a little lower down.
INFRASPINATUS.
This is a triangular, flefhy, and pretty broad mufcie,.
in fome meafure penniform, filling the whole infra-fpiual.
cavity or fofia of the fcapula.
It,
I5>S A N A T
It is fixed ’m the pofterior half of the'infra-fpinal ca¬
vity or foiTa, and to the correfpOnding part of the bafis
of the fcapula.
From-thence arife a great number of (hort fleihy fibres,
which run more or lefs obliciuely, and end in a middle
tendinous plane, which terminates a little below the
broadeft part of the fpine of the fcapula, under tire root
of the acromium.
Then the hefty fibres, leaving the bone, unite in
one flefty mafs, which, palling under the acromium, o-
ver the articulation of the head of the os humeri, and
adhering to the capfular ligament, terminates there in a
flat broad tendon, which, adhering likewife to the capfula,
is afterwards inferred in the greater middle furface of the
great tuberofity of the head of the os humeri.
SUPRA-SPINATUS.
This is a thiSk narrow mufcle, in fome meafure pen-
niform, filling all the fupra-fpinal cavity of the fcapula.
It is fixed to all the pofterior half of the fupra-fpinal
fofl’a; and fometimes its infertion reaches near the neck
of the bone. There the fibres leave the furface of the
bone, and pafs between the acromium and neck of the
fcapula, under the arch formed by the acromium and ex¬
tremity of the clavicle, and under the ligament between
the acrorriium and apophyfis coracoides ; being afterwards
inferted in the fuperior furface of the great tuberofity of
the head of the os humeri, very near the bony channel,
C O RAC O-B R A C H I ALI S.
This is a long mufcle lying on the infide of the up¬
per half of the os humeri.
It is fixed above to the point of the coracoid apophy¬
fis, between the infertions of the biceps and pedtoralis
minor, by a tendon, which, as it defcends, adheres for
a good way to the tendons of thefe two mufcles. Af¬
terwards it becomes flefty, and is inferted by a broad
thin extremity, with a final! mixture of tendinous fibres,
in the middle part of the os humeri.
SUBSCAPULARIS.
This mufcle is of the fame breadth and length with
the fcapula, of which it occupies all the inner or con¬
cave fide; and from this fituation it has its name. It is
thick, and. made up of feveral penniform portions nearly
in the fame manner with the deltoides.
It is fixed in the internal labium of the whole bafis,
and in almoft the whole internal furface of the fcapula;
its flefty portions lying in the intervals between the bony
lines, when thefe are found. Near the neck, they leave
the bone, and form a very broad tendon which is infert¬
ed in the furface of the fmall tuberofity of the head of
the os humeri.
Uses of /^/Muscles which move the Os Humeri
on the Scap-ula.
The deltoides, from the difpofition of its infertions
in the fcapula and clavicle, may raife the arm, or fepa-
M Y Part II.
rate it from the ribs, not only dire&ly, but likwife ob-
liqtiely in many different ways. The arm being lifted
directly upward, the lateral, anterior, and pofterior por¬
tions of this mufcle may bring the arm, fo raifed, for7
ward and backward.
The latiffimus dorfi ferves in general to bring down
the arm when raifed; it alfo ferves to deprefs the ftoul-
der, or to maintain it in that fituation againft any force
that endeavours to raife it; as when we lean upon the
elbow in fitting, or walk upon crutches.
The peAoralis major ferves in general to bring the
arm near the ribs, to prefs it ftrongly againft them, and
to carry it towards the fore-part of the thorax.
The teres major, by being inferted in the os humeri
in a direction parallel to the latiffnnus dorfi, becomes a
congener to the fuperior and pofterior portion of that
mufcle; and accordingly moves the os humeri in the
fame manner with it. It turns the bone round its axis,
when the fore-arm is carried behind the back.
It likewife pulls the arm diredtly backward, without
moving it round its axis.
The coraco-brachialis brings the arm to the forefide
of the thorax, raifing it at the fame time ; and, in this
cafe, it may be reckoned a congener or affiftant to the pec-
toralis major in great efforts; and may perform the fame
motion by itfelf, when no great force is neceflary; as
when the whole arm hangs down, and is moved back¬
ward and forward like a pendulum, the motion forward
being performed by the coraco-brachialis, and the mo¬
tion backward by the teres major, its antagonift.
This mcfcle may likewife move the fcapula on the os
humeri kept firmly depreffed, as when fitting in a chair
we take fall: hold of the edge of it with the hand. In
this cafe the coraco-brachialis may bring die arcromium
downward, and the inferior angle of the fcapula, near
the vertebra:. It ferves likewife to bring the arm to its
former fituation, after it has been turned by the latifii-
mus dorfi, in order to apply the hand to the back ; and
then it turns the os humeri upon its axis in a contrary.di-
re&ion to that given it by the other mufcle.
The fupra-fpinatus joins with the deltoides in lifting
up the arm; this mufcle beginning that aftion, and the
deltoides continuing it.
The infra-fpinatus being inferted by its tendon in the
middle furface of the great tuberofity of the os humerij
muft perform different motions according to the different
fituations of that bone. If it affs while the arm hangs
down, parallel to the trunk of the body, it may move
the os humeri round its axis, from before outward; and
confequently, if the fore-arm be at the fame time bent,
it will turn the hand from the body,
When the arm hangs down in its natural fituation,
the fubfcapularis may turn it round its axis, from with¬
out forward, as it happens when in this fituation we beat
the breaft v/ith the fore-arm bent; and it likewife ftrong-
ly aflifts the Jatifiimus doifi, when we turn the hand be¬
hind the back.
When the arm being raifed, we move it backward, as
in giving a back-ftroke with the elbow or fift, the fub¬
fcapularis hinders, the head of the os humeri from being
luxated forward.
The
part IT. A N . A T
The teres miner may turn Jie arm when deprefled .
round its axis, from before outward; as it happens
when the fore-arm, being bent and applied to the lower
part of the bread, is removed from thence, without mo¬
ving the elbow from the fide.
Sect. V. The Muscles which move the
Bones of th&. Fore-arm on the Os Humeri.
BICEPS five COR ACO-R ADI ALIS.
Th i s is a double mufcle made up of two long fleftiy
bodies, more or lefs round, lying by the fide of each o-
ther, on the middle anterior part, and a little toward
the infide of the arm. Thefe two bodies are feparated
above, each of them endihg in a fmail tendon. As they
run down they become contiguous, and afterwards clofe-
ly united by one common broad tendon.
It is fixed by one of the fuperior tendons, in the apex
of the coracoid apophyfis of the fcapula.
The other fuperior tendon is fmaller and longer tl an
the former, and the flefhy body belonging to it ihorter
and more compounded. This tendon is lodged in the
bony channel of the os humeri, being furrounded by a
membranous vagina continued from the capfular liga¬
ment, and ending at the fiefliy body where it is entirely
clofed.
'B R A D H I JE U S.
This is an oblong, thick, and broad mufcle, lying
immediately on the anterior part of the lower half of the
os humeri. The upper part of it is- forked or doped,
and at the bending of the joint of the elbow the lower
part contracts.
It is fixed to the furface of the os humeri by a great
number of flefhy fibres, from the lower infertion of the
deltoides, almoft down to the two fofii-e at the lower ex¬
tremity of the bone, and from one edge of the forefide
of this lower extremity to the other: The fibres are
for the moft part longitudinal, thofe neareft the furface
• of the mufcle being longeft, the more internal growing
gradually fhorter.
ANCONEUS MAJOR.
ThisJs a long flefhy mufcle lying on the backfide of
the ps humeri.
It is fixed above by a fhort tendon to the inferior im-
preflion in the neck of the fcapula, and to a fmall part
of the inferior cofta of that bone. From thence it-paf-
fes between the extremities. of the fubfcapularis and te¬
res minor, and, having reached the backfiue of the low¬
er extremity of the os humeri, it ends obliquely in a
flrong broad tendon, which, adhering clofely in the cap¬
fular ligament, is afterwards fixed by a broad infertion
in the rough tuberofity on the upper fide of the olecranum.
ANCON ASUS EXTERN US.
This is a long mufcle lying on the outer part of the
Vol. I. No. 9. 3
O M Y. 19-7
backfide of the os humeri, from its neck to the external
condyle.
It is fixed above in the neck of the os humeri under
the inferior furface of the great tuberofity, and under
the infertion of the teres minor, but a little more back¬
ward. Jt is likewife fixed by fome oblique fibres in the
external inter-mufcular ligament.
ANCON7EUS IN TERN US.
This mufele is fhorter and more flefhy than the’ an-
conaeus externus, and lies toward the inner part of the
lower half of the os humeri.
It is fixed above, under the lower extremity "of the
teres major, but a little more backward, and to the in ¬
ternal inter-mufcular ligament, which makes a kind of
feptum between this mufcle and the •brachireus. From
thence the fibres cohtratting in breadth, pafs toward the
tendon of the anconteus major, fome of .them running in
between it and the bone, and are inferted in the edge
and inner fide of that tendon.
ANCONTEUS MINOR.
This is a firraii mufcle obliquely triangular/ lying in
the oblong foflula on the. outfide of the olecranum.
It is fixed by a fmall, but pretty ftrong rcridon, in the
lower part of the external condyle of the os humeri.
From thence the flefhy fibres run down obliquely in a ra¬
diated form, and are inferted in the bottom and whole
pofterior edge of the foflula already mentioned.
Uses of the Mufcles ’which move the Bones of the Fore¬
arm on the Os Humeri.
The biceps, or coraco-radialis, bendsbothbor.es of
the Fore-arm, and turns the radius upon the ulna ; per¬
forming both motions by its infertion in the radius alone.
It Hkewife moves the os humeri cn the fore-aim, the
fcapuia on the os humeri, and the os humeri on the fca¬
pula.
The brachiasus ferves to bend the fore-arm on the os
humeri, by its infertion in the ulna, and by the .con-
nedion of that bone with the radius. It ferves alfo to
move the os humeri on the fore-arm.
The anconteus maximus ferves to extend the fore-arm,
by bringing the ulna to a ftraight line with the os hu¬
meri. It ferves likewife to extend the os humeri on the
ulna, when the lall named bone is fixed by fome exte¬
rior refiftance, as when, being laid upon the ground, we
rife by fupporting ourfelves on our hand. In this cafe
likewife, the fcapula mutt be kept fteady by the coraco-
brachialis.
The two lateral anconaei co-operate with, and aflifl
the anconaeus maximus, in extending the fore-arm on
the os humeri, and the os humeri on the fore-arm.
The anconseus minimus may concur with the other
mufcles of that name, in extending the fore-arm on the
os humeri, and'the os humeri on the fore-arm ; but its
action does not reach to all the degrees of flection of thefe
bones; for when the fore-arm is very much, bent, if we
3 D examine
i98 A N A T
examine carefully the fituation of this mufcle, we will
find it more difpofed to maintain thefe bones in that po-
fture, by co-operating with the brachialis, than to-ex¬
tend them by affifting the other anconsei.
Sect. VI. Muscles which move the
Radius upon the Ulna.
SUPINATOR LONGUS five MAJOR.
This is a long flat mufcle, lying on the external
condyle of the os humeri, and on the convex fide of the
radius from one end to the other.
It is fixed by flefliy fibres to the external inter-mufcu-
lar ligament, and to the crifta of the external condyle of
the. os humeri, for five or fix fingers breadth above the
condyle, between the brachkeus and anconaeus externus.
From thence it runs along the whole convex fide of the
radius, and is inferted by a flat narrow tendon, a little
above the ftyloid apophyfis in the angle between the
concave and flat fnjes of the extremity of this bone.
SUPINATOR BREVIS five MINOR.
This is a fmall thin flefliy mufcle, furrounding'a great
portion of the upper third part of the radius.
It is fixed by one end to the lower part of the exter¬
nal condyle of the os humeri, to the external lateral li¬
gament of the joint, to the annular ligament of the radi¬
us, and to, part of the lateral eminence in the head of the
ulna.
From thence it paflfes obliquely over the head of the
radius, covering fome part of it; and running down up¬
on, and in fome meafure furrounding the neck, it turns
in under the bicipital tuberofity, and is inferted by the
fide of the interoffeous ligament in the infide of the fu-
perior quarter of the bone, and even a little lower.
PRONATOR TERES five OBLIQUUS.
This is a fmall mufcle, broader than it is thick, fitu-
ated on the upper part of the ulna oppofite to the fupina-
tbr brevis.
It is fixed to the internal condyle of the os humeri,
partly by fleftiy fibres, and partly by a tendon common
to it with the ulharis intefnus. From thence it pafles
obliquely before the extremity of the tendon of the bra-
chisus, and reaches to the middle part of the convex
fide of the'radius, where it becomes flat, and is inferted
below the fupinator brevis by an extremity almoll wholly
flelhy.
Pronator Quadratus fve Transversus.
This is a fmall flefliy mufcle nearly as broad as it is
long, lying tranfverfely on the infide of the lower extre¬
mity of the fore-arm.
It is fixed by one fide or edge in the long eminence at
the lower part of the internal angle of the ulna, and by
O M Y. Part II.
the other in the broad concave fide of the lower extre¬
mity of the radius.
It has a ligamentary or tendinous frasnum belonging to
it, one end of which is fixed in the interofleous ligament,
the other in the inner edge of the bafis of the radius.
The Uses of the Mufcles •which move the Radius on
the Ulna.
The fupinator longus allifts in the motion of fupina-
tion, and is alfo a flexor of the fore-arm.
The fupinator brevis feems to have no other ufe than
what is exprefled by its name; and as it is a Ihort fmall
mufcle, it muft be very weak.
The pronator teres can have no other action but that of
pronation, in the different fituations of the radius, whe¬
ther that bone be in a middle ftate between pronation,
and fupination, or in the greateft degree of fupination ;
and, in this cafe, though it is but a fmall weak mufcle,
it overcomes the fupinator longus.
The pronator quadratus is capable of no other motion
but pronation, and it adfs with much more force than its
congener the pronator teres.
Sect. VII. The Muscles which move the
Carpus upon the Fore-arm.
U LN ARI S.
This is a long mufcle, fleftiy at its upper extremity,
and tendinous at the other, fi mated on the outer part
of the ulna.
It is fixed by its upper part in the backfide of the long
or internal condyle of the os humeri, in that part of the
olecranum which is next the condyle, along the upper
half ofjjthe ulna very nearly; and to the middle common
tendon of the neighbouring mufcle, termed commonly
profundus.
It runs in the dire&ion of the external angle of the
ulna, and ends by a long tendon, in the os pififorme or
orbiculare of the carpus, reaching likev/ife to the os ua-
ciforme, being united to the ligament common to thefe
two bones.
RADIALIS INTERNUS.
This is a long mufcle very like the foregoing, but
fituated more obliquely.
Its flefliy portion is fixed, by a ftiort tendon, to the
outer and upper fide of the inner condyle of the os hume¬
ri. From thence it pafles obliquely toward the radius ;
and running along about two thirds of that bone, it forms
a long tendon, which pafles under a particular annular li¬
gament, and under the infertion of the mufculus thenar.
This tendon is at length inferted chiefly in the infide
of the bafis of the firft metacarpal bone, and often in the
fecond likewife, and a little in the firft phalanx of the
thumb,, having firft pafled through the channel of the os
trapezium, which fuftains the thumb.
ULNAR IS.
Parc II.
A N A T
ULNARIS EXTERNUS.
This is a long mufcle lying on the outfide of the
fore-arm, fkihy toward the os humeri, and tendinous to¬
ward the carpus.
It is fixed above to the external condyle of the os hu¬
meri, being there united to the anconaeus minor, to the
annular ligament of the head of the radius, and to the
upper half of the external angle of the ulna. From
thence it advances, and forms a tendon, which palfes
through the external notch at the lower extremity of
this bone, on one fide of the ftyloid apophyfis.
The tendon, having afterward pafied under a particu¬
lar ligament fituated near the os cuneiforme of the car¬
pus, is inferted in the outfide of the bafis of the fourth
metacarpal bone, fending fome tendinous filaments to the
bafis of the little finger.
Radialis Externus, Primus Sc Secundus.
These are two mufcles clofely united together, lying
along the external angle of the radius, between the os
humeri and the carpus, being fleflry near the former, and
tendinous near the latter.
The firft is inferted above, in the crifta of the exter¬
nal condyle of the os humeri, below the infertion of the
fupinator longus. The fecond is inferted in the fame
condyle below the infertion of the firft; and in the
neighbouring articular ligament. From thence the two
flelhy bodies run down very clofe together ; and having
reached the middle of the outfide of the radius, each of
them terminates in a long tendon.
The two tendons accompany each other to the extre¬
mity of the radius; and, having paffed under a particu¬
lar annular ligament, they are divided as it were into
two cornua ; from whence the ancients, who looked up¬
on them as one mufcle, gave it the name of bicornis.
One of thefe tendons is inferted anteriorly in the bafis
of the firft metacarpal bone, the other nearly in the fame
place of the fecond bone.
Ulnaris Graciejs, vulgo Palmaris Longus.
This is a fmall mufcle, lying between the os humeri
and the carpus, on the infide of the fore-arm ; its body
being fmall and flender, its tendon very long and flat.
It is fixed by its flefhy portion, in the fmall crifta
of the inner condyle of the os humeri, fometimes clofe¬
ly united to the ulnaris internus. From thence it runs
down flefhy for fome fpace, turning a little obliquely
towards the middle of the fore-arm, and ends in a long,
Barrow, thin tendon.
This tendon pafles down the middle of the fore-arm,
over all the other mufcles to which it flightly adheres, and
advancing over the large internal annular or tranfverfe liga¬
ment of the carpus, is inferted in the furfaoe thereof, fend¬
ing off" fome radiated filaments to the aponeurofis palmaris.
PALMARIS CUTANEUS.-
This mufcle is afmall thin plane of flefhy fibres, fitu¬
ated tranfverfely, or more or lefs obliquely, under the
O M Y. 199
fkin of the large eminence in the palm of the hand, be¬
tween the carpus and the little finger; its fibres adhering
to the fkin, and being in fome meafure interwoven with
the membrana adipofa.
Thefe fibres are fixed along the edge of the aponeuro¬
fis palmaris, from the large ligament of the carpus to¬
ward the little finger; and they run in for fome fpace on
the plane of the aponeurofis, hut without any connexion
with the bones of the metacarpus. Near the aponeurofis,
thefe fibres are more or lefs tendinous, and fome of them
often crofs each other.
METACARPIUS.
This is a very fmall flefhy mufcle, fituated obliquely
between the large internal annular or tranfverfe ligament
of the carpus, and the whole infide of the fourth meta¬
carpal bone.
It is fixed by a fmall fhort tendon to the os orbiculare,
and to the neighbouring part of the large ligament of the
carpus. From thence its fibres run more or lefs oblique¬
ly toward the infide of the fourth metacarpal bone, in
the outer edge of which they are inferted. The fibres
of this mufcle are of unequal lengths, and extend all the
way to the articulation of the firft phalanx of the little
finger with the fourth metacarpal bone, but they have no
manner of relation to that finger.
Uses of the Mufcles which move the Carpus on the
Fore-arm.
Wheh the ulnarus internus a£ls alone, or as the prin¬
cipal mover, it brings the hand obliquely toward the in¬
ternal condyle, and toward the olecranum, though with
difficulty.
When it a<fts together with the radialis internus, it
turns the hand equally towards the two extremities of
the bones of the fore-arm ; and thereby moves not only
the carpus in general on the fore-arm, but alfo the fe-
cond row of the carpus on the firft, and the metacarpal
bones on the fecond.
When it adts with the ulnaris externus, it turns the
outer edge of the hand toward the olecranum.
When the ulnarus externus adts with the ulnaris in¬
ternus, it turns the outer edge of the hand toward the
olecranum, as already faid.
With the radiales externi, it turns; the back of the
hand toward the outer condyle.
When this mufcle afls alone, it brings the outer edge
of the hand obliquely toward the olecranum and the ex¬
ternal condyle at the fame time.
With the radialis externus, the internus carries the in¬
ner edge of the hand, or that next the thumb, toward
the extremity of the radius, and toward the fold made
by the ulna and os humeri.
Alone, it moves that-part of the hand which is next
the thumb obliquely, toward the internal angle of the.
radius.
The radialis externus, together with the" radialis in¬
ternus, turns the inner edge of the hand dire&ly toward
the ftyloid apophyfis of the radius.
Witht
2oo ANA!
With the uinaris externus it inverts the hand, turn¬
ing the convex fide of the metacarpus toward the lower
extremity of the bones of the fore-arm. It likewife
moves the fecond row of the carpus on the firfh
This mutcle, aSing alone, draws obliquely, and to¬
ward the external angle of the radius, that portion of
the hand which anfwers to the firft metacarpal bone, and
to the index.
The ulnaris gracilis, commonly called palmaris longus,
feems to be an affiitant to the ulnaris and tadialis interni
in bending the wrid; and it feems likewife particularly
to affift the radialis internus in the motion of pronation.
The metacarpius ferves to turn the fourth bone of the
metacarpus toward the thumb, and at the fame time to
increafe the convexity of the back of the hand, which is
called making Diegener's cup. The fourth bone thus
moved carries the third along with it by reafon of their
connexion, which ftill augments the hollow on one fide,
and the convexity on the other.
Sect. VIII. The Muscles which move the
Finpcrs.
FLEXOR POLLICIS LONGUS.
This is a long mufcle, fixed by'fliort and oblique
flefny fibres to the infide of the upper part of the inter-
offeous ligament, near the radius, and along that bone
all the way down to the pronator quadratus. There it
terminates in a flat tendon.
This tendon having paffed under a particular ligament,
runs in between the two portions of the thenar, and then
into a fort of groove left between the two fefamoide
bones fixed to the bafis of the fecond phalanx of the
thumb, on that fide which is turned to the palm of the
hand. Afterwards the tendon ends in the flat fide of
the third phalanx, near its bafis. It is inclofed in a li¬
gamentary vagina, from the annular ligament to its in-
iertion, and it is divided or flit, fo that it appears to be
inferted by two extremities adhering together by their
edges.
EXTENSORES POLLICIS.
These are two very dilKnft mufcles, the fir ft or long-
eft of which is fometimes more, fometimes lefs, and
fometimes altogether divided into two, in which cafe
thefe mufcles are three in number. They are fituated
obliquely between the ulna and convex fide of the thumb.
The extenfor primus is a long mufcle, more or lefs
double, in the manner already faid. It is fixed above by
flefliy fibres, firft to the outfide of the ulna, near its up¬
per extremity, below the anconaeus minor and infertion
of the ulnaris externus ; next, to the interofleous ligament
under the fupinator brevis; and, laftly, to the middle
part of the outfide of the radius.
From thence it runs down and paffes anteriorly over
the lower part of the radius, and tendons of the fupina¬
tor longus and radialis externus, and being gradually di-
■ O M Y. Part II.
vsded, it terminates in two long flat tendons, more or
lefs fubdivided, which pals together under a particular
annular ligament, being only parted by fepta or frsena'be¬
longing to that ligament.
The firft of thefe two principal tendons is inferted in
the edge of the bafis of theErft phalanx, near the large,
tranfverfe ligament of the carpus. When this tendon is
fubdivided, the other portion of'it is fixed in that bone
of the carpus which fuftains the thumb. The other
principal tendon, which often belongs to a mufcle entire¬
ly diftinA from the former, is fixed in the convex fide of
the bafis. of the fecond phalanx, where it joins the ten¬
don of the extenfor fecundus.
The extenfor fecundus is ftxorter than the firft. It is
fixed to the ulna, below the former, and above the in¬
fertion of the extenfor indicis proprius, and likewife to
the neighbouring part of the interofleous ligament. From
thence it runs down obliquely on the middle part of the
radius, where it has likewife a fmall adhefion. After¬
wards it palfes through the fmall channel in the ftyloid
apophyfis of the radius, through the annular ligament
belonging to the tendons of the radialis externus, and
over thefe tendons, being parted from them by a fmall li¬
gamentary feptum. It is inferted in the convex patt of
the third phalanx, near its bafis.
THENAR.
This is a very thick flefhy mufcle, in fome meafure
pyriform, lying on the firft phalanx of the thumb to¬
ward the palm of the hand, the large eminence in which
is chiefly formed by it.
It is fixed to the bone which fupports the thumb, , and
to the neighbouring part of the great internal annular
ligament of the carpus. It is in fome meafure bicipita!],
two diftinft portions anfwering to the two infertions al¬
ready mentioned. As it runs along the firft phalanx,
thefe two portions unite, and, dimialfliing in thicknefs,
are both inferted by one tendon in the lateral internal
part of the head of the firft phalanx, in the lateral patt
of the bafis of the fecond, and in the lateral ligament of
ihat joint.
MESOTHENAR.
This is a flat, and nearly triangular mufcle, lying be¬
tween the firft phalanx of the thumb, -and the bottom
of the palm of the hand.
It is inferted, by a very broad bafis, in the ligament
which connects the os magnum of the carpus to that
which fupports the thumb. It is likewife inferted along
the internal or angular pa*t of that bone of the metacar¬
pus, which fupports the middle finger, and in the fmall
extremity of that which anfwers to the index.
From thence the fibres contradting to an angle, termi¬
nate in a flat tendon of different breadths, which is in¬
ferted in that fide of the head of the firft phalanx of the
thumb which is turned to the hollow of the hand, and
in the neighbouring part of the bafis o^ the fecond pha¬
lanx, by means of the fecond fefmioid bone belonging
that joint.
Antithenar
Part II.
201
ANATOMY.
Antithenar five Semi-Interosse(us Pollicis.
This is a frtiall, flat, flefliy mufcle, fituated oblique¬
ly between the firft phalanx of the thumb, and firft bone
of the metacarpus..
It is fixed by one end toward the bafis of the firft me¬
tacarpal bone, near the firft bone of the fecond row of
the carpus. From thence it runs obliquely toward the
head of the firft phalanx of the thumb, and is inferted
in the lateral external part of that bone, or on that fide
which is turned to the firft metacarpal bone. It crofies
over the femi-interofleus indicis, this mufcle lying to.ward
the back of the hand, and the antithenar toward the
palm.
PERFORATUS vulgo SUBLIMIS.
This is a mufcle of a confiderable volume, lying along
the infide of the fore-arm, flelhy for the greateft part
near the articulation of the fore-arm with the os humeri,
and near the carpus, terminating in four diftinfl portions,
which become the fame number of long fmall tendons.
The name of fublimis has been given to it, becaufe it
lies almoft onf the furface of the fore-arm; and that of
perforatus, from the flits found near the extremities of
its tendons.
It is commonly made up of four mufcles, clofely uni¬
ted by their fleftiy portions. It is fixed above to the fu-
perior internal parts of the ulna and radius, a.nd to that
of the interofleus ligament. A little below the middle
of the fore-arm, 'this large flelhy body is divided into
four diftinit mufcles, which, on the loweft quarter of
the fore-arm, end in four flat tendons of different fizes.
Thefe four tendons are inclofed in a common membra¬
nous or mucilaginous vagina, which likewife. furnilhes
each tendon with a particular thin vagina. In this man¬
ner they advance to the carpus, and pafs under the large
annular tranfverfe ligament. Beyond this ligament, they
fpread again in the palm of the hand, ftill retaining their
particular vaginse, and run between the aponeurofis pal-
maris and metacarpus, toward the fingers, feparating
more and more by degrees.
Having reached 'the heads <)f the metacarpal bones,
they pafs under the four arches or frsena formed by the
furcae of the aponeurofis palmaris,, and particular fepta
of the great tranfverfe ligament of the palm of the hand;
and then each tendon having got beyond the head of one
metacarpal bone, and beyond the bafis of the firft pha¬
lanx, enters the ligamentary vagina on the flat or inner
fide of that phalanx, and is inferted in the flat fide of
the fecond phalanx, near its bafis, the membranous va¬
gina accompanying it to its jnlertion.
In palling along the infide of the firft phalanx, the
tendon is divided by a long flit, which gives paffage to a
tendon of the perforans; and from thence the names of
thefe two mufcles are taken.
PERFORANS vulgo PROFUNDUS.
This mufcle is very like the former, and is fituated
much in the fame manner; only it lies lower, and is co-
Vol. I. No. 9. 3
vered by the perforatus. It is compofed of four mufcles,
which at firft feem to make but one mafs, and afterwards
terminate in four tendons.
The fleftiy portions of the firft and largeft, and alfo of
the fecond, are fixed in the fuperior parts of the ulna
and interofleus ligament, down to their middle ; the flefliy
portion of the third is joined to the tendon of the ulna-
ris internus, by a fort of common aponeurofis ; and that
of the fourth is fixed along the ulna.
The four tendons have often feveral fmall collateral
tendons, fometimes five in number,1 united to the ten¬
dons of the neighbouring mufcle, as they pafs under the
large annular ligament of the carpus; but the tendons
themfelves are feparated from the others by thin fepta,
which form a kind of particular rings. Being thus
ftrengthened,, they feparate; and running along the palm
of the hand in diftimft: membranous vaginae, like thole of
the perforatus, by which they are covered, they enter
the ligamentary vaginae of the firft phalanges together
with the former; and having paffed through the fiflures
thereof, and through the ligamentary vaginae of the fe¬
cond phalanges, they are inferted in the flat inner fide of
the third, near their bafis.
EXTENSOR DIGITORUM COMMUNIS.
This is a compound mufcle, very much refembling
the perforatus and penforans, lying on the outfide of the
fore-arm, between the ulnaris externus and radialis ex-
ternus.
It is fixed above, by a tendinous extremity, to the po-
fterior and lower part of the efxternal or great condyle
of the os humeri, and, by a tendinous adhefion on each
fide, to the ulnaris and radialis externus. It has like¬
wife fometimes a fraall infertion in the radius. It is di¬
vided into four mufcles, like the perforates and perfo-
.rans, and four long, flender, fmall tendons.
Three of thefe tendons pafs through the common ex¬
ternal annular ligament of the carpus; and the fourth,
which goes to the little finger, pafles through a particular
ring of the fame liganient.
Afterwards thefe four tendons feparate as they go to
the fingers, and in their pafl’age communicate with each
other, by oblique tendinous feries, chiefly near the heads
of the metacarpal bones.
Each tendon having reached the bafis of the firft pha¬
lanx, is flightly inferted therein by fome lateral expanfions
fixed in each fide of the bafis. From thence it advances
to the head of the fame phalanx, where it is divided in¬
to two flat portions, which, at the articulation of the
firft phalanx with the fecond, leave fome diftance be¬
tween them. About the head of the fecond phalanx,
they unite again, and are fixed in the convex fide of the
third phalanx, near its bafis.
EXTENSOR INDICIS PROPRIUS.
This is a fmall long mufcle, with a long flender ten¬
don, lying a little obliquely on the lower and outer half
of the fore-arm, between the ulna and fore-fipger.
It is fixed, by its flefliy body, a little higher than the
3 E loweft
2C2
Part IT.
ANATOMY.
] owe ft third part of the ontfide of the ulna, below the
infertion of the extenfor pollicis, and it has likewife a
fmall adhefion to the interofteus ligament. From thence
it runs down, ending in a diftinft tendon, without any
communications, which having pafled through the annu¬
lar ligament of the extenfor communis, afterwards joins
that tendon which goes to the index.
EXTENSOR MINIMI DIGITI PROPRIUS,
This is a kind of collateral or auxiliary mufcle of
the extenfor communis, of which it appears almoit al¬
ways to be more or lefs a portion.
It is fixed along the fuperior external half of the ul¬
na, from whence its long fmall tendon runs down in
company with the fourth tendon of the extenfor commu¬
nis, all the way to the little finger, where it joins it, and
is infer ted with it.
LUMBRICALES.
These are four very fmall flender mufcles, lying in
the hollow of the hand, in the fame direction with the
perforatus and perforans.
They are fixed, by their flefhy bodies, to the tendons
of t}ie perforatus on the fide next the thumb, near the
large annular ligament of the carpus. Near the heads
of the metacarpal bones, they become very thin tendons,
which accompany thofe of the perforans through the fur-
css of the aponeurofis palmaris. Then they pafs on to
the fame fides of the firft phalanges, and join the ten¬
dons of the extenfor communis; each of them being
connedted with the neareft portion thereof, at the articu¬
lation of the firft phalanx with the fecond.
INTEROSSEI.
These are fmall mufcles, lying between the metacar¬
pal bones, and filling the three interftices left between
them, both exteriorly, or towards the back of the hand,
and interiorly, or toward the palm of the hand. Fiom
this firuation tliey have the name of intt.rr,ffei, and have
been divided into external and internal. They are com¬
monly reckoned fix in number, three external, and three
internal.
The firft two external interoflei are for the moft part
inferred in the middle finger. They fill the interftices
between the three firft metacarpal bones, and furround
the middle bone all the way to the hollow of the hand.
Their tendons are fixed in both fides of the firft: phalanx,
and in both iides of the fecond tendon of the extenfor
communis.
The third external interoffeus lies in the interftice be¬
twixt the two laft metacarpal bones, and is moft com¬
monly inferted in the ring finger; its tendon being fixed
in that fide of the firft phalanx fartheft from the thumb,
and in the correfponding edge of the third tendon of the
extenfor communis. The flefhy body of this mufcle
runs in between the two bones toward the hollow of the
hand.
The internal interoffei are more fimple than the former.
and do not lie fo much between the bones. The tendon
of the firft is inferted in the fide of the firft phalanx of
the fore-finger, next the little finger, and in the corre¬
fponding edge of the extenfor communis. The tendon
of the fecond goes in the fame manner to the fide of the
ring-finger next to the thumb ; and the third, to the
fame fide of the little finger.
There are therefore two external intercflei for the
middle finger, one for the ring finger, but none for the
fore and little finger. The middle finger has no internal
interoffeus; but the index, ring finger, and little finger,
have each of them one.
SEMI-INTEROSSEUS INDICIS.
This is a fmall, fhort, flat, flefby mufcle, very like
the antithenar, or internal femi-interoffeus of the thumb.
It is fituated obliquely on one fide of that of the thumb,
between the firft phalanx thereof, and the ftrft metacar¬
pal bone.
It is fixed by one end to the outfide of the bafis of
the firft phalanx of the thumb, and a little to that bone
of the carpus by which this phalanx is fupported; and.
by the other end it is fixed near the head of the firft
phalanx of the index, on that fide next the thumb.
HYPOTHENAR MINIMI DIGITI.
This is a fmall and pretty long mufcle, lying on the
backfide of the fourth metacarpal bone oppofite to the
thumb, where, together with the metacarpius, or hypo-
thenar metacarpi, it forms that large eminence over-a-
gainft the thenar or that of the thumb.
It is fixed by one end in the os orbiculare of the car¬
pus, and a little to the neighbouring part of the large an¬
nular ligament. The other end terminates by a fhort
ftattifh tendon, fixed to that fide of the bafis of the firft
phalanx of the little finger which is turn^f from the
thumb.
Uses of the Mufcles •which move the Fingers.
The perforatns ferves to bend the fecond phalanges
of all the fingers except the thumb; and the particular
mufcles, of which it is made up, may a<ft feparately, by
reafon of their diftincft infertions in thefe phalanges.
They not only bend the fecond phalanges on the firft,
but alfo the firft on the metacarpal bones, and the meta¬
carpus and carpus on the fore-arm.
The perforans bends particularly the third phalanges
in which it is inferted; and by the fame motion it may
likewife bend the firft and fecond phalanges.
It may likewife be efteemed an afliftant to the ulnaris
and radialis interni in great efforts; and thefe mufcks
many reciprocally be looked upon as affiftants to the per¬
foratus and perforans.
The extenfor digitorum communis ferves to extend
the four fingers, to keep them in any degree of exten-
fion, and to moderate their flexion in all the determinate
degrees of a&iort of the perforatus and perforans.
Each tendoa ferves to extend a whole finger, that is,
all
Part II. ANA
all the three phalanges together ; and likewife each pha¬
lanx by itfelf, though not with the fame facility.
The proper extenibrs of the fore and little fingers are
aiTillants to two fubaltern mulcles of the extenfor com¬
munis that go to thefe fingers, which confequently we
extend feparately with more cafe than either of the o-
ther two. Thefe mufcles likewife ferve to bring the
fingers, in which they are inferted, near the other fin¬
gers.
The flexor pollicis longus ferves- chiefly to bend the
third phalanx of the thumb, in which it is inferted by
the extremity of its tendon. It likewife bends the fe-
cond phalanx, by virtue of the ligaraentary vagina,
through which it paffes, as through an annular ligament.
The firfl extenfor of the thumb alone, when there are
three, a portion of the firft, when there are but two,
ferves to draw the firfl: phalanx from the palm of the
hand, or to keep it at a diflance therefrom.
The fecond of thefe mufcles when there are three, or
the fecond portion of the firfl: when there are but two,
ferves to extend the fecond phalanx on the firft.
The third when there are three, or the fecond when
there are but two, extends the third phalanx on the fe¬
cond.
When they adf all together, they aflift each other by
the graduated infertions of their fmall fubaltern tendons.
The thenar, by its infertion in the firft phalanx of the
thumb, ferves to draw it from the firft bone of the meta¬
carpus, more or lefs diredtly, as one of its portions ads
more than the other, or as they both ad equally.
By the infertion of the large portion in the bafis of
the fecond phalanx, by the intervention of the fefamoid
bone of the fame fide, it may bend this phalanx lateral¬
ly on the firft, and thereby bring the thumb to a great¬
er diftance from the index.
The mefothenar moves the firft phalanx of the thumb
towards theJioilow of the hand, more or lefs obliquely,
as it ads either alone or with the large portion of the
thenar, or even with the antithenar. By its infertion
in the fefamoid bone of the fecond phalanx, it likewife
moves that phalanx on the firft, and thereby affifts the
flexor longus.
The antithenar moves the firft phalanx of the thumb
toward the firft bone of the metacarpus, and thereby
preftes the thumb laterally againft the index. This mo¬
tion becomes more or lefs oblique by the co-operation of
the mefothenar.
The hypothenar minor ferves to feparate the little fin¬
ger from the reft; which motion is commonly called ab-
duttion. It likewife keeps this finger feparated in all
fituations, that is, in all degrees of flexion or extenfion.
The interoflei may have two different ufes, according
to their different infertion, and the different fituations of
the fingers in which they are inferted.
In general, they aflift the extenfor conmmtmis by their
infertions in the lateral angles of the rhomboidal fiflures;
for thereby they ad like lateral ropes, which, together
with the tendons of the extenfor, ferve to extend the
third phalanx of each finger.
By the fame lateral infertions they perform the lateral
motioui of the fingers, that is, they prefs them all clofe
T O M Y. 205
againft each other, but do not feparate them all, nor
move each finger in particular toward, or from, the
thumb. In a general feparation of all the fingers, the
interoflei move only the middle and ring fingers ; the in¬
dex and little finger being feparated by other mufcles.
In the motions of the fingers toward the thumb, which
is termed udduttion, they ad only on three fingers, the
middle, ring, and little fingers. In the contrary mo¬
tion, or abdudion of the fingers, they move likewife
three, viz. the index, middle, and ring fingers.
The ufes of the interoffei in particular, whether ex¬
ternal or internal, may be different in different fubjeds,
according to the variety of their infertions ; and there¬
fore in living bodies nothing can be determined about
them.
According to the fituation in which they have been de-
feribed, the firft and fecond external interofiei perform,
alternately the addudion and abdudion of the middle fin¬
ger ; the third performs the abdudion of t'he ring-finger;
that is, moves it toward the little finger.
The firft internal interofl’eus makes the abdudion of
the index, or movesdt toward the middle finger; the fe¬
cond makes the addudion of the ring-finger, by moving
it likewife toward the middle finger; and the third per¬
forms the addudion of the little finger, or moves .it to¬
ward the middle finger.
The ufe of the femi-interofleus indicis is to move the:
firft phalanx of the index, more or lefs diredly, toward
the great edge of the metacarpus, by removing it from
the middle finger. This motion is not a true addudion
of the index toward the thumb.
The lumbricales, by the union of their tendons with
thofe of the interoflei, are coadjutors to thefe mufcles,
not only in the lateral motions of the four fingers, but
alfo in bending and extending them. In the lateral mo¬
tions, they co-operate according to their fituation-in each
fubjed; and it is poffible that the variety of their infer¬
tions anfwer to that of the interoffei,-fo that the reci¬
procal co-operation continues ftill to be equal.
Sect. IX. The Muscles uhich move the
Os Fetmris upon the Pelvis.
PSOAS Jive LUMB ARTS INTERNUS.
This is a long thick mufcJe fituated in the abdomen
on the lumbar region, adhering‘to the vertebra of the
loins, from the pofterior part of the os ilium to the an¬
terior part near the thigh.
It is fixed above to the laft vetebra of the back, and
to ail thofe of the loins, that is, to the lateral parts of
the bodies of thefe vertebra, and to the roots >pf their
tranfverfe apophyfes. The infertions in the bodies of
the vertebra are by a kind of digitations, and are very
little tendinous.
From thence the mufcle runs down laterally over the
os ilium, on one fide of the iliac mufcle, and pafles un¬
der the ligamentum Fallopti, between the anterior inferi¬
or fpine of the os ilium, and that eminence which from
its fituatioa may be termed iliojetlinea.,.
Before
Before it {ides out of the abdomen, it unites with the
iliacus, and is fometimes fixed, by a few flefhy fibres, in
the outfde of the eminence fall mentioned. It after¬
wards coders the fore-fide of the head of the os femoris,
and is inferred in the fore-part of the little trochanter by
an oblique tendon, which is folded double from behind
forward.
ILIACUS.
This is a broad thick mufcle, lying on the whole in-
fide of the os ilium.
It is fixed by flefhy fibres to the internal labium of the
crifta oflis ilium, to that of the flope between the two
anterior fpines, to the infides of thefe fpines, to the fu-
perior half of the infide of this bone, and to the neigh¬
bouring lateral part of the-os facrum.
All thefe fibres, contra<5ling by degrees, run obliquely
towards the lower part of the mufculus pfoas, uniting
therewith, and being fixed by a kind of aponeurofis to
the outfide of its tendon all the way to the little tro¬
chanter. They cover the head of the os femoris, and
feme of the lowed are inferred in that bone a little above
and behind the little trochanter, and others a little lower
down.
The iliacus and pfoas, thus united, pafs under the li-
gamentum Fallopii, over the flope or channel, between
the anterior inferior fpine of the-os ilium and eminentia
ilio-pe&inea, in a fort of iigamentary capfula very fmooth
and polifhed.
P E C T I N E U S.
This is a frhall, flat, and pretty long mufcle, broad
at the upper part, and narrow at the lower, fituated ob¬
liquely between the Os pubis and upper part of the os fe¬
moris.
It is fixed above by flefhy fibres to all the fliarp ridge
or crifta of the os pubis, and to a fmall part of the ob¬
long notch or depreflion on the forefide of that crifta,
in which the upper extremity of this mufcle is lodged.
From thence it runs down obliquely towards the little'
trochanter, under and a little behind which, it is inferr¬
ed obliquely by a flat tendon, between the fuperior in-
fertion of the vaftus internus, and inferior infertion of
the triceps fecundus, with which it is united.
GLUTjEU smaximu s.
This is a thick broad mufcle, lying on the outfide of
the os ilium and upper part of the os femoris.
It is fixed wholly flefhy to all the lateral pofterior
parts of the os coccygis and os facrum; to the ligamen-
tum facro-fciaticum; to the outfide of the tuberofity of
the os ilium; and from thence to the external labium
of the crifta cf that bone all the way to its higheft part,
where this mufcle mixes fibres with the glutams medius.
It is likewife fixed to the infide of the fafeia lata, at,
the places which anfwer to all the infertions already
mentioned, but through a much greater fpace, and by a
O M y. Part II.
very great number of flefhy fibres, almoft in the fame
manner as we fliall fee in the external plane of the muf¬
culus temporalis. The fibres which end in this fafeia be¬
come gradually ftiorter, as they are fituated lower.
All thefe fibres contradt in breadth in a radiated man¬
ner as they approach to the great trochanter, and after¬
wards form a ftrong, flat, pretty broad tendon, about
an inch in length, which is inferred a finger’s breadth or
a little more below the great trochanter, in all that
large longitudinal impreffion at the upper part of the li-
nea afpera on the back-fide of the os femoris, between
the vaftus ext^rnus and largeft portion of the triceps.
GLUT 7E US MEDIUS.
This is a radiated mufcle, almoft in the lhape of a
fpread fan. It is pretty thick, and almoft as broad as
the whole outfide of the os ilium, being fituated between.
the crifta of that bone and the great trochanter, and co¬
vered anteriorly by the fafeia lata, and pofteriorly by the
glutseus maximus.
It is fixed above by flefliy fibres to all that fpace
on the cutfide of the os ilium, which lies between the
external labium of the crifta, and the femicircular im-
preflion which goes between the fuperior anterior fpine,
and the great pofterior finus.
It is likewife fixed in the edge of that ligament which
goes between the lower part of the os facrum and os ili¬
um. Laftly, the imffer part of it, which is covered only
by the fafeia lata, is inferted in the infide of that fafeia
in the fame manner as the glutasus maximus.
From thence all the fibres contrail: in breadth, more
Of lefs, in a radiated manner, as they advance toward
the great trochanter, and form a fliort thick tendon,
which mixes a little anteriorly with the tendon of the
glutasus minimus ; and the moft pofterior fibres gradual¬
ly join the fide of the tendon of the pyriformis.
The tendon is inferted in the upper convex part of
the great trochanter, from the apex of the large fuperior
external rough furface, all the way to the anterior
rough furface, encompafling in a manner all that part of
the trochanter.
GLUTEUS MINIMUS.
This is a fmall, broad, radiated mufcle, fituated on
the outfide of the os ilium, under the other two glutaei.
It is fixed above in all that portion of the outfide of
the os ilium, which lies between the great femicircular
line, and another fmall one, a little above the. fupercili-
um of the cotyloid cavity or acetabulum, running be¬
tween the anterior inferior fpine and the great potlerior
finus. It is" likewife fixed in the edge of that finus, in
the fpine of the ifehium, and in the orbicular ligament
of the joint of the hip.
From thence its fibres, contrafting in breadth, form a
fliort tendon, by which the mufcle is inferted in the an¬
terior part of the upper edge of the great trochanter, a-
bove the great external convex rough furface in which
the glutaeus medius is fixed.
TRICEPS
Part II.
A N A T
TRICEPS PRIMUS.
This, with the two following tricipital mufcles, are
flefny and flat, and of different lengths, fituated between
the os pubis and the whole length of the os femoris.
The firft and fecond crofs each other in fuch a manner,
as that the mufcle, which is the firfl: on the os pubis,
. becomes the fecond on the os femoris; and the fecond
on the os pubis, is the firft on the os femoris. The third
mufcle keeps its rank.
The triceps primus is fixed above by a ftiort tendon
to the tuberofity or fpine of the os pubis, and to the
neighbouring part of the fymphyfis, its fibres mixing a
a little with thofe of the peftineus. From thence it runs
down, increafing in breadth, and is inferted by flefliy fi¬
bres interiorly in the middle portion of the linea femo¬
ris afpera.
At the lower part of this infertion, a portion of the
mufcle feparates from the reft, and fends off a long ten¬
don, which, together with a like tendon from the triceps
tertius, is inferted in the inner condyle of the extremity
of the os femoris.
TRICEPS SECUNDUS.
This mufcle is fixed above by fleftiy fibres, below
the fuperior infertion of the triceps primus* in all the
outfide of the inferior ramus of the os pubis, as low as
the foramen ovale, but feldom folow as -the ramus of the
os ifchium.
From thence it runs down, and is inferted in the upper
part of the linea afnera, between the peftineus and tri¬
ceps primus, mixing a little with each of thefe mufcles.
TRICEPS T^RTIUS.
This mufcle is fixed above by flelhy fibres to the an¬
terior part of all the fliort ramus of the ifchium, and to
a fmall part of the tuberofrty of that bone.
From thence it runs down, and is inferted by flefliy
fibres in the linea afpera, almoft from the little trochan¬
ter, down to the middle of*the os femoris. It goes low¬
er down than the firft triceps, fending off a feparate por¬
tion like that of the mufcle laft mentioned.
Thefe two portions join together, and form a com¬
mon tendon, which, running down to the lower extremi-
- ty of the os femoris, is inferted in .the back part of the
tuberofity of the inner condyle.
PYRIFORMISPYRAMIDALIS.
This is a fmall oblong mufcle, of the figure of a flat
pear or pyramid, from whence it has its name. It is
fituated almoft tranfverfely, between the os facrum and
ifchium, being covered and hid by the firft two glutaei.
It is fixed to the inferior lateral part of the os facrum,
by flefliy fibres, and to the neighbouring'part of the an¬
terior or concave fide of that bone, by three digitations
lying between the anterior holes. It is likewife fixed by
Vol. I. No. 9. 3
O M Y. 235
a fmall infertion to the ligarnentum facro-fci&ticum and
edge of the great finus of the cs ilium. '
From thence it runs tranfverfely towards the joint of
the hip, its fibres contrading in breadth, and ends in a
fmall tendon, which is inferted in the middle of the inter¬
nal labium of the upper edge of the great trochanter,
by two or three branches.
OBTURATOR INTER NUS.
This is a flat mufcle, almoft triangular, fituated in
the bottom of the pelvis. It covers the forameri ovale,
and almoft all the infide of the os pubis and ifchium.
It is fixed to the internal labium of all the anterior
half of the foramen ovale, a little to the neighbouring
part of the obturator ligament ,; and alfo both above and*
below the foramen. It is likewife fixed, to the upper half
of the infide of the 6s ifchium from the upper oblique
notch in the foramen ovale, to the fuperior part of the
great pofterior finus of the os ilium.
From all this extent the flefhy fibres, contra<5ting in
breadth, run down below the fpine of the ifchium,
where they go out of the pelvis through the pofterior
notch of the ifchium, and afterwards unite in , one large
flat tendon, which crofting over that of the pyriformis,
unites with it, having firft received on each fide fome
additional flefli^ fibres from the two gemelii.
GEMELLI.
These are to two fmall, flat, narrow mufcles, fitu-
ated almoft tranfverfely one above jhe other, between
the tuberofity of the ifchium and the great trochanter,
immediately below the pyriformis, and parted by the
tendon of the obturator intern us.
The fuperior and fmalleft gemellus is fixed to the
lower part of the fpine of the ifchium, to the fupenor
part of the fmail ifchiatic notch, and to a rough line,
which runs crpfs the outfide of the ifehium, beginning
from the fpine, and continued under the acetabulum,
where it is bent downward.
The inferior and largeft gemellus is fixed to the fu¬
perior and back part of the tuberofity of the ifchium,
and to a rough impreflion which runs crofs the outfide
of the ifchium ffrom the lower extremity of the ifchiatic
notch, and is bent upward toward the other line, to¬
gether with which it forms a fort of irregular femi-
circle.
Both thefe mufcles have likewife a fmall infertion in
the infide of the ifchium, where, being united together
by a particular membrane, one of them joins the upper
fide, and the other the lower fide of the obturator inter-
nus, a little after it has paffed over the notch: They
inclofe it as in a bag, and continue to be fixed to it by
fleftiy fibres all the'way to its extremity.
OBTURATOR EXTERNUS.
This is a fmall flat tnufcle,- which fills up the fora¬
men ovale of the os innominatum exteriorly, and reaches
3 F from
20(5 A N A 1
■from thence to the great trochanter of the os femoris,
behind the neck of that bone.
It is fixed by fleihy fibres to the outer anterior fide of
the os pubis, all the way to the foramen ovale, to the
edge of that hole, next the fmall ramus of the ifchium,
and a little to the neighbouring parts of the obturator
ligament.
From thence its fibres, contracting in breadth, pafs
on the forefide of the great ramus of the ifchium, under
the acetabulum, where a tendon is formed, which con¬
tinues its courfe behind the neck of the os femoris to¬
ward the great trochanter, and is inferred between the
gemelli and quadratus, in a fmall foflula between the
apex of the great trochanter, and the bafis of the col-
lum femoris.
QU A D R A T U S.
This is a fmall, flat, flelhy mufcle, of the figure of
an oblong fquare, from whence it has it name. It is
fituated tranfverfely between the tuberofity of the ifchium
and the great trochanter.
It is fixed, by one extremity along that obtufe line
which runs from under the acetabulum, toward the lower
part of the tuberofity of the ifchium. From thence it
runs direftly toward the great trochanter, and is inferr¬
ed in almoft all the lower half of the oblong eminence in
that apophyfis; but chiefly in the fmall rifing or tubero-
lity in the middle of that eminence.
MUSCULUS FASCIiE LATJE.
This is a fmall and pretty long mufcle, fituated a
little obliquely upward and downward on the forepart of
the hip.
It is fixed above to the outfide of the anterior fuperior
fpine of the os ilium, between the infertions of the glu-
tacus medius and fartorius. From thence its fleftiy fibres
run down a little obliquely backward, forming a very
fiat body, four fingers breadth in length, and two in
breadth.
This body lies between two laminse of the fafcia lata,
and is inferred therein by fliort tendinous fibres, which
ctiiappear at that place where the fafcia adheres to the
great trochanter and tendon of the glutseus maximus.
Uses of the Mufchs 'which move the Os Femoris on
the Pelvis.
The glutseus maximus ferves chiefly, by its pofterior
portion, to extend the os femoris, and to draw it back¬
ward. By its anterior portion, it may co-operate with
the reft in performing the abdudtion of the thigh; but
when we fit, it can do this office only by its pofterior
portion.
By its infertion in the os coc'cygis, it may on fome
occafions bring it forward, and hinder it from being thruft
too far backward, as in the excretion of hardened feces,
or in difficult births.
The glutseus medius is commonly, but falfely, reckon¬
ed an extenfor of the thigh. Its ufe is to feparate one
O M Y. Part II.
thigh from the other, when we (land, and that more or
lefs diredlly according to the action of its anterior, po¬
fterior, or middle portions.
When we fit, the only ufe of this mufcle is to per¬
form the rotation of the os femoris about its axis, in
fuch a manner, that if the leg be bent at the fame time,
it fhail be feparated from the other.
The glutaius minimus has likewife been reckoned an
extenfor of the thigh, but without any foundation. It
affifts the glutseus medius in the abdu&ion of the thigh
when we ftand, and in the rotation when we fit.
The pfoas bends the thigh on the pelvis, or brings it
forward. It may likewife move the pelvis on the thighs,
and hinder it from being carried along with the reft of
the trank, when the body is inclined backward while we
fit, having the low'er extremities fixed by fome external
force. In this fituation it may likewife move the verte¬
bras of the loins.
The iliacus is a congener or alfiftant to the pfoas, in
bringing the thigh forward and upward. It may likewife
move the pelvis in the fame manner with the former.
The pe&ineus is an afliftant to- the two former muf-
cles in moving both the thigh and the pelvis. It may
likewife aflift in Bringing the thigh ijjward, or toward
the other, whether it be extended or bent at the fame
time.
The three triceps mufcles join in the fame ufe; that
is, to move the thigh inward, and bring the two thighs
near each other; as when, in riding, we prefs the thighs
clofe againft the faddle; when, in fitting, we hold any
thing clofe between the knees ; when we crofs the thighs;
or when, in (landing, we bring the legs clofe together, in
order to jump.
The ufe of thefe mufcles is likewife to hinder the
thighs from feparating more than is convenient, efpecial-
ly in great efforts and jerks.
The pyriformis, gemelli, and quadratus, called like¬
wife by the common name of quadrigemini, are conge-
neres in their ufes ; and thefe have been confined by ana-
tomifts to the rotation of the os femoris about its axis
from before outward, when we ftand or lie at full
length ; likewife in fitting, or when the thigh is bent in
any other pofture, they carry the thigh outward, or fe¬
parate the two thighs from each other when bent.
All the four co-operate in thefe two ufes of rotation
and abduftion ; but they co-operate equally or unequally,
according to the different degrees of the extenfion or
flexion of the thigh.
The obturator internus has nearly the fame ufes with
the quadrigemini, in making the rotation of the thigh
when extended, and the abdfeHon when bent.
The obturator externus concurs with the internus in
the fame ufes, though in a more Ample manner, and in
a more uniform direftion. It ads chiefly when the thigh
is extended more or lefs.
The mufculus fafcix latae makes a rotation from be¬
fore inwards, that is, in a contrary diredion to that
made by the quadrigemini and obturator internus ; and
this rotation is not lo much confined as that of the qua¬
drigemini, becaufe it may have place whether die thigh
be bent or extended.
Sect.
Part II.
A
N
A
Sect. X. The Muscles which move the
Bones of the Leg on the Os Femoris.
Rectus Anterior five Gracilis Anterior.
This mufcle is as long as the os femoris; and lies di¬
rectly along the forefide of the thigh, from whence it
has the name of rettus anterior.
It terminates above, by a pretty Urong tendon, which
is divided into two branches, one fhort and ftraight, the
other long and bent. The Ihort branch, running up in
a ftraight line, is inferted in the anterior inferior ipine of
the os ilium.
The long branch is inflected backward over the fuper-
c'dium of the acetabulum, and runs in the direction there¬
of, from the fpine toward the great ifchiatic finus. It
is ftrong and fiat, adhering very clofely to the bone, and
covered by the orbicular ligament and the glutasus mi¬
nimus.
From thence the mufcle runs down wholly flefhy, and
partly penniform, fome of its fibres meeting above and
feparating below. It is narrow at the upper extremity,
and grows gradually broader toward the middle. Af¬
terwards it contracts again in the fame manner, and, at
the lower extremity of the cs femoris, ends in a flat
broad tendon.
VASTUS EXTERNUS.
Tfiris is a very large flefhy tnufcle, almoft as long as
the os femoris, broad at the extremities, and thick in
the middle, lying on the outfide of the thigh.
Its upper infertion, being fomething tendinous, is in
the pofterior or convex rough furface of the great tro¬
chanter. It is likewife fixed by a fleftiy infertion along the
outfide of the os femoris for above two thirds of its
length downward, in the correfponding part of the linea
afpera, and in the neighbouring portion of the fafcia lata.
From all this extent the flelhy fibres running down¬
ward, and a little obliquely forward toward the reChis
anterior, terminate infenfibly in a kind of ftiort aponeuro-
fis, which is fixed in all the neareft edge of the tendon
of the reCtus, in the fide of the patella, in the edge of
the ligament of that bone, and in the neighbouring late¬
ral part of the head of the tibia.
* VASTUS INTERN US.
This mufcle is very like the former, and fituated in
the fame manner on the infide of the os femoris.
It is fixed above by a fhort flat tendon, in the anterior
rough furface of the great trochanter, and by flelhy fi¬
bres in that oblique line which terminates the bafis of
the collum femoris anteriorly, on the forefide of the in-
fertions of the pfoas and iliacus, in the whole infide of
the os femoris, and in the linea afpera on one fide of the
infertions of the three tricipites, almoft down to the in¬
ternal dbndyle.
i From all this extent the fibres run downv/ard, and a
little obliquely forward, and the body of the mufcle in-
T O M Y. 207
creafes in the fame manner as the vaftus internus. It
terminates below in an aponeurofis, which is fixed in the
edge of the tendon of the reCtus anterior, in the fide of
the patella, and of its tendinous ligament, and in the
fide of the head or upper extremity of the tibia.
C R U R E U S.
This is a flefhy mafs, covering almoft all the forefide
of the os femoris between the two vafti, which likev/ife
cover the edges of this mufcle on each fide.
It is fixed to the forefide of the os femoris, from the
anterior furface of the great trochanter down to the low-
eft quarter of the bone, by flefhy fibres which run down
fucceflively over each other, between the two vafti, and
are partly united to thefe two mufcles, fo as not to feem
to form a diftinCt mufcle.
It is not fo thick as the two vafti; and as it is cover¬
ed by them on each fide, a fort of flefhy channel is form¬
ed by all the three, in which the reCtus is lodged, co¬
vering the forepart of the crureus.
It terminates below in a tendinous aponeurofis, which
joins the backfide of the tendon of the reCtus anterior,
and the neighbouring edges of the extremities of the two
vafti. Thus, thefe four mufcles form a common tendon,
which is inferred in the places already mentioned.
S A R T O R I U S.
This is the longeft mufcle of the human body. It
is flat, and about two fingers in breadth, fituated ob¬
liquely along the infide of. the thigh.
It is fixed above by a very fhort tendon, in the lower
part of the anterior fuperior fpine of the os ilium, before
the mufculus fafeias latae. The beginning of its body
lies in the notch between the two anterior fpines of that
bone.
From thence it runs down obliquely over the vaftus in¬
ternus and other mufcles that lie near it, all the way to
the infide of the knee, where it terminates in a fmall ten¬
don, which grows broader near its extremity, and is in¬
ferted obliquely and a little tranfverfely in the forepart
of the infide of the head of the tibia, near the fpine or
tuberofity of that bone, immediately above the infertion
of the gracilis interior.
Gracilis Interior five Rectus Interior.
This is a long thin mufcle, lying in a ftraight line on
the infide of the thigh, between the os pubis and the
knee. ^
It is fixed in the edge of the inferior branch of the os
pubis, near the fymphyfis, by a broad and very fliort
tendon, on one fide of the infertion of the triceps fecun-
dus, but a little lower down.
From thence the flefhy fibres contracting a little in
breadth, run down to the internal condyle of the os $-
moris, where they terminate in a thin tendon, which af¬
terwards degenerates into a kind of aponeurofis, and is
inferted in the fore-part of the infide of the head of the
tibia.
BICEPS,
2o8
A N
A T O M Y. Part II.
BICEPS.
This mufcle is made up of two portions, ctie long,
the other fhort, and they end in a common fendon.
Both portions are flelhy and cordiderably thick, being fi-
tuated on the back .and outude of the thigh, between the
buttock and ham.
The great portion is fixed above, by a firong tendon,
in the pollerior and lower part of the tuberofity of the
ifchium, under the infertion of the inferior gemellus, and
clofe behind that of the femhnervofus. From thence it
runs down toward the lower extremity of the thigh,
■where it meets the other portion, and joins with it in
forming a common tendon.
The fmall portion is fixed, by flelhy fibres, to the
outfide of the linea afpera, below its middle, and to the
fafcia lata, where it ferms a feptum between the triceps
and \Taflus externus. From thence the fibres run down
a little way, and then meeting the great portion, a com-
- mon tendon is formed between them.
This ftrong tendon runs down to the outer and back-
part of the knee, and is inferred in the lateral ligament
of the joint, and in the head of the fibula, by two very
ihort tendinous branches.
S E M I-N E R V O S U S.
This is a longmufcle, half fielhy and half tendinous,
or like a-nerve, from whence it has its name. It is fitu-
ated a little obliquely, on the pofterior and inner part of
the thigh.
It is fixed above to the pofterior part of the tuberofity
of the ifchium, immediately before, and a little -more in¬
ward than the biceps. It is afterwards fixed, by flefliy
fibres, to the tendon of the biceps, for about the breadth
of three fingers, much in the fame manner as the cpraco-
brachialis is fixed to the biceps of the arm.
From thence it runs down flefhy toward the lower part
of the infide of the thigh, having a fort of tendinous in-
terfedlion in the inner part of its flefliy portion. Having
reached below the middle of the thigh, it terminates in
a fmall, long, round tendon, which runs down to the
infide of the knee, behind that of the gracilis, where it
expands in breadth. .
It is inferted in the infide of the upper part of the ti¬
bia, about,two or three fingers breadth below the tube¬
rofity or fpine, immediately under the tendon cf the gra¬
cilis internus, with which it communicates.
S E M I-M E M B R A N O S U S.
This is a long thin mufcle, partly tendinous, from
whence it has its name, and fituated on the back-fide of
the thigh, a little towards the infide.
It is fixed above, by a broad tendon or long aponeu-
rofis, in the irregular, obtufe, prominent line whifih goes
from the acetabulum to the tuberofity of the ifchium, a
little above the infertion of the femi-nervofus, and be¬
tween thofe of the gemellus inferior and quadratus.
From thence it runs down flefhy in an oblique diregion
behind the inner condyle of the os femoris, below which
it terminates in a thick tendon, which is inferted in the
pofterior. and interior fide of the inner condyle of the ti¬
bia, by three fhort branches, the .firft or uppermoft of
which goes a little toward the infide, the lecond more
backward, and the third lower down.
P O P L I TE U S.
This is a fmall mufcle, obliquely pyramidal, fituated
under the ham.
It is fixed above, by a ftrong narrow tendon, to the
outer edge of the inner condyle of the os fecnoris, and
to the neighbouring pofterior ligament of the joint.
From thence it runs obliquely downward under the inner
condyle of jhe os femoris; it is a fla,t and pretty thick fleftiy
body, increafing gradually in breadth, till it is fixed in the
back-fide of the head of the tibia, all the way to the
oblique line or imprpflion obfervable on that fide.
Uses of the Mufclet ’which move the Boner of the Leg
on the Os Femoris.
The two vafti and crureus ought to be looked upon
as a true triceps, the ufes of which, in relation to the
bones, are only to extend the tibia on the os fenloris,
and the os femoris on the tibia. The extenfion of the
tibia on the os femoris happens chiefly when we fit or lie,
and that of the os femoris on the tibia when we ftand
or walk. AH the three mufcles move the patella uni¬
formly in the direftion of the os femoris, on the pulley
at the lower extremity of- that bone.
The infertion of both the vafti immediately in the head
of the tibia, prevents the patella from being luxated la¬
terally on fome occafions, in which the mufcles may adt
with more force on one fide than on the other, or re¬
main without adtion, in which cafe tire patella is loofe
and floating.
The redlus anterior, by its infertion in the patella, is a
congener to the haft three mufcles, and ferves to exteqd
the leg. By its infertion in the os ilium, it bends the
thigh, and aflifts the pfoas, iliacus, and paftineus, whe¬
ther the leg be extended or bent. It likewife moves the
pelvis forward on the os femoris, and hinders it from
falling back when we fit.
The fartorius performs the rotation of the thigh
from before outward, whether extended or bent; beiqg
an antagonift to the mufculus fafcke latse, and a congener
to the quadrigemini.
It likewife bends the thigh, or rajfes it forward ; it
moves the pelvis forward on the femoris ; and when the
pelvis refts on the two tuberofities of the ifchium in fit¬
ting, it keeps it in that fituation.
Laftly, it bends the leg, whether it performs the ro¬
tation of the thigh at the fame time or not.
The gracilis internus bends the leg much in the fame
manner with the fartorius, which it aflifts in this func¬
tion, but not in that of turning the leg.
It may likewife aflift the triceps in die addudtion of the
thigh, which it performs with much more facility than it
begins the flexion of the leg without the rotation of the-
thigh.
The
Part 0. A N A T
The femi-nervofus bends the leg, and may likewife
bend the thigh on the leg. By its infertion in the tube-
rofity of the ifchium, it likewife extends the thigh on the
pelvis, and carries it backward; and may alfo extend
the pelvis on the thigh, when it has been inclined for¬
ward with the reft of the trunk; and confequently pre¬
vent its being carried too far along with the trdnk, when
we (loop forward, either ftanding or fitting.
The femi-membranofus has the fame ules with the fe¬
mi-nervofus. It bends the leg on the thigh, and the
thigh on the leg ; it extends the thigh on the pelvis, and
the pelvis on the thigh, and fuftains the pelvis when it is
inclined forward. *
The two portions of the biceps bend the leg on the
thigh, and the thigh on the leg. The fuperior portion
likewife extends the thigh on the pelvis, and the pelvis
on the thigh. Thefe four ufes in general are common to
this mufcle with the femi-membranofus, and in fome mea-
fure with the femi-tendinofus.
The particular ufe of the biceps, and which feems to
belong more to the fliort portion than to the other, is to
perform the rotation of the leg v^hen bent, by which
motion the toes are turned outward, and the heel inward.
The popliteus performs the rotation of the leg when
bent, in a direction contrary to that of th.e biceps. The
biceps turns the leg from before outward; the popliteus
from before inward.
Sect. XI. The Muscle's which move the
Tarfus on the Leg.
TIBIALIS ANTICUS.
This is a Ion£ mufcle, flefhy at the upper part, and
tendinous at the lower, fituated on the fore-fide of the
leg, between the tibia and the extenfor digitorum longus.
It is fixed above, by flefhy fibres, in the upper third
part of the external labium of the crifta tibiae, and of
the infide of the aponeurofis tibialis, or of that ligamen¬
tary expanfion which goes between the crifta tibiae and
the anterior angle o£ the fibula. It is likewife fixed ob¬
liquely in the upper two thirds of the outfide of the tibia,
or that next the fibula.
From thence it runs down and ends in a tendon, which
firft pafles through a ring of the common annular liga¬
ment, and then through another feparate ring fituated
lower down. Afterwards the tendon is fixed, partly in
the upper and inner part of the os cuboides, and partly
in the infide of the firft bone of the metatarfus.
Peronjeus Medius vulgo Peron^us Anticus.
This is a long mufcle, fituated anteriorly on the mid¬
dle part of the fibula.
It is fixed above, by flefhy fibres, to more than the
middle third part of the anterior or. outfide of the fibula,
and to the neighbouring part of the aponeurofis tibialis.
It is likewife fixed to a preduftion from the infide of
that aponeurofis which runs to the upper part of the ti-
Vol. I. No. 9.
O M Y. 509
bia, and there ferves for a middle feptsm between this1
mufcle and the extenfor digitorum longus.
From thence it runs down and forms a tendon, which
going in the direction of the oblique line on the fibula,
pafles behind the external malleolus, and then through
an annular ligament common to it and to the perensus
maximus, and is afterwards inferted in the tuberofity at
the bafis of the fifth metatarfal bone, fending off a fmall
tendon to the firft phalanx of the little toe,
PERONjEUS MINIMUS.
This is a fmall mufcle, commonly thought to be a
portion of the extenfor digitorum longus, though it is
eafily feparable from it.
It is fixed, by fleftiy fibres, in the lower half of the
infide of the fibula, between two oblique bony lines, on
one fide of the lower part of the extenfor digitorum lon¬
gus, to which mufcle it is limply contiguous.
From thence it runs down contracting in breadth, and
pafles with the extenfor longus, through the common an¬
nular ligament, forming a flat tendon, which foon fepa-
rates from thofe of the extenfor, and is inferted near the
bafis of the fifth metatarfal bone.
GASTROCNEMII.
These are two thick, pretty broad, and oblong muf-
cles, fituated laterally with refpeeft to each other, in the
fame^plane, under the poples, and forming a great part
of what is called the calf of the leg. That which lies-
next the tibia is called intermit, and that next the fibu¬
la, >xV#r«ar,- and becaufe they form, as it were, the
belly of the leg, they have been termed in Greek ga~
jtrocnemii.
Each mufcle is fixed above, by a flat tendon, to the
pofterior part of the lower extremity of the os femoris,
behind the lateral tuberofity of each condyle, adhering
clofely to the pofterior ligaments of the joint of the knee.
From thence they run down, each forming a large and
pretty broad flelhy body, irregularly oval.
About the middle of the leg, they end in a ftrong,
broad, common tendon, which contracts a little in breadth
as it defeends, and is inferted in the pofterior extremity
of the os calcis, together with the tendon of the foleus.
S O L E U S.
This is a large, flelhy, flat mufcle, nearly of an oval
figure, and thicker in the middle than at -the edges. It
is fituated on the back-fide of the leg, lower down than
the gaftrocnemii, by which it is covered ; and thefe three
mufcles form the calf of the leg.
It is fixed above, partly to the tibia, and partly to the
fibula.
Afterwards leaving thefe two bones, it ends in abroad
ftrong tendon, which, together with that of the gaftroc-'
nemii, forms what is called tendi ^chillis. This ftrong
tendon contracts a little in its paflage to t'qe os calcis, and
then expanding a little, it is inferted obliquely in the
back-fide of that bone, all the way to the tuberofity.
3 G TIBI-
2 IO
ANATOMY. Part II.
TIBIALIS GRACILIS vulgo PLANTARIS.
This is a fmall pyriform mufcle, fituated obliquely in
the ham below the external condyle of the os femoris,
between the popliteus and gaftrocnemius externus; and
its tendon, which is long, flat, and very fmali, runs
down on the fide of the galtrocnemius internus, all the
way to the heel.
The flefhy body, which is only about two inches in
length, and one in breadth, is fixed, by a Ihort flat ten¬
don, above the outer edge of the exterior condyle of the
os femoris, bn one fide of the gaftrocnemius externus.
From thence the flefhy body runs obliquely over the edge
of the popliteus, and terminates in a very fmall, long,
flat tendon. ,
This tendon runs between the body of the gaftrocne¬
mius externus and foleus, all the way to the inner edge
of the upper part of the tendo Achillis ; and from thence
continuing its courfe downward, it joins this tendon, and
is inferred, together with it, in the outfide of the pofte-
rior part of the os calcis, without communicating with
the aponeurofis plantaris.
TIBIALIS POSTICUS.
This is a long, flelhy, penniform mufcle, broader a-
bove than below, fituated-between the tibia and fibula,,
on the back-fide of the leg, and covered by the extenfor
digitorum longus.
It is fixed above, by fldhy fibres, immediately under
the articulation of the tibia and fibula, to the neareft
parts of thefe two bones, chiefly to the tibia, reaching
to the lateral parts of that bone, above the interolTeous
ligament, which is here wanting.
From thence its infertion is extended below the oblique
line or imprefiion in the tibia, over all the neighbouring
part of the interofleous ligament, and through more than
the upper half of the internal angle of the fibula.
After this, it forms a tendon, which runs down behind
the inner malleolus, through a cartilaginous groove and
an annular ligament, and, palfing under the malleolus, isin-
Ibrted in the tuberofity or lower part of the os fcaphoides.
Peron.5Eus Maximus vulgo PERONiEus Posterior.
This is a long penniform mulcle, lying on the fibula.
It is fixed above to the anterior and outer part of the
head of the fibula, and to a fmall portion of the head of
the tibia; then to the outfide of the neck of the fibula,
to the upper half of the external angle of that bone, and
to the aponeurofis tibialis, which at that place makes a
ieptum between this mufcle and the extenfor pollicis.
From thence turning a link backward, according to
the direction of the bone, it forms a confiderable tendon,
which, running behind the external malleolus, paffes
through a kind of hollow groove, and through an annu¬
lar ligament common to it and to the tendon of the pero-
nams medifis, which lies before it.
Afterwards running through the oblique groove in the
lower fide of the os cuboides, it is inferred in the fide of
the bafis of the firft metatarfal bone, and alfo a little in
the bafis of the os cuneiforme majus.
Sect. XII. The- Muscles which move the
Metaiarfus and Toes.
EXTENSOR POLLICIS LONGUS.
This is a thin fingle mufcle, lying between the tibialis
anticus and extenfor digitorum longus, by which it is al-
moft hid.
It is fixed to the infide of the fibula, near the interof-
feous ligament, from the neck down to the loweft quar¬
ter of that bone; to the interofl'eous ligament through
the fame fpace, and a little to the lower extremity of the
tibia next the fibula.
There it ends in a confiderable tendon, which palling
through a diftindt ring of the common annular ligament,
and then through a membranous vagina, is inferted in
the bafis of the firft phalanx of the great toe, and conti¬
nued from thence up to the fecond.
FLEXOR POLLICIS LONGUS.
This is a pretty long mufcle, fituated in the pofterior
and lower part of the leg.
It is fixed in the lower half of the back-fide of the
fibula, its infertion reaching almoft as far as the external
malleolus. The fldhy body advances on the infide of
that bone towards the tibia, according to the oblique di¬
rection of that fide, and ends in a large tendon.
This tendon pafies behind the lower extremity of the
tibia, toward the inner ankle, then through a fmall notch-
in the inner and back-fide of the aftragalus, and through
an annular ligament or ligamentary vagina, continued un¬
der the lateral arch of the os calcis.
From thence it advances to the great toe, and palling
through the interftice between the two fefamoid bones, in
the ligamentary vagina of the firft phalanx, is inferted in
the lower part of the fecond.
THENAR.
This mufcle is made up of feveral portions, and lies
on the inner edge of the foie of the foot.
It is fixed, by three or four flelhy fafciculi, to the
lower and inner part of the os calcis, os fcaphoides, and
os cuneiforme majus. It is likewife fixed a little in the
annular ligament under the inner ankle, which belongs
to the tendon of the flexor longus.
From all thefe different infertions, the flefhy fafciculi
approach each other as they advance forward under the
full bone of the metatarfus, and are fixed, partly in the
internal fefamoid bone, and partly in the infide of the firft
phalanx, near its bafis.
A N T I T H E N A R.
This is a fmall compound mufcle, lying obliquely un¬
der the metatarfal bones.
It
2 11
ANATOMY.
Part II.
It is fixed pofteriorly in the lower parts of the fecond,
third, and fourth metatarfal bones, near their bafis; in
the ligament belonging to the firft and fecond of thefe
bones; in the neighbouring ligaments belonging to the
bones of the tarfus ;. and, laftly, in a lateral aponeurofis
of the mufcle commonly called hypethenar.
All thefe portions, contra&ing into a fmall compafs, are
inferred in the butfide of the external fefamoid bone, and
of the firll phalanx of the great toe.
EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LONGUS.
This is a long mufcle, flefhy in the upper part, and
tendinous in the lower, lying between the tibialis anticus
and peronasus maximus.
It is fixed above, by flelhy fibres, in the outfide of the
head of the tibia, and infide of the head of the fibula;
in the upper part of the interofleous ligament, through
three fourths of the length of the fibula; and through
the fame fpace, in the tendinous feptum belonging to the
anterior angle of that bone.
It contracts in breadth a little above the annular liga¬
ment, and, in paffing through it, is divided into three
tendons; the firft of which is afterwards divided into
two. Thefe four tendons are inferted along the upper
or convex lide of the.four fmall toes.
EXTENSOR DIGITORUM BREVIS.
This is a fmall complex mufcle, lying obliquely on
the convex fide of the foot, being likewife termed pe-
dieus .
It is fixed in the upper and outer fide of the anterior
apophyfis of the aftragalus, and in the neighbouring part
of the upper fide of that bone. From thence it runs
obliquely from without inwards, under the tendons of
the perbnasus minimus and extenfor digitorum longus,
being divided into four flelhy portions, which terminate
in the fame number of tendons.
The firft tendon is inferted in the upper or convex part
of the firft phalanx of the great toe. The other three
joining with thofe of the extenfor longus, are inferted a-
long the convex fides of all the phalanges of the three
following toes.
FLEXOR- DIGTTORUM BREVIS
ftve PERFORATUS PEDIS.
This is the undermoft of all the common mufcles of
the toes, being fituated immediately above the aponeuro¬
fis plantaris.
It is fixed by flelhy fibres to the anterior and lower
part of the great tuberofity of the os calcis; and to the
neighbouring part of the upper fide oi; the aponcurofis
plantaris.
From thence it runs forward, being divided into four
flelhy portions, which terminate in the fame number of
tendons, fpiit at their extremities, in the fame manner as
thofe of the fublimis or perforatus of the hand, and in¬
ferted in the fecond phalanges cf the four fmall toes.
FLEXOR DIGITORUM LONGUS
ftve PERFORANS PEDIS.
This is along mufcle, flelhy above, and tendinous
below, lying on the backfide of the leg between the tibia
and the flexor .pollicis longus, covered by.the foleus, and
covering the tibialis pofticus.
It is fixed above, by flelhy fibres, to a little more than
the middle third part of the backfide of the tibia near its
external angle, below the infertion of the foleus; and
alfo to a kind of ligament which runs down from the
middle of the tibia. It afterwards ends in a tendon
which pafles behind the inner ankle, on one fide, and a
little behind the tibialis pofticus, in a feparate annular li¬
gament.
From thence it runs under the foie of.the foot, fend¬
ing off a detachment, by which it communicates with,
the flexor pollicis longus. There it is divided into four
fmall flat tendons, which go to the third phalanges of
the four fmall toes in the fame manner, as the perforans,
of the hand.
FLEXOR DIGITORUM ACCESSORIUS.
This is a flat and pretty long flelhy mafs, fituated
obliquely under the foie of the foot.
This mufcle is fixed pofteriorly by one flelhy portion,
in the lower fide of the ps calcis, and in the anterior tu¬
berofity on that fide, and by the other in the neighbour¬
ing ligament which joins this bone to the aftragalus.
From thence the two portions run obliquely to the'
middle of the foie of the foot, and there unite in a flat,!
long, and irregularly fquare mufcular mafs, which is fix¬
ed to the outer edge of the fafciculus of tendons of the
flexor longus, to which it ferves as a frasnum at than
place.
L U MB RI GALES.
These are four fmall mufcles, fituated more or lels^
longitudinally under the foie of the foot.
They are fixed by their flelhy extremities to the four
tendons of the flexor digitorum longus near the infertion
of the flexor acceflbrius. The firft mufcle is fixed to
the infide of the firft tendon ; the fecond to the tendi¬
nous fork formed by the two firft tendons ; the third,, to
the tendinous fork made by the fecond and third tendons ;
and the fourth, in the fame manner to the third and
fourth tendons, but commonly moft to the third.
From thence thefe four muicles run to the toes, and
there terminate in the fame number of fmall tendons,
which are inferted in the firft phalanges of the toes, much
after the fame manner as in the hand.
TRANS VERS ALIS DIGITORUM.
This is a final! mufcle, which lies tracfverfely under
the bafis of the firft phalanges, and which at firft fight
appears to be a fimple mufcular body fixed by one end ta
the great toe, and by the other to the little toe.
When
2 12
A N A T O M Y.
When this tnufcle is carefully examined, we find that
it is fixed, by a'very fiiort common tendon, to the outfide
of the bafis of the firft phalanx of the great toe, con¬
jointly with the antithenar; and, by three different por¬
tions or digitations, to the three interoffeous ligaments
which connect the heads of the four metatarfal bones
next the great toe, laterally to each othe^.
INTEROSSEI.
These are feven fmall mufcles which fill up the four
interftices between the metatarfal bones, much after the
fame manner as in the hand. The four largefl: are fu-
perior, the other three inferior.
METATARSIUS.
This is a flelhy mafs, lying under the foie of the
foot. It is fixed, by one end, in the fore-part of the
great tuberofity of the os calcis; and running forward
from thence, it terminates in a kind of fhort tendon,
which is fixed in the tuberofify and pofterior part of the
lower fide of the fifth bone of the metatarfus.
P A R A T H E N A R MAJOR.
This is a pretty long mufcle, forming part of the
outer edge of the foie of the foot.
It is fixed backwards by a flelhy body, to the outer part
of the lower fide of the os calcis, from the fmall polleri-
or external tuberofity, all the way to the anterior tubero¬
fity. There it joins the metatarfius, and at the bafis of the
fifth metatarfal bone feparates from it again, and forms
a tendon, which is inferted in the outfide of the firft pha¬
lanx of the little toe, near its bafis, and near the infer-
tion of the parathenar minor.
PARATHENAR MINOR.
This is a flelhy mufcle, fixed along the pollerior
half of the outer and lower fide of the fifth bone of the
metatarfus. It terminates under the head of that bone,
in a tendon which is inferted in the lower part of the
bafis of the firfl: phalanx of the little toe.
Uses of the Mufcles which move the Tarfus and the
other Bones of the Foot.
The tibialis anticus bends the foot, that is, turns the
point of the foot toward the leg ; which motion is per¬
formed by the ginglymoid articulation of the aftragalus
with the tibia and fibula. It likewife bends the leg on
the foot, or hinders its extenfion.
By its lateral infertion in the os cuneiforme maximum,
it moves this bone in particular over the anterior extre¬
mity of the os calcis; by which the foie of the foot is
turned inward toward the other.
The peronseus medius bends the foot, and hinders the
leg from falling back in the fame manner as the tibialis'
apticus. By its infertion in the tuberofity of the fifth
metatarfal bone, it turns the foie of the foot outward at
Part II.
the fame time that it bends it, when it’afts without the
alfiftance of the tibialis anticus.
The peronaeus minimus is an afliftant to the medius in
the flexion of the foot, in preferving the asquilibrium of
the leg, and in turning the foie of the foot outward.
The gaflxocnemii and foleus make a kind of triceps;
and, by their common tendon, extend the foot, and keep
it extended again!! the ftrongeft refillance. It is by their
means that we raife the whole body, even with an addi¬
tional burden, when we Hand a tip-toes; and that we
walk, run and jump.
The gaftrocnemii, by their infertion in the os femoris,
may, in great efforts, move the leg on the thigh, and
the thigh on the leg, as afliftants to the biceps, femi-
membranofus, femi-tendinofus, gracilis internus, and far-
torius.
The foleus, by the multitude of its flefhy fibres and
its penniform ftrudfure, is more proper for ftrong than
large motions, and feems principally to fuftain the ga¬
ftrocnemii in the motions begun by them. The tendi¬
nous portions of this mufcle and of the gaftrocnemii, tho’
they form a ftrong tendon all together, i'eem neverthelefs
to Aide a little upon each other in the different flexions
and extenfions of the foot.
Anatomifts are not agreed with regard to the ufe of
the tibialis gracilis.
When the tibialis pofticus adts alone, it extends the
foot obliquely inward. When it adts together with the
gaftrocnemii and foleus, it changes the ftreight diredtion
of their motion to an oblique one. When it adts with
the tibialis anticus, the foie of the foot is turned more
•diredtly inward, or toward the other foot.
When the peronasus longus or maximus adts alone, It
may extend the foot hanging freely in the air ; but then
this extenfion is obliquely outward. Together with the
gaft rocnemii and foleus, it likewife changes their diredtion
to an oblique extenfion outward.
The extenfor pollicis longus extends the two phalan¬
ges of the great toe; and it may likewife be an afliftant
to the tibialis anticus.
The flexor pollicis longus not only bends the fecond
phalanx of the great toe, but may likewife ferve, in great
efforts, as an afliftant to the extenfors of the tarfus.
This mufcle is of great ufe in climbing up a fteep place.
The thenar bends the firft phalanx of the great toe.
When the portion neareft the inner edge of the foot ei¬
ther adts alone, or adts more than the reft, the great toe
is feparated from the other toes, efpecially if it be at the
fame time extended. ’
The antithenar, adting with the thenar, bends the firft
phalanx of the great toe. When it adts alone, efpeci¬
ally if the great toe is bent, it brings it nearer the o-
ther toes, in proportion to the degrees of action of its
different portions.
The two extenfores digitorum communes concur in ex¬
tending the four fmall toes ; and, as the extenfor longus
is not near fo flefhy as that of the hand, this difference is
made up by the extenfor brevis. The longus alone
feems to extend the firft phalanges; and they both join
in the extenfion of the fecond and third phalanges ; the
brevis, by the obliquity of its diredtion, moderating the
Part D. A N A T
action of the longns, which otherwife would have turned
the toes obliquely the contrary way.
The perforatus or flexor digitorum brevis^ bends the
fecond phalanges; and the perforans or flexor longus,
the third; the ufe of thefe mufcles being nearly the fame
with thofe of the perforatus and perforans of the hand.
- The flexor accefforius is an afliftant to the perforans,
increafing its force on fome occafions. It likewife di¬
rects the tendon of that mufcle ; for by contracting, at
the fame time that the flefliy belly of the perforans is in
adlion, it makes the tendons go in a ftraighter line to the
toes than they would otherwife do, becaufe of their obli¬
quity. .
The lumbricales have nearly^the fame functions in the
foot as in the hand; and they are partly aflifted, and
partly directed, by the flexor acceflbrius.
The interoffei of the foot have the fame ufes as in the
hand. The firft fuperior mufcle brings.the fecond toe
neat' the great toe; the other three bring the fecond,
third, and fourth toes near the little toe. The three
inferior mufcles move the laft three toes toward the other
two.
The metatarfius moves the lall bone of the metatarfus,
much in the fame manner as the metacarpius does that
of the metacarpus.
The tranfverfalis may aflift the metatarfius in this
aftion, which is fuppofed to be of ufe to'tilers ih climb¬
ing. The antithenar may likewife concur, and the pe-
ronaeus minimus may ferve to counterbalance thefe muf¬
cles, and to bring the metatarfus back to its natural fi-
tuation.
The parathenar major ferves particularly to feparate
the little toe from the reft; and the parathenar minor
bends the firft phalanx of that toe.
Sect. XIII. T^he Muscles employed in
Refpiration.
DIAPHRAGM A.
This is a very broad and thin mufcle, fituated at
the bafis of the thorax, and ferving as a tranfverfe
partition to feparate that cavity from the abdomen'.
For this reafon the Greeks termed it diaphragma ; and
and the Tuntms, feptum tranfverfum. It forms an oblique
inclined arch, the fore-part of which is higheft, and the
pofterior part loweft, making a very acute angle with
the back.
It is looked upon as a double and digaftric mufcle,
made of two different portions, one large and fupe¬
rior, called the great mufcle of the diaphragm; the o-
ther fmall and inferior, appearing like an appendix to the
other, called the fmall or inferior mufcle of the dia¬
phragm.
The great or principal mufcle is fleftiy in its circum¬
ference, and tendinous and aponeurotic in the middle,
which, for that reafon, is commonly called centrum
nervuum five tendinofum.
The flefliy circumference is radiated, the fibres of
which it rs made up being fixed by one extremity to the
Vot. I. No. 9. 3
O M Y. 213
edge of the middle aponeurofis, and by the other to
all the bafis of the cavity of the thorax, being inferred
by digitations in the lower parts of the appendix of the
fternum, of the loweft true ribs, of all the falfe ribs,
and in the neighbouring vertebrae.
We have therefore three kinds of infertions ; one fter-.
nal; twelve coftal, fix on each fide; and two vertebral,
one on each fide. Thefe laft are very fmall, and fome-
times fcarcely perceivable. The coftal infertions join
thofe of the tranfverfalis abdominis, but do not mix with
them, as they feem to do before the membrane which
covers them is removed.
The fibres inferred in the appendix enfiformis, run
from behind direftly forward, and form a fmall parallel
plane.
The firft coftal infertion runs a little obliquely to¬
wards the cartilage of the feventh true rib, a triangular
fpace being left between this and the fternal infertion, at
which the pleura and peritonaeum meet. The infertion
of thefe fibres is very broad, taking up about two thirds
of the cartilage of the feventh rib, and a fmall part of
the bone, from whence it reaches beyond the angle of
the cartilage.
The fecond infertion is into the whole cartilage of the .
firft falfe rib; the third partly in the bone, and partly
in the cartilage of the fecond falfe rib; the fourth in
the bone, and fometimes a little in the cartilage of the
third falfe rib; the fifth in the bone, and a little in the
cartilage of the fourth falfe rib, being broader than the
reft.
The fixth is in the cartilage of the laft falfe rib, and
ahnoft through the whole length of the bone. At the
head of this rib, it joins the vertebral infertion, which
runs from the lateral part of the laft vertebra of the
back, to the firft vertebra of the loins.
The fmall mufcle of the diaphragm is thicker than the
other, but of much lefs extent. It is fituated along
the forefide of the bodies of the laft vertebra of the
back and feveral of thofe of the loins, being turned a lit¬
tle to the left hand. It is of an oblong form, reprefent-
ing in fome meafure a flefliy collar, the two lateral por¬
tions of which, crofs each other, and afterward become
tendinous toward the lower part.
The upper part of the body of this mufcle is fixed in
the Hope of the middle aponeurofis of the great mufcle.
The outer edges of the ake or lateral portions join the
pofterior plane of the great mufcle, and thefe portions
adhere to the body of the laft vertebra of the back.
The extremities, called likewife pillars or crura, are .
inferted by feveral tendinous digitations in the vertebrae
of the loins.
The upper part of the flefliy body is formed by a par¬
ticular intertexture of fibres belonging to the two ala:.
Thefe two aloe, whereof that toward the right-hand is ge¬
nerally the moft confiderable, part from each other, and
form an oval hole, terminated on the lower part by
fibres, detatched from the infide of each ala, immediately
above the laft vertebra of the back. Thefe fibres de-
cuffate and crofs each other, and afterwards thofe that
come from each ala join that on the other fide, fo that
each of the crura is a produdticn of both ake.
3 H
The
2 14'
The fibres that come from the left ala, crofs over
thofe from the right ala, and this again fends a fmali
fafciculu^ of fibres over thofe of the left ala ; afterwards
the two crura part from each other.
The right crus is larger and longer than the left, and
is always inferted in the four upper vertebrae of the loins,
and often in the fifth likewife, by the fame number of
digitations, which become more and more tendinous as
they defcend, and at length are expanded in form of an;
aponeurofis. This crus lies more on the middle of the
bodies of the vertebras than on the right fide.
The left crus is fmaller and Ihorter, and lies more on
the fides of the vertebras. It is fixed by digitations to
the three upper vertebra of the loins, feldom reaching
lower. The lower part of it is expanded in the fame
manner as the other ; and the two expanfions fometimes
meet together.
The oval opening of this inferior mufcle of the dia¬
phragm, gives paflage to the extremity of the osfopha-
gus, and the aorta lies in the interftice between* the two
crura. Immediately above the opening or hole, a thin
fafciculus of fibres is fent off to the ftomach.
In the middle aponeurofis of the gieat mufcles, a little
to the right of the anterior part of the Hope, near the
•fmall mufcle, is a round opening, which tranfmits the
trunk of the lower vena cava. The border or circum¬
ference of this opening is very artfully formed by an ob¬
lique and fucceffive intertexture of tendinous fibres, al-
molt like the edge of a wicker balket; and is, confequent-
ly, incapable either of dilatation or contradtion, by the
adtion of the diaphragm.
We find therefore three confiderable openings in the
diaphragm; one round and tendinous, for the paffage of
the vena cava; one oval and flelhy, for the extremity of
the cefophagus ; and one forked, partly flefhy, and part¬
ly tendinous, for the aorta. The round opening is to
the right-hand, clofe to the upper part of the right ala
of the fmall mufcle ; the oval opening is a little to the
left; fo that the right ala, which is between thefe two
holes, lies almoft diredly over againlt the middle of the
body of the eleventh vertebra of the back; the tendi¬
nous fr*k is under the oval opening, but a little more
toward the middle.
S C A L E N I.
These are compound mufcles, irregularly triangular.
The fcalenus primus is fixed to the upper part of the
outfide of the firft rib, by two dillindl portions, called
commonly branches; one anterior, the other pofterior.
The anterior branch is fixed to the middle portion of
the rib, about an inch from the cartilage. From thence
it runs obliquely upward, and is inferted in the tranf-
verfe apophyfis of the fixth, fifth, and fometimes of the
third vertebra of the neck. •
The pofterior branch is fixed more backward in the
firft rib, an interllice of about an inch Feing left be¬
tween it and the other branch, through which the axil¬
lary artery •and brachial nerves are tranfmitted. From
thence it runs up obliquely behind the former, and is in¬
ferted in all the tranfverfe apophyfes of the neck.
Part I!.
The fcalenus fecundus is fixed a little more backward
in the external labium of the upper edge of the lecond
rib, fometimes by two feparate portions, and fometimes
without any divifion. The anterior portion is fixed im¬
mediately under the pofterior portion of the firft fcale¬
nus, by a fhort flat tendon, united a little with the firft
intercoftal mufcle. From thence it runs up over the po¬
fterior portion of the firft fcalenus, communicating like¬
wife with that mufcle, and is fixed by infertions, partly
tendinous and partly flefliy, in the tranfverfe apophyfes
of the four firft vertebne of the neck.
The pofterior portion is fixed in the fecond rib, more
backward than the other. From thence it runs up, be¬
ing divided into two portions, whereof one is inferted in
the tranfverfe apophyfes of the three firft vertebrae of the
neck, behind the fcalenus primus. The other portion
runs up behind the former, and is inferted in the tranf¬
verfe apophyfes of the two firft vertebrae.
SERRATUS POSTICUS SUPERIOR.
This is a flat thin mufcle, fituated on the upper part
of the back. It is fixed on one fide, by a broad a-
poneurofis, to the lower part of the pofterior cervical
ligament, and to the fpinal apophyfes of the two laft
vertebrae of tfie neck, and two firft of the back.
From thence it runs down a little obliquely forward,
and is inferted, by broad flelhy digitations, in tlje pofte¬
rior part of the fecond, third, fourth, and fometimes of
the fifth true ribs, neai their angles; but fometimes it
has no infertion in the fecond rib.
SERRATUS POSTICUS INFERIOR.
This is a flat thin mufcle, lying on the lower part of
the back. It is fixed in the laft fpinal apophyfis of the
back, and in the three firft of the loins, by a broad apo¬
neurofis. From thence it runs up a little obliquely, and
is fixed, by flefhy broad digitations', in the laft fourfalfe
ribs. Its infertions, in the loweft rib, is near the carti¬
lage, and, in the other three, near their angles.
INTERCOSTALES.
The intercoftal mufcles are thin, flelhy planes, lying
in the interftices between the ribs, their fibres running
obliquely from one rib to another. In each interftice lie
two planes, an external and an internal, clofdy joined to¬
gether, nothing but a thin, fine, cellular, membranous
web coming between them.
According to this natural divifion, there muft be for¬
ty-four intercoftal mufcles in the twenty-two interftices
left between the twenty-four ribs ; and of thefe there
are eleven external, and eleven internal, on each fide.
The fibres of the external intercoftals run down from
behind forward, and, thofe of the internal intercoftals
from before backward; fo that the fibres of thefe two
feries of mufcles crofs each other.
The external intercoftals extend commonly from the
vertebrae to the extremity of the upper labium of the
bony portion of each rib, and go no further. The in¬
ternal
A N A T O M Y.
Part II. A N A T
ternal begia forward near the itemum, and end back¬
ward at the angle of each rib.
SUPR A-COSTALES.
These mufcles are irregularly triangular, and fituated
on the back-part of the ribs, near the vertebras.
Each of thefe mufcles is fixed, by one tendinous ex¬
tremity, in the tta.nfverfe apophyfis, which lies above the
articulation of each rib, and to the neighbouring liga-
inefit; the firft being inferted in the tranfverfe apophyfis
of the lafl: vertebra of the neck ; and the lad, in that of
the eleventh vertebra of the back.
From thence the flefiiy fibres run down obliquely, in-
creafing in breadth as they defeend, and are inferted in
the back part of the outfideof the following rib.
S U B-C O S TALE S.
These are fleihy planes, of different breadths, and
very thin, fituated more or lefs obliquely on the infides
of the ribs, near the bony angles, and running in the
fame direflion with the external intercoftals.
They are fixed by both extremities in the ribs; the
inferior extremity being always at a greater diftance from
the vqrtebrae than the fuperior, and feveral ribs lying be¬
tween the two infertions.
StE RNO-Co ST ALE S VlllgO TRIANGULARIS StERNI.
These are five pairs of flefliy planes, difpofed more
or lefs obliquely on each fide the fternum, and on the in-
fide of the cartilages of the fecond, third, fourth; fifth,
andfixth true ribs.
They are inferted, by one extremity, in the edges of
the infide of all the lower half of the fternum. From
thence the firft miifcle on each fide runs up obliquely, and
is fixed in the cartilage of the fecond rib. The fecond
runs Jefs obliquely to its infer tion in the cartilage of the
third rib. The refi are inferted, in tire fame manner, in
the cartilages of the following ribs.
This laft mufcle is fixed, by one extremity, in the
cartilage of the fixth true rib, near the bone, and feems
to pafs the appendix enfiformis, immediately above the
infertion of the diaphragm in that appendix, and to join
the mufcle on the other fide.
Uses of the Mnfcles employed in Refpiration.
The fealeni are fometimes ranked among thefe which
ferve for refpiration; but they ought rather to be rank¬
ed among the mufcles which move the vertebras of the
neck; becaufe the articulation of the firft rib on both
fides, with the firft vertebra of the back, feems to ferve
only for the motion of that vertebra on the rib, and not
of the rib on the vertebra.
The ferrates pofticus fiiperior is difpofed to move up¬
wards the three or four upper ribs next the firft.
The ferratus pofticus inferior is. ftili better difpofed for
deprefiing and keeping down the laft three or four falfe
ribs.
The pofterior fibres of the external intercoftals are
O M Y. 215
fixed, by their upper extremities, fo near the articulation
of the ribs with the vertebras, that they cannot deprefs
that rib in which they are fo inferted ; whereas the
infertions of their lower extremities in the following
rib being at a greater diftance from the articulation,
they may move that rib upward. And from thence it
follows, that all the remaining part of each external in-
tercoftal which terminates at the bony extremity of each
rib, can only ferve to raife the Wer rib toward the
upper.
The anterior fibres of the internal intercoftals are fa
near the articulation of the ribs with the fternum, that
they cannot deprefs drat cartilage in which each of them
is inferted ; whereas the inferior infertions,of thefe fibres,
being at a greater diftance from the articulation, they are
in a condition to raife the cartilages in which they are fo
inferted. From whence it fellows, that all the internal
intercoftal mufcles have the fame ufe with the external,
and that they can have no other.
The fupra-coftales are powerful afliftants to the inter¬
coftals in their common adtion, and are therefore very
juftly termed lev at ores coflarum.
The fterno-coftales deprefs the cartilaginous portions,
and anterior extitmities of die ribs, efpecially the fupe¬
rior ribs, except the firft; and at the fame time draw
the cartilages of the inferior ribs near the fternum, by
reafon of the curvature. They may therefore very well
be called depreffores cojlarum, as the fupra-coftales are
named levatores.
The fub-coftales having the fuperior extremities of
their fibres much more diftant from the vertebral articu-
lation of the' ribs than the lower extremities, it follows,
that they can more eafily move the upper than the Jower
ribs, and confequently that they are afiiftants to the
fterno-coftales.
The diaphragm, together with the intercoftal mufcles,
the ribs, fternum, and vertebras of the back, forms the
cavity of the thorax, and it divides this cavity from that
of the abdomen.
Its particular ufe is to be the principal organ of refpi¬
ration, that is, of the alternate expanfioh and contradion
of the thorax. The other mufcles already mentioned
are to be confidered only as afliftants and direftors, in
order to facilitate and regulate thefe motions, which, in
the ordinary ftate, are perpetual, but which may, by the
adlion.of thefe other mufcles, be accekrated, retarded,'
or even befufpended for fome fpace of time.
The diaphragm may move when the ribs are at reft,,
and confequently without the afliftance of the mufcles
which move the ribs ; and this motion may be fufficient
to keep up the alternate dilatation and contraction of the
thorax.
Sect. XIV. The Muscles which move the.
Head <tn the Trunk.
Sterno-Mastoidasus five M-astoid-zeus Anterior,
This is a long, narrow, pretty thick, and rncftly.
fleihy mufcle, fituated obliquely between the back part
it6
of the ear, and lower part of the throat. It is in a
manner compofed of two mufcles, united at the upper part
through their whole breadth, andfeparated at the lower.
It has two infertions below, both of them flat, and a
little tendinous. The firft is in the upper edge of the
fternum, near the articulation of the clavicula; the o-
ther in the clavicula, at a fmall difb.nce from the fternum.
The fternal portion pafies foremoft, and covers the
clavicular, both forming one body or belly, which run¬
ning in the fame oblique diredtion to the apophyfis ma-
ftoidseus, is inferted in the upper and back-part of that
procefs ; over which it likewife fends off a very broad
aponeurofis, which covers the fplenius, and is inferted in
the os occipitis.
SPLENIUS fivS MASTOIDvEUS POSTERIOR.
This is a flat, broad, oblongmufcle, fituated oblique¬
ly, between the back-part of the ear, and the pofterior
and lower part of the neck. It is partly fingle, aO<J
partly made up of .two portions, one fuperior, the other
inferior.
The fuperior portion is fixed to the extremities of the
three or four loweft fpinal apophyfes of the neck, ind of
the firft, or firft and fecond, of the back.
It is likewife fixed to the edge of the inter-fpinal li¬
gaments of the other vertebra.
From thence it runs up obliquely toward the maftoid
apophyfis, partly under the upper extremity of the fter-
no-mailoidaeus, and is inferted in the upper part of that
procefs, and along the neighbouring curve portion of the
tranfverfe ridge of the os occipitis.
The inferior portion of the fplenius is fixed to three
or four fpinal apophyfes of the back, beginning by the
fecond or third. From thence it runs up, being clofely
united to the other portion, till it reaches the fuperior
and lateral part of the neck, where it feparates from it,
and is inferted in the tranfverfe apephyfes of the three or
four fuperior vertebra of the neck, by the fame number
of extremities, a little tendinous, which, however, are
fometimes only two in number.
COMPLEXUS.
This is a pretty long and broad mufcle, lying on the
pofterior lateral part of the neck, all the way to the oc¬
ciput. It is complicated, by reafon of the decuffations
of its different portions ; from which it has its name.
It is fixed below, by fmall fhort tendons, to the tranf¬
verfe apophyfes of all the vertebra of the neck, except
the firft, to which it is fixed only near the root of its
tranfverfe apophyfis. From thence it runs up obliquely
backward, croffing under the fplenius, and often commu¬
nicating with it, by fome fafciculi of fibres.
It is afterwards inferted above, bya broad fiefhy plane,
in the pofterior part of the fuperior tranfverfe line of the
os occipitis, near the crifta orfpine of that bone.
Complexus Minor five Mastoidjeus Lateralis.
This is a long, {lender, narrow indented mufcle, ly-
Part II.
ing along all the fide of the neck, up to the ear, where
it increafes a little in breadth.
It is fixed, by one extremity, in all the tranfverfe a-
pophyfes of the neck, except the firft, by the fame num¬
ber of digitations or branches, moftly flefliy, and difpofed
obliquely.
From thence it afcends, and having reached above the
tranfverfe apophyfis of the firft vertebra, it forms a fmall
broad plane, by which it is inferted in the pofterior part
of the apophyfis maftoidaeus.
RECTUS MAJOR.
This is a fmall, flat, fhort mufcle, broad at the up¬
per part, and narrow at the lower, fituated obliquely be¬
tween the occiput and fecond vertebra of the neck.
It is fixed below to one branch of the bifurcated fpine
of the fecond vertebra of the neck, at a tuberofity which
is often found at the upper part of that branch. From
thence it afcends a little obliquely outward, and is infert¬
ed in the pofterior part of the inferior tranfverfe line of
the os occipitis, at a fmall diftance from the crifta, being
a little covered by the obliquus fuperior.
RECTUS MINOR.
Th is mufcle is like the former, and it has alfo a fmall
infertion below, in the pofterior eminence of the firft ver¬
tebra. From thence it afcends laterally, and is inferted
immediately under the pofterior part of the inferior tranf¬
verfe line of the os occipitis, in a fuperficial foflula on
•:one fide of the crifta occipitalis.
OBLIQUUS SUPERIOR five MINOR.
This mufcle is fituated laterally between the occiput
and firft vertebra, being nearly of the fame figure with
the two refti. It is fixed to the end of the tranfverfe
apophyfis of the firft vertebra; from whence it runs up¬
ward and very.obliquely backward, and is inferted in the
tranfverfe line of the os occipitis, altnoft at an equal di¬
ftance from the crifta and maftoid apophyfis, between the
reeftus major and compleftus minor.
OBLIQUUS INFERIOR five MAJOR.
It is fituated in a contrary direftion to the obliquus fu¬
perior, between the firft: and fecond vertebra of the neck,
refembling that mufcle in every thing but the fize. It is
fixed below to one ramus of the bifurcated fpinal apophyfis
of the fecond vertebra, near the infertion of the re<Sus
major; from Whence it runs obliquely upwards and out¬
ward, and is inferted in the end of the tranfverfe apo¬
phyfis of the fiift vertebra, under the lower infertion of
the obliquus fuperior.
RECTUS ANTICUS LONGUS.
This mufcle is, in fome meafure, of a pyramidal fi¬
gure, lying along the anterior and lateral parts of the ver¬
tebra of the neck, all the way up the balis cranii. ^
ANATOMY.
:.»i '-i:
Part II. A N A T
It is fixed to the anterior parts of, the tranfverfe apo-
phyfis of the third, fourth, fifth, and fixth vertebrse ia
a digitated manner. From thence it runs obliquely in¬
ward toward the lateral parts of the bodies of the verte-
bras, palfes on the fore-fide of the firft and fecond, with¬
out being inferted in them; and, approaching gradually
towards the fame mufcle on the other fide, it is inferted
near it in the fore-part of the lower fide of the apophy-
fis bafilaris, or great apophyfis of the os occipitis.
RECTUS ANTICUS BREVIS.
This is a fmall flat mufcle, about the breadth of one
finger, fituated laterally on the anterior part of the body
of the firfl: vertebra. It is fixed below to the bafis or
root of the tranfyerfe apophyfis of that vertebra, near
the anterior eminence.
From thence it runs obliquely upward and inward to a
tranfverfe impreflion in the lower fide of the apophyfis ba¬
filaris of the occipital bone, immediately, before the con¬
dyle on the fame fide, being covered by, the red us anti-
cus.longus.
TRANSVERSALIS ANTICUS PRIMUS.
This is a fmall, pretty thick, and wholly ilefhy muf¬
cle, about the breadth of a finger, fituated between the
bafis of the os occipitis and the tranfverfe apophyfis of
the firft vertebra. It is fixed by one end in the anterior
part of that apophyfis ; and from thence running up a
little obliquely, it is inferted, by the other end, in a par¬
ticular impreffion, between the condyle of the os occipi¬
tis and the maftoid apophyfis of the fame fide, behind the
the apophyfis ftyloides, and under the edge of the jugu¬
lar foflula.
TRANSVERSALIS ANTICUS SECUNDUS.
This is a fmall mufcle, fituated between the tranfverfe
apophyfes of the firft two vertebras of the neck. It is
fixed, by one extremity, very near the middle of the fe¬
cond apophyfis, and, by the other, near the root or bafis
of the firft; and therefore it is a mufcle of the neck, ra¬
ther than of the head.
MUSC.ULI ACCESSORII.
W e fometimes meet with a fmall mufcle, fixed, by
one end, to the extremity of the firft tranfverfe apophy¬
fis of the neck, near the infertions of the two obliqui,
from whence, running up obliquely, it is again inferted
behind phe maftoid apophyfis. This mufcle is commonly
thought to be a third fmall tranfverfalis on that fide
where it is found, but it feems rather to be an additional
mufcle to the obliquus fuperior.
Uses of the Mufcles •which move the Head on the
Trunk.
The aftion of the fterno-maftoidsei is dilterent, accor¬
ding as either both mufcles, or only one, of them, afts,
Vol. I, No. io.- 2
Q M Y. 217
and according to the different fituation of the head and
trunk.
When we keep th? head and trunk ftreight, whether
in ftanding or fitting, both mufcles preferve the head in
that pofture againft any force by which it would othcrwiie
be moved backward.
One of thefe' mufcles adling alone, may have the fame
ufe, if the force to pufh the head back be applied be¬
tween the anterior and lateral parts of it.
They both ferve likewife to perform the rotations of
the head, that is, to make it turn to either fide as on a
pivot; and, in this cafe, when we turn the head to one
fide, the fternb-maftoidasus on the other fide a<5ts, and
not that on the fame fide.
They both ferve, in the next place, to bring the head
near the thorax when$^ lie on the back, or bend back¬
ward in fitting! In this cafe, the fternum, being the
fixed point, muft remain immoveable; but as its connec¬
tion with'the firft rib, and the inflexibility of the carti¬
lage of that rib, are not always fufficient for this, the
mufeuli refti of the abdomen muft, lend their afiiftance in
great efforts.
The two fplenii ferve to fupport the head in an ereft
pofture, whether in ftanding or fitting ; to moderate the
flexion of the head forward, and to bring it back again '
to its natural'poftdrel
They ferve alternately to co-operate with either of the
fterno-maftoidaei, for the rotation of the head: Thus
when the right fterno-maftoidaeus turns the head, the left
fplenius correfponds with it by its upper part; while the
lower part at the fame time turns the vertebrae of the 1
neck!
The complex! are afliftants to the .fplenii, to keep the
head ftreight in fitting or ftanding, to hinder it from in- “
dining forward, and to raife'it when inclined.
The redi majores, and minores poftici, and obliqui
fuperiores, turn the head a little backward on the firft
vertebra of the neck. The reCti majores contribute moft
to this motion ; and the minores feem likewife to hinder
the articular membranes from being pinched between the
bones in great motions.
The redi majores and minores antici, and the two
tranfverfales antici, move the head forward on the firft '
vertebra; and the redi minores, and tranfverfales breves,
likewife defend the capfular ligaments.
The obliqui inferiores or majores are true rotators of
the head, by turning the firft vertebra upon the Odontoid
apophyfis of the fecond; all which alternate motions the
head follows, without being hindered in the motions for¬
ward and backward in any degree of rotation.
Of the tranfverfales antici, the firft only move the
head in the manner above mentioned; neither can they
perform any other motions, their infertions being confi¬
ned to the os Qccipftis and firft vertebra. The tranfver¬
fales antici fecundi have no (hare in the particular motions '
of the head, but ought rather to be ranked among the
mufcles which move the vertebrse of the neck.
The complex! minores belong to the head only by their
fuperior portions; the other portions belonging rather to
the neck. They may ferve alternately in the lateral-mo
tions of fhe head, and thereby co-operate with the fple-
3 I nius
si8 A N A T
nius and fi:erno-mafloid«us of the fame fide, when thefe
two a<5t together; and they may likewife be of ufe to
preferve the capfular ligaments to which they adhere.
The fmall accefibrii, when they are, found, have the
fame ufes with the mufcles to which they are fupernu-
merary.
Sect. XV. Of the Vertebral Muscles.
LONGUS COLLI.
This vertebral mufcle is made up of feveral others,"
fituated laterally along the fore-fide of all the vertebrae
of the neck, and fome of the upper vertebrae of the
back.
It may be dividedl intO two portions; one fuperior,
confiding of oblique converging mufcles ^ and one infe¬
rior, compofed of oblique diverging mufcles.
The fuperior portion is covered by the redtus anticus
longus of the head. The mulcles, of which it confifts,
are fixed below to all the tranfverfe apophyfes that lie
between the fir ft vertebra and the laft. From thence
they run up obliquely, and are inferted in the anterior
eminence of the firft vertebra, and in the bodies, of the
three following.
The inferior portion appears aimed freight, and yet
all the mufcles that comppfe it are diverging, or directed
obliquely outward. They are fixed below to the anterior
lateral part of the body of the lad vertebra of the neck,
and of the fird three of the Back, and fometimes of
more. From thence thpy run upward, and a little ob¬
liquely outward, and are inferted near the tranfverle a-
pophyfes of all the vertebra of the neck, except the fird
and lad.
TRANSVERSALIS COLLI MAJOR.
Th i s is a long thin mufcle, placed along all the tranf¬
verfe apophyfes of the neck, and the four, five, or-fix
upper apophyfes of the back, between the complexus
major and minor.
It is compofed of feveral fmall mufcular fafciculi,
which run direftly from one or more tranfverfe apophy¬
fes, and are inferted fometimes in the apophyfis neared
to thefe, fometimes in others more remote, the feveral
lafciculi eroding each other between the infertions of the
two complex!, which are likewife eroded by them.
Transversal is GracilisCollaterals Colli.
This is a long thin mufcle, refembling the tranfverfa-
lis major in every thing but fize, and fituated on the fide
of that mufcle.
Semi-Spinalis fve Transverso-Sfinalis Colli.
This name is given to all that fldhy mafs which lies
between the tranfverfe and fpinal apophyfes, from the
fecond vertebra of the heck, to the middle of the back.
It is compofed of feveral oblique convergirtg muf-
O M Y. Part II.
cles, which may be divided into externa! and internal.
The external are fixed below to the' tranfverfe apo¬
phyfes of the fix, feven, eight, or niiie upper vertebrae
of the back, by tendinous extremities, which, as they
afeend, become flefliy, and mix with each other. Their
fuperior infertions in the neck are fix in number, where-
6f the fird, which is tendinous, is in the feventh fpinal a-
pophyfis ; the red, which are flediy, are in the five next
ipinal apophyfes. -
The internal are fliorter and more oblique than the ex¬
ternal, and partly covered by them. They are fixed,
by their lower extremities, to the tranfverfe apophyfes
of the three of four upper vertebne of the back, and to
the oblique apophyfes of the four or five lower vertebras
of the neck ; and, by their other extremities, they are
inferted in the fix fpinal apophyfes of the neck.
S P I N A L E S COLLI MI NO R E S.
These mufcles lie between the fix fpinaf apophyfes of
the neck, and between-theftad of the neck arid fird of
the back, being inferted in thefe apophyfes, by both ex¬
tremities, on one fide of the poderior cervical ligament,
whicE parts them from thhfe on tbl other fide.
TRANSVERSALES COLLI MINORES.
These are very fmall fhort mufcles, found in the in¬
terdices of feveral tranfverfe apophyfes in which they are '
inferted. They are likeWife termed inter-tranfverjaies.
S ACRO-LUMBARIS.
This is1 a long complex mufele, narrow and thin at
the upper part, broad and thick at the lower, reprefenr¬
ing a kind of flat pyramid. It lies between the fpine
and poderior part of all the ribs, and along the baek-
part of the regio lumbaris, aljthe way to the os facrum.
Through all this fpace, it is clofely accompani. d by
the longiffimus dorfi, which lies between it and the fpi¬
nal apophyfes of the vertebral, a narrow, fatty, or cel¬
lular line tunning between them.
It is fixed below, by a broad thin tendinous aponeu-
rofis, to the fuperior fpines of the os facrum, and to the
neighbouring lateral parts of that bone; and, laflly, to
the external labium of the poderior part of the crida of-
fis iliupi, ad the way to the great tuberofity.
From thence this mufde runs upward, and a little la-
terallys over all the regio lumbaris; the aponeurofis
fending off, from its infide, a mais of flefhy fibres,
which are divided, from below upwards, into feverai
large fafciculi, inferted in all the tranfverfe apophyfes of
the loins.
Afterwards it rails up obliquely over all the ribs,
fometimes as high as the two or -three lowed vertebras of
the neck, fometimes higher, and fometimes it ends at
the fird vertebra of the back.
LONGISSIMUS DO RSI.
This is a very complex, long, and narrow mufcle,
fomethinj
Part II. ANA
fomething like the facro-lumbaris, but more flefhy and
thicker, fituated between the fpinal apophyfes and the
mufcle jud mentioned, from which it is divided by a
fmall, fatty, or cellular line ; but at the lower part they
are confounded together. It covers the femi-fpinalis, or
tranfverfo-fpinalis dorfi, and the femi-fpinalis lumborum.
Its' upper part lies between the facro-lumbaris and tranf-
verfalis colli.
Its inferior infertions are partly by diftindt tendinous
portions, and by a broad aponeurofis common to it with
the facro-lumbaris; and partly by a large fafciculi of
flelhy fibres, which, at fir it fight, feem to compofe one
uniform mafs. It is fixed, by the long, flat, tendinous
portions of different breadths, to the lafl fpinal apophyfis
of the back, to all thofe of the loins, and to one or two
of the fuperior fpines of the os factum. Thefe portions
lie at different diftances from each other, but are all con-
nedted by a thin aponeurofis fixed to their edges.
From thence they run up. obliquely, diverging from
the apophyfes ; and, beginning to be flefhy at their inner
or anterior fides, they terminate above in fmall roundifh
tendons, inferted in the extremities of the feven upper
tranfverfe apophyfes of the back, and in the neighbour¬
ing-ligaments of all the true ribs.
The other inferior infertion wholly fiefiiy, is partly in
the inner or forefide of the aponeurofis of the facro-lum¬
baris, and partly in the upper portion of the os facrum,
being from thence continued to the great tuberofity of
the os illium.
From thence this uniform m&fs of flefhy fibres runs up
in a courfe almofl diredt, croffing the tendinous portions
which are more oblique ; and join the inferior fibres of
the facro-lumbaris by large fafciculi inferted in the tranf¬
verfe and oblique apophyfes of the vertebra of the loins.
The fibres of this portion go afterwards to the ribs, be¬
ing inferted by planes more or lefs fiefiiy, in the lower
convex edge of all the falfe ribs, between the condyles
or tuberofities and the angles.
At the fixth or feventh vertebra of the back, one or
triore of the tendinous portions often communicate with
fome fafciculi of the femi-fpinalis,. or tranfverfo-fpinalis
dorfi.
SPINALIS DORSI MAJOR.
This is a pretty long and^ flender mufcle, lying up¬
on the lateral part of the extremities of the fpinal apo¬
phyfis of the back.
It is compofed of feveral mufcular fafciculi of diffe¬
rent lengths, which, croffing each other, are inferted la¬
terally by fmall tendons in the fpinal apophyfes from the
fecond, third, or fourth vertebra of the back; and
fometimes, though feldom, from the laid of the neck, or
firft of the back, all the way to the firfl or fecond verte¬
bra of the loins, with feveral irregular decufiations, which
vary in different fubjedts.
SPINALES DORSI M INGRES.
These mufcles are of two kinds. Some go laterally
from the extremity of cne fpinal apophyfis to another;
r O M Y. 2!^
being often mixed with the fhort fafciculi of the fpinalis
major. The reft lie diredtly between the extremities of
two neighbouring fpinal apophyfes, being feparated from
their fellows on the other fide by the fpinal ligament.
They are fmaller and thinner than thofe of the neck,
and are properly enough termed inter-fpinales.
TRANSVERSALES DORSI MINORES.
Some particular mufcles of this kind are found fixed
to the extremities of the three lowed: tranfverfe apophy¬
fes of the back. The reft are all in fome meafure conti¬
nuations of the tranfverfalis major.
Semi-SpinalIs five Transverso-Spinalis Dorsi.
This is a flefhy mafs, which, from all the fpinal and
tranfverfe apophyfes of the back and loins, is extended
into diftindt fafcfculi over the vertebra themfelves.
It is made up, like that of the neck, of feveral oblique
converging vertebral mufcles, the uppermoft of 'which is
fixed below to the third tranfverfe apophyfis of the
back, and above to the firft fpinal apophyfis. The
loweft is fixed below to the third tranfveife apophyfis of
the loins, and above to the laft fpinal apophyfis of the
back.
They may be divided into external, which are firft
difcovered;. and internal, which lie immediately on the:
vertebra. The external, from the firft vertebra to the
feventh, inclufively, appear to be longer than the inter-,
nal, which are covered by them.
Transverso- Spinalis Lumborum,
Sacer Veteribus.
This mufcle is compofed of feveral oblique converging
of'tranlverfo-fpinal mufcles, in the fame manner as in
the back and neck; and if lies between the fpinal and
oblique apophyfes of tire loins, reaching to the os fa¬
crum.
The loweft of thefe mufcles are fixed to die fnperior >
lateral parts of the os facrum, to the ligamentum facro-
iliacum, and to the pofterior fuperipr fpine of the Os ili¬
um. The reft are fixed to the three loweft tranfverfe
apophyfes, and to the four loweft oblique apophyfes of
the loins, and to their lateral tuberofities. From thence
they fun up to all the fpinal apophyfes of thele vei tebra, :
the external, or rhofe that appear firft, being longer than '
the internal, which lie immediately on the vertebra, e-
fpecially toward the lower part.
Spinales & Transversales Lumborum.',
There are fome fafciculi which run up from the fn-
perior falfe fpines of the os facrum, to the lower fpinal
apophyfes of the loins, which may be looked upon as fo
many fpinales lumborum majores. There are likewife
fome fpinales minores between the fpinal apophyfes of
the loins, and tranfverfales miriores between the tranf¬
verfe apophyfes, which are fometimes of a confiderable ‘
breadth. - '
Quadratus
ANATOMY.
Part II.
Quadratus Lumeorum five Lumbaris Externus.
This is a-fmall, oblong, fiat mufcle, irregularly
fquare, narrower at its upper than at its lower part, ly¬
ing along the fides of the vertebrae lumborum, between
the laft faife rib and the os ilium.
It is fixed below to the external labium of almoft all
the poRerior half of the crifta offis ilium, to the ligamen-
tum facro-iliacuifi, and a little to the os facrum, by a
fiefhy plane, the fibres whereof run obliquely backward.
From thence it runs up between the facro-lumbaris and
pfoas, by both which it is partly hid, and is inferted in
the extremities of all the tranfverfe apophyfes of the
loins by oblique tendinous digitations. It is likewife fix¬
ed by a bread infertion in the twelfth rib, on the infide
of the ligament that lies between it and the longiflimus
dorfi, by which that rib is connedted to the firft vertebra
of the loins.
MUSCULI OSSIS COCCYGIS.
These are fmall, thin, radiated mufcles, lying on
the inner- or concave fide of the os facrum, and neigh¬
bouring parts of the pelvis. They are four in number,
two on each fide, whereof one is placed more forward;
the other more backward; for which reafon the firft
may be termed coccygaus anterior, five ifchio-coccygaut;
the other coccygaiu pofterior, five facro-coccygaits.
The coccygceus anterior is fixed by a broad infertion
in the anterior portion of the fmall tranfverfe ligament,
at the upper part of the foramen ovale of the os innomi-
natum, which is no more than a particular fold of the
great tranfverfe ligament of the pelvis. From thence it
runs between this great ligament and the mufculus. obtu¬
rator internus, and, contradiing in breadth, it is inferted
in the lower part of the os coccygis.
The coccygaeus pofterior, or facro-coccygseus, is fix¬
ed to the inner or concave edge of the two firlt vertebra
of the os facrum, to the inner and lower edge of the li-
gamentum facro-feiaticum, and to thfe fpine of the os if-
chium. From thence, contradling in breadth, it is in¬
ferted in the infide of the os coccygis above the former
mufcle.
PSOAS PARVUS.
This is a long flender mufcle, lying upon the pfoas
major.
It is fixed above by a Ihort tendon, fometimes to the
laft tranfverfe^pophyiis of the back, or higher; fometimes
to the firft of the loins, and fometimes to both. From
thence it runs down wholly fiefhy, and more or lefs com¬
plexion the great pfoas, in a diredtion a little oblique.
Having reached the middle of the regio-lumbaris, or
thereabouts, it forms a flender flat tendon, which gra¬
dually increafing in breadth; like a thin aponeurofis, runs
over the pfoas major and iliacus internus, at their union,
and from thence down to the fymphyfis of the os pubis
and os ilium, and is inferted chiefly in the crifta of the
os pubis, above the infertion of the pedtineus, fometimes
fending an aponeurotic lamina further down.
Uses cf the Mufcles ’which move the Vertebra'.
The fealeni, when they adt on each fide at the fame
time, may aflift in bringing the neck forward, when we
lean back in any refpedt. When thofe of one fide adl
by themfelves, they make a lateral infledHon, either of all
the vertebra of the neck together, as in bending the
middle of the neck ; or. of fome only, as in bending the
lower part of the neck alone.
The longi colli bring the neck forward by the lower
part of their inferior portions. When one of them adls
alone, or adfs more than the other, this motion is more
or lefs oblique.
By the upper and gfeateft part of the lowCft portion,
they counterbalance the pofterior mufcles of thefe verte¬
bra, and hinder the neck from bending backward by the
contradHon of the fterno-maftoidsi, when, lying on the
back, we raife the head.
The tranfverfalis major, tranfverfalis gracilis, and the
little tranfverfales, adting on one fide, can have no other
life but to bend the neck laterally, and to hinder thefe
inflexions when they adt on both fides.
The femi-fpinales or tranfverfo-fpinales of both fides
adling together, extend the neck upon the trunk, to keep
it from inclining forward in Handing or fitting, and bend
it backward. The femi-fpinales of one fide adting alone,
produce the fame motions in an oblique diredtion; and
in that cafe they are aflifted by the inferior or vertebral
portion of the neighbouring fplenius, under which they
crofs.
The femi-fpinales of both fides may likewife ferVe for
the rotation of the neck, but then the inferior fplenius of
the oppofite fide muft aflift them.
The inter-fpinales are afliftants to the femi-fpinales in
their mutual adtion, and may likewife ferve to bring back
the neck to its natural fituation, after fmall motions of
rotation.
The vertebra of the back are moved by being bent
forward, by being extended or ftraightened, and by being
infledted diredHy or obliquely toward each fide. The
motion of rotation has no place here, becaufe of the par¬
ticular ftructure of the joints of thefe vertebra, and their
connexion with the ribs, which likewife hinder the flexion
backward. Flexion and extenfion are the two principal
motions, and much more apparent than the others.
The flexion of the back forward is not performed by
any particular mufcles, but depends, both in (landing
and fitting, on the relaxation of the mufcles that extend
or ftraighten it, and keep it in that eredt pofture.
The two facro-lumbares maintain the back and the
regio-lumbaris in their natural fituation when we ftand
or fit; and by the relaxation of their fibres more or lefs>
the trunk is proportionably bent forward by the weight
of the head and bread. They likewife extend the back
and loins in all poftures, keep them fteady and fixed un¬
der the weight of burdens, and bend the loins backward.
The longiflimus dorfi is an afliftant to the facro-lumba¬
ris, efpecially to the vertebral portion of that mufcle,
which it helps very powerfully, both by the multiplicity
and infertion of its fibres, in fuftaining the vertebra of
the
22 1
Part II. A N A T
the back and loins while extended, whether in fitting or
Handing, and' in preventing their linking under the
weight of the bod3', or of any additional burdenr It
aifilts in performing and in counterbalancing all the mo¬
tions and inflexions of which thefe vertebrae, efpecially
thofe of the loins, are capable in all pollutes of the
body.
All the fpinales and tranfverfales of the back and loins
belonging to the clafs of the vertebrales red!, the fpina¬
les to the middle mufcles, and the tranfverfales to the la¬
teral, their chief ufes mull be to allift, moderate, and
maintain the motions of extenfion and lateral inflexion,
whether fimple and dired, or oblique and compound.
The femi-fpinales, or ..tranfverfo-fpinales, being ob¬
lique, converging, vertebral mufcles, are allillants to
the facro-lumbaris and longiflimus dorfi, which they crofs
on each fide.
The quadratus lumborum and pfoas parvus are of the
fame ufe to the vertebras of the loins, as the fcaleni to
thofe of the neck. When both quadrati ad, they keep
the lumbar pillar llraight, that is, fo as not to incline to
either fide, and then they may allift the redi of the ab¬
domen in the inflexions forward, and the fuperior por¬
tions of the obliqui in lateral inflexions.
They may likewife ferve to fupport the haunches al¬
ternately in walking; and, in Handing on one foot, the
quadratus of the oppofite fide may fupport the haunch
of that fide.
The pfoas parvus, ferves to fuftain.the pelvis much in
the fame manner with the mufculi redi of the abdomen,
in climbing, &c.
The coccygaeus anterior may fuftaip the coccyx in
aequilibrio, and hinder it from being bent backward,
ami from being luxated in great drains, as in the excre¬
tion of hardened faeces, &c.
The coccygasus polterior can only ferve to replace the
os coccygis when it has been forced backward, and to
hinder it from being luxated backward.
Sect. XVI. .The Muscles which move the
Lower Jaw.
MASSETER.
This is a very thick flelhy mufcle, fituated at the
back part of the cheek. It feems to be made up of three
portions, like a triceps, viz. one large and external por¬
tion, one middle, and one fmall and internal.
The external portion is fixed by one tendinous extre¬
mity to all the inferior edge of the os malae, and a little
to the neighbouring parts of the os maxillare and apo-
phylis zygomatica of the os temporum. From thence it
runs down obliquely backward, being wholly flelhy, and
is inferred by the other extremity in the rough impreflion
on the outfide of the angle of the lower jaw.
The middle portion is fixed by one end to the lower
edge of the whole apophyfis zygomatica of the os tem¬
porum, and a very little to that of the os malae. From
thence it runs down a little obliquely forward in an op¬
pofite diredlion to the firft portion, under which it crof-
Vot. 1. No. 10. 3
O M Y.
fes, and is inferred by its other extremity in the middle
of the infide of the ramus of the lower jaw, near the in-
fertion of the external portion with which it mixes.
The third portion, which is leaft and mod internal,
is fixed by one extremity to the inner labium of the low'-
er edge, and alfo to the infide of ahnoft all the zygoma¬
tic arch; and by the other, to the root or bafis of the
coronoid apophyfis, where it mixes wholly flefliy with
the infertion of the middle portion.
TEMPORALIS.
This is a broad flat mufcle, refembling the quadrant of
a circle in figure. It occupies all the femi-circular or fe-
mi-oval plane of the lateral region of the cranium, the
temporal fofla, and part of the zygomatic foffa. From
this fituation it has its name.
To conceive,- juftly the infertions of this mufcle, it
muft be obferved, that the pericranium is divided into,
two laminae. The internal lamina, fometimes taken for
a particular periofteum, covers immediately all the bony
parts of this region. The external lamina fe.parated
from the other, is fpread out like an aponeurotic or li¬
gamentary tent, by means of its adhefions to the ex¬
ternal angular apophyfis of the os frontis, to the pofte-
rior edge of the fuperior apophyfis of the os malse, and
to the upper edge of all the zygomatic arch, all the way
to the root of the maftoid apophyfis.
This mufcle is compofed of two planes of flefliy fibres,
fixed to the two fides of a tendinous plane nearly of the
fame breadth with them, like a concealed middle tendon ;
as may be plainly feen by dividing the mufcle all the way
to the bone, according to the direftion of its fibres.
The body of the mufcle thus formed is inclofed between
the two aponeurotic or ligamentary laminse in the follow'-
ing manner.
The internal fleftiy plane is fixed, by a broad radia¬
ted infertion, to all the femi-circular plane of the cra¬
nium, by the intervention of the internal lamina of the
periofteum.
Thus it is fixed to the lateraF external part of the os
frontis, and to its external ahgular apophyfis, to the low¬
er part of the os parietale, to the fquamous portion of
the os temporis, to the great ala or temporal apophyfis
of the fphenoidal bone, by which the temporal fofla is
formed; and a little to the backfide of the internal orbi¬
tary apophyfia of the os malae, which forms part of the
zygomatic fdfla.
•PTERYGOIDj£US MAJOR five INTERNES.
This mufcle lies on the infide of the lower jaw, al-
moft in the fame manner as the mafleter does on the out¬
fide, being of the fame figure with that mufcle, only
fmaller and narrower.
It is fixed above in the pterygoid cavity, chiefly to
the infide of the external ala of the apophyfis ptery-
goides.
It runs down obliquely toward the angle of the lower
jaw, and is infsrted a little tendinous in the inequali-
3 K ties
222 A N A T
ties on the infide thereof, oppofite to the infertion of the
maffeter.
PTERYGOID.EUS MINOPv five EXTERNUS.
This is an oblong flefhy mufcle, much fmaller than
the other, and fxtuated almoft horizontally between the
outfide of the apophyfis pterygoides, and the condyloid
apophyfis of the lower jaw, the fubjeft being confidered
in an eredt pofture.
It is fixed by one extremity to the outfide and edge of
the outer ala of the pterygoid apophyfis, filling the fof-
fula which is at the bafis of this apophyfis, near the bafis
of the temporal apophyfis, of the fphenoidal bone.
From thence it runs backward, and a little outward,
into the void fpace between the two apophyfes of the low¬
er jay, and is inferted anteriorly in the condyloid apo¬
phyfis, at a fmall fofiula immediately under the inner
angle of the condyle. It is alio fixed to {he capfular li¬
gament of the joint.
D I G A S T R I C U S.
This is a fraall long mufcle, fimated laterally between
the whole bafis of the jaw and the throat. It is flefiry
at both extremities, and tendinous in the middle, as if
it confifted of two fmall mufcles joined endwife by a ten¬
don, and from thence it is called digaflricus in Greek,
and biventer in Latin.
It is fixed by one fkfhy extremity in the fulcus of the
maftoid apophyfis. From thence it runs forward, in¬
clining towards the os hyoides, where the firft flelhy bo¬
dy ends in a roijnd tendon, which is connedted to the la¬
teral part and root of the cornua of that bone by a kind
of aponeurotic ligament, and not by a vagina or pulley.
Here the tendon is inciirvated, and prefently ends in
the other fiefny body, which is fixed immediately above
the internal labium of the bafis of the chin near the fym-
phyfis, in a fmall nnecjual depreffion. This infertion
is broader than that of tfie other extremity.
Uses of the Mufcles nuhich move the Lonskr Janu.
The two temporales adting together, raife the lower
law, prefs the teeth in that j%w againft the upper teeth,
and pull it back when it has been carried fo far forward
as that the lower incifores get before the upper. They
perform the laft motion by their moft poflerior portion,
which paffes over the root of the zygomatic apophyfis,
and the other motions by the co-operation of all their
inufcular radii.
. The two mafleters ferve to raife the lower jaw, and
to pulh the lower teeth againll the upper, in which ufe
they co-operate with the temporales. They Jikewife
bring this jaw forward by their external and larged por¬
tion ; draw it back by their middle portion; and move it
laterally by their fuperior portions adling alternately.
By the co-operation of all the three portions, they prefs
the lower teeth againd the upper.
Both pterygoidsei interni ferve to raife the lower jaw,
to bring the lower teeth near the upper, and to move the
jaw laterally, as in grinding the food.
O M Y. Part II.
The two pterygoidxi externi bring the lower jaw for¬
ward, in order to fet the lower incifores before the up¬
per; in which adtion they are antagonids to the pode-
rior portion of the temporales, and the great portion of
the mafleters. When one of them arts, it carries the
chin obliquely forward, or turns it toward the other
fides. This oblique motion is performed alternately by
thefe two mufcles arting fingly.
The two digadrici ferve to deprefs the lower jaw, and
to open the mouth.
The force of thefe mufcles is very confiderable, as
may be ftiewn by laying the elbow on a table, and lean¬
ing with the chin on the hand, while we endeavour at
the fame time to deprefs the lower jaw; for as in that
cafe this jaw cannot defeend, the digadrici, by their in-
fertions in the apophyfis madoidasa, raile the upper jaw,
by bending the head backward on the condyles of the
lower jaw.
Sect. XVII. Tkc TAvsclks which move the
Os Hyoides.
M Y L O-H Y O I D iE U S.
This is a broad, thin, penniform mufcle, fitpated
tranfverfely between the internal lateral parts of the ba¬
fis of the lower jaw, and lying on the anterior portions
of the two digadric mufcles.
It is made up of two equal flefliy portions, one lying
on the right fide, the other on the leit, both in the fame
plane, and joined to a fmall middle tendon, which is in-
ferted anteriorly in the middle of the bafis of the os hy¬
oides, and from thence runs diredtly forward, diminilh-
ing gradually in its courfe.
Each portion is fixed, by flelhy fibres, to the internal
lateral part of the lower jaw, between the oblique pro¬
minent line and the bafis, under the firft four dentes mo-
lares and caninus. The anterior and greateft part of
the other fibres of each portion run obliquely from be¬
fore backward, to the middle tendon, in which they are
regularly fixed, the anterior fibres being the flrorteft, and
a fmall triangular void fpace being formed between them
and the fymphyfis of the chin.
The pofterior fibres of each portion, which make a-
bout a fourth part of the whole, run likewife on each
fide to,the bafis of the os hypides, and are inferted along
the lower edge of its anterior or convex fide, and from
thence a little upward.
GENIO-HYOID-E US.
This is a fmall and pretty long flelhy mufcle, fituated
between the fymphyfis of the chin and the os byoides,
clofe by its fellow.
It is fixed, by its anterior extremity, to a rough, and
fometimes prominent furface, on the inner or pofterior
fide of the fymphyns of the lower jaw, a little above the
chin. From thence it runs backward, and is .inferted
anteriorly in the upper edge of the bafis ef the os hyoi¬
des.
Part II. ANA T
des, having firfl: font ofF a fmall lateral portion, which is
fixed a little higher to the root of the cornu.
STYLO-HYOIDiEU S.
This is a fmall flefhy mufcle, lying obliquely between
the apophyfis ftyloides and os hyoides.
It is fixed laterally, by one extremity, to the root or
bafis of the apophyfis llyloides, and, by the other, to
the os hyoides, at the place where the bafis and cornu
unite, and likewife to the cornu itfelf, from whence it
has been called Jiylo-cerato-hyoicLeus.
OMOPLATO HYOID.EUS fivs OMO-HY-
OIDAiUS vulgo COR ACO-HY 01D ALU S.
This is a very long fmall mufcle, much narrower
than the fterno-hyoidteus, and fituated obliquely on the
fide of the neck or throat, between the d'capula and os
hyoides.
. It is commonly fixed, by the lower extremity, to the
fuperior cofta of the fcapula, between the fmall notch
and the angle, and fometimes very near the angle.
From thence it pafies over the coracoid apophyfis, ad¬
hering fometimes to it by a kind of aponeurofis, or mem¬
branous ligament, and from this adhelion the name of co~
racQ-hyoidanis was given it by fome who had not difco-
vered its main infertion.
It is likewife often fixed to the clavicula by ligamen¬
tary or flefhy fibres ; and has fometimes been been infert-
ed in the whole middle portion of that bone, being infe-
parably united with the fferno-hyoidseus.
Having paffed the clavicle, it is bent forward, and
runs between the flerno-maftoidseus and internal jugular
vein, the frnall middle tendon being fituated in this place.
From thence it runs up to its infertiop in the inferior la¬
teral part of the bafis of the os hyoides, near the cornu,
and infertion of the fierno-hyoidatus, which it covers a
little.
Sterno-Hyoidjeus five Sterno-Cleido-Hyoid^us.
This is a long, thin, flat mufcle, broader at the lower
than at the upper part, and fituated, together with its
fellow, on the fqre-fide of the throat.
It is fixed, by its lower extremity7, in the fuperior and
lateral part of "the inner or poiterior fide of the flerpum,
in the pofterior part of the flernal extremity of the cla¬
vicula, in the tranfverfe ligament which coftnedfs thefe
two bones, and in the inner or back-fide of the cartilage
of the firfl: rib. All thefe other infertions are more con-
fiderable than that in the fternum, which is fometimes
fcarce perceivable.
From thence it runs up on the fore-fide of the afpera
arteria, joined to its fellow by a membrane, which forms
a fort of ilinea alba, and is inferted laterally in the lower
edge of the bafis of the os hyoides.
Uses of the Mufelej winch move the Os Uyoides.
The mechanifm obfervedin the motions of the os hy-
O M Y. 223
oides, as w'ell as in thofe of the fcapula, is very particu"
lar, and very different from what we find in all the other
bones of the human body. All thefe bones have folid
fulcra, on which they are either moved or kept fixed by
the proper mufcles, after the manner of a lever or other-
wife; whereas the os hyoides is merely fufpended, ha¬
ving nothing to fix it but thefe very mufcles which move
it in different manners.
The mylo-hyoktaeus reprefents a moveable Hodr or bed,
which fuflains the tongue with its mufclcs and glands,
and forms the bottom of the cavity of the mouth. When
the two portions of this mufcle adl together, they draw
the os hyoides a little forward, and fix it in that fitua-
tion, raifing the whole tongue at the fame time, and
compreffing the glandulas fub-lingualcs. If one lateral
portion ads more thah the other, it puts the os hyoides
in an oblique fituation, and in a condition to ferve as a
fixed point for the motions of the tongue.
The genio hyoidei pull the os hyoides much more for¬
ward than the mylo-hyoideus ; and as they are very nar¬
row, and dofely united together, there feems to be very
little occafion for one of them to ad without the other.
The ftylo-hyoidasi move the os’ hyoides upward and
backward in a middle diredion, between thofe in which
they fie; .and they draw it more upward and backward
when they ad freely; that is, without-being checked or
confined by other msfcles, in the manner which we fhall
fee hereafter. When one ads more than the other, the
bone is moved obliquely.
The omorhyoidan, or coraco-hyoidsei, ad as the ftylo-
byoidafi, in a middle diredion between the oblique direc¬
tions in which they lie, and. draw, the os hyoides down¬
ward and backward, when they are not counterbalanced
by the flylo-hyoidad. When one ads more than the o-
ther, the bone is drawn obliquely to the right or left
hand.
When thefe mufcles and the ftylo-byoidsei ad toge¬
ther, the os hyoides is drawn backward by a dired mo¬
tion compounded of four oblique motions. This com¬
pound motion is direded more upward or more laterally,
according to the degree, of adion of the ftylo-hyoidcei,
or omo-hyoidad, or of any one mufcle of each pair; and
in all thefe motions the four mufcles are counterbalanced
by the genio-hyoidaei.
The flerno-hyoidaei draw the os hyoides diredly down¬
ward, and ferve to counteibalance the different motions
of the ftylq-hyoidaei, omo-hyoidai, and genio-hyoideei.
They may, in fome cafes, be aflifted by the ilerno-thy-
roidad, and thyro-hyoidaei, as we fliall fee hereafter.
According to the method commonly obferved in com¬
plete treatifes of myology, the following mufcles remain
fiill to be deferibed, viz. The mufeies of the forehead,
occiput, palpebras, eye, external ear, nofe, lips, tongue,
uvula, du&us Euflacbianus, pharynx, larynx, parts of
generation, anus, and bladder; and to thefe we ought'
even to add the heart, as Mr Cowper has done in the late
edition of his Myotomy. But the defeription of thefe
will be better undei flood when we treat of the parts to
which they belong. See Part VI.
E X P L A-
224
ANA
O
M Y.
Part II.
T
EXPLANATION
Fig. i. The Muscles immediately under the com¬
mon teguments on the anterior part of the body, are
reprefented on the right fide; and on the left fide the
Muscles are feen which come in view when the exte¬
rior ones are taken away.
A, The frontal mufcle. B, The tendinous aponeurofis
which joins it to the occipital; hence both named oc-
cipit e-front a Us. C, Attolens aurem. D, The ear.
E, Anterior auris. F F_, Orbicularis palpebrarum.
G, Levator labii fuperioris akeque nafi. H, Levator
labiorum communis, I, Zygomaticus minor. K, Zy-
gomaticus major. L, Maffeter. M, Orbicularis la¬
biorum. N, DeprelTor labii inferioris. O, Depref-
for labiorum communis. P, Buccinator.
tyfma myoides. R R, Sterno-cleido maitoidaeus.
S, Part of the trapezius. T, Part of the fcaleni.
Superior Extremity.—U, Deltoides. V, Pec-
toralis major. W, Part of the latiffimus dorh.
X X, Biceps flexor cubiti. Y Y, Part of the bra-
chiseus externus. Z Z, The beginning of the tendi¬
nous aponeurofis, (from the biceps) which is fpread
over the mufcles of the fore-arm. a a. Its • ftrong
tendon inferted into the tubercle, of the radius,
b b. Part of the brachiaeus internus. c, Pronator te¬
res. d, Flexor carpi radialis. e, Part of the flexor
carpi ulnaris. f, Palmaris longus. g, Aponeurofis
palmaris. 3, Palmaris brevis. 1, Ligamentum car¬
pi annulare. 2 2, Abdudlor minimi digiti. h. Su¬
pinator longus. i. The tendons - of the three exten-
fors of the thumb, k, Abduftor pollicis. 1, Flexor
pollicis longus. m m, The tendons of the flexores di-
gitorum communi.—The (heaths are entire in the right
hand,—in the left cut open, to (hew the tendons of
the flexor profundus perforating the fublimis.
Muscles not referred to—in the left fuperior ex¬
tremity.—n, Pedtoralis minor, feu ferratus anticus mi¬
nor. o. The two heads of (x x) the biceps, p, Co-
raco-brachialis. q q, The long head of the triceps
extenfor cubiti. r r, Teres major, f f, Subfcapula-
ris. t t, Extenfores radiales. u, Supinator brevis,
v, The cut extremity of the pronator teres, w, Fler
xor digitorum fublimis. x, Part of the flexor pro¬
fundus. y, Flexor pollicis longus. z, Part of the
flexor pollicis brevis. 4, Abdu&or minimi digiti.
5, The four lumbricales.
Trunk.— 6, Serrated extremities of the ferratus
anticus major. 7 7, Obliquus externus abdominis.
8 8, The linea alba. 9, The umbilicus. 10, Pyra-
midalis. 11 n> The fpermatic cord. On the left
fide, it is covered by the cremafter. 12 12, Rec¬
tus abdominis. 13, Obliquus internus. 1414,
Intercollal mufcles.
Inferior Extremities.—a p, The gracilis.
of PLATE XV.
Parts of the triceps, c c, Peftineus. d d, Pfoas
magnus. e e, iliacus internus. f. Part of the glu-
taeusmedius. g. Part of the glutteus minimus, h, Cut
extremity of the redus cruris, i i, Vaflus externus.
k. Tendon of the re&us cruris. / /, Vaftus internus.
* Sartorius mufcle. * * Flefliy origin of the tenfor
vaginse femoris or membranofus. Its tendinous aponeu¬
rofis covers (/'), the vaflus externus in the right-fide.
m m, Patella. » n, Ligament or tendon from it to
the tibia. 0, Redus cruris, p, Crureus. q q, The
tibia, r r, Part of the gemellus or gaflrocnemius ex¬
ternus. fff Part of the foleus or gaflrocnemius
internus. t, Tibialis antieus. u, Tibialis poflicus.
r; tv Peronaei mufcles. <tu w, Extenfor digitorum lon¬
gus communis. x x, Extenfor poliicis longus.
p, Abdudor pollicis.
Fig 2. The Muscles, Glands, <&c. of the left
fide of the face and neck, after the common teguments
and platyfma myoides have been taken gff.
a,‘The frontal mufcle. b, Temporalis and temporal ar¬
tery. c, Orbicularis palpebrarum, d, Levator labii
fuperioris proprius. e. Levator labiorum communis.
f, Zygomaticus. g, Depreffor labii inferioris pro¬
prius. h, Depreflbr labiorum communis. ‘ i. Buc¬
cinator. k, Mafleter. 1 1, Parotid gland, m. Its
dud. n, Sterno-cleido maftdides. o, Part of the
trapezius, p, Sterno-hyoidasus. . q, Sterno-thyroi-
daeus. r, Omo-hyoidaeus f, Levator fcapulae. tt, Sca-
leni. p, Part of the fplenius.
FiG. 3.. The Mus cles of the face and neck, in view
after the exterior ones are taken away.
a a, Corrugator fuperciliorum. b, Temporalis, c, Ten¬
don of the levator palpebrae fuperions. d, Tendon
of the orbicularis palpebrarum, e, Mafleter. f, Buc¬
cinator. g, Levator labiorum communis, h, De-
preflbr labii fuperioris proprius. i, Sphinder oris,
k, Depreflbr labiorum communis. 1, Mufcles of the
os hyoides. m, Sterno-cleido maftoideus.
Fig. 4. Some of the Muscles of the os hyoides, and
fubmaxillary gland.
a. Part of the mafleter mufcle. b, Pofterior head of
the digraftic. c, Its anterior head, d d, Sterno-
hyoidasus. e, Omo-hyoidaeus. f, Stylo-hyoidaeus.
g, Submaxillary gland in fitu.
Fig. 5. The fubmaxillary gland and dud.
a, Mufculus mylo-hyoidaeus. b, Hyo-gloflus. c, fub-
raaxillary gland extra fitu. d. Its dud.
E X P L A-
Part II.
ANATOMY.
225
EXPLANATION
Fig. i. The Muscles immediately under the com¬
mon teguments on the pofterior part of the body are
reprefented in the right fide;—and on the left fide the
Muscles are feen which come in view when the ex¬
terior ones are taken away.
Head.—A A, Occipito-frontalis. B, Attollens aurem.
C, Part of the orbicularis palpebrarum. D, Maffe-
ter. E, Pterygoidaeus internus.
Trunk.—Right fide. F F F, Trapezius feu cu-
cullaris. G G G G, Latiffimus dorfi. H, Part of
the obliquus externus abdominis.
Trunk.—Left fide. I, Splenius. K, Part of
the complexus. L, Levator fcapulse. M, Rhom-
boides. N N, Serratus pofticus inferior. O, Part
of the longillimus dorfi. P, Part of the facro-lum-
baris. Part of the fepni-fpinalis dorfi. R, Part
of the ferratus anticus major. S, Part of the obli¬
quus internus abdominis.
Superior ExTREMiTY.-»-Right fide. T, Del-
toides. U, Triceps extenfor cubiti. V. Supinator
longus. W W, Extenfores carpi radialis longior &
brevior. XX, Extenfor carpi ulnaris. Y Y, Ex¬
tenfor digitorum communis. Z, Abduftor indicis
123, Extejifores pollicis.
Superior Extremity.—Left fide, a, Supra-
fpinatus. b, Infra-fpinatus. c, Teres minor, d, Te¬
res major, e. Triceps extenfor cubiti. f f, Exten¬
fores carpi radialis. g, Supinator brevis, h. Indi¬
cator. 123, Extenfores pollicis. i, Abduftor mi¬
nimi digiti. k, Interolfei.
Inferior Extremity.—Right fide. 1, Glutse-
us maximus. m. Part of the glutseus medius. n, Faf-
cialis. o, Gracilis, p p. Adductor femoris magnus.
q. Part of the vaftus internus. r, Semimembranofus.
s, Semitendinofus. t. Long head of the biceps flexor
cruris, u u, Gaftrocnemius externus feu gemellus,
v, Tendo Achillis. w, Soleus feu gaftrocnemius in¬
ternus. x x, PeroiMeus longus & brevis, y, Ten¬
dons of the flexor digitoram longus ;—and under them
* flexor digitorum brevis, z, AbduAor minimi digiti.
Inferior Extremity.—Left fide. m, n, 0,
P P> <!> ri ft t, v, ao w, x x, _y, z. Point the fame
PAR
OF THE A
heart throws the blood into two great arteries;
1 one of which is named aorta, the other arteria
pulmonalis.
^Vol. I. No. 10.
of PLATE XVI.
parts as in the right fide, a, Pyriformis. b b, Ge¬
mini. c c. Obturator internus. d, Quadratus femo-
moris. e, Coccygaeus. f, The fhort liead of the bi¬
ceps flexor cruris, g g, Plantaris. h, Poplitaeus.
i. Flexor pollicis longus.
Fig. 2. The palm of the left hand after the common
teguments are removed, to fhew the Muscles of the
fingers.
a, Tendon of the flexor carpi radialis. b, Tendon pf
the flexor carpi ulnaris. c, Tendons of the flexores
digitorum. d, Abdudtor pollicis. e e, Flexor polli¬
cis longus. f. Flexor pollicis brevis, g, Palmaris
brevis, h, Abdudtor minimi digiti. i, Ligamentum
carpi annulare, k, A probe put under the tendons of
the flexor digitorum fublimis; which are perforated
by 1, the flexor digitorum profundus, m m m m, Lum-
bricales. n, Addudor pollicis.
Fig. 3. A fore-view of the foot and tendons of the
flexores digitorum.
a. Cut extremity of the tendo Achillis. b. Upper part
of the aftragalus, c. Os calcis. d. Tendon of the
tibialis anticus. e. Tendon of the extenfor pollicis
longus. f, Tendon of the peronaeus brevis, g. Ten¬
dons of the flexor digitorum longus, with the nonus
Vefalii. h h, The whole of the flexor digitorum
brevis.
Fig. 4. Muscles of the Anus.
a a, An outline of the buttocks, and upper part of the
thighs, b, The teftes contained in the fcrotum.
c c, Sphindter ani. d, Anus. e, Levator ani.
f f, Ereftor penis, g g. Accelerator urinas. h. Cor¬
pus cavernofum urethrae.
Fig. 5. Muscles of the Penis.
,a a, b, d, e e, f f, h, point the fame as in fig. 4.
c, Sphindter internus ani. g g, Tranfverfus perinsei.
T III.
R T E R I E S.
The aorta diftributes the blood to all the parts of the
body, for the nourifhment of the parts, and for the fecre-
tion of different fluids.
3 L
3
The
226 '
The arteria pulmonalis carries the venal blood through
all the capillary veffels of the lungs.
Both thefe great or general arteries are fubdivided in¬
to feveial branches, and into a great number of ramifi¬
cations. ■ In this part, we ftiall defcribe the diftributions
of the aorta, leaving the pulmonary artery to the parti¬
cular hiftory of the lungs. See Part VI.
The bafis of the heart being very much inclined to the
fight fide; and turned a little backward, the aorta goes
out from it in a direct courfe, nearly over-againfl the
fourth vertebra of the back. Its courfe is direct with
refpedt to the heart; but with refpeft to all the 'reft of
the body, it afcends obliquely from the left to the right
hand, and from before backward.
Soon-after this, it bends obliquely from the right
hand to the left, and from before backward, reaching
as high as the fecond vertebra of the back; from whence
it runs down again in the fame direction, forming an ob¬
lique arch. The middle of this arch is almofi oppofite
to the right fide or edge of the fuperior portion of the
flernum, between the cartilaginous extremities or liernal
articulations of the firlt two ribs.
From thence the aorta defcends in a direfb courfe a-
long the anterior part of the vertebrae, all the way to the
-os facrum, lying a little toward the left hand; and there
it terminates in two fubordinate or collateral trunks, cal¬
led arteriae iliacae.
The aorta is by anatomifts generally divided into the
aorta afeendens and aorta defeendens, though both are
but one and the fame trunk. It is termed afcendens,
.from where it leaves the heart to the extremity of the
great curvature or arch. The remaining part of this
trunk from the arch to the os facrum or bifurcation, al¬
ready mentioned, is named defeendens.
The aorta defeendens is further divided into the fupe¬
rior and inferior portions; the firft taking in all that lies
above the diaphragm ; the other all that lies between the
diaphragm and the bifurcation.
The aorta afeendens is chiefly diftributed to part of
the thorax, to the head and upper extremities. The
iuperior portion of the aorta defeendens furniflies the reft
of the thorax • the inferior portion furnilhes the abdo¬
men and lower extremities.
The great trunk of the aorta, through its whole length,
fends off immediately feveral branches, which are after¬
wards differently ramified ; and thefe arterial branches
may be looked upon as. fo many trunks with refpeft to
the other ramifications, which again may be confidered
as fmall trunks with regard to the ramifications that they
fend off.
The branches which go out immediately from the
trunk of the aorta, may be termed original or capital
branches; and of thefe fome are large and others very
fmall.
The large capital branches of the aorta are thefe:
two artarias fubclaviae, two carbtides, one caeliaca, one
mefenterica fuperior, two renales, formerly termed e-
mulgents, one mefenterica inferior, and two ilxacas.
The fmall capital branches are chiefly the arteriae co-
ronarise cordis, bronchiales, cefophagaeae, intercoftales, dia-
phragmaticae inferiores, fpermaticae, lumbares, and faerse..
Part Ilf.
Thefe capital branches or arteries are for the moft part
difpofed in pairs ; there being none in odd numbers but
the caeliaca, the two menfentericae, fome of the oefopha-
gaeae, the bronchialis, and fometimes the facrce.
The aorta gives rife to two fmall arteries, called cq-
ronariae cordis, which go to the heart and its auricles;
one of which is fituated anteriorly, the other pofteriorly,
and fometimes they are three in number.
From the upper part of the arch or curvature, the a-
orta fends out commonly three, fometimes four large ca¬
pital branches, their origins being very near each other.
When there are four, the two middle branches are term¬
ed arterise carotides; the ether two, fubclavias; and
both are diftingUifhed into right and left.
When there are but three branches, which is oftepeft
the cafe, the firft is a fhort trunk, common to the right
fubclavian and. carotid, the fecond is the left fubclavian,
and the third the left carotid.
: The origin of the left fubclavian terminates the aorta
afeendens.
The carptid arteries run up directly to the head, each
of them being firft divided into two, ope external, the o-
ther internal. The external artery goes chiefly to the
outer parts of the "head and dura mater, or firft covering
of the brain. The internal enters the cranium, through
the bony canal of the os petrofum ; and is diftributed
through the brain by a great number of ramifications.
The fubclavian arteries feparate laterally, and almoft-
tranfverfely, each toward that fide on which it lies, be¬
hind and under the claviculas, from whence they have
their name.
The fubclayian on each fide terminates at the upper
edge of the firft rib, between the lower infertions. of the
firft fealenus nrufcle; and there, as it goes out of the tho¬
rax, takes the name of arteria axillaris.
During this courfe of the fubclavian artery, feveral
arteries arife from it, viz. the mammaria interna,, me-
diaftina, pericardia, diaphragmatica minor five fuperior,
thymica and trachealk.
T he thymica and trachealis on each fide are,, in fome
fubjedts, only branches of one fmall trunk which fpring
from the common trunk of the right fubclavian and ca¬
rotid.
They are generally fmall arteries which run fometimes
feparate, and fometimes partly feparate and partly joined.
The fubclavian fends off likewife the mammaria inter¬
na, vertebrales, cervicales, and fometimes feveral of the
upper intercoftales.
The axillary artery, which is only a continuation of
the fubclavian from where it goes out of the thorax to
the axilla, detaches chiefly the mammaria externa, or
thoracica fuperior, thoracica inferior, fcapulares externae,
fcapularis interna, humeralis or mufcularis, <bc. After¬
wards it is continued by different ramifications, and un¬
der different names, over the whole arm, all the way to
the ends of the fingers.
The fuperior portion of the aorta defeendens gives off
the arteriae bronchiales, which arife fometimes by a fmall
common trunk, fometimes feparate, and fometimes do
not pome immediately from the aorta. It next fends off
the oefophagaeae, which may be looked upon as mediaftinse
pofteriores ;
ANATOMY.
Part III. ANA
pofteriores; and then the intercoftales from its pofte-
rior part, which in fome fubjedls come all from this por¬
tion of the aorta, in others only the lowefl: eight or
nine.
The inferior portion of the defcending aorta, as it paf-
fes through the diaphragm, gives off the diaphragmatica;
inferiores, or phrenicte; afterwards it fends off feveral
branches, anteriorly, polleriorly, and laterally.
The anterior branches are the aeliaca, which fupplies
the ffomach, liver, fpleen, pancreas, (be. the mefente-
rica fuperior, which goes chiefly to the mefentery, to
the fmall inteftines, and that part of the great i‘n tel tines
which lies on the right fide of the abdomen ; the me-
fenterica inferior, which goes to the great inteftines on
the Jeft fide, and produces the hasmorrhoidalis interna;
and laftly, the right and left arteriae fpermaticae.
The pofterior branches are the arteriae lumbares, of
.which there are feveral pairs, and the faerse, which do
not always come from the trunk of the aorta.
• The lateral branches are the c'apfulares and adipofe,
the origin of which often varies; the renales, formerly
termed emulgents; and the iiiacae, which terminate the
aorta by the bifurcation already mentioned.
• The iliac artery on each’ fide is commonly divided into
the external or anterior, and internal or pofterior.
The internal iliaca is likewife named arteria hypoga-
ftrica ; and its ramifications are dillributed to the vifeera
■ contained in the pelvis, and to the neighbouring parts,
both internal and external.
The iliaca externa, which is the true continuation of
the iliac trunk, goes on to the inguen, and then out of
the abdomen, under the ligamentum Fallopii; having firft
detached the epigaftrica, which goes to the mufeuli ab¬
dominis redti. Having quitted the abdomen, it com¬
mences arteria cruralis, which runs dowm upon the thigh,
and is diftributed by rqany branches and ramifications to
all the lower extremity.
• We fhall now go on to examine particularly all the ca¬
pital or original branches of the aorta, from their origin,
to the entry of them and of their ramifications into all
parts of the body.
r The Cardiac or coronary arteries of the heart arife
from the aorta immediately on its leaving the heart.
They are two in number, and go out near the two fides
of the pulmonary artery, which having firft furrounded,
they afterwards run upon the bafis of the heart in form
of a kind of crown, or garland, from whence they are
called coronariae; and then purfue the fuperficial traces
of the union of the two ventricles, from the bafis of the
heart to the apex, and are afterwards loft in the fubftance
of the heart.
The Carotid arteries are two in number, one called
the right carotid, the other the left. They arife near
each other, from the curvature of the aorta, the left im¬
mediately, the right moft commonly from the trunk of
the fubclavia on the fame fide.
They run upon each fide of the trachea arteria, be¬
tween it and the internal jugular vein, as high as the la¬
rynx, without any ramification. Each of fnefe trunks is
afterwards ramified in the following manner.
The trunk having reached as high as the larynx, is
T O M Y. 227
divided into two large branches or particular carotids, one
named external, the other internal, becaufe the firft goes
chiefly to the external parts of the head, the fecond
enters the cranium, and is diftributed to the brain.
The external carotid is anterior, the internal pofteri¬
or ; and the external is even fituated more inward, and
nearer the larynx, than the other.
The external carotid is the fmalleft. It runs infenfi-
bly outward, between the external angle of the lower
jaw, and the parotid gland, which it Supplies as it paf-
Jes. Afterwards it afeends on the fore-fide of the ear,
and ends in the temples.
In this courfe it fends off feveral branches, which may
well enough be divided into anterior or internal, and po¬
fterior or external; and the principal branches of each
kind are thefe:
The firft anterior or internal branch goes out from the
very origin of the carotid on the infide ; and having pre-
fentjy afterward taken a little turn, and fent off branches
to the jugular glands near it, to the fat and Ikin, it runs
tranfverfely, and is diftributed to the glandulse thyroi-
dtese, and to the mufcles and other parts of the larynx:
It likewife fends fome branches to the pharynx and muf¬
cles of the os hyoides.
The fecond anterior branch paffes over the neareft cor¬
nu of the os hyoides, to the mufcles of that bone and
the tongue, and to the glandulae fublinguales ; afterwards
palling before the cornu of the os hyoides, it lofes itfelf
in the tongue, from whence it has been called arteria
fublingualis.
The third branch, or arteria maxillaris inferior, goes
to the maxillary gland, to the ftyloid and maftoid mul-
cles, to the parotid and fublingual glands, to the muf¬
cles of the pharynx, and to. the fmall flexors of the
head.
The'fourth branch, arteria maxillaris externa, paffes
anteriorly on the mafleter mufcle, and middle of the low¬
er jaw, near the chin. Afterwards it runs under the
mufculus triangularis labiorum, which it fupplies as well
as the buccinator and the quadratus menti.
It fends of a particular branch, very much contorted,
which divides at the angular commiffure of the lips, and
running in the fame manner along the fuperior and infe¬
rior portions of the mufculus orbicularis, it communicates
on both fides with its fellow, and thereby forms a kind
of arteria eoronaria labiorum.
Afterwards it afeends towards the nares, and is diftri¬
buted to the mufcles, cartilages, and other parts of the
nofe, fending down fome twigs which communicate with
the coronary artery of the lips. Laftly, it reaches the
great angle of the. eye, and is ramified and loft on the
mufculus orbicularis palpebrarum, fupercillaris, and fron¬
talis. Through all this courfe,. it is named arteria an-
gulaiis.
1 he fifth branch, maxillaris interna, arifes over-againft
the condyle of the lower jaw. It paftes behind the con*
dyle, and having given off a twig among the mufeuli
pterygoidasi, it is divided into three principal branches.
I he firft branch, or fpiicno-maxillaris, gous through
the inferior orbitary, or fphenomaxillary fiffure, to the
oxbit, alter having fupplied the mufeuli periftaphylini,
and
228 A N A T
and the glandulous. membrane oF the pofterior nares,
through the foramen fpheno-palatinum.
It is diitributed interiorly and laterally to the parts
contained in the orbit, and detaches a fmall fubaltern
branch through the extremity of the fuperior orbitary,
or fphenoidal liiTure, which enters the cranium, and is
1'pent upon the dura mater.
It fends off like wife another fubaltern branch, which
paffes through the. potlerior opening of the orbitary ca¬
nal, and having furnifbed the maxillary Gnus and the
teeth, goes out by the inferior orbitary hole, and on the
cheek communicates with the angular artery.
Tlie fecond branch runs through the canal of the low¬
er jaw, and being diftributed to the alveoli and teeth,
goes out at the hole near the chin, and lofes itfelf in the
neighbouring mufcles.
The third branch runs iap between the internal and ex¬
ternal carotids, paffes through the foramen fpinale of the
fphenpidal bone, and is diitributed to the dura mater by
feveral ramifications.
The lixth anterior or internal branch, which is very
fmall, is fpent on the mufculus maffeter.
The lirlt external or pollerior branch is named arteria
occipitalis. It paffes obliquely before the internal jugu¬
lar vein, and having twigs to the mufculas ftylo-hyoidseus,
ftylo-gloffus, and digaltricus, it runs between the Ityloid
and maftoid apophyfes, along the maftoid groove, and
goes to the mufcles and integuments which cover the os
occipitis, turning feveral times in an undulating manner,
as it afcends backwards.
The fecond external branch fpreads itfelf on the out¬
ward ear, by a great many fmall twigs on each fide, fe¬
veral of which run inward, and furnilh the cartilages,
meatus auditorius, Ikin of the tympanum, and internal
ear.
The trunk of the external carotid afcends afterward
above the zygoma, paffing between the angle of the low¬
er jaw and parotid gland, and forms the temporal artery,
which divides into an anterior, middle, and pollerior
branch.
The anterior branch of the temporal artery goes to
the mufculus frontalis, communicates with the arteria
angularis, and fometimes gives off a very fmall artery,
which pierces the internal apophyfis of the os mate all
the way to the orbit. The middle branch goes partly to
the mufculus frontalis, partly to the occipitalis. The po¬
llerior branch goes to the occiput, and communicates with
the arteria occipitalis. All thefe branches likewife fur¬
nilh the integuments. /
The internal carotid artery, leaving the general trunk,
is at firll a little incurvated, appearing as if either it were
the only branch of that trunk, or a branch of the trunk
of the external carotid.
It is fituated a little more backward than the carotis
externa, and generally runs up, without any ramification,
as high as the lower orifice of the great canal of the apo¬
phyfis petrofa of the os temporis. It enters this orifice
direftly from below upward.
At the end of this canal it is again incurvated from
below upward, and enters the cranium through a notch
of the fphenoidal bone. Then it bends from behind for-
O M Y. Part lit.
v/ard, and makes a third angle on the fide of the fella
fphenoidalis ; and again a fourth, under the clinoid apo¬
phyfis of that fella.
As it leaves the bony canal to enter the cranium, it
fends off a branch through the fphenoidal fiffure to the
orbit and eye, and foon afterwards another through the
foramen opticum.
Afterwards the internal carotid runs under the bafis of
the brain, to the fide of the infundibulum, where it is at a
fmall dillance from the internal carotid of the other fide,
and there it commonly divides into two principal branches,
one anterior, and one pofterior.
The anterior Branch runs forward under the brain,
firft feparating from that on the other fide, then coming
nearer again, it unites with it by an anaftomofis, or com¬
munication, in the interllice between the olfadtory nerves.
Afterwards having fent off fome fmall arteries, which
accompany thefe nerves, it leaves its fellow, and divides
into two or three.
The firll of thefe branches goes to the anterior lobe
of the brain; the fecond, which is fometimes double,
is inverted on the corpus callofum, to which it gives fome
ramifications, as alfo to the falx of the dura mater, and
middle lobe of the brain. The third goes to the po¬
fterior lobe of the brain.
The pofterior branch communicates firft of all with
the vertebral artery of the fame fide, and then divides
into feveral rami, which run between the fuperncial cir¬
cumvolutions of the brain, and are ramified in many di£
ferent directions on.' and between thefe circumvolutions,
all the way to the bottom of the fulci.
All thefe ramifications are covered by the pia mater,
in the duplicature of which they are diftributed, and form
capillary reticular textures in great numbers ; and after¬
wards are loft in the inner fubftance of the brain.
The Subclavian arteries are two in number, one
right, the other left; and they arife from the arch of the
aorta, on each fide of the left carotid, which commonly
lies in the middle between them ; but when both caro¬
tids go out feparately, they both lie between the fub-
clavte.
The right fubclavian is larger at the begioning than
the left, when it produces the right carotid; its origin
is likewife more anterior and higher, becaufe of the ob¬
liquity of the arch of the aorta. Both of them are di*
ftributed much in the fame manner, and therefore the
defeription of one may likewife be applied to the other.
The right fubclavian, the longeft of the two, gives
off, firft of all, fmall arteries to the mediaftinum, thy¬
mus, pericardium, afpera arteria, &c. which are named
mediaftinum, thymic*, pericardia, and tracheales.
Afterward this right fubclavian, at about? a finger’s
breadth from its origin, often produces the common ca¬
rotid of the fame fide; and at a fmall finger’s breadth
from the carotid, it gives off commonly three confider-
able branches, viz. the mammaria interna, cervicalis,
and vertebralis, and fometimes an intercoftal artery,
which goes to the firft ribs, called intercojlalis fuperior.
The arteria thymica communicates with the mammaria
interna, and fometimes arifes from the anterior middle
part of the common trunk of the fubclavian and carotid.
r TIp
Part III. A N A T
The thymus receives likewife fome rami from the mam-
maria interna, and intercoftaiis fuperior.
The pericardia arifes much in the fame manner with
the thymica, and runs down upon the pericardium, all
the way to the diaphragm, to which it fends fome fmall
ramifications.
The medialtina arifes fometimes immediately after the
thymica, and is diftributed principally to the media-
jftinum.
The trachealis, which may likewife be named guttu-
rails inferior, runs up from the fubclavia, in a winding
courfe, along the afpera arteria, to the glandulae thyroi-
dasas and larynx, detaching fmall arteries to both fides,
one of which runs to the upper part of the fcapula.
The internal mammary artery comes from the anterior
and lower fide £>f the fubclavia, near the middle of- the
clavicula, and runs down, for about a finger’s breadth,
behind the cartilages of the true ribs, an inch diftant
from the fternum.
In its paflage, it fends rami to the thymus, medialli-
num, pericardium, pleura, and intercoftal mufcles. It
likewife detaches other branches through the{e mufcles,
and between the cartilages ©f the ribs, to the pedloralis
major, and other neighbouring mufcular portions ; to the
mammse, membrana adipofa, and Ikin.
Afterwards it goes out at the thorax, on one fide of
the appendix enfiformis, and is loft in the mufculus ab¬
dominis redtus, a little below its upper part.
The cervical artery arifes from the upper fide' of the
fubclavian, and is prefently afterward divided into two,
which come out, fometimes feparately, fometimes by a
fmall common trunk. The largeft of thefe two arteries
is anterior, the other pofterior.
The anterior cervicalis, running behind the carotid of
the fame fide, is diftributed to the mufculus coraco-hyoi-
dseus, maftoidasus, cutaneus, fte'rno-hyoidaeus, and fter-
no-thyroidasus ; to the jugular glands, the afpera ar¬
teria, the mufcles of the pharynx, bronchia, cefopha-
gus; and to the anterior mufcles which move the neck
and head.
The pofterior cervicalis arifes fometimes a little after
the vertebralis, and fometimes from that artery. It paf-
fes under the tranfverfe apophyfis of the laft vertebra of
the neck, and fometimes through a particular hole in that
apophyfis ; and from thence runs up backward in a wind¬
ing courfe, on the vertebral mufcles of the neck, and
then returns in the fame manned.
The vertebral artery goes' out from the pofterior and
tipper fide of the fubclavian, almoft oppcfite to the mam-
maria interna and cervicalis. It runs up through all the
holes in the tranfverfe apophyfes of the vertebras of the
neck, >nd, in its pafiage, fends off little twigs, through
the lateral notches of thefe vertebrae, to the medulla fpi-
nalis and its coverings. It alfo gives arteries to the ver¬
tebral mufcles, and to other mufcles near them.
It fends off a fmall branch, which is ramified on the
outer and pofterior parts of the occiput, and communi¬
cates with the cervical and occipital arteries. Having af¬
terwards reached the great foramen of the os occipitis,
it enters the cranium, and pierces the dura mater.
As foon as it enters the cranium, it fends feveral fmall
Vol. I. No. 10. 3
O M Y. 229
ramifications to the back-part of the medulla oblongata,
and to the corpora olivaria and pyramidalia, which are
likewife fpread on the back fides of the fourth ventricle
of the brain, and form the plexus choroides of the ce¬
rebellum.
Afterwards it advances on the apophyfis bafilaris of th^
os occipitis, inclining, by fmall degrees, toward the ver¬
tebral artery of the other fide, all the way to the extre¬
mity of that apophyfis, where they both join in one conir
mon trunk.
The arteria bafilaris runs forward under the great
tranfverfe protuberance of the medulla oblongata, to
which it gives ramifications, as well as to the neighbour¬
ing parts of the medulla.
The fpinal arteries are two in number, one anterior,
and one pofterior; both produced by both vertebrates,
each of which, as foon as it enters the cranium, fends
out a fmall branch, by the union of which the pofterior
fpinalis is formed. Afterwards the vertebrales advancing
on the apophyfis bafilaris, or production of the occipital
bone, detach backward two other fmall branches, which
likewife meet, and, by their union, form the fpinalis an¬
terior. Thefe fpinal arteries run. down on the fore and
back fides of the medulla fpinalis, and, by fmall tranfr
verfe ramifications, communicate with thofe which the
intercoftal and lumbar arteries fend to the fame part.
The internal auditory artery goes off from each fide of
the arteria bafilaris, to the organ of hearing, accompa¬
nying the auditory nerve, having firft furnilhed feveral
fmall twigs to the membrana arachnoides.
The pofterior meningasa arifes from the fame trunk
with the auditoria interna, and goes to the back-part of
the dura mater, on the occipital and temporal bones, and
fupplies the neighbouring lobes of the brain.
When the fuperior intercoftal artery does not go ou$
from the trunk of the aorta deicendens, it commonly a-
rifes from the lower fide of the fubclavian, and runs down
on the infide of the two, three, or four uppermoft true
ribs, near their heads, and fends off, under each rib, a
branch, which runs along the lower edge, and fupplies the
intercoftal mufcles and neighbouring parts of the pleura,
Thefe branches, or particular intercoftal arteries, com¬
municate with each other at different diftances by fmall
rami, which run upward and downward from one to the
other, on the intercoftal mufcles.
The du£tus arteriofus, which is found only in the foe¬
tus and in very young children, arifes from the aorta de-
fcendens, immediately below the left fubclavian artery.
In adults, this dudt is fhrunk up and clofed, and appears
only like a fhort ligament adhering by one end to the a-
orta, and by the other to the pulmonary artery, fo that
in reality it defervesno other name than that of ligamen-
tum arteriofum.
The bronchial arteries go fometimes from the fore-fide
of the fuperior defeending aorta, fometimes from the firft
intercoftal, and fometirnes from the arteria oefophagaea.
Sometimes they an feparately from each fide, to go tq
each lung, and fometimes by a fmall common trunk,
which afterwards feparale.s towards the right and left
hand, at the bifurcation of the afpera arteria, and ac:
company the ramifications of the bronchia.
3 M The
250
ANA
The bronchialis gives a fmall branch to the neighbour¬
ing auricle of the heart, which communioates with the
arteria coronaria.
The oefophagasse a^e generally two or three in number,
fometimes but one. They arife anteriorly from the aorta
defcendens, and are dillributed to the oefophagus, <bc.
The inferior intercollals are commonly feven or eight
on each fide, and fometimes ten, when the fuperior in-
tercoftals arife like wife from the. aorta defcendens; in
which cafe thefe run obliquely upward.
They arife along the back-iide of the defcending aorta
in pairs, all the way to the diaphragm, and run tranf-
verfely towards each fide, on the bodies of the vertebrae.
Thofe on the right fide pafs behind the vena azygos ; and
afterwards they all run to the intercoftal mufcles, along
the lower edge of the ribs, all the way to the fternum,
or near it.
They fend branches to the pleura,^ to the vertebral
mufcles, to thofe mufcles which He on the outfides of the
ribs, and to the upper portions of the mufcles- of the ab¬
domen ; and they communicate with the arteriae epiga-
ftricse and lumbares.
Before they take their courfe along the ribs, each of
them detaches one branch between the tranfverfe apo-
phyfes on both fides, to the vertebral mufcles, and ano¬
ther which enters the great canal of the fpina dorfi.
Afterwards each intercoftal artery having reached the
middle of the rib, or a little more, divides into two prim
cipal branches, one internal, the other external. Soon
after this divifion, the arteries that run upon the falfe
ribs, feparate a little from them, being gradually bent
downward one after another, and are fpread upon the
abdominal mufcles.
The fubclavian artery having left the thorax imme¬
diately above the firlt rib, in the interftice left between
the portions of the fealenus, there receives the name of
axillaris, becaufe it palfes under the axilla.
In this courfe it gives off, from its infide, a fmall
branch to the infide of the firft rib; and afterwards four
or five principal branches, viz. the thqracica fuperior,
or mammaria externa, thoracica inferior, mufcularis, or
fcapularis externa, fcapularis interna, and humeralis.
The fuperior thoracica, or external mammary artery,
runs down, in a winding courfe, on the lateral parts of
the thorax, and erodes the ribs. It gives branches to
the two peftoral mufcles, to the mamma, mufculus fub-
clavius, ferratus major, latidimus dorfi, and.to the upper
portions of the coraco-brachialis and biceps.
The inferior thoracic .artery runs along the inferior
eofla of the fcapula, to the mufculus fubfcapularis, teres
major and minor, infra-fpinatus, latilTimus dorfi, ferratus
major, and the neighbouring intercoftal mufcles, commu¬
nicating with the arterin fcapulares.
The external fcapulary artery palfes through the notch
in the fupefior cofta of the fcapula, to the mufculus fu-
pra-fpinatus and infra-fpinatus, teres major and minor,
and to the articulation of the fcapula with the os humeri.
The internal fcapularis arifes from the axillary artery
near the axilla, and runs backward, to be diftributed to
the fubfcapularis, giving branches to the ferratus major,
to the axillary glands, and to the teres major..
T O M y. Part m
The humeral artery arifes from the lower and fore-fid.e
of the axillaris, and runs backward between the head of
the os humeri and teres major, furrounding the articula¬
tion, till it reaches the pofterior part of the deltoides,
to which it is diftributed.
During this courfe, it gives feveral branches to thefur
perior portions of the anconaei, to the capful ar ligament
of the joint of the Ihoulder;, and to the os humeri itfelf,
through feveral holes immediately below the great tuber
rofity of the head of that bone.
Oppofite to the origin of this humeral artery, the ax.-
illaris fends off another fmall branch, which runs in a
contrary direftion, between the head of the os humeri,
and the common upper part of the biceps and coraco.-
brachialis; and having given branches to the vagina and
channel of the biceps, and to the periofteum, afterwards
joins the principal humeralis.
The axillary artery'having given off thefe branches,
paffes immediately behind the tendon of the pedtoralis
major, where it changes its former name for that of ar¬
teria brachialU. It runs down on the infide of the arm,
over the mufculus coraco-brachialis and anconaeus inter-
nus, and along the inner edge of the biceps, behind the
vena bafilica, giving fmall branches on both fides to the
neighbouring mufcles, to the periofteum, and to the bone.
Between the axilla and middle of the arm, it is co¬
vered only by the fkin and fat; but afterwards it is hid
under the biceps, and runs obliquely .forward as it de-
feends; being at fome diftance from the internal con¬
dyle, but it does not reach the middle of the fold of the
arm.
Between the axilla and this place, it fends off many
branches to the infra-fpinatus, teres major and minor,
fubfcapularis, fatiilimus dorfi, ferratus major, and other
neighbouring mufcles, to- the common integuments, and
even to the nerves. Below the fold of the arm, it di¬
vides into two principal branches, one called arteria cu-
bitalis, the other radialis.
From its upper and inner part, it fends off a particu¬
lar branch, which runs obliquely downward and back¬
ward over the anconsei, and then turns forward agaio,
near the external condyle, where it communicates with a
branch of the arteria radialis.
Immediately below the infertion of the teres major, it
gives off another branch, which runs from within out¬
wards, and from behind forward, round the os humeri;
and defeends obliquely forward, between the mufculus
brachiseus, and anconasus externus, to both which it js
diftributed in its paffage. Having afterwards reached.
the external condyle, it unites with the branch laft men¬
tioned, and likewife communicates with a branch of the
arteries of the fore-arm, fo that there is here a triple a-
naftomofis.
About the breadth of a finger below this fecond
branch, the brachial artery fends off a third, which runs
down towards the internal condyle, and communicates
with other branches of the arteries of the fore-arm, as
we lhall fee hereafter.
About the middle of the arm, or a little lower, much
about the place where the brachial artery begins to be
covered by the bic:ps, it fends off a branch, which is
diftributed
Part III. A N A
diftributed to the'petioftetifm, and penetrates'the bone,
between the mufculus brachiaeus and anconasus internus.
About an inch lower, it gives off another branch,
which having furnifhed ramifications to the anconaeus in-
ternus, runs over the inner condyle, and likewife com¬
municates with branches of the arteries of the fore-arm.
Having got below the middle of the arm, the brachial
attery detaches another branch, which runs behind the
inner condyle, in company with a confiderable nerve;
and having paffed over the mufcles inferred in this con¬
dyle, it communicates with that branch of the cubital
artery which encompaffes the fold of the arm.
A little lower, it fometimes fends out another branch,
which paffes on the fore-fide of the inner condyle, and
then communicates with a branch which runs up from the'
cubital artery. Thefe three communicating branches are
termed collateral arteries.
The common trunk of the brachial artery having
reached the fold of the arm, runs, together with a vein
and a nerve, immediately under the aponeurofis of the
biceps, and paffes under the vena mediana, detaching
branches on each fide to the neighbouring mufdes.
About a large finger’s breadth beyond the fold of the
arm, this artery divides into two principal branches, one
inner or pofferior, named cubitalis; the other outer or
anterior, named radialis.
From this bifurcation, the brachial artery fends
branches on each fide, to the fupinator longus, pronator
teres, fat, and Ikin. It fometimes, though very rarely,
happens, that this artery is divided from its origin into
two large branches, which run down on the arm, and af¬
terwards on the fore-arm, where they have the names
of cubit alis and radialis.
The cubital artery finks-in between the ulna and the
upper parts of the pronator teres, perforatus, ulnaris
gracilis, and radialis internus; then leaving the bone, it
runs down between the perforatus and ulnaris intemus,
all the way to the carpus and great tranfyerfe ligament,
and fends out feveral branches.
The firft is a fmall artery, which runs inward to the
inner condyle, and then turns upward, like a kind of re¬
current, to communicate by feveral branches with the
collateral arteries of the arm, already mentioned, arid
particularly with the third. A little lower down, ano¬
ther fmall branch goes off, which having run upward a
little way, and almoft furrounded the articulation, com¬
municates with the fecond collateral artery of the arm,
between the olecranum and inner condyle.
Afterwards, the cubital artery having, in its cou'rfe
between the heads of the ulna and radius, reached the
interoffeous ligaments, fends off two principal branches,
one internal, the other external, called the interoffeous
arteries of the fore-arm.
Tire external artery pierces the ligament about three
fingers breadth below the articulation, and prefently af¬
terwards gives off a branch, which runs up, like a recur¬
rent, toward the external condyle of the os humeri, un¬
der the utnaris externus and anco.nsaus,minimus, to which
it is diftributed, as alfo to the fupinator brevis.
Afterward, this external interoffeous artery runs down
on the outfide of die ligament, and is diftributed to the
T O M Y. 231
ulnaris externus, extenfor digitorum communis, and to
the extenfores pollicis indicis and minimi digiti; commu¬
nicating with fome branches of the internal interoffeous
artery.
Having reached the lower extremity of the ulna, it u-
nites with a branch of the internal interoffeous artery,
which, at this place, runs from within outward, and is
diftributed, together with it, on the convex fide of the
carpus and back of the hand; communicating with the
arteria radialis, and with a branch of the cubitalis.
By thefe communications, this artery forms a fort of
irregular arch, from whence branches are detached to
the external interoffeous mufcles, and to the external la¬
teral parts of the fingers.
The internal interoffeous artery runs down very dole
to the ligament, till it reaches below the pronator teres,
between which and the pronator quadrates, it perforates
the ligament, and goes to the convex fide of the carpus
and back of the hand, where it communicates with the
external interoffeous artery, with the radialis and inter¬
nal branches of the cubitalis.
From the origin of the two interoffese, the cubital ar¬
tery runs down between the perforatus, perforans, and
ulnaris internus, along the ulna, fending branches to the
neighbouring parts.
Afterward, it paffes over the interna! tranfverfe liga¬
ment of the carpus, by the fide of the cs pififorme, and
having furnilhed the Ikin, palmaris brevis, and metacar-
pius, it flips under the aponeurofis palmaris, giving off
one branch to the hypothenar minimi digiti, and another,
which runs' toward the thumb, between the trindons of
the flexors of the fingers, and the bafes of the metacar¬
pal bones,
It likewife fends off a branch, which, running between
the third and fourth bones of the metacarpus, rriache?
to the back of the hand, where it communicates with the
external interofleous artery. Afterwards, having fup-
plied the interofleous mufcles, it communicates with the
radialis; and they both form an arterial arch, in the hol¬
low of the hand.
This arch fends from its concave fide, towards the fe-
cond phalanx of the thumb, a branch for the lateral in¬
ternal part thereof, and then ends near the head of th§
firft metacarpal bone, by a communication with the rar
dialis, having firft given a branch to the forefide of thf
index, and another to the fide of the thumb next the
former. Thefe communicate, at the ends of the fingers;
with the neighbouring branches, as in the other fingers.
This arch fends likewife fmall twigs to the interofleous
mufcles, to the lumbricales, p. lmaris, and to other neighr
bouring parts; and, laftly, to the integuments.
The radial artery begins by detaching a fmall branch,
which runs upward like a recurrent toward the fold of
the arm, and turns backward round the external condyle,
communicating with the neighbouring branches from the
trunk of the brachial artery.
It runs down along the infide of the radius, between
the llipinator longus, pronator teres, and the integuments,
giving branches to thefe mufcles, and likewife to the per¬
foratus, perforans, and fupinator brevis. From thence-
it runs, in a winding courfe, towards tiie extremity or
the
2 g 2 A N A T
the radius, fupplyhg the flexors of the thumb and pro¬
nator quadratus.
Having reached the extremity of the radius, it runs
nearer the fkin, efpecialiy toward the anterior edge of
the'hmne, being the artery which we feei there when we
examine the pulfe.
At the end of the radius, it gives off a branch to the
thenar; and. after having communicated with the arch
of the cubital artery in the palm of the hand, and fet
off fome cutaneous branches at that place, it detaches
one along the whole internal lateral part of the thumb.
Afterwards it runs between the firft phalanx and ten¬
dons of the thumb, to the interftice between the bafis of
this firfl: phalanx, ^nd of the firfl: metacarpal bone,
where it turns to the hollow of the hand.
At this turning, it fends off a branch to the external
lateral part of the thumb, which having reached the end
thereof, communicates, by a fmall arch, with the branch
which goes to the internal lateral part.
It likewife fends branches outward, which run between
the two firfl bones of the metacarpus, and the two ten¬
dons of the radialis externus; and it communicates with
an oppofite branch of the cubitalis, together with which
it furniihes the external interoffeous mufcles and integu¬
ments of the back of the hand and convex fide of the
carpus.
Laflly, the radial artery terminates, in its paflage o-
ver the femi-interofleous mufcle of the index, near the
bafis of the firft metacarpal bone, and as it runs under
the tendons of the flexor mufcles of the fingers, where
it is joined to the arch of the cubitalis.
It fends off another branch, which runs along the
fore-part of the firft bone of the metacarpus, to the con¬
vex fide of the index, where it is loft in the integu¬
ments.
The left Diaphragmatic artery goes out commonly
from the aorta defcendens, as it paffes between the cru¬
ra of the fmall mufcle of the diaphragm. The right
diaphragmatic comes fometimes from the neareft lumbar
artery, but molt commonly from the caeliaca. Thefe
arteries likewife have the name of arteria phrenic*.
They appear almoft always in feveral ramifications on
the concave or lou’er fide of the diaphragm, and feldom
on the upper or convex fide. They give fmall branches
to the glandulas renales, or capful® atrabilaria.
They fend likewife fmall branches to the fat which
lies upon the kidneys, from whence they have the name
of arteri® adipof®.
Befides thefe capital diaphragmatic arteries, there are
others of a fubordinate clafs, which come from the in-
tercoftales, mammari® intern®, mediaftin®, pericardi®,
and c®liaca.
The c®liac artery arifes anteriorly, and a little to the
left hand, from the aorta defcendens, immediately after
its paflage through the fmall mufcle of the diaphragm,
nearly oppofite to the cartale, between the laft vertebra
of the back, and the firft of the Joins. The trunk of
this artery is very fltort ; and near its origin, it fends off
from the right fide two fmall diaphragmatic®, though
fometimes there is only one,‘ which goes to the right
O M Y. Part III.
hand, and is afterwards diftributed both ways ; commu¬
nicating with the other arteries of the fame name, which
come from the intercoftales and mammari®. The left
branch fends rami to the fuperior orifice of the ftomacb,
and to the glandula renalis on the fame fide; the right
furnilhes the pylorus, and the renal gland on the right
fide.
Immediately after this, the c®liaca gives off a confi-
derable branch, named arteria ventriculi coronaria, and
gajh ica, of gajiricd fuperhr; and then it prefently di¬
vides into two large branches, one toward the right hand,
named arteria hepatica; the other to the left, called
fplenica.
The coronary artery of the ftomach goes firft to the
left fide of that organ, a little beyond the fuperior ori¬
fice ; round which orifice it throws branches, and alfo to
every part of the ftomach near it; and thefe branches
communicate with thofe which run along the bottom of
the ftomach to the pylorus.
Afterwards it runs on the right fide of the fuperior
orifice, along the fmall curvature of the ftomach, almolt
, to the pylorus, where it communicates with the arteria
pylorica; and turning towards the fmall lobe of the li¬
ver, it gives off fome branches to it.
Then it advances, under the duftus venofus, to the
leftdobe of the liver, in which it lofes itfelf near the be¬
ginning of the duft, having firft given off fome fmall
branches to the neighbouring parts of the diaphragm and
omentum.
As foon as the hepatic artery leaves the c®liaca, it
runs to the upper and inward part of the pylorus, in
company with the vena port®, fending ofTtwo branches,
a fmall one called arteria pylorica, and a large one na¬
med gafirica dextra, or gajlrica major.
The pylorica is ramified on the pylorus, and having
diftributed branches to the neighbouring parts of the fto-1
mach, Which communicate with thofe of the right gaftri-
ca, it terminates on the pylorus, by an anaftomofis with
the coronary artery of the ftomach.
The right gaftric artery having pafled behind and be¬
yond the pylorus, fends out a confiderable branch, na¬
med arteria duodenalis, or intejiinalis, which fometimes
comes from the trunk of the hepatica, as we (hall fee
hereafter. Afterwards this gaftric artery runs along on
the right fide of the great curvature of the ftomach, to
the neighbouring pans of which, on both fides, it diftri-
butes branches.
Thefe branches communicate with thofe of the arteria
pylorica, and of the coronaria ventriculi, and with the
right gaftro-epiploic®, which furnifti the neareft part of
the omentum, and communicate with the mefenterica fu¬
perior. After this, the right gaftric artery ends in the
left, which is a branch of the fplenica.
The duodenal or inteftinal artery runs along the duo¬
denum on the fide next the pancreas ; to both which it
furniflies branches, and alfo to the neighbouring part of
the ftomach.
The hepatic artery, having fent out the pylorica and
right gaftrica, advances behind the dudtus hepaticus, to¬
ward the veficula fellis, to which it gives two principal
branches
Part III. A N A T
branches called arterhe cyjiicee; and another named 6>/a-
ria, which is»loft in the great lobe of the liver.
Afterwards, this artery enters the filfure of the liver,
and joins the vena portfe, with which it runs within a
membranous vagina, called capful a Glijfom, and accom¬
panies it through the whole fubftance of the liver by nu¬
merous ramifications, which may be termed arterice he¬
patic# propria.
Before it enters the liver, it gives fmall branches to
the external membrane of this vifcus, and to the capfula
Glilfoni.
Immediately after the origin of the fplenic artery from
the cseliaca, it runs toward the left hand, under the fto-
raach and pancreas, to the fpleen. It adheres clofely to
the pofterior part of the lower fide of the pancreas, to
which it gives feveral branches, named arteriapancreatic#.
Near the extremity of the pancreas, under the left
portion of the ftomach, the fplenic artery gives off a
principal branch, called gajlrica fmijlra or minor,
which runs from left to right along the left portion of
the great curvature of the ftomach, giving branches to
both fides of this portion, which communicate with thofe
of the coronaria ventriculi.
This gaftric artery fends likewife another branch at
lead: to the extremity of the pancreas, which commu¬
nicates with the other pancreatic arteries. It alfo fup-
plies the omentum with branches, termed gajlro-epi-
ploic# ftnijlr#; and then it communicates with the right
gaftrica; and from this union, the gaftro-epiploicae mediae
are produced.
Afterwards, the fplenic artery advances towards the
fpleen, in a courfe more or lefs contorted; but before it
arrives at that vifcus, it gives two or three branches to
the large extremity of the ftomach, commonly called
vafa brevia ; and one to the omentum, named epiploica.
At the fpleen, this artery divides into four or five
branches, which enter that vifcus, after having given
I fome fmall twigs to the neighbouring parts of the fto¬
mach and omentum.
The fuperior mefenteric artery arifes anteriorly from
the lower portion of the defeending aorta, a very little
Vyay below the casliaca, going out a little .towards the
right hand, but bending immediately afterwards to the
left. ,
Near its origin, it gives off a fmalh branch, which
dividing into two, goes to the lower fide of the head of
the pancreas, and neighbouring part of the duodenum,
communicating with the inteftinalis by fmall arches, and
areolae or maflies. _
Afterwards it paffes over the duodenum, between this
inteftine and the meferaic vein, between the two laminae
of the mefentery; and then bending in an oblique direc¬
tion from left to right, and from above downward, by
very fmall degrees, it advances toward the extremity of
the ileum. By this incurvation, it forms a kind of long
arch, from the convex fide of which a great many
branches go out.
Thefe branches are fixteen or eighteen in number, or
thereabouts, and almoft all of them are beftowed on the
fmall inteftines, from the lower third part of the duo¬
denum to the caecum and colon.
Vox. I. No. 10. 3
O M Y. 233
As they approach the inteftines, all thefe branches
communicate, firft by reciprocal arches; then by ariolae
and malhes of all kinds of figures; from which is de¬
tached an infinite number of finall ramifications, which
furround the inteftinal canal, like an annular piece of net¬
work.
The firft branches from the convex fide of the mefen¬
teric arch, which are very fhort, fupply the pancreas and
mefocolon, and communicate with the duodenal artery.
The laft branches go to the appendicula vermiformis,
and fend a portion of an arch to the beginning of the
colon.
The confiderable branches from the concave fide of the
mefenteric arch, are feldom above two or three in num¬
ber ; but before they arife, a fmall ramus goes out to
the duodenum, and gives fome very fmall arteries to the
pancreas.
The firft confiderable branch from the concave fide of
the arch goes into the mefocolon towards the right por¬
tion of the colon.
The fecond principal branch, having run for fome fpace
through the mefentery, divides into three rami; the firft
of which goes to the lower part of the right portion of
the colon, the fecond goes to the beginning of the colon
and inteftinum caecum.
The third ramus of the fecond branch, having com¬
municated with the fecond, gives fmall twigs to the cae¬
cum, appendicula vermiformis, and extremity of the
ileum.
The lower mefenteric artery goes out anteriorly from
the aorta defeendens inferior, about a fingers breadth
or more above the bifurcation, and below the fpermatic
arteries; and having run about the length of an inch,
or fomething more, it is divided into three or four
branches.
The firft: or fuperior branch, about an inch from its
origin, divides into two rami; the firft of which runs
along the left portion of the colon. The fecond ramus
having communicated with the firft, runs down upon the
fame portion of the colon.
The middle branch divides into two rami; one of
which pafles upward on the extremity of the colon, com¬
municating by arches with the fecond ramus of the fupe-
rior branch; the other runs down on the extremity of
the fame inteftine.
The lower branch goes to the fecond portion of the
colon, or to both.
It fends another confiderable branch downward, called
arteria hamorrhoidalis interna, which runs down behind
the inteftinum redtum, to which it is diftributed by fe-
veral ramifications.
The renal arteries, commonly called emulgents, are
ordinarily two in number, and go out laterally from the
inferior defeending aorta, immediately under the mefen-
terica fuperior, one to the right hand, the other to the
left.
They run commonly without divifion, and almoft hori¬
zontally to the kidneys, into the depreffions of which
they enter by feveral branches, which form arches in the
inner fubftance of thefe vifeera.
From thefe arches, numerous fmall rami go out to-
3 N ward
I
234 A N A T
ward the circumference or cuter furface of the kidneys.
Ordinarily, the right renal artery paffes behind the
vena Cava .and renal vein on the other fide ; and the left
artery, firft behind and then before the vein.
The arteries of the renal glands, which may be term¬
ed capfulares, arife fometimes from the aorta
above the arteria renalis, and give out the arteriae adipo-
fas, which go to the fat of the kidneys. Sometimes'
they come from the trunk of the cssliaca. The right
capfular artery comes molt commonly from the arteria re-
nalis of the fame fide, near its origin j the left from the
aorta, above the renalis.
The fpermatic arteries are commonly two in number,
fometimes more. They are very fmall, and go out an¬
teriorly from the aorta defeendens inferior, near each o-
t-her, about a finger’s breadth below the arteriae renales,
between the two mefentericx, or between the renales
and mefentericx inferiores.
They fend off to the common membrane of the kidney
fmall branches, named arteria adipofa -, and afterwards
they run down upon the pfoas mufclcs, on the fore-fide
of the ureters, between the two laminse of the perito-
Kxum.
They give feveral confiderable branches to the perito¬
neum, and communicate both with the mefentericx and
adipofx. They likewife fend fmall arteries to the ureters.
Afterwards, they pafs in men through the tendinous
Openings of the abdominal mufcles in the vagina of the
peritoneum, and are diftributed to the tellicles and epi¬
didymis, where they communicate with a branch of the
iliaca externa.
In women they do not go out of the abdomen, but
are difixibuted to the ovaria and uterus, and communi¬
cate with branches of the hypogallrica, at the jagged ex¬
tremities of the tubx Fallopianx.
The lumbar arteries go out pofteriorly from the infe¬
rior defeending aorta, in five or fix pairs, or more, much
in the fame manner with the intercofials.
They may be divided into fuperior and inferior. The
fuperior fend final) branches to the neighbouring parts of
the diaphragm and intercoftal tnufeles, and fupply the
place of feini-intercoftal arteries.
They are diftributed on each fide to the pfoas mufcles,
to the quadrati lumborum, and to the oblique and tranf-
verfe mufcles of the abdomen; and by perforating the
oblique mufcles, they become external hypogaftric arte¬
ries. They go likewife to the vertebral mufcles, and to
the bodies of the vertebrx, and enter the fpinal canal
through the lateral notches, to go to the membranes,
tire, forming rings much in the fame manner with the
iptercoftals.
The arterix facrx go out commonly from the back
part of the inferior defeending aorta, at the bifurcation.
They are two, three, or four in number, and fometimes
, but one. They are ramified on the os facrum, and on
the neighbouring parts of the peritonxum, inteftinum
recShim, fat, be. and enter the canal of that bone through
the arcerior holes, being there dillributed towaid each fide.
They likewife fend fmall arteries to the large fafciculi of
nerves, which go out through the holes of the os facrum^
and they penetrate ths inner fubdance of that bone.
O M Y. Part III.
The inferior defeending aorta ends at the laft verte¬
bra of the loins, and fometimes higher, in two large la-,
teral branches, one on the right hand, the other on the
left, called arteria iliaca ; each of which is a common
trunk to two other arteries of the fame name. This hi-,
furcation lies on the anterior and left fide of that of the
vena cava.
The primitive iliac arteries divaricate gradually as they
defeend, advancing obliquely toward the anterior and low¬
er part of the olfa ilium, without any confiderable rami¬
fication for about the breadth of three fingers, except a
few very fmall arteries that go to the os facrum. They
likewife give fmall arteries to the peritonxum, to the coats
of the veins, and to the fat and ureters.
The right iliac trunk paffes firff on the forefide of
the origin of the left iliac vein, and runs down on the
forefide of the right vein, almofl: to the place where it
goes out of the abdomen, its courfe being there diredted
more inwardly. The left trunk goes down likewife be¬
fore the left vein, but lies a little toward the infide as it
leaves the abdomen.
About three fingers breadth from their origin, each
iliac trunk is divided into two fecondary arteries, one ex¬
ternal, the other internal. The external artery has no
particular name; the internal is termed hypogajlrica.
The external iliaca on each fide runs down on the ili¬
ac mufcle to the ligamentum Fallopii, under which it
goes out of the abdomen. In this courfe, it gives off
only a few finall arteries to the peritonxum, and other
parts near it; but as it paffes out of tfie abdomen under
the ligament, it detaches two confiderable branches, one
internal, the other external.
The internal branch is named arieria epigajlrica, and
goes out anteriorly from the external iliaca. From thence
it runs obliquely upward on the tendon of the tranfverfe
mufcle towards the poflerior part of the reftus.
Afterwards the epigaftric artery runs up along the po-
fterior or inner fide of this mufcle, fending ramifications
to the tendons of the neighbouring mufcles, be. and
then lofes itfelf by a true anaftomofis of feveral ramifi¬
cations, with the mammaria interna.
The external branch of the outer iliaca goes off late¬
rally from the outfide of that artery under the ligamen¬
tum Fallopii, and from thence to the internal labium of
the os ilium, where it divides into two, and is ramified
on tha oblique and tranfverfe mufcles of the abdomen
communicating with the arteria lumbaris.
Befides thefe two branches, the external iliaca gives
off a fmall ramus internally, under the ligament, which
runs to the vagina of the fpermatic rope ; and fometimes
another fmall twig goes from the outfide to the os ilium.
The internal iliaca or hypogaflrica, having run a little
more than a finger’s breadth inward and backward, bends
by fmall degrees obliquely forward, and toward the out¬
fide ; and afterwards contrafling in its dimenfions, it end$
in the umbilical artery, which ought to be looked upon
as a true continuation of the trunk of the hypogaftrica*.
This arteria umbilicalis afeends on the fide of the
bladder, and having detached fmall rami ;to that vifeus
and to the neighbouring parts of the peritonxum, be.
it contrafls, and in adults is quite clofed up above the
middle
Part III. A N A T
middle of the bladder. It likewife gives branches to the
uterus* and to the neighbouring parts in both fexes.
Afterwards it afcends in form of a ligament to the umbi¬
licus, where it joins the ^umbilical artery on the other
fide.
From the convex fide of the curvature of the hypoga-
ftric artery, four or five principal branches commonly go
out very near each other, viz. iliaca minor, glutasa, fcia-
tica, pudica communis, five pudiea hypogaltrica, and ob-
turatrix.
: The iliaca minor, the mofl pofterior of thefe branches,
and which is often no more than a ramus of the glutaea,
pafles between the laft two lumbar nerves, and divides into
two rami, one of which enters the canal of the os facrum
through the loweft large anterior holes; the other paf-
fes behind the mufculus pfoas, to which it gives twigs,
and behind the crural nerve, being afterwards diftributed
to the iliac mufcle, and to the middle part of the infide
of the os ilium, penetrating into the fubllance of the bone
fometimes by one hole, fometimes by more.
The arteria glntsa is fometimes the largeft of all the
hypogaftric branches. Near its beginning it fometimes
fends out the iliaca minor, and fometimes the fmall ra¬
mus that goes from that artery to the os facrum and o-
ther parts fixed to that bone. Afterwards this artery
goes out of the pelvis, in company'with the fciatic
nerve, through the upper part of the great finus of the
cs innominatum, below the mufculus pyriformis, and is
diftributed, in a radiated manner, to the giutasus maximus
and medius.
In its paflage, it gives fome branches to the os facrum,
es coccygis, mufculus pyriformis, the mufcles of the a-
nus, and to the neighbouring parts of the inteftinum
return, forming a particular haemorrhoidalis interna. It
likewife fends twigs to the bladder and parts near it; and
detaches a pretty long branch, which runs down v/ith
the fciatic nerve.
The arteria fciatica gives firft of all fome branches to
the mufculus pynformis, the quadrigemini, the os fa¬
crum, &c. and even to the inner fide of the os ifchium.
It likewife detaches a branch, which runs under the
mufculus quadratus, to the articulation of the os femoris.
The pudica communis, called commonly /W/rW inter¬
na, arifes fometimes by a trunk common to it and to the
glutaea, and gives out two principal branches; the firft
of which paffes through the great finus of the os ilium,
in company with the glutaea and 1’ciatica, and then di¬
vides into two rami.
The firfl: ramus goes behind the fpine of the ifchium,
between the two ligaments which lie between that bone
and the os facrum ; and runs on the infide of the tuber-
culum ifehii, all the way to the origin of the corpus ca-
vernofum penis. There it divides into feveral arteries,
one of which goes-to the fphindler ani, under the name
of htemorrkoiiialis externa.
The reft are diftributed to the neighbouring integu¬
ments, to the bulb Of the urethra, and to the corpus
oavernofum penis; but the laft of thefe arteries, or ra¬
ther the extremity of this firft ramus, runs from behind
foreward, over the neck of the os femoris, and commu¬
nicates with a branch of the-arteria cruralis.
O M Y. 235
The fecond principal ramus, called commonly arteria
pudica externa, runs between the bladder and inteftinum
redhim, and is diftributed in men to the veficulas femina-
les, neck of the bladder, proftate gland, and neighbour¬
ing parts of the redtum.
Afterwards it runs under the os pubis on the fide of a
confiderable vein, which lies diredtly under the fymphy-
fis; and it runs along the penis between this vein and a
nerve, being dillributed in its paffage to the corpus ca-
vernofum, and communicating with the pudica minor,
which comes from the cruralisj
This fecond branch of the pudica major goes off
fometimes feparately from the hypogaftrica, efpecially in
women, being diftributed to the lateral parts of the ute¬
rus, where it communicates with the fpermatic artery,
near the jagged extremity of the tuba Fallopiana, and
to the neighbouring parts of the vagina, tec.
The arteria obturatrix perforates the obturator muf¬
cles, and goes out of the pelvis at the upper part of the
ligament of the foramen ovale, having firft fent a fmall'
branch over the fymphyfis of the os ilium and os pubis,
to the inguinal glands and integuments.
As it pafics by the mufcles, it divides and is diftribu-’
ted to the pedlineus and triceps. It likewife fends out
another branch, which communicates with that branch'
of the feiattea that goes to" the articulation of the os fe¬
moris; and gives fmall arteries to the holes in the neck
of that bone.
The iliac artery goes out of the abdomen, between the
ligamentum Fallopii and tendon of the pfoas, at the u-
nion of the os ilium and os pubis, and there it takes the
name of arteria cruralis.
It fends off, firft of all, three fmall branches ; one of5
which, called pudica externa, goes over the crural vein
to the fkin and ligament of the penis, and to the inguinal
glands, communicating with the pudica interna. The
fecond goes to the mufculus pedtineus; and the third to
the upper part of the fartorius. All thefe branches fur-
nifh likewife the neighbouring anterior integuments.
Afterwards the crural artery runs down on the head
of the os femoris ; and, by taking a particular turn, gets
on the infide of the crural vein, about three fingers breadth
from where it goes out of the abdomen.
In changing its fituaticn, it fends out three confider¬
able branches, one external, one middle, and one in¬
ternal.
The external branch runs on the upper fide of the
thigh to the crureus, vaftus externus, redfus anterior,
mufculus fafeite latte, and glutteus medius; fending up a’
ramus to the apex of the great trochanter, which com¬
municates with the firft principal ramus of the pudica
major and fciatica.
The middle branch runs down on the infide of the
thigh between the triceps mufcles, to which it gives fe¬
veral rami, one whereof perforates the fecoud mufcle,
and is diftributed to the glutaeus maximus, femi nervo-*
fus, femi-membranofus, biceps, and to the neighbouring
integuments. ^
The internal branch runs backward on the quadiire-
mini, towards the great trochanter; and having detach¬
ed a ramus, which goes into the joint of the ts femoris.
23 6 A N A T
it runs downward, and gives rami to all the mufcles that
lie on the backfide of that bone, one of which enters
the bone itfelf on one fide of the linea afpera.
Having fent off all thefe three branches, the arteria
cruralis runs down between the fartorius, valtus inter-
aus, and triceps, giving branches to all the parts near
it. It is covered by the fartorius all the way to the
lower part of the thigh, where it is infleffed backward
over the triceps tertius a little above the internal condyle
of the os femoris. Afterwards, continuing its courfe
through the hollow of the ham, it is called arteria po-
plitea.
The poplitea, while in the ham, is covered only by
the integument, fending off branches toward each fide,
which run up upon the condyles, and communicate with
the lower ramifications of the arteria cruralis.
It fends rami to the joint of the kndfe, one of which
at lead pafles between the crucial ligaments. As it runs
down, it fends branches to the gaftrocnemii and popli-
teus; and having reached the backfide of the head of
the tibia, it gives off two branches, one to each fide.
The firrt or internal branch furrounds the fore-part
of the head of the tibia, palling betvyeen the bone and in¬
ternal lateral ligament; an^ befides feveral other ramifi¬
cations, fends up a fmall branch, which communicates
with the arteries that lie round the condyles of the os fe¬
moris.
The fecond or external branch runs over the head of
the fibula, and between the head of the tibia and exter¬
nal lateral ligament of the knee, furrounding the articu¬
lation all the way to the ligament of the patella, and
communicating with the branches which lie round th§
condyles of the os femoris, together with a branch of
the firff. or internal ramus.
Immediately after the origin of thefe two rami, and
before the poplitea ends, it fends a fmall artery down on
the backfide of the interoffeous ligament, very near the
tibia, into which it enters by a particular hole a little a-
bove the middle portion of the bone.
As the poplitea ends, it divides into two principal
branches, one of which runs between the heads of the
tibia and fibula, palling from behind forwards on 4he in¬
teroffeous ligament, where it takes the name of arteria
tibialis anterior. -The fecond branch divides into two
others; one internal and largeft, called arteria peronaa
anterior; the other pofterior and fmalleft, named arteria
peronaa pojlerior.
The tibialis anterior, having paffed between the heads
of the tibia and fibula, fends fmall branches upward and
laterally. The fuperior branches communicate with thofe
rami of the popliteus which lie round the articulation; and
the lateral branches go to the neighbouring parts. Af¬
terwards this tibial artery runs down on the forefide of
the interoffeous ligament, toward the outfide of the ti¬
bia, between the mufculus tibialis anticus and extenfor
pollicis.
Having run laterally on the tibia for about two thirds
of the length of that bone, it paffes on the forefide un¬
der the common annular ligament, and extenfor pollicis,
to the articulation of the foot; giving off feveral rami
both to the right and left hand, which communicate la-
O M Y. Part III.
terally with the tibialis pofterior and peronaea pofterior,
fo that thefe two bones are in a manner furrounded by
arteries.
At the joint of the foot, it fends out branches which
run between the aftragalus and os calcis, being diftributed
to the articulation and to the bones of the tarfus.
Having paffed the fold of the foot, it fends off, to¬
ward both fides, other rami, which communicate with
the pofterior tibialis and peronaea; all thefe branches
making a kind of circles round the tarfus.
Afterwards the anterior tibial artery advances on the
convex fide of the foot, as far as the interftice between
the firft and fecond metatarfal bones; between the heads
of which it fends a large branch, which perforates the
fuperior interoffeous mufcles, and, joining the tibialis
pofterior, forms an arch on the fide of the foot.
It likewife fends two or three confiderable branches
over the other metatarfal bones, which go to the reft of
the interoffeous mufcles, integuments, <bc. and commu¬
nicate with each other.
Laftly, This artery terminates by two principal
branches, one of which goes to the thenar and infide of
the great toe; the other is fpent upon the outfide of the
great toe, and the infide of the fecond toe.
The tibialis pofterior, called likewife furalis, runs
down between the folei, tibialis pofticus, flexor digito-
rum ^communis, and flexor pollicis; giving branches to
thefe mufcles, to the tibia, and to the marrow of that
bone, through a particular canal in its pofterior and up¬
per part.
Afterwards it runs behind the inner ankle, communi¬
cating with the tibialis anterior, and furrounded by the
neighbouring veins; and paffes to the foie of the foot
between the concave fide of the os calcis and thenar mitf-
cle, where it divides into two branches, one large or ex¬
ternal, the other fmall or internal.
The great branch, or arteria plantaris externa, paffes
on the concave fide of the os calcis obliquely under the
foie of the foot, to the bafis of the fifth metatarfal bone,
and from thence runs in a kind of arch toward the great
toe, communicating there with the tibialis anterior, which ’
perforates the interoffeous.mufcles. .
The convex fide of this arch fupplies both fides of the
laft three toes, and the outfide of the fecond toe, form¬
ing fmall communicating arches as in the hand.
The firjall branch, or arteria plantaris interna, having
reached beyond the middle of the foie of the foot, is di¬
vided into two; one of which goes to the great toe,
communicating with the ramus of the tibialis anterior ;
the other is diftributed to the firft phalanges of the other
toes, communicating with the ramifications from the arch
already mentioned.
The arteria peronasa runs down on the backfide of the
fibula, between the foleus and flexor poliicis, to which,
and to the neighbouring parts, it gives rami in its paf-
fage.
Having reached to the_ lower third part of the fibula,
it fends off a confiderable branch, which runs in between
the tibia and that bone, pafling between their extremities
from behind forward, below the interofleous ligament,
and is diftributed to the integuments of the tarfus.
Laftly,
Part IV. A N A r
Laftly, the peroniea continuing its courfe downward,
on the backfide of the fibula, as far as the os calcis,
forms an arch with the tibialis pofterior, between the a-
Hragalus and the tendo-achillis.
PAR
OF THE
TH E blood, diftributed to all parts of the body by
two kinds of arteries, the aorta and arteria pul-
monaris, returns by three kinds of veins, called by ana-
tomifts vena cava, vena portae, and vena pulmonaris.
The vena cava carries back to the right auricle of the
heart, the blood conveyed by the aorta to all parts of the
body except what goes by the arterias coronarbe cordis.
It receives all this blood from the arterial ramifications in
part diredtly, and in part indiredtly.
The vena portae receives the blood carried to the
floating vifcera of the abdomen by the arteria cseliaca
and the two mefentericae, and conveys it to the> vena
hepatica, and from thence to the vena cava.
The vena pulmonaris conveys to the pulmonary finus,
or left auricle of the heart, the blood carried to the
lungs by the arteria pulmonaris.,
We commonly talk of the ^|na cava in general, as if
it were but one vein at its origin, or had but one com¬
mon trunk; whereas it goes out from the right auricle
of the heart by two large feparate trunks, in a direftion
almoft perpendicularly oppofite to each other, one run¬
ning upward, called vena cava fuperior; the other down¬
ward, called vena cava inferior.
The vena cava fuperior is diftributed chiefly to the
thorax, head, and upper extremities, and but very lit¬
tle to the parts below the diaphragm.
The vena cava inferior is diftributed chiefly to the ab¬
domen and lower extremities, and but very little to the
parts above the diaphragm.
The trunk of each of thefe two veins fends off, much
in the fame manner with the arteries, a certain number of
rincipal or capital branches, which are afterwards rami-
ed in different manners. Each trunk terminates after¬
wards by a bifurcation or a divifion into two fubordinate
trunks, each of which gives off other principal branches,
ending in a great number of fmall trunks, rami, and ra-
riiifications.
The fuperior vena cava runs up from the right auri¬
cle of the heart, almoft in a diredl courfe, for about two
fingers breadth, lying within the pericardium, in the
right fide of the trunk of the aorta, but a little more an¬
teriorly.
As it goes out of the pericardium, it is inclined a lit¬
tle to the left hand, and then runs up as high as the car¬
tilage of the firft true rib, and a little higher than the
Vol. I. No. 10. 3
O M Y. 237
From thence it runs outward, and a little above the
outer ankle communicates with the tibialis anterior by
an arch, which fends feveral fmall ramifications to the
neighbouring parts.
T IV.
VEINS.
curvature of the aorta. At this place it terminates by
a bifurcation or divifion into two large branches or fub¬
ordinate trunks, one of which runs toward the left hand,
the other toward the right.
Thefe two branches are named fubclavia, as lying be¬
hind the clavicuhe.
The trunk of the fuperior cava, from where it leaves
the pericardium to the birfurcation, fends out anteriorly
leveral fmail branches. Thefe branches are the vena
mediaftina, pericardia, diaphragmatica fuperior, thymica,
mammaria interna’, and trachealis.
All thefe fmall branches from the trunk of the cava
fuperior are termed dextrae-, and their fellows on the o-
ther fide, called finiftrae, do not arife from the trunk,
but from the left fubclavia.
Pofteriorly, a little above the pericardium, the trunk
of the fuperior cava fends out a capital branch, called
vena azygos, or vena jins pari, which runs down on the
right fide of the bodies of the vertebrae dorfi, almoft to
the diaphragm ; giving off the greateft part of the, venae
intercoftales and lumbares fuperiores.
The two fubclaviae run laterally or toward each fide,
and terminate as they go out of the thorax, between the
firft rib and clavicula.
The right fubclavian, which is the (horteft of the two,
commonly fends out four capital branches; the jugula-
ris externa, jugularis interna, vertebralis, and axillaris.
The left fubclarian being longer than the right, gives
off, firft of all, the fmall veins on the left fide, an-
fwering thofe on the right fide that come from the trunk
of the fuperior cava, viz. the mediaftina, pericardia,
diaphragmatica fuperior, thymica, mammaria iurerna,
and trachealis.
Next to thefe fmall veins, called finiflrce, it detaches
another mall branch, called intercofalis fuperior fnif-
tra, and then four large branches like thofe from the
right fubclavian, viz. the jugularis externa, jugularis
interna, vertebralis, and axillaris, which are termed fi¬
niftrae.
The external jugular veins are diftributed chiefly to
the outer parts of the throat, neck and head; and fend
a fmall vein to the arm, named cepbalica, which affifts
in forming a large one of the fame name.
The internal jugular veins go to ti e internal parts of
the neck and head, communicating with the finufts of
3 O the
238 A N A 1
the dura mater, and in feveral places with the external
jugular veins. '
The vertebral veins pafs through the holes in the tranf-
verfe apophyfes of the vertebrse of the neck, fending
branches to the neck and occiput. They form the finus
venales of thefe vertebrse, and communicate with the fi-
nufes of the dura mater.
The axillary veins are continuations of the fubclaviae,
from where thefe leave the thorax, to the axilla. They
produce the mammarise interna, thoracica, fcapulares or
humerales, and a branch to each arm, which, together
with that from the external jugularis, forms the vena
cephalica.
Afterwards the axillary vein terminates in. the princi¬
pal vein of the arm, called bafilica; which, together
with the cephalica, is diftributed by numerous ramifica-
tiqns to all parts of the arm, fore.-arm, and hand.
The portion of the inferior vena cava contained in the
pericardium is very fmall, being fcarcely the twelfth part
of an inch on the fore-part, and not above a quarter of
an inch on the back part. From thence it immediately
perforates the diaphragm, to which it gives the vense
diaphragmaticae inferiores or phrenicse. ;
It paffes next behind the liver, through the great
finus of that vifcus, to which it furnilhes feveral branches,
termed venue hepatica.
In this courfe it inclines a little toward the fpina
dorfi and aorta inferior, the trunk and ramiucations of
which it afterwards .accompanies in the abdomen, all the
way to the os facrum.
Thus the inferior cava fends out on each fide, in the
fame manner with the aorta, the venae adipofse, renales,
fpermaticae, lumbares, and facrse. Having reached to
the os facrurn, it lofes the name of cava, and termina¬
ting by a bifurcation^ like that of the defcending aorta,
it forms the two vense iliacae.
Thefe iliac veins having given off the hypogaflricae,
with all their ramifications, to the vifcera of the pelvis,
and to fome other external and internal neighbouring
parts, go out of the abdomen, under the ligamentum Fal-
loppii, and. there take the name ot vente cruraies.
Each crural vein fends off numerous ramifications ^o all
the lower extremity.
The vena azygos or fine pari is very confiderable, and
arifes pofleriorly from the fuperior cava a little above the
pericardium. „
It is immediately afterwards bent backward over the
origin of the right lung, forming an arch which furrounds
the great pulmonary veffels on that fide.
From thence it runs down on the right fide of the
vertebrse dorfi on one fide of the aorta, and before the
intercoftal arteries ; and getting behind the diaphragm,
it terminates by a very fenfible anaftomofis, fometimes
with the vena renalis, fometimes with a neighbouring
lumbar vein, and fometimes immediately with the trunk,
of the cava inferior.
The vena azygos fends out two or three fmall veins
from the top of the arch, one of. which goes to the
afpera arteria; the others partly to the afpera artera,
and partly to the bronchia, by the name of vena;
O M Y. Part IV.
bronchiales, accompanying the ramifications of the bron¬
chial artery.
Afterwards the azygos detaches from the extremity
of the arch a fmall trunk common to two or three fmail
veins, Called intercojialss fnperiores dextne, which bring
back the blood from the firft three feries of intercoftal
mufcles, and from the neighbouring part of the pleura.
Thefe intercollal veins fend branches through the in¬
tercoftal mufcles to the ferratus fuperior pofticus, ferra-
tus major, &c. and afterwards they run along the in-
terftices between the ribs, communicating with the venae
mammariae.
They likewife fend fmall branches backward to the
vertebral mufcles and canal of the fpine, where they
communicate with the venal circles, or finufes which
bring back the blood from the medulla fpinalis.
As the azygos runs down, it fends off-the inferioy
intercoftal veins on the right fide, one going to each fer¬
ries of intercpftal mufcles. Thefe veins run along the
lower edges of- the ribs, and perforate the mufcles by
branches, which go to the pofterior and external part of
the thorax.
They communicate with the venae thoracicae, and moft
commonly with the mammaria interna ; and laftly, more
or lefs with each other, by perpendicular branches, near
the pofterior extremities of the ribs.
The. azygos fends off likewife the left intercoftal veins,
but feldom the whole number; for the fuperior veins
come often from the left fubclavian. The inferior in¬
tercoftal veins, to the number of fix or feven, come often
from the trunk of the azygos; and running between the
aorta and vertebrae, they fend off almoft the fame ramifi¬
cations with the veins on the right fide, and likewife
fome to the cefophagus.
The azygos, having reached below the laft rib, fends
off a large branch, which bending outward, perforates
the mufcles of the abdomen, is ramified betv/een their
different planes, and communicates with the like ramifi¬
cations of the laft or laft two intercoftal veins.
The peftorales internse, are fmall veins difpofed in
pairs toward the right and left hand, behind the fternum
and parts near it, including the diaphragmaticse fuperi-
ores, or pericardio-diaphragmaticae, mediaftinae, mam¬
mariae internae, thymicae, pericardiae, and gutturales or
tracheales.
The right vena mediaftina goes out anteriorly from
the trunk of the fuperior cava, a link above the origin
of the azygos; the left comes from the fubclavia.
The right fuperior diaphragmatica, or pericardio-dia-
phragmatica, comes anteriorly from the root of the bi¬
furcation near the mediaftina; and is diftributed, by fe¬
veral branches, to the upper, fore, and back parts of
the pericardium, communicating with thofe of the left -
diaphragmatica. The left fuperior diaphragmatica comes
from the left fubclavian, a little below the origin of the
mammaria.
The right internal mammaria arifes anteriorly from
the vena cava, a little below the angle of the birfurca-
tion. It runs along the neareft internal or pofterior edge
of the fternum, and on the cartilaginous extremities of
the
PartIV. A N A 1
the right ribs, together with the artery of the fame name.
Having reached near the diaphragm, it fends it a branch
which runs toward the tendinous plane, and communi¬
cates with the common diaphragmatic veins.
Afterwards this mammary vein gives fmall branches to
the mediaftinum, and others between the ribs to the in¬
teguments ; of which thofe that pafs between and under
the cartilages of the laft true ribs, run down on the in¬
ner or pofterior fide of the mufculi re6H abdominis, be¬
ing ramified among their flelhy fibres, and communica¬
ting with the epigaftric veins by feveral fmall twigs.
The left internal mammaria arifes anteriorly from the
left fubclavian, oppofite to the cartilage or anterior ex¬
tremity of the firfl true rib.
The right vena thymica, when it arifes feparately,
goes out from the bifurcation ; and when it is wanting,
the thymus, from ,whence it takes its name, is furnilhed
by the gutturalis, or fome other neighbouring vein.
This vein often reaches no lower than the inferior part
of the thymus; $nd the left vein of the fame name
comes from the left fubclavian, almoft oppofite to the
flernum.-
The right pericardia feems to go out rather from the
origin of the right fubclavian, than from the trunk of
the fuperior cava. It goes to the upper fide of the pe¬
ricardium,- and othermeighbouring parts.
The right gutturalis or trachealis goes out from the
upper part of th£ bifurcation, above the mammaria of the
fame fide, fometimes more backward,' and foraetimes
from the fubclavia. It is diftributed to the glandulae
thyroidaese, trachea arteria, mufculi fterno- hyoida;i,
thymus, and glandular bronchiaics. It communicates,
by lateral branches, with the internal jugular vein. The
left gutturalis comes from the upper or poiterior part of
the left fubclavian, near its orign.
The.rjght fubclavian vein is verylhort, and its courfe
very objique, • fb that it appears to rife higher than the
left vein. It fends off, firft of all, four large branches,
viz. the.vertebralis, which is the firft and jnoft pofterior ;
the jugularis interna, jugularis externa, and axillaris.
The left fubclavian feems to afcend but very little after
the bifurcation ; and, in this courfe, it covers the origin
of three large arteries, which come from the curvature
of the aorta. It fends off four large branches, befides
the fmall pedtoral veins, and receives the duftus thora-
cicus.
It likewife gives off, before its principal divifion, a
fmall trunk for the left fuperior intercdftals, and this in-
tercoftal trunk furnilhes likewife the left bronchialis.
Each fubclavian vein, near the middle of the clavi-
cula, fends off a branch, called cephalica, which de-
fcends near the furface of the body, between the del-
toides and, pedloralis major.
Each external jugular vein arifes from the fubclavian
on the fame fide, fometimes from the axillaris, and fome¬
times from the union of thefe two veins. They run up
between the mufculus cutaneus and fterno-maftoidaeus.
Sometimes they are double from their very origins;
and when they are fingle, each of them divides after¬
wards into two, one anterior, and the other pofterior, or
rather fuperior, The anterior vein goes to the throat
O M Y. 239
and face, running up toward the angle'of the lower jaw,
and the pofterior goes to the temples and occiput.
The-anterior external jugular vein is often a branch of
the jugularis interna, and fometimes it comes from the
vena axillaris.
It runs up toward the lateral part of the lower jaw,
between the angle and the chin, and fends feveral branches
forwards, backwards, and inwards.
Pofteriorly it gives, (i.) A large branch on the fide of
the upper part of the larynx, which communicates with
the jugularis interna, and likewife with a large-fhort
branch'of the jugularis externa pofterior. (2.) A fmall
branch, which has the fame communication, but which
is not always to be found. (3.) Another fniall branch a
little below the lower jaw, which commuqicates with the
jugularis externa pofterior.
Anteriorly it fends feveral branches to the mufcles of
the larynx, fterno-hyoidtei, thyro-hyoidae, and to the in¬
teguments ; and below the larynx it fends communica¬
ting branches to the jugularis externa anterior of the’o-
ther fide.
A little higher, oppofite to the cartilago-thyroides, it
gives off a tranfverfe branch, which tuns on the anterior
and lower part of the rnufeuli fterno-maftoidsei, and com¬
municates with the jugularis of the other fide.
The fuperior and inferior tranfverfe branches commu¬
nicate on each fide by branches more or lefs perpendicu¬
lar, and fend a fmall branch to the mufculus quadratus
of the chin, to the mufculus cutaneus and integuments.
It fends another ■ large branch anteriorly toward the
fymphyfis of the lower jaw, which, after having fuppli-
ed the maxillary glands, is diftributed to the digaitric
mufcle, to the chin and under lip.
Interiorly, at the fame place, it fends out a large branch*
which furnilhes the glandulae fublinguales, . runs down to¬
ward the cornua of the os hyoides, to communicate with
fome branches of the jugularis interna, and fends feveral
rami to the tongue, called vena ranina. It gives off
likewife a fmall branch, which running upon the mufcu¬
lus labiorum triangularis, to the commiffure of the lips,'
is diftributed to the neighbouring parts.
The fame branch which gives out the venae raninas,.
detaches another to the lateral parts of the feptum palati,
which is diftributed to the amygdalae, and to the uvula,
and fends rami forward to the membrane which lines the.
arch of the palate. Another branch goes out from it to.
the pterygoidaeus internus, periftaphylini, and cephalo-
pharyngaei.
Afterwards the trunk of the anterior external jugular
vein runs up on the mufculus triangularis, where it re¬
ceives tire name of vena triangularis, in a winding 'courfe,
from the angle of the lower jaw to the great or internal
angle of the orbit, fending branches on each fide to the
mufcles and integuments.
The trunk of the vena angularis having reached the
bones of the nofe, fends out a branch through the lateral
c,artilages of the nofe, which is diftributed to the nar.es;
and another which runs down in a winding courfe to the
upper lip.
At the great or inner angle of the eye, the fame trunk
fends off feveral other branches; the firft of which goes
to
240
ANATOMY. Part IV.
to the root of the nofe, and communicating with its fel¬
low from the other fide* gives feveral fmail Veins to the
holes of the olfa nafi.
The fecond branch runs up on the fore-head, by the
name of vena frontalis, and is diftributed to each fide.
The third branch ente'fs the orbit in a winding courfe,
on one fide of the cartilaginous pulley, and communi¬
cates with the finufes of the dura mater, by the orbitary
finus of the eye.
The fourth branch goes along the mufculus fuperci-
liaris and the upper part of the orbicularis, to the fmail
6r external angle of the eye, to communicate with the
vena temporalis, and with that vein which runs along the
tower part of the orbicular mufcle.
The pofterior or fuperior external jugular vein runs up
toward the parotid gland, and lower anterior part of the
eye, giving out feveral branches towanf each fide.
At its origin it fends out pofterioriy, a principal
branch, with its ramifications, to the mufcles which co¬
ver the fcapula and joint of the humerus, commonly
called vena mufcularis,
A little higher, it gives off the vena cervicalis, which
goes to the vertebral mufcles of the neck.
Near the cervical vein, but a little more outward, it
gives off fometimes the fmall vena cephalica, which runs
down between the pe&oralis major and deltoides, and u-
nites with the vena cephalica of the, arm.
Backward it detaches the vena occipitalis, which is di-
flributed on the occiput ; it likewife fends out a final!
vein, which enters the cranium by the poftefior maftoid
hole, and terminates in one of the lateral finufes of the
dura mater.
Having reached as far as the parotid gland, it forms
communications with the anterior external jugular, under
the angle of the lower jaw; and then palfes through the
parotid gland, between that angle and the condyle, gi¬
ving off a large branch which communicates with ano¬
ther branch common to the internal and anterior external
jugulars.
Afterwards it pafies before the ear, taking the name of
vena temporalis, which is diftributed to the temples and
lateral parts of the head, towards the occiput and fore¬
head.
The temporal vein of one fide communicates, above,
with its fellow on the other fide; before, with the vena
frontalis ; and behind, with the vena occipitalis. Oppo-
fite to the ear, it gives out a large branch, one ramus of
which runs under the lower edge of the zygoma, and
then returning, communicates with another ramus fro.m
the fame jugularis, a little below the condyle of the low¬
er jaw.
Behind this condyle, it gives branches to the temporal
mufcle, to the neighbouring parts of the upper jaw, and
to the infide of the lower jaw.
The internal jugular vein is the largcft of thofe that
go to the head.
It runs up behind the fierno-maftoidaeus and omo-hy-
otdscus, w hich it croffes, along the fides of the vertebnfc
of the neck, by the edge of the longus colli, to the fof-
fula of the foramen lacerum of the bafis cranii.
The fiift branches which it fends off are fmall, and go
to the thyroid glands. About two fingers breadth high¬
er up, it detaches a middle-fized branch, which runs la¬
terally towards the larynx, and may be named
turalis.
This guttural vein divides chiefly into three branches;
the lowelt of which goes to the thyroid gland and neigh¬
bouring mufcles ; the middle branch to the larynx, mu{-
culi thyroidsei, <&c. and the third runs upward to the
great communication between the two jugulates.
About the fame diltance upward, almolt oppofite to
the os hyoides, the internal jugular gives another branch,
which fends rami to the muicles belonging to that bone,
and others which communicate with the foregoing branch.
This other branch runs upward toward the parotid gland
and angle of the lower jaw, where it fends communica¬
ting branches forward and backward to the two external
jugulares.
The internal jugular fends another branch backward^
which is diftributed to the occiput, where it communi¬
cates with a branch of the vertebralis, and, through the
pofterior maftoid hole, with the lateral finus of the du¬
ra mater.
Afterwards it reaches the foramen lacerum of the ba¬
fis cranii, bending a little, and fending off fmall twigs to
the pharynx and neighbouring mufcles.
The vertebral rein anfes pofterioriy from the fubcla-
via or axillaris, fometimes by two Items.
The firll and principal Item gives out a branch, called
vena cervicalis, which is diftributed to the neighbouring
mufcles, and afterwards runs up through the holes of the
tranfverle apopbyles of the vertebrx colli.
1 he other item of the vertebral vein runs up on the
fide of the vertebras; and having reached the fourth, or
fometimes higher, it runs in between the tranlverfe apo-
phyles of that vertebra and the fifth, to join the firft or
principal Item.
Thus the vertebral vein accompanies the artery of the
fame name, fometimes in one trunk, fometimes in feveral
Items, through all the holes of the tranfverle apophyies of
the vertebras colli, all the way to the great foramen oc-
cipitale, communicating with the occipital veins and fmall
occipital finufes of the dura mater.
In its palfage it gives off one branch, which enters by
the polterior^ondyloid hole of the os occipitis, and com¬
municates with the lateral finus of the dura mater.
As thefe veins run through the hoks in the tranfverfe
apophyfes, they lend branches forward to the anterior
muicles of the neck, and to the fmall anterior mufcles of
the head.
Other branches go likewife outward and backward to
the mufculi tranfverfales and vertebrales colli; and in¬
ward to the great canal of the fpinal marrow, where they
form finufes, which communicate with thofe on the other
lide.
Thefe vertebral finufes are pretty numerous, and pla¬
ced one above another all the way to the occiput; the
lower communicate v/ith the upper; and at the great
foramen of the os occipitis there is a communication be¬
tween them and the occipital finufes of the dura mater.
The fubclavian vein having fent off the branches al¬
ready defcribed, goes out ox the thcrax, and palfes be¬
fore
riatc^Yir
Part IV. ANA
fore the anterior portion of the mofculus fcalenus, and
between the firft lib and the clavicle, to the axilla.
Through this courfe it takes the name of vz/ia axillaris,
and gives off feveral branches, the chief of which are
the vente nwafculares, tboracicae, and vena cephalica.
The rnufculares, are dihributed to the middle portion
of the mulct!ins trapezius, to the angularis, infra-fpina-
tus, and fubfcapularis; and as fome of thefe branches
go to the fhoulder exteriorly, others interiorly, the ve¬
nae fcapulares are diftinguilhed into external and internal.
A little before the axillaris reaches the axilla, it fends
out the venae thoracicas, one of which is fuperior, called
alfo mammaria externa, and the other inferior. It like-
wife fends rami to the mufculus fubfcapularis, teres ma¬
jor, teres minor, fupra-fpinatus, latiffimus dorli, ferra-
tus major, pedoralis minor, pe&oralis rnajor, and to the
glands of the axilla.
The axillaris having reached the fide of the head of
the os humeri, produces a branch, mmedvena cephalica,
and afterwards runs along the arm by the name of vena
baft lie a.
The cephalic vein, which is a branch of the axillaris,
at a final! diftance from its origin, joins the fimll cepha¬
lica, which runs down from the fubclavia, or jugularis
externa.
The great cephalica runs down between the tendons
of the laft mentioned mufcles, and along the outer edge
of the external portion of the biceps; communicating
feveral times with the vena bafilica, and fending fmall
rami on each fide, to the neighbouring mufcles, fat and
fkin.
A little below the external condyle of the os humeri,
it detaches a branch backward, which runs up between
the mufculus brach'alis and the upper portion of the fu-
pinator longus, and afterwards bends back between the
os humeri and anconaeus externus, where it communi¬
cates with fome branches of the bafilica.
Having reached very near the fold of the arm, it is
divided into two principal branches, one long, the other
ihort. The long branch is named radial is externa, and
the fhort one may be called mediana cepbalica, to diftin-
guifh it from another mediana, which is a ftiort branch
of the bafilica.
The external radial vein runs along the radius between
the mufcles and integuments, giving olf branches towards
both fides, which communicate with othdr branches of
the lame vein, and with fome from the bafilica.
The mediana cephalica runs down obliquely toward
the middle of the fold of the arm, under the integu¬
ments, and over the tendon of the biceps, where it joins
a Ihort branch of the fame kind from the bafilica.
From this anaftomofis, a confiderable branch goes out,
which runs down on the fore-arm, uniting on one fide
wi*h the vena cephalica, and communicating on the o-
ther with the bafilica, by feveral irregular areolte. The
name of mediana is given to this large branch, as well
as to the two Ihort ones, by the union of which it is
formed.
From this union of the two lateral medians, and
fometimes from the origin .of the mediana media, a
branch goes out, which runs down on the infide of the
Von. I. No. ii. 3
T O M Y. 241
fore-arm, oppofite to the intcrrofTeous ligament, and is
called vena cubiti profunda. It goes to the neighbour¬
ing mufcles, and communicates^ with the other veins of
the fore-arm. The-mediana cephalica fometimes fends
down a long branch, called radialis interna, which lies
almofi: parallel to the radialis externa.
Afterwards the cephalica, having reached the extre¬
mity of the radius, is diftributed, by numerous areolae,
almoft in the fame courfe with the radial artery.
A particular branch goes out from it, which runs more
or lefs fuperficially between the thumb and metacarpus,
by the name of cephalica pollicis. The areolae furni/h
the interrofleous mufcles and integuments, and commu¬
nicate with a final! ramus from the bafilica, called by the
ancients Salvatella.
The bafilic vein fends off firfi: of all, under the head
of the os humeri, a pretty large branch, which paffes al¬
mofi tranfverfely round the neck of that bone, from
within backward, and from behind outward, running
upon the fcapula, where it is ramified on the deltoides,
and communicates with the venae fcapulares externae.
This branch may be named vena Jub-humeralis, or ar-
ticularis.
This articular vein fends down two principal branches,
one of which runs along the infide of the bone, to which,
and to the periofteum, it gives fmall veins. The other
turns forward, toward the middle of the arm between
the bone and the biceps, and communicates with the.ce¬
phalica.
Below the neck of the os humeri, near the hollow of
the axilla, and behind the tendon of the pe&oralis ma¬
jor, the bafilica fends out a confiderable branch, which
runs down on the fide of the brachial artery, and fur-
nifhes the neighbouring mufcles on both fides. This vein
iS named profunda brae hit.
Immediately afterwards, the bafilica detaches two or
three fmall veins, which run down very clofely joined to
the brachial artery, furrounding it at different diftances
by fin all twigs which communicate with each other.
Thefe fmall veins, which often arife from the profun¬
da fuperior, communicate with the bafilica and cephalica;
and having reached the fold of the arm, they divide like
the artery; and the fame divifions are continued along
the whole fore-arm.
Afterwards the bafilica continues its courfe alon'r the in¬
fide of the os humeri, between the mufcles and integuments,
forming many communications with the vena profunda and
cephalica, and fupplying the mufcles and integuments.
Having reached the inner condyle, and having fent off
obliquely, in the fold of the arm, the mediana bafilica,
it runs along the ulna, between the integuments and muf¬
cles, a little toward the outfide, by the name of cubita-
lis externa.
The bafilica having at length reached the extremity of
the ulna, fends fevera.1 branches to the convex fide of
the carpus; one of which, named Salvatella, goes to
that fide of the little finger next the ring finger, having
firfi communicated with the cephalica, by means of the
venal areolae confpicuous on the back of the hand. In
the other fingers this vein follows nearly the fame courfe
with the arteries.
3 P
In
242 ANA T
In general, the external or fuperficial veins of the fore¬
arm are larger than the internal.
The inferior Vena Cava havingrun down about a quar¬
ter of an inch from the right auricle of the heart, with¬
in the pericardium, pierces that membrane and the ten¬
dinous portion of the diaphragm.
At this place it gives off the vence diaphragmaticce, or
phrenicae, which are diftributed to the diaphragm, and
appear chiefly on its lower fide, one towards the right'
hand, and one towards the feft. The right vein is more
backward and lower than the left. The left is diftribu-
ted partly to the pericardium, and partly to the dia¬
phragm ; and fometimes they fend rami to the capfuke
renales.
The inferior cava hiving perforated the diaphragm,
’pafles through the pofterior part of the great fiffure of
the liver, penetrating a little into the fubftance of that
vifetiS', between the great lobe and the lobulus Spigelii.
In its paffage, it fends off commonly three large branches,
called vena hepatica, which are ramified in the liver.
Befides thefe large branches, it fends out feme other
fmall ones, either before or immediately after it goes
out of the liver.
In the fetus, as the vena cava paffes by the liver,
it gives off theAuftus venofus, which communicates with
the fmus of the vena portae; and in adults is changed to
a flat ligament.
After its paffage, through the liver, the vena cava
turns from before backward, and from right to left, to¬
ward the fpina dorfi, placing itfelf on the right fide of
the aorta, which it accompanies from thence downward.
Having got as low as the arteriae renales, it gives off
the veins of the fame name, termed formerly vena e-
mulgentes.
The right renal runs down a little obliquely, becaufe
of the fituation of the kidney. The left vein croffes on
the forefide of the trunk of the aorta, immediately-above
the fuperior mefenteric artery.
They fend up the venae capfulares, which go to the
glandulae renales, and downward; the venas adipofe,
which go to the fatty covering of the kidneys; and ordi¬
narily the left renal vein furnilhes the left fpermatic vein.
Afterwards they run to the finus, or cavity of the kid¬
neys, in the fubftance of which they are diftributed by
numerous ramifications.
A little below the renal veins, the trunk of the cava
fends out anteriorly, toward the right fide, the right ve¬
na fpermatica. The left fpermatic vein comes common¬
ly from the left renalis.
In their paffage, they fend fever al fmall branches on
each fide, to the peritoneum and mefentery, where they
feem to be joined by anaftomofes with the vense mefa-
raicae.
The cava fends likewife off pofteriorly the venae lum-
bares, which commonly arife in pairs. Thefe maybe
divided into fuperior and inferior veins.
Their origins vary in different manners. Sometimes
the cava gives off a branch to each fide below the firft
vertebra of the loins, which, like a common trunk, fur-
nifties the lumbar veins. This branch communicates with
the azygos.
O M Y. Part IV.
Sometimes a confiderable branch goes out from the
lower extremity of the cava, near the bifurcation, chief¬
ly on the right fide, which afterwards running up be¬
tween the bodies and tranfverfe apophyfes of the vertebrae,
detaches the venae lumbares, and communicates with the
azygos.
Sometimes a like branch comes from the beginning of
the left vena ilfiica, and, running up on that fide in the
fame manner, produces the lumbares.
The venae lumbares on one fide communicate by tranf¬
verfe branches with thofe of the other fide, and likewife
with each other by branches more or lefs longitudinal.
The firft and fecond often go from the azygos, and
thereby they communicate with the intercoftal veins.
The lumbar veins fend fmall capillaries, in their paf¬
fage, to the fubftance of the bodies of the vertebras j
and they are diftributed to the mufcles of the abdomen,
quadratus lumborum, pfoas, iliacus, fee. They fend
branches backward to the neighbouring vertebral mufcles,
and to the canal of the fpine, and communicate with the
venal finufes.
The inferior cava, having reached as low as the laft
vertebra of the loins, and near the bifurcation of the
aorta, runs in behind the right iliac artery, and there is
divided into two fubaltern trunks, called the right And
left iliac veins.
From this bifurcation of the vena cava, the vena facra
goes out, and accompanies the artery of the fame name
in its diftribution to the os facrum, to the nerves which lie
there, and to the membranes which cover both fides of
that bone.
Each original iliac vein is divided on the fide of the os
facrum, much after the fame manner as the arteries, into
two large trunks.
One of thefe trunks is named vena iliaca externa or
anterior ; the other interna or pofterior.
Thefe veins follow nearly the courfe and diftribution
of the iliac arteries, except that the hypogaftric vein does
not fend off the vena umbilicalis.
From the common trunk of the iliac veins, and fome-
times from the origin of the iliaca externa, a particular
branch goes out, which is diftrib&ted to the mufculus pfoas,
iliacus, and quadratus lumborum ; and afterwards fends
a ramus on the fore-fide of the laft tranfverfe apophyfis
of the loins, to communicate with the laft lumbar vein.
The external iliac, a little before it leaves the abdo¬
men, near the ligamentum Fallopii, lying on the pfoas
and iliac mufcles, gives off almoft the feme branches
with the artery of the fame name, and follows the fame
courfe. The chief branches are thefe:
A little before it goes out of the abdomen, it fends
off from the outfide, a fmall branch, which runs up a-
long the crifta of the os ilium, and gives branches on
each fide to the lateral and pofterior lower portions of
the mufeuli abdominis, to the mufculus iliacus, fee.
From the infide, before it leaves the abdomen, it fends
off the vena epigaftrica; which having furnilhed feme
fmall rami to the neighbouring conglobated glands, runs
up along the infide of the mufeuli refti, on which it is
ramified both ways.
Afterwards
Part IV. A N A T
Afterwards the vena epigaftrica runs upward, and joins
the ramifications of the mammaria.
Before the iliac vein gets from under the ligamentum
Fallopii, it fends feveral fmall rami to the neighbouring
lymphatic glands ; and immediately afterwards, lofing
the name of iliaca, it takes that of cruralis.
The hypegaftric, or internal iliac vein, runs behind
the iliac artery, from which the following branches go
out.
From the pofterior or convex part of the arch, it gives
a branch to the fuperior lateral part of the os facrum,
which is diftributed to the mufculus facer, or tranverfo-
fpinalis lumborum, and other mufcles thereabouts, and
to the cavity of the bone, which it enters through the
firft great hole.
A little lower, on the fame fide, it fends out another,
which is diftributed much in the fame manner with the
former, and enters the fecond hole.
From the external lateral part of die fame arch, a
little anteriorly, it fends out a large branch, which runs
behind the great fciatic finus, and is diftributed to the muf-
culi glutsei, pyriformis, and gemelli.
Lower down, the fame lateral part of the hypogaftric
vein gives out another large branch, called obturatrix •,
which, having run a little way, detaches feveral rami,
and afterwards reaching the foramen ovale of the os in-
nominatum, perforates the obturator mufcles, communi¬
cates with the vena cruralis, and is diftributed* to the
mufculus pedlineus, triceps, and neighbouring parts.
Among the branches fent off by the vena obturatrix,
before it perforates the mufcles, one is fituated exterior¬
ly, which runs toward the fciatic finus, to the mufculus
iliacus, the fuperior part of the obturator internus, and
to the os ilium.
Interiorly, the fame obturator vein fends off another
branch, which is diftributed to the ureters, bladder, and
internal parts of generation in both fexes.
Laftly, the hypogaftric vein runs backward, and goes
out of the pelvis, above the ligament which lies between
the inferior lateral part of the os facrum and fpine of
the ifchium. ^
It next fends, a large branch upward to the lower part
of the os facrum, and two or more downward ; which,
running behind the fame ligament, are diftributed to the
buttocks, anus, neighbouring portion of the mufculus
peftineus, and to the external parts of generation.
The veins that go to the anus, are termed hamcrrhoi-
dales externa; they that go to the parts of generation,
pudica interna. The external, hasmorrhoidales commu¬
nicate with the internal veins of the fame name, which
come from the fmall vena mefaraica.
The crural vein goes out under the ligamentum Fal¬
lopii, on the infide of the-crural artery, and immediate¬
ly gives fmall branches to the inguinal glands, the muf¬
culus peflineus, and parts of generation. Thefe laft are
termed pudtea externa, and evidently communicate with
the internal veins of the fame name.
About an inch below, where it leaves the abdomen,
the crural vein produces a large branch, which runs
down anteriorly between the integuments and the farto-
O M Y. 24$
rius, following the direclion of that mufcle almoft all the
way to the infide of the thigh.
This branch having afterwards got beyond the con¬
dyles of the os femoris, runs down between the inte¬
guments and inner angle of the tibia, to the fore-part
of the inner ankle, and is diftributed to the foot. All
this large branch is named vena fapbena, or faphena
major.
After the origin of the faphena, as the trunk of the
crural veins runs down, it finks in between the mufcles,
and is diftributed to all the inner or deep parts of the
lower extremity, accompanying the crural artery to the
very extremity of the foot.
As the faphena is a vein of very large extent, we
ft)all here defcribe it altogether, and afterwards return
to the vena cruralis.
The vena faphena, in its paffage from the inguen to
the foot, is covered only by the Ikin and fat. Immedi¬
ately after its rife, it gives fmall veins to the inferior in¬
guinal glands; and then it gives out others more anteri¬
orly, which, running under the integuments, commu¬
nicate with each other by numerous areoke.
The faphena, having run down on the thigh, as low
as the middle of the fartorius, fends off to the fame fide
feveral branches, which communicate with each other,
and with the fuperior branches.
Between thefe upper and lower branches, the faphena
fends backward a particular branch; w hich, after being
diftributed to the integuments which cover the gracilis
internus and triceps, turns backward; and a little below
the ham, runs in among the mufcles fituated there, and
communicates with another branch, which may tc term¬
ed faphena minor.
Afterwards the trunk of the great faphena runs downs
on the infide of the tibia, lying always near the fkin;
and at the upper part of that bone it fends branches fore-
ward, outward, and backward.
The anterior branches go to the integuments on the
upper part of the leg; the pofterior, to thofe which co¬
ver the gaftrocnemii, and communicate with the little
faphena; and the external branches are likew'ife diftribu-
ted to the fat and integuments, and having reached as
low as the middle of the tibia, it fends a communicating
branch to the trunk of the great laphena.
From this communication, a branch goes out anterior*
ly, which runs along the integuments of the tibia all the
way to the outer ankle.
As the faphena runs down on the infide of the tibia,
it fends out a branch near the middle of that bone,
which runs up behind the tendons of the fartorious, gra¬
cilis internus, and femi-nervofus, then between the tibia
and upper end of the foleus, and is joined by an anafto-
mofis with the crural vein.
At the lower part of the tibia, the faphena produces,
a confiderable branch, which runs obliquely forward 0-
ver the joint of the tarfus toward the cuter ankle, fend¬
ing off feveral rami which communicate with each other,
and with the trunk of the faphena.
The extremity of this trunk paffes on the forefide of
the inner ankle, and runs irregulaily under the Ikin, a-
244 A N A T O -M Y. Part IV.
lung t'n - raftcrillcebetween the fitft two metatarfal bones branches, called tibialis anterior, tibialis pojlerior, and
tov/ard the great toe, where this vein terminates. per once a.
The crural vein, having lent off the laphena, and the The anterior tibial vein, having diftributed fome fmall
fmall branches for the pedhneus, <&c. as has been laid, branches from its very beginning to the mufcles behind
runs down on the thigh behind the crural artery. Op-
poiite to the -little trochanter, it produces two large
fiiort branches, or one which afterwards divides into two,
whereof one is anterior, the other pollerior.
The anterior branch runs more or lefs tranfverfely
forward, to be ditlributed to the vaftus internus, lower
part of the pe&ineus, and of the fecond triceps, and to
the other two mufcles of the fame name, running in be¬
tween them as it goes from one to another.
The p often or branch runs more or lefs tranfverfely
backward, and furniihes the glutei, vaftus externus, and
beginning of the biceps.
A little below thefe two branches, about the upper ex¬
tremity of the vaftus internus, the crural vein produces a
branch which runs down on the fide of the trunk, co¬
vering the crural artery, almoft as low as the ham, where
ir is again united to the trunk by an anaftomofis. It has
the name of vena fciatica, from the fciatic nerve which
it accompanies.
On the outfide of this anaftomofis, the crural vein
gives off a branch which runs backward between the bi¬
ceps and neighbouring mufcles, a*d fo downward on the
backfide of the leg a little exteriorly, and very near the
Ikin, all the way to the outer ankle. This vein is term¬
ed faphena minor, or externa.
The little faphena, having got near the integuments
in its courfe downward, gives out a branch which runs
backward, and communicates with the great faphena a-
bout the middle of the backfide of the thigh.
Immediately above and below the ham, this vein fends
out other branches, which likewife communicate with
the faphena major, and, having run down about one
third part of the backfide of the tibia, it fends off another
branch, which is afterwards re-united to the trunk.
About the beginning of the tendo-achillis, the little
faphena runs outward in the integuments, toward the
outer ankles, where it terminates in cutaneous ramifica¬
tions fen t to every fide.
The crural vein, having detached the little faphena,
runs down between the biceps and the other flexors of
the leg, clofely accompar.ied“'by the crural artery, be¬
tween which and the inner condyle of the os femoris it
is fituated.
A little above the ham, it takes the name of vena po-
plitea; and as it runs down betwixt the two condyles, it
gives branches to the flexor mufcles, to the lower and
pefterior parts of both vafti, and to the fat which lies a-
bove the interfaces of the two condyles.-
It likewife gives off feveral other branches, one of
which runs up laterally between the outer condyle and
the biceps, and then turning forward, is ramified in the
fame manner with the artery.
The vena poplitea runs down immediately behind the
mufcle of the fame name, at the lower part of which it
fends off feveral ramifications to each fide, which di¬
vide and unite again in different ways; and afterwards it
lofes its name, being divided into three confiderable
the heads of the two bones of the leg, perforates the in-
terofleous ligament from behind, forward, and runs be¬
tween the fuperior portions of the mufculus tibialis anti-
cus, and extenfor digitorum communis.
As foon as it pierces the interofleous ligament, it di-
ftributes fmall fuperficial branches to the head of the ti¬
bia and fibula, which run to the joint of the knee, and
communicate with the lateral branches of the vena po¬
plitea.
Afterwards it divides into two or three branches,
which run down together on the forefide of the interof-
feous ligament in company with the anterior tibial arte¬
ry, which they furround at different diftances, by fmall
communicating circles.
Thefe branches having reached the lower extremity of
the leg, unite in one, which afterwards divides into feve¬
ral, the ramifications of which are diftributed to the foot.
The pofterior tibial vein gives off, from its beginning,
a branch toward the infide, which is diftributed to the
gaftrocnemii and foieus. This vein is named furalis.
Afterwards the pofterior tibialis runs down between
the foieus and tibialis pofticus, giving branches to each
of them. It is divided in the fame manner as the tibi¬
alis anterior, into two or three branches, which, as
they run, furround the correfponding artery, by fmall
communicating circles formed at different diftances.
It continues this courfe in company with the artery as
low as the outer ankle, furnifhing the mufeulut; tibialis
pofticus, and the long flexors of the toes.
Laftly, it paffes on the infide of the os calcis, under
the foie of the foot, where it forms the vense plantares,
by dividing into feveral tranfverfe arches, which comma •
nicate with each other, and with the faphena, and fend
ramifications to the toes.
The vena peronsea is likewife double, and fometimes
triple. It runs down on the infide of the fibula, which
it likewife furrounds at different diftances, by communi¬
cating branches, after the manner of the tibialis pofterior.
It runs down as low as the outer ankle, communicating
feveral times with the tibialis pofterior, and fending rami¬
fications to the neighbouring portions of the mufeuli pe-
ronssi, and long flexors of the toes.
The vena porte is a large vein, the trunk of which is
fituated chiefly between the eminencies on the lower or
concave fide of the liver.
It may be confidered as made up of two large veins,
joined almoft endwife by their trunks, from each of
which the branches and ramifications go out in oppofite
directions. One of thefe trunks adheres to the liver,
and is ramified in that vifeus, its branches accompanying
the whole diftribution of the hepatic artery.
The other trunk is without the liver, and fends its
branches to the vifeera, fupplied by the reft of the arte-
ria csliaca, and by the two mefenteriae, that is, to the
ftomach, inteftines, pancreas, fpleen, mefentery, and o-
mentum. 11
The firft portion of this vein may be termed vena
poriee
Part IV. AN A
port# bepatica, Juperior or minor, the trunk of which
is commonly known by the name of ftnus vcnx porta-
rum. The other portion may be called vena porta vsn-
tralis, inferior or major.
The large trunk of the vena porta: inferior,, or ventra-
lis, is fituated under the lower or concave fide of the li¬
ver, and joined by an anaftomofis to the finus of the vena
portas hepatica, between the middle and right extremity
of that finus. From thence it runs down a little oblique¬
ly from right to left-, behind or under the trunk of the
arteria hepatica, bending behind the beginning of the du¬
odenum, and under the head of the pancreas.
Having reached to the head of the pancreas, this trunk
lofes the general name of vena porta, and terminates in
three large principal branches, which are dillributed, by
numerous ramifications, to the vifcera already named.
The firft branch is termed vena mefaraica, or inefaraica
major-, the fecond, fplenica ; and the third, hamorrboi-
dalis interna, or mefaraica minor.
The vena mefaraica major appears to be a continuation
of the trunk of the vena portae inferior. The fplenica
is a capital branch of that trunk ; and, the haemorrhoi-
dalis interna has fometimes a common* origin with the
fplenica.
The inferior vena porta:, before the formation of thefe
three branches, fends off from the trunk feveral fmall
rami, which are commonly the venae cyfticse, .hepatica
minor, pylorica, duodenalis, and fometimes the gaftrica
redta, and coronaria ventriculi.
All thefe fmall veins fometimes arife feparately; and,
in other fubjeds, fome of them go out by fmall common
trunks.
The cyftic veins run along the .veficula fellis, from its
neck to the bottom; and as they are often no more than
two in number, they are called cyjiica gemsUa.
The fmall hep:'tic vein is commonly a branch of one
of the cyftica:.
The vena pylorica arifes from the great trunk,, aimoft
oppofite to the origin of the cyftica:; and fometimes is
only a branch of the right gaftrica. It palTes-over the
pylorus to the Ihort arch of the ftomach, where it is
joined, by anaftomofis, with the coronaria ventriculi.
The duodenal vein, commonly called vena intefinalis,
goes out from the great trunk near the cyfticae, and fome¬
times from the. fmall common trunk of thefe veins. It
is diftributed chiefly to the inteftinum duodenum, and
fends likewife fome rami to the pancreas.
The inferior vena portae, having given off the fplenica,
changes its name to that of mefaraica. Ox mefaraica ma¬
jor ; which often appears to be rather a continuation of
the trunk, than of one of the great branches.
It bends toward the fuperior mefenteric artery, fend¬
ing off two veins, and afterwards running up over that
artery, it accompanies it in thofe portions of the mefen-
tery and mefdcolon which belong to the fmall inteftines,
the caecum, and right portion of the colon.
The firft particular branch from this trunk is called
vena colica. It goes out from the anterior part of the
trunk, before it joins the artery, and runs direrily to the
middle of the colon, where it divides to the right and left,
and forms arches. On the left hand, it communicates
Vol. I. No. it. g
T O M Y. 245
with the fuperior or afeending branch of the hasmorrhoi-
dalis; and on the right, with the fecond branch of the
mefaraica.
This fecond branch is a little under the firft, or colica
anterior, and fomething more towards the right hand.
It may be named gajlro-colica, and is foon divided into
two branches, one fuperior, the other inferior.
The fuperior branch of the vena gaftro-colica fends
fmall veins to the head of the pancreas, and forms the
vena gaftrica, or gaftro-epiploica dextra, which goes
from the pylorus to the great curvature of the ftomach,
and communicates with the gaftrica finiftra. In its paf-
fage it fupplies the ftomach and omentum, and commu-
sicates with the pylorica, coronaria ventriculi, fyc.
The inferior branch of the vena gaftro-colica, which
may be called colica dextra, goes to the right portion of
the colon; and from thence to the upper part of that in-
teftine, where it is divided archwife, and communicates
with the right branch of the colica anterior, and with a
branch of the vena caecalis.
The trunk of the great mefaraic vein fends out fome¬
times, oppofite to the gaftrica, a particular branch to the
omentum, called epiploica dextra. But almoft imme¬
diately before it afeends over the mefenteric artery, it
produces two large branches very near each other, which
pafs behind and under the artery, being diftributed to
the jejunum and part of the ilium by numerous rarniii-
cations.
Afterwards the trunk of th: mefaraic pafles over the
fuperior mefenteric artery, to which it adheres very clofe-
ly, and from the convex fide of its arch fends out feve¬
ral branches, almoft in the fame manner with the artery.
From the concave fide of the mefaraic vein, a little
below the origin of the fecond branch,, from the convex
fide, arifes a branch, called vetia atcalis, which runs to
the baginning of the colon, crofiing one of the branches
oPthe fuperior mefenteric artery.
This c2:cal vein divides by two arches, the uppernioft
of which communicates with the lower branch of the ve¬
na gaftro-colica; the other, after having fent ramifica¬
tions to the inteftinum caecum and appendicula vermilbr-
mis, communicates below with the extremity of the
great mefar^ic vein.
The fplenic vein is one of the three great branches of
the vena portae. It runs tranfverfely from the right to
the left, firft under the duodenum, and then along the
lower fide of the pancreas.
In this courfe it gives off feveral veins, viz. the vena
coronaria ventriculi, pancreaticae, gaftrica, or gaftro-epi¬
ploica finiftra, and epiploica finiftra. It likewife often
gives origin to the haemorrho.idalis interna, the third
capital branch of the vena portae.
It terminates .afterwards by a winding courfe, being
divided into feveral branches that g j to .the fpleen ; one
of which produces the fmall veins called, by the ancients,
vafa brevia. .
The coronaria ventriculi runs along the fmall arch of
that vifeus toward the pylorus, where it joins and be¬
comes continuous with the vena pylorica. Iirits paifage,
it gives feveral rami to the fides of the ftomach.
The vena: pancreaticse are fevyal fmall branches
5 CL ■ lent
2^6 A N A 1
fent by the fplenlca to the pancreas, along its lower
fide.
The left gaftric, or gaftro-epiploic vein, goes out from
the fplenica, at the left extremity of the pancreas ; from
whence it runs to the great extremity of the ftomach,
and along the great arch, till it meets the gaftrica dex-
tra, which is continuous with the finiflra.
In its paflage, it gives feveral branches to both fides of
the ftomach, which are diftributed by numerous ramifica^
tions, form many areolae, and communicate with the
branches of the coronaria ventriculi.
At a fmall diftance from its origin, this gaftric vein
fends out a branch, which is diftributed to the omen¬
tum; and on this account it has been called
ploica.
The vena epiploica finiftra arifes at the fmall extremi¬
ty of the pancreas, and is ramified on the omentum, all
the way to the colon, where it communicates with the
haemorrhoidalis interna.
Laftly, the vena fplenica reaches the fiffure of the
fpleen, which it enters through its whole length by feveral
branches. It is from the moft pofterior of thefe branches
that the veins are fent off to the great extremity of the
ftomach, formerly known by the name of vafa brevia,
which communicate with the coronaria ventriculi and ga¬
ftrica finiftra..
EXPLANATION
This plate reprefents the heart in fitu, all the large ar¬
teries and veins, with fome of the mufcles, Ac.
Muscles. — Superior Extremity. — a, Maffeter.
b, Complexus. c, D;agaftricus. d, Os hyoides.
e. Thyroid gland, f. Levator fcapulte. g, Cucul-
laris. h h, The clavicles cut. i, The deltoid muf-
cle. k, Biceps flexor cubiti cut. 1, Coraco-brachi-
alis. m, Triceps extenfor cubiti. n. The heads of
the pronator teres, flexor carpi radialis, and flexor di-
gitorum fublimis, cut. o. The flexor carpi ulnaris,
cut at its extremity, p. Flexor digitorum profundus,
q, Supinator radii longus, cut at its extremity, r, Li-
gamentum carpi tranfverfale. s, Extenfores Carpi ra¬
diates. t, Latlffimus dorfi. u, Anterior edge of the
ferratus anticus major, v, v. The inferior part of
the diaphragm, w w, Its anterior edge cut. x x. The
kidneys, y, Tranfverfus abdominis, z. Os ilium.
Inferior Extremity.—a, Pfoas magnus. b, I-
liacus internus. c. The flefhy origin of the tenfor
•vaginas femoris. d d. The offa pubis cut from each
other, e, Mufculus peAineus cut from its origin.
f. Short head of the triceps adduftor femoris cut.
The great head of die triceps, b,. The long head
cut. /, Vaftus internus. /, Vaflus externus. /, Cru-
reus. m. Gemellus. », Soteus. o,. Tibia, p, Pe-
ronseus longus. .q, Peronasus brevis, r. Fibula.
Heart and Blood-Vessels.—A, The heart,
with the coronary arteries arid veins, B, The right
auricle of the heart. C, The aorta afcendens.
D, The left fubclavian artery. E, The left carotid
artery. F, The common trunk which fends off the
o M Y. Part IV.
The internal hasmorrhoidal vein is one of the three
great branches of the vena portae, coming ordinarily from
the beginning of the vena fplenica, and fometimes from
the extremity or angle of the bifurcation of the great
trunk of the vena portae.
At a fmall diftance from its beginning, it gives to the
duodenum a fecond vena duodenalis.
Afterwards it is divided into two branches, one fupe-
rior or afcending, the other inferior or defcendihg. The
firft runs to the upper part of the arch of the colon,
where, after many ramifications, it communicates with a
branch of the great mefaraica, with the ramifications of
the gaftro-epiploica finiftra, and with thofe of the neigh¬
bouring epiploica.
The inferior branch runs down on the left portion of
the colon, on the lower incurvations of that inteftine,
and on the redhim, all the way to the anus. In this
courfe, it fupplies the mefocolon, and forms arches, which
fend out numerous fmall ramifications, which furround
thefe inteftines.
This vein has been named hcemorrhoi dal is, from the
tumours oftenrfound at its extremity next the anus, which
are called huemorrhoides. The word interna is added,,
to diftinguilh this vein from the hatmorrhoidalis externa,
which comes from the vena hypogaftrica, and with which
this vein communicates by capillary ramifications.
of PLATE XVJL
right fubclavian and right carotid arteries. G, The
carotis externa. H, Arteria facialis, which fends off
the coronary arteries of the lips. I, Arteria tem¬
poralis profunda. K, Aorta defeendens. L L, The
iliac arteries,—which fend off M.M, The femoral
or crural arteries. N. li. The other arteries in thi?
figure have the fame diftribution as the veins of the
fame name :—And generally, in the anatomical plates,
the defeription to be found on the one fide, points out
the fame parts in the other, i, The frontal vein.
2, The facial vein. 3, Vena temporalis profunda.
4, Vena occipitalis. 5, Vena jugularis externa.
6, Vena jugularis interna, covering the arteria ca.-
rotis communis. 7, T he vafcular arch on the palm
of the hand, which is formed by 8, the radial ar¬
tery and vein, and 9, the ulnar , artery and vein.
10 10, Cephalic vein. 11, Bafilic vein, that on
the right fide, cut. 12, Median vein. 13,. The
humeral vein, which, with the median, covers the
humeral, artery. 14 14, The external thoracic, or
mammary arteries and veins. 15, The axillary vein,
covering the artery. 16 16, The fubclavian veins-,
which, with (6 6) the jugulars, forms 17, the ve¬
na cava fuperior. 18, Ttie cutaneous arch of veins
on the fere-part of the foot. 19, The vena tibialis
antica, covering the artery. 20, The vena profunda
femoris;, covering the ar^aiy. 2i> The upper part of
the vena faphena major. 22, The femoral vein.
23 23, The iliac veins. 24, 24, Vena cava inferior.
23 2J, The renal veins covering the arteries.
2.6 26, The diaphragmatic veins.
PART
Part V. ANATOMY. 247
PART V.
OF THE NERVES.
Sect. I. Of the Nerves in general.
THE medullary fubftance of the brain is employed
in forming the white fibrous cords, which are
called nerves. Within the fkull we fee the nerves to be
the medullary fubftance continued; and the fpinal mar¬
row is all employed in forming nerves.
The nerves are compofed of a great many threads,
lying parallel to each other, or nearly fo, at their exit
from the medulla.
This fibrous texture is evident at the origin of moft
of the nerves within the fkuil; and in the cauda equina
of the fpinal marrow we can divide them into fuch fmall
threads, that a very good eye can fcarce perceive them;
but thefe threads, when looked at with a microfcope,
appear each to be comppfed of a great number of fmaller
threads.
How fmall one of thefe fibrils of the nerves is, we
know not; but when we confider that every, even the
moft minute part of the body is fenfible, and that this
muft depend on the nerves, (which all conjoined would
not make a cord of an inch diameter), being divided in¬
to branches or filaments to be difperfed through all thefe
minute parts, we muft be convinced, that the nervous
fibrils tre very fmall.
The medullary fubftance, of which the nervous fibrils
are compofed, is very tender, and would not be able to
refill fuch forces as the nerves are expofed to within the
bones, nor even the common force of the circulating
fluids, were not the pia mater and tunica arachnoides
continued upon them; the former giving them firmnefs
and ftrength, and the latter furnilhing a cellular coat to
conned the threads of the nerves, to let them lie foft
and moift, and to fupport the vefiels which go with them.
It is this cellular fubftance that is diftended when air
is forced through a blow-pipe thruft into a nerve, and
that makes a nerve appear all fpongy, a'fter being diftend¬
ed with air till it dries ; the proper nervous fibrils ihriveil¬
ing fo in drying, that they fcarce can be obferved.
Thefe coats would not make the nerves ftrong enough
to bear the ftretching and preflure they are expofed to in
their courfe to the different parts of the body ; and there¬
fore, where the nerves go out at the holes in the cranium
and fpine,.the dura mater is»generaliy wrapt clofely round
them, to colled their difgregated fibres into tight firm
cords ; and that the tenfion which they may happen to
be expofed. to may not injure them before.they have got
this additional coat, it is firmly fixed to the fides of the
holes in the bones through which they pafs.
The nervous cords, thus compofed of nervous fibrils,
cellular coat, pia and dura mater, have fuch numerous
blood-veflels, that, after their arteries only are injeded,
the whole cord is tinged of the colour of the injeded
liquor.
A nervous cord has very little elafticity, compared
with feveral other parts of the body. When cut out of
the body, it does not become obfervably fhorter, while
the blood-veflels contrad three eighths of their length.
Nerves are generally lodged in a cellular or fatty fub¬
ftance, and have their courfe in the interftices of mufcles,
where they are guarded from preflure; but in feveral-
parts they are fo placed, as if it was intended that they.
Ihould there fuffer the vibrating force of arteries, or the
preflure of the contrading fibres of mufcles. -
The larger ccrds of the nerves divide into branches as
they go off to the different parts; the branches being
fmaller than the trunk from which they come, and ma¬
king generally an acute angle where they feparate.
In feveral places, different nerves unite into one cord,
which is commonly larger than any of the nerves which
form it. Several nerves-, particularly tliofe which are di-
ftributed to the bowels, after fuch union, fuddenly form
a hard knot confiderably larger than all the nerves of
which it is made. Thefe knots were formerly called
corpora olivaria, and are now generally namtAganglions.
The ganglions have thicker coats, more numerous and
larger blood-veflels than the nerves ; fo that they appear
more red and mufcular.
Commonly nurnerous fmall nerves, which conjundly
are not equal to the fize of the ganglion, are font out
from it, hut with a ftrudure no way different from that
of other nerves.
The nerves fent to the organs of the fenles, lofe there
their firm coats-, and terminate in a pulpy fubftance. The
optic nerves are expanded into-the foft tender, webs, the
retinae. The auditory nerve has fcarce the confiftence of
mucus in the veftibulum, cochlea,, and femicircular ca¬
nals-of each ear. The papillae of the nofe, tongue, and
flein, are very foft.
The nerves of'mufcles-can likewife be traced' till they
feem to lofe their -coats by becoming very fdft ; from
which, and what we obferved of the fenfatory nerves,
there is reafon to conclude, that the mufcular nerves are -
alfo pulpy at their terminations, which we cannot indeed.
profecute by diffe&ion.
Sect..
248 ANA T
Sect, II. Of the particular Nerves.
It is generally faid, that there are forty pair of
nerves in all; of which ten come out from the encepha¬
lon, and the other thirty have their origin from the
fpinal marrow. *
Of the ten pair of nerves which come from the ence-
phalon, the firji is the Olfactory, which have their
origin from the corpora ftriata, near the part where the
internal carotid arteries are alrout to fend off their branches
to the different parts of the brain; and in their courfe
under the anterior lobes of the brain, which have each a
depreffion made for lodging them, become larger, till
they are extended to the cribriform bone; where they
fplit into a great number of fmall filaments, to pafs
through the little holes in that bone; and being joined
by a branch of the fifth pair of nerves, are fpread on the
membrane of the nofe.
The tender ftrudlure and hidden expahfion of thefe
nerves on fuch a large furface, render it impoflible to
trace them far; which has made fome authors deny them
to be nerves: But when we break the circumference of
the cribriform lamella, and'then gently raifeit, we may
fee the diflribution of the nerves fome way on the mem¬
brane of the nofe.
The contrivance of defending thefe long foft nerves
from being too much prefled by the anterior lobes of the
brain under which they lie, is Angular; becaufe they
have not only the prominent orbitar procefles of the
frontal bone to fupport the brain on each fide, with the
veins going into the longitudinal finus, and other at¬
tachments bearing it up, but there is a groove formed in
each lobe of the brain itfelf for them to lodge in •—Their
fplitting into fo many fmall branches before they enter
the bones of the flail 1, is likewife peculiar to them ; for
generally the nerves come from the brain in difgregated
filaments, and unite into cords, as they are going out at
the holes of the bones. This contrivance is the bell for
anfwering the purpofe they are defigned for, of being the
organ of finelling; for had they been expanded upon the
membrane of the nofe into a medullary web, fuch as the
optic nerve forms, it would have been too fenfible to
bear the impreflions of fuch objects-as are applied to the
nofe; and a diftribution in the more common way, of a
cord fending off branches, would not have been equal
enough for fuch an organ of fenfation.
The fecond pair of nerves, the Optic, rifing from
the thalami nervorum opticorum, make a large curve out¬
wards, and then run obliquely inwards and forwards,
riil they unite at the fore-part of the fella Turcica; then
foon divide, and each runs obliquely forwards and out¬
wards to go out at its proper hole in the fphenoid bone,
accompanied with the ocular artery, to be extended to
the globe of the eye, within which each is expanded into
a very fine cuplike web, that lines all the infide of the
eve as far forwards as the ciliary circle, and is univer-
fally known by the name of Retina.
Though the fubftance of this pair of nerves feems to
be blended at the place where they are joined; yet ob-
fervations of people whofe optic nerves were not joined,
and of others who were blind of one eye from a fault in
o M Y. ' Part V.
the optic nerve, or in thofe who had one of their eyes
taken out, make it appear, that there is no fuch intimate
union of fubltance; the optic nerve of the affected fide
only being wafted, while the other was large and plump.
And the fame oblervations are contradictory to the doc¬
trine of a decuffation of all the nerves, for the difeafe
could be traced from the affeCted eye to the origin of the
-.nerve on the fame fide.
Thefe people whofe optic nerves were not joined, ha¬
ving neither feen objects double, nor turned their eyes
different ways, is alfo a plain proof, that the conjundion
of the optic nerves will not ferve to account for either
the uniform motions of our eyes, or our feeing objeds
Angle with two eyes.
The retina of a recent eye, without any preparation,
appears a very fine web, with fom.e blood-veffels coming
from its center to be dillributed on it; but, after a good
injection of the arteries that run in the fubftance of this
nerve, as is common to other nerves, it is with difficul¬
ty that we can obfe'rve its nervous medullary fubftance.
—The fituation of thefe vefl’els in the central part of the
optic nerve, the want of medullary fibres here, and the
firmnefs of this nerve before it is expanded at its entry
into the ball of the eye, may be the reafon why we do
not fee fuch bodies, or parts qf bodies, whofe picture
falls on this central part of the retina.
The Third Pair rife from the anterior part of the
proceffus annularis, and piercing the dura mater a little
before, and to a fide of tjie ends of the pofterior clinoid
procefs of the fphenoid bone, run along the receptacula,
or cavernous finufes, at the fide of the ephippium, to
get out at the foramina lacera; after which each oHhera
divides into branches, of which one, after forming a
little ganglion, is diftributed to the globe of the eye; the
others are fent to the mufculus reCtus of the palpebra,
and to the attollens, adduCtor, deprimens, and obliquus
minor mufcles of the eye-ball. Thefe mufcles bsjng princi¬
pal inftruments in the motions of the eye-lid and eye-ball,
this nerve has therefore got the name of the Motor O-
culi.
The Fourth Pair, which are,the fmalleft nerves of
any, derive their origin from the back-part of thebafe of
the teftes; and then making a long courfe on the fide of
the annular protuberance enter the dura mater a little far¬
ther back, and more externally than thethirdpart, to run
alfo along the receptacula, to pafs out at the foramina la-
~ cera, and to be entirely fpent on the mufculi trochleares,
or fuperior oblique mufcles of the eyes. Thefe muf¬
cles being employed in performing the rotatory motions,
and the advancement of the eye-balls forward, by
which feveral of our paflions are expreffed, the nerves
that ferve them have got the name of Pathetici.
The Fifth Pair are large nerves, riling from the
annular procefles where the medullary procefles of the
cerebellum join in the formation of that tuber, wo enter
the dura mater near the point of the petrous proceft of the
temporal bones ; and ffien finking clofeby the receptacula
at the fides of the fella turcica, each becomes in appearance
thicker, and goes out of theikull in three great branches.
The y?r/? branch of the fifth'the Ophthalmic,
which runs through the foramen laceruci, to the orbit,
having
Part V. A N A T
having in its paflage thither a connexion with the fixth
pair. It is afterwards diftributed to the ball of the eye
with the third; to the nofe, along with the olfactory,
which the branch of the fifth that paffes through the fora¬
men orbitarium internum joins, as was already mention¬
ed in the defcription of the firfl: pair. This ophthalmic
branch likewife fupplies the parts .at the internal canthus
of the orbit, the glandula lacrymalis, fat, membranes,
mufcles, and teguments of the eye-lids; its longed far-
theft extended branch pafling through the foramen fupperci-
liare of the os frontis, to be diftributed to the forehead.
The fecond branch of the fifth pair of nerves may be
called Maxillaris Superior, from its ferving princi¬
pally the parts of the upper jaw. It goes out at the
round hole of the fphenoid bone, and fends immediately
one branch into the channel on the top of the antrum maxil-
lare ; the membrane of which and the upper teeth are fup-
plied by it in its paffage. As this branch is afiout to go out
at the foramen orbitarium externum, it fends a nerve
through the fubftance of the os maxillare to come out at
Steno’s dudl, to be diftributed to the fore-part of the palate ;
and what remains of it efcaping at the external orbitar
hole, divides into a great many branches, that fupply the
cheek, upper lip, and noftril. The next eonfiderable
branch of the fuperior maxillary nerve, after giving
branches w'hich are reflefted through the fixth hole of the
fphenoid bone, to join the intercoftal where it is palling
through the Ikull with the carotid artery, and theportio
dura of fhe feventh pair, as it pafles through the os pe-
trofum, is fent into the nofe by the hole common to the
palate ajid fphenoidal bone; and the remaining part of
this nerve runs in the palato-maxillaris canal, giving off
branches to the temples and pterygoid 'mufcles, and
comes at laft into the palate to be loft.
- The third or Maxillaris Inferior branch of the
fifth pair going out at the oval hole of the fphenoid bone,
ferves the mufcles of the lower jaw, and the mufcles fi-
tuated between the os hyoides and jaw: All the falivary
glands, the amygdalae, and the external ear, have
branches from it: It has a large branch loft in the tongue,
and fends another through the canal in the fubftance of
the lower jaw to ferve all the teeth there, and to come
out at the hole in the fore-part of the jaw, to be loft in
the chin and under lip.
The Sixth Pa’ir, which is the fmalleft except the
fourth, rifes from the fore-part of the corpora pyrami-
dalia; and each entering the dura mater fome way behind
-•■•he pofterior clinoid procefs of the fpenoid bone, has a
long courfe below that membrane, and within the recep-
taculum at the fide of the fella turcica, where it is im-
merfed in the blood of the receptacle: It goes afterwards
out at the foramen lacerum into the orbit, to ferve the
abduftor mufcle of the eye.—A defedt in this nerve may
therefore be one caufe of a ftrabifmus.— In the paffage
of this nerve below the dura mater, it lies very conti-
guousjtw the internal carotid artery, and to the ophthal¬
mic branch "of the fifth pair of nerves. At the place
where tfm fixth pair is contiguous to the carotid, a nerve
either goes from each of them in an uncommon way, to
wit, with the angle beyond where it rifes obtufe, to de-
fcend with the artery, and to form the beginning of the
Vol. I. No. ii. 3
O M Y. - 249
intercoftal nerve, according to the common defcrip¬
tion ; or, according to other authors, this nerve comes
up from the great ganglion of the intercoftal, to be joined
to the fixth here.
The Seventh Pair comes out from the lateral part
of the annular procefs behind where the medullary pro¬
cefs of the cerebellum are joined to that tuber; and each
being accompanied with a larger artery than moft other
nerves, enters the internal meatus auditorius, where the
two large bundles of fibres, of which it appeared to
confift within the fkull, foon feparate from each other;
one of them entering by feveral fmajl holes into the vefti-
ble, cochlea, and femicircular canals, is ftretched on this
inner camera of the ear in a very foft pulpy fubftance ;
and being never feen in the form of a firm cord, fuch as
the other parcel of this and moft other nerves become, is
called Portio Mollis of the auditory nerve.
The other part of this feventh pair paffes through Ga¬
len’s foramen csecum, or Fallopius’s aquasdudt, in its
crooked paffage by the'fide of the tympanum ; in which paf¬
fage, a nerve fent from the lingual branch of the inferior
maxillary nerve, along the outfide of the tuba Eufta-
ichiana, and crofs the cavity of the tympanum, where it
has the name of chorda tympani, is commonly faid to be
joined, to it. The very acute angle which this nerve
makes with the fifth, or the fudden violent refledtion it
would fuffer on the fuppofition of its coming from the
fifth to the feventh, appears unufual; whereas, if we
fuppofe that it comes from the feventh to the fifth, its
courfe would be more in the ordinary way, arid the chor¬
da tympani would be efteemed a branch of the feventh
pair going to join the fifth, the fize of which is increa-
fed by this acquifition. This fmaller bundle of the
feventh gives branches to the mufcles of the malleus, and
to the dura'mater, while it paffes through the bony
crooked canal,' and at laft; comes out in a firm chord
named Portio Dura, at the end of this canal, be¬
tween the ftyloid and maftoid procefles of the temporal
bone, giving immediately filaments to the little oblique
mufcles of the head, and tothofe that rife from the ftyloid
procefs. It then pierces through the parotid gland, and
divides into a great many branches, which are difperfe'd
in the mufcles and teguments that cover all the fide cf
the upper part of the neck, the whole face and cranium, as
far back as the temples, including a confiderable part of
the external ear.
The Eighth Pair of nerves rife from the lateral
bafes of the corpora olivaria in difgregated fibres; and as
they are entering the anterior internal part of the holes
common to the os occipitis and temporum, each is joined
by a nerve which afcends within the dura rnater from the
tenth of the head, the firft, fecond and inferior cervical
nerves : This every body know's has the name of the Ner-
vus Accessorius. When the twoget out of thelkull,
the accefforius feparates from the eighth, and, defend¬
ing obliquely outwards, paffes through the fterno-maftoi-
deus mufcle, to which it gives branches, and afterwards
terminates in the trapezius and rhomboid mufcles of the
fcapula. In this courfe it is generally more or, lefs join¬
ed by the fecond cervical nerve.
The large Eighth Pair, foon after its exit, gives
3 R- nerves
250 A N A T
nerves to the tongue, larynx, pharynx, and ganglion of
the intercoftal nerve, and being disjoined from the ninth
and intercoftal, to which it adheres clofely fome way,
runs (height down the neck behind the internal jugular
vein, and at the external fide of the carotid artery. As
it is about to enter the thorax, a large nerve goes off from
the eight of each fide: This branch of the right-fide
turns round from the fore to the back part of the fubcla-
vian artery, while the branch of the left-fide turns round
the great curve of the aorta ; and both of them mounting
up again at thel de of the oefophagus, to which they
give branches, are loft at laft in the larynx. Thefe are
called the Recur rent nerves, which we are defired to
fliun in the operation of bronchotomy, though their deep
iituation protects them fufficiently.
The eighths pair, above, and at or near the place where
the recurrent nerves go off from it, or frequently the
recurrents themfelves, fend off fmall nerves to the peri¬
cardium, and to join with the branches of the intercoftal
that are diftributed to the heart; but their fize and fi-
tuation are uncertain.
After thefe branches are fent off, the par vagum on
each fide defcends behind the great branch of the trachea,
and gives numerous filaments to the lungs, and fome to
the heart in going to the cefophagus. The one of the
left-fide running on the fore-part of the oefophagus, com¬
municates by feveral branches with the right one in its
defcent to be diftributed to the ftomach : The right one
gets behind the oefophagus, where it fplits and rejoins fe¬
veral times before it arrives at the ftomach, to which it
fends nerves; and then being joined by one or more
branches from the left trunk, they run towards the cseliac
artery, there to join into the great femilunar ganglion
formed by the two intercoftals.
The Ninth Pair of nerves comes from the inferior
part of the corpora pyramidalia, to go out of the fkull
at their proper holes of the occipital bone. After their
egrefs they adhere for fome way firmly to the eighth and
intercoftal; and then fending a branch, that in many
fubjedts is joined with branches of the firft and fecond
cervical nerves, to be diftributed to the thyroid gland and
mufcles on the fore-part of the trachea arteria, the ninth
is loft in the mufcles and fubftance of the tongue.
The Tenth Pair rifes in feparate threads from the
fides of the fpinal marrow, to go out between the os oc-
cipitis and firft vertebra of the neck. After each of
them has given branches to the great ganglion of the in¬
tercoftal, 8th, 9th, and ift cervical nerves, it is diftri¬
buted to the (freight, oblique, and fome of the extenfor
mufcles of the head.
The branch reflected from the fixth pair, joined pofli-
bly by fome filaments of the opththalmic branch of the
fifth, runs along with the internal carotid artery, through
the crooked canal formed for it in the temporal bone, where
the little nerve is very foft and pappy, and in feveral
fubjedts divides and unites again, and is joined by one or
more branches from the fifth particularly of its fuperior
maxillary branch, before it comes out of the fkull. As
foon as the nerve efcapes out of this bony canal, it is
connedted a little way with the eighth and ninth; then
feparating from thefe, after feeming to receive addition-
O M Y. Part V.
al nerves from them, it forms a large ganglion, into
which branches from the tenth of the head, and from the
firft and fecond cervical, enter. From this ganglion the
nerves come out again fmall, to run down the neck along
with the carotid artery, communicating by branches with
the cervical nerves, and giving nerves to the mufcles that
bend the head and neck. As the intercoftal is about to
enter the thorax, it forms another ganglion, from which
nerves are fent to the trachea and to the heart; thefe
defigned for the heart joining with the branches of the
eighth, and moft of them pafling between the two great
arteries and the auricles, to the fubftance of that mufcle.
The interco'ftal after this confifting of two branches, one
going behind, and the other running over the fore-part of
the fubclavian artery, forms a new ganglion where the
two branches unite below that artery, and then defend¬
ing along the fides of the vertebrae of the thorax, re¬
ceives branches from each of the dorfal nerves; which
branches appearing to come out between the ribs, have
given the name of intercoftal to the whole nerve. Where
the addition is made to it from the fifth dorfal nerve, a
branch goes off obliquely forewards ; which being joined
by fuch branches from the fixth, feventh, eighth, and
ninth dorfal, an anterior trunk is formed, and paffes be¬
tween the fibres of the appendix mufculofa of the dia¬
phragm, to form, along with the other intercoftal and
the branches of the eighth pair, a large femilunar gan¬
glion fituated between the cseliac and fuperior mefenteric
arteries ; the roots of which are as it were involved in a
fort of nervous net-work of this ganglion, from which a
great number of very fmall nervous threads run out to
be extended on the furface of all the branches of thofe
two arteries, fo as to be eafily feen when any of the
arteries are ftreiched, but not to be raifed from
them by diffedtion; and thus the liver, gall-bladder,
duodenum, pancreas, fpieen, jejunum, ilium, and a large
(hare of the colon, have their nerves fent from this great
folar ganglion or plexus.
Several fibres of this ganglion, running down upon
the aorta, meet with other nerves fent from the pofterior
trunk of the intercoftal, which continues its courfe along
the fides of the vertebra, they fupply the glandulss re-
nales, kidneys, and teftes in men, or ovaria in women;
and then they form a net-work upon the inferipr mefen¬
teric artery where the nerves of the two fides meet,
and accompany the branches of this artery to the part
of the colon that lies in the left fide of the belly, and to
the return, as far down as to the lower part of the pelvis.
The intercoftal continuing down by the fide of the ver¬
tebra of the loins, is joined by nerves coming from be¬
tween thefe vertebra, and fends nerves to the organs of
generation and others in the pelvis, being even joined
with thofe that are fent to the inferior extremities.
The Spinal Nerves rife generally by a number of
difgregated fibres from both the Fore and back part of the
medulla fpinalis, and foon after form a little knot or gan¬
glion, where they acquire ftrong coats, and are extend¬
ed into firm cords. They are diftinguifhed by numbers,
according to the vertebra from between which they
come out; the fuperior of the two bones forming the hole
through which they pafs, being the one from which the
number
Part V. A N A r
number is applied to each nerve. ; There are generally
faid to be thirty pair of them; feven of which come out
between the vertebras of the neck, twelve between thofe
of the back, five between thofe of the loins, and fix
from the falfe vertebras.
The First Cervical pair of nerves csmes out be¬
tween the firft and fecond vertebras of the neck; and ha-
ving given branches to join with the tenth pair of the
head, the fecond cervical and intercoftal, and to ferve
the mufcles that bend the neck, it fends its largeft
branches backwards to the extenfor mufcles of the head
and neck; fome of which piercing through thefe mufcles,
run up on the occiput to be loft in the teguments here;
and many fibres of it advance fo far forward as to be
connedted with the fibrils of the firft branch of the fifth
pair of the head, and of the portio dura of the auditory
nerve.
The Second Cervical is foon joined, by fome
branches, to the ninth of the head and intercoftal, and
to the firft and third of the neck; then has a large
branch that comes out at the exterior edge of the fter-
no-maftoidasus mufcle, where it joins with the accefforius
of the eighth pair; and is afterwards diftributed to the
platyfma myoides, teguments of the fide of the neck and
head, parotid gland, and external ear, being connedted
to the portio dura of the auditory nerve, and to the firft
cervical. The remainder of this fecond cervical is fpent
on the levator fcapulse and the extenfors of the neck and
head. Generally a large branch is here fent off to join
the accefforius of the eighth pair, near the fuperior angle
of the fcapula.
The Third Pair of the neck paffes out between the
third and fourth cervical vertebras; having immediately
a communication with the fecond, and fending down a
branch, which being joined by a branch from the fourth
cervical, forms the Phrenic nerve. This defcending,
enters the thorax, between the fubclavian vein and ar¬
tery ; and then being received into a groove, formed for
it in the pericardium, it has its courfe along this capfula
of the heart, till it is loft in the middle part of the dia¬
phragm. The right phrenic has a freight courfe; but
the left one is obliged to make a confiderable turn out-
W'ards, to go over the prominent part of the pericardium,
where the point of the heart is lodged. The middle
of the diaphragm fcarce could have been fupplied by any
other nerve which could have had fuch a freight courfe
as the phrenic has.
The other branches of the third cervical nerve are di¬
ftributed to the mufcles and teguments at the lower part
of the neck and top of the fhoulder.
The Fourth Cervical nerve, after fending off that
branch which joins with the third to form the phrenic,
and beftowing twigs on the mufcles and glands of the
neck, runs to the farm-pit, where it meets with the
Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh cervicals, and First
Dorsal, that efcape in the interftices of the mufculi
fcaleni, to come at the arm-pit, where they join, fepa-
rate, and rejoin, in a way fcarce to be rightly expreffed in
words; and, after giving feveral confiderable nerves to
the mufcles and teguments which Cover the thorax, they
divide into feveral branches, to be diftributed to all the
r O M Y. 25 r
parts of the fuperior extremity. Seven of thefe branches
we ftiall defcribe under particular names.
x. Scapularis runs freight to the cavitas femilu-
nata of the upper cofta of the fcapula, which is a hole, in
the recent fubjeft, by a ligament being extended from one
angle of the bone to the other, giving nerves in its way
to the mufcles of the fcapula. When it has palled this
hole, it fupplies the fupra-fpinatus mufcle; and then de¬
fcending at the anterior root of the fpine of the fcapula,
it is loft in the other mufcles that lie on the dorfum of
that bone.
2. Articularis finks downward at the axilla, to
get below the neck of the head of the os humeri, and
to mount again at the back-part of it; fo that it almoft
furrounds the articulation, and is diftributed to the muf¬
cles that draw the arm back, and to thofe that raife it up.
3. Cutaneus runs down the fore-part of the arm,
near the fkin, to which it gives off branches ; and then
divides, on the infide of the fore-arm, into feveral nerves,
which fupply the teguments there, and on the palm of
the hand.
4. Musculo-Cutaneu s, or perforans Cajferi, paf¬
fes through the coraco-brachialis mufcle; and, after fup-
plying the biceps flexor cubiti and brachiseus internus,
paffes behind the tendon of the biceps, and over the ce¬
phalic vein, to be beftowed on the teguments on the out-
fide of the fore-arm and back of the hand.
5. Muscularis has a fpiral courfe from the axilla,
under the os humeri, and backward 10 the external part
of that bone, fupplying by the way the extenfor mufcles
of the fore-arm, to which it runs between the two bra-
chiaei mufcles, and within the fupinator radii longus.—
At the upper part of the fore-arm, it fends off a branch,
which accompanies the fupinator longus till it comes near
the wrift, where it paffes obliquely over the radius, to
be loft in the back of the hand and fingers. The princi¬
pal part of this nerve pierces through, the fupinator radii
brevis, to ferve the mufcles that extend the hand and
fingers, whofe adtions are not injured when the fupinator
adts.
6. Ulnaris is extended along the infide of the arm,
to give nerves to the mufcles that extend the fore-arm,
and to the teguments of the elbow: Towards the lower^
part of the arm, it llants a little back-ward, to come at
the groove behind the internal condyle of the os humeri,
through which it runs to the ulna: In its courfe along
this bone, it ferves the neighbouring mufcles and tegu¬
ments ; and as it comes near the wrift, it detaches a
branch obliquely over the ulna to the back of the hand,
to be loft in the convex part of feveral fingers. The
larger part of the nerve goes ftreighi forward to the in¬
ternal fide of the os pififorme of the wrift; where it fends
off a branch which finks under the large tendons in the
palm, to go crofs to the other fide of the wrift, ferving
the mufculi lumbricales and interoffei, and at laft ter¬
minating in the fhort mufcles of the thumb and fore-fin¬
ger. What remains of the ulnar nerve, after fupplying
the fhort mufcles of the little finger, divides into three
branches; whereof two are extended along th« fides of
the flieath of the tendons of the flexors of the little fin¬
ger, to furnifli the concave fide of that fingeu-; and the
third
252 A N A T
third branch is difpofed in the fame way upon the fide of
the ring-finger next to the little finger.
When we lean or prefs on the internal condyle of the
os humeri, the numbnefs and prickling we frequently
feel, point out the cpurfe of this nerve.
7. Radiah s accompanies the humeral artery to'the
bending of the elbow, ferving the flexors of the cubit in its
way ; then palling through the pronator radii teres mufcle,
it gives nerves to the mufcles on the fore-part of the fore¬
arm, and continues its courfe near to the radius, bellow¬
ing branches on the circumjacent mufcles. Near the
Wrill, it fometimes gives oflf a nerve, which is dillribu-
ted to the back of the hand, and the convex part of the
thumb, and feveral of the fingers, inftead of the branch
of the mufcular. The larger part of this nerve, palling
behind the annular ligament of the wrill, gives nerves to
the Ihort mufcles of the thumb; and afterwards fends a
branch along each fide of the Iheath of the tendons of
the flexors of the thumb, fore-finger, mid-finger, and
one branch to the fide of the ring-finger, next to the
middle one, to be loll on the concave fide of thofe
fingers.
Though the radial nerve pafles through the pronator
tpufcle, and the mufcular nerve feems to be Hill more un¬
favourably placed within the fupinator brevis; yet the.
adtion of thefe mufcles do not feem to have any effedt in
hindering the influence of thefe nerves, for the fingers or
hand can be bended while pronation is performing vigo-
roufly, and they can be extended while fupination is ex-
ercifed.
The manner of the going olf of thefe nerves of the
fingers, both from the ulnar and radial, is, that a fingle
branch is fent from the trunk to the fide of the thumb
and little finger, farthell from the other fingers; and all
the reft are fupplied by a trunk of a nerve, which fplits
into two fome way before it comes as far as the end of
the metacarpus, to run along the fides of different fin¬
gers that are neareft to each other.
It might have been obferved, that, in defcribing the
pofterior branches of the ulnar and mufcular nerve, we
did not mention the particular fingers, to the convex pa,rt
of which they are diftributed. The reafon of this omif-
fion is, the uncertainty of their dillribution; for though
fometimes thefe pofterior branches go to the fame fingers,
to the concave part of which the anterior branches of the
ulnar and radial are fent, yet frequently they are diftri¬
buted otherwife.
The fituation of thefe brachial nerves in the axilla,
may let us fee how a weakncfs and atrophy may be
brought on the arms by a long continued prelfure of
crutches, t>r fuch other hard fubftances on this part;
and the courfe of them from the neck fo the arm, may
teach us, how much better effeds veficatories, or ftimu-
lating nervous medicines, would have, when applied to
the Ikin, covering the tranfverfe proceffes of the verte¬
brae of the neck, or at the axilla, than when they are
put between the flioulders, or upon the fpinal proceffes,
in convulfions or palfies of the fuperior extremities,
where a ftimulus is required.
The Twelve Dorsal nerves of each fide, as foon
as they efcape from between the vertebrae, fend a branch
O M Y. Part V.
forward to join the intercoftal, by which a communica¬
tion is made among them all; and they foon likewife
give branches backwards-to the mufcles that raife the
trunk of the body, their principal trunk being extended
outwards, to come at the furrow in the lower edge of
each rib, in which they run toward the anterior part of
the thorax, between the internal' and external intercoftal
mufcles, giving off branches in their courfe to the muf¬
cles and teguments of the thorax.
The First dorfal, as was already obferved, is parti¬
cular in this, that it contributes to form the brachial
nerves; and that the twoxbranches of the intercoftal,
which come down to the thorax, form a confiderable
ganglion with it,
The Six lower dorfal nerves give branches to the dia¬
phragm and abdominal mufcles.
The Twelfth joins with the firft lumbar, and ho¬
llows nerves on- the mufculus quadfatus lumborum and
iliacus inter-nus.
As the intercoftal is larger in the thorax than any where
elfe, and feems to diminiih gradually as it afcends and
defcends, there is caufe to fufpeft that this is the trunk
from which the fuperior and inferior pairs are fent as
branches.
The Five Lumbar nerves on each fide communicate
with the intercoftal and with each other, and give
branches backwards to the loins.
The First communicates with the laft dorfal, fends
branches to the abdominal mufcles, to the pfoas and ilia¬
cus, and to the teguments and mufcles on the fore-part
of the thigh; "while its principal branch joins with the
other nerves, to form the crural nerve.
The Second Lumbar nerve paffes through the pfoas
mufcle, and is diftributed nearly in the fame way as the
former: as is alfo the Th 1 rd.
Branches of the fecend, third, and fourth, make up
one trunk, which runs along the fore-part of the pelvis;
and, palling in the notch at the fore-part of the great
hole common to the os pubis and ifchium, is fpent on the
addu&or mufcles, and on the teguments on the infide of
the thigh. This nerve is called the Obturator, or
Posterior Crural Nerve.
By united branches from the jfr/?, fecond, third, and
fourth lumbkr nerves, a nerve is formed that runs along
the pfoas mufcle, iO efcape with the external iliac veffels
out of the abdomen, below the tendinous arcade of the
external oblique mufcle. This nerve, which is named
the Anterior Crural, is diftrihuted principally to
the mufcles and teguments on the fore-part of the thigh.
A branch, however, of this nerve runs down the infide
of the leg to the upper part of the foot, keeping near to
the vena faphsena; in opening of which with a lancet at
the ankle, the nerve is fometimes hurt, and occafions
fharp pain at the time of the operation, and numbnefs
afterwards.
The Sixth Pair of the falfe Vertebrae confift
each of fmall pofterior branches, fent to the hips, and of
large anterior branches.
The firf, fecond, and third, after coming through
the three upper holes in the fore-part of the os facrum,
join together with the fourth and fifth of the loins, to
form
Part VI. ANATOMY. 253
form the larged nerve of the body, which is well known
by the name of Sciatic or Ischiatic nerve : This,
after fending large nerves to the different parts of the
pelvis, and to the external parts of generation, and the
podex, as aifo to the mufcles of the hips, paffes behind
the great tuber of the os ifchium, and then over the
quadrigemini mufcles, to run down near to the bone of
the thigh at its back-part, giving off nerves to the neigh¬
bouring mufcles and teguments. Some way above the
ham, where it has the name of the poplitaut nerve, it
fends off a large branch that paffes over the fibula, and
finking in among the mufcles on the anterior external part
of the leg, runs down to the foot, to be loft in the up¬
per part of the larger toes, fupplying the neighbouring
mufcles and teguments every where in its paffage. The
larger branch of the fciatic, after giving branches to the
mufcles and teguments about the ham and knee, and
fending a large cutaneous nerve down the calf of the leg,
to be loft at laft on the outfide of the foot and upper part
of the leffer toes, finks below the gemellus mufcle, and
diftributes nerves to the mufcles on the back of the leg;
among which it continues its courfe, till paffmg behind
the internal malleolus, and in the internal hollow of the
os calcis, it divides into the two plantar nerves : The in¬
ternal of which is diftributed to the toes, in the fame
manner that the radial nerve of the hand ferves the con¬
cave fide of the thumb and fingers; and the external
plantar is divided and diftributed to the foie of the foot
and toes, nearly as the ulnar nerve is in the palm of the
hand, and in the concave part of the fingers.
Several branches of thefe nerves, that ferve the infe¬
rior extremities, pierce through mufcles.
The Fourth, which, with the two following, is
much fmailer than the three fuperior, foon is loft in the
vefica urinaria and inteftinum re&um.
The Fifth comes forward between the extremity of
E X P L A N,A T I O N
Fig. 1. Reprefents the inferior part of the brain;—
the anterior part of the whole fpine, including the
medulla fpinalis;—with the origin and large portions
of all the Nerves.
A A, The anterior lobes of the cerebrum. B B, The
lateral lobes of the cerebrum. C C, The two lobes
of the perebellum. D, Tuber annulare. E, The paf¬
fage from the third ventricle to the infundibulum.
F, The medulla oblongata, which fends off the me¬
dulla fpinalis through the fpine. G G, That part of
the os occipitis which is placed above (H H), the
the tranfverfe proceffes of the firft cervical vertebra,
I I, &c. The feven cervical vertebras, with their in¬
termediate cartilages. K K, &c. The twelve dorfal
vertebrae^ with their intermediate cartilages. L L, &c.
The five lumbar vertebrae, with their intermediate car¬
tilages, M, The os facrum. N, The os coccygis.
Nerves.—i i, The firft pair of nerves, named
clfaetory, which go to the nole. 2 2, The fecond
pair, named optic, which goes to form the tunica re¬
tina of the eye. 3 3, The third pair, named vwtor
octtli; it fupplies moil of the mufcles of the eye-ball.
Vol. I. No. 11. 3
the os facrum and coccygis, to be diftributed principally
to the levatores ani.
The Sixth, which fome think to be only a produftfon
of the dura mater, advances forward below the broad
ftioulders of the firft bone of the os coccygis, and is loft:
in the fphintter ani and teguments covering it.
The fize of the nerves of the inferior extremities feeins
larger proportionally than in the fuperior extremities;
the inferior extremities having the weight of the whole
body to fuftain, and that frequently at a great difadvan-
tage. What the effedt is of the nerves here being in¬
jured, we fee daily, when people happen, by fitting wrong,
to comprefs the fciatic nerve, they are incapable for fome
time after to fupport themfelves on the affedted extre¬
mity ; and this is ftill more remarkable in the fciatic or
hip-gout, in which the member is not only weakened,
but gradually (hrivels and waftes.
Uses of the Nerves.
Many experiments concur in proving, that the nerYes
are the inftruments of fenfation. As to the mode of their
operation, feveral different theories have been given. Some
fuppofe, that they are elaftic cords, refembling fiddle-
ftrings ; and that they convey fenfations to the brain by
a kind of vibratory motion. Others have fuppdfed them
to be tubular, and to contain a fluid called animal fpirits ;
and that fenfation is produced by the motions and coun¬
ter-motions of this fluid. Many ufelefs volumes have been
wrote upon each of thefe hypothefes.—Another and more
recent theory fuppofes, that the nerves are not tubular,
but that they are pervaded by a fubtile elaftic fluid called
/Ether; and that lenfation, fee. are occafioned by the of-
cillations of that fluid. A few detached and ill-digefted
feraps of this theory have already appeared in fome tem¬
porary productions, the principal of which has been fuffi-
ciently animadverted upon under the word ./Ether.
of PLATE XVIII.
4 4, The fourth pair, named pathetic,—-which is
wholly fpent upon the mufculus trochlearis of the eye.
5 5, The fifth pair divides into three branches.—The
firft, named ophthalmic, goes to the orbit, fupplieS
the lachrymal gland, fends branches out to the fore¬
head and nofe.—The fecond, named fuperior maxil¬
lary, fupplies the teeth of the upper jaw, and fome
of the mufcles of the lips.—The third, named infe¬
rior maxillary, is fpent upon the mufcles and teeth of
the lower jaw, tongue, and mufcles of the lips.
6 6, The fixth pair, which, after fending off the be¬
ginning of the intercoftal or great fympathetic, is fpent
upon the abduftor oculi. 7 7, The feventh pair, na-
' wed auditory, divides into two branches.-—The laf-
geft, named portio mollis, is fpent upon the internal
eay-—The fmalleft, portio dura, joins to the fifth
•pair within the internal ear by a reflected branch from
the fecond of the fifth, and within the tympanum,
by a branch from the tbirefof the fifth, named chorda
tyvipani.—Vid. fig. 3. near B. 8 8, &e. The eighth
pair, named par vagum,— which accompanies the in¬
tercoftal, and is fpent upon the tongue, larynx,‘ pha-
254 A N A T
rynx, lungs, and abdominal vifcera. 9 9, Xhe ninth,
air, which are fpent'upon the topgue. xo 10, &c.
"he intercoftal, or great fympathetic, which is feen
from the fixth pair to the bottom of the pelvis on each
fide of the fpine, and joining with all the nerves of the
fpine;—in its progrefs fupplying the heart, and, with
the par vagum, the contents of the abdomen and pel¬
vis. 11 11, The accelTorius, which is fpent upon the
fterno-cleido malloidasus and trapezius mufcles. 1212,
The firll cervical nerves;—13 13, The fecondcervical
nerves;—both fpent upon the mufcles that lie on the
neck, and teguments of the neck and head. 1414, The
third cervical nerves, which, after fending off (15 15,
&c.) the phrenic nerves to the diaphragm,—fupply the
mufcles and teguments that lie on the fide of the neck
and top of the Ihoulder. 1616, The brachial plexus,
formed by the fourth, fifth, fixth, fevehth cervicals,
and firft dorfal nerves,—-which fupply the mufcles and
teguments of the fuperior extremity. 17 17, The
twelve dorfal, or proper intercoftal nerves, which are
fpent upon the intercoftal mufcles and fome of the
large mufcles which lie upon the thorax. 18 18, The
five lurribar pairs of nerves, which fupply the lumbar
and abdominal mufcles, and fome of the teguments
and mufcles of the inferior extremity. 19 19, The
facro-fciatk, or pofterior crural nerve, formed by the
two inferior lumbar, and three fuperior of the os fa-
O . M Y. Part V.
crum.—This large nerve fupplies the greateft part of
the mufcles and teguments of the inferior extremity.
2b, The ftomachic plexus, formed by the eighth pair.'
2121, Branches of the folar or cadiac plexus, form¬
ed by the eighth pair and intercoftals, which fupply
the ftomach and chylopoetic vifcera. 22 22, Branches
of the fuperior and inferior mefenteric plexufes, form¬
ed by the eighth pair and intercoftals, which fupply
the chyjopoetic vifcera, with part of. the organs of
urine and generation. 23 23, Nerves which accom¬
pany the fpermatic cord. 24 24, The hypogaftric
plexus, which fupplies the organs of urine and gene¬
ration within the pelv>s.
Fig. 2, 3, 4, 5. Shews different views of the inferior
part of the brain, cut perpendicularly through the
middle,—with the origin and large pordons of all the
nerves which pafs out through the bones of the cra¬
nium,—and the three firft cervicals.
A, The anterior lobe. Br The lateral lobe of the ce¬
rebrum. C, One of the lobes, of the cerebellum.
D, Tuber annulare. E, Corpus pyrainidale, in the
middle of the medulla oblongata, r. The corpus o-
livare, in the fide of the medulla'dblongata. G, The
medulla-oblongata. H, The medulla fpinal s.
Nerves.—1 23456788c 9, Pairs of nerves.
IO 10, Nervus acceftbrius, which comes from—11 12
& 13, the three firft cervical nerves.
PART VI.
Of fitch Parts ofi the Body as could not properly he deficrihed under any ofi the
former general Divifiions.
Sect. I. Of the common Integuments.
THE SKIN.
THE Ikin is a fubftance of very large extent, made
up of feveral kinds of tendinous, membranous,
vafcular, and nervous fibres, the intertexture of which is
£0 much the more wonderful, as it is difficult to unfold;
for their directions are as various as thofe of the fluff of
■which an hat confifts.
This texture is what we commonly call leather, and
it makes, as it were, the body of the fkin. It is not ea-
fily torn, may be elongated in all directions, and after¬
wards recovers itfelf, as we fee in fat perfons, in women
with child, and in fwellings; and it is thicker and more
compadt in fome places than in others.
Its thicknefs and compadtnefs are not, however, al¬
ways proportionable ; for on the pofterior parts of the
body, it is thicker and more lax than on the fore-parts;
and on the psalms of the bands, and foies of the feet, it
is bbth very thick and venf folid.
The outer fufface of this fubftance is furniffied with
fmall eminences, which anatomifts have thought fit to
call papillte, in which the capillary filaments of the cu¬
taneous nerves terminate by fmall radiated pencils.
Thefe papillae differ very much in figure and difpofi-
tion in the different parts of the body, and they may
be diftinguifhed into feveral kinds.
The greateft part of them is Sat, of different breadths,
and feparated by fulci, which form a kind of irregular
lozenges. The pyramidal figure aferibed to them, is
not natural, and appears only when they are contradled
by oold or by difeafes.
The papillae of the palm of the hand, of the fble- of
the foot, and of the fingers and toes, are higher than
on the other parts of the body; but they are likewife
fmaller, clofely united together, and placed as it were
endwife, with refpeft to each other, in particular rows,
which reprefent on the fkin all kinds of lines, ftraight,
crooked, waving, fpiral, 6r. Thefe feveral lines are
often diftinftly vifible in thofe parts of the palm ol the
hand which are next the firft phalanges of the fingers.
The red part of the lips is made up of papilla?, repre-
fenting very fine hairs or villi, clofely united together.
There is another particular kind under the nails ; the
papillae being there more pointed, or in a manner conical,
and turned obliquely towards the ends of the fingers.
Thofe
Part VI. ANA T
Thofe which are found in the hairy fcalp, fcrotum, <bc.
are fail of other kinds.
The papillae of the firft and fecond kinds appear to be
furrounded at their bales by a foft mucilaginous and,
pretty vifcid fubliance, which fills the ioteiftices between
them, and reprefents a kind, of net-work or heve, the-
maihes or holes of which furround each papilla. Tins
fubftance is commonly called corpus reticuLxre, or mu-
eojtm.
This vafcular texture is of various forms .and figures
in the different parts of the body.
The inner furface of the fkin is covered by very fmall
tubercles, commonly called cutaneous glands, or gian-
dula mill ares,
Thefe tubercles are partly fixed in fmall foffulae, in
the fubftance of the flcin, winch anlvver to .the fame
number of fmall cavities in the corpus aclipofurn. Their
excretory dudls open on the outer furfaqe of the fkin,
fometimes in the papillae, and fometimes on one fide of
tirem.
The gneateft part of them furnifhes fweat, and others
a fatty oily matter of different tiiickneftes, as in the hairy
fcalp, in the back, behind the ears, and at the lower
part of the nofe, where this matter may be fqueezed out,
in form of fmall worms.
Befides thefe corpufcles, there are other fniall folid
bodies, almoft of an oval figure, contained in the fuh-;
ftanCe of the flein. 'Thefe are the roots or bulbs from
whence the hairs arife, and fame of them are fituated
withirr the inner furface of the fkin.
The flcin has feveral confiderable openings, fome of
which have particular names ; fuch as the fifl’ure of the
palpebrse, the nares, the mouth, the external foramen
of the ears, the anus, and openings of the parts of ge¬
neration.
Befides thefe, it is perforated.by an infinite number of
fmall holes, called pores, which are of two kinds. Some
are more or lefs perceivable to the naked eye.; fuch as
the orifices of the milky dudls of the .mammas, the ori¬
fices of the excretory canals of the cutaneous glands,
and the paffages of the hairs.
The other pores are imperceptible to the naked eye,
but vifible through a microfcope; and their exiftence is
Jikewife proved by the cutaneous tranfpiration, and by
the effefts of topical applications; and from .thefe two
phenomena, they have been divided into arterial and ve¬
nal pores.
THE CUTICULA, OR EPIDERMIS.
The cutfide of the flcin is covered by a thin tranfpa-
rent web, clofely joined to it, which is called epidermis,
tuticula, 'Or the fcarf-fkin.
The fubftance of the cuticula appears to be very uni¬
form on the fide next the /kin, and to be compofed on
the other fide of a great number of very fine fmaUfqua-
mous laminae, without any appearance of a fibrous or
vafcular texture, except fome fmall filaments, by which
ft is connedted to the papillae.
This fubftance is very folid and compadt, but yet ca¬
pable of being extended aud thickened, as we fee by
o M Y. 255
fteeping it in water, and by the biifterS raifed bn the flan
by veficatories. It yields very much infwellings ; but
not fo much as the flcin, without breaking or crocking.
Hard and reiterated fridtions loofen it infenfibly, and
prefently afterward, a new llratum arifes, which thruils;
the firft outward, and may itfelf be loofened and thrult
outward by a third ftratum, .and fo on
The epidermis adheres very clofely to the cutaneous
papilias, from which it may be feparated by boiling; or
by fteeping, for a long time, in cold water.
It adheres ftiil cTofer to the-corpus reticulare, which
is eafily raifed along with it; and they feem to be true
portions or continuations of each other.
The.epidermis1 covers the flcin through its whole ex¬
tent, except at the places where the nails lie. It is
marked vvith the fame furrows and lozenges as the fkin,
and has the fame openings and pores ; and though it may
be faid to pafs the hounds of the flcin, where it is conti¬
nued inward, through the great op .rungs, yet at thefe
places it lofes the name of epidermis.
When we examine narrowly the fmall pores or holes,
through which the fweat pafles, the epidermis feems to
enter thefe, in order to compleat the excretory tubes of
the cutaneous glands.- The foflulse of the hairs have
likewife the fame produ&ions of the epidermis, and it
feems to give a foi\t of coat or bark to the hairs them-
felves. Laftly, the aimoft imperceptible duds of the cu-_
taneous poreS are lined by it.
USES OF THE SKIN.
It is chiefly and properly the filamentary fubftance,
called the body of the fkin, which is the univerfaj inte¬
gument of the body, and the bafis of all the other cuta¬
neous parts; each of \vhkh has its particular: ufes.
The flcin is able to refift external injuries to a certain
degree, and fuch iinpreifions, fiidipns, ftrokes, to
which the human body is often liable, as would hurt,
wopnd, and diforder the parts of which it is compofed,
if they were not defended by the fkin.
1 The papillae, are the organ of feeling, and contribute
to an univerfal evacuation, called infemfible tranfpiration.
They likewife ferve to tranfmit from without, inwards,
the fubtle particles or irnprefiions of fome things applied
to the fkin. The firft of thefe three ufes depepds on
the extremities of the nerves, the fccond on the arterial
productions, and the third on the productions of tha
veins.
Tjre cutaneous glands fecrete an oily humour of differ-,
ent confiftences, and they are likewife the origin of fweat.
The epidermis ferves to keep the pencils or nervous fi¬
laments of the papillae in an even fituatiem, and without
confufion.; and it hkewife moderates the irnpreUions of
external objeCts.
Another ufe of the epidermis is to regulate the cuta¬
neous evacuations already mentioned, the- molt confider¬
able of which is infenfible tranlpiration.
THE MEMBRANA^ADIPOSA, AND FAT.
The fecond univerfal integument of the human body,,
2 $6
is the membrana adipofa, or corpus adipofum. This is
not, however, a Tingle membrane, but'a congeries of a
great number of membranous laminae, joined irregularly
to each other at different diltances, fo as to form nume¬
rous interftices of different capacities, which communicate
with each other. Thefe interftices have been named cel-
lulx, and the fubftance made up of them, the cellulous
fubfiance.
The thicknefs of the membrana adipofa is not the
fame all over the body, and depends on the number of
laminae of which it is made up. It adheres very clofe-
ly to the Ikin, runs in between the mufcles in general,
and between their feveral fibres in- particular, and com¬
municates with the membrane which lines the infide of the
thorax and abdomen.
The ftrufture is demonftrated every day by butchers,
in blowing up their meat, when newly killed; in doing
which, they not only fwell the membrana adipofa, but
the air infinuates itfelf likewife in the interftices of the
mufcles, and penetrates even to the vifcera, producing a
kind of artificial emphyfema.
Thefe cellular interftices are fo many little bags or
fatchels, filled with an undtuous or oily juice, more or
lefs liquid, which is called fat.
This fubftance increafes in quantity in the body, by
reft and good living; and on the contrary, diminilhes by
hard labour and a fpare diet.
The proportional differences in the thicknefs of this
membrana adipofa, are determined, and may be obferved
to be regular in fome parts of the body, where either
beauty or ufe required it.
Thus we find it in great quantities, where the inter¬
ftices of the mufcles would otherwife have left difagree-
able hollow or void places; but being filled, and as it
■were padded with fat, the ikin is raifed, and an agree¬
able form given to the part.
In fome parts of the body the fat ferves for a cufhion,
pillow, or mattrefs ; as on the buttocks, where the lami¬
nae and cells are very numerous.
The fat is likewife of great ufe to the mufcles, in pre-
ferving the flexibility neceffary for their aftions, and in
preventing or leffening their mutual fridtions.
THE NAILS.
The fubftance of the nails is like that of horn, and
they are compofed of feveral planes of longitudinal fibres
foddered together. Thefe ftrata end'at the extremity of
each finger, and are all nearly of an equal thicknefs, but
of different lengths.
The external plane or ftratum is the longeft, and the
reft decreaie gradually, the innermoft being the ftiorteft;
fo that the nail increafes in thicknefs from its union with
the epidermis, where it is thinneft, to the end of the fin?
ger, where it is thickeft.
The graduated extremities or roots of all the fibres of
which thefe planes confift, are hollowed for the reception
of the fame number of very fmall oblique papillse, which
are continuations of the true Ikin, which having reached
to the root of the nail, forms a femilunar fold, in which
that root is lodged.
Part VI.
After this femilunar fold, the Ikin is continued on the
whole inner furface of the nail. The fold of the Ikin is
accompanied by the epidermis, to the root of the nail
exteriorly, to which it adheres very clofely.
Three parts are generally diftinguilhed in the nail, the
root, body, and extremity. The root is white and in
form of a crefcent; and the greateft part of it is hid un¬
der the femilunar fold already mentioned.
The crefcent and the fold lie in contrary direftions to
each other. The body of the nail is naturally arched,
tranfparent, and appears of the colour of the cutaneous
papillae which lie under it.
The principal ufe of the nails is to ftrengthen the ends
of the fingers and toes, and to hinder them from being
inverted towards the convex fide of the hand or foot,
when we handle or prefs upon any thing hard.
THE HAIRS.
The hairs belong as much to the integuments as the
nails. They are a kind of reeds or rulhes, the roots or
bulbs of which lie toward that fide of the Ikin which is
next the membrana adipofa. The trunk or beginning of
the Item perforates the Ikin, and the reft of the Item ad¬
vances beyond the outer furface of the Ikin, to a certain
diftance, which is very various in the different parts of
the body.
When the different hairs are examined by a micro-
fcope, we find the roots more or lefs oval, the largeft
extremity being either turned toward, or fixed in the
corpus adipofum.
This oval root is covered by a whitilh ftrong membrane,
in fome meafure elaftic; and it is conneifted either to the
Hein, to the corpus adipofum, or to both, by a great
number of very fine veflels and nervous filaments.
Within the root, we obferve a kind of glue, fome
very fine filaments of which advance toward the fmall
extremity, where they unite and form the ftem, which
paffes through this final! extremity to the Ikin. As the
ftem paffes through the root, the outer membrane ';s
elongated in form of a tube, which clofely invefts the
ftem, and is entirely united to it.
The ftem having reached the furface of the Ikin,
pierces the bottom of a fmall foflula between the papil¬
lae, or fometimes a particular papilla, and there it meets
the epidermis, which feems to be inverted round it, and
to unite with it entirely. A fort of umftuous matter
tranfudes through the fides of the foffula, which is be¬
llowed on the ftem, and accompanies it, more or iefs, as
it runs out from the Ikin, in form of an hair.
Sect. II. Of the Abdomen.
The Abdomen begins immediately under the thorax,
and terminates at the bottom of the pelvis of the offa in-
nominata. Its circumference, or outer furface, is di¬
vided into regions, of which there are three anterior,
viz. the epigaftric or fuperior region, the umbilical or
middle region, and the hypogaftric or lower region.
There is but one pofterior region, named regio lumbaris.
ANATOMY.
Part VI. ANA
The eprgaftric region begins immediately under the
appendix enliformis, at a fmall fuperficial depreffion, call¬
ed the pit of the ftomach, and ends abore the navel
at a tranfverfe line, fuppofed to be drawn between the
laft falfe ribs on each fide.
This region is fubdivided into three parts ; one middle,
named epigaftrium ; and two lateral, termed hypochon¬
dria. The epigafirium 'takes in all that fpace which lies
between the falle ribs of both fides, and the hypochon¬
dria are the places covered by the falfe ribs.
The umbilical region begins above the navel, at the
tranfverfe line already mentioned, and ends below the
navel at another tranfverfe line, fuppofed to be drawn
parallel to the former, between the two crilhs of the
os ilium.
This region is likewife divided into three parts ; one
middle, which is properly the regio umbilicalis ; and two
lateral, called ilia, or the flanks; and they comprehend
the fpace between the falfe tibs and upper part of the os
ilium on each fide.
7'he hypogaftric region is extended downward from
the inferior limit of the umbilical region, and is divided
into three parts ; one middle, called pubis ; and two la¬
teral, called inguina, or the groins.
The lumbar region is the pofterior part of the abdo¬
men, and comprehends all that fpace which reaches
from the lowed ribs on each fide, and the laft vertebra
of the back, to the os faerum and neighbourings parts
of the ofla ilium. The lateral parts of this region are
termed the loins, but the middle part has no proper name
in men.
Laftly, the bottom of the abdomen, which anfwers to
the pelvis of the Ikeleton, is terminated anteriorly by
the pudenda or parts of generation, and polteriorly by
the clunes and anus. The buttocks are feparated by a
fofla, which leads to the anus; and each buttock is ter¬
minated downward by a large fold, which diftinguilhes
it from the reft of the thigh.
The fpace between the anus and the parts of genera¬
tion, is called perinaeum, and is divided into two equal
lateral parts by a very diftinft line, which is longer in
males than in females.
The cavity of the abdomen, formed by the parts al¬
ready mentioned, (all which are covered by the fldn
and membrana adipofa) is lined on the infide by a parti¬
cular membrane, called peritonasum. It is feparated
from the cavity of the thorax by the diaphragm, and ter¬
minated below by the mufculi levatores ani.
This cavity contains the ftomach, and the inteftines.
It contains likewife the mefentery, mefocolon/omentum,
liver, gall bladder, fpleen, pancreas, glands of the me¬
fentery, vafa la<5iea, receptaculum chyli, kidneys, renal
glands, ureters, bladder, and the internal parts of ge¬
neration in both fexes.
The whole fore-part of the abdomen forms an oblong
convexity, like an oval vault, more or lefs prominent in
the natural ftate, in proportion to the quantity of fat up¬
on it, and of food contained in it, or to the different
degrees of pregnancy in women. The hypogaftric and
-umbilical regions are moreTubjoiffto thefe varieties, than
tbe epigaftrie region.
Vol. I. Numb. 11.
T O M Y. 257
The appendix enfiformis of the fternum, the cartilagi¬
nous portions of the laft pair of true ribs, thofe of the
firft four pairs of falfe ribs, all the fifth pair, the five
lumbar vertebrse, the offa innominata, the os facmm,
and os coecygis, form the bony lides of the cavity of the
abdomen.
7'he diaphragm, the mufcles called particularly muf¬
culi abdominis, the quadrati lumborum, pfoai, iliaci, the
mufcles of the coccyx, and of the inteftinum reftum,
form the chief part of the circumference of this cavity.
The cavity of the abdomen is of an irregularly oval
figure, but ftill fymmetrical. On the forefide it is uni¬
formly arched or oval, and its greateft capacity is even
with the navel, and neareft part of the hypogaftrium.
On the upper fide it is bounded by a portion of a’vault,
very much inclined. On the backfide, it is in a manner
divided into two cavities by the jutting out of the ver¬
tebrae of the loins. On the lower fide, it contradts gra¬
dually all the way to the little edge of the pelvis,
and from thence expands again a little as far as the 03
coccygis and tubercles of the ifehium, terminating in the
void Ipace between thefe three parts.
PERITONAEUM.
Having carefully removed the mufcles of the abdo¬
men, the' firft thing we difeover is the peritonaeum, a
membranous covering, which adheres immediately to the
inner furface of the mufculi tranfverfi, and of all the 0-
ther parts of this cavity; and involves and inverts all
the vifeera contained therein, as in a kind of bag.
The peritonaeum in general is a membrane of a pretty'
dole texture, and yet very limber, and capable of a very,
great extenfion; after which it caq recover itfelf, and be
contracted to its ordinary fize ; as we fee in pregnancy,,
dropfies, corpulency, and repletion.
It feems to be made up at leaft of two portions, one
internal, the other external; which have been looked
upon by many anatomifts as a duplicatnre of two dif-
tirtdt membranous laminae. But, properlyIpeaking, the
internal portion alone deferves the name of a mem¬
branous lamina, as being the main body cf the perito¬
naeum. The external portion is no more than a kind
of fibrous or follicular apophyfis of the internal; and
may properly enough be termed the cellular fubftance of
the peritonaeum.
The true membranous lamina, commonly called the;
internal lamina, is veryfmooth, and poliftied on that fide
which is turned to the cavity and vifeera of the abdomen,
and continually mbiftened by a ferous fluid difeharged
through almoft imperceptible pores.
The cellular fubftance, or external portion of the peri¬
tonaeum, adheres very clofely to the parts which form
the infides of the cavity of the abdomen.
The cellular fubftance has feveral elongations, which
have been called productions of the peritonaeum. Two
of thefe productions accompany and invert the fpermatic
ropes in males, and the vafcular ropes, commonly called
the round ligaments, in women. 7'he re are other two,
which pafs under the liganientum Faiioppii, with .the
3 7’ cmral
3
258 A N A T
crural veffels, which they involve, and are gradually loft
in their courfe downward.
To thefe four produ&ions of the cellular fubftance of
the peritoneum, we may add a fifth, which is fpread on
the neck of the bladder, and perhaps a fixth, which ac¬
companies the inteftinum return. All thefe elongations
pafs out of the cavity of-the abdomen, and may be
termed external, to diftinguifh them from others that
remain in the abdomen, and are called internal, of which
hereafter.
The great blood-veflels, that is, the aorta and vena
cava, are likewife involved in this cellular fubftance of
the peritonaeum. In a word, it involves immediately
and feparately all the parts and organs which are com¬
monly faid to lie in the duplicature of the peritonaeum.
It has, neverthelefs, productions of its own, but they
are very different from thofe of the cellular fubftanee ;
for they run from without, inward, that is, they advance
from the convex fide of the great bag of the peritonaeum,
into the cavity of that bag, fome more, feme lefs, and
alfo in different manners; as if the fides of a large
ball or bladder were thr aft inward into the cavity of the
ball or bladder..
Of thefe internal elongations or introprefiions of the
true lamina of the peritonaeum, fome are fimply folded,
like a duplicature • fome are expanded like inverted bags
Or facculi to contain fome vifeus ; fome begin by a fimple
duplicature, and are^afterwards expanded into a cavity,
which contains fome organ; fome are alternately extend¬
ed in the form of fimple duplicatures, and of cavities;
and laftly, fome form only a fmall eminence on the inner
furface of the great cavity of the peritonaeum.
The chief ufes of the peritonaeum are, to line the ca¬
vity of the abdomen, to invert the vifeera contained in
that cavity as in a common bag, to fupply them with
•particular coats, to- form productions, ligaments, con¬
nexions, folds, vaginae, 6'c.
The fine fluid which tranfudes through the whole in¬
ternal farface of the peritonaeum, prevents the inconve¬
niences which might-arife from the continual frictions
and motions to which the vifeera of the abdomen are
expofed either naturally or by external impulfes.
VENTRICULUS,*or STOMACH.
The ftomach is a great bag or refervoir, fituated partly
in the left hypochondrium, and partly in the epigaftrium.
The figure of the ftomach is like that of a bag-pipe,
oblong, incurvated, large and capacious at one end, and
fmall and contracted at the other.
The curvature of the ftomach gives us occafion to di-
ftinguiih two arches in it; one large, which runs along
the greateft convexity ; and one fmall, direCtly oppofite
to the former. The fides of the ftomach, are the two
lateral portions which lie between the two arches.
The ftomach has two extremities, one large, and one
fmall like a crosked funnel. It has two openings, cal¬
led the orifices of the itomach, one between the great
extremity and the fmall curvature, the other at the end
of the fmall or contracted extremity. The firft opening
O M Y. Part VL
is a continuation of the cefophagus; the other joins the
inteftinal canal, and is called pylorus.
The great extremity of theitomach is in the left hy¬
pochondrium, and for the moft part immediately undex
the diaphragm.
The fmall extremity of the ftomach does not reach to
the right hypochondrium. It bends obliquely backwafd.
toward the upper orifice, fo that the pylorus lies about
two fingers breaddi from the body of tire vertebrae im¬
mediately under the fmail portion of the liver, and coa-
fequently lower down, and more forward than the o-
ther orifice by alrnoft the fame diftance.
According to this natural fituation, the ftomach, efpe-.
ciafty. when full, lies fo as that the great curvature, is
turned more upward than downward, and the frnail cur¬
vature more backward than upward.
One of the lateral convex fides is turned upward, the.
other downward; and not forward and backward, as they
appear in dead bodies, where the inteftines do not fup-
part them in their natural fituation.
The ftomach is compofed of feveral parts, the chiof of
which are the different ftrata which form its fubftance,
to which anatpmifts give the name of tunicas or coats.
Thefe coats are commonly reckoned to be four in num¬
ber, the outer or common, the flelhy or mafcular, the
nervous or aponeurotic, and the villous or inner coat; .and
they are afterwards fubdivided feveral ways.
The firft or outermoft coat is fimply membranous, be¬
ing oneof the internal prodniftions of the peritonasum.
The fecond or mufcular coat is-made up of feveral,
planes of fibres, which may all be reduced to two, one
external, the other internal. I he external coat is longitu¬
dinal, though in different r.efpedts, following nearly the
direffion of the curvatures and convexities of the fto¬
mach ; and the internal plane is tranfverfely circular.
Between the outer and inner planes, round the fu-
periour orifice, there are two diftinff planes, about the
breadth of a finger, and very oblique, which furround
this orifice in oppofite direftions, and interfeift each o-
ther where they meet on the two lateral fides.
Along the middle of each lateral fide of the fmall
extremity, there funs a tendinous or ligamentary flat
portion, above a quarter of an inch in breadth, which
terminates in the pylorus. Thefe two portions lie be¬
tween the common and mufcular coats, and adhere very
ftrongly to the firft.
Between the fame two coats, there is a cellular
fubftance which adheres very clofely to the external coat,
and infinuates itfelf between the fleihy fibres of the fe¬
cond, all the way to the third.
The third coat, called commonly tunica nervofa, fu-
ftains, on its convex fide, a very large reticular diftri-
bution of capillary veflel.s and nerves. On the concav^
fide, it feenis to be of a very loole texture, and as it were
fpungy or filamentary, containing a great number of
fmall glandular bodies, efpecially near the fmall curva¬
ture and fmall extremity of the ftomach.
The fourth coat of the ftomach is termed villofa, be-,
caufe, when it fwims in clear water, fome have imagined
they faw fomething in it like the pile of velvet.
Thefe two coats are of a larger extent than the two,
fqrmer.
• ormer, and they join in forming large rugae on the con¬
ave furface of the ftomach, the greatefl part of which
re tranfverfe, though irregular and waving.
In the interftices of thefe rugae, there is often found a
fort of flimy mucus, with which the whole cavity of
the ftomach feems likewife to be moiftened. This mu¬
cus is much more fluid in living bodies, and is fupplied
t>y the glands of the ftomach. It is termed fuccus gaftri-
cus or ftomachicus.
On the inner furface of the fmall extremity of the fto¬
mach, at the place where it ends in the inteftinal canal,
we obferve a broad, thin, circular border, with a roundifh
hole in the middle. This hole is the inferiour orifice of
the ftomach, called by the Greeks pylorus, which figni-
fies a porter.
This border is a fold or duplicature of the two inner
coats of the ftomach, the nervofa and villofa ;. and it is
formed in part by a fafciculus of fie Pay fibres fixed in
the duplicature of the tunica nervofa, and diftinguifhed
not only from the other flefhy fibresof the extremity of the
ftomach, but alfo fromthofe of the inteftines, by a thin,
whitilh circle, which apppears even through the exter¬
nal or common coat, round the union of the ftomach and
inteftines.
The figure of the pylorus is that of a ring, tranfverfe-
ly flatted, the inner edge of which, or that next the
center, is turned obliquely toward the inteftines, like a
broad portion of a funnel. This inner edge runs na¬
turally more or lefs into little plaits or gathers, like the
mouth of a purfe almoft fhut. It is therefore a kind of
fphincter, which can contract the inferior orifice of the
ftomach, but feerris not capable of (hutting it quite clofe.
The ftomach receives in general whatever the mouth
fends thither, through the canal of the cefophagus; but
its partciujar ufe is to receive the aliments, to contain
them for a longer or fhorter time, in proportion as they
ire more folid or fluid, and to digeft them, that is, to
put- them in a condition to be turned into that nutritious
fluid called chyle.
This operation, which goes by the general name of
digeflion, and by which chylification begins, is perform¬
ed partly by the fuccus gaftricus, which flows continually
from the tunica villofa, and partly by the continual
contraction and relaxation of the mufcular coat.
The pylorus, or flefliy circle of the inferiour orifice
of the ftomach, ferves to retain the aliments in it, till
they have acquired a fufficient degree of fluidity to
pafs eafily through that-opening.
The gentle and alternate motions of the orbicular fi¬
bres of the mufcular coat, may affift in fending through
the pylorus, in the natural way, the aliment that is fuffi-
eientiy digefted. This was called the penftaltic or vermi¬
cular motion, by thofe who believed that it is fucceflively
reiterated, like that of earth-worms when they creep.
The fituation of the ftomach, which is nearly tranf¬
verfe, is likewife of ufe in making the aliment remain
long enough in that cavity, and may ferve to make the
length of this ftay in fome mealure arbitary,: by means
of the different poftures of the body; for when we he on
the left fide, the aliment muft remain longer, than when
we lie on the right, d f.
Intestines in general, Inteftinum Duodenum
in particular.
Between the pylorus and the veryloweft part of the
abdomen, lies a long canal, bent in a great many dif¬
ferent directions, by numerous convolutions or turnings,
called theinteftin s.
This canal, thus folded and turned, forms a confider-
able bulk, \yhich fills the greateft part of the cavity of the
abdomen; and it is connected, through its whole extent,
to membranous productions or continuations of the peri¬
tonaeum, principally to thofe called the mefentery and
mefocolon.
The incurvations of the inteftinal canal form two
arches, a fmall one by which it is connected to the mefen¬
tery and mefoc^lon, and a great one on the oppofite fide,
which lies loofe. The whole canal is generally about
feven or eight times as long as the body.
The inteftines in general are compofed of feveral
coats, much in the fame manner with the ftomach.
The firft and outermoft is a continuation of the mefen¬
tery, or of fome "other elongation or duplicature of the
peritonaeum.
This is commonly termed the common coat; and it
has a cellular fubftance on its inner furface, like that of
the ftomach.
The fecond coat of the inteftines is flefhy or mufcular,
and made up of two planes, one external, the other in
ternal. The external plane is very thin, and its fibres
longitudinal; the internal plane is thicker, and its fi¬
bres run tranfverfely round the circumVerence of the in¬
teftinal cylinder.
The third coat is called nervofa, and is fomething
like that of the ftomach. It has a particular plane,
which ferves as a bafis to fuftain it, made up of very
fine, ftrong, oblique fibres, which feem to be of the li¬
gamentary or tendinous kind.
This coat fuftains two reticular fubftances which are
both vafcular, one arterial, the other venal, accompanied
by a great number of nervous filaments. Thefe veffels
and nerves are productions of the mefenteric veflels and
nerves ; and as they furround the whole canal of the in¬
teftines, fome anatomifts have formed them into a diftinCt
coat, by the name of tunica vafculofa.
The nervous coat fends off from its inner furface a
great number of portions of fepta, more or lefs circu¬
lar, v/hich contribute to the formation of what are cal¬
led valvuke conniventes. .
The fourth or innermoft coat is very foft, and is na¬
med tunica villofa. It has the fame extent with the
third coat, which fupports it, and it lines all the fepta of
that third coat.
The fmall inteftines form ope continued uniform canal;
and though three portions of it have three different
names, yet we have no fufficient marks whereby to di-
ftinguifh them, to fix the precife extent or length of
each portion, to fettle its juft limits.
The firft and fhorteft portion of the whole canal-,
is called duodenum; the fecond, which is much longer,
jejunum; and the third, which is ftill longer than the
fecond, ileum.
A N A T
Ths duodenum having arifen from the pylorus, is im¬
mediately bent a little backward, and obliquely down¬
ward ; then it bends a fecond time toward the right kid¬
ney, to which it is a little conne&ed, and from thence
palfes before the renal artery and ve-n, afcending infen-
fibly from right to left, till it gets before the aorta and
laft vertebrae of the back. It continues its courfe
obliquely forward, by a gentle turn.
Through this whole courfe, the duodenum is firm¬
ly bound down by folds of the peritonaeum, efpecially
by a tranfverfe duplicature which gives origin to the me-
focolon.
The villi of this intefline are thicker than in the flo-
mach ; but the texture of them in man is not like hairs,
as they are commonly reprefented in figures; but ra¬
ther like that of a fungous granulated fubftance, com-
pofed of an infinite number of very fine papillae of dif¬
ferent figures, in which we fee, through a microfcope, a
Ciuhitude of depreffed points or pores, by which their
whole furface feems to be pierced.
By the fame help we obferve, on different places of
the inner, furface of this inteftine, feveral round vil¬
lous tubercles, rifing like fmall verucae at different di-
ftances from each other.
This fubftance fu(tains an infinite number of capillary
veffels, of different kinds; for befides the blood-veffeis,
we fometimes obferve a great number of white' fila¬
ments which run through it, and end at its inner furface,
like fo many capillary roots of the yeffels, called venae
ladteae.
The internal furface of the duodenum is furnifiied
with a great number of fmall flat glandular tubercles,
raifed on the fides, and depreffed in the middle, by a kind
of foffula; and they are more numerous near the be¬
ginning of this inteftine than any where elfe.
Thefe glands appear like little bladders, with the ori¬
fices turned toward the cavity of the inteftine, and
the bodies fixed in the fpungy fubftance next the ner¬
vous coat. They furnifh a particular vifcid fluid.
In the inner furface of the duodenum, almoft at the
lower part of the firft incurvation, and on the fhorteft
fide, there is a longitudinal eminence, in the point or
apex of which lies a particular opening, which is the ori¬
fice of the duftus bilarius, within which the duttus pan-
■creaticus likewife opens.
INTESTINUM JEJUNUM.
The jejunum, fo called, b caufe it is oftener found
empty than the ilium, begins at the laft incurvation of the
duodenum, and is there connetfted to the beginning of
the mefocolon.
From thence it bends downward from left to right,
and obliquely forward, or fiom the vertebras, and makes
feveral convolutions, which lie chiefly in the upper part
of the umbilical region. Through all this courfe it is
connefted to the mefentery.
The jejunum and ilium may be.diftinguilhed by divi¬
ding both inteftines into five parts; and to allow nearly
two fifths to the jejunum, and three fifths and a little
more to the ileum.
o M Y Part VI.
The coats of the jejunum are nearly of the fame ftruc-
ture with thofe of the duodenunvbut thinner.
INTESTINUM ILEUM.
The convolutions of the inteftinum ileum furround
thofe of the jejunum on the two lateral and lower fides,
and it paffes in a winding courfe from the left fide, by
the hypogaftrium, to the right fide, where it terminates
a little below the right kidney, joining the inteftina
cralfa.
The ftrudure of the ileum is much the fame with
that of the jejunum ; only the internal duplicatures or
valvulae conniventes decreafe gradually both in number
and fize.
Tfo Intestina Ckassa in general, #«</Inteftinum cae¬
cum in particular.
The great inteftines are one continued canal, divided
into three portions, like the fmall ones. This canal be¬
gins by a kind of facculusor bag, which is reckoned the
firft of the three portions, and called caecum. The fe¬
cond portion, called colon, is the longeft of the three,
and is diftinguiftied from them by a great number of par¬
ticular eminences or convexities, which appear on its
outer furface through its whole length. The laft portion
is named reftum, being more uniform, narrower, thicker,'
and much (horter than the colon.
The ftruflure of the great inteftines is nearly the fame
with that of the fmall ones, in regard both to the num¬
ber and difpofition of their coats. They are (horter,
and have fewer convolutions, but are much more capa¬
cious. The coats in general are ftronger, but efpecially
the mufcular coat.
The inteftinum cascum is only a round fliort broad
bag, the bottom of which is turned downward, and
the mouth or opening upward. It lies under the right
kidney, and is hid by the laft convolution of the.
ileum. It is about three fingers breadth in length, and
its diameter is more than double that of the ftnail in¬
teftines.
On one fide of the bottom of the caecum lies an ap¬
pendix, refembling a imall inteftine, nearly of the fame
length with the caecum, but very flender. It is termed
appendicula vermiformis, from its fuppofed refemblance
to an earth-worm. Its common diameter is not above a
quarter of an inch. By one extremity it opens late¬
rally, and a little obliquely, into the bottom of the cae¬
cum ; and the other extremity is clofed, being fometimes
greater, fometimes fmaller, than the reft of the appendix.
Through the membranous or common coat of the cae¬
cum, we fee three white ligamentary bands, which adhere
very clofely both to the outer and mufcular coat. One
of them is hid by the adhefion of the mefocolon; and all
the three divide the caecum longitudinally into three parts
more or lefs equal.
They all unite in the appendicula vermiformis, and
cover its whole outer fide immediately under the common
coat.
I N T E-
Part VI.
ANA
T
INTESTINUM COLON.
The colon is the moft confiderable of all the inteftines.
From the csecum, of which it is a continuation, it
reaches, in form of an arch, above the umbilical region,
and to the lower part of the left hypochondrium. Its
continuity is however a little interrupted by the ileum,
which advances into the cavity of the colon, and, together
with- a certain fold of that inteftine, forms what is called
valvula coli.
The whole convex fide of the colon is divided longi¬
tudinally into three patts, by three ligamentary bands,
continued from thofe of the caecum, and of the fame
ftructure with thefe. Two of the three bands run on
each fide, along the great curvature of the colon; and
the third along the ima'll curvature.
Thefe three longitudinal bands do the office of fraena,
between which this inteftine is through its whole length
alternately depreffed into tranfverfe folds, and raifed in¬
to confiderable eminences.. All the folds are duplica-
tures, which form portions of valvulae conniventes in the
cavity of the inteftine ; and the eminences form recep¬
tacles, called the cells of the colon.
The common coat, on one fide, is a continuation of the
mefocolon; and, on the other fide, it contributes, by the
fame continuation, to form the omentum.
The arch of the colon begins under the right kidney,
near the haunch. It runs up on the fOrefide of that kid¬
ney to which it is connefted, paffes under the vef^cula
fellis, which tinges it with a yellow colour at that place,
and continues its courfe before the firlt incurvation of
the duodenum, to which it adheres, and partly hides it.
In. this part of its courfe, therefore, there is a remark¬
able connexion between the colon, duodenum, right
kidney, and veficula fellis.
From thence the arch of the Colon runs before
the great convexity of the ftomaclv and fometimes a
little lower ; then turns backward under the Ipleen, in
the left hypochondrium ; runs down on the forefide of
the left kidney, to which it is conne&ed; below this
kidney turns toward the vertebrae, and terminates th^re
by a double incurvation, or by two oppofite convo¬
lutions, which reprefent in feme meafure an inverted ro¬
man S.
At the place v/here the caecum joins the colon, one
portion of the circtimference of both is deprefied, and
forms a large fold on the infide, which advances into
the cavity of the intelline. It is a little open in the
middle, and its extremities are very thick, by reafon of
the mutual duplicature of the coats of the caecum and colon.
The extremity of the ileum is as it were grafted in
the opening of jhis fold, and ftrongly united to its fides
by the adhefion of its tranfverfe fibres to the tranfverfe
fibres of the caecum and colon.
This union forms a pretty thick ring, which likewife
advances into the common cavity of the caecum and co¬
lon, where it is wrinkled or formed into gathers, al-
mofi: like the lower extremity of the cefophagus, the
pylorus or infide of the anus. Its circumference is more
'or lefs oval ; and, by a kind of continuity with the cora-
Vol. I. Numb. ii.
O M Y. 2^1
mon fold of the caecum and colon, it forms two pro-
dufiions, which M. Morgagni calls the fraena of the
valvula coli.
The membranous-coat pf the extremity of the ileum,
is continued on the csecum and colon, without finking
into any fold, at the place where the ileum enters the
colon.
This valvulacoli is contrived to hinder the return of the
excrements into the ileum; it produces this e!Fe£l: part¬
ly as a valve, and partly as a kind of fphinfter.
The capacious arch of the colon is contraifted by both
extremities to the regio lumbaris, near the kidneys, by
two particular ligaments, one on the right fide, the other
on the left, which are only fmall duplicatures of the peri¬
tonaeum, more or lefs tranfverfe.
The remaining portion, which forms the two con¬
volutions in form of the roman S, contradts below the
left kidney, being narrower there, than lower down.
The coats of this portion become gradually thicker and
ftronger,, and likewife the ligamentary bands, which ap.-
proach each other by degrees, and feem to increafe in
breadth.
INTE STINUM RECTUM and ANUS.
The laft of all the inteftines, is named reflum, or the
{height gut, which, properly fpeaking, is a true conti¬
nuation of the laft convolution of the colon ; and it is the
repofitory, fink, and common fewer, of the whole interti¬
ll al canal.
The redtum' haying parted below the laft vertebra of
the loins, to the infide of the os facrum, is bent back¬
ward on that concave fide to which it is connefted ; and.
having reached the os coccygis, it runs likewife in the
direction of that bone, and bends a little forward, ter¬
minating beyond the extremity of the cbccyx.
The figure of this inteftine varies according as it is.
full or empty. When empty, it is irregularly cylindri¬
cal, and finks in by a kind of tranfverfe folds ; and in that
Irate, it is about three fingers‘breadth in diameter, more
or lefs. When full, it is wider in proportion to the
quantity of fasces, wind, or wlratever elfe is contained
in it; and it may be extended to the fize of a large bladder,
fb as to reprefent a kind of ftomach.
7'be membranous coat often contains a great quantity
of fat, fpread between it andL the mufcular coat, and
forming round the intertine numerous eminences, in the
room of the appendices adipofas of the colon.
The mufcular or flefhy coat is very thick: the longi¬
tudinal fibres, which in the. other inteftines are very tlii i,
are in this ftrbnger than the circular fibres of the reft.
The ligamentary bands continue to iticreafe in breadth,
and to approach each other.
The nervous or filamentous and interodl coats, are
larger here, than in the other inreftines; and when, the
retrtum is empty, they form a great number of waving ru¬
gae in its cavity, which difappear, in proportion as that
cavity is filled.
The innermoft coat is very improperly termed villofa,
•and fcarce deferves the name of papillaris, becaufe of
the fmallnefs of .the little corpufdes fpread on its furface.
' 3 3 U it
-A
262 ANATOM Y. Part VI.
It contains a great number of fingl or folitary glands;
and it is always moiftened by a mucus of different eon-
fiftences.difcharged by thefe glands or follicuii.
Near the extremity of this inteftine, the rugs or
folds become in a manner longitudinal; and at laft, to¬
wards the circumference of the inner margin 0/ the anus,
they form little bags or femilunar lacunae, the openings
of which are turned upward, toward the cavity of the
inteftine. Thele lacunae are fomething like thofe at the
lower extremity of the cefophagus, or .upper orifice of
the ftomach.
At length the extremity of the return contracts, and
terminates by a narrow orifice called the anus, the Tides
of which are difpofed in clofe folds or gathers. This
extremity of the inteftine has feveral mul'cles belonging
to it, fome of which furround it like ffphindters, the reit
are broad flelhy planes inferted in it, and which being
likewife fixed to other parts, fuftain it in its natural fi-
tuation, and reflores it to that fituation when difiurbed
by the force neceffary for the exclufion of the faeces.
Thefe latter mufcles are.termed levatores ani, the firfl
go by the general name of fphin&ers.
Thefe fphindtcrs are three in number, one intefKnal
or orbicular, and two cutaneous or oval; whereof one is
large, fuperior, and internal; the other final], inferi¬
or, and external.
The intehinal or orbicular fphindter of the anus, con-
fills merely in an augmentation of the inferior portion
of the flelhy fibres of the extremity of the redtum.
The cutaneous ligament goes out anteriorly, from
the extremity of the cs coccygis. It is very fiender,
and divides into two portions at the orifice of the anus,
which run into the mernbrana adipofa, and are inferted
in the Ikin on each fide of the anus, by a kind of expan-
fion ; and continuing to divaricate, they are loft on the
two fides of the peritonaeum.
The interoffeous ligament of the offa pubis is a very
ftrong triangular membrane, fixed by two of its edges in
the inferior rami of thefe bones, all the way up to their
common fymphyfis. The third edge, which is the loweft,
is loofe ; and this whole membrane, the middle of which
is perforated by a particular hole, is ftretched very tight
between the two bones, and under their cartilaginous
arch, to which it adheres very clofely.
At the lower part of this interoffeous ligament, along
its whole lower or loofe edge, lies a digaftric mufcle,
fixed by its two extremities in the rami of the offa pubis,
its middle tendon lying on the middle of the edge of the
ligament.
The cutaneous fphin&ers have each an anterior and
pofterior infertion, ending both ways in a kind of point,
and comprehending the orifice of the anus between their
middle portions.
They are diftinguifhed from each other by their fitua¬
tion, by their fize, ami by a kind of white cellular line.
The greateft of the two appears to be double, and the
fmalleft lies neareft the Ikin, and adheres moft clofely
to it.
They are inferted backward, partly in the apex of the
os coccygis, and partly in the contiguous portion of the
cutaneous ligament of that bone. Forward their chief
infertion. is in the middle tendon of the tranfverfalis ure¬
thrae; and they have likewife fome connexions, to other
mufcles of the urethra.
1 he levatores ani are broad, thin, mufcular portion*,
fixed by one extremity of their flefhy fibres round the
concave fide of the inferior portion of the pelvis, from
the fymphyfis of the offa pubis, beyond the fpine of the
ifehium. The other extremity of thefe fibres runs
down on each fide behind, and under the curvature of
the end of the re&um, where they meet together, and
unite from the bafis of the os coccygis all the way to the
margin of the anus.
We ought likewife to remark, that the margin or edge
of the anus is formed by the union of the Ikin and epi¬
dermis wfth the internal coat of the rectum ; fo that the
moft fuperficial portion of that coat feems to be a conti¬
nuation of the epidermis.
MESENTERIUM & MESOCOLON.
This great bundle of inteftines is not left to move at
random in the cavity of the abdomen; but artfully bound
down by a membranous web, which prevents the intefti-
nal convolutions from being intangled in each other, and
from being twifted or compreffed in all their different ways
of meeting; and yet allows them a gentle floating, but
limited motion.
This web is diftinguiihed into two portions; one of
which, being very broad and very much plaited, connects
the fmall inteftines ; the other, which is long and incur-
vated, does the fame office to the greater imeftines.
Thefe two portions are in reality only , one and the
fame continuation of the membranous lamina of the peri-
tonteum doubled back upon itfelf, and they are diftin-
guiffied only by their breadth. Taken both together,
they form a kind of fpiral roll, more or lefs plaited in
its circumference. The firft portion has retained the
name of mefentery, the other is termed mefocolon.
The mefentery begins at the laft incurvation of the
duodenum, and runs obliquely from left to right, along
the vertebra? of the loins. In this fpace, the membra¬
nous portion of the peritonaeum is detached on both
hands, produces a duplicature by two elongations or
particular lamina? applied to each other, and thu,s forms
the mefentery.
It is narrow at its upper and lower parts, but chiefly
at the upper. The middle portion is very broad, and
the edge of it next the inteftines is every where very
much plaited. Thefe plaits or folds are only waving in¬
flexions, fuch as may be obferved in the edge of a piece
of ffiamoy, which has been often drawn through the fin¬
gers. They make this edge of the mefentery very long,
and they run through about one third of its breadth.
The two laminae are joined together by a cejlular fub-
ftance, which contains 'glands, veflels, and nerves; and
in fome fubje&s a great quantity of fat, which keeps the
two lamina: a diftance from each other.
Along the whole circumference of the mefentery, the
two laminae are naturally feparated, and applied to the
two fides of the final! inteftines, which they inveft by
their union, or rather reciprocal continuation on th» great
curvature
Part VI. A N A T
curvature of that canaf, and carry it as in a fcarf or fling.
This is what forms the external or membranous coat of
the inteflines.
The mefocolon is the continuation of the mefentery,
which having reached the extremity of the ilium, con-
tradls and changes its name. At this place the particu¬
lar lamina which is turned to the right fide, forms a
fmall tranlverfe fold, called ligamentum coii dextrum.
Afterwards the mefocolon afcends towards the right
kidney, where it feems to be loft by the immediate ad-
hcfion of the colon to that kidneyj and to the firft incur¬
vation of the duodenum. Then it appears again, and, in-
creafing in breadth, it continues its courle aim oft tranf-
verfely under the liver, ftomach, and fpleen, where it be¬
gins to turn downward, under the left hypochondriunj,
toward the kidney on the fame lide.
Through this whole courfe, the mefocolon extends in
breadth, and forms nearly a tranfverfe femicircular plane,
very little plaited at its great circumference. By this
circumference or edge, it is connected to the colon ; and
hides that ligamentary band of this inteftine, which runs
along its fmall curvature. By its Ihort or fmall edge, it
forms the triangular cafe of the duodenum ; and by its
great edge, the external coat of the colon, in the fame
manner as the mefentery does that of the fmall inteftines.
As it paftes under the large extremity of the ftomach, it
adheres a little to the lower portion of that extremity, as
the diaphragm does to the upper.
Having got below the left kidney, it contrails and
Forms another tranfverfe fold, called ligamentum celiji-
nijlrum. Afterwards it expands again, but not fo much
as in the upper part, and runs down on the left pfoas
inufcle, toward the laft vertebras of the" loins. This
defcending portion is fixed to the convolutions of the co¬
lon in the fame manner as the fupersof portion is to the
arch of that inteftine.
The inteftinum redtum is likewife inverted by a parti¬
cular production of the peritonaeum, called commonly by
the barbarous name of meforeftum. This production is
very narrow ; and, about the middle of the forefide of the
reCtum, it forms a tranfverfe femicircular fold, which
appears when the inteftine is empty, but is loft when it
is filled.
glandula: mesenterica:, vasa
LYMPHATICA & LACTEA.
Between (he laminae of the mefentery, a great num¬
ber of glands lie fcattcred through the cellular fjbftance.
In the natural ftate, thefe glands are fomethingof the fi¬
gure of lentils or little round beans ; fonie of them being
orbicular, others oval, but all of them a little flatted.
Thefe glands are of the number Of thofe that anato-
mifts call glandule conglobate, the ftruCture of which
is not as yet fufficiently known. They feem to be of a
cellular fubftance, furroundcd by a very fine membrane
or coat, on which, by the help of microfcopes, we difco-
ver an intertexture Of particular filaments.
Befides the blood-velfels which are diftributed in a
reticular manner in the mefenteric glands, and bdides
many nervous filaments fpread through them, we dif-
6 M V. 2^3
cover an infinite number of fmall veflels of another
kind running from gland to gland.
Thefe veflels are extremely thin and tranfparent, and
furnifhed on the infide with numerous valves, which ap¬
pear on the outfide like little Imall knots very near each
other. They go out from each gland by ramificationsr
as by fo many roots, and having formed a fmall trunk,
they are again divided, and enter fome neighbouring
gland by the fame kind of ramifications by which they
went out from the former.
They are termed lymphatic vefiels, becaufe for the
moft part they contain a very clear, limpid, though mu¬
cilaginous ferum, called lympha by anatomifts. But as
they have likewile been obferved to be filled with a white
milky fluid, called chyle, they have been called vafa chy-
I fera,, or verne ladle*. They have-the name of veins,
becaufe their valves are difpofed as thofe of the ordinary
blood-veins, and becaufe the fluid which they contain
runs from fmaller into larger tubes.
They derive their firft origin from the tunica villofa of
the inteftines, and chiefly from that of the fmall inteftines,
by a. great number of fmall capillary roots. From thefe
roots there arifes, between the coats of the inteftines, a
kind of rete mirabile, which furrounds. almoft the whole
circumference of the inteftinal canal, between the mufeu-
lar and external coat.
This reticular texture of lafleal velfels keeps clofe to
the external coat, and leaves the canal along with it, on
the fide of the mefentery, where it forms two planes of
ramifications, plainly diitinguilhed from each other by
the cellular fubftance, and adhering clofely to the infide
of the two membranes of the mefen.tery. In this fepa-
rate ftate they run on the laminae of the mefentery, as
far as the firft mefenteric glands, where they unite again
into one plane.
After this union, the ladeal vefiels are diftributed al¬
moft uniformly through the whole extent of the mefen¬
tery, from its circumference to its origin or adhefion to
the vertebras cf the back, between the mefenteric glands,
which they join, and form frequent anaftomofes or com¬
munications.
Having pafled through the mefentery, the ramifications
begin to unite as they approach the fpina dorfi, and con-
fequently their number is leflened, and their fize increa-
fed ; and having pafled the laft mefenteric glands, they
terminate about the middle of the adhefion cf the mefo¬
colon in fmall common trunks, which receive a great
number of lymphatic vefi'els from the glanduke lumbares,
and others below thefe.
The ladfeal veflels which he between the meftnteric
glands and middle adhefion of the mefocolon to the fpina
dorfi, run down on the body of the inferior aorta, be¬
tween the extremities of ike final! mufeie of the dia-
phragm, and terminate m a kind of erftern, called by fome.
receptaculum chyli, by others receptaculum Pecquetts.
The greateft part of the receptaculum chyli lies be¬
hind the right portion cf the inferior mufcle of the dia¬
phragm, cn the right fide of the aorta, at the union of
the laft vertebra of the back with the firft of the loins.
It is a kind of membranous veficle, the conformation of
which is various in human fubjetts, Sometimes it is of
•2 54 . ANA
an uniform long oval fignrc, like the vefioib. fcllis; fome-
times it is divided by Itrictures, into feveral fmall round-
iiTi bags more or lefs flatted, and fometimes it furrounds
the trunk of the aorta like a collar.
It is compofed of very thin coats, and its cavity is di¬
vided by fmall pellicuke or membranous fepta, the dif-
pofltion of which is irregular. It is chiefly round the
lower part of this receptacle, that the laftJa&eal veffels
are inferted, feme on the fides, and fome behind the
aorta; and {hey are accompanied by numerous lympha-
.tic veffels. The upper portion is contracted between
the aorta and vena azygos, and forms a particular ca¬
nal, which runs up through the thorax, by the name of
duttus thoracicus.
HE PAR Sc VESICULA FELLIS.
The liver is a large and pretty folid mafs, of a dark
red. colour, a little inclined to yellow, fituated immedi¬
ately under the arch of the diaphragm, partly in the
right hypochondrium, which it fills almoft intirely, and
partly in the epigaftrium, between the appendix enilfor-
m;s and fpina dorfi, and terminating commonly in the left
hypochondrium.
The figure of the liver is irregular, it being arched or
convex on the upper part, unequally concave on the low¬
er, and very thick on the right and back fides. Towards
the left and anterior fides its thicknefs decreafes very
much', and terminates there by a kind of edge ; and it is
broader from right to left, than from before backwards.
It may be divided into lateral parts called lobes;
one jof which is termed the great or right lobe; the o-
ther, the fmall or left lobe. Thefe two lobes are di-
ftinguifned above, by a membranous ligament; and be¬
low very plainly, by a confiderable feiffure lying in the
fame direction with the fuperior ligament.
The eminences on the concave fide of the liver belong
to the great lobe. The principal eminence is a fort of
triangular or pyramidal apophyfis fituated backward near
the great feiffure which difiinguifhes the two lobes.
This triangular eminence is termed lobulus Spigelii,
or limply the fraall lobe of the liver. Qne of its angles
advances a confiderable way toward the middle of the
lower fide of the great lobe, and is loft there. Toward
the forefide, there is another eminence lefs prominent
but broader; and to this eminence and the former, the
ancients gave the general name of portx.
The depreflions on the concave or lower fide of the
liver are four in number. The firft is the feiffure that
feparates the two lobes, which runs a-crofs the concave
fide, from the eminences already mentioned, to the ante¬
rior edge, where it terminates by a notch of different
depths in different fubjeCls. This is termed the great
feiffure of the liver.
The fecond depreflion is fituated tranfverfely between
the two eminences of the great lobe, and filled by the
finus of the vena portse. T he third depreflion is back¬
ward, between'the great lobe and lobulus .Spigelii, and
the vena cava paffes through it. The fourth is a kind
-of fulcus between the lobulus and fmall lobe of the liver,
-which in the foetus ferved to receive a venal canal loft in
T O M Y. Part VI.
adults, in whom it appears only as a kind of ligament.
This fulcus is in fome meafure a continuation of the great
feiffure, and joins the vena cava by an acute angle.
Befides thefe four depreffions, there is one on the
fore-part of the great lobe, in which the vtficula felfis
is lodged; and it fometimes runs as far as the edge",
where it forms a fmall notch. We may likewile reckon
among thefe depreffions, a fmall fuperficial cavity in the
pofterior and lateral part of the lower fide of the great
lobe, by which it refts on the right kidney; and like-
wife a fuperficial cavity in the left lobe, where it runs
over the ftomach.
Laftly, on the pofterior edge of the liver, there is a
great finus common to both lobes, which gives paffage
to the fpina dorfi and cefophagus, near the place where
the vena cava defeends.
The convex fide of the liver is commonly conneffed to
the diaphragm by three ligaments, which are only conti¬
nuations of the membranous lamina of the peritonaeum.
One lies near the edge of the extremity of each lobe,
and one in the middle, and they are accordingly termed
the right, middle, and left ligaments. There is a cel¬
lular fubftance in the duplicature of each, in which the
blood-veffcls and lymphatics run, and which fends off a
kind of lamina into the fubftance of the liver.
The right ligament fometimes conneds the great lobe
to the cartilages of the falfe ribs ; and the left liga¬
ment, or that of the fmall lobe, is often double, and ad¬
vances toward the middle ligament. This middle liga¬
ment begins low, in the great fcifl’ure of the liver, near
the eminences called porta;, and from thence paffes thro’
the anterior notch and over the convex fide of the liver
at the union 'of the two lobes, and is fixed obliquely in
the diaphragm. -
It is likewife fixed along the upper and inner part of
the vagina of the right mufculus redus of the abdomen,
in fuch an oblique manner as to be nearer the linea alba
below than above.
Befides thefe ligaments the great lobe of the liver is
likewife conneded to the right ala of the tendinous por¬
tion of the diaphragm, not by a ligament, but by a
broad and immediate adhefion, without the intervention
of the membrane of the peritonsum, which is only fold¬
ed quite round this adhefion, to form the external mem¬
brane of all the reft, of the body of the liver.
The middle ligament, called improperly Ugamentnm
hepatis fufpenforium, contains in its duplidature a thick
white rope, like a round -ligament, which was the um¬
bilical vein in the foetus. Thus the lower part reprefents
a falx, the. convex edge of which is ffiarp, and the other
rounded.
All thefe ligaments ferve-to keep the liver in its proper
fituation, and to hinder it from inclining too much to¬
wards either fide : But vve muft not imagine that any of
them ferve to fufpend it; becaufe it is fufficiently fup-
ported by the • ftcmach and inteftines, efpecialiy when
they are filled.
When the ftomach is empty, or when we faft longer
than ordinary, it is a common expreffion to fay the Jlo~
mach pinches us. As the liver is not then fuftained by
the ftomach and inteftines, it defeends by its own weight,
.and
jKUfe IcvTrr
Tlafe.XmiO
Part VI.
and chiefly by the means of the middle ligament pulls
the diaphragm along with it. It is in that place there¬
fore that we have this uneafy fenfation, and not at the
fuperior orifice of the ftomach, as iy commonly believed.
The liver is compofed of feveral kinds of veflels, the
ramifications of which are multiplied in an aftonilhing
manner, and form by the intertexture of their capillary
extremities, an innumerable colledtion of fmall pulpy,
friable corpufcles, which are looked upon to be fo many
organs defigned to feparate from the mafs of blood a
particular fluid termed the bile.
The greatefl: part of thefe veflels from one end to the
other is included in a membranous vagina called capfula
venx portee, or capfula Gliffoni.
The trunk of the vena portas is fituated tranfverfely
between the broad anterior eminence of the great lobe of
the fiver, and the root of the lobulus, in a particular
fciflure, and forms what is^called the Jinus of the vena
port#. From this linus five principal branches go out,
which are afterwards divided into millions of ramifica¬
tions through the whole fubftance of the liver.
At this place the vena portas lays down the common
office of a vein, and becomes a kind of artery as it en¬
ters, and is again ramified in the liver. The extremi¬
ties of all thefe ramifications of the trunk of the vena
portae hepatica end in the pulpy friable corpufcles which
ieem to be thick villous folliculi.
Its in thefe folliculi that the- bile is fecreted, and it ia
immediately collected in the fame ‘number of extremities
of another kind of veflels, which unite by numerous ra¬
mifications into one commonjtrunk. Thefe ramifications
are termed port hilarii, and the trunk duttus kepaticus ;
and the ramifications of thefe two kinds 'of veflels are in-
velted together by the capfula of the vena portae.
The blood, deprived of this bilious fluid, is reconveyed
to the heart by a great number of venal ramifications,
which afterwards unite into three principal branches, be-
fides others that are lefs confiderable, that * terminate in
the vena cava, and are all called by the name of vena
hepatica.
The capillary extremities of the ramifications of the
vena cava, join thofe of the vena ports, and accompany
them through the liver; and yet the great branches of
both veins interfeft each other in feverpl places.
The dudus hepaticus, or trunk of the pori bilarii, ha¬
ving run a little way, joins another canal called duftus
cyfiieus or veficularis, becaufe it comes from the veficu-
la fellis. Thefe two united duds form a common trunk
named duftus cholidocbus, becaufe it conveys the bile.
This dud having reached the incurvation of the duode¬
num, ii'ifiruates'itfelf through the coats of that inteftine,
and opens into the cavity thereof, not by a round papil¬
la, but by an oblong orifice, rounded at the upper part,
and contraded at the lower, like the fpout of an ewer,
or-like a common tooth-picker.'
The gall-bladder is a kind of finall bag ffiaped like a
pear, that is, narrow at one end and wide at the othef.
The wide extremity is termed the. fundus or bottom,
the narrow extremity the neck, and the middle portion
the body. About one third of*the body of the veficuJa
lies in a depreflion on the concave fide of the liver, from
Von. I. No. ii. 3
2 ^5
the trunk or finus of the vena ports, where the neck is
fituated to the anterior edge of the great lobe, a little
toward the" right fide, where the bottom is placed.
The gall-bladder is compofed of feveral coats; the
outermoit of which is a continuation of that which in-
vefts the liver, and confecjuently of the peritonaeum.
The fecond coat is fleffiy, aiid made up of two flxata,
one longitudinal, the other tranfverfe, the fibres of
which have nearly the fame irregular direftion with thole
of the ftomach ; and this difpofition of the fibres in thefe
vifeera is owin£ to the different diameters in the feveral
portions of them, and to their incurvation.
Thefe two coats are connedted by a cellular fubftance
continued between the body of the veficula and the liver,
all the way, to a whitiffi ftratum, which is looked upon
as the third coat 'of the gall-bladder anfwering to the
tunica nervofa of the inteftines.
The innermoft or fourth coat has on the infide a great
number of reticular folds, filled with fmall lacunas, like
perforated papillae, efpecially near the neck of the vefi¬
cula where thefe folds are longitudinal, and afterwards
form a kind of fmall pylorus with plaits of the fame na¬
ture with thofe in the great one. Thefe lacunae are
looked upon to be glands.
That fide of the body of the veficula which lies next
the liver is connected to that vifeus by a vaft number of
filaments, which run a great way into the fubftance of
the liver; and among thefe filaments there are fome
duds which form a communication between the pori bi¬
larii and veficula. They are moft numerous near tire
neck of the veficula, and they are named duftus cyjl~he~
patici, or hepatico-cyjlici.
The neck of the veficula is ‘formed by the contradion
of the fmall extremity; and this neck bending afterwards
in a particular manner, produces a narrow canal named
duftus eyfietts.
The neck of the veficula is nearly of the fame ftrudure
with the other parts. It has on the infide feveral reti¬
cular rugee and fome folds which appear like fragments
of valvulae conniventes, fituated very near each other,
from the neck to the contradion of the cyftic dud. The
firft of thefe folds is pretty broad and large, and almoft
circular; fhe next is more oblique, and fmaller in fize;
and the reft diminiffi in the fame manner.
The bile which pafles through the dudus hepaticus in¬
to the cholidochus, may be called hepatic', and that
which is colieded in the veficula fellis, may be termed
cyftic. The hepatic bile flows continually through the
dudus cholidochus into the duodenum, whereas the cyftic
bile flows only by reafon of plentitude or by compreflion.
The ufes of the liver ffiall be explained after the de-
feription of pancreas,' fpleen, and omentum, all thefe
vifeera having a great relation to the liver.,
PANCREAS.
The pancreas is a long flat gland, of that kind which
anatomifts call conglomerate, fituated under the ftomach,
between the liver and the fpleen. Its figure' refembles
that of a dog’s tongue ; and it is divided into two fides,
one fuperior, the other inferior; two edges, one ante-
ANATOMY.
z(>6
A N A T
rior, the other pollerior; and two extremities, one large,
which reprefents the baiis of a tongue, and one fmall and
a little rounded like the point of a tongue.
The pancreas is fituated tranfverfely under the ftomach-,
in the duplicature of the pofterior portion of the mefo-
colon. The large extremity is connected to the fir ft in¬
curvation of the duodenum, and from thence it pafles
before the reft of that inteftine, ail the way to its laft
incurvation ; fo that a great part of the duodenum lies
between the pancreas and the vertebrae of the' back.
The fmall extremity is fixed to the omentum near the
fpleen.
The pancreas is compofed of a great number of foft
glandular molecule, combined in fuch a manner, as to
exhibit the appearance of one uniform mafs on the out¬
ride, the furface of which is rendered uneven only by
numerous fmall convexities, more or lefs flatted. When
thefe moleculse are feparated a little from each other,
we find along the middle of the breadth of the pancreas,
a particular dudt, in which feveral fmaller dudts terminate
laterally on each lide, like fmall rami in a ftem.
This canal, named duttus pancreaticus, or duttus
Virfungi, is very thin, white, and almoft tranfparept,
and the extremity of the trunk opens commonly into the
extremity of the ducfus cholidochus. From thence it
diminifhes gradually, and terminates in a point, next the
fpleen. The fmall lateral branches are likewife pretty
large near the trunk, and very fmall toward the edges of
the pancreas,- all of them lying in the fame plane like the
branches of the common fern.
The pancreatic duft is fometimes double in man, one
lying above the other. It is not always of an equal
length, and fometimes runs in a winding courfe, but al¬
ways in the fame plane; and it is nearer the lower than
the upper fide of the pancreas. It pierces the coats of
the duodenum, and opens into the du&us cholidochus,
commonly a little above the prominent point of the ori¬
fice of that canal; and fometimes it opens immediately
into the duodenum.
SPLEEN.
The fpleen is a bluifli mafs, fomething inclined to
red, and of a long oval figure, being about feven or
eight fingers-breadth in length, and four or five in
breadth. It is of a foftilh fubftanee, and is fituated in
the left hypochondrium, between the great extremity of
the ftomach, and the neighbouring falfe ribs, under the
edge of the diaphragm, and above the left kidney.
The inner or concave fide is divided by a longitudinal
groove or feiflure, in two planes or half-fides, one upper,
the other lower; and by this groove, the veflels and
nerves enter in human fubjedts. The fuperior half-fide
is broader and more concave than the inferior, being
proportioned to the convexity of the great extremity of
the ftomach. The inferior half-fide lies backward on
the left kidney," and forward on the colon; and fome¬
times this fide of the fpleen appears to have two fuperfi-
cial cavities, one anfwering to the convexity of the fto¬
mach, the other to that of the colon. The convex fide
of the fpken is turned to the left ribs.
O M Y. Part VI.
It is connedted to the ftomach, by the veflels called vafa
brevia; to the extremity of the pancreas, by ramifica¬
tions of the fplenic artery and vein; and to the omen¬
tum, by ramifications v/hich the fame artery and vein
fend to the fpleen, and which run in the longitudinal
groove.
It is connedted to the edge of the diaphragm by a
particular membranous ligament of different breadths in
different fubjedts, fixed in its convex fide, fometimes
near the upper edge, and fometimes near the lower.
The ftrudture of the fpleen is not eafy to be unfolded
in man, and it is very different from that of the fplecns
of brutes, from which both public and private demon-
ftratiorls are commonly made.
Its coverings adhere to it fo clofely in man, that it is
difficult to diftinguifh the common from the proper coat;
whereas in fome brutes, fuch as oxen, fheep, <fac. we
eafily find two coats feparated by a cellular fubftance^
This covering feems to be no otherwife a continuation of
the peritoneum than by the intervention of the omentum
and mefocolon.
In man the fubftance of the fpleen is almoft wholly vaf-
cular. In oxen the fubftance of the fpleen is chiefly re¬
ticular, and in fheep it is cellular. In oxen and flteep
there are no venal ramifications, but inftead thereof only
open finufes difpofed like branches, except a fmall por¬
tion of a venal trunk perforated on all fides, at the ex¬
tremity of the fpleen.
In the human fpleen we fee foraething like glandular
corpufcles, as in thofe of other animals; and there are
numerous venal ramifications through its whole extent.
Between thefe ramifications we every where obferve an
appearance of exuavafated blood, lying in a kind of fila¬
mentary tranfparent and very delicate fubftance expand¬
ed through the whole fpleen.
This filamentary fubftance, having furrounded all the
ramifications, terminates in almoft imperceptible cells
which communicate with each other.
OMENTUM & APPENDICES EPIPLOICAi.
The omentum is a large, thin, and fine membranous
bag, furrounded on all fides by numerous portions of fat,
which accompany and even inveft die fame number of
arteries and veins adhering, clofely to each other.
The greateft part of it refembles a kind of flat purfe
or a fportfman’s empty pouch, and is fpread more or lefs
on all the fmall inteftines from the ftomach to the lower
part of the regio umbiliealis. Sometimes it goes down to
the lower part of the hypogaftrium, and fometimes does
not reach beyond the regio epigaftrica. It is commonly
plaited or folded in feveral places, efpecially between the
bands of fat.
It is divided into a fuperior and inferior, an anterior
and pofterior, and a right and left portion. The fupe¬
rior portion is in a manner divided into two borders,
one of which is fixed along the great curvature or con¬
vex fide of the arch of'the colon, and the other along
the great curvature of the ftomach. The commiflure or
union of thefe two borders on the right fide,, is fixed to
the common ligament or adhefion of the duodenum and
colon.
Part VI. ANATOMY. 267
colon, and to the contiguous parts of thefe inteftines.
That on the left fide is fixed to the longitudinal fcifiure
of the fpleen, to the extremity of the pancreas, and to
the convex fide of the great extremity of the ftomach.
It is like wife fixed to the membranous ligament which
fuftains the dudtus cholidochus, and connects it to the
vena portse ventralis.
Below thefe adhefions, the other portions, that is,
the anterior, pofierior, two lateral and inferior portions,
which laft is the bottom of the fucculus epiploicus, have
commonly no fixed connections, but lie loofe between the
fore-fide of the cavity of the abdomen and inteftines.
The membrane of the omentum is through, its whole
extent made up of two extremely thin laminas joined by
a cellular fuftance; the quantity of which is very confi-
derable along the blood-veffds, which it every where ac¬
companies in broad bands, proportioned to the branches
and ramifications of thefe veffels. Thefe cellular bands
are more or lefs filled with fat according to the corpu¬
lency of the fubjedt.
Befides this large membranous bag, there is another
much fmaller, which differs from the large one, not on¬
ly in fize, but alfo in figure, fituation and connexion ;
and this is the little omentum. This final! bag is
fixed by its whole circumference, partly to the fmall
curvature of the ftomach, and partly to the concave fide of
the liver before the finus of the vena portae, fo as to fur-
round and contain the prominent portion of the lobulus.
The little omentum is thinner and more tranfvarent
than the other, and its cavity diminifhes gradually from
the circumference to the bottom. Its ftrudture is pretty
much the fame with that of the great omentum, it be¬
ing compofed of two laminae, with a niixture of the fame
portions of fat, which are confiderably finer than'in the
other.
The fatty appendices of the colon and retftum appear
to be a kind of fmall omenta or appendices epiploicae.
They are fituated at different diftances along thefe in¬
teftines, being particular elongations of their common or
external coat. They are of the fame ftrudture with the
great omenta, and there is a cellular fubftance contained
in their duplicature, more or lefs filled with fat, accord¬
ing as the fubjedt is fat or lean.
Uses of the Abdominal Vifcera.
The inteftines in general finifh what the ftomach
had begun.. The alimentary pulp- having been fuffi-
eiently prepared by the fuccus gaftricus, or lymph of the
ftomach, undergoes a further change by the inteflinal
lymph, bile, and pancreatic juice, by which the milky
liquor called chyle is produced, and this liquor rendered
fluid enough to enter the ladfeal veffels through the tu¬
nica villofa of the fmall inteftines, while the groffer por¬
tion of the aliment continues its courfe, and becoming
gradually thicker as it advances toward the great inte¬
ftines, is there colledted by the name faces.
The valve of the colon, which might more properly
be termed fpbintter or pylorus of the ileum, hinders the
feces from returning into the fmall infeftines.
The glandular lacunas of the Inteftines.furnifh conti¬
nually a kind of mucilage, which not only defends the
internal coat from the acrimony of the fgeces, but ferves
alfo to lubricate thefe fseces in proportion to their diffe¬
rent degrees of folidity.
The inteftinum redtum is the laft refervatory of the
feces. The great thicknefs of its mufcular coat, and
the great number of longitudinal fibres by which this
thicknefs is chiefly formed, enable it to yield to the col¬
ledted feces to fo great a degree, as to reprefent a large
bladder or ftomach. The mufeuli levatores ani ferve to
fufpend the lower portion of this inteftine, efpecially
when full; and it is partly by the contradtion of thefe
mufcles which overcome the fphindter of the anus, that
the feces are difeharged out of the body. Thefe fphinc-
ters form the third pylorus of the whole alimentary
canal.
The mefentery and mefocolon connedt the inteftines,
in fuch a manner, as that they cannot be twifted or run
into knots, without hindering them from Hiding and
yielding to each other according to the different poftures
of the body, or according as they are more or lefs empty
or full.
The adhefions of the mefentery form the convolutions
of all the fmall inteftines into a large bundle, irregularly
round, which fills a great part of the cavity of the abdo¬
men, from the epigaftrium downward.
The mefocolon by its adhefion to the colon forms a
kind of feptum tranfverfum, between the fmall inteftines
and the vifcera contained in the epigaftrium; and this fcp1-
turn fupports the liver and'ftomaeh under the arch of the
diaphragm, juft as much as it is fuftained by the inteftines;
The breadth of the mefentery and mefocolon affords
a large extent to the ramifications of the arteries, veins;
and nerves, diftributed through them by innumerable
communications and anaftomofes, by means of which any
portion of the inteftines may be fupplted, though the
principal branch which leads to it fhould happen to be
compreffed or obftrudted..
The cellular fubftance in the duplieature of the mefen¬
tery and mefocolon, ferves not only for a foft bed to all
thefe ramifications, but alfo to contain thofe colle&ions
of fat neceffary for the formation of the bile; and the cel¬
lular fubftance of, the mefentery has likewife one ufe pe¬
culiar to it, which is to invert the lymphatic glands and
Jadteal veffels, and upon this account it is thicker than;
that, of the mefocolon.
The ladteal veffels being firft formed by a copious re¬
ticular texture round the circumference of the inteftines;
refembling the vafcular network of that canal, and after¬
wards uniting every where through the duplicature of the
mefentery, with die arterial ramifications which they
likewife accompany in many places ; it is eafy to conceive;
that the pulfation of the mefenteric arteries muft propel
the chyle in the ladteal vefiels from the inteftines to the
receptaculum chyli, that motion being fuitable to the db
redlion of their valves.
The liver is the principal organ for the fecretion of the
bile. The villi of that immenfe number of glandular
cells of which it is compofed, filtrate'continually from
the blood of the vena portas fmall drops of bile, which
afterwards infinuate themfclves'into the pori bilarii, an 1
- araj
2 69 ANATOM Y. Part VL
are in pan' lodged in the veficula fellis, and in part run
dire&ly into the duodenum.
The fpdeen, omentum, appendices epiploicse, adipofe
ftrata of the mefentery, and thofe of the great inteftines,
and even the pancreas, with the whole feries of glands
in the inteftinal canal, feem to contribute to the forma¬
tion of the bile, as fo many auxiliary or rather prepara-
tof'y'organs. '
The vehicular bile appears to be more exalted than that
in the hepatic du£t ;• and by meeting in the duitus cho-
lidochus, they feem to compofe a third kind of bile,
which without the cyftic or vehicular bile would perhaps
be too mild, and too acrid without the hepatic. This
bile mixes in the duodenum with the pancreatic juice,
and with that of the inteftinal glands; and from this
mixture a fluid refults, which is proper to feparate the
chylous matter from the grofs and uhelehs part of the a-
limentary pulp, as it comes from the ftomach.
RENES & URETERES.
The kidneys are two pretty folid, glandular bodies,
fltuated in the pofterior part of the cavity of the abdo¬
men, on each fide of the lumbar vertebrae, between the
iaft falhe ribs and ofl'a ileum. The right kidney lies un¬
der the great lobe of the liver, and is confequently low¬
er than the deft, which lies under the fpleen.
The figure of the kidneys refembles that of a large
bean, their circumference being convex on one fide, and
concave on the other. The concave fide is turned to
the vertebras, and the convex fide the oppofite way.
In each kidney we obferve a fore and back fide, an
upper and lower extremity, a great and fmall curvature,
and a convexity and concavity.
The back-fide is broader than the fore-fide ; and the
upper extremity is a little broader and more incurvated
than the lower. The depreffion in the fmall curvature is
oblong and uneven, refembfing a finus, furrounded by fe-
veral tubercles; and as it is turned a little toward the
fore-fide, this fide is fomething narrower than the other.
The kidneys are furrounded by a very loofe membra¬
nous and cellular covering, called membrana udipofa,
becaufe in fat perfons the cells of this fubftance are filled
with fat.
The proper coat or membrane of the kidneys is com-
pofed of two laminae, between which there is likewife a
very fine cellular fubftance, which may be made fenfible
by blowing through a pipe between the two laminae.
The external lamina is very thin, and adheres clofely
to the internal lamina, by means of the cellular fub¬
ftance. The internal lamina penetrates every where, by
numerous elongations, into the fubftance of the kidney,
from which it cannot be feparated withsut tearing.
The furface of the external lamina is very fmooth,
polifted and gliftening, and it renders the whole furface
of the kidney very even and uniform.
The blood-veflels having entered the kidneys, are ra¬
mified every way ; andthefe ramifications fend out other
capillary rami, which go all the way to the furface,
where they appear like irregular ftars, and furnift the
proper membrane of the kidneys.
The proper membrane having furrounded the kidney
all the way to the firms, joins the veftels at that place, and
accompanies all their ramifications through the body of
the kidney, in form of a vagina or capfula.
We may diftinguift three kinds of fubftances iri the kid¬
ney; an exterior fubftance, which is thick, granulated,
and in a manner cortical; a middle fubftance, which is
medullary and radiated, called Jiriata, fulcata, or tubu-
laris, becaufe it feems to be made up of radiated tubes ;
and an inner fubftance, which is only a continuation of
the fecond, and terminates on the infide by papilla, for
which reafon it is called papillaris.
The papill®, which are only a continuation of the me¬
dullary fubftance, are often a little paler than that fub¬
ftance. They are ten or twelve in number, very di-
ftind from each other, refembling the fame number of
cones, with very broad bafes and obtufe apices.
At the point of each papilla we fee, even without a
microfcope, in a fmall depreffion, feveral very fmall
holes, through which little drops may be perceived to
run when the papill® are comprelfed. Thefe are little
drops of urine, which being filtrated, partly in the corti¬
cal, partly in the medullary or tubular fubftance, do af¬
terwards pafs through the fubftance of the papill®, and
are difcharged by thefe orifices.
Each papilla lies in a kind of membranous calix or
infundibulum, which opens into a common cavity called
the pelvis. This pelvis is membranous, being of the
fame ftrudhire with the calices, of which it is a continua¬
tion ; and its cavity in man is not uniform, but diftin-
guifted into three portions, each of which contains a
certain number of infundibula or calices, together with
the papill® which lie therein.
At the place where thefe infundibula furround the
bafes of the papill®, they fend pi oduftions into the me¬
dullary or radiated fubftance of the kidney, which ac¬
company the blood-veflels, and ferve for capful® or va-
gin® to all the vafcular' arches, both arterial and venal,
and to their different ramifications, quite through the
cortical fubftance, and as far as the furface of the kidney.
After the infundibula have contracted in a conical form
round the apices of the papill®, each of them forms a
fmall ftort tube or gullet, which, uniting at different dif-
tances along the bottom of the finus of the kidney, form
three large tubes, which go out from the finus in an o -
blique direction from above downwards, and immediate¬
ly afterwards unite into one trunk.
This trunk becomes a very long canal, called the ure¬
ter. In men the three tubes fupply the place of what is
called the pelvis in brutes, and might properly be call¬
ed the roots or branches of the ureters than the pelvis.
The ureters are commonly two in number, one for each
kidney.
The fimatron of the trunk, and of the roots and
branches of each ureter, with refpeCt to the renal artery
and vein, is in the following manner: The artery is in
the upper part of the finus, and partly before the vein.
The vein is about the middle, and between the artery
and ureter. The ureter is in the lower part, a little be¬
hind the vein, and k is partly furrounded by one branch
of the artery.
From
Part YI. A N A r
. The ureters run down: obliquely,. and with .a very
fmall degree of infieftion, from the kidneys to the lateral
parts of the inner or anterior fide of the os facrum, and
palling between, the redum and bladder they terminate in
the lalt of thefe vifcera.
They are .fompofed of three proper coats; the firfl:
of which, that furrounds the reft, is of a whitilh co¬
lour, and'of a very compad filamentary teKture, being
ftretched with difficulty, and appearing like a filamentary
fubftance degenerated. The next coat is of a reddiffi co¬
lour, ftronger than the fir ft, and made up of different
flrata of fibres, which interfed each other; but it is ve¬
ry hard to determine, whether they are mufcular, or
limply membranous.
GLANDULE REN ALES, vulgo CAP-
sula: atrabilaria:.
Immediately above each kidney, lies a glandular
body, called by the ancients Capfulse atribilariae ; by others
capfuls renales, renes fuccenturiati, and glandulae re-
nales. They are fituated on the upper extremity of each
kidney a little obliquely, that is, more toward the inner
edge and finus of the kidney than toward the outer con¬
vex edge.
Each gland is an oblong body with three fides, three
edges, and two points, like an irregular crefcent with its
great or convex edge (harp, and the fmall concave edge
broad. Its length is about two thirds of the greateft
breadth of the kidney, and the breadth of its middle
portion is about one third of its extent between the two
extremities, fometimes more, fometimes lefs. Its colour
is a dark yellow.
It has one anterior, one pofterior, and one lower fide,
which laft may be termed the bafis ; and it has one upper,
and two lower edges, whereof one is anterior, the other
pofterior. The upper edge may be called the crifta, and
the two lower edges the labia.
. The furface of thefe glands is uneven ; the forefide is
the broadeft, and the lower fide or bafis the narroweft.
Along the middle of the anterior fide, a ridge runs from
the edge of the inner extremity, a little above the bafis,
to the point of the other extremity, and divides this
fide into two equal parts, like ihe middle rib of the
leaf of a tree; and on the lower fide, under the bafis,
there is a kind of raphe or future.
The bloo<Weffels of thefe glands come from the ar-
terise, and venas renales, and diaphragmaticse, and like-
wife from %he aorta and vena cava, from the arteria cas- ‘
liaca, &c. Thele veffels are termed the capfular ar- ,
teriesand veins; and as they enter the .glands, theyfeem
to be inverted by a vagina.
In die inlide of thefe capfuls:, there is a narrow trian¬
gular cavity, the furface'of which is full of ftiort ftrong
villi of a yellowiffi colour; but in children it is reddiffi,
and of a dark brown in aged people. The .fides of this
cavit^y are comiefted by a great number of filaments.;
and they appear to be wholly glandular, that is, to be
filled with very fine fmall folliculous corpufcles.
This cavity contains an unduous vifcid liquor, of a
yellowiffi red colour, which with age changes gradually'
Vol. I. Numb. i2. 3
r O M Y.
into a yellowiffi purple, a dark yellow, and a black yel¬
low ; and fometimes it is perfe&ly black; but even
then, .if it be.fpread thin on a large furface, it appears
yellow.
The qfes of thefe renal glands have not as yet been
difcovered; and all that we know about the liquor con¬
tained in them, is, that it refembles the bile. They are
very large in the foetus, and diminiffi in adults.
VESICA URINARIA.
The bladder is a kind of membranous and fieffiy
pouch or bottle, capable of dilatation and contraction,
fituated in the lower part of the abdomen, immediately be¬
hind the fymphyfis of the offa pubis, and oppofite to the
beginning of the inteftinum reCtum. The figure of it is
nearly that of a ftiort oval. It is broader on the fore and
back fides, than on the lateral parts ; rounder above
than below when empty, and broader below than above
when full.
It is divided into the body, meek, and bottom; into an
anterior, pofterior, and two lateral parts. The upper
part is termed the fundus or bottom ; and the neck is a
portion of the lower part, which is contracted like the
gullet of fome veffels.
The bladder is made, up of feveral coats. That part
of the external coat which covers the upper, pofterior
and.lateral fides of the bladder, is the true lamina or
membrane of the peritonaeum ; and the reft of it is fur-
rounded by a cellular fubftance, by the intervention of
which, the peritonaeum is connected to the mufcular coat.
The proper coats are three in number, one mufcular,
one nervous, and one villous, which is the innermoft.
The mufcular coat is compofed of feveral ftrata of fieffiy
fibres ; the outermoft of which are moftly longitudinal;
the next to thefe are more inclined toward each hand; and •
the innermoft, more and more oblique; and they become •
at length almoft tranfverfe.
The nervous coat is nearly of the fame ftruCture with
the tunica nervofa of the ftomach.
The-internal ooat is fomething granulated and glan¬
dular, and a mucilaginous ferum is continually difeharged
through it, which moiftens the inner furface qf the
bladder and defends it againft the acrimony of the urine.
At the top of the bladder, above the fymphyfis of the
offa pubis, we obferve a ligamentary rope, which runs
up between the peritonaeum and the linea alba of the ab-‘
domen, all the way to the navel, diminiffiing gradually
in thicknefs as it afeends. This rope had a particular1
nfe in the foetus,; as ftiall be faid in another place. It is
fufficient to add here, that it is in part originally a pro-:
duCtion of the inner coats of the bladder, which produc-,
tion is termed urachus.
This rope is compofed likewife of two other ligamen-j
tary elongations, winch are the extremities of the um¬
bilical arteries. Thefe arteries come from the hypoga-
ftricas, run up by .the fides of the bladder, and . main
hollow and filled with blood, even in adults, as high .as
the middle of the bladder, through all which fpace they
likewife fend off ramifications. Afterwards they lofe-
their cavity, and become ligamentary as they afeend.
■3Y . . At
270 A N A T
At the upper part of the bladder, they approach each
other; and, joining the urachus, form that rope, which
may be termed the fuperior ligament of the bladder.
The lower part of the bladder, which deferves the
name of fundus much better than the upper part, is per¬
forated by three openings, one anterior, and two pofte-
rior. The anterior opening is formed by an elongation
of all the proper coats, in form of a gullet, turned much
in the fame manner with the inner orifice of the roftrum
of the head of an alembic. This elongation is Called the
neck of the bladder, the defcription of which belongs to
that of the parts of generation in men.
The other two openings in the true fundus o.f the
bladder, are formed by the ureters, which, in their courfe
downward already defcribed, run behind the fpermatic
veffels, and then behind the lower part of the bladder,
approaching each other. Each ureter lies between the
umbilical artery and vas deferens of the fame fide, the
artery lying on the outfide of the ureter, and the vas de¬
ferens on the infide.
Afterwards they get between the vafa deferentia and
the bladder, eroding thefe canals: and then at about a
finger’s breadth from each other, they begin to pierce
the coats of the bladder. They run a little way between
the mufcular and nervous coats, and open into the blad- ,
der obliquely, fomething nearer each other than when
they firft entered its coats.
The orifices of the ureters in the bladder, are fome¬
thing oval, and narrower than the cavity of the ureters
immediately above them The edge of thefe orifices is
very thin, and feems to be formed merely by the union
©f the internal coat of the bladder with that of the
ureters.
Befides the ligaments already mentioned, there are
likewife two fmall ones, by which the anterior part of
the true fundus of the bladder is conne&ed to the olfa
pubis, which lhall be defcribed with the neck and fphinc-
ter after the hiftory of the parts of generation in both
fexes.
THE PARTS OF GENERATION IN
MALES.
The fpermatic arteries go out moft commonly from
the anterior part of the inferior aorta, near each other,
and about an inch lower than the arterise renales.
They run down obliquely in the pofterior part of the
abdomen, within the cellular fubftance of the perito-
nscum, palling infenfibly from behind forward; and fo
parting gradually more and more from the aorta, they
crofi over the forefide of the ureters, and run through
the openings or. rings of the abdominal mufcles, along
with the elongations or produftions of the cellular portion
of the peritoneum.
They are fmall at their origin; and in their courfe
downward, they give off pretty confiderable lateral ra¬
mifications to the membrana adipofa, peritonaeum, and
alfo to the mefentery.
They fometrmes pafs through the areolae, or roeftiesof
the fpermatic veins; and before they go out of the ab¬
domen, they are divided into very fine rami, which run
O M Y. Part V[.
in a more or lefs winding coutfe, almoft parallel to each
other.
Afterwards they enter the cellular productions of the
peritonaeum, which ferve them for vaginae. They do not
fluctuate indifferently from one fide to the other of thefe
vaginae ; but are connected along their inner furface by
thin membranous laminae, which are likewife continua¬
tions of the cellular fubftance of the peritonaeum.
The arteries continue the fame winding courfe within
thefe vaginae, palling before the vafa deferentia, which
are likewife contained in them; and at length they ter¬
minate by ramifications in the epididymes and teftes.
The teftes are two glandular bodies, fituated near
each other, without the abdomen, below the interftice
between the groins in an adult. The ancients named
them didym'i or geinini. Their fize is nearly that of a
pigeon’s egg, and they are of an oval figure, a little flat¬
ted at each fide. We may confider in each tefticle, two
extremities, two edges, and two fides. One extremity
is fituated forward, and a little upward; the other back¬
ward, and a little downward; and their edges lie up¬
ward and downward.
At the upper edge, they have each an appendix, cal¬
led epididymis, together with which it is involved infe-
veral coverings; and they are both fufpended in a com¬
mon covering, called the ferotum.
Each tefticle is a fpermatic gland formed by a vaft
number of fine whitifh tubes, folded and twifted in dif¬
ferent manners, and diftributed in different fafciculi, be¬
tween membranous fepta; the whole being furrounded
by a ftrong common covering, named tunica albuginea.
Thefe fepta are difpofed longitudinally, divaricating
from each other on one fide, and approaching on the o-
tber. They approach each other along one edge of the
tefticle, and terminate in a long narrow whitifh body, as
in a kind of axis.
From thence they divaricate in a regular manner, and
are fixed by their oppofite edges in the inner furface of
the tunica albuginea, of which they appear to be a con¬
tinuation. This white body may be termed the nucleus
of the tefticle.
From this defcription, we fee that all thefe fepta are
not of an equal breadth; that the interftices between
them are in fome meafure trangular; and that the extent
of the fmall tubes, which lie therein, muft be very con¬
fiderable. They have been reckoned to amount to many
ells, by taking the fum of all their feveral portions . and
they may be eafily unfolded by a long maceration, which
deftroys the delicate fubftance by which all their folds and
convolutions are connedted and tied down.
All thefe fmall canals feem to terminate by a fmaller
number of common trunks at the white body or nucleus al¬
ready mentioned; which trunks do afterwards pierce the
upper part of the anterior extremity of the tefticle, and
are difpofed in feveral folds along the lateral external part
of the upper edge, all the way to the pofterior extremi¬
ty. From this union arifes a long whitifh plaited fafei-
culus or bundle, called epididymis, or appendix to the
tefticle.
The epididymis thus formed, may be reckoned a pro¬
duction of the tefticle,. or a kind of teftis acceflorius;
and
Part VI. A N A T
and it refembles in fome meafure an arch fupported by
its center or frame. It is more contracted at the middle,
than at the extremities, by which it is clofely united to
thofe of the te/licle.
Between its extremities it does not immediately touch
the tefticle, but is only loofely connedted to it, by the
duplicature of a very fine and almoft tranfparent mem¬
brane, as by a kind of ligament. This membrone is the
continuation and duplicature of the tunica albuginea or
proper coat of the tefticle, which having fupplied the
place of a ligament to the epididymis afterwards in veils it.
The epididymis is flat, a little concaye on the under
fide, or that next the teliicle, irregularly convex on the
upper fide, or that turned from the tefticle; and thefe
two fides are diftinguiftied by two angular edges ; by the
innermoft of which, it is connedled to the tefticle, in the
manner already faid; but the outer edge and flat fide
are loofe and free.
The anterior extremity or head of the epididymis arifes
from the tefticle; and the pofterior extremity or tail,
which likev/ife adheres very clofely to it, is incurv^ted
from behind, forward, and a little upward, and contrac¬
ting by degrees, forms a particular canal, termed vas
deferens, which lhall be defcribed after the fcrotum.
The fcrotum is the cutaneous covering of the teftes.
Outwardly, it is a bag common to both, formed by a
continuation of the fkin of the neighbouring parts, and
commonly very uneven, having a great number of rugae
on its outer furface. Interiorly it is fldhy, and forms a
mufcular capfula for each tefticle, termed dartos.
The exterior or cutaneous portion of the fcrotum is
nearly of the fame ftrufture with the fkin in general, of
which it is a continuation; only it is fomething finer,
and it is likewife plentifully ftored with febaceous glands
and bulbs or roots of hairs.
Though it is a common covering for both tefticles, it
is neverthelefs diftinguiflied into two lateral parts by a
fuperficial and Uneven prominent line which appears like
a kind of future, and from thence has been termed raphe.
This line is a continuation of that which divides in
the fame manner the cutaneous covering of the penis ;
and it is continued through the perinasum, which it di¬
vides likewife, all the way to the anus It is only fu¬
perficial, and does not appear on the infide of the Ikin.
The inner furface of this cutaneous bag is lined by a
very thin cellular membrane, through which bulbs and
glands appear very diftin&ly when we view its infide.
The dartos, or flefliy portion of the fcrotum, is a true
cutaneous mufcle ; the fibres of which are for the moft
part ftrongly connetfted to the fhin, running through the
cellular fubftance which lies between thefe two portions
in place of a membrana adipofa, but without the leaft:
appearance of fat. This ruufcle is thin, and by the dif-
pofition of its fibres forms a bag. with two cavities, or
two fmall bags joined: laterally to each other, and con¬
tained within the cutaneous portion.
The lateral parts of thefe two bags, which are turned
from each other, are longer than thofe which are joined
together; and by this union a feptum is formed between
the teftes, which may be called mediaftinum fcroti.
The raphe or future already mentioned adheres to the
O M Y 271
edge of this feptum, and thereby braces down the middle
of the cutaneous portion, which from thence appears to
have in part two cavities.
The aponeurotic or ligamentary expanfion of the dar¬
tos is fixed in the ramus of the os pubis, between the
mufculus triceps and the origin of the corpus caverno-
fum of the fame fide, all the way to the lower part of
the fymphyfis of thele bones.
The vafa deferentia are two white folid flatted tubes,
one lying on the right fide, the other on the left. From
the epididymis, of which they are continuations, each of
them runs up in the cellular vagina of the fpermatic vef-
fels, as high as the openings in the abdominal mufcles j
the blood-velftls lying forward, and the vas deferens be¬
hind them.
This fafciculus, thus formed by the blood-veffds, vas
deferens, and their common covering, is termed the
fpermatic rope. The covering is fmoother on the outer
than on the inner fide, and for that re Ton it has been
looked upon as a vagina ; the internal fubftance of which
is moft cellular, and conneds all the veflels together,-
while the external forms a covering to invert them.
The vas deferens having reached the membranous la¬
mina of the peritonaeum, where that lamina runs over
the orifice of the vagina, feparates from the blood vef-
fels, and runs backward,- in form of an arch, in the cel-7
lular fubftance of the peritonaeum, as far as the neareft
fide of the bladder.
It pafles afterwards behind the body of the bladder,
to which it adheres very clofely, as alfo to the lamina of
the peritonaeum which covers it, and then continues-
its arched courfe towards the neck of the bladder, where
both vafa deferentia meet, and their arches terminate.
In this courfe, the vas deferens pafles behind and crof-
fes the neighbouring umbilical artery; crofles the extre- .
mity of the ureter of the fame fide, in its pafl'age be¬
tween that extremity and' the bladder; and having got
behind the bladder, it meets the vas deferens of the o-
ther fide between the infertion^ of the ureters, and they
run down together to the neck of the bladder.
This canal, which at the origin of the epididymis is
pretty large and plaited, becomes immediately afterward
fmaller and fmoother, and continues in that form till it
gets behind the bladder,, where it begins again to be lar¬
ger and more uneven.
It arifes from the angular portion or pofterior extremi¬
ty of the epididymis, and from thence runs forward in a.
very oblique courfe, on the pofterior half of the epididy¬
mis, where it is a little ineurvated as it joins the back-
fide of the fpermatic veflels.
The cavity of the vas deferens is cylindrical, though*
the whole tube is flat, and its external circumference o-
val, and the cavity inlarges as it paftes behind the blad¬
der. The termination of thefe canals muft be referred
to the hiftory of the urethra.
The particular coverings- of the teftes are commonly '
called coats; and they are reckoned to be three in num¬
ber; the tunica mufculofa, named cremafter, vaginalis
and albuginea. The firft two are common to each te¬
fticle, and to the fpermatic rope that belong? to it ; and.
the third is peculiar to the tefticle. alone.
The
27-2 A N • A T
The tunica vaginalis is the mod confiderable of the three,
and. muft be defcribed firft, in order to conceive the ftruc-
ture and connexion of the cremafter, which is very im¬
properly called a coat. The albuginea has been already
defcribed with the teftes.
The tunica vaginalis is a continuation of the vagina
at the fper.matic rope, .which, as it approaches the te-
dicle, is gradually dilated, and forms two capfulse, one
contained within the other, the ext-mal being the
longed and broaded at bottom; fo that there is a void
fpace there left between them, in which the tedicle is
lodged.
The inner furface of this coat is lined by a fine mem¬
brane, which drengthens the bottom of the vagina, and
forms a kind of diaphragm, which prevents all communi¬
cation between the vagina of the fpermatic rope and the
tunica vaginalis of the tedicle.
• The cremafter, improperly termed a coat, is a thin
rcufcle or fklhy -plane, which runs down round the va¬
gina of the fpermatic rope, and terminates in the tunica
vaginalis of the tefticle.
It furrounds almoft the whole yagina, and after¬
wards expands itfelf on the upper and external part of
the tunica vaginalis, in which it is inferted and loft.
. It arifes partly from the ligamentum Fallopii, and
partly from the lower edge 4of the internal oblique muf-
cle of the abdomen; and on this account it feems fome-
times to arife from the fpine of the os ilium.
The corpora cavernofa are two ligamentary and very
limber tubes, united laterally to each fide, through the
greateft part of their length, and folid at their two ex¬
tremities, two of which are connected together, and
rounded like the end of a finger; the other two divari¬
cate, like the branches of the greek Y, and diminifhing
gradually in fize after the divarication, termihate in an
oblique point. Thefe divaricated and pointed extremi¬
ties may be called the roots, and the round extremities
the heads.
. Thefe two bodies are almoft cylindrical, being round,
and of an equal diameter from the roots to the heads,
where they are in fome meafure conical. The ligamen¬
tary fubftance of their fides is eladic, and compofed of
fine clofe fibres, which are partly tranfverfe, and partly
more or lefs oblique.
The cavity of thefe ligamentary tubes is entirely filled
by a ftrong cellular or cavernous fubftance, which does
not feera to be a continuation of the fubftance of the
fides. Thefe cells communicate with each other, and
ar.e always more or lefs full of blood, rdembling pretty
much the cellular fubftance of the fpleen ; only with
this difference,- that the fades of the cells are thicker in
thefe cavernous bodies, and without any additional fub¬
ftance.
By the union of the two corpora cavernofa, two exter¬
nal grooves are formed, one on the upper fide, the other
on the lower. The lower groove is fomething broader
than the upper, and it is filled through its whole length by
a third tube, narrower than the corpora cavernofa, cal¬
led the urethra.
The roots of the corpora cavernofa are fixed, each,
to the edge of ‘the fraall ramus of the os ifchium and os
O M- Y Part VI;
pubis. They meet at the fymphyfis of the offa pubis,
where each of them becomes a cylindrical tube, and
unites with the other in the manner already faid.
The heads or rounded extremities join the bafis,,
of a diftindt body,’ called the glans, which is an expan-
fion of the urethra, and clofely united to it. ,
By the union of the corpora cavernofa from their roots
to their round extremities or heads, a particular feptumj
is formed by the tranfverfe fibres of both. Between
the fibres of this feptum feveral fmall void fpaces are
left, by which the corpora cavernofa communicate with
each other.
The urethra is the third fpungy tube which compofes-
the penis, and it adheres to the corpora cavernofa through
the whole length of the inferior groove formed by their
union. It differs from the other two, both as it is oar*,
rower, and as it forms a true hollow canal. Its fubftance
is fpungy or cavernous, except a fmall portion next
the bladder, and its inner and outer furfaces are mem¬
branous.
It is at firft: no more than a membranous canal conti¬
nued from the anterior opening of the bladder, at the
place called the neck of the bladder
About a finger’s breadth and an half from its origin, ,
it joins a cavernous fubftance like that of the two other
tubes, only fmaller, which furrounds it through the
whole extent of the inferior groove of the corpora ca-.
vernofa.
But before this fpungy fubftance begins to furround the
tirethra, it forms a diftimft oblong body, like a pear or
onion, which is connected only to the lower convex fide
of the canal, and afterwards, being fplit on each fide, -
invefts it quite round. This body is called the bulb of
the urethra, being larger than any other part of that
canal, and divided interiorly* by a very fine membranous .
feptum, into lateral parts; and therefore when it is in¬
flated, it appears to be double or with two heads.
The firft portion of the urethra, or that which is not
covered by the cavernous fubftance, and which from the
bladder to the bulb is only a membranous canal, is fit-
ftained by a large folid whitifh mafs, of the figure of a
chefnut, and fituated between the .bladder and the bulb
of the urethra, its bafis being toward the1 bladder, the
apex or point toward the urethra, and the fides lying up¬
ward and downward.
This body is termed the proftates, from a greek word
that expreffes its fituation before the veficulae feminales,
and implies a plurality, becaufe it appears to be divided
into two lateral lobes, by a hollow groove which runs
through its upper fide from the bafis to the apex. The
firft portion of the urethra lies in this groove, adhering
very clofely to the proftates which furround it.
The body of the proftates lies on the inteftinum rec¬
tum, and the apex is under the internal labium of the
cartilaginous arch of the offa pubis. The inner fubftance
is fpungy, but very compaft; and in each lobe there are
feveral folliculi which open into the firft portion of the
urethra, toward the bottom of the gropve.
The fpungy fubftance. of the urethra, having reached
the extremity of the corpora cavernofa, forms a large
head, called the glans, which crowns the three Ijpungy
pillars.
Part VI. A N A T
pillars ; with this difference however, that it is a conti¬
nuation of the fpungy fubftance of the urethra, and on¬
ly adheres to the extremity of the corpora cavernofa
without any direft communication.
The figure of the glans is that of a rounded cone, a
little flattened, at the lower part, and with an oblique
prominent balls, the circumference of which is fomething
greater than that of the corpora cavernofa.
The fpungy fubftance of the glans is thick and uni¬
form next the corpora cavernofa; but next the urethra,
it is perforated by a continuation Bf that canal, and is
there no thicker than the urethra before the formation
of the glans.
Therefore the canal of the urethra does cot lie in the
taiddle of the glans, but continues its direft courfe thro’
the lower flat fide of it, all the way to the extremity,
where it terminates by an oblong orifice.
All the convex furface of the glans is covered by a
fine villous fubftance; and that again by a fine mem¬
brane, refembling the red part of the lips. The circum¬
ference of the balls of the glans has a double row of
fmall papilla:, which may be reckoned febaceous glandsj
from which a thick matter is difcharged.
At the bottom of the cavity of the firft portion of the
urethra, or that which lies within the proftates, there is
a fmall oblong pval eminence,- pretty large on the back
part, and terminating forward in a point, called carun-
cula or verumontanum. The large portion of it is com¬
monly perforated by two holes, fometimes only by one-,
and very feldom by three; and thefe are the excretory
orifices of the veliculae feminales. Each orifice has a
fmall thin hiembranous border, which may ferve for
valves to the excretory dufts of the veficulje.
On each fide of the lange portion of the caruncula,
there are five or fix holes ranked in form of a crefcent
round its lateral parts; which are the orifices of the ex¬
cretory dufts of the proftates that come from the follicu-
li already mentioned, and run in an oblique courfe to the
orifices, in a kind of membranous duplicature.
The veficulas feminales are foft whitilh knotty bodies,
about three or four fingers breadth in length, one in
breadth, and about three times as broad as thick, fitua-
ted obliquely between the reftum and lower part of the
bladder, in fuch a'manner, as that their fuperior extre¬
mities are at a diftance from each other, and their lower
N extremities united between thofe of the vafa deferentia,
of which they imitate both the obliquity and the incur¬
vation.
They are irregularly round on the upper part, and
their breadth decreafes gradually from thence. By the
union of their lower extremities, they form a kind of
fork, the branches of which are broad, and bent like
rams horns. Thefe extremities are very narrow, and
form a fmall neck, which-runs behind the bladder to¬
ward its orifice, and continues its courfe in the groove of
the proftates, through the fubftance of the contiguous
portion of the urethra, till its extremities pierce the
caruncula in the manner already faid.
The inner fubftance of the veficidae is plaited, and in
a manner diftinguilhed into feveral capfuls, by contort¬
ed folds. Their external furface is covered by a fine
Von. I. No. f2. 3
O M Y. 2 73
membrane, which f;rves for a border and frasnum to the
folds, and is a true continuation of the cellular fubftance
of the peritonaeum. The veficuls may eaftly be unfold¬
ed, and all their contoifions ftreightened, and by this
means they become much longer than in their natural ftate.
Their inner furface is villous and glandular, and con¬
tinually furnifhes a particular fluid, which exalts, re¬
fines, and perfects the femen, which they recive from
the vafa deferentia, and of which they are the refervato-
ries for a certain time.
The paflage of the vafa deferentia into the veficulae is
very particular. It was obfffrved, that thefe canals are
incurvated behind the bladder, and that their contrafted
extremities unite at that place. They unite in an angle,
and run between the contiguous extremities of the vefi¬
culae ; and this union is fo clofe, that the adhering por¬
tions feem to form only one middle feptum, between two
fmall tubes, each of which is formed, partly by the ex¬
tremity of one vas deferens, and partly by that of the
neighbouring veficula.
This lateral union of the extremities of the vas defe¬
rens, and veficula feminalis on each fide, forms like wife
a kind of fliort feptum, which terminates in,a crefcent,
like a fmall femilunar valve, and the extremity of the
vas deferens is narrower than that of the veficula. By
this.mechanifm, the fluid contained in each vas deferens
has liberty to enter the contiguous veficula, but that con¬
tained in the veficula cannot return into the other canal.
Afterwards the two fmall tubes, formed each by the
extremities of the vas deferens and veficula, run in be¬
tween the bafis of the proftates, and canal of the ure¬
thra ; and perforating the fides of that canal obliquely,
they terminate in the caruncula.
The infide of the canal of the urethra is lined by a
fine membrane, full of capillary blood-vefiels; and its
furface is perforated by a great number of oblong holes
or fmall lacunas of different fizes, the largeft lying near
the glans.
Thefe lacuna:, or orifices of the excretory dufts of
the fame number of fmall glands, are difperfed through
the fubftance of the urethra. Which dufts run for fome
way in the fpungy fubftance, along the convex fide of
the internal membrane of the urethra, and open oblique¬
ly from behind, forward into the great canal. The
edges of the lacunae are femilunar, or like a crefcent.
A little way from the beginning of the cellular fub¬
ftance of the urethra, we meet with two lacunae more
confiderable than the reft, and their dufte are very long,
Thefe lacunae and dufts lead to two glandular bodies,
fituated on the two convex fides of the fpungy Jubftance
of the urethra near the bulb. Each of them is about the
fize of a cherry-ftone, but they are oblong and flat,
and covered intirely by the mufcles called acctlenxtoret.
Thefe two bodies are -commonly called projiatae infe¬
rior es.
The cavity of the urethra refembles nearly that of a
fmall writing pen. It is not every where round, and to¬
wards the gland becomes broader and flatter on one fide,
efpecially in the gland itfelf, where there is a kind of o-
val or navicular foffula.
This canal terminates at the extremity of the glans
3 Z ° by
274 A N A T
by a narrow oblong orifice or fiflure, which is much lefs
than the reft of the cavity. The commiffures of this
fmall fiflure are turned one toward the convex, the o-
ther toward the flat fide of the glans; and the labia of
the fiflure are its lateral parts • and it feems to be fur-
Tounded by fleftiy fibres.
The prseputium is a continuation of the Ikin of the pu¬
bis and fcrotum, and it adheres all the way to the bafis
of the glans. The reft of the cutaneous integument co¬
vers the glans without adhefion, and terminates by an
opening. This portion is named prseputium, and along
the whole lower or back fide, both of the whole integu¬
ment in general, and of the praeputium in particular,
there runs a fine future, which is a continuation of the
raphe of the perinaeum and fcrotum.
The inner furface of the praeputium is lined with a
fine membrane from the opening all the way behind the
bafis of the glans ; and the fame membrane is folded
■from behind, forward, round the glans, forming the
proper integument thereof, and covering very clofely its
■whole villous furface, as far as the orifice of the urethra,
where it joins the membrane, which lines’ the infide of
that canal.
This proper membrane of the glans, and internal
membrane of the prseputium, form conjointly along the
fiat part of the glans, from its bafis to the orifice of the
'urethra, a membranous duplicature, which like a feptum
or mediaftinum divides this part into two lateral portions,
and limits the motions of the praeputium; for which rea¬
son it is called franum prteputii.
The furface of the internal membrane of the praepu¬
tium difcharges a fluid which prevents it from adhering
to the glans.
Several mufcles are inferted in the parts which we
have defcribed in this paragraph.
The fir ft two mufcles are commonly termed ere<ftores,
or acceleratores urinag. The next two are called acce-
leratores. The four fmall mufcles, two of which are
fuperior, and two inferior, may be called proftatici.
The ere<ftores lie along the roots of the corpora ca-
vernofa ; each of them being fixed by one extremity ve¬
ry obliquely, in the internal labium of the ramus of the
os ifehium, from the tuberofity upward. From thence
it accompanies the root of the corpus cavernofum, all
the way to the fymphyfis of the offa pubis, and is fixed
by its other extremity in the corpora caverndfa, near
sheir union; where the fibres of both bodies meet, and
are reciprocally expanded over both corpora. They lie
a little lower, and more interiorly, than the roots of thefe
cavernous bodies^
The mufculi tranfverfi, called alfo triangulares, are
two long, narrow, flelhy fa/cicufi, inferted each by
one extremity in the root or beginning of the ramus of
the os ifchiura ; from whence they run tranfverfely along
the edge of the interoffeous ligament of the offa pubis,,
as far as the apex of the proftates, where their other ex¬
tremities meet, and form commonly a kind of digaftfic
Biufcle, tfle middle of which gives infei tion to the muf¬
cles of the urethra, and to the cutaneous fphin&ers. of
the aaus„
O M Y. Part VI.
The fuperior proftatici are two thin planes, fixed in the
upper part of the infide of the fmall rami of the offa pu¬
bis; from whence they are fpread over and inferted in
the proftates. Their infertions in the offa pubis are on
'one fide of thofe of the obturatores interni.
The proftatici inferiores are fmall tranfverfe planes,
each of which is fixed in the f^mphyfis, between the ra¬
mus of the os pubis and os ifchium, and from thence runs
tranfverfely, till it meets -its fellow from the other fide
under the proftates, to which they are both ftrongly
connefted, and they ferve like a girth to fuftain thefe
glands.
The PARTS of GENERATION in
FEMALES.
The parts of generation in females are feveral in
humber, fome of them external, and feme internal ; and
they are all fubordinate to one principal internal part,
called the uterus.
The uterus lies between the bladder and inteftinqm
reAum. It is a body inwardly hollow, outwardly of a
whitifli colour, of a pretty folid fubftance, and, except
in time of pregnancy, of the figure of a flat flaflc, being
in adults about three fingers breadth in length, one in
thicknefs, and two in breadth at one end, and fcarcely
one at the other.
The broadeft portion is termed the fundus, and the
narroweft the neck. Its fituation is oblique, the fundus
being turned backward and upward, and the neck for¬
ward and downward; the broad fides lie next the reAum
and bladder, and the narrow fides are lateral.
The cavity of the uterus is flat, and refembles an ob¬
long triangle, the fliorteft fide of which anfweis exactly
to the fundus, and the two longeft fides lie one on the
right-hand, the other on the left.
Of the three angles of this cavity, the two which
terminate the fundus are perforated each by a nar¬
row du<ft, which with diificulty admits a hog’s briftle.
The third angle forms a flat dudt wider than the formeV,
which perforates the neck of the uterus lengthwife, aqd
terminates at the extremity of that neck by a tranfverfe
opening.
This opening is termed the internal orifice of the ute¬
rus ; and, in the natural ftate, is narrower than the du<ft
of the collum uteri, fo that only a fmall ftilet can be
paffed through it. At the edge of this orifice, are feve¬
ral fmall holes, anfwering to the fame number of glandu¬
lar corpufcles, which difeharge a vifeid lympha.
The inner furface of the cavity of the uterus is lined
by a very fine membrane, which at the fundus or broad
portion is fmooth and even, but in the narrow portion
which leads' to the orifice it is wrinkled in a particular
manner.
The portion of this-membrane, which covers the hot*
tom of the cavity, is- perforated by a great number of'
confiderable holes, through which fmall drops of blood,
may be obferved to pals when the whole uterus is com-
preffed.
la the. narrow part, which anfwers to the collum, each
fide
Part VI. A N A T
fide is divided into two lateral parts, by a kind of pro¬
minent longitudinal line, which is larger in the upper or
anterior fide, than in the lower or polterior.
On each fide of thefe two longitudinal lines, there are
lines or rugae obliquely tranfverfe, and difpofed like
branches, the longitudinal lines reprefenting trunks.
Between and round thefe rugae, there are fmall lacunae,
through which a mucilaginous fluid is difcharged that
clofes the orifice of the uterus.
The fubftance of the body of the uterus is fpungy and
compadt, with a copious intertexture of veffels. Its
thicknefs. is nearly equal and uniform in the fides and
edges, but the fundus is thicker toward the middle,
than toward the two angles, where the thicknefs de-
creafes gradually. The edg'es are likewife much thinner
near thefe angles, than near the extremity of the neck.
The uterus is covered by a portion of the peritonaeum,
which ferves it for a coat, and is the continuation of
that which covers the bladder and inteftinum redlum,
running up from the lower and poflerior part of the
bladder, over the anterior part of the uterus, and from
thence over the fundus, and down the backfide, and af¬
terwards going to the redfum.
On each lateral part or edge of the uterus, this por¬
tion of the peritonaeum Jbrms a broad duplicaturC, which
is extended on each fide, more or lefs diredtly to the
neighbouring lateral parts of the pelvis, forming a kind
of membranous feptum between the anterior and pofte-
rior halves of the cavity of the pelvis; and it is after¬
wards continued in a loofe manner with the peritonaeum,
on the fides of the pelvis.
Thefe two broad duplicatures have the name of liga-
rnenta lata, and vefpertilionum alne. The upper edge
of each is partly double or folded, forming two fro all
diftindt duplicatures.
The laminae of all thefe duplicatures are connedled by
a cellular fubftance, in the fame manner as the other
vluplicatures of the peritonaeum ; and they contain the
.Fallopian tubes, the ovaria, a part of the fpermatic vef-
ftls, and of thofe that go to the body of the uterus, the-
ropes called the round ligaments, the nerves, <bc.
« The ovaria are two wkitifti, oval, flat,, oblong bodiesj
fituated on the fides of the fundus uteri; to which they
are fixed by a kind of fhort round ligament, and inclofed,
-together with it, in the dqplicature of the pofterior pi¬
nion of the ligamenta lata.
They are compofed of a compadt fpungy fubftance, and
of feveral little balls, or tranfparent veficulse, which are
called cva. The fpungy fubftance furrounds each of thefe
ydiculse very clofely, and 'feems likewife to furnilh them
with diftindi fpungy coverings or calfces.
The ligaments of the ovaria lie in the edges of the
pofterior pinions of the ligamenta lata, much in the fame
manner as the umbilical vein in the anterior or umbi¬
lical ligament of the liverv They are round ropes of a-
filamentary texture, fixed by one- extremity to the cor¬
ner of the fundus uteri, a little above and behind the le¬
vel of that fundus. They were formerly believed to be
hollow, and looked upon as vafa deferentia/
The Fallopian tubes are two. flaccid, conical and ver-
miferm canals, fixated more or lefs tranfverfely on.each
£ M Y. 275-
fide of the uterus, between the fundus and the lateral <■
parts of the pelvis, and included in the anterior duplica¬
tures or pinions of the ligamenta lata.
Each of them is fixed by its narrow extremities in the
cprner of the fundus uteri, into which it opens, though
by fo narrow a dudt, as hardly to admit a large briftle.
From thence their diameter augments by degrees all the
way to the other extremity, where it is about one third
part of an inch. The body of the tubae goes in a winding
courfe, and their large extremity is bent toward the o-
varia.
'Thefe large extremities are irregularly round, and ter¬
minate by a narrow orifice, a little plaited, and turned to-
-ward the ovarium, where it prefently expands irf fonn-
of a membranous fringe, full of plaits and incifures,
Thefe fringes are called the broad ends of the Fallopian
tubes.
Thefe tubes are compofed of flelhy -fibres, whereof
feme are longitudinal, and feme obliquely circular, with
an intertexture of another very fine fubftance.
The anterior pinions of the ligamentum latum fervfi
for a common or external coat to both tubae, and alfo to
conned them, in the fame manner as the mefentery con-
neds the inteftines. From thence the tubae, and efpe--
daily their fringes, come to be loofe.
The pubes is that broad eminence at the lower part -
of the hyppgaftrium^ between the two ingoing, on which
hairs grow at a certain age. This eminence is Owing to -
a particular thicknefs of the membrana adipofa which co¬
ver the fore-part of the offa pubis, and feme fmall por¬
tions of the neighbouring mufcles.
The longitudinal cavity which reaches from the middle
and lower part. of the pubes, within an inch of the anus,
was by the ancients termed finus; and they called the
lateraf parts of that cavity a/a’, which is a more proper
name than that of labia, commonly given to them. The
places where the alas are joined above and below are
termed commifiures; and may likewife be called the
extremities or angles of the finus. .
The alae are more prominent, and thicker above than >
below, and lie nearer each other below than above.
They are chiefly compofed of the fkin, eellular fubftance,.
and fat. The exterior fkin is a continuation of that of
the pubes, and inguina. It is mere or lefs even, and
furnifhed with a great number of glandular corpufcles,.
from which a whitifh ceruminous'matter may be expr-eff- -
ed; and after a certain age it is likewife covered: in the :
fame manner with the pubes.
The inner fide of the alae is fomething like thte red
portion of the lips of the mouth; and it is-diftinguifhed
every where from the external fide by a kind of line, in
the fame manner as the reel portion of the lips from the
reft of the Ikin; being likewife thinner and fmoother'
than the outward /kin. A great number of pores are ob-
fervable in it, and alfo numerous glandular corpufcles .
which furnifh a liquor more'or lefs febaceous.
Near the innenedge of the inner ferfaces of the ahe,
on each fide of the orifice of the canal of the uterus, we
find a fmall hole more vifible than the reft. Thefe turn
holes are termed lacunas; and they communicate by two -
fmall duds with the fame number of follicular bodies ly-
fego
•.271* A N A T
ing in the fubftance of the ate, and which maybe look¬
ed upon as fmall prodates anfwering to, the glandute pro-
ftaticse in males. When comprefied, they difcharge a
-vifcid liquor.
Above the fuperior commiffure, a thin flat ligament runs
down from each fmall branch of the ofia pubis, which pe¬
netrates the fat in the fubftance of each ala, and is loft
therein infenfibly near the edge. Thefe may be looked
upon as the ligamenta fufpenforia of the ate. The infe¬
rior commiffure of the ate is very thin, or like a membra¬
nous ligament, and, together with the neighbc. ring parts
.of the inner (ides, it forms a foffula, termed navicularis
or fcaphoides. The fpace between the inferior commif-
.fure and anus, termed perinseum, is about a large fin¬
ger’s breadth in length.
The other external parts are fituated in the finus, and
hid by die ate. Dire&ly under the fuperior commiffure
lies the clitoris, with its covering called prasputium. A
little lower is the orifice of the urethra; and below that
is the orifice of the great canal of the uterus. The circum¬
ference of this orifice is bordered either by a membranous
circle, called hymen, or by fleftiy portions, termed carun-
cute myrtiformes. On each fide of the clitoris begins a ve¬
ry prominent fold like a crifta, which runs down obliquely
on each fide of the orifice of the urethra. Thefe folds
are termed nymphae, and they might like wife be named
criftae clitoridis.
The clitoris appears at firft fight like a fmall imperfora¬
ted glans. Its upper and lateral fides are covered by a
kind of praeputium, formed by a particular fold of a por¬
tion of the inner fide of the ate; which appears to be
glandular, and to difcharge a certain moifture, and its in-
fide is granulated.
By diffedlion, we difcover in the clitoris a trunk and
two branches, as in the penis, made up of a fpungy fub-
ftance, and of very elaftic coats, but without any ure¬
thra. The .trunk is divided into two lateral parts of a
middle feptum, from the bifurcation, to the glans, where
it is infenfibly loft.
The bifurcation of the trunk is on the edge of the car¬
tilaginous arch of the offa pubis; and the branches which
refemble the roots of the corpora cavernofa are inferted
in the inferior rami of thefe bones, and in thofe of the
offa ifchium, where they terminate by degrees ; but there
is fometimes a membranous tube on each fide, which
reaches to the tuberofity of the ifchium.
The trunk of the clitoris is fuftained by a ligamentum
fnfpenforium fixed in the fymphyfis of the offa pubis, and
containing this trunk in its duplicature, nearly as in the
other fex.
Four mufcles or fafciculi of fleftiy fibres are ihferted in
the trunk of the clitoris, two on each fide. One of
them runs down on the forefide of the neighbouring cor¬
pus cavernofum, and is inferted by a tendinous or apo¬
neurotic portion, partly in the extremity of the corpus
. cavernofum, and partly in the tuberofity of the ifchium.
Thefe two mufcles are called eredtores.
The other mufcle on each fide lies under the former,
and runs down on the fide of the urethra and great orifice
.©f the uterus, all the way to the anus ; increafing gra-
O M Y. Part VI.
dually in breadth in its paffage, and terminating partly
like that which is called accelerator in males.
Thefe two mufcles furround very clofely the lateral
parts of the urethra, and of the great orifice. They ex¬
pand very much as they defcend, and are fpread on the
lower and lateral parts of the great orifice; for which
reafon feveral anatomifts have looked upon them as muf-
cular fphincters.
The nymphse, crifta; clitoridis, or, as they may like-
wife be termed, ate minores five intern®, are two pro¬
minent folds of the inner (kin of the great or external
ate, reaching from the prasputium of the clitoris to the
two fides of the great orifice of the uterus. They begin
very narrow, and, having increafed in breadth in their
courfe downward, they are again contracted at their low¬
er extremity.
They are of a fpungy fubftance, intermixed with
glands, feveral of which may be perceived by the naked
eye. Their fituation is oblique, their upper extremities
lying near each other, and the lower at a much greater
diftance In married women they are more or lefs flaccid
and decayed.
By the urethra in females, we mean the urinary dud,
the orifice of which is between the nymph® below the
glans of the clitoris. The fides of this orifice are a little
prominent and wrinkled, and perforated by fmall lacu¬
nas, from which a vifcid or mucilaginous liquor may be
fqueezed.
The body of the urethra is a fpungy dud of the fame
ftrudure as in males, but much (horter, fituated diredly
under the trunk of the clitoris, and above the great
canal of the uterus, adhering to each of thefe canals be¬
tween which it lies, by membranous filaments. It paffes
under the cartilaginous arch of the offa pubis, and ter¬
minates by an oblique opening at the neck of the bladder.
The great canal is fituated below the urethra, and a-
bove the extremity of the inteftinum redum, a little ob¬
liquely, being more raifed on the inner and back part,
than on the outer and fore part.
Its inner or pofterior extremity joins the extremity of
the body of the uterus, and furrounds its orifice much in
the fame manner as the duodenum furrounds the pylorus,
or as the ilium is furrounded by the caecum and colon.
The anterior extremity forms the great orifice, which
lies under that of the urethra, and above the foffula of
the inferior commiffure of the ate.
The body of the canal is chiefly made up of a fpungy
fubftarice, interwoven with numerous blood-veffels ; and
it is commonly longer and narrower in virgins, than in
married women.
Its inner or concave furface, has feveral tranfverfe
rug®, and is covered by a particular membrane. The
rug® are formed by oblong narrow eminences, incur-
vated like portions of arches, placed very near each o-
ther, and difpofed in fuch a manner as to divide the
cavity of the canal into an upper and lower fide.
By the union of the extremities of the upper and lower
rug®, a kind of raphe or future is formed on the right
and left fides ; and both arches are fometimes interfcff^d
in the middle, and fo form two half-arches.
la
Part VI. A N A T
In general, thefe arches are very confiderable in
young perfons; become gradually more fuperficial in
married women, and are quite loft in time of delivery .
The inner or pofterior extremity of this great canal
furrounds the orifice of the uterus, a little obliquely, in
inch a manner, as that the upper fide of the canal lies
Very near the orifice, and the lower fide at a greater
diftance from it, and this makes the extremity of the u-
terus appear to advance mere into the canal on the lower
than on the upper part.
The exterior or anterior extremity of the great canal
in virgins, and efpecially before the firft eruption of the
'jnenfes, is commonly bordered by a circular membranous
fold, of different breadths, more or lefs fmooth, and
fometimes femilunar, which in fome fubjedb leaves but a
very fmall opening, in others a large opening, and in all
renders the external orifice narrower than the reft of the
cavity. This fold, called hymen, is formed by the union
'of the internal membrane of the great canal with that on
the infide of the alae, and reprefents a membranous circle
of different breadths, and fometimes uneven.
This membranous circle is commonly ruptured after
the confummation of marriage; is ouite loft in delivery;
and afterwards only fome irregular portions of it remain,
which, from their funpofed refemblance to myrtle leaves,
have been termed earunculae myftiformes. This circle
may likewife fuffer fome diforder by too great a flux of
the menfes, by imprudence, levity, and other particular
accidents.
Each fide of the anterior portion of the great canal is
covered exteriorly by a thin broad cavernous and vafsu-
lar plexus, called the plexus reriformis of that canal.
Thefe two planes run down on each fide of the clitoris
behind the nymphae, and likewife cover the urethra like
a collar, before they are fpread on the great canal.
This plexus is ftridlly united to the mufcular portions
commonly taken for accelerators or conftriftors, lying be¬
tween thefe portions and the lateral parts of the urethra
and of the great canal.
Sect. III. Of the Thorax. ,
By the thorax, we commonly underftahd all that part
of the body which anfwers to the extent of the fternum,
ribs, and vertebras of the back, bpth outwardly and in¬
wardly.
The thorax is divided into the anterior part called
commonly the breaft, the pofterior part called the back,
and the lateral parts called the right and left fides.
The external parts of the thorax, befides the Ikin and
membrana adipofa, are principally the mammae, and the
mufcles which cover the ribs and fill the fpaces between
them. In the mammae we fee the papillae or nipples,
and a fmall coloured circle, which furrounds them.
The internal parts of the thorax are contained in the
large cavjty of that portion of the trunk, called the
middle venter, or cavity of the breaft. This cavity
is lined by a membrane named pleura, and divided
into two lateral cavities by a membranous feptum named
mediaftinum, which is a produdion or duplicature of the
pleura.   -  j
Vcl. I. Numb. 12.
O M Y. 277
Thefe parts are the heart, pericardium', trunk of the
aorta, a portion of theafpera arteria and of the oefopha-
gus, the dudus ladeus or thoracicus, the lungs, ire.
The hard parts, which form the fides of the cavity of
the thorax, are the twelve vertebras of the back, all the
ribs, and the fternum. The foft parts, which complete
the fides, are the membrane called pleura, which lines
the cavity, and the mufculiinter-coftales, fterno-coftales,
and diaphragma.
All thefe hard and foft parts taken together reprefent
a kind of cage, in fome meafure of a conical figure, flat¬
ted on the forefide, depreffed on the backfide, and in a
manner divided into two nooks by the figure of the verte¬
bra? of the back, and terminated below by a broad arched
bafis inclined backward. The intercoftal mufcles fill up
the interftices betwixt the ribs, and fo complete the
fides of the cavity; the bafis is the diaphragm, and the
pleura not only covers the whole inner lurface of the ca¬
vity, but, by forming the mediaftinum, divides it into
two, one on the right hand, the other on the left.
M A M M jE.
The name of mamma?, or breafts, is given to two emi¬
nences more or lefs round, fituated in the anterior and a
little toward the lateral parts of the thorax.
The body of the mammae is partly glandular, and part¬
ly made up of fat; or it is a glandular fubftance mixed
with portions of the membrana adipoftl, the -cellulous
pelliculse of which fupport a great many blood-veffels,
lymphatics, and ferous or ladtiferous dudts, together
with fmall glandular molleculae which depend on the for¬
mer ; all of them being clofely furrounded by two mem¬
branes continued from the pelliculas.
The innermoft of thefe two membranes, which is in
a manner the bafis of the body of the mammal is thick
and almoft flat, adhering to the mufculus peftoralis ma¬
jor. The fecond or external membrane is thinner, form¬
ing a particular integument for the body of the mam •
ma, more or lefs convex, and adhering clofely to the
Ikin.
The corpus adipofum of the mamma in particular, is a
fpungy clufter, more or lefs interlarded with fat, or a
colle&ion of membranous pellioulae, which, by the parti¬
cular difpofition of their outer fides, form a kind of mem¬
brane in ihape of a bag, in which all the reft of the cor-:
pus adipofum is contained. The anterior or outer por¬
tion of this bag, or that which touches the Ikin, is ve¬
ry thin ; but that fide next the peftoralis major, is thicks
The glandular body contains a white mafs, which is
merely a colledtion of membranous du<5ts, narrow at their
origin, broad in the middle, and which contra# again as •
they approach the papilla, near which they form a kind
of circle of communication. They are named dudhis
ladliferi.
The coloured circle or diik is formed by the Ikin, the
inner furface of which fuftains a great number of fmall
glandular ■moHecube. They appear very plainly all over
the areola, even on the oetfide, where they form little
flat heights or eminences at different diftances quite reuni
the circle. .
3 4 A The
Part VI.
278 ANATOMY.
The tubercle which lies in the center of the areola, is
termed papilla, or the nipple. In women with child, or
who give fuck, it is pretty large, and generally longer or
higher than it is thick or broad.
The texture of the nipple is fpungy, elaftic, and liable
to divers changes of confidence, being fometimes harder,
fometimes more flaccid. It feems to be made up chiefly
of ligamentary fafciculi, the extremities of which form
the balls and apex of the nipple.
Between thefe fpungy and elaftic fafciculi lie feven or
eight particular tubes, at fmall diftances from each other,
and ail in the fame direction. Thefe tubes end at the
bafis of the papilla in the irregular circle of communica¬
tion of the lactiferous dudts, and at the apex, in the fame
number of almoft imperceptible holes or orifices-.
The ufe of the mammae in the nourilhment of children
is known to all the world: But it is not certainly known
what the papillae and areolae in males can be defignedfor.
Milk has been obferved in them, in children of both
fexes.
PLEURA and MEDIASTINUM.
The pleura is a membrane which adheres very clofely
to the inner furfaceof the ribs, fternum, and mufculi in-
ter-coftales, fub-coftales, and fterno-coftales, and to the
convex fide of the diaphragm. It is of a very firm texture,
and plentifully ftored with blood-vefiels and nerves, in
all which it refembles the peritonaeum.
The cellular portion goes quite round the inner fur-
face of the thorax, but the membranous portion is difpo-
fed in a different manner. Each fide of the thorax has
its particular pleura, intirely diftimft from the other, and
making as it were two great bladders, fituated laterally
with refpeCt to each other in the great cavity of the
bread, in fuch a manner as to form a double feptum or
partition running between the vertebrae and the fternum,
iheir other fides adhering to the ribs and diaphragm.
This particular duplicature of the two pleurae is termed
mediaftinum. The two laminae of which it is made up
are clofely united together near the fternum and vertebrae;
but in the middle, and toward the lower part of the fore-
fde, .they are feparated by the pericardium and heart.
A little more backward they are parted in a tubular form
by the cefophagus, to which they ferve as a covering;
and in the moft pofterior part, a triangular fpace is left
between the vertebrae and the two pleurae from above
downward, which is filled chiefly by the aorta.
The mediaftinum does not commonly terminate along
the middle of the infide of the fternum, but inclines to¬
ward the left fide.
The furface of the pleura turned to- the cavities of the
bread, is continually moiftened by a lymphatic ferofit-y
which tranfudes through the pores of the membranous
portion.
The pleura ferves in general for an inner integument
to the cavity of the thorax. The mediaftinum cuts off
all communication between the two cavities, and hinders
©ne lung from preffing on the other when we lie on one
fide. It likewife forms receptacles for the heart, peri¬
cardium, cefophagus, <&£..
THYMUS.
The thymus is an oblong glandular body, round on
the upper part, and divided below into two or three
lobes, of which that toward the left hand is the longeft.
In the foetus it is of a pretty large fize, lefs in children,
and very little in aged perfons.
The greateft part of the thymus lies between the du¬
plicature of the fuperior and anterior portion of the me¬
diaftinum, and the great veffels of the heart; from whence
it reaches a little higher than the tops of the two pleuras,
fo that fome part of it is out of the cavity of the thorax.
Its particular inward ftrudlure and fecretions are not as
yet fufliciently known to determine its ufes, which however
feem to be defigned more for the foetus than for adults.
COR.
The heart is a mufcularbody fituated in the cavity of
the thorax on the anterior part of the diaphragm, be¬
tween the two laminae of the mediaftinum. It is in fome
meafure of a conical figure, flatted on the fides, round
at top, and oval at the bafis. Accordingly, we confidet
in the heart the bafis, apex, two edges, and two fides*
one of which is generally flat, the, other more convex,
Befides the mufcular body, which chiefly forms what
we call the heart, its bafis is accompanied by two appendices
called auriculae, and by large blood-vcfiels ; all theft are
incluied .in a membranous capfuia, named pericardium.
It is hollow within, and divided by a feptum which
runs between the edges into two cavities, called ventri-
culi, one of which is thick and folid, the other thin and
foft. This latter is generally termed the right ventricle,
theothertheleft ventricle, though in their natural fituation
the right ventricle is placed more anteriorly than the left.
Each ventricle opens at the bafis by two orifices, one
of which anfwers to the auricles, the other to the mouth
of a large artery ; and accordingly one of them may be
termed the auricular orifice, the other the arterial ori¬
fice. The right ventricle opens into the right auricle,
and into the trunk of the pulmonary artery; the left, in¬
to the left auricle, and into the great trunk of the aorta.
At the edges of thefe orifices are found feveral moveable
pellicula;, called valves by anatomills ; of which forae are
turned inward, toward the cavity of the ventricles, called
triglochines or tricufpides; others are turned towards the
great veffds, called femilunaresor figmoidales. The valvulae
tricufpides of the left ventricle are likewife termed mitrales.
The inner furface of the ventricles is very uneven,
many eminences and cavities being obfervable therein.
The moft confiderable eminences are thick fleftiy pro¬
ductions called columnac. To the extremities of thefe
pillars are faftened feveral tendinous cords, the other ends
of which are joined to the valvulae tricufpides. There
are likewife other fmall Ihort tendinous ropes along both
edges of the feptum between the ventricles. Thefe fmall
cords lie in an obliquely tranfverfe fituation, and form a
kind of net-work at different diftances.
The cavities of the inner furface of the ventricles
are fmall deep fo flu lag or lacuna; placed very near each
other, with fmall prominent mterftices between them.
The
Part VI.
The fieftiy or mufcular fibres of which the heart is
made up, are difpofed in a very Angular manner, efpe-
cially thofe of the right or anterior ventricle, being either
bent into arches or folded into angles.
The fibres which are folded into angles are longer than
thofe which are only bent itato arches. The middle of theie
arches, and the angles of the folds, are turned towards
the apex of the heart, and the extremities of the fibres
towards the bafis. Thefe fibres differ not only in length,
but in their dire&ions, which are very oblique in all, but
much more fo in the long or folded fibres than in the
(hort ones, which are fimply bent.
Each ventricle is compofed of its proper diflinft fibres,
but the left ventricle has many more than the right.
Where the two ventricles are joined, they form a feptum
which belongs equally to both.
The fibres which compofe the inner or concave furface
of the ventricles, do not all reach to the bafis ; fome of
them running into the cavity, and there forming the
flefhy columnse, to which the loofe floating portion of
the tricufpidal valves is faftened by tendinous ropes.
The valves at the orifices of the ventricles are of two
kinds. One kind allows the blood to enter the heart, and
hinders it from going out the fame way ; the other kind
allows the blood to go out of the heart, but hinders it
from returning. The valves of the firft kind terminate
*he auriculae, and thofe of the fecond lie in the openings
pf the great arteries. The firll are termed femulanarorfig-
moidal valves, the others triglochines, tricufpidal, or mitral,
i The tricufpidal valves of the right ventricle are fixed
to its auricular orifice, and turned inward toward the
cavity of the ventricle. They are three triangular pro-
rfudions, very fmooth and polifhed on that fide which is
turned towards the auricle; and on the fide next the ca¬
vity of the ventricle, they have feveral membranous and
tendinous expanfions, and their edges are notched or in¬
dented., The valves of the auricular orifice of the left
ventricle ,are of the fame ftiape and ftrudture, but they
are only two in number ; and from fome fmall refem-
blance to a mitre, they have been named mitrales.
The femilunar valves are fix in number, three belong¬
ing to each ventricle, fituated at the mouths of the great
arteries; and they may be properly enough named val-
vuke arteriales.
The great artery that goes out from the left ventricle,
is termed aorta. As it goes out, it turns a little toward
th® right band, and then bends obliquely backward to
form what is called aorta defcendens.
The trunk of the artery which goes out from the right
ventricle is called arteria pulmonaris., This trunk, as
it is naturally fituated in the thorax, runs firll of all di¬
rectly upward for a final! fpace, then divides laterally in¬
to two principal branches, one for each lung; that which
goes to the right lung being the longelt, for a reafon
that (hall be given hereafter.
The auricles are mufcular bags fituated at the bafis of
the heart, one towards the right ventricle, the other to¬
wards the left, and joined together by an inner feptum,
and external communicating fibres, much in the fame
manner with the ventricles; one of them being named the
right auricle, the other the left. They ar e very uaeveft.
279
on the infide, but finoother on the outfide, and terminate
in a narrow, flat, indented edge, reprefenting a cock’s
comb, or in fome meafure the ear of a dog. They open
into thefe orifices of each ventricle, which are named auri¬
cular orifices ; and they are tendinous at their opening,
in the fame manner as the ventricles.
The right auricle is larger than the left, and it joins
the right ventricle by a common tendinous opening. It
has two other openings united into one, and formed bv
two large veins which meet and terminate there, almoll
in a direft line, called vena cava fuperior and inferior.
The notched edge of this auricle terminates obliquely in
a kind of obtufe point, which is a fmall particular produc¬
tion of the great bag, and is turned towaid the middle
of the bafis of the heart.
The left auricle is a kind of mufcular bag or refervoir,
of a pretty confiderable tbicknefs, and unequally fquare,
into which the four veins open, called venue pulntonares,
and which has a diftind appendix belonging to it, like a
third fmall auricle. This bag is very even on both fides.
The heart lies almoft tranfverfely on the diaphragm,
the greatell part of it being in the left cavity of die tho¬
rax, and the apex being turned toward the bony extre¬
mity of the fixth true rib. The bafis is toward the right
cavity; and both auricles, efpecially the right, reft cm
the diaphragm.
The origin or bafis of the pulmonary artery is, in this
natural fituation, the .higheft part of the heart on the
forefide ; and the trunk of this artery lies in a perpendi¬
cular plane, which may be conceived to pals between the
fternum and fpina dorfi. Therefore fome part of the
bafis of the heart is in the right cavity of the thorax;
and the reft, all the way to the apex, is in the left ca¬
vity ; and it is for this reafon that the mediaftinum is
turned toward that fide.
According to this true natural fitnation of the heart,
the parts commonly find to be on the right fide are ra¬
ther anterior, and ^hqfe on the left fide pofterior; and
that fide of the heart which is thought to be the forefide,
is naturally the upper fide, and the backfide confequent-
ly the lower fide.
The lower fide is very flat, lying wholly on the dia¬
phragm ; but the upper fide is a little convex through its
whole length, in the direftion of the feptum between the
ventricles.
The heart, with all the parts belonging, to it, is con¬
tained in a membranous capfula, called pericardium,
which is in fome meaiure of a conical figure, and much
bigger than the heart. It is not fixed to the bafis of the
heart, but round the large veins.above, the aurichsj be¬
fore they fend off the ramifications, and round the laige
arteriesj before their divifions. >
The pericardium is made- up of three laminae, the
middle and chief of which is compofed of very fine ten¬
dinous filaments, clofely interwoven and crofting, each o-
ther in different diretticns. The internal lamina feems
to be a continuation of the outer coat of the heart, au-
ricleSi and great veffels. The trunks of the aorta and
pulmonary artery have cne common coat which contains
them both as in a fhoath, and is lined on the infide by a
cellular fubftacce, chiefly in that fpace which lies between
where.
A N A T O M Y.
£3.o A K A T
where the trunks are turned to each other, and the fides
of the (heath. There is but a very fihall portion of the
vena cava contained in the pericardium.
The pericardium is clofely connefted to the diaphragm,
not at the apex, but exattly at that place which anfwers
to the flat or lower fide of the heart; and it is a very
diihcult matter to feparate it from the diaphragm in dif-
fedion.
The internal lamina is perforated by an infinite num¬
ber of very fmall holes, through which a ferous fluid
continually tranfudes, in the fame manner as in the peri-
tonseum. This fluid being gradually colleded after death,
makes what is called aqua pericardii, which is found in
confiderable quantities in opening dead bodies while they
remain frelh. Sometimes it is of a reddilh colour, which
may be owing to a tranfudation of blood through the
fine membrane of the auricles.
The heart and parts belonging to it are the principal
inftruments of the circulation of the blood. The two
ventricles ought to be confidered as two fyringes fo clofely
joined together as to make but one body, and furnifhed
with fuckers placed in contrary diredions to each other,
fo as that by drawing one of them, a fluid is let in, and
forced out again by the other.
The heart is made up of a fubftance capable of con-
tradion and dilatation. When the flefhy fibres of the
ventricles are contraded, the two cavities are leflened in
an equal and dired manner, not by any contortion or
twi(Ting; as the falfe refemblance of the fibres to a fi¬
gure of eight has made anatomifts imagine. For if we
confider attentively in how many different diredions, and
in how many places, thefe fibres crofs each other, as has
been already obferyed, we mull fee clearly, that the
whole ftrudure tends to make an even, dired, and uni¬
form contradion, more according to the breadth or
thicknefs, than according to the length of the heart, be-
caufe the number of fibres fituated tranfverfely, or al-
mofl tranfverfely, is much greater than the number of
longitudinal fibres.
The flefhy fibres thus, contraded, do the office of fuck¬
ers, by preffing upon the blood contained in the ventricles^
which blood being thus forced toward the bafis of the
heart, preffes the tricufpidal valves againft each other,
opens the femilunares, and rufhes with impetuofity through
tlie arteries and their ramifications, as through fo many
elaflic tubes.
The blood thus pufhed on by the contradion of the
ventricles, and afterwards preffed by the elaflic arteries,
enters the capillary veflels, and is from thence forced to
return by the veins to the auricles, which, like retire¬
ments, porches, or antichambers, receive and lodge the
blood returned by the veins during the time of a new
contradion. This contradion of the heart is by anato-
miffs termed fyftole.
The contradion or fyftole of the ventricles ceafes im¬
mediately, by the relaxation of their flefhy fibres; and
in that time the auricles, which contain the venal blood,
being contraded, force the blood through the trieufpidal
valves into the ventricles, the fides of which are thereby
dilated, and their cavities enlarged. This dilatation is
termed diafiole. .
O M Y. Part VI.
In this manner does the heart, by the alternate-fyftole
and diaftole of its ventricles and auricles, pufh the blood
through the arteries to all the parts of the body, and re¬
ceive it again by the veins. This is called the circula¬
tion of the blood, which is carried on in three different
manners.
The firft and moft univerfal kind of circulation is that
by which almoft all the arteries of the body are filled by
the fyftole of the heart, and the greateft part of the
veins evacuated by the diaftole.
The fecond kind of circulation oppofite to the firft, is
through the coronary veffels of the heart, the arteries of
which are filled with blood during the diaftole of the
ventricles, and the veins emptied during the fyftole.
The third kind of circulation is that of the left ven¬
tricle of the heart; through the venal dufts of which a
fmall quantity of blood paftes, without going through
the lungs, which is the courfe of all the remaining mafs
of blood. * ,
PULMONES.
The lungs are two large fpungy bodies, of a reddifh
colotir in children, greyifh in adult fubjedts, and bldilh
in old age; filling the whole cavity of the thorax, one
being feated in the right fide, the other in the left, part¬
ed by the mediaftinum and heart, and of a figure anfwer-
ing to that of the cavity which contains them; that is,
convex next the ribs, concave next the diaphragm, and
irregularly flatted and depreffed next the mediaftinum
and heart.
They are diftinguifhed into the right and left lung;
and each of thefe into two or three portions called lobi;
of which the right lung has commonly three, or two and
a half, and the left lung two. The right lung is gene¬
rally larger than the left, anfwerably to that cavity of
the breaft, and the obliquity of the mediaftinum.
At the lower edge of the left lung, there is an in¬
dented notch or finus oppofite to the apex of the heart-
which is therefore never covered by that lung, even in
the ftrongeft infpirations, and confequently the apex of
the heart and pericardium may always ftrike againft the
ribs. . •
The fubftance of the lungs is almoft all fpungy, being
made up of an infinite number of membranous cells, and
of different forts of veffels fpread amomg the cells, in in¬
numerable ramifications.
This whole mafs is covered by a membrane continued
from each pleura, which is commonly faid to be double;
but what is looked upon as the inner membrane is only
an expanfion and continuation of a cellular fubftance.
The veffels which compofe part of the fubftance of
the lungs are of three or four kinds; the air-veffels,’
blood-veffels, and lymphatics, ^nd the nerves. The air-
veffels make the chief part, and are termed bronchia.
Thele bronchia are conical tubfes, compofed of an in¬
finite number of cartilaginous fragments, like fo many
irregular arches of circles, connefted together by a li¬
gamentary eiaftic membrane, and difpofed in fuch a man¬
ner as that the lower eaflly infinuate themfelves within
thofe above them. ■ ■ i
They
Part VI.
They are lined on the infide by a very fine membrane,
which continually difcharges a mucilaginous fluid; and
in the fubftance of the membrane are a great number of
final! blood-veflels.
The bronchia are divided in all directions into an infi¬
nite- number of ramifications, which diminilh gradually
in fize; and as they become capillary, change their car¬
tilaginous ftruCture into that of a membrane.
Each of thefe numerous bronchial tubes is widened at
the extremity, and thereby formed into, a fmall membra¬
nous cell, commonly called a velicle. Thefe cells or
follieuli are clofely connected together in bundles; each
fmall branch producing a bundle proportionable to its
extent and the number of its ramifications,
Thefe fmall veficular or cellulous bundles are termed
lobules; and as the great branches are divided into fmall
rami, fb the great lobules a?§Mivided into feveral fmall ’
ones. The cells or veficles of each lobule have a free
communication with each other, but the feveral lobules
do not communicate fo readily.
The lobules appear diftinCtly to. be parted by another
cellulous fubftance, which furrounds each of them in pro¬
portion to their extent, and fills up the interftices between
them. This fubance forpis likewife a kind a)f irregular
fiiembrHneus cells, which are thinner, loofer, and broad¬
er than the bronchial vefifcles.
All the bronchial cells are furrounded by a very fine
reticular texture of the fmall extremities of arteries ^nd
veins, which communicate every way with each other.
The blood-veflels of the lungs are of two kinds; one
Common, called the pulmonary artery and veins ; the o-
tker proper, called the bronchial arteries and veins.
The pulmonary artery goes out from the right ventri¬
cle of the heart; and its trunk having run almoft direftly
upward as high as th£ curvature of the aorta, is divided
into two lateral branches, one going to the right-hand,
called .the right pulmonary artery, the other to the left,
termed the left pulmonary artery. The right artery
pafles under the curvature of’ the aorta, and is confe-
quently longer than the left. They both rUn to the
lungs, and are difperfed through their whole fubftance by
ramifications neatly like thofe of the brohchia, and lying
in the fame directions.
The pulmonary veins having been diftributed through
. the lungs in the fame manner, go out on each fide, hy
two great branches, which open laterally into the refer-
voir or mufcular bag of the right auricle.
Befides thefe capital blood-veffels, there are two o-
thers called the bronchial artery and
Under the root of each lung, that is, under that part
formed by the .fubordiiiate trunk of the pulmonary arte¬
ry, by the trunks of the pulmonary veins, and by the
trunk of-the bronchia, there is a pretty broad membra¬
nous ligament, which ties the pofterior edge of each lung
to the lateral parts of the Vertebrse of the back, from-
ihata-oot all the way to the diaphragm.
The bronchia already deferibed are branches or rami¬
fications of a large canal, partly cartilaginous, and part¬
ly membranous, called trachea, or afpera arteria. It
i£ fituated-anteriorJy in thp lower part of the neck, from
whence it runs down into the thorax betwixt the two
Von. I. Numb.' 12. 3 .
281
pleurae, through the upper fpace left between the dupli-
cature of the mediaftinum, behind the thymus.
Having reached as low as the curvature, of the aorta,
it divides into two lateral parts, one toward the right-
hand, the other toward the left, which enter the lungs,
and are diftributed through them in the manner already
faid. Thefe two branches are called bronchia, and that
on the right fide is fhorter than that of the left.
The trachea is made up of fegments of circles or car¬
tilaginous hoops, difpofed in fuch a manner, as to form
a canal open on the back part, the cartilages not going
quite round; but this opening is filled by a loft glandular
membrane, which completes the circumference of the canal.
Each circle is about the twelfth part of an inch in
breadth, and about a quarter of that fpace in thicknefs.
Their extremities are round; and they are fituated ho¬
rizontally above each other, fmall interftices being left
between them, and the lower edge of the fuperior feg¬
ments being turned toward the upper edge of thofe next
below them.
They are-all connected by a very ftrong elaftic mem¬
branous ligament fixed to their edges.
The canal of the afpera arteria is lined on the infide
by a particular membrane, which appears to be partly
fleftiy or mufcularj and partly ligamentary, perforated
by an infinite number of fmall holes, through which a
mucilaginous fluid continually pafies, to defend the inner
furface of tile trachea againft the acrimony of the air.
This fluid comes from fmall glandular bodies difperfed
through the fubftance of the membrane, but efpecially
from the glands, fomething-larger than the former, which
lie on the outer or pofterior furface of that ftrong mem¬
brane, by which the circumference of the 'canal is com¬
pleted. The fame ftrufture is obfervable in the ramifi-.
OationS of the trachea from the greateft to the fmalleft.
At the angle'of the firft ramification of the trachea ar¬
teria, we find on both the fore and back fides, certain’
foft, roundiih, glandular bodies, of a bluifh or blackiftv
colour, and of a texture partly like that of the thymus
already deferibed, and partly like that of the glandula
thyroide-s. There are other glands of the fame kind, as
the Origin of each ramification of the bronchia, but they
decreafe proportionibly in number and Jize. They are
fixed immediately to the bronchia, and covered by th£
interlobular fubftance; and they leem to communicate
by fmall openings with the cavity of the bronchia.
Refpiration is performed by organs of two kinds, one ot
which may be looked upon as active, the other as paflive.
The lungs are of the fecond kind, and the firft compre¬
hends chiefly the diaphragm and intercoftal mufcles.
As foon as the intercoftal mufcles begin to contrail,
the arches, of the ribs are raifed, together with the fter -
num, and placed at a greater diftance from each other;
by which means the cavity of the, thorax is inlarged oa
the two lateral and anterior fides.
At the fame .inftant the diaphragm is flatted ,01-
brought toward a plane by two motions, which are ap¬
parently contrary; that is, by the contraction of the
diaphragm, and the dilatation of the ribs in which it is-
infefted. The external furface of the thorax b fir.g thus
in a manner iccreafed, and the cavity of the bronchia
4 B being
ANATOM Y.
282 A N A T
being at the fame time, and by the fame means, lefs re-
iifted or preffed upon ; the ambient air yields to the ex¬
ternal prefl'ure, and infinuates itfelf into all the places
where the preffure is diminifhed, that is, into the afpera
arteria, and into all the ramifications of the bronchia all
the way'to the veficles. This is what is called infpiration.
This motion of infpiration is inflantaneous, and ceafes
in a moment by the relaxation of the intercoftal mufcles ;
the elaftic ligaments and cartilages of the ribs bringing
them back at the fame time to their former fituation.
This motion, by which the ribs are deprelfed and brought
nearer each othet*, is termed expiratic/n.
The pulmonary arteries and veins which accompany
the bronchia through all their ramifications, and fur-
round the veficles, tranfmit the blood through their nar¬
row capillary extremities, and thereby change or modify
it, at leaft in three different manners.
The firft change or modification which the blood un¬
dergoes in the lungs, is to have the cohefionS of its parts
broken, to be attenuated, pounded, and, as it were, .re¬
duced to powder. The fecond is, to be deprived of a
certain quantity of ferum, which tranfpires through the <-
kings, and is what we commonly call the breath. The
third is to be in a manner reanimated by the imprdlionof
the air.
OESOPHAGUS.
The oefophagus is a canal partly mufcular, and partly
membranous, fituated behind the trachea arteria, and
before the. vertebrae of the back, from near the middle
of the neck, down to the lower part of the thorax; from
whence it paffes into the abdomen through a particular
hole of the fmall or inferior mufcle of the diaphragm,
and ends at the upper orifice of the ftomach.
It is made up of feveral coats, almoft in the fame
manner as the ftomach, of which it is the continuation.
The firft coat, while in the thorax, is formed only by the
duplicature of the pofterior part of the mediaftinum, and
EXPLANATION
Figure i. fhews the contents of the thorax and abdo¬
men, in fitu.
3, Top of the trachea, or wind-pipe. 2 2, The inter¬
nal jugular veins. 3 3, The fubclavian veins. 4, The
vena cava defcendens. 5, The right auricle of the
heart. 6, The right ventricle. 7, Pait of the left
ventricle. 8, The aorta afcendens. 9, The pulmo¬
nary artery. 10, The right lung, part of which is
cut off to Ihewthe great blood-veflels. ny The left
lung entire. 1212, The anterior edge of the dia¬
phragm. 1313* The two great lobes of the liver.
$4, The ligamentum rotundum. 15, The gall blad¬
der. 16, The ftomaeh. 17 17, The jejunum and
ilium. 18, The fpleen.
Fig. 2. Shews the organs fubfervient to the chylo*
poetic vifcera,—with thole of urine, and generation.
j 1, The under fide of the two great lobes of the liver.
Lobulus Spigelii. 2,. The ligamentum rotundum.
O M Y. Part VI.
is wanting above the thorax and the neck, where the
outer coat of the cefophagus is only a continuation of
the cellular fubftance belonging to the neighbouring parts.
. The fecond coat is mufcular, being made up of feveral
ftrata of flelhy fibres.
The third is termed the nervous coat, and is like that
of the ftomach and inteftines.
The fourth 9r innermoft coat refembles in fome mea-
fure that of the inteftines, except that inftead of the
villi it has fmall and very fliort papillas. Through the
pores of this coat, a vifcid lympha is continually dif-
charged.
The cefophagus from its very beginning, turns a little
to the left hand, and naturally runs along the left ex¬
tremities of the cartilages of the afpera arteria. The
thyroid gland, pharynx and larynx, /hall be defcribed
in another place.
DUCTUS THORACICUS.
The thoracic dudl is a thin tranfpareilt canal, which
runs up from the receptaculum chyli, along the fpina
dorfi, between the vena azygos and aorta, as high as the
fifth vertebra of the back, or higher. From thence it
paffes behind the aorta toward the left hand, and afcends
behind the left fubclavian vein, where it terminates in
fome fubje<5ts by a kind of veficula, in others by feve¬
ral branches united together, and opens into the back-
fide of the fubclavian vein near the outfide of the inter¬
nal jugular.
This canal is plentifully furnilhed with femilunar
valves turned upward. Its opening into the fubclavian
vein in the human body, is, in the place of valves, co¬
vered by feveral pellicula:, fo difpofed as to permit the
entrance of the chyle into the vein, and hinder the
blood from running into the dudt. Tt is fometimes double,
one lying on each fide, and fometimes it is accompanied
by appendices called pampiniformes.
of PLATE XIX.
3, The gall-bladder. 4, The pancreas. 5, The
fpleen. 6 6, The kidneys. 7, The aorta defcen¬
dens. 8, Vena cava afcendens. 9 9, The renal
veins covering the arteries. 10, A probe under the
fpermatic veffels and a bit of the inferior mefenteric
artery, and over the ureters. 11 11, The ureters^
12 12, Tire iliac arteries and veins. 13 The reftam
inteftinum. 14; The bladder of urine.
Fig. 3. Shews the chylopcetic vifcera, and organs fub¬
fervient to them, taken out of the body intire..
A A, The under fide of the two great lobes of the liver.
B, Ligamentum rotundum. C, The gall-bladder.
D, Dudlus cyfticus. E,.Du<ftus hepaticus^ E, Duc¬
tus communis choledochus. G, Vena portarum.
H, Arteria hepatica. II, The ftomach. KK, Ve¬
nae & aijtgrise gaftro-epiploicas, dextrae & finiftrae.
L L, Venae & arteriae coronariae ventriculi, M, The,
fpleen. NN, Mefocolon, with its veffels, QOO, In¬
teftinum
Part VI. A N 'A T
teftinum colon. P,'One of the ligaments of the co¬
lon, which is a bundle of longitudinal mufcular fibres.
Jejunum and ilium. R R, Sigmoid flex¬
ure of the colon with the ligament continued, and o-
ver S, The redlum inteftinum. T T, Levatores ani.
U, Sphindter ani. V, The-place to which. the pro-
ftate gland is connedted. W, The anus.
Fig. 4. Shews the heart of a foetus at the full time,
with the right auricl*-cut open-to (hew the foramen
ovale, or paflage between both auricles,
a, The right ventricle, b. The left ventricle, c c. The
outer fide of the right auricle ftretched out. dd. The
pofterior fide, which forms the anterior fide of the fep-
tum. e, The foramen ovale, with the membrane or
valve which covers thejeft fide.^ f, Vena cava infe-
’ rior pafling through g, A portion of the diaphragm.
O M Y 283.
Fig. 5. Shews the heart and large veflels of a foetus at
the full time.
a, The left ventricle, b, The right ventricle, c, A
part of the right auricle, d. Left auricle, e e, The
right branch of the pulmonary artery, f, Arteria
pulmonalis. g g, The left branch of the pulmonary
artery, with a number of its largell branches difledted
from the lungs, h, The canalis arteriofus. -i, The
arch of the aorta, k k, The aorta defcendens. 1, The
left fubclavian artery. m, The left carotid artery,
n, The right carotid artery, o. The right fubcla¬
vian artery, p. The origin of the right carotid and
right fubclavian arteries in one common trunk, q, The
vena cava fuperior or defcendens. r, The right
common fubclavian vein, s, The left common fub¬
clavian vein.
N. B. All the parts defcribed in this figure are to be
found in the adult, except the canalis arteriofus.
EXPLANATION
Fig. 1. Reprefents the under and pofierior fide of the
bladder of urine, isc. _
a, The bladder. b b. The infertion of the ureters,
c c, The vafa deferentia, which convey the femen
from the tefticles to d d. The veficulse feminales,—
and pafs through e, The prollate gland, to difcharge
themfelves into' f. The beginning of the urethra.
Fig. 2. A tranfverfe fedlion of the penis,
g g, Copora cavernofa penis, h, Corpus cavernofum ure¬
thra:. i. Urethra, k, Septum penis. 11, The feptum
between the corpus cavernofum urethrae, and that of
the penis.
Fig. 3. A longitudinal fedlion of the penis..
in m, The corpora cavernofa penis, divided by o, The
feptum penis, n, The corpus cavernofum glandis,
which is the continuation of that of the urethra.
Fig. 4. Reprefents the female organs of generation,
a. That fide of the uterus which is next the os facrum.
1, Its fundns. 2, Its cervix, b b. The Fallopian
or uterine tubes, which opens into the cavity of the
uterus;—but the other end is open within the pelvis,
and furrounded by c c. The fimbrise. d d,.The ova-
ria. e, The os internum uteri, or mouth of the womb,
f f. The ligamenta rotunda, which pafles without the
belly, and is fixed to the, labia pudendi. g g. The
Sect. IV. Of the and its Appendages.
The name of brain is given to all that mafs which
fills the cavity of the cranium, and which is imnjediate-
]y furrounded by two membranes called meninges or
mat res.
of PLATE XX.
cut edges of the ligamenta lata, which conne&s the
uterus to the pelvis. h, The infide of the vagina,
i, The orifice of the urethra, k, The clitoris fur¬
rounded by (!,) the prasputium. m m. The labia
pudendi. n n. The nymphae.
Fig. 5. Shews the fpermatic du£ts of the tefiicle filled
with mercury.
A, The vas deferens. B, Its beginning, which forms
the polterior part of the epididymis. C, The middle
of the epididymis, compofed of ferpentine dudts.
D, The head or anterior part of the epididymis un¬
ravelled. e e e e. The whole dudts which compofe
the head of the epididymis, unravelled, f f. The va-
la efFerentia. g g, Rete tellis. h h, Some redtili-
neal dudts which fend off the vafa efferentia. i i. The:
fubftance of the tefticle.
Fig. 6. The right tefticle intire, and the epididymis
filled with mercury.
A, The beginning of the vas deferens. B, The vas de¬
ferens afeending towards the abdomen. G, The po¬
fterior part of the epididymis, named globus minor.
D, The. fpermatic velfels inclofed in-cellular fubftance.
. E, The body of the epididymis. F, Its head, named
globus major. G,. Its beginning from the tefticle.
H, The body of the tefticle, inclofed in the tunica
albuginea.,
This general mafs' is divided into three particular por¬
tions ; the cerebrum or brain properly fo called, the ce¬
rebellum, and medulla oblongata. To thefe three parts.
a fourth is added, which fills the great canal of the fpina
dorfi, by the name of medulla fpinalis, being a continua¬
tion of the medulla oblongata.
The
234 .A N A T
The meninges or membranes are two in number. The
hrfl is named dura mater; the fecond pia mater, which
is again divided into two; the external lamina being
termed araehnoides, the internal retaining the common
name of pia mater.
DURA MATER.
The dura mater inclofes the brain and all it appen¬
dages. It lines the infide of the cranium, and fupplies
the place of an internal periofteum, being fpread in all
the holes and depreflions, and covering all the eminences
in fuch a manner as to prevent their being hurtful to the
brain.
The dura mater is made up of two lamina?, adhering
very clofely together * the fibres of both croffing each
other obliquely. Their texture is very clofe and llrong,
appearing to be partly ligamentary and partly tendinous.
The dura mater Hicks clofely to the cranium by a great
number of filaments of the external lamina, which enter
the pores of-the bones chiefly at the futures both above
and below ; and by penetrating thefe joints, they com¬
municate with the external periofteum.
Thefe adhefions are formed intirely by the external
lamina. The internal lamina is very fmooth and polifli-
ed on the infide, which is alfo continually moftened by a
fine fluid difcharged through its pores, much in the
fame manner as in the peritonaeum and pleura.
The folds of the dura mater are made by the internal
lamina; and three of them form particular fepta; one
of which is fuperior, reprefenting a kind of mediaftinum
between the two great lobes of the brain. The fecond
is in a middle fituation, like a diaphragm between the ce¬
rebrum and cerebellum; the third is inferior, between the
lobes of the cerebellum. The fuperior feptum is longi¬
tudinal, in form of a fcythe, from whence it is termed the
falx of the dura mater. The middle feptum is tranf-
verfe, and might be called the diaphragm of the brain.
The Inferior ieptum is very fmall, and runs down be¬
tween tbe'lobes of the cerebellum.-
Befides thefe large folds, there are two fmall lateral
p-nes.on each fide of the fella turcica, each running from
the pofterior to the anterior clynoid apophyfis on the
fame fide. Thefe two folds, together with the anterior
and posterior parts of the fella turcica, form a fmall foflula
in which the pituitary gland is lodged.
The elongations of the dura mater are produdtions of
both laminae, which go beyond the general circumference,
and pafs out of the cranium.
The moft confiderable of thefe elongations pafles
through the great occipital foramen, and runs down the
common canal of the vertebrse in form of a tube, lining
the infide of that canal, and inclofing the medulla fpi-
ralis/ by the name of the dura mater of that medulla.
The other elongations accompany the nerves out of the
cranium in form of vaginie, which are more numerous
than the nervous trunks reckoned in pairs.
There are two particular elongations which form the
periftoneum of the orbits, together with the vagina? of
* the optic nerves. Thefe orbitary elongations go out by
the fphenoidal or fuperior orbrtary fiflures, and, increa-
O M Y Part VI.
fing in breadth in their paffage, line the whole cavity of
the orbits, at the edges of which they communicate with
the pericranium and periofteum of the face.
The elongations of the dura mater which accompany
the blood-veifels through the foramina of the cranium,
unite with the pericranium immediately afterwards. Such,
fpr inftance, are the elongations which line the foflulae
of the foramina lacera or jugularia, and the bony or ca¬
rotid canals of the apophyfis petrofa, &c.
The dura mater contains in its duplicature feveral par¬
ticular canals, into which the venal blood not only of
that membrane, but of the whole brain, is carried.
Thefe canals are termed finufes, and. fome of them are
difpofed in pairs, others in uneven numbers; that is,
fome of them are placed alone, in a middle fituation;
others are difpofed laterally on each fide of the brain.
The moft ancient anatomifts reckoned only four; to
which we can now add four times as many. *
Thefe finufes are in the duplicature of the dura mater;
and their cavities are lined on the infide by particular
very fine membranes. They may be enumerated in this
manner.
The great finus of the falx, or fuperior longitudinal
finus, which was reckoned the firft by the aricients.
Two great lateral finufes, the fecond and third of the
ancients.
The finus called torcular Heropbili, the fourth of the
ancients.
The fmall finus of the falx, or inferior longitudinal linus.
The pofterior occipital finus, which is fometimes double.
Two inferior occipital finufes, which form a portion of
a circle, and may likewife be called the inferior lateral
finufes.
Six finus petrofi, three on each fide, one anterior,
one middle of angular, and one inferior. The two in¬
ferior, together with the occipital finufes. Complete a
circular finus round the great foramen of the os occipitis.
The inferior tranfverfe finus.
The fuperior tranfverfe finus.
The two circular finufes of the fella fphenoidalis; one
fuperior, and one inferior.
Two finus cavernofi, one on each fide.
Two orbitary finufes, one on each fide.
All thefe finufes communicate with each other, and
with the great lateral finufes by which they difcharge
themfelves into the internal jugular veins, which are on¬
ly continuations of thefe lateral finufes. They likewife
unload themfelves partly into the vertebral veins, which
communicate with the fmall lateral of inferior occipital
finufes; and partly into the external jugular veins, by
the orbitary finufes which communicate with the vena?
angulares, front ales, nafales, maxillares, &c. as the la¬
teral finufes likewife communicate with the venae occipi-
tales, &c.
Thus the blood which is' carried to the dura mater,
&c. by the external and internal carotid, and by the
vertebral arteries, is returned to the heart by the exter¬
nal and internal jugular and vertebral veins ; fo that when
the paflage of the blood is obftruiled in any particular
place, it finds another way, by virtue of thefe communi¬
cations, though not with the fame eafe.
PlatcXX.
Part VI.
ANA
PI A MATER.
This membrane furrounds the ■whole mafs of the
brain more particularly than the dura mater. It ad¬
heres very clofely to the brain, and is connected to the
dura mater only by the veins which open into the finufes.
The pia mater is made up of two very fine laminae, the
outermoft of which covers pretty uniformly all the
convex furface of the brain, and lines in the fame man¬
ner all the concave or inner furface of the dura mater.
The internal lamina forms a great number of plicae, du-
plicatures, and fepta, which infinuate themfelves into all
the folds and circumvolutions, and between the different
ftrata of the cerebrum and cerebellum.
CEREBRUM.
Th e cerebrum properly fo called, is a kind of me¬
dullary mafs, of a moderate confillence, and of a grey-
ilh colour on the outer furface, filling all the fuperior
portion of the cavity of the cranium, or that portion
which lies above the tranfverfe feptum. The upper part
of the cerebrum is of an oval figure, like half an egg cut
lengthwife. It is flatted on the lower part, each lateral
half of which is divided into three eminences, called
lobes, one anterior, one middle, and one poilerior.
The fubftance of the cerebrum is of two kinds, diftin-
guiflied by two different colours; one part of it, which
is fofteft, being of a greyifli or afli colour; the other,
which is more foiid, being very white. The afti-colour-
ed lubftance lies chiefly on the outer part of the cere¬
brum like a kind of cortex, from whence it has been
named fubfiantia corticalis or cinerea. The white fub¬
ftance occupies the inner part, and is named fubfiantia
medullar is, or Amply fubfiantia alba.
The cerebrum is divided into two lateral portions, fe-
parated by the falx, or great longitudinal feptum of the
dura mater. They are generally termed hemifpheres.
Each of thefe portions is divided into two extremities,
one anterior and one pofteriqr, which are termed the lobes
of the cerebrum, between which there is a large inferior
protuberance which goes by the fame name ; fo that in
each Hemifphere there are three lobes, one anterior, one
middle, and one pofterior.
Thei anterior lie upon thefe parts of the os fronfts
which contribute to the formation of'the orbits and of
the-frontal finufes, commonly called the anterior foffae
of the bafis cranii. The pofterior lobes lie on.the tranf-.
verfe feptum; and the middle lobes, in .the middle or
lateral foffae of the bafis cranu.
Each lateral portion of the cerebrum has three fides ;
one fuperior, which is convex; one inferior, which is
uneven ; and one lateral, which is flat, and turned to
the falx. Through the whole furface of thefe three fides
we fee inequalities or windings like the circumvolutions
of inteftines, formed by waving ftreaks or furrows very
deep and narrow, into which the fepta or duplicatures of
the pia mater infinuate themfelves, and thereby feparate
thefe circumvolutions from each other.
Near the furface thefe circumvolutions-are at fomedi-
Yol. I. Numb. 12.
O M Y. 2E5
ftance from each other, reprefenting ferpentine ridges;
and in the interftices between them, the luperficial veins
of the cerebrum are lodged, between the two Luninas of
the pia mater, from whence they pafs in the duplicature
of the dura mater, and fo open into the finufes.
Thefe circumvolutions are fixed through their whole
depth to the fepta or duplicatures of the pia mater, by
an infinite number of very fine vafcular filaments, .
When they are cut tranfverfely, we obferve that the.
fubftantia alba lies in the middle of each circumvolution,
fo that there is the fame number of internal medullary
circumvolutions as of external cortical ones.
Having cut off the falx from the crifta galli, and
turned it backward; if "we feparate gently the two la¬
teral parts or hemifpheres of the cerebrum, we fee
a longitudinal portion of a white convex body, which is
named corpus callofum. It is a middle portion of the
medullary fubftance, which under the inferior finus ofthe
falx, and alfo a little toward each fide, is parted from
the mafs of the cerebrum, to which it is Amply conti¬
guous from one end of that finus to the other.
The furface of the corpus .callofum is covered by
the pia mater, which runs in between the lateral por¬
tions of this body, and the lower edge of each hemi¬
fphere.
The corpus callofum becomes afterwards continuous
on each fide with the medullary fubftance, which
through all the remaining parts of its extent is intirely
united with the cortical lubftance, and together with the
corpus callofum forms a medullary arch or vault of an
oblong or oval figure. After which we will obferve a'
medullary convexity much fmaller than that which is com¬
mon to the whole cerebrum, but of the fame form ; fo
that it appears like a medullary nucleus of the cerebrum.
Under this arch are two lateral cavities^ much longer
than they are broad, and very ftiallow, feparated by a
tranfparent medullary feptum. Thefe cavities are named
the anterior, fuperior, or great lateral ventricles -of the
cerebrum.
The lateral ventricles are broad, and rounded at thefe
extremities which lie next the tranfparent feptum.
They go from before backward, contracting in breadth,
and feparating from each other gradually in their pro-
grefs. Afterwards they bend downward, and return
obliquely from behind forward, in a courfe like the turn¬
ing of a ram’s horn, and terminate almoft under their fu¬
perior extremities. Thefe ventricles are lined with a
thin membrane.
The tranfparent partition or leptum fucidum, lies di¬
rectly under the raphe or future of the corpus callofum,
of which it is a continuation. It is made up of two me¬
dullary lamina;, more or iefs feparated from each other
by a narrow medullary cavity, fometimes filled with a
ferous fubftance.
The feptum lucidum is united by its lower part, to the
anterior portion of that medullary body, called the for¬
m's. ’with three pillars.
The fornix being cut off and inverted, or quite remo¬
ved, we fee firft of all a vafcular web, called plexus
choroides, and feveral eminences more or lefs covered by
the expanfion of that plexus. There are four pairs of
3 4 U' emiherices
2B6 A N A T
eminences which follow each other very regularly, two
large, and two fmall. The firft two great eminences are
named corpora Jlriata •, and the fecond, thalami nervo¬
rum opticorum. The, four fmal! eminences are clofely.
united together; the anterior being called nates, and
the pofterior tejfes. Immediately before thefe tubercles
there is a lingle eminence, called glandula pincalis.
'Ihe corpora flriata got that name, becaufe in fcraping
thrm with the knife we meet with a great number of
white and afh-coloured lines alternately difpofed, which
are only the tranfverfe fe&ion of the medullary and cor¬
tical laminse, mixed together in a vertical pofnion in the
bafis of the cerebrum.
They lie in the bottom of the fnpenor cavity of the
lateral ventricles, which they refemble in feme meafure
in fhape, their anterior parts being near the feptum luci-
dum, from which they feparate gradually as they run
backward, and diminifh in fize.
The tbalami vsrvorum opiicorum are fo named, be¬
caufe thefe nerves arife chiefly from them. They are
two large eminences placed by the fide of each other,
between the pofterior portions or extremities of the
copora ftriata. Their figure is femi-fpheroidal and a
little oval; and they are of a whitifli colour on the fur-
face ; but their inner fuhftance is partly greyilh and part¬
ly white.
Thefe two eminences are .clofely joined together, and
at their convex part they are fe far united as really to
become one body, the whitifli outer fubftanCe being con¬
tinued uniformly over them both.
Immediately within this whitiih common fubftance thefe
two eminences are clofely contiguous till about the
middle of their thicknefs ; and from thence they fepa¬
rate infenfibly toward the bottom, where by the fpace
left between them a particular canal is formed, named
the third ventricle, one extremity of which opens for¬
ward, the other backward.
At the bottom thefe two eminences are elongated down¬
ward toward both fides, into two thick, round, whitifh
cords, which feparate from each other like horns, by a
large curvature; and afterwards by a final] curvature
turned forward in an oppofite direftion to the former,
and reprefenting the tip of an horn, they approach each
other again. The file of thefe ropes diminiflies gradu-
ally frora.*their origin to their anterior reunion.
The tubercles are four in number, two anterior, and
two pofterior; adhering together as if they made but one
body, fituated behind the union of the thalami nervorum
opticorum.. Their forface is v/hite, and their inner fub-
iiance greyifh,. and are called nates and tejtcs.
Diredly under the place where the tubercles of one
Cde are united to thefo of the other fide, lies a finalf mid¬
dle canal, which communicates by its anterior opening
with the third ventricle, under the ihalami nervorum op-
ticorum, and by its pofterior opening with the fourth
ventricle, which belongs to the cerebellum.
Where the convex parts of the two anterior tubercles
join thefe pofterior convex parts of the thalarai nervorum
opticorum, an interftice or opening is left between thefe
four convexities which communicates with the third ven¬
tricle, and with the fmall middle canal. Inftead of the
O M T. Part VI.
ridiculous name of anus, which has been given to this o-
pening, it may be called foramen commune pojierius.
The gkndula pinealis is a fmall foft greyifh body, a-
bout the frze of an ordinary pea, irregularly round, and
jiflmetimes of the figure of a pine apple, fituated behind
the thalami nervorum opticorum, above the tubercula
quadrigemina. It is fixed like a finall button to the low¬
er part of the thalami by two very white medullary pe-
dunculi, which at the gland are very near each other,
but feparate almoft tranfverfely toward the thalami.
It feems to be moftly of a cortical fobftance, except
near the footftalks, where it is Something medullary.
Between the bafis of the anterior pillar of the fornix,
and the anterior part of the union of the optic thalami,
lies a cavity or foftiila named infundibulum. It runs
down towards the bafis of the cerebrum, contra&ing gra¬
dually, and tenpinates in a ftreight courfe, by a fmall
membranous, canal, in a foftifh body fituated in the fella
turcica, n&mtA glandula pituitaria. The infundibulum
opens above, immediately before the optic thalami, by
an oval hole named foramen commune anterius, and con-
fequently communicates with the lateral ventricles.
At the lower part of the thalami nervorum opticorum,
dire&ly under their union, lies a particular canal, called
the third ventricle of the cerebrum.
This canal opens, forward into the infundibulum under
the foramen commune anterius, by which it likewife com¬
municates with the lateral ventricles. It opens backward
unde? the foramen commune pofterius, between the tha¬
lami and tubercula quadrigemina, oppofite to the final!
middle canal which goes to the cerebellum.
The plexus choroides is a very fine vafcular texture,
confifting of a great number of arterial, and venal ramifi¬
cations, partly collefted in two loofe f afciculi, which lie
one in each lateral ventricle, and partly expanded over
the neighbouring parts, and covering in a particular man¬
ner the thalami nervorum opticorum, glandula pinealis,
tubercula quadrigemina, arid the other adjacent parts
both of the cerebrum and cerebellum, to all which it
adheres.
The pituitary gland is a fmall fpongy body lodged in
the fella turcica between the fphenoidal folds of the dura
mater. It is of a lingular kind of fubftance, which feems
to be neither medullary nor glandular. On the outfide
it is partly greyilh and partly reddilh, and white within.
It is tranfverfely oval or oblong, and on the lower part
in feme fubjefts it is divided by a final! notch into two
lobes, like a kidney-bean. It is covered by the pia
mater as by a bag, the opening of which is the extre¬
mity of the infundibulum, and it is furrounded by the
fmall circular finufes which communicate with the finus
cavernofi,
CEREBELLUM.
The cerebellum is contained under the tranfverfe fep¬
tum of the dura mater. It is broader laterally than on
the fore or back fides, flatted on the upper fide, and
gently inclined both?ways, anfwerable to the feptum,
which ferves it as a kind of tent or deling. On the
fewer fide it is rounder; and on the back fide it is divided
into-.
Part VI. A N A T
into two lobes, feparated by the occipital feptum of the
dufa mater.
It is made up, like the cerebrum, of two fubftances,
but it has no circumvolutions on its furface. Its fulci
are pretty deep, and difpofed in fuch a manner as to
form thin flat ilrata, more or lefs horizontal, between
which the internal lamina of the pia mater infinuates it-
felf by a number of fepta equal to that of the ftrata.
Under the tranfverfe feptum, it is covered by a vaf-
cular texture, which Communicates with the plexus cho-
roides. It has two middle eminences called appendices
venniformes ; one anterior and luperior, which is turned
forward; the other pofterior and inferior, which goes back¬
ward. There are likewife two lateral appendices, both
turned outward.
Befides the divifion of the cerebellum into lateral por¬
tions or into two lobes, each of thefe lobes feems to be
likewife fubdivided int® three protuberances, one anterior,
one middle or lateral, and one pofterior.
When we feparate the two lateral portions or lobes,
having firft made a pretty deep incifion, we difcover flri't
. of all the pofterior portion of the medulla oblongata; and
.in the pofterior furface of this portion, frohi the tubcr-
cula quadfigemina, all the way to the pofterior notch in
the body of the cerebellum, and a little below that
notch, we obferve an oblong cavity which terminates
backward like the point of a writing pen. This cavity is
what is called the fourth ventricle.
At the beginning of this cavity, immediately behind the
fmr.ll csmmon cahal which lies under the tubercles, we
meet with a thin medullary lamina, which is looked up¬
on as a valve between that canal and the fourth ventricle.
A little behind this lamina, the cavity grows wider to¬
wards both hands, and then contrafts again to its firft
lize. It is lined interiorly by a thin membrane, and
feems oftentimes to be diftinguiftied into two lateral parts,
by a kind of fmAl groove, from the valvular lamina to
the point of the calamus fcriptorius.
This membrane is a continuation of that which lines the
fmall canal, the third ventricle, infundibulum, and the
two great ventricles.
On each fide of this ventricle the medullary fubftance
forms a trunk which expands itfelf in form of laminse
through the cortical ftrata. When one lobe of the cere¬
bellum is cut vertically from above downward, the me¬
dullary fubftance will appear to be difperfed in ramifica¬
tions through the cortical fubftance. Thefe ramifica¬
tions have been named arbor vita ; and the two trunks
from whence thefe different laminae arife, are called pe-
dunculi cerebelli.
MEDULLA OBLONGATA.
The medulla oblongata is a medullary fubftance fitua-
ted from before backward in the middle part of the bafes
of the cerebrum and cerebellum without any difcontinua-
tion, between the lateral parts of both thefe bafes; and-
therefore it may be looked upon as one middle medullary
bafts common to both cerebrum and cerebellum, by the
reciprocal continuity of their medullary fubftances,
through the great notch in the tranfverfe feptum. of the
O M T.
dura mater; which common bafts lies immediately on
that portion of the dura mater which lines the bafis
of the cranium. The medulla oblongata is therefore
juftly efteemed to be a third general part of the whole
mafs of the brain, or as the common produftion or united
elongation of the whole medullary fubftance of the cere¬
brum and cerebellum.
It is extremely difficult, if not altogether impoflible,
to examine or demonftrate it as we ougnt, in its natural
fituation; but we are obliged to do both on a brain in¬
verted.
The lower fide of the medulla oblongata in an inverted
fituation, prefents to our view feveral parts which are in
general either medullary produftions, trunks of nerves,
or trunks of blood-veffels.
The chief medullary produftions are thefe : The large
or anterior branches of the medulla oblongata; which
have likewife been named crura anteriora, femora, and
brachia medullae oblongatae, and pedunculi cerebri: The
tranfverfe protuberance, called likewife proceflus annula¬
ris, or pons varolii: The fmall or pofterior branches, called
pedunculi cerebelli, or crura pofteriora medulke cblpnga-
tje : The extremity or cauda of the medulla oblongata,.
With two pairs of tubercles, one of which is named cor¬
pora olivaria, the other corpora pyramidalia; and to all
thefe produftions we muft add a produftion of the infun¬
dibulum and two medullary papiibe.
The great branches of the medulla oblongata are two
very confiderable medullary fafciculi, the anterior extre¬
mities of which ase feparated, and the poftericr uni¬
ted, fo-that, taken both together, they reprefent a Ro¬
man V.
The tranfverfe, annular, or rather femi-annular pro¬
tuberance, is a medullary produftion, which feems at firft:
fight to furround the pofterior extremities of the great
branches; but the medullary lubftance of this protube¬
rance is in reality intimately mixed with that of the two
former. VaroHus, an ancient Italian author, viewing
thofe parts in an inverted fituation, compared the two
branches to two rivers, ancl the protuberance to a bridge
over them both, and from thence it has the name of ions
Varolii.
The fmall branches of the medulla oblongata are la¬
teral produftions of the tranfverfe protuberance, which
by their roots feern to encompafs that medullary por¬
tion in which the fourth ventricle or calamus fcriptorius
is formed..
The extremity is no-more than the medulla oblongata
contrafted in its paffage backward to the anterior edge
of the great foramea of the os occipitis,. where it termi¬
nates-in the medulla fpinalis; and in this part of it feve¬
ral things are to be taken notice of.. We fee firft of all,
four eminences, two-named corpora olivaria, and the o-
ther two corpora pyramidalia. Immediately afterwards*
it is divided into two lateral portions by - two narrow
grooves, one on the upper fide, the other on the lower.
They both run into the fubftanee of the medulla, as be¬
tween two-cylinders, flatted on that fide by which they
are joined together.
When we feparate thefe ridges with the fingers, we
oblerve a crucial intertexturc of fevent! final] medullary
cords*.
:S8
ANATOMY. Part VI.
cords, which go obliquely from the fubftance of one late¬
ral portion into the fubftance of the other.
The corpora olivaria and pyramidalia are whitifh emi¬
nences fituated longitudinally near each other on the
lower fide of the extremity or cauda, immediately be¬
hind the tranfverfe or annular protuberances. The Cor¬
pora olivaria are in the middle, fo that the interftice be¬
tween them, which is a kind of fuperficial groove, an-
1'wcrs to the inferior groove of the following portion.
The corpora pyramidalia are two lateral eminences
depending on the olivaria. Thefe four eminences are fi¬
tuated on the lower half of the medulla.
The tubercula mammillaria, or papillae medullares,
which are fituated very near the produdion of the infun¬
dibulum, have been taken for glands.
Thefe tubercles feem to have fome immediate relation
to the roots or bales of the anterior pillar of the fornix.
The beak or tube of the infundibulum is a very thin
production from the fides of that cavity; and it is ftrength-
cned by a particular coat given to it by the pia mater.
It is bent a little from behind forward, toward the glan-
dula pinealis, and afterwards expands again round this
gland.
The membrana arachnoides, or external lamina of the
pia mater, appears to be very diftindly feparated from
the internal lamina, in the interftices between all thefe
eminences on the lower fide of the medulla oblongata,
without any vifible cellular fubftance between them.
From this medulla oblongata, arife almoft all the
nerves which go out of the cranium through the diffe¬
rent foramina by which its bafis is perforated. It like-
wife produces the medulla fpinalis, which is no more
than a common elongation of the cerebrum and cerebel¬
lum, and of their different fubftances ; and therefore the
medulla oblongata may juftly be faid to be the firft ori¬
gin or primitive fource of all the nerves of the human
body.
MEDULLA SPINALIS.
The medulla fpinalis is only an elongation of the ex¬
tremity of the medulla oblongata; and it has its name from
its being contained in the bony canal of the fpina dorfi ; con-
fequently a continuation or common appendix of the cere¬
brum or cerebellum, as well becaufe of the two fubftances
of which it is compofed, as becaufe of the membranes by
which it is invefted.
The dura mater, after it has lined the whole internal
furface of the cranium, goes out by the great occipital
foramen, and forms a kind of funnel, in its progrefs
downward through the bony Canal of the vertebrae.
The fpinal marrow is made up of a cortical and me¬
dullary fubftance, as the cerebrum and cerebellum ; but
with this difference, that the alh-coloured fubftance lies
within the other; and in a tranfverfe fetftion of this me¬
dulla, the inner fubftance appears to be of the figure of
an horfe-lhoe. ,
The bodv of the medulla fpinalis runs down all the
way to the firft vertebra of the loins, where it terminates
in a point. The fize of it is proportionable to that of
the bony canal, fo that it is larger in the vertebrae of the
neck than thofe of the back.
It fends off from both the fore and back fides, at dif¬
ferent diftances, flat fafciculi of nervous filaments. The
anterior and pofterior fafciculi having got a little'beyond
the edge of the medulla, unite in pairs, and form on
each fide a kind of knots, ceWthganglions by anatomifts,
each of which produces a nervous trunk. Thefe gangli-
-bns are made up of a mixture of cortical and medullary
fubftance, accompanied by a great number of fmall blood-
veffels.
The dura mater, which invefts the medulla, fends out
on each fide the fame number of vaginae as there are
ganglions and nervous trunks. Thel’e vaginae are pro-
duftions of the external lamina; the internal lamina, which
is very fmooth and polifhed on the infide, being perfo¬
rated by two fmall holes very near each other, where
each vagina goes off, through which holes the extremi¬
ties of each anterior and pofterior fafciculus are tranf-
mitted ; and immediately after their paffage through the
internal lamina, they unite.
Uses of the Brain and its Appendages in general.
Malphighi was the firft who difeovered the brain to
be a gland, or an organ fitted to feparate fome particular
fluid from the mafs of blood.
The infinite number of fmall fecretory clufters ftrain
or filter the mafs of blood carried to them by the nu¬
merous ramifications, and feparate from it an excelfive-
ly fine fluid ; the remaining blood being conveyed back,
by the fame number of venal extremities, into the finufes
of the dura mater, and from thence into the jugular and
vertebral veins.
This fubtile fluid, commonly called animalfpirit,
nervous juice, or liquor of the nerves, is continually
Forced into the medullary fibres of the white portion of
the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and me¬
dulla fpinalis ; and by the intervention of thefe fibres
fupplies arid fills the nerves, which are a continuation of
them.
PERICRANIUM.
Besides the external integuments of the head, the
Ikin, hair, and cellular fubftance, there is an aponeuro¬
tic expanfion which covers the head like a cap, and is
fpread round the neck and on the {boulders like a riding-
hood. , '
This aponeiirofis Is very ftrong on the head, and it
appears to be made'up at leaft of two ftrata of fibres crof-
fing each other. As it is fptead on the neck it becomes
gradually thinner, and ends mfeijfibly , on the davicles.
It fends out a production on each fide, from above down¬
ward, and from without inward, which having paffed o--
ver the fuperior extremity of the mufculus fterno-maftoi-
daeus, runs behind that mufcle toward the tranfverfe apo-
phyfes of the vertebra; of the neck, where it communi¬
cates with the ligamenta inter-tranfverfalia.
The external furface of all the bones of the head, as
well
Tlate XXI .
Fart VI. A N A T
well as of .all the other bones of the human body, ex¬
cept the teeth, is. covered by a particular membrane, of
which that portion which particularly iavefts the cranium
is named pericrdniunj, and that which invefts the bones
of the face is fimply termed periojleum.
The pericranium is made up of two laminae clofely u-
nited together. The internal lamina, which has by fome
been taken for a particular periofteum, covers immediate¬
ly all the bohy parts of this region ; and the external la¬
mina has been looked upon as a membrane diftinfl: from
the internal, and named pericranium particularly.
Sect. -V.- Of the Eye.
The Globe or Ball of the Eye.
The globe of the eye is made up of feveral proper
parts, fome of which being more or kfs folid, reprefent
a kind of Ihell formed by' the union of feveral membra¬
nous ftrata called the. coats of the globe of,the eye; and
the other parts being more or lefs fluid, and contained in
particular membranous capfulse, or in the interflices be¬
tween the coats, are termed the humours of the globe of
the eye. Thefe capful a; are likewife termed coats. *
The coats of the globe of the eye are of three kinds.
Some form chiefly the fliell of the globe; fome are ad¬
ditional, being fixed only to a part of the globe; and
fome are capfular, which contain the humours. The
coats which form the fbell are three in number. The ex¬
ternal is termed tunica fclerotica or cornea; the middle
coat is named choroides ; and the third or innermofly re¬
tina. The additional coats are two; one called tendi-
nofa or albuginea, which forms the white of the eye;
and the other, conjunftivafi The capfular tunics are
likewife two, the vitrea, and cryftdlina.
The Coats of the Eye.
The mod external, thicked, and ftrongefl coat of the
eye is the fclerotica or cornea, and it inveds all the o-
ther parts of which the globe is compofed. It is divided
into two portions, one called cornea opaca, the other
cornea lucida, which is only a fmall fegrhent of a fphere,
fituated anteriorly.
The cornea opaca is made up of feveral drata clofely
connected together, and is.of an hard compact texture
refembling parchment. About the middle of its pode-
rior convex portion, where it fudains the optic nerve, it
is in a manner perforated, and thicker than any where
elfe. _ ;
The cornea lucida is made tip in the like manner of
feveral drata or lamina; clofely united, and appears to be
a continuation of tl^e opaque portion or fclerotica, though
of a different texture.
This portion is fomething more convex than the cor¬
nea opaca, fo that if reprefents the fegment of a fmall
fphece added to the fegment of a greater.
The cornea lucida is perforated by a great number of
imperceptible pores, through which a very fine fluid is con-
tinurdly difcharged, which foon afterwards evaporates.
The fecond coat of the globe of the eye is the cho-^
Vol. I. No. 13. 3
O M Y. *3?
roides, which is of a blackidi colour., more or lefs incli¬
ned to red, and Adheres, by means of a great number of
fmall veflels, to die cornea opaca, from the infertion
of the optic nerve, all the way to the union of the two
cornese, where it leaves the circumference cf the globe,
and forms a perforated feptum, by which the fmall feg¬
ment of the globe is feparated from the greater. This
portion goes commonly by the particular name of uvea,
which was formerly given to the whole fecond coat; and
as it is of different colours in fevefal fubjefts, it has like-
wife got the name of iris.
The anterior portion or perforated feptum of the cho¬
roides has the name of uvea, and the hole near the cen-.
tre of this feptum is called/a/zV/ar. The anterior 1 amir
na of the fame feptum is termed iris, and the radiated
plicae of the pofterior lamina, procejfus ciliares. Be¬
tween the two laminae of the uvea, we find two very thin
planes of fibres which appear to be flefliy, the fibres cf
one plane being orbicular, and lying round the circum,
ference of the pupilla, and diofe of the other being ra¬
diated, one extremity of which is fixed to the orbicular
plane, the other to the great edge of the, uvea.
The plice or proceflus ciliarts are fmall radiated and
prominent duplicatures of the pofterior lamina of the u-
vea, and their circumference anfwers partly to that of the
white ring of the external lamina. They are oblong
thin plates; their pofterior extremities, or thofe next
the choroides, being very fine and pointed; the others,
or thofe. next the pupilla, broad, prominent, and ending
in acute angles.
The fpace between the cornea lucida and uvea con¬
tains the greateft part of the aqueous humour, and com¬
municates by the.pupilla with a very narrow fpace behind
the uvea, or between that and the cryftalline. Thefe
two fpaces have been termed the two chambers of the a-
queous humour, one anterior, the other pofterior. '
The third coat of the eye is of a very different texture
from that of the other two coats. It is whited foft, and
tender, and in a manner medullary, or like a kind of
pafte fpread upon a fine reticular web. It appears to bq
thicker than - the choroides, and reaches from the infer¬
tion of the optic nerve, to the extremities of the ciliary
radii, being equally fixed to the choroides through its
whole extent. At the place which anfwers to the infer¬
tion of the optic nerve, we obferve a fmall depreflion,
in which lies a fort of medullary button terminating in a
point; and from this depreflion blood-veflels go out,
which are ramified on all fides through the fubftancc of
the retina.
The Humours of the Eye arid their Cafsula;.
The vitreous humour is a clear and very liquid gela¬
tinous fluid, contained in a fine tranfparsnt capfula, called
tunica vitrea, together with which it forms a mate nearly
of the confiftence of the white of an egg. It fills the greats
eft part of the globe of the eye, that is, almoft all that,
fpace which anfwers to the extent of the retina, except a
fmall portion behind the tivea, where it forms a fpflula, in
which the cryftalline is lodged.
The tunica vitrea^is compofed exteriorly pf twp lami-
4 D nx
.n'x very clofely conne&ed, which quite furround the
mafs of humour, and are immediately applied to the retina,
all the way to the great circumference of the corona cili-
aris; but from thence to the circular edge of the foffula
of the cryftalline, this coat is full of radiated fulci, which
contain the proceffus ciliares of the uvea.
The internal lamina of the tunica vitrea gives off,
through the whole fubftance of this humour, a great num¬
ber of cellular elongations or fep^a.
The radiated fulci of the tunica vitrea, which may be
termed fidci ciiiares,, are perfectly black, when the coat
is taken out of the,body.
The ciyftalline is a fmall lenticular body, of a pretty
firm confidence, and tranfparent like cryftal. It is con¬
tained in a tranfparent membranous capfula, and lodged
in the anterior foflula of the vitreous humour.
The figure of the cryftalline is lenticular, but its po-
fterior fide is more convex than the anterior, the con¬
vexity of both fides being very rarely equal.
The cryftalline capfula or coat is formed by a duplica
ture of the tunica vitrea The external lamina covers
the anterior fide of the cryftalline mafs ; the internal la¬
mina covers the backfide, and likewife the foffula vitrea,
in which the cryftalline is lodged.
The anterior portion fwells when macerated in water,
and then appears to be made up of two pellicuke, united
by a fine fpungy fubftance.
The aqueous humour is a very limpid fluid, refembling
a kind of lympha or ferum, with a very fmall degree of
vifcidity : and it has no particular capfula like the cry¬
ftalline and vitreous humours. It fills the fpace between
the cornea lucida and uvea, that between the uvea and
the cryftalline, and the hole of the pupilla. Thefe two
ipaces are called the chambers of the aqueous humour,
and they are diftinguiihed into the anterior and pofterior.
The anterior chamber, which is vifible to every body,
between the cornea lucida and uvea, is the largeft; the
other between the uvea and cryftalline is very narrow,
efpecially near the pupilla, where the uvea almoft touch¬
es the cryftalline.
Tunica Albuginea and Muscles of ths Globe
of the Eye.
The tunica albuginea, called commonly the •white of
the eye, and which appears on all the anterior convex
fide of the globe, from the cornea lucida, to the begin¬
ning of the pofterior fide, is formed chiefly by the tendi¬
nous expanfion of four mufcles.
There are commonly fix mufcles inferred in the globe
of che human eye, and' they are divided into four re<fti
and two obliqui. The redti are again divided, from
their fituation, into fuperior, inferior, internal, and ex¬
ternal ; and from their fundions, into a levator, de-
preffor, addudor, and abdudor. The two oblique muf¬
cles are denominated from their fituation and fize, one
being named obliquut fuperior or major, the other o-
hliqttns inferior, or minor. The obliquus major is
likewife called trochlear is, becaufe it paffes through a
final] cartilaginous ring, as over a trochlea or pulley.
The mufculi redi are fixed by their pofterior extremi-
O M Y. Part VL
ties at the bottom of the orbit near the foramen opti-
cum in the elongation of the dura mater, by flrort nar¬
row tendons. Fpom thence they run wholly flefhy, to¬
ward the great circumference of the convexity of the
globe, between the optic nerve and cornea lucida, where
they are expanded into flat broad tendons which touch
each other, and afterwards unite. Thefe tendons are
fixed firft of all by a particular infertion in the circumfe¬
rence juft mentioned, and afterwards continue their adhe-
fion all the way to the cornea, forming the tunica albu¬
ginea.
The fuperior oblique mufcle is fixed to the bottom of
the orbit, by a narrow tendon, in the fame manner as
the redi, between the redus fuperior and internus. From
thence it runs on the orbit oppofite to the interftice be¬
tween thefe two mufcles, toward the internal angular a-
pophyfis of the os frontis, where it terminates in a thin
tendon, which having paffed through a kind of ring as o-
ver a pulley, runs afterwards in a vagina obliquely back¬
ward under the redus fuperior, that is between that muf¬
cle and the globe ; and, increafing in breadth, it is inferred
pofteriorly and laterally in the globe, near the redus ex-
ternus.
The ring through which this mufcle paffes, is partly
cartilaginous and partly ligamentary. The cartilaginous
portion is flat, of a confiderable breadth, and like half a
ring. The ligamentary portion adheres ftrongly to the
two ends of the cartilage, and is fixed in the fmall foffula
which lies in the orbit, on the angular apophyfis of the
os frontis. By means of this ligament, the ring is in
fome meafure moveable, and yields to the motions of the
mufcle. To the anterior edge of the ring, a ligamenta¬
ry vagina is fixed, which invefts the tendon all the way ta
its infertion in the globe.
The obliquus inferior is fituated obliquely at the low¬
er fide of the orbit, under the redus inferior, which
confequently lies between this mufcle and the globe. It
is fixed by one extremity a little tendinous, to the root
of the nafal apophyfis of the os maxillare, near the edge
of the orbit between the opening of the dudus nafaiis,
and the inferior orbitary fiffure.
From thence it paffes obliquely, and a little tranfvsrfe-
ly backward, under the redus inferior, and is fixed in
the pofterior lateral part of the globe by a flat tendon,
oppofite to, and at a fmall diftance from the tendon of
the obliquus fuperior, fo that thefe two mufcles do in
fome meafure furround the outer pofterior part of the
globe.
The redus fuperior moves the anterior portion of the
globe upward when we lift up the eyes ; the redus infe¬
rior carries this portion downward ; the internus,, toward
the nofe; and the externus, toward the temples.
When two neighbouring redi ad at the fame time,
they carry the anterior portion of the globe obliquely tor
ward that fide which anfwers to the diftance between
thefe two mufcles ; and when all the four mnfcles ad
fiicceflively, they turn the globe of the eye round, which
is what is called rolling the eyes.
The ufe of the oblique mufcles is chiefly to counterba¬
lance the adion of the redi, and to fupport the globe in
all. the motions- already mentioned. This is evident from
their
Part VI. ANA
their infertions, which are in a contrary dire&ion to thofe
of the refti, their fixed points with relation to the mo¬
tions of the globe being placed forward, and thofe of
the refti backward, at the bottom of the orbit.
The redhis externus, by being bent on the globe, not
only hinders it from being carried outward, but alfo pre¬
vents the indiredt motions of the obliqui from thruiling
it out of the orbit toward the temples.
'The Super.cii,*a, «k</Muscui,i Frontales, Occi-
PITALES, and SUPERCILIARES.
The fupercilia, or eye-brows, are the two hairy arches
fituated at the lower part of the'forehead, between the
top of the nofe and temples, in the fame direction with
the bony arches which form the fuperior edges of the
orbits. Their colour is different in different perfons,
and often in the fame perfon different from that of the
hair on the head: the hairs of which they confift are
ftrong and pretty fliff, and they lie obliquely, their roots
being turned to the nofe, and their points to the temples.
The fupercilia have motions common to them with
thofe of the fkin of the forehead, and of the hairy fealp.
By thefe motions the eye-brows are lifi ed up, the fkin of
the forehead is wrinkled more or lefs regularly and tranf-
verfely and the hair and almolt the whole i'calp is mo¬
ved, but not in the fame degree in ail perfons. The
eye-brows have likewife particular motions which con-
trad the fkin above the nofe;-and all thefe different mo¬
tions are performed by the following mufcles.
The frontal mufcles are two thin, broad, fiefhy planes
of unequal lengths, lying immediately behind the fkin
and membrana adipofa, on the anterior parts of the fore¬
head, which parts they cover from the root of the r.ofe,
and through about two thirds of the arch of the eye¬
brows on each fide, all the way,to the lateral parts of the
hair, on the forehead. At the root of the nofe they
touch each other as if they were but one mufcle; and at
this place their fibres are fhort and longitudinal, or ver¬
tical.
Thefe mufcles are fixed by the inferior extremities of
their ffefhy fibres immediately in the ilcin, running thro’
the membrana adipofa. They cover the mufculi fuper-
ciliares, and adhere clofely to them by a kind of inter¬
texture. By the fame fibres they feem to be inferted in
the angular apophyfes of the os frontis, and to be blend¬
ed a little with the mufcles of the palpebrae and nofe;
The upper extremities of their flefhy fibres are fixed in
the external or convex furface of the pericranium. Each
of their lateral portions covers a portion of the temporal
mufcle on the fame fide, and adheres very clotely to it.
The occipital mufcles are tv/o fmall, thin, broad, and
very Ihort flelhy planes,> fituated on the lateral parts of
the occiput, at fome difiance from each other. They
are inferted by the inferior extremities of their .flelhy fibres
in the fuperior tranfverfe line of the os occipitis, and al¬
fo a little above it. From thence they run up obliquely
from behind forv/ard, and are fixed in the inner concave
furface of the pericranium.
The breadth of thefe mufcles reaches from the pofie-
riar middle part of the occiput, toward the. mafioid a-
T O M Y. 29*
pophyfis, and they diminilh unequally in length as they
approach the apophyfes.
Thefe four mufcles feem always to a<St in concert, the
occipitales being only auxiliaries or aflifiants to the fron-
tales, the office of which is to raife the fupercilia, by
wrinkling the fldn of the forehead.
The mufculi fuperciliares are fleftiy fafciculi, fituated
behind the fupercilia, and behind the inferior portion of
the mufculi frontales, from the root of the nofe to above
one half of each fuperciliary arch. They are ftrongly-
inferted, partly in the fynarthrofis of the olfa nafi, with
the os frontis, where they come very near the proper muf¬
cles of the nofe, and partly in a fmall neighbouring
portion of the orbit. From thence- they firfi run up a
little, and afterwards more or lefs in the diredtion of the
eye-brows. They are made up of feveral finall fafciculi
of oblique fibres, all fixed by one end in the manner al¬
ready faid, and by the other partly in the lower extre¬
mity of the mufcles by which they are covered, and
partly in the fldn of the fupercilia.
The aftion of thefe mufcles is to deprefs the eye¬
brows, to bring them clofe together, and to contradt the
fldn of the fore-head immediately above the nofe, into
longitudinal and oblique wrinkles, and the fldn which
covers the root of the nofe into irregular tranfverfe
wrinkles.
The Palpe^r.® Membrana Conjunctiva,
The palpebne are a kind of veils or curtains placed'
tranfverfely above and below the anterior portion of the
globe of the eye;: and accordingly- there are two eye¬
lids to each eye, one fuperior, the other inferior. 7 he
fuperior is the largeft and moft moveable in man. They
both unite at each-fide of the globe, and. the places of
their union are termed angles, one large and internal,
which is next the nofe, the other fmall ■ or external,
which is next the temples.
The palpebrse- are made up of common and proper
parts. The common parts are the fldn, epidermis, and
membrana adipofa. The proper .parts are the mufcles,
the tarfi, the pundta or foramina lachrymalia, thejnem-
brana conjundtiva, the glandula lachrymalis, and -the par¬
ticular ligaments which fuftain the tarfi,- The tarfi and
their ligaments are in fome meafure the bafis of all thefe
parts-.
The tarfi are thin cartilages forming the principal part
of the edge of each palpebra; and they are broader at
the middle than at the extremities. Thofe of the fupe¬
rior pal pebrje are fomething lefs than half an inch in
breadth; but in the lower palpebras they are not above
the fixth part of an inch ; and their extremities next the
temples are more flender than thofe next the nofe.
Thefe cartilages are fuited to the borders and curva¬
ture of the eye-lids. The lower edge , of the fuperior
cartilage and- upper edge of the inferior, terminate e-
qually, and both may be termed the c/V/arji edges. The
oppofite edge of the upper tarfus is fomething femi-cir-
cular between its two extremities; but that of the infe¬
rior tarfus is more uniform, and both are thinner than
the ciliary edges.
292 A N A T
The broad UgamentS'Of the tarfi are membranous e-
I o -gatioHS formed by the union of the peri oft sum of the
t-rbits ' and pericranium along both edges of each orbit.
The fuperior ligament is broader than the inferior, and
fixed to the fupetior edge of the upper cartilage, as the
inferior is to the lower edge of the lower cartilage, fo
that thefe ligaments and the tarfi, taken alone or without
the other parts, reprefent palpebrse.
The membrana conjunftiva is a thin membrane, one
portion of which lines the inner furface of the palpebras.
At the edge of the orbit it has a fold, and is continued
from hence on the anterior half of the globe of the eye,
adhering to the tunica-albuginea; fo that the palpebrce
and the forepart of the globe of the eye are covered by
one and the fame membrane, which does not appear to
be a continuation ofthe pericranium, but has fome connec¬
tion with the broad ligaments of the tarfi.
The name of conjunttiva is commonly given only to
that part which covers the globe, the other being called
limply the internal metnbrane of the palpebrse ; bnt we
may very well name the one membrana oculi conjunc¬
tivaand the other metnbrana palpebrarum conjunftha.
That of the palpebrae is a very fine membrane adhering
very clofe, and full of-fmail capillary blood-vefiels. It is
“perforated by numerous imperceptible pores, through
which a kind of ferum is continually difcharged.
The conjunctiva of the eye adheres by the interven¬
tion of a cellular fubftance, and is confequently loofe,
and as it were moveable; and it may be taken hold of and
Separated in feveral places from the tendinous coat. It
is of a whitilh colour; and being tranfparent, the albu¬
ginea makes it appear perfectly white: Thefe two coats
together forming what is called the white of the eye.
The lachrymal gland is white, and of the number of
thofe called conglomerate glands. It lies under thatde-
preflion obfervable in the arch of the orbit near the tem¬
ples, and laterally above the globe of the eye. It is a
Ihtle flatted, and divided as it were into two lobes, one
of which lies toward the infertion of the mufculus reCtus
fuperior, the other toward the reCtus externus. It ad¬
heres very clofely to the fat which furrounds the mufcles-
and pefterior convexity of the eye, and it was formerly
named glandula innominata.
From this gland feveral fmall.duCls go out, which run
down almoft parallel to each other, through the fub-
ftance of the tunica interna or conjunctiva of the fuperior
palpebra, and afterwards pierce it inwardly near the fu¬
perior edge of the tarfiis.
The flat edge of each palpebra is adorned with a row
of hairs called cilia, or the eye-lafhes. Thofe belong¬
ing to the fuperior palpebra are bent upward, and longer
than thofe of the lower palpebra which are bent down¬
ward. Thefe rows are placed next the Ikin, and are not
A bur irregularly double or triple. The hairs are
. - r rr the middle of the palpcbrte than toward the
, nd for about a quarter of an inch from the
iii .mgle ;Vy are quite wanting.
herd: r of the palpebra-, near the inter-
■ : i , cj toward the eye, we fee a row of fmall
■ - A iv.mcd fc,\~mina or punfl* ciliaria*
O M Y. ‘ Part VI.
They are the orifices of the fame number of fmall ob-
long glands which lie in the fulei, channels, or ^groove?
on the inner furface of the tarfus. Thefe little glands
are of a whitilh colour; and when fqueezed, a feba-
ceous matter like foft wax, is difcharged through the
punCta ciliariu.
Near the great or internal angle of the palpebne, the
flat portion of their edges terminates in another which is
rounder and thinner. By the union of thefe two edges
an angle is formed.
At this place, the extremity of the flat portion is di-
ftinguilhed from the round portion'by a fmkll protube-,
ranee or papilla, which is obliquely perforated by a fmall
hole in the edge of each palpebra. Thefe two fmaH
holes are very vifible, and often more fo in living than
in dead bodies, and they are commonly named puntia
lachrymalia, being the orifices of two fmall dudts which
open beyond the angle of the eye into a particular refer-
•voir, termed facculus lachrymalis, which lhall be de-
feribed in the article of the nofe.
The pun&a lachrymalia are oppofite to each other, and
fo they meet when the eye is flmt. Round the orifice of
each of thefe points, we obferve a whitilh circle which
feems to be a cartilaginous appendix of the tarfus, and
which keeps the orifice always open.
The caruncula lachrymalis is a fmall reddiih, granu¬
lated, oblong body, fituated precifely between the inter¬
nal angle of the palpebrse and globe of the eye. The
fubftance of it feems to be wholly glandular. We dif-
cover upon it a great number of fine hairs covered by
an oily, yellowilh matter; and on the globe of the eye,
near this glandular body, we fee a femilunar fold, form¬
ed by the conjundtiva, the concave fide of which is turn
ed to the uvea, and the convex fide to the nofe.
The Muscles of the Palpebrje.
The mufcles of the palpebrse are commonly reckon¬
ed to be two, one peculiar to the upper eye-lid, named
levator palpebne fuperioris ; the other common to both,
called orbicularis palpebrarum.
The levator palpebrse fuperioris Is a very thin mufcle,-
fituated in the orbit above, and along the redius fuperior
oculi. It is fixed to the bottom of the orbit, by a finall
narrow tendon, near the foramen opticum, between the
pofterior infertions of the redlus fuperior and obliquus
fuperior. From thence its flefiiy fibres run forward on
the redtus, increafing gradually in breadth, and termi¬
nate by a very broad aponeurofis in the tarfus of the fu¬
perior palpebra.
By the mufculus palpebrarum obliquus we underftand
all that; extent of ftefhy fibres, which by a thin ftratum
furrounds the edge of each orbit, and from-thence, with¬
out any interruption, covers the two palpebrae all the way
to the cilia. Almoft all of them have a common tendon
fituated tranfverfely between the internal angle of the
eye- and the nafal apophyfis of the os maxillare. This
is a {lender Itgarnentary tendon, ftrongeft where it is
fixed in the bone, and dimini/hing gradually as it ap¬
proaches the angle of the palpebrae, where it terminates
at
Part VI. ANA
at the union of the points, or at the extremities of the
two tarli.
This mufcle is divided into four portions, whereof the
fir ft is that which furrounds the orbit. The fecond
portion is that which Ties between the upper edge of the
orbit and the globe of the eye, and which covers the in¬
ferior edge of the orbit below, fome of its fibres being
fixed to both edges of the orbit.
Tire third portion feems to belong more particularly
to the palpebrse, and thegreateft part of it is Ipent in the
palpebrs. fuperior. The fibres of this portion meet at
the two angles of the eye, where they, appear to make
very acute inflexions without any difcontinuation.
The fourth portion is an appendix to the third, from
which it differs chiefly in this, that its fibres do not
reach to the angles, and form only fmall arches, the ex¬
tremities of which terminate in each palpebra.
All thefe different portions of the orbicular mufcle ad¬
here to the fkin, which covers it from the upper part of
the nofe to the temples, and from the fapercihum to the
upper part of the cheek. , When they contraff, feveral
wrinkles are formed in the fkin, which vary according to
the different direXions of the fibres.
The Uses of the Eye, and of its appendages, in general.
Every body knows that, the eye is the organ of vi-
fion. The tranfparent parts of the globe modify the
rays of light, by different refraXions ; the retina and
choroides receive the different impreffions of thefe rays;
and the optic nerve carries thefe impreflions to the brain.
When objeXs are at a great diftance or obfcure, the pu-
pilla is dilated; and it is contraXed when objeXs are
rear, or placed in a great light. The mufcles of the
globe of the eye and of the palpebrse perform the mo¬
tions already defcribed.
The glandula lachrymalis continually moiftens the fore¬
part of the globe of the eye ; and the lachrymal ferum is
equally fpread over that globe by the motions of the fu-
yerior palpebra, the inner furface of which is in a fmall
■neafure villous.. The union of the two palpebne direfts
this ferum towards'the punXa lachrymalia; and the unXu-
ous matter, difeharged through the foramina ciliaria,
hitjders it from running out between the palpebrae. The
large fize and vifeid furface of the caruncula prevents it
from running beyond the punXa, and thus forces it into
them.
The fupercilia may hinder fweat from falling on the
eyes. The fuperior cilia, which are longer than the in¬
ferior, may have the fame ufe; and they both ferve to
prevent duft, infeXs, &c. from entering the eyes when
they are only a little open.
Sect. VI. The Nose.
The bones of the nofe have already been defcribed in
the futures of the bones of the head,
The foft parts are the integuments, mufcles, facculus
lachrymalis, membrana pituitaria, and hairs of the nares.
The internal nares, or the two cavities of the
Vou. I. No. 13. 3
T O M Y.
rofe, comprehend-the whole fpace betweeri the external
nares and pofterior openings immediately - above the
arch of the palate', from whence thefe cavities reach up*
ward as far as the lamina cribrofa of the os cthmoides,
where they communicate forward with the finus fron-
tales, and backward with the finus fphenoidales. La¬
terally, thefe cavities are bounded on the infide by the
feptum oarium,-a.nd on the outfide, or .that next the cheeks,
by the conchae, between which they, communicate with
the Aims maxillaris.
The particular fituation of thefe cavities deferves our
attention. The bottom of them runs direXly backward,
fo that a ftreight and pretty large llilet may eafily be
pafied from the external nares, under the'gi tat apophy-
fis of the occipital bone. The openings of the maxilla¬
ry fmufes are nearly oppofite to the upper edge of the
offa malarum. The openings of the frontal linufes are
more or Jefs oppofite to, and between the pulleys or rings
of the mufeuli trochleares; and by thefe marks the fitu¬
ation of all the other parts may be determined.
The inferior portion of the external nofe is compofed
of feveral cartilages, which are commonly five in num¬
ber, and of a pretty regular figure. The reft are only
additional, fmaller, more irregular, and the number of
them more uncertain. Of the five ordinary cartilages,
one is fituated in the middle, the other four laterally.
7 he middle cartilage is the tnoft confiderable, and fup-
ports the reft, being conneXed immediately to the bony
parts ; but the other four are conneXed to the middle car¬
tilage, and to each other, by means of ligaments.
The fub-feptum, or portion under the feptum narium, is
a pillar of fat applied to the inferior edge of the cartilagi¬
nous partition, in form of a foft moveable appendix. The
thicknefs of the alae narium, and efpecially that of their
lower edges, is not owing to the cartilages, which are
very thin, but to the fame kind of folid fat with which
thele cartilages are covered. The great cartilage is im¬
moveable by reafon of its firm connexion to the bony
parts of the nofe; but the lateral cartilages are move-
able, becaufe of their ligamentary connexions, and they
are moved in different manners by the mufcles belonging
to them.
The external nofe is covered by the common integu¬
ments, the ikin, epidermis, and fat. Thofe w'hich co¬
ver the tip of the nofe and alffi narium are a great num¬
ber of glandular bodies, called glandula febacea, the
contents of which may eafily be fqueezed out by the
fingers.
Six mufcles are commonly reckoned to belong to the
nofe; two reXi, called alfo pyrawidales or triangulares;
two obliqui, orlaterales; and two tranfverfi, or tnyrti-
formes. The nofe may alfo be moved in fome meafiure
hy the mufcles of the lips, which in many cafes beccrnfe
alf.ftants to the proper mufcles of this organ.
The mufculus pyramidalis, or anterior, on each fide, is
inferred by one extremity in the fynarthrofis of the os
fronds and offa nafi, where its flefhy fibres mix with
thofe of the mufeuli frontales and faperciliares. It is
very flat, and runs down on the fide of the nofe, increa-
fing-gradually in breadth, and terminating by an apoueu-
rofis, which reprefeats the bafis of a pyramid, and is in-
4 E ferted
294 ANA T
^eited in the moveable cartilage which forms the ala of
^iie oares.
'1 he oblique or lateral mufcle is a thin fleihy plane,
lying on the fide of the former. The lateral mufcle is
fixed by its upper extremity to the apophyfis nafalis of
the .os inaxiilare, below its aniculation with the os fron-
tis,. and fometimes a little lower than the middle of the
yiner edge of the orbit. From thence it runs toward
the,ala naxium, and is inferted in the moveable cartilage,
near the os maxilhire, being covered laterally by a por¬
tion of the neighbouring mufcle of the upper lip.
. The ttanfverfe or inferior mufcle, called alfo myrti-
formeSy is inferred by one end in the os maxillare, near
the lower edge of the orbit, much about the place which
anfwers to the extremity of the.focket of the dens cani-
nus on the fame fide. From thence it runs almofttranf-
verfely upward, and is fixed in the lateral cartilages of the
noie, over which it fometimes runs to the ai® of the
great cartilage, to be inferted there.
The fail two pairs .of thefe mufcles raife and dilate
the al® of the nares when they aft; and at the fame,
dme.raifedie upper lip, by reafon of their conneftion with
the mufcles of that part. They likewife wrinkle the
ikin on the fides of the nofe.
. The membrana piufitaria is that which lines the whole
internal nares, the ediular convolutions, the conch®,
the fides of the feptum narium, and, by an uninterrupted
continuation, the iuner furface of the finus frontales and
m-ixillyres, and of the duftus lacrymales, palatini, and fphe-
noidales. It is likewife continued down from the nares to
the pharynx, feptum palati, &c.
It is termed pituitaria, becaufe, through the greateft
part of its latge extent, it ferves to feparate from the
rite rial blood a mucilaginous lynipha, called/>;7z/h<a by
the ancients, which in the natural Hate is pretty liquid ;
but it is fubjeft to very great changes, becoming fome-
I'mes, glutinous or fnotty, fometimes limpid, 6t\ nei-
ther is it. feparaied in equal quantities through the whole
rnembra&e.
When we carefully examine this membrane, it appears
to be of a different llrufture in different parts. Near
the edge of the external nares it is very thin, appearing
to be the Ikin and epidermis in a degenerated Hate. All
the other, parts of it in general are fpungy, and of diffe¬
rent thickneffes. The thickefl pans are thofe on the
. ieptum narium, on the whole lower portion of the, inter¬
nal nares, and on the conch®.
On the fide next the periofteum and penchendrium it
is plentifully flored with, fmall glands, the excretory
dufts of which are very long near the feptum narium,
and their orifices very vifible.
The frontal, maxillary and fphenoidal finufes open in¬
to the internal narys, but in different manners. The
f rontal finufes ©pen from above downward, anfwering tp
the in bndibula of the os ethmeides. The fpheaoidales
open forwards, oppofite to the pufter'ror orifices of the
nares; and the maxillares open a little higher, between
the two conch®.
1'he opening of the finus maxillaris in fome fubjeft's
is fing’e, in others double; it lies exaftly between the
two conch®, about the middle of their depth.
O M Y. Part VL
It is proper here to obferve the whole extent of the
maxillary finus. Below, there is but a very thin par¬
tition between it and the dentes molares, the roots of
which do, in fome fubjefts, perforate that feptum. A-
bove, there is only a very thin tranfparent lamina be¬
tween the orbit and the finus. Backward, above the tu-
berofity of the os maxillare, the fides of the finus are
very thin, efpecially at the place which lies before the
root of the apophyfis pterygoides, through which the in¬
ferior maxillary nerve fends down a ramus to the fora¬
men palatinum pofterius, commonly called gujiatorium.
Inward, or toward the conch® narium, the bony part
of the finus is likewife very thin.
The lachrymal facculus is an oblong membranous bag,
into which the ferous fluid is difeharged from the eye
through the punfta lachrymalia; and from which the fame
fluid pafTes to the lower part of the internal nares. It is
fituated in a bony groove and canal, formed partly by
the apophyfis nafalis of the os maxillare and os unguis,
partly by the fame os maxillaxe and lower part of the os
unguis, and partly by this lower portion of the os unguis
and a fmall fuperior portion of the concha narium in¬
ferior. .
This bony lachrymal duft runs down for a little way
obliquely backward, toward the lower and lateral part of
the internal nares on each fide, where its lower extremi¬
ty opens on one fide of the fious maxillaris ander the
inferior concha. The upper part of this duft is only an
half canal or groove; the lower is a complete canal, nar¬
rower than the former.
The facculus lachrymalis may be divided into a fuperior
or orbitary portion, and an inferior or nafal portion.
The orbitary portion fills the whole bony groove, being
fituated immediately behind the middle tendon of the
mufculus orbicularis. The nafal portion lies in the
bony canal of the nofe, being narrov/er and Ihorter than
the former.
The otbitary portion is difpofed at its upper extremi¬
ty, much in the manner of an iateftinum c®cumr and
at the lower extremity is continued with the portio na¬
falis. Towards the internal angle of the eye, behind
the tendon, of the orbicular mufcle, it is perforated by
a fmall fliort canal formed by the union of the lachrymal
dufts.
The nafal portion having reached the lower part of
the bony duft under the inferior concha, ter mi mites in
a fmall, flat, membranous bag, the bottom of which, is
perforated by a round opening.
The fubftance of this facculus is fomething fpongy or
cellulous, and pretty thick, being ftrongly united by its
convex fide to the periofteum of the bony canal.
The duftus inciforii, or nafo:palatini of Steno, are
two canals whidv go from the bottom of the internal na¬
res crofs the arch of the palate, and open behind the
firft or largeft dentes inciforii. Their two orifices may
be diftinftly feen in the fkekton at the lower part of the
nafal fbfl®, on the anterior and lateral? fides of the crifta:
ma:iillares; and we may likewife perceive their oblique
paflage through the maxillary bones, and laftly their in¬
ferior orifices 4a a ftnail cavity or foiTula, called fora?
men palaiinum ante) ins.
Part VI. ANA T
■ The nofe is the organ of fmelling, -by means of the
-villous portion of the internal membrane, to which the
•olfadory nerves are chiefly difiributed. It is likewife
•of ufe in refpiratiou; and the mucilaginous fluid fpread
over the whole pituitary membrane, prevents the air
from drying that membrane, arid fo rendering it inca¬
pable of being affefted. The nofe ferves likewife to re-
-gulate and modify the voice, and to this the-finufes like-
wife contribute. The facculus lachrymalis receives the
ferum from the eyes, and difcharges it upon the palate,
from whence the greateft part of it runs to the pharynx.
Sect. VII. The Ear.
Anatomists commonly divide or diftinguifli the ear
into external and internal. Ey the external ear they
mean all that lies without the external ori Ice of the me¬
atus auditorius in the os temporis; and by the internal
ear, all that lies within the cavities of that bone, and al-
■to the parts that bear any relation thereto.
The greateft part of the external ear confifts of a large
cartilage very artificially framed, which is the bafis of
all the other parts of which this' portion of the ear is
made up. The internal ear confifts chiefly of feveral
bony pieces, partly formed in the fubftance of the ofia
temporum, and efpecially in that portion of it calledrf-
■pophyjispetrofa, and partly feparated from, but contain¬
ed in a particular cavity of that bone.
The external ear, taken altogether, refembles in fome
degree the /hell of a mufiel, with its broad end turned
upward, the fmall end downward, the convex fide next
the head, and the concave fide outward Two portions
are diftingui/hed in the external ear taken all together;
one large and foiid, called in Latin pinna, which is the
fuperior, and by much the greateft part; the ether
imall and foft, called the/^e, which makes the lower
part.
The forefide is divided'into eminences and cavities.
The eminences are four in number, called helix, ant he¬
lix, tragus, and antitragus. The helix is the large
folded border or circumference of the great portion of
the ear. The amhtlix is the large oblong eminence or
rifing furrounded by the helix. The tragus is the fmall
anterior protuberance below the anterior extremity of
the helix, which in an advanced age is covered with hairs.
The antitragus is the pofterior tubercle below ike infe¬
rior extremity of the anthelix.
The cavities on rite forefide are four in number; the
hollow of the helix ; thedepmfiion at the fuperior extre¬
mity of the anthelix, called fo[fa navicular is; the con-
cha, or great double cavity that lies under the rifing term¬
ed antbdix, the upper bottom of which, is diftinguiftied
from the lower by a continuation of the helix in form
of a tranfverfe crifta ; and laftly, the meatus of the ex¬
ternal ear fiiuated at the lower part of the bottom of the
concha.
The backfide of the external ear ftiew's only one con-
fiderable eminence, which is a portion of the convex fide
of the concha, the other portion being hid by the adhe-
fion. of the ear to the os tempens.
a m Yt. ^
The other parts of the externa! ’ear, befidts the caiti-
lage, are ligaments, mufcles, integuments, febaceous and
.ceruminous glands, arteries, Veins and'nerves.
The cartilage of the outward ear is nearly of the fame
extent and figure with the large foiid .portion thereof, al¬
ready mentioned; but it is not of the fame thicknefs,
being covered by integuments on both fidcs. Va the
lobe or foft low'er portion of the ear, this cartilage is-
wanting.
The external ear is fixed to the cranium, not only by
the cartilaginous portion of the' meatus auditorius, but
alfo by ligaments, which are two ih number, one anterior,
the other pefterior. The anterior ligament is fixed by
one extremity to the root of the apophyfis zygomatlca
of the es temporis, at the anterior and a little toward
the fuperior part of the meatus clTeiis, clofe to the cor¬
ner of the glenoid cavity; and by the other extremity,
to the anterior and faperior pan of the cattilaginous me-
The pofiericr ligament is fixed by one end to the
root of the maftoid apophyfis, and by the other to the
pofte'rior part of the convexity of the concha,, fo that it
is oppofite to the anterior ligament. ,
Of the mufcles of the external ear, fame go between
the cartilages and the os temporis, others are confined to
the cat tilages alone. Both kinds vary in different fub-
jefts, and are foiuetimes fo very thin, as to Icok more
like ligaments than mufcles. The mufcles of the firft
kind are generally three in number, one fuperior, cr.e
pofterior, and ere anterior. T he fuperior mufcle is fix¬
ed in the convexity ef the foffii navicularis, and of the
fnperior portion of the concha; from whence it tuns up
to the fejuamoas portion of the ps temporis, expanding
in a. radiated manner, and is inferred principally in the
Jigamentary apOneUrofis, which covers the poftetior poi-
tion of the temporal rnufele.
The anterior tunfcle is fmall, more or lefis inverted,
and like an appendix to the fuperior. Ir is fixed by one
extremity above the root of the zygomatic apophyfis, and
by the other in the americr part of the convexity of the
concha.
The. pofterior mufcle is almoft tranfverfe, and of -a
confiderable bVeadth, being fixed by one end to the pe¬
fterior part of the convexity of the concha,, and by the
other in the root of the ftiafloid apophyfis.
The fmall mufcles which are confined to the cartilages
are only fmall ftrata of fibres found on both fitles of tire
cartilages.
The lobe of the ear, or that foft portion which lies
Under the tragus, agtitriigus, and meatus auditorius, is
made up of nothing but ikin and cellular fubftauce. The
meatus auditorius is partly bony, and partly Cartilaginous.
The bony portion is the longtft, and fai ms the bottom
ef die canal. The cartilaginous portion is the ftterteft,
and forms the external opening or orifice of the canal.
Tbefe two portions joined tndwife to each other, form
a canal of about three quarters of an inch in length, t f
different widenefs in its different parts, and a little cc n-
torted. It is lined on the infide by the fliin and •cellular
membrane, through its whole length; and thus thefie in¬
teguments make up for the breaks in the cartilaginous
yorricB*.
296 A N A T
portion, and form a *ci«d of cutaneous tube in the other
portion.
The fit in which covers both fides of the cartilage con¬
tains a great number of finall glands, which continually
difcharge an oily whitifh humour, collected chiefly near
the adhefions of the ear to the head, and under the fold
of the helix ; and thefe glands are of the febaceous kind.
The fkin which lines the meatus auditorius contains an¬
other kind of glands, of a yellowifh colour, and which
may be plainly leen on the convex fide of the cutaneous
tube already mentioned.
Thefe glands are difpofed in fech a manner as to leave
reticular {'paces between them, and they penetrate a little
way into the fubftance of the fkin. They are called glan¬
dule ceruminofe, becaufe they difcharge that matter
which is named cerumen, or the wax of the ear. The
inner furface of the cutaneous tube is full of fine hairs,
between which lie the orifices of the ceruminous glands.
The firfl place in which we meet with thefe glands is on
that part of the convex fide of the cutaneous tube which
fupplies the breaks of the cartilaginous meatus.
All the bony parts of the organ of hearing, or bones
of the internal ear, being contained in the inferior por¬
tions of the OfTa teroporum; it will be very proper to re¬
coiled! what has been already faid about thefe, in Part I.
All the bony organ of hearing may be divided into four
general parts : i. The external meatus auditorius;
2. The tympanum or barrel of the ear; 3. The laby¬
rinth; 4.. The internal meatus auditorius. It may like-
wife be divided into immoveable or containing parts,
which take in all the four already mentioned ; and move-
able or contained parts, which are four little bones lod¬
ged in the tympanum, called incus, malleus, Jlapes, and
os orbiculare or Jenticulare.
The external auditory pafTage begins by the external
auditory hole, the edge of which is rough and prominent;
but backwards towards the maftoid apophyfis it appears
very much floped. The paffage itfelf is about half an
inch in length, running obliquely from behind forward,
in a curve direction, and fometimes winding a little in
the middle, like a ferew. Its cavity is almoft oval,
wider at the entry than at the middle, after which it
widens again by degrees.
It terminates inwardly by an even circular edge lying
in aplane very much inclined,' the upper part of it being
turned outward, and the lower part inward; fo that the
whole canal is longer on the lower fide than on the upper.
The concave fide of the circular edge is grooved quite
round.
In children this bony canal is wanting, as well as the
maftoid apophyfis; and the inner circular edge is a di-
frinct ring, which in an advanced age unites intirely,
and becomes one piece with the reft. It is termed the
bony circle in infants, and indeed it is very eafily fepara-
ted from all the other parts.
It would feem therefore, that the whole bony canal in
adults is only a prolongation of the bony circle in chil¬
dren ; becaufe even in a more advanced age, the whole
canal may, without much difficulty, be taken out. The
circular groove lies between the maftoid apophyfis and
the articular fiflure ©r crack.
O M. Y. Part VI.
The tympanum or barrel of the ear is a cavity irre-
gv.larly fgmi-fphericaJ, the bottom of it being turned in1-
ward, and the mouth joined to the circular groove al¬
ready mentioned. Both eminences and cavities ate ob-
fervable in it.
The remarkable eminences are three in number; a
large tuberofity lying in the very bottom of the barrel, a
little toward the back part; and a fmall irregular pyra¬
mid fituated above the tuberofity, and a little more back¬
ward ; the apex of it is perforated by a fmall hole, and
on one fide of the bafis two finall bony filaments are often
found in a parallel fituation. In the third eminence is a
cavity fhaped like the mouth of a fpoon, fituated at the
upper and a little towards the anterior part of the bot¬
tom of the tympanum.
The principal cavities in the tympanum are, the open¬
ing of the mafloid cells or finuofities; the opening .of the
Euftachian tube; the bony half-canal ; the feneflra ova-
lis and rotunda; and to thefe may be added the fmall
hole in the pyramid.
The opening-in the maftoid cells is at the pofterior
and upper part of the edge of the barrel. The cells
themfelves which end there are dug in the fubftance of
the maftoid procefs, being very irregular and full of wind¬
ings and turnings.
The opening of the Euftacljian tube is at the anterior
and a little toward the upper part of the edge of the bar¬
rel. This tube runs from the tympanum, towards the
pofterior openings of the nafal foffie, and arch of the pa¬
late. The bony portion thereof is dug in the apophyfis
petrofa, along the duft of the carotid apophyfis; and
when it leaves that, it is lengthened out by the fpinal a-
pophyfis cf the os fphenoides.
The bony half-canal, of which the cavity refembling
the mouth of a fpoon is the extremity, lies immediately
above the Euftachian tube, towards the upper fide of the
apophyfis petrofa, or rather in the very fubftance of that
upper fide.
The feneftra ovalis is a bole of communication between
the tympanum and labyrinth. It lies immediately above
the tuberofity, the upper fide of it being a little rounded,
the lower a little flatted ; and one extremity being turn¬
ed forward, the other backward.
The feneftra rotunda is fomething lefs than the ovalis,
and fituated in the lower, and a little towards the pofte¬
rior part of the large tuberofity ; the opening of it, which
is the orifice of a particular dufi in the labyrinth, lying
obliquely backward and outward.
The hole in the apex of the pyramid is the orifice
of a cavity, which may be named the firms of this py¬
ramid.
The tympanum contains feveral little bones called the
hones of the ear. They are generally four in number,
denominated from fomething to which they are thought
to bear a refemblance, viz. incus, malleus, ftapes, and
os orbiculare or lenticuiare
The incus, or anvil, refembles, in fome meafure, one
of the anterior grinders with its roots at a great diftance
from each other; at leaft it comes nearer to this than to
the fhape of the anvil. It may be divided into a body
and branches. The body is a large fubftance, the
branches
Fart VI.
branches or legs.are two, one long and one fliort. .The
body is turned forward, the fhort leg backward, and the
long leg downward.
The body of the incus is broader than it is thick. It
has two eminences, and two cavities between them, much
in the fame manner as we fee in the crown of the firft
grinders.
The fhort leg is thick at its origin, and from thence
decreafing gradually, it ends in a point. It is fituated ho¬
rizontally, its point being turned backward, and joined
to the edge of the mafloid opening of the tympanum.
The long leg, viewed through the external auditory
paffage, appears to be fituated vertically ; but if we look
upon it either on the fore or backfide, we fee it is incli¬
ned, the extremity of it being turned much more'inward,
than the mot or origin. The point of the extremity is
a little flatted, and bent inward like a hook, and fomer
times a little hollowed like a kind of ear-picker.
The malleus or hammer is a long bone, with a large
head, a fmall neck, an handle, and two apophyfes, one
in the neck, the other in the handle.
The top of the head is confiderably rounded, and from
thence it contrafts all the way to the neck. Bpth head
and neck are ia an inclined fltuation, and the eminences
and cavities in it anfwer to thofe in the body of the
incus.
The.handle is looked upon by fome as one of the a-
pophyfes of the malleus; and in that cafe, it is the great-
ell of the three. It forms an angle with the neck and
head, near which it is fomething. broad and flat, and de-
crpafes gradually toward its extremity.
The apophyfis of the. handle, termed by others the
fmall or fhort ttppphyfis of the malleus, terminates the
angle already mentioned, being extended towards the
neck, and lying in a llraight line with that fide or border
of the handle which is next it.
The apophyfis of the neck, called alfo aptphyfu gra¬
cilis, is in a natural Hate very long, but fo {lender with¬
al, that it is very eafily broken, efpecially when dry; it
arifes from the neck, and fometimes appears much long¬
er than it really is, by the addition of a fmall dried ten¬
don (licking to it.
The llapes is a fmall hone, very well denominated
from the refemblance it bears to a llirrup. It is divided
into the head, legs, and bafis.
The head is placed upon a fhort flatted, neck, the top
©f it being fometimes fiat, fpmetimes a little hollow.
The two legs taken together, form an arch, like that
of a (lirrup, in the concave fide of which is a groove,
which runs.,through their whole length. One leg is long¬
er, more bent, and a little broader than the other.
The bafrs refembles that of a llirrup, both,in its oval
(hape, 'and union with the legs, except that it is not per¬
forated as the llirrups now are, but fohd, like thofe of
the ancients. Round its circumference, next the legs,
is a little border, which makes that fide of the-bafis appear
a little hollow. The other fide is pretty fmooth, and
one half of the circumference is fomething more curve
than the other.
The orbicular or lenticular bone is the fmallell bone in
the body. It lies between the head of the llapes and ex-
Vol. I. Numb. 13.
297'
tremity of the long leg of the incus, fc-eing-articulated
with each of thefe. In dry bones it is found very clofe-
ly connedled, fometimes to the llapes, fometimes to the
incus, and might in that Hate be eafily miltaken for an e-
piphylis of either of thefe bones.
The labyrinth is divided into three parts, the anterior,
middle, and pollerior. The middle portion is termed
veJUbulum\ the anterior, cochlea \ and the pollerior, the
labyrinth in particular, which comprehends the three fq-
micircular canals.
The veltibulum is an irregularly round cavity, lefs
than the tympanum, and fituated more inward and a lit¬
tle mere forward. 1 hefe two cavities are, in a manner,
fet back to back, with a common partition-wall between
them, perforated near the middle by the feneltra ovalis,
by which the cavities communicate with one another.
The cavity of the vellibulum is likewife perforated by
feveral other holes; on the outfide, or towards the tym¬
panum, by the fenellra rotunda; on the backfide, by the
five orifices of the femicircular canals; on the lower
part of the forefide, by two holes, which are the entry
of the cochlea; and on the fore-fide, towards the inter¬
nal meatus auditorius, oppofite to the fenellra ovalis, by
a great many very fmall holes for the paflage of the
nerves.
The femicircular canals are three in number, one ver¬
tical and fuperior, one vertical and polfeiior, and one ho¬
rizontal. The fuperior vertical canal is fituated tranf-
verfely with refpe<3 to the apophyfis petrofa, the convex
fide or curvature of it being turned upward, and-the ex¬
tremities downward, one inward, the other outward.
The pofeerior vertical canal lies parallel to the length of
the apophyfis, the curvature being turned backward, and
the extremities forward, one upward, the other down¬
ward ; and the fuperior extremity of this canal meets and
lofes itfelf in the internal extremity of the former. The
curvature and extremities of the horizontal canal are al-
mclt on a level; .the curvature lying obliouely backward,
and the extremities forward, ending under thofe of the
fupetior vertical canal, but a little nearer each other ;
and. the inner being almoll in the middle fpace, between
the extremities of the pollerior vertical canal.
The horizontal canal is generally the leaf! of the three;
the pollerior vertical is often, and the fuperior vertical
fometimes’ the greatell; all the three canals are larger
than a femicircle, forming nearly three quadrants; they
are broader at the orifices than in the middle. Thefe
orifices open into the back-fide of the vellibulum, being
but five in number, fo that in the pollcrior part of the
vellibulum, two appear towards the infide, and three
towards the outfide.
The cochlea is a fort of fpiral (hell, with two dufts,
formed in the anterior part of the apophyfis petrofa, in
fome meafure refembling the fliell of a fnail. The parts
to be diltinguilhed in it, are the bafis, the apex, the fpirnl
lamina, or halffeptum, by which its cavity is divided in¬
to two half-canals ; the fpindle round which the cochlea
turns ;. and lallly, the orifices and union of the two duds.
The bafis is turned diredly inward, toward the inter¬
nal foramen auditorium, the apex outward, and the axis
of the fpindle is nearly horizontal.
3- 4 F
A N A T O M Y.
The
29S A N A T
The bafis of the cochlea is gentl^ hollowed, and to¬
wards the middle perforated by feveral fmall holes. The
fpindle is a kind of Ihort cone, with a very large bafis,
which is the middle of the bafis of the cochlea. Thro’
its . whole length runs a double fpiral groove, which,
through a microfcope,' Ihews a great number of pores.
The cochlea makes about two turns and an half from
the bafis to the apex; and the two dutts, being ftri&ly
united together through their whole courfe, form an en¬
tire common feptum, which muft not be confounded with
the half feptum or fpiral lamina, as is often done. The
firft might be termed the common feptum, the other the
particular feptum or half-feptum.
Both of them are clofely joined to the fpindle, being
thicker there than in any other place. Tire common
feptum is complete, and feparates the turns entirely from
each other; whereas the half-feptum in the llceleton is
only a fpiral lami'na, the breadth of which is terminated
all round by a very thin border lying in the middle cavity
of the cochlea. In the natural ftate, there is a membra¬
nous half-feptum, which completes the partition between
the two dufts.
The two half-canals turn jointly about the fpindle,
one being fituated towards the bafis of the cochlea, the
other towards the apex: for which reafon they have been
termed the one internal, and the other external;
the divifion of them into the upper and lower flight, not
being agreeable to the natural ftate, but liable to convey
a very falfe idea thereof.
The fpiral or volute of the cochlea, begins at the low¬
er part of the veftibuliim, runs from thence forward to
the top, then backward down to thp bottom, afterwards
upwards and forwards, and fo on from the bafis which
is turned inward, to the apex which is turned outward.
The two half-canals communicate fully at the apex of
the cochlea. Their feparate openings are towards the
bafis, one. of them being immediately into the lower part
of the forefide of the veftibulum, the other into the fe-
neftra rotunda.
The internal auditory hole is in the backfide of the
apophyfis petrofa,, in fame tneafure behind the veftibu-
ium and bafis of the cochlea.. It is a kind of blind hole,
divided' into two foffulas, one large, the other fmall.
The large one lies loweft^ and ferves for the portio mol¬
lis of the auditory nerve or feventh pair. The fmall one
is uppermoft, and is the opening of a fmall dud through
which the portio dura of the fame nerve palfes.
The inferior folfala is full of little holes, which, in
she natural ftate, are filled with nervous filaments of the
portio mollis, which go to the fpindle,. to the femkircu-
lar canals, and to thofe of the cochlea. It is this foffii-
la which forms the (hallow cavity at the bafis of the fpin¬
dle of the cochlea.
The paflage for the portio dura- of the auditory nerve
runs behind the tympanum, and its orifice is the ftylo-
maftoid hole. It begins by the fmall foffula, and pierces
from within, outwards, the upper part of the apophyfis
petrofa,, making there an angleor curvature. From thence
it is inclined backward, behind tlie fmall pyramid of the
tympanum, and runs down to the ftylo-maftoid hole,
li communicates. likewife,.by a fmall hole, with die finus
O M Y. Part. VL
of the pyramid; and lower down, by another hole, with
the barrel of the ear.
The internal parts of the ear are chiefly the membrana
tympani, the periofteum of the barrel, oflicula auditus,
labyrinth and all its cavities, the membrana maftoidasa
interna, the mufcles of the oflicula, and the parts which
complete the formation of the Euftachian tube.
The Euftachian tube is a canal or dud which goes from
the tympanum to the pofterior openings of the nares, or
nafal folfas, and toward the arch of the palate.
The bony portion of it lies through its whole length
immediately above the fiffure of the glenoid or articular
cavity of the os temporis, and terminates at the meeting
of the fpinal apophyfis of the os fphenoidale with the a-
pophyfis petrofa of the os temporis.
The other or mixed portion reaches in the fame direc¬
tion from this place to the internal ala of the apophyfis
pterygoides, or to the pofterior and outer edge of the
nares. It is properly divided into four parts, two ftiperior,
and two inferior.
The two upper parts or quarters are bony; and of
thefe the innermoft is formed by the fide of the apophy-:
fis petrofa, the outermoft by the fide of the apophyfis
fpinalis of the os fphenoides, fo that the upper half of
this portion of the tube is bony. Of the two inferior
parts, the internal is cartilaginous, and the external mem¬
branous ; fo that the lower half of this portion of the tube
is partly cartilaginous next the os fphenoidale, and part¬
ly membranous next the apophyfis petrofa.
The Euftachian tube thus formed, is very narrow in
the bony part next the ear. The other portion grows
gradually wider, efpecially near the pofterior nares, where
the inner cartilaginous fide terminates by a prominent
edge, and the outer fide joins that of the neighbouring
noftril. The cavity of the tube is lined by a membrane
like that of the internal nares, of which it appears to be.
a continuation.
The fituation of the two tubes is oblique, their pofte¬
rior extremities at the ears Being at a greater diftance than
the anterior at the nares, and the convex fides* of the
prominent edges are turned toward each other. The o-
penings of the tubes are oval at this place, as is likewife
their whole cavity, efpecially that of the mixed portion.
The membrana tympani is a thin, tranfparent, flattifh
pellicle, the edge of -which is round, and ftrongly fixed
in the orbicular groove which divides the bony meatus of
the external ear from the tympanum or barrel. This
membrane is very much ftretched or very tenfe, and yet
not perfectly flat: for on the fide next the meatus exter-
rms it has a fmall hollownefs, which is pointed in the mid¬
dle; and on the fide next tlie tympanum it is gently con¬
vex, and alfo pointed in the middle.
This membrane is fituated obliquely, the upper part
of its circumference being turned outward, and the low¬
er part inward, fuitably to the direction of the bony
groove already mentioned. It is made up of feveral very
fine laminae, clofely united together. The external la¬
mina is in feme meafure a produ&ion of the lidn and cu-
ticula of the external meatus.; the,internal lamina is a
continuation of the periofteum of the tympanum; and
when the membrane has' been, firft macerated in water,
each.
Part. VI. A N A T
each of thefe laminse maybe fubdivided into feveral others.
The depreflion in the middle of the membrana tympa-
ni is caufed by the adhefion of the little bone called mal¬
leus, the handle of which is clofely joined to the infide
of the membrane from the upper part of the circumfe¬
rence all the way cb the center to which the end of the
handle is fixed. This handle feems to lie in a very fine
membranous duplicature, by means of which it is tied
to the membrana tympani, and which ferves it for a pe-
riofleum.
The periofteum of the tympanum or barrel of the ear
produces that of the fmall bones; it is likewife continued
over the two feneftrte, and enters the euftachian tube,
where it is loft in the inner membrane of that dud.
The cellulse maftoidaei are very irregular cavities in the
fubftance of the maftoid apophyfis, which communicate
with each other, and have a common opening towards
the infide, and a little above the pofterior edge of the or¬
bicular groove. Thefe cells are lined by a fine membrane,
which is partly a continuation of the periofteum of the
tympanum, and partly feems to be of. a glandular ftruc-
ture like a kind of the membrana pituitaria. The ma¬
ftoid opening is oppofite to the fmall opening of the Eu-
ftachian tube, but a little higher.
The ligaments of the officula come next in order. The
incus is tied by a ftrong fhort ligament, fixed in the point
of the fhort leg, to the edge of the maftoid opening.
Between the incus and malleus we find a fmall, thin car¬
tilage. The malleus is conneded through the whole
length of its handle to the infide of the membrana tym¬
pani.
The malleus has three mufcles, one external, one an¬
terior, and one internal; and the ftapes has one mufcle.
The external or fuperior mufcle of the malleus, is a thin
fafciculus of flefhy fibres lying along the upper part of the
bony meatus auditorius, between the periofteum and the
other integuments. The outer part of it is pretty broad,
and it contrads by degrees as it advances towards the up¬
per part or break of the orbicular groove of the tympa¬
num, into which it enters by a fmall tendon, above the
membrana tympani, and is inferred in the neck of the
malleus, near the fmall eminence or Ihort apophyfis of the
handle.
The anterior mufcle of the malleus, is fleftiy, long,
and thin. It runs along the outfide of the Euftachian
lube, to which it adheres very clofely through its whole
length. Its anterior extremity is fixed in that fide of the
tube juft before the fphenoidal fpine; and the pofterior
extremity ends in a long thin tendon, which runs in the
articular or glenoid fiffure of the os temporis, through a
fmall oblique notch; in which fiflure it enters the tympa¬
num, and is inferted in the long thin> apophyfis of the
malleus. It is partly accompanied by a. nerve, .which
forms what is called the chorda tympani.
The internal mufcle of the malleus is very fielhy and
diftind. It lies along the infide of the Euftachian tube,
partly on the cartilaginous, and partly on the bony por¬
tion, being fixed by one extremity in the apophyfis pc-
trofa. Afterwards it runs along the cavity of the bony
half-canal of the tympanum, within which cavity it is in-
vefted by a pprtion of a-membranous or jigamentary ya-
O M Y. 299
gina, which being fixed to the edges of the half-canal,
forms an infire tube therewith.
At the extremity of this bony half-canal, where we
obferve the cavity fhaped like the mouth of a fpoon, this
mufcle ends in a tendon, which is bent round the tranf-
verfe bony or ligamentary ridge in the laft-named cavity,
as over a pulley, and is inferted in the neck of the mal¬
leus above the fmall apophyfis, advancing likewife as far
as the handle.
The mufcle of the ftapes is Ihcrt and thick, and lies
concealed within the fmall bony pyramid at the bottom
of the tympanum. The cavity which it fills, touches
very nearly the bony canal of the portio dura of the au¬
ditory nerve; and it terminates in a fmall tendon which
goes out of the cavity through the fmall hole in the apex
of the pyramid. As it goes through the hole it turns
forward, and is inferted in the neck of the ftapes on the
fide of the longeft and moft crooked leg of that bone.
The three parts of the labyrinth, that is, the vefti-
bulum, femicircular canals, and cochlea, are lined by a
fine periofteum, which is continued over all the fides of
their cavities, and ftiuts the two feneftrae of. the tym¬
panum..
The periofteum of the two fides of the bony fpiral la¬
mina advances beyond the edge of that lamina, and forms
a membranous duplicature, which extending to the oppo¬
fite fide compkats the fpiral feptum.
This feptum feparates the two half-canals from the ba¬
lls to the apex ; but there it leaves a fmall opening, by
which the fmall extremities of the half-canals communi¬
cate with each other. The large extremity of the exter¬
nal half-canal ends by an oblique turn in the feneftra' ro¬
tunda, which is Ihut by a continuation of the periofteum
of that canal. The large extremity of the other half¬
canal opens into the veftibulum; and thefe two extremi¬
ties are intirely feparated by a continuation of the pe¬
riofteum.
The ear is the organ of which we can moft diftin<ftjy un¬
fold the ftrudture, and demonftrate the greateft number of
parts, that is, of fmall machines of which it is made up.
We know likewife in general, that it is the organ of hear¬
ing ; .but. when we endeavour to difcover the ufes of each
of thefe parts, that is, how each contributes to the great
defign of the whole, after having thoroughly examined
them, we muft be obliged to own, that the greateft part
of what the moft able philofophers have faid upon this
fubjed, is without any real foundation.
S e c t. VIII. The M o u t h.
The mouth may be diftinguilhed into external and in¬
ternal, and the parts of which it confifts may likewife
come under tire fame two general heads.
The parts of the neck ftill undefcribed are only the
larynx, pharynx, glindulse thyroidese, andthe mufculus
cutaneus, which really belong to the head; and there¬
fore, inftead of making, a particular feftion for fo fmall a
number of parts, efpecially fince the larynx and pharynx
have fo near a relation to the internal parts of the mouth,
we are under a neceflity of defcribing. them, before pro¬
ceeding to the mouth in particular.
The;:.
5oo A N A T
The LARYNX.
The larynx forms the protuberance in the upper and
anterior part of the neck, called commonly powum Adami.
It is chiefly made up of five cartilages, viz, Cartilago
thyroides, which is the anterior and largefl; cricoides,
the inferior, and bafls of the reft; two arytenoides, the
pofterior and fmalleft ; and the epiglottis, which is above
all the reft. Thefe cartilages are connedled together by
ligaments, and they have likewife mufcles, glands, mem¬
branes, &c. belonging to them.
The cartilago thyroidaea is large and broad, and folded
in fuch a manner as to have a longitudinal convexity on the
forefide, and two lateral portions, v/hich maybe termed
alee. The upper part of its anterior middle portion is
formed into an angular notch; the upper edge of each
ala makes an arch; and, together with the middle notch,
thefe two edges referable the upper part of an ace of
hearts.
The lower edge of each ala is more even, and the
pofterior edges ot both are veryfmooth, being lengthen¬
ed out both above and below by apoph’yies, which are
named the cornua of the thyroid cartilage.
The cricoid cartilage reiembles a thick, irregular
ting, very broad on one fide, and narrow on the other;
or it may be compared to a fmall portion of a thick tube,
cut horizontally at one end, and very obliquely at the o-
ther. It is diftinguilhed into a bafis and top, into an an¬
terior, poftcrior, and two lateral fides. The bafis is al-
moft horizontal, when we ftand ; and to this the afpera
artetia is connedted ; fo that the cricoides may be looked
upon as the upper extrer%ity of the trachea.
The pofterior portion of the cricoides is larger than
the reft, and its pofterior or convex fide is divided by a
longitudinal eminence or prominent line into diftinft fur-
faces, for the infertion of mufcles. The top is gently
Hoped above this prominent line, and terminates on each
fide by a kind of obtufe angle, formed between it and the
oblique edge of each lateral portion of this cartilage.
The whole pofterior fide is diftinguifhed into two la¬
teral portions by two prominent lines, each of which
runs down almoft in a ftreight direction from the articu¬
lar furface at the top, a little below the middle of this
fide, where it terminates in another articular line a little
concave; and near thefe four articular furfaces there are
fmall tubercles. The two fuperior furfaces are for the
articulation of the cartilagines arytenoidsese ; and the two
inferior, for the articulation of the inferior cornua or
appendices of the cartilago thyroides.
The cartilagines arytenoidacse are two fmall, equal, fi-
milar cartilages, which, joined together, refemble the
fpout of an ewer, and they are fituated on the top of the
cricoides. In each, we may confiderthe bafis; cornua;
two fides, one pofterior and concave, the other anterior
and convex; and two edges, one internal, the other ex¬
ternal, which is very oblique. The bafes are broad and
thick, and have each a concave articular furface, by
which they are joined 10 the cricoides.
The cornua are bent backward, and a little toward
each other.
O M Y. Part VI.
The epiglottis is an elaftic cartilage, nearly of the fi¬
gure of a purflain leaf, narrow and thick at the lower
part, thin and flightly rounded at the upper part, gently
convex on the forefide, and concave on the backfide.
It is fituated above the anterior or convex portion of the
cartilago thyroides ; and its lower extremity is tied .by a
Ihort. pretty broad, and very ftrong ligament, to the
middle notch in. the upper edge of that cartilage. It is
perforated by a great number of holes, fomething like
thole in the leaves of the hypericum, or St John’s
Wort, w'hich are hid by the membranes that cover its
two fides.
The cartilago thyroides is connedted to the cricoides
by feveral Ihort ftrong ligaments, round the articulations
of the two inferior cornua, with the lateral articular fur¬
faces of the cricoides. The apices of the fuperior cor¬
nua are fixed to the poftcrior extremities pf the great
cornua of the os hyoides, by flender, round ligaments,
about a quarter of an inch in length.
The thyroides is likewife conne&ed to the os hyoides
by a Ihort, broad, ftrong ligament, one end of which is
inferted in the fuperior notch of the cartilage, and the
other in the lower edge of the bafis of the bone. It has
alfo two bgaments at the middle of the concave fide,^
which belong to the arytenoidaeae.
The cricoides is tied to the lower p^rt of the thyroides
by a ftrong ligament; and by the ligaments already men¬
tioned, to the inferior cornua of that cartilage. Its ba¬
fis is fixed to the firft cartilaginous ring of tke trachea
arteria, by a ligament exa&ly like thofe by which, the o-
ther rings are connected together ; and the membranous
or pofterior portion of the trachea is likewife fixed to the
pofterior part of the bafis of the cricoides.
The cartilagines arytenoidrea; are connected to the cri¬
coides by ligaments, which furround their articulations
with the top of that cartilage. Anteriorly the bafis of
each arytenoides is fixed to one end of a iigamentary
cord, which by its other end is inferted about the middle
of the concave fide of the anterior portion of the thy¬
roides. At their infertions in the thyroides, thefe two
ligaments touch each other, but a fmall fpace is left
between them, where they are fixed in the two aryte¬
noides, and they feem likewife to have a final! adhefioa
to the top of the cricoides. This is what is called the
glottis.
Under thefe two ligamentary cords there are two o-
thers, which run likewife from behind forward. The in-
terftice between the fuperior and inferior cords on each
fide form a tranfverfe fiffure, which is the opening of a
fmall membranes bag, the bottom of which is turned
outward, that is, towardqhe ala of the thyroides. Thefe
two facculi are chiefly formed by a continuation of the
internal membrane of the larynx, and the inner furface
of their bottom appears fometimes to be glandulous.
On the anterior furface of the arytenoid cartilages,
there is a fmall depreffion between th? bafis and the con¬
vex upper part. This depreflion is filled by a glandulous
body, which not only covers the anterior furface of each
arytenoides, but is likewife extended forward from the
bafis over the pofterior extremity of the neighbouring li¬
gamentary cord.
The
Part VI, ANA
The epiglottis has likewife .two lateral ligaments, by
which it,is conne&ed to the arytenoides, all the way.to
their points or cornua. It has alfo a membranous liga¬
ment, which running along the middle of its anterior or
concave fide, ties it to the root or bafis of the tongue.
This ligament is only a duplicature of the membrane
which covers the epiglottis, continued to the neighbour¬
ing parts. Laftly, there are two lateral membranous li¬
gaments belonging to it, -fixed near the glandulous bodies
called amygdala.
The epiglottis is -not only perforated by the regular
holes already mentioned, but has likewife a great number
of fmall irregular failures and breaks, which are fo ma¬
ny different lacuna fituated between its two membranes,
and filled with fmall glands, the excretory orifices of
which are chiefly on the backfide of this cartilage.
The larynx gives infection to a number of mufcles,
which fhall now be defcribed.
The fterno-thyroidxi arc two long, flat, narrow, thin
mufcles, like ribbons, broader above than below, and fi¬
tuated along that part of the neck which lies between the
thyroid cartilage and the fternum. They are covered by
the fterno-hyoidaei, and they cover the thyroid glands,
palling immediately before them.
Each mufcle is fixed, by its lower extremity, partly in
the fuperior portion of the inner or backfide of the fter¬
num, partly in the ligament and neighbouring portion of
the clavicula, and partly in the cartilaginous portion of
the firft rib. Sometimes it runs a great way down on
the firfl bone of the fternum, and crofles the mufcle on
the other fide. From thence it runs up on the afpera
arteria, clofe by its fellow, pafles before the thyroid
glands, over the cricoid cartilage; and is inferred, by Its
upper extremity, in the lower part of the lateral fide of
the thyroid cartilage, and partly along that whole fide.
The thyro-hyoidaei, or hyo-thyroidaei are two flat,
thin mufcles, lying clofe by each other, between and a-
bove the former. Each of them is inferred, by its upper
extremity, partly in the bafis, and partly in the neigh¬
bouring part of the great cornua of the os hyoides; and
by its lower extremity, in the lower part of the lateral
fide of the thyroid cartilage, immediately above the fu¬
perior extremity of the fterno-thyroidieus; and both this
fuperio/- extremity of the laft named mufcle, and the
lower extremity of the thyro-hyoidaeus, are, at their
place of union, confounded a little witla the thyro-pha-
ryngaus inferior.
The crico-thyroidrei are two fmall mufcles, fituated
Obliquely at the lower part of the thyroid cartilage.
They are inferted by their lower extremities in the ante¬
rior portion of the cricoid cartilage, near each other, and
by their fuperior extremities, laterally in the lower edge
of the thyroid cartilage, at a diftance from each other.
The two mufculi crieo-arytenoidsei pofteriores are fi¬
tuated pofteriorly at the large or back portion of the cri-
coides, filling almoft the two longitudinal furfaces of that
portion, and diftinguilhed by the prominent line between
thefe two.furfaces. Each of them runs up obliquely, and
is inferted, by. its ijpper extremity, in the pofterior part of
the bafis of the arytenoid cartilage-of the fame fide, near
the angle of that bafis.
Vox,. I. No. 13.
T O M Y. 301
The two crico-arytenoidsei laterales are fmall, and fi¬
tuated more laterally than the former. Each mufcle is
fixed by one end to the fide of the broad part of the cri-
coides, and by the other to the lower part of the fide
of the neighbouring arytenoides.
The two thyro-arytenoidaei are very broad, each rmd-
cle being fituated laterally between the thyroides and cn-
coides. It is fixed by a broad infertion in the infide of
the ala of the thyroid cartilage; and the fibres contrac¬
ting from thence, run from before backward, and from
below upward, towards the neighbouring arytenoid car¬
tilage, in which they are iaferted, from the glottis to the
angle of the bafis.
The arytenoidsei are fraall mufcles lying on the pofte¬
rior concave fides of the arytenoid cartilages, of which
two are called crucial arytenoidai, and one tranfverfe.
The crucial mufcles run each obliquely from the bafis
of one arytenoid cartilage, to the middle and upper part
of the other, the left mufcle covering the right.
The arytenoidasus traafverfalis is inferted more or lefs
diredfly, by both extremities, in the two arytenoid car¬
tilages.
The two thyro-epiglottici crofs the thyro-arytenoida?!,
being inferted in the inner lateral part of the thyroides,
and laterally in the epiglottis.
The aryteno-epiglottici are fmall flefhy fafciculi, each
of which is fixed by one extremity in the head-of one
of the arytenoid cartilages, and by the other in the near-
eft edge of the epiglottis.
The larynx ferves particularly to admit and let out the
matter of refpiration ; and the folidity of the pieces of
which it is compofed hinders not only external objedls,
but alfo any hard thing which we fwallow, from difor-
dering this pafiage. The glottis, being a narrow flit, mo¬
difies the air which we breathe; and as it is very eafily
dilated and contradted, it forms the different tones of
the voice, chiefly by means of the different mufcles in¬
ferted in the cartilagines arytenoidaeae, to which the o-
ther mufcles of the larynx are afliftants.
The whole larynx is likewife of ufe in deglutition, by
means of its connedtion with the os hyoides, to which
the digaftric mufcles of the lower jaw adhere; which
irufcles raife the larynx together with the os hyoides e-
*ery time we fwallow.
The facility of varying and changing the tone of the
voice, depends on the flexibility of the cartilages of the
larynx, and decreafes in proportion as we advance in
age, bccaufe thefe cardlages gradually harden and oflify.
The mufculi fterno-thyroidan ferve in general to pull
down the thyroid cartilage, and the whole larynx along
with it. The thyro-hyoidasi may, as occafion requires,
either draw up the larynx toward the os hyoides, or draw
that bone downward toward the eartilago thyroides.
It is difficult to determine the ufe of the crico-thyroi-
dsei from their fituation^. They may either pull the cri-
coides obliquely backward, or the thyroides obliquely
forward;
Both the lateral and pofterior crico-arytenoidsr, may
feparate the ary tenoid cartilages, and thereby open or di¬
late the glottis.
The thyro-arytenoidari a fling together, draw both the
3 4 G arytenoid
go2 A N A 1
arytenoid cartilages forward, and confequently loofen
the glottis, and render it capable of the fmalleii quaver-
ings of the voice.
The arytenoidasi bring the arytenoid cartilages clofe
together, and prefs them againft each other ; and when
the cartilages are in this fituation, they may at the fame
time be inclined either forward by the thyro-arytenoidaei,
or backward by the crico-arytenoidsei pofteriores'. By
this means the glottis, when fhut, may be either relaxed
or tenfe ; and in this laft cafe it is intirely flint, as when
we hold in oar breath inflraining.
The general ufe of the epiglottis is to cover the glottis
like a pent-houft, and thereby hinder any thing from'
falling into it when we eat or drink; it ferves likewife
to hinder the air which we infpire from rulhing dirtdlly
Upon the glottis, but by fplitting it, as it were, obliges
it to enter by the fides, or in an oblique courfe. The
inufcles of the epiglottis do not appear to be abfolutely
neceflary for that cartilage; for in deglutition, it may be
fufSciently deprefled by the bafis of the tongue; and it
may raife itfelf again by its own elafticity. The thyro-
epiglottici and aryteno-epiglottici may ferye to (hut any
lateral openings that might remain when the epiglottis is
deprefied by the bafis of the tongue; and the hyo-epi-
glottici may pull it a little forward in ftrong refpirations,
as in fighing, yawning, 6 c.
The PHARYNX.
The pharynx is a mufcular and glandular bag, the out¬
er furface of which is clofely joined to the inner furface
of all that fpace which is at the bottom of the mouth,
behind the poflerior nares, uvula, and larynx, and which
reaches from the great or anterior apophyfis of the os
cccipitis all the way to the cefophagus, which is the con¬
tinuation of the pharynx.
Though almoft all the mufcular or fleftiy portions of
which the pharynx is compofed, concur in the formation
of one continued bag or receptacle, they are neverthelefs
very diftinguifhable from each other, not only by their
different infertions, from which they' have been denomi¬
nated, but alfo by the different dire&ions of their fibres.
The greateft part of them may be looked upon as diga-
ftric mufcles, the middle tendons of which lie backward
in one longitudinal line, which in fome fubjedts appears
plainly like alinea alba.
The cephalo-pharyngaei are inferted in the lower fide
of the apophyfis bafiliaris, or great apophyfis of the os
©capitis, about the middle of the pofterior part. From
thence they feparate laterally, and fometimes join the fty-
fo-pharyngsei. The linea alba of the pharynx begins by
the middle adhefion of thefe. mufcles.
The petro-phnryngaei' are inferted in the lower part of
the extremity of the apophyfis petrofa; the fpheno-pha-
ryngaei, partly in the os fphenoides, directly abcjve the
internal ala of the apophyfis pterygoides, and partly in
the neighbouring cartilaginous portion, of the Euflachian
tube ; and . the pterygo-pharyngxi, in the edge of the
fame aia of the apbphyfis pterygoides. Thefe three muf-
d.ea on, each fide run obliquely backward, covering each
O M Y. Part VI.
other by fome fibres, and meet at the linea alba. Their
ufe may be to draw the middle portion or great cavity of
the pharynx upward.
The ftylo-pharyngaei are inferted interiorly by one ex¬
tremity in the apophyfis, or epiphyfis ftyloides. From
thence each mufcle runs down obliquely along the lateral
part of the pharynx, covering and crofling the other'
mufcles. It extends gradually in breadth as it defcend.Sy
and forms two principal portions, .one fuperior which is;
narrow, and one inferior which is broad. The narrow
portion is fpread among the mufcular fibres above the
thyroid cartilage, and the broad portion is inferred in the
fide of that cartilage; and thus the ftylo-pharyngseus is
partly a true ftylo-thyroidaeus. Thefe mufcles may draw
the pharynx laterally upward, efpecially by their thy¬
roid portions.
The peryflraphylo-pharyngsei are two fmall rnufcles in¬
ferred between the uvula and lower extremity of the in¬
ternal ala of the apophyfis pterygoides, and run oblique¬
ly backward on the fides of the pharynx. The glolfo-
pharyngsei are fibres which run along the lateral edges of
the tongue, from which they are parted'backward, and
run down on the fides of the pharynx under the fiylo-
pharyngxi.
The hyo-pharyngxi in general are thofe on each fide
which are inferted in the os hyoides; and they may be
reckoned three pairs, the bafio-pharyngxi, kerato-pha-
ryngxi minores, and kerato-pharyngxi majores; thefe
denominations being taken from their infertions in the
bafis, and in the fmall and great cornua of the os hy¬
oides.
The mylo-pharyngxi is a mufcular portion diftinfl from
the genio-gloflus, inferted in the fide of the pharynx.
T he fyndefmo-pharyngxi are fafciculi of mufcular fi¬
bres very diftindtly inferted by one 'end along the liga*
ments by which the fuperior cornua of the cartilago thy-
roides are connected to the extremities of the great cor¬
nua of the os hyoides. From thence they run back¬
ward and meet at the linea alba.
The thyro-pharyngxi are very broad, and each mufcle
is inferted along the outfide of the ala of the cartilago
thyroides, between the edge of that cartilage and the
oblique line in which the thyro-hyoidxi are fixed From-
thence they run up obliquely backward, and meet under
the linea alba.
The crico-pharyngxi are inferted each in the lower
part of the fide of the cricoid cartilage. They feem to
be appendices of the thyro-pharyngxi, (hewing no other
marks of diflinftion but thefe infertions, and a fmall dif¬
ference in direction, becaufe as they run backward they
defcend a little.
The lowed of thefe mufcular fibres make a complete
circle backward, between the two fides of the bafis of
the cartilago cricoides. This circle is the beginning of
the cefophagus, and has been thought by fome to form a
diftinift mufcle, called xfophagaus.
The particular ufes of all thefe mufcles are very diffi¬
cult to be determined. It is certain that thofe of the
middle and lower portions of the pharynx ferve chiefljr
for deglutition.
Tht
Fart VI.
ANA
Ivl
Y.
3°3
The PALATE, UVULA, 6 c.
The palate is that arch or cavity of the mouth, fur-
rounded anteriorly by the alveolary edge and teeth of the
upper jaw, and reaching from thence to the great opening
of the' pharynx. This arch is partly folid and immove¬
able, and partly fofr and moveable. The folid portion-
is that which is bounded by the teeth, being formed by
the’two offa maxiilaria, and two ofla palati. The foft
portion lies behind the other, and runs backward like a.
veil fixed to the edge of the offa palati, being formed
partly by the common membrane of the whole arch, and
partly by feveral mufcular fafciculi, ’be.
The membrane that covers all this cavity is like that
which lines the fuperior and middle portions of the pha¬
rynx. It is very thick, fet with fmall glands, the orifices
of which are not fo fenfible as in the pharynx, and efpe-
cially in the; rugae of the fuperior portion.thereof.
This membrane, together with that of the pofterior
nares, forms, by an uninterrupted continuation, the an¬
terior and pofterior lurface of the foft portion, or feptunr
palati; fo that the mufcular fafciculi of this portion lie
in the duplicature of a glandulous membrane.
The feptnm, which may likewife be termed velum, or
valvula palati. terminates below by a loofe floating edge,
reprefenting an arch fituated tranfverfely above the bafis
or root of the tongu^. The higheft portion or top of
this arch fuftains a fmall, foft, and irregularly conical
glandulous body, fixed by its bafis to the arch, and its
apex hanging down without adhering to any thing, which
is called uvula.
On each fide of the uvula there are two mufcular half
arches, called cdumna" fepti palati. They are all join¬
ed to the uvula by their upper extremities, and difpofed
in fuch a manner^ as that the lower extremities of the
two which lie on the fame fide are at a little diftance
from each other, and fo as that one half-arch is anterior,
the other pofterior, an oblong triangular fpace being left'
between them, the apex of which is turned toward the
bafis of the uvula.
The two half arches on one fide, by joining the like  
half arches on the other fide, form the entire arch of the tube, or that next the apophyfis petrofa, partly along'
edge of the feptum. The pofterior half arches run, by the cartilaginous portion of the fame tube. From thence
their upper extremities, more direAly toward the uvula it pafles a little way under the foft membranous part, and>
than the anterior. The anterior half arches have a con- then, turning toward the feptum, is fixed in the edge, and
tinuation with the fides of the bafis of the tongue, and partly in the upper fide thereof.
the pofterior with the fides of the pharynx. At the The ftaphylini, or epiftaphrylini, are two fmall flefhy.
lower part of the fpace left between the lateral half ropes, clofely united together, as if they made but one
arches on-the fame fide, two glands are fituatec, termed mufcle. They are fixed by one extremity in the common-
amygdala. point of the pofterior edges of the ofla palati, and. from
The hilf arches are chiefly made up of feveral flat thence run downward and backward along the middle of-
flefhy portions, almoft in the fame manner with the body the feptunr, and likewife along the middle of almoft the
of the feptum. The membrane which covers them is whole uvula. Thefe mufcles have been termed azygos
thinner than the other parts of it towards the palate, pha- Morgagni/, from the difeoverer, but he confidered them--
rynx, and tongue. Each portion is a diflir.ft mufcle, the- as one mufcle. The pterygo-ftaphylini inferiores are of
greateft part of which terminate by one extremity in the the fame kind, and might be termed Jlaphylini, or e[u-
fubftance of the feptum and of the half arches, and by Jlaphylini laterals/, and thefe laft, medii.
the other extremity in parts different from thefe. The feptum palati ferves to conduft the lachrymal-
As anatomifts ufed formerly to aferibe all thefe muf- lympha, and that which is continually colledted on the-
cles, as far as they knew them, to the uvula, without arch of the palate, into the pharynx. It ferves for a
, valve.
any regard to the feptum, they termed- them in general
either plcry-Jlaphylini, or peri-Jlaphylini.
The gloflb-ftaphylini are two fmall mufcles, fixed each
in the lower and lateral part of the bafis of the tongue;
from whence they run up obliquely backward along, the
anterior half arches of the feptum palati, and terminate
infenfibly on each fide near the uvula, fome of their fibres
being fpread through the feptum.
The pharyngo-ftaphylini are likewife two fmall muf¬
cles, each of them being fixed by one extremity to the
lateral part of the mufeuli thyro-pharyngaei, as if they
were portions detached from thefe mufcles. From
thence they run up obliquely forward along the two po¬
fterior half arches of the feptum, and terminate in the
feptura above the uvula, where they meet together, and
feem to form an entire arch by the union of their fibres.
The thyro-ftaphylini are two fmall mufcles, which ac¬
company the. pharyngo-ftaphylini very clofely, through
their whole courfe, except that their pofterior extremi¬
ties are fixed in the thyroid cartilages near the other
mufcles. They are inferfed in the feptum in the fams
manner with the former.
The fpheno-falpingo-ftaphylini are each fixed by one
extremity, partly to the fphenoidal fide of the bony por¬
tion of the Euftachian tube, partly to the neareft foft
portion of the fame tube. From thence it runs toward
the external ala of the apophyfis pterygoides, into which
one portion of this mufcle is inferted. The other por¬
tion runs to the end of the ala, and turns round to the
forked extremity thereof, as over a pulley, and is after¬
wards inferted in the feptum palati,: near the uvula.
The pterygo-ftaphylinus fuperior is fo named becaufe
it has a fmall infertion in the upper part of the apophyfis
pterygoides, befides that in the fphenoidal part, of the.
bony portion of the tube. The pterygo-ftaphylinus infe¬
rior on each fide, is a fmall mufcle, inferted by one ex¬
tremity.in the uncus pterygoidaeus, and. by the other in-
the feptum near the uvula.
The petro-falpingo-ftaphylini,,or falpingo ftaphylini in-.
terni, are thofewhich are commonly called perijiaphylinl
intern/. Each mufcle is fixed by one extremity, partly
the inner fide of the bony portion of the Euftachiar
^4 AHA T
valve to hinder what we fwailow-j and efpecially what we
drink, from returning by the nares. The ufes of the
different mufcles of the feptnm are not as yet fufficiently
known, nor the different motions of which it is capable.
The TONGUE.
The tongue is divided into the bafis and point; the
upper and under Tides ; and the lateral portions or edges.
The bafis is the poflerior and thickeft part; the point,
the anterior and thinneft part. The upper fide is not
quite flat, but a little convex, and divided into two late¬
ral halves, by a (hallow depreffed line, called line a lin-
gnie mediana. The edges are thinner than the other
parts, and a little rounded as well as the point. The
lower fide reaches only from the middle of the length of
the tongue to the point.
The tongue is principally compofed of very foft flelhy
fibres, intermixed with a particular medullary fubftance,
and difpofed in various manners. Many of thefe fibres
are confined to the tongue without going any farther, the
red form feparate mufcles which go out from it in differ¬
ent ways, and are inferted in other parts. All the upper
fide of the tongue is covered by a thick membrane of a
papillary texture, upon which lies another very fine
membrane like a kind of epidermis, which is likewife
continued over the lower fide, but without papillse.
Three forts of papillss may be didinguilhed in the up¬
per fide of the tongue, capitatae, feroi-lenticulares,, and
villofac. Thofe of the fird kind are the larged, refem-
bling little mufltrooms with (hcrt dems, or buttons with¬
out a neck. They lie on the bafis of the tongue in final!
fuperficial foffulse.
They referable finall conglomerate glands feated on a
very narrow bafis, and each of them has fometimes a
fmall depreffion in the middle of their upper or convex
fide. They occupy the whole furface of the bafis of the
tongue. They are glandular papillae, or fmall lalival or
mucilaginous glands.
We oftentimes obferve, about the middle of this part
of the tongue, a particular hole of different depths, the
inner furface of which is entirely glandular, and filled
with finall papillae, like thofe of the fird kind. It is
called, foramen at cum Morgagnii, as being fird defcri-
bed by that anthor. Since that time M. Vaterus has
difcovered a kind of falival dufts belonging to it ; and
M. Heider found two of thefe duds very didindly, the
orifices of which were in the bottom of the foramen cae¬
cum near each other. He obferved the duds to run
backward, divaricating a little from each other, and that
one of them terminated in a fmall oblong veficle fituated
on the fide of the fmall cornu of the os hyoides.
The papillae of the fecond kind, or (emi-lenticulares,
are fmall orbicular eminences, only a little convex, their
circular edge not being feparate from the furface of .the
tongue. When we examine them in a (bund tongue,
with a good microfcope, we find their convex (ides full
of fmall holes or pores, like the end of a thimble.
They lie chiefly in the middle and anterior portions of
the tongue, and are fometimes mod vifible on the edges,
O M Y. Part VI.
where they appear to be very fmooth and poliflied, even
to the. iraked eye.
The papillae of the third kind, or villofe, aire the
fmalleft and moft numerous. They fill the whole furface
of the upper fide of the tongue, and even the interftices
between the other papillae.
The fleftiy fibres of which the tongue is compofed,
and which go no further than the tongue, may be termed
•mufculi lingua interiores; and they are the fame which
Spigelius named mufculi linguales. The fibres thefe
mufcles confift of are of three general kinds, longitudi¬
nal, tranfverfe, and vertical; and each of thefe fituations
admits of different .degrees of obliquity. The longitu¬
dinal fibres point to the bafis and apex of the tongue, and
feem partly to be expanfions of the mufculi llylo-glotli,
hyo-glolli, and genio-glofli; of which hereafter. The
vertical fibres feem likewife to be in part produced by the
fame genio-glofli, and the tranfverfe by the mylo-gloffi.
The mufculi exteriores are four in number, and make
a part of the body of the tongue.
The mylo-glolli are fmall fle(hy planes, fituated tranf-
verfcly, one on each fide, between the ramus of the lower
jaw, and the bafis of the tongue. Their infertion in the
jaw is immediately above the pofteiiorhalf of the mylo-hy-
oidteus, between the prominent oblique line on the infide
of the bone, and the dentes molares. From thence they
run toward the bafis of the tongue, and are loft there on
one fide of the gloffo-pharyngxi.
The ftylo-glofii are two long fmall mufcles which run
down from the ftyloid apophyfes, or epiphyfes, and form
two portions of the lateral parts of the tongue. Each
mufcle is fixed in the outfide of the apophyfis ftyloides
by a long tendon. The ftylo-hyoidaeus is the lowed,
and the ftylo-pharyngseus is in the middle, but more
backward.
As it runs down almoft oppofite to the infide of the
angle of the lower jaw, it fends off a pretty broad and
(hort lateral aponeurotic ligament, which being fixed in
that angle ferves for a frsenum, or ligamentum fufpen-
forium, to the mufcle in this part of its courfe. From
thence it pafl'es on to the fide of the bafis of the tongue,
where it firft of all adheres clofely to the lateral portion
of the hyo-gloffus, and then forms, together with that
mufcle, a large portion of the fide of the tongue.
The hyo-gloffi are each inferted in three parts of the
os hyoides that lie near each other, in the bafis, in the
root of the great cornu, and in the fymphyfis between
thefe two ; and on this account the hyo-gloffus has been
divided by fome into two or three diftind mufcles, called
bafio-glojj'us, cerato-glojfus, and cbondro-glojfus.
It is fituated on the infide, and a little lower than the
ftylo-gloflus, with which it forms the lateral part of the
tongue. The portion inferted in the bafis of the os hy¬
oides lies more anteriorly, and is larger than the other
two; that which is inferted in the fymphyfis is the leaft,
and that inferted in the great cornu the moft pofterior.
This mufcle is partly fuftained by the mylo-hyoidsus, as
by.a girth ; and the anterior portion is diftinguiftied frqm
the reft by the paffage of the nerves of the fifth pair, and
of the arteries which accompany them.
The genio-gloffi are fituated clofe to each other on the
lower
Fart VT. A N A 1
Tome of them lie very near the fldn, and the reft at a
greater diftance from it.
As thefe lymphatic glands differ more in fituation than
in fize or figure, they are commonly enumerated and de¬
nominated from the places where they lie; e. g.
Glandular parotides lymphaticae,
Glandulse maxillares lymphaticse,
Glandule jugulares, &c.
The lymphatic veffels were difcovered more than an
■hundred years.ago. But their nature and origin were
not underflood till Dr Alexander Monro, prefent Pro-
feffor of Anatofhy in the Univerfity of Edinburgh, pu-
blifhed his treatife, De Venis Lymphaticis Valvulofis, in
the year 1757. In this treatife the. Dodtor has pioved,
by many accurate experiments. That the lymphatic veflels
are a fyftem of abforbents: That they are not continua¬
tions of the arteries or veins ; but that they are a diftindl
fyflem of veffels, deftined for abforbing a pellucid liquor
called lymph, from the different cavities .of the body, be.
and for tranfmitting it to the blood, by the contradlion
EXPLANATION
Figure x. Shews the lachrymal canals, after the
common teguments and bones have been cut away.
a. The lachrymal gland, h, The two pundta lachryma-
lia, from which the two lachrymal canals pnoceed to
c, the lachrymal fac. d, The large hchrymal du<ft.
e. Its opening into the nofe. f, The caruncula la-
chrymalis. g, The eye ball.
Fig. 2. An anterior view of the coats and humours
of the eye.
a a a a, The tunica fclerotica cut in four angles, and
turned back, b b b b. The tunica choroides adhering
to the infide of the fclerotica, and the ciliary vefiels
are feen paffing over'—c c, The retina, which covers
the vitreous humour. d d, The ciliary proceffes,
which were continued from the choroid.coat. e e. The
iris, f, The pupil.
Fig. 3. Shews the optic nerves, and mufcles of the eye.
a a. The two optic nerves before they meet, b, The
two optic nerves conjoined, c, The fight optic nerve.
d, Mufculus attollens palpebrae fuperioris. e, Attol-
lens'oculi. f, Abdudlor. g g, Obliquus fuperior, or
trochlearis. h, Addudtor. i. The eye-ball.
Fig. 4. Shews the eye-ball with its mufcles.
a, The optic nerve, b, Mufculus trochlearis. c, Part
of the os frontis, to which the trochlea or pulley is
fixed, through which,—d. The tendon of the tro¬
chlearis paffes. e, Attollens qculi. f, Addudtor o-
culi. g,’ Abduftor oculi, h, Obliquus inferior,
i, Part of riie fupepior maxillary bone to which it is
fixed, k. The eye-ball.
Vol. I. No. 13.
O- M Y. 309
of their coats, and the preffure of the neighbouring parts.
Befides thefe veffels which accompany the glands,
there are others of the fame ftrudture found on the feve-
ral vifeera, where no lymphatic glands have hitherto been
difcovered. We meet with them in very great numbers
in the external membrane of the liver, and in the dupli-
cature of the fuperior membranous ligament of this vifeus.
Another fort of veffels termed lyjnphatics, are the
fmall arteries and veins, which, in the natural (late,
tranfmit only the ferous part of the blood. Thefe vef¬
fels differ from the abforbent lymphatics in the fmallnefs
of their diameter, and in their llrudlure and fituation.
All thefe little arteries and veins are uniform, extremely
narrow; and though their fides are not thinner than thofe
of the valvular lymphatics, yet their diameters are gene¬
rally lefs. The other lymphatics are full of valves, and
very thin, but they are not narrow in proportion. The
arterial and venal lymphatics are found on the parts
which are naturally white, as on the /kin, the white of
the eye, be.
of PLATE XXI.
Fig. 5. Represents the nerves and mufcles of the right
eye, after part of the bones of the orbit have been
cut away.
A, The eye-ball. B, The lachrymal gland. C, Muf¬
culus abdudtor oculi. D, Attollens. E, Levator
palpebrae fuperioris. F, Depreffor oculi. G, /d-
dudtor. H, Obliquus fuperior, with its pulley. I, its
infertion into the felerotie coat. K, Part of the
obliquus inferior. L, The anterior part of the 03
frontis cut. M, The cry/la galli of the ethmoid
bone. N, The po/lerior part of the fphenoid bone'.
O, Tranfverfe fpinous procefs of the fpenoid bone.
P, The carotid artery, denuded where it paffes thro’
the bones. Q, The carotid art'ery within tire crani¬
um. R, The ocular artery.
Nerves.—a a, The optic nerve, b. The third
pair.—c, Its joining with a branch of the fir/l branch
of the fifth pair, to form 1, The lenticular ganglion,
—which fends off the ciliary nerves, d. e e. The
fourth pair, f. The trunk of the fifth pair, g, The
fir/l branch of the fifth pair, named ophthalmic. -
h. The frontal branch from it. i, I ts ciliary branches,
along with which the nafal twig is fent to the nofe!
k. Its branch to the lachrymal gland. 1, The lenti¬
cular ganglion, m, The fecond branch of the fifth
pair, named fuperior maxillary, n. The third branch
of the fifth pair, named inferior maxillary, o. The
fixth pair of nerves,—which fends off p. The berinning
of the great fympathetic. q. The remainder°of the
fixth pair, fpent on c, The abdurior oculi.
Fig. 6. Reprefents the head of a youth, where the
upper part of the cranium is fawed off.—to fliew the
upper part of the brain, covered by the pia mater,
the veffels of which are minutely filled with wax.
A A, The cut edges of the upper part of the cranium.
4 I B, The
3
3io A N A T
B, The two tables and intermediate diploe. B B, The
two hemifpheres of the cerebrum. C C, The inci-
fure made by the falx. D, Part of the tentorium
cerebello fuper e&panfum. E, Part of the falx,
which is fixed to the crifta galli.
Fig. 7. Reprefents the parts of the external ear,
with the parotid gland and its dudl.
a a, The helix, b, The anthelix. c, The antitragus,
d, The tragus, e, The lobe of the ear. f. The
cavitas innominata. g, The fcapha. h, The concha,
i i, The parotid gland, k, A lymphatic gland, which
is often found before the tragus. 1, The dud of the
parotid gland, m, Its opening into the mouth.
Fig. 8. A view of the pofterior part of the external
ear, meatus auditorius, tympanum, with its fmall
bones, and Euftachian tube of the right fide.
a, The back part of the meatus, with the fmall ceru¬
minous glands, b. The incus, c. Malleus, d. The
O M Y. Part. VI.
chorda tympani. e, Membrana tympani. f. The
Eultachian tube, g, Its mouth, from the fauces.
Fig. 9. Reprefents the anterior part of the right ex¬
ternal ear, the cavity of the tympanum—its fmaU
bones, cochlea, and femi-circular canals.
a. The malleus, b, Incus with its long leg, refting up¬
on the ftapes. c, Membrana tympani. d, e. The
Euftaehian tube, covered by part of—f f. The muf-
culus circumflexus palati. i, 2, 3, The three femi-
circular canals. 4, The veftible. 5, The cochlea.
6, The portio mollis of the feventh pair of nerves.
Fig. 10. Shews the mufcles which compofe the flefhy
fubftance of the tongue.
a a, The tip of the tongue, with fome of the papillae
minimae. b. The root of the tongue. c, Part of
the membrane of the tongue, which covered the epi¬
glottis. d d, Part of the mufculus hyo-gloffus. ej The
lingualis. f, Genio-gloifus. g g. Part of the ftylo-
gloffus.
A N C A N C
ANATOMY is alfo ufed, in a lefs proper fenfe, for the
analyfing.of compound bodies. See Analysis.
Anatomy, in feme old flatutes, is ufed to denote the
fubjed to be anatomized.
Anatomy, an a figurative fenfe, is fipmetimes ufed for
a ftrid examination of an affair, difcourfe, or per¬
formance.
Anatomy of plants. See Agriculture, Part I.
ANATORIA, a fmall city of Greece, upon the river
Afopa, five miles from the ftraits of Negropont.
ANATRON, Natron, or Natrum, in natural hifto-
ry. See Natrum.
AN AUDI A, a term ufed by fome writers to denote
dumbnefs, or the want of the ufe of fpeech.
ANAXAGORIA, in Grecian hiftory, an anniverfary
feftiyal, kept, in honour of Anaxagoras, by the people
of Lampfacus.
ANAXIMANDRIANS, in the hiftory of philofophy,
the followers of Anaximander; the moft ancient of
the philofophical atheift's, who admitted of no other
fubftance in nature but matter.
ANAZZO, a town in the province of Barri, in the
kingdom of Naples.
ANBAR, a city of Afia, fituated upon the Euphrates,
twenty leagues from Bagdat. It is called by the na¬
tives Hafchemiah.
ANBURY,‘among farriers. See Ambury.
ANCAMARES, a people of S. America, along the ri¬
ver Madeira, which afterwards falls iato the river of
the Amazons.
ANCARANO, a fmall city of the ecclefiaftical ftate, in
the marquifate of Ancona.
ANCASTER, a town of Lincolnlhire, near Lincoln,
W. long. 30'. N. lat. 520 50'.
ANCENIS, a town of Fiance, in the province of Bri-
tanny, W. long. i° 9'. N. lat. 47° 20.
ANCESTORS, thofe from whom a perfon is defcend-
ed in a {freight line.
ANCESTREL, in law, fomething that relates to* or
has been done by one’s anceftors.
ANCHIALUS, a city of Thrace, upon the Euxine fea,
by the l urks called Kipkis, and by the Greeks An-
chio.
ANCHILOPS, in medicine, a fmall tumor in the great
angle of the eye, frequently degenerating into an ab-
cefs or fiftula lachrymalis.
ANCHIO, in geography. See Anchialus.
ANCHOR, in maritime affairs, an extremely ufeful
inftrument, ferving to retain a {hip in its place.
It is a very large and heavy iron inftrument, with
a double hook at one end, and a ring^at the other, by
which it is faftened to a cable. It is caft into the bot¬
tom of the fea, or rivers; when, taking its hold, it
keeps fliips from being drawn away by the wind, tide,
or currents.
The parts of an anchor are, 1. The ring to which
the cable is faftened. 2. The beam or {hank, which
is the longeft part of the anchor. 3. The arm, which
is that which runs into the ground. 4. The flouke
or fluke, by fome called the palm, the broad and
peaked part, with its barbs, Kke the head of an arrow,
which faftens'into the ground. 5. The ftock, a piece
of wood faftened to the beam near the ring, ferving to
guide the fluke, fo that it may fall right and fix in the
ground.
There are feveral kinds of anchors : 1. The flieet-
anchor, which is the largeft, and is never ufed but in
violent ftorms, to hinder the fttip from being driven
a-fhore.
A N C (3
a-fhore. 2. The two bowers, which are ufed for
(hips to ride in a harbour.. 3. The dream anchor.
4. The grapnel. See Stream-anchor, Grap¬
nel.
The (hank of an anchor is to be three times the
length of one of its flukes; and a (hip of 500 tons
hath her flieet-anchor of 2000 weight; and fo propor-
tionably for others, fmaller or greater. The anchor
is faid to*be a-peak, when the cable is perpendicular
between the hawfe and the anchor. See Hawse.
An anchor is faid to come home, when it cannot
hold the fhip. An anchor is foul, when, by the turn¬
ing of the fhip, the cable is hitched about the fluke.
To Jhoe an anchor, is to fit boards upon the flukes,
that it may hold the better in foft ground. When the
anchor hangs right up and down by the fhip’s fide, it
is faid to be a cock-bell, upon the fhip’s coming to an
anchor.
The inhabitants of Ceylon ufe large dones indead
of anchors; and in foitie other places of the Indies,
the anchors are a kind of wooden machines, 'loaded
withjlones.
Anchor, in architefture, a fort of carving, fomething
refembling an anchor. It is commonly placed as part
of the enrichments of the boultins of capitals of the
Tufcan, Doric, and Ionic orders; and alfo of the
the boultins of bed-mouldings of the Doric, Ionic,
and Corinthian cornices; anchors and eggs being car¬
ved alternately through the whole building.
Anchor, in heraldry, are emblems of hope, and are
taken for fuch in a fpiritual,. as well as a temporal
fenfe.
ANCHORAGE, or Anchoring-ground, a place
where a fhip may cad anchor.
The bed anchoring-ground is diff clay or hard
fand; and the bed place for riding at anchor is, where
a fhip is land-locked, and out of the tide.
Anchorage, in law, is a duty upon fhips for the ufe
of the port or harbour where they cad anchor.
ANCHORALIS procejj'us. See Coracoides.
ANCHORED, or Ankered, is faid of a crofs, the
four extremities of which referable the flukes of an
anchor.
The crofs refembles very much the crofs-moline ;
the whole difference between them confiding only yi
this, that the anchored crofs is fomewhat fnarper at
the points than the moline. See Moline.
ANCHOVY, in ichthyology, the Englifh name of the
clupea encraficolus. See Clupea.
ANCHUSA, or Alkanet, in botany, a genus of the
pentandria monogynia clafs. The corolla is fliaped
like a tunnel. There are eight fpecies of the anchu-
fa; viz. 1. The officinalis, a native of France and
the warmer parts of Europe. The root of the offici¬
nalis is not now ufed in medicine ; its principal ufe is
for colouring oils, unguents, pladers, <bc. 2. The
angudifolia, a native of Italy and Germany. 3. The.
undulata, a native of Spain. 4. The orientalis, a
native of the E. Indies; 5. The virginiana, a native
of Virginia. 6. The lanata, a native of Algiers.
7. The tindtoria, a native of Montpelier. 8. The
11 ) A N C
fempervirens, or ever-green alkanet, a native of Bri¬
tain and Spain.
ANCHYLOBLEPHARON, among phyficians, denotes
a cohefion of the eye-lids.
ANCIENT. SccAntient, and Antiquity.
ANCIENTLY, in fome old datutes, a term ufed to de¬
note feniority.
ANCLABRIS, in Roman antiquity, the table whereon
the prieds eat their portion of the facrifices.
ANCLAM, a town of Pomerania in Germany, fituated
on the river Pene, in E. long. 14°, and N. lat. 540,
about 45 miles N. W. of Stetin.
ANCLE, in anatomy. See Talus.
ANCOBER, or Rio-cobre, a river on the coad of
Guinea in Africa.
ANCILIA, in antiquity. See Ancyle.
ANCON. See Olecranon.
ANCONA, a fea-port town of Italy, fituated on the
gulph of Venice,, in E. longi 15°, and N. lat. 43° 2o\
It is the capital of a marquifate of the fame name,
fubjedt to the pope.
ANCONfEUS, in anatomy, one of the mufdes of the
elbow. See Anatomy-, p. 197.
ANCONES, in architedture, the corners or coins of
walls, crofs-beams, or rafters-.
ANCONY, in mineralogy, denotes a bloom of iron fa-
fliioned into a flat bar about three feet long, with a
fquare rough knot at each end.
ANCRE, a town of Picardy in France, upon a river of
the fame name, between Corbie and Bapaame.
ANCRET, in heraldry, the fame with anchored. See
Anchored.
ANGUAH, a city of the province of Alovahat, in the
northern parts of Egypt.
ANGUBITUS, among ancient phyficians, a term to de¬
note that affedtion of the eyes in which they feemed to
contain fand. p
ANCUD, a province of Chili in S. America, having
on the wed the Archipelago of the fame name; the
Andes on the ead ; the country of Oforno on the
north ; and the country of Magellan on the louth.
ANCYLE, in antiquity, a kind of fliield that fell, as
was pretended, from heaven, in the reign of NumaPom-
pilius; at which time, likewife, a voice was heard,
declaring that Rome fliouldbe midrefs of the world as
long as (he fliould preferve this holy buckler; It was
kept with great care in the temple of Mars,, under the
diredlion of twelve prieds; and led any fliould attempt
to deal it, eleven others were made fo like, as not to
be didinguiflied from the facred one. Thefe ancylia
were carried in proceflion every year round the city of
Rome.
Ancyle, in furgery, a didortion of the joints.
ANCYLOGLGSSUM, among phyficians, denotes a
contradlion of the ligaments of the tongue, hindering,
fpeech,
ANCYLOMELE, a furgeon’s crooked probe. See-.
Probe.
ANCYLOSIS, in furgery. See Ancyle.
ANCYROIDES, among anatomids. See Coracoides
ANCZAJC-
ANCZAKRICH, a river or Podoiia, which falls info
the Black Sea, near Oczakow.
ANDABATiE, in antiquity, a fort of gladiators who,
mounted on hdrfeback or in chariots, fought hood-
• winked, having a helmet that cover.ed their eyes.
ANDALUSIA, the molt fouth-weft province of Spain,
having Eftremadura and New Caftile on the north;
and Granada, the Straits of Gibraltar, and the At¬
lantic Ocean, on the fouth.
New Andalusia, a province of Terra Firma, lying on
the coaft of the Atlantic Ocean, oppofite to the Lee¬
ward iflands, having the river Oroonoco on the weft.
ANDAMAN, the name of fome frnall iflands fituated
on the eaft fide pf the entrance of the bay of Bengal,
in E. long. 920, andN. lat. 150.
ANDANAGAR, a town of the peninfula in India, on
this fide the Ganges, in the kingdom of Decan.
ANDANCE, a town of Languedoc in France, fituated
near the confluence of the Rhone and the Dome.
AND ANTI, in mufic, fignifies, efpecially in thorough-
bafles, that the notes are to be played diftindtly.
ANDAYE, a town in France, upon the Spanifh fron¬
tiers, within two leagues of St Jean de Luz.
ANDELI, a town of Normandy in France, fituated up¬
on the Seine, between Paris and Rouen.
ANDENA, in old writers, denotes the fwath made in
mowing of hay, or as much ground as a m^n could
ftride over at once.
ANDENES, an ifland in the north fea, upon the coaft
of Norway. It is only inhabited by fifhermen.
ANDERENzE fal, a name fometimes ufed for the na-
trum of the ancients. JSee Natrum.
ANDERLECHT, a fortrefs of the Auftrian Nether¬
lands, about two miles fouth of Bruflels.
ANDERNACHT, a city of Germany, fituated on the
Lower Rhine, in E. long. 70, and N. lat. 50° aj7, a-
bout 30 miles fouth of Cologne.
ANDERO, a fea-port town of Spain, in the province
of Blfcay, about fixty mijes weft of Bilboa, fituated
in W. long. 40 30', and N. lat. 43 0 20'. Here the
Spaniards build and lay up fome of their men of war.
ANDES, a vaft ridge of mountains which runs almoft
the whole length of S. America. . They are efteemed
the higbeft in the world, being covered with fnow in
the warmeftclimates; and from thence called the Si¬
erras Nivada, or the fnonvy mountains.
ANDEiVALLO, a fmall country of Spain, in Andalu-
fia, upon the frontiers of Portugal and Spanifh Edre-
■ madura.
ANDEU.SE, a city of Languedoc in France, fituated
in E. long. 30 40', and N. lat. 430 45'.
ANDORINHA, in ornithology, an obfolete name of the
hirunda. See Hirunda.
ANDOVER, a large market-town in Hampfhire, fitu¬
ated about ten miles north-weft of Wincbefter, in
W. long. i° 30', and N. lat. 510 20'. It fends two
members to parliament.
ANDRACHNE, in botany, 4 genus of the monoecia
gynandiia clafs. The calix of the male confifts of
live leaves ; the corolla has five petals; and the ftami-
na, which are alfo five in number, are inferred into
) AND
the ftylus. The calix of the female is divided into five
leaves; it has no corolla; the ftyli are. three'; the
capfule is trilocular, c#.itaining two feeds. There are
only two fpecies of the andrachne,' viz. the telephe-
oides, a native of Italy; and the fruticofa, a native
of China.
ANDREJOS, a town fituated near the Borifthenes, be¬
tween Mufcovy and Poland.
ANDREW, or, Knights of St Andrew, an order of
knights, more ufually called the order of the thiftle.
SccThistle.
Knights of St A n d r e w is alfo an order inftituted by Peter
the Great of Mufcovy in 1698 ; the badge of which is
a golden medal, on one fide whereof is reprefented St
Andrew’s crofs, with thefe words, Cazar Pierre mo-
narque de tout la Ruffle. This medal, being faftened
to a blue ribbon, is fufpended from the right Ihoulder.
Yf Andrew’/ crofs, one in form of the letter X. See
Cross.
St ANDREw’s-<&ry, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
celebrated on the thirteenth of November, in honour
of the apoftje St Andrew.
St Andrews, in geography, a town in the county of
Fife in Scotland, fituated on the German Ocean, in
W. long. 20 2 J7, and N. lat. 56° 207, about 30 miles
N. E. of Edinburgh.
St Andrews was formerly an archbifliop’s fee, but
at prefent is chiefly remarkable on account of its uni-
verfity.
St Andrews is alfo the name of a town of Carinthia in
Germany, fituated in E. long. 150, and N. lat. 470,
about a hundred miles fouth of Vienna.
ANDRIA, in Grecian antiquity, public entertainments
fiift inftituted by Minos of Crete, and, after his ex¬
ample, appointed by Lycurgus at Sparta, at which a
whole city or a tribe affifted. They were managed
with the utmoft frugality, and perfons of all ages were
admitted, the younger fort being obliged by the law¬
giver to repair thither, as to fchools of temperance and
fobriety.
Andria, among fome naturalifts, denotes an herma-
phroditical woman. See Hermaphrodite.
Andria, in geography, a town of Italy, in the king¬
dom of Naples, fituated in E. long. J70, and N. lat.
410 67. It is a bifhop’s fee.
ANDROAS, or Androdamas, among ancient natu¬
ralifts, a kind of pyritse, to which they attributed
certain magical virtues.
ANDROGYNOUS, in zoology, an appellation given to
animals which have both the male and female fex in
the fame individual.
Androgynous baths, in antiquity, thofe common to
both fexes. See Bath.
ANDROIDES, in mechanics, a human figure, which,
by certain fprings, performs feveral external fundtions
of a man. See Automaton.
ANDROLEPSY, in Grecian antiquity, an adlion allow¬
ed by the Athenians againft fuch as protedled perfons
guilty of murder. The relations of the deceafed
were empowered to feize three men in the city or
houfe whither the malefadtor had fled, till he were
either
AND
either furrendered, or fatisfa&icn made feme other way
for the murder.
Androlepsy is fometimes alfo ufed to fignify reprifals.
See Reprisal.
ANDROMACHUSV treacle. See Theriaca.
ANDROMEDA, in artronomy, a northern conitellation,
confiding of 27 ftars, vifible to the naked eye, behind
Pegafus, Cafliopeia, and Perfeus. See Astro-
no mv.
Andromeda, in botany, a genus of the decandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix is divided into five parts;
the corolla is ovated and quinquifid; and the capfuls
has fiye cells or divifions. There are nine fpecies of
the andromeda, viz. the tetragona, hypnoides, and
cerulea, natives of Dapland and the Alps; the mari-
ana, paniculata, arborea, and calyculata, natives of
Virginia; the polifolia, marlh-ciftus, or wild rofemary,
a native of G. Britain; and the racemofa, a native of
Penfylvania.
ANDRON, in Grecian antiquity, denotes the apart¬
ment in houfes defigned for the ufe of men; in which
fenfe, it ftands oppofed to gynaeceum. See Gyna:-
c e u m .
ANDRONION, among ancient pbyficians, a name given
to certain troches invented by Andron.
ANDROPHAGI. See Andropophagi.
ANDROPOGON, in botany, a genus of the polygamia
monoecia clafs. This genus contains 18 fpecies, viz.
the caricofum, contortum, divaricatum, nutans, gryl-
lus, infulare, ravennx, alopecuroides,. diftachyon,
fchoenanthus, virginicum, bicorne, hirtum, nardus,
muticum, ifchoemum, fafciculatum, and polydafiylon,
mod of them natives of the Indies.
ANDROS, an ifland in the Archipelago, near the fouth
end of Negropont.
ANDROSACE, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The umbella of the androface is
inclofed in an involucrum; the corolla is ovated; and
the capfule is globular, and confifts of one apartment.
There are fix fpecies of this genus; viz. the maxima, a
native ofAuftria; the feptentrionalis, a native of Lap-
land, Ruffia, and the Alps ; the villofa, a native of the
Pyrenean mountains; the la<5tea, a native of Auftria ;
the carnea, a native of Switzerland; and the elonga-
ta, a native of Auftria.
ANDROSAiMUM, in botany, a fynonyme of feveral
fpecies of hypericum. See Hypericum.
ANDROMOTY, or Andranotomy, the dilfedion of
human bodies. See Anatomy.
ANDRUM, a kind of hydrocele, to which the people
of Malabat are very fubje<ft. See Hydrocele, and
Medicine.
AN DRY ALA, in botany, a'genus of the fyngenefia
polygamia jequalis clafs. The receptacle is villous ;
the calix is divided into many equal round pieces;
and the pappus is fimple and feflile. There are four
fpecies of the andryala, viz. Ahe intregifolia, a native
of^France and Sicily; the ragufina, a native of the
Archipeiagus ; the finuata, a native of Montpelier
and Sicily; and the lanata, a native of the fouthern
parts of Europe.
Vol. L No. 14.
A N G
ANDUXAR, a. city of Andalufia in Spain, fituated on
the river Guadalquiver, about 32 miles eaft of Cor-
. duba, in W. long. 40. and N. lat. 370 yo'.
ANDUZE. See Andeuse.
ANEE, in commerce, a meafure for grain, ufed in fome
provinces of France. At Lyons, it fignifies alfo a
certain quantity of wine, which is the load an afs can
carry at once: Which is fixed at 80 Englilh quarts,
wine meafture.
ANEGADA, one of the Caribbee iflands, fituated in
W. long. 63° 5 . and N. lat. 180.
ANELE, or Anil, in our old ftatutes, names ufed for
indigo. See Indigo.
ANEMABO. See Annamaboe.
ANEMIUS, among chemifts, an appellation given to a
wind-furnace, .ufed in making fire-furnaces for melting
and diftillation.
ANEMOMACHIA, a term ufed by ancient naturalifts
for a whirlwind or hurricane.
ANEMOMETER, among mechanical philofophers, an
inftrument contrived for meafuring the ftsength of the
wind.
ANEMONE, in botany, a genus of the polyandria po-
lygynia clafs. It has no calix; the petals are from
fix to nine, and the feeds are numerous. There are
21 fpecies of anemone, moft of them natives of Europe,
and only the nemorofa and pulfatilla are natives of
Biftain.
ANEMOSCOPE, a machine {hewing fronrwhat point of
the compafs the wind blows. It denotes alfo an in¬
ftrument invented to foretell the changes of the wind.
ANET, a town in the ifle of France, upon the river
Eure.
ANETHUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
digynia clafs. The fruit is oval, comprefled, and ftri-
ated. There are only two fpecies of anethum; viz.
the graveolens, a native of Spain; and die feniculum,
fennel, or finckle, a native of Britain. The feeds of
the graveolens are recommended as a carminative. The
beft preparations of them are, the diftilled oil, and a
timfture or extra# made with redtified fpirit.
ANEURISM, or Aneurysm, in furgery, a throbbing
tumor, diftended with blood, and formed by a dilata¬
tion or ruptufe of an artery. See Surgery.
ANFA, a city of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez, fitu¬
ated on the feaccoaft, between Rabat and Azamar.
ANGAMALA, a fmall city of India, fituated upon the
river Aicotta, on the Malabar coaft.
ANGARIA, in Roman antiquity, a kind of public fervice
impofed on the provincials, which confided in provi¬
ding horfes and carriages for the conveyance of military
{lores, and other public burdens. It is fometimes alio
ufed for a guard of foldiers, ported for the defence of
a place. In a more general fenfe, it is ufed for any
kind of oppreffxon, or fervices performed through com-
pulfion.
ANGASMAGO, a river of S. America. During the
Teign of the Incas, it bounded the kingdom of Peru on
the north, as the river Maule did on the fouth. See
Peru.
ANGEIOGRAPHY, or Angeiology, among anato-
4 K mills.
( 3'3 )
3
A N G (a
mifts the defcription and hiftory of the feveral veflels
of the human body.
ANGEIOGRAPHY, among antiquarians, denotes the
defcription of the various u ten fils, weights, meafures,
«5jc. of the ancients.
ANGEIOTOMY, in furgery, a term fometimes ufed for
the opening of a vein or artery.
ANGEL, a name given to thole fpiritual intelligent be¬
ings, who are fuppofed to execute the will of God, in
the government of the world.
The exiftence of angels has been admitted in all re-
ligions. The Greeks and Latins, acknowledged them
under the name of genii or damont; and, in the alco-
ran, we find frequent mention of them, the Maho¬
metans affigning them different orders and degrees,
and different employments, both in heaven and earth.
Axgel is likewise a title given to bifhops of feveral
churches. In this fenfe is St Paul under Hood by fome
authors, where he fays, Women ought to be covered in
the churchy becaufe of the angels; and thus, in the
Revelation, The feven Jlars are the angels^ that is,
biiliops, of the feven churches.
Angel, in commerce, the name of an ancient gold coin
in England, of which fome are Hill to be feen in the
cabinets of the curious. It had its name from the fi¬
gure of an angel reprefented upon it. It was 23^ ca-
lats, and weighed four penny-weights. Its value dif¬
fered in different reigns.
ANGEL-FISH, in ichthyology. See SqjJALUS.
ANGELIC; or Angelical, an epithet given to what¬
ever belongs to, or partakes of the nature of angels.
See Angel.
jA.ngel.ic Art. See Art. »
Angelic See Habit.
ANGELICA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria di-
gynia clafs. The fruit of the angelica is roundifh,
with three furrows on each fide; the corolla is equal,
and the petals turned inward at the top. There are
four fpecies of angelica, viz. the archangelica, a na¬
tive of Lapltmd; the fylveflris, a native of Britain;
the purpurea, and the lucida, both natives of Canada.
All the parts of the archangelica, but particularly the
roots, are aromatic, and ufed in feveral alexeterial waters.
Angelica, in Grecian antiquity, a celebrated dance,
performed at their feafts, fo called, becaufe the dan¬
cers were drefied in the habit of meffengers.
ANGELICS, in. cfvurch-hiftory, an ancient fed of he¬
retics, fuppofed by fome to have got this appellation
from their exceffive veneration of angels; and by o-
thers, from their maintaining that the world was cre¬
ated by angels.
Angelics is alfothe name of an order of knights, infti-
tuted in 1191, by Angelas Flavius Comnenus empe¬
ror of Conftantinople.
Angelics is alfo a congregation of nuns, founded at
Milan in 1534, by Louifa Torelli, countefs of Gua-
ftalla. They obfervc the rule of St Augnfline.
ANGELITES, in church-hnftory, an ancient fe<5t 'of
heretics, whofe diftinguilhing tenect was, That the
Tiinity have no diftindt fubftance, but partake in com¬
mon of the fame divine elfence.
4 ) AN G
ANGELO, or S r Angelo, a fea-porf town of Apu-
glia in Naples, fituated on the gulf of Venice, in 160
2 E. long, and 410 20' N. lat. It is alfo the name
of two other fmall towns in Italy, one lituated in the
kingdom of Naples, and the other in the province df
Urbino.
ANGELOLATRIA, among ecclefiaftical writers, the
adoration or worlhip of angels.
ANGELOS, a fine city of Mexico, fituated in 1030
W. long, and 190 N. lat. about 75 miles fouth-ealt
of the city of Mexico.
ANGELOT, a gold coin ftruck at Paris, while fubjedb
to the Englifh; fo called from the reprefentation of an
angel fupporting the arms of England and France.
ANGELUS. See Angel
ANGER, a violent defire to be avenged for fome fup-
pofed injury. , See Morals.
ANGERBURG, a city of Pruflia, in the province of
Bartenland, upon the river Angerap.
ANGERMANNfA, a maritime province of Sweden, ly¬
ing on the weftern fhore of the Bcthnic gulph.
ANGERMUND, a town of the dutchy of Berg in Ger¬
many, fituated on the eaft fide of the Rhine, in 6° 20'
E. long, apd 510’ io/ N. lat. It lies about nine miles,
north of Duffeldorp, and is fubjedt to the eledtor
Palatine.
ANGERONALIA, in antiquity, feafls celebrated at
Rome in honour of Angerona, the goddefs of filence
and patience. They were inflituted, according to
Macrobius, in confequence of a vow, when the peo¬
ple were afflidled with the quinzy. They were held
on the 21 ft of December.
ANGERS, a large city'of France, capital of the pro¬
vince of Anjou, and fituated on the river Loire, in
30* W. long, and qy0- 30' N. lat. It is a bifhop’s
fee, and has a royal academy for the ftudy of the kw
chiefly.
ANGHIERA, a town of the Milanefe in Italy, fitua¬
ted on the eaft fide of the Laco Maggiore, about 40
miles weft of Milan, in 90 E. long, and 450 40'
N. lat.
ANGINA, in medicine, a violent inflamatibn of the
throat, other wife called quinzy. See Medicine.
ANGIOSPERMIA, in the Linnsean fyftem of botarty,
denotes thofe plants of the didynamia clafs, which have
their feeds inclofed in capfules, or feed-veflels. See
Didynamia, and Botany.
ANGLE, in geometry, the inclination of two lines
meeting one another in a point, and called the legs
of the angle. See Geometry.
Spherical Angle, that formed by the interfedlion of two
great circles of the fphere. See Trigonometry.
Angles of the eye, in anatomy, the fame with the cor¬
ners of the eye, called by anatomifts canthi.
ANGLER, a perfon who pra&ifcs the art of angling.
ANGLESEY, an ifland on the coaft of N. Wales, which
fends one member to parliament.
ANGLIC ANUS Sudor, among phyficians. See Sudor.
ANGLICISM, in ftyle, a manner of fpeech peculiar to
the Englifh language.
ANGLING, among fportfmen, the art of fifliing with
A N O (3
a rod, to which Sre fitted a line, hook, end bait.—
For the federal methods of angling for LiLnon, trout,
carp, tench, pearch, flounder, 6r. See Salmon-
FISHING, 7V«2</-FlSHING, <&C.
ANGLO-CALVINISTS, a name given by fome wri¬
ters to the members of the church of England, as a-
greeing with the other Calvinifts in moil points, ex¬
cept church-government.
ANGLO-SAXON, an apellation given to the language
fpoken by the Englifn Saxons, in contradilHndtion
from tlie true Saxon, as well as from the modern
Englifh.
ANGOL, a city of Chili in S. America, fituated in
78° W. long, and 38° S. lat.
ANGOLA, a large maritime country on the foath-weft
fide of Africa, lying between io° and 15® E. long,
and 50 and r6° S. lat.
The Portuguefe have feveral colonies and confider-
able fettlements on this coaft, which does not hinder
the other nations of Europe from driving a traffic in
Haves with the natives, who are all negroes.
ANGOLA-yefi/. See Molucca.
ANQON, in the ancient military art/ a kind of javelin
ufed by the French. They darted it at a confiderable
diftance. The iron head of this weapon refembled a
flower-de-luce. It is the opinion of feme writers, that
the arms of France are not flowers-de-luce, but the i-
ron point of the angon, or javelin of the anc ent French.
ANGONAiUS, in anatomy, a name fometimes given to
the mufcle called anconeus. See page 197.
ANGGil, among ancient phyficians, a concentration of
the natural heat, the confequence of which is a pain
of the head, palpitation, and fadnefs.
ANGGULESME,. a city^of France, fituated about 64
miles fouth-eafl of Rochelle, in 10' E. Jong, and 45 0
40' N. lat. It is the capital of Angoumois. See the
next article.
ANGOUMOIS, a province of France, bounded by
Poiiftou on the north, by Limofin on the eall, byPe-
rigord on the fouth, and by Santoin on the weft.
ANGOURA, formerly Ancyra, a large populous city of
Natolia, in Afiatic Turkey, fituated on th% river Me-
lus; E. long. 33°. N. lat. 410 5'.
ANGRA, .the principA town of the ifland of Tercera,
one of the Azores. See Azores.
ANGROGNA, a town of Piedmont, fituated about fe-
ven miles weft of pignerol; E. long.. 7°. N. 1st.
44° 4S'
ANGUIAN, or Enguien, a fmall town of the Ne¬
therlands, between BrdTels and Mons.
ANGUILLA, in zoology, a fynonime of the nereis a-
cuftris, an infeift belonging'to the order of vermes niol-
lufca. See Nereis, it is alfo the trivial name of a
fpecies of murtena or eel. Sec Muraina.
Anguilla, in geography, one of the Caribbee iflands,
fubjecl to G. Britain, and fituated in W. long. 63°.
and N. lat. 180 I5\
ANGUILLARA, a town in the territory of Padua, be¬
longing to the ftate- of Venice.
Anguillara, is alfo a town of St Peter’s patrimony,,
about 18 miles from Rome,
[5 ) A N G
ANGUILLIFORM, an appellation given by zcologifts,
not only to the different fpecies of eels, but to other
animals refembling them in (hape.
ANGUINA, in botany, a. fynonime of the trichofan-
thes. See Trichosanthes.
ANGUINEAL, denotes fomething belonging to, or re¬
fembling a fnake, anguis.
ANGUINUM ovum, among ancient naturalifts, a fabu¬
lous kind of egg, faid to be produced by the faliva of
a duller of ferpents, and pofiefled of certain magical
virtues.
ANGUIS, or Snake, in zoology, a genus belonging to
the Order of amphibia ferpentes. The characters of
rhe anguis are thefe: They are fquameus or Ically in
the belly and under the tail. There are 16 fpecies of
the anguis; viz. 1. The quadrupes : The body of
this fpecies is cylindrical, with 14 or 15 longitudinal
affi-coloured ftreaks ; the teeth are extremely ImaJl; it
has no ears ; the feet are at a great diftance from each
other, very Ihort, wirh five toes and final! nails j bivt the
toes are fo minute that they can hardly be numbered:
It is a native of Java. 3. The bipes, is amative of
the Indies; it has 100 feuta on the belly, and 60 on
the tail; the feuta are fuccedanea for feet, ranged on
both fides; it has two Ihort refer, with two toes, near
the anus. In every fcale cf the bipes there is a brown
point. 2. The mekagris, is likewife a native of the
Indies, and has 165 feuta on the belly, and 32 on-the
tail : It has fmall teeth, but no ears. This fperies has a
great refemblance to the former. See Plate XXII. fig. r.
а. The colubrina, is an inhabitant of Egypt, has 180
feuta on the belly, and 18 on the tail; it is beautifully
variegated with pale and yeilowiffi colours. 5. The
jaculus, a native of Egypt, has 1S6 feuta on the belly,
and 23 on the tail; the feales on the belly are broad.
б. The maculata, a native of America, has 200 feuta
on the belly, and 12 on the tail; it is yellow, and in-
terfperfed with affi-coloured lines on the back: The
head is final! in proportion to the body. See Plate
XXII. fig. 2. 7. The reticulata, a native of Ame¬
rica, has 177 feuta on the belly, and 37 on the tail;
*iie colour of the fcaks is browniih, with a white
margin. 8. The ceraftes, with 200 feuta on the
belly, and 15 on the tail, is a native of Egypt. 9. The
kimbricalis, a native of America, has 230 feuta on
the belty, and 7 on the tail; its colour is a yellowifii
white, io. The ventralis, a native of CarcrlLna, has
r27 feuta on the belly, and 222 on the tail. 11. The
platura; the head is oblong aad without teeth; the
body is about a foot and a half long, black above and
white below; the tail is about one ninth, of the length
of the animal, much compreffed or flatted, and varie¬
gated with black and white; the feales are roundiffi,.
fmall, not imbricated# but they cannot be numbered.
r2. The laticauda, a native of Surinam, has 200 feuta
on the belly, and 30 on the tail; rhe tail is compref¬
fed, acute, pale, with brownifh belts. 13. The fey-
tale, a native of the Indies, with- 240 feuta on the
belly, and 13 on the tail. The head is final! and 0-
val, and the eyes are little; the-body is cylindrical,
about a foot, and a half leng, covered with oval ob-
tule.
'• 1 (3
tufe fcales : The tail is thick and obtiife like the head ;
its colour.is white, interfperfed with brownilh rings;
the margins of the fcaies are of an iron-colour;
and the top of the head is blue. See Plate XXII.
fig. 3. 14. The eryx, a native of Britain and like-
wife of America, has 126 fcuta on the belly, and 136
on the tail. It is of an alh-colour above, with three
black lines interfperfed, and blueilh below : It is a-
bout a fpan in length, ancl about the thicknefs of a
man’s finger. 15. The fragilis, a native of Europe,
has 135 fcuta on the belly, and 135 on the tail.
16. The ventralis, a native of Carolina, has 127 fcuta
on the belly, and 223 on the tail. It is of a greenifh
alh-colour, and its tail is about thrice as long as its
body. According to Linnseus, none of this genus are
poifonous.
ANGULAR, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething re¬
lating to, or that hath angles. See Angles.
ANGULARIS fcapuLs, the name by which fome ana-
tomills call the levator fcapulse. See Anatomy,
page 194.
ANGURIA> in botany, a genus of the monoecia dian-
dria clafs. There are only three fpecies of the angu-
ria, viz. the trilobata, pedata, and trifoliata, all na¬
tives of America.
ANGUS, a Ihire or county of Scotland, bounded on
the north by the Ihire of Merns, on the call by the
German ocean, on the fouth by the frith of Tay,
which divides it from the Ihire of Fife, and on the
weft by the fhire of Perth.
This county, which for the moft part is exceeding
fertile, is otherwife called Forfarlhire, from its capital
Forfar.
ANGUSTICLAVIA, in Roman antiquity, a tunica
embroidered with little purple ftuds. It was worn by
the Roman knights, as the laticlavia was by the fe-
nators.
ANHALT, a province of the circle of Upper Saxony,
in Germany, lying fouthward of the duchy of Mag¬
deburg.
ANHELATIO, or Anhelitus, among phyficians, a
fnortnefs of breath.
ANHINGA, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of plows. See Plotus.
ANHYDROS, in botany, an obfolete name of the fola-
num. See Solanum.
ANI, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
crotophaga. . See Crotophaga.
ANIAN, a large maritime country on the eaftern coaft
of Africa, lying between the equator, and 120 N. lat.
and between 40° and 50° E. long.
Anian is'alfo the name of a ftrait, fuppofed to lie be¬
tween the north-eaft of Afia and north-weft of A-
merica.
ANJENGO, a fmall town and factory on the Malabar
coaft, belonging to our -Eaft-India company.
ANIENS, or Aniente, a law-term, fignifying to be
Void, or of no force.
ANIL, in botany, afynonyme of & fpecies of indigofera.
See Indigofera.
16 ) ANI
AMIMA, among divines and naturalifts, denotes the
foul, or principle of life, in animals.
An ima, among chemifts, denotes the volatile or fpiri-
tous parts of bodies.
An i m a_ bepatis, is a name by which fome call fal martis,
or fait of iron, on account of its fuppofed efficacy in
difeafes of the liver.
Anima faturni, a white powder obtained by pouring di-
ft^kd vinegar on litharge, of confiderable ufe in ena¬
melling. See Enamel.
Avima, or Animato, in mufic, the fame with allegro.
See Allegro.
ANIMACHA, a river of India, in the kingdom of Ma¬
labar. It rifes in the kingdom of Calicut, and falls
into the ocean fix leagues from Cranganor. It is alfo
the name of a town upon the river.
ANIMADVERSION, in matters of literature, is ufed
to fignify, fometimes correftion, fometimes remarks
upon a book, 6"c. and fometimes a ferious confidera-
tion upon any point.
ANIMAL, in natural hiftory, an organized body en¬
dowed with fenfation: Thus, minerals are faid to grow
or increafe ; plants to grow and live; but animals a-
lone to have fenfation. See Natural History.
ANIMALS, in heraldry, are much ufed, both as bear¬
ings and fupporters. See Heralory.
Animal, ufed adjectively, denotes any thing belong¬
ing to, or partaking of the nature of animals. Thus,
animal aflions, thofe that are peculiar to animals ;
fuch are fenfation and mufcular motion.
Animal fpirits. See NERvousy?«L'.
Animal fyflem denotes the whole clafs of beings en¬
dowed with animal life, otherwife called animal king¬
dom.
ANIMALCULE,-an animal fo minute in its fize, as
not to be the immediate objeft of our fenfes. See M1 -
croscope.
ANIMATED, or Animate, in a general fenfe, de¬
notes fomething endowed with animal life. It alfb
imports a thing to be impregnated with vermin or ani¬
malcules.
ANIME, in heraldry, a term ufed when the eyes of a-
ny rapacious creature are born of a different tin&ure
from the creature itfelf.
ANIMETTA, among ecclefiaftical writers, denotes the
cloth wherewith the cup of the eucharift is covered.
ANIMI diliqitium, fainting or fwooning.
ANINGA, in commerce, a root which grows in the An¬
tilles ifilands, and is pretty much like the China plant.
It is ufed by fugar-bakers, for refining the fugar ; and
is more effeftual, and lefs dangerous, than the fubli-
mate of mercury and arfenic. ,
ANJOU, a country, or rather earldom of France, bound¬
ed by the province of Maine on the north, by Tourain
on the eaft, by Poiftou on the fouth, and by Britany
on the weft.
ANISCALPTOR, in anatomy, a name by which fome
call the latiffimus dorfi. See page 195.
ANITERSOR, in anatomy, another name by which
fome call the latiffimus dorfi.
ANKER,
ANN (3
ANKER, a liquid meafure at Amfterdam. It contains
about 32 gallons Englifh'meafure.
ANN, or ANNAT,,in Scots law, is half a year’s ftipend,
which the law gives to the executors of minifters of
the church of Scotland, over and above what was due
to the minifter himfelf, for his incumbency. See Scots
Law, title, Ecdefiajiical perfins.
ANNA, in Roman antiquity, an appellation given to the
moon. See the article Moon.
Anna, in geography, a city of Arabia Petrea, fltuated
on the weftern fhore of the river Euphrates, in 410 33'
of E. long, and 330 30/ N. lat.
ANNAACIOUS, a people of Brafil, in America, whofe
country borders on the government of Porto Seguro.
ANNABERG, a fmalL town of Germany, in the pro¬
vince of Mifnia, fltuated near the river Schop, about
11 German miles from Leipfic.
ANNAGH, the name of two towns in Ireland, one in
the province of Ullter, and the other in the county of
Downe.
ANNALE, in the church of Rome, a term applied to
the maifes celebrated for the dead during a whole
year.
ANNALS, in matters of literature, a fpecies of hi-
ftory, which relates events in the chronological or¬
der wherein they happened. They differ from per-
fe£t hiftory in this, that annals are a bare relation
of what happened every year, as a journal is of what
paffes every day; whereas hiftory relates, not only
the tranfaftions themfelves, hut alfo the caufes, mo-
~ tives, and fprings of aftions,
ANNALES, inlaw. See Yearlings.
ANNAMABOE, an Englifh fadtory on the gold coaft,
in Guinea, in Africa.
ANNAN, the capital of the fhire of Annandale, in
Scotland, fituated upon a river of the fame name, in
30 W. long, and 540 40' N. lat.
ANNAPOLIS, the capital of Maryland, a Britifh co¬
lony in N. America, in 78° W. long, and 390 25^
N. lat.
ANNAPOLIS, is alfo the name of the capital of Nova
Scotia, fituated in 64° W. long, and 450 N. lat.
ANNATES, among ecclefiaftical writers, a year’s in-
• come of a fpiritual living.
Thefe were, in ancient times, given to the pope
through all Chriftendom, upon the deceafe of any bi-
fhop, abbot, or parifh-clerk, and were paid by his fuc-
cefibr. At the reformation they were taken from the
pope, and vefted in the king; and finally, queen Ann
reftored them to the church, by appropriating them to
the augmentation of poor livings.
ANNEALING, ovNealing, the burning or baking
glafs, earthen ware, tic. in an oven or furnace. See
Nealing.
ANNE, or St Anne’/-^, a feftival of the Chriftian
church, celebrated by the Latins on the twenty-fixth
of July, but by the Greeks on the ninth of December.
It is kept in honour of Anne, or Anna, mother of the
Virgin Mary,
Vol. I. No. 14. 3
17 ) ANN
ANNECY, a town of the duchy of Savoy, fituated up¬
on a lake of the fame name, fubjedt to the king of
Sardinia, in.60.IO, E. long, and 46° N. lat.
ANNEXATION, in law, a term ufed to imply the u-
niting of lands or rents to the crown.
ANNI nubiles, in law, denotes the marriageable age of
a woman, viz. after ftie has arrived at twelve.
ANNIENTED, in law, fignifies annulled or made void.
ANNIHILATION, the adt of reducing any created be¬
ing into nothing.
ANNIVERSARY, the annual return of any remarkable
day. Anniverfary days, in old times more particular¬
ly, denoted thofe days in which an office was perform¬
ed for the fouls of the deceafed, or the martyrdom of
the faints was celebrated in the church.
ANNOBON, an ifland of Africa, on the coaft of Gui¬
nea, in 70 E. long, and i° 50' S.lat.
ANNO Domini, i. e. the year of our Lord, the com¬
putation of time from' our Saviour’s incarnation.
ANNOISANCE, in law, the fame with nufance. See
Nusance.
ANNOMINATION, in rhetoric, the fame with what
is otherwife c&Wtdparonomajia. See Paronomasia.
ANNONA, in Roman antiquity, denotes provifion for
a year of all forts, as of flefh, wine, tic. but e-
fpecially of corn. Annona is likewife the allowance
of oil, fait, bread, flefh, corn, wine, hay, and ftraw,
which was annually provided by the contradlors for the
maintenance of an army.
ANNONAC prafeftus, in antiquity, an extraordinary
magiftrate, whofe bufinefs it was to prevent a fcarcity
of provifion, and to regulate the weight and finenefs
of bread.
ANNONAY, a town of France in the upper Vivares,
fituated on the river Deume, in 50 22 E.long. and
450 15' N. lat.
ANNOT, a fmall city in the mountains of Provence in
France, in 70 E. long, and 440 4' N. lat.
ANNOTATION, in matters of literature, a brief com¬
mentary, or remark upon a book or writing, in order
to clear up fome paffage, of draw fome conclufion
from it.
ANNUA penjione, in law, an old-writ for granting an
annual penfion to one of the king’s chaplains.
ANNUAL, in a general fenfe, an appellation given to
whatever returns every year, of is always performed
within that fpace of time : Thus we fay, The annual
motion of the earth, annual plants, tic.
ANNUALRENT, in Scots law, an yearly profit due
by a debtor in a fum of money to a creditor for the ufe
of it. See Scots Law, title. Obligations arifmgfrom
confent.
Right of Annualrent, in Scots law, the original me¬
thod of burdening lands with an yearly payment for
the loan of money, before the taking of intereft for
money was allowed by ftatute. See Scots Law,
, title, Heretalle and moveable rights.
ANNUENTES mufculi, in anatomy, the fame with
refti interni minores. See Anatomy, Part II.
4 L ANNUITIES.
( 318 )
A N
N U I T I E S.
AN Annuity is a fum of money, payable yearly, half-
yearly, or quarterly, to continue a certain number
of years, for ever, or for life.
An annuity ia faid to be in arrear, when it continues
unpaid' after it falls due. And an annuity is laid to be
in reverfion, when the purcHafer, upon paying the price,
does not immediately enter upon poffeffion; tire annuity
not commencing till fome time after.
Intereft on annuities may be computed either in the
way of limple or compound interell. But compound
intereft,, being found molt equitable* both for buyer and
feller, the computation by fimple intereft is univerfally
difufed.
I. Annuities for a certain Time.
Problem i. Annuity, rate, and time, given, to find
the amount, or fum of yearly payments, and intereft.
Rule. Make i the firft term of a geometrical feries,
and.the amount of il. for a year the common ratio;
continue this feries to as many terms as there are years
in the queftion; and the fum of this feries is the amount
of 11. annuity for the given years; which, multiplied by
the given annuity, will produce the amount fought.
Example. An annuity of 40I. payable yearly, is
forborn and unpaid till the end of 5 years: What will
then be due, reckoning compound intereft at ^ger cent.
on all the payments then in arrear ?
123 4 5
1 : 1.05 : 1.1025 : 1.157625 : 1.21550625; whole
fum is 5,525631251.; and 5.52563125 X 40 —
221.02525 = 2211. os. 6 d. the amount fought.
The amount may alfo be found thus : Multiply the gi¬
ven annuity by the amount of 1 1. for a year; to the
produifc add the given annuity, and the fum is the amount
in 2 years; which multiply by the amount of 1 h for a
year; to the product add the given annuity, and the fum
is the amount in 3'years, <fcc. The former queftion
wrought in this manner follows.
40 am. in 1 year. 126.1 am. in 3 years.
1.05 1.05
42.00
AO
82 am. in 2 years,
1.05
86.10
40
132.405
40 .
172.405 am. in 4 years.
1.05
181.02525
40
126 1 am. in 3-years. 221.02525 am.in yyears.
If the given time be years and quarters, find the a-
mount for the whole years, as above; then find the-a-
mOunt of 11. for the given quarters; by which multiply
the amount for the whole years; and to the produdt add
fuch a part of the annuity as the given quarters are of 3
year.
If the given, annuity be payable half-yearly, or quar¬
terly, find the amount of 11. for half a year or a quar¬
ter; by which find the amount for the feveral half-years
or quarters, in the fame manner as the amount for the
feveral years is found above.
Prob. 2. Annuity, rate, and time given, to find the
prefent worth, or fum of money that will purchafe the
annuity.
Rule. Find the amount of the given annuity by the
former problem; and then, by compound intereft, find
the prefent worth of this amount, as a fum due at the end
of the given time.
Examp. What is the prefent worth of an annuity of
401. to continue 5 years, difcounting at 5 per cent, com¬
pound intereft ?
By the former problem, the amount of the given an¬
nuity for 5 years, at 5 per cent, is 221.02525; and by
compound intereft, the amount of if. for five years, at
5I. per cent, is 1.2762815625
And, 1.2762815625)221.02525000(173.179 =
173 1. 38. yd. the prelent worth fought.
The prefent worth may alfo be found thus : By com¬
pound intereft, find the prefent worth of each year by it-
felf, and the fum of thefe is the prefent worth fought.
The former example done in this way follows.
1.2762815625)40.000000000(31.3410 \
1.21550625)40.0000000 (32.908a
1.157625)40.00000 (34-5535
1.1025)40.000 (36.2811
1.05)40.0 (38.0952
Prefent worth, 173.1788
If the annuity to be purchafed be in reverfion, find
firft the prefent worth of, the annuity, as commencing im¬
mediately, by any of the methods taught above; and
then, by compound- intere’ft, find the prefent worth of
that prefent worth, rebating for the time in reverfion;
and this laft prefent worth is the anfwer.
Examp. What is the prefent worth of a yearly
penfion or rent of 75 1. to continue 4 years, but not to
commence till 3 years hence, difcounting at 5 percent,?
.05 : 1 " 75 : I5°°
1.05 X 1.05 X 1.05 X 1.05 = 1.21550625
1.21 5 50625) I 5QO.OOOOO( 1234.05 371
1500
1234.05371
265.94629, prefent worth of the annuity, if it
was. to commence immediately.
1.05^ r.oy X 1.05 = 1.157625. L. s. d\
1.157625)265.94629(229.7344 = 229 14 8£
Prob. 3. Prefent u'cyth, rate and time given, to
find the annuity.
Rule,
A N N U I
Rule. By the preceding problem, find the prefent
worth of i h annuity for the rate and time given ; and
then fay. As the prefent worth thus found toil, annu¬
ity, fo the prefent worth given to its annuity; that is,
divide the given prefent worth by that of i I. annuity.
Examp. What annuity, to continue 5 years, will
173!. 3 s. 7. purchafe, allowing compound interefi: at
5 per cent.
.05 : 1 :: 1 : 201.
1.05 X 1.05 X 1.05 X i.oj X 1.05 = 1.2762815625
1.2762815625)20.000000000(15.6705.
20
15.6705
4.3295 prefent worth of 11. annuity.
4.329)173.179(40!. annuity. Anf.
II. Annuities for ever, or freehold EJlates.
In freehold ellates, commonly called annuities in fee-
fimple, the things chiefly to be confidered are, 1. The
annuity or .yearly rent. 2. The price or prefent worth.
3. The rate of intereft. The queftions that ufually oc¬
cur on this head will fall under one or other of the follow¬
ing problems.
Prob. 1. Annuity and rate of intereft given, to find
the price.
As the rate of 11. to 11. fo the rent to the price.
Examp. The yearly rent of a fmall eftate is 40 1.:
What is it worth in ready money, computing intereft at
-34 Per cent.
L. s. d.
As .035 : 1 40 : 1142.857142= 1142 17. ii
Prob. 2. Price and rate of intereft given, to find
the rent or annuity.
As 11. to its rate, fo the price to the rent.
Examp. A gentleman purchafes an eftate for 40001.
and has 4^ per cent, for his money: Required the rent..
As 1 : .045 :: 4000 : i8ol. rent fought.
Prob. 3'. Price and.rent given, to find the rate of,
intereft.
As the price to the rent, fo 1 to the rate..
Examp. An eftate of 180I. yearly rent is bought
for 40001. : What rate of intereft has the purchafer for
his money. ?
As 4000 : 180 :: l : .045 rate fought.
Pros. 4. The rate of intereft given, to find how.
many years purchafe an eftate is worth.
Divide 1 by the rate, and the quot is the number of
years purchafe the eftate is worth.
] Examp. A gentleman is willing to purchafe an e-
ftate, provided he can have 2-§- per cent.'Pox his .money:
How many years purchafe may he offer ?
.025)1.000(40 years purchafe. Anf,
Prob. 5. The number of years purchafe at which an.
eftate is bought or fold, given, to find the rate of intereft.
Divide 1 by the number of years purchafe, and, the
quot is the rate of intereft.
Examp. A gentleman gives.40 years purchafe for an
eftate: What intereft has he for his money ?
4p)i,ooo(.025 rate fought.
T I E S. 319
The computations hitherto are all performed by a fin-
gle divifion or multiplication, and it will fcarcely be per¬
ceived that the operations are conduced by the rules of
compound intereft ; but when a reverfion occurs, recourfe
muft be had to tables of annuities on compound intereft.
Prob. 6. The rate of intereft, and the rent of a
freehold eftate in reverfion, given, to find the prefent
worth or value of the reverfion.
By Prob. 1. find the price or prefent worth of the
eftate, as if pofTeflion was to commence prefently; and
then, by the Tables, find the prefent value of the given
annuity, or rent, for the years prior to' the commence¬
ment ; fubtradt this value from the former value, and the
remainder is the value of the reverfion.
Examp. A has the poffelfion of an eftate of 130I.
per annum, to continue 20 years ; B has the reverfion of
the fame eftate from that time for ever : What is the va¬
lue, of the eftate, what the value of the 20 years poflef-
fion, and what the value of the reverfion, reckoning
compound intereft at b per cent.
By Prob. 1. .06)130.00(2166.^666 value of the eftate.
By Tables 1491.0896val.ofthepoffeffion.
6 7 5.5 7 70 val. of the reverfion.
Prob, 7. The price or value of a reverfion, the time
prior to the commencement, and rate of intereft, given,
to find the annuity or rent.
By the Tables, find the amount of the price of the re-
verfioa for the years prior to the commencement; and
then, by Prob. 2. find the annuity which that amount
will purchafe.
Examp. The reverfion of a freehold eftate, to com¬
mence 20 years hence, is bought for 675.57 71. com¬
pound intereft being allowed at b per cent.'. Required',
the annuity or rent.
By theTables the amount of 675.577 1- ? ^ a
for 20 years, -ex bper cent, is j 2I.
By Prob. 2. 2166.6X .06= 130.0 rent fought..
III. Life Annuities.
Th e value of annuities for life is determined from ob-;
fervations made on the bills of mortality. Dr Halley,
Mr Simpfon, and Monf. de Moivre, are gentlemen of.
diftinguilhed merit in calculations of this kind.
Dr Halley had recourfe to the bills of mortality at
Breflaw,. the capital of Silefia, as a proper ftandard for
the .©tiier parts of Europe, being a place pretty- central,
at a diftance from the fea, and not much crowded with
traffickers or foreigners-.. He pitches upon 1000 per-
fons all born in one year, and obferves- how many of
thefe were alive every year, from their birth to- the ex-
tinftion of the laft,. and confequently how many died
each year, as in the firft of the following tables; which
is well? adapted to Europe in general. But in the city
of London, there-is obferved to be a greater difparity in
the births and burials than in any other place, owing pro¬
bably to the vaft refort of people thither, in the way of
commerce, from all parts of the known world. Mr
Simpfon, therefore, ip order to have a table particularly..
faitedi
320 A N N U
fuited to this populous city, pitches upon 1280 perfons
all born in the fame year, and records the number re¬
maining alive each year, till none were in life.
Dr Halley’s table on the bills of mortality at Breflaw.
Mr Simpfon’s table on the bills of mortality at London.
I T I E S.
It may not be improper in this place to obferve, that
however perfeft tables of this fort may be in themfelves,
and however well adapted to any particular climate, yet
the conclufions deduced from them muff always be un¬
certain, being nothing more than probabilities, or con-
jedtures drawn from the ufual period of human life.
And the practice of buying and felling annuities on lives,
by rules founded on fuch principles,- may be juflly conli-
dered as a fort of lottery or chance-work, in which the
parties concerned mult often be deceived. But as efti-
mates and computations of this kind'are now become fa-
ftiionable, we fiiall here give fome brief account of fuch
as appear molt material.
From the above tables the probability of the conti¬
nuance or extindtion of human life is eltimated as fol¬
lows.
1. The probability that a perfon of a given age lhall
live a certain number of years, is meafured by the pro¬
portion which the number of perfons living at the pro-
pofed age has to the- difference between the faid number
and the number of perfons living at the given age.
Thus, if it be demanded, what chance a perfon of
40 years has to live feven years longer ? from 445, the
number of perfons living at 40 years of age in Dr Hal¬
ley’s table, fubtradt 377, the number of perfons living
at 47 years of age, and the remainder 68, is the num¬
ber of perfons that died during thefe 7 years; and the
probability or chance that the perfon in the queltion
fhall live thefe 7 years is as 377 to 68, or nearly as 5-!
to 1. But, by Mr Simpfon’s table, the chance is fome>-
thing lefs than that of 4 to 1.
2. If the year to which a perfon of a given age has
an equal chance of arriving hefore''he dies, be required,
it may be found thus : Find half the number of perfons
living at the given age in the tables, and in the column
of age you have the year required. ’
Thus, if the quellion be put with refpedt to a perfon
of 30 years of age,, the number of that age in Dr Hal
ley’s table is 531, the half whereof is 265, which is
found in the table' between 57 and 58 years ; fo that a
perfon of 30 years.has an equal chance of living between
27 and 28 years longer.
3. By the tables, the premium of infurance upon lives
may in fome meafure be regulated.
Thus, The chance that a perfon of 25 years has to
live another year, is, by Dr Halley’s table, as 80 to 1 ;
but the chance that a perfon of 50 years has to live a
year longer is only 3010 1. And, confequently, the
premium for infuring the former ought to be to the pre¬
mium for infuring the latter for one year, as 30 to 80,
or as 3 to 8.
Puob. I. To find the value of an annuity of 11. for
the life of a fmgle perfon of any given age.
Monf. de Moivre, by obfervihg the decreale of the
probabilities of life, as exhibited in the table, compofed
an algebraic theorem or canon, for computing the value
of an annuity for life; which canon I lhall here lay down
by way of
Rule. Find the complement of life; and, by the
tables, find the value of 11. annpity for the years deno¬
ted by the faid complement; multiply this value by the
amount
A N N U I
amount of i 1. for a year,' and divide the product by the
complement of life ; then fubtraft the quot from i ; divide
the remainder by the intereft of 11. for a year; and this
lafl: quot will be the value of the annuity fought, or, in other
words, the number of years purchafe the annuity is worth.
Examp. What is the value of an annuity of 11. for
an age of 50 years, intereft at 5 per cent.
86
yo age giveq.
36 complement of life.
By the Tables, the value is, 16.5468
Amount of x 1. for a year,  1.05
827340
165468
Complement of lif<j, 36)i7.-374r4o(.4826i5
From unity, viz. i.oqopoo
Subtract .482615
Intereft of 11. .05).517385(10.3477, value fought.
By the preceding problem is conftru&ed the follow¬
ing table.
The value of 11. annuity for a Angle .Kfe.
16
5 = 17
18
19
4 = 20
sfge. I3 per c. 7,\perc. 4 per c. ^perc. 5 per c. 6 per c
7 = 12
6—14
15
21
22
23
3 = 24
25
2 = 31
32
33
;34
35
36
37
38
i=39
40
19.87
19.74
19.60
19-47
19-33
19.19
19.05
18.90
18.76'
18.61
18.46
18.30
18.15
17.99.
17.83
17.66
17.50
17-33
17.16
16.98
16.80.
16.62
16.44
16.25
16.06
15.86
15.67
15.46
15.29
15.05
14.84
18.27
18.16
18.05
17.94
17.82
17.71
17-59
17.46
17-33
17.21
17.09
16.96
16.83
16.69
16.56
16.42
16.28
x6.x 3
15.98
15.83
15.68-
15-37
15^.21
15.05
14.89
I4-7I
14.52
M-34
14.16
I3-98
16.88
16.79
16.64
16.60
16.50
16.41
16.31
16.21
16.10
15.99
15.8.9
15.78
15.67
15-55
I5-43
15.31
15.19
15.04
14.94
14.S1
14.68
I4-54
I4-4I
14.27
14.12
i-3-98
13.82
13.67
13.52
13.36
13.20
15 67
15-59
15.51
15-43
15-35
15.27
15.19
x 5.10
15.01
14.92
14.83
14.64
I4»54
I4-44
♦4-34
I4-23
14.12
14.02
I3-9°
13-79
13.67
13-55
13-43
13.30
13.17
13.04
12.90
12.77
12.63
12.48
14.60
14-53
14.47
14.41
M-34
I4-27
14.2O
14.12
14.05
13-97
13.89
13.81
13.72
13.64
*3-55
13.46
J3-37
13.28
13.18
I3-°9.
12.99
12.88
12.78
12.67
12.56
12-45
12.33
12.21
12.09
11.96
xi .83
TIES. 321
The value of 1 I. annuity for a Angle life.
A. 3 per c. ^perc.'fi per c \\perc:fi per c. 6 per
i4-63
I4-4I
I4-I9
13.96
13.73
13-49
13.25
13.01
12.76
12.51
12.26
12.00
n-73
11.46
11.18
10.90
10.61
10.32
10.03
9-73
9.42
9.11
8.79
8.46
8.13
13-79
13-59
13.40
13.20
I2-99
12.78
12.56
12.36
12.14
11.92
11.69
11.45
11.20
10.95
10.69
10.44
10.18
9.91
. 9^4
9.36
9.08
8.79
8.49
8.19
7.88
4-°5
3-63
3.21
2.78
7.56
7.24
6.91
6.57
6.22
5.87
5-5i
5.14
4-77
4.38
3;-98
3-57
3.16
2:74
231
12.02
11.87
11.70
11.54
11.37
11.19
11.00
10.82
1 x .70
11.57
n-43
11.29
11.14
10.64
10.44
10.24
10.04
9.82
9.61
9-39
9.16
8-93
8.69
8.44
8.19
7-94
7.67
7-39
10.99
10.84
10.68
10.51
10.35
10.55
10.45
10.35
10.25
10.10
10.00
9.85
9-75
9.60
9.45
10.17
9.99
9.82
9.63
9-44
9.24
9.04
8.83
8.61
8.39
8.16
7-93
7.68
7-43
7.18
7
‘7-
6.75
6.39
6 06
7.12
6.83
6.54
6.23
5.92'
5-59
5.26
4.92
4-57
4.22
3.-84
3-47
3.07
2.67
2.26
6.91
6.64
6.36
'6.07
.5-77
5-47
5-i5
4.82
4.49
4.14
9.30
9.20
9.00
8.85
8.70
8.55
8-35
8.20
8.00
7.80
7.60
7.40
7.20
6.95
6.75
6.50
6.25
6.00
5-75
5.50
5.’20
4.9O
4.60
4-30
4.00
3-78
3.41
3-03
2.64
2.23
-3-4*
3-3°
2.95
2-55
2-15
Vox.. I. No. 14.
The above table {hews the value of an annuity of one
pound for a Angle life, at all the current rates of inu-
feft; and is efteemed the beft table of this kind extant,
and preferable to any other of a different conftruftion.
But yet thofe who fell annuities have generally one and
a half or two years more value, than fpecified in the
table, from purchafers whole age is 20.years or upwards.
Annuities of this fort are commonly bought or fcfd
at fo many years purchafe; and the value alligned in the
table may be fo reckoned. Thus the value of ari annuity
4 M of
3
322 A N N U
of one pound for an age of 50 years, at 3 per cent, in-
tereft, is 12.51 ; that is, 12 1. 10 s. or twelve and a
half years purchafe. The marginal figures on the left of
the column of age ferve to fhorten the table, and fignify,
that the value of an annuity for the age denoted by them,
is the fame with the value of an annuity for the age de¬
noted by the numbers before which they ftand. Thus
the value of an annuity for the age of 9 and 10 years is
the fame; and the value of an annuity for the age of 6
and 14, for the age of 3 and 24, 'be. is the fame. The
lurcher ufe of the table will appear in the queftions and
problems following.
Quest, i. A perfon of 50 years would purchafe an
annuity for life of 200 1: What ready money ought he
to pay, reckoning inteteft at 44 per cent. ?
L.
By the table the value of 1 1. is 10.8
Multiply by 200
Value to be paid in ready money 2164.00 Anf.
Quest. 2. A young merchant marries a widow lady
ef 40 years of age, with ft jointure of 300 1. a-year, and
wants to difpofe of the jointure for ready money: What <
fum ought he to receive* reckoning intereft at 34 per
cent.?
L.
By the table the value of 1 1. is. 13.98
300 •*
Value to be received in ready money 4194.00 Anf.
Pros. 2. To find the value of an annuity for the
joint continuance of two liyes, one life failing, the an¬
nuity to ceafe.
Here there are two cafes, according as the ages of the
two perfons.are equal or unequal.
1. If the two perfons be of the fame age, work by
the following
Rule. Take the value of any one of the lives from
the table, multiply this value by the intereft of 1 1. for
a year, fubtraA the produft from 2, divide the forefaid
value by the remainder, and the quot will be the value
of 1 1. annuity, or the number of years purebafe fought.
Examp. What is the value of 100 1. annuity for the
joint lives of two perfons, of the age of 30 years each,
reckoning intereft. at 4 per cent. ?
By the table, one life of 30 years is - 14.68
Multiply by - .04
Subtract the product 5872
From - - 2.0000
Remains - 1,4128
And 1.4128714.68(10.39 value of 1 1. annuity.
And 10.39 * 100= 1039 the value fought.
2. If the two perfons are of different ages, work as
direfied in the. following
Rule. Take the values of the two lives from the
table, multiply them into one another, calling the refult
the firft produdl; then multiply the faid firft product by
the intereft of 1 1. for a year, calling the refult the fe-
cond produdt; add the values of the two lives, and from
their fum fubtratt the fecond produftj divide the firft
I T I E S.
produdt by the remainder, and the quot will be the value
of 1 1. annuity, or the number of years purchafe fought.
Examp. What is the value of 70 1. annuity for the
joint lives of two perfons, wherof one is 40 and the other
50 years of age, reckoning intereft at 5 per cent. '? .
Bjr'the table the value of 40 years is, - 11.83
And the value of 50 years is, - - 10.35
Firft produft, 122.4405
Multiply by - .05
Second produft, 6.122025
Sum of the two lives, - 22.180000
Second produft deduft, 6.122025
Remainder, - 16.057975
And 16.057975)122.4405(7.62 value of x 1. annuity.
7°
533.40 value fought.
Pros. 3. To find the value of an annuity upon the
longeft of two lives ; that is, to continue fo Jong as ei¬
ther of the perfons is in life.
Rule. From the fum of the values of the Jingle lives,
fubtraft the value of the joint lives, and the remainder
.will be the value fought. -
' Examp. 'What is the value of an annuity of 1 I. up-
op the Jongeft of two lives, the one perfon being 30, and
the other 40 years of age, intereft at 4 per cent. ?
By the table, 30 years is, - - 14.68
40 years is, - - 13.20
Value of their joint lives, by Prob. 2.7 27.88
Cafe 2. is, 3 9 62
Value fought, 18.26
If the annuity be any other than 1 1. multiply the an-
fwer found as above by the given annuity.
If the two perfons be of equal age, find the value of
their joint lives by Cafe 1. of Prob. 2.
Pros. 4. To find the value of the next prefentation
to a living.
Rule. From the value of the fucceflbr’s life, fub¬
traft the joint value of his and the incumbent’s life, and
the remainder will be the value of i 1. annuity; which
multiplied by-the yearly income, will give the fum to be
paid for the next prefentation.
Examp. A enjoys a living of 100 I. per annum, and
B would purchafe the faid living for his life after A’s
death: The queftion is, What he ought to pay for it,
reckoning intereft at 5 per cent. A'bejng 60, and B 25
years of age ?
L.
By the table, B’s life is, - - 13.46
Joint value of both lives, by Prob. 2.. is, 6.97
The value of 1 1. annuity, - 6.49
Multiply by - - 100
Value of next prefsntation, - - - 649.00
The
A N N U
The value of a direft prefentation is the fame as that of
any other annuity for life, and is found for i 1. by the
the table : which being multiplied by the yearly income,
gives the value fought.
.Prob. 5. To find the value of a reverfion for ever,
after two fucceflive lives; or to find the value of a living
after'the death of the prefent incumbent and his fucceflbr.
Rule. By Prob. 3. find the value of the longeft of
the two lives, and fubtraiS that value from the value of
the perpetuity, and the remainder will be the value fought.
Examp. A, aged jo, enjoys an eftate or living of
100 1. per annum-, B, aged 30, is intitled to his lifetime
of the fame eftate after A’s death ; and it is propofed to
fell the eftate juft now with the burden of A and B’s lives
on it: What is the reverfion worth, reckoning intereft at
,4 per cent. ?
By the table, A's life of jots, - - 11.34
B’s life of 30 is, - 14.68
Sum, 26.02
Value of their joint lives, found by
, Prob. 2. Cafe 2. js.
Value of the longeft life.
From the value of the perpetuity.
Remains the value of 1 1. reverfion,
Multiply by
Value of the reverfion,
Prob. 6.. To find the value of the joint continuance
of three lives, one life failing, the annuity to ceafe.
Rule. Find the fingle values of the three live& from
the table; multiply thefe fingle values continually, call¬
ing the refult the produift of the three lives; multiply
that product by the intejeft of 1 1. and that produdl again
by 2, calling the refult the double product; then, from
the fum of the feveral products of the lives, taken two
and two, fubtrad the double produd ; divide the produdl
of the three lives by the remainder, and the quot will be
the value of the three joint lives.
Examp. A is 18 years of age, B 34, and C 56:
What is the value of their joint lives, reckoning intereft
at 4 per cent. ? <
By the table, the value of A’a dife is 16.1, of B’s
1-4.12, and of C’s 10.01.
ANN
ANNUITY of tiinds, in Scots law, a certain propor¬
tion of the tiends of erecfted benefices formerly payable
to the crown, but now gone into difufe.
ANNULAR, in a general fenfe, fomething in the form
of, or refembling a ring. It is-alfo a peculiandeno'-
mination for the fourth finger, commonly called the
ring-finger.
ANNULATA, in zoology, an obfolete name of a fpe-
cies of coluber. See Coluber.
ANNULET, in archite&ure, a fmall fquare member in
the Doric capital, under the quarter-round.
I T I E S.
16.1 X 14.12 X 10.01 = 2275.6, produft of the 3 lives.
 £4
91.024
_ 2
182.048, double produ<ft. •
Produ'fl of A and B, 16.1 X 14.12 = 227.33
A and C, 16.1 X 10.01 = 161.16
B and C, 14112X10.01 = 141.34
Sum of all, two and two, - 529.83
Double produd fubtraft - - 182.048
Remainder - 347.782
And 347.782)2275.600(6.54 value fought.
Prob. 7. To find the value of an annuity upon the
longeft of three lives.
Rule. From the fum-of the values of the three fin¬
gle lives taken from the table, fubtraft the fum of all the
joint lives, taken two and two, as found by Prob. 2.
and to the remainder add the, value of the three joint
lives, as found by Prob. 6. and that fum, will be the va¬
lue of the longeft life fought.
Examp. A is 18 years of age, B 34, and C 56:
What is the value of the longeft of thefe three lives, in¬
tereft at 4 per cent. ?
By the table, the fingle value of A’s life is, 16.1
fingle value of B’s fife is, 14.12
fingle value of C’s life is, 10.01
Sum of the fingle values, 40.23
By Prob. 2. the joint vSlue of A and B is, 10.76
joint value of A and C is, 8.19
joint, value of B and C is, 7.65
Sum of the joint lives, 26^60^
Remainder, - - 13.63
By Prob. 6. the value of the 3 joint lives is, 6.54
Value of the longeft of the 3 lives, - 20.17
Other problems might be added, but thefe adduced'
are fufficient for moft purpofes. The reader probably
may wifti that the reafon of the rules, which, it muft be
owned, are intricate, had been affigned; but this could
not be done without entering deeper into the fubjedt than
was pra&icable in this place. See Chance s.
A NN
Annulet is alfo a narrow flat moulding, which is
common to divers places of the columns, as in the ba-
fes, capitals, tec. It is the fame member which Vi¬
truvius calls a///?/; Palladio, a ItjieL or cincture;
Scamozzi, and Mr Brown, a fupercilium, HJl, tinea,
eye-brow, fquare, and rabbit. See Architec¬
ture.
Anjjulet, inheraldry, a mark of diftindlion which the
fifth brother of a family ought to bear to his coat of
arms.
The hieroglyphic of the annulet is very various; 1
Some.
8.60
i7.42fub.
25.00
7.59--
100 r*
758.00
A N O ( g:
Somi of the ancients' ufed it to denote fervitude ; the
Romans reprefented by it liberty and nobility. It is
an emblem of fecrecy, if it have a feal; and of love,
if the cypher, the face, or the arms of the perfon be-
lotrnd are ingraved upon it.
ANNULLING, a term fometimes ufed for cancelling,
or making void, a deed, fentence, or the like.
ANNUNClADA, Annuntiada, or Annuntiata,
an order of knighthood in Savoy, firft inftituted by
Amadeus I. in the year 1409 ; their collar was of 15
links, interwoven one with another, in form of a true
lover’s knot, and the motto, F. E. R. T-. fignifying,
Fortitude ejus Rkodutn tenuit. Amadeus VIII. gave
the name Annunciada to this order, which was. for¬
merly known by that of ths knot of love, changing
at the fame time the image of St Maurice patron of
Savoy, which hung at the collar, for that of the Vir¬
gin Mary, and, inftead of the motto above-mentioned,
fubfiituting the words of the angel’s falutation.
Annunci ada is alfo the tide of feveral religious orders,
inftituted at different times, and at different places,
in honour of the annunciation. See the next article.
ANNUNCIATION, the tidings brought by the angel
Gabriel to the Virgin Mary of the incarnation of
Chrift.
Annunciation is alfo a feflival, kept by the church
on the 25 th of March, in commemoration of thefe ti¬
dings.
In the Romifli church, on this feaft, the pope per¬
forms the ceremony of marrying or cloyflering a cer¬
tain number of maidens, who are prefented to him in
the church, clothed in white ferge, and muffled, up
from head to foot: An officer Hands by, with pur-
fes containing notes of fifty crowns for thofe who make
choice of marriage, and notes of a hundred for thofe
who chafe the vei-i.
Annunciation is likewife a title given by the Jews
part of the ceremony of the paffover. _
ANNUNTIATOR, the name of an officer in the church
of Conftantinople. It was his bufinefs to inform the
people of the feflivals that were to be celebrated.
ANOCTORON, a term ufed by fome ecclefiaftical wri¬
ters for a church. See Church.
ANOCISTI, in zoology, an obfolete name of the echi¬
nus. See Echinus.
ANODYNE, in pharmacy, a term applied to medicines
which mitigate pain.
Among anodynes may be reckoned all relaxing re¬
medies, dilutees, and medicines which by any means
deflroy acrimony, or expel wind, together with the
compound , medicines of the ffiops, which pafs under
this name; fuch as the anodyne balfam made of Caftile
foap, opium, camphire, faffron, and fpirit of wine.
ANOLYMPIADS, in Grecian antiquity, an appella¬
tion given by the Elaeans to fuch Olympic games as
had been celebrated under the direftion of other Hates
befides themfelves. See Olympiad.
ANOMOLISTICAL Year, in aHronomy, the time
that the earth takes to pafs through her orbit: it is
alfo called the periodical year.
The fpace of time belonging to this year is greater
14 ) A N S
than the tropical year, on account of the preceffion of
the equinoxes. See Precession, and Astronomy.
ANOMALOUS, a term applied to whatever is irregu¬
lar, or deviates from the rule obferved by other things
of the like nature.-
ANOMALY, in aflronomy, an irregularity in the mo¬
tion of the planets, whereby they deviate from the a-
phelion or apogee.
ANOMIA, in zoology, a genus of fflell-infeAs belong¬
ing to the order of vermes teHacea. The ligula is e-
marginated, and the cilii are fixed to the fuperior
valve; it has two lineal brachii longer than the body:
The valves of the ffiell are equal. There are 25 fpe-
cies of the anomia'; fuch of them whofe hifiory is
known, are all natives of the European feas.
ANOMOEANS, in church-hiHory, ancient heretics,
who afferted that the Son was of a nature different,
and in nothing like to that of the Father.
ANOMORHOMBOIDIA, in natural hifiory, a genus
of cryfialline fpars, of no determinate form, eafily fif-
file, but cleaving more readily in an horizontal than
in a perpendicular diredion, their plates being compo-
fed of irregular arrangements of ihort and thick rhom-
boidal concretions. See Spar.
ANONA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria polygy-
nia clafs. The calix is three-leaved; the petal? are
fix; the fruit is a roundiffi berry containing many
feeds. There are 8 fpecies of the anona, viz. the
muricata, fquambfa, reticulata,.paluflris, glabra, tri¬
loba, Afiatica, and Africana. All of them natives of
the Indies.
ANONIS, in botany. See Ononis.
ANONYMOS, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies of
fpermacoce and feveral other plants. See Sperma-
coce.
ANONYMOUS, fomething that is namelefs, or of which
the name is concealed.
Anonymous, in chemifiry. See Adiaphorous.
ANOREXY, in medicine, a loathing of meat, or want
of appetite.
ANOT. See Annot.
A NOTH, one of the Scilly iflands. See Sc illy.
ANOUT, a fmall ifland in the Schagerrack, or that
part of the fea of Denmark which has Norway on the
north, Jutland on the wefi, and the ifle of Zealand on
the fouth ; it lies in 130 E. long, and 56° 36'N. lat.
ANSA, a river in Friuli in’Italy, which difchafges'it-
felf into the gulf of Venice.
ANSiE, in aHronomy,. the parts of Saturn’s ring, which
are to be feen on each fide of that planet, when view¬
ed through a telefcope. See Astronomy.
ANSE, a fmall town of France in the Lyonnois, four
leagues, north of Lyons.
ANSEL-WEIGHT, the fame with auneel-weight. See
Auncel.
ANSELM’/ Art, or St Anselm’/ Art. See Art.
ANSER, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
ans. See An s.
ANSERES, the name which Linnteus gives to his third
order of birds. This order is difiinguilhed by the
following marks: The beak is covered with a fmooth
fitin
ANT (3
ikin or membrane, wideft at the apex, and full of fraall
holes like a fieve; the toes of the feet are conne&ed
by a membrane which enables them to fwim; the tibia,
or Ihin-bone, is fhort and flat. Tliey live upon wa¬
ter-plants, fiflies, i&f. This order includes 12 gene¬
ra, viz. the ana's, mergus, phaeton, plotus, rhyncops,
dromeda, alca, procellaria, pelecanus, larus, fterna,
and columbus. See thefe articles, and Natural
History.
Anser, in aftronomy, a ftar of the fifth or fixth mag¬
nitude, in the milky-way, between the fwan and eagle.
ANSES, in aftronomy, the fame with anfas. See Ansa;.
ANSI AN ACTE S, a people of Africa, in the weftern
part of the ifle of Madagafcar.
ANSLO, a fea-port town of Norway, and province of
Aggerhuys, fituated in io° 12' E. long, and 59° 3c/
N. lat.
ANSPACH, orOHNSPACH, a city of Germany, and
circle of Franconia, fituated in io° 36' E. long, and
490 22' N. lat.
It is the capital of the marquifate of Anfpach, of
which family was the late queen Caroline.
AJMSPESSADES, in the French armies, a kind of infe¬
rior olficer in the foot, below the corporals, but above
the common centinels. ; There are ufually four or five
of them in a company. .
ANSTRUTHER Eajier zn&WeJler, two royal burghs
of . Scotland fituated on the fouth-eaft coaft of the
county of- Fife, in 20 ,25' W. long, and 56° 20
N. lat.
ANT, in zoology. See Formica.
ANTA, in the ancient architedure, a fquare pilafter,
placed at the corners of buildings.
Anta, in geopraphy, a little city with a* harbour, on
the coaft of Guinea in Africa.
ANTACHATES, in .natural hiftory, a bituminous
ftone, which yields a fmell like myrrh, in burning:
ANTACIDS, in pharmacy, an appellation given to all
medicines proper to corred acid or four humours:
Such are the abforbent and obtundent clafles,' &c.
ANTAGONIST, denotes an adverfary, efpecially in
fpeaking of combats and games.
Antagonist tnufcJet, in anatomy, thofe which have
oppofite fundions, as -flexors and extenfors, abduc¬
tors and addudors.,-^.,
ANTALIS, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
. thedentalium. See Dentalium.
ANTALGICS, in medicine, the fame with anodynes.
See Anodyne.
-ANTANACLASIS, in rhetoric, a figure whidr re¬
peats the fame word, but in a different fenfe; as, dui?i
vivinius, vivamus.
ANTANAGOGE, in rhetoric, a figure by which, when
the accufation of the adverfary is unanfwerabkj we
load him with the fame or other crimes.
ANTANISOPHYLLUM, in 'botany, a fynonime of
a fpecies of Boerhaavia. See Boerhaavia.
ANTAPHRODISIACS, in pharmacy, medicines pro¬
per to diminiflr the femen, and confcquently extinguilh
or leften all defires of yenery.
ANTARCTIC, in a general fenfe, denotes fortiething
Vol. I. No, 14. 3
25 ) ANT
oppofite to the ardic or northern pole. Hence, an-
tardic circle is one of the leifer circles of the fphere,
and diftant only 23°’30/ from the fouth pole, which
is likewife called antardic for the fame reafon.
ANTARES, a ftar of the firft magnitude, .otherwile
called thefcorpion's heart. See Scorpion.
ANTE', in heraldry, denotes that the pieces are let in¬
to one another in fuch form as is there exprefled; as,
for inftance, by dove-tails, rounds, fwallow-tails, of
the like.
ANTEAMBULONES, in Roman antiquity, fervar.ts
who went before perfons of diftindion to clear the
way before them. They ufed this formula. Date lo¬
cum domino meo, i. e. Make room, or way, for my
mafter.
ANTECEDENT, in general, fomething that goes be¬
fore another, either in order of time or place.
Antecedent, in grammar, the word to which a rela¬
tive refers.
Antecedent, in logic, is the firft: of the two propofi-
tions in an eqthymema.
Antecedent, in mathematics, is the firft of two
terms of a ratio, or that which is compared with the
other.
Antecedent in medicine, fuch as are obfervei
before a diftemper is fo formed as to be reducible to
any particular clafs.
ANTECEDENCE, in aftronomy, an apparent motion
of a planet towards the weft, or contrary to the order
of the figns.
ANTECESSOR, one that goes before. It was an ap¬
pellation given to thofe who excelled in any fcience:
Juftinian applied it particularly to profeflbrs of civil
law; and, in the univerfities of France, the teachers
of law take the,title antecejforcs in all their thefes.
ANTECURSORES, in the Roman armies, a party of
horfe detached before, partly to get intelligence, pro-
vifions, <&c. and partly to chufe a proper place to en¬
camp in. Thefe were otherwife called antecejjores,
and by the Greeks prodromi.
ANTEDATE, among lawyers, a fpurious of falfe date,
prior to the true date of a bond, bill, or the like.
ANTEDILUVIAN, whatever exifted before Noah’s
flood: Thus, the generations from Adam to Noah
are called the aoitediluvians. See Deluge.
ANTEGO, one of the Caribbee iflands, in the Atlantic
or American ocean, fituated in 62° W. long. . and
170 30' N. lat. It is about 20 miles long, and as
many broad.
•ANTEJURAMENTUM, by our anceftors called ju-
ramentum calumnix, an oath which anciently both
accufer and accufed were to take before any trial or
purgation.
The accufer was to fwear that he would prcfecute
the criminal; and the accufed to make oath, on the
day he was to undergo the ordeal, that he was inno¬
cent of the crime charged againft him.
ANTELOPE, in zoology. See Capra.
ANTEMURALE, in the ancient military ar.t, denotes
much the fame with what the moderns call an c«r-
•work,
4 N
' ANTEN-
ANT (32
ANTENCLEMA, in rhetoric, called by the Latins
relatio, is when the fault is imputed, upon any ihif-
fortUne happening, to the perfon to whom it happened.
ANTENNAE, in the hiftory of infetts, flender bodies
with which nature has furnilhed the heads of thefe
creatures, being the fame with what in Englifh are
called horns or feelers.
ANTEPAGMENTA, in the ancient architedure, the
jambs of a door. They are alfo ornaments, or gar-
niihings, in carved work, of men, animals, <bc. made
either of wood or done, and fet on the architrave.
ANTEPENULTIMA, in grammar, the third fyllable
of a word from the end, or the lad fyllable but two.
ANTEPILANI, in theldoman armies, a name given to
the hadati and principes, becaufe they marched next
before the triarii, who were called pilani.
ANTEPILEPTICS, among phyficians, medicines e-
deemed good in the epilepfy.
ANTEPOSITION, in grammar, the placing a word
fird which (hould dand lad.
ANTEPREDICAMENTS, among logicians, certain
preliminary quedions which illudrate the doftrine of
predicaments and categories.
ANTEQUIERA, a town of Granada, in Spain ; fitu-
ated in W. long. 40 40', and N. lat. 36° 4</, about
2 5 miles north of Malaga.
ANTEQUIRA-NOVA, an epifcopal city of New Spain,
in America, in the province of Guaxaca.
ANTERIDES, in the ancient architedlure, buttrefles
eredled to fupport a wall. See Buttress.
ANTERIOR, denotes fomething placed before another,
either with refpedt to time or place.
ANTEROTES, in natural hidory, a name given by
the ancients to a fpecies of amethyd. See Amethyst.
ANTESIGNANI, in the Roman armies, foldiers pla¬
ced before the dandards, in order to defend them, ac¬
cording to Limpfius; but Csefar and Livy mention the
antefignani as the fird line, or fird body, of heavy¬
armed troops. The velites, who ufed to Ikirmidi be¬
fore the army, were likewife called antefignani.
ANTESTATURE, in fortification, a fmall retrench¬
ment made of palifadoes, or facks of earth, with a
view to difpute with an enemy the remainder of a piece
of ground.
ANTEVIRGILIAN hujhandry, an appellation given
to Mr Tull’s new method of horfe-hoeing huibandry.
See Agriculture, Part II.
ANTHAKIA,; in geography, the fame with Antioch.
See Antioch.
ANTHELIX, in anatomy, the inward protuberance of
the external ear, being a femieircle within, and almod
parallel to the helix. See p. 295.
ANTHELMINTICS, among phyficians, medicines pro¬
per to dedroy worms. See Pharmacy.
ANTHEM, a church-fong, performed in cathedral fer-
vice by ehoriders who lung alternately.
ANTHEMIS, or Camomile, in botany,, a genus of
the fyngenefia'polygamia fuperflua clafs. The recep¬
tacle of the anthemis is paleaceous ; it has no pappus ;
the calix is globular.. There are 18 fpecies of anthe-
xnis, only five of which are natives of Britain, viz.
6 ) ANT
the nobilis, or fweet-fcented camomile; the cotula, or
dinking May-weed ; the arvenfis, or corn-camomile ;
the maritima, or fea-camomile ; and the tinftoria, or
common ox-eye. The flowers of the anthemis nobilis
are carminative, emolient, and aperient.
ANTHERiE, among botanids, the little roundilh or
oblong bodies on the tops of the damina of plants.
See Stamina, and Botany.
ANTHERICUM, in botany, a genus of the hexandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla has fix petals open at the
top ; and the capfule is ovated. There are 13 fpecies
of antherieum, none of which are natives of Britain,
except the calyculatum, or Scottilh afphodel.
ANTHESPORIA, in antiquity, a Sicilian fedival, in-
dituted in honour of Proferpine.
ANTHESTERIA, in Grecian antiquity, fedivals cele¬
brated in the fpring, by the ancient Athenians, in ho¬
nour of Bacchus, during which the maders feaded
their Haves, as the Romans did in the time of the Sa¬
turnalia.
ANTHESTERION, in ancient chronology, the fixth
month of the Athenian year, anfwering to the latter
part of our November and beginning of December.
ANTHIAS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of labrus. See Labrus.
ANTHINE among the ancients, a kind of wine
medicated with the flowers of plants.
ANTHOCEROS, in botany, a genus of the crypto-
gamia clafs. The calix of the male is feffile, cylin¬
drical, and intire; the anthene are very long, Tubu¬
lated, and two-valved; the calix of the female is
divided into fix pieces; the feeds are three. There
are only three fpecies of the anthoceros, viz. the punc-
tatus, or fpotted anthoceros, a native of Britain ; the
Isevis, a native of Europe and America; and the mul-
tifidus, a native of Germany.
ANTHOLOGION, the title of the fervice-book ufed
in the Greek church.
It is divided into twelve months, containing the of¬
fices fung throughout the year, on the fedivals of our
Saviour, the Virgin, and other remarkable faints.
ANTHOLOGY, a difcourfe of flowers, or of beauti¬
ful paflages from any authors.
Anthology is alfo the name given to a colle&ion of e-
pigrams taken from feveral Greek poets.
ANTHOLYZA, a genus of the triandria monogynia
clafs. The calix is tubular, irregular, and bent back;
the capfule is below the flower. There are four fpe¬
cies of the antholyza, viz. the ringens, a native of j£-
thiopia ; the cunqnia, a rjative of Perfia; the sethio-
pia, a native of /Ethiopia; and the meriana, a native
of the Cape of Good-Hope.
ANTHONY, or Knights of St Anthony, a milita¬
ry order, indituted by Albert duke of Bavaria, Hol¬
land, and Zealand, when he defigned to make war a-
gaind the Turks in 1382.. The knights wore a col¬
lar of gold, made in form of a hermit’s girdle, from
which hung a dick cut like a crutch, with a little bell,
as they are^reprefented in Anthony’s pictures.
St Anthony’t fire, a name fometimes given to the ery-
fipdas. See Erysipelas,
ANTHORA,
ANT (3:
ANTHORA, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies of
aconitum. See Aconitum.
ANTHORISMUS, in rhetoric, denotes a contrary de-
fcription or definition of a thing from that given by
the adverfe party.
ANTHOS, a Greek term, properly fignifying a flower,
but ufed by fome writers to denote rofemary by way
of eminence.
Anthos is fometimes alfo ufed for the elixir of gold,
as well as for a medicine extracted from pearls
Anthos philofopborum, denotes a certain method of
tranfniuting metals by vitriol.
ANTHOSATUM acetum, the vinegar of rofemary
flowers.
ANTHOSPERMUM, in botany, a genus of the poly-
gamia dioecia clafs. The^calix of the hermaphrodite ■
flower is divided into four parts ; it has no corolla ;
the ftamina are four, and the piftilli two; the germen
is below the flower. There are two fpecies of antho-
fpermum, viz. the sethiopicum, a native of Ethio¬
pia ; and the ciliare, a native of the Cape of Good-
Hope.
ANTHOXANTHUM, in botany, a genus of the dian-
dria digynia clafs. The calix is abivalved gluma, with
one flower; the corolla is bivalved,. obtufe, and with¬
out any awn. There are three fpecies of antboxan-
thum, viz. the odoratum, or fpring-grafs, a native of
Britain; the indicum, a native of India; and the pa-
nicula'tum, a native of the fouthern parts of Europe.
ANTHRACIS, Anthracias, or Anthracitis,
names promifcuoufly ufed by ancient naturalifts for very
different foflils, viz. the carbuncle,, haematites,, and a-
kind of afleria. See Carbuncle, drc.
ANTHRACOSIS, in medicine, a corrofive fcaly ulcer,
either in the bulb of the. eye or the eye-fids.
ANTHR AX, a Greek term, literally fignifying a burn¬
ing coal, ufed by the ancients to denote a gem, as well
as a difeafe, more generally known by the name of
carbuncle. See Carbuncle.
Anthrax is fometimes alfo ufed for litfianthrax, or
pit-coal. See Lithanthrax.
ANTHRISCUS, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of tordylium See Tordylium.
AN EHROPOGLOTTUS, among zoologifts, an ap¬
pellation given to fuch animals as have tongues refem-
blmg that of mankind, particularly to the parrot kind.
ANTHROPOGRAPHY, denotes the defeription of the
human body, its parts,, flrudture, See Ana¬
tomy.
ANTHROPOLATRE, in church-hiftory, an appella¬
tion given to the Neftorians, on account of their wor-
fhippmg Chrift, notwithftanding - that they believed
him to be a mere man.
ANTHROPOLATRIA, the paying divine honours to
a man, fuppofed to be the moft ancient kind of ido¬
latry.
ANTHROPOLOGY, a difeourfe upon human nature.
Anthropology, among divines, denotes that manner
of expreflion by which the infpired writers attribute
human parts and paflions to God.
ANTHROP.OMANCY, a fpecies of divination, per-
7 .) A N T
formed by infpedting the intrails of a human creature',
ANTHROPOMORPHA, a term formerly given to the
primates, or that clafs of animals which have the great-
eft refemblance to the human kind. See Natural
History.
ANTHROPOMORHISM, among ecclefiaftical writers,-
denotes the herefy or error of the Aothropomorphites.
See the next article.
ANTHROPOMORPHITES, in church-hiftory, a feft
of ancient heretics, who, takjng every thing fpoken of
God in feripture in a literal fenfe, particularly that
palfage of Genefis in which it is faid God made man
after his own image, maintained. That God had a
human lhape They are likewife called Audeans, from
Audeus their leader.
ANTHROPOMORPHOUS, an appellation given to
whatever refembles the human form.
ANTHROPOPATHY, a figure or expreflion by which
fame paflion is aferibed to God, which properly be¬
longs only to man.
ANTHROPOSCOPY, that part of phyfiognomy which
judges of a man’s character, from the lineaments
of his body.
ANTHROPOPHAGY, the aA of eating human fleih.
This horrid praAice is faid to prevail in fome. parts of
Africa and America.. But it is greatly to be doubted
if ever fuch a cuftom exifted.
ANTROPOTHYSIA, the inhuman praAice of offering
human facrifices. See Sacrifice.
ANTHUM, in botany. See Epithymum.
ANTHUS, in ornithology, a fynonyme of the lofeia.
See Lose 1 a.
AN I'HYLLUS, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia
decandria clafs. The calix is ventricofe, and the le-
gumen is roundifli. There are 10 fpecies of anthyl-
1ns, viz. the tetraphylla, montana, cornicina, lotoi-
des, barba jovis, heterophylla, cytifoides, heimanise,
and erinacea, all natives of Spain, Italy,, and the fou¬
thern parts of Europe; and the vulneraria, kidney-
vetch, or lady’s finger, a native of Britain.
ANTHYPOPHORA, in rhetoric, a fig-are of fpeech ;
being the counter-part of an hypophora. See Hypo-
phora.
ANTI, a Greek prepofition, which enters into the com-
pofition of feveral words, both Latin, French, and
Englilh, in different. fenfes. Sometimes it fignifies
before, as in anti-chamber; and fometimes oppofite or
contrary, as in the names of thefe medicines, anti-
fcorbutics, anti-venereal.
ANTIADES, in anatomy,, a name fometimes ufed for
the glands, more ufnally .calledSee p. 296.
ANTIDIAPHORISTS, in church-hiftory, the oppo-
fers of the Adiaphorifts. See Adiaphori sts.
ANTIBACGHIUS, in ancient poetry, a foot confifting
of three fyllables, the two firft long, and the laft one
(hort; .fuch is the word ambTre.
ANTIBES, a fea-port town of Provence in France, fi-
tuated on the Mediterranean, .in E. long, 70, N. lat,
43°, 40'.
ANTICARDIUM, in antiquity, the fame with fcrobL
culum cordis.
ANTI-
ANT ( 32S ) ANT
ANTICHAMBER, an outer chamber for Grangers to
wait in, till the perfon to be fpoken with is at leifure.
ANTICHRESIS, among civilians, the fame with what
• in common law is.called a ,«£<?. See Mortgage.
ANTICHRIST, among ecclefiallical writers, denotes
• a great adverfary of Chriltianity, who is to appear upon
the earth towards the end of the world. He is call¬
ed in fcripture, The man of ftn, the man of perdi-
ti'jfj, &c.
ANTICHTHONES, in ancient geography, an appella¬
tion given to the inhabitants of oppofite hemifpheres.
ANTICOR, or Anticoeur, among farriers, an in¬
flammation in the horfe’s throat, being the fame with
the.quinzy in mankind.
ANTICOSTE, an American illand, fituated before the
niouth of the river St Lawrence, in 64° W. long, and
490 52' N. lat.
ANTICUS, a term ufed by anatomifts, importing, that
the part; with which it is joined Hands before fome
others : Thus, we meet with ferratus amicus, pero-
nceus amicus. -
ANTIDESMA, in botany, a genus of the dioecia pen-
tandria clafs. The ca-lix of the male confifts of 5
leaves ; it has no corolla : The calix of the female is
entire, gaping a little on one fide ; it has no corolla,
but two ttyii, and, a double valved capfule inclofed in
the calix. There is but one fpscies of the antidefma,
viz. - the alexeteria, a native of India.
ANTIDICOMARIANITES, in church-hiftory, here¬
tics, who maintained that the Virgin Mary did not
preferve a perpetual virginity.
ANTIDOTE, among phyficians, a remedy taken to
prevent, or to cure the eftedls of poifon, fac.
ANTIENT, or Ancient, a term applied to things
which exifted long-ago: Thus we fay, ancient na¬
tions, ancient cuftoms, &c.
Antient, in a military fenfe, denotes either the enfign,
or the colours.
Antient, in (hips of war, the flxeamer or flag borne
in the Hern.
ANTIGONIA, the name of two cities, one in Epirus,
now called Cafta Jtgiro, the other in Macedon, now
Cologna.
ANTIHECTICS, in pharmacy, medicines good in hec¬
tical diforders.
ANTILLES, the fame with the Caribbee iflands.
ANTILOGARITHM, the complement of a logarithm.
ANTILOGY, in matters of literature, an inconfiHency
between two or more paffages of the fame book.
ANTILYSSUS a medicine confiding of equal
parts of the lichen cinereus terreflris, and black pep¬
per, reckoned good to prevent the rabies canina.
ANTIMETABOLE, in rhetoric, a figure whereby two
things are fet in oppofition to each other.
ANTIMONARCHICAL, an appellation given to what¬
ever oppofes monarchial government. See Mo¬
narchy.
ANTIMONIALS, in medicine, preparations of anti¬
mony. See Antimony, and Chemistry.
ANTIMONIATED, fomething impregnated with the
virtues of antimony.
ANTIMONY, in natural hiHory, one cf the femi-me-
tals. See Chemistry, title, Of metals.
AN1INOMIANS, in church-hiHory, certain heretics
who firH appeared about the year 1535;; fo called,
becaufe -they reje<51ed the law, as of no ufe.under the
gofpel-difpenfation, with other dodrines equally ab-
furd.
ANTIOCH, a town of Syria, formerly its capital, but
now in a ruinous condition ; fituated on the river. Oron-
tes, in 370 E. long, and 36° N. lat.
ANTIOCHENUM, in botany, afpecies of convolvulus.
See Convolvulus.
ANTIPAGMENTA. See Antepagmenta.
ANTIPATHY, a natural averfion of one body to ano¬
ther, fn contradifiinftion to fympathy. See Sym¬
pathy.
ANT IPERISTALTIC motion of the intefines, the re-
verfe of the periHaltic motion. See Peristaltic.
ANTTPERISTASIS, in the peripatetic philofophy, an*
imaginary intention or heightening of any quality by
the oppofition of its contrary..
ANTIPHONY, in mufic, the name which the Greeks
gave to that kind of fymphony which was executed in
oftave or double odave. It is likewife the anfwer
made by one choir to another, when an anthem is fung
between them.
ANTIPHRASISj in rhetoric, a figure by which in fay¬
ing one thing we mean the contrary. See Irony.
ANTIPODES, in geography, a name given to thofe in¬
habitants of the globe that live diametrically oppofi^e
to one another. 7 hey lie under oppofite parallels, and
oppofite meridians. They have the' fame elevation of
their different poles. It is midnight with the on?,
when it is noon-day with the other; the longefi day
with the one is the fliortefi with the other; and tlje
length of the day with the one is equal to the night of
the other. See Geography.
ANTIPOPE, in the Romilh church, one eleded pope
in an irregular manner, in oppofition to another.
ATIPTOSIS, in rhetoric, a figure which puts one cafe
for another. See Case.
ANTIQUARY, a perfon who Hudiesand fearches after
monuments and remains of antiquity.
There were formerly in the chief cities of Greece
and Italy, perfons of diHindion called antiquaries,
who made it their bufinefs to explain the ancient io-
feriptions, and give every other aflillance in their power
to Hrangers who were lovers of that kind of learning.
There is a fociety of antiquaries in London, incorpo¬
rated by the king’s charter. ,
ANTIQU ATED, fomething obfolete, out of date, or
out of.ufe,
ANTIQUE, in a general fenfe, fomething that is an¬
cient : but the term is chiefly ufed by'fculptors, paint¬
ers, and architeds, to denote fuch pieces of their dif¬
ferent arts as were made by the aftcient Greeks and
Romans. Thus v/e fay, an antique bull, an antique
Jlatue, &c.
ANTIQUITY, fignifies times or ages pafi long ago.
Thus we fay, the heroes of antiquity, &c. It is often
ufed for the works or monuments of the ancients. Re-
fearches
ANT ( 329 ) A N U
fearches into antiquity have frequently been tifeful.
But thefe refearches, unlefs they are conduced with
judgment, are extremely liable to ridicule.
ANTIRRHINUM, in botany, a genus of the didy-
namia angiofpermia clafs. The calix confifts of five
leaves; the bafis of the corolla is bent backwards, and
furnifhed with pedtoria; the capfule is bilocular. There
are 14 fpecies of the antirrhinum, 10 of which are
natives of Britain, viz. the cymbalaria, or ivy-leaved
toad-grafs ; the elatine, or lharp-pointed fluellin ; the
fpurium, or round-leaved fluellin; the arvenfe, or
corn-blue toad-flax; the repens, or creeping toad-flax;
the monofpermum, or fweet-fmelling toad-flax; the
linaria, or common ydlow toad-flax; the minus, or
lead toad-flax; the majus, or greater fnapdragon ; and
the orontium, or leaft fnapdragon. The linaria is laid to
be cathartic and diuretic; but it is not ufed in the fliopsi
ANTISAGOGE, in rhetoric, the fame with conceflion.
See Concession.
ANTISCII, in geography, people who live on different
fides of the equator, whofe fhadows at noon are pro-
jedled oppofite ways. Thus the people of the north
are Antifcii to thofe of the fouth, the one projecting
their fhadows at noon toward the north pole, and the
other toward the fouth pole. ,
ANTISCORBUTICS, medicines good in fcorbutical
cafes.
ANTISEPTICS, among phyficians, a denomination
given to all fubflances that refift putrefaCfiom Such
as fairs of all kinds, vinegar, myrrh, fnake-root, pep¬
per, <bc.
ANTISTOECHON, in grammar, the ufing one letter
inftead of another, as olli for illi.
ANTISTROPHE, in grammar, a figure by which tVvo
things mutually depending on one another, are reci¬
procally converted; as the fervant of the mafler, the
mafer of the fervant.
Anti strophe, among lyric poets, that part of a fong
and dance in ufe among the ancients, which was per¬
formed before the altar, in returning from weft to eaft,
in oppofition to ftrophe. See Strophe, and Ode.
ANTITACTAs, in church-hiftory, a branch of Gno-
ftioe, who held, that God was good and juft, but that
a creature had created evil; and confequently that it is
our duty to oppofe this author of evil, in order to a-
vehge God of his adverfary.
ANTITHENAR, in anatomy, a name given to'the ad¬
ductor indicis- Seep. 216. ■
ANTITHESIS,., contraft, or oppofition of words or
fentiments; as,
Though gentle, yet not dull.
Strong ’without rage, ’without o erflywing full.
. ANTITHET, denotes either a quality or thing fet in
oppofition to its contrary.
ANTITHETARIUS, in law, a perfon who endeavours
to acquit himfelf by charging the accufer with the
fame faCt.
ANTITRAGUS mufculus, in anatomy, a mufcle of
the ear. See p. 295. par. 5.
ANTITRINITARIANS, a general name given to all
Von.'' I. No. 14. 3
thofe who deny the doCtrine of the Trinity, and par"
ticularly to the Arians and Socinians.
ANTITYPE, among ecclefiaftical writers, denotes a
type correfponding to feme other type or figure.
ANTIVARI, a fea-port town of Albania, lituated on
the gulph of Venice, in 190 40' E. long, and 420 io’
N. lat. It is fubjeCt to the Turks.
ANTIVETRIA, a province or fubdivifion of Terra
Fiona, in South America, lying fouthwards of Car-
thagena.
ANTLER, among fportfmen, a ftart or branch of a
deer’s attire.
^rcw-ANTLER, denotes the branch next the head; and,
Zfor-Antler, the branch next above the brow-antler.
ANTOECI, in geography, thofe inhabitants of the
earth who live under the fame meridian, and at the
fame diftance from the equator; the one toward the
north, and the other toward the fouth. Hence they"
have the fame longitude; and their latitude is alfo
the fame, but of a different denomination. They are
in the fame femicircl'e of the meridian, but oppofne in
parallels. They have precifely the fame hours of the
day and night, but oppofite feafons ; and the night of
the one is always equal to the day of theiOther.
ANTONIAN Waters, medicinal waters of Germany,
very pleafant to the tafte, and efteemed good in many
chronic and hypochondriac cafes.
ANTONIO, one of the Cape de Verd ifiands, fubjeCt to
the Portuguefe, andfituated in 2(0° W. long, and 1S0
N. lat.
ANTONOMASIA a form of fpeech, in which, for a
proper name, is put the name of fome dignity, office,
profeffion, fcience, or trade; or when a proper name
is put in the room of an appellative. Thus a king is
called his majefty; a nobleman, his lordftip. We
fay the philofopher inftead of Ariftotle, and the ora¬
tor for Cicero : Thus a man is called by the came of
his country, a German, an Italian; and a grave man
is called a Cato, and a wife man a Solomon.
ANTRIM, the moft north-eaft county of Ulfter, in
the kingdom of Ireland. It is alfo the name of the
chief town of the aforefard county, fituated at the
north end of Lochneah, in 6° 26' W. long, •'and 540
45' N. lat.
Antrum, among anatomifts, a term ufed to denote fe-.
veral cavities of the body; as the antrum highmoria-
num, or that in the maxillary or jaw-bone, &c. See
p. 162. par. 2.
ANTWERP, a beautiful city of the Auftrian Nether-
. lands, ' and capital of the marquifate of the fame name.
It ftands on the eaftern ffiore of the river Scheld, a-
bout 25 miles north of Bruflels, and in 40 15' £•
long, and 5 1 0 15' N. lat.
ANTYX, in antiquity, denotes the circumference, or
outermoft round of a ftield. \
ANVIL, an iron inftrument on which fmiths hammer or
forge their work, and is ufually mounted on a firm
wooden block.
ANUS, in.anatomy, the extremity of the inteftinum rec¬
tum, or orifice of the fundament. See p. 261. jar. 2.
4 O AN-
APE (3:
ANWEILLER, a fmall city of France,, in the Lower
Alface, upon the river Queich.
ANZAR, a city of TurquSian, near Catai, where Ta¬
merlane died.
ANZERMA, a town of S. America, in the kingdom
of Popajan, upon the river Cauca, fituated in 470
W. Long, and 40 S. lat.
ANZUGUI, a town in the ifland of Japan, upon the
bay of Mecao.
AONIDES, in mythology, one of the many appella¬
tions of the mufes, fo called from Aonia, a part of
ancient Bceotia.
AORIST, among grammarians,, a tenfe peculiar to the
Greek language, comprehending all the tenfes, or
rather exprefling an action in an indeterminate man¬
ner, without any regard to part, prefent, or future.
AOUST, a town of Piedmont in Italy, capital of the
duchy of the fame name, fituated about 50 miles
north of Turin, in 70 ic/ E.long. and 450 45' N, lat.
APAGOGICAL Demonftration, an indirect way of'
proof, by fliewing the abfurdity of the contrary.
APALACHIAN Mountains, a ridge of mountains of
N. America, lying weftward of die Britifh plantations,
and extending from 30° to 40° N. lat.
APAMEA, or Hama, a town of Syria, fituated on the
river Orontes, in 38° 30/ E. long, and 340 N. lat.
Apamea is alfo the name of a town of Pli^gia,. upon
the river Marfyas; of a town of Midia, confining up¬
on Parthia; and of a town of Bithynia, called by the
Turks Myrlea.
APANAGE, or Apennage, in the French cufloms,
lands afligned by a fovereign for the fubfiftence of his
younger 1'ons, which revert to the crown upon the fail¬
ure of male ifliie in that branch to which the lands are
granted.
APARINE, in botany, a fynonime of the utricularia
and feveral other plants.
APATHY, a term in philofophy, denoting an utter pri¬
vation of paffion, and an infenfibility of pain. Thus
the Stoics affe&ed an entire apathy, fo as not to be
ruffled, or fenfible of pleafure or pain.
APATIZATIO, a law-term, fignifying an agreement.
APATURIA, in Grecian antiquity, an Athenian fefti-
val, kept in honour of Bacchus. It was during this
folemnity that the young people were regiftered in the
refpeftive wards of their-fathers.
APE, the Engliih. name of the fimia or monkey. See
Simia.
APELITES, Chriftian heretics in the fecond century,
who affirmed that Chrift received a body from the four
elements, which at his death he rendered back to the
world, and fo afeended into heaven without a body.
APENE, in a-ntiquity, the" chariot in which the images
of the gods were carried on folemn occafions.
APENNAGE, in the French cuftoms. See Apanage.
APENNINE, a vaft ridge of mountains, which runs
through the middle of all Italy, from Savona, te the
very {freight that feparates Italy from Sicily.
APENRADE, a town of Slefwic, or S. Jutland, fitu¬
ated on a bay of the Baltic fea, in t.G° E. long, and
'55° N. lat.
,0 ) A P H
APENZEL, a town of Switzerland, capital of the can¬
ton of the fame name, and fituated in 9° E. long,
and 47° 30' N. lat.
APEPSY, in medicine, denotes crudity, or a bad dige-
gefiion.
APER, in zoology, a fynonime of the fus ferofa. See
Sus.
Aper is likewife a trivial name of a fpecies of Zeas*
. See Zeus.
APERIENTS, in the materia medica, an appellation
given to fuch medicines as facilitate the circulation of
the humours by removing obftruftions.
The five greater aperient roots of the {hops are
fmallage, fennel, afparagus, parlley, and butcher’s
broom; as the five lefier ones are grafs, madder, e-
ryngo, capers, and chammoc.
APERTURE, the opening of any thing, or a hole or
• cleft in any continuous fubjefr.
Aperture, in geometry, the fpaee between two right
lines which meet in a point and form an angle.
Aperture, in optics, a round hole in a turned bit of
wood or plate of tin, placed within the fide of a tele-
fcope or microfcope, near to the o-bjeft-glafs, by means
of which more rays are admitted, and a more diftinft
appearance of the objeA is obtained.
Apertures, opApertions, in archite£i:ure, areufeeb
to fignify doors, windows, chimneys, &c.
APERTURA tahularurn, in law-books, the breaking-
open a laft will and teftament.
Apertura feudi, in the civil law, fignifies the lofs of
a feudal tenure, by default of iffue to him to whom
the feud was firit granted.
APETALOSE, or Apetalous, among botanifis, an
appellation given to fuch plants as have no flower-
leaves.
APEX, in antiquity, the creft of a helmet, but more
efpecially a kind of cap worn by the flamens.
Apex, among grammarians, denotes the mark of a long-
fyllable, falfely called along accent.
APHACA, in botany, a fynonime of the lathyrus. See
Lathyrus.
APHALRESIS, in grammar, a figure by which a letter-
or fyllable is cut off from the beginning of a word..
Aph^eresis, that part of forgery which teaches to take
away foperfluities.
APHANES, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria digy-
nia? clafs.. The calix is divided into eight parts; it
has no corolla • and has two naked feeds. There is
only one fpecies of aphanes, viz. the arvenfis*. or pur-
fley-piert, a native of Britain.
APHELIUM, or Aphelion, in altronomy, is that
point in any planet’s orbit, in which it is furtheft: di-
llant from the fun, being that end of the greater axis
of the elliptical orbit of the planet molt remote from
the focus where the fun is.
APHIS, in zoology, a genus of infefts belonging to the
order of infefta hemiptera. The roftrum or beak of
the aphis is infledted; the antennae or feelers are long¬
er than the thorax; it has four eredt wings; the feet
are of the ambulatory kind; and the belly often ends
in two horns. There are 33 fpecies of the aphis, all
o£
api (a
of which are inhabitants of particular plants; and
from this circumftance their trivial names are taken;
as aphis ribis, ulmi, rofae, fee.
APHORISM, a maxim, or principle, of a fcience; or
a fentence which comprehends a great deal in a few
words.
APHRATIC, in the maritime affairs of the ancients,
were open veffels, without any decks.
APHRODISIA, in antiquity, feftivals kept in honour
of Venus, the moft remarkable of which was that ce¬
lebrated by the Cyprians.
APHRODISIACS, among phyficiaos, medicines which
incr'eafe the quantity of feed, and create an inclination
to venery.
APHRODITA, in zoology, an infeH of the order of
vermes mollufca. The body of the aphrodita is oval,
with many fmall tentacula or protuberances on each
fide, which lerve as fo many feet: The mouth is cy-
lyndrical, at one end of the body,, and capable of be¬
ing retraced, with two briffly tentacula. There are
four fpecies of this infedt, viz. i. The aculeata, with
q2 tentacula, or feet, an inhabitant of the European
feas. See Plate XXII. fig. 4. This figure is taken
from the life. It was found on the fhore of the frith of
Forth, about a mile eaft from' Leith, by Dr Letfom,
and by him communicated to the proprietors of this
work. Johnflon, Seba, and other authors, have given
figures of the aphrodita; but they are not fo accurate
as could be wiflied. 2. The fcabra, of an oblong
lhape, fcabrous on the back, with about 20 tentacula.
3. The fquaraata, with 24 feet, andfealy on the back.
4. The imbricata, is very like the former, only its
feales are more glabrous.
APHRODITES, the fame with gemma veneris. See
Gemma.
APHRONITRE, in natural hiftory, a name given by
the ancients to a particular kind of natrum.
APHTHfE, in medicine, fmall, round, and fuperficial
ulcers arifing in the mouth. The principal feat of
this difeafe, is the extremity of the excretory veffels,
falival glands, and, in fhort, all glands that furnifh a
humour like the faliva, as the lips, gums, fee.
APHUA cobites, in ichthyology. See Gobi us.
'APHYLLANTHES, or Blue Montpelier Pink, in bo¬
tany, a genus of the hexandria monogynia clafs. There
is but one fpecies, viz. the monfpelienfis, which grows
in the high grounds near Montpelier. It is extreme¬
ly like the juncus, only the flower has a corolla.
APIARY, a place where bees are kept.
APIASTELLUM, or Apiastrum, in botany. See
Melissa.
APIASTER, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of the merops. See Merops.
APICES, in botany, the fame with antherae. See An-
therse.
APIOS, it botany. See Glycine.
APIS, or the Bee, in zoology, a genus of infedts belongs
ing tp the order of infedta hymenoptera. The mouth
is furnilhed with two jaws, and a probofeis infolded in
a- double fheath ; the wings are four in number, the
two foremoft covering thbfe behind when at reft: In.
i ) API
the anus or tail of the females and working bees, which
are of no fex, there is a hidden fling. Linnasus enume¬
rates no lefs than jy fpedes of the apis, viz. 1. The
longtcornis, or hairy yellow bee, with thread-like feel¬
ers, about the length of its body. 2. The tumulorum;
or black bee, with yellow feet and jaws, and thread¬
like feelers, about the length of the body. 3. The cla-
vicornis, or black bee, with clavated feelers, about the
length of its body, and two yellow belts round the belly.
4. The centuncularis, or black bee, having its belly co¬
vered with yellow down. The nefts of this fpecies are
made of rofe-leaves curioufly plaited in the form of a
matt or quilt. 5. The cineraria, or black bee, with a
white hairy breaft, and a greenifh belt round the belly.
The above five fpecies are all natives of Europe. 6. The
mexicana, is a brownilh bee, with bluifh wings, and ve¬
ry large. It is a native of America. 7. The catbona-
ria, or reddifh bee, with darkifh green wings ; it is about
the fize of the mellefica, or common honey-bee, and is
Found in Africa. 8. The retufa, or black bee, has its
legs covered with down. 9. The rufa, or brownifh bee,
with a white front and duiky belly. 10. The bicornis>
has two horns on its front, a black head, and a hairy
belly. 11. The maxillofa, or black bee, with promi¬
nent jaws, fhort feelers, and a cylindrical belly, covered
with a yellow down. 12. The truncorum, or black
fmooth bee, with a white hairy front, and a yellow bel¬
ly edged with white. 13. The florifomnis, or black
bee, with a cylindrical incurvated belly, having two
tooth-like protuberances at the anus, and a kind of
prickles on the hind-legs. This bee,fleeps in flowers.
14. The dentata, or fhining green bee, with black
wings, and a kind of teeth on the hind thighs. The
tongue of this bee is almoft as long as its body. The
nine laft fpecies are all natives of Europe. 15. The
cordata, or Ihimng green bee, with a belly fliaped like a-
heart, and wings of a glafs-colour. It is a native of
the Indies.. 16'. The helvola, is an oblong reddiih bee,,
■with a white belly. 17. The fabriciana, or black bee,
with an iron-coloured belly, and two yellow fpots.
18. The fuccindta, has a yellow hairy breaft, a black
belly, and four white belts. The laft three are natives'
of Europe. 19. The zonata, is browniih and hairy,
with four bluilh belts on the belly. It is a native of the
Indies. 20. The senea, is hairy, and of a copper colour.
21. The casrulefcens, is brownilh and hairy, with a
greenifli belly, margined with white indentations.
22.The viellefica, or honey-bee, is furnilhed with dow¬
ny hairs, a dulky-coloured breaft, and brownirh belly; the
tibias of the hind-legs are ciliated, and tranfverfely llreak-
ed on the infide. Each foot of this- bee terminates in two
hooks, with their points oppofite to each other; in the mid¬
dle of thefe hooks there is a little thin appendix, which,
when unfolded, enables the bees to faften themfelves to*
glafs or the moft polilhed bodies. This part they hkewife
employ for colledting the fmall particles of wax whiclv
they find upon flowers, and for tranfmitting them to the
middlemoft joint of the two hinder feet, in which there is
a little cavity, in the lhape of a narrow fpoon, furrounded
by a number of hairs. When they have loaded their
thighs with wax, they immediately carry it off to the
hive..
API ( 33
hive. The queen and drones, who never colleft wax in
this manner, have no fuch cavity. The belly of the bee
is divided into fix rings or joints. In the infide of the
belly there is a fmall bladder or refervoir, in which the
honey is colle&ed, after having paffed through the pro-
bofcis and a narrow pipe which runs through the head
and bread. This bladder, when full of honey, is about
the fize of a fmall pea. The ding is fituate at the extre-.
jnity of the belly: It is a horny fubdanee, and hollow
within, for tranfmitting the venomous liquor, which lies
in a bladder near the anus, into the wound. The ding
js generally left in the wound, and frequently draws af¬
ter it the poifon-bag.
As the mellefica, or honey-bee, is both an ufeful in-
fe<d, and endowed with peculiar indindts, we lhall give
a particular account of its nature and ceconomy.
The queen is the only female in a hive; (he is' di-
dinguidied from the others by being taller, more of an
pblong figure, and having ten joints in each feeler.. She
is likewife furnifired with a ding. The fuci, males, or
drones, are commonly about 1600 in a hive; they have
no ding, and their feelers have eleven joints. The o-
perafias, fpadones, or working bees, are fometimes
20,000 in a hive; they have fifteen joints in their feel¬
ers, and are armed with (tings.
After a new fwarm is formed, the bees immediately
begin to form their cells. They begin their work at the
upper part of the hive, and continue it downwards, and
fiom one fide to the other. It is not eafy to difcover
the particular manner of their working; for, notwith-
ftanding the many contrivances ufed for this purpofe,
, there, are foch numbers in continual motion, and fucceed
one another with fuch rapidity, that nothing but confu-
fion appears to the fight. Some of them however have
been obferved carYying pieces of wax in their talons, and
running to the places where they are at work, upon the
combs. TheCe they fallen to the work by means of the
fame talons. Each bee is employed but a very (hort
time in. this .way ; but fhere is fo great.a number of them
that go on in a condant fucceflion, that the comb increa-
les vevy perceptibly. Befides thefe, there are others
that run about beating the work with their wings and
the hinder part pf their body, probably with a view -O
make it more firrtl and folid.
The order they obferve in the .condruftion of their
cells is this: They begin with laying the bails, which is
compofed of three rhombus’s or lozenges. They build
fird one of the rhombus’s, and draw faces on two of its
sides; they then add a fecond rhombus to the fird in a
' certain inclination, and draw two new faces on its two
fides ; and, lad of all, they add a third rhqmbus to the
two fird, and rai e on the two external fides of this
rhombus tw;o other faces ; which completes the cell of an
hexagonal figure.
Whild part of the bees are occupied in forming the
cells, others are employed in pevfedting and polilhing
thofe that are new-modelled. This operation is perform¬
ed by their talons, taking off everything that is rough
and uneven. Thefe pohfhers are not fo defultory in
their operations as thofe that make the cells; they work
long and diligently, never intermitting their labour, ex-
2 ) API
cepting to carry out of the cell the particles of wax
which they take off in poliflring. Thefe particles are not
allowed to be lod; others are ready to receive them from
the polifirers, and to employ them in fome other part of
the work.
Each comb has two rows of ceils oppofite to each o-
ther, which have their common bafes. The thicknefs
of every comb is fomething lefs than an inch, and the
depth of the cells is about five lines. Almod all the
combs are built with cells of this fize; except a fmall
number of a larger kind, that are dedined for the Worms
that produce drones.
The bafes of all the combs are placed at fuch a di-
ftance from one another, that, when the cells are finiihed,
there is only a fpace left fufficient for the paflage of two
bees abread. Thefe combs are not continued from top
to bottom, but are often interrupted, and have openings
from one pafiage to another, which give a more eafy and
diorter communication.
The queen-bee i^ generally concealed in the mod fe-
fcret part of the hive, and is never vifible but when (1«
lays her eggs in fuch combs as are expofed to fight.
When (he does appear, (lie is always attended by ten or
a dozen of the common fort, who form a'kind of retinue,
and follow her where-ever (he goes with a fedate and
grave tread. Befor* (he lays her eggs, (he examines the
cells where (He defigns to lay them ; and if (he finds that
they contain neither honey, wax, nor any embrio, (lie
-introduces the poderior part of her body into a cell,
and fixes to the bottom of it a fmall white egg, which is
compofed of a thin white membrane, full of a whitifh
liquor. In this manner (he goes on, till (lie fills as many
cells as (he has eggs to lay, which are generally many
thoufands. After the eggs lie four days in the cells,
they appear in the form of fmall caterpillars ; and gene^
rally ,lie twided round, fo that the two extremities touch
each other. 7 he bees then fupply them with a little ho-‘
ney for food, ;he quantity of which they increafe till the
eighth day from the birth of the caterpillar. After this,"
the bees difcover no more care about their young; but
dop up the mouths of the cells with wax. The embrios
lie in this (late twelve days, during which time they, un¬
dergo furprifing changes. They fird change their fituation
in the cells, and indead of being rolled up, they extend
themfelves along, and pl^ce their heads towards the
mouth of the cell; after this, the head of the worm be¬
gins to have a fmall extenfion, which is the rudiment of
the probofeis: Upon the head there is likewife a black
point, and at a little didance from this point, a black
dreak upon the back: The fird lineaments of the feet
likewife appear; but they are very fmall. After the head
is formed,, and the probofeis lengthened, all the other
parts difplay themfelves fucceflively; fo that .the whole
worm or embrio is changed into an aurelia or nymph,
which is the fly almod perfeft, except that it is yet white
and foft, and wants that crud'with which it is afterwards
covered. By this transformation the worm is dripped of
a white thin pellicle, which adheres to the fides of the"
cell. The young bee being dripped of this pellicle, and
all thy parts being unfolded by degrees, and changed
through fuccdfive colours from yellow to black, arrives
Plate XXII.
I //Jr/S r /r^ r
API ( 333 > API
at perfection on the twentieth day; when fhe cuts, with
her jaws or talons, the covering of wax upon the mouth
of the cells, and iflues out. When the young bees firft
get out of the cell, they appear drowfy, but foon acquire
agility and command of their members; for they have
often been obferved to go to the fields, and return loaded
with wax the fame day that they iflued from the cells.
As foon as a young bee quits its cell, one of the old
ones takes off the wax-cover, and kneads and employs
the wax for fome other purpofe: Another of them repairs
and cleanfes the cell, removing the pellicle and other
fordes which was Ifft by the young one.
It was obferved above, that bees colled their wax
from the pollen or farina of flowers, and carry it to the
hive. When they arrive there, they Support themfelves
on their two fore-feet, and make a buzz with theit wings,,
thereby warning the bees within to aflifl: them to unload;
which they fnftantly do, each taking a fmall portion of
the wax from the hinder-legs of the loaded ones, till the
whole be exhaufted. The wax is not only employed for
the original conftrudiorf of the combs and cells, but is
collected and laid up in confiderable quantities for the
purpofes of repairing any damage that may happen to the
works during the winter, when they have no opportuni¬
ty of collecting it in the fields, and likewife to flop up
the mouths of the cells when full of honey or embrios.
Bees have often been obferved to dilute their wax, when
too hard, by means of fome liquor or faliva which they
emit upon it, ^n order to render it foft and pliable for
ufe.
The ho/ey, as welt'-as the wax, is collected from
flowers. The honey, however, ts extracted from a diffe-'
rent part of the flower. In the flowers of many plants
there are neCtaria, or nectariferous glands, which fecret
from the plant a pure tranfparent liquor, refembling vir¬
gin-honey both in tafte and appearance, excepting that
it is thinner. Perhaps all the change that this nectarife¬
rous juice undergoes, by being fucked up, and depofited
in the honey-bag of the bee, is, that the more watery parts
may probably be abforbed during the fmall time it remains
there. The heat of the hive, after it is depofited in the
cells, will (till evaporate more of the watery parts, and
bring it to the confidence of honey.
When a bee is collecting honey, {he "no fooner lights
upon a flower than ftie extends her probofcis, and fucks
up what ftie can find: If fire cannot find a fufficient
quantity to fill her bag in one flower. Are immediately
flies to another, and thus goes on till {he has filled it.
She then retires to the hive, goes to the cell, difgorges'
the honey, and again returns to the fields in queft of
more. As the quantity carried home by one bee is but
fmall, it requires the labour of many to fill a cell with
honey. When the cells are full, they are immediately
clofed up with wax, if defigned for winter-provifion ; if
Hot, they are allowed to remain open for the common
nourilhment of the fwarm
Befides thefe capital inftinCls of bees, they are pof-
fefled of others, fome of which are equally neceflary for
their prefervation and happinefs. They anxioufly pro¬
vide againd the entrance of infeCts into the hive, by glu¬
ing up with wax the fmailed holes in the deep. Some
Vol. I. No. 14. 3
ftand as centinels at the mouth of the hive, to prevent in
feCts of any kind from getting it. But if a fnail, or other
large infeCt, fltould get in, notwithflanding all reuftance,
they fling it to death, and then cover itover with a coat of
wax, to prevent the bad fmell or maggots which might
proceed from the putrefaction of fuch a large animal.
Bees are feldom overtaken with bad weather; they
feem to be warned of its appearance by fome particular
feeling. Cold is a great enemy to them. To defend
themfelves againft its efFeCts during a cold winter, they
croud together in the middle of the hive, and buzz a-
bout, and thereby excite a warmth which is often per¬
ceptible by laying thtf hand upon the glafs-windows of
the hive. They feem to underfland one another by the
motions of their wings. When the queen wants to quit
the hive, {he gives a little buzz, and all the others im¬
mediately follow her example, and retire along with her.
They expell the drones before the wintef. To that, of
feveral hundreds in a hive, not one can be feen after the
month of October. This expulfion always occafions a
furious battle between the drones and the working bees;
but the latter being greatly fuperior in number,, always
prevail.
With regard to Hives, thofe made of ftraw are the
beft, on many accounts: They are not liable to be over¬
heated by the rays of the fun; they keep out cold better
than wood or any other materials; and the cheapnefs
renders the purchafe of th»m eafy. As the ingenious
Mr Wildman’s hives are reckoned to be of a preferable
conftruCtion to any other, we {hall give an account of
them in his own words.
“ My hives,” fays he, “ are feven inches in height,
“ and ten in width. The fides are upright, fo that the
“ top and bottom are of the fame diameter. A hive
“ holds nearly a peck. In the upper row of ftraw, there
“ is. a hoop of about half an inch in breadth, to which
“ are nailed five bars of deals, full a quarter of an inch
“ in thicknefs, 'and an inch and quarter wide, and half
“ an inch afunder from one another; a narrow {hort
“ bar is nailed at each fide, half an inch diflant from
“ the bars next them, in order to fill up the remaining
“ parts of the circle ; fp that there are in all feven bars
“ of deal, to which the bees fix their combs. The fpace
“ of half an inch between the bars allows a fuificient and
“ eafy paflage for the bees from one hive to another, la
“ Cider to give great fteadinefs to the combs, fo that, up-
“ on moving the hive, the combs may not foil off, or
“ incline out of their direction, a flick ftiould be run
“ through the middle of the hive, in a direction direCtly
“ a crols the bars, or at right angles with them. When
“ the hives are made, a^piece of wood fhould be worked
“ into the lower row of {{raw, long enough to allow
“ a door for the bees, of four indies in length, and
“ half an inch in height .
“ The proprietor of the bees Ihould provide himfolf
“ with feveral flat covers of ftraw, worked of the fame
“ thicknefs as the hives, and a foot in diameter, that'fo
“ it may be of the fame width as the outfide of the hives.
“ Before the cover is applied to the hive, a piece of
“ clean paper, of the fize of the top of the hive, ftiould
“ 'be laid over it, and a -coat of cow-dung, which is the
4 P “ leaf!:
A ? I < 334
leaft apt to crack of any cement eafily-to-be obtained,
fhouJd be laid all round the circumference of the hive.
Let the cover be laid upon this, and made faft to the
hive with a packing-needle and pack-thread, fo that
neither cold nor vermin may enter.
“ Each hive fhould (land fingle on a piece of deal, or
other wood, fomewhat larger than the bottom of the
hive : That part of the (land which is at the mouth of
the hive fhould projedt fome inches, for the bees to reft
on when they return from the field. This (land (hould
he fupported upon a fingle poft, two and a half feet
high; to which it (hould be fcrewed very fecurely,
that high winds, or other accidents, may not .blow
down both (land and hive. A quantity of foot mixed
with barley-chaff (hould be ftrewed on the ground
round the poft, which will effedtually prevent ants,
(lugs, and other vermin, from rifing up to the hive.
The foot and chaff (hould, from time to time, he ie-
newed as it is blown or walked away; Though, as it
is (heltered by the (land, it remains a confiderable time,
efpecially if care be taken that no weeds rife through
it. Weeds, indeed, fhould not be permitted to rife
near the hive, for they may give (helter to vermin,
which may be hurtful ta the bees.
“ The (lands for bees (hould be four yards afunder j
or, if the apiary will not admit of fo much, as far a-
funder as may be, that the bees of one hive may not
interfere with thofe of anpther hive, as is fometimes
the cafe, when the hives are near one another, or on
the fame Hand: For the bees, miftakipg their own
hives, light fometimes at the wrong door, and a fray
enfues, in which one or more may lofe their lives.
“ The perfon who intends to eredt an apiary, (hould
purchafe a proper number of hives at the latter part of
the year, when they are cheapeft. The hives (hould,
be full of combs, and well ftored with bees. The
purchafer (hould examine the combs, in order to know
the age of the hives. The combs of that feafon are
white, thofe of the former year are of a darkifti yel¬
low; and where the combs are black, the hives (hould
be rejedted, becaufe old hives are mod liable to ver¬
min and other accidents.
“ If the number of hives, wanted were not purchaled in
the autumn, it will be neceffary to remedy this negledt
after the feverity of the cold is pad in the fpring. At
this feafon, bees which are in good condition will get
into the fields early in die morning, return loaded,
enter boldly, and do not come out of the hive in bad
weather; for when they do, this indicates they are
in great want of provifions. They are alert on the
leaft difturbance, and by the loudnefs of their humming
we judge of their ftrengtb. They preferve their hives
free from all filth, and are ready to defend it againft
every enemy that approaches.
“ The fumroer is an improper time for buying bees,
becaufe the heat of the weather foftens the wax; and
♦hereby renders the combs liable to break, if they are
not very well fecured. The honey too being then
thinner than at other times, is more apt to run out
of the cells; which is attended with a double difad-
vantage,, namely, the lofs of the honey, and the daub-
) A 1* i
ing of the- bees, whereby many of them may be de-
ftroyed. A firft and ftrong fwarm may indeed be
purchafed; and, if leave can be obtained, permitted
to Hand in the fame garden till the autumn; but if
leave is not obtained, it may be carried away in the
night after it has been hived.
“ I fuppofe, that in the (locks purchafed, the bees
are in hives of the old eonftru&ion. The only direc¬
tion here neceffary is, that the firft fwarm from thefe
(locks (hould be put into one of my hives ; and that
another of my hives (hould in a few days be put under
the old flock, in order to prevent its fwarming again.
Bees never fwarm till the hive be too much crouded
by the young brood. It is this circumftance that indu¬
ces a part of the hive to think of finding a more commo¬
dious habitation. With this view they fingle out a queen
from among the young, with whom they take wing ;
and where-ever (he leads, the reft follow. They firft
begin to fwarm in May, or in the end of April, but ear¬
lier or later according to the warmth of the feafon.
They feldom fwarm before ten in the morning, and fel-
dom later than three in the afternoon. We may know
when they are about to fwarm, by clufters of them hang¬
ing on the outfide of the hive, and by the drones appear¬
ing abroad more than ufual: But the moft certain fign is,
when the bees refrain from flying into the fields, though
the feafoa be inviting. Juft before they take flight, there
is an uncommon filence in the hive; after this, as foon as
one takes flight, they all follow. Before the fubfequent
fwarmings, there is a great noifc in the hives, which is
fuppofed to be occafioned by a coated whether the young
or the old queen (hould go out. When the bees of &
fwarm fly too high, they are made to defcend lower, by
throwing handfuls of fand or daft among them, which
they' probably miftake for rain. For the fame purpofo,
it is ufual to beat on a kettle or frying-pan: This prac¬
tice may have taken its rife from obferving that thunder
or any great noifo prompts fuch bees as aie ia the fields
to return home.
"When the bees fettle in fwarming, they colleft them-
felves in a heap, and hang to each other by their feet.
When they fettle in two feparate divifions, it generally
proceeds from there being two queens in the fwarm. In-,
that cafe, each duller of them may be hived feparately;
or one of the queens mull be deftroyed, to prevent the
commotions which the bees would raife in order to de-
ftroy her. All the motions and fettling of a fwarm are
dire&ed by the queen. If (he be weak, and fail to the
ground, the whole fwarm fall down along with her; if
(he reft upon a branch of a tree, they accompany her;
and if the queen be caught into a hive, the fwarm will
inftantly follow her. When a fwarm is too few in num¬
ber for a hive, another may be added, provided the queen
belonging to it be deftroyed. If that precaution be not
taken, a battle will enfue, in which not only one of the
queens is killed, but frequently a great many of the
working bees.-
Several methods of taking the wax and honey, with¬
out deftroying the bees, have of late been praftifed. Mr
Wildman’s feems both to be the eafieft andfafeft : “ Re-
“ move, (fays he> the hive from which you would taka
“ the
API ( 335 ) API
«• the wax andlioney into a room, into which admit but
«* little light, that it may appear at firft to the bees as if
« it was late in the evening. Gently invert the hive,
placing it between the frames of a chair, or other
“ fteady fupport, and cover it with an empty hive, keejj-
“ ing that fide of the empty hive raifed a little which iS
“ next the window, to give the bees fufficient light to
“ get up into it. While you hold the empty hive, ftea-
dily Supported on the edge of the full hive, between
<< your fide and your left arm, keep linking with the
“ other hand all round the full hive from top to bottom,
“ in the manner of beating a drum, fo that the bees
“ may be frightened by the continued noife from all
“ quarters; and they v/ill in conference mount out of
“ the full hive into the empty one. Repeat the ftrokes
rather quick than ftrong round the hive, till all the
“ bees are got out of it, which in general will be in a-
bout five minutes. It is to be obferved, that the fuller
“ the hive is of bees, the fooner they will have left it.
“ As foon as a number.of them have got into the empty
“ hive, it fhould be raifed a little from the full one,
that the be:s may not continue to run from the one to
the other, but rather keep afcending upon one another.
“ So foon as all rhe bees are out of the full hive, the
“ hive in which the bees are muft be placed on the (land
M from which the other hive was taken, in order to
“ receive the abfcnt bees as they return from the fields.
“ If this is done early in the feafon, the operator
“ Ihould examine the royal cells, that any of them that
4‘ have young in them may be faved, as well as the combs
“ which have young bees in them, which fhovdd on no
•* account be touched, though, by fparing them, a good
•' deal- of honey Ihould be left behind. Then take out
»* the other combs with a long, broad, and pliable knife,
“ fuch as the apothecaries make ufe of. The combs
“ fhould be cut from the fides and crown, as clean
** as poffible, to fave the further labour of the bees,
** who muft lick up the honey fpilt, and remove eve-
^ ry remains of wax ; and then the fides of the hive
“ fhould be fcraped with a tabk-fpoon, to clear away
what was left by the knife. During the whole of this
" operation, the hive fhould be placed inclined to the
fide from which the combs are taken, that the honey
“ which is fpilt may not daub the remaining combs. If
“ fome combs were unavoidably taken away, in which
“ there are young bees, the parts of the combs in which
they are fhould be returned into the hive, and fecured
•* by flicks, in the befl manner poffible. Place the hive
then for fome time upright, that any remaining ho-
*r ney'may drain out. If the combs are built in a di-
** redHon oppofite to the entrance, or at right angles
** with it, the combs which are the furtheft from the
“ entrance fhould be preferred, becaufe there they are
“ befl ftored with honey, and have the fewefl young bees
“ in then*.
“ Having thus finifbed taking the wax and honey,.
“ the next bufineft is to return the bees to their old
“ hive; and for this purpofe place a table, covered
“ with a clean cloth, near the ftand, and giving the
“ hive in which the bees are a fudden fhake, at the fame
“ time flriking it pretty forcibly, the bees will be fhaken
“ on the cloth. Put their own hive over them imme-
“ diately, raifed a little on one fide, that the bees may
“ the more eafily enter; and when all are entered, place
“ it on the ftand as before. If the hive in which the
“ bees are, be turned bottom uppermofl, and their own
“ hive be placed over it, the bees will immediately afcend
“ ioto it, efpecially if the lower hive is ftruck on the
fides to alarm them.
“ The chief objedt of the bees during the fpring and
“ beginning of fummer, is the propagation of their kind.
“ Honey during that time is not colledted in fuch quanti-
“ ties as it is afterwards: and on this account it is
“ fcarcely worth while to rob a hive before the latter
,c end of June; nor is it fafe to do it after the middle
“ July, left rainy weather prevent their reftoring the
“ combs they have loft, and laying in a flock of honey
“ fuffkient for the winter, udefs there is a chance of
“ carrying them to a rich pafture.”
Mr Wildman, by his dexterity in the management of
bees, has lately furprifed the whole kingdom. He can
order a fwarm to light where he pleafes, almoft inftanta-
neoufly; he can order them to fettle on his head, then
remove them to his hand ; command them to depart and
fettle on a window, table, &£•. at pleafure. We fhall
fubjoin his method of performing thefe feats, in his own
Words: “ Spedlators (fays he) wonder much at my at-
“ taching bees to different parts of my body, and wifh
“ much to be poffeffed of the fecret means by which I
“ do it. I have unwarily promifed to reveal it; and am
“ therefore under a neceflity of performing that promife :
‘‘ but while I declare, that their fear and the queen are
“ the chief agents in thefe operations, I muft warn my
M readers that there is an art neceffary to perform it,
“ namely practice, which I cannot convey to them, and
“ which they cannot fpeedily attain; yet till this art is
“ attained, the deftrudtion of many hives of bees muft
“ be the confequence; as every one will find on their
“ firft attempt ;o perform it.
“ Long experience has taught me, that as fopn as I
“ turn up a hive,, and give it fomu taps on the fides and
“ bottom, the queen immediately appears, to feupw the
“ caufe of this alarm; but foon retires again amongjher
“ people. Being accuftomed to fee her Jp often, I readily
“ perceive her at.firft glance; and long pradtice has en-
“ abled me to feizeher inftantly, with a tendernefs that
“ does not in the leaft endanger her perfon. This is tf
“ the utmoft importance; for the leaft injury done to her
“ brings immediate deflrudlion to the hive, if you have
“ not a fpare queen to put in her place, as I have too
“ often experienced in my firft attempts. When pof-
“ feffed of her, I can, without injury to her,, or exci-
ting that degree of refentment that may tempt her
“ to fling me, flip her into my other hand, and, return-
“ ing the hive to its place, hold her there, till the bees
w miffing her, are all on wing, and in the utmoft confu-
“ fion. When the bees are thus diflreffed, I place the
“ queen where-ever I would have the bees to fettle. The
“ moment a few of them difeover. her,, they give notice
to thofe near them, and th'ofe to the reft; the khow-
“ ledge of which foon becomes fo general, that in a few
“ minutes they all colkd themfelves round her;, and are
“• &•
A P I
" fo happy in having recovered this foie fupport of their
“ ftate, that they will long remain quiet in their fituation.
“ Nay, the fcent of her body is fo attractive of them,
“ that the flighted touch of her, along any place or fub-
“ ftance, will attach the bees to it, and induce them to
“ purfue any path Ihe takes.
“ My attachment to the queen, and my tender regard
“ for her precious life, makes me moft ardently wifti that
“ I might here clofe the detail of this operation, which,
“ I am afraid, when attempted by unfkilful hands, will
“ coft many of their lives; but my love of truth forces
“ me to declare, that, by practice, I am arrived at fo
“ much dexterity in the management of her, that I can,
“ without hurt to her, tie a thread of filk round her
“ body, and thus confine her to any part in which flie
“ might not naturally wifli to remain ; or I fometimes
ufe the lefs dangerous way of clipping her wings on
“ one fide.
“ I (hall conclude this account in the manner of C.
“ Furius Crefinus, who being cited before the Curule
“ Edils and an aflembly of the people, to anfwer to a
“ charge of forcery, founded on his reaping much larger
“ crops from his fmall fpot of ground, than his neigh-
“ hours did from their extenfive fields, produced his
“ ftrong implements of hufbandry, his well-fed oxen,
“ and a/hale young woman, his daughter; and, point-
“ ihg to them, faid, Thefe, Romans, are my inftru-
“ ments of witchcraft; but I cannot fliew you my toil,
*‘ my fweats, and anxious cares. So may I fay, Thefe,
“ Britons, are my inftruments of witchcraft ; but I
“ cannot ihew you my hours of attention to this fubjedt,
“ my apxiety and care for thefe ufeful infe&s; nor can
“ I communicate to you my experience, acquired during
“ a courfe of years.”
We Ihafl conclude this hiftory of the Honey-bee
with the following experiments for pre renting a wafte of
honey, and pneferving the lives of bees during the win¬
ter, communicated by a gentleman near the banks of the
Tweed. “ I have tried feveral experiments for prefer-
ving the lives of bees during the winter; and tho’
in general with little fuccefs, yet I think I have reafon
to continue, and advife others to follow, what I prac-
tifed lall winter. The method is very Ample, and not
expenfive, for it is no Other than keeping the bees in a
cold and dark place.
“ My reafon for trying'this experiment, was my ha¬
ving obferved, that a certain degree of cold brought
upon the bees a flupor; and that the fame degree of
cold continued, kept .them in the fame ftate, till they
were brought into a warmer fituation, which imme¬
diately reftored their life and vigour *.
* This obfervation is confirmed by what Mr White
fays, 7/W bees ’which ft and on the north-Jide of a build¬
ing, vshofe height intercepts the fun's beams all the win¬
ter, will wojle lefs of their proviftons, alniojl by half,
than others which Jland in the fun; for, feldom coming
forth, they eat little, and yet in the fpring are as for¬
ward to work and fwarm as thofe which had twice a-t
much honey in the autumn before. See the Revd. Mr
White’s method of preferving bees. Third edition.
( 33« )
API
With this view I kept two hives (hut up in a dark cold
•• out-houfe, from the middle of September to the middle
“ of April, without ever letting them fee light: Upon
“ their being fet out in the warmer air, they recovered im-
“ mediately, and (hewed an appearance of more ftrength
“ than the hives did which had been kept out in the u-
“ fual way. This appearance of ftrength continued du-
“ ring the fummer, and they multiplied fafter than I had
“ ever obferved them do before. They were rather
“ later in fwarming this year than in former fummers;
“ but the fame was the cafe with many hives in this
“ neighbourhood: and even though this ftiould always
“ happen, yet I think other advantages will do more
“ than overbalance it. Could I go into the country ear-
“ ly in the fpring, to look after the bees myfelf, I
te would bring them into the open air fome weeks fooner,
“ carefully attend to the changes of the weather, and
“ fhut up the doors of the hive on a bad day: but this
“ degree of care cart fcarcely be expected from fervants
“ and gardeners, who have many other things to attend
“ to.
“ I intend to have four hives put up this feafon, in the
“ coldeft dark place I can find ; and as an ice-hqufe is the
fteadieft and greateft cold we have, one or two of my
“ friends who have ice-houfes, have promifed to put a
“ hive upon the ice. By all accounts, the cold in Sibe-
“ ria does not kill the bees there; and in Ruflia, where
“ the winters are extremely fevere, bees produce much
“ honey : fo I think there is not any danger to be
“ feared from any degree of cold we can expofe the
“ bees to.
“ If fuccefs continues to attend this experiment of
“ keeping the bees afleep all the winter and fpring, with-
“ out confirming their honey, a great point will be gain-
“ ed ; efpecially as Mr Wildman has taught us to take
“ the honey without killing the bees: for, by whatj i
“ have obferved. in this country, our bees are loft chiefly
“ by bqing tempted to go out in a clear fun in the fpring,
“ though perhaps a frofty wind blows, and chills them,
“ fo as to prevent their being able to return to the hive;
“ or an early warmth induces the queen to lay eggs, and
“ a number of young bees are bred, which confume the
“ little provifion left, before the fields can afford any
“ fupply.”
Explanation rj/* Plate XXIII.
Figure i. Is the queen bee. 2. Is the drone. 3. Is
the working bee. 4. Reprefents the bees hanging to
each other by the feet, which is the method of taking
their repofe. y. The probofeik or trunk, which is one
of the principal organs of the bees, wherewith they,
gather the honey and take their nouriihment. 6. One
of the hind-legs of a working-bee, loaded with wax.
7. A comby in which the working bees are-bred.-
The cells are the fmalleft of any. Two of them
have the young bees indofed. A royal cell is fufpend--
ed on one fide. 8. A cOmb in which the drones are
bred, being larger than the former; the young drones
being included in feveral of them ; with two royal cells
fufpended on the fide. 9. A.fimilar comb, in which
the roykl cell is fixed in the middle of the comb; and
feveral common cells are facrificed to ferve as a bafis
and
Plafe^Sm.
API ( 337 ) A P O
and fitpport to it. In general, the royal cells are
fufpended on the fide of a comb, as in fig. 7,8. To
the fide of fig. 9. two royal cells are begun, when they
refemble pretty much the cup in which an acorn lies.
The other royal cells have the young queens included
in them.
The 23d fpedes is the apis cunicularia, or hairy bee,
with an iron-coloured bread, and yellow belly. This
fpecies is very like the rnellefica; they build their nefts
in dry Tandy places. 24. The variegata; the bread: and
belly are variegated with white and black fpots ; the legs
are of an iron colour. It is a native of Europe. This
fpecies fleep in the geranium phasum, or fpotted crane’s-
bill. 2J. The rolirata is diftinguifhed by the up¬
per lip 'being inflefted, and of a conical fliape, and by
the belly being invefted with bluilh belts’; They build
their nefts in high fandy grounds, and there is but one
young in each neft. 26. The argillofa, or iron-colour¬
ed bee, has an infleded roftrum, and a crpoked belly, with
one joint. It is a native of Surinam. 27. The lago-
poda is of a greyifh colour, with an emarginatcd anus.
28. The manitata, or black bee, with hairy fore-legs;
the belly is fpotted with yellow; and the anus is triden-
tated. 29. The quatuor-dentata, is of a dufky colour,
with five white belts on the belly, and the anus has four
t'eeth-like protuberanceseach intermediate tooth is
forked. The laft three fpecies are natives of Europe.
30. The fafciata has a yellowifh back, and a black belt
found the edge of each wing ; the breaft is white; the
belly is variegated with black and white; the legs are
covered with black hair; and the feelers are green. It
is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. 31. The bar-
bara, or black bee, with a yellow edging round the
breaft, is about the fize of an ant; the feelers are like
threads. It is a native of Barbary. 32. The conica,
or yellow bee, with an acute conical belly, and the mar¬
gins of the joints or Segments white; it dwells in cavi¬
ties of the earth. - 33. The annulata, or black bee,
with a black front, and black rings round the legs.
34. The ruficornis has two iron-coloured fpots on the
breaft and feelers; the belly is fpotted with yellow.
35. The ferruginea, or fmooth black bee, with the feel¬
ers, moXith, belly, and feet of an iron colour. This is
a fmall bee, and fuppofed to be of an intermediate kind
between the bee and wafp. The laft three are natives of
Europe. 36. The ichneumonea; the roftrum or fnout
is an ereifl horn ; the belly is petiolated and black; and
the breaft is interfperfed with ftiining gold-coloured fu¬
tures or indented lines; the antennse are green. It is a
native of America. 37. The cariofa is a yellowifti hairy
bee; and the feet and front are of a bright yellow co¬
lour.' It builds in the rotten trees of Europe. 38. The
violaceais a red bee, and very hairy, with bluilh wings.
It is a native of Europe. The violacea is faid to perfo¬
rate trees, and hollow them out in a longitudinal dire&ion;
they begin to build their cells at the bottom of thefe
holes, and depofite an egg in each cell, which is compo-
fed of the farina of plants and honey, or a kind of glu¬
ten. 39. The caffra is alfo red, and covered with hair ;
the' hind part of the breaft and fore-part of the belly are
Vol. I. No. 15.
yellowilh. 40. The Carolina is a red hairy bee, with
the upper part of the’belly yellow. It is a native of
.Carolina. 41. The terreftiis is black and hairy, with
a white belt round the breaft, and a white anus. It
builds its neft very deep in the earth. 42. The hor-
torum is a black hairy hee, with the fore part of the
breaft and belly yellow. 43. The pratorum, or black
hairy bee, with the fore part of the breaft yellow, and
a blackifti anus. 44. The lapidaria, or red hairy bee,
with a yellow anus. It builds in holes of rocks,
4J. The fylvarum, or pale hairy bee, with a black
belt on the breaft, and a reddilh anus. 46. The muf-
corum, or yellow hairy bee, with a white belly. It
builds in mofly grounds. 47. The hypnorum, or
yellow hairy bee, with a black belt on the belly, and
a white anus. 48. The lucorum, or yellow hairy
bee, with a white anus' The laft eight fpecies are all
natives of Europe. 49. The brafitianorum, or pale-
red hairy bee, with the bafis of the thighs black.
This is a very large bee, every where covered with a
teftaceous Ikin. It is a native of America. 50. The
acervorum is red and hairy, and builds below ground,
51. The fubterranea is red and hairy, with a duiky
anus; it likewife builds below ground. 52. The fu-
rinamenfis is a black hairy bee, with the whole belly,
excepting the firft joint or fegment, yellow. It is a
native of Surinam. 53. The aeftuans, or black hairy
bee, w'ith a yellow breaft. 54. The tropica, or black
hairy bee, with the, hind part of the belly yellow.
The two laft are natives of the warm climates.
55. The alpina is a haisy bee, with a black breaft, and
yellow belly. It inhabits the mountains of "Lapland.
APIUM, or Parsley, in botany, a genus of the pen-
tandria digynia clafs. The fruit is of an oval lhape
andftreaked; the involucrum confifts of one leaf; and
the petals are inflefted. There are only two fpecies
of apium, viz. the petrofelinum, a native of Sardi¬
nia ; and the ^graveolens, a native of Britain. The
feed's of the petrofelinum are carminative, and the
root is ufed as.an aperient.
APIVORUS Btttea, in ornithology, a fynonime of a
fpecies of falcQ, SeeFALCo.
APLUDA, in botany, a genus of the polygamia monov
' cia clafs. The calix is a bivalved gluma; the flof-
cules of the, female are. feffile, and the male flofcules
are furniflved with pedupculi; the female has no ca¬
lix ; the corolla has'-a double valve; there is but one
ftylus, and. one covered feed. The male has three
ftamina. There are three fpecies of apluda, viz. the
mutica, ariftata, and zeugites, all natives of the
, Indies.
APOBATERION, in antiquity, a valediAory fpeech
or poem made by a perfon on departing out of his own
country, and addrelfed to his friends or relations.
APOCALYPSE, one of the facred books of the New
Teftament, fo called from its containing revelations
concerning feveral important do&rines of Chriftianity.
APOCARPASUM, a poifonous drug, otherwife called
carpafum.
APOCHYLISMA, in pharmacy, the fame with Rob.
See Rob.
4 Q_
APO-
A P O ( 338 ) A P O
APOCOPE, among grammarians, a figure which cuts
off a letter or fyllable from the end of a word; as
ingerit for ingenii.
APOCRISIARIUS, in antiquity, an officer who deli¬
vered the meffages of the emperor. He became after¬
wards chancellor, and kept the feals. It was aifo a
title given to a biffiop’s refident at court, to the pope’s
deputy at Conftantinople, and to the tre'afurer of a
monaftery.
APOCRUSTICS, inmedicine, the fame with repellents.
See Repellents.
APOCRYPHAL, denotes fomething dubious, and is
more particularly applied to fuch books as are not ad¬
mitted into the canon of fcripture, being either not
acknowledged as divine, or rejefled as heretical and
fpurious. The apocryphal books, according to the
fixth article of the church of England, are to be read
for example of life and indruftion of manners; but
it doth not apply them to eftabliffi any do&rine.
APOCYNUM, in botany, a .genus of the pentandria
digyniaclafs. The corolla is campaniform, or ffiaped
like a bell. There are five fpgcies, all natives of A-
merica.
APODICTICAL, among philofophers, a term import¬
ing a demonftrative proof, or fyftematical method of
teaching.
APODOSIS, in rhetoric, the fame with axiofis. See
Axiosis.
APODYTERIUM, in the ancient baths, the apartments
where perfons drefled and undrefied.
APOGEE, in aftronomy, that point of the orbit of a
planet or the fun tvhich is fartheft from the earth.
APOLLINARIAN games, in Roman antiquity, an ap¬
pellation given to certain theatrical entertainments ce¬
lebrated annually in honour of Apollo.
APOLLINARIANS, or Apollinarists, in church-
hiftory, a fedt of heretics who maintained, that Jefus
Chrift had neither a rational human foul, nor a true
body.
APOLLINARIS, in botany. See Hyoscyamus.
APOLLONIA, in antiquity, an annual feftival celebra¬
ted by the fEgialians in honour of Apollo.
Apollonia, in geography, a promontory of Africa,
upon the coaft of Guinea, neat the mouth of the ri¬
ver Mancu.
APOLOGUE, in mattsi-s of literature, an ingenious
method of conveying indrudtion by means of a feigned
relation called a moral fable.
The only difference between a parable and an apo¬
logue is, that the former being drawn from what paffes
among mankind, requires probability in the narration ;
v lie re as the apologue, being taken from the fuppofed
addons of brutes, or even of things inanimate, is not
tied down to the dridt rules of probability. Aifop’s
fables: are a model of this kind of writing.
APOLOGY, a Greek term, literally importing an ex-
cufe, or defence of fome perfon or adtion.
APOMELI, among ancient phyficians, a decodtion of
honey and vinegar, much ufed as a detergent, promo¬
ter of dool, urine, tec.
APONEUROSIS, among phyficians, a term, fometimes
ufed to denote the expanfion of a nerve or tendon in
the manner of a membrane; fometimes for the cutting
off a nerve ; and, finally, for the tendon itfelft
APONOGETON, in botany. See Zannichellia.
APOPHASIS, a figure in rhetoric, by which the ora¬
tor, fpeaking ironically, feems to wave what he would
plainly infinuate: as, Neither •will I mention thofe
things, •which if I Jhould, you, notnuithjlanding,
could neither confute nor fpeak againjl them.
APOPHLEGMATIZANTS, in pharmacy, medicines
proper to clear the head from fupeHiuous phlegm,
whether by fpitting, or by the nofe.
APOPHTHEGM, a ffiort, fententious, and indrudtive
remark, pronounced by a perfon of didinguiffied cha-
radter. Such are the apophthegms of Plutarch, and
thofe of the ancients colledted by Lycodhenes.
APOPHYGE, in architedture, a concave part or ring of
a column, lying above or below the flat member.
The French call it le conge d en has, or d'en haul;
the Italians, cavo di bajfo, or di fopra; and alfo, il
vivo di bajfo. The apophyge originally was no more
than the ring or ferril, at fird fixed on the extremities
of wooden pillars, to keep them from fplitting; which
afterwards was imitated id done.
APOPHYSIS, in anatomy, a prqcefs or protuberance of
a bone.
APOPLEXY, a didemper in which the patient is fud-
denly deprived of all his fenfes, and of voluntary mo¬
tion. See Medicine, title, apoplexy.
APORIA, is a figure in rhetoric, by which the fpeaker
ffiews, that he doubts where to begin for the multitude
of matter, or what to fay in fome drange and ambi¬
guous thing; and doth, as it were, argue the cafe with
himfelf. Thus Cicero fays, Whether he took them
from his fellows more impudently, gave them to a
harlot more lafcivioufy, removed them from the Ro¬
man people more wickedly, or altered them more pre-
fu7nptuoufy, 1 cannot well declare.
APOSIOPESIS, a form of fpeech, by which the fpeaker,
through fome affedtion, as forrow, baffifulnefs, fear,,
anger, or vehemency, breaks off his fpeech before it
be all ended. A figure, when fpeaking of a thing,,
we yet feem to conceal it, though indeed we aggravate
it; or when the courfe of the fentence begun is fo
dayed, as thereby fome part of the fentence, not be¬
ing uttered, may be underdood; as, / might fay much
more, hut madefy commands flence.
APOSTACY, the abandoning the true religion. The'
primitive Chridian church didinguiffied feveral kinds,
of apodacy. The fird, of thofe who went over en¬
tirely from Chridianity to Judaifm ; the fecond, of
thofe who mingled Judaifm and Chridianity together ^
and the third, of thofe who complied fo far with the
Jews as to communicate with them in many of their
unlawful practices, without making a formal profeffion
of their religion. But the fourth fort was of thofe
who, after having been fometimes Chridians, volun¬
tarily relapfed into Paganifm.
APOSTASIS, in medicine; the fame with abfcefs. See
Abscess.
APOSTATE, one who-deferts his religion. Among.
the
A P O ( 339 ) A P P
the Romanifts, it fignifies a man who, without a legal
difpenfation, forfakes a religious order of which,he
had made profeffion. Hence,
APOSTATA capiendo, in the Engliftr law, a writ that
formerly lay agarnft a perfon, who having entered into
fome order of religion, broke out again, and wandered
. up and down the country.
A POSTERIORI, or demonftration a pojleriori. See
Demonstration.
APOSTHUME, or Apostem, the fame with abfeefs.
See Abscess,. ;
APOSTIL, in matters of literature, the fame with a
marginal note.
APOSTLE properly fignifies a meflenger or perfon fent
by another upon fome bufinefs ; and hence, by way of
eminence, denotes one of the twelve ..difciples com-
inillioned by Jefus Chrift to preach the gofpel.
The apoftles are ufually reprefented with their re-
fpeftive badges: Thus Peter is painted with the keys ;
Paul, with a fword; Andrew, with a crofs; James
the greater, with a pilgrim’s ftaff; James the lefs, with
a fuller’s pole; John, with a cup and winged ferpent
flying out of it; Bartholomew, with a knife; Philip,
with a long Raff,, .the upper end of which is formed
into a crofs ; Thomas, with a lance ; Matthew, with
a hatchet; Matthias, with a battle-axe; Simon, with
a faw ; and Jude, with a club.
APOSTLES.trrmk See Creed.
Apostles ointment. See Ointment.
APOSTOLICI, an early fed of Chriltians, who pre¬
tended to lead their lives in imitation of the apoftles.
They condemned marriage.
APOSTROPHE, in rhetoric,' a figure by which the o-
rator, in a vehement commotion, turns himfelf on all
fides, and applies to the living and dead, to angels and
to men, to rocks, groves, ebc. Thus Adam, in Mil-
ton’s Paradife Loft,
0 woods, 0 fountains, hillocks, dales, and bowers.
With other echo, r&c.
Apostrophe, in gramrttar, the contraftion of a word
by the ufe of a comma; as call'd for called, tho' for
though.
APOTACTITES, in church-hiftory, a name given to
the Apoftolici, from the fhew they made of renouncing,
the world more than other men. See Apostolici.
APOTHECARY, onewbopradifestheartof pharmacy.
APOTHEOSIS, in antiquity, a ceremony by which the
ancient Romans complimented their emperors and-great
men, after their death, with a place among the gods.
It is deferibed as follows. After the body of the de-
ocafed had been burnt with the ufual folemnities-, an
image of wax, exadly refembling him, was placed on
an ivory couch, where it lay for feven days, attended by
the fenate and ladies of the high eft quality in mourn¬
ing ; and then the young ftnators and knights bore the
bed of ftate through the via facra to the old for-um,
and from thence to the. campus martius. where it was
depofited upon an edifice built in form of a pyramid.
The bed being thus placed amidft a quantity of fpices
and other combuftibles,. and the knights having made
a folemn proceffion round the pile, the new emperor,
with a torch in his hand, let fire to it, wbilft ah eagle.
let fly from the top of the building, and mounting ins
the air with a firebrand, was fuppofed to convey the
foul of the deceafed to heaven; and thenceforward he
was ranked among the gods.
APOTOME, in geometry, the difference between two
incommenfurable lines.
Apotome, in mufic, the difference between a greater
and lefler femi-tone, expreffed by the ratio 128: 125.
APOZEM, in medicine, the fame with decodtion. See
Decoction.
APPARATUS,, a term ufed to denote a complete fet of
inftruments, or other utenfils, belonging to any artift
or machine r thus we fay a furgeon’s apparatus.
APPARENT, in a general fenfe, fomething that is vi-
fible to the eyes, or obvious to the underftahding.
Apparent, among mathematicians and aftronomers, de¬
notes things as they appear to us, in contradiftindlion
from real or true: thus we fay, the apparent diameter,
diftance, magnitude, place, figure, he. of bodies.
Apparent . in, Scots law, the perfon entitled to
fucceed to the eftate of a defundf, fiefore he is adlually
entered. See Scots Law, title, Succejfion in heri¬
table rights.
APPARITION, in a general fenfe, denotes fimply the
appearance of a thing. In a more limited fenfe, it is
ufed for a fpedixe or ghoft.
APPARITOR, among the Romans, a general term to-
comprehend all attendants of Judges and magiftrates
appointed to receive and execute their orders. Ap¬
paritor, in England, is a meffenger that ferves the
procefs of a fpiritual court, or a beadle in an univer-
fity who carries the mace.
APPARURA, among, old law-writers, fignifies furni¬
ture or tackle, particularly that belonging to a plough.
APPAUMEE, in heraldry, denotes-one hand extended
with the full palm appearing, and the thumb and fin-
ger£ at full length.
APPEAL, in law, the'removal of a caufe from an in¬
ferior to a fuperior court or judge, when a perfon
thinks himfelf aggrieved by the fentence of the inferi¬
or judge. Appeals lie from all the ordinary courts of
juftice to the Houfe of Lords. In ecclefiaftical canfes,.
if an appeal is brought before a bithop, it may be re¬
moved to the archbilhop; if before an archdeacon, to
the court of arches, and thence to the archbilhop; and
from the archbilhop’s court, to the king in chancery.
Appeal of snaim, \% the accufing one. that has maimed
another..
APPEARANCE, in a general fenfe, the exterior fur-
face of a thing, or-that which immediately ftrikes the
fenfes.
APPEARANCE, in law, fignifies a defendant’s filing
common or fpecial bail, on any procefs iffued out of a
court of judicature.
APPELLANT, in a general fenfe, one who appeals. See
Appeal.
APPELLANTS, in church-hiftory, an appellation given
to fuch of the catholic clergy, as appeal from the con-
ftitution unigenitus, to a general council.
APPELLATIVE. Words and. names are either com¬
mon or proper. Common names are fuch as llapd for
. univerfal ideas,_or a whole rank of beings, whether ge-
neiaii
A P P { w ) A P S
, neral or fpecial. Thefe are called ap^f!hrive;. So
f fiih, bird, man, city, river, are common names ; and
fo are troot, eel, lobfter ; for they all agree to many
' individuals, and fome to many ipecies.
APPELLEE, among lawyers, the perfon againft whom
an appeal is brought. See Appeal.
APPENDIX, in literature, a treatife added at the end
of a work, to render it more complete.
APPERCEPTION, or Adperception, a term tiled
by Leibnitz and his followers for confcioufnefs.
APPERTINANCES, the fame with appurtenances.
See Appurtenances.
APPETITE, in a general fenfe, the defire of enjoying
Tome objedt fuppofed to be conducive to our happinefs.
AppfcrrTE, in medicine, a certain painful or uneafy fen-
fation, always accompanied with a defire to eat or
drink.
APPLAUSE, an approbation of fomething, fignified by
clapping the hands, ftill pradhfed in theatres.
APPLE, the fruit of the pyrus mains, or apple-tree.
See Pyrus.
Apple of the eye, a name not unfrequently given to the
pupil. Seep. 289.
APPLEBY, the chief town of the county of Weflmore-
land, fituated on the river Eden, in 20 2(3 W. long,
and 540 30/N. lat. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment.
APPLICATE,, or-ORDiNATE applicate, in geometry.
See Ordinate.
APPLICATION, in a general fenfe, is the laying two
things together, in order to difcover their agreement
or difagreement.
Application, in geometry, is ufed either for divifion,
for applying one quantity to another, whofe arreas,
but not figures, lhall be the fame; or, for transferring
a given line into a circle, or other figure, fo that its
ends lhall be in the perimeter of the figure.
Application, among divines, a term ufed to fignify
the fame as imputation. See Imputation.
APPOGIATURA, in mufic, a fmall note inferted by
the practical mufician, between two others, at fome
diftance.
APPOINTED, a foot-foldier, or officer in the French
army, who receives a greater pay than others of the
fame rank, in confideration of his valour or long fer-
Appointe'e, in heraldry, the fame a.s aguifee: Thus
we fay, a crofs appointee, to fignify that which two
angles at the end cut off, fo as to terminate in points.
APPOINTMENT, in a general fefife, the fame as af-
fignation. See Assignation. In a more reftrained
fenfe, it fignifies a penfion given by princes and noble¬
men to retain certain perfons in their fervice.
APPORTIONMENT, in law, the divifion of a rent
into parts, in the fame manner as the land out of which
it.iffues is divided.
APPOSITION, in grammar, the placing two or more
fubftantives together in the fame cafe, without any
copulative conjunction between them; as, Ardebat A-
lexim delicts! doruini.
Appraising. See Apprysing.
APPREHENSION, in logic, the firft or moft fimpfe
adt of the mind, whereby it perceives, or is confcious
of fome idea. See Perception, and Logic.
APPRYSING, in Scots law, the name of that adtion
by which a creditor formerly carried off the eftate of
his debtor for payment. It is now aboliffied, and ad¬
judications are appointed in place of it." See Scots
Law, title, Appryjtngs and Adjudication!.
APPROACH, or Approaching, in a general fenfe,
the acceding or coming together of two or more things.
APPROACHES, in fortification, the works thrown up
by the befiegers, in order to get nearer a fortrefs,
without being expofed to the enemies cannon.
APPROACHING, in gardening, the inoculating or in¬
grafting the fprig of one tree into another, without
cutting it off from the parent-tree.
Approaching, in fowling, a method of getting nearer
the birds by means of a machine, made of hoops and
bopghs of trees, within which the fportfman conceals
himfelf.
APPROPRIARE comntuniam, in law, is to difcom-
raon, that is, to inclofe any parcel of land that before
was open and common.
Appropriare ad honorem, to bring a manor within
the liberty of an honour. See Manor, and Honour.
APPROPRIATION, in Lw, a fevering of a benefice
ecclefiallical to the proper and perpetual ufe of fome
religious houfe, or dean and chapter, biflioprick, or
college; becaufe, as perfons ordinarily have no right
of fee fimple, thefe, by reafon of their perpetuity, are
accounted owners of the fee fimple; and therefore are
called proprietors. To an appropriation, after the li¬
cence obtained of the king in chancery, the confent
of the diocefan, patron, and incumbent, are necefla-
ry, if the church be full; but, if the church be void,
the diocefan and the patron, upon the king’s licence,
may conclude.
APPROXIMATION, in arithmetic and algebra, the
coming nearer and nearer to a r6ot, or other quantity
fought, without expeding to be ever able to find it
exadly.
APPUI, in the menage, the fenfe of the adion of the
bridle in the horfeman’s hand. Thus we fay, a horfe
has no appui, when he cannot fuffer the bit to bear
never fo little upon the parts of the mouth. To give
a horfe a good appui, he fltould be galloped, and put
often back.
APPUXSE, in aftronomy, the approach of a planet to¬
wards a conjundion with the fun or any of the fixed
liars.
APRICOT, in botany, the Englilh name of the prunus
Armeniaca. See Prunus.
APRIL, in chronology, the fourth month of the year,
containing only 30 days.
A PRIORI, a kind of demonfiration. See Demon¬
stration.
APRON, in gunnery, the piece of lead which covers the
touch-hole of a cannon. See Cannon.
APSIS, in aftronomy, a term ufed indifferently for either
of the two points of a planet’s orbit, where it is at
the greateft or leaft diftance from the fun or earth.
Hence
A u ' ( 341 ) A u
Hence the line conne&’ng thefe points is- called the
line of the dpftdes. See Astronomy.
Apsis, among eccldiaftical writers, denotes the inner
part of the ancient churches, anfwering to the modern
choir. It is alfo ufed for the bifhop’s throne, and
fometime# for the ambo. See Ambo.
APSYRTUS, in botany. See Marrubium.
APTE, a fmali city of Provence, in France, fituated a-
bout 25 miles north of Aix, in 50 So' E. long, and
43c 50' ‘N. lat.
APTERA, the term ufed by Linnaeus for his feventh
order of infers, comprehending fucli as have no
wings.
APTHANE, a title anciently given to the higheft de¬
grees of nobility in Scotland. See Thane.
APTOTE, among grammarians, an indeclinable noun,
or one which has no variation of cafes.
APUA, in ichthyology, an obfolete name of the gobius.
See Gobius.
APULIA, or Puglia, in geography. See Puglia.
APUS, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
hirundo. See Hirundo.
APYCNI Suoniy in mulic, founds diftant one or more
oftaves, and yet concord.
APYCNOS, in mufic, is faid of the diatonic genus, on
account of its having fpacious intervals, in comparifon
of the chromatic and enharmonic. See Diatonic,
Chromatic, <fcc.
APYREXY, among phyficians, denotes the intermiffion
of a fever.
AQUA, a term frequently met with in the writings of
phyficians, chemifts, &c. for certain medicines, or
mendruums, in a liquid form, difiinguiihed from each
other by peculiar epithets; as.
Aqua alexiteria, a water diftilied from mint, fea-worm-
wood, and angelica; and laid to be good in malignant
and pellilential cafes.
Aqua aluminofa, alum-water, a folution of water and
white vitriol; efteemed good in ulcers and cutaneous
eruptions.
Aqua forth, a corrofive liquor, made by difiilling puri¬
fied nitre with calcined vitriol, or redified oil of vi¬
triol, in a ftrong heat; the liquor, which rifes in fumes
red as blood, being col left ed; is the fpirit of nitre or
aqua fonts; which ferves as a menftruurn for diflbl-
ving of filver, and all other metals, except gold. But
if fea-falt, or fal ammoniac bo added to aqua fortis, it
commences aqua regia. Aqua fortis is commonly held
to have been invented about the year 1300; though
others will have it to have been known in the time of
Mofes. It is ferviceable to refiners, in feparating
filver from gold and copper: to the workers in mofaic,
for ftaining and colouring their woods ; to dyers, in
their colours, particularly fcarlet; and to other artifis,
for colouring bone and ivory. With aqua fortis book¬
binders marble the covers of books, and diamond-
cutters feparate diamonds from metalline powders It
is aHb ufed in etching copper or brafs plates. See
Chemistry, Of the nitrous acid.
Aqua marina, a name by which-the jewellers call the
beryl, on account of its fea-green colour, SeeBERYi..
. Vol. I. No. 15. '3
Aqua mercuriality a folution of fublimate of mercery,
and a little mercury, in aqua regia. ^
Aqua mirabilis, the wonderful water, is prepared of
cloves, galangals, cubebs, mace, cardomums, nut-:
megs, ginger, and fpirit of wine, digefted 24 hours,
then diddled. It is a good and agreeable cordial.
Aqv&. omnium forum,- in pharmacy, the water diltilled
from the dung of cows, when they go to grafs; in.
Englilh, All-flo'wer-'vjatcr.
Aqjua regia, an acid corrofive fpirit, fo called, bacaufc
it ferves as a menftruum to difiblvc gold, common¬
ly efteemed the king of metals. Its bafis, or efien-
tiak ingredient, is common fea-falt, the only fait in
nature which will operate-on gold. It is commonly
prepared by mixing common fea-falt, or fal ammoniac,
or the fpirit of them, with fpirit of nitre., or common
aquafortis. See Chemistry, title. Of aqua regia.
Aqua fecunda, denotes aqua fortis, which has. been u-
fed to diffolve fome metal.
Aqua fulphurata, the fame with gas fulphuris. See
Gas.
Aqua vitx, the water of life, a name given to malt
fpirits in contradiftindlion. from brandy.
Aqua vilriolica cterulea, a folution of blue vitriol and
alum, with fome fpirit of vitriol, in water ; recom¬
mended in inflammatory and putrid cafes.
AQUA! pavor, in medicine. See Hydrophobia.
AQUTF.DUCT, in hydraulics and architecture, a con¬
veyance made for carrying water from one place to
another. Thofe of the ancient Romans were furpri-
fingly magnificent. That which Lewis XIV. built
near Maintenon, for carrying the Bucq to, Verfaillcs,
is perhaps the greateft now in the world: It is feven
thoufand fathoms long, with two thoufand five hun¬
dred and fixty fathpms of elevation, and contains two
hundred and forty-two arcades.
AQUA-NEGRA, a fmall town of thd Mantuan, in l-
taly, fituated upon the Chiefe, in 90 E. long, and
450 io' N. lat.
AQUAPENDENTE, a city of the ecclefiaftical ftate,
in Italy, fituated upon the river Paglia, abounding m
waters.
AQUARIANS, in church-hiftory, an ancient fed of
heretics, who, under pretence of abftinence, made ufe
of water inftead of wine in the eucharift.
AQUARIUS, in aftronomy, a conftdlatian which makes
the eleventh fign in the zodiac, marked thus . See
Astronomy.
AQUARTIA, in botany,, a genus of the tetrandria mo-
nogynia clals. There is only one fpecies, called aculea-,
ta, a native of Europe.
AQUATIC, in natural hiftory. an appellation.given to
fuch things as live or grow in the Water.
AQUAVIVA, a town of the kingdom of Napl es, and
province of Barri.
AQUEDUCT. See Aqu/educt.
AQUELEIA, a patiiarchal city of Italy, near the end
of the gulph of Venice, fituated in 130 00 E. lon<r
. and 46° 20' N. lat.
AQUEOUS, in a general fenfe, fomethinp partaking of
the nature ot water,. or that, abounds with it.
4 R Aqueous
A R A ( 342 ) A R A
Aqueous humour, in anatomy. See p. 289.
AQUIFOLIUM, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe-
ciesofilex. See Ilex.
AQUILA, in ornithology, a fynonime of the falco, or
eagle. See Falco.
AQuila, in aftronomy, a conflrellation of the northern
hemifphere. See Astronomy.
Aquila, in geography, a large city of Abruzzo, in
the kingdom of Naples, fituated in 140 2Q E. long,
and 420 40' N. lat.
AQUILEGIA, or Columbine, in botany, a genus of
the polyandria pentagynia clafs. It has no calix; the
petals are five, and five horn-like ne&aria are inferr¬
ed betwixt each petal; it has alfo five feparate cap-
fules. There are three fpecies of aquilegia, viz. the
vulgaris, or common columbine, a native of Britain;
the alpina, a native of Switzerland; and the Cana-
denfis, a native of Virginia and Canada. The aqui¬
legia is reckoned to be an aperient, but has long fince
given way to more powerful medicines.
AQUILICIUM, or A^uiliciana, in Roman antiqui¬
ty, facrifices performed in times of exceflive drought,
to obtain rain of the gods.
AQUILINE, fomething belonging to, or refembliiig an
eagle: Thus, an aquiline nofe is one bent fomewhat
like^an eagle’s beak.
AQUINO, a ruinous city in the province of Lavoro, in
the kingdom of Naples, fituated in 140 30' E. long,
and 410 30/ N. lat.
ARA, in aftronomy, a fouthern conftellation, containing
eight ftars.
ARABET, a town of Turki/h Tartary, fituated near
the Palus Mosotis. It is fortified with two caftles ;
and is the place where the khan keeps his ftud of hor-
fes, which are reckoned to be about feven thoufand
in number.
ARABIA, a large country of Afia, having Turky on
the north, Perfia and the gulf of Perfia on the eaft,
the Indian ocean on the fouth, and the Red fea and
ifthmus of Suez on the weft; and fituated between
350 and 6o° E. long, and between 120 and 30°
N. lat.
Arabia, though fubjeA to a great many different
princes, is only confidered by geographers as fubdivi-
ded into the three grand divifions of Arabia Felix, A-
rabia Deferta, and Arabia Petrea.
ARABIAN, or Arabic, in a general fenfe, fomething
belonging to Arabia : Thus we fay, Arabian charac¬
ters, Arabian language, &c. See Hebrew.
Gum ARABIC, the name of a gum which diftills from
the Egyptian acacia tree. It is brought to us from
Turky, in final! irregular maffes or firings of a pale
yellow colour. The true gum-arabic is rarely to be
met with in the (hops, gum-fenega being ufually fold
in place of it: This refembles the other, but is gene¬
rally in large rcmg^ pieces. The true kind is preferred
as a medicine; but the other is cheapeft'and ftrongeft,
and therefore preferred for mechanical ufes. It is given,
from a fcruple to two drams, in hoarfenefs, a thin acri¬
monious ftate of the juices, and where the natural mu¬
cus of the inteftines is abraded., It is likewife an in¬
gredient in the white decodtion, chalk julep, and other
compofitions.
ARABICI, a feft of heretics, who held, that the foul
both dies and rifes again with the body.
ARABIS, in botany, a genus of the tetradynamia fili-
quofa clafs. The generic mark is taken from four
neftariferous glands which lie on the infide of each
leaf of the calix. There are eight fpecies of arabis,
none of which are natives of Britain, except the tha-
liana, or coded moufe-ear.
ARABISM, in language, an idiom peculiar to the Ara¬
bian language.
ARABLE lands, thofe which are fit for tillage, or which
have been formerly tilled.
ARACK, Arrack, or Rack, a fpirituous liquor im¬
ported from the E. Indies, ufed by way of dram and in
punch. The word arack is an Indian name for ftrong
waters of all kinds; for they call our fpirits and
brandy Englijh arack. But what we underftand by
the name arack, is really no other than a fpirit procu¬
red by diftillation from a vegetable juice called toddy,
which flows by incifion out of the cocoa-nut tree.
There are divers kinds of it; Angle, double, and tre¬
ble diftilled. The double ciiftilled is commonly fent
abroad, and is preferred to all other aracks of India.
ARACAN, the capital city of a fmall kingdom, fituated
on the north-eaft part of the gulf of Bengal, in 930
JE. long, and 20° 30' N. lat.
ARACARI, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of ramphaftos. See Ram p has to s.
ARACH, the chief city of Arabia Petrea, fituated ia
490 E. long, and 30° 20 N. lat.
ARACHIS, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia de-
candria clafs. There is only one fpecies, viz. the hy-
pogsea, a native of America. The calix is divided in¬
to two parts; and the capfule or pod is cylindrical, and
contains two feeds.
ARACHNOIDES, in anatomy, an appellation given to-
feveral membranes, as the tunic of the cryftalline hu¬
mour of the eye, the external lamina of the pia mater,
and one of the coverings of the fpinal marrow.
ARAEOMETER, an inftrument to meafure the gravity
of liquors, which is ufually made of a thin glais ball,
with a taper neck, fealed at the top, there being firft
as much mercury put into it as will keep it fwimming
in an exadt pofture. The neck is divided into two
parts, which are numbered, that fo by the depths of
its defcent into any liquor, its lightnefs may be known
by thefe divifions.
ARvEOSTYLE, in architedlure, a term ufed by Vitru¬
vius, to fignify the greateft interval which can be made
between columns.
ARAEOTICS, in medicine, remedies which rarefy the
humours, and render them eafy to be carried off by
the pores of tire /kin.
ARAF, among the Mahometans. See Alaraf.
ARAFAT, a mountain of Arabia, near Mecca, where
the Mahometans believe that Abraham offered to fa-
crifice Iflimael.
ARAGON, a province of Spain, having Bifcay and
the Pyrenean mountains on the north, Catalonia on
the
ARA ( 343 ) ARA
the eaft, Valencia on the fouth, and the two Caftiles
on the weft.
ARAIGNEE, in fortification, fignifies the branch, re¬
turn, or gallery of a mine. See Mine.
ARALIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria penta-
gynia clafs. The involucrum is an umbella; the calix
has five teeth, and is above the fruit; the corolla has
five petals ; and the berry has five feeds. There are
five fpecies of aralia, all natives of the Indies.
ARALIASTRUM, in botany. See Panax.
ARANDA de Duero, a city of Old Caftile, in Spain,
fituated on the Duero, between Ofma and Valladolid;
fo called, to diftinguifh it from another city of the fame
name, fituated upon the Ebro.
ARANEA, the Spider, a genus of infeds belonging
to the order of aptera, or infefls without wings. All
the fpecies of fpiders have eight legs, with three joints
in each, and terminating in three crooked claws ; eight
eyes, two before, two behind, and the reft on the
fides of the head. The mouth confifts of two claws
or talons, denticulated like a faw. A little below the
- point of the claw, there is a fmall hole, through which
the fpider emits a kind of poifon. Thefe claws are the
weapons with which they kill flies, fcsc. for their food.
The belly or hinder part is feparated from the head
and breaft by a final! thread-like tube. The Ikin or
outer furface is a hard poliftied cruft. Spiders have
five tubercles or nipples at the extremity of the belly,
whofe apertures they can enlarge or contract at plea-
fure. It is through thefe apertures that they fpin
a gluey fubftance with which their bellies are full.
They fix the end of their threads by applying thefe
nipples to any fubftance, and the threads lengthen in
proportion as the animal recedes from it. They can
ftop the iffuing of the threads by contracting the nip¬
ples, and re-afcend by means of the claws on their
feet, much in the fame manner as fome men warp up
a rope. When the common houfe-fpider begins her
web, fire generally chufes a place where there is a ca¬
vity, fuch as the corner of a room, that fire may have a
free palfage on each fide, to make her efcape in cafe
of danger. Then fhe fixes one end of her thread to
the wall, and pafles on to the other fide, dragging
the thread along with her, (or rather the thread fol¬
lows her as fhe proceeds), till fhe arrives at the other
fide, and there fixes the other end of it. Thus fire
pafles and repaffes, till fhe has made as many parallel
threads as fhe thinks neceffary for her purpofe. Af-
, ter this, fhe begins again and croffes thefe by other
parallel threads, which may be named the ‘woof.
Thefe are the toils or fnares which fhe prepares for
entangling flies, and other final! infedls, which happen
to light upon it. But, befides this large web, fhe ge¬
nerally weaves a fmall cell for herfelf, where fhe lies
concealed watching for her prey. Betwixt this cell
and the large web, fhe has a bridge of threads, which,
by communicating with the threads of the large one,
both give her early intelligence when any thing touch¬
es the web, and enables her to pafs quickly in order
to lay .hold of it. There are many other methods of
weaving peculiar to different fpecies of fpiders. But,
as they are all intended for the fame purpofe, it is need-
lefs to give particular defcriptions of them.
Linnseus enumerates 47 fpecies of fpiders, r/z. i.The
diadema, has a globular reddifh belly, with a white crofs.
It inhabits the birch-tree. 2. The reticulata, has a re¬
ticulated round belly, and is dufky or purple on the back.
It frequents gardens. 3. The cucurbitina, has a globu¬
lar yellow belly, with a few black fpots, It lives in the
leaves of trees, and inclofes its eggs in a foft net. 4. The
calycina, with a round pale yellow belly, and two hoi-,
low points. It lives in the cups of flowers, afyer the
flower-leaves have fallen off, and catches bees, and o-
ther flies, when they are in fearch of honey. 5. The
oflopunflata, with a roundifh yellow belly, four black
marks on eacli fide, and a red anus. It is a native of
Sweden. 6. The bipunflata, with a round red belly,
and two hollow points. It frequents windows. 7. The
arundinacia, with a white roundifh belly, and dufky-co-
loured fpots. It frequents reeds. 8. The angulata,
with an oval belly; the fore-part of the fides form an
acute angle. It frequents trees. 9. The domeftica, or
common houfe-fpider, has a dufky oval belly, with five
contiguous black fpots. 10. The trilineata, with a white
belly, and three longitudinal lines of blackifh fpots. It
lives in woods. 11. The riparia, has an oval glazed
black belly, and a yellowifh forked hairy anus. It lives
in the fandy banks of rivers. 12. The labyrinthica,
with a dufky oval belly, a whitifh indented line, and a
forked anus. The web of this fpecies is horizontal, with
a cylindrical well or tube in the middle. 13. The quadri-
lineata, has a roundifh yellow belly, and four fpots and
four purple lines on each fide. It is a native of Sweden.
14. The redimita, has an oblong yellow belly, and a
red oval ring on the back. It frequents gardens. 1 y. The
coroMata, has a black oval belly, and an oval white ring
on the back. It dwells upon plants. 16. The fumiga-
ta, has a dufky oval belly, and two white points at the
bafe. It fives in the fields. 17. The montana, has a
white oval belly, with afh-coloured fpots. It lives in
trees. 18. The fanguinolenta, has a blood-coloured
belly, with a black longitudinal line. It is a native of
Spain. 19. The notata, has an oval duflcy-coloured
belly, with W'hite tranfverfe lines. 20. The rufipes,
has a dufky belly, and reddifh legs. It ixioft frequently
lives among nettles. 21. The nodurna, has a black
belly, with two white points, and a little white half¬
moon at the bafe of the anus. 22. The extenfa, has a
long greenifh fhining belly, and its legs are extended
longitudinally. It frequents marfliy grounds. 23. The
fimbriata, has a black oblong belly, with a white fine on
each fide, and dufky-coloured legs. It lives in water,
upon the furface of which it runs with great fwiftnefs.
24. The fexpundata, has an oblong belly, and three
pair of hollow points. It lives in woods, 25. The
flaviflima, has a fmooth oblong belly of a very yellow
colour. It is a native of Egypt. 26. The bimaculata,
has a ehefnut-coloured roundifh belly, with two white-
points. 27. The clavipes, has an oblong belly,, and the
laft joints of the legs, excepting the third pair, are hairy
and clavated. It is a native of America. 28. The
quadripundata, has a black oblong belly, and four hoh-
A R A C 344 ) ARB
low points. -It is to bo met with in -windows,
29. The holofericea, has an ovallifh belly cpvered with
a down like velvet; at the bafe, or under part, it has
two yellow Ipots. It is found in the folded leaves of
plants. 30. The fenoculata, is difHnguilhed from the
reft by having only fix eyes. 31. The avicularia, has
a convex round bread, hollowed tranfverfely in the
middle. It is a native of America, and feeds upon
Fmall birds, infe&s, 6"c. The bite of this fpider is as
venomous as that of the ferpent. 32. The fpinimobilis,
has moveable black fpines on its legs.. It is a native of
Surinam. 33. The venatoria, is a hairy fpider, with a
round convex breaft, about the fame fize with the belly,
which is oval. It is a native of America. 34. The
ocellata, has three pair of eyes on its thighs. It is a-
bout the fame fize with the tarantula, of a pale colour,
with a black ring round the belly, and two large black
fpots on the fides of the breaft. It is a native of China.
35. The tarantula, PlateXXIII. fig. 10. The breaft (1),
and belly (2), are of an alh-colour; the legs (3) are
likewife aftircolourcd, with blackiih rings on the under
part; the fangs, or nippers (4), are red on the inner
fide, the reft being blackilh; (5) is the antennse or feel¬
ers : Two of its eyes are larger than the other, red, and
placed in the front; four other eyes are placed in a tranf-
verfe dir eft ion towards the mouth ; the other two are
nearer the back. It is a native of Italy, Cyprus, Bar¬
bary, and the E. Indies. The breaft and belly are a-
bout two inches long, terminated by two ftiort tails. This
figure was taken from the life, in the ifland of Cyprus,
by Alexr Drummond, Efq; late conful at Aleppo. The
bite of the tarantula is faid to occafion an inflammation in
the part, which in a few hours brings on ficknefs, faint¬
ing, and difficulty of breathing : The perfon afterwards
is affefted with a delirium, putting himfelf into the moft
extravagant poftures. However, this is not always the
cafe; for they are fometimes feized with a deep melan¬
choly. The fame fyroptoms return annually, in fome
cafes, for feveral years, and at laft terminate in death.
Mufic is faid to be the only cure. It induces the pa¬
tient to dance, and fweat out the poifon. 36. The fce-
nica, is a black jumping fpider, with three white femi-
circular lines acrofs its body. It frequents old walls.
37. The truncorum, is a black jumping fpider, with
white fpots on the back. It frequents wralis, and old
wood. 38. The rupeftris, is .a jumping fpider, with
black fpots on its belly, which is edged with red and
white in the middle. It frequents walls and trees.
3.9. The aquatica, is of a livid colour, with an oval
belly, and a tranfverfe line, and two hollowed points.
It frequents the frdh waters of Europe,; and lodges, du¬
ring the winter, in empty (hells, which it dextroufly
(huts up with a web. 40. The faccata, has an oval
belly of a dulky iron colour. It lives in the ground, and
carries a fack with its eggs, where-ever it goes. This fack
it glues to its belly, and will rather die than leave it be¬
hind. 41. The paluftris, has an oblong cloudy belly,
with two white lines on each fide. It frequents marihy
grounds. 42. The virefcens has an oblong greenifti
yellow belly, with white lines on the fides. It frequents
gardens. 43. The viatica, has a roundilh plain belly.
with the four laft legs ftiorter than the others. It fr?
'quents gardens, and fits upon its eggs. 44. The kevi-
pes, has a depreffed rhoinboidal belly, with its legs
extended in a tranfverfe direftion. It is found on
trees and walls. 45. The tetracantha, has a lunated.
belly, and is found in St Thomas’s ifle. 46. The
cancriformis, has a globular belly, and is a native of
. America. 47. The fpinofa, has eight fpines on its
back, and a conical belly. It is a native of America.
All ANE A cone he a, the fpider-lhell, a name given to
feveral fpecies of murex. See Mu rex.
ARANEUS, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of cancer. See Cancer.
ARANJUEZ, a palace belonging to the king of Spain,
beautifully fituated on the banks of the Tagus, about
fifteen or fixteen miles eaftward of Madrid.
ARAB ABACA, in botany, a fynonime of the fpigelia.
See Spigelia.
ARARAT, the name anciently given to part of mount
Caucafus, lying between the Euxine and Cafpian feas,
and where Noah’s ark refted.
ARARAUNA, in ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of pfittacus, See Psittacus.
ARASH, a city of the province of Afgar, in the king¬
dom of Fez, where the river Luca falls into the
Weftern Ocean.
ARAUCO, a city of Chili, in S. America, fituated on
a river of the fame name, in 78° W. long, and 370
S. lat.
ARAXES, Qr Arras, a river of Perfia. See Arras.
ARAYA, one of the moft celebrated capes in S. Ame¬
rica, forming the north point of the river Oronoque.
See ORONociUE.
ARB ALET, the fame with crofs-bow. See Cro s s-bow.
ARBELA, or Irbil, in geography. See Irbil.
ARBITER, in law, a perfon to whofe decifion any dif-
pute or difference is voluntarily referred by the parties.
ARBITRARY, that which is left to the choice or arbi¬
tration of men, or not fixed by any pofitive law or in-
junftion.
Arbitrary punijhment, in Scots law, denotes fuch
punifhments as are by ftatute left to the diferetion of
the judge. It is a general rule in arbitrary punifh-
ments, that the judge cannot inflift death. Hence
all punifhments that are not capital have acquired the
name of arbitrary punifhments, even although they be
exprefsly pointed out by ftatute.
ARBITRATION, Arbitrage, or Arbitrement,
the power given by contending parties to an arbiter.
SeeARBiTER.
ARBITRATOR, a private extraordinary judge, cho-
fen by the mutual confent of parties, to determine
. controverfies between them.
ARBOIS, a town of Branch Compte in France, fituated
in 50 40' E long, and 46° 5c/ N. lat.
ARBON, a iown of Swabia in Germany, fituated in
9° 30' E. long, and 47° 40' N lat,
ARBOR, in mechanics, the principal part of a machine
which ferves to fuftain the reft: alio the axis or Ipin-
dle on which a machine turns, as the arbor of a crane,
windoull, 6"c.
ARBO-
ARC ( ’345 ) ARC
■ARBORIST, a perfon (killed in .that part of botany
which treats of trees.
ARBOUR, in gardening, a kind of fliady bower, for¬
merly in great efteem, but of late rejedted, on account
of its being damp and unwholefome.
Arbours are generally made of lattice-work, either
of wood or iron, and covered with elms, limes, horn¬
beams ; or with creepers, as honey-fuckles, jafmines,
or paflion-flowers; either of which will anfwer the
purpofe very well, if rightly managed.
ARBUTUS, in botany, a genus of the decandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix of the arbutus is divided
into five parts; the corolla is ovated; the fruit is a
berry with five partitions or cells. There are five
fpecies of arbutus, viz, the unedo, or common ftraw-
berry-tree, a native of Britain ; the andrachne, a
native of the Eaft Indies; the acadienfis, a native of
Acadia; the alpina, or mountain ftrawberry-tree, a
native of Britain ; and the uva urfi, a plant lately dif-
covered in the Highlands of Scotland, and which for¬
merly was thought not to be a native of Britain.
ARC, Ark, or Arch. See Arch.
ARCA cordis, the fame with pericardium. See Peri¬
cardium.
ARCADIA, a fea-port town of European Turky, fi-
tuated on the weftern coaft of the Morea, in 2 2°
E.long. and 370 20 N. lat. -
ARCANGIS, in the Turkifti armies, a kind of irregu¬
lar light-armed horfe which fubfift by plunder.
ARCANUM, among phyficians, any remedy, the pre¬
paration of which is induftrioufly concealed, in order
to enhance its value.
ARCBOUTANT, in building, an arched buttrefs.
See Buttress.
ARCH, in geometry, any part of the circumference of
a circle or curved line, lying from one point to ano¬
ther, by which the quantity of the whole circle or
line, or fome other thing fought after, may be gather¬
ed. See Geometry.
Arch, in architefture, a concave building erefted for
the purpofes of fupporting fome ftrudhire, or for ma¬
king an eafy paflage over rivers. See Architec¬
ture.
Triumphal Arch, a (lately gate of a femicircular form,
adorned -with fculpture, inferiptions, <bc. ereded in
honour of thofe who had deferved a triumph.
Arch, in compofition, fignifies chief, or of the firft
clafs, as archangel, archbilhop, foe.
ARCH EUS, or Archeus. See Archeus.
ARCHANGEL, an angel occupying the eighth rank in
the celeftial hierarchy.
Archangel, in botany. See Lamium.
Archangel, in geography, a city of the province of
Dwina in Rufiia, fituated four miles from the White
Sea, in 40° la' E. long, and 64° 30' N. lat.
ARCHBISHOP, a prelate who has feveral fuffragan
bilhops under him. There are only two archbifhops
in England; the archbifhop of Canterbury, who is
primate of all England; and the archbilhop of York,
who is onlyftyled primate of England.
Vol. I. No. ij. 3
ARCHBISHOPRIC, in ecclefiaftical geography, a pro-
• vince fubjed to the jurifdidion of an archbifhop.
ARCHBUTLER, one of the great officers of the Ger¬
man empire, who prefents the cup to the emperor on
folemn occafions. This office belongs to the king of
Bohemia.
ARCHCHAMBERLAIN, an officer of the empire, much
the fame with the great chamberlain in England. The
eledor of Brandenburg was appointed, by the golden
bull, archchamberlain of the empire.
ARCHCHANCELLOR, an high officer who, in an¬
cient times, prefided over the fecretaries of the court.
Under the two firfl races of the kings of France,
when their territories were divided into Germany, I-
taly, and Arles, there were three archchancellors : and
hence the three archchancellors (till fubfifting in .Ger¬
many ; the archbiffiop of Mentz being archchancellor
of Germany, 'the archbifhop of Cologn of Italy, and
the archbifhop of Treves of Arles.
ARCHCHANTOR, the prefident of the chanters of a
church.
ARCHCOUNT, a title formerly given to the earl of
Flanders.
ARCHDEACON, an ecclefiaftical dignitary or officer
next to a bifhop, whofe jurifdidion extends either over
the whole diocefe, or only a part of it. There are
60 archdeacons in England, who vifit the parifhes fut-
jed to their jurifdidion, inquire into abufes, fufpend,
excommunicate, foe. They likewife indud all clerks
into their benefie'es,
ARCHDUKE, a title given to dukes of greater autho¬
rity and power than other dukes. The archduke of
Auflria is among the mofl: ancient: .His principal pri¬
vileges are, that he fliall diflribute juftice in his own
country, without appeal; that he cannot be deprived
of his countries, even by the emperor and the dates
of the empire; and that he have a power of creating
counts, barons, throughout the whole empire.
ARCHED, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething built
or conftruded in the fafhion or after the manner of
an arch.
Arched legs, a fault in a horfe when his legs are bended
archwife.
ARCHER, in the ancient military art, one who fought
with bow and arrows. The Englifli archers were
efteemed the beft in Europe, to whofe prowefs and
dexterity the many vidories over the French were in
a great meafure owing.
ARCHES-C0«>-/, the chief and mod ancient confiflory
that belongs to the archbiffiop of Canterbury, for the
debating of fpiritual caufes, fo called from Bow-
Church in London, where it is kept, whofe top is
•raifed of done-pillars, built archwife. The judge,
of this court is termed the dean of the arches, or of¬
ficial of the arches-court: Dean of the arches, becaufe
with this office is commonly joined a peculiar jurifdic<-
tion of thirteen parillies in London, termed a deanty,
being exempted from the authority of the biihop of
London, and belonging to the archbiffiop of Canter¬
bury ; of which the pariffi of Bow is one. Some 9-
4 S thers
ARC ( 346 ) ARC
thers {ay, that he was firft called dean of the arches,
becaufe the official to the archbiffiop, the dean of the
arches, was his fubfKttite in his court; and by that
means the names became confounded. The jurifdk-
tion of this judge is ordinary, and extends through the
whole province of Canterbury; fo that, upon any ap¬
peal, he forthwith, and without any further examina¬
tion of the caufe, fends out his citation to the party
appealed, and his inhibition to the judge from whom
the appeal is made.
Arches, in geography, a name ufed among navigators
for the Archipelago.
ARCHETYPE, the firft model of a work, which is co¬
pied after to make another like it. Among minters, it
is ufed for the ftandard weight by which the others
are adjufted. The archetypal world, among Plato-
A R C H I T
A RCHITECTURE, or the art of building, ought
JiA to be confidered in a twofold light, as an object of
tafle, and as a mechanical art. An examination of its
principles improves our tafle; the practical part contains
SEC
OF ARCHITECTURE AS
T^/TAny ages muff have elapfed before architenure
^ -*• came to be confidered as a fine ait. Utility was
its original deflination, and nill continues to be its prin¬
cipal end. Experience, however, has taught us, that
tirchitedure is capable of exciting a variety of agreeable
feelings. Of thefe, utility, grandeur, regularity, or¬
der, and proportion, are the chief.
Architedure being anufeful as well as a fine art, leads
V.s to diflinguifh buildings, 'and parts of buildings, into
three kinds,, viz. what arp intended for ufe folely, what
for ornament folely, and what for both. Buildings in¬
tended for utility folely, ought in every part to corre-
fpond precifely to that intention: The leafl deviation
from ufe, though contributing to ornament, will be dif-
agreeable; for every work of ufe being confidered as a
mean to an end, its perfedion as a mean is the capital
circumffance, and every other beauty in oppofition is ne-
gledtd as improper. On the other hand, in fuch things
as a:e intended folely for ornament, as columns, obe-
,Idles, triumphal arches, <&c. beauty alone ought to be
regarded. The principal difficulty in architedure lies in
combining ufe and ornament. In order to accomplifh thefe
ends, different and even oppofite means muff be employ¬
ed; which is the reafon why they are fo feldom united
niffs, means the world as it exifled in the idea of God,
before the vifible creation.
ARCHEUS, among chemiffs, a term ufed to denote the
predominating principle of things, whereby their pe¬
culiar qualities are fixed and determined.
ARCHILOCHIAN, a term in poetry, applied to a fort
of verfes, of which Archilochus was the inventor,
confiftingof feven feet, the four firft whereof are or¬
dinarily dadyls, though fometimes fpondees, the three
laft trochees; as in Horace,
Solvitur acrir hyems, gratd via verts <& Favoni.
ARCHIPELAGO, in geography, a general term for a
fea interrupted with iflands; but more efpecially de¬
noting that between Greece and Afia.
ARCHITECT, a perfon fkilled in architedure.
E C T U R E.
fuch inffrudions as are neceffary for the mechanic.
Many books have been compofed upon the mechanical
part, but few authors have attempted to unfold the phi-
lofophical principles of the art.
T. I.
AN OBJECT OF TASTE.
in perfedion; and hence, in buildings of this kind, the
only pradicable method is, to prefer utility to ornament
according to the charader of the building: In palaces,
and fuch buildings as admit of a variety of ufeful contri¬
vance, regularity ought to be preferred; but in dwell-
ing-houfes that are too fmalLfor variety of contrivance,
utility ought to prevail, negleding regularity as far as
it Hands in oppofition to convenience.
In confidering attentively the beauty of vifible objeds,
we difeover two kinds. The firft may be termed in-
trinjic beauty, becaufe it is difeovered in a Angle objed,
without relation to any other. The fecond may be
termed relative beauty, being founded on a combination
of relative objeds. Architedure admits of both kinds.
We ftvall •firft give a few examples of relative beauty.
The proportions of a door are determined by the ufe
to which it is deftined. The door of a dwelling-houfe,
which ought to correfpond to the human fize, is confined
to feven or eight feet in height, and three or four in
breadth. The proportions proper for a ftable or coach-
houfe are different. The door of a church ought to be
wide, in order to afford an eafy paffage for a multitude;
and its height muft be regulated by its widenefs, that the
proportion may pleafe the eye. The fize of the win¬
dows
A R C H I T
dows ought always to be proportioned to that of the
room they are deftined to illuminate; for if the aper
tures be not large enough to convey light to every cor¬
ner, the room mull be unequally lighted, which is a
^reat deformity. Steps of Hairs Ihould likewile be ac¬
commodated to the human figure, without regarding any
other proportion; they are accordingly the fame in large
and in fmall buildings, becaufe both are inhabited by
men of the fame lize.
We fhall next confider inlrinjtc beauty, blended with
that which is relative. A cube in itfelf is more agree¬
able than a parallelopipedon ; this conllantly holds in
fmall figures : But a large building in the form of a cube
is lumpilh and heavy; while a parallelopipedon, fet on
its fmaller bafe, is more agreeable on account of its ele¬
vation : Hence the beauty of Gothic towers. But if
this figure were to be ufed in a dwelling-houfe, to make
way for relative beauty, we would immediately perceive
that utility ought chiefly to be regarded; and this figure,
inconvenient by its height, ought to be fet on its larger
bafe: The loftinefs in this caie would be loft; but that
lofs will be more than fufficiently compenfated by the
additional convenience. Hence the form of buildings
fpread more upon the ground than ra>fed in height, is
always preferred for a dwelling-houfe.
With regard to the internal divifions, utility requires
that the rooms be re&angular, to avoid ufelefs fpaces.
An hexagonal figure leaves no void fpaces ; but it deter¬
mines the rooms to be all of one fize, which is both in¬
convenient and difigreeable for want of variety. Tho’
a cube be the moll agreeable figure, and may anfwer for
a room of a moderate fize; yet, in a very large room,
utility requires a different figure. Unconfined motion is
the chief convenience of a great room; to obtain this,
the greateft length that.can be had is neceflary. But a
fquare room of a large fize is inconvenient. It removes
chairs, tables, <bc. at too great a diftance from the hand,,
which, when unemployed, muft be ranged along the fides
of the room, Utility therefore requires a large room to
be a parallellogram. This figure is likewife beft calcu¬
lated for the admifiion of light; becaufe, to avoid crofs-
Jights, all the windows ought to be in one wall; and if
the oppofite wall be at fuch a diftance as not to be fully
lighted, the room muft be obfcure. The height of a
room exceeding nine or ten feet,, has little relation to
utility ; therefore proportion is the only rule for deter¬
mining the height, when above that number of feet.
Arnfts who deal in the Beautiful, love to entertain the
eye ; palaces and fumptuous buildings, in which intrinfic
beauty may be fully difplayed, give them an opportunity
of exerting their tafte. But fuch a propenfity is pecu¬
liarly unhappy with regard to private dwelling-houfes;
•becaufe in thefe, relative beauty cannot be difplayed to
perfeftion, without hurting, intrinfic beauty. There is
no opportunity for great variety of form in a,fmall houfe ;
and in edifices of this kind, internal convenience has not
hitherto been happily adjufted to external regularity.
Perhaps an accurate coincidence in -this refped is beyond
the reach of art. Architects, however, conftantly fplit
upon this rock; for they never can be perluadcd to give
over attempting to reconcile thefe two incompatibles:
E C T U R E. 347
Plow otherwife ihould it happen, that of the endlefs va¬
riety of private dwelling-houi'es, there ihould not be one'
found that is generally agreed upon as a good pattern ?
The unwearied propenfity to make a houfe regular as
well as convenient, obliges the architect, in feme arti¬
cles, to facrifice convenience to regularity, and, in o-
thers, regularity to convenience; and accordingly the
houfe, which turns out neither regular nor convenient,
never fails to difpleafe.
Nothing can be more evident, than that the form of
a dwelling-houfe ought to be fuited to the climate; yet
no error is more common than to copy in Britain the
form of Italian houfes, not forgetting even thofe parts
that are purpofely contrived for collecting air, and for
excluding the fun: Witnefs our colonnades and logics,
defigned by the Italians to gather cool air, and exclude
the beams of the fun, conveniencies which the climate
of this country does not require.
We ftiali next view architecture as one of the fine arts ;
which will lead us to the examination of fuch buildings,
and parts of buildings, as are calculated folely to pleafe
the eye. Variety prevails in the works of nature ; but.
art requires to be guided by rule and compafs. Hence it
is, that in fuch works of art as imitate nature, the great
art is, to hide every appearance of art; which is done
by avoiding regularity, and indulging variety. But in.
works of art that are original and not imitative, fuch as
architecture, ftriCt regularity and uniformity ought to be
ftudied, fo far as confident with utility.
Proportion is not lefs agreeable than regularity and uni¬
formity; and therefore, in buildings intended to pleafe .
the eye, they are all equally effential. It is taken for
granted by many writers, that in all the parts of a build¬
ing there are certain ftriCt proportions which pleafe the
eye, in the fame manner as in found there are certain
ftriCl proportions which pleafe the ear; and that, in both,
the flighted deviation is equally difagreeable. Others;
feem to relilh more a comparifon between proportion in
numbers, and proportion in quantity; and maintain, that
the fame proportions are agreeable in both. The pro¬
portions, forexample, of the numbers 16, 24, and 36,
are agreeable ; and fo, fay they,. are the proportions of
a room, whofe height is 16 feet,. the breadth 24, and
the length 36. .But it ought to be confidered, that there •
is no refemblahce or relation between the objeCls of dif¬
ferent fenfes. What pleafes the ear in harmony, is not
the proportion of the firings of the inftrument, but of
the found which thefe firings produce. In architecture,
on the contrary,; it is the proportion of different quantr
ties: that pleafes the eye, without the leaf! relation to.
found. The fame thing may be faid of numbers; Quan¬
tity is a real quality of every body; number is not a
real quality, but merely an idea that arifes upon view¬
ing a plurality of things in fucceflion. An arithmetical
proportion is agreeable in numbers; but have we from
this any reafon to conclude, that it muft alfo be agree¬
able in quantity ? At this rate, a geometrical ■propor-.
tion, and many others,, ought alfo to. be agreeable in
both. A certain proportion may coincide in quantity,
and number; and amongft an endlefs--variety of ,propor¬
tions, it would be wonderful if there never fhould be tu
coincidence.-.
348 A R C H I T
coincidence. One example is given of this coincidence,
an the numbers l6, 24, and 36 ; but to be convinced that
it is merely accidental, we need but refled, that the fame
proportions are not applicable to the external figure of a
•houle, and far lefs to a column.
It is'ludicrous to obferve writers acknowledging the
neceffity of accurate proportions, and yet differing wide¬
ly about them. Laying afide reafoning and philofophy,
one fad univerfally agreed on ought to have undeceived
them, that the fame proportions which pleafe in a model
are not agreeable in a large building: A room 48 feet
■in length, and 24 in breadth and height, is well propor¬
tioned ; but a room 12 feet wide and high, and 24 long,
approaches to a gallery.
Perrault, in his comparifon of the ancients and mo¬
derns, goes to the oppofite extreme, maintaining, that
the ,different proportions affigned to each order of co¬
lumns are arbitrary, and that the beauty of thefe pro¬
portions is entirely the effed of cuftom. But he fhould
have conflJered, that if thefe proportions had not origi¬
nally been agreeable, they could never have been effa-
blifhed by cuffom.
For illuftrating this point, we fliall add a few examples
of the agreeablenefs of different proportions. In a fump-
tuous edifice, the capital rooms ought to be large, other-
wife they will not be proportioned to the fize of the
building; for the fame reafon, a very large room is im¬
proper in a fmall houfe. But in things thus related,_the
mind requires not a precife or Angle proportion, rejeding
all others; on the contrary, many different proportions
are equally agreeable. It is only when a proportion be¬
comes loofe and diflant, that the agreeablenefs abates,
and at laft vanifhes. Accordingly, in buildings, rooms
of different proportions are found to be equally agree¬
able, even where the proportion is not influenced by -uti¬
lity. With regard to the proportion the height of a
room Ihould bear to the length and breadth, it muff be
extremely arbitrary, confidering the uncertainty of the
eye as to the height of a room when*it exceeds 16 or
17 feet. In columns, again, every archited muff con-
fefs, that the proportion of height and thicknefs varies
betwixt 8 diameters and 10, and that every proportion
between thefe two extremes is agreeable. Befides, there
muff certainly be a further variation of proportion, de¬
pending on the fize of the column : A row of columns
10 feet high, and a row twice that height, requires
different proportions: The intercolumniations muff allb
differ in proportion according to the height of the row.
Proportion of parts is not only itfelf a beauty, but is
infeparably conneded with a beauty of the higheft relifh,
that of concord and harmony ; which will be plain from
what follows : A room, the parts of which are all finely
adj uffed to each pther, ftrikes us not only with the beau¬
ty of proportion, hut with a pleafure far fuperior. The
length, the breadth, the height, the windows, raife each
of them a feparate emotion: Thefe emotions are fimilar;
and,, though faint'when feparately felt., they produce, in
conjundion, the emotion of concord or harmony, which
is very pleafant. On the other hand, where the length
of a room far exceeds the breadth, the mind, comparing
together parts fo intimately conneded, immediately per-
E C T U R E.
ceives a difagreement or difproportion which difgufts.
Hence a long gallery, however convenient for exercife,
is not an agreeable figure of a room.
In buildings deflined chiefly or folely to pleafe the eye,
regularity and proportion are effentially neceffary, be-
caufe they are the means of producing intrinfic beauty.
But a fldlful artift will not confine his view to regularity
and proportion; he will alfo ftudy congruity, which is
perceived when the form and ornaments of a ftrudure
are fuited to the purpofe for which it is appointed.
Hence every building ought to have an expreflion fuited
to. its deftination. ' A palace ought to be fumptuous and
grand; a private dwelling, neat and modeft; a play-
houfe, gay and fplendid; and a monument, gloomy and
melancholy. A heathen temple has a double deflination:
It is confidered as a houfe dedicated to fome divinity;
therefore it ought to grand, elevated, and magnifi¬
cent : It is alfo confidefed as a place of worfhip; and
therefore’ ought to be fomewhat dark and gloomy, be-
caufe dimnefs or obfcurity produces that tone of mind
which is favourable to humility and devotion. Columns,
befides their chief deftination of being fupports, contri¬
bute to .that peculiar expreflion which the deftination of
a building requires: Columns of different proportions
ferve to exprefs loftinefs, lightnefs, &C. as well as
ftrength. Situation may alfo contribute to expreflion:
Conveniency regulates the fituation of a private dweli-
ing-houfe; and the fituation of a palace ought to be lof¬
ty. This leads to a queftion, Whether the fituation,
where there happens to be no choice, ought, in any
meafure, to regulate the form of the edifice ? The con-
ne&ion between a great houfe and a neighbouring field,
though not extremely intimate, demands however fome
congruity. It would, for example, difpleafe us to find
an elegant building thrown away upon a wild uncultivated
country: Congruity requires a polifhed field for fuch a
building. The old Gothic form of building was well
fuited to the rough uncultivated regions where it was in¬
vented ; but was very ill adapted to the fine plains of
France and Italy.
The external ftruflure of a houfe leads naturally to
its internal ftrudure. A large and fpacious room, which
is the firft that commonly receives us, is a bad contri¬
vance in feveral refpeds. In the firft place, when im¬
mediately from the open air we ftep into fuch a room,
its ftze in appearance is diminifhed by contraft; it looks
little, compared with the great canopy of the fky. In
the next place, when at recovers its grandeur, as it foon
doth, it gives a diminutive appearance to the reft of the
houfe. palling from it, ev6ry apartment looks little. In
the third place, by its fituation it ferves only for a wait¬
ing-room, and a paffage to the principal apartments.
Rejeding therefore this form, a hint may be taken from
the climax in writing for another that appears more fuit-
able: A handfome portico, proportioned to the fize and
fafhion of the front, leads into a waiting-room of a lar¬
ger fize, and this to the great room, all by a progreffion
from fmall to great.
Grandeur is the principal emotion that architedure
is capable of raifing in the mind: it might therefore be
the chief ftudy of the artift, in great buildings deftined
to
A R C H I T
to pleafe the eye. But as grandeur depends partly on
lize, it is unlucky for ardiite&ure that it is governed by
regularity and proportion, which never deceive the eye
by making objects appear larger than they are in reality.
But though regularity and proportion contribute nothing
to grandeur, fo far as that emolion depends on fize ; yet
they contribute greatly to it by confining the fize within
fuch bounds that it can be taken in and examined at one
view; for, when objedts are fo large as not to be com¬
prehended but in parts, they tend rather to diftradt than
fatisfy the mind.
We fiiall next pafs to Tuch ornaments as contribute to
give buildings a peculiar expreffion. It has been doubt¬
ed, whether a building can regularly admit any ornament
but what is ufeful, or at leaft has that appearance. But,
confidering the double aim of architedture as a fine,
as well as an ufeful art, there is no reafon why orna¬
ments may not be added to pleafe the eye, without any
relation to utility. A private dwelling-houfe, it.is true,
and other edifices, where ufe is the chief aim, admit not
regularly any ornament but what has" at leaft the appear¬
ance of ufe : But temples, triumphal arches, and other
buildings intended chiefly or folely for ftiow, may be
highly ornamented.
This fuggefts a divifion of ornaments into three kinds,
l viz. x. Ornaments that are beautiful without relation to
ufe; fuch as ftatues, vafes, baflb- or alto relievo :
2. Things in themfelves not beautiful, but poflefling the
beauty of utility, by impofing on the fpedtator, and ap¬
pearing to be ufeful ; fuch'as blind windows :• Where
things are beautiful in themfelves,«and at the fame time
take on the appearance of ufe; fuch as pilafters.
Witfi regard to the JirJ}, we naturally require that a
ftatue be fo placed, as to be feen in every diredtion, and
examined at different diftances. Statues, therefore,, are
properly introduced to adorn the great ftair that leads to
to the principal door of a palace, or to leffen the void be¬
tween pillars. But a niche in the external front is an
improper place for a ftatue. There is-an additional rea¬
fon againft placing them upon the roof or top of the
walls; their r'cklifh fituation gives pain, as they have
the appearance of being in danger of tumbling down ;
befides, we are inclined to feel from their being too much
expofed to the inclemencies of the weather. To adorn
the top of the wall with a row of vafes, is an unhappy
conceit, by placing a thing, whofe natural deftination is
utility, where it cannot have even the appearance of ufe.
As to carvings upon the external furface of a building,
termed bajfo relievo 'when flat, and alto relievo when
prominent, all contradidtory exprefiions ought to be a-
voided. Now, firmnefs and folidity being the proper
expreflions of a pedeftal, and, on the contrary, lightnefs
and delicacy of carved work, the pedeftal, whether of a
column or of a ftatue, ought to be fparingly ornamented.
The ancients never ventured any bolder ornament than
the baflb relievo.
With refpedt to-ornaments df the- fecond kind, it is a
great blunder to contrive them fo as to make them appear
ufelefs. A blind window, therefore, when neceflary for
regularity,, ought to be fo difguifed as to appear a real
window: When it appears without difguife, it is difguft-
Vol*. I. Numb. 15.
E C T U R E. 349
ful, as a vain-attempt to fupply the want of invention ;
it Ihows the irregularity in a ftronger light, by fignify-
ing that a window ought to be there in point of regu¬
larity, but that the architedt had not- fkill (uflicient to
connedl external regularity with internahconvCnience.
As to xhe third, it is an error to fink pilafters fo far
into the wall, as to remove totally, or moftly, the ap¬
pearance of ufe. They ilxould always projedt fo mucir
from the wall, as to have the appearance of fupporting
the entablature over them.
From ornaments in general, we defeend to a pillar^
the chief ornament in great buildings. - The ideftination
of a pillar is to fupport, really or in appearance, another
part termed the entablature. With regard to the form
of a pillar, it muft be obferved, that a circle is a more
agreeable figure than a fquare, a globe than' a cube, and
a cylinder than a parallellopipedon. This laft, in the
language of architedture, is faying, that a column is a
more agreeable figure than a pilafter; and for that reafon
it ought to be preferred, when all other, circumftances
are equal. Another reafon concurs, that a column an¬
nexed to a wall, which is a plaip furface, makes a greater
variety than a*pilafter. Befides, pilafters at a diftance
are apt to be miftaken for pillars ; and the fpedtator is dif-
appointed when, on a nearer approach, he difeovers them
to bV only pilafters.
As to the parts of a column, a bare uniform cylinder,
without a capital, appears naked; and without a bate,
appears too -ticklifhly placed to ftand firm j- It ought
therefore to have fome finiflxing at the top and bottom:
Hence the three chief parts of a column, the flxaft, the
bafe, and the capital. Nature undoubtedly requires
proportion among thefe parts, but it admits of variety
of proportion. Vitruvius and fome of the elder writers
feem to think, that the proportions of columns were de¬
rived from the human figure, the capital reprefenting
the head, the bafe the feet, and the fliaft the body.
The Tufcan has been -accordingly denominated the Gi¬
gantic ; the Doric, the Herculean; the Ionic, the Ma¬
tronal ; and the Corinthian, the Virginal:—the Cbm-
pofite is a mixture of the Corinthian and Ionic. As to
the-bafe, the principle of utility interpofes to vary it
from the human figure, and to proportion it fo to the
whole, as to give the column the appearance of liability.
Among the Greeks, we find only three orders of co¬
lumns, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, diftin-
guiflred from each other by their fteftination as well as
by their ornaments. It has been difputed, whether any
new order can be added to thefe : Some hold the affirma¬
tive, and give for inftances the Tufcan and Compofite ;
others maintain, that thefe properly are not diftihtf: or¬
ders, but only the original orders with fome flight vari¬
ation. The only circumftances that can ferve to diftin-
guifli one order from another, are the form of the co¬
lumn, and its deftination. To make the firft a diftin-
guiffiing mark without regard to the other, would multi¬
ply orders without end. Deftination is more limited,
and it leads us to diftinguifti three kinds of orders ; one
plain and ftrong, for the purpofe of fupporting plain and
mafly buildings ; one delicate and graceful, for fupport¬
ing buildings of that charafier; and between thefe, a
4 T _ _ third,
35o A R C H I T
third, fupporting buildings of a mixed nature. So that,
if domination alone is to be regarded, the Tufcands of
the fame order with the Doric, and the Com polite with
the Corinthian.
The ornaments of thefe three orders ought to be Hik¬
ed to the purpofes for which they are intended. Plain
and rulhc ornaments would be not a little difcordant
with the elegance of the Corinthian order, and fweet and
delicate ornaments not lefs with the ftrength of the Doric.
With refpedt to buildings of every kind, one rule,
ditfhted by utility, is, that they be firm and liable. An-
S E C
OF ARCHITECTURE AS
Of the Origin o/’Buildings.
"OUixdings, in the firft ages of fociety, behoved to be
extremely rude. The firft huts were probably of a
conic figure, being the moft fimple, and belt adapted to
the materials that could be obtained in fuch an unculti¬
vated ftate of fociety. Thefe huts were formed of
branches of trees, covered with reeds, leaves, and clay.
But, finding the conic figure inconvenient, on account
of its inclined fides, they changed it into a cubical one,
in -the following manner: They fixed in the ground fe-
veral upright trees to form the lides, filling the intervals
between them with branches clofely interwoven, and co¬
vered with clay. The lides being thus compleated, four
large beams were placed on the upright trunks, which,
being well joined at the angles, kept the fides firm ; and
likewife ferved to fupport the roof, which was compofed
of many joifts, covered with reeds, leaves, and clay.
As men improved in the art of building, new methods
of rendering their huts lafting and handfome were gra¬
dually invented. Thfy took off the bark and other un-
evennefies from the trunks of the trees that formed the
lides, and raifed them above the dirt on ftones. The
fpaces between the ends of the joifts were clofed with
clay, and the ends of them were covered with thin boards,
cut in the form of triglyphs, «Sr<r.
From this fimple conftr.u&ion the different orders of
architedhire took their rife. When buildings of wood
were laid afide, they imitated, in their edifices of ftone,
vhe form which neceffity had introduced into the primi¬
tive huts: Hence the upright trees gave rife to the
columns ; and the beams, joifts, rafters, and ftrata of
materials that formed the covering, fuggefted architraves,
frizes, triglyphs, and cornices.
At what time, or by whom, the Grecian orders were
invented, is not certainly known. But the following is
the account which Vitruvius gives of them.
Dprus, king of Achaia, and fon of Helenes and Op¬
tica, built a temple to Juno in the ancient city of Argos,
which happened to be in the manner now called Doric,
from the name of the inventor. This manner was after¬
wards imitated in many other temples in the feveral cities
of Achaia.
E C T U R E.
other, dictated by beauty, is, that they alfo appear fo
to the eye ; for every thing that appears tottering, and
in hazard of tumbling down, produceth in the fpedta-
tor the painful emotion of fear, inftead of the pleafing
emotion of beauty; and accordingly it fhould be the
great care of the artift, that every part of his edifice
appear to be well fupported. Some have introduced a
kind of conceit in architedlure, by giving parts of buildings
the appearance of falling; of this kind is the church of
St Sophia in Conftantinople; the ro\md towers in the up-
permoft ftories of Gothic buildings is in the fame falfe tafte.
T. II.
A MECHANICAL ART.
The Athenians, about the fame time, fent thirteen co¬
lonies into Alia, under the cqmmand of Ion, fon of Xu-
thus and Creufa. This Ion conquered all Caria, found¬
ed many cities, and called the country Ionia. The firlt
temple he built was after the Doric manner. But after¬
wards he built a temple to Diana of a more delicate ftruc-
ture, and formed upon the proportions of a female bo¬
dy, as the Doric had been on thofe of a robuft man.
The capital was adorned with volutes, to reprefent the
curls of a woman’s hair; and flutingswere cut on the Ihaft
of the column, in imitation of the folds of her garment.
This order got the name of Ionic, in honour of the loni-
ans who invented it.
The third fort of columns, called Corinthian, are faid
to owe their origin to the following accident:—A young
girl of Corinth having died, her nurfe placed on her
tomb a balket, containing certain trinkets, in which fhe
delighted wh£n alive, and covered it with a tyle to pre¬
vent the rain from fpoiling them. The balket happened
to be placed on a root of acanthus, which pufhing out
its leaves in the fpring, covered the fides of the balket;
fome of the longeft of which, being obftrudted by the
corners of the tyle, were forced downwards, and curled
in the manner of volutes. Calimachus the fculptor, paf-
fing near the tomb, was fo pleafed with the beautiful ap¬
pearance of the acanthus growing in this manner, that he
imitated it in the columns which he afterwards made at
Corinth.
Villalpandus treats this ftory of Calimachus as a fa¬
ble, and maintains that the Corinthian capital took its
origin from an order in Solomon’s temple; and it muft
be acknowledged, that fome defcriptions in the Bible
favour this opinion.
Befides thefe three orders, faid to be invented by the
Greeks, two other, viz. the Tufcanand Compofite, are
thought to have been invented by the Romans. The
Tufcan firft appeared in Tufcany, before the Romans had
any intercourfe with the Greeks. The Compofite is a
mixture of the Ionic' and Corinthian. Thefe five man¬
ners of building, invented by the ancients, are called
Orders, on account d£ the regularity and beauty of
their forms.
Of
35r
architecture.
Of the Farts that compofe an Order, and
their Ornament*,
The parts that compofe an ordef may be diftributed
into two different claffes. In the firji may be ranged
all that have^any analogy to the primitive huts, and re-
prefent i'ome part that was neceffary in their conftiudion.
Such are the draft of the column, with the plinth of its
bafe, and the abacus of its capital, reprefenting the up¬
right trees, with the (tones on which they were placed,
and thofe that covered them ; likewife the architrave and
triglyphs, reprefenting the beams and joifts ; the mutules,
modilions, or dentils, which all of them reprefent the
rafters, or fome other pieces of timber ufed to fupport
the covering; and the corona, reprefenting the beds of
materials that compofed the covering. All thefe may
properly be diftinguilhed by the name of effential mem¬
bers. The fubfervient parts, contrived for the ufe or
ornament of the former, and commonly called mould¬
ings, may conftitute the fecund clafs.
There are eight regular mouldings in ornamenting
columns ; the fillet, Mel, or fquare; the aftragal, or
bead; the torus, or tore; the fcotia, mouth, or cafe-
ment; the echinus, ovolo, or quarter-round; the in¬
verted cyma, talon, or ogee; the cyma, cyma refta, or
cymatium ; the cavetto, or hollow. The names of thefe
allude to their forms, and their forms are adapted to the
purpofes for which they are intended. See Plate XXVII.
The ovolo and talon, as they are ftrong at the extre¬
mities, are fit for fupports ; the cyma and cavetto,. tho'
improper for fupports, ferve for coverings to (belter o-
ther members; the torus and aftragal, being (haped like
ropes, are intended to bind and fortify the parts with
which they are conne&ed: But the ufe of the fcotia
and fillet. Is only to feparate and diftinguifli the other
mouldings, to give a graceful turn to the profile, and to
prevent the confufion which would arife from joining fe-
veral curved members together.
There are various methods of defcribing the contours
of moulding*; but the fimplelt and bed is to form them
of quadrants of circles, as in Plate XXVII.
An affemblage of what are. called effential parts and
mouldings, is termed a prcfile. The moft perfeft pro¬
files are fuch as are compofed of few mouldings, varied
in form and fize; and fo difpofed, that the ftreight and
curved ones fucceed each other alternately. When
■ornaments are employed in. mouldings, fome of them (hould
be left plain, in order to give a proper repofe : For,
when all are ornamented, the figure of the profile is loft.
Of the Orders of Architecture.
An Order confifts of two principal members, the
Column and the Entablature; each of which is
compqfed of three principal parts. Thofe of the Co-
turn,i are, the Bafe, the Shaft, and the Capital-, and
thofe of the Entablature are, Jr chit rave, the Fr/a.?,
and the Cornice. All thefe are (ubdivided into many
leffer parts, whofe number, form, and dimenfions cha-
ra&erife each order, and exprefs the degree of (trength,
delicacy, richnefs, or fimplicity peculiar to it.
i. OF THE TUSCAN.
The Tuscan (Plate XXIV.) is the moft: folid and
fimple of all the orders. It is compofed of few parts,
devoid of ornaments, and fo maffy, that its feems ca¬
pable of fupporting the heavieft burden. There are
no remains of a regular Tufcan order among the an¬
tiques ; the dodtrine of Vitruvius concerning it is ob-
fcure; and the profiles of Palladio, Scamozzi, Serlio,
de POrme, and Vignola, are all imperfeA.
The. height of the Tufcan column is 14 modules,-
or femidiameters, each confiding of 3,0 minutes; aud
that of the whole entablature 3- modules ; which being
divided into 10 equal parts, three of them’ are for the
height of the architrave, three for the freeze, and the
remaining four for the cornice t The capital is one mo¬
dule ; the bafe, including the lower cincture of the (haft,
is likewife one module;, and die (haft, with its upper
cindture and aftragal, 12 modules.
Thefe are the general dimenfions of the order; the
particular dimenfions may be learned by inlpedtion of the
plates.
In the remains of antiquity, the quantity of diminu¬
tion at the top of the Tufcan column is various; but fel-
dom lefs than one eighth, nor more than one fixth of the
inferior diameter of the column. The laft of thefe is
generally preferred; and Chalmers and others make “the
fame diminution in all columns, without regard to their
order.
2. OF THE DORIC ORDER.
The Doric Order, (Plate XXV.) is next in
ftrength to the Tufcan; and being of a grave, robuft, and
mafeuline afpedt, is by Scamozzi called the Herculean.
As it is the moft ancient of all. the orders, it retains
more of the (trudture of the primitive huts than any of
the reft ; the triglyphs m its freeze reprefenting the
^nds of the joifts ; and the mutules in its cornice, repre¬
fenting the rafters.
The height of the Doric column, including its capita!
and bafe, is 16 modules, and the height of the entabla¬
ture four; the latter of which being divided into eight
parts, two of them are for the architrave, three for the
fuze, and three for the cornice.. ‘
In moft of the antiques, the Doric column is executed,
without a bafe. Vitruv ius likewife makes it without one ;
the bafe, according to him, having been firft employed
in the Ionic order, in imitation of the fandal of a wo¬
man’s foot. Scamozzi blames this pradfice, and moft:
of the modern architedfs are of his Opinion.
In the profile of the theatre of Marcellus, the frize is
enriched with hulks and rofes; the architrave confifts
only of one fafeia and a fillet; the drops are conical;,
the metope is enriched with a bull’s (kuU, adorned with
a garland of beads, in imitation of thofe on the temple
of Jupiter Tonans at the foot of the Capitol. In feme
antique fragments, and in a great many mordern build-
ings, the metopes are alternately adorned with ox-(kulls
and pateras. But they may be filled with any other or¬
naments, according to the tkftination of the,building.
3:. OE
A R C II 1 T
3. OF THE IONIC ORDER.
TkeIonjc Order (PlateXXVL) xsof anioreflender
make than the Doric orTufcan; its appearance is fimple,
yet^raceful andmajeftic; its ornaments are few; fo that
it has been compared to a fedate matron, in decent,
rather than magnificent attire.
Among the ancients, the form, of the Ionic profile ap¬
pears to have been more pofitively determined than that
of any other order; for, in all the antiques at Rome,
(the temple of Concord excepted) it is exadtly the fame.
The modern aftifb have likewife been unanimous in
their opinions; all of them, excepting Palladio and his
imitators, having employed the dentil, cornice, and
the other parts of the profile, nearly as they are found
in the Collifeum, the temple of Fortune, and the theatre
of Maro.Hus.
The height of the Ionic column is 18 modules, and
that of the entablature or one quarter of the height
of the column, as in the other orders, which is a trifle
lefs than in any of the antique Ionics.. In all the an¬
tiques, the bafe is Attic; and the lhaft of the column
may either be plain, or fluted with 24 flutings, or 20 on¬
ly, as in the temple of Fortune. The plan, of the flu-
tings may be a trifle more than, a femicircle, as in the
forum of Nerva, becaufe they then appear more diflind.
The fillets, ior intervals between them, muft not be
broader than one third of the breadth of a fluting,
nor narrower than one fourth. The ornaments of the
capital muft correfpond with the flutings of the fhaft;
and there muft be an ove above the middle of each flu¬
ting. The volutes ought to be traced according to Mr
Goldman’s method, which is as follows :
Plate XXVII. fig. 9. Draw the cathetus F C,
whofe length muft be 15 minutes, or one fourth of a mo¬
dule ; and, from the point C, defcribe the eye of the
volute A E B D, of which the diameter is to be 6-f- mi¬
nutes; divide it into four equal feftors by the diameters
AB, DE. Bifett the radii C A, C B, in 1 and 4;
and on. the line 1, 4, conftrudt a fquare 1, 2, 3, 4. From
the centre C, to the angles 2, 3, draw the diagonals
C 2, C 3, and divide the fide of the fquare 1, 4, into 6
equal parts, at 5, 9, C, 12, 8. Then through the points
5, 9, 12, 8, draw the lines 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 11, 8, 7,
parallel to the diameter E D, which will cut the diago¬
nals in 6, 7, 10, ii ; and the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, will be the centres of the volute.
From the firft centre 1, with the diftance 1 F, defcribe
the quadrant F G; from the fecond centre 2, with the
diftance 2'G, defcribe the quadrant G H; and, continu¬
ing the fame operation from all the 12 centres, the eon-
tour of the volute will be completed.
Fig. 10. The centres for defcribing the fillet are
found in this manner. Conftrudt a triangle, of which the
fide A F is equal to the part of the cathetus contained
between A F and the fide F V, equal to C 1 ; place the
diftance F S from F towards A, equal to F S the breadth
of the fillet, and through the point S draw the line S T,
which will be to C 1 in the fame proportion as A S is
to A F; place this line on the diameter of the eye A B ;
E C T U RE.
divide it into three equal parts ; and, through the points
of divifion, draw lines parallel to the diameter E D,
which will cut the diagonals C'2, C 3, and you will have
twelve new centres, from whence the interior contour of
the fillet may be defcribed, in the fame manner as the
exterior one was from the firft centres.
4. OF THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.
The proportions of this order are extremely delicate.
It is divided into a great variety of members, and en¬
riched with a profufion of ornaments. Scamozzi calls
it.the virginal order) and indeed it has all the delicacy
in its make, and all the gaiety in its drefs, peculiar to
young girls. See Plate XXVIII.
The moft perfect model of the Corinthian order is ge¬
nerally allowed to be in the three columns in the Campo
Vaccino at Rome, the remains, as it is thought, of the
temple of Jupiter Stator,
The Corinthian column fhould be- 20 modules high,
and the entablature 5 ; which proportions are a medium
between thofe of the Panthreon and the three columns.
The bafe of the column may either be Attic or Corin¬
thian : They are both beautiful. If the entablature be
enriched, the fhaft may be fluted. The flutings may be
filled, to one third of their height, with cablings, as in
the infide of the Panthaeon ; which will ftrengthen the
lower part of the column, and make it lefs liable to in¬
jury.
In moft of the antiques at Rome, the capital of this
order is enriched with olive-leaves; the acanthus being
feldom employed but in the Compofite. De Cordemoy,
however, prefers the .acanthus.
The divifions of the entablature bear the fame propor¬
tions to each other, as in the Tufcan, Ionic, and Compo¬
fite orders.
5. OF THE COMPOSITE.
The Composite is, ftridtly fpeaking, only a fpecies
of the Corinthian; and therefore retains, in a great
meafure, the fame charadter. See Plate XXIX.
It does not appear that the ancients affedted any parti¬
cular form of entablature to this order. Sometimes the
cornice is entirely plain, as in the temple of Bacchus; at
others, as in the arch of Septimius Severus, it is enrich¬
ed with dentils differing very little from the Ionic ; and
in the arch of Titus, there are both dentils and modilions ;
the wholeTomr of the profile 'being the fame with the
Corinthian, as executed in the antiques at Rome.
The modern architedts have varied more in this than
in any other order, each following the bent of his own
fancy.
The height of the Gompofite column, and parts of
the entablature, is the fame with that of the Corinthian.
The foot of the leaves of the capital ought not to pro-
jedt beyond the upper part of the fhaft. The different
bunches of leaves fhould be ftrongly marked; the fprigs
which arife between the upper ones fhould be kept flat
upon the vafe; and the ornaments of the volutes muft
not projedt beyond the fillets that inclofe them.
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A R C JH il T
? OF PILASTERS.
Pilasters difFer from columns only in their plan ;
which is fquare, as that of columns i» round. Their
b’afes, capitals, and entablatures, have the fame parts,
with the fame heights and projections, as thofe of co¬
lumns : They are alfo diftinguifhed in the fame manner,
by the names of Tufcan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and
Compofite.
The column is undoubtedly more perfect than the pi-
lafter. However, they may be employed with great
propriety on many occafions. Some authors declaim a-
gainft pilafters, becaufe, according to them, they do not
admit of diminution. But this is a miftake; there are
many inftances, in the remains of antiquity, of their be¬
ing diminiihed. Seamozzi always gave his pilafters the
fame diminution as his columns : Palladio and Inigo
Jones have likewife diminiihed thedi in. many of their
buildings.
Pilafters are employed in churches, galleries, halls,
and other interior decorations, to fave room; for, as
they feldom projeA beyond the folid wall above one
quarter ©f their diameter, they do not occupy near fo
much fpace as .columns. They are likewife ufed in ex¬
terior decorations ; fometimes alone, inftead of columns,
on account of their being lefs expenfive; and fometimes
they accompany columns, being placed behind them to
fupport the architraves, where they enter the building,
as in the Panthseon at Rome; or, in the fame line with
them, to fortify the angles, as in the portico of Septi-
mius.
When ' pilafters are ufed alone, they fhould project
one quarter of their diameter beyond the walls. When
placed behind columns, efpecially if they be very near
them, they need not project above one eighth of their
diameter. But, when placed on a line with columns,
their projection mull be regulated by that of the co¬
lumns ; and confequently, it can never be defs than a fe-
midiameter, even when the columns are engaged as much
as poflible. .
The lhafts of pilafters are frequently adorned with
flutings, in the fame manner as thofe of columns; the
plan of which may be a trifle more than a femicircle :
Their number muft be feven on each face, which makes
them nearly of the fame fize with thofe of columns.
The intervals, or fillets, muft either be one third or one
fourth of the fluting in breadth. C J
The capitals of pilafters are profiled nearly in the fame
manner as thofe of columns.
OF PERSIANS AND CARYATIDES.
Besides columns and pilafters, it is fometimes cufto-
mary to employ reprefentations of the human figure, to
fupport entablatures in buildings. The male figures are
called Perjians; and the female. Curt a ns, ox Caryatides.
The ancients made frequent ufe of Perfians and Cary¬
atides,- and delighted in diverfifying them a thoufand
ways. The modern artifts have followed their example ;
and there is a great variety of compofitions of this kind
to be met with in different parts of Europe.
Vol. I. No. 15. 3
E C T TJ R E. ' 353
Indecent attitudes, diftorted features, and all mon-
ftrous productions, ought to be avoided, of which there
are many examples in Gothic biuldings. On the con¬
trary, the attitudes fhould be fimple and graceful, the
countenance always pleafing, though varied and ftrongly
marked agreeable to the nature of the objeCt reprefented.
The Caryatides, or female figures, ftiould never much
exceed the human fize. But the Perfians, or male fi¬
gures, may be of any fize; and the larger the better, as
they will ftrike the beholder with the greater awe and'afto-
niftiment. Perfians may be ufed with propriety in arfe-
nals, galleries of armour, tec. under the figures of cap¬
tives, heroic virtues, <bc. Their entablature ought to
be Doric, and bear the fame proportion to them as to
columns of the fame height. The entablature for Ca¬
ryatides ought to be either Ionic or Corinthian, according
as the character of the figures is more or lefs delicate.
Termini are fometimes employed, inftead of Perfians
or Caryatides, to fupport the entablatures of monuments,
chimney-pieces, and fuch like compofitions. Thefe fi¬
gures owe their origin to the ftones ufed by the ancients
to mark the limits of particular poffeflions. Numa Pom-
pilius, to render thefe inviolable, confecrated the ter¬
minus into a deity, and inftituted feftivals and facrifices
to his honour. In a ftiort time, what was formerly on¬
ly large upright ftones, were reprefented in human fhape ;
and afterwards introduced as ornaments to temples and
other buildings. The termini are now principally ufed
as ornaments for gardens and fields.
OF PEDESTALS.
Most writers confider the Pedestal as a neceffa-
ry part of the order/ without which it is not complete.
It is indeed a matter of little importance whether it be
confidered in that light, or as a diftinCt cOmpofition : We
ftiall therefore treat of a pedeftal as a diftinCt body, ha¬
ving no more connection with the order than an Attic,-a
bafement, or any other part with which it may on feme
occafions be affociated.
A pedeftal confifts of three principal parts ; the bafe,
the dye, and the cornice. The dye is always nearly, of
the fame figure; being conftantly either a cube or a pa-
rallelopipedon: But the bafe and cornice are varied and
adorned with more or fewer mouldings, according to the
fimplicity or richnefs of the compofition in which the pe¬
deftal is employed. Hence pedeftals are, like columns,
diftinguifhed by the names of Tufcan, Doric, Ionic, Co-
ripthian, and Compofite.
Some authors are averfe to pedeftals, and compare a
column raifed on a pedeftal to a man mounted on ftilts;
imagining that they were introduced merely from ne-
ceffity, and for want of columns of a fufficient length.
It is indeed true, that the ancients often made ufe of ar¬
tifices to lengthen their columns ; as appears by fome that
are in the Baptiftery of Conftantine at Rome ; the fhafts
of which being too fhort for the building; were lengthen¬
ed and joined to their bafes by an undulated fweep, adorn¬
ed with acanthus leaves. Neverthelefs, there are maay
occafions where pedeftals are evidently neceffary; and'
fome in which the order, were it not fo raifed, would
4 U lofe
ARCHITECTURE.
354
lofe much of its beautiful appearance. Thus, in the. in-
fides of churches, if the columns that fupport the vault
were placed immediately on the ground, the feats would
hide their bafes, ancL a good part of their (hafts ; and,
jn the theatres of the ancients, if the columns of the fcene
had been placed immediately on the ftage, the a<3ors
would have hid a part of them from the audience. In
interior decorations, a pedeftal diminilhes the parts of
the order, which otherwife might perhaps appear too
clumfy, and hath the advantage of placing the column in
a more favourable view, by raifing its bafe nearer the
level of the fpe&ator’s eye. In a fecond order of area--
des, there is no avoiding pedeftals; as without them it
is impoflible to gives the arches any tolerable proportion.
With regard to the proportion that pedeftals ought to
bear to that of the columns they fupport, it is by no
means fixed. Both the ancients and moderns vary
greatly on this head. Vignola’s proportions are general¬
ly reckoned the beft. He makes his pedeftals, in all the
orders, of the fame height, viz. one third of the co¬
lumn ; and as their breadth of courfe increafes or dimi-
nifties in the fame degree as the diameters of their refpec-
tive columns do, the character of the order is always
preferved, which, according to any other method, is
i.mpoflible.
As to the divifions of the pedeftal; if the whole
height be divided into nine parts, one of them may be
given to the height of the cornice, two to the bafe, and
the fix remaining to the dye. The breadth of the dye
is always made equal to that of the plinth of the column.
The projeftion pf the cornice may be made equal to its
height; and the bafe being divided into three parts, two
of them will be for the height of the plinth, and one for
the mouldings, whofe projection muft be lefs than that
of the cornice. Thefe meafures are common to all pe¬
deftals. See Plate XXX.
OF IN T E RCOLUMNIATIONS.
Columns are either engaged, or infulated; and,
when infulated, are either very near the wall, or at a
confiderable diftance from it. Engaged columns, or
fuch as are near the walls of a building, are not limited
in their intercolumniations, as thefe depend on the
breadths of the arches, windows, niches, or other de¬
corations placed between the columns. But columns
that are entirely detached, and perform alone the office
of fupporting the entablature, as in periftyles, porches,
and galleries, muft be near each other, for the fake both
of real and apparent folidity. _
The intercolumniations among die ancients were va¬
rious. Thofe ufed in the Ionic and Corinthian orders
were the pycnoftyle, of which the interval was equal to
one diameter and a half of the column; the fyftyle,
whofe interval was equal to two diameters; the euftyle,
tp two and a quarter ; the diaftyle to three, and the
arasoftyle to four. In the Doric order, they ufed other
intercolumniations, regulating them by the triglyphs,,
one of which was always placed direCtly over the middle
of each column ; fo that they were either fyftyle, mono-
triglyph, of one diameter and a half; diaftyle, of two
diameters and three quarters ; or araeoftyle, of four dia¬
meters ; and the Tufcan intervals were very wide, fome
pf them being above feven diameters,'which was very
pra&icable, as the architraves were of wood.
Among thefe different intercolumniations, the pyc¬
noftyle and fyftyle are too narrow; for although the an¬
cients ma^e frequent ufe of them, that ought rather to
be aferibed to neceffity than choice. For, as the archi-
iraves were compofed of Angle ftones, extending from
the middle of pne column to the middle of another, it
would have been difficult, efpecially in large buildings,
to find blocks of a fufficient length for diaftyle intervals.
With regard to the arasoftyle and Tufcan intercolumnia¬
tions, they are by much too wide, and can only be ufed
in ruftic buildings, where the architraves are of wood;
neither is the diaftyle fufljciently foiid in large compofi-
tions. The euftyle is a medium between the narrow and
broad intervals; and, being at the fame time both fpa-
cious and foiid, hath been preferred to any of the reft
by the ancients as well as the moderns.
Vignola obferved nearly the fame proportion in all his
intercolumniations; which practice, though condemned
by feveral writers, is certainly preferable to any other ;
as it preftrves the char after of each order, and maintains
in all of them an eqpal degree of real folidity. Setting
afide therefore the pycnoftyle and fyftyle difpofitions on
account of their want of fpace, and the arseoftyle for its
deficiency in point of ftrength, it may be eftablilhed, that
the diaftyle and euftyle intercolumniations, (the latter of
which, on moft occafions, ought to have the preference),
may be employed in all the orders without diftinftion, ex¬
cepting the Doric ; in whiclt the moft perfeft interval is
ditriglyph; neither the monotriglyph, nor the arseoftyle,
being to be fuffered but in cafes of neceflity.
Sometimes, on account of the windows, doors, niches,
and other decorations, which correfpond with the inter*
columniations of the periftyle, or gallery, it is not polfi-
ble to make the intervals fo narrow as euftyle, or even
as diaftyle : Wherefore the moderns, authorifed by fome
few examples of the ancients, where grouped columns
are employed, have invented a manner of difpofing them,
called by Perrault araojiyle, which admits of a larger in¬
terval, without any detriment to the apparent folidity of
the building, This kind of dilpofition is compofed of
two fyftyle intercolumniations; the column that fepa-
rates them being approached towards one of thofe at the
extremities, fufficient room only being left between them
for the projeftion of the capitals; fo that the great fpace
is three diameters and a half wide, and the little one half
a diameter.
In periftyks, galleries, or porticos, all the interco¬
lumniations muft be equal: But in a logic,, or porch, the
middle interval may be broader than the others, by a
triglyph or modilion, or three or four dentils; unlefs
the columns at the angles be coupled, or grouped with
pilafters; in which cafe, all the intervals fhould be of the
fame dimenfions.
When buildings are very fmalfi as is frequently the
cafe in temples and other inventions ufed for ornamenting
gardens, the intercolumniations may be broader, in pro¬
portion to the diameter of the columns, than ufual; be.-
caufe.
ARCHITECTURE.
caufe, when they are nearer each other than three feet,
there is hardly room for a bulky perfon to pafs between
them.
OF ARCHES.
Arches are not lb magnificent as colonnades; but
they are more folid, and Ids expenfive. They are pro¬
per for triumphal entrances, gates of cities, of palaces, of
gardens, and of parks; and, in general, for all openings
that require an extraordinary breadth.
There are various manners of adorning arches. Some¬
times their piers are rufticated; fometimes they are adorn¬
ed with pilafters, termini, or caryatides; and fometimes
they are made fufficiently broad to admit niches, or win¬
dows. The circular part of the arch is either furround-
cd with ruftic key-ftones, or with an archivolt enriched
with mouldings; which, in the middle, is fometimes in¬
terrupted by a confole, a malk, ferving at the fame time
as a key to the arch, and as a fupport to the architrave
of the order. The archivolt is fometimes fupported by
an import, at the head of the pier; and, at others, by
columns placed on each fide of it, with a regular enta¬
blature, dr architrave cornice. There are likewife in-
rtances of arcades without piers, the arches being turned
on fingle columns, as in the temple of Faunus at Rome,
eirc. This pra&ice, however, ought to be feldom imi¬
tated, as it is neither folid nor handfome.
When arches are large, the key-ftone ftiould never be
omitted, but cut in the form of a confole, and carried
clofe under the foffit of the architrave, which, on account
ef its extraordinary length, requires a fupport in the
middle. The imports of arches fhould never be omitted;
at leaft, if they be, a platform ought to fupply their
place. If columns are employed without pedertals in ar¬
cades, they fhould always be railed on a plinth. In all
arches, the circular part ought not to fpring immediately
from the import, but take its rife at fuch a diftance above
it, as is necefiary in order to have the whole curve feen
at the proper point of view.
The void or aperture of arches fhould never be higher*
nor much lower, than double their breadth ; the breadth
of the pier fhould feldom: exceed two thirds, nor be lefs
than one third, of the breadth of the arch ; and the an¬
gular pier ought to be broader than the others,, by one
half, one third, or one fourth; the import fhould not
be more than one feventh, nor lefs than one ninth of
the aperture; and the archivolt muft not be more than
one eighth, nor lefs than one tenth of it. The breadth
of the confole muft, at the bottom, be equal to that of
the archivolt; and its fides muft be drawn from the cen¬
tre of the arch: The length of it muft not be lefs than
one and a half of its fmalleft breadth, nor more than
double. The thicknefs of the pier depends on the breadth
of the portico; for it muft be ftrong enough to refift the
preffure df its vault. But, with regard to the beauty
of the building, it fhould not be lefs than one quarter oF
the breadth of the arch, nor more than one third. Thefe
are the general dimenfions of arches.
OF ORDERS ABOVE ORDERS.
Wh en, in a building, two or more orders are employ*
355
ed, one above another, the laws of folidity require, the
ftrongeft fhould be placed lowermoft. Hence the Tufcan
muft fupport the Doric, the Doric the Ionic, the Ionic
the Compofite or Corinthian, and the Compofite the Co¬
rinthian.
This rule, however, is not always ftri<ftly adhered to.
Moft-authors place the Compofite above the Corinthian.
There are likewife examples where the fame order is
repeated, as in the theatre of Statilius Taurus, and the
Colifeum ; and others, where an intermediate order is
omitted, and the Ionic placed on the Tufcan, or the Co¬
rinthian on the Doric. But none of thefe piaftices ought
to be imitated.
In placing columns above one another, the axis of all
the columns ought to correfpond, or be in the fame per¬
pendicular line, at leaft in front.
With regard to the proportions of columns placed a-
bove each other, Scamozzi’s rule, That the lower dia¬
meter of the fuperior column fhould conftantly be equal
to the upper diameter of the inferior one, is univerfally
efteemed the beft, and gives all the columns the appear¬
ance ©f one long tapering tree, cut into feveral pieces.
According to this rule, the Doric column will be to the
Tufcan, as 13-f to 14 ; the Ionic to the Doric, as 15
to 16; the Compofite or Corinthian to the Ionic, as
i6y to 18; and the Corinthian to the Compofite, as
l6y to 20.
In Britain there are few examples of more than two
ftories of columns in the fame alpe<ft: And,, though in
Italy, and other parts of Europe, we frequently meet
with three, and fometimes more; yet it is a pradice by
no means to be imitated; for there is no poffibility of a-
voiding many ftriking inconfiftencies, or of preferving the
charader of each order in its intercolumnial decorations..
OF BASEMENTS AND ATTICS.
In stead, of employing feveral orders one above the
other in a compofition, the ground-floor is fometimes
made in the form of a bafement, on which the order
that decorates: the principal, ftory is placed. The pro¬
portion of thefe bafementa is not fixed, but depends on-
the nature of the rooms on the ground-floor. In the
palace of the. Porti in Vicenza, the height of the bafe¬
ment is equal to. that of the order. In fome buildings,
its height exceeds two thirds of that of the order •
and in others only half the height of the order. It is
not,, however, advifeable to. make the bafement; higher
than the order it fopports; neither fbould it be lower
than one. half of the order.
The ufual method of decorating bafements is with
ruftics of different kinds. The beft, where neatnefs and
finilhing is aimed at, are fuch as have a fmooth furface.
Their height, including the joint, .fhould never be lefs,
nor much more, than half a module of the order placed
on; the bafement. Their figure, may be from a fquare to
a fefquialtera.; and their joints may be either fquare or
chamfered. The fquare ones fhould not be broader than
one eighth of the height of the ruftic, .nor narrower than
one tenth ; and their depth muft be equal to their breadth;
thofe that are chamfered, muft form a redangle ;. and the
breadth:
35^ A R C H I T
breadth of the whole joint may be from one fourth to
one third of the height of the fiat furface of the ruftic.
Inftead of a fecond order, it is fometimes ufual to
crov/n the firfl: with an Attic Story: Thefe Attics
fhould never exceed in height one third of the height of
the order on which they are placed, nor be lefs than one
quarter of it. Their figure is that of a pedeftal: The
bafe, dye, and cornice, jof which they are compofed,
may bear the fame proportions to each other as thofe of
pedeftals do; and the bafe and cornice may be compofed
of the fame mouldings as thofe of pedeftals. Sometimes
the Attic is continued throughout; at others, it projects,
and forms a pilafter over each column of the order. The
breadth of this pilafter is feldom made narrower than
the upper diameter of the column below it, and never
broader. Its proje&ion may be equal to one quarter of
its breadth.
OF PEDIMENTS.
Pediments moft probably owe their origin to the in¬
clined roofs of the primitive huts. Among the Romans,
they were ufed only as coverings to their facred build¬
ings, till Caefar obtained leave to cover his houfe with a
pointed roof, after the manner of temples. In the re¬
mains of antiquity we meet with two kinds of pediments,
the triangular and circular. The former of thefe are
promifcuoufly applied to cover fmall or large bodies:
But the latter being of a heavier figure, are never ufed
but as coverings to doors, niches, windows, or gates.
As a pediment reprefents the roof, it fliould never be
employed but as a finiftiing to the whole compofition.
The ancients introduced but few pediments into their
buildings, ufually contenting themfelves with a lingle one
to adorn the middle or principal part. But fome of the
moderns, and particularly the Italians, have been fo im¬
moderately fond of them, that their buildings frequently
confift of almoft nothing elfe.
The girder being a necefiary part in the conftru<5tion
of a roof, it is an impropriety to intermit the horizontal
entablature of a pediment, by which it is reprefented, to
make room for a niche, an arch, or a window'.
In regular architetfure, no other form of pediments
can be admitted, befides the triangular and circular.
Both of them are beautiful: and when a confiderable
number of pediments are introduced, as when a range
of windows are adorned with them, thefe two figures
may be ufed alternately, as in the niches of the Pan-
thaeon, and in thofe of the temple of Diana at Nifmes.
The proportion of pediments depends upon their fize ;
for the fame proportions will not do in all cafes. When
the bale of the pediment is fliort, its height muft be in-
creafed; and w hen the pediment is long, the height muft
be diminifhed The beft proportion for the height is
from one fifth to one fourth of the bafe, according to
the extent of the pediment, and the chara&er of the
body it covers. The materials of the roof muft alfo be
attended to ; for if it be covered with tyles, it will be
necefiary to raife it more than one quarter of the bafe,.
as was the cuftom of the ancients in their Tufcan
temples..
E C T U R E.
The tympan is always on a line with the front of the
frize; and, when large, admits of various ornaments.
OF BALLUSTRADES.
Ballustrades are fometimes of real ufe in build¬
ings ; and at other times they are only ornamental. Such
as are intended for ufe, as when they are employed in
ftair-cafes, before windows, or to inclofe terrafles, ire.
muft always be nearly of the fame height; never exceed¬
ing three feet and a half, nor ever lefs than three. But
thofe that are principally defigned for ornament, as when
they finifti a building, Ihould be proportioned to the ar¬
chitecture they accompany; and their height ought never
to exceed four fifths of the height of the entablature on
which they are placed; nor ftiould it ever be lefs than
two thirds thereof, without counting the zocholo, or
plinth, the height of which muft: be fuflicient to leave
the whole balluftrade expofed to view.
The beft proportion for balluftrades is to^divide the
whole given height into thirteen equal parts; eight of
thefe for the height of the ballufter, three for the bafe,
and two for the cornice or rail; or into fourteen, (if it be
required to make the ballufter lefs), giving eight parts to
the ballufter, four to the bafe, and two to the rail. One
of thefe parts may be called a module; and, being divi¬
ded into nine minutes, may ferve to determine the di-!
menfions of the particular members.
In balluftrades,. the diftance between two ballufters
Ihould not exceed half the diameter of the ballufter
meafured in its thickeft part, nor be lefs than one third
of it.
The breadth of the pedeftals, when they are placed
on columns or pilafters, is regulated by them; the dye
never being made broader than the top of the fliaft,
nor much narrower : and when there are neither columns
nor pilafters in the front, the dye Ihould not be much
lower than a fquare, and feldom higher. On ftairs, or
any other inclined planes, the fame proportions are to be.
obferved as on horizontal ones.
OF GATES, DOORS, AND PIERS.
There are two kinds of entrances, viz. doors, and
gates. The former ferve only for the paflage of perfons
on foot; but the latter likewife admit horfemen and car¬
riages. Doors are ufed as entrances to churches, and
other public buildings, to common dwelling-houfes, and
apartments: And gates ferve for inlets to cities, for-
trefles, parks, gardens, palaces, The apertures of
gates being always wide, they are generally made in the
form of an arch, that figure being the ftrongeft. But
doors, which are generally of fmall dimenfions, are com¬
monly parallelograms., and clofed horizontally.
The general proportion for the apertures, both of
gates and doors, whether arched or fquare, is, that the
height be about double the breadth.
The ufual ornaments of gates confift of columns, pi¬
lafters, entablatures, pediments, ruftics of different kinds,
imports, archivolts, he.; and the moft common method
of adorning doors is with an architrave, for rounding
the
"Pii A-xrs oir* Tiii,v5 TETL CAtxt^x. s TlafelCXX.
»
j
Tlate XXXIV .
'
'
f //Sf
A R C H I T
the fides aftd top of the apertflre, on which are placed*
a regular frize and cornice. Sometimes the cornice is
fupported by a couple of confoles placed on each fide of
the door; and fometimes, befides an architrave, the a-
perture is adorned with columns, pilafters, caryatides,
or termini; and a regular entablature with a pediment.
Infide-doors, however fmall the building may be,
fhould never' be narrower than two feet nine inches ; nor
fhould they ever, in private houfes, exceed three feet
fix inches in breadth, which is more than fufficient to ad¬
mit the bulkieft perfon. Their height ftiould at leaft be
fix feet three or four inches; otherwife a tall perfoacan¬
not pafs without (looping. In churches, palaces, <bc.'
where there is a conftant ingrefs and egrefs of people,
the apertures mud be larger. The fmalleft breadth that
can be given to a gate is 84- or 9 feet, which is but jult
fufficient for the paflage of a coach.
Plate XXXI. Fig. x. Is a ruftic door, compofed by
the celebrated Vignola, in which the aperture occupies
two thirds of the whole height, and one half of the
whole breadth; the figure of it being a double fquare.
The ruftics may be either fmooth or hatched; their joints
mud'form a reftangle, and the breadth of each joint may
be one third, or two fevenths, of the vertical lurface of
a rudic. The joints of the claveaux, or key-dones,
mud be drawn to the fummit of an equilateral triangle,
whofe bafe is tire top of the aperture. The architrave
furrounding the aperture may be compofed either of a
large ogee and fillet, or of a plat-band and fillet. Its
whole breadth mud be one tenth of the breadth of the
aperture; the remaining part of each pier being for the
rudics. The entablature is Tufcan: The^prnice is
to be one fifteenth of the whole height of the door; and
what remains below it being divided into twenty-one
oqual parts, the two uppermod of them will be for the
frize and architrave, and the remaining nineteen for the
rudics and plinth at the foot of the door.
Fig. 2. Is a difpofition of Michael Angelo’s. The
windows of the Capitol at Rome are of this kind; and
Sir Chridopher Wren hath executed doors of the fame
kind under the femicircular porches in the flanks of St
Paul’s. The figure of the aperture may be a double
fquare; the architrave one fixth of the breadth of the
aperture; and the whole entabla'.ure one quarter of its
height. The front of the piladers or columns, on each
fide, mud be on a line with the fafcia of the architrave;
and their breadth mud be a femidiameter.
Fig. 3. Is likewife a defign of Vignola’s. It is of
the Corinthian order, and executed in the Cancellaria at
Rome. The height is equal to double its breadth ; and
the whole ornament at the top is equal to one third of
the height of the aperture. The architrave is in breadth
one fifth of the breadth.of the aperture; and the pila¬
ders that fupport the confoles, are half as broad a^ the
architrave. The whole is well imagined, but rather
heavy; and it will be bed to reduce the architrave to
one fixth of the aperture, dimini filing the entablature
proportionally.
Fig. 4. Is a defign .of Seriio’s. The aperture may
be either twice as high as broad, or a trifle lefs. The
..diameter of the columns may be equal to one quarter of
Vol. I. No. 15. 3
E C Tv U R E. ' 357
the breadth of the aperture; and their height may be
from eight diameters to eight and a half. The entabla¬
ture mud be fbmewhat lefs than one quarter of the
height of the columns; and the height of the pediment
may be one quarter of its bafe.
Fig. 5. Is a door in the falon of the Farnefe at Rome,
defigned by Vignola. The aperture forms a double
fquare. The entablature is equal to three elevenths of
its height, the architrave being one of thefe elevenths;
and the whole ornament on the fides, confiding of the
architrave and piladers, is equal to two fevenths of the
breadth of the aperture: The cornice is Compofite, en¬
riched with mutules and dentils; and .the frize is adorn¬
ed with a fedoon of laurel.
Fig. 6. Is copied from a door at Florence, faid to be
a defign of Cigoli’s. The height of the aperture is a
trifle more than twice its breadth. It is archEd; and
the ^mpod is equal to half a diameter. The columns
are Ionic, fomewhat above nine diameters high ; and
their (hafts are garnifhed each with five rudic ciilAures.
The entablature is lefs than one quarter of the column ;
and the breadth of the tablet, in which there is an in-
fcripticm, is equal to the breadth of. the aperture.
OF WINDOWS.
The fird confideration with regard to windows, is
their fize, which varies according to the climate, the de¬
dination of the building, isc. In Britain, the windows
of the fmalled private houfes are commonly from 3 to
3-I- feet broad ; and being generally twice their breadth
in height, or fomewhat more, in the principal apartments,
they generally rife to within a foot or two of the ceilings
of the rooms, which are frequently no higher than 10
feet, and at mod 12,or 13. But, in more confiderable
houfes, the apartments are from 15 to 20 feet high, and
fometimes more; and in thefe the windows are from
4 to 5 and 5-4 feet broad, and high in proportion.
Thefe dimenfions are fufficient for dwelling-houfes of
any fize in this country; when they are larger, they ad¬
mit too much of the cold air in winter. But churches,
and other buildings of that kind, may have larger win¬
dows, proportioned to the fize of the drudtures.
The proportions of the apertures of windows depend
upon their fituatibn. Their breadth in all the dories
mud be the fame ; but the different heights of the apart¬
ments make it neceffary to vary the height of the win¬
dows likewife. In the principal floor, it may be from
2-|- of the breadth to 2-f, according as the rooms have
more or lefs elevation. In the ground-dory, where the
apartments are lower, the apertures of the windows fel-
dom exceed a double fquare; and, when they are in a
rudic bafement, they are frequently made much lower.
The height of the windows of the fecond floor may be
from 14-of their breadth to if; and Attics and Mezza¬
nines may be.either a perfedtfquare, or fomewhat lower.
The windows of the principal floor are generally mod
enriched. The fimpled method of adorning them is,
with an architrave furrounding the aperture, and crown¬
ed with a frize and cornice. The windows of the
ground-floor are fometimes left entirely plain, without
4 X any
353 A R C H I T
any ornament ; and at others they are furrounded with
Tuftics, or a regular architrave with a frize and cornice.
Thofe of the fecond floor have generally an architrave
carried entirely round the aperture; and the fame is the
method of adorning Attic and Mezzanine windows r But
the two laft have feldom either frize or cornice; whereas
the fecond-floor windows are often crowned with both.
The breads of all the windows on the fame floor fhould
he on the fame ‘ levelj and raifed above the floor from
two feet nine indies to three feet fix inches at the very
mod. When the watls are thick, the breads (hould
be reduced under the apemrres, for the conveniency of
looking out. In France, the windows are frequently
carried quite down to the floor. When the building is
farrounded with gardens, or other beautiful obje&s, this
method renders the rooms exceeding pleafant.
The interval between the apertures of windows de¬
pends in a great meafure on fheir enrichments. The
breadth of the aperture is the lead didance that can be
between them ; and twice that breadth fhould be the lar¬
ged in dwellihg-houfes; otherwife the rooms will not
be fufficiently lighted. The windows in all the dories of
the fame afpe<3 mud be placed exa&ly above one another.
Plate XXXII. Fig. i. Is a defign of P. Lefcot, ab¬
bot of Clagny, executed in the old Louvre at Paris.
The apertures may be a double fquare, or a trifle more;
the architrave from one fixth to one feventh of the beadth
of the aperture ; The pilader is equal to that breadth,
when the ajrchitrave is narrow; or lefs, by one quarter,
or ons fifth, when it is broad. The whole entablature
fliGuld not exceed one quarter of the height of the a-
perture, nor be much lower. The confoles may be equal
in length, to half the breadth of the aperture at mod,
and to one third of it at lead.
Fig. 2. Is a defiga of Palladio’s, executed at the
Chiericato in Vincenza: Its proportions are not much
different from the following. The plat-band that fup-
ports the window is equal to the breadth of the archi¬
trave.
Fig. 3. Is likev/ife a defign of Palladio’s, executed
by him in many of his buildings. The aperture is a
double fquare. The breadth of the architrave is one
fixth of the breadth of the aperture ; and the frize and
cornice together are double the height of the architrave.
The breadth of the confoles is two thirds of the breadth
of the architrave.
Fig. 4. Is a defign of Ludovico Da CigoK; and ex¬
ecuted, in the ground-floor of the Ranunchini palace at
Florence.
Fig. 5. Is a defign of Inigo Jones, executed at the
Banqueting-houfe. The aperture may be a dotible
Square; the architrave may be one fixth of its breadth ;
the whole entablature one quarter of its height; and the
breadth of the confoles two thirds of the breadth of the
architrave.
Fig. 6. Is a defign of M. Angelo Buonaroti,. execu¬
ted at the Farnefe.
OF NICHES AND STATUES.
lx hath been cuilomary, in all ages, to enrich difFer-
E C T U R E.
ent parts of buildings with reprefentations of the human
body. Thus the ancients adorned their temples, baths,
theatres* with llatues of their deities, heroes, and
legiflators. The moderns Hill preferve the fame cuftom,
placing in their churches, palaces, &c. flames of illu-
ftrious perfons, and even groups compofed of various fi¬
gures, reprefenting occurrences coile&ed from hitrory,
fables, 61c. Sometimes thefe flames or groups are de¬
tached, raifed on pedeftals, and placed contiguous to the
walls of a building, or in the middle of a room, court,
or public fquare. But they are moft frequently placed
in cavities made in the walls, called niches. Of thefe
there are two forts; the one formed like an arch in its
elevation, and femicircuiar or femielliptieal in its plan;
the other is a parallelogram both in its plan and ele¬
vation.
The proportion of both thefe niches depends on the
charadter of the flames, or the general form of the
groups placed in them. The loweft are at leaft a double
fquare in height; and the higheft never exceed 24-of
their breadth.
With regard to the manner of decorating them, when
they are alone in a compofition, they are generally in-
clofed in a pannei, formed and proportioned like the a-
perture of a window, and adorned in the fame manner.
In this cafe, the niche is Carried quite down to the bot¬
tom ; but on the fides and at the top, a fmail fpace is
left between the niche and the architrave of the pannei.
And when niches are intermixed with windows, they
may be adorned in the fame manner with the windows,
provided the ornaments be of the fame figure and dunen-
fionswith thofe of the windows.
The fize of the flames depends on the dimenfions of
the niches. They fliodd neither he fo large as to have
the appearance of being rammed into the niche's, as in
Simta Maria Majore at Rome; nor fo narrow as to feem
loft in them, as in the Panthaeon. The diftance between
the outline of the flame and fide of the niche ftiould
never be lefs than one third of a head, nor more than
one half, whether the niche be fquare or arched; and
v/hen it is fquare, the diftance from the top of the head
to the ceiling of the niche Ihould net be greater than tire
diftance on the fides. Statues are generally raifed on a
plinth, the height of which may be from one third to
one half of a head; and fometimes, where the niches
are large, the flames may be raifed on fmail pedeftals.
The character of the ftatue fliould always correfpond
with the charadter of the architecture with which it is
furrouEoed. Thus, if the order be Doric, Hercules,.
Jupiter, Mars, iEfculapius, and all male ftatues repre¬
fenting beings of a robuft and grave nature, may be in¬
troduced; if Ionic, then Apollo, Bacchus, ; and if
Corinthian, Venus, Flora, and others of a delicate na¬
ture, ftiould be employed.
OF CHIMNEY-PIECES.
Among the ancients, there are very few examples of
chimney-pieces to be met with. Neither the Italians
nor French have excelled in compofitions of this kind.
Britain, by being poffeffed of many able fculptors at
, different
A R C II I T
different times, has furpafled all other nations, both in
tafte of defign, and workmadhip.
The fize of the chinmey muft be regulated by the di-
menlions of the room uhere it is placed. In the fmalleft
apartments, the breadth of the aperture fhould never be
lefs than three feet, to three feet fix inches. In rooms
#om 20 to 24 feet fquare, or of equal fuperficial dimen-
fions, it may be from 4 to 44- feet broad; in thofe of
24 to 27, from 4I to 5 ; and, in fuch as exceed thefe
dimenfions, the aperture may even be extended to 54 or
6 feet.
The chimney fhould always be fituate fo as to be im¬
mediately feen by thofe who enter the room. The mid¬
dle of the partition wall is the moft proper place in halls,
falons, and other rooms of paffage; but in drawing¬
rooms, drefljng-rooms, and the like, the middle of the
back wall is the bed fituation. In bed-rooms, the chim¬
ney is always in the middle of one of the partition-walls ;
and in clofets, and other very fmall places, to fave room,
it is put in a corner, Where-ever two chimneys are ufed
in the fame room, they ftiould be placed either dire&ly
facing each other, if in different walls,n or at equal di-
ftances from the centre of the wall in which they both
are.
The proportion of the apertures of chimney-pieces of
a moderate fize is generally a perfect fquare; in fmall
ones, it is a trifie higher; and in large ones, a trifle
lower. Their ornaments confift in architraves, frizes,
cornices, columns, pilafters, terminlf caryatides, con-
foles, and all kinds of ornaments of fculpture, reprefent-
ing animals and vegetables, tic. like wife vafes, cha¬
lices, trophies of arms, &c. In designing them, regard
mull be had to the nature of the place where they are
to be employed. Such as are intended for halls, fa¬
lons, guard-rooms, galleries, and other large places,
muft be compofed of large parts, few in number, of
diflinift and limple forms, and having a bold relief; but
chimney-pieces for drawing-rooms, drefting-rooms, &c.
may be of a more delicate and complicated nature.
Chimney-pieces are compofed of wood, ftone, or mar¬
ble ; the laft of which ought to be preferred, as figures
or profiles are beft reprefented in a pure white.
Plate XXXIII. Fig. 1, 2, 2, and 4. are different de»
figns for chimney-pieces by Palladio and Inigo Jones.
Their proportion may be gathered from the defigns, which,
ate accurately executed.
OF THE PROPORTIONS OF ROOMS.
The proportions of rooms depend in a great meafure
on their ufe, and actual dimenfions: But, with regard
to beauty, all figures, from a fquare to a fefquialteral,
may be emioyed for the plan.
The height of rooms depends- on their figure. Flat
ceiled ones may be lower than thofe that are coved. If
their plan be a fquare, their height Ihould not exceed
five fixths of the fide, nor be lefs-than four fifths ; and
when it is oblong, their height may be equal to their
breadth. But coved rooms, if fquare, muft be as high
as broad ; and whop oblong, they may have their height
equal to their breadth, more one fifth, one quarter, or
E C T U R E. 359
even one third of the difference between the length and
breadth: And galleries fhould at leaft be in height one
and one third of their breadth, and at moft one and a
half, or one and three fifths.
The coldnefs the Britifti climate is a ftrong objedtion
to high rooms; fp that it is not uncommon to fee the
moft magnificent apartments not above ij, 16, or at moft
18 feet high ; though the extent of the rooms Would re¬
quire a much more confiderable elevation. But, where
beauty is aimed at, this piadlice ought not to be imi¬
tated.
When rooms are adorned with an intire order, the en¬
tablature ftiould never exceed one fixth of the whole
height in flat-ceiled rooms, and one fixth of the upright
part in coved ones ; and when there are neither columns
nor pilafters, but only an entablature, its height fnould
not be above one feventh of thefe heights. If the rooms
be finifhed with a fimple cornice,, it fhould never exceed
one fourteenth, nor ever lefs than one fiftsenth part of
the above-mentioned height,
OF CEILINGS.
Ceilings are either flat, or coved, in different man¬
ners. The fimpleft of the fiat kind are thofe adorn¬
ed with large compartments, furrounded with one or
feveral mouldings, either let into the ceiling, or projec¬
ting beyond its furface: And when the mouldings that
form the compartments are enriched, and fome of the
compartments adorned with well-executed ornaments,
fuch ceilings have a good effedl, and are very proper for
common dwelling-houfes, and all low apartments. Their
ornaments and mouldings do not require a bold relief;
but, being near the eye, they muft be finifhed with tafte
and neatnefs. For higher rooms, a flat ceiling which
has the appearance of being compofed of various joifts-
framed into each other, and -forming compartments of
various geometrical figures, fhould be employed. The
fides of the joifts forming the compartments are general¬
ly adorned w ith mouldings, and reprefent either a fimple
architrave, or an architrave-cornice, according to the
fize of the compartments and the height of the room.
Coved ceilings are more expenfive; but they are like-
wife more beautiful. They are ufed promifeuoufiy in
large and fmall rooms, and occupy from one fifth to one
third of the height of the room. If the room be low
in proportion to its breadth, the cove muft likewife be
low ; and when it is high, the cove muft be fo likeufife :
By which means the excefs of the height will be rendered-
lefs perceptible. But, where the architea is at liberty
to proportion the height of the room to its fuperficial di ¬
menfions, the moft eligible proportion for the cove is one
fourth of the whole height. In parallelogram-figured,
rooms, the middle of the ceiling is generally formed im»
a large flat pannd. This pannel, with the border that,
furrounds it, may occupy from one half to three fifths of
the breadth of the room. The figure of the cove is-
commonly either a quadrant of a circle or of an ellipfe,
taking its rife .a little above the cornice, and finilhiog at
the border round the great pannel in the centre. The.
border projects fomev/hat beyond the coves on the out-
fide.
ARCH I T
fide; and, on the fide towards the pannel, it is general.-
Jy made of a fufficient depth to admit the ornaments of an
architrave, or architrave and cornice.
In Britain, circular rooms are not much in ufe; but
they are very beautiful. Their height mult be the fame
with that of fquare rooms; their ceilings may be fiat ;
but they are handfomer when coved, or of a concave
form.
y/rcs donbleaux, or foffits of arches, when narrow,
are ornamented with guillochis, or frets; but, when
broad, they may be adorned in a different manner.
When the profiles of the room are gilt, the ceilings
ought likwife to be gilt. The ufual method is to gild all
the ornaments, and to leave the grounds white, pearl co¬
lour, light blue, or of any other tint proper to fet off
the gilding to advantage. Painted ceilings, fd common
in France and Italy, are but little ufed in Britain.
OF STAIRS AND STAIR-CASES.
There are many kinds of flair-cafes ; for in fome the
fleps are made flraight; in others, winding; in others mixt
of both. Of ftraight flairs, fome fly dire&ly forward;
Others are fquare; others triangular. Others are called
French flights, or winding-flairs, (which in general are
called fpiral or cockle-flairs); of which fome are fquare;
fome circular, or round; and fome elliptical, or oval;
and thefe again are various; for fome wind about a fo-
lid, others about an open newel. Stairs mixt of llraight
and winding Heps are alfo of various kinds; fome are
called dog-legged; fome there are that wind about a
folid newel ; and others that fly about a fquare open
newel.
Great care ought to be taken in placing of the flair-
cafe in any building; and therefore flair-cafes ought to
be defcribed, and accounted'for juflly, when the plan of
a building is made. For want of this, fometimes unpar¬
donable errors have been committed: Such as having a
little blind flair-cafe to a large houfe; or, on the other
hand, to have a large fpacious flair-cafe to a little one.
Palladio fays, in placing flair-cafes, the utmofl care
ought to be taken, it being difficult to find a place con¬
venient for them, that will not at the fame time preju¬
dice the refl of the building. But commonly the flairs
are placed in the angle, wing, or middle of the front.
To every flair-cafe are required three openings.
Fir ft, the door leading thereto.
Secondly, the window, or windows, that give light
to it;
And, thirdly, the landing.
Firft, the door leading to a flair-cafe fhould be fo pla¬
ced, that moil of the building may be feen before you
come at the flairs, and in fuch a manner that it may be
eafy for any perfon to find out.
Secondly, for the windows; if there be but one, it
mull be placed in the middle of the flair-cafe, that there¬
by the whole may be enlightened.
Thirdly, the landing of flairs fhould be large and fpa-
ciaus, for the convenientxntering into rooms : In a word,
ftair-cafes fhould be fpacious, light, and eafy in afcent.
E C T U II E.
The height of large fleps muft never be lefs than fix
inches, nor more than feven inches and a half.
The breadth of fleps fhould never be lefs than 10
inches, nor more than 18 inches ; and the length of them
not lefs than three feet, nor more than 12.
Plate XXXIV. Fig. 1. A flair-cafe of two flights.—
^ fhews the manner of drawing the ramp, which is te
rife equal to the height of the firft ftep of the next flight,
and as much as its kneeling; as is fhewn by the ramp
interfering the rail of the fecond flight.
Fig. 2. Shews the flraight rail interfering a circu¬
lar cap.
Fig. 3. Serion of two different hand-rails.
Fig. 4. Shews the manner of dove-tailing the rifer
into the ftep.
Plate XXXV. Fig. 1. Reprefents a flair-cafe, with
flights, and its landing rail.
Fig. 2. Shews the folid part of the flep out of which
the fcroll is formed; where a reprefents the' overfail of
the flep ; b, The thicknefs of the bracket, with its mi¬
tring to the rifer’, and, c. The firing-board.
Fig. 4. Shews,the fcale for drawing the fcroll of
fig. 3.—To perform which, take the diflance from 1 to
the centre, in fig. 3. and fet it from 1 to the centre in
fig. 4.; divide that extent into three parts, then fet
four fuch parts on the upper fide of the fcale, and draw
the line from 4 to x ; fet one foot of your compaffes at 4,
and ftrike the circular line ; let that be divided into 12
equal parts, and then draw lines from 4 through thofe
divifions to the upright line.
The fcale being thus made, draw the fcroll of fig. 3.
by it in the following manner.
Set one foot of your compaffes in 1, and defcribe a
flrokeatc; take the fame diftance, and with one foot
in 2, crofs the ftroke at c; then from c, turn the part
from 1 to 2, and proceed in the fame manner ; for if
the diftance were taken in the fcale from 1 to the centre*
it would ftrike the circle too flat; and if taken from 2,
it would ftrike the circle too quick.
When this is well underftood, there will be little dif- -
ficulty in drawing the fcroll below fig. 2.; which throws
‘itfelf out farther in proportion than that In fig. 3.; for
this will always be the cafe when the upper line of the
fcale, which confifts of four divifions in fig. 4. is made but
with three divifions or lefs ; whence it appears, that the
tipper line of the fcale may be drawn at v/hat length you
pleafe, according as you would bring in or keep out the
fcroll.
Plate XXXVI. Shews the manner of fquaring twift-
rails.
Fig. 2. Exhibits the pitch-board, to ffiew what part
of the ftep the twilled part of the rail contains; the
three doted lines drawn from the rail to the pitch-board
reprefent the width of the rail, which is to be kept level.
The doted lines a and b Ihew how much half the width
of the rail turns up from its firft beginning to 3.
Fig. 3. Shews the fame pitch-board, with the man¬
ner of the rail’s turning up. Ifthefid.es of the twilled
part of the rail be lhaped by the rail-mould, fo that they
direcft down to its ground-plan, that is, the upper fide
of
A R C H I T E C T U R E. 361
t»f the rail being firft ftruck by the mould, then apply on the rail; and’fo proceed with the other diftancee.
the mould to the under fide, as much back as the level - Now, when the rail is put in its proper fituation, c will
of the pitch-board fiiews, by being ftruck on the fide of
the rail, and then fig. 3. being applied to the outfide of
the rail, from its firft twilling part to 3, will Ihow how
much wood is to be taken off.
Fig. 5. Exhibits the fquare of the rail, with the ra-
king-line of the pitch-board drawn through the middle
on the upper fide; then draw the depth of the fide of
the rail parallel to this, and the dotted lines from the
diagonal of the rail; thefe lines fliew what quantity of
wood will be wanting on the upper and lower Tides of the
rail. Set your compafles at c, and draw the circular
ftroke from the raking part of the pitch-board to b; take
the difiance a b, and transfer it from a to b, in fig. 7.
The feveral difiances thus found may be fet at any num¬
ber of places, ranging with the ftraight part of the rail;
and it then forms the width of the mould for the twill¬
ing part of the rail.
Fig.-7. Shews the fweep of the rail. The rail can¬
not be fixed lefs than one fourth part from the nofittg or
front of the fiep.
The remaining part of the pitch-board may be divided
into any number of parts, as here into four; from thefe
divifions draw lines acrofs the pitch-board to the raking-
line ; then take the diftances from the ground-line of the
pitch-board to the plan of the rail, and fet them perpen¬
dicular from the raking-line of the pitch-board ; and
thefe divifions, when the rail is in its proper pofition, lie
directly over the divifions on the ground-plan.
In this figure /, ni, and n, rife as much above 0 as
the dotted line in fig. 5. does above the width of the
rail; and they fink as much below 0 as the other dotted
line in fig. 5. falls below the width of the rail; the fame
thicknefles mull be glued upon 0, though the greateft
part will come off in fquaring. The reafon of placing
the letters /, m, and », where they are, is, that tl>ey
might not obftnnfi the fmall divifions of the rail-mould.
Fig. 4. Shews how to find the rail when it takes
more than one ftep. The remaining' part of the pitch-
board is divided into four parts, as before in fig. 7. and
it takes in two fuch parts of the next ftep. Draw lines
from thefe divifions to the diagonal of the pitch-boam,
as in fig. 7.; then take the diftance a b, and fet it from
c to d, and fo proceed with the other divifions.
Another way to find the outfide of the rail-mould is,
to draw all the divifions acrofs the plan of the rail; then
take the diftance from the ground-line of the pitch-board
to 4, transfer it from the diagonal of the pitch-board to 4
ARC
Military Architecture, the fame with what is o-
therwife called fortification. See Fortification.
Naval Architecture, the art of building fhips. See
Ship-building.
Counterfeit Architecture, that which confifts of
proje&ures, painted in black or white, or in colours
after the manner of marble, which is alfo called
Vol. I. No. 16.' 3
be perpendicular to b, and all the divifions, as 1, 2, 3,
4, be. in the rail, will be perpendicular to 1, 2, 3, 4, &c\
in the ground-plan.
Fig. 6. Shews the plan of a rail of five fteps.
To find the rail. — Set five divifions, as from e to h,
which is the height of the five fteps ; draw the diagonal
h x.q the plan of the rail; then take the diftance e f, and
transfer it from g to h, and proceed in the fame manner
with the other feven diftances.
To find the width of the rail-mould.—Draw the lines
acrofs the plan of the rail, as at ^; fet that diftance from
the diagonal to i; and fo proceed with tlie reft, as was
(hewn in fig. 4.
Having formed the fides of the rail perpendicular to
its ground-plan, and having fquared the lower end of
the rail, then take a thin lath, and bend it with the rail,
as is reprefented by rn fig. 1.
This is the readieft method of fquaring a folid-rail;
but if the rail be bent in the thickneffes, the nofing of
the fteps muft be drawn upon a cylinder, or fome other
folid body of a fufficient width to contain the width of
the rail or ftring-board.
r, Reprefents the depth of the rail, touching the nofe
of each ftep. Take a fufficient number of thickneffes
of this width, to make the thicknefs of your rail; glue
them all together upon your cylinder or templet, confine
them till they are dry, and the rail taken off is ready w
fiquared. Proceed in the fame manner with the archi¬
trave, marked a.
OF ROOFS.
Plate XXXVII. Fig. 1. Shews the form of a
truffed roof, with three ring-pofts, that may carry feven-
ty feet, or upwards.
Fig. 2. Exhibits an AT roof, capable of carrying as
great an extent^g^the former. Indeed both thefe de-
figHS.,»i>e"Capabfe of carrying almoft any extent.
' Fig. 3. Reprefents two different forts of trufles.
Fig. 4. Shews the manner of piecing timber. Some¬
times the joint may be extended as far as a, with another
bolt through it. To the right is fliewn a different fott
of joint.
Fig. ?. Shews the manner of truffing a girder. If
the trulfes are full long, with the pieces b and c yoA
may make them as light as you pleafe.
Fig. 6. Reprefents the manner of trufling partitions.
ARC
feene-work, in the painting of columns, &c. for the’
decoration of theatres.
Architecture, in perfpe<ftive, a fort of building, the
members of which are of different modules, and di-
minilh proportionably to their diftance, in order to
make the work appear longer to the view than it
really is. See Perspective.
4*
ARCHI-
ARC ( 3*2 ) A R D
ARCHITALASSUS, or admiral-fhell, a fynonime of
a fpecies of conus. See Conus.
ARCHITRAVE, in architedure, that part of a column
'Which Kes immediately-Upon the capital, being the
lowed: member of the entablature,' and fo called frofm
its reprelentinjh the principal beam in timbei-buildings.
See Architecture.
Over a chimney, this member is called the mantle-
piece ; and over, -doors or windows, the hyperihyron,
ARCH1VOLT, in architedlure, the inner centre of an
arch, or a band adorned'with mouldings running over
the faces of the arch-ftones, and bearing upon the im-
pofts.
ARCHIVE, or Arch ives, an apartment in which are
depofited the records, charters, and other papers of a
date or community.
ARCHMARSHAL, the grand marfhH of the empire,
a dignity belonging to the eleflor of Saxony.
ARCHONj in Grecian antiquity, the chief magidrate
of Athens, after the abolifhing of monarchy; and al-
fo, the appellation given to feveral officers, both civil
and religious, under the Greelt empire.
ARCHOMTICI, in dmreh-hidory, a branch of Valen-
tinians, who maintained, that the world was not cre¬
ated by God, but by angels called Archontes.
ARCHTREASURER, the great treafurer of the Ger¬
man empire, a dignity belonging to the duke of Brur/f-
wick, king of Great Britain.
ARCIGOVINO, a province of Dalmatia, bounded by
Bofnia, Mantenero, and the Adriatic fea, and called
by the Italians Santa Sabata.
ARCILEUTO, a lute longer and larger than ordinary.
ARCION, in botany, an obfolete name of the tuffilago.
ARCO, a town of the bilhopric of Trent in Italy, fi-
tuated about 16 miles S. W. of Trent, in io° 46'
E. long, and 46° N. lat.
ARCTAPELIOTES, a term ufed to denote a nonh¬
ead wind.
^RCTIC, in adronomy, an epithet given to the north
' pole; and hkewife to a circle of the fphere, parallel
to the equator, and twenty-three degrees thirty minutes
didant from the north pole. See Astronomy, and
Geography.
ARCTIC A, in ornithology, a fynonime of a fpecies of
larus. See Larus.
ARCT IUM, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia poly¬
gam; a aequalis clafs. The calix is globular, fquamous,
and hooked at the tops. There are only two fpecies
cf andiom, viz. the lappa, or burdock, a'native-of
Britain ; and the perfonata, a native of the Alps, &c.
The roots and feeds of the lappa are edeemed to be
diuretic and fudorifiL DecoGions of the roots have
of late been ufed in rheumatic and gouty diforders.
ARCTOPHYLAX, a cohfteUation, otherwife called
Bootes. See Bootes.
ARCTOPUS, in botany, a genus of the polygamia di-
ceeia claf®. The umbella of the male is compound ;
the involucrum con fids of Eve leaves; the-corolla has
five petals; the ftamina are -five; and two pidils:
The umbella. of the hermaphrodite is fimple ; the in-
volucrum is divided into-four parts, is fpintms,-.Targe;
and contains many male flowers in the difk. There ts
but one fpecies of ardtopus, viz. the echinatus, a na¬
tive of Ethiopia.
ARCTOTIS, in botany, a genus of the fyngeijefia po¬
lygamia nece/Faria clafs. The receptacle is briftly;
the corona of the pappus is pentapbyllous ; and the ca ¬
lix is imbricated, with the foales loofe at the top.
There are 11 fpecies of ar&otis, all of them natives
of Ethiopia, or the Cape of Good Hope.
ARCTURUS, a fixed dai of the find magnitude, io
the fkirt of Bootes.
ARCTUS, in adronomy. the Greek name of the urfa
major and minor.. See Astrohomy, andUasA.
ARCUATION, in gardening, the raifing of trees by
layers. See Gardening.
Ar cuation, in forgery, denotes a didortion or incur¬
vation of the bones, as happens in the tickets, isc.
ARCUTIQj a machine eonfiding of hoops, ufed in
Florence by nurfes, in order to prevent the child from
being overlaid. Every nurfe is obliged to lay her
child in an arcutio, under the .pain of excommunica¬
tion.
ARCYRIA, in botany. See Clathrus.
AR33ASSES, the coaifed of all the filks in Perfia.
ARDEA. in ornithology, a genus of the order of graL
lae. The general characters of this order are thefer
The bill is ftreight, foarp, long, and fomewhat com-
preffed, with a furrow that runs from die nodrils to¬
wards the point; the nodrils are linear; and the feet
have four toes. This genus confids of 26 fpecies 5
and under it Linnaeus comprehends the grus or crane,
the ciconia or dork, and theardea or heron, of other
authors. The fird fpecies is the pavonina, or crowned
crane, which has an erect brifHy cred, with the tem¬
ples and two wattles naked. The head is black ; the
cred is yellowifh, and tipped with black at the top;
the wings are white; and the feathers of the tail black,
and of an equal length. It is a native of Africa.
2. The virgo has long white fopercilia that hang down
backwards. The body is of a bluifli alh-colour, and
about the fize of a dork ^ the head and prime feathers
of the wings towards the points are black and pendu¬
lous ; the edges are red^ and the pupils are afli-colour-
ed; behind the eyes, on both fides, there is a feathery
cred, which turns backwards a confidcrable way, and is
of a white colour: The feet are black; the beak is green
at the bafe, yellowilh in the middle, and red at the
point. 3. The canadenfis, or brown and alh-coloured
crane of Edwards, is naked and papilious on the fore¬
head ; the body is afh-coloured, and the wings are of a
reddidi or brick-colour. 4. The grus, or common
crane of Englilh authors, Eas a naked papilious crown;
the prime feathers of the wings are black; the body
is alb-coloured; the prime feathers of the tail are
ragged. It is a native of Europe and Africa. It.
v/inters in Lithuania, Padolia : Trans Pontum fugat
et terris immittit apricis. Virg. This bird com¬
monly reds upon' one foot. 5. The americana, or
hooping crane of Edwards, is a native of America:
The crown of the head and temples are naked and
papilious; the forehead, nape of the neck, and prime
wing-
A II D ( 3<S3 ) ARE
■ring-feathers are' black; but the body is white: The
under part of the head, as far as the lower chap, is red ;
the beak is yeilowilh, and jagged at the point; the feet
are red, and the prime tail-feathers white. 6. The An¬
tigone, or greareit Indian crane of Edwards, has a na¬
ked head, and papilious collar ; the body is a(h-coloured,
and the prime wing-feathers .black. Behind the eyes,
there is a ftnall white fpot, and the crown of the head
is alfo white. The breafl: is of a greenilh yellow co¬
lour; the feet are red. and the prime tail-feathers alh-
coloured. It is a native of Alia. 7. The dconia, or
white ftork of Ray, has naked eye-balls, and black
prime wing-feathers. The Ikin below the feathers, as
alfo the beak, feet, and claws, are of a blood-colour.
It is a native of Europe, Afia, and Africa; but is fel-
dom or never to be met with in Italy. The ciconia feeds
upon amphibious animals. It is fuch an enemy to fer-
pents, that it is reckoned almoft a crime to kill a ftork.
From this favourable treatment, they arefeen in Holland
and the Low Countries walking unconcerned in the mid^
die of the ftrefets. Storks are birds of paflage; they
fpend the fummer in Europe, and difappear all at once,
and go off to Egypt, Ethiopia, (be. before winter, and
do not return till about the middle of March. 8. The
nigra, or black ftork of Willoughby, has naked orbits,
and the breaft and belly are white ; the body is black ;
the feet and orbits are blood-Coloured. It inhabits the
northern parts of Europe. 9. The ny&icorax, or leffer
alb-coloured heron of Ray, has a creft, confifting of
three ftrait horizontal white feathers, on the back part of
the head; the back is greeniftr, and the belly yellow.
It inhabits the foiwhern parts of Europe. 10. The pur¬
purea, or. common heron of Englilh Authors,, has a creft,
with two long green feathers hanging down from the
back part of the head ; the body is of an olive-colour,
and purple below; the head is of a Ihining green colour.
It is a native of the Eaft. 11. The cinerea, or afh-
coloured heron, has a fmooth black head, a bluilh hack,
white belly, and oblong black fpots on the breaft. It is
a native of Europe. Great numbers of them together
build their nefts in trees. They are faid to fly very high
before ftorms. 12. The major has a black creft de¬
pending from the back part of the head, an afh-coloured
body, and a black line and belt on the neck and breaft.
It is a native of Europe. 13. The garzetta is crefted
behind; the body is white, the beak black, and the feet
greenifh. It is a native of the Eaft. 14. The cocoi
has an afh-coloured creft hanging down from the back
part of the head; the whole body is afh-coloured. It is
a native of Cayenne. 15. The herodias is crefted be¬
hind, has a dulky-coloured back, reddilh thighs, .and the.
breaft fpeckled with oblong black fpots. It is a native
of America. 16. The.viofacea has a white creft; the
body is variegated with black and white, and bluifh be¬
low. It is a native of America.. 17. The cserulea has
a creft behind,, and a bluifh body. It is a native of
N. America. 18. The hudfonias has a black creft on
the top of the head; the body' is dufky-coloured, and
white below. It frequents HndfonV Bay. 19. The
ftriata has a fmall creft on the back-part of the head ;
the back is of. a.hoary grey colour, and afh-coloured be¬
low ; the long wing feathers are tipped with white. It
is a native of Surinam. 20. The virefeens has a fmali
creft on the back part of the head, a green Ihining back,
and dufky-coloured breaft. It is a native of America,
21. The ftellaris, or bittern, has a fmooth head ; it
is variegated through the whole body with dark-co¬
loured fpots of different figures and fizes. It is a na
live of Europe, and inhabits chiefly the fen-countries.
It is met with fkulking among the reeds and fedge,
and its ufual pofture is with the head and neck ereft,
and the beak pointed direftly upwards. It will fuffer
perfons to come very near it without rifing; and has
been known to ftrike at boys and at Iportfmen, when
wounded and unable to make its efcape. It flies prin¬
cipally about the dufk of the evening, and thc/s rifes
in a very Angular manner, by a fpiral afeent, till it is
quite out of fight. It makes a very ftrange ndife
when it is among the reeds, and a different and very
Angular one as it rifes on the wing in the night,
22. The grifea has a fmooth dufky head ; the body is
tawny above, and white below; and the prime wing-
feathers have a black fpot at the points. It is a na¬
tive of the Eaft. 23. The brafilienfis has a fmooth
head; the body is blackifh, with yellow fpets ; and the
prime feathers of the wings and tail are greenifh. It
is'a'native of America; 24. The alba has a fmooth
head, a white body, a yellow beak, and black feet.
It is a native of Europe. 25. Tire acquinoftialis has
a fmooth head, , and a white body. It is a native of
America. 26. The minuta has a fmooth head,, a
dark-coloured body, and a yellowifh belly. It is about
the fize of the turdus, and is a native of. Switzerland
and the Eaft;
ARDENBURG, a fortified town of Dutch Flanders,,
lituated about 12 miles N. E. of Bruges, m30 20'
E. long, and ;i° 15' N. lat.
ARDENNE, a foreft in Germany, lying between Thi--
orrville and Liege.
ARDEVIL, or A r.demv, the burying-place of .feme
of the ancient kings of Perfia, fkuated in 64° 20'
E. long, and 36° N. lat.
ARDMAGH, in geography.. See Armagh..
ARDOR-VENTRIGULI, the fame with the heart-
bum.
ARDRES, a town of the province of Picardy in France,,
fituated about 10 miles fouth of Calais, in 20 E.
long, and 50° 45/ N. lat,
Ardrks, or Ardra, is-alfb the capital of a country
on the flave-coaft of Guinea in Africa, fituated near
the river Lagos, in 4°-E. long, and 50 N. lat.
ARE, in mufic. See Alamire.
AREA, in geometry, denotes the fuperficial content of
any figure. See Geo metry.
Area, among phyficians, the fame with alopecia. See
Alopecia.
AREBON, a town of Guinea in Africa, fituated at the
mouth of the river Fonnofa, in 50 E. long, and 50
N. lat.
ARECA, in botany, a genus of the order of palmas
pemiatifoiia’. The male has no calix, but three pe¬
tals, and nine ftamina; the femak has no edix; the
corolla
ARE ( 364 ) A R G
corolla has three petals, and the calix is imbricated.
There is only one fpecies, viz. the cathecu, a native
. of India.
AREMBERG, a city of Germany, fituated about 25
miles fouth of Cologn, in 6° 25' E. long, and 50°
30' N.- lat.
ARENA, in natural hiftory. See Sand.
Arena, in Roman antiquity, a place where the gladia¬
tors fought; fo called from its being always ftrewed
with fand, to conceal from the view of the people the
blood fpilt in the combat.
ARENARIA, or chickweed, in botany, a genus of the
decandria trigynia clals. The calix has five open
leaves; the-petals are .Eve, and entire; the capfule is
unilocular, and contains many feeds. There are 17
fpecies of arenaria, only 7 of which are natives of
Britain, viz. the peploides, or fea-chickweed; the
trinervia, or plantain-leaved chickweed ; the ferpylli-
folia, or leaft chickweed; the faxatilis, or mountain-
chickweed; the laricifolia, or larch-leaved chickweed;
the tenuifolia, or fine-leaved chickweed; and the ru¬
bra, or purple-flowered chickweed.
ARENATION, a kind of dry bath, wherein the patient
fits with his bare feet on hot fand.
AREOLA, among anatomifts, the coloured circle fur¬
rounding the nipple of the breaft.
AREOPAGUS, a fovereign tribunal at Athens, famous
for the juflice and impartiality of its decrees, to which
the gods themfelves are faid to have fubmitted their
differences.
Authors are not agreed about the number of judges
that compofed this auguft court; fome reckon thirty-
one ; others, fifty-one; and others, five hundred. In
effeA, their number feems not to have been fixed, but
to have been more or lefs in different years. At firft,
this tribunal confifted only of nine perfons, who had
- all difcharged the office of Archons, had acquitted
'themfelves with honour in that truft, and had likewife
given an account of their adminillration before the
Logiftas, and undergone a rigorous examination. Their
fa 1 ary was equal, and paid out of the treafury of the
republic; they had three oboli for each caufe. The
Areopagites were judges for life; they never fat in
judgment but in the open air, and that in the night¬
time, to the intent that their minds might be the
more prefent and attentive, and that no objed: of pity
or averfion might make any impreffion on them; and
all the pleadings before them were to be in the fimpleft
and mofl: naked terms. At firft they took cognifance
of criminal caufes only, but in courfe of time their
jurifdidion became of great extent.
Mr Spon, who examined the antiquities of that il-
luftrious city, found fome remains of the Areopagus
ftill exifting in the middle of the temple of Thefeus,
which was heretofore in the middle of the city, but
is now without the walls. The foundation of the A-
reopagus is a femicircle, with an efplanade of 140
paces round it, which properly made the hall of the
Areopagus. There is a tribunal cut in the middle of
a rock, with feats on each fide of it, where the Areo¬
pagites fat expofedi to the open air. It is very uncer¬
tain when this court was inftituted, fince Demofthenes
himfelf is at a lofs upon the point: Some think that it
was inftituted by Solon; but others carry it much
higher, and aflert it to have been eftablilhed by Ce-
crops, about the time that Aaron died.
AREQUIPPA, a city of Peru, in S. America, fituated
in 730 W. Ion. and 17.0 S. lat.
AREHA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla is divided into five parts;
the tube of the corolla is ovated; and the capfule is
globular, and confifts of but one cell. There is only
one fpecies, viz. the alpina.
ARETHUSA, in botany, a genus of the gynandria di-
. andria clals. The generic charadter is taken from the
nedtarium, which is tubular, fituated at the bottom of
the corolla; and the inferior labium of it is fixed to
the ftylus. There are four. fpecies of the arethufa,
all natives of America, except the capenfis, which is
only found at the Cape of Good Hope.
ARGEMONE, in "botany, a genus of the polyandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of fix petals ;
the calix of three leaves; and the capfule is femi-
valved. There are three fpecies of argemone, none
of which are natives of Britain. They are all a kind
of poppies.
AREZZO, a city of Tufcany in Italy, fituated in 130
15' E. long, and 430 15' N. lat.
ARGEA, or Argei, in Roman antiquity, thirty hu¬
man figures, made of ruffies, thrown annually by the
priefts or veftals into the Tiber, on the day of the ides
of May.
ARGENT, in heraldry, the white colour in the coats
of gentlemen, knights, and baronets. See He¬
raldry.
ARGENTAN, a city of France, in the Lower Nor¬
mandy, upon the Qme, in 25 E. long, and 48°
lat.
ARGENTARIA creta, pure white earth, found in
Pruflia, and much efteemedfor cleaning plate.
ARGENTIERE, a fmall ifland in the Archipelago, fi¬
tuated about 60 miles eaft of Morea, in 250 E. long,
and 370 N. lat.
Argentiere is alfo the name of a fmall town of Lan¬
guedoc in France, in 40 E. long, and 440 30' N. lat.
ARGENTINA, in ichthyology, a genus of filhes be¬
longing to the order of abdominales. The generic
charadters are thefe : The teeth are in the tongue as
well as the jaws; the branchioftege membrane has
eight radii or rays; the anus is near the tail; and
the belly-fins confift of many rays. There are two
fpecies of argentina, viz. 1. The fphyraena has 15 rays
in the fin at the anus; the air-bladder of this fpecies
is conical on both fides, and ffiines like filver: Accord¬
ing to Mr Ray, falfe pearls are fometimes made of it.
2. The Carolina has likewife 15: rays in the fin near
the anus; the tail is forked, and the lateral lines are
ftreight. It inhabits the freffi waters of Carolina.
ARGENTON, a town of France, fituated about forty-
five miles foiith-weft of Bourges, in i° 35' E. long.
46° 4c/ N. lat.
ARGENTUM. See Silver.
ARGILLA,
A R G
ARGILLA, day, in natural hiftdry. See Clay.
ARGO,- in aftronomy, a conftellation of fixed liars in
the fouthern hemilphere; whofe number of flats, in
Ptolemy’s catalogue, is eight; in Tycho’s, eleven;
andin Mr Flamftead’s, twenty-five. See Astronomy.
ARGONAUTA, the name of a genus of Ihell-filh be¬
longing to the order of vermes teftacea. The Ihdl
confifls of one fpiral involuted valve. There are two
fpecies of argonauts, viz. The argo with a fubdented
carina, which is found in the Mediterranean and In¬
dian oceans. This is the famous nautilus of other
authors. It lies on the furface of the water, and ex¬
tends an exceeding thin membrane, which it ufes in
fome meafure both as fails and oars; and in this man¬
ner it fwims from one place to another. 2. The
cymbium with a blunt plaited carina. This fpecies
is very fmall, and is found in the Mediterranean.
ARGONAUTS, in Grecian antiquity, a company of
illuftrious Greeks, who embarked along with Jafon,
in the Ihip Argo, on an expedition to Colchis, with a
defign to obtain the golden fleece.
ARGOS, a fea-port town of European Turky, in the
Morea, lituated on the bay of Napoli de Romania,
in 230 E. long., and 37° 30' N. lat.
ARGUIN, an illand on the coaft of Negritia. It lies
on the Atlantic Ocean, about 20' N. lat.
ARGUMENT, in rhetoric and logic, an inference
drawn from premifes, the truth of which is indifpu-
table, or at leaft highly probable. See Logic.
Argument, in aftronomy, denotes a known arch, by
means of which we feck another one unknown.
Argument, in matters of literature, denotes alfo the
abridgment or heads of a book, hiftory, comedy,
chapter, <&c. See Syllabus.
ARGUN, a river of Tartary in Afia, ferving as a boun¬
dary between the Chinefe and Ruflian empires.
Argun is alfo a city of Afiatic Tartary, fituated on the
above river, in 404° E. long, and 510 30' N. lat.
ARGUS-SHELL, a fpecies of porcelain-lhell, beauti¬
fully variegated with fpots, refembling in fome mea¬
fure thofe in a peacock’s tail.
ARGYLESHIRE, a county of Scotland, lying weft-
ward of Glafgow, and comprehending the countries
of Lorn, Cowal, Knapdale, Kintyre, together with
the iflands Mull, Jura, Ifta, &C. It gives the tide
of duke to the noble family of Campbell.
ARGYROPOEIA, among alchemifts, a pretended art
of tranfmuting or charging other metals into filver.
A R I
ARHUSEN, a city of Jutland in Denmark, 'fthated at
the entrance of the Baltic fea, in io° 20 E. long,
and 56° N. lat.
ARIANO, a town of the kingdom of Naples, and pro¬
vince of Principata, fituated about 15 miles eaft of
Benevento, in 150 35' E. long, and 410 16' N. lat.
ARIANS, in church-hiftory, a fed! of ancient heretics,
who denied the three perfons in the Holy Trinity to
be of the fame dfcnce, and affirmed Chrift to be a
creature.
ARICA, a fea-port town of Peru in South America,
fituated on the Pacific Ocean, in^yo0 20 W. long,
and 180 20 S. lat.
ARIDAS, a kind of taffety, manufaflured in the E. In¬
dies, from a fhining thread which is got from certain
herbs, whence they are flyled art das of herbs.
ARIDULLAM, in natural hiftory, a kind of zaraich
found in the E. Indies. See Zarnich.
ARIES, in zoology. See Ovis.
Aries, in aftronomy, a conftellation of fixed, ftars,
drawn on the globe, in the figure of a ram. It is
the firft of the twelve figns of the zodiac, from which
a twelfth part of the ecliptic .takes its denomination.
See Astronomy, Of the fixed Jiars.
ARISARUM, ia botany. See Arum.
ARISH, a Perfian long meafure, containing about 38
Engliffi inches.
ARISI, the Indian name for the plant which produces
the rice. SccOrysa.
ARISTA, or Awn, among botanifts, a long needle-like
beard, which ftands out from the hulk of a grain of
corn, grafs, the.
ARISTIDA, in botany, a genus of the triandria digy-
hia clafs. The calix has a double valve ; the corolla
has one valve, and three awns at the points. There
are 3 fpecies of ariftida, viz. the adfeenfionis, a native
of the ifland of Afcenfion; the Americana, a native
of Jamaica; and the pkimofa, a native of America.
ARISTOCRACY, a form of government where the ft-
preme power is vefted in the principal perfons of the
ftate. See^ir overnment.
ARISTOLOCHIA, in botany, a genus of the gynan-
dria hexandria clafs. It has no calix; the corolla
confifts of one entire petal; and the capfule, which is
below the flower, has 6 cells. There are 21 fpecies
of ariftolochia, none of which are natives of Britain.
ARISTOLUS, an obfolete name of a fpecies of clupea.
See Clupea.
( )
ARITHMETIC K
ARITHMETICR is a fcience which explains the
properties of numbers, and Ihews the method or'
art of computing them.
Vol. L No. 16.
We have very little intelligence about the origin and
invention of arithmetick; but probably it mull have taken
its rife from the introdu&ion of commerce, and confe-
4 ^ quentiy
3
S66 A R I T H M E T I C K.
quently.be of Tyrian invention. From Afia it paffed
into Egypt, where it was greatly cultivated. From
thence it was tranfmitted to the Greeks, who conveyed
it to the Romans with additiortal improvements. But,
from feme treatifes of the ancients remaining on this fub-
jett, it appears that their arhhmetick was much inferior
to that of the moderns.
Number, which is the objeft of arithmetick, is that
which anfwers dire&ly to the queftion. How many ? and
is either an unit, or fome part or pans of an unit, or a
multitude of units.
To a perfon having the idea of number in his mind,
the following queftions naturally occur, viz. i. How is
fuch a number to be exprefled or written ? Hence we
have Notation. 2. What is the fum of two or more
numbers? Hence Addition. 3. What is the difference
of two given numbers ? Hence Subtraction. 4. What
will be the refult or produCt of a given number repeated
or taken a certain number of times ? Hence Multiplica¬
tion. 5. How often is one given number contained in
another? Hence Divifion.
Thefe five, viz. Notation, Addition, Subtraction,
Multiplication, and Divifion, are the chief parts, or ra¬
ther the whole of arithmetic; as every arithmetical ope¬
ration requires the ufe of fome of them, and nothing but
a proper mixture of them is neceffary in any operation
whatever.; and, by an Arabic term, thefe are called the
algorithm.
Chap. I. Notation.
Notation is that part of arithmetic which explains
the method of writing down, by characters or fymbols,
any number expreffed in words; as alfo the way of
reading or expreffing, in words, any number given in
characters- or fymbols, But the firft of thefe is proper¬
ly notation, and the laft is more ufually called numera¬
tion.
The things then proper to be comprifed in this chap¬
ter are, 1. The figural notation. 2. Numeration, or
the way of reading numbers. 3. Defcriptions of the
kinds- or ■ fpecies of numbers.
I. Figural Notation.
A w unit, or unity, is that number by which any thing
is called one of its kind. It is the firft number; and if
to it be added another unit, we fttall have another num¬
ber called two; and if to this laft another unit be add¬
ed, we {hall have another number called three ; and
thus, by the continual addition of an unit, therewill a-
rife an infinite increafe of numbers. On the otherhand,
if from unity any part be fubtraCled, and again from
that part another part be taken away, and this Be done
continually, we {hall have an infinite decreafe of num¬
bers. But though number, with-relpeCl: to increafe-and
decreafe, be infinite, and knows no limits ; yet ten fi¬
gures, varioufly combined or repeated, are found fuffi-
dent to exp refs any number, whatfoever. Theft,, with
the method of notation by them, were originally invent¬
ed by fome of the eaftern nations, probably the Indians;
afterwards improved by the Arabians; and at laft brought
over to Europe, particularly into Britain, betwixt the
tenth and twelfth century. From the ten fingers of the
hands, on which it hath been ufual to compute num¬
bers, figures were called digiti. Their form, order,
and value, are as follows :
1 One, an unit, or unity, 2lvtwo, 3 three, 4 four,
j five, 6 fix, 7 feven, 8 eight, 9 nine, o cipher, nought,
null, or nothing. Of theft, the firft nine, in contradi-
ftinCtion to the cipher, are ca\\ed. Jignificant figures.
The value of the figures now affigned is called their
Jimple value, as being that which they have in them-
ftlves, or when they ftand alone. But when two or more
figures are joined as in a line, the figures then receive
alfo a local value from the place in which they ftand,
reckoning the order of places from the right-hand towards
the left, thus,
777777777777
A figure {landing in the firft place has only its fimple
value ; but a figure in the fecond place has ten times the
value it would have in the firft place; and a figure in the
third place has ten times the value it would have in the
fecond place; and univerfally a figure in any fuperior
place has ten times the value it would have in the next
inferior place.
Hence it is plain, that a figure in the firft place limply
fignifies fo many units as the figure exprefles; but the
fame figure advanced to the fecond place will fignify fo
many tens; in the third place, it will fignjfy fo many
hundreds; in the fourth place, fo many thoufands; in
the fifth place, fo many ten thoufands; in the fixth place,
fo many hundred thoufands; and in the feventh place,
fo many millions, e5rc. Thus, 7 in the firft place, will
denote feven units; in the fecond place, ftven tens, or
feventy; in the third place, feven hundred; in the fourth
place,, ftven thoufand, <bc.
Every three places, reckoning from the right-hand,
make a half period; and the right-hand figures of thefe
half-periods are termed units and thoufands by turns;
the middle figure is always tens, and the left-hand fi¬
gure always hundreds.
Two half-periods, or fix places, make a full period *,
and the periods, reckoning from the right-hand towards
the left, are titled as follows, viz. the firft is the period
of units ', the fecond, that of millions; the third is titled
bimilliomr or bilfions; the fourth, trimillions, or tril¬
lions ; the fifth, quadrillions; the fixth, quintillions;
the ftventh fextillions; the feptillions; the ninth,
* oftillions; the tenth, nonillions, &c.
Half-periods are ufually diftinguilhed from one an¬
other by a comma, and full periods by a point or colon;
as in the following
TABLE.
A R I T H
T A B L E.^
3d Period. 2d Period. ifl: Period.
Billions. Millions. Units.
8 1 3,700.2 3 7,8 94 .678,040.
The table may be exprefled in a more concife fornv
thus,
3. 2. 1. Per.
  ^ ( A >, ( A 
Billions. Millions. Units.
813,700:237,894:678,040.
From the table it is obvious, that though a cipher fig-
nify nothing of itfelf, yet it ferves to fupply vacant pla¬
ces, and raifes the value of fignificant figures on its left
hand, by throwing them into higher places. Thus, in
the firft period, by a cipher’s filling the place of units,
the figure 4 is thrown into the place of tens, and figni-
fies forty. But a cipher does not change the value of a
fignificant figure on its right-hand. Thus, 07, or 007,
is the fame as-7.
II. Numeraiitm.
Notation and numeration are fo nearly allied, that
he who underftands the one cannot fail foon to acquire
the other. The method of reading numbers, exprefled
by figures, may be eafily learned, from the table of the
figural notation ; in which obferve the following
Rule. Beginning at the left hand, and reading to¬
ward the right; to the Ample value of every figure join
the name of its place, and conclude each period by exi-
prefling its title, every where omitting the ciphers..
M E T I C K. 367
6. An odd number is that which 2 does not meafure,
or which cannot be divided by 2, without a remainder ;
« 3» f. 7» 9* II> !3 .
7. A prime number is that which unity, or itfelf, on¬
ly meafures; as 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19.
8. A compojite number is that which is meafured by
fome other number than itfelf, or unity; as 12, which
is meafured by 2, 3, 4, or 6.
9. Numbers are called prime to one another, when
unity only meafures them. Thus 13 and 36 are prime
to one another; for no number, except unity, meafures
both.
10. Numbers are called compojiie to one another,
when fome number, befides unity, meafures them. Thus
12 and 18 are compofite to one another ; for 3 or 6 mea¬
fures both of them.
11. A number which meafures another is called an
aliquot part of that other. Thus 6-is an aliquot part of
18, and 3 of 12, and 5 of 20.
12. The number meafured, or which.contains the ali¬
quot part a certain number of times, is called a multiple
of that aliquot part. Thus 18 is a multiple of 6, and
12 of 3.
13. A number is called an aliquant part of another,
when it does not divide that other without a- remainder.
Thus 7 is an aliquant part of 24.
14. Two, three, or more numbers, which, multiplied;
together, produce another number, are called the.com¬
ponent parts of the number produced. Thus 3 and 4,
2 and 6, are the component parts of 12; and 2, 3, and
4, are the component parts of 24.
I j. The product of a number multiplied into itfelf is
called the fquare, or fecondpower, of that number; and
the number itfelf is in this cafe called the root. And if
the fquare be multipled into the root, the product is
called the cube, or third power, of that number. And if
the cube be multiplied into the root, the product thence
arifing is called the biquadrate, ox fourth power. See.
Chap. II. Addition,
HI. Defcriptions of the kinds or fpecies of numbers i
1. An integer, or whole number, is an unit; or any
multitude of units ; as i, 7, 48, 100, 125.
2. A frail ion, ox broken number, is any part or parts
of an unit; and is exprefled by two numbers, which are
feparated from one another by a line drawn betwixt
them; the under number being c^Jled the denominator,
and the upper one the numerator, of the fraction ; as
t» -rs'
3. A mixt number is an integer with a fraction joined '
to it; as 4-3-, 7^, 48^
4. A number is faid to meafure another number,
when it is contained in that other number a certain num¬
ber of times, or when it divides that other number with¬
out any remainder. Thus, 3 meafures 6, 9, or 12.
5. An even number is that which is meafured by 2,
or which 2 divides without any remainder; as 2, 4, 6, 8,
10, 12.
Addition is the collecting of two or more numbers
into one fum or totaL
I. Addition of Integers;
Rule I. Set figures of like places under other, viz. ■
units under units, tens under tens, <bc.
II. Beginning at the lowed place, fet down the right-
hand figures of the fum of every column, and carry the
red as fo many units to the next luperior place.
Examp. I. Becaule fimilar or like things only can
be added, place the numbers as directed in Rule I. viz.
units under units, tens under tens, eSrc. as in the
margin. Then beginning at the lowed place, 453
viz, that of units ; fay, 4 units and 3 units make 234
7 units, which fet below in the place of units ;   
then 3 tens-and 5 tens make 8 tens, which fet be- 687
low in the place of tens; then 2 hundreds and 4
hundreds make 6 hundreds, which fet below in the place
E T I C K.
36S A R I T H M
of hundreds, and you will find the fum or total to be 687.
Examp. II. Having placed the numbers, units un¬
der units, 6'c. as in the margin, fay 2 and 1
make 3, and 3 make 6, and 4 make 10; which 5074
being juft 1 ten, and nothing over, fet the right- 9803
hand figure o in the place of units ; and becaufe 7541
ten in any lower place makes but one in the next 862
fuperior place, carry 1 ten, as diredted in Rule II. -
faying, 1 ten, coiledfed out of the units, and 6 24180
tens, make 7 tens, and 4 make 11, and o makes but
ftill 11, ajrd 7 make 18 ; here again fet down the right-
hand figure 8, in the place of tens, and carry the re¬
maining figure 1, being 1 hundred, to the next place,
viz. that of hundreds ; and having in like manner added
up this Column, the amount is 31 ; fet down die right-
hand figure 1 in the place of hundreds, and carry the re¬
maining figure 3 to the next place or column ; which be¬
ing alio added, amounts to 24; fet the right-hand figure
4 below, in its proper place, and the remaining figure 2,
which belongs to the next place, fet on the left hand,
there being no figure in the next place to which it can
be carried. So the fum or total is 24180.
II. Addition of the partr of integers, fuch -as fbil-
lings, pen:e, farthings, ounces, &c.
Rule I. Place like parts under other ; viz. far¬
things under farthings, pence under pence, <bc,
II. Begin at die loweft of the parts, and carry ac¬
cording to die value of an unit of the next fuperior deno¬
mination ; viz. for every four in the fum of farthings
carry 1 to the pence, and for every twelve in the pence
carry 1 to the {hillings, <bc.
III. If you carry at 20, 30, 40, 60, or any juft
number of tens, as in adding {hillings, degrees, poles,
minutes, feconds, <be. proceed with the column of u-
nits as in addition of integers, and from the fum of the
column of tens carry 1 for every two, or 1 for every
three, he. according as 20 or two tens, thirty or three
tens, he. make an unit of the next fuperior denomina¬
tion. The reafon appears plain in the fallowing opera¬
tions.
1. MON E Y.
TABLE.
4 farthings') C 1 penny
*2 pence C make <. 1 {hilling
20 {hillings 3 1 pound
Marked thus.
/. r. d. /.or?.
.1 = 20 = 240 = 960
Note, The above mark fignifies equal to.
J. is put for libra, a pound; d. for denarius, a penny;
and q. for quadrans, a fourth-part; but f is now the
more ufual mark for fardiings.
That the learner may proceed in addition of money
with the greater eafe, it will be proper he get the fol¬
lowing table by heart.
MONEY-TABLE.
16 :
24 =
' 28 =
32 =
36 =
40 =
24 = 2
36= ?
48—4
60 = 5
72 = 6
84 = 7
96 = 8
108 = 9
120 = 10
= 9
= 10
Examp. Having, according to (10) (20) (12) (4)
Rule I. placed like parts under L. s. d. f.
other, viz. farthings under far- 74 18 11 3
things, pence under pence, he. 96 9 10 2
and in each of thefe denomina- 58 17 8 I
tions, units under units, tens 63 11 9 2
under tens, as in the margin,   
begin with the loweft of the parts, 293 18 4
viz. the farthings ; and fay, 2
farthings and 1 farthing make 3 farthings, and 2 make f,
and 3 make 8; which, by the money-table, is 2 fours,
or 2 pence, and nothing over; wherefore place o be¬
low in, the place of farthings, or rather leave that place
blank, and carry 2 pence to the place of pence, as
directed in Rule II, faying, 2 pence, colle&ed out of
the farthings, and 9 make 11, and 8 make 19, and t
(paffing the o) make 20; to this fum of units add the
tens. Thus, 20 and 1 ten make 30, and 1 ten more
make 40 pence; which, by the money-table, is 3 twelves,
or 3 {hillings, and 4 pence over; thefe 4 pence fet be¬
low in the place of pence, and carry 3 {hillings to the
place of (hillings. Thus, 3 {hillings, colledbed out of
the pence, and 1 {hilling make 4, and 7 make n, and
9 make 20, and 8 make 28; and becaufe in {hillings we
carry at a juft number of tens, viz. at 20, fet the right-
hand figure 8 below in the place'of units, as dire&ed in
Rule III. and carry the 2 tens to the plate of tens.
Thus 2 tens coMedted out of the units, and 1 ten make
3 tens, and 1 make 4, and 1 make 5 tens, or 2 twenties,
and 1 ten over; and becaufe 2 tens, or 1 twenty, make
an unit in the next place, viz. that of pounds, fet the
1 ten below in the place of tens, and carry the 2 twen¬
ty {hillings. Or 2 pounds, to the place of pounds ; which,
being integers, are added as taught in addition of in¬
tegers.
It is ufual to fubjoin the farthings to the X. s. d.
pence byway of fradMon, as in the mar- 74 18 n|.
gin, where the former example is tranferi- 96 9 ip^-
bed in this form for the learner’s inftruc- 58 17 8 ‘
tion ; in which ^ denotes one farthing, |- 63 11 94-
two farthings, and 4 three farthings.  
293 18 4
In adding up large accounts, fome dot at 60 in the
pence, and for every dot carry 5 to the {hillings; and
in adding the {hillings they dot likewife at 60, and for
every dot carry 3 to the pounds. Others chufe to divide
E T
I C K.
A R I T If M
them" into parcels,'then caft up each parcel feparately,
and afterwards add the fums of the federal parcels into
one total.
2. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.
T A B L E.
169
Marked thus.
r. C. lb. oz. dr.
l — 20 “ 8o — 2240 = 35840 = 573440
1 4 = 112 = 1792 = 28673
By Avoirdupois weight are weighed butter, cheefe,
rofin, wax, pitch, tar, tallow, foap, fait, hemp, flax,
beef, brafs, iron, iteel, tin, copper, lead, allum, and
all grocery wares.
Note, ipvC. of lead m^ke a fodder.
In adding the following example, begin with the
ounces, and fay, 15 and 10 make 25; which being a-
bove 16, dot, and carry away the excefs 9, faying, 9
cf excefs and 6 make 15, and 8 make 23 ; where again
dot, and carry away the excefs 7, faying, 7 and 2 is
9, and 1 tenon the left is, 19; where dot, and proceed
with the excefs 3, faying, 3 and 4 is 7, and .i ten orvthe
left is 17; where dot, and carry the excefs 1, faying, 1
and 5 is 6, and 1 ten on the left is 16 ; where again
dot, and there being no excefs, you have nothing to
iet dewn.
<I0) (20) (4) (28) (16)
r. c. & ib. oz.
74
85
68
52
50
48
97
27.
24.
20
19.
18.
16
3
478 15 3 20
Proceed now to add the pounds ; faying 5 carried
from the ounces, viz. one for evefy dot, and 3 make
8, and 6 make 14, and 1 ten on the left is 24, and 8
make 32 ; which being above 28, dot, and go on, fay¬
ing, 4 of excefs and 1 ten on the left is 14, and 9 is 23,
and 1 ten on the left 1333; where again dot, and go
on, faying, ; of excefs and 20 is 25, and 4 is 29 ; where
dot, and proceed, "faying, 1 of excels and 2 tens on thb
left make 21, and 7 make 28 ; where dot, and the 2
tens, or 20, on the left, fet below.
We Ihould now proceed to add the quarters ; faying,
4 carried from the pounds and 1 make 5, fcc.; but as
you carry here 1 for every four, the quarters are added
exactly as the farthings in addition of money. In the
hundreds you carry at 20 ; which, therefore, are added
.as (hillings. The tuns are integers; and added accord¬
ingly.
Vox,. I. No. 16. 3
III. Proof of Addition.
Addition may be proved feveral ways,
1. Merchants and men of bufmsfs ufually add each
column firft upwards, and then downwards, and, upon
finding the fum to be the fame both waysr they conclude
the work to be right: and this is all the proof that their
time, or the hurry of bufinefs, will admit of.
2. It is a common practice in fchools, to prove the
work by a fecond fumming without the top-line ; and if
thus fum added to the top-line makes the firft total, the
work is fuppofed to be right; as in the following ex¬
ample.
L. s. d.
Top-line 748 15 10I
674 13 ni
835 17 Pi
90 18 "8
Total 2350 6 3-y
Total without the top-line 1601 10 4^
Proof 2350 6 3t
Note, This mark + fignifies added to.
3. Addition is alfo proved by calling out the 9’s; for
if the excefs above the 9’s in the total be
the fame as the excefs in the items, the 347 j
work may be prefumed right. Thus, to 684 ~%J'
prove the example in the margin, begin — 
with the items, and fay, 3-J-4=:7, and 1031 5
7+ 7= 14 = 1+4=5 ; with this 5 pafs
to the next item, and fay, 5 + 6=11 = 1 + 1=2, and
2 + 8=10=1, and~i+4 = 5; which 5 being the ex¬
cefs of the items, place at the top of the crofs, and
proceed to caft the o’s out of the total, faying, 1+ 3=4,
and 4 + 1= 5; which 5, being the excefs of the total,
place at the foot of the crofs; and becaufe it is the
fame with the figure at the top, you conclude the work
to be right. ,
If the items are of different denominations; as pounds,
Ihillings, pence, ; you muft begin with the higheft
denomination; and, after calling.out the 9’$, reduce the
excefs to the next inferior denomination ; and then call¬
ing out the 9’s, reduce the excefs to the next inferior
denomination ; proceed in like manner with this, and all
the other lower denominations, placing the hit excefs at
the top of the crofs; then, in the fame manner, caft the
9’s out of the total, placing the excefs aythe foot of the
crofs ; and if the figure at rhe foot and top be the fame,
the work may be prefumed right.
If any operation, whether in addition, fubtradion,
multiplication, or divifion, be right, this kind of proof
will always Ihow it to be fo; but if an operation be
wrong, by a figure or figures being mifplaced, or by
mifcounting 9, or any juft number of 9’s, this kind of
proof will not difoover the miftake.
5 A
3
Chap,
370
A R I T H
Chap: HI. Subtraction.
Subtraction is the taking a leffer number from a
greater,, in order to difcover their difference, or the
remainder.
I. Suit raft ion of Integers.
Rule I. Set figures of like place under other, r/z.
units under units, tens under tens, <bc. and the greater
of the given numbers uppermoft.
II. Beginning at the place of units, take the lower fi¬
gures from thofe abpve, borrowing and paying ten, as
need requires, and write the remainders below.
Examp. I. Becaufe firailar or like things only can
be fubtrafted, place the
867 major, or minuend. numbers as directed in
562 minor, or fubtrahend. -Rule I. viz. units under
  units, tens under tens,
305- difference, or remainder, 'be. and the greateft up-
permoff, as in the margin.
Then, beginning at the place of units, fay, 2 units from
7 units, and 5 units remain ; which fet below in the
•jdace of units; then 6 tens from 6 tens, and nothing re¬
mains ; wherefore fet o below, in the place of tens;
then 5 hundred from 8 hundred, and 3 hundred remain ;
which fet below, in the place of hundreds ; and you will
find the total difference or remainder to be 305.
II. Having placed the numbers, units under units, be.
as in the margin, fay, 5 units from 2 units, you
7432 cannot, but, becaufe an unit in the next fuperior
2.785. place makes ten in this place, you muff borrow
  1, viz. 1 ten, from thefaid next place, as direc-
4647 ted in Rule II. ; which 1 ten being added to 2
makes 12 ; then fay, 5 from 12, and 7 remains ;
which 7 fet below in the place of units ; then proceed,
and pay the unit borrowed, either by efteeming 3, the
next figure in the major, to be only 2, or, which is more
ufual, and the fame in effett, by adding 1 to the next
figure in the minor, thus, 1 that you borrowed and 8
make 9, from 3 you cannot, but, borrowing as before,
■jou fay, 9 from 13 and 4 remains; which 4 fet below:
proceed, and fay, 1 that you borrowed and 7 make 8,
from 4 you cannot, but from 14, and 6 remains; which
6 fet below: go on, and fay, 1 borrowed and 2 make
3, from 7, and 4 remains; which 4 fet below. So the
difference or remainder is 4647.
H. Subtraftion of the parts of Integers; fuch as Shil¬
lings, Pence, Farthings, Ounces, &e.
Rule I. Place like parts under other, viz. farthings
under farthings, pence under pence,. and the greater
of the given numbers uppermoft.
II. Begin at the loweft of the parts, and borrow ac*
cording to the value of an unit of the next fuperior de¬
nomination; viz. in farthings borrow 4, in pence bor¬
row 12, be. as the tables of money and weights direct.
HI. Iffyoir borrow 20, 30, 40, 60, or any juft num¬
ber of tens, as in fubtra&ing (hillings, degrees, poles,,
minutes, feconds, be. proceed with the right-hand co-
kimn, as in fubtraftion of integers 1 and then fubtraft
M E T I C K.
your tens, borrowing, if need be, the number of tens
contained in an unit of the next fuperior denomination.
The reafon appears plain in the following operations.
I. M O Nr E Y.
Having, according to (10) (20) (12) (4)
Rule I. placed like parts L. s. d. f.
under other, viz. far- 73 15 10 2 major,
things under farthjngs, 48 12 62 minor.
pence under pence, be.  1 —  
and in each of thefe de- 25 3 4 remainder,
nominations, units under
units, tens under tens, and the greater of the given
numbers uppermoft, as in the magin, begin with the far¬
things, and fay, 2 from 2, and o remains; and proceed
to the pence, faying, 6 from 10 and 4 remains; which
4 fet down, and go on to the (hillings, faying 2 from 5
and 3 remains, and 1 from 1, and o remains; or you
may fay at once, 12 from 15, and 3 remains; which 3
being fet down, proceed to the pounds, which are inte¬
gers, and fubtra<fted as fuch.
In this example fay, 3 farthings from 1 farthing you
cannot, but as dire&ed in
Rule II. you fay, 3 from (10) (20) (12)
4, the number of farthings L. s. d.
in 1 penny borrowed, and 708 14 major.
1 remains; which 1 added 170 17 10^ minor.
to 1 in the major gives 2 
farthings for a remain- 429 16 remainder,
der; which fet down, and
proceed to the pence, faying, 1 penny borrowed and ro
make 11, which from 6 you cannot, but from 12, the
number of pence in 1 (hilling, and 1 remains ; which r
added to 6 in the major gives a remainder of 7 ; which
fet down, and go on to the (hillings ; and becaufe in fub-
tradling (hillings we borrow a juft number of tens, viz.
2 tens, or 20, work as dire&ed in Rule III.; and in the
right-hand column fay, 1 borrowed and 7 make 8, which
from 4 you cannot, but from 14, and 6 remains; which
being fet down, go on to the left-hand column, and fay,
1 borrowed and 1 make 2, which from x you cannot,
but from 2, the number of tens in 1 pound, and nothing
remains, which o added to 1 in the major gives 1 for
a remainder; which fet down, and proceed to the
pounds, faying, 1 borrowed and 8 make 9, which from
8 you cannot, but from 18, be.
Note, Some add the number borrowed to the figure
or number in the major, and then fubtradl from their
fum. Thus, in the farthings they add the 4 borrowed
to 1 in the major, and then from the fum 5 they fubr
trad! the. 3 in. the minor; and in the pence they add the
12-borrowed to 6 in the major, and fubtradt from the
fum 18, be.-, but the method taught above, is the eafieft
and moft ufual.
2. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.
Begin with the pounds, and (xa) (4) (28).
fay, 24 from 22 you cannot* but C. lb.
from 28,. the number-of pounds in 84 1 22 major.
1 quarter, and 4 remains, which 49. 3 24 minor,
added to 22 in the major, gives 3^ 1 26 rem.
26 for
ARITHMETIC K. 37c
26 for a remainder; which fet below, and proceed to
the quarters, faying, i quarter borrowed and 3 make 4,
which from 1 you cannot, but from 4, the number of quar¬
ters in 1 C. and o remains, which o added to 1 in the
major gives 1 for a remainder; which fet down, and go
on to the C. which are integers, faying, 1 C. borrow¬
ed and 9 make 10, which from 4 you cannot, but
from 14, &c.
III. The Proof of Subtraftion.
Merchants and men of bufinefs ufe no other proof
befides a revifal of the work, or running over it a fe-
cond time ; but it is ufual in fchools to put the learner
upon proving the operation, by fome of the three me¬
thods following, viz.
1. The work may be proved by addition; for if you
add the remainder to the minor, the fum will.be equal
to the major, as in the following example.
Exarnp. L. s. d.
major 73 15 10
minor 48 12 6
rem. 25 3 4
proof 73 15 10
2. By fubtradhon; for if you fubtrad! the remainder
from the major, the difference will be equal to the minor,
as follows.
L. s, d.
5847 major 73 .15 10
2569 minor 48 12 6
3278 rem. 25 3 4
25-69 proof 48 12 (y
3. By carting our the 9’s;. for the major being equal
to the fum of the minor and remainder, if you cart the
9’s out of the major, and place the excefs at the top of
the crofs, and then cart the 9’s out of the minor and re¬
mainder, as if they were items in addition, and place the
excefs at the foot of the crofs, it is plain the figure at
the top and foot, if the work be right,.will be the fame.
Only, in proving fubtradtion of money, Avoirdupois
weight, <bc. care murt be taken to begin with the higheft
denomination, reducing always the excefs to the next
inferior denomination, as taught in. the proof of addition.
See the following example.
L. s. d.
major 73 15. 10
minor 48 12 6
rem. 25. 3 4
T
Chap. IV. Multiplication.
under the common name of faftors; and the number
arifing from the multiplication of the one by the other
is called the produft, and fometimes the fatt, or the
rettangle. If a multiplier confifts of two or more fi¬
gures, the numbers arifing from the multiplication of
thefe feveral figures into the multiplicand, are called par¬
ticular, or partial produtts; and their fum is called the
total produh.
Multiplication then is the taking or repeating of the
multiplicand, as often as the multiplier contains unity. Or,
Multiplication, from a multiplicand and a multiplier
given, finds a third number, called the produft,. which
contains the multiplicand as often as the multiplier con¬
tains unity.
Hence multiplication fupplies the place of many addi¬
tions ; for if the multiplicand be repeated or fet down as
often as there are units in the multiplier, the fum of
thefe, taken by addition, will be equal to the product
by multiplication. Thus, 5X3 = 15=5 + 5 + 5.
The firft and loweff flrep in multiplication is, to mul¬
tiply one digit by another ; and the fairt or number thence
arifing is called a Jingle produtt. This elementary ftep
may be learned from the following table, commonly
called Pythagoras's table of multiplication : which is con-
fultedthus; feek one of the digits or numbers on the
head, and the other on the left fide,, and.in the angle of
meeting you have their produdt. The learner,, before
he proceed further, ought to get the table by heart.
To Pythagoras’s table are here added, on account of
their ufefiilnefs, the produ&s of the numbers 10, 11, 12.
In multiplication there are two numbers given, viz. one
to be multiplied, called the multiplicand; and another
that multiplies it, called the multiplier; thefe two go
I. Multiplication of Integers.
Rule I. Set the multiplier below the multiplicand,
fo as like places may Hand under other, viz. units under r
-units,.
F aiftofs
371 A R I T H M
units, tens under tens, Sc,.: but if either or both of the
factors have ciphers on the right hand, fet their firft
lignificant figures under other.
The 01 der prefcribed in this rule is not abfolutely ne-
cefiary, but very convenient as will appear in the ex¬
amples.
II. Beginning at the right hand, multiply each figure
of the multiplier into the whole multiplicand, carrying,
as in addition, and placing the right-hand figure of each
particular produ& dire&ly under the multiplying figure.
III. Add the particular produdls, and their fum will
be the total produdl.
Examp. I. Having placed the multiplier under the
multiplicand, as directed in Rule I. proceed to the ope¬
ration, and fay, 7 times 4
94 multiplicand, make 28; fet the 8 be-
7 multipler. low in the place of units,
   and carry the 2 tens to
658 produfh the next place, as dirdted
in Rule H. faying 7 times
9 make 63, and 2 that I carried make 65; fet 5 below
in the place qf tens, and the 6, which belongs to the next
place, fet on its left hand, there being no further place
to which it can be carried; fo the produdt is 658.
II. Here firft multiply the right-hand figure 8 into
the whole multiplicand, as in
the former example; then pro¬
ceed, and multiply likewife the
6 tens into the whole multipli¬
cand, faying 6 times 2 make
12; fet the 2 below under the
the multiplying figure, viz. in
50456 total produdt. the place of tens, and carry
the x to the next place, as di-
refled in Rule II. The reafon why the 2 is fet under
the multiplying figure, or in the place of tens, is, becaufe
the multiplying figure 6 is really 6 tens or 60, and 60
times 2 make 120; fo that by carrying the 1 to the next
place, and fetting down 20, the o would fall into the
place of units, and throw the 2 into the place of tens ; but
as o can make no alteration in the addition of the par¬
tial produ&s, the fetting of it down is fofely and juftly
omitted.
III. When the multiplier has ciphers on the right hand,
as it would be evidently loft labour to mul¬
tiply by the ciphers, their only ufe being to
throw figures on their left hand into higher
places, fet the firft fignificant figures of the
fatfors tinder other; and, after the ope¬
ration is finiftied, annex the ciphers of
the multiplier to the right hand of the pro¬
duct
IV. When the multiplier has ciphers intermixed with
figniHcant figures, omit the ciphers,
29601847 becaufe the multiplying by them would
300905 only produce fo many lines of ciphers
—  and lb be labour in vain ; wherefore
148009235 multiply by,the fignificant figures only;
266416623 but take care to place the right-hand
88805541’ figure of each particular product di-
8907343771535 , reftly under the multiplying figure.
E T I C R.
Contractions, and fwiple ways of working multiplica¬
tion of integers.
1. To multiply any number by 10, by 100, by 1000,
he. to the given number annex one,. two, three ciphers,
he. Thus, 23X10=230; and 384X100=38400;
and 745 X 1000=745000.
2. To multiply any number by 9, by 99, by 999, 'he.
multiply the given number firft by 10, by 100, by 1000,
he. that is, annex one, two, three, he., ciphers to it;
from this fubtradt the given number, and the remainder
is the produft ; as in the following examples.
Ex. 1. Ex. 2. Ex. 3.
Mult. 47 Mult. 627 Mult. 999
by 9 470
Sub. 47
by 99 62700
Sub. 627
by 999 999000
Sub.
999
742 multiplicand.
68 multiplier.
5936"? particular
4452 5 products.
prod. 423 Prod. 62073 Prod. 998001
From Ex. 3. we may learn, in genera!, Aat to multi¬
ply any number confiding entirely of 9’s by itfelf, is to
let x in the place of units, then as many ciphers, fave
one, as there are p’s in the given number; then 8, and
on the left hand of 8 as many 9’s as there are ciphers on
its right.
3. To multiply any number by 5; firft multiply it by
10, that is, annex a cipher to it, and then halve it: and
to multiply any number by 15, ufe the fame method; and
add both numbers together, as in the following examples.'
Multiply 7439 Multiply 9856
by 5 -
74390
by 1S- 985607 dd
492803
853
72000
1706
5771
614:6000
Produft 37195 Produdt 147840
4. To multiply any number by 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16, he. multiply by the unit’s figure, and add the back-
figure of the multiplicand to the produdt; and to multiply
by 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, he. add the double of
the back-figure; and to multiply by 31, 32, 33, 34, he.
add the triple of it; and to multiply by 112, x 13, 114,
he. add the two back-figures ; and to multiply by 101,
102, I03,xi04, he. add the next back-figure fave one:
as in the following examples.
Ex. 1. Ex. 2.
876 or multiply by 876 or thus, 876 694
11 xx thus 876 876 14
9636
JZx. 3.
435
27
9636 9636
Ex. 4.
241
34
1'745
Ex. 5.
7234 or thus, .7234
112 7234
  7234
81020S 7234.
§10208
8194
Ex. 6.
^63
119
31297
9716
E». 7.
745
10.3
76735
A R I T H M E T I C K. 373
In multiplying by 12, as in Ex. 8. it is more Ex. 8.
tifual, and equally eafy, to proceed by faying, 48
twelve times 8 make 96, and, fetting down the 12
6, fay, twelve times 4 is 48, and 9 carried is 
5.7J which fet down, and the product is 576. 576
5. If the multiplier confift of the fame figure repeated,
as in, 222, 333, 777, &c. multiply by the unit’s fi¬
gure, and out of that produdl make up the total produdt,
thus. Begin at the right hand, and firil take one figure,
then the fum of two, then the fum of three, <&c. repeating
the operation (till from the right hand, as often as there
are figures in the multiplier; then negle<5Hng the right-
hand figure, or figure in the firft place, take the fum of
as many figures toward the left hand a! the multiplier has
places ; and if there be not fo many, take the fum of all
the figures there are; then, neglecting the figures in the
firft andfecond place, begin at the figure in the third place,
proceed as before; and thus go on till the laft or left-hand
figure is taken in alone; as in the following examples.
Ex. 1. Ex. 2. Ex. 3.
7645 4983 38
33 666 4444
22935 pr. by 3. 29898 pr.by6. xya pr.by4.
252285 total. 3318678 total. 168872 total.
6. The operation may frequently be rendered fhorter
or eafier, either by addition, fubtraCtion, or a more
Ample multiplication; and the cafes of this kind are fo
numerous and various, that they admit of no limitation.
Confult the following examples and directions.
Ex. 1. Ex. 2. Ex. 3.
438 374 746
87 56 84
3066 2244 2984
3504 1870 5968
38106 20944 62664
Work the above examples as follows.
Ex. 1. Multiply by 7, and add that produCt to the
multiplicand, inftead of multiplying by 8.
Ex. 2. Multiply by 6, and out of that produCt fub-
traCt the multiplicand, inftead of multiplying by 5.
Ex. 3. Multiply by 4, and double that produCt for 8.
II. Multiplication of the parts of Integers.
Here there are three cafes.
1. If your multiplier is a Angle digit, fet it under the
units figure of the loweft denomination, multiply it into
all the parts of the multiplicand, beginning at the loweft,
and^arrying always as- in addition, or according to the
value of the next luperior place.
Examp. What is the price of 7 packs of cloth at
L,. 64, 8 s. ioid. per pack ?
L. s. d. Here fay, 7 times 2 is 14, which is '
64 8 ioi 3 pence and 2 farthings over; fet down
7 ‘ the 2 farthings, and carry 3 to the place
 of pence, faying, 7 times 10 is 70, and
451 2 3 ,that I carried makes 73, which is 6
fliillings and 1 penny: fet down the
Vol. I. No. 16. a
I penny, and carry 6 to the place of {hillings, faying’
7 times 8 is 56, and 6 that I carried is 62, which make3
3 pc-nds and 2 (hillings; fet down the 2 (hillings, and
carry 3 to the place of pounds which are integers.
2. If your multiplier confifts of two or more figures,
multiply continually by its component parts, or by the
component parts of the compofite number that comes
neareft to it, and then multiply the given multiplicand
by the difference of the multiplier, and the neareft com-'
pofite number: the fum or difference of.thefe two pro¬
ducts is the anfwer.
Examp. I. What is the price of 56 C. tobacco, at
L. 2 : 14 : 9^ per C.
Here the component parts are 8 and 7; for 8X7 =
56: therefore.
Multiply firft by 8, and that produCt by L. s. d.
7; or, which will give the fame anfwer, 2 14 9!'
multiply firft by 7, and then that produCt 8
by 8.  
21 186
7
153 9 6
Examp. II. What is the price of 126 yards of vel¬
vet, at L. 3 : 8 : 4 per yard ?
Here multiply firft by 6, that produCt L. s. d.
by 7, and that produCt again by 3 : but as 384
the component parts are various, and may 6
be chofen at pleafure, you would have had   ——
the fame anfwer, had you multiplied by 20 10
9 X 7 X 2 ; or by 7 X 3 X 3 X 2. 7
143 10
3
430 10
From the above example may be deduced a general
and eafy rule for working all queftions of this kind; and
is of excellent ufe when the multiplier happens to be a
number; viz.
Multiply continually fo many times by 10 .as there are
figures in the multiplier, fave one; then multiply the gi¬
ven price by the right-hand figure of the multiplier; and
again, the firft produCt of 10 by the following figure of
the multiplier; and fo on, till you have multiplied by all.
the figures in the multiplier. The fum of thefe products .
is the anfwer.
Examp. III. What is the price of 8604 yards of cloth,
at 19 s. 64-d. per yard ?
L. s. d. Price of L. s. d. Price of
19 64 I yd, X 4 = 3 18 2 4yds.
10
9155 10 yds, X 0 =
ip
97 14 2 100 yds, X6= 586 5 600 yds.
to
977 1 8 1000 yds, X8 = 7816 13 4 8000 yds.
3. If
Price of 8604 yards, 8406 166
S B
3”4
R I
H M
3. If your multiplier confifts of integers and parts, the
operation is performed by a crofs multiplication of the
f$veral parts of the multiplier into all the parts of the mul¬
tiplicand.
The contents of mafon and joiners work are frequent¬
ly call up by this kind of multiplication ; for underftand-
ing of which obferve, that
The fupierficial content of any redtangle is found by
multiplying the length into the breadth ; and the content
of a right-angled triangle is found by multiplying the bafe
into half the perpendicular or height.
The dimenfions are ufually taken in lineal feet, inches,
and lines; and the operation is performed by the follow¬
ing rules.
I. Any lineal meafure multiplied into the fame li¬
neal meafure produces fquares of that name. Thus,
lineal feet multiplied into lineal feet produce fquare
feet; lineal inches into lineal inches produce fquare
inches, i^r.
II. Lineal feet into lineal inches produce redangles
1 foot long and 1 inch broad, which divided by 12 quote
fquare feet: and the remainder multiplied by 12, pro¬
duces fquare inches..
III. Lineal feet into lineal lines produce redangles 1
foot long and 1 line broad, which divided by 144 quote
fquare feet; and the remainders are redangles equal to
fquare inches.
IV. Lineal inches into lineal lines produce fmall red¬
angles 1 inch long and x line broad, 4hich divided by
12 quote fquare inches; and the remainder, multiplied
by 12', produces fquare lines.
Examp. I. In an area, pavement, or piece of plai-
fter-work, in length 24 feet 7 inches, and in breadth 18
feet 5 inches, how many fquare feet ?
18X7=126
24X5=120
452
12)246(20
24
12X6=72
by Rule II.
Here multiply 18 lineal feet into 24 lineal feet, and
the produd is 432 fquare feet; then multiply 5 lineal
inches into 7 lineal inches, and the produd is 35 fquare
inches, by Rule I.; then multiply 18 lineal feet into 7
lineal inches, and the produd is 126; and again multi¬
ply 04 lineal feet into 5 lineal inches, and the produd is
J20; which added to the former produd, gives 246
Tedangles, each being 1 foot.in length and one inch in
breadth; thefe divided by 12 quote 20 fquare feet; and
the remainder 6 multiplied by 12, produces 72 fquare
inches, according to Rule H. ; thefc add to the former
fquare feet and inches, and you’ll find the anfwer or total
produd to be 452 fquare feet, and 107 fquare inches.
Examp. II. In an area or floor, in length 38 feet 9
foches 6 lines, and in breadth 23 feet 8 inches 6 lines,
how. many fquare feeti
TICK,
3*j
23X9=207
38X8=304
12)511(42
48
B-i
24
By Rule III.
ByRuleH.
ByRulelV.
9x998
38X6=228
23X6=138
144)366(2
288
78 12X6=72.
Becaufe the fum of the inches exceeds 144, carry
1 from them to the column of feet, and fet down theo-
verplus, viz. 98.
The operation may be rendered eafier and flxorter by
previcufly reducing the fadors to two denominations,
viz. inches and lines. Thus the former example may be
prop.ofed and wrought as follows.
In an area or floor, in length 465 inches 6 lines, and
in breadth 284 inches 6 fines, how many fquare inches
and feet ?
465X6=2790
284X6=1704
By Rule IV.
The anfwer here is 1324314 fquare inches, and xo8
fquare lines; and if the inches be divided by 144, you
will have 910 fquare feet and a remainder of 98 fquare
inches, as before.
Or the fadors may be reduced to the lowed denomi¬
nation, viz. lines, and then the produd will be fquare
fines, which, divided by 144, will quote fquare inches,
and the remainder will be fquare lines; and the fquare
inches, divided by 144, will quote fquare feet, and the
remainder will be fquare inches. Again, the fquare
feet, divided by 9, will quote fquare yards, and the re¬
mainder will be fquare feet; and the fquare yards, divi¬
ded by 36, will quote fquare roods, and the remainder
will be fquare yards.
If this crofs multiplication be extended to the menfii-
ration of folids, the content of which is found by multi¬
plying the fuperficial content of the bafe into the height,
depth, length, or thicknefs, the operation muft be con¬
ducted by the following rules.
V. Any fuperficial meafure multiplied into the fame
lineal meafure produces a folid of the fame name. Thus
fuperficial feet multiplied into lineal feet produce folicf
feet; fuperficial inches multiplied ixita lineal.inches pro¬
duce folid. inches, <&c.
R I T H M E T I C K.
375'
VI. Superficial feet into lineal inches produce paral¬
lelepipeds, whofe bafe is 1 fquare foot, and their height
1 inch; which divided by 12 quote folid feet; and the
remainder, multi-plied by 144, produces folid inches.
VII. Superficial feet into lineal lines produce paral¬
lelepipeds, whofe bafe is 1 fquare foot, and their height
1 line ; which divided by 144 quote folid feet; and the
remainder multiplied by 12 produces foiid inches.
VIII. Superficial inches into lineal lines produce pa¬
rallelepipeds, whofe bafe is 1 fquare inch, and their
height r line; which divided by 12 quote folia inches ;
and the remainder multiplied by 12 produces folid inches.
IX. Lineal feet into fuperfietal inches produce paral¬
lelepipeds, whole bafe is one- fquare inch, and their
height 1 foot; which divided by 144 quote felid feet;
and the remainder multiplied by 12 produces folid lines.
X. Lineal feet into fuperfieiat lines produce parallele¬
pipeds, whofe bafe is 1 fquare line, and their height 1
foot; which divided by 12 quote folid inches; and the
remainder multiplied by 144 produces folid lines.
XL Lineal inches into fuperficial lines produce paral-
lelopipeds, whofe bafe is 1 fquare line, and their height
Examp. IV. How many folid feet in a polifhed Hone,
that is 8 feet 9 inches ^ lines long, 7 feet 3 inches broad,
and 3 feet 5 lines thick i
189
7X9 = 63
8X3=24
, by Rule II.
12)87(7^. '
12X3=36 in. -7
7 X 5 = 3 5 /'«. by Rule III.
3X5 = 15 ^
12)15(1 »'». v by Rule IV.
Bbjfup. 12X3 = 36//.j
5 lin.
byR.VIi:
?byR.IX.
8o 63X5=315, and 144)3x5(2 F.
12X27=324 /«.
3X99=297, and j 44)297(2F.
12X9=108 in.
3X36=108, and 12)108(9 in. by Rule X.
5X99=495, and i2)495(4i/>z. 7 l n VTTT
482I612 144X 3=432//«<?/. 5 ^
The operation may be facilitated by previoufly redu-
1 inch; which divided by 144 quote folid inches; and- c*nS the three fadtors to two denominations, viz. inches
the remainder multiplied by t2yproduces folid lines.
Examp. III. In apiece of timber, whofe length is 18
feet 16 inches, breadth 2 feet 4 inches, and thieknefs 2.
feet 3 inches, how many foKd feet?
F.j /$,
1.8) 6) 2X6=12
8X4=72
24
12)84(7 F.^
fuperficial
lineal
folid
2X24=48 ? bvR.
12X48=5x6//?. 3 IX.
97I 216
Here firfl: multiply r8 feet 6 inches into 2 feet 4 inches,
as formerly, and'..the produdb is 43 feet 24,inches fuper¬
ficial ; which next multiply into 2 feet 3 inches li¬
neal, thus, 43 fuperfieial feet into 2: lineal feet produce
and lines,, as was done in Example II. on fuperficial
meafure.
Or the three fadlors may be reduced to the loweft de¬
nomination, viz, lines, which being multiplied conti¬
nually, will produce folid lines, which divided by 1728,
will quote folid inches, the remainder being folid lines ;
and the folid inches divided by 1728 will quote folid
feet, the remainder being folid inches; and the folid feet.
divided by 27 will quote folid yards, the remainder be¬
ing folid feet; and the folid yards divided by 216 will
quote fblid roods; the remainder being folid yards.
We fhall only further obferve, that as the rules for
working queflions by crofs multiplication are numerous,,
and the operation tedious, it is eafier to convert the parts
into a decimal fradlion of their integer, and then work
as taught in the multiplication of decimals.
III. The Proof of Multiplication.
Multiplication may be proved feveral ways; viz.
by multiplication, by divifion, and by caflingout the 9’s,
1. By multiplication: Change the places of the fac¬
tors, and make that the multiplier which before was the
multiplicand; and if the \york be right, you will have
86 folid feet, and 24 foperficial incites into 3 lineal inches- the fame produft; as before; but this method is tedious.
produce 72 folid inches, by Rule V.; then a 3 fuperfi¬
cial feet into 3 lineal inches produce 1.29 parallelepipeds,
whofe bafe is 1 fquare, foot, and their height 1 inch;
which divided by 12 quotes. 10 folid.feet.; and tl>e re¬
mainder 9 multiplied into 144 produces-1296 folid inches,,
by Rule VI. Again, 2 lineal feet into 24 fuperficial.
inches produce 48; which, being kfs than 144, you e-
2. By divifion : When the work is right, the prod eft -
divided by the multiplier quotes the multiplicand; or,
divided by the multiplicand, quotes the multiplier. But -
this fuppofes thfr learner acquainted with divifion.
3. The moft ufual method therefore of proving multi-
plication is by calling out the 9’s; which is done, thus:
Call the 9’s out of the multiplicand and multiplier, and
fteem a remainder, and multiplying it into 12. you have a. place the excelfes on the right and left fides of a crofs-
produft of 576 folid inches, by Rule IX. multiply thefe two figures into one another, calling the
Becaufe the fum of the inches exceeds 1728, carry 9’s out of their produft, if need be, and place the excefs
1 from thence to the feet, and the overplus 216 fet at the top of the crofs; then calling the 9’s alfo out of-
^Qwn‘ the produA of your multiplication, place its excefs at the :
bottom 5 .
154
28
6032
2262
28652
00
5
^7^ A R I t H M
bottom; and if the work be right, the figures at top and
: bottom will agree, or be the lame.
Examp. I. Here call the 9’s out
of the multiplicand, and place the
excefs 7 on the right fide of the crofs;
then call the 9’s out of the multiplier,
and place the excefs 2 on the left fide
of the crofs ; next multiply thefe ex-
eeffes 2 and 7 into one another, call
the 9’s out of their product, and
place the excefs five at the top of the
crofs; la-ftly, call the 9’s out of the produd, and place
the excefs 5 at the foot of the crofs; which being the
fame with the figure at the top,. you may conclude the
work to be right.
Examp.II. Here, in calling
the n’s out of the multiplicand,
and out of the produd, begin
with the pounds, and reduce the
excefs to Ihillings, and in like
347 6 10 manner the excefs of the Ihil--
lings is reduced to pence, and
that of the pence to farthings. The multiplier being an
abllrad number, needs no redudion; but if a multiplier
be a mixt number, or confift of integers and parts, as
feet and inches, fyc. the excefs of the higher denomina-
E T I C K.
2* 8
7
X*
7
called the.quotient or quot.
As multiplication fupplies the place of many additions,
fo divificn, which is the reverfe of multiplication,
ferves inllead of many fubtradions; as will thus ap-
. pear: Suppofe it were required to divide 18 by 6,
*2 that is, to find how often 6 is contained in 18, the
^ work by fubtradion will Hand as in the margin-:
by which it appears, that 6 is contained 3 times in
<5 the number 18. But this, by divifion, may be
found at one trial: thus,
I. Divifion of Integers.
Rule I. From the left-hand part of the dividend
point off the firll dividual, viz. fo many figures as will
contain the divifor.
II. Aik how often the divifor is contained in the divi¬
dual, and put the anfwer in the quotient.
III. Multiply the divifor by the figure fet in the quo¬
tient, and fubtrad the produd from the dividual,
IV. To the right of the remainder bring down the
next figure of the dividend for a new dividual; and then
proceed as before.
Examp. I. Here, becaufe the
divifor 7 is contained in 8, the left- Divi- Divi- Quo-
hand figure of the dividend, point it for. dend. tient.
off as the firft dividual, according 7)875(125
to Rule I; and then fay, How oft- . . .
en 7 in 8 ? Anf. 1 time; which 1 7
let in the quotient, as direded in —— ^ i ■
Rule II.; then multiply the divifor
7 by this quotient figure 1, and fub¬
trad the .produd 7 from the divi¬
dual 8, as direded in Rule III.; to
the remainder 1 bring down the fol- ,
lollowing figure of the dividend, for
the fecond dividual, as direded in
Rule IV.; then proceed as before,
and fay. How often 7 in 17? Anf. 2 times; where¬
fore, fetting two in the quotient, multiply and fubtrad
and find the next remainder to be 3 ; to which bring
down the following figure of the dividend, and you have
3 5 for the third dividual; then fay, How often 7 in 3 5 ?
Anf. 5 times; which 5 being placed in' the quotient,
multiply and fubtrad, and o remains; fo the quotient
given number contains is 125.
By reviewing the Heps of the preceding operation, and
reducing the dividuals and quotient-figures to their fe-
parate values, the reafon of the rules will be obvious;
for,
The feparate value 7)875(100}
. partialquots.
tion mull always be reduced to the lower.
C h a p. V. Division.
Division difcovers how often one number is con¬
tained in another: or,
Divifion, from two numbers given, finds a third, which
contains unity as often as the
the other.
The number to be divided, or which contains the o-
ther, is called the dividend; the number by which we
divide, or which is contained in the dividend, is called
the divifor; and the number found by divifion, or which
expreffes how often the dividend contains the divifor, is of the firft dividual 8
17
14
35
35
(°)
t?
100 125
70
total quot.
(°)‘
Set the divifor on the left of the dividend, leaving
room on the right hand for the quotient, as in
the margin; and then fay. How often 6 in 18 ?
Anf. 3 times : this 3 fet in the quotient; then
multiply the quotient figure 3 into the divifor
6, faying, 3 times 6 make 18; which fet down
below the dividend, and lubtratt it from the
6)18(3
18
\o)
dividend, and o remains.
is 800; and the fe- iftdividualSoo
parate value of 1, the 700
firft figure put in the
quot, is 100; for
as 8 contains 7 the
divifor 1 time, fo 800
contains it 100 times,
and 100 remains ; to
which bring down
the following figure
of the dividend 7,
whofe feparate value
is 70; and the fe- 3d dividual 35
cond dividual is 170; 35
and as 7 is contained — *
2 times in 17, fo it (o)
is contained 20 times
in 170, and 30 remains ; to which bring ffown the next
or laft figure of the dividend 5 ; and the third dividual
2d dividual 170
140
30
5
R I T H M E T I C K.
is 35, in which the divifor 7 is contained 5 times. Now
it is evident, that the fum of the partial qaots, 125, is
the total quot, or a number exprelling how often the di¬
vidend 875 contains the divifor 7.
From the above example we may learn, that there
are always juft fo many figures in the quotient as there eighth part of a t
377
vifor 8 below it, fignifying that 1 remains to be divided
by 8 ; or this part of the quotient may be confidered as
a fradlion, whofe numerator is 1, and its denominator
8 ; and the quotient thus completed Ihews, that the di¬
vidend contains the divifor 7004112 times, and one
are dividuals; or the firft dividual, with the number of
fubfequent figures in the dividend, is equal to the num¬
ber of places or figures in the quotient.
Hence likewife may be inferred, that no divifor is
contained in any dividual oftener than 9 times ; for the
dividual, excluding the right-hand figure, is always lefs
than the divifor by 1 at leaft ; and if both be multiplied
by 10, or have a cipher annexed to each of them, the
produdt of the dividual will be lefs than the produd of
the divifor by 10 at leaft ; but no right-hand figure can
fupply this defed of 10; therefore the divifor is not
contained 10 times in any dividual, and confequently not
oftener than 9 times.
Here too obferve, that the right-hand figure of the firft
dividual, and all the fubfequent figures of the dividend,
have a point or dot fet below them, as they are brought
down ; which is done to prevent miftakes, by diftinguilh-
ing them, in this manner, from the figures not yet brought
down.
Examp. II. Here,
becaufe 8 is not con¬
tained in 5, point off
56 as the firft dividu¬
al, and fay, How of¬
ten 8 in 56 ? Anf. 7 ;
which put in the quo¬
tient ; then multiply 7
into the divifor 8, and
fubtradthe produd 56
from the dividual; and
as nothing remains,
bring down the next
figure of the dividend,
which happens to be a
cipher; and as you
cannot have 8 in o,
put o in the quotient;
and, as multiplying and fubtrading is in this cafe
needlefs, you bring down the next figure of the di¬
vidend 3 ; and as you cannot have 8 in 3, put another
o in the quotient, and- bring down the next figure
of the dividend' 2 : Then fay, How often 8 in 32 ?
Anf 4; which put in the quotient: Then multiply
andfubtrad; and as nothing remains, bring down the
next figure of the dividend 8, and fay, How often 8
in 8 ? Anf. 1 ; which put in the quotient : then mul¬
tiply and fubtrad,- and as nothing remains, bring down
the rxxt figure of the dividend 9, and fay, How often 8
in 9 r Anf. 1; which put in the quotient: then mul¬
tiply gnd fubtrad; and to the remainder 1 bring down
The next and laft figure of the dividend 7, and fay, How
often 8 in 17? Anf 2 ; which put in the quotient:
awn multiply and fubtrad, and 1 remains.
TV complete the quotient, draw a line on the right
band, and ft the remainder above the line, and the di-
Vol. I. No. 16. 3
^ / 1 numer.
8)^0?????(70°4lI28'denom.
• 032
32
•8
8
17
16
(0
36)789426(21928-54
72
dp
36 / -
Here obferve, that riot only the laft remainder, but
every other remainder, muftbe lefs than the divifor ; for
if it be either greater or equal, the divifor might have
been oftener got, and the quotient-figure is too little.
And ftiould any one in this cafe attempt to continue the
operation, the quotient-figures would be all 9’s, the di¬
viduals would prove inexhauftible, and the remaindeis
would conftantly increafe.
Hence alfo learn, that if any dividual happen to be lefs
than the divifor, you muft put o in the quotient, and
bring down the next figure of the dividend ;»and if it be
ftill lefs than the divifor, you muft put another o in the
quotient, and bring down the following figure of the di¬
vidend, <bc.
III. Here the divifor confifts
of two figures; and becaufe it
is contained in the two left-
hand figures of the dividend
78, point them off as the firft
dividual; and fay, How often
3 in 7 ? Anf. 2, and 1 remains;
which 1 placed, or conceived
as placed, on the left hand of
the following figure 8, makes
18 : then fay. Can I have the
following figure of the divifor 6
alfo 2 times in 18 ? Anf Yes.;
confequently I get 36 the di¬
vifor 2 times in 78 the divi¬
dual; wherefore put 2 in the
quotient, and multiply that 2
into the divifor 36, and fuh- ^
tradt the product 7 2 from the dividual 7^ and to the
remainder 6 bring down the following figure of the di¬
vidend 9, for a new dividual: then fay, How often 3
in 6 ? Anf. 2, and o remains ; again you fay. Can I
have 6 alfo 2 times in 9? Anf No ; therefore you can
have 36 in 69 only 1 time, which 1 you put in the
quotient: then multiply and fubtradl as before ; and to
the remainder 33 bring down die next figurq 4 for a
new dividual: Then, becaufe the dividual confifts of a
figure more than the divifor, fay, How often the firft fi¬
gure of tlje divifor 3 in the firft two figures of the divi¬
dual 33 ? Anf 9, and 6 remains; which 6 placed on
the left hand of the following figure 4 makes 64,.: A-
gain, fay. Can I have 6 alfo 9 times in 64 ? AnfAcs •
confequently 36 can be had 9 times in 334; wherefore
you put 9 in the quotient: Then multiply and fabtrafb;
and to the remainder 10 bring down the next figure's
for a new dividual: Here likewife,, becaufe tbe dividual
has a figure more than the divifor, fay, How often 3 in
10 ? Anf 3, and 1 remains; which x placed on the
left hand of the following figure 2 makes 12 : Again fay.
Can I have 6 alfo 3 times in 12 ? Anf. No ; confequent¬
ly 36 cannot be had 3 times in 102 ; wherefore try if
5 C you
334
324
102
72
306
288
(7s7
378 A R I T H M E T I C K.
you can have it 2 times; faying, 2 times 3 is 6 from
10, and 4 remains ; which 4 placed on the left hand of
the next figure 2 makes 42 : And again fay. Can I have
6 alfo 2 times in 42 ? Atif. Yes; confequently 36 can
be had 2 times in 102; accordingly put 2 in the quo¬
tient, multiply and fubtraft; and to the remainder 30
bring down the next and laft figure of the dividend 6,
for a new dividual: Then, becaufe the dividual has a fi¬
gure more than the divifor, fay. How often 3 in 30'?
Anf. 9, and 3 remains; which 3 placed on the left hand
of the following figure 6 make 36: And again fay, Can
I have 6 alfo 9 times in 36 ? Anf. No; confequently
36 cannot be had 9 times in 306; therefore try if it can
be had 8 times, faying, 8 times 3 is 24 from 30, and 6
remains^ which IS placed on the left hand of the follow¬
ing figure 6 makes 66: Again fay, Can I have 6 alfo 8
times in 66? Anf Yes; confequently 36 can be had 8
times in 306; wherefore put 8 in the quotient, andmul-
tiply and fubtradf as before: The lart remainder 18 is
the numerator of a fraction, and the divifor its denomi¬
nator, to,be annexed to the integral part of the quotient;
as was taught in the former example.
The preceding operation points out the manner of
procedure when the divifor confifts of more figures than
one, viz. you muft take the firft figure of the divifor out
of the firft figure of the dividual, or out of the firft two
figures of the dividual in cafe the dividual have a figure
more than the divifor: Then imagine the remainder to be
prefixed to the next figure of the dividual, and try if you
can have the fecond figure of the divifor as often out of
this number; if you can, imagine again the remainder
to be prefixed to the following figure of the dividual,
and try if you can have the third figure of the divifor as
often out of this number, foe.: but if you find you can¬
not have fome fubfequent figure of the divifor fo often
as you took the firft, you muft go back, and take the
firft figure of the divifor 1 time lefs, or fome number of
times lefs out of the firft, or 6ut of the firft two figures
of the dividual: Then proceed as before, repeating the
trial till you find you have the fecond and all the fubfe¬
quent figures of the divifor as often as you took the firft.
But here obferve, that if, in trying how often the
divifor can be had in the dividual, either 9, or a number
greater than 9, any where remain, you may conclude,
without further trial, that all the fubfequent figures of
the divifor can be had as often as you took the firft; as
may be thus demonftrated.
Suppofe the fubfequent figures of the divifor to be the
highest poffible, that is, all 9’s, and the following fi¬
gures of the dividual the loweft polfible, that is, all o’s ;
again, imagine the remainder 9 prefixed to the follow¬
ing figure of the dividual o, that it will make 90 ; now
it is plain, that the fubfequent figure of the divifor 9 can
be had in 90, the higheft number of times pofTible, viz.
q times, and 9 will remain; which prefixed to the next
figure of the dividual o, makes 90, in which the fubfe¬
quent figure of the divifor 9 can again be had 9 times,
and 9 will remain as before; therefore all the fubfequent
figures of the divifor can be had as often as you took the
firft ; ^and if they can be had in this cafe, much more can
they be had when? a number greater than 9 remains.
648|o)89678|2(i
648
2487
1944
(2S42)
IV If, as in the margin,
a cipher or ciphers, poflefs
the right hand of the divi¬
for, cut them off, and cut
off as many figures, viz. in
this example, the figure 2
from the right hand of the
dividend ; then divide the
remaining figures of the di¬
vidend, viz. 89678, by the
remaining figures of the di¬
vifor, viz. 648, and you
have the integral part of the
quot'Cnt; but to the remainder 254 annex the figure cut
off from the dividend, and you have 2542 for the nu¬
merator of your fraftion, and the whole divifor 6480 is
the denominator.
The reafon will appear obvious by working a queftion in
this manner, and alfo at full length, without cutting off the
cipher or ciphers, and then comparing the two operations.
V. If, as in the margin, the 48|oo)978ojoo(203|.|
figures cut off from the right
hand of the dividend, happen to
be all ciphers; in this cafe, the
laft remainder, without regard¬
ing the ciphers cut off, is the
numerator of your fradhon, and
the fignificant figures of the di¬
vifor the denominator. The
reafon is afligned in the do&rine of fradtions.
In like manner, if there be cut off from the dividend
any number of fignificant figures, with a cipher or ci¬
phers on their right hand; in this cafe the laft remainder,
with the fignificant figures cut off, make the numerator
of your fradtion; and the fignificant figures of the di¬
vifor, with as many ciphers as the number of fignificant
figures cut off from the dividend, make the denomi¬
nator. Thus, if, in the above example, the figures cut
off from the dividend had been 50, the numerator of your
fradtion would have been 365, and the denominator 480.
96
180
144
"(36)
Coniranions in •working Divijion of Integers.
1. To divide any number by 10, too, 1000, foe. you
have only to point off for a remainder as many figures
on the right hand of the dividend as the divifor has ci¬
phers, and the other figures on the left of the point or
feparatrix are the quotient; Thus, 7489634 divided
by io, 100, 1000, foe. ftands as follows.
Quot rem.
10)748963.4
100)74896.34
1000)7489.634
10000)748.9634
2. If the figures of the divifor are ally’s, or all except
the units figure, as 9, 99, 999, 98, 997^ 9996, foe. walk
as follows':
Find a new divifor, by annexing to unity as many ci¬
phers as there are figures in the given divifor, fubtradl
the given frorrr the new divifor, and the remainder or
difference is the complement. Divide the given dividend
by the new divifor, viz. point off fa many figures on
die
arithmetics:. 379
the right hand as there are ciphers in the faid divifor; the
figures thus pointed off are to be efteemed a remainder,
and the other figures on the left hand are to be accounted
a quotient; then multiply this quotient by the comple¬
ment, placing the units of the produft under the units of
the former remainder; again, divide this product by the
new divifor, by pointing off from the right hand the fame
number of figures as in the former remainder, and the fi¬
gures to the left are to be eftemmed another quotient;
which quotient you- are again to multiply by the comple¬
ment, and divide as before. And in this manner proceed
till the laft quotient is nothing; then add as in addition
of integers, obferving the carriage from the left lund co¬
lumn of the remainders; to the remainders add the pro-
dudt of the faid carriage and complement, and the fum
is the total remainder; and the fum of the feveral quo¬
tients is the total quotient required.
Example.
Divide 74678 by 98.
New divifor xoo 100)746.98
Given divifor 98 14.92=746X2
— .28=14X2
Complement 2   
Tot. quot. 762.18+4=22 total rem.
Carriage 2X2 complement —4
Explication.
Firft, to unity annex two ciphers, becaufe the given di¬
vifor confifts of two figures, and lb the new divifor is
1O0: from which fubtraft the given divifor 98, and there
remains 2 for the complement.
Next divide the, given dividend by the new divifbr,
viz. point off 98, the two figures next the right hand,
for the firft remainder; and the figures on the left, name¬
ly, 746, is the quotient.
Then multiply the faid firft quotient 746 by the com¬
plement 2 ; and by the new divilor divide the product
1492, viz. point off 92 for the fecond remainder, andi
14 is the feconcf quotient.
Again, multiply the fecond quotient 14 by the com¬
plement 2, and the product 28, divided by 100, gives
28 for the third remainder, but nothing to the quotients
Then add the feveral remainders and quotients, and
find the total quotient amounts to 762, and the remain¬
ders to 18.
Laftly, multiply 2, the carriage from the' left-hand-
column of the remainders, by the complement 2 ; and
the product 4 add to the remainders 18, and the fum 22.
is the total remainder.
II. Divi/ion of the parts if Integers.
Here there are three cafes.
x. If the divifor be a digit, by it divide the integers
of the di v idend, reduce the remainder to the parts of
the next inferior denomination, 'and add it, when thus
,vuuev.,l, ’ ' r..rts ; then divide the fum, redu-
cing and adding the 1 etnainder to the parts of the follow¬
ing denomination, £sc.
\ , It the integral part of the dividend be lefs than
«b for, you mull, j. the firft place, reduce it to the
parts of the next denomination.
Examp. I. If L. 274! 13 : 8 : 3 be equally divided
among 8 men, what will each man’s fhare be t
Here firft divide the in¬
tegers L. 274 by 8, and the L. s. d. f.
quotient is L. 34, and L. 2 8)274 8 3 dividend,
remains; which reduced to 34 6 8 2-^ quotient,
the next denomination makes
40 fhillings; and thefe added to 13 {hillings make 53
{hillings ; which divided by 8 gives 6 {hillings to the quo¬
tient, and 5 {hillings remains ; which 5 {hillings reduced
make 6od and 6od. added to 8d. make 68 d.; which divi¬
ded by 8 gives 8 d. to the quotient, and 4d. remains, fee.
The operation may, if you pleafe, be drawn out at
large; as in the following
Examp. II. If C. 42 :-2 : 8 of tobacco be made up
into .5 equal hhds, what will be the neat weight of each
hhd ?
Here divide the C. 43 by C. lb. C. lb.
5, and the quotient is C. 8, 5)43 2 8 ( 8 2 24,
and C. 3 remains; which 40
reduced, and added to the —
2 makes 14 C^_ which 3 rem,
divide by 5, fee. 4
4 rem,.
28
120-
10
20
20
2. If the divifor confifis of two qr more figures,, andi
'be-a compofite number, refolve it into its component
parts, and divide the given dividend by one of thefe-
parts, the quotient by another, fee. and the laft quo¬
tient is the anfwer..
3. If the divifor confifts of integers and parts, reduce
both divifor and dividend to the fame denomination, and:
then proceed as in divifion of integers.
III. The Proof of Ditsifon.
Division.may he proved feveral ways, viz. by mul¬
tiplication, by divifiqn, and by calling out the 9’s.
1- By multiplication: Multiply the quotient by the
divifor, or the divifor-by the quotient; and the.product
with the remainder added to it, wall be equal to the di¬
vidend : Or, take the produdls of the quotient-figures in^o
the divifor,. add them jn the order they Hand under the
dividuals; and their fum, with the remainder,. will be
equal to the dividend.
2. By divifion; Divide the difference of the dividend
and remainder by the quotient, and your next quotient
will be equal to your firft divifor, without any remainder.
But this method is tedious.
3. By calling out the 9’s: Caft the 9’s.out of the dU
vifoK
3 Bo A R I T H
vifor and quotient, place the excefles on the right and
left lides of a crofs; then multiply thefe two figures in¬
to one another, and caft the 9’s out of their product;
add the excefs to the remainder; and, carting out the
9’s if need be, place the fum or excefs at the top of the
crofs ; then caft the 9’s out of the dividend, and fet the
excefs at the bottom. If the work be right, the figures
<!t the top and bottom of the crofs will agree, or be the
fame.
Thefe methods of proof are a proper exercife to the
learper in fchools ; but, in bufinefs, the only proof ufed
is a careful revifal of the operation.
Chap. VI. Reduction.
Reduction teacheth how to bring a number of one
name or denomination to another of the fame value; and
is" either defcending, afcending, or mixt.
I. Redudtion defcending brings a number of a .higher
denomination to a lower, when the lower is fome aliquot
part of the higher; as pounds to ftiillings, pence, or far¬
things; and is performed by multiplication.
II. Reduction afcending brings a number of a lower
denomination to a higher, when the lower is fome aliquot
part of the higher; as (hillings, pence, or farthings, to
pounds ; and is performed by divifion.
III. Mixt reduftion brings a number of one denomi¬
nation to another, when the one is no aliquot part of the
other; as pounds to guineas, and requires the ufe of
both multiplication and divifion.
In treating of reduftion we ftiall conjoin the defcend¬
ing and afcending, the one ferving as a proof of the
other ; and ftiall afterwards treat of mixt reduftion by
itfelf.
In working reduction, of whatever kind, the following
rule is to be obferved, viz.
Multiply or divide as the tables of money and weights
dire£t.
Reduction defcending and afcending.
x. M O N E Y.
M E T I C K.
Proof by Reduction afcending.
In 45:3120 farthings how many pence, ftiillings, and
pounds ?
Here divide the farthings by 4)453120 farthings.
4, becaufe 4 farthings make x  
penny, and the quotient is 12)113280 pence.
pence : then divide the pence  
by 12, becaufe 12 pence make 210)944)0 (hillings.
1 (hilling, and the quotient is  
(hillings: lartly, divide the (hil- 472 pounds.
lings by 20, becaufe 20 (hillings
make 1 pound, and the quotient is pounds.
Note 1. To reduce pounds to pence at one operation,
multiply by 240, the number of pence in 1 pound
Note 2. To reduce pounds to farthings at one opera¬
tion, multiply by 960, the number of farthings in 1
pound.
Note 3. To reduce (hillings to farthings at one ope¬
ration, multiply by 48, the number of farthings in 1
(hilling.
Note 4. To reduce pence to pounds at one operation,
divide by 240, the pence in 1 pound.
Note 5. To reduce farthings to pounds at one ope¬
ration, divide by 960, the farthings in 1 pound.
Note 6. To reduce farthings to (hillings at one ope¬
ration, divide by 48, the farthings in 1 (lulling.
Here follows the farthings of Queft. 1. reduced back
to pounds by thefe notes.
By note 4.
4)453120 farthings.
24|o)ii328|od. (472L.
96
By note 5.
96)0)45312)0(472 L.
384”
691
672
172
168
192
192
48 (o)
48
Quest, i. In L. 472 how many (hillings, pence,
and farthings ?
This reduction is defcending, 472 pounds,
therefore multiply the pounds by 20
20, becaufe 20 (hillings make 1  
pound, and the produft is (hillings: 944° (hillings,
then multiply the (hillings by 12, 12
becaufe 12 pence make 1 (hilling,  
and the product is pence : lartly, 1888
multiply the pence by 4, becaufe 944
4 farthings make 1 penny, and the   
product is farthings. 113280 pence.
453120 farthings.
(°)
By note 6.
2)0)
48)453120(94 |o (hillings.
432 472 pounds.
211
192
192
192
2. AVOIR-
38i
A R I T H
2. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.
M E T I C K.
PROOF.
Quejl, i. In C. 47 : i : 20 how many ounces?
C. lb.
47 i 20
4
189
28
1512
380
5312 lb.
16^
3x872
5312 *
84992 oz.
PROOF.
In 84992 ounces how many lb. Q^and C.
28) 4) C. lb.
*6(84992 (5312 (189 (47 i 20
So’-’ 23•• 16
49 251 29
48 224 28
19 272 (o)
16 252
32 (20) lb.
32
(°)
Mixt Reduflian.
In working mixt reduction obferve the following
Rule. By redudtion defcending bring the given
name to fome fuch third name as is an aliquot part both
of the name given and of the name fought, and then by
redudtion afcending bring the third name to the name
fought.
Mixt redudtion, as well as redudtion defcending and
afcending, extends to money, as follows.
^uejl. In 7641. how many guineas ?
Here the given name is
pounds, the name fought is
guineas, and the third name,
to which the pounds are re¬
duced, is (hillings ; for a
(hilling is an aliquot part
both of a pound and of a
guinea.
764 pounds.
20
21)15280(727 guineas.
147 ••
Vol. I. No. 16.
160
147
(13) (hillings.
3
In 727 guineas 13 (hillings, how many pounds?
Guineas. Jhill.
727 13
21
730
I45S
2jo)l528|o
764 pounds.
Chap. VII. The Rule of Three.
The Rule of Three, called alfo, on account of its
excellence, the Golden Rule, from certain numbers gi¬
ven finds another ; and is divided into fimple and com¬
pound, or into Angle and double.
Sect. I. The Simple or Single Rule of Three.
The fimple rule of three, from three numbers given,
finds a fourth, to which the third bears the fame propor¬
tion as the firft does to the fecond.
The nature and properties of proportional numbers
may be underftood fufficiently for our purpofe from the
following obfervations.
In comparing any two numbers, with refpeft: to the
proportion which the one bears to the other, the firtb
number, or that which bears proportion, is called the
antecedent; and the other, to which it bears proportion,'
is called the confquent; and the quantity of the propor-*
tion or ratio is eftimated from the quot arifing from divi¬
ding the antecedent by the confequent. Thus the ratio
or proportion betwixt 6 and 3 is the quot arifing from
dividing the antecedent 6 by the confequent 3 ; namely,-
2 ; and the ratio or proportion betwixt 1 and 2 is the
quot arifing from the divifion of the antecedent 1 by the
confequent 2 ; namely °r one half.
Four numbers are faid to be proportional when the
ratio of the firft to the fecond is the fame as that of the'
third to the fourth ; and the proportional numbers are
ufually didinguilhed from one another as in the following
examples.
4 : 2 :: 16 : 8 6 : 9 :: 12 : 18.
Proportional numbers, or numbers in proportion, are
ufually denominated terms; of which the firrt and laft ■
are called extremes, and the intermediate ones get the
name of means, or middle terms.
If four numbers are proportional, they will alfo be*
inverfely proportional ; that is, the fir(t conlequent will;
be to its own antecedent as the fecond confequent is
to its antecedent; or the fourth term will be to the
third as the fecond is to the firft. Thus, if 6 : 3 :: 10 : 5,
then by inverfion, 3 : 6 :: 5 : 10, or 5 : 10 :: 3 : 6.
Euclid v. 4. cor. By either of thefe kinds of inveifioa
may any- queftion in the rule of three be proved.
If four numbers are proportional, they will alfo be al¬
ternately proportional; that is, the firft antecedent will
5 D be
382 A R I T H M
be to the fecond antecedent as the iirft confequent is
to the feeond confequent; or the firfl: term will be to
the third term as the fecond term is to the fourth. Thus,
if 8 : 4 :: 24 : 12, then, by alternation, 8 : 24 :: 4 : 12.
Euclid v. 16.
But the celebrated property of four proportional num¬
bers is, that the produdt of the extremes is equal to the
produft of the means. Thus, if 2 : 3 :: 6 : 9, then
2X9 = 3X6=18. Euclid vi. 16.
Hence we have an eafy method of finding a fourth pro¬
portional to three numbers giten, viz..
Multiply the middle number by the laft, and divide the
produft by the firft, the quot gives the fourth propor¬
tional.
Examp. Given 6, 5, and 36, to find a fourth pro¬
portional ; put x equal to the fourth proportional, then
6 : 5 :: 36 : x, and 5 X 36 = 180 = 6 X x ; where¬
fore, dividing the produdi 180 by the fadtor 6, the quot
gives the other fadtor x, namely 30, the fourth propor¬
tional fought.
Every queftion in the rule of three may be divided
into two parts, viz. a fuppofition and a demand ; and of
the three given numbers, two are always found in the fup-
ppfition, and only one in the demand.
Examp. If 4 yards coft 12 ftiillings, what will 6
yards coft at that rate ?
In this queftion the fuppofition is, If 4 yards coft x 2
{hillings ; and the two terms contained in it are 4 yards
and 12 (hillings: The demand lies in thefe words, What
will 6 yards coft ? and the only term found in it is 6
yards.
The fuppafition and demand being thus diftinguilhed,
proceed to ftate the queftion, or to put the terms in due
order for operation, as the following rules diretft.
Rule I. Place that term of the fuppofition, which
is of the fame kind with the number fought, in the mid¬
dle. The two remaining terms are extremes, and always
of the fame kind.
II. Confider, from the nature of the queftion, whether
the anfwer muft be greater or lefs than the middle term;
Mid if the anlwer muft be greater, the leaft extreme is
the divifor; but if the anfwer muft be lefs than the mid¬
dle term, the greateft extreme is the divifor.
III. Place the divifor on the left hand, and the other
extreme on the right; then multiply the fecond and third
terms, and divide their produft by the firft; and the quot
gives the anfwer; which is always of the fame name with
the middle term.
When the divifor happens to be the extreme found in
the fuppofition, the proportion is called dirc£i; but when
the divifor happens to be the extreme in the demand, the
proportion is inverfe.
The three rules delivered above are indeed fo framed,
as to preclude the diftitsftion of direft and inverfe, or
tender it needkfsj. the left-hand term being always the
divifor ; but yet the direil queftions being plainer in their
own nature, and more eafily comprehended by a learn¬
er, we (hall, in the-firft place,, exemplify the rules by a
fet of queftions of the direft kind, and (hall afterwards
adduce an example or two of fuch as are inverfe.
E T I C K.
I. The Simple Rale of Three Dircfi.
Quest, i. If 4 yards coft 12 (hillings, what will 6
yards coft at that rate ?
The fuppofition and demand of this queftion have al¬
ready been diftinguiflied, and the two terms in the former
are 4 yards 12 (hillings, and th* only term in the latter
is 6 yards.
The number fought is the price of fix yards, and
the term in the fuppofition of the fame kind is the
price of 4 yards, viz. 12 (hillings, which place in the
middle, as djreded in Rule I. and the two remaining
terms are extremes, and of the fame kind, viz. both
lengths.
Yds. . s. yds.
If 4 : 12 6
6
It is eafy to perceive
that the anfwer muft be
greater than the middle
term; for 6 yards will coft
more than 4 yards ; there¬
fore the leaft extreme,
viz. 4 yards, is the divi¬
for, according to Rule II.
4)72(18 (hillings Anf.
33
32
(°)
Wherefore place the divifor 4 yards on the left hand,
and the other extreme 6 yards on the right; and multi¬
plying the fecond and third terms, divide their produd
by the firft term, and the quot 18 is the anfwer, and of
the fame name with the middle term, viz. (hillings, ac¬
cording to Rule III.
And becaufe the divifor is the extreme found in the
fuppofition, the proportion is dired.
Quest. 2. If 7C. of pepper coft 211. how much
will 5 C. coft at that rate ?
The fuppofition in this queftion is, that 7 C. of pep¬
per cofts 211. and the two terms in it are 7 C. and 21 1.;
the demand is, How much will 5 C- coft ? and the term
in it is 5C.
The number fought is the price of $ C. and the term
in the fuppofition of the fame kind is the price of 7C.
viz. 211. which place in the middle. The two remain¬
ing terms are extremes, and of the fame kind, viz. quan¬
tities of pepper.
It is obvious, that the anfwer C, L. C.
muft be lefs than the middle If 7 : 21 :: 5
term; for 5 C. will coft lefs than 5
7 C.; and therefore the greateft  
extreme, u/z. 7 C. h the divifor.
7)105(15 /. Anf
7
35
35
(”)
Accordingly place the divifor 7C. on the left hand,
and the other extreme 5C. on the right; and having mul¬
tiplied the fecond and third terms, divide their product
by
A It I T H M E T I C K. 3%
by the firH: term, and the quot 15 is the anfwer, of the
fame name with the middie term, viz. L. Sterling.
And becaufe the divifor happens to be the extreme in
the fuppofition, the proportion is direft.
Quest. 3. If 13 yards of velvet coft L. 21, what
will 27 yards cod at that rate ?
r. l. r.
If 13 : 21 :: 27 #Rem. 4s.
27 12
M7
42
13)567(43!,.
52
47
39
Rem. 8 L.
20
13)160(12 s.
13
13)48(3 d.
39 When there hap-
— pens to be a remain-
Rem. 9 d. der, it may be redu-
4 ced to the next in-
— ferior denomination,
13)36.(2^ and *the operation
26 continued, as in the
— margin ; and in this
Rem. 10 f. cafe the quot will'
confirt of two or
more parts.
— L. s. d. r
30 Jnf. 43- 12. 3 24t
26
* Rem. 4 s.
Such remainders are always of the fame name with
the preceding part of the quot. Thus, the firft remain¬
der 8, and the firft part of the quot 43,-are both pounds ;
and the fecond remainder 4, and the fecond part of the
quot 12, are both {hillings; and the third remainder 9,,
and the third part of the quot 3, are both pence; and
the. fourth remainder 10, and the fonrth part of the quot
2, are both farthings.
As we have no money under farthings, the laft re¬
mainder cannot be reduced any lower;' fo there remains
10 farthings to be divided by 13 ; that is,‘there is want¬
ing to complete the quot, the thirteenth part of: 10 far¬
things, or the thirteenth part of every remaining farthing; •
that is, ten thirteenth parts of one farthing; fo you fet
the remainder 10 aboye, and the divifor 13 below a line
drawn between them, in the form of a fraftion, of which
the remainder ia the numerator, . and the divifor the de¬
nominator.
II. The- Simple Rule of Three Inverfe.
Quest, i. If 8 men can do a piece of work in 12.
days, in how many days will 16 men do the fame ?
In this queftion the fuppofition is, If 8 men do a piece
of work in 12 days, and the two terms contained in it
are 8 men and 12 days: The demand lies in thefe words.
In how many days will 16 men do the fame-? and the-
only term contained in it is 16 men.
The number fought here is the days in which 16 men
will'do the work, and the term in the fuppofition of the
feme kind is 12 days; wherefore I place 12 days as the
middle term, according to Rule I. the two remaining
Men. days men,
16 : 12 : : 8
8
16)96(6 days. Anf.-
96
<P)
terms are extremes, and of the fame kind, viz, both oP
them men.
It is obvious that the an¬
fwer muft be lefs than the mid¬
dle term; for 16 men will do
the work in fewer days than 8
men; and therefore, by Rule
II. the greateft extreme, viz.
16, is the divifor ; which
place on the left hand, and the
other extreme on the right, as
directed in Rule III. Then multiplying the fecond and-
third, and dividing their produdt by the firft, the quot
comes out in days; that is, of the fame name with the
middle term.
And becaufe the extreme found in the demand hap¬
pens to be the divifor, the proportion is inverfe.
Quef. 2. How much plulh of 3 quarters wide will
line a cloak that hath in it 4 yards of 7 quarters wide ?
yds. 9.
Here the arrfwer mull be
greater than the middle term;
for the, plulh being narrower
than the cloth of which the
cloak is made, will require
more length.
: 4 :: 7
T
3) 28 (9yards. Anf..
27
(1)
Queft. 3. If 36 yards be a rood of mafon-work, at
3 feet high, how many yards will make a rood at 9 feeta
high ?
Feet. yds. feet.
9 : 36 :: 3
3
9)108 -
Anf. j2 yards..
Sect. II. The Compound Rule of Three.
The Compound Rule of Three, from five given num¬
bers finds a fixth, or from feven given numbers finds an
eighth, or from eleven finds a twelfth, <bc.
This rule eafily and naturally admits of fubdivifions,
which, from the number of the terms given, may be de¬
nominated the rule of Five, the rule of Seven, the rule
of Nine, the rule of Eleven,
Queftions in the Compound rule of three are alfo re-
folved into two parts, viz. a fuppofition and a demand.
If five terms be given, three- of thefe are always found
in the fuppofition, and two in the demand; if feven ■
terms be given; four of thefe are in the fuppofition, and
three in the demand; if nine terms are given, five of
thefe are in the fuppofition, and four in the demand; if
eleven terms be given, fix of thefe are in the fuppofition,
and five in the demand, <bc.
The fuppofition and demand being dillinguilhed, pro¬
ceed to flate the queftion; that-is, to put the terms in
due order for operation, as the following rules diredh
Rule I. Place that term of the fuppofition which is
of the fame kind with the number fought, in the middle.
The-:
384 A R I T H Ml E
The remaining, terms are extremes, which mu ft be claffed. 16 clay!
into fnnilar pairs, by making each pair conlift of one term clays ?
taken from the fuppofitipn, and another of the fame kind
taken from the demand.
II. Out of each fimilar pair, joined with the middle
term, form a fimple queftion; and in each Ample que-^
(lion, fo formed, find the divifor; viz. confider from
the nature of the queft on,. whether the anfwer muft be
treater or lefs than the middle term; and if the anfwer
T I C K.
how many bufhels will 20 horfes eat i
•i4r
The fuppofition in this queftion is, If 14 horfes eat
56 bulhels in 16 days; and the three terms contained in
it are, 14 horfes, 56 bulhels, and 16 days: The de¬
mand is, How many bulhels will 20 horles eat in 24
days? and the two tern^contained in it are 20 horfes,
and 24 days.
The-number fought is bulhels, and the term in the
inu!i be greater, the leaft extreme is the divifor; but if. fuppofition of the fame kind is 56 bulhels; wherefore,
n ' ' r '  :Jji-*    according to Rule I. place 56 bulhels in the middle.
The remaining four terms are extremes, which you clafs
into fimilar pairs, by making each pair confift iof one
term taken from the fuppofition, and another of the fame
kind taken from the demand. Thus, 14 horfes, and
the anfwer muft be lefs than the middle term, the great-
eft extreme is the divifor.
III. Place all the divifors on the left hand, and the
other extremes on the right; then multiply the divifors,
or extremes on the left, continually, for a divifor, and
multiply the extremes bn the right hand and the middle 20 horfes make one pair; again, 16 days, and 24 days
term, continually, for a dividend; and, laltly, divide make another pair.
the dividend by the divifor; and the quot is the anfwer. Out of the feveral fimilar pairs, joined with the mid-
of the fame name with-the middle term. die term, you form fo many fimple queftions, according
The anfwer to queftions in the compound rule o£ to Rule II. viz. by faying,
three may alfo be had by working the fimple queftions 1. If 14 horfes eat 56 bulhels in a certain number of
feparately, or by themfelves, in the following manner.
The middle term, with any one pair of fimilar ex¬
tremes, make the firft fimpie queftion, and the anfwer
to this queftion muft be made the middle term to the fume ?
next fimilar pair of extremes; and the anfwer to this
fecond queftion, muft in like manner be made the middle
term to the following fimilar pair of extremes, 6c.;
and the anfwer to the laft fimple queftion is the number
fought.
But the joint operation prefcribed in Rule III. is the
fhorter as well as the eafier method; for in working fome
of the fimple queftions, there may happen to be a re¬
mainder, and confequently the middle term of the next
fimple queftion will have fome.fradional part; which in-
conveniency is avoided by working jointly.
In every fimple queftion, when the divifor is an ex¬
treme found in the fuppofition, 'the proportion is direft;
but when the divifor is an extreme found in the demand,
the proportion is inverfe.
The three rules delivered above are indeed fo calcula¬
ted, as to make no difference between direft and inverfe,
or fo as to render that diftindtion needlefs, the left-hand
extremes being all divifors ; but yet, as queftions confift-
ing entirely of diredt proportions are the plained and ea-
fieft, it will be proper, in the lirft place, to exemplify
the rules by queftiohs of the diredt kind, and afterwards
introduce fuch as are inverfe.
And as queftions in the rule of five are by far more
numerous, and occur much oftener, than quellions in the
rule of feven, nine, or eleven; we (hall, fiiftof all, give
queftions in the rule of five, wherein both proportions
are diredt; then thofe wherein one or both proportions
are inverfe ; and, laftly, give a few examples of the rules
of feven, nine, and eleven.
I. The Rule of Five Dir eft.
Quest, i. If 14 horfes eat 56 bulhels of corp in
days, how many bu/hels will 20 horfes eat in the fame
time ?
2. If 16 days eat up, or confume, 5:6, or any other
number ofbulhels, how many bulhels will 24 days con-
In the firft fimple queftion it is obvious, that the an¬
fwer will be greater than the middle term ; for 20 horfes
will eat more bulhels than 14 horfes will do in the fame
time; and fo the leaft extreme, viz. 14, is the divifor;
and becaufe 14 is an extreme found in the fuppofition,
the proportion is diredt.
In the fecond fimple queftion it is alfo plain, that the
anfwer will be greater than the middle term ; for 24 days
will confume more bulhels than 16 days; and confe¬
quently the leaft extreme, viz. 16, is the divifor; and
becaufe 16 is an extreme found in the fuppofition, the
proportion is diredl.
Joint operation.
Horfes. bujhels. horfes.
If 14 : 56 :: 20
da. 16 24 da.
According to Rule III.
place the divifews on the left
hand, and the other ex¬
tremes on the right, and
both of them under one an¬
other, fo that the two up¬
per ones make a pair, or be
of one kind, and the two
lower ones make another
pair, or be of one kind;
and no matter which of the
pairs be uppermoft: then
multiply the divifors, or
the extremes on the left
hand, for a divifor; and a-
gain multiply the extremes
on the right, and the mid¬
dle term, continually, for
a dividend; and dividing Anf. 120 bulhels.
the dividend by the divifor,
the quot or anfwer comes out of the fame name with
the middle term, viz. 120 bulhels.
The
ARITHMETIC K.
385
The two fimpfe quefHons into which the compound
queftion is refolved, are ftated, and wrought feparately,
as follows.
H. B. H. Days
If 14 : 56 : : 20 If 16 :
14)1120(808.
H2
~)
Anf, 120 bulhels, as before.
II. The Rule of Five Inverfe.
The queftions that fall under this rule have commonly
one of the proportions inverfe, and the other direft, and
fometimes the upper, and fometimes the lower, is the
inverfe proportion; and in fome few queftions both pro¬
portions are inverfe. Now, though the three rules de¬
livered above make^no difference betwixt direft and in¬
verfe ; yet, to bring the learner to fome meafure of ac¬
quaintance with this ufeful diftindtion, we fh^JI, in ftating
the following queftions, expofe the fame to view, by af¬
fixing an afteriflt to the extremes of every inverfe pro¬
portion.
^ueji. If 14 horfes eat 56 bufhels of corn in 16
days, in how many days will 20 horfes eat 120 bulhels
at that rate ?
In this queftion the fuppofition is, that 14 horfes eat
56 bulhels in 16 daysj and the demand is. In how many
days 20 horfes will eat 120 bulhels.
The number fought is days, and the term in the fup¬
pofition of the fame kind is 16 days; and accordingly
place 16 days in the middle. The remaining four terms
are extremes; which clafs into fimilar pairs, by ma¬
king each pair confilt of one term taken from the fuppo-
lition, and another of the fame kind taken from the de¬
mand. Thus, 14 horfes and 20 horfes make one pair;
again, 56 bulhels and 120 bulhels make another pair.
Out of the fimilar pairs, joined with the middle term,
form fo many fimple queftions; namely,
1. If 14 horfes eat a certain number of bulhels in 16
days, in how many days will 20 horfes eat the fame
quantity ?
2. If 56 bulhels are eat up in 16 days, in how many
days will 120 bulhels be eat up by the fame eaters ?
In the firft fimple queftibn it is plain, that the anfwer
mu ft be lefs than the middle term; for 20 horfes will
,eat the fame number of bulhels in fewer days than 14
horfes; and fo the greateft extreme, viz. 20, is the di-
vifor; and becaufe 20 is an extreme found in the de¬
mand, the proportion is inyerfe.
In the fecond fimple queftion it is alfo obvious, that
the anfwer muft be greater than the middle term ; for 120
bulhels will require more days to be eat up in than 56
bulhels ; and therefore the leaft extreme, viz 56, is the
divifor; and becaufe 56 is an extreme found in the fup¬
pofition, the proportion is direft.
Von. I. No. 17. 3
We now proceed
to ftate the queftion,
by placing the divi- * 21
fors on the left hand, bulh. 56
and the other ex- —
tremes on the right; 112
then multiply and di¬
vide, as diredted in
Rule HI. and the
anfwer comes out of
the fame name with
the middle term,
viz. 24 days.
Joint operation.
Horf. days. horf.
16 : : 14 *
1008
168
 days.
112 |o)2688|o(24 An.
224
(o)
The two fimple queftions into which the compound
queftion is refolved, are ftated and wrought feparately,
as follows.
+Horf. day. horj.
#20 : 16 ; : 14*
14
64
16
2)0)2214 (11 days.
24
9j6(4 hours.
16
60
96[o(48 min.
Bujh. d. h. tv. lujh.
56 : u—4—48 :120
24
268
60
16128
120
  — 6|o)
56(1935360(345610
168.... 
  24)576(24 days.
255 48
224 —
   96
313 96
280 —•
  (o)
336
-33<>
(°)
III. The Rule of Seven, Nine, &c.
Quest. If 15 men eat i56d. worth of bread in 6
days, when wheat is fold at 12 s. per bulhel, in how
many days will 30 men eat 520 d. worth of bread when
wheai is at 10 s. per bulhel ?
This queftion belongs to the rule of feven, the num¬
ber fought is days, and the term of the fame kind in
the fuppofition is 6 days, which place in the middle.
T he remaining fix terms are extremes, which dais into
fimilar pairs, by taking one term of each pair out of
the fuppofition, and another of the fame kind out of the
demand.
5 E Out
38<s arithmetic s.
Out of the finaikr pairs, joined with the middle terra,
form fo many limple queftions, in each of which you find
the divifor by Rule II.; then place the divifors on the
left hand, and the other extremes on the right, as di-
se&ed in Rule III. and multiply and divide, as follows.
Joint operation.
Men. days. men.
s. * 30 : 6 : : ij * s.
* 10 : d. 156 yaod. : 12 *
4680 30
10 75
46800 7800
12
93600
6
46P)oo>56i6joo(i2 days. Anf.
'468 •
936
936
This compound queftion is refolved into three fimple
ones, as follows.
30 : -6 r: 15: 3
156 : 3 : : 520 : 10
10 : 10 : : 12 : 12 days. Anf.
Examp. If 100 lb. of Venice weigh 70 lb. of Ly¬
ons, and 120.1&. of Lyons weigh 100 lb. of Roan, and
80 lb. of Roan Weigh 106 lb. of Toloufe, ^nd 100 lb,
of Toloufe weigh 74 to. of Geneva, many pounds
of Geneva will too lb. of Venice weigh l
This.queftion belongs to the rule of nine; and becaufe
pounds of Geneva is the number fought, the given pounds
of Geneva, viz. 74, muft be the middle term : the re¬
maining terms are extremes ; which may be clafled into
£milar pairs, and ftated as follows.
To/. Gen. Tol.
Ven. Ly, 100: 74:: too Ly. Ven.
sea 120.: R.oan 80 100 Roan : 70 : 100
8qoo
120
96000a
- 100
10000
700000.
100
But the queftion becomes more fimple, and is wrought
with greater eafe and advantage, by being ftated in the
fraftional form, as follows. •
too X 70 X 100 X 100 X 74 70 X 100 X 74
100 X 120 X 80X100 120 X80
7X10X74 5180
  =■ -Xysf-ylb. of Geneva. Anf.
12X8 96
We fhall conclude by obferving, that every compound
queftion, whether in the rule of five, feven, nine, or
eleven, dtr. properly fpeaking, confifts but of three gi¬
ven terms. For the firft term, or divifor, is to be con-
fidered as one'compound term made up, or produced,
by the continual multiplication of the extremes on the
left hand, as fo many component pans. In like manner,
the third term is to be confidered as one compound term,
made up by the continual multiplication of the extremes:
„ on the right, as component parts. Suppofe the queftion
to be,
If L. 100 in 12 months gain L. j intcreft, what will
L. 75 gain in 19 months ?
Here it is obvious, that it is neither the L. 100 prin¬
cipal, nor the 12 months of time, taken feparately, that
gains the L. 5 intereft, but both contribute their lhare;
that is, they confpire, as joint caufes, to produce one
effedl; and therefore their product, viz. the firft term,
is to be confidered. as the caufe producing the effedf;
that is, the firft term, viz. 100 X 12, caufeth, produ-
ceth, or gains L. 5 of intereft. And in like manner,
the produdt of the extremes on the right hand, or the
third term, viz. 75 X 9, is to be efteemed the caufe that
produceth a fimilar effe<ft; that is, gains a like fum of
intereft, namely, the fourth term, or anfwer. In refe¬
rence to this way of confidering the firft and third tarns,
the queftion might be ftated as under.
If 100 X 12 : 5 : : 75 X 9
Chap. VIII. Fellowship.
Fellowship, called alfo Company, ox PartnerflAp,
is when two or more perfons join their ftocks, and trade
’together, dividing the gain or lofs proportionally among
the partners.
Fellowfliip is either without or with time, called alfo
Single or Double.
96000000. 70000000.
74
96[000000)5 i8cjooQOoo(53f ^ lb of Ge-
480 ■ neva. Arif.
ter
I. Fclh<wjkip without time.
Queftiocs in fellowfliip without time are wrought by
the following proportion.
As the total ftoek
To the total gain or lofs,
So each man’s particular ftock
To his fliare of the gain or lofs.
§>neft. A and B make a joint ftock: A puts in 12!.
and B 81.; they gain 5 1.: What is eaxh man’s ftutre ? ■
A R I T H
M E T I C K. 387
L.
A's flock 12
B’s flock 8
Stock, gain. Stock,
A. If 20 : 5 :: 12
S
Total flock 20
2|o)6]o
Stock, gain. Stock.
B. If 20 : 5 :: 8
8
A’s gain 3.I,
L.
— A’s gain 3
2|o)4fo B’s gain 3
B’s gain 21. Total gain 5 proof.
1. When, in any queftion there happen to be
remainders, they muft be reduced equally low, fo as to.
be all of one name ; and then their fum will be either
equal to the divifor, or exact!y double, triple, <bc, of
it: and accordingly x, 2, 3, 6r. carried from the fum
of the remainders, and added to the particular gains,,
will make up the total gain ; or the divifor will always
divide the fum of the remainders exaftly, and the quot
added to the particular gains will give the total gain.
Note 2. When the partners have equal fhares of flock
or capital, their lhares of gain,, lofs, or neat proceeds,
is found readily by dividing the total gain, lofs, (drc. by
the number of partners.
II. Felli'wJJjip with time.
In fellowlhip with time, the gain or lofs is divided a-
mong the partners, both in proportion to the flocks
themfelves, and alfo in proportion to the times of their
continuance in company : For the fame flock continued
a double time, procures a double (hare of gain ; and
continued a triple time, procures a triple (hare of gain ;
that is, the fhares of gain or lofs are as the produdts of
the feveral flocks multiplied into their refpedtive times :
and accordingly queftions belonging to. this rule are
wrought by the following proportion.
As the fum of the products of. the.feveral flocks into,
their refpeAive times
To the total gain or lofs,.
So the product of each man’s flock into his time
To his lhare of the gain or lofs, .
Queft. 1. A put into company 401. for . 3 months,
B 75I. for 4 months; they gain 70I. : What fhare.muft,
each man have ?
A 40 X 3 = 120,. third term for A’s lhare..
B 75X4 = 300, third term for B’s fhare..
420, fir ft term.
x. r.
A. If 420. : 70 :: 120 B. If 420 . : 70 :: 300 ■
120 300
42|o)84o]d(2oL
84
42]6)2ioo]o(59 IV.
210
(9) . x: (o)
A’s gain 20
B’s gain 50
Tcial gain 70 proof.'. .
Quefi. 2. A put into company jbol. for 8 months,.
B 279 1. for 10 months, and C 735 1. for 6 months ;
they gained 10001.: What (hare of the gain muft each
hare ?
A 560X 8=4480, third term for A’s lhare.
B 279X10=2790, third term for B’s lhare.
C 735X 6—4410, third term for C’s fnare.
11680, firft term.
X. L. s. d. f. Rem.
A If 11680 : 1000 j: 4480 : 383—xi — 2—3 208
B If 11680 : 1000 :: 2790 : 238—17—4—3 80
C If X1680 : 1000 :: 44x0 : 377—n—4—i— 88d
Proof 1000—00—o—o—u68.
Ghap. IX. Vulgar. Fractions.
A Fraction is a part or parts of an unit, or of any
integer or whole; and is exprelfed by two numbers,.
one above and the .other below a line drawn between
them ; as,
The number under the line fnews into how many
parts the unit or integer is divided; and is called the
denominator, becaufe it gives name to the fradhon : The
number above the line fhews or tells how many of thefe
parts the.fradtion contains; and is therefore called the
numerator.
In the fraftion ^1. a pound Sterling is the unit, in-•
teger, or whole and-the denominator 4 Ihews that the-
pound is broken or divided into four equal parts, viz..
4 crowns ; and the numerator 3 Ihews that the fraftion ■
contains three of thefe parts, that is, .three crowns ; and .
fo the value of this fraction is fifteen fhillings;.
Cor. 1. Hence it follows, 1. When the numera¬
tor of a fraflion is lei's than the denominator, the va--
lue of fuch a fradtion is lefs than unity, or the integer. ,
2. When the numerator is equal to the denominator, the
value of the fradtion.is exadlly an unit or integer. 3. When
the numerator is greater than the denominator, the value
of the fradhon is more than an unit ; and fo often as the •
denominator is contained in the numerator,Fo many units •
or wholes are contained in the fradlion. If, therefore
the numerator of a fradtion be divided by the denomina¬
tor, the quot will be a number of units or integers, and
the remainder fo. many pants.■ ' ,
The numerator of a fra'dlion is to be confidered as a
dividend, and the denominator as a divifor; and the
fradfion itfelf may be taken to denrite the quotient.
Cor. 2. From this view of a fradtion, it is evident,
that if the numerator and denominator, of a fradlion be
either both multipled or both divided by the fame num¬
ber, the produdls or quotients will retain the fame pro¬
portion to one another; and confequently the new frac¬
tion thence arifing wrl! be of' the fame value with the -
given one. Thus the numerator and denominator of the
fradtioh multiplied by 2 produces ^ and divided by
2 quots both which fx addons are cf the fame value
with A.
Fradlions having 10, ioq, 1000; or 1, with any num¬
ber of ciphers annexed tc it, for a denominator, arc call¬
ed-
§38 A R I T H M
ed decimal fraflions : and fraftions having any other de¬
nominator are called vulgar fradions.
1. A proper fradtion is that whofe numerator is lefs
than its denominator, and confequently is in value lefs
than unity; as y.
2. An improper fradtion is that whofe numerator is e-
qual to or greater than its denominator; and confequent-
ly is in value equal to or greater than an unit; as -f.
3. A fimple fradtion is that which has but one nume¬
rator, and one denominator; and may be either proper
or improper ; as ^ or
4. A compound fradtion is made up of two or more
fimple fradtions, coupled together with the particle of,
and is a fradtion of a fradtion; as y bf or -i- of y of
5. A mixt number confifts of an integer, and a frac¬
tion joined with it; as
Becaufe in moft cafes fradlions can neither be added
nor fubtradted, till they be reduced, we begin with re-
dudtion.
Ttedudion of Vulgar Fraflions.
Problem I. To reduce an improper fradtion to an
integer, or mixt number.
Rule. Divide the numerator by the denominator,
the quot gives integers ; and the remainder, if there be
any, placed over the divifor or denominator, gives the
fradtion to be annexed.
Ex A m pl E s.
X. *35 = 85 integers, there being no remainder.
2. 4*.7= 544-, the remainder being 5.
3. = 98^-y, the remainder being 10.
4- *ttt<S= lTi tV> the remainder being 48.
Prob. II. To reduce a mixt number to an improper
fradtion.
Rule. Multiply the integer by the denominator; to
the produdt add the numerator: The fum is the nume-
,rator of'the improper fradtion; and the denominator is
the fame as before.
Examples.
1. 54b-= 417 ; for 54X8 = 432
+ 5
Numerator 437
2. 98^1= HI1; for 98 X 14= 1372
+ 10
Numerator 1382
Pros. III. To reduce a whole number to a fradtion
of a given denominator.
Rule. Multiply the whole number by the given de¬
nominator; and place the produdt by way of numerator
over the given denominator.
Examples.
1. Reduce 9 to a fradtion whofe denomination is 5.
9X5=45; fotbe fradtion is ^.
2. Reduce 36 to a fradtion whofe denominator is 4.
36 X 4 = 144 ; fo the fradtion is
3. Reduce 8 to a .fradtion whofe denominator is 1.
8X1=8; fo the fradtion is
E T I C K.
The reafon of the rule appears by reverfing the ope¬
ration; for if the numerator be divided by the denomi¬
nator, it will quot the integer, or whole number.
Pros. IV. To reduce a compound fradtion to a fim¬
ple one.
Rule. Multiply the numerators continually for the
numerator of the fimple fradtion ; and multiply the deno¬
minators continually for its denominator.
Exa m pl e s.
Fx.i. *of-£ = -r'r. Ex, 2. ’ 4 of y of d =
Cor. From this problem may be deduced a method
of reducing a fradtion of a lefier denomination to a frac¬
tion of a greater denomination ; namely.
Form a compound fradtion, by comparing the given
fradtion with the fuperior denominations; and then re¬
duce the compound fradtion to a fimple one.
Examples.
1. What fradtion of a pound Sterling is ^of a penny?
•^d. is ^ of TrT of y^-L.
2. What fradtion of a C. is of a pound ?
T 18. is -J- Of vy - = yyyC.
Prob. V. To reduce a fradtion of a greater denomi¬
nation to a fradtion of a lefler denomination.
Rule. Multiply the numerator of the given fradtion,
as in redudtion of integers defcending ; and the produdt
is the numerator, to be placed over the denominator of
the given fradtion.
Exam p l e s.
1. What fradtion of a {hilling is ^ of a pound ?
Here, as in redudtion defcending, multiply the nu¬
merator 3 by 20, becaufe 20 {hillings make a pound; as
under.
z.
3 * 19 — {hilling.
4
2. What fradtion of a penny is f L. ?
Z.
4 X 20 X 12 _ 05 0 J
5 7
The reafon of this rule will appear by obferving, that
every fradtion may be confidered in two views. Thus,
may either be confidered as exprelfing three fourths of
one unit, or as denoting the fourth part of three units.
Now, if the unit be a pound Sterling, the fradtion, in
the latter view, will denote the fourth part of three
pounds; and by reducing the numerator L. 3 to {hil¬
lings, we have s ; and again reducing 60 {hillings to
pence, we have 7-|0 d. equal to s. or to £L.
Prob. VI. To find the value of a fradtion.
Rule. Reduce the numerator to the next inferior
denomination ; divide by the denominator; and the quot,
if nothing remain, is the value complete.
If there be any remainder, it is the numerator of a
fradtion whofe denominator is the divifor. T his frac¬
tion may either be annexed to the quotient, or reduced
to value, if there be any lower denomination.
Examp.
38?
arithmetics;.
Examp. What is the value of ^L. ?
3
20
4)60(15$. Here confider 4; L. as ekprelEng the
4 fourth part of three pounds Sterling ;
— fo reduce L 3, the numerator, to ftiil-
20 lings, arid divide by. the denominator 4;
20 arid as nothing remains, the quot, viz.
— jy filillings, is the value complete.
The reafon of this rule is the fame with that in the
preceeding problem. It is by the pra&ice of this pro¬
blem that remainders in the rule of three are reduced to
value. ' (
Pros. VII. To reduce a fra&ion to its Joweflf terms.
Rule. Divide both numerator and denominator by
their greateft common divifor ; the two quots make the
new fra&ion.
The greateft common divifor of the numerator and
denominator of a fraition is found by the following
Rule. Divide the greater of thefe two numbers by
the lefler; and again divide the divifor by the remain¬
der ; and fo on, continually, till o remains. The laft
divifor is their greateft common divifor.
Ex amp. Reduce 9^4 to its loweft terms.
Firft find the greateft common divifor of the numera¬
tor and denominator, as follows
784)952(1
784
168)784(4
672
1x2)168(1
112
Greateft common divifor 50) 112(2
1X2
(QI .
Then proceed to reduce the given fraftibW to its low-
cft terms, by dividing both numerator and denominator
by 56, the greaft common divifor.
56)784(14 new num. 5^)952(17 new denom.
56 56
224
224
392
392
(°) * ' ,
Pros. VIII. To reduce fractions of different deno¬
minators to a common denominator.
Rule. Multiply the denominators continually for
' the common denominator ; and multiply each numerator
into a the d nominators, except its cwh, for the frivc-
ral nu ra r .
Vol. I. No. 17. 3
Examples.
Reduce % and £ to a common denominator,
4X5=20, the common denominator^
3X5=15, the firft numerator.
4X4=16, the fecond numerator.
So the new fra&ions are and -i-J.
When the denominator of one fraction happens to be
an aliquot part of the denominator of another fraction,
the former may be reduced to the fame denominator
with the latter, by multiplying both its numerator and
denominator by the number which denotes how often the
lefler denominator is contained in the greater.
Thus, -f- d" rr:=: -rr + -rv
Here 3 is Contained in 12 four times; fo multiply
both 2 and 3 by 4, and you have
Again, =
Sometimes too, the fra&ion that has the greater de¬
nominator may, in like manner, be reduced to the fame
denominator with that which has the lefler, by divifion.
Thus, i. + T=:T + T*
And 4|+^r+Tv=A+A+A.
The reafon of the above rule for reducing fractions
to a common denominator is evident from Corollary II.;
for both numerator and denominator of every fraftion
are multiplied by the fame number, or by the fame num¬
bers.
After fra&ions afe reduced to a common denominator,
they may frequently be reduced to lower terms, by di¬
viding all the numerators, and alfo the common denomi¬
nator, by any divifor that leaves no remainder, or by
cutting off an equal number of ciphers from both.
Addition of Vulgar Frati ions.
Rule I. If the given fractions have all the fame
denominator, add the numerators, and place the fum 0-
ver the denominator.
Ex. 1. What is the fum of 4 + 4 ? Anf. 4.
2. What is the fum of A + rr * -Anf. = 4, by
Prob. VII.
Rule II. If the given fraftions have different deno¬
minators, reduce them to a common denominator, by
Prob. VIII. then add the numerators, and place the
fum over the common denominator.
Ex. What is the fum of 4 + 4 ?
4-+ 4 = 44+ 44, by Prob. VIII.
and 44 + 44 — 44-
Rule III. If mixt numbers be given, or if mixt
numbers and fradtior.s be given, reduce the mixt num¬
bers to improper fractions, by Prob. II ; then reduce
the fractions to a common denominator, by Prob. VIII.
and add the numerators.
Ex. What is the fum of 744"5t-
74+5t=V +V> by Prob. II.
and V +.y= n + n, by Prob. VIII.
and 44+14 = Vt = 13A> by Prob. I.
When mixt numbers, or mixt numbers and fractions,
are given, you may, with greater expedition, work by
the following rule, viz. reduce only the fractions to a
common denominator, and add the fum of the frattions
5 F to
3
390 A R I T H
to the integers. The above example wrought in this
manner follows.
Ex, What is the fum of 7! + 5 * ?
^+T=:TT'"^TT::=44 — tTT"
and 7 + 5 + itjt = I3tV
Rule IV. If any, or all of the given fra&ions, be
compound, firft reduce the compound fractions to Ample
ones, by Prob. IV.; then reduce the Ample fradtkms to
a common denominator, by Prob. VIII. and add the nu¬
merators.
Ex. What is the fum of y-of
y of £ —tV, by Prob. IV.
and T8r -f +fs., by Prob. VIII.
anc^ — I'5^» hy Prob. I.
Rule V. If the given fradtiorrs be of different de¬
nominations,. Arfl reduce them to the fame denomination,
by Cor. of Prob. IV. or by Prob. V.; then reduce the
fradlions-, now of one denomination,, to a common deno¬
minator, by Pfob. Vlfl. and add the numerators ; or
reduce each of the giv,en fradlions feparately to value,
by Prob. VI. and then add their values.
Ex. What is the fum of |s. and-^1. ?
Method I.
|-s. = ^ of i*-Ql.=-^l. by Con Prob. IV.
and ^ + | = ^ + by Prob. VIII.
and — — 185. 3d. by Prob. VI.
MeVhod II.
^ 1. = r= by Prob. V..
* and 4+ ,4o = 4J-4-,40, by Prob. VIII.
and 4 4*'x0 =:'t6 s-= ^s. 3d. by Prob.I. .and VL.
Method III.
|,s. = ^d. = Vd.= 9
4
4I. = Z*££?s. zeJ-^a-s. = 17—6
by Prob. VL
18-3 J
Sublrafiion of Vulgar Frations.
Rule I. If the given fraftions have the fame deno¬
minator, fubtradl the leffet numerator from the greater,
and place the remainder over the denominator.
Ex-. From 4 fubtraft 4*
T 4 — T* ■
Rule II. If the given*fractions hare different deno¬
minators, reduce,.them to a common denominator, by
Prob. VIII.: then fubtraft the leffer numerator from
the greater, and place theiremainder over the common
denominator.
Ex, From fnbtracft 4-
4, 4 -^, A, by Prob. VIII..
and -jt:—dx* ■
Rule III. If it be required to fubtraft one mixt
number from another, or to fnbtraft a fradtion from a
raixt number, reduce the mixr numbers to improper
M E T I C K.
fractions, by Prob. II; then reduce the fradlions to a
common denominator, by Prob. VIII. and fubtradt the
one numerator from the other.
Ex. From 74 fubtradt ji.
74. 5t = V > xxA> by Prob. II.
and V. Y» by Prob. VIII.
and V — V = V = 2| = 24, by Prob. I. and VII.
Rule IV. If it be required to fubtradt a mixt num¬
ber, or a fradtion, from an integer, Arfl fubtradt the
fradtion from an unit borrowed ; that is, fubtradt the nu¬
merator from the denominator, and place the remainder,
as a numerator, over tlie denominator, for the fradtional
part of the anfwer: Then, for the unit borrowed, add 1
to the integral part of the mixt number*, fubtraft the
fum from the given integer; and prefix the remainder to
the fradtional part of the anfwer. But when a fradtion
is fubtradted from an integer, for the unit borrowed, take
j from the given integer, and prefix the- remainder to
the fradtional part of the anfwer.
Ex. 1. From 14 fubtradt 74.
Here fay, 5 — 3=2 ; fo 4 is the fradtional part of
the anfwer : Then fay, 1 borrowed and 7 make 8, and
8 fubtradted from 14 leaves 6 ; which prefix to the frac¬
tional part : So the difference or anfwer is 64-
Ex. 2, From is fubtradt 4-
Here fay, 7 — 3 ^ 4 J fo 4 is the fradtional part; then
fay,. 1 borrowed from 12, and 11 remains : So : 14 is
the difference, or anfwer.
Note, When an integer is given to be fubtradted from
a mixt nnmber, you have only to fubtradt the given in¬
teger from the integral part of the mixt number ; and
to the remainder annex the fradtional part. Thus,
9t—5=4t*
Rule V. If one or both of the given fradtions b©
compound, firft reduce the compound fradtions to Ample
ones, by Prob. IV.; then reduce the Ample fradtions to
a common denominator, by Prob. VIII. j and fubtradt
the one numerator from the other.
Ex. From 4 fubtradt 4 of J.
4 of |=A. by Prob. IV.
and 4, A = 44, -iA by Prob. VIII.
an(i 44—= T® ~ by Prob. VII.
Rule VI. When the given fradtions are of different
denominations, firft reduce them to the fame denomina¬
tion, by Cor..of Prob. IV. or by Prob. V., then reduce
the fradtions, now of one denomination, to a common
denominator, by Prob. VIII.; and fubtradt the one nu¬
merator from the other. Or, reduce each of the given
fradtions, feparately, to value, by Prob. VI. j and fub¬
tradt the one value from the other.
Ex. From 41- fubtradt4s-
Method I;
4s.=4 of =Al- by Cor. Prob. IV.
and 4, ^4£§, by Prob. VUI.
and 44^—irt'5,~T*4Trb — *4s.* 4^* byPr°b.I. andVI.
M E T H O.D II.
4l-1^2Si = <^s; by Prob. V.
and %°, 4=V8A A, by Prob VJIL
and ‘A0 — A= A* s. = l4S. 4c!. by Prob. I. and VI,
Method ■
14—4 J
Multiplication of V.ulgar Frailicns.
In multiplication of fraftions there is no occafion to re¬
duce the given fractions to a common denominator, as
in addition and fubtra&ipn: onlyj if a mixt number be
given, reduce it to an improper fraftion; if an integer
be given, reduce it to an improper fra&ion, by putting
an unit for its denominator; if a compound fra&ion be
given, you may either reduce k to a Ample one, or, in-
ftead of the particle of, infert the lign of multiplications,
then work by the following
Rule. Multiply the numerators for the numerator
of the product, and multiply the denominators for its. de¬
nominator.
Examp-, i. tV
2. |-X V7 =:'T4:=4T35::=4i-
Note i. If any number be multiplied by a proper frac¬
tion, the product will be lefs than the multiplicand; for
multiplication is the taking of the multiplicand as often
as the multiplier contains unity; and confequeatly, if
the multiplier be greater than unity, the produ<51 will be
greater than the multiplicand; if the multiplier be unity,
the produift will. be. equal to the multiplicand; and if the
multiplier be lefs than unity, the product will, in the
fame proportion, be lefs than the multiplicand. Thus,
fuppofing the multiplier to be -|- or -f, the product, in
this cafe, will be equal to one half or to one third of the
multiplicand.
, 2. Mixt numbers may be multiplied without
reducing them to improper fractions, by work-,
ing as in the margin; where firft multiply the
■ integral parts, viz. 54 by 24; then multiply,
the integral parts crofs-ways into their altern
1 fractions, viz. -54 by !■,. and the product 27 let
down; in like manner multiply 24 by f, and
   the produdt 6 likewife fet down ; then add ; and
" ’ to the fum annex. the product of the two
1329s fractions.
3. In'multiplying a fraction, by > an integer, you have
only to multiply the numerator by the integer, the put¬
ting one for the denominator being only matter of form.
And to multiply a fraction by its denominator is to take
away the denominator, the produft being an integer,
the fame with, or equal to the numerator. Thus,
.JX8=7. F<>r IX-^5^?-
4. If the-numerators and denominators of two equal
fractions be multiplied.crqfs-ways,. the produ&s will be
equal. Thus, if ^.=T\., then will 3 X 12 = 9X4; for
multiplying both by 9, we have 3; and multi¬
plying thefe by 12, we have 3 X 12 “9.X 4. Hence, if
four numbers be proportional, the prodaft of the ex¬
tremes will-be .equal to the product of- the means: for if ,
M E T I C K, 391
g : 9 : : 4 : 12, then and it has been proved,
that 3 X 12 = 9 X4. Therefore if, of four proportional
numbers, any three be given, the fourth may eafily be
found, viz. when one of the extremes is fought, divide
the produft of the means by the given extreme; and
when one of the means is fought, divide the produdt of
the extremes by the given mean.
5. In multiplying fradtions, equal fadtors above and'
below may be dalhed ordropt. Thus, ^ of yX^ of -£=;
vX | X ^X ^; and dropping the fadtors 2, 3, 4, both
above and below, the produdt is -f. In like man¬
ner, to facilitate an operation, a fadtor above and ano¬
ther below may be divided by the fame number : Thus,
1 v r = * v? —
7X2
Or we may exchange one-
numerator for another: Thus, ^Xx-i—tXx
6. To take any part of a given number, is to mul¬
tiply the faid number by thefradtion. Thus, ^ of 32a
is found thus, -^X—°=iXJ-~:, = i-X‘V0==-Lf0=200.
In like manner, -f- of 4J-|, is ■fX454 = fXJ-f-i = |-
X ~-=% X -r = L4—= 3°i. Hence, to reduce &
compound fradtion to a Ample one, is to multiply the
parts of it into one another.
7. If a multiplicand of two or fhore denominations be
given to be multiplied by a fradtion, reduce the higher
part or parts of the multiplicand to the lowed: fpecies,
and then multiply. Thus, to multiply 8 1. io^s. by-^
fay, 8l.=8X20Si=i6os. and i6o+io|=i7o|s. =<S-|J
and yX 4* — —= 11 s.=L. 5:13:10. Or
without Reducing, you may multiply the given multipli
cand by the numerator of the fradtion, and divide tho
produdt by the denominator.
Examp. i. Multiply ^ by A'. Prod. 4v-
2. Multiply 74'by-f. Prod.
3. Multiply 8-4 by 94;. Prod. 84-1-.'
The reafon of the rule may be (hewn thus: 4X-£=T8T :
for 4=4-f-> anc* ? of tt tt 4 and confequently 4 of
xt i® it*
The truth of the rule may alfb be proved thus : Af-
fume two fradtions equal to two integers, fuch as, |.> and
4, equal to 2 and 3, and the produdt of the fradtions
will be equal to the produdt of the integers; for
=\8=6, and.2X3—6.
ITtvifion of Vulgar Frallions.
In divifion of fradtions, if a mixt number be given, .
reduce it to an improper fradtion; if an integer, be given,
put an unit for its denominator ; if a compound fradtion
be given, reduce it to a Ample one, and then work by
the following
Rule. Multiply crofs-ways,-p/z. the numerator of
the divifor into the denominator of the dividend, for the
denominator of the quot; and the denominator of thf-
divifor into the numerator of the dividend, for the nu¬
merator of the quot.
Examp. i. (44= iTy= It-
2 • x) 4x V (x-l = 5 A — ST¬
S’
Note,. _
3^2 A R I T H M
Note i. Tnftead of working divifion of fraftioris as
, taught above, you may invert the divifor, and then mul¬
tiply it into the dividend. Thus, in Example r. inftead
y°u may ^y. -fx#—?o—iA=iv-
2. If any number be divided by a proper fradlion, the
quot will be greater than the dividend: for in divifiofl
the quot ftiews how often the divifor is contained in the
dividend ; and confequently if the divifor be greater than
unity, the quot will be lefs than the dividend; if the di¬
vifor be unity, the quot will be equal to the dividend ;
and if the dmfor be lefs than unity, the quot will, in
the fame proportion, be greater than the dividend. Thus,
fuppofing the divifor to be -£» or j-, the quot in this cafe
will be double or triple of the dividend.
3. To divide a fradtion by an integer,- is only to mul¬
tiply the integer into the denominator of the fradlion,
the numerator being continued. Thus, 7):|viV
4. A mixt number may fometimes be divided by an
integer, with more eafe, in the following manner. Di¬
vide the integral pa-1 of the mixt number by the given
integer: and if there be no remainder, divide likewife
the fradtion of the mixt number by the given integer, and
annex the quot to the integral quot formerly found.
But if, in dividing the integral part, there happen to be
a remainder, prefix this remainder to the fradtion for a
new mixt number; which reduce to an improper frac¬
tion : then divide the improper fradtion by the given in¬
teger, and annex the quot to the integral quot formerly
found. Thus, if it be required to divide 15^ by 8r
fay, 8) 15(1, and 7 remains; which 7, prefixed to the
fradtion, gives 7^-for anew mixt number; and this, re¬
duced to an improper fradtion, is ^, and 8) y (yr: fo
the complete quot is
5. If the fadtors of the numerator and denominator
of the quots, inftead of being adtually multiplied, be
only connedted with the fign of multiplication, it will be
eafy to drop fuch fadtors, above and below, as happen
to be the fame, thus: of
s=f. Or a fadtor above and below may be divided by
the fame number thus : v(^°r
the fadtors of the numerator of the quot may be ex-
changed, the,, .W.52? = ^ = ?-=5.
6 T'MaXp 2X9 2X3 ®
6. To divide an integer by a fradtion, is to divide the
produdt of the denominator and integer by the numerator,
thus: y)s( =^^=5 X 2 —10.
7. If the divifor and dividend have the fame denomi¬
nator, you have only to divide the numerator of the di¬
vidend by the numerator of the divifor, thus: ^-g-C^r;
for
8. If a dividend of two or more denominations be
given to be divided by a fradtion, reduce the higher part
or parts of the dividend to the lowed fpecies, and then
divide. Thus, to divide 61. p^s. by 4, fays 61\=
j$X20s.= i2o; and 120 + 9^= i'>9^s.=i^r9; and
8-=mTsl|>1"- 14s- 7-fd.
stick:.
Or, Divide the giten multiplicand by the numerator
cf the fradtion, and miultiply the quot by the denomi¬
nator. > t,
Exam*. Divide L. 276 : 16 : 8 among four men,
A, B, C, D, fo that A, B, C, may have equal lhares,
and D only two thirds of one of their fhares.
1 + 1 + 1 +y=-f-f-f+-!+!=44
L. s. d. L. s. d. L. s. d.
11)276 16 8 (25 z 4X2—75 ro A-
X3 = 75 10 B.
X 3 = 75 ia G.
X 2 = 50 6 8 D.
Proof 376 16 8
The reafon of the rule will appear by* confiderirvg,
that the method here ufed is nothing elfe but the redu¬
cing the divifor and dividend to a common denominator,
and then dividing the one numerator by the other. Thus,
■i) T (l'> ^or re^ucing the divifor and dividend to a com¬
mon denominator, we have y?r) -A (=|.
The truth of the rule may alfo be proved by afluming
two fradlions equal to two integers, fuch as, -f- and ^,
equal to 2 and 4, and the quot of the fradions will be
equal to the quot of the integers. Thus, |-) (4!;=
2, and 2)4(2.
The Simple Rule of Three in Vulgar Fraflions.
The queftion is ftafed as formerly taught in the rule
of three. The extremes muft be of one denomination.
Reduce mixt numbers and integers to improper fradiions,
compound fradlions to Ample ones, and then Work by the
following rule, viz.
Multiply the fecond and third terms, and; divide the
produdl by the firft term ; that is, multiply the numera¬
tor of the firft term into the denominators of the feeond
and third, for the denominator of the anfwer; and mul¬
tiply the denominator of the firft term into the numera¬
tors of the fecond and third, for the numerator of the
anfwer.
I. Dir eft.
Quest. If 4 yard coft 4 !• what will yard coft ?
Yd. L. Yd.
If 1 : 1 : : tV
4  = ? =:!_=
•/ 3X8X10 3X2X10 3X2X2 2X2
4
IT. Inverfe.
Quest. If 4 yard1 of cloth that is 2 yards wide, Will
make a garment, how much of any other cloth that it!
•f yard wide will make the fame garment ?
Bread, len. Bread.
A R I T II M
E T I C K.
393
The Compound Rule of Three in Vulgar ¥ radons.
Quest. If acre of grafs be cut down by 2 men in
y day, how many acres fhall be cut down by 6 men in
3 f days?
Men. acr. men.
t : i : : *
day \ 34= t days.
4:4:: V •
^4x4x3-4x4-4
Or thus:
* r 3 X 1 X 3 X6X io_3 X^SX io_3 X3 Xy_
2X2X4X1X3 “2X2X4 “2X2 "‘:r“
iix acres.
Chap. X. Rules of Practice.
When the firft term of a queftion in the rule of three
happens to be unity, the anfwer may frequently be found
more fpeedily and ealily than by a formal dating or work¬
ing of the rule of three; and the directions to be obfer-
yed in fuch operations are called Rules' of Practice.,
The rules of pradtice naturally follow the dodtrine of
vulgar fractions, the operation being nothing elfe but a
multiplying the number whofe price is required, by fuch
a fraction of a pound, of a {hilling, or of a penny, as;
denotes the rate or price of one.
Thus, if the price of 24 yards, at 6 s. 8 d. per yard,
be demanded, the anfwer is found by multiplying 24 by
-f, the fraction of a pound equivalent to 6 s. 8d. viz.
VX-f^Y^g 1.
Hlnce, it is obvious, that to multiply a number by a
fraction whofe numerator is unity, is to divide the faid
number by the denominator of the fraction. But if the
numerator of the fraction be not unity, you muft fird
multiply the given number by the numerator, and then
divide- the product by the denominator. Thus, if the
rate be 13 s. 4d.=eyl. the price of 24 yards is found by
faying, \^X-|=\8=i61. j or takeof the given num¬
ber twice.
When the fraction denoting the rate- happens to be
compound, the product or anfwer is found by dividing
the given number by one of the denominators of the
compound fraction, the quot by another, and the next
quot by the third, <bc. Thus, if the rate be 2 far¬
things^ of jj'-y of rjJjyl. the price of 1440 yards is
found.by faying, s-—^=y.2o, and 7TV)=6o, and 4§=jl.
When the rate is expreded by two or more fimple
fractions, connected with the fign +, the produCt or an¬
fwer is found by dividing'the given number fucceflively
by the feveral denominators, and then adding the quot.
Thus, if the rate be 3 S-—+ the price of 80
yardsia found by faying, •£§ —8, and 4» and 8+4=
J2I.
’ The fractions equivalent to any-number of farthings-
nnder 4, to any number of pence under 12, -and to any
number of {hillings under 20, are exhibited in the fol¬
lowing tables.
Vol. I. No. 17. 3
TABLE I.
Farthings.
of a penny.
TABLE II.
o f a Jh ill.
4-T<r
T
T^T
4+4
4+4
4+4+4
of a /hilling,
4 pf -nr
4 of TV
4 of tV,
of a pound.
4°fTT of-TS
-J-of-rVof^nj
|0f jVofdg.
TABLE III.
of a pound.
«u+vV
vV+tV
Tnr» °r A
13
13 4
of a found.
,4o+tV
-nr* or 4
tts+tV
Y> °r4
T(J+Tff
TTr+TV* or 4
-rer+vV
-r9,
v9s+nr
The fractions in Table II. become compound frac¬
tions of a pound, by annexing (of to each of them.
Thus, x d. is Ty of I.; and 5 d. is of T5+f of ^1.
6c.
The variety that occurs in the rules of practice arifes
chiefly from the different rates, or prices, of one thing,
as a yatd, a pound, an ounce, 6c. and may be reduced
to the eight cafes following, vis.
The rate may be, 1. Farthings under four. 2. Pence
under twelve. 3. Pence and farthings. 4. Shillings
under twenty. <;. Shillings, pence, and farthings. 6.
Pounds. 7 Pounds, {hillings, pence, and farthings.
8. The given number may confift of integers and parts.
Case I. When the rate is farthings, under four.
Rule. Divide the given number by the denominator
df the fraction denoting the rate, as contained in Tab. IJ
U/z. if the rate be 1 or 2 farthings, divide by 4 or 2,
the quot will be pence ; and the remainder, in dividing
by 4, will be farthings, and in dividing by 2, it will be
1 halfpenny: then divide the pence by 12, the qunt will
be {hillings, and the-remainder pence . laftly, divide the
{hillings by 20, the quot will be pounds, and the re¬
mainder {hillings. But if the rate is 3 farthings, firft
multiply the given number by the numerator 3, and then
divide as above directed.
I Ex. 1..
48*9, at t f.
Ex. 2.
8347, at 2 F.
1214—3 f.
4i73-i +
i°|i—2d.
L.j 1 2+
3'17 9d-
■‘7 7 9i
Case II. When the rate is pence, under twelve.
Rule. Divide the given number by the denominator
of the fraction dendting the rate, as contained in Table
II. and you have the anfwer in {hillings; which reduce
into pounds, by dividing by 20.
5 G Ex. 1,
3
394
A
Ex. i.
818, at i d.
6|8—2 d.
R I T H
Ex. 2.
£ 5316, at sd.
M E T I C K.
2. When the rate is an odd number of rtullings.
Ex. 1. Ex. 2.
635, at 1 s. 422, at 3 s.
L-3
L.44 6
Ws/?, The remainders at the firft divifion in the a-
bove examples are the fame with the rate. Thus, in
Ex. 1. every remainder is id.
Case III. When the rate is pence and farthings.
Rule. The pence muft be fome aliquot part of a
fhiliing ; and, at the fame time, the farthings fome aliquot
part of the pence; and if they be not fo given, divide
the pence into two or more fuch parts, fo as the farthings
may be fome aliquot part of the lowed: divifion of the
pence. Then, beginning with the higheft divifion of
the pence, divide by the denominators of the fractions
denoting the aliquot parts.
In Ex. 1. work firft for 1 d.; which being ^ s. di¬
vide the given number by the denominator 12, and the
quot is (hillings, and the remainder pence ; then, be-
caufe i farthing is -Jd. divide the former quot by 4, and
the fum of the quots is the price ip (hillings ; which di¬
vide by 20.
In Ex. 2. the rate i-J d. being an aliquot part of a
fhilling, the fecond method is Ihorter and better than the
firft.
Case IV. When the rate is (hillings under twenty.
Rule. Multiply the given number by the numerator
of the fra&ions contained in Tab. III. and divide the
produft by the denominators. Or, inftead of this ge¬
neral rule, take the two particular ones following.
1. If the rate be an even number of (hillings, multiply
the given number by half the number of (hillings in the
rate, always doubling the right-hand figure of the pro-
du£t for (hillings, and the reft are pounds..
2. If the rate be an odd number of (hillings, work; for
the next lefler ev«n number of (hillings, as above; and
for the odd (hilling take ^ of the given number.
Examp. i. When the rate is an even number of (hil¬
lings.
Ex. 1. Ex. 2..
436, at 2 s. 127, at 4 Si
1 2
L. 2.5, 8 s.
L. 31, 15 s. 42 4
21 2
L. 63, 6 s.
Note 1. The reafon of multiplying by half the num¬
ber of (hillings in the rate will appear by confidering,
that thefe are the numerators of the fradtions denoting
the rate. Thus, 2 s. isx\yl. and 4s, is^l. and 6 s.
is-r^-l. and each unit in the produdt is two (hillings.
The divifion by the denominator 10 is performed by cut¬
ting off the right-hand figure of the produdt, and the fi¬
gure fo cut off is the remainder ; and as each unit in the
remainder is two (hillings, the double of them is the re¬
mainder in (hillings.
Note 2. From Ex. 1. we may learn, that when the
rate is 2 s. the price is found by doubling the right hand
figure of the given number for (hillings, and the other fi¬
gure or figures are pounds.
Note 3. In Ex. 2. the price may alfo be had by ta¬
king -f of the given number ; and in this way every re¬
mainder will be 4 s.
Note 4. By reverfing the operation, from the price
and any even rate given, we may readily find the quantity
of goods, viz. Multiply the price by 10, that is, to
the price annex a cipher, and divide the produdt by half
the rate.
Ex. 1. How many yards, at 14 s. may be bought
for 491. 7)490(70 yards, dnf.
Ex. 2. How many gallons, at 8 s. may be bought
for 5001. ? 4)5000(1250 gallons. Jnf.
Case V. When the rate is (hillings and pence, or
(hillings, pence, and farthings.
Rule I. If the rate be (hillings and pence which
make an aliquot part of a pound, divide the given num¬
ber by the denominator of the fra&ion denoting the rate ;
the quot is pounds, and each unit of the remainder is e-
qual to the rate.
Ex. 1.
354, at t s. 8 d.
L.29, 10.
Ex. 2.
443, at 2 s. 6 d.
L. Si j 6
9
Rule II. If the rate be no aliquot part of a pound,
but may be divided into fucb parts, divide it according¬
ly, work for the parts feparately, and then add.
6 s.
25. 6d.
Ex. 1.
427, at 8 s
6 d.
128
53
y 6
L.i8i 9 6
3S.4d.
Ex.
540, at 5 s.
4 d-
90
54
L.144
L.43, X2-S.
395.
ARITHMETIC K.
Rule III. If the rate be no aliquot part of a pound,
and cannot readily be divided into fuch parts, divide it
into parts whereof one at lead: may be an aliquot part of
a pound, and the fubfequent part, or parts, each an ali¬
quot part of fome prior part.
3 d-
Fk. i.
3yo|6, at i s. 3d.
*75 6
43 16 6
L.219 2 6
Ex. 2.
9(5, at x s.
lot d.
4 15
276
* 3 9
L.8 18 it
3 d-
ltd.
Ex. 1.
213, at il. 13:
4id-
106 10
21 6
10 13
2 13
1 6
3
7t
L.355 8 iof
3l
6s,
2s. 6d,
id-
Ex. 2.
37, at 3I. 8 s
iot d.
412 6
9 3
3 *
9t
L.127 7
Case VI. When the rate is pounds.
Rule. Multiply the given number by the rate, and
the product is the price in pounds.
Ex. 1. Ex. 2.
42, at 2 !. 13, at 8 I.
Case VIII. When the given number confills of in
tegers and parts.
Rule. Work for the price of the integers as alrea¬
dy taught; and for the part or parts, take a proportional
part or parts of the rate.
L. 84 L. 104
Case VII. When the rate is pounds and (hillings,
or pounds, {hillings, pence, and farthings.
Rule I.. If the rate he pounds and (hillings,-multi¬
ply the given number by the pounds, and work for the
/hillings as in Cafe IV.
Ex. 2.
6s. 8d.
i yd'
Ex. 1. i
Yards.
T20\, at 6s. 8d.
per yd.
240
L. 240
as. 6d.
2 s.
4. yd.
Ex. 2.
Yards.
n6f, at 4 s. 6d.
per yd.
14 10
L.26
4 3
Ex. 1.
46, at 1 1. 4 s.
9 4
L- 55
82, at 41. 10 s.
328
41
L 369
Note. When the rate is more than 1 1 and lefs than-
2 l. as in Ex. 1. we have no occafibn to draw a line un¬
der the given number, it being efteemed fo many pounds,,
and the parts for the (hillings or pence are added up
with it.
Rule II. If the rate be pounds, with (hillings and
pfence that make fome aliquot part of a pound, or are di-
vifible into aliquot parts, or into (hillings and fome ali¬
quot part or parts ; then multiply the given number by
the pounds, and work for the (hillings and pence as in
Cafe V. Rule L or II.
Ex. 1. 1 Ex. 2.
54, at L, 3:2:6/ 43,atL. 5:3 :4.
31-
28.6d.
162
6 15
5l
3s. 4d.
215
7 3 4
L.I68 15 L.222 3 4
Rule III. If the rate be poundsi, with (hillings,
pence, and farthings, that cannot readily be refolved in¬
to aliquot parts of a pound ; multiply the given number
by the pounds; and then work for the (hillings, pence,
and farthings, as in Cafe V. Rule III.
An operation in the rules of practice may be proved
by running over the feveral (leps a fecond time, by
working the fame queftion a different way, or by the:
rule of three.
Chap. XI. Q/-Decimals.
I. Notation.
A Fraction having 10, 100, 1000, or .unity with:
aftiy number of ciphers annexed to it, for a denomina¬
tor, is called 2. deci?nal fraftion; fuch as, T7^-,
1000 * 1 a oio *
In decimal fra&ions, as in vulgar, the denominator
(hews into how many parts the unit or integer is divi¬
ded, and the numerator (hews how many of thefe
parts the fraction contains. Thus, if the fradion be
the unit is divided into ten equal parts, and the
fradion contains nine of thefe parts; and confequently,
if the unit or integer be a. pound Sterling, the value of
fuch a fradion is eighteen (hillings.
We may conceive the denominator of a decimal
fradion to be formed by dividing the unit into 10 equal
parts, and each of thefe parts into 10 other equal parts,
each of thefe again into 10 other equal parts, and fo on,
as far as neceffary ; and hence a decimal fradion will
always be fo many tenths, or fo many tenths of T'^, or
fo many tenths of -Ay of <bc.; and by reducing the
compound fradion to a fimple one, we have the decimal.
Thus, A of Ay of -j’-j- = t'A'u-
Or
$$$ ^ A R I T H l'
Or we may conceive the denominator of a decimal
to be formed by the continual multiplication-of unity
into 10, as often as there are ciphers in it. Thus,
i X io — to, and iXioXto — ioo, and rX 10X iaX 10
— xooo, &c. And becaufe the fraflions -j%,T%90-,
fee. have the: highefl: numerators poffible, it is plain,
tliat the number of figures or placesdn the numerator of
a decimal can never exceed the number of ciphers in the
denominator.
It if ufual to write down only the numerator of a de-
l irtral fradhon^ omitting the denominator • and when
the nhfner^tor has the lame nijmber of figures or places
as the denominator has ciphers, it is dope by writing
dbwn the figures of the-numerator, and prefixing a point,
to difiingui/h them from a whole number. So is writ¬
ten thus, .7; and is written thus, .2j. The point
thus prefixed is caHed the decimal point.
But when the numerator has-not lb many figures- or
places as there are ciphers ip the denominator, the de-
fed is fupplied by prefixing a cipher for every, figure
wasting, and then placing the decimal point on the left.
So T^g is written thus, .03; and' thus, .0075 ;
and thus, .0005.,
From this manner of notation, it is eafy to read a
decimal, or to know its denominator,, viz. imagine 1
to (land under the decimal point, and a cipher under
every .decimal place. Thus, .9 is T® , and .48 is
and .05 is and .007 is y-ggg, and .00036 is
; Sp -
Hence it is plain, that decimals, like integers, de-
creafe from the left to the right, and increafe from the'
right to the left, in a decuple proportion. On the con¬
trary, any decimal figure, by being removed one place,
toward the left, becomes ten times greater.
An integer, by annexing ciphers, is raifed to higher
places op the left, and may by this means have its value
ir.creafed to infinity. On the other hand, a decimal,
by prefixing ciphers, is depreffed to lower places on the
right, and may by this means have its value diminiftied
to infinity.
Ciphers annexed to decimals do not change the va¬
lue of the decimals. Thus, .50=5, and .500=5, for
.50= ^=^ = .5; and T4|?° = ^=.5.
Decimals may be refolved into conftituent parts, and
the parts may be read, feparately, thus, .847 = 8 +
.'04-f .007 =-r5 + t^o+T3^>’
In decimals the figure next the point, being the firft
decimal place, is fometimes called primes, and the fe-
cond figure from the point is called feconds, the next
thirds, &c. Thus, in .875 the figure 8 is primes, 7 is
feconds, and 5 is thirds.
From this brief account of the nature of decimals,
it follows, that the manner of operation in decimals-
will be the fame as in whole numbers ; and alfo, that
the-fame number may be differently exprefied, accor¬
ding as the integer is chofen. Thus, the time fince our
Saviour’s birth may be written thus, 1769; or thus,
176.9; or thus, 17.69; or thus, 1.769; or thus, .1 769,
according as one year, a decad, a century, a chiliad,
or myriad, is ufed as the integer. Hence arifes the
fuperior excellency of decimal arithmetic, above every
r e t r c k.
other fort of numerical computation; as will appear
in the fequel.
II. Reduftion of Decimals.
Paob. I. To reduce a vulgar fraftion to a decimal.
Rule. To the numerator of the vulgar fradtion affix
a point or comma, then annex a competent number of
ciphers, and divide by the denominator; the quot as the
numerator of the decimal, and the cyphers annexedfhow
the number of decimal places.
Examp. I. Reduce to a decimal ?
Here to. the numerator 1 annex one cipher, 2)1.o(.5
and dividing by the denominator 2, the quot 10
is 5, and o remains; and becaufe a fingle ci- —
pher only was annexed to the numerator, the (o)
decimal numerator will confift but of one fi¬
gure, namely 5 ; to which, therefore, prefix the deci¬
mal point. So *=.5.
Hence appears the reafon of the rule ; namely,
2 : 1 :: 10 : 5; that is, as the vulgar denominator to
the vulgar numerator, fo is the decimal denominator to
the decimal numerator.
Examp. II. Reduce ^ to a decimal.
To the numerator 3, annex two ciphers ; 4)3 .o©(.75
and, dividing by the denominator, the quot 28
gives 75 for the numerator of the decimal,.   
two ciphers having been annexed. So 20
i=-75- 20
Though ciphers may be annexed at pleafure, yet it
is the ciphers'ufed that: determine the number of de¬
cimal places in the quot; and at firft it is fufficienti to
annex fo many as ferve to complete the firft dividual,
leaving .room to annex more as you proceed in the ope¬
ration ; or rather annex the other ciphers to the remain*
ders, without giving them a place in the dividend.
The firft dividual alfo ffiows whether ciphers ought
to be prefixed to the quot, and how many.. Thus, i£
the.firft dividual take in only one of the annexed ci¬
phers, the figure put in the quot is primes, and no ci¬
pher to be prefixed. If the firft dividual comprehend
two of the annexed ciphers, the figure put in the quot
is feconds, and one cipher muft he prefixed. If the.
firft dividual comprehend three of the. annexed ciphers,,
the figure put in the quot is thirds, and two ciphers muft
be prefixed, &c. Hence, in reducing a vulgar, frac¬
tion to a decimal, the natural and eafy way is, to place
firft the decimal point in the quot, and after it a cipher
or ciphers, or the quotient-figure, as the firft dividual
direds.
In reducing a vulgar fradion to a decimal, if o at laft
remains, as in all the above examples, the'd'ecimal is
precifely equal to the vulgar fra&ion, and is called ay?-
nite or terminate decimal.
Id finite decimals, the denominator is always fome a-
liquot part, of the numerator increafed by annexing ci¬
phers; and fuch • decimals take their rife from vulgar
fradions whofe denominator is 2 or 5, or fome power of
2 or
A R I r H
2 or 5, or the produft of fome of their powers. See
Chap. XII. and Algebra, Chap. III.
The powers of numbers are fometimes exprefled by
indices or exponents placed at the corners of the num¬
bers. Thus, 22 fignifies the fecond power of 2^ and 53
fignifies the third power of 5; and 104 fignifies the fourth
power of 10, &c. The index of the root or firlt power
is feldom exprefled.
Any power of 2 multiplied into the like power of 5
gives a product equal to the fame power of 10; as ap¬
pears from the following fpecimen of the powers of 2,
5, and 10.
24 — l6
2s = 32
2®— 64
27 = I28
6-c.
r= s
52=
S3= 12*
5*— 62*
*!= 3125
*®= 1562*
*7 = 78i2*
&c.
2 X y= 101 =
4 X 2*=I02 =
8 X 12*= 103 =:
16 X 62*=io4 =
32X 3125=: 10s =
64 X 1*625= 106 = 100000b
128X7812*= to7 = IOOOOOOO
100
1000
10000
100000
The produfl: of two different powers of 2 and 5, is e-
qual.to the product that will arife by raifing 10 to the
power denoted by the lefler given index, and then multi¬
plying this power of 10 into that power of the other num¬
ber which is denoted by the difference of the two given
exponents. Thus,
2<sX5,=64X 25 = IO, X24 = 100X 16 = 1600
2* X *® = 4 X i*625 = io2 X*4 = 100X625 = 62500
From thefe remarks it is eafy to perceive, that 2 or
5, or any of their powers, or product of their powers,
will meafure 10 or its powers, v/z. 100, 1000, &c.
or their multiples, fuch as, 20, 200, 2000, <&c. 30,
300, 3000, lire.; and fuch every numerator becomes
by having ciphers annexed; and therefore 2 or 5, or
their powers, or produdt of their powers, ufed as a de¬
nominator, will divide" any numerator with a competent
number of ciphers annexed, and leave no remainder ;
and confequently the decimal thence refulting will be
finite.
If the numerator of the vulgar fraftion be unity, and
the denominator any Angle power of 2 or 5, there will
be as many decimal places in the quot as there are units
in the index of the given power. Thus, i6 = 24 gives
a decimal of four places, viz. tV-=: *0625 ; and, 125
= *3 gives a decimal of three places, viz. x-rT=.oo8.
When the denominator is the product of like powers
of 2 and 5 ; in this cafe,, fuch a produft being equal to
the like pov, er of 10, and any power of 10 being equal
to 1, with as many ciphers annexed as there are units in
the index, it follows, that there will ftill be as many de¬
cimal places in the quot as there are units in the index,
either of 2, of 5, or 10. Thus, 8 X 125 = 23 X *3
=io3=iooo, gives a decimal of three places, viz.
'TSotS — .OOI.
When the denominator is the product of different
powers of 2 or y, find what power of 10, and what
power of 2 or 5, upon being multiplied, will give the
fame produfl, as is taught above; and the fum of the
indices' (hews the number of decimal places ; thus,
Vol. I. No. 17. 3
M
I
K,
397
2 = io2 X24; and the fum .of the indices, 2+4
= 6, gives the number of decimal places, viz. -rvav —
.000625.
And, in general, to find what number of decimal
places any fuch vulgar fraflion will give, divide the de1
nominator by 2, 5, or 10, till the lafl: quotient be i, and
the remainder o; and the number of divii'ors (hews
the number of decimal places. Thus, -s*^ gives a d.eci-
2)2)2)
mal of four places; for 2)16(8(4(2(1. And gives
, s)s)
a decimal of three places; for 5)125(25(5(1. And
TtRrtr a decimal of three places; for io)xooo
10)10)
(100(10(1. And -rg-Vs- gives a decimal of fix places ;
10) 2) 2)2)2)
for 10)1600(160(16(8(4(2(1.
If the denominator of a vulgar fraflion be neither 2
nor 5, nor any of their powers, nor produfl of their
powers, fuch a denominator Will not divide the nume¬
rator with annexed ciphers without a remainder; and
the decimal thence refulting is called infinite, or inter-
minute.
Of infinite or interminate decimals, there are two
forts. For fome conftantly repeat the fame figure; and
are called repeating decimals, repeaters, or fingle repe-
tends. Others repeat a circle of figures ; and on that
account are called circulating decimals, circulates, or
compound repetends.
Examp. III. Reduce to a decimal.
Here the remainder being ftill the fame, 3)l-o(..3’
viz. 1, the fame figure will conftanfly be re-. 9
peated in the quot.
U)
Repeating decimals are of two kinds: viz. fome con-
fid only of the repeating figures, fuch as the examples
above; and thefe are called pure repeaters; others have
one or more digits or ciphers betwixt the decimal point
and the repeating figure; and thefe are called mixt re¬
peaters ; and the digits or ciphers on the left of the re¬
peating figures are called the finite part of fuch deci¬
mals.
Pure repeaters take their rife from vulgar fraflions
whofe denominator is 3, or its multiple 9; and are but
few in number.
Mixt repeaters derive their origin from vulgar frac¬
tions whofe denominator is the produfl of 3 into 2 or
5, or into fome of their powers, or produfl of their
powers ; and fuch denominators may be confidered as
the produfl of two component parts, whereof one is 2
or 5, or fome of their powers, or produfl of their powers ;
and hence the finite part. The other component part is
3 ; and hence the repeating figure.
Examp. IV. Reduce -fiT to a decimal.
Here the repeater is mixt, the finite part 15)4.o(.2$
being 2, and the repeating figure 6. 3 0
5 H
90
(10)
59.3 A R I T H M
We nou' refolve fa :h denoiflinator5 iftto their cdmpo-
nertt parts, and divide the numerator by' one of thefe
parts, and then divide the quot by the other. Thus,
15-5X3.
5)4.0( 8 and 3).8(.2^
40 6
(o) #20
18
~V)
The number of places in the finite part of a mixt re¬
peater may be afcertained from the number of units in
the index of the powers of 2 or 5.
And, univerfally, to find the number of places in the
finite part of fuch fractions, divide the denominator firfl
fey'3, and thefi divide the quot by 2, 5, or 10, till the
laft quot be 1, and o remain; and the number of divi-
fors, excluding 3, fhows the number of places in the fi¬
nite part.
Repeating decimals are ufualiy marked by a dafh
through the right-hand figure, as in the examples a-
bove: But fome chufe to mark them by a point fet over
the repeating figure, thus, .3, .26. The remainder
Where the repetition begins is commonly marked with
an afterifk.
Becaufe arty quotient multiplied by the divifor repro¬
duces the dividend, it follows, that any decimal multi¬
plied by the denominator of the vulgar fraftiofl from
which it refulted, will reproduce the numerator with the
annexed ciphers. Thus, if .75, the decimal of -J-, be
multiplied by 4, it will reproduce the numerator 3 and tbs
two annexed ciphers,.
Now, fuppofe the given decimal to be a repeater }
fach as .3-, refilling from the vulgar fraflion if the
repeating decimal be multiplied by the denominator 3,
it will, by carrying at 9.0a the right hand, reproduce
the numerator 1 with the annexed cipher. In like man¬
ner, if the repeater .# — 4* multiplied by 3, it will,
by carrying at 9 cm the right hand, reproduce the nu¬
merator 2 with the annexed cipher.. Again, if the repeater
be multiplied by the denominator 9, it will, by
carrying at 9 on the right hand, reproduce the numera¬
tor 1 with the annexed cipher. And, if the mixt re¬
peater .2^ = ■/(-> be multiplied by the denominator 15,
it will, by carrying at 9 on the right hand, reproduce
the numerator 4 with the two annexed ciphers.
From thefe remarks we may conclude, that the right-
hand figure of every repeating decimal is ninth-parts:
and the fame truth may be evinced by refotving the de¬
cimal into its conftituent parts,, in the following manner.
The vulgar fraction reduced to a decimal gives
^7, 6^.; and this repeater refolved into decimal confti-
tueftt parts, becomes -xo +-rJo-+-rouo > to infinity.
But if we efteem the right-hand figure to be ninth-parts,
we have To- + °f-r?> —tV =+ -ps5 =
the given vulgar fradtion. And as the vulgar fradlion
'4- g>ves -i7’ fo # 8ives '99 ; tbat is, .$9 = £= 1. And,
univerfally, a feries of nines infinitely continued is equal
to auity in the place on the left hand; thus, .$99=:
E T I C K.
I; and .0^99 = .1; and .0099 = .or. and 44.^9 = 45.
Hence may be afcertained the value of an infinite
feries decreafmg in a deekple pioporrion. Thus, T%. +
tbu1 *1" tuW) — 'J* And -j^. -f- -f C
If the denominator of a vulgar fradlion be neither 2
nor 5, ftor any power of 2 or 5, nor any produdl of
their powers ; nor 3, nor 9, nor any prodddl "&f 3 into
2 or c, or into fome of their powers, or product of
their powers, the decimal feftlhing from fuch a vulgar
fraction will circulate.
Circulates, like repeaters, are of two forts,- viz. pure
and mix-t. A pure circulate coofills .of the figures of
the circle only; as .09, 09, <6r. or 18, 18, A
mixt circulate has a finite part betwixt the decimal point
and the figure that begins the circle; as .0, 4;, 45,
; or .32, 142857, 143857, drr. Some ebufe to
diftinguifh the finite part from the circle, and one circle
from another, by a comma, as above. Others dafii the
find and lad figure of the circle. It is likewile ufuaJ to
mark the remainder where the new circle begins, by af¬
fixing an afteriilc.
Examp. V. Reduce TV to a decimal.
The denominator it gives a pare 1 i)».oo(.09.<>9,
circle of two figures. 99
* 100
jV := -(>3> ^3*
TT= -72, 72,
TfT- = .Bl, 8l,
44 = .90, 90,
t*t=;.i8, 18,
TT — -27, 27,
v4r — •36> 36,
tt — *45» 4S»
A—•54>I4>
It is eafy to perceive, that if any of the vulgar frac¬
tions in the above fpecimen have both its numerator and
denominator multiplied by 9, there wilt arife a new vul¬
gar fradtion of the fame value, whofe numerator will be
the figures of the circle, and its denomirator the like
number of 9’s. Thus,
3X9 , , .7X9 „,
iO<9^’ an<,iiX9^
As the denominator 11, whereof 90 is a multiple,
gives a pure circulate of two places, fo any denomina¬
tor, whereof 999, or 9999, or 99999, <5rc. are multi¬
ples, will give a pure circulate of three, four, five, &c.
places; that is, of as many places as there are p’s si
the multiple. And fuch denominators are all the prime
numbers, except 2, 3, and 5,. viz. 7, 11, 13, 17, 19,
23> 29, 31,, 37, 41, &c.) alfd their products into 3,
viz. 21, 33, 39, 51-, 57, 69, &c. Such too are all
the powers of 3, except 3 and 9, viz. 27, 81, 243,
729, 2187,. 6c.
The reafen is plain : for if any divifor, as 37, divide
999, without a remainder, it will alfo divide 1000, and
leave a remainder of 1, to begin a new circle.
To find how many places the circle will coofifi cf,
divide a competent number of 9’s by any of the above
dfenominators,. continuing the operation till ©.remain ; and
the number of o’s ufed will fliow the. number of places.
Thus,,
A R r T H
Thus, 7)999^99 fix places. Thus, 27)992tliree Piacts-
142^57 . . ' 37
The number of figures in a circle, when feme power
of 3 is the denominator^ may alfa be found thus: Di¬
vide the given denominator by 9, and the number of u-
nits in the cjuot will be equal to the number of figures in
the circle. Thus, 9)27(3 places. Thus, 9)81(9
places, <&c.
If 3 divide a repeater whofe repeating figure is not a
multiple of 3, the quot will be a pure circulate of three
places. Thus, 3).(i'xi(-037, and 3)-^55(-i85, and
3)-/77(-2S9- . . ,
If 3 divide a pure circulate, the circle not being a
multiple of 3, the quot will be a pure circulate of thrice
as many places as the circle of the dWidend. 1 has,
?).o37,03:7,037(012345679.
Mfxt circulates take their rife from fractions whole
denominators are the prime numbers 7, u, *3, 17, 19,
23, 29, &c. multiplied into 2, 5, or 10, or into fome of
their powers, or protkrdt of their powers.
Examp. VI. Reduce ^9T to a decimal.
28)9.o(.32,142857,14 The denominator 7% — T'X
84
60
56
2X2, gives a mixt civculate,
confiding of the finite part 32,
and a circle of fix figures or
places, whofe fum is equal to
the produft of 9 into half the
number of figures; that is, 9X3
=27.
go
56
240
324
160
140
200
196
*40
28
120
113
The number of places, both in the finite part and in
the circle, may be afeertained thus: Divide the deno¬
minator of the vulgar fra£tion by 10, 5, or‘2, as often
as poffihle,. and the number of divifors will fnow the
number of places in the finite part; make the lad qnot
a divifor, and the dividend any competent number of 9’s;
continue die operation till o remain, and the number of
9’s ufed will be equal to the number of places in the
M E T I C K. m
*°) jX
circle. Thus, to);050o(:o5o(2C>5v4i ; and; 41 99999
(2439, and c remains. So you may conclade, that die
finite part will confift of three places, and the circle of
Univerfally, any vulgar fraction being given, v.e may
determine whether the decimal thence teluking will be
finite or infinite; and if infinite, whether pure or mist;
with the number of places, foe. in the’ following manner.
Reduce the given vulgar fra&ion to its lowed terms,
then divide the denominator by jo, 5, or 2, as often as
poifible; and if the lad quot be unity, without any re¬
mainder, the decimal is finite, amd the number of divi¬
fors fhews the number of decimal places.
If the ladquotbe 3, or any power of 3, the refulting
decimal will be a mixt repeater, the number of whole fi¬
nite places will be equal to the number of divifors.
If the lad quot cannot be divided by 2, 5, 10, or 3,
die refulting decimal will be a mixt circulate; and the
way of finding the number of places, both in the finite
part and circle, is taught above.
If the denominator of the given vulgar fraction can
be divided, neither by 2, 5, nor 10, the refulting deci¬
mal will be a pure repeater, or a pure circulate, accor¬
ding as the denominator is 3 or 9, or fome of the prime
numbers, 7, ir, 13, foe.; as has been already explained.
Every vulgar frafticn may be reduced to a decimal,
finite or infintte; that is, to a finite decimal, to- a re¬
peater, or a circulate. For if the denominator divide
the numerator with ciphers annexed, fo as to leave no
remainder, the refulting decimal is finite. If the re¬
maining figure be always die fame, the refoiting decimal
will be a repeater. If neither of thefe he die cafe, yet,
becaufe die divifor is a finite number, the remainder at
laft mull either be the fame with the numerator of the
vulgar fraction, or the fame with fonae preceding remain¬
der, and then a new circle begins ; and confequently the
refalting decimal will be a circulate.
Becaufe in circulates the circle runs on fometimes ta
16* 18, 22*. 28, 8i, 243, foe. places, and becaufe, in
decimals of every fort, the finite part runs fometimes on.
to many places, fuch circulates, or finite parts, may,
without any fenfible error, be limited at five or fix places,
and ufed as finites: for live decimal places* divide the
integer into 100,000 equal parts, and all the lofs that
can be occafioned by fuch limitation, is Ids than one hun¬
dred thoufandth part of the integer. And in moft cafes,,
the decimal may be limited at three places, which divide
the integer into 1000 equal parts.
Circulates, or finite parts, thus limited, are called ^/>-
proximate decimals; and are fometimes marked with +
or — annexed, according as the right-hand figure is ta¬
ken lefs or greater than juft : for in limiting the decimal,
if you forefoe that the fucceeding figure of the quot
would be 6 or 7, or any figure above 5, you lefien the
error by increafing the right-hand figure of the approxi¬
mate by unity.
Pros. II. To reduce the parts of coin,, foe. to de¬
cimals.
Rule. Convert the given part or parts to a vulgar-
fraftiun
ARITHMETIC K.
Pros. IV. To reduce adecimal to value.
Rule. Multiply the given decimal by the number of
parts -of the next inferior denomination contained in an
unit of the integer; and from the product point off fo
many figures to the right hand as there are places in the
given decimal. On the left hand of the point are parts,
and on the right a decimal of one of thefe parts ; which
decimal mufl: be reduced in the fame manner to the next
inferior denomination, and from that to the next, and
fo on to the loweft ; the feveral figures on the left of
the points are parts ; and if there be ftill fome figure or
figures on the right, they are a decimal of the loweft of
the parts.
fra&ion of the integer, and then reduce the vulgar frac¬
tion to a decimal.
Ex. x. Reduce 9 pence to the decimal of a Hulling.
J. s.
9=t\ and i2)9.o(.75 of a Hulling.
8 4
Here the fraflion A=l ; and 
the denominator 4 = 2X2 gives 60
a finite decimal of two places. 60
(°)
Ex. 2. Reduce 9 pence to the decimal of a pound.
d. L.
9==-xh? 240)9.oo(.0375 of a pound.
7 20
The fradtion ■
and the denominator 80= 1 800
10X2X2X2 gives a finite 1 680
decimal of four places.  
/ 1206
1200
~)
Ex. 3. Reduce 16 s. 6 d. to the decimal of a pound.
/. d. L.
16 6 = 24o)i98.o(.825 L.
12 1920
198 600
4 80
The fradion 4^|. = |4=|4;  
and the denominator 40=10X2 1 200
X2 gives a finite decimal of three 1 200
places.
(°)
Prob. III. To reduce the remainder of a divifion to
a decimal.
Rule. The remainder being the numerator, and the
divifor the denominator of a vulgar fraction, after placing
the decimal point on the right of the integral part of the
quot, annex ciphers to the remainder ; then continue the
divifion til! o remain, or till the quot repeat or circulate,
or till you think proper to limit the decimal; and the
number on the right of the point is a decimal of the in¬
teger exprefted in the quot.
Example 2.
Divide 176 s. among 24
Example 1.
Divide 513I. among 36men.
L.
■'')si3(M-25
36
i53
144
Rem. 90
72
180
180
boys.
Example 1.
Reduce .875 1. to value.
L. s. d.
.875=17 ^
Exavi'le 2.
Reduce .76911. to value.
L. s. d. f.
.7691 = ij 4 2
s. 15.3820
d. 4.584
f. 2.336
The reafon of pointirig the prodhd, as the rule di-
re<fts, is plain. For, in Ex. 1. as 1000 : 875 :: 20 : 17;
that is, as the decimal denominator to the decimal nu¬
merator, fo the vulgar denominator to. the vulgar nu¬
merator.
In Ex. 1. the full value of the decimal comes out in
parts, the decimal being quite exhaufted ; but in Ex. 2.
befides the parts, there is a decimal of a farthing, viz.
.336 f.
The decimal of a pound Sterling may be reduced to
value by infpeftion, in the following manner.
Double the figure in the place of primes for fhillings ;
and if the figure in the place of feconds be 5, or exceed
5, reckon 1 (hilling more ; and rejeding 5 in the fecond
place, the figures in the fecond and third places are fo
many farthings, abating 1 for every 25.
L. /. d. f.
Examp. i. .718 = 14 4 2
2. .759 =1521
3. .894 = 17 10 3
In Example 1. the figure 7 doubled gives 14s.; the
two following figures 18 are farthings, equal to 4d. 2 f.
In Example 2. the figure 7 doubled gives 14 s. and 5
in the place of feconds gives 1 (hilling more, in all 15s.;
and the other figure 9 is farthings, vtz. 2 d 1 f.
In Example 3. the figure 8 in the place of primes,
and 5 in the place of feconds, give 17s.; the remaining
figures 44, abating j, are farthings, viz. 10 dv. 3 f.
When the figures in the fecond and third place to be
converted into farthings are 25, the anfwer, by infpec-
tion, comes out exad, viz. 24 f. or 6 d. ; but in all
other cafes, the anfwer, by infpedion, is too great, no
allowance or corredion being made till the convertible
number.
R I T H M E T I
K.
■ 401
number amount to 2.5;,- and afford a deduction of 1 far- nominator is 9 for the repeating figure, or' 9 for every
thing complete. Hence, by inl'pe&ion, we have fre- figure of the circle ; and then, if occafion require, re-
quently 1 farthing more than by the common method ; duce this fraction to its lowed terms.
but.the two methods will agree, or give the fame anfwer,
if, from the figures to be turned into farthings, we fub-
tradt their 25th part, efteeming the remainder farthings
and decimal parts of a farthing. ,
Thus, .718 1. = 145. 4 d. 2 f. by infpedlion ; but by
the common method, and by infpeftion corrected, the
anfwer comes out 1 farthing lefs, as follows.
Common method. Ipfpettion corrected.
L. If 25 : 1 :: 18 : .72.
.718 that is, 25)i8.o(.72
20 17 5
14.360
f. 1.28
and 18
.72
Thus, |, and = and ./ = f.
Again, .27,=fJ=A, and -7*4285, =£^£4.= $..
Case III. When the given decimal is a mixt repeat¬
er, or a mixt circulate.
Rule. From the mixt repeater, or mixt circulate,
fubtradt the finite part, and the remainder is the nume¬
rator. of the vulgar fradtion ; the denominator is 9 for
the repeating figure,, or 9 for every figure of the circle,
with as many ciphers annexetl as there are figures in the
finite part.
Thus, .0^ = ^ = ^, and .16=: £.£ = 4-, and .083-
■* 9 o’5‘ 6 o TT*
(o) 17.28
d. /.
The reafon of the rule may be (hewn thus : Efleem
the finite part of the lafl: example an integer, and then the
mixt number be etlua^ t0 g‘veD circu¬
late. Again, reduce this mixt number to an improper
fradtion, viz. multiply the integer 3 by the denominator
999999, and to the produdt add the numerator, as di-
And 17.28 = 4 1.28
To conclude, inllead of dividing by 25, we may mul- redted in reduction of vulgar fradtions.
tiply by .04 ; and then the exadt value of any decimal Multiply the integer 3 into 999999
of a pound Sterling may be found as follows. by the method of multiplying any num- 3000000
From the primes and'feconds fet off the {hillings; ber by 9, 99, 999, ire. taught in mul- 3
multiply the remainder by 4, fetting the produdt two tiplication of integers, and to the pro-   
places to the right; fubtradt the produdt from the firfi: dudt add the numerator, and the fum 2999997
remainder ; and from the fecond remainder point off fo {hall be the numerator of the improper 571428
many places to the right as there are figures in the firft fradtion, as in the margin,
remainder. The number on the left of the point is far¬
things, and the figures on the right are a decimal of ;
farthing.
Example 1.
d.f.
= 14 4 1.28
.718!.=
Example 2.
.76911.:
• d.f.
3571425 num.
Now it is evident that the fame nu¬
merator will be found, if, in the upper 3571428
line, inftead of the fij^phers, you place 3
the figures of the circll, and from them
- - ' v fubtradt 3, the finite part.
-15 4 2.336 3 1
To the numerator thus found.
1 Rem. 191
72 = 18X4 764=191X4
2 Rem. 17.28 2 Rem. .18.336
Prob. V. To reduce a decimal to its primitive vul¬
gar fradtion. A
Case I. When the given decimal* finite.
Rule. Divide both numerator and denominator of
the given decimal by their greateft common meafure;
the quot is the vulgar fraction required.
Thus, .875=-j%y5=£. For 875)1000(1
875
Greateft common meafure 125)875(7
875 Num. 375
And i2 5)T^y(4. (o) Den. 9000
Case II. When the given decimal is a pure repeat- In this manner too may any mixt number, confining
er, or a pure circulate. of an integer with a repeater or circulate, be reduced to
Rule. Make the repeating figure, or the figures of an improper vulgar fradtien ; but no ciphers are to be an-
the circle, the numerator of the vulgar fradtion ; the de- nexed.to the denominator for the figures of the integer/
Vol. I. No. 17. 3 . 5 I Ex. Ks-
3571425 num.
the denominator is
999999 ; and fo the vulgar fradtion is VWssW1' But
v/e eiieemed 3 an integer ; whereas, in fadl, it is -rau’ J
and fo our vulgar fradtion will be ido times greater than
it ought to be : to corredt this error, we mult multiply
the denominator by 10O, which is done by annexing two
ciphers to it; and the true fradtion comes out to be
6 sW$4s <5**> as by tbe rule-
Becaufe this rule is of great importance, and will of¬
ten occur in pradtice, we {hall here fubjoin another ex¬
ample.
Reduce .041^ to a vulgar fradtion.
vw
41
402 A R I T H
Ex. Reduce to an improper vulgar fra&ion.
8vT
8
Num. 75
= V —8 T
Den. 9
Approximate decimals being imperfeft, cannot be ex¬
actly reduced back to the vulgar fradtions from which they
refulted. But if the approximate be completed by an¬
nexing to it a vulgar fradtion, whereof the remainder of
the divifion is the numerator, and the divifor the de¬
nominator, you ftiall have a mixt number, which you
may reduce to an improper vulgar fradtion ; then to
the denominator annex as many ciphers as there are
figures in the approximate ; and this fradtion reduced
to its lowed terms, will be the primitive vulgar fradtion
required.
Phob. VI. To reduce unlike circles to others that
are fimilar and conterminous.
Similar or like circles are fuch as confift of an equal
number of places.
Thus, .27, and .09, are fimilar circles, as confid¬
ing of two places each. But .63, and .148, are unlike;
the former confiding of two, and the latter of three
places.
Conterminous circles are fuch as begin and end at the
fame didance from the decimal point.
Thus, .153846, and .384615, are conterminous ; be-
'caufe they both begin at the place of primes, and have
an equal number of places. And .0,714285, and
.7,85714:2, are conterminous, becaufe they both begin at
the place of feconds, and have the fame number of places.
But .81, and .1,36, are not conterminous, the former
beginning at the place of primes, and the latter at the
place of feconds. Again, .63, and .481, are not con¬
terminous, becaufe they have not the fame number of
places ; for circles cannot be conterminous unlefs they
be at the fame time fimilar.
Unlike circles are reduced to fimilar ones by the fol¬
lowing
Rule. Find the lead multiple of the numbers de¬
noting the number of places in the feveral given circles,
and extend each of the given circles to as many places as
there are units in the lead multiple.
Thus, to reduce the unlike circles
.63, = .636363, .63, and .148, to fimilar ones, ex-
.148, = .148148, tend both circles to fix places, be¬
caufe 6 is the lead multiple of 2 and
3, the number of places in the given circles.
In a circle any one of the circulating figures may be
made the fird of the circle. Thus, 7.592, may be ex-
preffed thus, 7.5,925,; or thus, 7.59,259,; and that fore,
without changing its value : confequently a pure circulate
may put on the form of a mixt circulate, if one or more:
figures on the left he fet afide for the finite part; thus,.
.72,=.7,27, where .7, is the finite part.
That the value is not changed may be thus demon-
drated.
.7*27, = ^f-§ = -5-5-= .72.
Hence two or more given circles may be made conter¬
minous, by the following
M E T I C K.
Rule. Set afide by a comma on the left, as many
figures as there are places in the longed finite part, and
then prolong the feveral circles to as many places as will
make them fimilar.
Ex. To make .54,63, and .54>63, = .54,636363,
.9,148, conterminous. .9,148, = .91,481481,
Here, becaufe .54, the
longed finite part, confids of two places, fet afide .91,
in the other circulate, for a finite part, and then pro¬
long both circles to fix places, which renders them fimilar.
III. Addition of Decimals.
Rule I. Place the given decimals fo that the points
may dand diredtly under each other, and confequently
tenths under tenths, hundredths under hundredths <bc, ;
then, if the given decimals be all finite or approximate,
add. them as integers, inferting the decimal point direftly
under the column of points. The figures on the left of
the point are integers, and thofe on the right are a deci¬
mal of the integer, confiding of as many places as there
are figures in the longed of the given decimals.
The operation is the fame here as in Ex.
addition of vulgar fractions; for a cipher
on the right of a decimal does not
change its value: If, therefore, ciphers
be annexed, fo as to give every.decimal
the Time number of places, as is done in
the margin, they will by this means be
reduced to a common denominator, 3.495 3TWi3
viz. 1000.
Note, If the decimals to be added are of different de¬
nominations, fird reduce them to one denomination, and
then add. The reafon is, becaufe like things only can
be added or fubtraded.
Ex. What is the fum of .7251. and .625 s. ?
Here you may either reduce the decimal of a fhilling
to that of a pound, or you may reduce the decimal of a
pound to that of a fhilling.
Fird reduce the decimal of a fhilling to that of a pound,
by /eduftion-afcending, viz. divide by 20, as follows.
2o).6250o(.03125
.725 ^
Sum .75625 = 15 li
Secondly, reduce the decimal of a pound to that of a
fhilling, by redu&ion-defcending; that is, multiply by
20, as follows.
.725 1.
The anfwer here 20
is the fame as be- 
;. 15.1-; fum.
f. 2.0
AprRoxi"
A R. I T H
M
Approximates.
If the decimals to be added run on to a great, many
places, it will be fufficient in moft cafes to ufe only four
or five places, and obferve to increafe the figure at which
you break off by an unit, if the rejefted figure on the
right exceed 5. And in adding fuch approximates, o-
mit the right-hand figure of the fum, as uncertain, but
take in the carriage. Follows an example at large, and
the fame contradled.
Ex. at large.
12.2352946
8.15789325
7.086968435
6.32143482
4-75
contratted.
12.23529 +
8.15789 +
7.08696—
6.32143 +
4-75
38.551591105 38.5515 certain.
Rule II. When all or any of the given decimals are
repeaters, give every repeater the fame number of places,
and one place more than the longeft finite; and for every
nine in the right-hand column carry 1. or to its fum add
I for every nine, and then carry at ten. *
Examp. 7484= 748-3'3
6534= 653.06
844— 84./i
254= 25.8*
aT.e’e
15S7t=i5S7.-^
In this example the fum of the right-hand column is
24, which contains 9 twice, and 6 over ; fo fet down 6
and carry 2 : Or to the fum 24 add 2, for the two nines,
which makes 26; fo fet down 6 and carry 2. Proceed
with the reft as in integers^
The fums, differences, and produ&s, of interminate
decimals, are always interminate, unlefs they end in a
cipher.
A repeating digit is the numerator of a vulgar frac¬
tion, whofe denominator is 9; and hence, in adding a
column of repeating digits, every 9 of the:fum is f, or
an unit, to be carried ; and what is over a juft number
of nines is fo many ninth-parts.
Or, if to the fum of a column of repeating digits, 1
for every 9 contained in it be added, we then carry 1 for
every ten; but what is over a juft number of tens will
ftill continue to be ninth-parts.
If in any. example the repeating figures happen all
to be reiterated, the carriage from the right-hand co¬
lumn adjufts the column on the left, or makes every ten
of them equal to an unit of the next fuperior column,
tbr. Thus, if we imagine a column of the repeating fi¬
gures reiterated on the right of any example, the car¬
riage from it would adjuft the right-hand column of the
example.
Rule III. When all or any of the given decimals
are circulates, make all the circles conterminous, find the
number of tens to be carried from the left-hand column
E T I C K. 403
of the circles, add this carriage to the right hand column,
and proceed as in addition of integers.
If repeaters be mixed with the circulates, give the
repeaters the form of circulates, by extending the re¬
peating figures till they become conterminous with the
other circles.
If finite decimals are joined with the circulates, ex¬
tend the finite parts of all the circulates to as many places
as there are figures in the longeft finite.
Examp. 4 == .428571, = .428571,
4 =.857142,= .857142,
tt — .4S> — •454S4J»
tt=-37°> = *370370.
2.110630
In order to find the carriage from the left-hand co¬
lumn of the circles, add the column next to it on the
right, faying, 7 + 5 + 5+ 2 = 19; from which carry 1,
and fay, 1+3+4 + 8 + 4 = 20; from which carry
2, and go on to add the right-hand column of the
circle, faying, the carriage 2 + 5 + 2 + 1=10; fofet
down o, and carry 1, and proceed with the reft as in
integers.
The adding the carriage from the left-hand column of
the circles to the column on the right hand, arifes from
the flux of numbers; for as the circles repeat infinitely,
if we fuppofe a new fett of the fame circles to be repeat¬
ed upon the right of our examples, it is plain, that in
adding them the carriage from the left-hand column of
the new fett would naturally fall into the right-hand co¬
lumn of our example.
The operation here is the fame as in addition of vulgar
fra&ions ; for every circle is the numerator of a vulgar
fradlion, whofe common denominator is 999999 ; and
if the circles or numerators be added, without minding
any carriage from the left-hand column, the fum will be
2110628.
And 999999)2ii°628(244444f
1999998
110630
But, by pointing off from the fum of the circles fix
figures towards the right, we divide.by 1006000, in-
ftead of dividing by 999999 ; which gives indeed the
fame quot, but makes the remainder too fmall.
Now, that the carriageTfigure from the left-hand co¬
lumn of the circles, is the integral part of the quot, and
at the fame time the difference between the true and
falfe remainder, is evident; for the quotient-figure 2,
muHiplied into the two. divifors 1000000.and 999999,
gives two produdlsj whofe difference is 2; and confe-
quently, if the greateft product, viz. 2.X 1000000=
2000000, be fubtradted from the dividend, the refult.
will want 2 of the true remainder. To prevent fuch er¬
rors, and to put the work on a fure. footing, find the.
carriage from, the left-hand column: of the circles, add
this carriage to the right-hand column, divide the fum.
by 1000000, and you will have a true quot,' and a true,
remainder. The learner may look back to divifion <oP
integers,.
4°4
a r r
II M E T I C K.
integers, where the method of dividing by 9,59,9^9, &c.
is explained.
Hence it follows, that if we add the cir¬
cles as they (land, without minding any car¬
riage from the left, and to the fum add the
excrefcent "figure on the left of the decimal
point, we (hall have the full fum of the
2.110628 circles, both as to the integral and frac-
2 tional part, as jn the margin.
2.110630, ,
Pure repeaters, being the numerators of vulgar frac¬
tions, whofe denominator is 9 as often taken as the digit
is repeated, may be added in the fame manner as circles.
But in examples clear of circulates, the method prefcri-
bed in Cafe II. is preferable.
.857142,
.571428,
.857142,
.714285,
2.999999,
3.000000
1.9999,
Here the dividual being the
fame with the fecond, a new
circle begins.
*16100
IV. Svbtraftion of Decimals.
L.
From 48
Sub.
Example I.
d. L.
6 =48.525
8^=18.634375
8 12
Rem.. 29 17
Exam
67.
r rom 54 2
Sub. 36 3
94 = 29:890625
p l e II.
lb. C.
21 = 54.6875
. 14 = 36.875
Rem. 3 17 = 17.8125
.6666, In adding circles and pure re-
.6666, peaters by the method now ex-
.6666, plained, it will fometimes happen
 that the fra&ional part of the
fum will be a feries of nines,
as in the margin: And in this
cafe, the numerator of the frac¬
tion being the fame with the de¬
nominator, its value will be uni¬
ty; and accordingly 1 muft be
added to the integral part. But in adding pure repeaters
by the method in Cafe II. this cannot happen.
By way of proof, we fhall here add all the vulgar
fractions in Examp. I. and reduce their fum to a mixt
number, continuing the divifion to a decimal.
4 + t + tt + Ir = tVtYt 4* '4rff + AVtt 4"
Trrrr =
14553)30716(2.110630,
29106
Approximates.
In fubtra&ing approximates, negleft the right-hand fi¬
gure of the remainder, as uncertain; but an unit bor¬
rowed on the right muft»be repaid, as in the two exam¬
ples following.
Ex. 1. Ex. 2.
From 783.0625 From 549,4643
Sub. 495.28571 4- Sub. 78.0875
Rem. 287.7767 certain. Rem. 471.376 certain.
Rule II. If one of the given decimals is a repeater,
and the other a finite'decimal, give the repeater one place
more than the finite decimal, and in fubtraiting borrow
9 on the right hand.
But if both major and minor repeat, give them an e-
qua! number of places, and then fubtraft as above.
Ex. 1.
From •7i4583'3
Sub. .634375
Ex. 2.
.525
■2333
Ex'. 3.’
.9989583-
.0291666
Rem. .0802083' .1916 .9697916
In Ex. x. and 2. you give the repeater one place more
than the finite decimal, and by this means you obtain the
repeating figure of the remainder. Butin Ex. 3. you
give the two repeaters an equal number of places.
In Ex. 2. and 3. you borrow 9 on the right hand.
Rule III. If both the given decimals be circulates,
make the circles conterminous, and work as in integers;
only if, in the left-hand column of the circles, you
forefee, that, in fubtradting the figure of the minor from
that of the major, one muft be borrowed, in,this cafe add
I to the right-hand figure of the minor, and then fub-
tradl.
If one of the given decimals be a circulate, and the
other a repeater, give the repeater the form of a conter¬
minous circulate, and then fubtradt as above.
If one of the given decimals be a circulate, and the
other a finite decimal, extend the finite part of the cir-
Rule I. Place the minor under the major, fo that culate to as many places as there are figures in the finite
that the points may be in one column; and then, if the decimal, and then fubtradt.
given decimals be finite or approximate, work as in fub- Examp. I. From ^=.6,428571, =.64,2857x4,
traftioir of integers. Sub. -4^=.17,857142*=.17,857142,
If the major and minor have not the fame number of  
places, imagine the void places to be filled up with ci- Rem. .46,428571,
phers. In this example, becaufe, in the left-hand column of
the
ARITHMETIC K. 405
the'circles', 8 cannot be fubtrafted from' 2 without bor¬
rowing ; therefore add i to the right-hand figure of the
minor, andfay, i+2=3, and 3 from 4, and 1 remains.
The reafon is obvious : for^ fuppofing the circles reitera¬
ted on the right of the example, it would be, 8 from 2
you cannot, but 8 from 13 and 4 remains; 1 borrowed,
and 2, make 3, fcc.
Example II.
From
Sub. ■} —4 =.{£,666666,
Rem. .2,619047,
In the above example the repeaters ape given in the
form of conterminous circulates.
Example III.
From -/T=.38461 $, = .384,615384,
Sub. -y = .125 =.125
Rem. .259,615384,
In the lafl: example the finite part of the circulate is ex¬
tended to as many places as there are figures in the fi¬
nite decimal, by which means iijce things come to be
fubtradted, and you obtain the exadt circle of the re¬
mainder.
V. Multiplication of Dec'unals,
In multiplication and divifion there may happen nine
varieties, arifing from the different 'nature of the num¬
bers that may occur in the operation ; and thefe are of
three forts, viz. integers, mixt numbers, and pure de¬
cimals.
Now, fince the multiplier or divifor may be of three
kinds, and the multiplicand or dividend of as many,
there muft of confequence be nine varieties; which are
thefe following.
4 - Tan integer,
An integer may multiply or divide ^ a mixt number,
Ca Pure decimal.
C an integer,
A mixt number may multiply or divide -< a mixt number,
Ca pure decimal,
C an integer,
A pure decimal may multiply or divide < a mixt number,
Ca pore decimal,
■ Of thefe.varieties, the firft belongs' properly to vulgar
arithmetic, the other eight occur in decimal operations.
But in multiplication and divifion of decimals, there
will occur other nine .varieties, arifing likewife from the
nature of the mvnbers; which may either be finite, re¬
peating, or circulating.
And fince the multiplier or divifor may be of three
forts, and the multiplicand or dividend of as many, there
muft of courfe be nine varieties; 1 and thefe are fo ob¬
vious, that it would be lofing time here to enumerate
them.
Before entering on multiplication, we fhall lay down
a rule for pointing the prodiidf, which is of a general na¬
ture, and extends to decimals of every fort, whether fi¬
nite, repeating, or circulating.; and is as follows.
Vol. I. Numb. 17. g
General Role.
Give fo many decimal places to the produtf, on the
righr, as are in both factors; and if the product ha-s
not fo many figures, fupply that defed by prefixing ci¬
phers.
We now proceed to multiplication.
Rule I. If both fadtors are finite or approximate,
work exadly as in multiplication of integers.
Ex. 1. Ex. 2.
.785 .125
•75 -2>
3925 625
5495 250
.58875 .03125
In Ex. 2. the produdt not affording fo many deeim d
places as are in the multiplicand and multiplier, the defedt
is fupplied by prefixing ciphers.
The reafon of giving as many decimal, places to-the
product as are in both fa&ors, appears by'cotifidering
that the operation is the fame here as in multiplication of
vulgar fractions. Thus, .785 X .75= ToVa X—
t-qoJss = • 5 88 7 5.
To multiply by 10, 100, 100, move the decimal ,
point fo many places toward the right hand as there are
ciphers in the multiplier.
Thus : And thus:
.4375 X io- = 4.375 6.875X10=68.75
• .4375X100 = 43.7$ 6.875X100 = 687.5
Approximates.
In multiplying approximates, the certain places of the
produdt may be determined by one or other of the two
rules following, viz.
1. If, both fadtors are approximates, the uncertain
places of the produdt will be one more than the number
pf places in the longeft fadtor,
2. If one of the fadtors be finite, and the other ap^
proximate, the uncertain places of the produdt will be
one more than the number of places in the finite fadtor.
Ex. 1, Ex. 2.
245.118— .2105264-
.3529+ 2.875
2206062
490236
1225590
735354
1052630
1473682
1684208
421052
86.5021422 .605262250
In Ex. 1. the integral part of the produdt, vrzi 86,
is certain, and all the decimal places on the right arc
Uncertain. In Ex. 2. only four places on the left, viz.
.6052^ are certain, and all the other places uncertain.
The reafon of Rule 1. is plain. For if in Ex. 1. we
make the longeft fadtor the multiplier, and the total
produdt will be the fame either way, it is'obvious,••that
in this cafe we (hall have fix part(:ular produdts, in each
Of which the right-hand figure will be uncertain, and
5 K confequently
4o6 A II I T H M
confequentjy we ftiail have fix uncertain places in the to¬
tal product toward the right, and alfo one uncertain place
more on account of the uncertain carriage from the co¬
lumn in which the right-hand figure of the lalt particular
product Hands.
The reafon of Rule 2. is alfo obvious. For in Ex. 2.
by making the finite faftor the multiplier, we have four
particular produ&s, in each of which the right-hand fi¬
gure is uncertain; and fo we have four uncertain places
in the total produft, and one uncertain place more arifing
from the uncertain carriage.
The carriage in foroe cafes may affed feveral columns
on the left, and thereby render fo many more figures un-
E T I C K.
tions, will throw a light upon the matter, and unfold the
reafon of the rule. Which takehs follows.
Multiply 18.634375 into 9-S75, and limit the produft
to four decimal places.
By the rule. By the other method.
18.634375 18.634375
578.9 A 9-875
1677093
149075
I3°44
'931
1677093
149075
75
000
130440625
71875
certain.
The fiureft way therefore to determine the certain
places in the product of approximates, is by a fecond
operation, giving the approximates contrary ligns; for
then, fo far as the two products agree, the figures are
certaim The fecond operations of the two former ex¬
amples, follow.
Ex. :. Ex. 2.
245.117+ • .210527-
.253— 2.875
235351 1052635
1225585 M73689
735351 1684216
  421054
86.526301  
.605265125
Xn Ex. 1. 865 is certain, and all the othen figures
uncertain. In Ex. 2. .60526 are the only certain places.
Becaufe the multiplication of decimals that confift of
many places, proves, in the way hitherto pra&ifed, a te¬
dious operation, we fhall here explain a method where¬
by decimals of this fort, whether finite or approximate,
may be multiplied expeditioufly, and at the fame time
have the decimal places in the product limited to any
number propofed. This may be effected by the fol¬
lowing
Rule. Under the multiplicand place the multiplier
inverted, fo that its units place may Hand under that
place of the multiplicand to which you propofe to limit
the rrroduS:; then multiply the right-hand figure of the
multiplier into that figme of the multiplicand which Hands
direflly over it, taking in the carriage from the right,
and go on to multiply it into all the other figures on the
left. Proceed in like manner with every other figure of
the multiplier, placing the right-hand figures of all the
particular prod& ds direftly under other. The total pro-
duft will be approximate, and the right-hand figure un¬
certain.
To make this rule more eafily underfiood, the readeir
may look back to the multiplication of integers ; where:
it was obfetved, that infiesd of beginning with the right-
hand figure of the multiplier, we may begin with the
left, and Hill have a juft product, provided the right-
hand figure of every particular prodnff be placed di-
reflly under the multiplying figure. Now, the working,
an example, both in this manner, and alfo by the rule,,
and comparing the fteps and refuks of the two opera-
184.0143-f- 184.0144I53125
B
In working by this rule, you invert the multiplier, and
place 9, the units figure, under 3, the fourth place of
decimals, becaufe the produdt is limited to four deci¬
mal places; then multiply, faying, 9X3=127, and 6
carried from the right makes 33, fcc. In multiplying
by 8, fay, 8 X4= 32, and 3 of carriage makes 35 ; fo
fet 5 under 3 ; and proceed in like manner -to multiply
the figures on the left. The right-hand figure of the
product is defective, as wanting the carriage from the
columns cut off on the right by the line A B. The fi¬
gures expreffing the fum of the columns fo cut off, are
fo many uncertain places of the product, when the fac¬
tors are approximate, and on that account to be reject¬
ed as ufelefs. The figures* moreover, on the right of
the line A B, flrow how far the operation is contracted,
or how much labour is faved in working by the rule
If there be no units in the multiplier, in this cafe fet
the right-hand figure of the inverted multiplier under
that figure of the multiplicand, below which it would
have flood had there been units.
Ex. Multiply .825 by .825* limiting the product to
three decimal places.
By the rule. The common way at large.
.825, .Say
528. .825
64a <r'*25
16 16I501
4 66o(o
.680+ .68o|62 5
The decimal places of the faClors may either be re¬
tained at full-length, or turned into approximates before
you begin to multiply.
Ex. Multiply 25.8490.13^25 by 42 92235, limiting,
the product to two decimal places.
25.849013635.
53*79-24
10339&
5169
2326
tffo.
5
LI LO.764-
We
A R I T H
We fliall next torn the decimals of the former exam¬
ple into approximates, and then the operation will be as
follows.
By the rule.
25.85—
+79-24
Common way at large.
25.85-
42-97+
103400
5170
2326
180
180-95
2326
5170
10340
Prod. 1110.76+
IIIO.77
45
It remains to be obferved, that the want of carriage
from the fight hand may fometifnes affedt more columns
on the left than one, and thereby occafion more uncertain
figures in the produdt than that on the right hand. The
bell fecurity on this head is, never to limit the produdl
to fewer than four or five decimal places.
To conclude, when decimals to be multiplied are
long, you may frequently perform the operation more
eafily in vulgar fractions, and then reduce the produdt to
a decimal.
M E T I C K. 407
plicand circulate, to the produdl of the right-hand figure
of the circle add the carriage from the left, then proceed
as in multiplication of integers ; but before you add the
particular produdts, make them conterminous, and then
add as in addition of circulates.
The produft commonly circulates; and then its circle
is fimilar to the circle of the multiplicand, as in Ex. 1.
and 2.; but the produdt fometimes repeats, as in Ex. 5.;
or it may turn out finite, as in Ex. 6.
Here it is obvious, that in multiplying .481 Ex. 1.
by 7, the carriage from the left would be 3 ; .481,
fo fay, 7X1 = 7, and 3 of carriage, make 10, 7,
&c. The product circulates, and its circle 
.370, is fimilar to .481, the circle of the mul- 3-370,
tiplicand.
Ex. 2.
7.5x8,
•5
Ex 3.
7-5i8,
.05
Ex. 4.
7-5)8,
.005
Rule II. If the multiplier be finite, and the multi¬
plicand repeat, in multiplying carry at 9 on the right
hand ; and before you add, prolong the repetends of the
particular products, till their right-hand figures Hand di-
reftly under one another ; and in adding, carry at 9 on
the right hand.
In the above three examples the products are mixt
circulates, the three figures on the right being the circle,
and the figures on the left the finite parts.
The produdt repeats, as i
out finite, as in Ex. 6.
Ex. 2.
Ex. 1. 2.
Rule IV. If the multiplier be interminate, reduce
it to a vulgar fraftfon, as directed in reduction of deci¬
mals, Prob. V.; then multiply the given multiplicand by
the numerator, (working as in integers, if the multipli¬
cand be finite ; or as dire<5ted in Rule 2. if it repeat; or
; or turns as prefcribed in Rule 3. if it circulate) ; and divide the
product, by the denominator,.
px Here there are fix cafes -, for the multiplier may repeat
2542V ' or circulate, and may multiply a finite, a repeating, or
^ Q<j> circulating multiplicand.
Case I. When a repeating multiplier multiplies, a fi-t-
nite multiplicand.
Examp. Multiply 638.25.by .4 = ^
638.25.
4
28.341^
Note, IT die multiplier has ciphers on the right, in-
ffead of annexing ciphers to the produft, reiterate its
right-hand figure' fo many times as there are ciphers.
9)2553-00(283.(1 produft fought:
n
72
Ex. x.
79.6
5°
Ex. 2.
874-3'
900
33
27
60
54
3983.3 786900.0
ole III-. If the multiplier be finke, and the raulti-
Case II. When both factors repeat,-
Examp.
T H M
A K I
Multiply 6.S# by .f=-J
In dividing by 9, after the
dividend is exhaufted,' eonti-.
nue the divifion-by annexing
to the remainders the repeat-
,3,148, prod, ing figure of the dividend ;
and the quot or product fought
conies out a mixt circulate.
k}o8
■ :ExAMPi
6-8^
7
9) 47-88 (:
45 •'
28
27
* 13
9
73
• 72
Case Ilf. When a repeating multiplier multiplies a
circulating multiplicand.
Examp. Multiply 24.36, by .q — %
In multiplying by 4, take
in the carriage from the left
of the circle; and in dividing
by 9, continue the divifion by
annexing to the remainders
the circulating figures of the
dividend.
E T
Examp.
»4-36,
4
9)97.45,(1°.82, prod,
9
I G K.
Multiply 8.02085 by -72» =w
8.02085
72
1604166
56145853
99)577.50000(5.85
49s ;•
825
792
330
297
*33
Case VI. When both fadlors circulate.
Examp. Multiply .714285, by .36, =£!
• 7M285.
36
4,285714,
21,428571,
99)25,714285,7
257142,8
2 5' 71 >4
2 5.7
* 74
Case IV. When a circulate multiplies a finite mul¬
tiplicand.
Examp. Multiply 825 by .36,
825
36
4950
2475
99)29700(300 produft
297
Case V. When a circulate multiplies a repeating
multiplicand.
Prod. .25,974025, = .259740.25
The circle of the firft product is always fimilar to that
of the multiplicand, and in the above example confifts
of fix places; but to fecure the carriage from right to
left, and thereby complete the circle of the quot or to¬
tal produft, transfer 7, the left-hand figure of the circle
of the firft. produft, to the right, and fill up the places
under it with the figures that come in courfe, and from
the fum of thefe figures on the right carry 2, which
completes the circle of the total produdt. ■
VI. Divijion of Decimals.
Before we enter on divifion, it will be proper toob-
ferve, that there are two rules for pointing the quot,
both which are general in their nature, and extend to
decimals of every fort, whether terminate or intermi-
nate ; but unwilling to perplex the learner with too ma¬
ny things at once, we fliall at prefent lay down only one
of thefe rules ; and afterwards, when the rule now to be
affigned appears to be fufficiently exemplified, {hall then
bring the other rule upon the field.-
General Rule.
The decimal .places in the divifor and quot together
mufl: always be equal in number to thofe of the divi¬
dend.
The
A RITHMETI C K.
The five following pradlicai dire&ions will make the caufe there are two decimal j>laces
application of the general rule eafy.
1. When the divifor and dividend have an equal num¬
ber of decimal places, the quot comes out an integer ; as
in Ex. 2.
2. When the decimal places of the dividend are more
than thofe of the divifor, the number of decimal places
in the quot mull be equal to the excefs ; as in Ex. i.
4. and 8.
3. When the decimal places of the divifor are more
than thofe of the dividend, annex ciphers to the dividend,
fo as to make them equal, and the quot, by diredtion 1.
will be integers; as in Ex. 3. y. and 7.
4. When, after divifion is finilhed, the quot has not
fo many figures, as, by the general rule, it ou^ht to
have decimal places, fupply that defedt by prefixing ci¬
phers ; as in Ex. 6.
y. If, after the dividend is exhaufted, there be a re¬
mainder, annex a cipher, or ciphers, to the remainder,
and continue the divifion till o remain, or till the quot
repeat or circulate, or till you think proper to limit it;
as in Ex. 9. 10. 11. and 12.
We now proceed to divifion.
Rule I. If the divifor and dividend are both finite
or approximate, work exadtly as in divifion of integers.
Ex. 1,
•75).f887s(.785
52J’•
637
(loo
375
375
In Ex. 1. A decimal divides a decimal; and becaufe
the dividend has five decimal places, and the divifor on¬
ly two, give three decimal places to the quot, accord¬
ing to Dire&ion 2.
In Ex. 2. A mixt number divides a mixt number,
and the divifor and dividend having an equal number of
decimal places, the quot comes out an integer, accord¬
ing to Diredtion 1.
The reafon of the rule for pointing the quot is ob¬
vious ; for multiplication gives as many decimal places
to the produdt as are in both fadtors; but ihe dividend is
the produdt of fhe divifor and quot, and fo has as many
decimal places as are in both ; confequently the decimal
places in the divifor and quot together mull be equal in
number to thofe of*the dividend.
Ex. 4.
7)-875(-l25
7 * *
17
14
  35
° . 35
In Ex. 3. A decimal divides an integer ; and the di¬
vidend having no decimal place, annex two ciphers, be-
Vol. I. No. 18. 3
409
ie divifor, and the
quot comes out an integer, according to Diredtion 3,
In Ex. 4. An integer divides a decimal ; and becaufe
the dividend has three decimal places, and the divifor
none, give the quot three, by Diredtion 2.
Ex. 6.
2.5).2287s(.09iy
22;
37
25
125
i2y
In Ex. y. A decimal divides a mixt number; and the
divifor having three decimal places, and the dividend but
two, fupply that defedt by annexing a cipher, and the
quot comes out an integer, by Diredtion 3.
In Ex. 6. A mixt number divides a decimal; and be¬
caufe the dividend has four decimal places more than
the divifor, and the quot, after tire divfion is finilhed,
has only three figures, fupply this defedt by prefixing a
cipher to it, according to Diredtion 4.
Ex. 7.
3-75)j8o(
3-75)i8o.oo(48
1 yoo *
3000
3000
Ex. 8.
38)243.2(6.4
228 *
i
152
i52
In Ex- 7. A mixt number divides an integer; and the
dividend having no decimal places, fupply that defedt by
annexing two ciphers, the number of decimal places in
the divifor, and the quot is an integer, by Diredtion 3.
In Ex. 8. An integer divides a mixt number; and
the divifor having no decimal place, and the dividend
only one, give one to the quot, according to Direc¬
tion 2.
Er. 9.
.8)29(36.25
24
5°
48
Ex. 10.
.0lS).0024(.I3’
18
60
54
40
40
In Ex. 9. A decimal divides an integer; and after
the dividend is exhaufted, annex a cipher to the remain¬
der, and continue the divifion till o remain, according
to Diredtion y.
In Ex. 10. A decimal divides a decimal; and after
' the dividend is exhaufted, annex a cipher to the re¬
mainder, and continue the divifion till you find the quot
repeats.
5 L Ex.
A
470
Ex. it.
n.)8(
m)8.o(.72
77
30
22
# 8'
R I T H
Ex. 12.
3^5)76.75(23.615+
650
M
E T I C
Ear. 3.
35)32.095(.9i7
3i5 * *
K.
Ear. 4.
35)3-2O9S(-09i7
3'5 ' ■
117J
975
2000
1950
500
325
59
35
245
245
Ear. 5.
35)-32°9*(.00917
59
35
245
255
6.
35)*032095('0°09I7
i- 3i5"
1750
_ 1625
59 . 59
35 35
125
In Ex. n . An integer divides an integer; and the
dividend being lefs than the divifor, annex a cipher to it;
again, after the dividend is exhaufted, annex a cipher
to the'remainder^ and continue the divifion till you find
the quot circulates.
In Ex. 12. A mixt number divides a mixt number :
and after the dividend is exhaufted, by annexing ciphers
to the remainder, continue the divifion till the quot has
three decimal places; and as there is hill a remainder, it
might be carried further ; but three decimal places being
in molt cafes, fufiiciently accurate, here you may limit it;
fo the quot is approximate.
In divifion of decimals, the place of the firft figure of
the quot may likewife be known from the firft dividual,
much after the fame manner as in divifton of integers,
by the following
II. General Rule.
The place of the firft figure of the quot is the fame
■with the place of that figure in the dividend which ftands
over the units of the firft product;
Thus, in the example of integers in 35)32095(917,
the margin, the figure o, that ftands o-
ver 5, the units of the produft of
9.x 35, is in the place of hundreds;
and therefore 9, the firft figure of the
quot, is likewife hundreds ; and fo the
quot is 917 integers.
To illuftrate the rule, we ftiall give decimal places to
the dividend of the above example; and thereby exhibit
the varieties that will occur in pointing the quot.
315
59
35
245
245
Variety 1.
35)3209,5(91.7 •
3J5 *
59
3.5
245'-
245
Ear. 2.
35)320.95(9,17
315; •
59
35
245
245
245
245
245
245
In all the above varieties, the figure o iti the dividend
ftands over the units of the firft produft: and in Var. 1.
the figure o is in the place of tens, and accordingly 5,
the firft figure of the quot, is tens; in Var. 2. the figure
o is in the place of units, and fo 9 is units ; in Var. 3,
the figure o is in the place of primes, and fo 9 is
primes, &c.
Here obferve that 9, the firft fignificant figure of the
quot, in all the above varieties, as well as in the varie¬
ties that follow, muft always be confidered, in multi¬
plying the divifor, as an integer; and, in pointing the
firft produdl, no decimal place is to be allowed for it.
We ftiall now keep the dividend an integer, and give
decimal places to the divifor.
Ear. 1. Ear. 2.
3-5)32095(9170 -35)32°9S(9I7oo
3I-5" 3-I5 ‘ ’
59
35
245
245
59
35
245
245
Var. 3.
“035) 32095(917000
°-3 *5
Var. 4.
.0035) 32095(9170000
0.0315--
59
35
59
35
245
245
245-
245-
In Var. 1. lay, 9X3.5=31.5; and the unit 1 Hand¬
ing under the. place of thoufands, the figure 9 is alfo
thoufands ; and as o at laft remains, annex a cipher for
the decimal .5- in'the divifor ;. then dividing, you ggt o
to the quot; and becaufe 9 ftands in the place of thou¬
fands, the quot is wholly integers.
la
ARITHMETICS:. 4n
In Var. 2. the unit 3 (lands under the place of ten*
thoufands, and fo 9 is ten-thoufands; and to the re¬
mainder o annex .00, for the two decimal places in
the divifor; then-dividing, you get 00 to the quot; and
becaufe 9 (lands in the place of ten-thoufands, the quot
continues to be wholly integers. The procefs is the fame
in Var. 3. and 4.
Laftly, we (hall allow decimal places to both dividend
and divifor.
riage may, in feme cafes, effect feveral columns on the
left, and thereby render more figures of the quot uncer¬
tain than the rule pteferibes. The fureft way, there*
fore, is, to make two operations with contrary figns,
and then the figures in which the two quots agree are
certain. ,
In order to make the reafon of the rule appear, it will
be neceifary to work an example.
Var. 1. for. 2.
3-5)320.95(91,7 3-5)3*-095(9-i7
31.5*- A Si-S”
59
35
245
245
Var. 3;
•35)-32oo5(.9i7
3*15"
49
35
245
245
* 59 '
3T
245
245
Var. 4.
3-5)-32095(.09i7
3 M' *
59
35
245
245
In Var. 1. the units of the firfl produft (land under
tends of the dividend; and fo 9, the firft figure of the
quot, is tens. In Var. 2. the units of the.firft product
(land under units of the dividend, and fo 9 is units. In
Var. 3. the units of the firft produd (land under primes,
and fo 9 is primes, &c.
To divide.by 10, 100, 1000, is to move the de¬
cimal point one place toward •» he left for every cipher in
the divifor.
Thus, And Thus,-
io)768( 76.81 10)17.a8( 1-728
ioo')768( 7.68 I 100)17.28( .1728
iooo)768( 768 I 1000)17.28( .01728
ioooo)768(.o768 l 10000)i7.28(.ooi728
Approximates;
In dividing approximates; the certain'places -of the
quot may be determined by the following
Rule. Place the divifor under the-firft dividual,
and the number of certain figures in the* quot (hall be
one lefs than the number of places from the left of the
divifor to the firft + or —, whether in the divifor or in
the dividend.
Ex. 1. E'x. 2.
Dividend 1110.79286078— Dividend mo.7929—
Divifor 42.9723+ Divifor 25.8490136 +
Certain places five, where- Certain places fix, where¬
of three are decimals. of four are decimals.
But here it is to be obferved, that the uncertain car¬
Example.
A
42.9723+)nio.79
85944
* 25134
21486
286078—{25.849,
6* • • •
68
>5
3648
3437
536
784
210
17
18780
Here we (lop, no more places being certain.' The
reafon is obvious; for the right-hand figure of the firft
product, viz. 6, is uncertain; and confequently all the
figures under it, on the right of the line A B, will be
fo too ; that is-, the laft remainder and new dividual are
uncertain, and of courle the figure that would go next
to the quot.
From this example it appears, that all the figures on
the right of the line A B are uncertain and ufelefs; if
therefore a way of working, without writing down thefe
ufelefs figures, can be found, we-(hall then have a me¬
thod of dividing long decimals, whether finite or approxi¬
mate, fo as to contradt the operation, and limit the pro-
duft to any number of decimal places propofed. And i
this may be effedfed by obferving.the following
Rule. Write the produdt of the firft quotient-figure
under the dividend ; and from the fituation of the units
place, confider how many figures of the dividend muft
be retained to give the quot the number of decimal
places intended; cut off the other figures on the right,
and alfo the figures correfponding to them on the right
of the divifor; then fubtradl; efteem this and every fol¬
lowing remainder a new dividual; and for each new di¬
vidual drop a figure on the right of the divifor; but in
multiplying the quotient-figures into the divifor, take in
the carriage from the right hand; as in the fallowing
examples.
?.r' T- Divide 95-43275-<M3275 b7 3-4637528; :
and limit the quot to four decimal places.
Contracted
4i* A R I T H
Contrafled by the rule.
3.46575128)95.4327116463275(27.5518
..... 6.92750I56
261577
242462
1797
173*
66
34
32
27
M E T i e K.
In working the fame example at large, the line A B
{hows how far the operation is contraded, and how much
labour is fared.
But here obferve, that by the rule for approximates
the certain places of the quot are no more than five,
viz. 27.551. And therefore, in all operations of this
kind, care fhould be taken to limit the quot to fo many
places certain; as is done in the following example.
Examp. II. Divide 87.0763264525 by 9.365407024 j
limiting the quot to four decimal places certain.
9.3654017024)87.07632164525(9.2976
  84.2886613216
278766
187308
91458
84288
In the above example the units of the firfl produd
{landing under the place of tens, the firft figure of the
quot is tens; and hence it is eafy to forelee, that fix
figures of the dividend retained will give four decimal
places to the quot; and accordingly cut off all the o-
ther figures on the right of the dividend ; cut off like-
wife from the divifor two figures that correfpond to
them.
At every new dividual, drop or omit a figure on the
right of the divifor, and mark the figure fo dropped by
fetting a point under it; and in multiplying the quotient-
figure 7 into the divifor, fay, 7 times 7 is 49, and 3 of
carriage from the right, (arifing from 7X5=35), makes
52 ; fo fet down 2, and carry 5. The fame method is
obferved in multiplying every other quotient-figure into
the divifor. <
The fame Example at large.
A
3.4637528)95-4327
6.92750
261577
242462
56463275(27.55183
56 
004
696
19114
17318
*795
1731
63
34
3086
7640
54463
87640
668232
637528
1 32068235
103912588
29055647
B
7170
6555
615 „
561
*4
Here we put a flop to the operation; becaufe, by tire
rule for approximates, the next figure of the quot would
be uncertain.
We lhall conclude divifion of finite decimals with two
very ufeful problems.
Prob. I. From a given multiplier to find a divifor
that gives a quot equal to the produ<ft.
Rule. Divide an unit with ciphers annexed by the
given multiplier, and the quot will be the divifor fought.
Examp. What divifor will give a quot equal to the
product of 125 into the dn idend ?
Given multiplier i25)i.ooo(,oo8 divifor fought.
1000
Now, if any number be divided by .008, and the
fame number be multiplied by 125, the quot and product
will be equal.
.008)7315.000(914375 quot.
72 
11
8
35
33
30
24
60
56
40
4°
The reafon is plain: for an unit contains the quot .008
juft 125 times ; and confequently .008 dividing any num¬
ber
73*5
125
36575
14630
73*5
914375 predudh
ARITHM ETIC
ber will give a tjuot 125 times greater than the dividend;
that is, the quot will be equal to the produft of the di¬
vidend multiplied by 12J.
Prob. II. From a given divifor to find a multiplier
that gives a product equal to the quot.
Rule. Divide an unit with ciphers annexed by the
given divifor, and the quot will be the multiplier fought.
Examp. What multiplier will give a produtt equal
to the quot arifing from the fame number divided by
.008 ?
Given divifor .008)1.000(125 multiplier fought.
8 * *
Ex. 1.
7)3-37°»(-48m8i,
28 *•
57
56
33
28
57
56
K. 413
Ex. 2.
♦5)3-7>592>(7-5i2,5
3'5 *5
3,7,592, proof.
42
40
40
40
Now, if any number be multiplied by 125, and the
fame number be divided by .008, the product and quot
will be equal; as appears in the example following.
785
125
3925
1570
785
98125 produdt
.008)785.000(98125 quot.
72
65
64
Ex. 1.
5)-3-3(-°0
30
Ex. 2.
4)5.1^(1.291^
4
Rule IV. If the divifor be interminate, reduce it to
a vulgar fraction, as taught in reduction of decimals,
Prob. V.; then multiply the given dividend by the de¬
nominator, and divide the produdt by the numerator.
Here there are fix cafes; for the divifor may either
repeat or circulate, and may divide a finite, a repeating,
or circulating dividend.
Case I. When a repeating divifor divides a finite
dividend.
Examp. Divide 23.5 by .4’=^
9
4)211.5(52.875
40
40
Rule II. If a finite divifor divide a repeating divi¬
dend, work as in integers; but in continuing the divi-
fion, inftead of annexing ciphers to the remainder, annex
the repeating figure of the dividend.
35
32
36
36
6
4
26
24
Case II. When a repeating divifor divides a repeat'
ing dividend.
Examp. Divide 43.2$ by .3' = ^
43.2^
9 Or rather thus :
432.06
43-20
3)389.40(129.8
Rule III. If a finite divifor divide a circulating di¬
vidend, work as in integers; but in continuing the divi-
fion, inllead of annexing ciphers to the remainder, an¬
nex the circulating figures of the dividend.
29
27
24
24
5 M
Voi. 1. No. 18.
3
Case III.
4M
Case.
cdate.
ARITHMETIC K.
III. When a repeating divifor divides a cir-
Examp. Divide 92.518, by
92.518, Or rather thus : 925.1
92.5x8,
4)832.^66(208.1^
Case IV.
dend.
93
6
4
26
24
When a circulate divides a finite divi-
Examp. Divide 9 by .45 =H'
Examp. Divide .962, by .18, = f
96.-396,
.962,
i8)95.3,39(5<29^
90 • • •
#53
36
*73*
162
5
When the circle of the quot is likely to run on to.
many places, you may ftop the operation, and com¬
plete the quot by a vulgar fraftion ; as in the following
example.
Examp. Divide 34.56097, by 3.592, ='^
3 •592>) 34560.975-60,
3 34-56097,
In order to multiply the divi¬
dend 9 by 99, firrf multiply it
by 100, which is done by an¬
nexing two ciphers ; and from
this produft, fubtrad the divi¬
dend.
900
9
45)891(19.8
45 ‘
441
.. ' 405
360
360
Case V. When a circulate divides a repeating di¬
vidend.
Examp. Divide 5.83-by .72,
583-?3
5.83
72)577-50(8.02083
576
150
144
600.
576
In order to multiply the di¬
vidend by 99, move the deci¬
mal point two places, to. the
right, and then fvfijtrad the
given dividend.
340
216
Case VI. When a circulate divides a circulate.
3589). 345-26.41463,(9.62ao653i-Hi^i:
32301  
■ 2-2254.
21534
7201 Or, 9.6200653
7178
23463
The quot would run 21534
on to 49 figures of a  
finite part, and then a
circle of 65 places ; but
limit it at feven places
of decimals., and then
complete-it by a vulgar
fradion; as follows,
viz.
19294
J7945
13491
10767
_ (2724)
Complete the partial remainder 2724 by annexing to
it the circle of the-dividend, and placing both, by way
of numerator, over the divifor 3589.
The numerator of this complex fradion being a mixt
number, reduce it to an improper fradion,, by multiply¬
ing 27.24 by the denominator 99999, and
adding the numerator 46341 to the pro-
dud ; as in the margin : and then, inltead
of the mixt number, the numerator of the.
complex fradion will be Or
rather work thus : Efteem 2724.46341, a
circulate; and then you find the numerator
of the vulgar fradion by fubtrading ihefi*
nite part.
272400000
2724
272397276
46341
272443617
Next
4T5
ARITHMETIC K.
Next divide this fra&iond numerator
by the denominator ; which is done by
multiplying 3589 by 99999, as in the mar¬
gin ; and now the Ample vulgar fraction
be annexed to the partial quot is
TTwaiarT-r-
If the quot thus completed be multiplied by the divi-
for, it will produce the dividend.
358900000
3589
358896411
VII. Decimal Prafiice.
The price of goods or merchandife may be callup
decimally by any of the methods following.
Me thou I. Find the decimal of the rate, viz. the
value of one yard, one pound, one piece, fee. ; and this
decimal of the rate multiplied into the number or quan¬
tity of the goods gives the price.
£x. 1. At 3 s. 4 d. what coll 346 ?
346
15
•1730
346
S1°) 519^ (57' $
45 *
69:
63
The decimal of the
rate is =
L. s.
= 57 13
Ex. 2. At 6 s. 8 d. what coll 439 ?
The decimal of the L. /. d.
rate is 3)439(146.3'= 146 6 8
Meth. II. When the rate confilts of pence and far¬
things, find how often it is contained in one pound Ster¬
ling, divide the given number of goods by this number,
or by its component parts, or work by aliquot parts, and
the refult will be the price fought.
We confine this method to fuch rates as confifl of
pence and farthings, becaufe when the rate confills of
(hillings, pence, and farthings, or of pounds, (hillings,
pence, fee. it is (horter and eafier to work by Me¬
thod I.
To make the pradiice ready and eafy, it will be pro¬
per to have at hand a table of rates and divifors, fuch as-
the following, one.
60
54
Table of Rates and Divisors.
Divif
6,40.
4,30.
80.
■6 O'.
6,8.
40.
40+6.
3°-
8o,X3.
8,3.
l Earth.
Divif.
3,8,40.
8,6,4.
4,3°,+8.
8o,+ i2.
60,+4 of 4,
40,—8.
40+4 of 6.
40+6-J-4 of. 6.
30+4 of. 8.
80,X3,+ 12 of 80.
30,+4,+8 of 4.
40,X2,—8 of 40.
2 Earth.
Divif
8,60.
4»40i
4,30,4-4.
8o,+6.
60+8.
40—12.
40+12.
40+4.
30+2 of 8.
8o,X3,+6 of 80.
20,—8.
40vX-2,—12 of>4Q.
3 Earth.
Divif.
8,40.
4,30,—8.
80,—12.
80,+4.
60+8+2 of 8.
40—4 of 6.
40+8.
40+4+6 of 4.
8o,X3,—12 of 80;
3o,X3,+4 of 80.
40, + 2, + 2,+6.
8,3,+5,—8 of .5
In the-above table the pence Hand in the left-hand
column, and the farthings on .the head, and the divifors
in the angle of meeting ; which are to be underftood and
read as follows.
3,8,40. Divide the given number of goods by 3,
divide the quot by d, and again divide this laft quot by 40.-
4,30,—8. Divide the number of goods by 4, divide-
the quot by 30, and-from this lafl: quot fubtraft one 8th.
of itfelf.
80+12. To an 80th add a 12th of that 80th.
4>30,+4. To a i 30th of a 4th add a 4th of 'that
30th.
6o»,
A R I T H M E T I C K.
416 .
60,+4 of 4, Divide by 60, divide again the quot by
4, and to theTjrft quot add a 4th of the fecond cjuot.
80X3,— s 2 of 80. Divide by 80, multiply the quot
by 3, and from the produdl fubtradt a 12th of the firtl
quot.
Ex. 1. At i f. pgr yard, what coft 432 yards ?
One 3 d = 144
One 8th of that =: 18
One 40th of that = .45^ 9 s.
Ex. 2. At 3 f. what coft 728,5 i
Yards. L. L. s. d.
7= 3.99583-= 319H
70= 39-9S83- = 39 19 2
700 = 399.583 = " 399 11 8
7000= 3995-83* = 3995 16 8
70000= 3.99583 = 39958 6 8
700000 = 399583.3- = 399583 6 8
Now, every number may be refolved injo deCupJeS of
the feveral digits of which it is compofed • find therefore
the price of each decuple by itfelf, as already taught,
and their fum will be the price pf the whole.
One8th= 91.0625 L. s. d.
One 40th ®f that = 2.2765625 = 2 5 6J
Meth. III. The third method is by decimal tables
of rates fuited to the nine digits ; fuch as thofe com¬
pofed and publiflied by the Rev. Mr George Brown in
1718, under the title yirithxntlica Infinita, and re¬
commended by Dr John Keill profeflbr of aftronomy in
the univerfity of Oxford.
Thefe tables are ftiil extant, and extend from 1 far¬
thing to 20s.; a fliort fpecimen of which, with their
conllru&ion, and the manner of ufing them, we fliall here
fubjoin.
Decimal Table of Rates. 1 l. the integer.
d.
Si
0.57083-
1.141^
1.7125
0.571875
I-M375
1.7x5625
0.57291$
.14583
.71875
o 5739583-
1.14791(1
1.721875
4 2.283-
5;2.854i(?
6j 3-425
2.2875
2-859375
3.43125
2.2916
2.864583
3-4375
2.29583
2.8697910
3-44375
7 8-99583'
« 14-50
9'5 1375
4.003125
4-575
5.146875
4.010416
4- 583'
5- 15625
4.0177083
4- 59I0
5- 165625
la the left-hand column Hand the nine digits ; and on
the right of 1 are the decimals of the refpedtive rates on
the head. Thus, .5708318 the decimal of 11s. 5 d.
one pound being the integer ; and .571875 is the deci¬
mal of ns. 5-^d. 6-c. Thofe decimals oppofite to 1
being multiplied through the nine digits, make up or
compofe the' reft of the table.
The fuperior excellency of tables thus conftrufted is,
that we multiply or divide by 10, 100, 1000, &c. by
moving the decimal point fo many places to the right or
left as there are ciphers in the multiplier or divifor.
Hence the price or value of any number of yards, or
other things, denoted by a Angle digit, or by any of its
decuples, may be readily found. Thus, the price of
7, 70, 700^7000, 70000, 700000 yards, at u s. 5 d.
per yard, is found as follows.
Examp. i. Required the price of 7956 yards, at
a 1 s. j^d. per yard.
Yards. L.
7000 = 4017.708333
900= 516.5625
50= 28.697916
6 = 3-44375
   L. s. d.
4566.412500 = 4566 8 3
Examp. 2. How much money will one fpend in a
year, or 365 days, at the rate of us. 54-d. per day ?
Days. L.
30o= 171.875
60= 34.375
5 = 2.864583
 L. s. d.
209.114583 = 209 2 34
Tables of this fort may be framed for a great variety
of.ufeful purpofes, and are eafily conftruCted.
Thus, fuppofe a table wanted for {bowing the daily in¬
come of any annuity, or yearly penfion 5 in this cafe, di¬
vide 1 by 365, and the quot is the income of 11. an¬
nuity for one day; and by multiplying this quot through
the nine digits, the table is conftrufted as follows.
The ufe of the table will beft ap¬
pear by examples; which take as
follows.
Example I.
If one has a yearly penfion of
375 1. what is his daily income ?
L.
Table.
i|.o,o2739726,
2 .0,05479452.
3 .0,08219178,
41.0,10958904,
51.0,13698630,
6|.o,16438356,
7;.o,19178082,
8 .0,21917808,
9/0,24657534,
300
70
5
.8219
.1917
1.0272 = 1
d.
64
Example 2.
The yearly rent of a gentleman’s eftate is 968 1. 10
what can he afford to fpend per day ?
L. 900
R I T II M E T I C K.
4I;7
,900 =2.4657
60 = .1643
8 = ,0219
0.5 = .Q013
 L. j, d.
2.6532=2 13 04
If the income for any number of days b.e required,
find the income for one day as above ; and multiply the
decimal anfwer by the ‘given number of days. Or,
multiply the yearly penfion by the given number of days,
and ufe the produdt as the yearly penfion. Thus, in
Ex. 2. if the"'gentleman’s income for 64 days be de¬
manded, you may either multiply 2.6532 by 64; or
multiply 968.5 by 64 ; and then work" for the product
as follows.
60000= 164.3835
1000= 2.7397
900= 2.4657
80= .2191
4= .0109
Decimal table of prims, fecemlj, &c.
\P rimes,
oS^
Second;.; 7 birds.
.0069-*1' .000578,703,
.013$ .001157,407,
.0208J .00x736,1x1,
'02jf
•°347?
.041$'
.0486/
.0625
.0694
.0763$
.00004822
.00009645
.00014467
.002314,814,
.00-2893,518,
,.003472,222,
.000x9290
.00024112
.00028935
.004050,925,
004629,629,
.005208,333,
.00033757
.00038580
.00043402
>007787.037.
,006365,740,
.00048215
,00053047
61984.0
169.8189'= 169 ♦ 16 44
The decimals in the table being circles of eight figures,
we have ufed them as approximates, by confining the
operations to four decimal places ; which, in affairs of
this kind, is fuffieiently accurate.
If the annual intereft of any principal fum be confi-
dered as the .yearly penfiop, the interert of the fame
principal for any number of days may be found by the
table as taught above.
The intereft of any principal fum for a year is eafily
found, as being always the hundredth part of the pro-
duifl of the principal multiplied by the rate per cent.
Examp. Required the intereft for 26 days of 685 1.
principal, at 5 per cent.
L.
685
S
34.25 annual interert.
26
In the column of fourths, the decimals run on to
eight places of a finite part, and nine figures of a circle ; -
but the fenite part by itfelf, which alone is inferted in
the fable, will be found fufficient; and in the column
of thirds too, the circle of three figures may in moft
cafes be negledted.
I. Multiplication.
Example r.
What is the produff of 247 by t8 5 •
20550
6850
890.50
800 =2.19178
90 = .24657
0.5= .00136
2-43971*= 3 8
D U O DECIMALS.
Decimal praffice may be ufed with great advantage in
the multiplication and divifion of duodecimals, where
the integer is divided into twelve equal parts, called
primes, and each prime into twelve feconds, each fecond
into twelve thirds, &c.
For the ready converfion of primes, feconds, thirds,
iyc. into decimals of the integer, the following table is
conftruffed.
9!°°) 407468.750
10.9632
Anf. 452 8
5 N
Vox.. L Numb. 18,
3
4*8 A R I T H M E T I C K.
In working by the inverted method, for the repeating
0 in the multiplier, take of the multiplicand. The
refuit wants very little of the true anfwer.
Examp, 2.
Multiply 18 6 by 2 4, and 2 3 continually.
18 6—18.5 2.3'
2 4= 2.3* 18.5
2 3 = 2.25  
1806
2?33
43.10
2.25
21583'
86333
863533
12 ^/". 97
1.500
12
IL Divifion.
Examp, 1.
Divide 452 8 11=452.7430^
by 18 s = i8.4I0= *|^f
18.4*0)4527.430/5
1841 452.7430/
16575)407468.750(24.583
33150  12
75968 7.000
66300
96687
82875 '
  Anf. 24 7
*38125
132600
55250
49725.
*5525
Examp. 2.
Divide 97 1 6 = 97.125
by 2 3 =2.25 and the quot
by x8 6 =18.5
18.5)
2.25)97.125(43.10(24
900 • * 370 12
712 616 4.0
675 555
375 *61
225
1500
1350 2 4
#i 50
Sexagesimals.
Decimal praftice might likewife be ufed to good pur-
pofe in the arithmetic of fexagefimals, as it would fhorten
and facilitate the operations.
Sexagefimals, ftrittly fpeaking, are degrees, minutes,
feconds, thirds, 6^. where each degree is divided into
60 minutes, and each minute into 60 fecpnds, <foc.; but
under this title is alfo ufually comprehended the divifion
of a fign into 30 degrees. They are commonly marked
as under.
Signs, deg. min. fee. thirds.
7 24 36 54 48 <bc.
Sexagefimals properly belong to aftronomy, being ufed
in computations of motion and time, where the degree
of motion, and hour of time, are equally divided into
60 minutes. The preference of the decimal method to
that of the fexagefimal will appear from the following
example of addition done both ways.
Sexagefimally. Decimally.
Signs. ° * 5.
10 20 47 17 = 10.69293,518,
7 18 50 40= 7.62814,814,
9 25 30 28 = 9.85018,518,
11 10 40 50= 11.35601,851,
3 x5 49 7 = 3•52728,703,
From the above example it is obvious, that even in
addition the decimal operation is more fimple and eafy
than the fexagefimal, efpecially if care be taken to ufe
no more decimal places than what are abfolutely nocef-
fary.
But in multiplication and divifion the advantage of the
decimal method is ftill greater; for in the fexagefimaf
way the operation is extremely tedious; whereas, by
working decimally, it is performed in the fame manner,
and with the fame eafe, as in duodecimals.
Vulgar Fractions.
Decimal practice may fometimes be profitably ufed in
the
A R I T H M E T I
K.
the arithmetic of vulgar fractions, the operation being
fiiarter and eafier in the decimal than in the vulgar way.
This we lhall illuftrate by a few examples.
I. Addition.
Ex. i. What is the fum of i+yl. ?
■nr——6.3$
.36,')638.$S(
00 6.3$
  L. s. d.
36)632.50(17.5694=17 ix 4-f-
36- ••
272
252
.91^=18 4
Ex. 2. What is the fum of i4-|+i8y+£ of ^ C. I
C.
14-1=14.875
i8-f = 18.6666
iof4= c_ e/4.
34.1^66 = 34 o i84-
II. Sultrattion.
Ex. 1. From | fubtradl -f L
l = -75
It=-$33
  s. d.
.41^=8 4
Ex. 2. From 4 of 4 fubtratt 4 of 4 lb. Troy..
lb.
* of’=^ = .583-3
4©f4= 4 =.125
  02.
•458a = 5 10
III. Multiplication*.
Ex. Multiply 19-^ by 22 -J feet,
F.
i9A - - - =19-58$
224=2 2..a=lT:,• 201
19583*
3916^66
9)3936.250
 Sq.f. fq.in,.
437.36^=437 52.
II. Divijion..
250
216
340
324
160
144
/fo/? of Three Dire ft.
Decimal praflice is frequently the Ihorteft and eaiieft'
method of operation in the rule of three.
Examp. I. If C. 3 : 1 : 14 of raifins coft L. 10 i
2 : 6, what will 6. C. 3 Q^coft at that rate ?
C. %.lb.. L.. s. d. C.
Vulgar ftate 3 1 14:10 2 6 :: 6 3
Decimal ftate 3.375 : ia.125 :: 6.75
6.75
50625
70875
60750
3.*3 75)68.3 4375 (20.25=20 5:
6750-••
8437
6750
16875
16875
Examp. II. If a wedge of gold, weighing 14 IB;
3 oz„ 8 dw. coft L. 514, 4 s. what is that per ounce ?
Vulgar;
Ex.. Divide 6-r'V by -nr,
420
Vulgar Rate
Decimal Rate 14.283
A R
lb. oz. diu. L. t.
14 ? 8 : 514 4
• SH‘2
I T II M
:: 083
5:14.2
'in
8333
41^666
14.283)42.8 5bo(
1428 42.850
12855)38565-6(3 Jnf.
38565
Rule of Three Inverfe.
Examp. ' If you borrow L. 64 for 8 months, what
fum lent for 12 months, or a year, will recjuite the fa¬
vour ?
r. l. r.
Vulgar ftate 1 : 64 ::
Decimal ftate 1 : 64 :: &
6
L. s. d.
9)384(42.^=42 13 4
36;
24
!8 Or thus:
60 3)64(21-3'
54 ' 2i£
*6 The fame 42.^ as before.
Compound Rule of Three.
Examp. What is the intereft of L. 75 : 10 : 4 for
8 months, at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum ?
M. L. L. L. s. d. M.
Vulgar ftate 12 X 100 : 5 :: 75 10 4X8
Decimal ftate 12 X 100 : 5 :: 75.51^ X 8
12 8
E T I C K.
Chap. XII. Extracti6n of Roots.
If unity be multiplied continually by any given num¬
ber, the produ&s thence afifing are called powers of that
number; and the given number is called the root, or firjl
power.
Thus, if 2 be the given number, then 1X2=2 is the
root or firft power ; and 2X2=4 *s t^e fqnaie or fecond
power; and 4X2=8 is the cube or third power; and
8X2=16 is the biquadrate or fourth power; and 16X
2=32 is the furfolid or fifth power; and 32X2=64 is
the fixth power, or cube fquared, <&c.
The natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, <bc. are fometimes
placed over thefe powers, denoting the number of Mul¬
tiplications ufed in producing them, of (bowing what
powers they are ; and are called indices or exponents, as
in the following fcheme.
Indices, o, 1, 2, 3, 41 5, 6, 7, he.
Powers, i, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, tec.
The raifing any root or number given to any power
required, is called involution; and is performed by mul¬
tiplying the given root into unity continually, as taught
above. But the finding the root of a given power is
called or ext raft ion of roots.
If the root of any power not exceeding the feventh
power, be a fingle digit, it may be obtained by infpec-
tion, from the following table of powers.
T A B L E.
1200 : 5 :: 604.133
i2|oo) 3020.666(
I.
d.
10 4
2.517^
The Ample feparate operations of the fame example
follow.
L. L. L. M. L. M.
100: 5" 7S-Si6 12:3.77583-8
5 8
I2)30.20$66(
Z.WiAnf.
j1oo)377-583’(
3-7758^
I. Extra ft ion of the Square Root.
Rule I. Divide the given number into periods
of two figures, beginning at the right hand in integers,
and pointing toward the left. But in decimals, begin at
the place of hundreds, and point toward the right. E-
very period will give one figure in the root.
II. Find by the table of powers, or by trial, the
neareft leffer root of the left-hand period, place the fi¬
gure fo found in the quot, fubtradl its fquare from the
faid period, and to the remainder bring down the next
period for a dividual or refolvend.
III. Double the quot for the firft part of the divi-
for; inquire bow often this firft part is contained in the
whole refolvend, excluding the units place; and place
the figure denoting the anfwer both in the quot and on
the
ARITHME TICS. 421
the right of the firft part; and you have the divifor com¬
plete.
IV. Multiply the divifor thus compleated by the fi¬
gure put in the quot, fubtratt the product from the re-
folvend,' and to the remainder bring down the following
period for a new refolvend, and then proceed as before.
Note 1. If the firft part of the divifor, with unity
fuppofed to be annexed to it, happen to be greater than
the refolvend, in this cafe place o in the quot, and alfo
on the fight of the partial divifor; to- the refolvend
bring down another period; and proceed to divide as
before.
Note a. If the product, of the quotient-figure into the
divifor happen to be greater than the refolvend, youmuft
go back, and give a lefler figure to the quot.
Note 3. If, after every period of the given number is
brought down, there happen at laft to be a remainder,
you may continue the operation, by annexing periods or
pairs of ciphers, till there be no remainder, or till the
decimal part of the quot repeat or circulate, or till you
think proper to limit it.
Examp. I. Required thefquare root of 133225.
Square number 133225(365 root 365
9 365
1 div. 66) 432 refolvend. 1825
396^produ6t. 2190
  1095
2 div. 725) 3625 refolvend.  
3625 produ6t. 133225 proof.
Examp. II. Required the fquare root of 72, to
eight decimal places.
72.00000000(8.48528137 root.
64
164)800
656
1688)14400
13504
16965)89600
848
169702)477500
3394°4
169704)138096
•••• 135763
After getting half of, the de¬
cimal places, work by contract¬
ed divifion for the other half;
and obtain them with the fame
accuracy as if the work had
been at large.
636
509
127
118
(9)
Vol. I. No. 18.
Examp. III. Required the fquare root of .2916.
.2.916(.54 root.
25
104) 416
416
If the fquare root of a vulgar fraction be required,
find the root of the given numerator for a new nume¬
rator, and find the root of the given denominator for a
new denominator. Thus, the fquare root of 4 is 4> an(I
the root of i$ r > an<I thus the root of y (=65) is
t— 2-j-.
But if the root of either the numerator or denomina¬
tor cannot be extracted without a remainder, reduce the
vulgar fraction to a decimal, and then extraCt the root,
as in Example HI. above.
II. Extraction of the Cube Root.
Rule I. Divide the given number into periods of
three figures, beginning at the right hand in integers, and
pointing toward the left. But in decimals, begin at the
place of thoufands, and point toward the right. The
number of periods ftiews the number of figures in the
root.
II. Find by the table of powers, or by trial, the
neareft lefler root of the left-hand period; place the fi¬
gure fo found in the quot; fubtrad its cube from the
faid period; and to the remainder bring down the next
period for a dividual or refolvend.
The divifor confifts of three parts which may be found
as follows.
III. The firft part of the divifor is found thus:
Multiply the fquare of the quot by 3, and to the pro¬
duct annex two ciphers; then inquire how often this firft
part of the divifor is contained in the refolvend, and
place the figure denoting the anfwer in the quot.
IV. Multiply the former quot by 3, and the product
by the figure now put in the quot; to this laft product
annex a cipher; and you have the fecond part of the di¬
vifor. Again, fquare the figure now put in the quot for
the third part of the divifor; place thefe three parts un¬
der one another, as in addition; and itheir fum will be
the divifor complete.
V. Multiply the divifor, thus completed, -by the fi¬
gure laft pur in the quot, fubtraCt the product from the
refolvend, and to the remainder bring down the follow¬
ing period for a new refolvend, and then proceed as be¬
fore.
Note 1. If the firft part of the divifor happen to be
equal to or greater than the refolvend, in this cafe place
o in the quot, annex two ciphers to the faid firft part of
the divifor, to the refolvend bring down another period,
and proceed to divide as before.
Note 2. If the product of the quotient-figure into the
divifor happen to be greater than the refolvend, you muft
go back, and give a lefler figure to the quot.
Note 3. If, after every period of the given number is
brought down, there happen at laft to be a remainder,
you may continue the operation by annexing periods of
three ciphers till there be no remainder, or till you have
5 O as
3
422 A R I T H ]
as many decimal places in the root as you judge necef-
fary.
Examp. I. Required the cube root of 12812904.
Cube number 12812904(234 root
8
ill part 1200"} )48i2 refolvend,
2d part 180 >
3d part 9J
i divifor 1389 X3 = 4167 produd.
[ E T r G K.
tor cannot be extrafted without a remainder, reduce the
rulgar fraction to a decimal, and then extract the root.
III. Extraction of the Biquadrate Root.
Rule. Extraft the fquare root of the given num¬
ber ; and again extraft the fquare root of the root fo
found, and the laft of thefe roots is the root fought.
Examp. Required the biquadrate root of 5308416.
5308416 (2304(48 root.
4 16
ill part 158700) )6459Q4 r^folvend.
2d part 2760v
3d part ' 16 >
2 divifor 161476 X 4=645,904 produft.
PROOF.
234
234
936
702
468
Square 54756
234
219024
164268
109512
270000")
5400 V
363
Square 54756 Cube 12812904
Examp*. II. Required the cube root of 28^.
28.750000(3.06 root.
27
) 1750000 refolv.
Div. 275436 X 6 — 1652616 prod.
97384 rem.
O O F.
Sq. 9.3636
3.06
561816
280908
28.652616
97384 rem.
P R
.3.06.
3.06
1836
918
Sq. 9.3636
28.750000 cube.
If the cube root of a vulgar fraftion be required, find
the cube root of the given numerator for a new nume¬
rator, and the cube root of the given denominator for a
new denominator. Thus, the cube root of is -f, and
the cube root of-§-| is ^; and thus the cube root of I\s
.(=15*.) is i=2i.
But if-tie root of either the numerator ox denomina-
43)130 88)704
129 704
4604) 18416
18416
If, in the firlt extraftion, there happen to be a re¬
mainder, continue the operation, by annexing pairs of
ciphers, till you have twice as many decimal places in
the fquare or firll root, as you propofe to have in the
laft root.
IV. Extraction of the root of the fifth power,
or furfolid.
Rule I. Divide the given number into periods of
five figures, find the neareft lefler root of the left-hand
period, put the figure fo found in the quot, fubtraft its
fifth power, and to the remainder bring down the next
period for a refolvend.
II. Put a-\-y for the root, and then the furfolid or
fifth power will be aaaaa + qaaaay -f- 1 oaaayy -{-
\oaayyy + qayyyy yyyyy. Now, aaaaa being already
fiibtrafted,. there remains the other five parts ; and to
find^, divide by its coefficient, viz. by ^aaaa-\-\oaaayAr~
loaayy + ^ayyy + yyyy; that is, try how often qaaaa
is contained in the refolvend; and, by the help of the
quotient-figure, you make up the other four parts of the
divifor.
Examp. Required.the furfolid root of 33554432
38554432(32 root.
243
) 9254432 refolv.
4050000 = qaaaa
54OOOO = 1 oaaay
36000= loaayy
1200 = sayyy
16 = yyyy
Divifor 4627216X2=9254432 prod.
To)
V. Extraction of the root of the fixth. power, .or
cube fquared.
Rule. Extraft the fquare root of the given number,
and then extraft the cube root of that root, the laft is
thi
AR ITHMETICK. 4^3-
the root fought. Or, firft extra# the cube root, and
then extra# the fquare root of that root.
Examp. Required the root of 191102976, being
the fixth power.
191102976 (13824(24 root.
1 8
23) .91 1200)5824 refolv.
69 240
  16
continually till you have three roots; the lalt of thefe is
the root fought.
Thus, let 1785793904896 be the eighth power; by
extra#ing the fquare root you get the biquadrate or
fourth power, viz. 1336336; and by extra#ing the
fquare root of the biquadrate, you get the fquare or
fecond power, viz. 1156, whofe fquare root is 34, the
root fought.
VIII. Ext ration of the root of the ninth power.
268)22x0  
2144 1456 X 4 = 5824
2762) 6629 (o)
5524
27644)1x0576
110576
VI. Ext ration of the root of the feventh power.
Rule. Put a\-y for the root, and the feventh power
will be aaaaaaa + ^aaaaaay + 21 aaaaayy + 35 aaaayyy 4-
3 ^aaayyyy + ixaayyyyy + Jayyyyyy -Yyyyyyyy, by the aid
of which proceed as in extra#ing the root of the fifth
power.
Examp. Required the root of 3404825447, being
the feventh power.
3404825447(23 root.
128
)2124825447 refolv..
448000000
201600000
50400000
7560000
680400
34020
729
paaaaaa
2 1 aaa a ay
3 t;aaaayy
ISaaayyy
21 aayyyy.
jayyyyy
yyyyyy
Bivif. 7082.75149X3=2124825447 prod.
(°)
VII. Extraftion of the root of the eighth power.
Rule. Extra# the fquare root of the given number.
Rule. Extra# the cube root of the given number,,
and you have the cube or third power, whofe cube root
is the'root fought.
Thus, let 5159780352 by the ninth power; by ex-
tra#ing the cube root you get the cube or third power,
viz. 1728, whofe cube root 12 is the root fought.
Univerfally, whatever the given power be, put a + y
for the root, and by involution raife a -j-y to the power
of the given number; then, with this^ as your guide or
canon, extra# the root in the manner prefcribed and
exemplified in the extra#ion of the root of the fifth and
feventh powers.
But if the index of the given power be a multiple of
2, the work may be rendered eafier: For, by extra#ing
the fquare root of the given number, you obtain a power
’whofe index is one half of the index of the given power.
Thus, by extra#ing the fquare root of the tenth power,
you have the fifth power ; and the fquare root of the
twelth power is the fixth power, &c.
Again, if the index of the given power be a multiple
of 3, by extra#ing the cube root you obtain a power
whofe index is one third of the index of the power given.
Thus the cube root of the ninth power is the cube or
third power ; and the cube root of the twelfth power is
the biquadrate or fourth power, ire.
Involution is dtre#ly contrary to extra#ion or evo¬
lution ; and therefore, if a fquare number be fquared,
it will give the biquadrate or fourth power; and if a
biquadrate be fquared, it will give the eighth power. A-
gain, if a cube number be cubed, it will give the ninth
power ; and if the biquadrate.be cubed, it will give the
twelfth powerj See Algebra, Chap. IX. and X.
For the application of Arithmetic to various branches •
of bufinefs, eirc. fee Alligation, Annuities, Bar¬
ter, Brokage, Bankruptcy, Exchange, Insu¬
rance, Interest, Mensuration, &e..
ARK
ARITHMOMANCY, a fpecies of divination performed
by means of numbers.
ARK, or Noah's Ark, a floating veflel built by Noah,
for the prefervation of his family, and the feveral fpecies
of animals, during the deluge. See Plate XXXVIIL
fig. 1.
A K K
The ark has aflbrded feveral points of curious in¬
quiry among, the critics and haturalifts, relating to its
form, capacity, materials, ic.
The wood whereof the ark was built, is called in the
Hebrew Gopher-wood, and in the Septuagint fqxare
timbers. Some tranflate Ahe original cedar, others pine,
others'*
ARK (42
others lox. See. Pelletier .prefers cedar, on account of
its incorruptibility, and the great plenty of it in Alia;
whence Herodotus and Theophraftus relate, that the
kings of Egypt and Syria built whole fleets thereof,
inftead of deal.
The learned .Mr Fuller in his Mifcellanies, has ob-
ferved, that the wood whereof the ark was built, was
nothing elfe but that which the Greek call xoTrag/crcros,
or the cyprefs-tree ; for, taking away the termination,
kupar and gopher differ very little in found. This
obfervation the great Bochart has confirmed, and fliewn
very plainly that no country abounds fo much with
this wood as that part of Affyria which Kes about Ba¬
bylon.
In what place Noah built and finilhed his ark is no lefs
made a matter of difputa:tion. But the moll probable
opinion is, that it was built in Chaldasa, in the terri¬
tories of Babylon, where there was fo great a quanti¬
ty of cyprefs in the groves and gardens in Alexander’s
time, that that prince built a whole fleet out of it, for
want of timber. And this conjefture is confirmed by
the Chaldean tradition, which makes Xithurus (another
name for Noah) fet fail from that country.
The dimenfions of the ark, as given by Mofes, are
300 cubits in length, 50 in breadth, and 30 in height,
which fome have thought too fcanty, confidering the
number of things it was to contain ; and hence an ar¬
gument has been drawn againft the authority of the re¬
lation. To folve this difficulty many of the ancient
fathers, and the modern critics, have been put to ve¬
ry miferable fliifts: But Buteo and Kircher have proved
geometrically, that, taking the common cubit of a
foot and a half, the ark was abundantly fufficient for
all the animals fuppofed to be lodged in it. Snellius
computes the ark to have been above half an acre in
area, and father Lamy fhews, that it was no feet
longer than the church of St Mary at Paris, and 64
feet narrower; and if fo, it mull have been longer than
St Paul’s church in London, from weft to eaft; and
broader than that church is high in the infide, and 54
feet* of our meafure in height; and Dr Arbuthnot
computes it to have been 81062 tuns.
The things contained in it were, befides eight per-
fons of Noah’s family, one pair of every fpecies of un¬
clean animals, and feven pair of every fpecies of clean
animals, with provilions for them all during the whole
year. The former appears, at firft view, almoft in¬
finite; but if we come to a calculation, the number of
fpecies of animals will be found much lefs than is ge¬
nerally imagined, not amounting to an hundred fpecies
of quadrupeds, nor to two hundred of birds ; out of
which, in this cafe, are excepted fuch animals as can live
in the water. Zoologifts ufually reckon but an hundred
and feventy fpecies in all; andbilhop Wilkins Ihews that
only feventy-two of the q uadruped kind needed a place
in the ark.
By the defeription Mofes gives of the ark, it ap¬
pears to have been divided into three ftories, each
ten cubits, or fifteen feet, high ; and it is agreed
on, as moft probable, that the loweft ftory was for
,the beafts, the middle for the food, and the upper
4 ) ARK
for the birds, with Noah and his family ; each ftory
being fubdivided into different apartments, ftalls, fac.
Though Jofephus, Philo, and other commentators, add
a kind of fourth ftory under all the reft ; being, as it
were, the hold of the veffel, to contain the ballaft, and
receive the filth and faeces of fo many animals : But
F. Calmet thinks, that what is here reckoned a ftory,
was no more than what is called the keel of fltips, and
ferved only for a confervatory of frelh water. Drexe-
lius makes three hundred apartments. F. Fournier,
three hundred and thirty-three; the anonymous author
of the Queftions on Genefis, four hundred; Buteo,
Temporarius, Arias Montanus, Hoftus, Wilkins,
Lamy, and others, fuppofe a's many partitions as there'
were different forts of animals. Pelletier makes only
fev.enty-two, viz. thirty-fix for the birds, -and as
many for the beafts ; his reafon is, that if we fup¬
pofe a greater number, as 333, or 400, each of the
eight perfons in the ark muft have had thirty-feven,
forty-one, or fifty ftalls to attend and cleanfe daily,
which he thinks impofiible to have been done. But it
is obferved, that there is not much in this; to dimi-
ni(h the number of ftalls without a diminution of ani¬
mals is vain; it being perhaps more difficult to take
care of three hundred animals in feventy-two ftalls,
than in three hundred. As to the number of animals
chntained in the ark, Buteo computes that it could
not be equal to five hundred horfes ; he even reduces
the whole to the dimenfions of fifty-fix pair of oxen.
F. Lamy enlarges it to fixty.-four pair of oxen, or an
hundred and twenty-eight oxen ; fo that fuppofing one
ox equal to two horfes, if the ark had room for two
hundred and fifty-fix horfes, there muft have been
roorrf for all the animals. But the fame author de-
monftrates, that one floor of it would fuffice for five
hundred horfes, allowing nine fquare feet to a horfe.
As to the food in the fecond ftory, it is obferved by
Buteo from Columella, that thirty or forty pounds of
hay ordinalily fuffices for an ox a day, and that a fo-
lid cubit of hay, as ufually preffed down in our hay¬
ricks, weighs about forty pounds; fo that a fquare
cubit of hay is more than enough for one ox . in one
day. Now it appears that the fecond ftory contained
150,000 folid cubits, which divided between two
hundred and fix oxen, will afford each more hay by
two thirds, than he can eat in a year. Biftiop Wil¬
kins computes all the carnivorous animals, equivalent,
as to the bulk of their bodies, and their food, to twen-
ty-feven wolves; and all the reft to two hundred and
eighty beeves. For the former he allows 1825
fheep, and for the latter, 109,500 cubits of hay, all
which will be eafily contained in the two firft ftories,
and a deal of room to fpare. As to the third ftory,
no body doubts*of its beipg fufficient for the fowls;
with Noah, Jiis fons, and daughters. .Upon the whole,
the learned bifhop remarks, that of the two, it appears
much more difficult to afftgn a number and bulk of
neceffary things to anfwer ^ the capacity of the ark,
than to find fufficient room for the feveral fpecies of ani¬
mals already known to have been there. 1 his Ee at¬
tributes to the imperfe&ion of our lift of animals, e-
fpecially ‘
A R M ' ( 425 ) ARM
fpecially thofe of the unknown parts of the earth; add¬
ing, that the moil expert mathematician at this day
could not aflign the proportion’of a veifel better ac¬
commodated to the purpose than is here done; and
hence finally concludes, that the capacity of the ark,
which had been make an objection againil fcripture,
ought to be eileemed a confirmation of its divine autho¬
rity, fince, in thofe ruder ages, men, being lefs verfed in
arts, and philofophy, were more obnoxious to vulgar
prejudices than now; fo that had it been an human in¬
vention, it, would have been contrived, according to
thofe wild apprehqnfions which arife from a confufed
and general view of things, as much too big, as it had
. been reprelented too little.
But it mull be obferved, that befides the places re-
quifite for the beads and birds, and their provifions,
there was room required for Noah to lock up houfe-
hold utenfils, the inilruments of hulbandry, grains and
, feeds, to fow the' earth with after the deluge; for
which purpofe it is thought that he might fpare room
in the third dory for fix and thirty cabbins, befides
a kitchen, a hall, four chambers, and a fpace about
eight and forty cubits in length to walk in.
A.PvK of ihe covenant, a final! ched or coffer, three feet
nine inches in length, two feet three inches in breadth,
and two feet three inches in height, in which were con¬
tained the golden pot that had manna, and Aaron’s
rod, and the tables of the covenant. This coffer was
made of fhitrim-wood, and was covered with the mer¬
cy-feat, which was of folid gold ; at the two ends
whereof were tu’o cherubims, looking toward each
other, with expanded wings, which, embracing the
whole ■ ircumference of the1 mercy-feat, met on each
fide in the middle. The whole, according to the
rabbins, was made out of the fame mafs, without
joining any oftthe parts by folder. Here it was that
the Schechinah or Divine Prefence reded, both in the
tabernacle and in the temple, and was vifibly feen in
the appearance of a cloud over it; and from hence the
Divine oracles were men out by an audible voice, as
often as God was confulted in the behalf of his peo¬
ple. Plate XXXVIII* fig. 2.-
ARKLOW, a fea-port town of Ireland, fituated in the
county of Wicklow, about thirteen miles fouth of the
city of Wicklow, in 6° IQ W. long, and 520 55'
N. lat. *
ARLES, a city of Provence in France, fituated on the
eadern fhore of the river Rhone, in 40 45' E. long,
and 430 32/ N. lat.
ARLEUX, a town of Hainault, in the French Nether¬
lands, fituated about fix miles fouth .of Douay, in
30 E. long, and 50° 10 N. lat.
ARLON, .1 town of the duchy of Luxemburg, on the
Andrian Netherlands, fituated in 50 30' E. long, and
4Q0 45'' N. lat.
ARM, in riding, is applied to a horde, when, by pref-
ling down his head, he endeavours to defend hiirifelf
againll the bit, to prevent obeying, or being checked
thereby.
ARMADA, a Spanilh term, fignifying a fleet of men
of war, a : arviadiUa fignifies a fquadrcn.
You. I, No. i3^
ARMAPABAT, a very large city of Afia, the metro¬
polis of the kingdom, of Guzarat,
ARMADILLO, in zoology, a fynonimeof the dafypus.
See Dasyp.us.
ARMAGH, pnce' a confiderable city of Ireland, but
now much reduced, fituated about thirty miles fouth
of Londonderry, in 6° 45' W. long and 540 30’’N,
lat. It is dill the fee of the primate, of Ireland, and
gives name to the county of Armagh.
ARMAGNAC, a didrifi or territory in the north-ead
pan of Gafcony in France.
ARMAN, in farriery. See Drench.
ARMED, in the fea-language. A crofs-bar fhot, is
. faid to be armed, when fome rope-yarn or the like js
rolled about the end of the iron bar, which runneth
• through the fhot.
Armed, in heraldry, is ufed when the horns, feet,
beak, or talons of any bead or bird of prey, are of a
difFerenttffokmr from the red of their body.
ARMENIA, a large country of Afia, comprehending
Turcomania and part of Perfia.
ARMENIACA, in botany. See Prunus.
ARMENIANS, in church-hidory, a fedl among the
eadern Chridians ; thus called from Armenia, the
country anciently inhabit*! by them. There are two .
kinds of Armenians, the one catholic and fubjedt to
the pope, having a patriarch in Perfia, and another in
Poland ; the other makes a pecnliar fedl, having two
patriarchs in Natolia. They are generally accufed of
being manophyfites, only allowing of one nature in
. Jefus Chrid. As to the eucharid, they for the mod
part agree with the Greeks ; they abdain rigoroudy
from eating of blood and meats drangled, and are
much addi&ed to fading.
ARMENTIERS, a fortified town in French Flanders,
fituated about feven miles wed of Lide, in 20 50' E.
r long, and 50° 42' N. lat.
ARMIERS, a town of. Hainault, in the French Nether¬
lands, fituated on the river Sambrc, about twenty
milesfouth of Mons,in 3°40,E.long and 50° 15'N.lat.
ARMIGER, an efquire, or armour-bearer. See Es¬
quire.
ARMILLARY, in a general fenfe, fomething con¬
fiding of rings, or circles.
ARMILLARY fphere, an artificial fphere, compofed of-
a number of circles, reprefenting the feveral circles of
the mundane fphere, put together in their natural or-.
der; to eafe and afiid the imagination, in conceiving
the conditution of the heavens, and the motions of-
the celedial bodies. See Geography.
ARMILUSTRIUM, in Roman antiquity, a fead held
among the Romans, in which they facrificed armed, to .
the found of trumpets
ARMINGS, in the fea-language. See Armed.
ARMINIANS, in church-hidory, a fed of Chridians
which arofe in Holland, by a reparation from the Cal-
vinids. They are great afiertors of free-will. They .
fpeak very ambiguoufly of the prefence of God. They
- look upon the -doftrine of the Trinity as a point net .
neceffary .to falvation; and many of them hold there
is no precepfin faipture by. which, we are enjoined
5 P to
.3
ARM ( 426 ) A R N
to adore the Holy Ghofl: pand that Jefus is not equal
to God the Father.
ARMIRO, a town of European Turky, in the province
ofThefTaly, fituated in 230 3c/ E. long.
ARMOISIN, a filk (luff, or kind of taffety, manufac¬
tured in the E. Indies, at Lyons in France, and Lucca
in Italy. That of the Indies is flighter than thofe
made in Euiope,
ARMONIAC, or Ammoniac, a volatile fait, of which
there are two kinds, ancient and modern. The ancient
fort, defcribed by Pliny and Diofcorides, was a native
fait, generated in thofe large inns or caravanferas, where
the croud of pilgrims, coming from the temple of Jupi¬
ter Ammon, ufed to lodge; who, in thofe parts, travel¬
ing upon camels, and thofe creatures when in Gyrene,
a province of Egypt, where that celebrated temple
. flood, urining in the /tables, or, fay fome, in the
parched fands, out of this urine, which is remarkably
ftrong, arofe a kind of fait, denominated fometimes,
from the temple. Ammoniac^ and fometimes, from the
country, Cyreniac. Since the ceflation of thefe pil¬
grimages, no more of this fait is produced there; and,
Rom this deficiency, fome fufpeiSt there was never any
fuch thing: But this fufpicion is removed, by the large
quantities of a fait, nearly of the fame nature, thrown
out by mount ./Etna. The charaflers of the ancient
fal armoniac are, that it cools water, turns aqua fortis
into aqua regia, and confequently diffolves gold.
The modern fal armoniac is entirely fadlitious, and
made in Egypt; where feveral long^necked glafs bot¬
tles, being filled with foot, a little fea-falt, and the
urine of cattle, and having their mouth luted with a
piece of wet cotton, are placed over an oven or fur¬
nace, contrived for the purpofe, in a thick bed of
afhes, nothing but the necks appearing, and kept there
two days and a night, with a continual ftrong fire.
The fleam fwells up the cotton, and forms a pafte at
the vent-hole, hindering the falts from evaporating ;
which, being confined, flick to the top of the bottle,
and are, upon breaking it, taken out in thofe large
cakes, which they fend to England. Only foot ex¬
haled from dung, is the proper ingredient in this pre¬
paration ; and the dung of camels affords the ftrongeft
and beft. See Chemistr.y.
ARMORIAL, fomething relating to arms, or coats of
arms. See Arms.
ARMORY, a warehoufe of arms,, or a.place where the
military hal iliments are kept, to be ready for ufe.
Armory, is alfo a branch of the fcience of heraldry, con¬
fiding in the knowledge of coats of arms, as to their
blazons and various intendments. See Heraldry.
ARMOUR denotes fuch habiliments*-, as ferve to defend
the body from wounds, efpecially of darts, a fword,
a lance, &c. A complete fuit of armour formerly
confifted of a helmet, a fhield, a cuirafle, a coat of
mail, a gantlet* &c. all now laid afide.
ARMOURER, a perfon who makes or deals in arms
and armour. "
ARMS of eourteJ)i or parade, were lances not Ihod,
{words without edge or point, eirc. ufed in the an¬
cient tournaments. See Tournament,
Pafs of Arms, a kind of combat, when anciently two
or more cavaliers undertook to defend a pafs againft
all attacks.
Arms of armories, in heraldry, marks of honour borne
upon fhields, banners, and coats, in order to diftin-
guifti ftates, families, and perfons. See Heraldry.
Charged Arms, are fuch as retain their ancient integri¬
ty, with the addition of fome new honourable bear-
ing.
Canting, or vocal Arms, thofe in which there are fome
figures alluding to the name of the family.
Full, or entire Arms, fuch as are not conformable to
the rules of heraldry.
Arms, in falconry, the legs of a hawk from the thigh
to the foot.
ARMUYDEN, a fea-port town of the illand of Zet¬
land, fituated at the mouth of the canal of Middle-
burg, in 20 35/ E. long, and 510 30' N. lat.
ARMY, a large number of foldiers, confiding of horfe
and foot, completely armed, and provided with artil¬
lery, ammunition, provifions, <bc under the com¬
mand of one general, having lieutenant-generals, ma¬
jor-generals, brigadiers, and other officers under him.
An army is compofed of fquadrons and battalions, and
is ufually divided into three corps, and formed into
three lines ; the firft line is called the van-guard, the
fecond the main body, and the third the rear-guard,
or body of referve. The middle of each line is pof-
fefied by "the foot; the cavalry form the right and left
wing of each line ; and fometimes they place fqua¬
drons of horfe in the intervals between the battalions.
When the army is drawn up ih order of battle, the
horfe are placed at five feet diftance from eafch other,
and the foot at three. In each line the battalions are
diftant from each other one hundred and eighty feet,
which is nearly equal to the extent of their front;
and the fame holds of the fquadrons, which are about
three hundred feet diftant, the extent of their own
front. Thefe intervals are left for the fquadrons and
battalions of the fecond line to range themfelves a-
gainft the intervals of the firft, that both may more
readily march through thefe fpaces to the enemy: the
firft line is ufually three hundred feet diftant from the
fecond, and the fecond from the third* that there may
be fufficient room to rally, w'hen the fquadrons and
battalions are broken.
This is to be underftood of a land army only. A
naval, or fea army, is a number of ffiips of war, e-
quipped and manned with failors and mariners, under
the command of an admiral, with other inferior offi¬
cers under him. See Navy.
ARNAY-LE-DUC, a town of Burgundy in France, fi¬
tuated on the river Arroux, in 40 E. long, and 47'
N. lat.
ARNHEIM, a large city of Guelderland, in the United
Netherlands, fituated on the river Lech, about 10 •
miles north of Nhneguen, in 50 5c/ E. long, and
52 ° N. lat.
ARNICA, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia poly-
gamia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle of the arnica is
naked j it Las a fimple pappus; and the filaments are
five,.,
A R R ( 427 ) ART
five, without antherae. There are feven fpecies of ar¬
nica, all natives of Ethiopia, except the montana and
fcorpioides, which are found in Germany. The leaves
and root of the arnica have been efteemed a fpecific
in refolving coagulated blood ; but their operation is
fo violent, that they are but rarely ufed.
ARNO, a river of Italy, which, after watering Tuf-
cany, falls into the Mediterranean, below Pifa.
ARNOLDISTS, in church-hiftory, a feftary, fo call¬
ed from their leader Arnold of Breffe, who was a
great declaimer againft the wealth and vices of the
clergy; and who is alfo charged with preaching againft
baptifm and the eucharifl.
ARNOT, in botany, the Englifh name of the bunium.
See Bunium.
AROLEC, an American weight, equal to 25 of our
pounds.
AROMA philofiphoruM, denotes either faffron, or the
aroph of Paracelfus, as/ aroma germanicum denotes
elecampane.
AROMATIC', an appellation given to fuch plants as
yield a brifk fragrant fmell, and a warm tafte, as all.
kinds ef'fpices, foe.
ARONA, a fortified town of the Milanefe, fituated on
the fouth-weft part of the lake Maggior, in 8° 5c/
E. long, and 450 ac/ N. lat.
ARONCHES, a town of the province of Alentejo, in
Portugal, fituated in 70 30' W. long, and 390 N. Ikt.
ARO-ORCHIS, in botany. See Kempferia.
ARORNOS. SeeJuNPERus.
AROURA, a Grecian meafure of fifty feet. It was
more frequently ufed for a fquare-meafure of half the’
plethora. The Egyptian aroura was the fquare of
one hundred cubits.
ARQUATA, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of fcolopax. See Scolopax.
ARRACHEE, in heraldry, a term applied to the re-
prefentations of plants torn up by the roots.
ARRACK. See Rack.
ARRAIGNMENT, in law, the arraigning or fetting-a
thing in order, as a perfon is faid to arraign a writ of
novel difleifin, who prepares and fits it for trial. It
is mod properly ufed to call a perfon to anfwer in form
of law upon an indiflment, foe.
ARRAN, an illand of Scotland, fituated in the Frith of
Clydes between Kintire and Cunningham.
ARRAS, a large fortified town of the French Nether¬
lands, capital of the province of Artois, fituated in
2° 50 E. long, and 50° 20' N. lat. It is from this
city that the tapeftry called arras- hangings takes its
denomination.
Arras, or Araxes, is alfo the name of a river of
Georgia, which difeharges itfelf into the Cafpian
fea.
ARREST, in Englifh law, the apprehending and re-
ftraining a perfon, in order to oblige him to be obe--
dient to the law.
Arrest of judgment, the affigning juft reafons why
judgment Ihould not pafs.
ARRESTMENT, in Scots law, fignifies the fecuring
of a crimin^. till trial, or till he find, caution to Hand
trial, in what are called bailable crimes. In civil
cafes, it fignifies either the detaining of ftrangers or
natives in meditatione fuga, till they find caution ju-
dicioftjlt, or the attaching the effefts of a ftranger in
order to found jurifdi&ion. See Scots Law, tit. 7«-
rsfdittian and Judges mgeneral. But, in the moft ge¬
neral acceptation of the word, it denotes that diligence
by which a creditor detains the goods or effedts of his
debtor in the hands of third parties till the debt due
to him be either paid or fecured. See Scots Law',
tit. Arrejlments and Poindings.
ARRALSTO faflo fuper bonis. See. a writ brought by a
‘ denizen againft the goods of aliens found within this
kingdom, as a recqmpence for goods taken from him
in a foreign country.
ARRESTIS, in farriery, mangy tumours upon a horfd’s
'hinder legs, between the ham and the paftern.
ARRIERE, the hinder or pofterior part of any thing.
See Rear.
Arr 1 eRE-ban, ir> the French cuftoms, is a general pro¬
clamation, whereby the king funimons to the war all
that hold of him, both his vaflals, i. e. the noblefl’e,
and the vaflals of his vaflals.
Arriere fee, ox fief, is a fee dependant on a fuperior
one. Thefe fees commenced, when the dukes and
counts, *: nderihg their governments hereditary in their
families, diftributed to their officers parts of the royal
domains, which they found in their refpedtive pro¬
vinces ; and even permitted thofe officers to gratify
the foldiers under them in the fame manner.
ARROE, an ifland of Denmark, fituated in-the Baltic
fea, in io° 15' E. long, and 550 15' N. lat.
ARRONDEE, in heraldry, a crofs, the arms of which
are compofed of fetftSons of a circle, nbt oppofite to
each other, fo as to make the arms bulge out thicker ■
in one part than another ; but the.feftions of each arm
lying the fame way, fo that the arm is every where oF
an equal thicknefs, and all of them terminating at the
edge of the efeutcheon like the plain crofs.
ARSCHIN, in commerce, a long meafure ufed in China
to meafure fluffs. Four arfehins make three yards of
London;
ARSCHOT, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,’ fi¬
tuated about fourteen miles eaft of the city of Mech¬
lin, in 40 45' E. long, and f N. lat.
ARSENIC, a poifonous mineral preparation, which is
either white, red, or yellow, prepared from the
flowers of cobalt. See Cobalt, and Chemistry.
ARSENICAL Magmt, a preparation of white arfenic
with antimony and fulphur, faid to be a gentle cau-
ftic.
A-RSENOTHELYS, the fame with hermaphrodite.
ARSIS and Thefts, in mufic. A point is faid to move ‘
arfin and thefin, which rifes in one part and falls in
another, and vice verfa.
ARSMART, in botany. See Persicaria.
ART, a fyftem of rules ferving to facilitate the per¬
formance of certain1 adtions.
Art is alfo an appellation given to feveral fuperftitiom-
praftices, as, St Anfelhnis art, St Paul's art, Sic
and part, in Sects law. See Accessary.
ARTED.LU.
ART (428
ARTEDIA, In botany, a genus of tbe p’ntandria di-
gynia clafs. The involucrum is pinnatiiid ; the flof-
cules of the diflc are mafculine, and the fruit is rough.
There is only one fpecies, viz. the fcjuaraata, a na¬
tive of Libanium.
ARTEMISIA, fouthernwood, in botany, a genus of
the fyngenefla polygamia fuperflua clafs. The recep¬
tacle is either naked or a little downy ; it has no pap¬
pus ; the calix is imbricated with roundilh fcales;
and the cbrolla has no radii. There are 23 fpecies of
artemilia, only 4 of which are natives of Britain, viz.
the campeltris, or field-fouthernwood ; the maritima,
or fea-wormwood ; the abfynthium, or common worm¬
wood ; and the vulgaris, or mugwort. The vulgaris,
or mugwort, is ufed both as a ffot-herb and as a me¬
dicine ; the leaves are principally celebrated as uterine
and antihyfleric. The leaves of the abfynthiura are.
chiefly ufed as a bitter or ftomachic.
ARTERIOTOMY, the opening an artery, with defign
to procure an evacuation of blood.
ARTERY, in anatomy, a conical tube or canal which
conveys the blood from the heart to all parts of the
body. See Anatomy, Part III.
ARTHRITIS, in medicine, the gout. See Gout,
and Medicine.
ARTHRODIA, in natural hiltory, a genus.of imper-
fect cryftals, found always in complex inaiTes, and
forming long fingle pyramids, with very Ihort and
flender columns. See Chrystal.
Arthrodia, in anatomy, a fpecies of articulation,
wherein a flat head of one bone is received into a /hal¬
low focket of another.
ART1CHOAK, in botany. See Cinara.
ARTICLE, a claufe or condition of a contradt, treaty,
<bc. It is alfo a fmall part or divifion of a difcourfe,
a book, or writing, tec.
Article, in grammar, a particle in moft languages
that ferves to exprefs the feveral cafes and genders of
nouns, when the language has not different termina-
nations to denote the different Hates and circumftances
of nouns. See Grammar.
ARTICULARIS morbus. See Gout, and Medi¬
cine.
ARTICULATE founds are fuch founds as exprefs the
letters, fyllables, or words of any alphabet or lan¬
guage : fuch are formed by the human voice, and by
fome few birds, as parrots, foe.
ARTICULATION, in anatomy, denotes the juncture
of two bones intended for motion.
ARTIFICER, a perfon wh Te employment it is to jna-
nufadture any kind of commodity, as in iron, brafs,
v/ood, foe. fuch are fmiths, weavers, carpenters, foe.
ARTIFICIAL, in a general ferife, denotes fomething
made, fa/hioned, or produced by art, in contradiffinc-
tion from the produdiions of nature- >
ARTILLERY, large fire-arms, with their appurtenances,
as cannons, mortars, bombs, petards, mufquets,
carabines, foe.' See Cannon, Mortar, Gun¬
nery.
Artillery-/^^, the place in the rear of both lines
in the army, for encamping the artillery, which is
) A R Z
drawn up in lines, of which one is formed by the
guns; the ammunition-waggons make two'or three
fines, fixty paces behind the guns, and thirty diltant
from one another; the pontoops and tumbrils make
the laft line. The whole is furrounded with a rope
which forms the park; the gunners and matroffes en¬
camp on the flanks, and thebombardeers, pontoon-men,
and artificers, in the rear.
ARTiLLERY-/r«z//z, a certain number of pieces of ord-
, nance, mounted on carriages, with'all their furniture
fit for marching.
Artillery-company) a band of infantry, confiding |of
fix hundred men, making part of the militia or city-
guard of London.
ART1SCUS, in medicine. See.TROCHE.
ARTOIS, a province of the French Netherlands, fitu-
ated between Flanders and Picardy.
-ARVALES fratres, in jRoman antiquity, a college of
twelve priefts, inllituted by Romulus, who himfelf
made one of the body: they affifted in the facrifices
of the ambervalia, offered annually to Ceres and Bac*.
chus,- for the profperity of the principal fruits of the
earth, viz. thofe of corn and wine.
ARUBA, a fmall ifland on the coaft of Terra Firma,^
fubjedt to the Dutch, and fituated in 69° 3c/ W. long,
and 120 30' N. lat.
ARUM, in botany, a genus of the gynandria polyandria.^
dlafs. There are -22 fpecies of arum, only one of
which, viz. the.maculatum, or water-robin, is a na¬
tive of Britain. The root of the maculatum is a
powerful flimulant and attenuant.
ARUNCUS, in bqt*any, the trivial name of a fpecies of
fpinea. SeeSpiRjEA.
ARUNDEL., a town of Suffex, fituated on a river of
the fame name, in 3</ W. long, and 50° 4.5' N. lat.
It gives the title of earl to the noble family of the
Howards, and fends two members to parliament.
ARUNDO, in botany, a genus of the triandria digynia
clafs. The calix confifts of two valves, and the flof-
cules are thick and downy. There are fix fpecies of
arundo, four of which are natives of Britain, viz.
the phragmitis, or common red-grafs; the calamogre-
/tis, or branched red grafs; the epigejos, or fmall
red-grafs; and the arenaria, or fea red-grafs.
ARUSPICES, or Haruspices, an order of prieflhood
among fhe Romans, that pretended to foretel future
events by infpeding the entrails of vi6tims killed in fa-
crifice; they were alfo confulted on occafion of por¬
tents and prodigies.
ARYTA1NOIDES, in anatomy, the name of two car¬
tilages which, together with others, ^conftitute the
head of the larynx. It is -alfo applied to fome muftles
of the larynx. See p. 300.
ARYTiENOIDEUS, in anatomy, one of the mufcles
that dole the larynx. Seep., 301.
ARYTHMUS, in medicine, the want of a ju/1 modula¬
tion in the pulfe. It is oppofed to eurythmus, a pulfe
modulated agreeably to nature.
ARZILLA, a fea-port town of the empire of Morocco,
lituated about 15 miles fouth of Tangier, in 50 40
W. long, and 350 4c/ N. lat.
AS,
A S C ( 429
AS, in antiquity, a particular weight, confining of twelve
ounces, being the fame with, libra, or the Roman
pound. It was alfo the nantie of a Roman coin, which
was of different matter and weight, according to the
different ages of the commonwealth. It is alfo ufed
to figmfy an integer, divifible into twelve parts ; from
which laft acceptation it fignified a whole inheritance.
ASAFOETIDA, in the materia medica, the concrete
juice of a large umbelliferous plant growing in Perfia.
This juice exfudes from wounds made in the root of
the plant, liquid and white like milkv When expofed
to the air, it turns of a brownilh colour, and gradu¬
ally acquires different degrees of confidence. It is
brought to us in large irregular maffes, compofed of
various little fiiining grains, which are partly whitilh,
partly reddilh, and .partly of a violet’colour. Thofe
' maffes are accounted the beft which are clear, of a
pale reddilh colour, and variegated with a great num¬
ber of elegant white tears. This drug has a ftrong
foetid fmell like garlic, and a bitter, acrid, biting
tafte. It is frequently ufed in hyfteric and nervous
complaints, flatulent colics, and as a promoter of the
menfes. It is likewife an ingredient in the officinal'
gum-pills, and feveral other compofitions.
ASA dulcis. See Benzoin. *
ASAPH, or St Asaph, a city of Flintlhire in North
Wales, fituated about 20 miles N. W. of Chefter, in
309 go7 W. long, and 530 i87 N. lat.
ASAPPES, or Azapes, in theTurkilh armies, a name
given to the auxiliary troops which they raife among
the Chriftians under their dominion, and expofe to the
firft Ihock of the enemy.
ASARABACCA, in botany. SeeAsARUM.
AS ARINA, in botany, a fynonime of the chelone.
See Chelone.
ASARUM, in botany, a genus of the dodecandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The afarum is quinquifid, and refts
on the germen; it has no corolla. The fpecies are
four, only one of which, viz. the europseum, is a
native of Britain. It is a ftrong fternutatory, and
occafions great evacuations, both upwards and down¬
wards.
ASBESTOS, a fort of native foflile ftone, which may
be fplit into threads and filaments, from one inch to
ten inches in length-, very finq, brittle, yet fomewhat
traftable, filky, and of a greyilh colour, not unlike
talc of Venice. It is almoft infipid to the tafte, in-
diffoluble in water, and endued with the wonderful
property of remaining unconfumed in the fire, which
only tvhitens it. But, notwithftanding the common
opinion, in two trials before the Royal Society, a
piece'of cloth made of this ftone was found to lofe a
dram of its weight each time. Paper as well as
cloth has been made of it; and Pliny fays he had.
feen napkins of it, which, being taken foul from the
table, were thrown into the fire, and better fcoured
than if they had been wafh'ed in water. This ftone
is found in many places of Afia and Europe ; particu¬
larly in the ifland of Anglefey in Wales, and in Aber-
deenfhire irt Scotland.
ASCARIS, in zoology, a.genus of infeds belonging to
Vol. I. No. 18. 3
) A S C
the order of vermes inteftina. The body of'the a"
caris is cylindrical, filiform, and tapers at both ends-
The fpecies are two, viz. 1. The vermicularis is abo«t
a quarter of an inch long, and is found in lakes, in
the roots of putrid plants, and very frequently in the
redtum of children and horfes. 2. The lumbricoides
is about the fame length with the lumbricus terreftris,
or common earth-worm, but it wants the protuberant
ring towards the middle of the body, the only mark
by which they can properly be diftinguifhed. The
body of the lumbricoides is cylindrical, and fubulated
at each extremity ; but the tail is fomewhat triangular.
The lumbricoides is the worm which is moft commcn -
ly found in the human inteftines. For the method of
expelling thefe two kinds of infedts, fee Medicine,
Of 'worms.
ASCENDANTS, in law, are oppofed to defcendents in
in fucceflion ; i. e. when a father fupceeds his fon, or
an uncle his nephew, fac. heritage is laid to afcend,
or go to afcendants.
ASCENDENS obliqum, the fame with the obliquus in-
ternus abdominis. See Anatomy, p. 192.
ASCENDING, in aftronomy, is faid of fuch ftars as
are riling above the horizon in any parallel"of the e-
quator.
Ascending vejfels, in anatomy, thofe which carry the
blood upwards, as the aorta afcendens.
ASCENSION, in aftronomy, is either right or oblique.
Right afcenfion of the fun, or a ftar, is that degree
of the equinodtial, counted from the beginning of a-
ries, which rifes with the fun or ftar in a right fphere.
Oblique afcenfion is an arch of the equator intercepted
between the lirft point of aries, and that point of the
equator which rifes together with a ftar jn an oblique
fphere..
Ascension-^/, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
held ten days before Whitfuntide, in memory of
our Saviour’s afcenfion into heaven after his refur-
redtion.
Ascension-//^7»</. an uninhabited ifland, lying almoft
in the midway between Africa and Brazil, in iy°
W. long, and 70 S. lat.
ASCENSIONAL difference, the difference between the
right and oblique afcenfion of the fame point to the
furface of the fphere. See Astronomy.
ASCENT of bodies on inclined planes. See Me¬
chanics.
Ascent of fluids. See Hydrostatics.
ASCETICS, in church-hiftory, fuch Chriftians in the
primitive church, as enured themfelves to great degrees
of abftinence and falling, in order to fubdue their
paflions.
ASCHAFFENBURG, a city of Germany, fituated on
the river Mayne, in the circle of the Lower Rhine,
about 20 miles call of Frankfort, in 90 E. long, and
50° 1 s' N. lat.
ASCIDIA, a genus of infedts belonging to the order of
vermes mollufca. The body is- cylindrical and fheathy;
it has two apertures towards the" top, the one a little
lower than the other. There are fix fpecies of this
infedt, viz. the papillofum, gelatinofum, inteftinalis,
5 quadridcntata.
ASH ( 430 ) A S I
quadridcntata, ruflica, and echinata, all inhabitants
of the ocean.
ASCII, among geographers, an appellation given to
thofe inhabitants of the earth who, at certain feafons of
the year, have no (hadow: fuch are all the inhabitants
of the torrid zone, when the fun is vertical to them.
ASCITES, in medicine, the dropfy. See Dropsy,
and Medicine.
ASCLEPIAD, in ancient poetry, a verfe compofed
of four feet, the firft of which is a fpondee, the
fecond a choriambus, and the two laft daftyls; or
of four feet and a csefura, the firfl a fpondee, the fe¬
cond a daftyl, after which comes the csefura, then
the two dadtyls, as,
Maecenas atavss edite regibus.
ASCLEPIAS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
digynia clafs. The generic character is taken from
five oval-, concave, horn-like ne&aria, which are found
in the flower. There are 18 fpecies of afclepias, none
of which grow wild in Britain. The root is ufed by
the French and German ph.yficians as afudorific, diu¬
retic, and emmenagogue; but it is not in ufe with us.
ASCODRUTjE, in church-hiftory, a fort of Gnoftics,
who placed all religion in knowledge; and, under pre¬
tence of fpiritual worfhip, would admit of no' external
or corporeal fymbols whatever.
ASCOLI, a city in the marquifate of Ancona in Italy,
fituated on the river Tronto, in 150 E. long, and 420
5c/ N. lat. It is alfo a city of the kingdom of Na¬
ples, fituated in the province of Capitonata, in x6°
jo7 E. long, and 41° 15* N. lat.
ASCOLIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival celebrated
by the Athenian hufbandmen in honour of Bacchus,
to whom they facrificed a he-goat, becaufe that animal
deftroys the vines.
ASCUS, in natural hiftory, the pouch or bag of the a-
poflum. See Opossum,
ASCYRUM, in botany, a genus of the polyadelphia
polyandria clafs. The calix confifts of four leaves;
the corolla'has four petals; the filaments are. nume¬
rous, and divided into four bundles. The fpecies are
three, viz. the crux andreae, the hypericoides, and
the villofum, all natives of the Welt-Indies or A-
merica.
ASELLUS, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of onifeus. SccOniscus.
ASH, in botany. See Fraxinus.
ASHBURTON., a town of Devonftiire, fituated about
twenty-two miles S. W. of Exeter, in 40 15' W.
long, and jo° jo7 N. lat.
ASHBY be i-A zquch, a. market-town of Leicefter-
ftiire, in i° 25 W. long, and 520 40' N. lat.
ASHES, the earthy part of wood and other combur
ftibles, remaining, after they are confumed by fire.
Thefe, if produced from a vegetable, are of a white
colour and faltilh tafte, and, when boiled with fair
water, yield a lixivium of an acrimonious, alkaline,
fiery, urinous tafte. The a flies of all, vegetables are
vitrifiable, and are found to contain iron. See Agri¬
culture, and Chemistry.
ASHFORD, a. market-town of Kent, fituated about
12 miles S. W. of Canterbury, in 45' E. long, and
510 15' N. lat.
ASIA, one of the four great parts of the world, and
the fecond in order. It is bounded on the N. by the
Frozen Sea, on the E. by the Eaftern Ocean, which
is part of the South Sea, on the S. by the Indian Sea,
and on the W. by Europe and Africa. It is of larger
, extent than any of the three parts in our continent.
Arts and fciences were early cultivated here; though
they are thought to have come originally from Egypt:
but all the confiderable religions now known had their
firft beginning in Afia ; and there are ftill a great num¬
ber of people who maintain their ancient tenets, which,
according to them, are a hundred thoufand years old.
They have one fort of religion in China, and another
in India, whofe priefts aie the Brachmins; not to
mention the 7ews> Chriftians, and Mahometans,
whofe beginnings are fufficiently known to all the
world. This was the feat of feveral ancient empires
or monarchies; fuch as that of the Aflyrians, Medes,
Perfians, and Greeks.. It is 4740 miles in length
from the Dardanels on the W. to the eaftern fhore of
Tartary ; and 4380 in breadth from the moft fouthern
part of Malacca, to the moft northern cape of Nova
Zembla. It may be divided into ten great parts,
namely, Turky in Afia, Arabia, Perfia, the Mogul’s
empire, with the two peninfulas of India, Thibet,
China, and Corea; Great and Little Bocharia, with
Carazm, Little and Great Tartary, Siberia, and the
Iflands. The governments of Afia are generally mo¬
narchical ; and Turky, Ptrfia, the Mogul’s Empire,
Thibet, and China, are fubjedt to fingle monarchs;
but the reft is divided among feveral fovereigns ; info-
much that there are reckoned feven emperors, and 30
kings, befides petty princes, and the rajas of India,
which are very numerous. With regard to the extent
of their religions, the Chriftian is but finall in refpedt
of the Mahometan, which comprehends one third of
Afia; and the Pagan is near twice as much extended
as the Mahometan. Befide thefe, fome pretend there
is the natural religion, which has about as many fol¬
lowers as the Chriftian. The languages are fo many
and fo various, that it is impoflible to enumerate them ^
but the chief are the Turkifh, the Grecian, the Ara¬
bic, the Chinefe, the Perfian, and the Old Indian.
In fliort, every country and ifland has almoft a diftindl
language. Befides. the animals we have in Europe,
there are lions, leopards, tigers, camels, elephants,
rhinocerofes, and many others.
Lejjer Asia, the fame with Natolia. SccNatolia.
ASILUS, or hornet-fly,, a genus of infedls belonging to
the order of infedla diptera. It has two wings., a
horny, ftrait, two-valved beak. There are 17 fpecies
of this infeA.
ASINUS, or Ass, in zoology, the ndme of a fpecies of.
equus.. See Equus.
ASI.O, in ornithology, a fynonime of a fpecies of ftrix.v
See Strix.
ASISIO, or Asitiq, a city of. the pope’s territories int
Italy, fituated about 16 miles E. of Perugia, in 130
3 c' E. long. and 430 N. lat.
ASLANT,.
ASP (4
ASLANI, in commerce, a Giver coin, worth from 115
toiaoafpers. SeeAspER.
ASMER, a province of India, on this fide the Ganges.
ASPIS, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies of co¬
luber. See Coluber.
ASPALATHUS, or Rose-wood, in botany, a ge¬
nus’of the diadelphia decandria clafs. The calix con-
fifls of five divifions; the pod is oval, and contains
two feeds. There are xg fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
ASPARAGUS, in botany, a genus of the hexandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla confiifs of fix eredt di¬
vifions ; the three inferior petak are bent outwards;
the berry has three cells, and contains two feeds.
There are 14 fpecies of afparagus, only one of which,
viz. the officinalis, is a native of Britain. This fpe¬
cies is commonly ufed as food; but it is alfo fuppofed
to promote urine.
ASPECT, in aftronomy, denotes the fituation of the
planets and ftars with refpedt to each other. See A-
STRONOMY.
ASPEN-TREE, in botany. See Populus.
ASPER, in grammar, an accent peculiar to the Greek
language, marked thus (‘), and importing, that the
letters o^er which it is placed ought to be ftrongly
afpirated, or pronounced as if an /> were joined with
them.
Asper, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
perca. See Perca.
Asper, or Aspre, in commerce, a Turkiffi coin, three
of which make a medine, and worth fomething more
than our halfpenny.
ASPERA arteria, in anatomy, the fame with the wind¬
pipe or trachea. See Anatomy, p.281.
ASPERIFOLIATE, or Asperifolious, amongbota-
nifls, fuch plants as are rough-leaved, having their
leaves placed alternately on their (talks, and a mono-
petalous flower divided into five parts.
ASPERUGO, in botany,, a genus of the pentandria mo-
nogynia clafs. There are two fpecies, viz. the pro-
cumbens-, or wild buglos, a native of Britain; and
the segyptiaca, a native of Egypt.
ASPERULA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla is infundibuliform,. and
the capfule contains two globular feeds. There are
fix fpecies, of which the odorata, or wood-roof, and
the cynachica, or fquinancy-wort, are natives of Bri¬
tain.
ASPHALTUM, in natural hiftory, a folid, dark, o-
paque, inflammable fubftance, found in Egypt about
the Dead Sea, and in many places of Europe, in de¬
tached mafles of no regular ftrudture, . breaking eafily
in. any direction, very light,,fufible, and, after burning
feme time with a greeniffi white flame, leaving a.white
refiduum of affies Dr Hill enumerates three fpecies
of it; the firfi: being the bitumen judaicum,.which is of
a difeutient quality, promotes the menfirual difeharge,
and enters as an ingredient into the Venice treacle,.
See Bitumen.
ASPHODELUS, in botany, a genus of the hexandria
31) ASS
monogynia clafs. The calix is divided into fix parts ;
and the nedlarium confifts of fix valves covering the
germen. There are three fpecies, viz. the buteus, a
native of Sicily; the fiftulofis and ramofus, both na¬
tives of Spain, drc.
ASPHURELATA, in natural hiftory, are femi-metal-
lic foflils, fufible by fire, and not malleable in their
purelt (late, being in their native (late intimately mix¬
ed with fulphur and other adventitious matter, and re¬
duced to what are called ores.
Of this feries of fofiils, there are only five bodies,
each of which makes a diftinft genus; and thefe bo¬
dies are antimony, bifmuth, cobalt, zinc, or quickfil-
ver. See Chemistry.
ASPIRATE, in grammar, denotes words marked with
the fpiritus afper. See Asper.
ASPIRATION, among grammarians, is ufed to denote
the pronouncing a fyllable with fome vehemence.
ASPLENIUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
filices clafs. The parts of fruftification are fituated in
the fmall fparfe line under the difle of the leaves.
There are 24 fpecies, five of which, viz. the fcolo-
pendrium or hart’s tongue, the ceterach or fpleen-
wort, the trichomanes or common maiden-hair, the
viride or green maiden-hair, are natives of Britain.
The ceterach is recommended for promoting urine,
and as a pe&oral.
ASPREDO, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of filurus. See SiLURUs.
ASS, in zoology, is ranked as a fpecies of equus, or
horfe. See Equus.
ASSAI, in mufic, fignifies quick; and, according to¬
others, that the motion of the piece be kept in a mid¬
dle degree of quicknefs or (lownefsr As, ajj'ai alle¬
gro, ajfai prejls. See Alleg ro, ' and Presto.
ASS ARON, or Omer, a meafure of-capacity, in ufe
among the Hebrews, containing five pints. It was
the meafure of manna which God. appointed for e-
very Ifraelite.
ASSASSIN, a perfon who kills another by attacking
him at fome difadVantage. It is alfo meant of one
who hires himfelf to murder a perfon, in order to re-v
venge the quarrel of another.
ASSAULT, in law, a violent inj ury offered .to a man’s
perfon, being of a higher nature than battery.
Assault, in the military art, a furious effort made to
carry a fortified port, camp, or fortrefs, wherein the
affailants do. not fereen themfeives by any works:
while the affault-continues, .the batteries ceafe, for
fear of killing their own men.
ASSAY, Essay, or Say, in metallurgy, the trial of
the goodhefs. and purity of metals; Hence,
ASSAYING is the art of finding how much pure metal
is contained in. any ore, or the proportion of the fe-
veral ingredients of. any mixed metal. See Che¬
mistry.
Assaying of weights.and meafdres, the examining the
common weights, and meafures by the clerk of thd-
market.
Assaying, in mufic, a fleuriihing before one begins to
ASS ( ,
play; or the running divifions, to lead one into the
piece before us.
ASSAY-MASTER, an officer appointed by certain
corporations to make a juft allay of all gold and filver
brought to him, and to make a true report thereof.
ASSEMBLAGE, the unit'.ng or joining of things to¬
gether; or the things themfelves fo united or joined.
It is alfo ufed, in a more generalfenfe, for a colled ion
of various things' fo difpofed and diverfified that the
whole produces fome agreeable effed.
ASSESSOR, an inferior officer of juftice, appointed
chiefly to affif the Ordinary judge with his opinion and
advice.
Assessor is alfo one who aflefles, or fettles taxes and
other public dues.
ASSEVERATION, apofitive and vehement affirmation
of fomething.
ASSIDEANS, in Jewifh antiquity. See Has si-
deans.
ASS1ENTO, a Spanifh word fignifying a farm, in com¬
merce, is ufed for a bargain between the king of
Spain and other powers, for importing negroes into
the Spanifh dominions in America, and particularly
to Buenos Ayres. The firft afliento was made by
the French Guinea company ; and, by the treaty of
Utrecht, transferred to the'Englifh, who were to fur-
nifh four thoufand eight hundred negroes annually.
ASSIGN, in common law, a perfon to whom a thing
is afligned or made over.
ASSIGNEE, in law, a perfon appointed by another
to do an ad, tranfad fome bufinefs, or enjoy a parti¬
cular commodity.
ASSIGNING, in a general fenfe, is the giving over a
right to another ; and in a fpecial fenfe is ufed to fet
forth and point at, as to aifign an error, to aflign falfe
judgment, to affign wafte ; in which cafes it mufl
be fhewn wherein the error is committed, where
and how the judgment is unjuft, and where the wafte
• . is committed.
ASSIGNMENT, the transferring the interefl one has
in a leafe, or other thing, to another perfon.
ASSIMILATION, in phyfics, is that motion by which
bodies convert other bodies related to them, or at
leaft fuch as are prepared to be converted, intQ their
own fubftance and nature. Thus, flame multiplies it-
felf upon oily bodies, and generates new .flame ; air
upon water, and produces new air; and all the parts,
as well fimilar as organical, in vegetables and animals,
firfl: attrad with fome eledion or choice, nearly the
fame common or not very different juices for aliment,
and afterwards aflimilate or convert them to their
own nature.
ASSIS, ,in natural hiftory, a term ufed to denote opi¬
um, or the powder of hempfeed, which being form¬
ed into bolufles is fwailowed by the Egyptians, who
are thereby intoxicated.
ASSISER, or Assizer, of 'weights and irieafurts, an
officer who has the overfight of thofe things. See
Clerk of the market.
ASSIZE, in law. See Jury.
ASSOCIATION of ideas, is where two or more ideas
.32 ) AST
conflantly and immediately follow one another, fo that
the one lhall almoft infallibly produce the other. See
Metaphysics.
ASSOILZIE, in law, to abfolve, or free.
ASSONANCE, in rhetoric or poetry, is where the
words of a phrafe or verfe have nearly the fame
fo-und or termination, but make no proper rhyme.
ASSOS, a fea-port town of Natolia, fituated about
twelve miles fouth-eaft of Troas, in 27° 3c/ E. long,
and 38° 30' N. lat.
ASSUMPSIT, a voluntary or verbal promife, whereby
a perfon affumes, or takes upon him to perform or pay
any thing to another.
ASSUMPTION, a feftival in the Romifh church, in
honour of the miraculous afcent of the Virgin Mary
into heaven : the Greek church, who alfo obferve this
feflival,- celebrate it on the fifteenth of Auguft with
great ceremony.
Assumption, in logic, is the minor or fecond propofi-
tion in a categorical fyllogifm.
Assumption is alfo ufed for a confequence drawn
from the propofitions whereof an argument is com-
pofed.
Assumption, in geography, a city of S. America, fi¬
tuated near the mouth of the river Plata, and on the
oppofite fhore to Buenos Ayres, in 6o° W. long, and
34° S. lat.
ASSUMPTIVE arms, in heraldry, are fuch as a perfon
has a right to affume, with the approbation of his fo-
vereign, and of the heralds : Thus, if a perfon, who
has no right by blood, and has no coat of arms, fhall
captivate, in any lawful war, any gentleman, noble¬
man, or prince, he is, in that cafe, intitled to bear
the ihield of that prifoner, and enjoy it to him and
his heirs for ever.
ASSURANCE,' or Insurance, in commerce. See
Insurance.
ASSUROR, a merchant, or other perfon, who makes
out a policy of aflurance, and thereby infures a fliip,
houle, or the like.
ASSYRIA, an ancient empire of Afia, comprehending
the modern provinces of Curdiftan, Diarbec, and I-
rac-arabic.
ASSYTH, or Assythment, in Scots law, fignifies
an indemnification made to an injured party. See
Scots Law, tit. Crimes.
ASTER, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia polyga-
mia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle is naked; the
pappus is fimple; the rays of the corolla are ten ; and
the calix is imbricated. The fpecies are thirty-fix,
only one of which, viz. the tripolium, or fea-flar-
wort, is a native of Britain.
ASTERABAT, a city of Perfia, capital of a province
of the fame name, fituated on the fouthern fhore of the
Cafpian fea, in 540 E.long. and 370 0,0' N. lat.
ASTERIA, in natural hiftory, a beautiful pellucid gem
of variable colours,, as viewed in different lights;
called alfo oculus cats, or cat's eye. The variable co¬
lours, which are a pale brown,and whitej feem to be
lodged deep in the ftone, and fhift about as it is, mo¬
ved. It is nearly allied to the opals; from which,
however.
AST ( 433 ) AST
however, it is diftinguiihed by its colour and fuperior
hardnefs. **
Asteria is alfo the name of an extraneous foflil, call¬
ed in Englifli theJlar-ftone., See Star-stone.
ASTERIAS, or Star-fish, in zoology, a genus of
infedts of the order of vermes molufca. The body is
deprefled, with a hard cruft, and prickly tentacular
The mouth is in the centre, and has five valves. There
are fixteen fpecies of afterias, all found in different
feas.
ASTERISCUS, in botany, a fynonime of the anthe-
mis. See Anthemis.
ASTERISK, a mark in form of a ftar, *, placed over a
word or fentence, to refer the reader to the margin,
or elfewhere, for a quotation, explanation, or the
like.
ASTEROCEPHALUS, in botany. - See Scabiosa.
ASTEROIDES, in botany. See Buphthalmum.
ASTEROPODIUM, a kind of extraneous foffil, of
the fame fubftance with the afteriae,- or ftar-ftones, to
which they ferve as a bafe. See Star-stone.
ASTEROP PERUS, in botany, a fynonime of the af¬
ter. See Aster.
ASTHMA, in medicine, a painful, difficult, and labo¬
rious refpiration. See Medicine.
ASTI, a city of Peidmontj in Italy, fituated upon the
river Panaro, about thirty miles eaft of Turin, in 8°
i E. long. and 440 40' N. lat.
ASTORGA, a city of the province of Leon,'in Spain,
fituated upon the river Inerto, about thirty miles
fouth-weft of Leon, in 6° 20' W. long, and 420 20'
N. lat.
ASTOUR, in commerce, a term in the E. Indies, for
what in England we call difcount. See Discount.
ASTRACAN, a city of Afiatic Ruffia, and capital of
a kingdom of the" fame name. It is fituated on the
eaftern ffiore of the river Wolga, about eighty miles
north of the Cafpian fea, in 520 E. long, and 470
■ N. lat.
ASTRAGAL, in architedture, a little round moulding,
in form of a ring, ferving as an ornament at the tops
and bottoms of columns. See Architecture.
Astragal, in gunnery, a round moulding encompaffing
a cannon, about half a foot from its mouth.
ASTRAGALOIDES, in botany, a fynonime of the
phaca.' See Phaca.
ASTRAGALUS, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia
decandria clafs. The pod is gibbous and bilocular.
There are thirty-nine fpecies of aftragalus, of which
two, viz. the glycyphyllus, or wild liquorice, and
the arenarius, or purple mountain milk-work, are na¬
tives of Britain.
Astragalus, in anatomy. See p. 185.
ASTRANTIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
digynia clafs. The involucrum is lanceolated, open,
equal, and coloured. The fpecies are two, viz. the
major and minor, both natives of the Alps.
ASTRARIUS hterei, in law, is where an anceftor by
conveyance has fettled his heir apparent and family
in a houfe in his life-time.
ASTREA, in aftronomy, the fame with virgo. See
Virgo, and Astronomy.
ASTRENIUM, in botany, a genus of the dioecia pen¬
tandria clafs. There is but one fpecies, a native of
America.
ASTRICTION, inlaw. SeeTniRLAGE.
As-triction, among phyficians, denotes the operation
of aftringent medicines. See the next article.
ASTRINGENTS, in materia medica, fubftances di-
ftinguHhed by a rough auftere tafte, and changing fo-
lutions of iron, efpecially thofe made in the vitriolic
acid, into a dark purple or black colour; fuch are
galls, tormentil root, biftort root, balauliines, terra
japanica, acacia, <bc. Aftringents yield their virtues
by infufion both to water and vinous fpirits, but gene¬
rally in greateft perfe<5Hon to the former. The me¬
dical effects of aftringents are, to conftringe the fibres,
and incraffate or lightly thicken the juices. Their
more experienced ufe is in diforders proceeding from
a debility or flaccid ftate of the folids ; in haemor¬
rhages from a thinnels of the blood, laxity, or rup¬
ture of the veffek; in preternatural difcharges of o-
ther kinds, after the offending matter has been duly
corrected or evacuated; and in external relaxations.
ASTROGNOSIA, the fcience of the fixed ftars, or
the knowlege of their names, conftellations, magni¬
tudes, fee.
ASTROITES, or Star stone, in natural-hiftory, is
fo called on account of its refemblance to a ftar. See
Star-stone.
ASTROLABE, the name for a ftereographic projection
of the fphere, either upon the plane of the equator,
the eye being fuppofed to be in the pole of the world ;•
or upon the plane of the meridian, when the eye is
fuppofed in the point of the interfeCtion of the equi-
noxial and horizon.
Astrolabe is alfo an inftrument for taking thealtitude
of the fun or ftars at fea. See Astronomy.
Astrolabe, among the ancients, was the fame as our
armillary fphere.
ASTROLOGY, a conjectural fcience, which teaches
to judge of the effeCts and influences of the ftars, and
to foretel future events by the fituation and different
afpeCts of the heavenly bodies. This fcience has long
ago become a juft fubjeCt of contempt and ridicule.
ASTRONOMICALS, a name fometimes given to fex-
agefimal fractions. See Arithmetic, Of fexagefi-
v.als.
,s R
Vol. I. Numb. 19.
3
ASTRO-
( 434 )
ASTRO
ASTRONOMY is the fclence which treats of the na¬
ture and properties of the heavenly bodies.
Chap. I. Of Astronomy in general.
By aftronomy we difcover that the earth is at fo great
a diflance from the fun, that if feen from thence it would
appear no bigger than a point, although its circumference is
known to be 25,020 miles. Yet that diflance is fo fmalli.
compared with the earth’s diftance from the fixed ftars,
that* if the orbit in which the earth moves round the fun
were folid, and feen from the neareftllar, it would like-
wife appear no bigger than a point, although it is at
Jcaft 162 millions of miles in diameter. For the earth, in
going round the fun, is 162 millions of miles nearer to
fome of the ftars at one time of the year than at another;
and yet their apparent magnitudes, fituations, and di-
ftances from one another ftill remain the fame ; and a te-
lefcope which magnifies above 200 times does not fenfi-
bly magnify them; which proves them to be at leaft 400
thoufands times farther from us than we are from the
fun.
It is not to be imagined that all the ftars are placed in
one concave furface^fo as to be equally diftant from us;
but that they are fcanered at immenfe diftanc.es from one
another through unlimited fpace. So that there may be
as great a diftance between any two neighbouring ftars,
as between our fun and thofe which are neareft to him.
Therefore an obferver,. who is neareft any fixed ftar,
will look upon.it alone as a real fun; and confider the reft
as fo many fhining points, placed at equal diftances from
him in the firmament.
By the help of telefcopes. we difcover thoufands of
ftars which are invifible to the naked eye; and the better
our glafles are, ftill the tnore become vifible ; fo that no
limits can be fet either to their number or their diftances.
The fun appears very bright and large in comparifon
of the fixed ftars, becaufe we keep conftantly near the
fun, in comparifon of our immenfe diftance from the ftars.
For a fpe&ator, placed as near to any ftar as we are fo
the fun, would fee that ftar a body as large and bright
as the fun .appears to us: and a fpe&ator, as far diftant
from the fun as we are from the ftars, would fee the fun
as fmall as we fee a ftar, divefted of all its circumvolving
planets; and would reckon it one of the ftars in numbring
them. .
The ftars, being at fuch immenfe diftances from the fun,
cannot poffibly receive from him fo ftrong a light as they
feem to have; nor any brightnefs fufficient to make them
vifible to us. For the fun’s rays muft be fo fcattered and
diftipatcd before they reach fuch remote obje&s, that
N O M Y.
they can never be tranfmitted back to onr eyes, fo as to
render thefe objedts vifible by reflexion. The ftars there¬
fore fttine with their own native and unborrowed luftre,
as the fun does; and fince each particular ftar, as well /
as the fun, is confined to a particular portion of fpace,
it is plain that the ftars are of the fame nature with the
fun.
It is noways probable that the Almighty, who always
adts with infinite wifdom, and does nothing in vain, (hould
create fo many glorious funs, fit for fo many important
purpofes, and place them at fuch diftances from one an¬
other, without proper objedts near enough to be benefited
by their influences. Whoever imagines'they were cre¬
ated only to give a faint glimmering light to the inhabi¬
tants of this globe, muft have a very fuperficial know-
lege of aftronomy, and a mean opinion of the Divine
Wifdom; fince, by an infinitely lefs exertion of creating
power, the Deity could have given our earth much more
light by one Angle additional moon.
Inftead then of one fun and one world only in the uni-
verfe, aftronomy difcovers to us fuch an inconceivable
number of funs, fyftems', and worlds, difperfed through
boundlefs fpace, that if our fun, with all the planets,
moons, and comets belonging to it, were annihilated,
they would be no more miffed, by an eye that could
take in the whole creation, than a grain of faod from the
fea-lhore: The fpace they poffefs being comparatively
fo fmall, that it would fcarce be a fenfible blank in the
univerfe, although Saturn, the outermoft of our planets,
revolves about the fun in an orbit of 4884 millions of miles
in circumference, and fome of our comets make excurfions
upwards of ten thoufand millions of miles beyond Sa¬
turn’s orbit; and yet, at that amazing diftance, they are
incomparably nearer to the fun than to any of the ftars ;
as is evident from' their keeping clear of the attradHve
power of all the ftars, and returning periodically by vir¬
tue of the fun’s attraftion.
From what we know of our own fyftem, it may be
reafonably concluded, that all the reft are with equal
wifdom contrived, fituated, and provided with accom¬
modations for rational inhabitants. Let us therefore
- take a furvey of the fyftem to which we belong; the only
one acceflible to us ; and from thence we ftiall be the bet¬
ter enabled to judge of . the nature and end of the other
fyftems of the univerfe. For although there is almoft
an infinite variety in the parts of the creation which we
have opportunities of examining, yet there is a general
analogy running through, and connecting all the parts in¬
to one great and univerfal fyftem.
To an attentive confiderer, it will appear highly pro¬
bable, that the planets of our fyftem, togother with
their attendants called fatellites or moonst are much of
the
A S T R O
the fame nature with buriearth, and deftined for the
like purpofes. For they are folid opaque globes, capa¬
ble of fupporting animals and vegetable. Some of them
are larger, fome lefs, and fome much about the fize of
our earth. They all circulate round the fun, as the
earth does, in a fhorter or longer time, according to their
refpebtive diftances from him; and have, where it would
not be inconvenient, regular returns mf fummer and win¬
ter, fpring and autumn. They,have warmer and cold¬
er climates,, as.the various productions of our earth re¬
quire : And, in fuch as afford a pollibiJity of difcovering
it, we obferve a regular motion round their axes like
that of our earth, caufing an alternate return of day
and night; which is neceifary for labour, reft, and ve¬
getation, and that all parts of their furfaces may be
expofed to the rays of the fun.
Such of the planets as are fartheft from the fun, and
therefore enjoy leaft of his light, have that deficiency
made up by feveral moons, which conflantly accompany
and revolve about them, as our moon revolves about the
earth. The remoteft planet has, over and above, a
broad ring encompafling it; which like a lucid zone in
the heavens refleds the fun’s light very copioufly on that
planet; fo that if the remoter planets have the fun’s
light fainter by day than we,' they have an addition
made to it morning and evening by one or more of their
moons, and a greater quantity of light in the night-time.
On the furface of the moon, becaufe it is nearer us
than any other of the celeftial bodies are, we difcover a
nearer refemblance of our earth. For, by the alfiftance
of telefcopes, we obferve the moon to be full of high
mountains, large valleys, and deep cavities. Thefe fi-
milarities leave us no room to doubt, but that all the
planets and moons in the fyftem are defigned as commo¬
dious habitations for creatures endued with capacities of
knowing and adoring their beneficent Creator.
Since the fixed ftars are prodigious fpheres of fire like
our fun, and at inconceivable diftances from one another
as well as from us, it is reafonable to conclude they are
made for the fame purpofes that the fun is ; each to be¬
llow light, heat, and vegetation, on a certain number of
Inhabited planets,, kept by gravitation within the fphere
of its activity..
Chap. II. Of the Solar System.
The planets and comets which move round the fun as
their centre, conflitute the Solar Syftem. Thofe planets
which are near the fun not only finifh their circuits foon-
er, but like wife move fafler in their refpeCtive orbits,
than thofe which are more remote from him. Their
motinns are all performed from well to eafl, in orbits
nearly circular. Their names, difiances, bulks, and
periodical revolutions, are as follow.
The Sun an immenfe globe of fire, is placed near
the common centre, or rather in the lower focus, of the
orbits o.f all the planets and comets; and turns round his
axis in 25 days 6 hours, as is evident by the motion of
fpots feen on-his furface. His diameter is computed to
be 763,000 miles; and, by the various attractions of the
N O M Y. 435
circumvolving planets, he is agitated by a fmall motion
round the centre of gravity of the fyftem. All the pla¬
nets, as feen from him, move the fame way, and ac¬
cording to the order of figns in the graduated circle
'V5 V U -2c> Plate XL. fig. 2. which repre-
fents the great ecliptic in the heavens: But, as feen
from any one planet, the refi appear fometimes to go
backward, fometimes forward, and fometimes to Hand
ftiil; not in circles nor ellipfes, but in looped curves
which never return into themfelves. The comets come
from all parts of the heavens, and move in all forts of
directions.
The axis of a planet is a line conceived to be drawn
through its centre, about which it revolves as on a real
axis. The extremities of this line, terminating in op-
pofite points of the planet’s furface, are called its poles.
That which points towards the northern part of the hea¬
vens, is called the north pole; and the other, pointing
towards the fouthern part, is called the fouth pole. A
bowl whirled from one’s hand into the open air turns
round fuch a line within itlelf, whilft it moves forward ;
and fuch are ths lines we mean, when we fpeak of the
axes of the heavenly bodies.
Let us fuppofe the earth’s orbit to be a thin, even, fo¬
lid plane ; cutting the fun through the centre, and ex¬
tended out as far as the ftarry heavens, where -it will
mark the great circle called the ecliptic. This circle we
fuppofe to be divided into 12 equal parts, called figns-,
each fign into 30 equal parts, called degrees-, each de¬
gree into 60 equal parts, called minutes-, and every rni-
nute into 60 equal parts, called feconds : So that a ie-
cond is the 60th .part of a minute; a minute the 60th
part of a degree; and a degree the 360th part of a cir¬
cle, or 30th part of a fign. The planes of the orbits of
all the other planets like wife cut the fun in halves; bur,
extended to th? heavens, form circles different from one
another, and from the ecliptic; one half of each being
on the north fide, and the other on the fouth fide of it"
Confequently the orbit of each planet croffes the ecliptic
in two oppofite points, which are called the planet’s
nodes. Thefe nodes are all in different parts of the e-
chptic; and therefore, if the planetary tracks remained
vifible in the heavens, they would in fome meafure re¬
ferable the different ruts of waggon-wheels crofiing one
another in different parts, but never going far afunder.
That node, or interfeflion of the orbit of any planet
with the earth’s, orbit, from which the planet afcends
northward above the ecliptic, is called the ajcendine
node of the planet ; and the other, which is diredly op-
pofite thereto, is called its defending node. Saturn’s
afctndipg node is in 21 deg. 13 min. of Cancer 05-, Ju¬
piter's in 7 deg. 29 min. of the fame fign, Mars’s in
17 deg. 17 min. of Taurus, Venus’s in 13 deg. 59
min. of Gemini n, and Mercury’s in I 4 deg. 43 min-
of Taurus. Here we confider the earth’s orbit as the
fiandard, and the orbits of all the other planets as ob¬
lique to it.
When we fpeak.of the planets orbits, all that is meant
is their paths through the.open and unrefifting fjhice in
which they move, and are kept in, by the attrae.ive
power of the fun, and the projedile force impreffed up-
436 ASTRO
on. tliem at firft; between which power and force there
is To exaft an adjtiftment, that they continue in the fame
tracks without any folid orbits to confine them.
Mercury, the neareft planet to the fun, goes round
him (as in a circle marked Plate XXXIX. fig. i.) in
87 days 23 hours of our lime nearly; which is the length
of his year. But, being feldom feen, and no fpots ap¬
pearing on his furface or dilk, the time of his rotation
on his axis, or the length of his days and nights, is as
yet unknown. His diftance from the fun is computed to
be 32 millions of miles, and his diameter 2600. In
his courfe round the fun, he moves at the rate of 95
thoufand miles every hour. His light and heat from
the fun are almofl: feven times as great as ours; and the
fun appears to him almoft feven times as large as to us.
The great heat on this planet is no argument agatnft its
being inhabited; fince the Almighty could as ealily fuit
the bodies and conftitutions of its inhabitants to the heat
of their dwelling, as he has done ours to the tempera¬
ture, of our earth. And it is very probable that the peo¬
ple there have fuch an opinion of us, as we have of the
inhabitants of Jupiter and Saturn ; namely, that we
mud be intolerably cold, and have very little light at fo
great a diftance from the fun.
This planet appears to us with all the various phafes
of the moon, when viewed at different times by a
good telefcope; excepting only that he never appears
quite full, becaufe his enlightened fide is never turned
dire&ly towards us but when he is fo near the fun as to
be loll to our fight in its beams. And, as his enlight¬
ened fide is always toward the fun, it is plain that he
fhines not by any light of his own; for if he did, he
would conftantly appear round. That he moves about
the fun in an orbit within the earth’s orbit is alfo plain,
(as will be (hewn afterwards), becaufe he is never feen
oppofite to the fun, nor above 56 times the fun’s breadth
from his centre.
His orbit is inclined feven degrees to the ecliptic;
and that node from which he afeends northward above
the ecliptic is in the 14th degree of Taurus; the oppo¬
fite, in the 14th degree of Scorpio. The earth is in
thefe points on the 6th of November and 4th of May,
new ftyle; and when Mercury comes to either of his
nodes at his inferior conjunction about thefe times, he
will appear to pafs over the difit or face of the fun, like
a dark round fpot; but in all other parts of his orbit
his conjunctions are invifible, becaufe he either goes a-
bove or below the fun.
Mr Whifton has given us an account of feveral pe¬
riods at which Mercury may be feen on the fun’s dilk,
viz. in the year 1783, Nov. 12th, at 3 h. 44 m. in the
afternoon ; 1786, May 4th, at 6 h. 57 m. in the fore¬
noon; 1789, Dec. 6th, at 3 h. 55 min. in the after¬
noon; and 1799, May 7th, at 2 h. 34 in. in the after¬
noon. There will be feveral intermediate tranfits, but
none of them vifible to us.
Venus, the next planet in order, is computed to be
59 millions of miles from the fun ; and by moving at the
rate of 69 thoufand miles every hour in her orbit, (as
in the circle marked $), Ike goes round the fun in 224
N O M Y.
days 17 hours of our time nearly. But though this be
the full length of her year, as Hie performs only 9!- re¬
volutions on her own axis in that time, her year confills
only of 9-3. days; fo that in her, every day and night
together is as long as 24-f days and nights with us. This
odd quarter of a day in every year makes every fourth
year a leap-year to Venus ; as the like does to our
earth. Her diameter is 7906 miles; and by her diur¬
nal motion the inhabitants about her equator are carried
43 miles every hour, befides the 69,000 above men¬
tioned.
Her orbit includes that of Mercury within it; for at
her greateft elongation, or apparent diftance from the
fun, die is 96 times his breadth from his centre ; which
is almoft: double of Mercury’s. Her orbit is included
by the earth’s; for if it were not, fhe might be feen as
often in oppofition to the fun, as Ihe is in conjunction
with him; but Ihe was never feen 90 degrees, or a
fourth part of a circle, from the fun.
When Venus appears weft of the fun, flie rifes before
:him in the morning, and is called the morning-Jiar^
when (he appears eaft of the fun, file fiiines in the even¬
ing after he fets, and is then called the evening-ftar;
•being each in its turn for 290 days. It may perhaps be
furprifing at firft, that Venus Ihould keep longer on the
eaft or weft of the fun, than the whole time of her pe¬
riod round him. But the difficulty vaniffies when we
confider, that the earth is all the while going round the
fun the fame way, though not fo quick as Venus; and
therefore her relative motion to the earth muft in every
period be as much flower than her abfolute motion in her
orbit, as the earth during that.time advances forward in
the ecliptic, which is 220 degrees. To us flie appears,
through a telefcope, in all the various fliapes of the moon.
The axis of Venus is inclined 75 degrees to the axis
of her orbit; which is 5 iT degrees more than our earth’s
axis is inclined to the axis of the ecliptic; and therefore
her feafons vary much more than ours do. The north
pole of her axis inclines toward the 20th degree of a-
quarius, our earth’s to the beginning of Cancer; confe-
quently the northern parts of Venus have fummer in the
figns where thofe of our earth have winter, and vice
verfa.
The artificial day at each pole of Venus is as long as
112-y natural days on our earth.
The fun’s greateft declination on each fide of her e-
quator amounts to 75 degrees ; therefore her tropics are
only 15 degrees from her poles, and her polar circles as
far from her equator. Confequently, the tropics of Ve¬
nus are between her polar circles and her poles; contrary
to what thofe of our earth are.
As her annual revolution contains only 93 of her day$,
the fun will always appear to go through a whole fign,
or twelfth part of her orbit, in little more than three
quarters of her natural day, or nearly in' i8£ of our
days and nights.
Becaufe her day is fo great a part of her year, the
fun changes his declination in one day fo much, that if
he paffes vertically, or diredtly over head of any given
place on the tropic, the next day he will be 26 degrees
from
ASTRO
from it; and whatever place he pafles vertically over
when in the equator, one day’s revolution will remove
him 36^ degrees from it. So that the fun changes his
declination every day in Venus about 14 degrees more
at a mean rate, than he does in a quarter of a year on
our earth. This appears to be providentially ordered,
for preventing the too great efFe&s of the fun’s heat,
(which is twice as great on Venus as on the earth), fo
that he cannot fnine perpendicularly on the fame places
for two days together; and by that means the heated
places have time to cool.
If the inhabitants about the north pole of Venus fix
their fouth or meridian line through that part of the hea¬
vens where the fun comes to his greateft height, or north
declination, and call thofe the eaft and weft points of
their horizon, which are 90 degrees on each fide from
that point where the horizon is cut by the meridian line,
thefe inhabitants will have the following remarkable
things.
The fun will rife 22^ degrees north of the eaft; and
going on na-j- degrees, as meafured on the plane of the
horizon, he will crofs the meridian at an altitude of
12-|- degrees ; then making an entire revolution without
fetting, he will crofs it again at an altitude of 484 de¬
grees ; at the next revolution he will crofs the meridian
as' he comes to his greateft height and declination, at the
altitude of 75 degrees; being then only 15 degrees from
the zenith, or that point of the heavens which is direttly
over head; and thence he will defeend in the like fpiral
manner, crofling the meridian firft at the altitude of 484
degrees; next at the altitude of ist degrees; and go¬
ing on thence 1124 degrees, he will let 22^ degrees north
of the weft; fo that, after having been 4^ revolutions
above the horizon, he defeends below it to exhibit the
like appearances at the fouth pole.
At each pole, the fun continues half a year without
fetting in fummer, and as long without rifing in winter;
confequently the polar inhabitants of Venus have only
one day and one night in the year, as it is at the poles
of our earth. But the difference between the heat of
fummer and cold of winter, or of mid-day and mid¬
night, on Venus, is much greater than on the earth;
becaufe in Venus, as the fun is for half a year together
above the horizon of each pole in its turn, fohe is fora
confiderable part of that time near the zenith; and du¬
ring the other half of the year always below the hori¬
zon, and for a great part of that time at leaft 70 degrees
from it. Whereas, at the poles of our earth, although
the fun is for half a year together above the horizon,
yet he never afeends above, nor defeends below it,
more than 234 degrees. When the fun is in the e-
equinodtial, or in that circle which divides the northern
half of the heavens from the fouthern, he is feen with
one half of his dilk above the horizon of the north
pole, and the other half above the horizon of the
fouth pole; fo that his centre is in the horizon of
both poles: and then defeending below the horizon of
one, he afeends gradually above that of the other.
Hence, in a year, each pole has one fpring, one harveft,
a fummer as long as them both, and a winter equal in
length to the other three feafons.
Vol. I. No. 19.
N O M 437
At the polar circles of Venus, the fealbns are much
the fame as at the equator, becaufe there are only 15 de¬
grees betwixt them; only the winters are not quite fo
long, nor the fummers fo ftiort; but the four feafons
come twice round every year.
At Venus’s tropics, the fun continues for about fifteen
of our weeks together without fetting in fummer, and
as long without rifing in winter. Whilft he is more than
ly degrees from the equator, he neither rifes to the in¬
habitants of the one tropic, nor fets to thofe of the o-
ther; whereas, at our terreftrial tropics, he rifes and
fets every day of the year.
At Venus’s tropics, the feafons are much the fame, as
at her poles; only the fummers are a little longer, and
the winters a little ftiorter.
'At her equator, the days and nights are always of
the fame length, and yet the diurnal and nodhirnal arches
are very different, efpecially when the fun’s declination
is about the greateft; for then his meridian altitude may
fometimes be twice as great as his midnight deprefliop,
and at other times the reverfe. When the fun is at his
greateft declination, either north or fouth, his rays are
as oblique at Venus’s equator, as they are at London on
the fhorteft day of winter. Therefore, at her equator
there are two winters, two fummers, two fprings, and
two autumns every year. But becaufe the fun ftays for
fome time near the tropics, and paffes fo quickly over
the equator, every winter there will be almoft twice as
long as fummer; the four feafons returning twice in that
time, which confifts only of 94 days.
Thofe parts of Venus which lie between the poles and
tropics, and between the tropics and polar circles, and'
alfo between the polar circles and equator, partake more
or lefs of the phenomena of thefe circles as they are
more or lefs diftant from them.
From the quick change of the fun’s deefirjation it hap¬
pens, that if he rifes due eaft on any dayr he will not
fet due weft on that day, as with us; for if the place
where he rifes due eaft be on the equator, he will fet on
that day almoft weft-north-weft, or about 184-degrees,
north of the weft. But if the place be in 45 degrees
north latitude, then on the day that the fun rifes due
eaft he will fet north-weft by weft, or 33 degrees north
of the weft, and in 62 degrees north latitude. When
he rifes in the eaft, he fets not in that revolution, but
juft touches the horizon 10 degrees to the weft of the
north point, and afeends again, continuing for 34 revo¬
lutions above the horizon without fetting. Therefore,
no place has the forenoon and afternoon of the fame day
equally long, unlelj it be in the equator, or at the poles.
The fun’s altitude at noon, or at any other time of the
day, and his amplitude at rifing and letting, being very
different at places on the fame parallel of latitude, ac¬
cording to the different longitudes of thofe places, the
longitude will be almoft as eafily found on Venus as the
latitude is found on the earth ; which is an advantage we
can never enjoy, becaufe the daily change of the fun’s
declination is by much too fmall for that important pur-
pofe.
On this planet, where the fun. crofles the equator in
any year, he will have 9 degrees of declination from that
5 S place
3
43 S ASTRO
place on the fame day and hour next year, and will crofs
the equator 90 degrees farther to the weft; which makes.
the time of the equinox a quarter of a day (or about fix
of our days) later every year. Hence^ although the fpi-
ral in which the fun’s motion is performed, be of the
fame fort every year, yet it will not be the very fame,
becaufe the fun will not pafs vertically over the fame
places till four annual revolutions are finiihed.
Venus’s orbit is inclined 3^ degrees to the earth’s;
and crolfes it in the 14th degree of Gemini and of Sagit¬
tarius ; and therefore, when the earth is about thefe
points of the ecliptic at the time that Venus is in her in¬
ferior conjuration, (he will appear like a fpot on the fun,
and afford a more certain method of finding the diftances
of all the planets from the fun, than any other yet known.
But thefe appearances happen very feldom. The firft
was in the year 1639. The fecond in the year 1761,
June 6. In the morning of that day, when the fun rofe
at London, Venus had pafied both the external and in¬
ternal contafts. At 38 minutes 21 feconds paft 7 o’clock,
(apparent time) at Greenwich, the Rev. Dr Blifs, aftro-
nomer royal, firft faw Venus on the fun; at which in-
ftant, the centre of Venus preceded the fun’s centre, by
6/ iS^.9 of right afcenfion, and was fouth of the fun’s
centre by iS7 of declination.—From that time to
the beginning of egrefs, the Dotfor made feveral obfer-
vations, both of the difference of right afcenfion and de¬
clination of the centres of the fun and Venus; and at
laft found the beginning of egrefs, or-inftant of the in¬
ternal contaCf of Venus with the fun’s limb, to be at 8
hours 19 minutes o feconds apparent time.—From the
Doctor’s own obfervations, and thofe which were made
at Shirburn by another gentleman, he has computed,
that the mean time at Greenwich of the ecliptical con¬
junction of the fun and Venus was at 51 minutes 20 fe¬
conds after 5 o’clock in the morning; that the place of
the fun and Venus was Gemini 150 36' 33w; that the
geocentric latitude of Venus was or 44".9 fouth,—her
horary motion from the fun 3' 5 7”. 13 retrograde, and
the angle then formed by the axis of the equator and the
axis of the ecliptic was 6° 9* 34", decreafing hourly 1
minute of a degree.—By the mean of three good obfer¬
vations, the diameter of Venus on the fun was 58/\
Mr Short made his obfervations at Savile-houfe, in
London, 30 feconds in time weft from Greenwich, in
prefence of his royal highnefs the duke of York, accom¬
panied by their royal highnefles prince William, prince
Henry, and prince Frederick.—He firft faw Venus on
the fun, through flying clouds, at 46 minutes 37 feconds
after 5 o’clock; and at 6 hours 15 minutes 12 feconds
he meafured the diameter of Venus 59".8.:—He after¬
ward found it to be 5%".9, when the Iky was more fa¬
vourable.—And, through a reflecting telefcope -of two
feet focus, magnifying 140 times, he found the internal
contaCt of Venus with the fun’s limb to be at 8 hours 18
minutes 2 It feconds, apparent time; which being redu¬
ced to the apparent time at Greenwich, was 8 hours 18
minutes 51^ feconds; fo that his time of feeing the con¬
tact was 8t feconds fooner (in abfolute time) than the in-
ftant of its being feen at Greenwich.
MdTrs Ellicott and Dollond obfexved the internal con-
N O M Y.
taCt at Hackney; and their time of feeing it, reduced to
the time at Greenwich, was at 8 hours 18 minutes 56
feconds, which was 4 feconds fooner in abfolute time
than the coptaCt was feen at Greenwich.
Mr Canton’ in Spittle-Square, London, 4' 11" weft
of Greenwich, (equal to 16 feconds 44 thirds of time),
meafured the fun’s diameter 31' 33" 24/,/, and the dia¬
meter of Venus on the fun 58^; and, by obfervation,
found the apparent time of the internal contaCl of Venus
with the! fun’s limb to be at 8 hours 18 minutes 41 fe¬
conds ; which, by reduction, was only 2-f feconds fliort
of the time at the Royal Obfervatory at Greenwich.
The Reverend Mr Richard Haydon, at Leflceard in
Cornwall, (16 minutes 10 feconds in time weft from
London, as ftated by Dr Bevis), obferved the internal
contact to be at 8 hours o minutes 20 feconds, which,
by reduction, was 8 hours 16 minutes 30 feconds at
Greenwich; fo'that he muft have feen it 2 minutes 30
feconds fooner in abfolute time than it was feen at Green¬
wich ;—a difference by much too great to be occafioned
by the difference of parallaxes. But by a memorandum
of Mr Hayden’s fome years before, it appears that he
then fuppofed his weft longitude to be near two minutes
more; which brings his time to agree within half a mi¬
nute of the time at Greenwich; to which the parallaxes
will very nearly anfwer.
At Stockholm Obfervatory, latitude 590 2o'4- north,
and longitude 1 hour 12 minutes eaft from Greenwich,
the whole of the tranfit was vifible: the totalingrefs was
obferved by Mr Wargentin to be at 3 hours 39 minutes
23 feconds in the morning, and the beginning of egrefs
at 9 hours 30 minutes 8 feconds ; fo that the whole du¬
ration between the two internal contacts, as feen at that
place, was 5 hours 50 minutes 45 feconds. *
At Torneo in Lapland, (1 hour 27 minutes 28 feconds
eaft of Paris), Mr Hellant, who is efteemed a very good
obferver, found the total iogrefs to be at 4 hours 3 mi¬
nutes 59 feconds, and the beginning of egrefs to be 9
hours 54 minutes 8 feconds.^—So that the whole dura¬
tion between the two internal contacts was 5 hours 50
minutes 9 feconds.
At Hernofand in Sweden, (latitude 6° 38' north, and
longitude 1 hour 2 minutes 12 feconds eaft of Paris),
Mr Qifter obferved the total ingrefs to be at 3 hours 38
minutes 26 feconds; and the beginning of egrefs to be at
9 hours 29 minutes 21 feconds;—the duration between
thefe two internal contacts 5 hours 50 minutes 56 feconds.
Mr De La Lande, at Paris, obferved the beginning
of egrefs to be at 8 hours 28 minutes 26 feeonds appa¬
rent time.—But Mr Ferner (who was then at Conflans,
14% weft of the Roy;1! Obfervatory at Paris) obferved
the beginning of egrefs to be at 8 hours 28 minutes 29
feconds true time. The equation, or cjjfference between
the true and apparent time, was 1 minute 54 feconds.—
The total ingrefs, being before the fun rofe, could not
be feen.
At Tobol(k in Siberia, Mr Chappe obferved the total
ingrefs to be at 7 hours o minutes 28 feconds in the
morning, and the beginning of egrefs to be at 49 minutes
20t feconds after 12 at noon.—So that the whole dura¬
tion of the tranfit between the internal contacts was 5
hours
ASTRONOMY.
419
hours 48 minutes 52-5- feconds, as feen at that place;
which was 2 minutes 3-J feconds lefs than as feen at Her-
nofand in Sweden.
At Madrals, the-Reverend Mr Hirft obferved the total
ingrefs to be at 7 hours 47 minutes 55 feconds apparent
time in the morning, and the beginning of egrefs at 1
hour 39 minutes 38 feconds part noon.—The duration
between thefe two internal contafts was 5 hours 51 mi¬
nutes 43 feconds.
Profeifor Mathenci at Bologna obferved the beginning
of egrefs to be at 9 hours 4 minutes 38 feconds.
At Calcutta, (latitude 220 30' north, nearly 920 eaft
longitude from London), Mr William Magee obferved
the total ingrefs to be at 8 hours 20 minutes 58 feconds
in the morning, and the beginning of egrefs to be at 2
hours 11 minutes 34 feconds in the afternoon.; the du¬
ration between the two internal contacts 5 hours 50 mi¬
nutes 36 feconds.
At the Cape of Good Hope, (1 hour 13 minutes 35
feconds eaft from Greenwich), Mr Mafon obferved the
beginning of egrefs to be at 9 hours 39 minutes 50 fe¬
conds in the morning.
All thefe times are colleifted from the obfervers ac¬
counts, printed in the Philofophical Tranfadtions for the
years 1762 and 1763, in which there are feveral other
other accounts that are not tranfcribed.—The inftants of
Venus’s total exit from the fun are likewife mentioned,
but they are here left out, as not of any ule for finding
the fun’s parallax.
- Whoever compares thefe times of the internal contadls,
as given in by different obfervers, will find fuch differ¬
ences among them, even thofe which were taken upon
the fame fpot, as will fhew, that the inftant of either
contaft could not be fo accurately perceived by the ob¬
fervers as Dr'Halley thought it could ; which probably
arifes from the difference of peoples eyes, and the dif¬
ferent magnifying powers of thofe telefcopes through
which the contadls were feen.—If all the obferVers had
made ufe of equal magnifying powers, there can be no
doubt but that the times would have more nearly coinci¬
ded; fince it is plain, that fuppofing all their eyes to be
equally quick and good, they whofe telefcopes magnified
moft would perceive the point of internal contadi fooheft,
and of the total exit lateft.
Mr Short, in a paper publifhed in the Philofophical
Tranfadtions, Vol. LII. Part II. has taken an incredible
deal of pains in deducing the quantity of the fun’s pa¬
rallax, from the beft of thofe obfervations which were
made both in Britain and abroad; and finds it to have
been 8//.52 on the day of the tranfit when the fun was
very nearly at his greateft diftance from the earth ; and
confequentl-y 8".6j when the fun is at his mean diftance
from the earth.
The log. fine (or tangent) of 8".63 is 5.6219140,
which being fubtradted from the radius 10.0000000,
leaves remaining the logarithm 4.3780860, whofe num¬
ber is 23882.84; which is the number of femidiameters
of the earth that the fun is diftant from it.—And this
laft number, 23882.84, being multiplied by 3985, the
number of Englifh miles contained in the earth’s femidi-
ameter, gives 95,173,117 miles from the earth’s mean
diftance from the fun.—But becaufe it is impoflible, from
the niceft obfervations of the fun’s parallax, to be fure
of his true diftance from the earth within 100 miles, we
lhall at prefent, for the fake of round numbers, ftate the
earth’s mean diftance frem the fun at 95,173,000 Englifh
miles.
And then, from the numbers and analogies in § 11. & 14.
of Mr Short’s differtation, we find the mean diftances of
all the reft of the planets from the fun, in miles, to be as
follows.—Mercury’s diftance, 36,841,468 ; Venus’s di¬
ftance, 68,891,486 ; Mars’s diftance, 145,014,148; Ju¬
piter’s diftance, 494.990,976; and Saturn’s diftance,
907,956,130.
The femidiameter of the earth’s annual orbit being e-
qual to the earth’s mean dfftance from the fun, viz,
95,173,000 miles, the whole diameter thereof is
190,346,ooq miles.- And fince the circumference of a
circle is to its diameter as 355 is to 113, the circumfe¬
rence of the earth’s orbit is 597,989,646 miles.
And, as the earth defcribes’this orbit in 365 days 6
hours (or in 8766 hours) it is plain that it travels at
the rate of 68,216.9 miles every hour, and confequent-
ly 1136.9 miles every minute; fo that its velocity in its
orbit is at leaft 142 times as great as the velocity of a
cannon-ball, fuppofing the ball to move through 8 miles
in a minute, which it is found to do very nearly: And at
this rate it would take 22 years 228 days for a cannon¬
ball to go from the earth to the fun.
Oh the 3d of June, in the year 1769, Venus agairr
parted over the fun’s diflc, in fuch a manner, as to afford a‘
much eafier and better method of inveftigating the fun’s
parallax than her tranfit in the year 17611 But as few
of the obfervations upon this tranfit have as yet been
made public, we can only give the following, made by
different obfervers at London.
N. Mafkelyne,
M. Hitchins,
W. Hirft,
J. Horfley,
S. Dunn,
P. Dollond,
E„ Nairne,
External’
contact.
h. ' "
7 to 58
7 10 54
7 11 11
7 10 44
7 10 37
7 11 19
7 n 3°
Thread of
Regular light com-
circumfe- i pleated, or
rences in the internal
contaift. ‘ contaft.
-
h. ' " j h. ' "
7 28 31 7 29 23
7 28 47 7 28. 5.7
  7 29 18
7 28 15 7 29 28
7 29 28 7 29 48
 7 29 20
  17 29 20
Mag-
nify-
Telefcopesmade ing
ufe of. power.
2 feet refteftor,
6 f. refleftor,
2 f. refleftor,
1 o f. achromatic,
3t f. achromatic,
3t f. achromatic,
2 f. refleftor,
140
90
55
50
140
150
120.
When
440 ASTRO
When Venus was little more than half emerged into
the fun’s dilk. Mr Ma&elyne faw her whole circum¬
ference conlpieated, by means of a vivid, but narrow
and ill defined border of light, which illuminated that
part of her circumference which was off the fun, and o-
therwife not viable. They all obferved the black pro¬
tuberance in the.internal contact. They likewife, after
the internal contadt, faw a luminous ring round the bo¬
dy of Venus, about the thicknefs of half her femi-dia-
nieter; it was brightefl: towards Venus’s body, and gra¬
dually diminilhed in fplendor at greater diftance, but the
whole was e'xceifive white and faint.
Venus may have a fatellite or moon, although it
be undifeovered by us : which will not appear very fur-
prifing;, if we confider how inconveniently we are placed
from feeing it. For its enlightened fide can never be
fully turned towards us, but when Venus is beyond the
fun; and then, as Venus appears little bigger than an
ordinary liar, her moon may be too fmall to be percei¬
ved, at fuch .a diftance. Whenf fhe is between us and the
fun, her full moon has its dark fide towards us ; and
then we cannot fee it any more than we can our own
moon at the time of change. When Venus is at her
greateft elongation, we have but cne half of the enlighten¬
ed fide of her full moon towards us; and even then it
may be too far diftant to be feen by us.
The Earth is the -next planet above Venus in the
fyfteto. It is 82 millions of milts from the fun, and
goes round him (as in the circle in 365 days 5 hours
49 minutes, from any equinox or folftice to the fame
again; but from any fixed ftar to the fame again, as
feen from the fun, in 365 days 6 hours and 9 minutes ;
tbe. former being the length of the tropical year, and the
latter the length of the fyderial. It travels the rate of
58 thoufand miles every hour; which motion, though
420 times fwifter than that of a cannon-ball, is little
more than half as fwift as Mercury’s motion in his or¬
bit. The earth’s diameter is 79,70 miles; and by turn¬
ing round its axis every 24 hours from weft to eaft, it
Ciufes an apparent diurnal motion of all the heavenly bo¬
dies from eaft to weft. By this rapid motion of the
earth on its axis, the inhabitants about the equator are
carried 1042 miles every hour, whilft thofe on the pa¬
rallel of London are carried only about 580, befides the
58 thoufand miles by the annual motion above mention¬
ed, which is common to-all places whatever.
The earth’s axis makes an angle of 234 degrees with
the axis of its orbit, and keeps always the fame oblique
diredtion, inclining towards the fame fixed ftars through¬
out its annual courfe, which caufes the returns of fpring,
furamer, autumn, and winter; as will be explained af¬
terwards. . ,
The earth is round like a globe; as appears, 1. By
its (hadow in eclipfes of the moon, which fhadow is al¬
ways bounded by a circular ring. 2. By our feeing the
mafts of a fhip whiift the hull is hid by the convexity of
the water. 3. By its having been failed round by many
navigators. The hills take off no more from the round-
nefs of the earth in comparifon, than grains of duft do
from the roundnefs of a common globe.
The feas and unknown parts of the earth (by a mea-
N O M Y.
furement of the heft maps) contain 160 million 522 thoa-
fand and 26 fquare miles; the inhabited parts 38 mil¬
lion 990 thoufand 569; Europe 4 million 456 thoufand
and 65 ; Afia, 10 million 768 thoufand 823; Africa,
9 million 654 thoufand 807 ; America, 14 million no
thoufand 874. In all, 199 million 512 thoufand 59s ;
which is the number of fqiutre miles on the -whole fur-
face of our globe.
The Moon is not a planet, but only a fatellite or at¬
tendant of the earth ; going round the earth from change
to change in 29 days 12 hours and 44 minutes; and round
the fun with it every year. The moon’s diameter is 2180
miles; and her diftance from the earth’s centre 240
thoufand. She goes round her orbit in 27 days yhouis
43 minutes, moving about 2290 miles every hour; and
turns round her axis exadtly in the fame time that flic
goes round the earth, which is the reafon of her keep¬
ing always the fame fide towards us, and that her day
and nigkr, taken together, is as long as our lunar month.
The moon is an opaque globe like the earth, and fhines
only by refledting the light of the fun : Therefore whilft
that half of her which is toward the fun is enlightened,
the other half muft be dark and invifible. Hence, fhe
difappears when ihe comes between us and the fun ; be-
caufe her dark fide is then towards us. When fhe is
gone a little way forward, we fee a little of her enlight¬
ened fide; which ftill encreafes to our view, as fhe ad¬
vances forward, until fire comes to be oppofite the fun ;
and then her whole enlightened fide is towards the earth,
and fhe appears with a round, illumined orb, which wc
call the yh// moon ; her dark fide being then turned a-
way from the earth. From the full fhe feems to decreafe
gradually as fhe goes through the other half of her
courfe ; (hewing us lefs- and lefs of her enlightened fide
every day, till her next change or conjundhon with the
fun, and then fhe difappears as before.
This continual change of the moon’s phafes demon-
ftrates that fhe fliines not by any light of her own; for
if (he did, being globular, we fhould always fee her with
a round full orb like the fun. Her orbit is reprefented
in the fcheme by the little circle w, upon the earth’s or¬
bit ©j Plate XXXIX. fig. t.; but it is drawn fifty times,
too large in proportion to the earth’s; and yet is al-
moft too fmall to be feen in the diagram.
The moon has fcarce any difference of feafons; her
axis being almoft perpendicular to the ecliptic. What
is very lingular, one half of her has no darknefs at all;
the earth conftantly affording it a ftrong light in die fun’s
abfence; while the other half has a fortnight’s darknefs,
and a fortnight’s light by turns.
Our earth is a moon to the moon, waxing and waning
regularly, but appearing thirteen times as big, and af¬
fording her thirteen times as much light as fhe does to
us. When (lie changes to us, the earth appears full to
her; and when fhe is in her firft quarter to us, the earth
is in its third quarter to her; .and vice verfa.
But from one half of the moon, the earth is never
feen at all; from the middle of the other half, it is al¬
ways feen over head; turning round almoft thirty times
as quick as the moon does. From the circle v/hich li¬
mits our view of the moon, only one half of the earth’s
fide
ASTRO
fide next her is feen ; the other half being hid below the
horizon of all places on that circle. To her the earth
feems to be the largeft body in the univerfe, for it ap¬
pears thirteen times as large as Ihe does to us.
The moon has no atmofphere of any vifible denfity
furrounding her; for if Ihe had, we could never fee her
edge fo well defined as it appears ; but there would be a
fort of a mifi: or hazinefs around her, which would make
the ftars look fainter, when they are feen through it.
But obfervation proves, that the flats which difappear
behind the moon retain their full lullre until they feem
to touch her very edge, and then they vanifli m a mo¬
ment. The faint light which has been feen all around
the moon in total eclipfes of the fun, has been obferved,
during the time of darknefs, to have its centre coincident
with the centre of the fun; and was therefore much
more likely to arife from the atmofphere of the fun than
from that of the moon ; for if it had been owing to the
latter, its centre would have gone along with the moon’s.
If there were feas in the moon, Ihe could have no
clouds, rains, nor florms, as we have; becaufe fhe has
no fuch atmofphere to fupport the vapours which occafion
them. And every one knows, that when the moon is
above our horizon in the night-time, fhe is vifible, un-
lefs the clouds of our atmofphere hide her from our
view, and all parts of her appear conflantly with the
fame clear, ferene, and calm afpedt. But thofe dark
parts of the moon, which were formerly thought,to be
feas, are now found to i>e only va/t deep cavities, and
places which refledt not the fun’s light fo flrongly as o-
thers, having many caverns and pits, whofe fhadows fall
within theip, and are always dark on the fides next the
fun, which detnonflrates their being hollow; and molt
of thefe pits have little knobs like hillocks Handing with¬
in them, and calling fhadows alfo; which caufe thefe
thefe places to appear darker than others which have
fewer or lefs remarkable caverns. All thefe appear¬
ances fhew, that there are no feas in the moon; for if
there were any, their furfaces would appear fmooth and
even, like thofe on the earth.
There being no atmofphere about the moon, the hea¬
vens in the day-time have the appearance of night to a
lunarian who turns his back toward the fun; and when
he does, the flars appear as bright to him as they do in
the night to us. For it is entirely owing to our atmo¬
fphere that the heavens are bright about us in the day.
As the earth turns round its axis, the feveral conti¬
nents, feas, and iflands appear to the moon’s inhabitants
like fo many fpots of different forms and brightnefs, mo¬
ving over its furface, but much fainter at fome times than
others, as our clouds cover them or leave them. By thefe
fpots, the Idnarians can determine the time of the earth’s
diurnal motion, juft as we do the motion of the fun; and
perhaps they meafure their time by the motion of the
earth’s fpots, for they cannot have a truer dial.
The moon’s axis is fo nearly perpendicular to the ec¬
liptic, that the fun never removes fenfibly from her equa¬
tor ; and the obliquity of her orbit, being only 5-j- de¬
grees, which is next to nothing as feen from the fun,
cannot caufe the fun to decline fenfibly from her equator.
Yet her inhabitants are not.deflitute of means for afcer-
Vol. I. No. 19. 3
N O M Y. 441
taining the length of their year, though their method
and ours mufl 'differ. For we can know the length of
our year by the return of our equinoxes; but the luna¬
rians, having always equal day and night, mufl have
recourfe to another method; and we may fuppofe, they
meafure their year by obferving when either of the poles
of our earth begins to be enlightened, and the other to
difappear, which is always at our equinoxes, they being
conveniently fituated for obferving great tracks of land
about our earth’s poles, which are entirely unknown to
us. Hence we may conclude, that the year is of the
fame abfolute length both to the earth and moon, though
very different as to the number of days; we having 3654
natural days, and the lunarians omy 12-r?; every day
and night in the mqon-being as long as 29-!-on the earth.
The moon’s inhabitants on the fide next the earth may
as eafily find the longitude of their places as we can find
the latitude of ours. For the earth keeping conflantly,
or very nearly fo, over one meridian of the moon, the
eafl or well diflances of places from that meridian are as
eafily found as we can find our diflance from the equator
by the altitude of our celeflial poles.
The planet Mars is next in order, being the firft
above the earth’s orbit. His diflance from the fun is
computed to be 125 millions of miles; and by travelling
at the rate of 47 thoufand miles every hour, as in the
circle cf, he goes round the fun in 636 of our days and
23 hours; which is the length of his year, and contains
667-|- of his days, every day and night together being 40
minutes longer than with us. His diameter is 4444
miles, and by his diurnal rotation the inhabitants about
his equator are carried 556 miles every hour. His quan¬
tity of vght and heat is equal but to one half of ours ;
and the fun appears but half as big to him as to us.
This planet being but a fifth part fo big as the earth,
if any moon’ attends him, fhe mufl be very fmall, and
has not yet been difcovered by our befl telefcopes. He
is of a fiery red colour, and by his appulfes to fome of
the fixed ftars feems to be encompaffed by a very grofs
atmofphere. He appears fometimes gibbous, but never
horned; which both fhews that his orbit includes the
earth’s within it, and that he fhines not by his own light.
To Mars, our earth and moon appear like two moons,
a bigger and a lefs, changing places with one another,
and appearing fometimes horned, fometimes half or three
quarters illuminated, but never full, nor at mofl above
one quarter of a degree from each other, although they
are 240 thoufand miles afunder.
Our earth appears almofl as big to Mars as Venus
does to us, and at Mars it is never feen above 48 degrees
from the fun; fometimes it appears to pafs over the difk
of the fun, and fo do Mercury and Venus; but Mercury
can never be feen from Mars by fuch eyes as ours, unaf-
fifled by proper inflruments; and Venus will be as feldom
feen as we fee Mercury. Jupiter and Saturn are as vi¬
fible. to Mars as to us. His axis is perpendicular to the
ecliptic, and his orbit is 2 degrees inclined to it.
Jupiter, the largefl of all the planets, is flill higher
in the fyflem, being about 426 millions of miles from the
fun; and going at the rate of 25 thoufand miles every
hour in his orbit, as in the circle 2/, finifhes his annual
5 T period
44* ASTRO
Period in eleven of our years 314 days and 12 hours.
He is about 1000 times as big as the earth, for his dia¬
meter is 8i,ooo-mileS; which is more than ten times the
diameter of the earth.
Jupiter turns round his axis in 9 hours 56 minutes;
fo that his year contains 10 thoufand 470 days; and the
diurnal velocity of his equatoreal parts is greater than
the 'fwiftnefswith which he moves in his annual orbit; a
lingular circumftance, as far as we know By this pro¬
digious quick rotation, his equatoreal inhabitants are car¬
ried 25 thoufand 920 miles every hour, (which is 920
miles an hour more than an inhabitant of our earth’s e-
quator moves in twenty-four hours), befides the 25 thou¬
fand above mentioned, which is common to all parts of
his furface, by his annual motion.
Jupiter is furrounded by faint fubMnces, called belts,
in which fo many changes appear, that they are generally
thought to be clouds ; for forhe of them have been iirlt
interrupted and broken, and then have vanifhed entirely.
Tliey have fometimes been obferved of different breadths,
'and afterwards have all become nearly of the fame
breadth. Large fpots have been feen in thefe belts';
and when a belt vanifhes, the contiguous fpots diftppear
with it. The broken ends of fome belts have been ge¬
nerally obferved to revolve in the fame time with the
fpots; only thofe nearer the equator in fomewhat lefs
time than thofe near the poles, perhaps on account of the
fun’s greater heat near the equator, which is parallel to
the belts and courfe of the fpots. Several large fpots,
which, appeaf round at one time, grow oblong by de¬
grees, and then divide into two or three round fpots.
The periodical time of the fpots near the equator is 9
hours 50 minutes, but of thofe near the poles 9 sours 56
minutes.
The axis of Jupiter is fo nearly perpendicular to his
orbit, that he has no fenfible change of feafons; which
is a great advantage, and wifely ordered by the Author
of nature. For if the axis of this planet were inclined
any confiderable number of degrees, juft fo many degrees
round each pole would in their turn be almoft fix of our
years together in darknefs. And as each degree of a
great circle on Jupiter contains 706 of our miles at a
mean rate, it is eafy to judge what vaft tradls of land
would be rendered uninhabitable by any confiderable in¬
clination of his axis.
The fun appears but ^ part fo big to Jupiter as to us ;
and his light and heat are in the fame fmall proportion,
but compenfated by the quick returns thereof, and by
four moons (fome larger and fome lefs than our earth)
which revolve about him; fo that there is fcarce any
part of this huge-planet but what is, 'during the whole
night, enlightened by one or more of thefe moons, ex¬
cept his poles, whence only the fartheft moons can be
feen, and where their light is not wanted, becaufe the
fun conftantly circulates in or near the horizon, and is
very probably kept in view of both poles by the refrac¬
tion of Jupiter’s atmofphere, which, if it be like ours,
has certainly refractive ppwer enough for that purpofe.
'I he orbits of thefe moons are reprefented in the
fcheme’of the folar fyftem by four finall- circles marked-
1, 2, 3, 4, on, Jupitet’s orbit ) but they are drawn fifty
N O M Y.
times too large in proportion to it. The firft moon, or
that neareft to Jupiter, goes round him in 1 day 18 hours
and 36 minutes of our time; and is 229 thoufand miles
diftant from his centre; the fecond performs its revolution
in three days 13 hours and 15: minutes, at 364 thoufand
miles diftance; the third in feven days three hours and
59 minutes, at the diftance of 580 thoufand miles; and
the fourth, or outermoft, in 16 days 18 hours and 30
minutes, at the diftance of one million of miles from Ins
centre. The periods of thefe moons are fo incommen-
furate to one another, that if ever they were all in a right
line between Jupiter and the fun, it will require more
than 3,000,000,000,000 years from that'time to bring
them all into the fame right line again, as any one will
find who reduces all their periods into feconds, then mul¬
tiplies them into one another, and divides the produT by
432 ; which is the higheft number that will divide
the produft of all their periodical times, namely,
42,085,303,376,931,994,955,904 feconds, without a
remainder.
The angles under which the orbits of Jupiter’s moons
are feen from the earth, at its mean diftance from Jupi¬
ter, are as follow: The firft, 3' 55": the fecond, 6'
14"; the third, 9' $8"; and the fourth, iy' ^o".
And their diftances from Jupiter, meafured by his femi-
diameters, are thus : The firft, 5-J; the fecond, 9; the
third, 14IJ; and the fourth, 25|-f- This planet, feen
from its neareft moon, appears 1000 times as large as
our moon does to us; waxing and waning in ail her
monthly ftiapes every 424- hours.
Jupiter’s three heareft moons fall into his fhadow, and
are eclipfed in every revolution; but the orbit of the
fourth moon is fo much inclined, that ft paiTeth by its
oppofition to Jupiter, without falling into his lhadow,
two years in every fix. By thefe eclipfes, aftronomers
have not only difcovered that the fun’s light takes itp
eight minutes of time in coming to us, but they have al-
fo determined the longitudes of places on this eartn with
greater certainty and facility than by any other method
yet known.
The difference between the eqnatoreal and polar dia¬
meters of Jupiter is 6230 miles; for his equatoreal dia¬
meter is to his polar, as 13 to 12. So that his poles are
3115 miles hearer his centre than his equator is.
Jupiter’s orbit is 1 degree 20 minutes inclined to the
ecliptic. His north node is in the 7th degree of Cancer,
and his fouth node in the 7th degree of Capricorn.
Sat or if-, the remoteft of all the planets, is about 78a
millions -of miles from the fun; and, travelling at the
rate of 18 thoufand miles every hour, as in the circle
marked fj, performs its annual circuit in 29 years 167
days and 5 hours of our time; which makes only one
year to that planet. Its diameter is 67,600 miles; and
therefore it is near 600 times as big as the earth.
This planet is furrounded by a thin broad ring, as an
artificial globe is by a horizon,, fig. 5. The ring ap¬
pears double when feen through a good telefcope, and is
reprefented by the figure in fuch an oblique view as it is
generally feen. It is inclined 30 degrees to the ecliptic,
and is about 21 thbufand miles in breadth; which is e-
qual to its diftance from Saturn on all fides. There is
reafon
A S T R C
reafon to believe that the ring turns round its axis, be-
caufe, when it is almoit edge-wife to us, it appears fbnie-
what thicker on one fide of the planet than on the other ;
and the thickeft edge has been feen on different fides
at different times. But Saturn having no vifible fpots
on his body, whereby to determine the time of his turn¬
ing round his axis, the-length of his days and nights,
and the pofition of his axis, are unknown to us.
To Saturn, the fun appears only ^th part fo big as
to us ; and the light and heat he receives from the fun
are in the fame proportion to ours. But to compenfate
for the fmall quantity of fun-light, he has live moons,
all going round him on the outfide of his ring, and near¬
ly on the fame plane with it. The firff, or neared moon
to Saturn, goes round him in r day 21 hours 19 minutes;
and is 140 thoufand miles from his centre : The fccond,
in 2 days 17 hours 40 minutes ; at the diffance of 187
thoufand miles: The third, in 4 days 12 hours 25 mi¬
nutes,. at 263 thoufand miles didance : The fourth, in
15 days 22 hours 41 minutes, at the didance of 600
thoufand miles : And the fifth or outermod, at one
million 800 thoufafid miles from Saturn’s centre, goes
round him in 79 days 7 hours 48 minutes. Their or¬
bits, in the fcheme of the folar fyftem, are reprefent-
ed by the fmall five circles, marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, on
Saturn’s orbit ; but thefe, like the orbits of the other
fatellites, are drawn fifty times too large in proportion to
the orbits of their primary planets.
The fan Urines almod fifteen of our years together cn
one fide of Saturn’s ring without fetting, and as long on
the other in its turn. So that the ring is vifible to the
inhabitants of that planet for almod fifteen of o\jr years,
and as long invifible by turns, if its axis has no inclina¬
tion to its ring: But if the axis of the planet be inclined
to the ring, fuppofe about 30 degrees, the ring will ap¬
pear and difappear once every natural day to all the inha¬
bitants within 30 degrees of the equator, on both fides,
frequently eclipfing the fun in a Saturnian day. More¬
over, if Saturn’s axis be fo inclined to his ring, it is per¬
pendicular to his orbit; and thereby the inconvenience
of different feafons to that planet is avoided. For con-
fidering the length of Saturn’s year, which is almod e-
qual to thirty of ours, what a dreadful condition mud
the inhabitants of his polar regions be in, if they be
half that time deprived of the light and heat of the fun ?
■which is not their cafe alone, if the axis of the planet
be perpendicular to the ring, for then the ring mud hide
the fun from vad tracks of land on each fide of the equa¬
tor for 13 or 14 of our years together, on the fouth fide
and north fide by turns, as the axis inclines to or from
the fun : The reverfe of which inconvenience is another
good prefumptive proof of the inclination of Saturn’s axis
to its ring, and alfo of his axis being perpendicular to his.
orbit.
This ring, feen from Saturn, appears like a yad lumir
nous arch in the heavens, as if it did not belong to die
planet. When we fee the ring mod open, its lhadow up¬
on the planet is broaded ; and from that time the Ihadotr
grows narrower, as the ring appears to do to us; until;
by Saturn’s annual motion, the'fun comes to the plane of
the ring, or even with its edge; which being then direil-
' N O M Y. 443
ed-towards us, becomes invrfible or, account of its thin-
nefis ; as fhall be explained afterwards. The ring difap-
pears twice in every annual revolution of Saturn, namely,
when he is in the 19th degree both of Pifces and of Vir¬
go. And when Saturn is in the middle between thefe
points, or in the 19th degree either of Gemini or of Sa¬
gittarius, hiS ring appears mod open to us; and then its
longed 'diameter is to its (honed, as 9 to 4.
To fuch eyes as ours, unaffided by indruments, Ju¬
piter is the only planet that can be feen from Saturn,
and Saturn the only planet that can be feen froip Jupiter.
So that the inhabitants, of thefe two planets mud either
fee much farther than we do, or have equally good in¬
druments to carry their fight to remote objefts, if they
know that there is fuch a body as our earth in the uni-
verfe: For the earth is no bigger, feeu from Jupiter, than
his moons are feen from the earth ; and if his large body
had not fiid attracted our fight, and .'prompted our curic-
fity to view him with the telefcope, we fhould never
have known any thing of his moons; unlefs by chance
we had directed the telefcope toward that fmall part of
the heavens where they were at the time of obfervation.
And the like is true of the moons of Saturn.
The orbit of Saturn is 2-J degrees inclined to the e-
cliptic, or orbit of our earth, and interfe&s it in the 2 id
degree of Cancer and of Capricorn; fo that Saturn’s
nodes are only 14 degrees from Jupiter’s.
The quantity of light, afforded by the fun to Jupiter,
being but ^Tth part, and to Saturn only ^th part, of
what we enjoy, may, at fird thought, induce us to be ¬
lieve that thefe two planets are entirely unfit for rational
beings to dwell upon. But, that their light is not fo
weak as we imagine, is evident from their brightnefs in
the night-time ; and alfo from this remarkable pheno ¬
menon, that when tl>e fun is fo much edipfed to us, as
to have only the 40th part of his difk left uncovered bv
the moon, the decreafe of light is not very fenfibje; and
jud at the end of darknefs in total ecflpfes, when his
wedern limb begins to be vifible, and feems no bigger
than a bit. of fine filver wire, every one is furprifed'at the
brightnefs wherewith that .fmall part of him fhines. The
moon, when full, affords travellers light enough to keep
them from midaking their way ; and yet, according to
Dr Smith, it is equal to no more than a 90 theufandth
part of the light of the fan : That is,, the fun’s light is-
90 thoufand times as drong as the light of the moon
when full. Confequently, the fun gives a thoufimd
times as much light to Saturn as the full moon does to-
us; and above three thoufand times as much to Jupiter.
So that thefe two planets* even without any moons,,
would be much more enlightened than we at iird ima¬
gine ; and by having fo many, they may be very com¬
fortable places of refidence. Their heat; fo far as it de¬
pends on the force of the fun’s rays* is certainly much
lefs than ours-; to which no doubt the bodies of their
inhabitants are as well adapted as ours, are to the feafons
we enjoy. And if we confider, that Jupiter never has
any winter, even at'his poles* which probably is alfo the
cafe with Saturn, the cold cannot be fo intenfe on thefe
two planets as is generally imagined. Befidej* there
may be fomething in their nature or foil much warmer
444 ASTRO
than in that of our earth : And we find that all our heat
depends not on the rays of the fun; for if it did, we
fliould always have the fame months equally hot or cold
at their annual returns. But it is far otherwife, for Fe¬
bruary is fometimes warmer than May; which mull; be
owing to vapours and exhalations from the earth.
Every perfon who looks upon, and compares the fyf-
terns of moons together, which belong to Jupiter and Sa¬
turn, mull: be amazed at the vaft magnitude of thefe two
planets, and the noble attendance they have in refpeft of
our little earth; and can never bring bimfelf to think,
that an infinitely wife Creator Ihould difpofe of all his
animals and vegetables here, leaving the other planets,
bare and deftitute of rational creatures. To fuppofe that
he had any view to our benefit, in creating thefe moons,
and giving them their motions round Jupiter and Saturn ;
to imagine that he intended thefe vaft bodies for any ad¬
vantage to us, when he well knew that they could never
be feen but by a few aflronomers peeping through tele-
fcopes ; and that he gave to the planets regular returns of
days and nights, and different feafons to all where they
would be convenient; but of no manner of fervice to us,
except only what immediately regards our own planet the
earth ; to imagine that he did all this on our account, would
be charging him impioufly with having done much in vain;
and as abfurd, as to imagine that he has created a lit¬
tle fun and a planetary fyftem within the fhell of our
earth, and intended them-for our ufe. Thefe confide-
rations amount to little lefs than a pofitive proof, that
all the planets are inhabited : For if they are not, why
all this care in furnifhing them with fo many moons, to
fupply thofe with light which are at the greater diftances
from the fun ? Do we not fee, that the farther a planet
is from the fun, the greater apparatus it has for that pur-
pofe ? fave only Mars, which being but a fmall planet,
may have moons too fmall to be feen by us. We know
that the earth goes round the fun, and turns round its
own axis, to produce the viciflitudes „ of fummer and
winter by the former, and of day and night by the latter
motion, for the benefit of its inhabitants. May we not
then fairly conclude, by parity of reafoh, that the end
and defign of all the other planets is the fame ? and is
not this agreeable to the beautiful harmony which exifts
throughout the univerfe ?
In fig. 2. we have a view of the proportional breadth
of the fun’s face or difle, as feen from the different
planets. The fun is reprefented, N° i, as feen from
Mercury; N° 2, as feen from Venus; N° 3, as feen
from the earth ; N° 4, as feen from Mars; N° j, as
feen from Jupiter; and N° 6, as feen from Saturn.
Let the circle B, (fig. 3.) be the fun as feen from any pla¬
ner, at a given diftance ; to another planet, at double that
diftance, the fun will appear juft of half that breadth,
as V, which contains only one fourth part of the area,
or furface of B. For all circles, as well as fquare
furfaces, are to one another as the fquares of their dia¬
meters. Thus, (fig. 4.) the fquare A is juft half as broad as
the fquare B ; and yet it is plain to fight, that B contains
four times as much furface as A. Hence, by comparing
the diameters of the above circles (fig. 2.) together, it
will be found, that, in round numbers, the fun appears
M O M Y.
7 times larger to Mercury than to us, 90 times larger to
us than to Saturn, and 630 times as large to Mercury as
to Saturn.
In fig. 5. we have a view of the bulks of the planets
In proportion to each other, and to a fuppofed globe of
two feet diameter for the fun. The earth is 27 times
as big as Mercury, very little bigger than Venus, five times
as big as Mars ; but Jupiter is 1049 times as big as the
earth ; Saturn 586 times as big, exclufive of his ring ;
and the fun is 877 thoufand 650 times as big as the
earth. If the planets in this figure were fet at their
due diftances from a fun of two feet diameter, according
to their proportional bulks, as in our fyftem, Mercury
would be 28 yards from the fun’s centre ; Venus y t
yards 1 foot; the earth 70 yards 2 feet; Mars 107
yards 2 feet; Jupiter 370 yards 2 feet; and Saturn 760
yards two feet; the comet of the year 1680, at its
greateft diftance, 10 thoufand 760 yards. In this pro¬
portion, the moon's diftance from the centre of the earth
would be only 74 inches.
To affift the imagination in forming an idea of the vafl:
diftances of the fun, planets, and ftars, let us fuppofe,
that a body projedled from the fun fliould continue to
fly with the fwiftnefs of a cannon-ball, i. e. 480 miles
every hour; this body would reach the orbit of Mercu¬
ry, in 7 years 221 days ; of Venus, in 14 years 8 days;
of the earth, in 19 years 91 days; of Mars, in 29 years
8y days ; of Jupiter, in 100 years 280 days; of Sa¬
turn, in 184 years 240 days ; to the comet of 1680, at
its greateft diftance f/om the fun, in 2660 years; and
to the neareft fixed ftars, in about 7 million 600 thou¬
fand years.
As the earth i« not the centre of the orbits in which
the planets move, they come nearer to it and go farther
from it, and at different times; on which account they
appear bigger and .lefs by tutns. Hence, the apparent
magnitudes of the planets are not always a certain rule
to know them by.
Under fig. 3. are the names and chara&ers of the
twelves figns of the zodiac, which the reader fliould be
perfeftly well acquainted with, fo as to know the cha-
radters without feeing the names. Every fign contains
30 degrees, as in the circle bounding the folar fyftem;
to which the chara&ers of the figns are fet in their pro¬
per places.
The Comets are folid opaque bodies, with long
tranfparent trains or tails, iffuing from that fide which is
turned away from the fun. They niove about the fun in
very excentric ellipfes ; and are of a much greater den-
fity than the earth; for fome of them are heated in eve¬
ry period to fuch a degree, as would vitrify or diffipate
any fubftance known to uj. Sir Ifaac Newton computed
the heat of the comet which appeared in the year 1680,
when neareft the fun, to be 2000 times hotter than red-
hot iron ; and that, being thus heated, it muft retain its
heat until it conies round again, although its period
fliould be more than twenty thoufand years ; and it is
computed to be only 575.
. Part of the paths of three comets are delineated in
the fcheme of the folar fyftem, and the years marked
in which they made their appearance. It is believed
that
la?^r
<y'
■.»V
ASTRO
that there are at leafl 21'comets belonging to ourfyftem,
moving in all forts of dire&ions ; and all thofe which have
j been obferved, have moved through the etherial regions
and the orbits of the planets without fuffering the lead
fenfible refiftance in their motions; which plainly proves
that the planets do not move in folid orbs. Of all the
comets, the periods of the above mentioned three only
are known with^any degree of certainty. The firft of
thefe comets appeared in the years 1531, 1607, and
1682; was expeded to appear again in the year 1758,
and every 75th year afterwards. The fecond of them
appeared in 1532 and 1661, and maybe expected to re¬
turn in 1789, and every 129th year afterwards. The
third, having laft appeared in 1680, and its period being
no lefs than 575 years, cannot return until the year 2225.
This comet, at its greateft diftance, is about 11 thoufand
two hundred millions of miles from the fun; and at its
leaft diftance from the fun’s centre, which is 490,000
miles, is within lefs than a third part of the fun’s femi-
diameter from his furface. In that part of its orbit
which is neareft the fun, it flies with the amazing fwift-
nefs of 880,000 miles in an hour; and the fun, as feen
from it, appears an hundred degrees in breadth, confe-
quently 40 thoufand times as large as he appears to us.
The aftonifhing length that this comet runs out into
empty fpace, fuggefts to our minds an idea of the vaft
diftance between the fun and the neareft fixed ftars ; of
of whofe attractions all the comets muft keep clear to
return periodically, and gO found the fun; and it Ihews us
alfo, that the* neareft ftars," which are probably thofe
that feem the largeft, are as big as our fun, and of the
fame nature with him ; otherwife they could not appear
fo large and bright to us as they do at fuch an immenfe
diftance.
The extreme heat, the denfe atmofphere, the grofs
vapours, the chaotic ftate of the comets, feem at firft
light to indicate them altogether unfit for the purpofes
of animal life, and a moft miferable habitation for ra¬
tional beings; and therefore fome are of opinion that
they are fo many hells for tomenting the damned with
perpetual viciffitndes of heat and cold. But when we
confider, on the other hand, the' infinite power 'and
goodnefs of the Deity, the latter inclining, and the
former enabling liim to make creatures fuited to all
ftates and circumftances; that matter exifts only for the
fake of intelligent beings ; and that where-ever we find
it, we always find it pregnant with life, or neceflarily
fubfervient thereto; the numberlefs fpecies, the afto-
nifliing diverfity of animals in earth, air, v/ater, and e-
ven on other animals; every blade of grafs, every leaf,
every fluid fwarming with life; and every one of thefe
enjoying ftich gratifications as the nature and ftate of
each requires : When we reflect moreover, that fome
centuries ago, till experience undeceived us, a great part
of the earth was judged uninhabitable, the torrid zone
by reafon of exceflive heat, and the frigid zones be-
Caufe of their intolerable cold ; it feems highly pro¬
bable, that fuch numerous and large mafles of durable
matter as the comets are, however unlike they be to our
earth, are not deftitute of beings capable of contempla¬
ting with wonder, and acknowledging with ‘gratitude,
Vol. I. Numb. 19. 3
N O M Y. 445
the wifdom, fymmetry, and beauty of the creation ; which
is more plainly to be obferved in their extenfive tour
through the heavens, than in our more confined circuit.
If farther conjeifture is permitted, may we not fuppofe
them inftrumental in recruiting the expanded fuel of
the fun, and fupplying the exhaufted moifture of the
planets ? However difficult it may be, circumftanced as
we are, to find out their particular deftination, this is an
undoubted truth, that where-ever the Deity exerts his
power, there he alfo manifefts his wifdom and goodnefs.
The folar fyftem here defcribed is not a late inven¬
tion, for it was known and taught by the wife Samian
philofopher Pythagoras, and others among the ancients;
but in latter times was loft, till the 15th century, when
it was again reftored by the famous Polifh philofopher,
Nicholas Copernicus, who was born at Thorn in the year
1473. In this he was followed by the greateft mathe¬
maticians and philofophers that have fince lived ; as
Kepler, Galileo, Defcartes, Gaffendus, and Sir Ifaac
Newton; the laft of whom has eftabfifhed this fyftem
on fucli a foundation of mathematical and phyfical de-
monftration, as can never be fhaken.
In the Ptolemean fyftem, the earth was fuppofed to be
fixed in th ecentre-of the univerfe ; and that the Moon,
Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn,
moved round the earth : Above the planets this hypo-
thefis placed the firmament of ftars, and then the two
cryftalline fpheres; all which were included in and recei¬
ved motion from the priinum mobile, which conftantly
revolved about the earth in 24 hours from eaft to weft.
But as this rude fcheme was found incapable to ftandthe
teft of art and obfervation, it was foon rejected by all
true philofophers.
The Tychonic fyftem fucceeded the Ptolemean, but
was never fo generally received. In this the earth was
fuppofed to ftand ftill in the centre of the univerfe or fir¬
mament of ftars, and the fun to revolve about it every 2 4
hours; the planets. Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn, going round the fun in' the times already
mentioned. But fome of Tycho’s difciples fuppofed the
earth to have a diurnal motion round its axis, and the
fun, with all the above planets, to go round the earth in
a year; the planets moving round the fun in the forefaid
times. This hypothefis, being partly true, apd partly'
falfe, was embraced by few ; and foon gave way to the
only true and rational fcheme, reftored by Copernicus,
and demonftrated by Sir Ifaac Newton.
Chap. III. The Phenomena of the Heavens
as feen from different Parts of the Earth.
We are kept to the earth’s furface on all fides by the
power of its Central attradHon ; which, laying hold of all
bodies according to their denfities or quantities of matter,
without regard to their bulks, conftitutes what we call
their weight. ■ And having the fky over our beads, go
where we will, and our feet towards the centre of the
earth, we call it up over our heads, and under our
feet: Although the fame right line which is do-wn to us,
if continued through, and beyond tfie oppofite fide of the
5 U earth.
^6 ASTRO
earth, would be up to the inhabitants on the oppofite fide.
For, the inhabitants n, i, e, m, s, o, q, 1, (Plate XXXIX.
fig. 6.) (land with their feet towards the earth’s centre 6’;
and have the fame figure of Iky, N, /, E, M, S, 0, §>_, L
over their heads. Therefore the point S is as diredly
upward to the inhabitant (s) on the fouth pole, as N is to
the inhabitant n on the north pole ; fo is v? to the inha¬
bitant e, fuppofed to be on the north end of Peru; and
^to the oppofite inhabitant q on the middle of the ifland
of Sumatra. Each of thefe obfervers is furprifed that
Ids oppofite or antipode can ftand with his head hanging
downwards. But let either go to the other, and he will
tell him that he flood as upright and firm upon the place
where he was, as he now ftands where he is.' To all thefe
obfervers, the fun, moon, and ftars, feem to turn round
the points N and S, as the poles of the fixed axis NCS;
becaufe the earth does really turn round the mathematical
line nCs as round an axis, of which n is the north pole,
and s the fouth pole. The inhabitant C/ (PlateXL. fig. i.)
affirms thathe is on the uppermofl fide of the earth, and
wonders how another at L can ftand on the undermoft fide
with his head hanging downwards. But U, in the mean
time, forgets that in twelve hours time he will be carried
half round with the earth’, and then be in the very fitu-
ation that L now is, although as far from him as before.
And yet, when U comes there, he will find no difference
as to his manner of ftanding; only he will fee the oppo¬
fite half of the heavens, and imagine the heavens to have
gone half round the earth.
Wheh we fee a globe hung up in a room, we cannot
help imagining it to have an upper and an under fide,
and immediately form a like idea of the earth ; from
whence we conclude, that it is as impoffible for people to
ftand on the under fide of the earth, as for pebbles to lie
on the under fide of a common globe, which inftantly
fall down from it to the ground; and well they may,
becaufe the attraction of the earth, being greater than
the attradion of the globe, pulls them away. Juft fo
would be the cafe with our earth, if it were placed near
a globe much bigger than itfelf, fuch as Jupiter; for
then it would really have an upper and an under fide,
with refped to that large globe; which, by its attrac¬
tion, would pull away every thing from the fide of the
earth next to it; and only thofe on the top of the oppo¬
fite or upper fide could remain upon it. But there is
.no larger globe, near enough our earth to overcome its
central attradion ; and therefore it has no fuch thing as
an upper and an under fide; for all bodies, on or near
its furface, even to the moon, gravitate-^towards its
centre.
The earth’s bulk is but a . point, as that atC, com¬
pared to the heavens; and therefore every inhabitant
upon it, let him be where he will, as at n, e, m, s> &c.
fees half of the heavens. The inhabitant: n, on the
north pole of the earth, conftantly fees the hemifphere
EiViT; and having the north pole N of the heavens-
juft over his head, his horizon coincides with the celeftial
equator ECQj. Therefore,.. all the ftars in the northern;
hemifphere EN^J, between the equator and north pole,,
appear to turn round the line JVC, moving parallel to
tbsJiorizon.,. The e quatoreal ftars keep m the horizon,
N O M Y.
and all thofe in the fouthern hemifphere-are invi-
fible. The like phenomena are feen by the obferver (s)
on the fouth pole, with refped to the hemifphere ESg>_;
and to him the oppofite hemifphere is always invifible.
Hence, under either pole, only half of the heavens is
feen; for thofe parts which are once vifible never fet,
and thofe which are once invifible never rife. But the
ecliptic TCX, or orbit which the fun appears to defcribe
once a year by the earth’s annual motion, has the half
YC conftantly above the horizon EC§>_ of the north pole
n ; and the other half CX always below it. Therefore,
whilft the fun defcribes the northern half YC pf the e-
cliptic, he neither fets to the north pole, nor rifes to the
fouth; and whilft he defcribes the fouthern half CX, he
neither fets to the fouth pole nor rifes to the north.
The fame things are true with refped to the moon; on¬
ly with this difference, that as the fun defcribes the e-
cliptic but once a year, he is for half that time vifible to
each pole in, its turn, and as long invifible; but as the
moon goes round the ecliptic in 27 days 8 hours, fhe is
only yifible for 13 days 16 hours, and as long invifible
to each pole by turns. All the planets likewife rife and
fet to the poles, becaufe their orbits are cut obliquely in
halves by the horizon of the poles. When the fun (in
his apparent way from X) arrives at C, which is on the
20th of March, he is juft riling to an obferver n on the
north pole, and letting to another at s on the fouth pole.
From C he rifes higher and higher in every apparent di¬
urnal revolution, till he comes to the higheft point of the
ecliptic y, on the 2 ift of June, and then he is at his
greateft altitude, which is 234 degrees, or the arc
Ey, equal to his greateft north, declination ; and from
thence he feems to defcend gradually in every apparent
circumvolution, till he fets at C on the 23d of Septem¬
ber; and then he goes to exhibit the like appearances at
the fouth pole for the other half of the year. Hence, the
fun’s apparent motion round the earth is not in parallel
circles, but in fpirals; fuch as might be reprefented by a
thread wound round a globe from tropic to tropic; the
fpirals being at fame diftance from one another about the
equator, and gradually nearer to each other as they ap¬
proach toward the tropics.
If the obferver be any where on the terreftrial equa¬
tor eCq, as fuppofe at e, he is in the plane of the cele¬
ftial equator; or under the equinoxial EC^_; and the
axis of the earth nfis is coincident with the plane of his
horizon, extended out to N and S, the north and fouth
poles of the heavens. As the earth turns round th“ line
NCS, the whole heavens MOLl feem to turn round the
fame line, but the contrary way. It is plain that this
obferver has the celeftial poles conftantly in his horizon;
and that his horizon cuts the diurnal paths of all the ce¬
leftial bodies perpendicularly and in .halves. Therefore
the fun. planets and ftars, rife every day, and afeend per¬
pendicularly above the horizon for fix hours ; and, paf-
fing over the meridian, defcend in the Tame manner for
the fix following hours; then fet in the horizon, and
continue twelve hours-below it. Confequently at the
equator the days.and nights are equally long throughout
the year. When the obferver is in the fituation e, he
fees the hemilphere SEN) but in twelve .hours after,.
ASTRO
he is carried half round the earth’s axis to q , and then
the hemifphere S^JV becomes vifible to him ; and SEN
difappears. Thus we find, that to an obferver at either
of the poles, one half of the Iky is always vifible, and
the other half never feen ; but to an obferver on the e-
quator, the whole Iky is feen every 24 hours.
The figure here referred to, reprefents a celefKal
globe of glafs, hating a terreftial globe within it ; after
the manner of the glafs-fphere invented by Dr Long,
Lowndes’s profeflbr of aftronomy in Cambridge.
If a globe be held fidewife to the eye, at feme diftance,
and fo that neither of its poles can be feen, the equator
ECQ_, and all circles parallel to it, as DL, yzx, abX,
MO, &c. will appear to be ftraight lines, as proje&ed
in this figure; which is requifite to be mentioned here,
becaufe we fhall have occafion to call them circles in the
following articles of this chapter.
Let us now fuppofe that the obferver has gone from
the equator e towards the north pole n, and that he Hops
at i, from which place he then fees the hemifphere
MEINL; his horizon MCL having fhifted as many
degrees from the celeftial poles N and S, as he has tra¬
velled from under the equinoftial E. And as the heavens
feem conftantly to turn round the line NCS as an axis,
all thofe ftars which are not fo many degrees from the
north pole N as the obferver is from the equino&ial,
namely, the ftars north of the dotted parallel DL, never
fet below the horizon ; and thofe which are fouth of the
dotted parallel MO never rife above it. Hence the for¬
mer of thefe two parallel circles is called the circle of
perpetual apparition, and the latter the circle of perpe¬
tual eccultation \ but all the ftars between thefe two cir¬
cles rife and fet every day. Let us imagine many circles
to be drawn between thefe two, and parallel to them;
thofe which are on the north fide of the equinoctial will
be unequally cut by the horizon MCL, having larger
portions above the horizon than below it; and the more
fo, as they are nearer to the circle of perpetual appari- •
tion; but the reverfe happens to thofe on the fouth fide
of the equiqoCtial, whilft the equinoctial is divided in
two equal parts by the horizon. Hence, by the appa¬
rent turning of the heavens, the northern ftars deferibe
greater arcs or portions of circles above the horizon than
below it; and the.greater, as they are farther from the
equinoctial towards the circle of perpetual apparition;
whilft the contrary happens to all ftars fouth of the equL
noCtial; but thofe. upon it deferibe equal arcs both above
and bqjow the horizon, and therefore they are juft as
long above as below it.
An obferver on the equator has no circle of perpetual
apparition or occultation, becaufe all the ftars, together,
with the fun and moon, rife and fet to him every day.
But, as a bare view of the figure is fufficient to ftrew
tbat^hefe two circles DL and MO are juft as far from
the poles N and S as the obferver at i (or one oppofite
to him at o) is from the equator EC§f, it is plain, that
if an obferver begins to travel from the equator towards
either pole, his circle of perpetuil apparition rifes from
that pole as from a point, and his circle of perpetual oc-r
cultation from the other. As the obferver advances to¬
ward the nearer pole, thefe two circles enlarge their dia-
N O M ?. 447
meters, and come nearer one another, until he comes to
the pole; and then they meet and coincide in the equi¬
noctial. On different fides df the equator, to obfervers
at equal diftances from it, the circle of perpetual appari¬
tion to one is the circle of perpetual occultation to the
other.
Becaufe the ftars never vary their diftances from the
equinoctial, fo as to be fenfible in an age, the lengths of
their diurnal and noCturnal arcs are always the fame to
the fame places on the earth. But as the earth goes
round the fun every year in the ecliptic, one half of
which is orrthe north fide of the equinoctial, and the
other half on its fouth fide, the fun appears to change
his place every day, fo as to go once round the circle
TCX every year. Therefore whilft the fun appears to
advance northward, from having deferibed the paralleL
abA touching the ecliptic in X, the days continually
lengthen and the nights Ihorten, until he comes to y and
deferibes the parallel ^zx, when the days are at the long-
eft and the nights at the Ih'orteft; for then, as the
fun goes no farther northward, the greateft portion that
is poifible of the diurnal arc yz is above the horizon of
the inhabitant i, and the fmalleft portion zx below it.
As the fun declines fouthward from y, he deferibes
fmaller diurnal and greater noCturna! arcs,, or portions of
circles every day; which caufeth the days to Ihorten and
nights to lengthen, until he arrives again at the parallel
abX; which having only the fmall part ab above the ho¬
rizon MCL, and the great part bX below it, the days
are at the ftiorteft and the nights at the longeft; becaufe
the fun recedes no'farther fouth, but returns northward
as before. It is eafy to fee that the fun muft be in the
equinoctial twice every year, and then the days
and nights are equally long; that is, 12 hours each4
Thefe hints ferve at prefent to give an idea of fome of
the appearances refulting from the motions of the earth ; .
which will be more particularly deferibed in the tenth ,
chapter.
To an-obferrer at either pole, the horizon and equi--
notftial are coincident; and the fun and ftars feem to
move parallel to the horizon; therefore, fuch an obfer¬
ver is faid to have a parallel pofition of the fphere. To
an obferver any w'here between either pole and equator, the
parallels deferibed by the fun and ftars are cut obliquely
by the horizon, and therefore he is faid to,have an ob¬
lique pofition of the fphere. To an obferver any where
on the equator, the parallels of motion, deferibed by the
fun and ftars, are cut perpendicularly, or at right angles,
by the horizon ; and therefore he is faid to have a right
pofition of the fphere. And thefe three are all the dif- -
ferent ways that the fphere can .be pofited to all people
on the earth..
Chap. IV. The Phenomena of the Heavens
at feen from different farts of the Solar
Syjlem,.
So vaftly great is the diftance of the ftarry heavens*
that if viewed from any part of the folar fyftem, or even
many -
ASTRO
many millions of miles beyond it, its appearance would
be the very fame to us. The fun and liars would all
■Teem to be fixed on one concave furface, of which the
fpedte.tor’s eye would be the centre. But the planets be¬
ing much nearer than the ftars, their appearances will
vary confiderably wichi the place from which they are
viewed.
If the fpe&ator is at reft without their orbits, the pla¬
nets will feem to be at the fame diftance as the ftars,
but continually changing their places with refpe<ft to the
ftars and to one another, aflufning various phafes of in-
creafe and d'ecreafe like the moon; and, notwithftand-
ing their regular motions about the fun, will fometimes
appear to move quicker, fometimes flower, be as of¬
ten to the weft as to the eaft of the fun, and at their
grea'teft diftances feem quite ftationary. The dura¬
tion, extent, and diftance of thofe points in the heavens
where thefe digreflions begin and end, would be more or
iefs, according to the refpeftive diftances of the feveral
planets from the fun; but in the fame planet they would
continue invariably the fame at all times; like pendu¬
lums of unequal lengths ofcillating together, the Ihorter
move quick and go over a fmall place, the longer move-
flow and go over a large fpace. If the obferver is at
reft within the orbits of the planets, but not near the
common centre, their apparent motions will be irregular,
but lefs fo than in the former cafe. Each of the feveral
planets will appear larger and lefs by turns, as they ap¬
proach nearer or recede farther from the obferver, the
neareft varying moft in their fize. They will alfo move
quicker or flower with regard to their fixed ftars, but
will never be retrograde or ftationary.
If an obferver in motion views the heavens, the fame
apparent irregularities will be obferved, but with fome
variation refulting from its own motion. If he is on a.
planet which has a rotation on its axis, not being fen-
iible of his own motion, he will imagine the whole hea¬
vens, fun, planets, and ftars, to revolve about him in
the fame time that his planet turns round, bufthe con¬
trary way, and will not be eafily Convinced of the decep¬
tion. If his planet moves round the fun, the fame irre¬
gularities and afpedls as above mentioned will appear in
the motions of the other planets; and the fun will feem
to move among the fixed ftars or figns, diredtly oppofite
to thofe in which his planet moves,_ changing its place
every day as he does. In a word, whether our obferver
be in motion or at reft, whether within or without the
orbits of the planets, their motions will feenf irregular,
intricate, and perplexed, unlefs he is in the centre of the
fyftem; and from thence the moft beautiful order and
harmony will be feen by him.
The fun being the centre of all the planets motions,
the only place fron\ which their motions could be truly
feen is the fun’s centre; where the obferver, being fup-
pofed not to turn round with the fun, (which, in this
cafe, we muft imagine to be a tranfparent body), would
fee all the ftars at reft, and feemingly equidiftant from
him. To fuch an obferver, the planets would appear to
move among the fixed ftars, in a fimple, regular, and u-
niform manner; only, that as in equal times they de-
fcribe equal areas, they would defcribe fpaces fomewhat
N O M Y.
unequal, becaufe they move In elliptic orbits. .Thfit*
motions would alfo appear to be what they are in fa<ft,
the fame way round the heavens, in paths which crofs at
fmall angles in different parts of the heavens, and then
feparate a little from one another: fo that if the folar
‘ aftronomer ftiould make the path or orbit of any one pla¬
net a ftandard, and confider it as having no obliquity,
he would judge the paths of all the reft to be inclined to
it, each planet having one half of its path on one fide,
and the other half on the oppofite fide of the ftandard
path or orbit. And if he Ihould ever fee all the planets
ftart from a conjundtion with each other, Mercury would
move fo much fafter than Venus, as to overtake her again
(though not in the fame point of the heavens) in a quan¬
tity of time alrnoft equal to 145 of our days and nights, or,
as we commonly call them, natural days, which include
both the days and nights; Venus would move fo much
fafter than the earth, as to overtake it again in 585 na¬
tural days; the earth fo much fafter than Mars, as to
overtake him again in 778 fuch days; Mars fo much
fafter than Jupiter, as to overtake him again in 817 fuch
days; and Jupiter fo much fafter than Saturn, as to o-
vertake him again in 7236 days, all of our time.
But as Our folar aftronomer could have no idea of mea-
furing the courfes of the planets by our days, he would
probably take the period of Mercury, which is the quick-
eft moving planet, for a meafure to compare the periods
of the others by. As all the ftars would appear quief-
CCnt to him, he would never think that they had any de¬
pendence upon the fun ; but would naturally imagine that
the planets have, becaufe they move round the fun..
And it is by no means improbable, that he would con¬
clude thofe planets whofe periods are quickeft, to move
in orbits proportionably lefs than thofe do which make
flower circuits. But being deftitute of a method for
finding their parallaxes, or, more properly fpeaking, as
they could have no parallax to him, he could never know
any thing of their real diftances or magnitudes. Their
relative diftances he might perhaps guefs at by their pe¬
riods, and from thence infer fomething of truth concern¬
ing their relative bulks, by comparing their apparent bulks
with one another. For example, Jupiter appearing big¬
ger to him than Mars, he would conclude it to be much
bigger in fa£t; becaufe it appears fo, and muft be farther
from him on account of its longer period. Mercury and
the earth would feem much of the fame bulk; but, by
comparing its period with the earth’s, he would conclude
that the earth is much farther from him than Mercury,
and confequently that it muft be really larger, though
apparently of the fame bulk ; and fo of the reft. And
as each planet would appear fomewhat larger in one part
of its orbit than in the oppofite, and to move quickeft:
when it feems biggeft, the obferver would be at no lofs
to determine that all the planets move in orbits, of which
the fun is not precifely in the centre.
The apparent magnitudes of the planets continually
change as feen from the earth ; which demonftrates that
they approach nearer to it, and recede farther from it
by turns. From thefe phenomena, and their apparent
motions among the ftars, they feem to defcribe looped
curves which never return into themfelves, Venus’s path
excepted.
ASTRO
excepted. And if we were to trace out all their appa¬
rent paths, and put the figures of them together in one
diagram, they would appear fo anomalous and confufed,
that no man in his fenfes could believe them to be repre-
fentations of their real paths; but would immediately
conclude, that fuch apparent irregularities muft be owing
to fome optic illufions : And after a good deal of in¬
quiry, he might perhaps be at a lofs to find out the true
eaufe of thefe inequalities; efpecially if he were one of
thofe who would rather, with the greateft juftice, charge
frail man with ignorance, than the Almighty with being
the author of fuch cofifufion. '
Dr Long, in his firft volume of Aftronbmy, has given
us figures of the apparent paths of all the planets fepa-
rately from Caflini; from them Mr Fergufon firft thought
of attempting to trace fome of them by an orrery, that
fliews the motions of the fun, Mercury,'Venus, the earth,
and moon, according to the Copernican fyftem. Having
taken off" the fun, Mercury, and Venus, he put.black
lead pencils in their places, with the points turned up¬
ward, and fixed a circular fheet of pafteboard fo that
the earth kept conftantly under its centre in going round
the fun, and the pafteboard kept its parallelifm. Then,
preffing gently with one hand upon the pafteboard to
make it touch the three pencils, with the other hand he
turned the winch that moves the whole machinery : and
as the earth together with the pencils in the places of
Mercury and Venus had their proper motions round
the fun’s pencils, which kept at reft in the centre of the
machine, all the three pencils defcribed a diagram,
from which fig. 2. of Plate XL. is truly copied in a
Imaller fize. As the earth moved round the fun, the
fun’s pencil defcribed the dotted circle of months, whilft
Mercury’s pencil drew the curve with the greateft num¬
ber of loops, and Venus’s that with the feweft. In their
inferior conjunftions they come as much nearer the earth,
or within the circle of the fun’s apparent motion round
the heavens, as they go beyond it in their fuperior con¬
junftions. On each fide of the loops they appear fta-
tionary; in that part of each loop next the earth retro¬
grade ; and in all the reft of their paths direft.
If Caflini’s figures of the paths of the fun, Mercury,
and Venus, were put together, the figure as above traced
put would be exaftly like them. It reprefents the fun’s
apparent motion found the ecliptic, which is the fame e-
very year; Mercury’s motion for feven years, and Ve¬
nus’s for eight; in which time Mercury’s path makes 23
loops,. crofling itfelf fo many times, and Venus’s only
five. In eight years, Venus falls fo nearly into the fame
apparent path again, as to deviate very little from it in
fome ages; but in what rfumber of years Mercury and
the reft of the planets would defcribe the fame vifible
paths over again, it is hard to determine. Having fi-
nifhed the above figure of the paths of Mercury and Ve¬
nus, he put the ecliptic round them as in the Doftor’s
book, and added the dotted lines from the earth to the
ecliptic for ihewing Mercury’s apparent or geocentric
motion therein for one year; in which time his path
makes three loops, and goes on a little farther; which
fhews that he has three inferior, and as many fuperior
conjunftions with the fun in that time ; and alfo that he
Von, I. No. 19. 3
N O M Y. 44P
is fix times ftationary, and thrice retrograde. Let -us
now trace his motion for one year in the figure.
In Plate XL. fig. 2. fupppfe Mercury to be fetting
out from A towards B, (between the earth and left hand
corner of the Plate), and as feen from the earth, his motion
will then be direft, or according to the order of the figns.
But when he comes to J?, he appears to ftand ftill in the
23d degree of at F, as ftiewn by the line BF. Whilft
he goes from B to C, the line BF, fuppofed ,to move
with him, goes backward from F to E, or contrary to
the order of figns ; and when he is at C, he appears fta¬
tionary at E, having gone back ii-‘- degrees. Now,
fuppofe him ftationary on the firft of January at C, on
the 10th thereof he will appear in the heavens as at 20,
near F; on the 20th, he will be feen as at C; on the
3 ift, at FT; on the 10th of February, at 7; on the 20th,
at K; and on the 28th, at L; as the dotted lines fhew,
which are drawn through every tenth day’s motion in Lis
looped path, and continued to the ecliptic. On the 10th
of March, he appears at 717; on the 20th, at Ar-, and on
the 3 ift, at 0. On the 10th of April, he appears ftationary
at P ; on the 2dth, he feems to have gone back again to
0; and on the 30th, he appears ftationary. at §>_, having
gone back 114 degrees. Thus Mercury feems to go for¬
ward 4 figns 11 degrees, or 131 degrees, and to go back
only 11 or 12 degrees, at a mean rate. From the 30th
of April iq the 10th of May, he feems to move from
to R ; and on the 20th, he is feen at S, going for¬
ward in the fame manner again, according to the order
of letters ; and backward when they go back ; which it
is needlefs to explain any farther, as the reader can trace
him out fo eafily through the reft of the year. The
fame appearances happen in Venus’s motion ; but as fhe
moves flower than Mercury, there are longer intervals
of time between them.
X
Chap. V. The phyfical Ccntfes . of the
Motions of the Planets. The Excentricities
of their Orbits The Times in is. bid: the
Action of Gravity alone would bring them to
the Sun.
From the uniform projeftile motion of bodies in ftraight
lines,'and the univerfal power of attraftion which draws
them off from thefe lines, the curvilineal motions of all
the planets arife. InPLteXL. fig. 3. if the body A~b&
projefted along the right line ABX, in open fpace, where
it meets with no refiftance, and is not drawn afide by any
other power, it will for ever go on with the fame velocity,
and in the fame direftion. For the force which moves it
from y7 to 7? in any given time, will carry it from 2? to X
in as much more time, and fo on, there being nothing to
obftruft orialter its motion. But if when this projeftile
force has carried it, fuppofe to F, the body S begins to
attraft it, with a power duly adjufted, and perpendicular
to its motion at B, it will then be drawn from the ftraight
line ABX, and forced to revolve about S in the circle
BYTU. When the body A comes to U, or any other'
part of its orbit, if the fmall body k, within the fphere
5 'X of
45© ASTRO
of E/’s attraction, be projected as in the right line Z,
•with a force perpendicular to the attraction of U, then a
will go round U in the orbit IV, and accompany it in its
whole courfe round the body S. Here S may reprefent
the fun, U the earth, and u the moon.
If a planet at B gravitates, or is attracted toward the
fun fo as to fall from B to y in the time that the projec¬
tile force would have carried it from B to X; it will de-
fcribe the curve BY by the combined.action of thefe two
forces, in the fame time that the projeCtile force fingly
would have carried it from B to X, or the gravitating
power fingly have caufed it to defcend from B to j> ’, and
thefe two forces being duly proportioned, and perpendi¬
cular to one another, the planet obeying them both, will
move in the circle BYTU.
But if, whilft the projeCtile force carries the planet
from B to b, the fun’s attraction (which conftitutes the
planet’s gravitation) Ihould bring it down from B to i,
the gravitating power would then be too ftrong for the
projeCtile force, and would caufe the planet to deferibe
the curve BC. When the planet comes to C, the gra¬
vitating power (which always increafes as the fquare of
the diftance from the fun S diminifhes) will be yet ftronger
for the projeCtile force; and by confpiring in fome de¬
gree therewith, will accelerate the planet’s motion all the
w'ay from C to K, caufing it to deferibe the arcs, BC,
CD, DE, EF, &c. all in equal times. Having its mo¬
tion thus accelerated, it thereby gains fo much centrifu¬
gal force, or tendency to fly off at K in the line Kk, as
overcomes the fun’s attraction; and the centrifugal force
being too great to allow the planet to be brought nearer
the fun, or even to move round him in the circle Klmn,
&e. it goes off, and afeends in the curve KLM.N, &c.
its motion decreafing as gradually from K to B, as it in-
creafed from B to K, becaufe the fun’s attraction aCts
now againft the planet’s projeCtile motion juft as much as
it aCted with it before. When the planet has got round
to B, its projectile force is as much diminifhed from its
mean ftate about G or N, as it was augmented at K;
and fo, the fun’s attraction being more than fufficient to
keep the planet from going off at' B, it deferibes the
fame orbit over again,, by virtue of the fame forces or
powers.
A double projeCtile force' will always balance a qua¬
druple power of gravity. Let the planet at B have
twice as great an impulfe from thence towards X, as it
had before; that is, in the fame length of time that it
was projected from B to b, as in the laft example, let it
now be projected from B to c, and it will require four
times as much gravity to retain it in its orbit; that is,, it
muft fall as far as from 5 to 4 in the time that the pro¬
jeCtile force would carry it from 2? to c, otherwife it
could not deferibe the curve BD, as is evident by the fi¬
gure. But in as much time as the planet moves from B
to C in the higher part of its orbit, it moves from I to
K, or from K to L, in the lower part thereof; becaufe,
from the joint aCtiod of thefe two forces* it muft always
deferibe equal areas in equal times, throughout its annual
courfc. Thefe areas are reprefented by the triangles
BSC, CSD, DSE, ESF, 8tc. whofe contents are equal
to one another, quite round the figure. .
N O M Y.
As the planets approach nearer the fun, and recede
farther from him in every revolution,* there may be fome
difficulty in conceiving the reafon why the power of gra¬
vity, when it once gets the better of the projeCtile force,
does not bring the planets nearer and nearer the fun in
every revolution, till they fall upon and unite with him y
or why the pfojeCtile force, when it once gets the better
of gravity, does not carry the planets farther and farther
from the fun, till it removes them quite out of the fphere
of his attraction, and caufes them to go on in ftraight
lines for ever afterward. But by confidering the effeCts
of thefe powers, this difficulty will be removed. Sup-
pofe a planet at B to be carried by the projeCtile force as
far as from B to b, in the time that gravity would have
brought it down from 2? to 1 ; by thefe two forces it
will deferibe the curve BC. When the planet comes
down to K, it will be but half as far from the fun S as
it was at B; and therefore, by gravitating four times as
ftrongly towards him, it would fall from 2f to Z in the
fame length of time that it would have fallen from B to
1 in the higher part of its orbit, thaf is, through four
times as much fpace; but its projeCtile force is then fo
much increafed at K, as would carry it from K to k in
the fame time; being double of what it was at B, and
is therefore too ftrong for the gravitating power, either
to draw the planet to the fun, or caufe it to go round
him in the circle Klmn, &c. which would require its
failing from K to to, through a greater fpace than gra¬
vity can draw it, whilft the projeCHle force is fuch as
would carry it from A’to 2; and therefore the planet a-
feends in its orbit KLMN, decreafing in its velocity,' for
the caufe already affigned.
The orbits of all the planets are ellipfes, very little
different from circles; but the orbits of the comets are
very long ellipfes, and the lower focus'of them all is in
the fun. If we fuppofe the mean diftance (br middle
between the greateft and leaft) of every planet and co¬
met from the fun to be divided into 1000 equal parts,
the excentricities of their orbits, both in fuch parts and
in Englilh miles, will be as follow. Mercury’s 210
parts, or 6,720,000 miles; Venus’s, 7 parts, or 413,000
miles; the earth’s, 17 parts, or 1,377,000 miles;
Mars’s, 93 parts, or 11,439,000 miles; Jupiter’s, 48
parts, or 20,352.000 miles; Saturn’s, 55 parts, or
42,735,000 miles. Of the neareft of the three Tore-
mentioned comets, 1,458,000 miles; of the middle-
moft, 2,025,000,000 miles; and of the outermoft,
6,600,000,000.
By the laws of gravity and the projectile force, bodies
will move in all kinds of ellipfes,. whether long or (fiort,
if the fpaces they move in be void of refiftanc.e; only
thofe which move in the longer ellipfes, have fo much
the lefs prbjeCtile force impreffed upon them in the higher
parts of their orbits; and their velocities in coming
down towards the fun are fo prodigioufly increafed by his
attraction, that their centrifugal forces in the lower parts
of their orbits are fo great, as to Overcome the fun’s at¬
traction there, and caufe them to afeend again towards -
the higher parts of their orbits ; during which time, the
fun’s attraction aCting fo contrary to the motions of thofe
booies, caufes them to move flower and flower, until
their.
A S T R <
their projeftile forces are diminiftied almoft to nothing ;
and then they are brought back again by the fun’s attrac¬
tion, as before.
If the projeftile forces of all the planets and comets
were deftroyed at their mean diftances from the fun, their
gravities would bring them down fo, as that Mercury
would fall to the fun in 15 days 13 hours; Venus, in
39 days 17 hours; the earth or moon, in 64 days 10
hours; Mars, in 121 days; Jupiter, in 290; and Sa¬
turn, in 767. The nearelt comet, in 13 thoufand days ;
the middlemoft, in 23 thoufand days; and the outermod,
in 66 thoufand days. The moon would fall to the earth
in 4 days 20 hours: Jupiter’s firft moon would fall to
him in 7 hours; his fecond, in 15; his third, in 30;
and his fourth, in 71 hours : Saturn’s firft moon would
fall to him in 8 hours; his fecond, in 12; his third, in
19; his fourth, in 68; and the fifth, in 336. A done
would fall to the earth’s centre, if there were an hollow
paflage, in 21 minutes 9 feconds. Mr Whidon gives
the following rule for fpch computations. “ It is de-
“ mondrable, that half the period of any planet, when
“ it is diminiihed in the fefquialteral proportion of the
“ number 1 to the number 2, or nearly in the proportion
of 1000 to 2828, is the time that it would fall to the
centre of its orbit.” This proportion is, when a
quantity or number contains another once and a half as
much more.
The quick motions of the moons of Jupiter and Sa¬
turn round their primaries, demondrate that thefe two
planets have ftronger attrardive powers than the earth
has: for the dronger that one body attracts another, the
greater mud be the proje&ile force, and confequently.the-
quicker mud be the motion of that other body to keep
it from falling to its primary or central planet. Jupiter’s
fecond moon is 124 thoufand miles farther from Jupiter
than our moon is from us; and yet this fecond moon
goes almod eight times round Jupiter whild our moon
goes only once round the.earth. What a prodigious at-
traftive power mud the fun then have, to draw all the
planets and fatellites of the fydem towards him; and
what an amazing power mud it have required to put all
thefe planets and-moons into fuch rapid motions af fird 1
Chap. VI. Renfons why the Sun, Moon, and
Signs, when rifing or Jetting, appear lar¬
ger than when they rife higher in the Hea¬
vens.
The fun and moon appear larger in the horizon than
at any confiderable height above it. . Thefe luminaries,
although at great didances from the earth, appear float¬
ing, as it were, on the furfaceof ouratmofphere, (Plate.
XLI. fig. 1.) HGFftC, a little way beyond the clouds; of
which, thofe about F, dire&ly over our heads atT, are.
nearer us than thofe about if or e in the horizon HEz.
Therefore, when the fun or moon appear in the horizon at
e, they are not only feen in a part of the Iky which is really
farther from us than if they were at any confiderable al¬
titude, as about f; but they are alfo feen through a
greater quantity of air and vapours at e than at /. Here
) N O M Y. 451
we have two concurring appearances which, deceive our
imagination, and caufe us to refer the fun and moon to
a greater didance at their rifing or fetting about e, than
when they are confiderably high, as at f: fird, their
feeming to be on a part of the atmofphere at e, which is
really farther than f from a fpeftator at E; and, fe-
condly, their being feen through a grofler medium when
at e than when at f, which, by rendering them dimmer,
caufes us to imagine them to be at a yet greater didance.
And as, in both cafes, they are feen much under the
fame angle, we naturally judge them to be larged when
they feem farthed from us.
Any one may fatisfy himfelf that the moon appears
under no greater angle in the horizon than on the meri¬
dian, by taking a large flieet of paper, and rolling it up
in the form of a tube, of fuch a width, that'obferving
the moon through it when die rifes, Ihe may* as it were,
jud fill the tube; then tie a thread round it to keep it
of that fize ; and when the moon comes to the meridian,
and appears much lefs to the eye, look at her again
through the fame tube, and Ihe will fill it jud as much,.
if not more, than fire did at her rifing.
When the full moon is in her perigeo, or at her lead
didance from the earth, die is feen under a larger angle, •
and mud therefore appear bigger that when die is full at
other times : And if that part of the atmofphere where
die rifes be more-replete, with vapours than ufual, die
appears fo much the dimmer ; and therefore we fancy
her to be dill the bigger, by referring her to an un-
ufually great didance, knowing that no obje&s which are
very far didant can appear big unlefs they be really fo.
Chap. VII. life of the common Quadrant, and
the Method of finding the Diftances of the'
Sun, Moon, and Planets.
To enable the young adronomer to underdand the
method of finding the didances of the .heavenly bodies,
we fliall here give a flrort defcription of the quadrant. .
This inllrument (Plate XLV. fig, 6.) is chiefly ufed in
taking altitudes.
The altitude of any celedial phenomenon is an arc of
the dcy intercepted between the horizon and the pheno- -
nienon. In fig. 6. of Plate XLV. Jet HOX- bz a hori¬
zontal line, fuppofed to be extended from the eye at X
'to X, where the fliy and earth feem to meet at the end ;
of a long and level plain ; and let S be the fun.. The
arc XY will be the fun’s height above the horizon at X,',
and is found by the indrument EDC, which is a quadran-
tal board, or plate of metal, divided into 90 equal parts -
or degrees on its limb DPC-, and has a couple of little
brafs plates, as a and b, with a fmali hole in each of them, .
c.A\z& Jight-boles, for looking through, parallel to the :
edge of the (quadrant whereon they dand. To the cen¬
tre E is fixed one end of a thread F, called the plumb-
line, which has a fmall weight or plummet P fixed to
its other end. Now, if an obferver holds the quadrant
upright, without inclining it to either fide, and fo that
the horizon at X is feen thrdbgh the fight-holes a and b, ,
the plumb-line will cut or hang over the beginning of the
degrees
4$ 2 ASTRO
degrees at o, in the edge EC •, but if he elevates the
quadrant fo as to look through the fight-holes at any
part of the heavens, fuppofe to the fun at S ; juft fo
many degrees as he elevates the fight-hole b above the
horizontal line HOX, fo many degrees will the plumb-
line cut in the limb CP of the quadrant. For, let the
obfcrver’s eye at yV be in the centre of the celeftial arc
XT’/ (and he may be faidto be in the centre of the fun’s
apparent diurnal orbit, let him be on what part of the
earth he will) in which arc the fun is at that time, fup¬
pofe 25 degrees high, and let the obferver hold the qua¬
drant fo that he may fee the fun through the fight-holes;
the plumb-line freely playing on the quadrant will cut
the 25th degree in the limb CP, equal to the number of
degrees of the fun's altitude at the time of obfervation.
—[N. B. Whoever looks at the fun, mult have a
fmoked glafs before his eyes to fave them from hurt.
The better way is not to look at the fun through the
light-holes, but to hold the quadrant facing the eye, at
a. little diftance, and fo that the fun fhining through
one hole, the ray may be feen to fall on the other.3
In fig 2. Plate XLI. let BAG be one half of the
earth, AC its femidiameter, S the fun, rn the moon, and
EKOL a quarter of the circle defcribed by the moon in
revolving from the meridian to the meridian again. Let
CRS be the rational horizon of an obferver at A, ex¬
tended to the fun in the heavens; and HAO his fenfible
horizon, extended to the moon’s orbit. ALC is the
angle under which the earth’s femidiameter AC is feen
from the moon at L, which is equal to the angle 0 AL,
becaufe the right lines AO and CL which include both
thefe angles are parallel. ASC\s the angle under which
the earth’s femidiametef AC is feen from the fun at S,
and is equal to the angle OAf becaufe the lines AO
and CRS are parallel. Now, it is found by obferva¬
tion, that the angle OAL is much greater, than the an¬
gle OAf; but OAL is equal to ALC, and OAf is e-
qual to ASC. Now, as ASC is much lefs than ALC,
it proves that the earth’s femidiameter AC appears much
greater as feen from the moon at L, than from the fun
at S; and therefore the earth is much farther from the
fun than from the moon. The quantities of thefe angles
are determined by obfervation in the following manner.
Let a graduated inftrument, as DAE (the larger the
better) having a moveable index with fight-holes, be
fixed in fuch a manner, that its plane' furface may be
parallel to the plane of the, equator, and its edge AD
in the meridian: fo that when the moon is in the equi-
jnoftial, and on the meridian at E, (he may be feen
through the fight-holes when the edge of the moveable
index cuts the beginning of the divifions at o, on the
graduated limb DE; and when (he is fo feen, let the
precife time be noted. Now, as the moon revolves a-
bout the earth, from the meridian to the meridian again,
in 24 hours 4?8 minutes, ftie will go a fourth part round
it in a fourth part of that time, viz. in 6 hours 12 mi¬
nutes, as feen from C, that is, from the earth’s centre
or pole. But as feen from A, the obferver’s place on
-the earth’s furface, the moon will feem to have gone a
quarter round the earth when (he comes to the fenfible
horizon at 0 ; for the index, through the fights of
N O M Y.
which ftie is then viewed, will be at d, 90 degrees from
D, where it was when flie was feen *t E. Now, let the
exadt moment when the moon is feen at 0 (which will be
when fhe is in or near the fenfible horizon) be carefully
noted, that it may be known in what time fhe has gone
from E to 0-, which time fubtradted from 6 hours 12
minutes (the time of her going from E to L) leaves the
time of her going from 0 to L, and affords an eafy me¬
thod for finding the angle OAL (called the moon's hori¬
zontal parallax, which is equal to the angle ALC) by
the following analogy. As the time of the moon’s de-
feribing the arc EO is to 90 degrees, fo is 6 hours 12
minutes to the degrees of the arc DdE, which meafures
the angle EAL; from which fubtradt 90 degrees, and
the're remains the angle OAL, equal to the angle ALC,
under which the earth’s femidiameter AC is feen from
the moon. Now, fince all the angles of a right-linfcd
triangle are equal to 180 degrees, or to two right angles,
and the fides of a triangle are always proportional to the
fines of the oppofite angles, fay, by the Rule of Three,
as the fine of the angle ALC at the moon L is to its
oppofite fide AC, the earth’s femidiameter, which is
known to be 3985 miles, fo is the radius, viz. the fine of
90 degrees, or of the right angle ACL, to its oppofite
fide AL, which is the moon’s diftance at L, from the
obferver’s place at y^, on the earth’s furface , or, fo is
the fine of the angle CAL to its oppofite fide CL, which
is the moon’s diftance from the earth’s centre, and comes
out, at a mean rate, to be 240,000 miles. The angle
CAL is equal to what OAL want^ of 90 degrees.
The fun’s diftance from the earth is found the fame
way, but with much greater difficulty; becaufe his boi-
rizontal parallax, or the angle OAS equal to the angle
ASC, is fo fmall as to be hardly perceptible, being only
icfeconds of a minute, or the 360th part of a degree.
But the moon’s horizontal parallax, or angle OAL, equal
to the an^le ALC, is very difcernible, being 5/ qf,
or 3469 at its mean ftate ; which is more than 340
times as great as the-fun’s: And therefore the diftances
of the heavenly bodies being inverfely as the tangents of
their horizontal parallaxes, the fun’s diftance from the
earth is at leaft 340 times as great as the moon’s ; and is
rather underftated at 81 millions of miles, when the
moon’s diftance is certainly known to be 240 thoufand.
But becaufe,* according to feme aftronomers, the fun’s
horizontal parallax is 11 feconds, and according to o-
thers only 10, the former parallax making the fun’s di¬
ftance to be about 75,000,000 of miles, and the latter
82,000,000.; we may take it for granted, that the fun’s
diftance is not lefs than as deduced from the former,
nor more than as ffiewn by the latter: And every one
who is accuftomed to make fuch obfervations, knows
how hard it is, if nqt impoffible, to avoid an error of a
fecond, efpecially on account of the inconftancy of ho¬
rizontal refractions : And here, the error of one fecond,
in fo fmall an angle, will make an error of feven millions
of miles in fo great a diftance as that of the fun’s.
The fun and moon appear much about the fame bulk;
and every one who underftands geometry, knows how
their true bulks may be deduced from the apparent,
when their real diftances are known. Spheres are to one
another
ASTRONOMY.
another as the cubes of their diameters ; whence, if the
fun be 81 millions of miles from the earth, to appear as
big as' the moon, whofe diftance does not exceed 240
thoufand miles, he muft, in folid bulk, be 42 millions
87? thoufand times as big as the moon.
The horizontal parallaxes are beft obferved at the e-
quator. 1. Becaufe the heat is fo nearly equal every
day, that the refraciions are almoft conftantly the dame.
2. Becaufe the paralladtic angle is greater there, as at
A (the diftance from thence to the earth’s axis being
greater) than upon any parallel of latitude, as a or b.
The earth’s diftance from the fun being determined,
the diftances of all the other planets from him are eafily
453
found by the following analogy, their periods round
him being afcertained by obfervation. As the fquare of
the earfh’s period round the fun is to the cube of its di¬
ftance from him, fo is the fquare of the period of any
other planet to the cube of its diftance, in fuch parts or
meafures as the earth’s diftance was taken. This pro¬
portion gives us the relative mean diftances of the planets
from the fun to the greateft degree of exaftnefs; and
they are as follow, having been deduced from their pe¬
riodical times, according to the law juft mentioned,
which was difcOvered by Kepler, and demonftrated by
Sir Ifaac Newton.
Periodical Revolution to the fame fixed Star in Days, and decimal Parts of a Day.
Of Mercury, Venus, The Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
224.6176 365.2564 686.9785 4332.514
Relative mean dijlances from the fun.
38710 72333 ■ 100000 152369 520096 954006
From thefe numbers we deduce, that if the fun's 'horizontal parallax be 10", the real snean difances of the
planets from the fun in Englifh miles are,
31,742,200 S9'3J3»06o 82,000,000 124,942,580 426,478,720
But if the fun's parallax be 11", their difances are no more than
29,032,500 54,238,570 75,000,000 114,276,750 390,034,560
Errors in difance, ariftng from the mifake of in the fun's parallax.
2,709,700 5,074,490 7,000,000 10,665,830 36,444,220
But, from the tranfit of Venus, A. D. 1761, the fun's parallax appears to be only 8" 4s $■
to that, their real difance in miles are
36,668,373 68,518,044 94,725,840 144,588,575 492,665,307 903,690,197
Saturn,
10759.275
782,284,920
715,504,500
66,780,420
and according
Thefe numbers (hew, that although we have the rela¬
tive diftances of the planets from'the fun to the greateft
nicety, yet the beft obferyers could not afcertain their
true diftances until the above tranfit appeared, which
we muft confefs was embarrafled with feveral difficulties.
But the late tranfit of Venus over the fun, on the third
of June, was much better fuited to this great pro¬
blem.
The earth’s axis produced to the ftars, being carried
parallel to itfelf during the earth’s annual revolution, de-
feribes a circle in the fphere of the fixed ftars equal to
the orbit of the, earth. But this orbit, though very
large, would feem no bigger than a point if it were
viewed from the ftars; and confequently, the circle de-
feribed in the fphere of the ftars, by the axis of the
earth produced, if viewed from the earth,' muft appear
but as a point ; that is. its diameter appears too little to
be meafured by obfervation : For Dr Bradley has allured
us, that if it had amounted to a fingle fecond, or two at
moft, he ffiould have perceived it in the great number of
ebfervations h.e has made, efpecially upon y dragonis ;
and that it feemed to him very probable that the annual
parallax of this ftar is not fo great as a fingle fecond; and
confequently, that it is above 400 thoufand times far¬
ther from us than the fun. Hence, the celeftial poles
feem to continue in the fame points of the heavens
Vol. I. No. 19. 3
throughout the year; which, by no means, difproves
the earth s annual motion, but plainly proves the diftance
of the ftars to be exceeding great.
The fmall apparent motion of the ftars, difeovered by
that great aftronomer, he.found to be no ways owing to
their annual parallax (for it came out contrary thereto)
but to the aberration of their light, which can refult
from no known caufe befides that of the earth’s annual
motion ; and as it agrees fo exadly therewith, it proves,
beyond difpute, that the earth has fuch a motio-n: For
this aberration completes all its various phenomena eve¬
ry year ; and proves that the velocity of ftar-light is fuch
as carries it through a fpace equal to the fun’s diftance
from us in 8 minutes 13 feconds of time. Hence, the
velocity of light is 10 thoufand 21O times as great as
the earth’s velocity in its orbit; which velocity (from
what we know already of the earth’s diftance from the
fun) may be afferted to be at leaft between 57 and 58
thoufand miles every hour : And fuppofrng it to be
58000, this number, multiplied by the above 10210,
gives 592 million 180 thoufand miles for the hourly
motion of light; which laft number, divided by 3600,
the number of feconds in an hour, ffiews that light flies
at the rate of more than a hundred and fixty-four
thoufand miles every fecond of time, or fwing of a com¬
mon clock pendulum,
S Y
Chap,
54^
ASTRO
Chap. VIII. The different Lengths of Days
and Nights, and the Viciffttudet of Sea-
fons, explained. The Explanation of the
Phenomena of Saturn’s Ring concluded.
The following experiment will give a plain idea of the
diurnal and annual .motions of the earth, together with
the different lengths of days and nights, and all the
beautiful variety of feafons, depending on thofe mo¬
tions.
Take about feven feet of ftrong wire, and bend it in¬
to a circular form, as abed, which being viewed oblique¬
ly, appears elliptical, Plate XLI. fig. 3. Place a lighted
candle on a table, arid having fixed one end of a filk
thread K, to the north pole of a fmall terreftrial globe H,
about three inches diameter, caufe another perfon to
hold the wire circle, fo that it may be parallel to the
table, and as high as the flame of the candle /, which
fliould be in or near the centre. Then, having twilled the
thread as towards the lef«r>diS.nd, that by untwiiling it
may turn the globe round eaftward, or contrary to the
way that the hands of a watch move; hang the globe
by the thread within this circle, almoft,contiguous to it;
and as the thr£*d'untwills, the globe (which is enlight¬
ened half round by the candle as the earth is by the fun)
will turn round its axis, and the different places upon it
will be carried through the light and dark hemifpheres,
and have the appearance of a regular fucceflion of days
and nights, as our earth has in reality by fuch a motion.
.As the'globe turns, move your hand (lowly, fo as to
carry the globe round the candle according to the order
of the letters abed, keeping its centre even with the
wire circle ; and you will perceive, that the candle be¬
ing Hill perpendicular to the equator, will enlighten the
globe from pole to pole in its whole motion round the
circle; and that every place on the globe goes equally
through the light and the dark, as it turns round by the
untwilling of the thread, and therefore has a perpetual
equinox. The globe, thus turning round, reprefents the
earth turning round its axis ; and the motion of the
globe round the candle reprefents the earth’s annual mo¬
tion round the fun, and Ihews, that if the earth’s orbit
had no inclination to its axis, all the days and nights of
the year would be equally long, and there would be no
different feafons. But how, delire the perfon who holds
the wire, to hold it obliquely in the pofition A BCD,
raifing the fide julf as much as he depreffes the fide
rs. that the flame may be Hill in the plane of the circle ;
and twilling the thread as before, that the globe may
turn round its axis, the fame way as you carry it round
thr candle,. that is, from- weft to eaft, let the globe
down into the lowermoft part of the wire circle at rs,
and if the circle be properly inclined, the candle will
fhine perpendicularly on the tropic of Cancer, and the
frigid zone,Tying within the ardic or north polar circle,
will be all in the light, as in the figure; and will keep in
the light, let the globe turn round its axis ever fo often.
From the equator to the north polar circle all the places
have longer days and fhorter nights; but from the equa-
N O M Y.
tor to the fouth polar circle juft the reverfe. The fun
does not fet to any part of the north frigid zone, as
Ihewn by the candle’s ftiining on it, fo that the motion
of the globe can carry no place of that zone into the
dark : And, at the fame time, the fouth frigid zone is
involved in darknefs, and the turning of the globe brings
none of its places into the light. If the earth were to
continue in the like part of its orbit, the fun would never
fet to the inhabitants of the north frigid zone, nor rife
to thofe of the fouth. At the equator it would be al¬
ways equal day and night; and as places are gradually
.more and more diftant from the equator, towards the
ardic circle, they would have longer days and fborter
nights ; whilft thofe on the fouth fide of the equator
would have their nights longer than their days. In this
cafe there would be continual fummer on the north fide
of the equator, and continual, winter on the fouth fide
of it.
But as the globe turns round its axis, move your hand
flowly forward, fo as to carry the globe from H towards
E, and the boundary of light and darknefs will approach
towards the north pole, and recede towards the fouth
pole; the northern places will go through lefs and lefs
of the light, and the fouthern places through more and
more of it; (hewing how the northern days decreafe in
length, and the fouthern days increafe, whilft the globe
proceeds from H to E. When the globe is at E, it is at
a mean (late between the lowed and higheft part of its
orbit; the candle is diredlly over the equator, the boun-
#dary of light and darknefs juft reaches to both the poles,
and all places on the globe go equally through the light
and dark hemifpheres. (hewing that the days and nights
are then equal at all places of the earth, the poles only
excepted; fpr the fun is then fetting to the north pole,
and rifing to the fouth pole.
Continue moving the globe forward, arid as it goes thro’
the quarter rl, the north pole recedes dill farther into
the dark hemifphere, and the fouth pole advances more
into the light, as the globe comes nearer to 2B • And
when it comes there at F, the candle is direftly over the
tropic of Capricorn, the days are' at the (horteft, and
nights at the longed, in the northern hemifphere, all the
way from the equator to the arctic circle; and the re¬
verfe in the fouthern hemifphere from the equator to the
antardlic circle; within which circles it is dark to the
north frigid zone, and light to the fouth.
Continue both motions, and as the globe moves
through the quarter B, the north pole advances towards
the light, and the fouth pole recedes towards the dark ;
the days lengthen in the northern hemifphere, and
ftiorten.in the fouthern ; and when the globe comes to
G, the candle will be again over the equator (as when
the globe was at E) ana the days and nights will again be
equal as formerly; and the north pole will be juTFco-
ming into the light, the fouth pole going out of it.
Thus we fee the reafon why the days lengthen and
(horten from the equator to the polar circles every
year;, why there is no day or night for fevera; turnings
of the earth, within the polar circles; why there is but
one day and one night in the whole year at the poles ;
and why the days and nights are equally long all the
year.
ASTRO
year round at the equator, which is always equally cut
by the circle bounding'light and;darknefs.
The inclination of ;in axis or orbit is merely relative,
becanfe we compare it with fome' other axis or orbit
which we confider as not inclined, at all. T. hus, mur ho¬
rizon being level to us whatever place of the earth we
are upon, we confider it as having no inclination ; and
yet, if we travel 90 degrees from that place, we fhall
then have an horizon perpendicular to the former, but
•it will llill be level to us. And if this book be held lb
that the circle 4B€D‘be parallel to the horizon, both
the circle abed, and the thread or axis K, will be incli¬
ned to it. But if the book or plate be held fo that the
thread be perpendicular to the horizon, then the orbit
4BCD will be inclined to the thread, and the orbit abed
perpendicular to it,-and parallel to the horizon. We
generally-confider the earth’s annual ’orbit as having no
inclination, and the orbits of - all the other planets as in¬
clined to it.
Let us now take a view of the earth in its annual
courfe round the fun, Confidering its orbit as Jraving no
inclination, and its axis as inclining 23-I- degrees from a
line perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, and keeping
the fame oblique diredlion in all parts of its annual
courfe; or, as commonly termed, keeping always paral¬
lel to itfelf.
In Plate XLI. fig. 4. let abccfefgh be the. earth in
eight different parts of its orbit, equidillant from one
another. Ns its axis, N the north pole, s the fouth
pole, and S the fun nearly in the centre of the earth’s
orbit. As the earth goes round the fun according to
the order of the letters abed, &c. its axis Ns keeps
the fame obliquity, and is Hill parallel to the line
MNs. When the earth is at a, its north pole in¬
clines toward the fun S, and-brings all the northern
places more into the light than at any other time of the
year. But when the earth is at e in the oppofite time of
the year, the north pole declines from the fun, which oc-
cafions the northern places to be more in the dark than
in the light; and the reverfe at the fouthern places, as
is evident by the figure. When the earth is either at c
or g, its axis inclines not either to or from the fun, but
lies lidewife to him, and then the poles are in the boun¬
dary of light and darknefs; and the fun, being dire&ly
over the equator, makes equal day and night at all places4
When the earth is at b, it is half way between the fum-
mer folftice and harveft equinox; when it is at d, it is
half way from the harveft equinox to the winter folftice;
at f, half way from the winter folftice to the fpring er
quinox; and at half way from the fpring equinox to.
the fummer folftice.
From this oblique view of the earth’s orbit, let us
fuppofe ourfelves to be raifed far above it, and . placed
juft over its centre 5; looking down, upon it from its
north pole; and as the earth’s orbit differs but very little
from a circle, we lhalLhave its figure in fuch .a view repre-
fented by the circle 4BCDEFGH (Plate XL1L fig.. 1.).
Let us fuppofe this circle to be divided into-12 equal
parts, called Jigns, having their names affixed to them ;
and each fign into 30 equal parts, called degrees, xmm-
bered 10, 20, 30, as in the outermoft circle of. the fi-
N O M ¥. 455
gure,: which reprefents the great ecliptic in the heavens.
The earth is ftiewn in eight different pofitions in this-
circle, and in each pofition JE is the equator, T the tio-
pic of Cancer, the dotted circle the parallel of London,
U the anftic or north polar circle, and P the north pole,.
where all the meridians or hour-circles meet. As the
earth goes round the fun, the north pole keeps conftantly
towards one part of the heavens, as it keeps in the figure
towards the right-hand fide of the plate.
When the earth is at the beginning of Libra, namely, on
the 20th of March, in this figure (as at g in Plate XLI.
fig. 4.) the fun S as feen from the earth appears at the begin¬
ning of Aries in the oppofite part of the heavens, the north
pole is juft coming into the light, and the fun is vertical
to the equator; which, together with the tropic of Can¬
cer, parallel of London, and arffic circle, are all equal¬
ly cut by the circle bounding light and darknefs, coinci¬
ding with the fix o’clock hour-circle, and therefore the
days and nights are equally long at all places ; for every
part of the meridian JE TLa. comes into the light at fix
in the morning, and revolving with the earth according
to the order of the hour-letters, goes into the dark at
fix in the evening. There are 24 meridians orhour-cir-
des drawn on the earth in this figure, to ftiew the time
of fun-rifing and fetting at different feafons of the year.
As the earth moves in the ecliptic according to the or¬
der of the letters A BCD, See. through the figns Libr’a,
Scorpio, and Sagittarius, the north pole comes more and
more into the light; the days increafe as the nights de-
creafe in length, at all places north of the equator JE;
which is plain by viewing the earth at b on the jth of
May, when it is in the xyth degree of Scorpio, and the
fun as feen from the earth appears in the 15th degree of
Taurus ; for then the tropic of Cancer 7" is in the light
from a little after five in the morning till almoft feven in
the evening; the parallel of London from half an hour
paft four till half an hour paft feven; the polar circle 1/
from three till nine; and a large track round the north
pole P has-day. all the 24 hours, for many rotations of
the. earth on its axis-.
When the earth comes to c at the beginning of Capricorn;
and the fun as feen from the earth appears at the beginning
of Cancer on the 21ft of June, as in this figure, it is in
the pofition a in Plate XLI. fig. 4.; and its north pole
inclines towards the fun, fo as to bring all tbe-north fri¬
gid zone into the light, and the northern parallels of la¬
titude more into the light than the dark from-the equator
to the polar circle, and the more fo as they are farther
from the equator. The tropic of Cancer is m the light
from five in the morning till feven at night; the parallel
of London from a quarter before four till a quarter af¬
ter eight; and the polar circle juft touches the dark, fo
that the fun has only the lower half of his di(k hid from
the inhabitants on that circle for a few minutes about
midnight, fuppofing no-inequalities in the horizon, and
no refractions.
A bare view of the figure is enough’to (hew, that as
the earth advances-from Capricorn towards Aries, and
the fun appears to move from Cancer towards Libra,
the north pole recedes towards the dark, which caufes
the days to decreafe, and the nights to increafe in length,
"’till
ASTRO
rill the earth comes to the beginning of Aries, and then
they are equal as before; for the boundary of light and
darknefs cut the equator and all its parallels equally or
in halves. The north pole then goes into the dark, and
continues therein until the earth goes half way round its
orbit, or from the 23d of September till the 20th of
March. In the middle between thefe times, viz. on
the 2 2d of December, the north pole is as far as it can
be in the dark, which is 234 degrees, equal to the incli¬
nation of the earth’s axis from a perpendicular to its or¬
bit; and then the northern parallels are as much in the
dark as they were in the light on the 21ft of June; the
winter nights being as long as the fummer days, and the
winter days as (hort as the fummer nights. It is needlefs
to enlarge farther on this fubjedt, as we lhall have occa-
fion to mention the feafons again in defcribing the orrery.
Only this mull be noted, that all that has been faid of
the northern hemifphere, the contrary mult be underltood
of the fouthern; for on different fides of the equator the
feafons are contrary, becaufe when the northern hemi¬
fphere inclines towards the fun, the fouthern declines
from him.
As Saturn goes round the fun, his obliquely polited
ring, like our earth’s axis, keeps parallel.to itfelf, and is
therefore turned edgewife to the fun twice in a Saturnian
year, which is almolt as long as 30 of our years. But
the ring, though confiderably broad, is too thin to be
feen by us when it is turned round edgewife to the fun,
at which time it is alfo edgewife to the earth, and there¬
fore it difappears once in every fifteen years to us. As
the fun fhines half a year together on the north pole of
our earth, then difappears to it, and Ihines as long on
the fouth pole; fo, during one half of Saturn’s year,
the fun Ihines on the north fide of his ring, then difap¬
pears to it, and Ihines as long on its fouth fide. When
the earth’s axis inclines neither to nor from the fun, but
lidewife to him, he inftantly ceafes to Urine on one pole,
and begins to enlighten the other; and when Saturn’s
ring inclines neither to nor from the fun, but fidewife to
him, he ceafes tolhine-on the one fide of it, and begins
to Ihine upon the other.
The earth’s orbit being elliptical, and the fun con-
llantly keeping in its lower focus, which is 1,377,000
miles from the middle point of the longer axis, the earth
comes twice fo much, or 2,754,000 miles nearer the fun
at one time of the year than at another; for the fun ap¬
pearing under a larger angle in our winter than fummer,
proves that the earth is nearer the fun in winter. But
here this natural queftion will arife, Why have we not
the hotteft weather when the earth is neareft the fun ?
In anfwer, it mult be obferved, that the excentricity of
the earth’s orbit, or 1 million 377 miles, bears no great¬
er proportion to the earth’s mean dillance from the fun
than 17 does to 1000; and therefore this fmall differ¬
ence of dillance cannot occafion any great difference of
heat or cold. But the principal caufe of this difference
is, that in winter the funs rays fall fo obliquely upon ns,
that any given number of them is fpread over a much
greater portion of the earth’s furface where we live, and
'therefore each point mull then have fewer rays than in
i ummer. Moreover, there conies a greater degree of cold
N O M Y.
in the long winter nights than there can return of heat
in fo Ihort days; and on both thefe accounts the cold
mull increafe. But in fummer, the rays fall more per¬
pendicularly upon us, and therefore come with greater
force, and in greater numbers on the fame place; and
by their long continuance, a much greater degree of heat
is imparted by day than can fly off by night.
Chap. IX. The Method of finding the Lon~
gitude by the Eclipfes of Jupiter's Satellites:
The amazing Velocity of Light dmonjlrated
by thefe Eclipfes.
Geographers arbitrarily chufe to call the meridian
of fome remarkable place the fir ft meridian. There
they begin their reckoning ; and juft fo many degrees and
minutes as any other place is to the eaftward or weftward
of that meridian, fo much eaft or weft longitude they
fay it has. A degree is the 360th part of a circle, be
it great or fmali; and a minute the 60th part of a de¬
gree. The Englifh geographers reckon the longitude
from the meridian of the Royal Obfervatory at Green¬
wich, and the French from the meridian of Paris.
If we imagine 12 great circles, (Plate XLII. fig. 1.)
■one of which is the meridian of any given place, to interfeci
each other in the two poles of the earth, and to cut the
equator JE at every 15th degree, they will be divided by
the poles into 24 femicircles which divide the equator in¬
to 24 equal parts ; and as the earth turns on its axis, the
planes of thefe femicircles come fucceflivdy after one an¬
other every hour to the fun. As in an hour of time tj*re
is a revolution of 15 degrees of the equator, in a minute
of time there will be a revolution of 15 minutes of the
equator, and in a fecond of time a revolution of x j fe-
conds.
Becaufe the fun enlightens only one half of the earth
at once, as it turns round its axis, he rifes to fome places
at the fame moments of abfolute time that he fets to o-
thers; and when it is mid-day to fome places, it is mid¬
night to others. The XII on the middle of the earth’s
enlightened fide, next the fun, ftands for mid-day; and
the oppofite XII on the middle of the dark fide, for mid¬
night. If we fuppofe this circle of hours to be fixed in
the plane of the equino&ial, and the earth to turn round
within it, any particular meridian will come to the dif¬
ferent hours fo as to fhew the true time of the day or
night at all places on that meridian. Therefore,
To every place 15 degrees eaftward from any given
meridian, it is noon an hour fooner than on that meri¬
dian, becaufe their meridian comes to the fun hour
fooner; and to all places 15 degrees weftward, it is
noon an hour later, becaufe their meridian comes an hour
later to the fun, and fo on; every 15 degrees of motion
caufing an hour’s difference in time. Therefore, they
who have noon an hour later than we, have their meri¬
dian, that is, their longitude, 15 degrees weftward from
us; and they who have qoon an hour fooner than we,
have their meridian 15 degrees eaftward from ours ; and
fo for every hour’s difference of time 15 degrees differ¬
ence
KliUeXLl.
ASTRO
rence of longitude. Confequently, if the beginning or
ending of a lunar eclipfe be obferved, fuppofe at Lon¬
don, to be exaftly at midnight, and in fome other place
at 11 at night, that place is 15 degrees weftward from
the meridian of London ; if the fame eclipfe be obferved
at 1 in the morning at another place, that place is x 5 de¬
grees eaftward from the laid meridian.
But as it is not eafy to determine the exatt moment
either of the beginning or ending of a lunar eclipfe, be-
caufe the earth’s lhadow, through which the moon paffes,
is faint and ill defined about the edges, we have recourfe
to the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites, which difappear fo
inllantaneoufly as they enter Jupiter’s ihadow, and e-
merge fo fuddenly out of it, that we may fix the pheno¬
menon to half a fecond of time. The firfl: or neareft
fatellite to Jupiter is the moft advantageous for this pur-
pofe, becaufe its motion is quicker than the motion of
any of the reft, and therefore its immerfions and emer-
fions are more frequent.
The Englifti aftronomers have calculated tables for
(hewing the times of the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites
to great precifion, for the meridian of Greenwich. Now,
let an obferver, who has thefe tables, with a good tele-
fcope and a well-regulated clock at any other place of
the earth, obferve the beginning or ending of an eclipfe
of one of Jupiter’s fatelhfes, and note the precife mo¬
ment of time that he faw the fatellite either immerge into,
or emerge out of the (hadow, and compare that time
with the time (hewn by the tables for Greenwich ; then,
15 degrees difference of longitude being allowed for e-
very hour’s difference of time, will give the longitude
of that place from Greenwich, as above; and if there
be any odd minutes of time, for every minute a qua> ter
of a degree, eaft or weft, muft be allowed, as the time
of obfervation is later or earlier than the time (hewn by
the tables. Such eclipfes are very convenient for this
purpofe at land, becaufe they happen almoft every day;
but are of no ufe at fea, becaufe the rolling of the (hip
hinders all nice telefcopical obfervations.
. To explain this by a figure, in Plate XLII. fig. x.
let J be Jupiter, K, L, M, iVhis four fatellites in their
refpedtive orbits, 1, 2, 3, 4; and let the earth be at f,
(fuppofe in November, although that month is no other-
wife material than to find the earth readily in this
fcheme, where it is (hewn in eight different parts of its
orbit). Let be a place on1 the- meridian of Green¬
wich, and R a place on fome other meridian eaftward
from Greenwich. Let a perfon at R obferve the inftan-
taneous vaniftiing of the firft fatellite K into Jupiter’s
fhadow, fuppofe at three o)clock in the morning; but
by the tables he finds the immerfion of that fatellite to be
at midnight.at Greenwich ; he can then immediately de¬
termine, that as there are three hours difference of time be¬
tween J^and R', and that R is three hours forwarder in
reckoning than it muft be 45 degrees of eaft longitude
from the meridian of i£. Were this method as practicable
at fea as at land, any failor might almoll: as eafily, and
with equal certainty, find the longitude as the latitude.
Whilft the earth is going from C7 to E in its orbit,
only the immerfions of Jupiter’s fatellites into hi^ fha¬
dow are generally feen; and their emerfions put of
Vox-. I. Numb. 19. 3
N O M Y. 45 7
it while the earth goes from G to B. Indeed, bodt
thefe appearances may be (een of the fecond, third, and
fourth fatellite when eclipfed, whilft the earth is between
D and E, or between G and A; but never of the firft
fatellite, on account of the fmallnefs of its orbit and
the bulk of Jupiter, except only when Jupiter is diredtly
oppofite to the fun, that is, when the earth is at g; and
even then, ftridtly fpeaking, we cannot fee either the
immerfions or emerfions of any of his fatellites., becaufe
his body being direCtly between us and his conical (ha¬
dow, his fatellites are hid by his body a few moments
before they touch his fhadow p and are quite emerged
from thence before we can fee them, as it were, juft
dropping from him. And when the earth is at c, the
fun, being between it and Jupiter, hides both him and
his moons from us.
In this diagram, the orbits of Jupiter’s moons are
drawn in true proportion to his diameter; but, in pro¬
portion to the earth’s orbit, they are drawn 81 times
too large.
In whatever month of the year Jupiter is in conjunc¬
tion with the fun, or in oppofition to him, in the next
year it will be a month later at lead. For whilft the
earth goes once round the fun, Jupiter defcribes.a twelfth
part of his orbit. And therefore, when the earth has
finilhed its annual period, from being in a line with the
fun and Jupiter, it muft go as much forwarder as Jupiter
has moved in that time, to overtake him again.; juft like
the minute-hand of a watch, which muft, from any con¬
junction with the hour-hand, go once round the dial-plate
and fomewhat above a twelfth part more, to overtake
the hour hand again.
It is found by obfervation, that when the earth is be¬
tween the fun and Jupiter, as at g, his (atellites are ec¬
lipfed about 8 mffiutes fooner than they fhould be Accor-,
ding to the tables; and when the earth is at B ox C,
thele eclipfes happen about 8 minutes later than the tables
predict them Hence it is undeniably certain, that the
motion of light is not inftantanepus, fince it takes about
i6i minutes of time to go through a fpace equal to the
diameter’of the earth’s orbit, which is 162 millions of
miles in length ; and confequently the particles of light
fly about 164 thoufand 494 miles every fecond of tiine,
which is above a million of times fwifter than the motion
of a cannon-bullet. And as light is i&J minutes in.tra¬
velling acrofs .the earth’s orbit, it muft be 8^ minutes in
coming from the fun to us ; therefore if the fun were
annihilated, we fhould fee him for 8 J minutes after ; and
if he were again created, he would be gj minutes old
before we could fee him.
To illuftrate this progrefltve motion of light, (Plate
XLII. fig. 2.), 'let A/Aodi. B be the earth in two dif¬
ferent parts of its orbit, whofe diftance from each other
is 8 1 millions of miles, equal to the earth’s diftance from
the fun S. It is plain, that if the motion of light were
inftantaneous, the fatellite 1 would appear to enter into
Jupiter’s fhadow FF at the fame moment of time to a
fpeCUtor in A, as to another in B. But by many years
obfervatipns it has been found, that the immerfion of the
fatellite ’nto the fhadow is feen 8J minutes fooner when
the earth is at U, than when it is at A. And fo, as
s Z ' Mr
453 ASTRO
Mr'Romeur firfl: difcovered, the motion of light is there¬
by proved to be progreffive, and not inftantaneous, as
■was formerly believed. It is eafy to compute in what
time .the earth moves from A x.q B \ for the chord of 60
degrees of any circle is equal to the femidiameter of that
circle ; and as the earth goes through all the 360 degrees
of its orbit in a year, it goes through 60 of thofe degrees
in about 61 davs. Therefore, if on any given day, fup-
pofe the firil of June, the earth is at A, on the firfl: of
Auguft it will be at 2?; the chord, or ftraight line
being equal to DS the radius of the earth’s orbit, the
fame with' AS its didance from the fun.
As the earth moves from T) to C, through the fide
AB of its orbit, it is conftantly meeting the light of Ju¬
piter's fatellites fooner, which occafions an apparent ac¬
celeration of their eclipfes ; and as it moves through the
other half H of its orbit, from C to D, it is receding
from their light, which occafions an apparent retardation
of their eclipfes, beeaufe their light is then longer be¬
fore it overtakes the earth.
That thefe accelerations of the immerfions of Jupi¬
ter’s fatellites into his ihadow, as the earth approaches
towards Jupiter, and the retardations of their emerfions
out of his (hadovv, as the earth is going from him, are
not occafionedby any inequality arifing trom the motions
of the fatellites in excentric orbits, is plain, becauie it
affefts them all alike, in whatever parts of their orbits
they are eclipfed. Befides, they go often round their
orbits every year, and their motions are no way commen-
furate to the earth’s. Therefore, a phenomenon not to
be accounted for from the real motions of the fatellites,
but fo eafily deducible from the earth’s motion, and fo
anfwerable ihereto, muft be allowed to refult from it.
This affords one very good proof of the earth’s annual
motion.
Chap. X. Of Solar and Sydereal Time.
The fixed ftars appear to go round the earth in 23
hours 56 minutes 4 feconds, and the fun in 24 hours;
fo that the ftars gain three minutes 56 feconds upon the
fun every day, which amounts to one diurnal revolu¬
tion in a year; and therefore, in 365 miles, as mea-
fured by the returns of the fun to the meridian, there
are 366 days, as meafured by the ftars returning to it;
the former are called fclar days, and the latter fydersal.
The diameter of the earth’s orbit is but a phyfical
point in proportion to the ciftance of the ftars ; for which
reafon, and the earth’s uniform motion on its axis, any
given meridian wilt revolve from any ftar to the fame ftar
again in every abfolute turn of the earth on its axis,
without the leaft perceptible difference of time Ihewn by
a clock which goes exadlly true.
If the earth had only a diurnal motion, without an an¬
nual any given meridian would revolve from the fun to
the fun again in the fame quantity of time as from any
ftar to the fame ftar again, becaufe the fun would never
change his place with refpedt to the ftars. But as the
earth advances almqft a degree eaftward in its orbit in
the time that it turns, eaftward round its a^is^. whatever
N O M Y.
ftar pafles over the meridian on any day with the fun,
will pafs over the fame meridian on the next day when
the fun is almoft a degree (hort of it; that is, 3 minutes
56 feconds fooner. If the year contained only 360
days, as the ecliptic does 360 degrees, the fun’s appa¬
rent place, fo far as his motion is equable, would change
a degrfee every day ; and then the fydereal days would be
juft four minutes ftiorter than the folar.
In Plate XLII. fig. 3. let ABCDEFGHIKLM be
the earth’s orbit, in which it goes round the fun every
year, according to the order of the letters, that is, from
weft to e'aft; and turns round its axis the fame way from
the fun to the fun again every 24 hours. Let S be the
fun, and R a fixed ftar, at fuch an immenfe diftance, that
the diameter of the earth’s orbit bears no fenfible pro¬
portion to that diftance. Let be any particular me¬
ridian of the earth and N a given point or place upon
that meridian. When the earth is at A, the fun .S'hides
the ftar R, which would always be hid if the earth ne¬
ver removed from A; and confequently, as the earth
turns round its axis, the point N would always come
round to the fun and ftar at the fame time. But when
the earth has advanced, fuppofe a twelfth part of its
orbit from A to B, its motion round its axis will bring
the point N a twelfth part of a natural day, or two
hours, fooner to the ftar than to the fun ; for the angle
ArBn is equal to the angle ASB ; and therefore any
ftar,. which comes to the meridian at noon with the fun
when the eaith is at A, will come to the meridian at
10 in the forenoon when the earth is at B. When the
earth comes to C, the point N will have the ftar on its
meridian at 8 in the morning, ;r four hours fooner than
it comes round to the fun; foi it muft revolve from 2V to nt
before it has the fun in its meridian.' When the earth
comes to D, the point N will have the ftar on its meri¬
dian at 6 in the morning, but that point muft revolve fix
hours more from 2Vt<5 », before it has mid-day by the
fun : For now the angle ASD is a right angle, and fo
is NDh ; that is, the earth has advanced 90 degrees in
its orbit, and muft turn 90 degreee on its axis to carry
the point N from the ftar to the fun : For the ftar always
comes to the meridian when N?n is parallel to RS A ;
becaufe DS is but a point in refpeft of RS. When the
earth is at E, the ftar comes' to the meridian at 4 in
the morning; at F, at 2 in the morning; and at G, the
earth having gone half round its orbit, 2V points to the
ftar R at midnight, it being then dire&ly oppofite to the
fun ; and therefore, by the earth’s diurnal motion, the
ftar comes to the meridian 12 hours before thf fun.
When the earth is at H, the'ftar comes to the meridian
at 10 in the evening; at /, it comes to the meridian 8,.
that is, 16 hours before the fun; at K, 18 hours be¬
fore him ; at L, 20 hours ; at M, 22 ; ancf at A, equal¬
ly with the fun again.
Thus it is plain, that an abfolute turn of the earth on
its axis (which is always completed when any particular
meridian comes to be parallel to its fituation at any time of
the day before) never brings the fame meridian round from
the fun to the fun again ; but that the earth requires as
much more than one turn on its axis to finilh a nautral
day, as it lias gone forward in that time j, which, at a
mean
ASTRO
mean ftate, is a 365th part of a circle. Hence, in 365
days the earth turns 366 times round its axis; and
therefore, as a turn of the earth on its axis completes
a fydereal day, there mull; be one fydereal day more in
£ year than the number of folar days, be tire number
\vhat it will, on the earth, or any other pH nut One
turn being loft with reipedl to the number of iolar days
in a year, by the planets going round the fun ; juft as
it would be loft to a traveller, who, in going round the
earth, would lofe one day by following the apparent
diurnal motion of the fun; and coofe<]uently would
reckon one day lefs at his return (let him take what
time he would to go round the earth) than thofe who
remained all the while at the place from which they fet
out. So, if there were two earths revolving equably
on their axes, and if one remained at until the other
travelled round the fun from /I to A again,_//;«/ earth
which kept its place at A would have its iolar and fyde-
rial days always of the fame length ; and fo would have
one folar day more than the other at its return. Hence,
if the earth turned but once round its axis in a year,
and if that turn was made the fame way as the earth
goes round, the fun, there would be continual day on
one: fide of the earth, and continual night on the other.
Chap. XI. Of the Equation of Time.
The earth’s motion on its axis being perfedtly uni¬
form, and equal at all times of the year, the -fydereal
days are always precifely of an equal length; and io
would the fclar or natural days be, if the earth’s orbit
were a perfedt circle, and its axis perpendicular- to its
orbit. But the earth’s diurnal motion on an incli-
Bed axis, and its annual motion in an elliptic orbit;
eaufe the funs apparent motion in the heavens to be
unequal: For fometimes he revolves from the meridian
to the meridian again in fomewhat lefs than 24 hours,
fhewn by a well-regulated clock ; and at other times in
fomewhat more: So that the time fhewn by an equal
going clock and a true fun-dial is never the fame but on
the 1 rth of’April, the 16th of June, the 31ft of Auguft,.
and the 24th of December. The clock, if -it goes equal¬
ly and true all the year round, will be before.the fun
from the 24th of December till the 15th of April; from
that time till the 16th of June the fun will be before the
clock; from the 16th o( June till the 31ft of Auguft,
the clock will be again before the fun; and from thence
to the -24th of December the.fun will be fafter than the.
clock.
The eafieft and mqft expeditious way of drawing a me¬
ridian line is this : Make four or five concentric circles, ,
about a quarter of an inch from one another, on a flat :
board, about a foot in breadth ; and let the outmoft cir¬
cle be but little lefs than the board will contain.. Fix a
pin perpendicularly in the centre, arid of fuch a length ;
that its whole fhado w may fall within ..the innermoft cir¬
cle, for at leaft four, hours in the middle of the day..
The pin ought to'be about an eighth part of an inch i
thick, and to have a round blunt point. The board i
beingjet.exactly level in a place where the fun fhines,
N O M Y. 459
fuppofe from eight in the morning till four in the after¬
noon, about which hours the end of the fhaclow fhould
fall without all the circles ; watch the times in the
forenoon, when the extremity of the fhortening fhadow
juft touches the ievei al circles, and there make marks.
Then, in the afternoon of the fame day, watch the
lengthening fhadow, and where its end touches the feve-
ral circles in going over them, make marks alfb. Laft-
ly, with a pair of compaffes, find exaftly the middle
point between the two marks on any circle, and draw a
ftraight line from the centre to that point; which line
will be covered at noon by the fhadow of a fmall upright,
wire, which fhould be put in'the place of the pin. The
reafon for drawing feveral circles is, that in cafe one part
of the day fhould prove clear, and the other part fome¬
what cloudy, if you mifs the time when the point of the
fhadow fhould touch one circle, you may perhaps catch
it in touching another. The beft time for drawing a me¬
ridian line, in this manner, is about the fummer folftice;
becaufe the fun changes his declination floweft, and his
altitude fafteft in the longeft.days.
If the cafement of a window on which the fun fhines
at noon, be quite upright, you may draw a line along
the edge of its fhadow on the floor, when the fhadow of
t;he pin is exadlly on the meridian line of the board ; and
as the motion of the fhadow of the cafement will be
much more fenfible on the floor, than that of the fhadow
of the pin on the board, you may,know to a few fe-
conds-when it touches the meridian line on the floor;
and fo regulate your clock for the day of obfervation by
that line and any good equation table..
As the equation of time, or difference between the
time fhewn by a well-regulated clock and a true fun-dial,
depends upon two caufes, namely, tire obliquity of the
ecliptic, and the unequal motion of the earth in it, we
fhall firft explain the effedts of thefe caufes Separately
confidered, and then the united effedts refulting from
their combination.
1 he earth’s motion on its axis being perfedtly equable, ,
or always at the fame rate, and the plane of the equator
being perpendicular to its axis, it is evident, that in equal
times equal portions of the equator pals over the meri¬
dian ; and fo would equal portions of the ecliptic, if it
were parallel to or coincident with the equator. But,
as the ecliptic is oblique to the equator, the equable,
motion of the earth carries unequal portions of ti e e-
cliptic over the meridian, in equal times, the difference
being proportionate to the obliquity ; and, as fome parts .
of tite ecliptic are much more oblique than others, thofd
differences are unequal among themfelves. . Therefore,
if two funs fhould ftart either from the beginning of Aries
or Libra, and continue to move through-equal arcs in e-
qual times, one in the equator, and the other in the e-
cliptic, the equatoreal fun would always run to the me¬
ridian in 24 hours time, as-meafured by a well-regula¬
ted clock ; but the fun in the ecliptic would return to
the meridian fometimes fooner, and fometimes later
than the equatoreal fun ; and only at the fame moments
with him on four days of; the year; namely, the 20th
of March, when the fun enters Aries; the 21ft of June,
when he enters Cancer; the 23d of September, when he .
enters s
460 . ASTRO
enters Libra; and the 21ft of December, when he en¬
ters Capricorn. But, as there is only one fun, and his
apparent motion is always on the ecliptic, let us hence¬
forth call him the real fun ; and the other, which is fup-
.poied to move in the equator, the fitlilious ; to which
ialt, the motion of a well-regulated clock always an-
fwers.
In PlateXLII. fig. 4. let Z'YzQ be the earth, ZFRz
•its axis, abcde <bc. the equator, ABCDF. ilc. the northern
half of the ecliptic from or Q on the fide of the globe
next the eye ; and MNOP See. the fouthern half on
the oppolite fide from ;Q; to °f. Let the points at
jJBCQEF See. quite round from to ‘Y’ again bound
equal portions of the ecliptic, gone through in equal
times by the real fun ; and thofe at abedef <bc. equal
portions of the equator, deferibed in equal times by the
fictitious fun ; and let Z°<Fz be the meridian.
the real fun moves obliquely in the ecliptic, and
the fidlitious fun dire&ly in the equator, with refpeft to
the meridian; a degree, or any number of degrees, be¬
tween hf and F on the ecliptic, mull: be nearer the me¬
ridian Z'Y'z; than a degree, or any conelponding num¬
ber of degrees on the equator from to f; and the
mote fo, as they are the more oblique : And therefore
the true fun comes fooner to the meridian every day
whilif he is in the quadrant ■cf F, than the fi&itious fun
does in the quadrant CY> f; for which reafon, the folar
noon piecedes no:', by the clock, until the real fun
comes to F, and the fi&itious to f; which two points,
being equidiftant Bom the meridian, bo;h funs will come
,to it precifely at noon by the clock.
Whilft the real fun deferibes the fecond quadrant of the
ecliptic FGHIKL from F to £2, he comes later to
the meridian every day, than the fiflitious fun moving
through the fecond quadrant of the equator from f to
urn ; for the points at GHIK and L, being farther from
the meridian than their correfponding points xtghik and
l, they mull: be later of coming to it: And as both funs
come at the farne moment to the point they come
to the meridian at the moment of poon by the clock.
In departing from Libra, through the third quadrants,
the real fun going through towards rs at R,
and the fiftitious fun through mnopq towards r, the
former comes to the meridian every day fooner than the
latter, until the real fun comes to m, and the fiftitious
to and then they both come to the meridian at the
fame time.
Laftly, as the real fun moves equably through STUVIV,
from rs towards <Y5; and the fidlitious fun thro’-rrauw,
from r towards ; the former comes later every day
to the meridian than the latter, until they both arrive at
the point °f, and then they make noon at the fame time
with the clock.
This part of the equation of time may perhaps be
fbmewhat difficult to underftand by a figure, becaufe
borh halves of the ecliptic feem to be on the fame fide
of the globe ; but it may be made very eafy to any per-
fun who has a real globe before him, by putting fmall
patches on every tenth or fifteenth degree, both of the
equator and ecliptic, beginning at Aries T ; and then,
turning the ball ilowly round wdhvard, he will fee all
N O M Y.
the patches from Aries-to Cancer come to the brazen me-
ridian fooner than the correfponding patches on the equa*
tor ; all thofe from Cancer to Libra will come latter to
the meridian than their correfponding patches on the e-
quator; thofe from Libra to Capricorn foqner, and
thofe from Capricorn to Aries latter: And the patches
at the beginnings of Aries, Cancer, Libra, and Capri¬
corn, being either on, or even with thofe on the-equa-
tor, {hew that the two funs either meet there, or are e-
ven with one another, and fo come to the meridian at
the fame moment.
Let us fuppofe that there are two little balls moving
equably round a celeftial globe by clock-work, one al¬
ways keeping in the ecliptic, and gilt with gold, to re-
prefent the real fun ; and the other keeping in the equa¬
tor, and filvered, to reprefe'nt the fictitious fun: And
that whilft thefe balls move once round the globe, ac¬
cording to the order of figns, the clock turns the globe
366 times-round its axis weftward. The ftars will make
366 diurnal revolutions from the brafen meridian to it a-
gain; and die two balls reprefenting the real and fic¬
titious fun always going farther eaftward from any gi¬
ven liar, will come later than it to the meridian every fol¬
lowing day; and each bail will make 365 revolutions to
the meridian; coming equally to it at the beginnings of
Aries, Cancer, Libra, and Capricorn: But in every o-
ther point of the ecliptic, the gilt ball will come either
fooner or latter to the meridian than the filver bail, like
the patches above mentioned.
This would be a pretty enough way of {hewing the rea¬
fon why any given liar, which, on a certain day of the
year, comes to the meridian with the fun, paffes over it
fo much fooner every following day, as on that day
{welvemonth to come to the meridian with the fun again ;
and alfo to {hew the reafon why the real fun comes to
the meridian fometimes fooner, fometimes later, than it
is noon by the clock; and, on four days of the year, at
the fame time; whilft the fictitious fun always comes to
the meridiafi w"hen it is twelve at noon by the clock.
This would be no difficult tafle for an artift t'o perform ;
for the gold ball might be carried round the ecliptic by
a wire from its north pole, and the filver ball round
the equator by a wire from its fouth pole, by mein of.
a few wheels to each.
It is plain, that if the ecliptic were more obliquely po-
fited to the equator, as the doted circle the
equal divifions from tY) t0 X would come ftill foonei to
the meridian ZoT than thofe marked ABCD and E do ;
for two divifions containing 30 degrees, from ‘T'to the
fecond dot, a little ffiort of the figure 1, come fooner to
the meridian than one divifion containing only 15 degrees
from T to ^-does, as the ecliptic now ftands; and thofe
of the fecond quadrant from X to would be fo much
later. The third quadrant would be as the firft, and
the fourth as the fecond. And it is likewife plain, that
where the ecliptic is moft oblique, namely, about Aries and
Libra, the difference would be greateft ; and lead about
Cancer and Capricorn, where the obliquity is leaft.
Having explained one caiife of the difference of time
(hewn by a well-regulated clock and a true fun-dial;
and confidered the fun, not the earth, as.moving in the
ecliptic
I
/
ASTRO
ecliptic : We now proceed to explain the other caufe of
this difference, namely, the inequality of the fun’s ap¬
parent motion, which is floweft in the fummer, when the
the fun is farthefl: from the earth, and fwiftelt in winter
when he is neareft to it. But the er. th’.s motion on its
axis is equable all the year round, and is performed
from weft to eaft; which is the way that the fun appears
to change his place in the ecliptic.
If the fun’s motion were equable in the ecliptic, the
whole difference, between the equal time as fhewn by a
clock, and the unequal time as (hewn by the fun, would
arife from the obliquity of the ecliptic. But the fun’s
motion fometimes exceeds a degree in 24 hours, though
generally it is left: And when his motion is flowed, any
particular njeridian will revolve fooner to him than when
his motion is quickeft; for it will overtake him in left
time when he advances a leftffpace than when he moves
through a larger. ^
Now, if there were two funs moving in the plane of
the ecliptic, fo as to go round it in a year ; the one defcri-
bing an equal arc every 24 hours, and the other defcri-
bing fometimes a left arc 24 hours, and at other times a
larger, gaining at one time of the year what it loft at
the oppofl.te; it is evident that either of thefe funs would
come fooner or latter to the meridian than the other,
as it happened to be behind or befor,e the other: and
when they were both in conjunftion, they would come to
the meridian at the fame moment.
As the real fun moves unequably^n the ecliptic, let us
fuppofe a fiAitious fun to move equably in a circle coinci¬
dent with the plane of the ecliptic. In Plate XLIII. fig. 1.
let ABCD be the ecliptic or orbit in which the real fun
moves, and the doted circle abed the imaginary orbit of the
fi&itious fun ; each going round in a year according to the
order of letters, or from weft to eaft. Let HIKL be the
earth turning round its axis the fame way'every 24 hours ;
and fuppofe both funs to ftart frbm A and a, in a right
line with the plane of the meridian EH, at the fame mo¬
ment; the real fun at ^ being then at his greateft di-
ftance from the earth, at which time his motion is
floweft ; and the fiAitiqus fun at a, whofev motion is al¬
ways equable, becaufe "his diftance from the earth is fup-
pofed to be always the fame. In the time that the meridian
revolves from H to H again, according to the order of
the letters HIKL, the real fun has moved from A to F;
and the iiAitious with a^quicker motion from a to f,
through a larger arc . Therefore, the meridian EH will
revolve fooner from H to h under the real fun at F, than
from H to k under the fictitious fun at f; and confequent-
ly it will then be noon, by the fun-dial fooner than by
the clock.
As the y;a! fun moves from A towards C, the fwi£t-
nefs of his motion increafes all the way to C, where it is
at the quickeft. But notwithftanding this, the fictitious
fun gains fo much upon the real, foon after his departing
from A, that the increafing velocity of the, real fun does
not bring him up with the equally moving fictitious fun
till -the former comes to C, and the latter to c, when each
has gone half round its refpeCtive orbit; and then being in
conjunction, the meridian EH relvolving to EK comes
Vol. I. No. 20.. 3
N O M 461
to both funs at the fame time, and therefore it is noon
by them both at the.fame moment.
But the increafing velocity of the real fun, now be¬
ing at the quickeft, carries him before the fictitious one ;
and therefore, the fame meridian will come to the ficti¬
tious fun fooner than to the real : For, whilft the ficti¬
tious fun moves from c to g, the real fun moves through
a greater arc from C to G ; confequently the point K has
its noon by the clock when it comes to I, but not its
noon by the fun till it come to /. And although the velo¬
city of the real fun diminilhes all the way from C to A,
and the fiCHtious fun by an equable motion is ftill coming
nearer to the real fun, yet they are not in conjunction till
the one comes to A and the other to a; and then it is
noon by them both at the fame moment.
Thus it appears, that the folar noon is always later
than noon by the clock, whilft the fun goes from F to A%
fooner whilft he goes from A to C; and at thefe points
the fun and clock being equal, it is noon by them both
at the fame moment.
The point A is called, the fun’s apogee, becaufe
when he is there he is at his greateft diftance from
the earth; the point C \\\% perigee, becaufe when in it
he is at his leaft diftance from the earth ; and'a right
line, as AEG, drawn through the earth’s centre, from
one of thefe points to the other, is called//;*- line of-the
apfides.
The diftance that the fun has gone in any time from
his apogee (not the diftariee he has to go to it, though
ever fo little) is called his mean anomaly, and is reckon¬
ed in figns and degrees, allowing 30 degrees to a fign._
Thus, when the fun has gone, fuppofe 174 degrees from
his apogee at A, he is faid to be 5 figns 24 degrees from
it, which is his mean anomaly: And when he is gone,
fuppofe 35:5 degrees from his apogee, he is faid to be 11
figns 25 degrees* from it, although he be but 5 degrees
ftiort of A in coming round to it again.
From what was faid above, it appears, than when the1
fun’s anomaly is left than 6 figns, that is, when he is
any where between A and C, in the half ABC of his
orbit, the folar noon precedes the clock noon; but when
his anomaly is more than 6 figns, that is, when he is a-
ny where between C and A, in the half CD A of his
orbit, the clock noon precedes.the folar. When his. ano¬
maly is o figns o degrees, that is, when he is in his a-
pogee zt A \ or 6 figns o degrees, which is when he is .
in his perigee at C; he comes to the meridian at the^ mo¬
ment that the fictitious fun dbes, and then it is noon by
them both at the fame inftant.
The obliquity of the ecliptic to the equator, which is
the firft mentioned caufe of the equation of time, would
make the fun and clocks agree on four days of the year ;
which are, when the fun enters Aries, Cancer, Libra,
an4 Capricorn: But the other caufe, now explained,
wpuld- make the fun and clocks equal only twice a. year;
that is, when the fun is in his apogee and perigee. Con¬
fequently, when thefe two points fall in the beginnings
of Cancer and Capricorn, or of Aries and Libra, they
concur in^naking the fun and clocks equal in thefe points.
But the apogee at prefect is in the 9th degree of Cancer,
6 A and
5 62 ASTRO
and the perigee in the 9th degree of Capricorn, and there¬
fore the fun and clocks cannot be equal about the begin¬
ning of thefe figns, nor at any time of the year, except
when the fwiftnefs or flownefs of equation refulting from
One caufe juft balances the flownefs or fwiftnefs arilmg
from the other.
Chap. XII. Of the PreceJJion of the
Equinoxes.
It is a known fa<ft, that there is a greater quantity
of matter accumulated -all round the equatoreal parts of
the earth than any where elfe.
The fun and moon, by attracting this redundancy of
matter, bring the equator fooner under them in every
return towards it, than if there was no fuch accumula¬
tion. Therefore, if the fun fets out, as from any ftar,
or other fixed point in the heavens, the moment when
he is departing from the equinoctial or from either tropic,
he will come to the fame equinox or tropic again 20
min. 174 fee. of time, or 50 feconds of a degree, be¬
fore he completes his courfe, fo as to arrive at the
fame fixed ftar or point from whence he fet out. For,
tire equinoctial points recede 50 feconds of a degree
•weftward every year, contrary to the fun’s annual pro-
greflive motion.
When the fun arrives at the fame equinoctial or folfti-
ti'al point, he finilhes what we call the tropical year ;
which, by obfervation, is found to contain 365 days
5 hours 48 minutes 57 feconds : And, when he ar¬
rives at the fame fixed ftar again, as feen from the earth,
he completes the fyderealyear, which contains 365 days
6 hours 9 minutes 144 feconds. The fydereal year is
therefore 20 minutes 174 feconds longer than the folar
or tropical year; and 9 minutes 144 feconds longer
th.an the Julian or civil year, which we-ftate 'at 365 days
N O M Y.
6 hours: So that the civil year is almoft a mean be¬
twixt the fydereal and tropical.
As the fun deferibes the whole ecliptic, or 360 de¬
grees, in a tropical year, he moves 59 minutes 8 fe¬
conds of a degree -.very day at a mean rate ; and con-
fequently 50 feconds of a degree in 20 minutes 174 fe¬
conds of time : Therefore, he will arrive at the fame e-
quinox or folftice when he is 50 feconds of a degree
fliort of the fame ftar or fixed point in the heavens from
which he fet out in the year before. So that, with re-
fpedt to thev fixed ftars, the fun and equinoftial points
fall back (as it were) 30 degrees in 2160 years; which
will make the ftars appear to have gone 30 degrees
forward, with refpeft to the figns of the ecliptic in that
time : For the fame figns always keep in the fame points
of the ecliptic," without regard to the conftellations.
To explain this by a figure, (Plate XLIII. fig. 1.) let
the fun be in conjunction with a fixed ftar at 5, fuppofe
in the 30th degree of ^ on the 21ft of May 1756. Then,
making 2160 revolutions through theecliptic VIVX, at the
end of fo many fydereal years, he will be found again at
S: But at the end of fo many Julian years, he will be
found at M, ihort of S; and at the end of fo many
tropical years, he will be found Ihort of M in the 30th
degrees of Taurus at T, which has receded back from
$ to T in that time, by the preceflion of the equinoctial
points V5 Aries and dX Libra. The arc ST will be equal
to the amount of the preceflion of the equinox in 2160
years, at the rate of jo feconds of a degree, or 20 mi¬
nutes 174 feconds of time, annually : This, in fo many
years, makes 30 days 104 hours ; which is the difference
between 2160 fydereal and tropical years : And the arc
MT will be equal to the fpace moved through by the
fun in 2160 times 11 minutes 3 feconds, or 16 days
13 hours 48 minutes, which is the difference between
2x60 Julian and tropical years.
A
ASTRONOMY.
^Table /hewing the Precefion of the Equinoflial Points in the Hea¬
vens, both in Motion and Time; and the Anticipation of the Equi¬
noxes on Earth.
Julian
years.
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
yoo
600
700
800
900
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
20000
25:920
Proceflion of the Equinoxial Points in
the Heavens.
o 50
1 40
2 30
3 20
4 10
5 o
5 jo
6 40
7 3°
8 20
o 16 40
o 25 o
o 33 20
o 41 40
o 50 o
O 58 20
i . 6 40
i 15 o
1 23 20
2 46 40
33 20
56 40
20 o
43 20
o 13
o 27
I 11
6 40
30 o
53 20
46 40
40 o
1 25
2 9
2 23
3 7
3 21
33 20
26 40
13 20
6 40
53 20
46 40
Time.
Days. H. M. S.
o 20 17t
o 40 3 j
x q 524-
1 21 10
I 41 27i
2 I 45
2 22 2t
2 42 20
3 2 374
3 22 55
6 45 50
10 8 45
13 31 40
16 54 35
20 17 30
o 23 40 25
1 3 3 20
1 6 26 15
1 9 49 10
2 19 38 20
5 27 30
15 16 40
1 5 50
10 55 o
20 44 10
6 33 20
16 22 30
2 11 40
4 23 20
6 35 o
8 46 40
10 58 20
13 10 o
15 21 40
17 33 20
19 45 o
21 56 40
19 53 20
600
Anticipation of the
Equinoxes on the
Earth.
D. H. M. S.
on 3
o 22 6
0 33 9
o 44 12
O 55 15
6 18
17 21
28 24
39 27
50 30
3 4i
5 3i
7
9
12 30
3 °
o 12 53
o 14 44
o 16 34
o 18 25
1 12 50
2 7 15
3 1 40
3 20 5
4 14 3°
5 8 ss
6 3 20 o
6 21 45 o
7 16 10 o
15 8 20 &
23 o 30 o
30 16 40
38 8 50
46 1 o
53 17 10
61 9 20
69 1 30
76 17 40
153 11 20
198 21 36
4*3
From.
ASTRONOMY.
Frorp the Ihifting of the equinp&ial points, and with
them all the figns of the ecliptic, it follows, that thofe
liars which, in the Infancy of aflronomy, were in Aries,
are now got into Taurus ; thofe of Taurus into Gemini,
6 c. Hence likewife it is, that the flats which rofe or
let at any particular feafon of the year, in the times of
Heftod, Eudoxius, Virgil, Pliny, 6c. by no means an-
fwer at this time to their defcriptions. The preceding
table fhews the quantity of this fhifting both in the hea¬
vens and on the earth, for any nnmber, of years to
25,920, which compleats the grand celeftial period;
within which any number and its quantity is eafily found.
as in the following example, for 5763 years; which, at
the autumnal equinox, A. D. 1756, is thought to be the
age of the world. So that with regard to the fixed
ftars, the equino&ial points in the heavens have receded
2s 200 2 2,0" fince the creation; which is as much as
the fun moves in 8id 5h om 52s. And fince that time,
or in 5763 years, the equinoxes with us have fallen back
44d 5h 2im 9s; hence, reckoning from the time of the
Julian equinox,D. 1756, viz. Sept, nth, it ap¬
pears, that the autumnal equinox at the creation was on
the 25th of Odlober.
Julian
years.
60
3
5763
Preceffion of the Equinoftial Points in
the Heavens.
9 26 40
9 43 20
o 50 o
O 2 30
20 2 30
D. H. M. S.
70 10 58 20
9 20 44 to
o 20 rl7 30
O I o 52
81 5 o 52
Anticipation of
the Equinoxes
on the Earth.
D. H. M. S.
38 8 50 o
5 8 55 o
o 11 3 o
o o 33 9
44 $ 21 9
The anticipation of the equinoxes, and confequently
' of the feafons, is by no means owing to the preceffion of
the equinodfiaband folftitial points in the heavens, (which
can only affeft the apparent motions, places, and decli¬
nations of the fixed liars), but to the difference between
the civil and folar year, which is 11 minutes 3 feconds;
the civil year containing 365 days 6 hours, and the fo¬
lar year 365 days 5 hours qS1 minutes 57 feconds.
The above 11 minutes 3 feconds, by which the civil
or Julian year exceeds the folar, amounts to 11 days in
1433 years; and fo much our feafons have fallen back
with refpedt to the days of the months, fince the time
of the Nicene Council in A. D. 325, and therefore in
order to bring back all the falls and fellivals to the days
then fettled, it was requifite to fupprefs 11 nominal days.
And that the fame feafons might be kept to the fame
times of the year for the future, to leave out the bilfex-
tile day in February at the end of every century of years
not divifible by 4 ; reckoning them only common years,
as the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, viz. the years
1700, 1800, 1900, 6c. becaufe a day intercalated e-
very fourth year was too much, and retaining the bilfex-
tile-day at the end of thofe centuries of years which are
divifible by 4, as the 16th, 20th, and 24th centuries,
viz. the years 1600, 2000, 2400, 6c. Otherwife, in
length of time, the feafons would be quite reverfed with
regard to the months of the year; though it would have
required near 23,783 years to have brought about fuch
a total change. If the earth had made exa&ly 365^
diurnal rotations on its axis, whillt it revolved from any
equino&ial or folilitial point to the fame again, the civil
and folar years would always have kept pace together,
and the llyle would never have needed any alteration.
Having already mentioned the caufe of the precelllon
of the equinodlial points in the heavens, which occafions
a How deviation of the earth’s axis from its parallelifm,
and thereby a change of the declination of the liars from
the equator, together with a flow apparent motion of
the liars forward with refpedl to the figns of the eclip¬
tic ; we lhall now defcribe the phenomena by a diagram.
In Plate XLIII. fig. 2. let NZSFL be the earth,
SON A its axis produced to the Harry heavens, and ter¬
minating in A, the prefent north pole of the heavens,
which is vertical to AThe north pole of the earth. Let
EOj^be the equator, T'o^Z-the tropic of Cancer, and
VTrs the tropic of Capricorn; VOZ the ecliptic, and
its axis, both which are immoveable among the liars.
But as the equinoftial points recede in the ecliptic, the
earth’s axis SON\s in motion- upon the earth’s centre 0,
in fuch a manner as to defcribe the double cone and
and SOs, round the axis of the ecliptic BO, in the time
that the equinoftial points move quite round the ecliptic,
which is 25,920 years; and in that length of time, the
north pole of the earth’s axis produced, defcribes the
circle ABCDA in the Harry heavens, round the pole of
the ecliptic, which keeps immoveable in the centre of
that circle. The earth’s axis being 23-r degrees inclined
to the axis of the ecliptic, the circle ADCDA, defcri-
bed by the north pole of the earth’s ajtis produced to A,
is 47 degrees in diameter, or double the inclination of
the earth’s axis. In confequence of this, the point A,
which at prefent is the north pole' of the heavens, and
near to a Har of the fecond magnitude in the tail of the
conflellation called the Little Bear, mull be deferted by
the earth’s axis, which moving backwards a degree every
72 years, will be direfted towards the liar or point B in
6480
A S T R C
6480 years hence; and in double of that time, or 12,960
-years, it will be direfted towards the ftar or point C;
which will then be the north pole of the heavens, al¬
though it is at prefent Si degrees fouth of the zenith of
London L. The prefent pofition of the equator E0^_,
will then be changed into eOq; the tropic of Cancer
TSBZ, into Vt25 ; and the tropic of Capricorn VTrs,
into trsZ; as is evident by the figure. And the fun,
in the fame part of the heavens where he is now over the
earthly tropic of Capricorn, and makes the fhorteft days
and longed nights in the northern hemifphere, will then
be over the earthly tropic of Cancer, and make the days
longed and nights fhorted. So that it will require
12,960 years yet more, or 25,920 from the prefent
time, to bring the north pole N quite round, fo as to be
directed towards that point of the heavens which is ver¬
tical to it at prefent. And then, and not till then, the
fame dars which at prefent defcribe the equator, tropiqp,
and polar circles, be. by the earth’s diurnal motion,
will defcribe them over again.
Chap. XIII. The moorts furface mountain¬
ous : Her phafes deferibed . Her path and
the paths of Jupiter’ moons delineated:
The proportions of the diameters of their or¬
bits, and thofe of Saturn’s moons, to each
other, and to-ihe diameter of the Sun.
By looking at the moon with an ordinary telefcope,
we perceive that her furface is diverfified with long tracts
of prodigious high mountains and deep cavities. Some
of her mountains, by comparing their height with her
diameter (which is 2180 miles) are found to be three
times higher than the highed hills on our earth. This
ruggednefs of the moon’s furface is of great ufe to us,
by refle&ing the fun’s light to all fides; for if the
moon .were fmooth and polifhed like a looking-glafs, or
covered with water, (he could never didribute the fun’s
light all round ; only in fome pofitions the would fhew us
his image no bigger than a point, but with fuch a ludre
as would be hurtful to our eyes.
The moon’s furface being fo uneven, many have won¬
dered why her edge appears not jagged, as well as the
curve bounding the light and dark places. But if we
confider, that what we call the edge of the moon’s dilk
is not a {ingle line fet round with mountains, in which
cafe it would appear irregularly indented, but a large
zone having many mountains lying behind one another
from the obferver’s eye, we ftiall find that the mountains
in fome rows will be oppofite to the vales in others, and
fo fill up the inequalities as to make her appear quite
round; jud as when one looks at an orange, although
its roughnefs be very difcernible on the fide next the eye,
efpecially if the fun or a candle ftiines obliquely on that
fide, yet the line terminating the vilible part dill appears
fmooth and even.
As the fun can only enlighten that half of the earth
which *s at any moment turned towards him, and being
withdrawn from the oppofite half, leaves it in darknefs ;
Vox. '!. No. 20. 3
1 N O M Y. 465
fo he likewife doth to the moon; only with this differ¬
ence, that the earth being furrounded by an atjnofphere,
and the moon having none, we have twilight after the
fun fets ;■ but the lunar inhabitants have an immediate
tranfition from the brighted fun-fhine to the blacked
darknefs. For, (Plate XLIII. fig. 3.) let tkrsiv be
the earth, and ABCDEFGH the moon in eight different
parts of her orbit. As the earth turns round its axis
from wed to ead, when any place comes to t the twilight
begins there, and when it revolves from thence to r the
the fun S rifes ; when the place comes to s the fun fets,
and when it comes to ou the twilight ends. But as the
moon turns round her axis, which is only once a-month,
the moment that any point of her furface comes , to r
(fee the moon at GJ the fun rifes there without any pre¬
vious warning by twilight; and when the fame point
comes to / the fiut fets, and that point goes into darknefs
as black as at midnight.
The moon being an opaque fpherical body, (for her
hills take off no more from her roundnefs than the ine¬
qualities on the fufface of an orange takes off from its
roundnefs), we can only fee that part of the enlightened
half of her which is towards the eatth. And therefore,
when the moon is at A, in coojundtion with the fun S,
her dark half is towards the earth, and (lie difappears,
as at a,. there being no light on that half to render it vi-
fible. When ihe comes to her fird odtant at B, or has
gone an eighth ipart of her orbit from her conjunflion, a
quarter of her enlightened fide is towards the earth, and
file appears horned, as at b. When {he has gone a quar¬
ter of her orbit from between the earth and fun to C,
{he {hews us one half of her enlightened fide, as at c,
and we fay, fixe is a quarter old. At D in her fecond
odtant, and by {hewing us more of her enlightened fide
{he appears gibbous, as at d. At E her whole enlight¬
ened fide is towards the earth, and therefore Ihe ap¬
pears round, as at e, when we fay, it is full . moon.
In her third odtant at F, part of her dark fide being to¬
wards the earth, fire again appears gibbous, and is on
the decreafe, as at f. At G we fee juft one half of hef
enlightened fide, and {he appears half decreafed, or in her
third quarter, as at g. At H we only fee a quarter of
her enlightened fide, being in her fourth odtant, where
{he appears horned, as at h. And at A, having corn-
pleated her courfe from the fun to Hie fun again, Ihe dif¬
appears, and we fiy, it is new moon. Thus, in going
from A to E, the moon feems continually to increafe ;
and in going from .ff to A, to decreafe in the fame pro¬
portion ; having like phafes at equal diftances from A or
E, but as feen from the fun S, fhe is always full.
The moon appears not perfedtly round when ftie is full
in the higheft or loweft part of her orbit, becaufe we
have not a full view of her enlightened fide at that time.
When full in the higheft part of her orbit, a fmall defi¬
ciency appears on her lower edge ; and the contrary when
full in the loweft part of her orbit.
It is plain by the figure, that when the moon changes
to the earth, the earth appears full to the moon; and
vice verfa. For when the moon is at A, new to the
earth, the wdiole enlightened fide of the earth is towards
the moon.; and w hen the moon is at E, full to the earth,
6 B its
ASTRO
its dark fide is towards her. Hence a new moon anfwers
to a full earth, and a full moon to a new earth. The
quarters are alfo reveried to each other. .
Between the third quarter and change, the moon is
frequently vifible in the forenoon, even when the fun
Urines; and then (he affords us an opportunity of feeing
a very agreeable appearance, where-ever we find a glo¬
bular ftone above the level of the eye, as fuppofe on the
top of a gate. For, if the fun Ihines on the ftone, and
■we place ourfelves fo as the upper part of the fun may
juft feem to touch the point of the moon’s lowermoft
horn, we ihall then fee the enlightened part of the ftone
exa&ly of the fame drape with the moon, horned as (he
is, and inclining the fame way to the horizon. The
reafon is plain, for the fun enlightens the ftone the fame
■way as he does the moon ; and both being globes, when
we put ourfelves into the above fituation, the moon and
ftone have tire fame pofition to our eyes, and therefore
we muft fee as much of the illuminated part of the one
as of the other.
The pofition of the moon’s cufps, or a right line
touching the points of her horns, is very differently in¬
clined to the horizon at different hours of the fame days
©f her age. Sometimes {he ftands, as it were, upright
on her lower horn, and then fuch a line is perpendicular
to the horizon: when this happens, (he is in what the
aftronomers call the nonagefirual degree, which is the
higheft point of the ecliptic above the horizon at that
time, and is 90 degrees from both fides of the horizon,
where it is then cut by the ecliptic. But this never hap¬
pens when the moon is on'the meridian, except when (he
is at the very beginning of Cancer or Capricorn.
The inclination of that part of the ecliptic to the ho¬
rizon in which the moon is at any time when horned,
may be known by the pofition of her horns; for a right
line touching their points is perpendicular to the ecliptic.
And as the angle that the moon’s orbit makes with the
ecliptic can never raife her above, nor deprefs her below
the ecliptic, more than two minutes of a degree, as feen
from the fun, it can have no fenfible effedt upon the pofi¬
tion of her horns. Therefore, if a quadrant be held
up, fo as one of its edges may feem to toueh the moon’s
horns, the graduated fide being kept towards the eye,
and as far from the eye as it can be conveniently held,
the arc between the plumb-line and that edge of the qua¬
drant which feems to touch the moon’s horns, will ftiew
the inclination of that part of the ecliptic to the hori¬
zon. And the arc between the other edge of the qua¬
drant and-plumb line will, (hew the inclination of the
moon’s horns to the horizon.
The moon generally appears as large as the fun ; for the
angle vkA, (Plate XL1II. fig. 3.) under which the moon
is u.en from the earth, is the fame with the angle LkM,
under which the fun is feen from it. And therefore the
moon may hide the fun’s whole dilk from usj as fhe fome-
times does in folar eclipfes The reafon why (he does not
eclipfe the fun at every change (hall be explained afterwards.
If the moon were farther from the earth, as at {he could
never hide the whole >of the fun from us ; for then fire
would appear under the angle NkO, eclipfing’’ only that
part of. the fun which lies between iV and 0 : were file
N O M Y.
ftill further from the earth, as at X, flie would appear
under the fmall angle TkIV, like a fpot on the fun, hi¬
ding only the part 'TIV from our fight.
The moon turns round her axis in the time that ftte
goes round her orbit; which is evident from hence, that
a fpe&ator at reft, without the periphery of the moon’s
orbit, would fee all her fides turned regularly towards
him in that time. She turns round her axis from any
ftar to the fame ftar again in 27 days 8 hours; from the
fun to the fun again in 29-f days : the former is the length
of the fydereal day, and the latter the length of her fo¬
lar day. A body moving round the fun would have a
folar day in every revoiution, without turning on its axis,
the fame as if it had kept all the while at reft, and the
fun moved round it; but without turning round its axis
it could never have one fydereal day, becaufe it would
always keep the fame fide towards any given ftar.
If the earth had no annual motion, the moon would go
round it fo as to.compleat a lunation, a fydereal, and a
folar day, all in the fame time. But, becaufe the earth
goes forward in its orbit, while the moon goes round the
earth in her orbit, the moon muft go as much more than
round her orbit from change to change in compleating a
folar day, as the earth has gone forward in its orbit du¬
ring that time, i, e. almoft a. twelfth part of a circle.
The moon’s periodical and fynodical revolution may
be familiarly reprefented by the motions of the hour and
minute-hands of a watch round its dial-plate, which is
divided into 12 equal parts or hours, as the ecliptic is
divided into 12 figns, and the year into 12 months.
Let us fuppofe thefe 12 hours to be 12 figns, the hour-
hand the fun, and the minute-hand the moon ; then
will the former go round once in a year, and tire latter
once in a month ; but the moon, or minute-hand, muft
gp more than round from any point of the circle where it
was laft conjoined with the fun, or hour-hand, to over¬
take it again : For the hour-hand being in motion, can
never be overtaken by the minute-hand at that point
from which they ftarted at their laft conjunction.
If the earth had no annual motion, the moon’s mo¬
tion round the earth, and her track in ablolute fpace,
would be always the fame. But as the earth and moon
move round the fun, the moon’s real path in the hea¬
vens is very different from her vifible path round the
earth; the latter being in a progreflive circle, and the
former in a curve of different degrees of concavity, which
would always be the fame in the fame parts of the hea¬
vens, if the moon performed a complete number of lu¬
nations in a year without any thing over.
Let a nail in the end of the axle of a chariot-wheel
reprefent the earth, and a pin in the nave the moon ; if
the body of the chariot be propped up fo as to keep that
wheel from touching the ground,, and the wheel be then
turned round by hand, the pin will defcribe a circle
both round the nail, and in the fpace it moves through.
But if the props be taken away, the horfes put to, and
the chariot driven over a piece of ground which is circu¬
larly convex, the nail in the axle will defcribe a circular
curve, and the pin in the nave wilfftill defcribe a circle
round the progreflive nail in the axle, but not in the
fpace through which it moves. In this cafe, the curve -
defcribed.
ASTRO
defcribed by the nail will referable in miniature as much
of the earth’s annual path round the fun, as it defcnbes
whilft the moon goes as often round the earth as the pin
does round the nail; and the curve defcribed by the
nail will have fome refemblance of the moon’s path du¬
ring fo many lunations.
Let us now fuppofe that the radius of the circular
curve defcribed by the nail in the axle is to the radius of
the circle which the pin in the nave defcribes round the
axle, as 3374- to i ; which is the proportion of the ra¬
dius or femidiameter of the earth’s orbit to that of the
moon’s, or of the circular curve ^1234567 .5,
&c. to the little circle ; and then, whilft the pro-
greffive nail defcribes the faid curve from A to E, the
pin will go once round the nail with regard to the cen¬
tre of its path, and in fo doing, will defcribe the curve
abode. The former will be a true reprefentation of the
earth’s path for one lunation, and the latter of the moon’s
for that time. Here we may fet afide the inequalities of
the moon’s motion, and alfo, the earth’s moving round
its common centre of gravity and the moon’s : All which,-
if they were truly copied in this experiment, would not
fenfibly alter the figure of the paths defcribed by the nail
and pin, even though they fhould rub againft a plain up¬
right furface all the way, and leave their tracks vifible
upon it. And if the chariot was driven forward on fuch
a convex piece of ground, fo as to turn the wheel feve-
ral times round, the track of'the pin in the nave would
ftill be concave toward the centre of the circular curve
defcribed by the pin in the axle ; as the moon’s path is
always concave to the fun in the centre of the earth’s
annual orbit.
In this diagram, the thickeft curve line ABCD, with
the numeral figures fet to it, reprefents as much of the
earth’s annual orbit as it defcribes in 32 days from weft
to eaft; the little circles at abode ftiew the moon’s orbit
in due proportion to the earth’s ; and the fmalleft curve
abodef reprefents the line of the moon’s path in the hea¬
vens for 32 days, accounted from any particular new moon
at a The machine, Plate XLIX. fig. 2. is for delineating
the moon’s path, and will be defcribed,.with the reft of
tbe aftronomical machinery, in the laft chapter. The
fun is fuppofed to be in the centre of the curve A 1 2 y
4567.#, &c. and fheTmall Ndotted circles upon it repre-
lent the moon’s orbit, of which the radius is in the fame
proportiomto the earth’s- path in this fcheme, that the
radius of the moon’s brbit in- the heavens bears to the ra¬
dius of the earth’s annual path round the fun j that is, as:
240,000 to 81,000,000, or as i to 3374..
When the earth is at A, the new moon is. at a; and-
in the feven days that the earth defcribes' the curve 1 2
34567, the moon, in accompanying the earth de¬
fcribes the curve ab- and is in her firft quarter at b
when the earth is at 2?. As the . earth defcribes the
curve 2? 8 9 10 11 12 13 14, the moon defcribes the'
curve d; and is at c, oppofife to the fun, when the
earth is at C. Whilft the earth defcribes the curve
C 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22, the moon defcribes the
curve <r<2; and is in her third quarter at <2 when the .
earth is at Z). Once more, whilft the earth defcribes .
the curve D 23 24 25 26 27 28 29, the moon defcribes:
N O M Y. 467
the curve Je, and is again in conjunction at e with the
fun when the earth is at E, between the 29th and 30th-
day of the moon’s age, accounted by the numeral figures
from the new moon at A. In defcribing the curve abode,
the moon goes round the progreffive earth as really as if
ftie had kept in the dotted circle A, and the earth conti¬
nued immoveable in the centre of that circle.
And thus we fee, that although the moon goes round
the earth in a circle, with refpedt to the earth’s centre,
her real path in the heavens is not very different in ap¬
pearance from the earth’s path. To ftiew that the moon’s
path is concave to the fun, even at the time of change,.
it is carried on a little farther into a fecond lunation, as
t0^
The moon’s abfolute motion from her change to her
firft quarter, or from a to b, is fo much flower than the
earth’s, that ftie falls 240 thoufahd miles (equal to the
femidiameter of he*f orbit) behind the earth at her firft
quarter in b, when the earth is in 5; that is, ftie falls
back a fpace equal to her diftance from the eajth. From
fhat time her morion is gradually accelerated to her op-
pofition or full at e, and then ftie is come up as far as
the earth, having regained what ftie loft in her firft quar¬
ter from a to b. From the full to the laft quarter at d, .
her motion continues accelerated, fo as to be juft as far
before the earth at D, as flie was behind it at her firft
quarter in b. But, from d to e her motion is retarded
fo, that flie lofes as much with refpedt to the earth as is
equal to her diftance from it, or to the femidiameter of
her orbit; and by that means ftie comes to e, and is
then in conjunction with the fun, as feen from the earth
at E. Hence we find, that the moon’s abfolute motion
is flower than the earth’s fjom her third quarter to her
firft ; and fwifter than the earth’s from her firft quarter
to her third : Her path being lefs curved than the earth’s
in the former cafe, and more in the latter. Yet it is ftill
bent the fame way towards the fun; for if we imagine
the concavity 5f the earth’s- orbit to be meafured by •
the length of a perpendicular line Cg* let down from the
earth’s.place upon the ft'raight line bgd at the full of the .
moon, and connecfling the places of the earth at the end
of the moon’s firft and third quarters, thqt length will
be about 640 thoufand miles; and the,moon, when new, .
only approaching. nearer to the fun, by 240 thdufand
miles than the earth is,- the length of the perpendicular
let down from her place at that rime upon the fame
ftraight line, and which (hews the concavity of that part
of her path, will be about 400 thoufand miles.
The moon’s path being concave to the fun throughout, ,
demoftrates that her gravity towards the fun, at her
conjunction, exceeds her gravity towards the earth.
And if we confider that the quantity of matter in the fun
is almoft 230 thoufand times as great as the quantity of
matter in the earth, and that the attraction of each body
diminifties as the fquare of the diftance from it increafes,
we (hall fdon find, that the point of equal attraction be¬
tween the earth and the fun is about 70 thoufatad miles
nearer the earth than the moon is at her change. It may
now appear furprifing, that the moon does not abandon
the earth when (he is between" it and the fun, .becaufe
(he k confiderably more nitrated by the fun than by the :
earth:s
463 ASTRO
earth at that time. But this difficulty vaniffies when
we confider, that a common impulfe on any fyftem of
bodies affefts not their relative motions; but that they
will continue to attraft, impel,-or circulate round one an¬
other, in the fame manner as if there was no fuch im¬
pulfe. The moon is fo near "the earth, and both of them
fo far from the-fun, that the attractive power of the fun
may he confidered as equal on both ; and therefore, the
moon will continue to circulate round the earth in the
fame manner as if the fun did not attradl them at all;
like bodies in the cabbin of a (hip, which move round,
or impel one another, in the fame manner when the (hip
is under fail, as when it is at reft, becaufe they are all
equally affeCted by the common motion of the {hip. If
by any other caufe, fuch as the near approach of a comet,
the moon’s diftance from the earth fhould happen to be
fo much increafed, that the difference of their gravita¬
ting forces towards the fun fliould exceed that of the
moon towards the earth ; in that cafe, the moon, when
in conjunction, would abandon the earth, and be either
drawn into the fun, or comet, or circulate round a-
bout it.
The curves which Jupiter’s fatellites deferibe, are all
of different forts from the path deferibed by our moon,
although thefe fatejlites go round Jupiter, as the moon
goes round the earth. In Plate XLIII. fig. 3. let
j4BCDE, &c. be as much of Jupiter’s orbit as he de-
feribes in 18 days from A to T; and the curves abed
will be the path's of his four moons going round him in
his progreffive motion.
Now let us fuppofe all thefe moons to fet out from a
conjunction with the fun, as feen from Jupiter at A;
then his firft or neareft moon will be at a, his fecond at
b, his third at c, and his fourth at d. At the end of
24 terreftrial hours after this conjunction, Jupiter has
moved to Bt his firft moon or fatellite has deferibed the
curve ai, his fecond the curve b\y his third ci, and his
fourth di. The next day, when Jupiter is at C, his
firft fatellite has deferibed the curve «2, from its con¬
junction, his fecond the curve hi, his third the curve a,
and his fourth the curve ^2, and fo on. The numeral
figures under the capital letters (hew Jupiter’s place in his
path every day for 18 days, accounted from A to T
and the like figures fet to the paths of his fatellites, fhew
wherq they are at the like times. The firft fatellite, al-
moft under C, is ftationary at ft- as feen from the fun ;
and retrograde from + to 2 : at 2 it appears ftationary
again, and thence it moves forward until it has paft 3,
and is twice ftationary, and once retrograde, between 3
and 4. The path of ihis fatellite interfeCts itfelf every
42t houfs, making fuch loops as in the diagram at
2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 16 18, a little after every con¬
junction. The fecond fatellite b, moving flower, barely
crofles its path every 3 days 13 hours ; as at 4 7 11
14 18, making only five loops and as many conjunctions
in-the time that the firft makes ten. The third fatellite
c moving ftill flower, and having deferibed the curve
£ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7, comes to an angle at 7 in con¬
junction with the fun at the end of 7 days 4 hours ; and
fo gaps on to deferibe fuch another curve 789101!
1.2 13 14, and is at 14 in its next conjunction. The
N O M Y.
fourth fatellite d is always progreffive, making neither
loops nor angles in the heavens; but comes to its next
conjunction at e between the numeral figures 16 and 17,
or in 16 days 18 hours. In order to have a tolerably
good figure of the paths of thefe fatellites, take the
following method.
It appears by the fcheme, that the three firft fatellites
come almoft into the fame line or pofition every feventh
day ; the firft being only a little behind with the fecond,
a -d the fecond behind with the third. But the period of
the fourth fatellite is fo incommenfurate to the periods of
the other three, that it cannot be gueffed at by the dia¬
gram when it would fall again into a line of conjunCHon
with them, between Jupiter and the fun. And no won¬
der ; for fuppofing them all to have been once in con¬
junction, it will require 3,087,043,493,260 years to
bring them in conjunction again.
In Plate XLIV. fig. 1. we have the proportions of the
orbits of Saturn’s five fatellites, and of Jupiter’s four,
to one another, to our moon’s orbit, and to the difk of
the fun. S is the fun ; M rn the moon’s orbit, (the
earth fuppofed to be at E ;), J Jupiter ; 1234 the
orbits of his four moons or fatellites ; Sat Saturn ; and
x 2 3 4 5 the orbits of his five moons. Hence it ap¬
pears, that the fun would much more than fill the whole
orbit of the moon ; for the fun’s diameter is 763,000
miles, and the diameter of the moon’s orbit ^only
480,000. In proportion to all thefe orbits of the fatel¬
lites, the radius of Saturn’s annual orbit would be 21-J
yards, of Jupiter’s orbit n-J, and of'the earth’s 2^*
taking them in round numbers.
Chap. XIV. The Phenomena of the Harvefl-
moon explained by a common Globe: The
years in which the Harvejl-moons are leajl
and mojl beneficial from 1751, to 18(^1.
The long Duration of Moon-light at the
Poles in Winter
It is generally believed that the moon rifes about 48
minutes later every day than on the preceding; but this
is true only v/ith regard to places on the equator. In
places-of confiderable latitude there is a remarkable dif¬
ference, efpecially in the harveft time ; with which far¬
mers were better acquainted than aftronomers till of
late ; and gratefully aferibed the early rifing of the full
moon at that time of the year to the goodnefs of God,
in ordering it fo on purpofe to give them an immediate
fupply of moon-light after fun-fet for their greater con-
veniency in reaping the fruits of the earth. And indeed.
In this inftance of the harveft-,moon, as in many others
difcoverable by aftronomy, the wifdom and beneficence
of the Deity is confpicuous, who really ordered the
courfe of the moon fo, as to beftow more or lefs light
on all parts of the earth as their feveral circumftances
and feafons render it more or lefs ferviceable. About
the equator, where there is no variety of feafons, and
the weather changes feldom, and at ftated times, moon¬
light is not neceffary for gathering in the produce of the
ground ;
-Plate XLllXi
ASTRO
ground; and there the moon rifes about 48 minutes
later every day or night than on the former. At con-
fiderable didances from the equator, where the weather
and feafons are more uncertain, the autumnal full moons
rife very foon after fun-fet for feveral evenings together.
At the polar circles, where the mild feafon is of very
Ihort duration, the autumnal full moon rifes at fun-fet
from the firft to the third quarter. And at the poles,
where the fun is for half a year abfent, the winter full
moons fliine conftantly without fetting from the firft to
the third quarter.
It is foon faid that all thefe phenomena are owing to
the different angles made by the horizon and different
parts of the moon’s orbit; and that the moon can be full
but once or twice in a year in thofe parts of her orbit
which rife with the leaft angles. But to explain this
fubjedt intelligibly, we muft dwell much longer upon it.
The plane of the equinoctial is perpendicular to the
earth’s axis : and therefore, as the earth turns round
its axis, all parts of the equinodtial make equal angles
with the horizon both at riling and fetting ; fo that equal
portions of it always rife or fet in equal times. Confe-
quently, if the moon’s motion were equable, and in the
equinodlial, at the rate of 12 degrees from the fun every
day, as it is in her orbit, fire would rife and fet 48 mi¬
nutes later every day than on the preceding : for 12 de¬
grees of the equinoctial rife or fet in 48 minutes of time,
in all latitudes.
But the moon’s motion is fb nearly in the ecliptic,
that we may confider her at prefent as moving in it.
Now the different parts of the ecliptic, on account of
its obliquity to the earth’s axis, make very different
angles with the horizon as they rife or fet. Thofe parts
or figns which rife with the fmalleft angles fet .with the
greateft, and vice verfa. In equal times, whenever this
angle is leaft, a greater portion of the ecliptic rifes than
when the angle is larger; as may be feen by elevating the
pole of a globe to any confiderable latitude, and then
turning it round its axis in the horizon. Confequently,
when the moon is in thofe figns which rjfe or fet with the
fmalleft angles, fhe rifes or fets with the leaft difference
of time ; and with the greateft difference in thofe figns
which rife or fet with the greateft angles.
But, becaufe all who readuhis treatife may not be pro¬
vided with globes, though in this cafe it is requifite to
know how to ufe them, we fhall fubftitute the figure of
a globe; (Plate XLIV. fig. 2.) in which FUP is the axis,
25TR the tropic of Cancer, LTrs the tropic of Ca¬
pricorn, 2LEUrs the ecliptic touching both the tro¬
pics, which are 47 degrees from each other, and AB the
horizon. The equator, being in the middle between the
tropics, is cut by the ecliptic in two oppofite points,
which are the beginnings of T Aries and ^ Libra. K
is the hour-circle with its index, F the north pole of
the globe elevated to a confiderable latitude, fuppofe 40
degrees above the horizon, and P the fouth pole de-
preffed as much below it. Becaufe of the oblique pofi-
tion of the fphere in this latitude, the ecliptic has the
high elevation N^L above the horizon, making the
angle NUS£> of 73-!. degrees with it when 05 Cancer
is on the meridian, at which time Libra rifes in the
Vol. I. No., 20. 3
N O M Y. 469
eaft. But let the globe be turned half round its axis’
till rs Capricorn comes to the meridian and <Y) Aries
rifes in the eaft, and then the ecliptic will have the low
elevation NL above the horizon, making only an angle
NUL of 26! degrees with it; which is 47 degrees lefs
than the former angle, equal to the diftance between the
tropics.
In northern latitudes, the fmalleft angle made by the
ecliptic and horizon is when Aries rifes, at which time
Libra fets ; the greateft when Libra rifes, at which time
Aries fets. From the riling of Aries to the rifing of
Libra, (which,is ttvelve fydereal hours), the angle in-
creafes; and from the rifing of Libra to the rifing of
Aries, it decreafes in the fame proportion. By this ar¬
ticle and the preceding, it appears that the ecliptic rifes
fafteft about Aries, and floweft about Libra.
On the parallel of London, as much of the ecliptic
' rifes about Pifces and Aries in two heturs as the moon
goes through in fix days; and therefore whilft the moon
is irt thefe figns, fhe differs but two hours in rifing for
fix days together ; that is, about 20 minutes later every
day or night than on the preceding, at a mean rate.
But in 14 days afterwards, the moon comes to Virgo and
Libra, which are the oppofite figns to Pifces and Aries ;
and then fhe differs almoft four times as much in rifing ;
namely, one hour and about fifteen minutes later every
day or night than the former, whilft fhe is in thefe
figns.
All thefe things will be made plain by putting fmall
' patches on the ecliptic of a globe, as far from one ano¬
ther as the moon moves from any point of the celeftial
ecliptic in 24 hours, which at a mean rate is 13!-de¬
grees ; and then in turning the globe round, obferve the
rifing and fetting of the patches in the horizon, as the
index points out the different times in the hour-circle.
A few of thefe patches are reprefented by dots at o 1
2 3, 6v. on the ecliptic, which has the pofitiop LUI
when Aries rifes in the eaft; and by the dots 0123, &c.
when Libra rifes in the eaft; at which time the ecliptic
has the pofition EUrs \ making an angle of 62 degrees
with the horizon in the latter cafe, and an angle of no
more than 15 degrees with it in the former; fuppofing
the globe redfified to the latitude of London.
Having redtified the globe, turn it until the patch at
o, about the beginning of X Pifces in the half LUI of
the ecliptic, comes to the eaftern .fide of the horizon ;
and then keeping the ball fteady, fet the hour-index to
XII, becaufe that hour may perhaps be more eafily re¬
membered than any other. Then turn the globe round
weftward, and in that time, fuppofe the patch o to have
moved thence to 1, 13^- degrees, whilft the earth turns
once round its axis, and you will fee that 1 rifes only
about 20 minutes later than o did on the day before.
Turn the globe round again, and in that time fuppofe the
fame patch to have moved from 1 to 2 ; and it will rife
only 20 minutes later by the hour-index than it did at 1
on the day or turn before. At the end of the next turn,
fuppofe the patch to have gone from 2 to 3 at U, and it
will rife 20 minutes later than it did at 2. And foon
for fix turns, in which time there will fcarce be two
hours difference : nor would there have been fo much if
6 C the
47° ASTRO
the 6 degrees of the fun’s motion in that time had been
allowed for. At the firft turn the patch rifes fouth of
the eaft, at the middle turn due eaft, and at the laft turn
north of the eaft. . But thefe patches will be 9 hours of
fetting on the weftern fide of the horizon, which fhews
that the moon will be fo much later of fetting in that
week in which fhe moves through thefe two figns. The
daufe of this difference is evident ; for Pifces and Aries
make only an angle of 15 degrees with the horizon when
they rife ; but they make an angle of 62 degrees with
it when they fet. As the figns Taurus, Gemini, Can¬
cer, Leo, Virgo, and Libra, rife fuccefEvely, the angle
increafes gradually which they make with the horizon;
atftl decreafes in the fame proportion as they fet. And
for that reafon, the moon difi’ers gradually more in the
time of her rifing every day whilft fhe is in thefe figns,1
and lefs in her fetting : after which, through the other
fix figns, viz. Scorpio, Sagittary, Capricorn, Aqua¬
rius, Pifces, and Aries, the rifing difference becomes
lei's every day, until it be at the leaft of all, namely, in
Pifces and Aries.
The moon goes round the ecliptic in 27 days 8 hours;
but not from change to change in lefs than 29 days 12
hours : fo that fhe is in Pifces and Aries at leaft once in
every lunation, and in fome lunations twice.
If the earth had no annual motion, the fun would ne¬
ver appear to fhift his place in the ecliptic. And then
every new moon would fall in the fame fign and degree'
of the ecliptic, and every full moon in the oppofite ; for
the moon would go precifely round the ecliptic from
change to change. So that if the moon was once full
in Pifces or Aries, fhe would always be full when fhe
came round to the fame fign and degree again. And as
the full moon rifes at fun-fet (becaufe when any point of
the ecliptic fets, the oppofite point rifes) fhe would con-
ftantly rife within two hours of fun-fet, on the parallel
of London, during the week in which fhe were full.
But in the time that'the moon goes round the ecliptic
from any conjunflion or oppofition, the earth goes almoft
a fign forward ; and therefore the fun will feem to go as
far forward in that time, namely, 27-I- degrees; fo that
the moon muft go-2 74- degrees more than round, and as
much farther as the fun advances in that interval, which
is 2 -rs- degrees, before fhe can be in conjunction with, or
oppofite to, the fun again» Hence it is evident, that
there can be but one conjunction or oppofition of the fun
and moon in a year in any particular part of the ecliptic.
This may be familiarly exemplified by the hour and mi¬
nute-hands of a watch, which are never in conjunction or
oppofition in that part of the dial-plate where they were
fo laft before. And indeed, if we compare the twelve
hours on the dial-plate to the twelve figns of the ecliptic,,
the hour-hand to the fun, and the minute-hand to the
moon, we fhall have a tolerably near refemblance in mi¬
niature to the motions of our great celeftial luminaries.
The only difference is, that whilft the fun goes once
round the ecliptic, the moon makes 124 conjunctions
with him : but whiffi'the hour hand goes round the dial-
plate, the minute-hand makes only 11 conjunctions with
it; becaufe the minute-hand moves flower in refpeCt of
the hour-hand than the moon does with regard to the fun.
N O M Y.
As the moon can never be full but when fhe is oppo-
fhe to the fun? and the fun is nevief jn Virgo., and Libra
but in our autumnal months, it is plain that the moon is
never full in the oppofite figns, Pifces and Aries, but in'
thefe two months. And therefore we can have only two
full mbons in the year, which rife fo near the time of
fun-fet, for a week together, as above mentioned. The
former of thefe is called the harvejl-moon, and the latter
the hunter's moon.
Here it will probably be afked,- Why we never ob-
ferve this remarkable rifing of. the moon but in harveft,
fince fhe is in Pifces and Aries twelve times in the year
befides.; and muft then rife with as little difference of
time as in harveft? The anfwer is plain: for in winter
thefe figns rife at noon ; and being then only a quarter
of a circle diftaht from the fun, the moon in them is in
her firft quarter: But when the fun is ^.boye the horizon,
the moon’s rifing is neither regarded nor perceived. In
fpring thefe figns rife, with the fun, ’becaufe he is then in
them ; and as the moon changeth in them at that time of
the year, fhe is quite invifible. In furomef they rife a-
b'out midnight, and the fun being then three figns, or a
quarter of a circle before them, the moon is in them a-
bout her third quarter,; when rifing fo late, and giving
But very little light, her rifing paifes unpbferved. And
in autumn, thefe figns, being oppofite to the fun, rife
when he fets, wirh the moon in‘oppofition, or at the
full, which makes her rifing. very confpicubus.
At the equator, the north and fouth poles lie in the,
horizon; and therefore the ecliptic makes the fame an¬
gle fbuthward with the horizon when Aries rifes, as it
does northward when Libra rifes. Confequently, as the
moon at all the fore-mentioned patches rifes and fets
nearly at equal angles with the horizon all the yea,r
round, and about 48 minutes later every day or night
than on the preceding, there can be no particular har-
veft-moon at the equator.
The farther that any place is from the equator, if it be
not beyond the polar circle, the angle gradually dimi-
nilhes which the ecliptic and horizon make when Pifces
and Aries rife: And therefore, when the moon is in thefe
figns ftie rifes with a nearly proportionable difference
later every day than on the former; and is for that rea-
fbn the more remarkable about the full, until we come
to the polar circles, or 66 degrees from the equator ; in
which latitude the ecliptic and horizon become coincident
every day for a moment, at the fame fydereal hour, (or
3 minutes 56 feconds fooner every day than the former),,
and the very next moment one half of the ecliptic, con¬
taining Capricorn, Aquarius, Pifces, Aries, Taurus,
and Gemini rifes, and the oppofite Half fets. There¬
fore, whilft the moon is going from the beginning of Ca¬
pricorn to the beginning of Cancer, which is almoft 14
days, file rifes at the fame fydereal hour; and in autumn,
juft at fun-fet, beeaufe all that half of the ecliptic, in
which the fun is at that time, fets at the fame fy¬
dereal hour, and the oppofite half rifes ; that is,. 3 mi¬
nutes 56 feconds, of mean folar time, fooner every day
than on the day before. . So, whilft the moon is going
from Capricorn to Cancer, ftie rifes earlier every day
than on the preceding, contrary to what ftie does at alt
places
ASTRO
places between tbs polar circles. But, during the above
fourteen days, the moon is 24 fydereal hours later in
fetting ; for the fix figns, which rife all at once on the
eaftern fide of the horizon, ve 24 hours in fetpng
on the weftern fide of it; as any one may fee by ma¬
king chalk-marks at the beginning of Capricorn and of
Cancer, and then, having elevated the pole 66i degrees,
turn the globe flowly round its axis, and obferve the fi¬
fing and fetting of the ecliptic. As the beginning of
Aries is equally diftant from the beginning of Cancer
and of Capricorn, it is in the middle of that half of the
the ecliptic which rifes all at once. And when the fun is •
at the beginning of Libra, he is in the middle of the o-
ther half. Therefore, when the fun is in Libra, and
the moon in Capricorn, the moon is a quarter of a cir¬
cle before the fun; oppofite to him, and confequently
full in Aries, arid a quarter of a circle behind him, when
in Cancer. But when Libra rifes, Aries fets, and all
that half of the ecliptic of which Aries is the middle ;
and therefore, at that time of -the year, the moon rifes
at fun-fet from her firft to her third quarter.
In northern latitudes, the autumnal full moons are in
Pifces and Aries, and the vernal full moons in Virgo and
Libra: In fouthern latitudes juft the reverfe, becaufe
the feafons are contrary. But Virgo and Libra rife at
as fmall angles with the horizon in fouthern latitudes, as
Pifces and Aries do in the northern; and therefore the
harvelt-moons are juft as regular cm one fide of the eqiiar
tor as on the other.
As thefe figns, which rife with the leaf! angles, fe't
with the greateft, the vernal full moons differ as much
in their times of rifing every night,, as the autumnal full
moons differ in their times of fetting; and fet withas
little difference as the autumnal full moons- rife; the one
being in all cafes the reverfe of the other.
Hitherto, for the fake of plainnefs, we have, fuppofed
the moon to move in the ecliptic, from which the fun
never deviates. But the orbit in which the moon really
moves is different from the ecliptic; one half being ele¬
vated degrees above it, and the other half, as much
depreffed below it. The moon’s orbit therefore inter-
feffs the ecliptic in two points diametrically oppofite to
each other ; and thefe interfections are called the moon's
nodes.1 So the moon can never be in the ecliptic but
when fhe is in either of her nodes, which is at leaft
twice in every courfe from- change to change, ,and fome-
times thrice. For, as the moon goes almoft a whole
fign more than round her orbit from change to change, if
flie paffes by either node about the time of change, fire
will pafs by the other in about' fourteen days after, and
come round to the former node two days again before
the next change. That node, from which the moon be¬
gins to afcend northward, or above the ecliptic, in nor¬
thern latitudes, is called the afcending-node ; and the o-
ther, the defending node ; becanfe the moon, when fire
pafies by it, defcends below the ecliptic fouthward.
The moon’s oblique motion, with regard to the eclip-
N O M Y. 471
tic, catifes .fome difference in the times of her rifing and
fetting from what is already mentioned. For whilft lire
is northward of the ecliptic, fire rifes fooner and fets
later than if fire moved in the ecliptic; and when file is
fouthward,of the ecliptic, fite rifes later, and fets fooner.
This difference is variable, even in the fame figns, be¬
caufe the nodes fiiift backward about 194 degrees in th<r
ecliptic every year; and fo go round it contrary to the
order of figns in 18 years 225 days.
When the afcending node is in Aries, the fouthern
half of the moon’s orbit makes an angle of y-j- degrees
lefs with the horizon than the ecliptic does, when A-
ries rifes in northern latitudes: For which reafon the
moon rifes with lefs difference of time whilft file is in
Pifces and Aries, than there would be if fiie kept in the
ecliptic. Butin 9 years and x 12 days afterward, the
defcending node comes to Aries; and then the moon’s
orbit makes an angle degrees greater with the hori¬
zon when Aries riles, that the ecliptic does at that time;;,
which caufes the moon to rife with- greater difference
of time in Pifces and Aries than if (he moved in the e-
cliptic.
To be a little more particular ; when the afcending node;
is in Aries, the angle is only 94 degrees on the parallel
of London when Aries rifes. But when the defcending;
node comes to Aries, the angle is 204 degrees ; this oc-
cafibns as great' a difference of the moon’s rifing in the
fame figns every 9 years, as there would be on two pa¬
rallels to iOj degrees from one another, if the moon’s
Courfe were in the ecliptic.
As there is a complete revolution of the nodes in 184
years, there mu ft, he a regular period of all the varieties
which can happen in the rifing and fetting of the moon
during that time. But this lifting of the nodes never
affeds the moon’s rifing fo much, even in her quickeft
defcending latitude, as not to allow us ftill the benefit ofr
her rifing nearer the time of fun-fet for a few days toge¬
ther about the full in harveft, than when Ihe is full at a-
ny other time of the year. The following table fiiews
in what years the harveft-moons are leaft beneficial as to
the times of their riling, and in what years moft, from
1751.101861. The column-of years under the letter
L are thofe in which the harveft-rrroons are leaft of all
beneficial, becaufe they fall about the defcending node;
and thofe under M are the moft of all beneficial, becaufe ;
they fall about the afcending node. In all the columns,
from N to S, the harveft-moons defeend gradually in
the lunar orbit, , and rife to lefs heights above the hori¬
zon. From S tfl N they afcend in the fame proportion,,
and rife to greater heights above the horizon. In both
the columns under S, the harveft-moons are in the loweft.
part of the moon’s orbit, that is, fartheft fouth of the.
ecliptic; and therefore ftay ihorteft of all above the ho¬
rizon ; in the columns under N, juft the reverfe. And,
in both cafes, their rifing, though not at the fame times,
are nearly the fame whh regard to difference of time,' as
if the moon’s .orbit were coincident with the eclipti c .
Tears
472
A S T R O N O
M Y.
N
1751
1770
1788 •
1807
1826
i844
Tears in which the Harveft-moons are leaft beneficial.
1752
1771
17S9
1808
1827
1845
1761
1780
1799
1817
1836
1834
1753
1772
1790
1809
1828
1846
1754
1773
1791
18x0
1829
1847
L
175?
1774
1792
l8l £
1830
1756
1775
1793
1812
1831
1849
1757
1776
1794
1813
1832
1850
1758
1777
*795
1814
1833
1851
Tears in which they are mojl beneficial.
M
1762
1781
1800
1818
1837'
1855
1763
1782
1801
1819
1838
1856
1764
1783
1802
1820
1839
i8j7
1765
1784
1803
1821
1840
1858
1766
1785
1804
1822
1841
1859
1767
1786
1805
1823
1842
i860
S
*759
1778
1796
1815
1834
1852
N
1768
1787
1806
1824
1843
1861
1769
182 j
S
1760
1779
1798
1816
1835
1853
At the polar circles, when the fpn touches the fummer
tropic, he continues 24 hours above the horizon, and 24
hours below it when he touches the winter tropic. For
the fame reafon, the full moon neither rifes in fummer,
nor fets in winter, confidering her as moving in the ec¬
liptic. For the winter full moon being as high in the
ecliptic as the fummer fun, muft therefore continue as
long above the horizon; and the fummer full moon being
as low in the ecliptic as the winter fun, can no more rife
than he does. But thefe are only the two full moons
which happen about the tropics, for all the others rife and
fet. In fummer, the full moons are low, and their ftay
is Ihort above the horizon, when the nights are ftiort,
and we have leaft occafion. for moon-light: In.winter,
they go high, and ftay long above the horizon, when the
nights are long, and we want the greateft quantity of
moon-light.
At the poles, one half of the ecliptic never fets, and
the other half* never rifes; and therefore, as the fun is
always half a year in deferibing one half of the ecliptic,
and as long in going through the other half, it is natural
to imagine that the fun continues half a year together a-
bove the horizon of each pole in its turn, and as long
below it, rifing to one pole when he fets to the other.
This would be exaftly the cafe if there were no refrac¬
tion ; but by the atmofphere’s refrading the fun’s rays,
he becomes vifible fome days fooner, and continues fome
days longer in fight than he would otherwife do: fo that
he appears above the horizon of either pole before he
has got below the horizon of the other. And as he ne¬
ver goes more than' 234 degrees below the horizon of
the poles, they have very little dark night; it being twi¬
light there as well as at all other places till the fun be
18 degrees below the horizon. The full moon being al¬
ways oppofite to the fun, can never be feen while the fun
is above the horizon, except when the moon falls in the
northern half of her orbit; for whenever any point of
the ecliptic rifes, the oppofite point fets. Therefore, as
the fun is above the horizon of the north pole from the
20th of March till the 23d of September, it is plain,
that the moon, when full, being oppofite to the fun, muft
be below the horizon during that half of the year. But
when the fun is in the fouthern half of the ecliptic, he
never rifes to the north pole, during which half of the
year, every full moon happens in fome part of the north¬
ern half of the ecliptic, which never fets. Confequent-
ly, as the polar inhabitants never fee the full moon in
fummer, they have her always in the winter, before, at,
and after the full, Ihining for 14 of our days and nights.
And when the fun is at his greateft depreflion below the
horizon, being then in Capricorn, the moon is at her
firft quarter in Aries,- full in Cancer, and at her third
quarter in Libra. And as the beginning of Aries is the
rifing point of the ecliptic, Cancer the higheft, and Li¬
bra the fetting point, the moon rifes at her firft quarter
in Aries, is moft elevated above the hqrizon, and full in
Cancer, and fets at the beginning of Libra in her third
quarter, having continued vifible for 14 diurnal rotations
of the earth. Thus the poles are fupplied one half of
the winter time with conftant moon-light in the fun’s
abfence; and only lofe fight of the moon from her third
to her firft quarter, while fixe gives but very little light,
and could be but of little, and fometimes of no fervice
to them. A bare view of the figure (Plate XLIV. fig.
3.) u'ill make this plain; in which let S be the fun, e
the earth in fummer when its north pole n inclines'to¬
ward the fun, and E the earth in winter, when its north
north pole declines from him. i’FAfand NIVS is the
horizon of the north pole, which is coincident with the
equator; and, in both thefe pofitions of the earth,
is the moon’s orbit, in whieh fixe goes round
the earth according to the order of the letters abed,
ABCD. When the moon is at a, (he is in her third
quarter to the earth at <?, and juft rifing to the north pole
n; at 3 fhe changes, and is at the greateft height above
the horizon, as the fun likewife is ; at r Ihe is in her firft
quarter, fetting below the horizon ; and is loweft of all
under it at d, when oppofite to the fufl, and her enlight¬
ened fide toward the earth. But then Ihe is full in view
to the fouth pole p, which is as much turned from the
fun as the north pole inclines towards him. Thus, in
our fummer, the moon is above the horizon of the north
pole
TlateXLlV.
ASTRO
pole whilft (he defcribes the northern half of the eclip¬
tic or from her third quarter to her firft; and
below the horizon during her progrefs through the fouth-
ern half ; higheft at the change, moll deprefled
at the full. But in winter, when the earth is at E, and
its north pole declines from the fun, the new moon at D
is at her greatell depreflion below the horizon NIVS, and
the full moon at B at her greateft height above it, rifing
at her firft quarter and keeping above the horizon till
{he comes to her third quarter C. At a mean ftate fhe
is 23-r degrees above the horizon at B and b, and as
much below it at D and d, equal to the inclination of
the earth’s axis F. SSB and Srs are, as it were, a ray
of light proceeding from the fun to the earth; and
fhews, that when the earth is at e, the fun is above the
horizon, vertical to the tropic of Cancer; and when the
earth is at E, he is below the horizon, vertical to the
tropic of Capricorn.
Chaf. XV. Of the Ebbing and Flowing
of the Sea.
The caufe of the tides was difcovered by Kepler,
who, in his Introdufiion to the Phjftcs of the Heavens,
thus explains it: “ The orb of the attracting power,
“ which is in the moon, is extended as far as the earth,
■“ and draws the waters under the torrid zone, adting
“ upon places where it is vertical, infenfibly oh confined
“ feas and bays, but fenfibly on the ocean, whofe beds
“ are large, and the waters have the liberty of recipro-
“ cation; that is, of rifing and falling.” And in the
70th page of his Lunar AJlronomy:—“ But the cauje
" of the tides of the fea appears to be the bodies of the
“ fun and moon drawing the waters of the fea.” This
hint -being given, Sir Ifaac Newton improved it, and
wrote fo amply on the fubjeft, as to make the theory of
the tides in a manner quite his own; by difcovering the
caufe of their rifing on the fide of the earth oppofite to
the moon. For Kepler believed, that the prefence of
the moon occafioned an impulle which caufed another in
her abfence.
The power of gravity diminifhes as the fquare of the
diftance increafes; and therefore the waters (Plate
XLIV. fig. 4.) at Z on the fide of the earth ABCDEFGH
next the moon M are more attracted than the central
parts of the earth 0 by the moon, and the central parts
are more attracted by her than the waters on the oppo¬
fite fide of the earth at n; and therefore the diftance be¬
tween the earth’s centre and me waters on its furface
under and oppofite to the moon will be increafed. For,
let there be three bodies at H, G, and D, if they are
all equally attracted by the body M, they will all move
equally faft toward it, their mutual diftances from each
other continuing the fame. If the attraction of M. is
unequal, then that body which is molt ftrongly attracted
will move fafteft, and this will increafe its diftance from
the other body. Therefore, by the law of gravitation,
M will attract H more ftrongly than it does 0, by which
the diftance between H and 0 wilj.be increaled, and-a
Vol. I. Numb, 20. 3
N O M Y. 473
fpeCtator on 0 will perceive H rifing higher toward Z.
In like manner, 0 being more ftrongly attracted than D,
it will move farther towards M than D does; confe-
quently the diftance between 0 and D will be increafed,
and a fpeCtator on 0, not perceiving his own motion,
will fee D receding farther from him towards n; all ef¬
fects and appearances being the fame, whether D recedes
from 0, or 0 from D.
Suppofe now there is a number of bodies, as
ABCDEFGH, placed round 0, fo as to form a ilexible
or fluid ring; then, as the whole is attracted towards
M, the parts at H and D will have their diftance
from 0 increafed; whilft the parts at B and F, being
‘nearly at the fame diftance from M as 0 is, thefe pans
will not recede from one another, but rather, by the ob¬
lique attraction of M, they will approach nearer to 0.
Hence the fluid ring will form itfelf into an ellipfa
ZJBLnKFNZ, whofe longer axis nOZ produced will
pafs through M, and its ftiorter axis BOF will terminate
in B and F. Let the ring be filled with bodies, fo as to
form a fluid fphere round G; then, as the whole moves
toward M, the fluid fphere being lengthened at Z and
n, will aflume an oblong or oval form. If M is the
moon, O the earth’s centre, ABCDEFGHxht fea co¬
vering the earth’s furface, it is evident, by the above
reafoning, that whilft the earth by its gravity falls .to¬
ward the moon, the water direCHy below her at B will
fwell and rife gradually towards her; alfo the water at
D will recede from the centre, (ftriCtly fpeaking the cen¬
tre recedes from D), and rife on the oppofite fide.of tire
earth, whilft the water at B and F is deprefled, and falls
below the former level. . Hence,, as the earth turns round
its axis from the moon to the moon again in 24^ hours,
there will be two tides of flood and two of ebb in that
time, as we find by experience.
As this explanation ©f the ebbing and flowing of the
fea is deduced from the earth’s conftantly falling toward
the moon by the power of gravity, fome may find a dif¬
ficulty in conceiving how this is poflible, when the moon
is full, or in oppofition to the fun, fince the earth re¬
volves about the fun, and muft continually fall towards
it, and therefore cannot fall contrary ways at the fame
time; or if the earth is conftantly falling towards the
moon, they muft come together at laft. To remove this
difficulty, let it be confidered, that it is not the centre
of the earth that defcribes the annual orbit round the
fun, but the common centre of gravity of the earth and
moon together; and that whilft the earth is moving
round the fun,, it alfo defcribes a circle round that centre
of gravity, going as many times round it.in one revolu¬
tion about the fun as there are lunations or courfes of
the moon round the earth in a year; and therefore the
earth is conftantly falling towards the moon from a tan¬
gent to the circle it defcribes round the faid common
centre of gravity. In Plate XLV, fig. 1. let Af be the
moon, 77T.part of the tnpon’s orbit, and C the centre
of gravity of the earth and moon ; whilft the moon goes
round her orbit, the centre of the earth defcribes the
circle ged round C, to which circle gak is a tangent;
and therefore when the moon has gone from 71/ to a lit¬
tle paft IV, the earth has moved from g to j and in that
6 D time
474 ASTRO
time has fallen towards the moon, from the tangent at a
to f, and fo round the whole circle.
The'fun’s influence in raifing the tides is but fmall in
comparifon of the moon’s: For though the earth’s dia¬
meter bears a confiderable proportion to its diftance from
the moon, it is next to nothing when compared with the
diftance of the fun. And therefore, the difference of
the fun’s attraftion on the fides of the earth under and
' oppofite to him, is much lefs than the difference of the
moon’s attra&ion on the fides of the earth under and
oppofite to her; and therefore the moon muft raife the
tides much higher than they can be raifed by the fun.
On this theory, fo far as we have explained it, the
tides ought to be higheft diredily under and oppofite to the
moon; that is, when the moon is due north and fouth.
But we find, that in open feas, where the water flows free¬
ly, the moon M (Plate XLIV. fig. 4.) is generally part the
north and fouth meridian, as at p, when it is high water
at Z and at n. The reafon isiobvious; for though the
moon’s attraction was to ceafe altogether when Ihe was
paft the meridian, yet the motion of afcent communi¬
cated to the water before that time would make it con¬
tinue to rife for fome time after; much more muft it do
fo when the attraction is only diminilhed: as a little im-
pulfe given to a moving ball will caufe it ftill tp move
farther than otherwife it could have done. And as ex¬
perience (hews, that the day is hotter about three in the
afternoon, than when the fun is on the meridian, becaufie
of the increment made to the heat already imparted.
The tides anfwer not always to the fame diftance of
the moon from the meridian at the fame places, but are
varioufly affefted by the a&ion of the fun, which brings
them on fooner when the moon is in her firft and third
quarters, and keeps them back later when fhe is in her
fecond and fourth; becaufe in the former cafe the tide
raifed by the fun alone would be earlier than the tide
raifed by the moon, and in the latter cafe later.
The moon goes round the earth in an elliptic orbit,
and therefore (he approaches nearer to the earth than her
mean diftance, and recedes farther from it, in every lu¬
nar month. When (he is neareft, (he attra&s ftrongeft,
and fa raifes the tides moft; the contrary happens when
fhe is fartheft, becaufe of her weaker attraction. When
both luminaries are in the equator, and the moon in Pe-
rigeo, or at her leaft diftance from the earth, (he raifes
the tides higheft of all, efpecially at her conjunction and
oppofition ; both becaufe the equatoreal parts have the
greateft centrifugal force from their defcribing the largeft
circle, and from the concurring actions of the fun and
moon. At the change, the attractive forces of the fun
and moon being united, they diminiftt the gravity of the
waters under the moon, and their gravity on the op¬
pofite fide is diminiflred by means of a greater centrifugal
force. At the full, whilft the moon raifes the tide un¬
der and opppfite to her, the fun acting in the fame line,
raifes the tide under and oppofite to him; whence their
conjoint effect is the fame as at the change; and in both
cafes, occafion what we call the fpring-tides. But at
the quarters, the fun’s action on the waters at 0 and H
(Plate XLV. fig. 2.) diminifties the effect of the moon’s
action on the waters at Z and N\ fo that they rife a
N O M Y.
little under and oppofite to the fun at 0 and //, and fall
as much under and oppofite to the moon at Z and N,
making what we call the neap-tides, becaufe the fun and
moon then act crofs-wife to each other. But, ftrictly
fpeaking, thefe tides happen not till fome time after; be¬
caufe in this, as in other cafes, the aftions do not pro¬
duce the greateft effect when they are at the ftrongeft,
but fome time afterward.
The fun being nearer the earth in winter than in fum-
mer, is of courfe nearer to it in February and October
than in March and September; and therefore the greateft
tides happen not till fome time after the autumnal equi¬
nox, and return a little before the vernal.
The fea being thus put in motion, would continue to
ebb and flow for feveral times, even though the fun and
moon wpre annihilated, or their influence ftpould ceafe:
as if a bafon of water were agitated, the water would
continue to move for fome time after the bafon was left
to ftand ftill. Or like a pendulum, which having been
put in motion by the hand, continues to make feveral vi¬
brations without any new impulfe.
When the moon is in the equator, the tides are e-
qually high in both parts of the lunar day, or time of the
moon’s revolving from the meridian to the meridian a-
gain, which is 24 hours 48 minutes. But as the moon
declines from the equator towards either pole, the tides
are alternately higher and lower at places having north or
fouth latitude. For one of the higheft elevations, which
is that under the moon, follows her towards the pole to
which {he is neareft, and the other declines towards the
oppofite pole ; each elevation defcribing parallels as far
diftant from the equator, on oppofite fides, as the moon
declines from it to either fide ; and confequently, the
parallels defcribed by thefe elevations of the water are
twice as many degrees from one another, as the moon
is from the equator ; increafing their diftance as the
moon increafes her declination, till it be at the greateft,
when the faid parallels are, at a mean ftate, 47 degrees
from one another : and on that day, the tides are moft
unequal in their heights. As the moon returns toward
the equator, the parallels defcribed by the oppofite ele¬
vations approach towards each cither, until the moon
comes to the equator, and then they coincide. As the
moon declines toward the oppofite pole, at equal di-
ftances,„each elevation defcribes the fame parallel in the
other part of the lunar day, which its oppofite elevation
defcribed before. Whilft the moon has north declina¬
tion, the greateft tides in the northern hemifphere are
when flie is above the horizon ; and the reverfe whilft
her declination is fouth. In Plate XLV. let NE5P>_
be the earth, NCS its axis, £^'the equator, T25
the tropic of Cancer, trs the tropic of Capricorn,
ab the ardtic circle, cd the antardHc, N the north pole,
S the fouth pole, M the moon, F and G the two emi¬
nences of water, whofe loweft parts are at a and d,
(fig. 3.}, at Wand 5, (fig. 4.), and at foind c,. (fig. 5.),
always 90 degrees from the higheft. Now when the
moon is in her greateft north declination at M, the
higheft elevation G under her, is on the tropic of Can¬
cer, TOn, and the oppofite elevation F on the tropic of
Capricorn trs ; and thefe two elevations defcribe the tro¬
pics
ASTRO
pics by the earth’s diurnal rotation. All places in the
northern hemifphere EN§>~ have the higheft tides when
they come into the pofition bSB under the moon ;
and the loweft tides when the earth’s diurnal rotation
carries them into the pofition aTE, on the fide oppofite
to the moon ; the reverfe happens at the fame time in
the fouthern hemifphere ESQ_, as is evident to fight.
The axis of the tides aCd has now its poles a and d '(be¬
ing always 90 degrees from the higheft elevations) in the
ardtic and antardlic circles ; and therefore it is plain,
that at thefe circles there is but one tide of flood, and
' one of ebb, in the lunar day. For, when the point a
revolves half round to b, in 12 lunar hours, it has a tide
of flood; but when it comes to the fame point a again
in 12 hours more, it has the loweft ebb. In feven days
afterward, the moon M comes to the equinoctial circle,
and is over the equator 'when both elevations de-
fcribe the equator ; and in both hemifpheres, at equal
diftances from the equator, the tides are equally high in
both parts of the lunar day. The whole phenomena be¬
ing reverfed, when the moon has fouth declination, to
what they were when her declination was north, require
no farther defcription.
In Plate XLV. fig. 3, 4. 5. the earth is ortho-
graphically projedted on the plane of the meridian ; but
in order to defcribe a particular phenomenon, we now
projedt it on the plane of the ecliptic. In the fame Plate
fig. 2. let HZQN be the earth and fea, FED the equa¬
tor, T the tropic of Cancer, C the ardtic circle, P the
north pole, and the curves 1 2 24 meridians, or
hour-circles, interfedling each other in the poles; ACM
is the moon’s orbit, S the Sun, M the moon, Z the
water elevated under the moon, and the oppofite e-
qual elevation. As the loweft: parts of the water are al¬
ways 90 degrees from the higheft, when the moon is in
either of the tropics, (as at /If), the elevation Z is on
the tropic of Capricorn, and the oppofite elevation N on
the tropic of Cancer, the low-water circle HCO touches
the polar circles at C \ and the high-water circle ETP6
goes over the poles at P, and divides every parallel of
latitude into two equal fegments. In this cafe the tides
upqj| every parallel are alternately higher and lower ; but
they return in equal times : The point T, for example,
on the tropic of Cancer, (where the depth of the tide is:
reprefented by the breadth of the dark ftiade), has a
fhallower tide of flood at T than when it revolves half,
round from thence to, 6-, according to the order of the
numeral figures ; but it revolves as foon from 6 to 7" as
it did from T to 6. When the moon is in the equi¬
noctial, the elevations Z and N are transferred to the
equator at 0 and and the high and low-water circles
are got into each other’s former places ; in which cafe
the tides return in unequal times, but are equally high in
both parts of the lunar day : for a place at 1 (under D)
revolving as formerly, goes fooner from 1 to 11, (un¬
der F),. than from 11 to 1, becaufe the parallel it de-
feribes is cut into unequal fegments by the high-water
circle HCO •. but the points 1 and ix being equidiftant
from the pole of the tides at C, which is direCHy under
the pole of the moon’s orbit MCAA, the elevations are e-
qualiy high in both parts of the day.
N O M V. 475
And thus it appears, tha£ as the tides are governed
by the moon, they muft turn on the axis of the moon’s
orbit, which is inclined 234 degrees to the earth’s axis
at a mean ftate : and therefore the poles of the tides muft
be fo many degrees from the poles of the earth, or in
oppofite points of the polar circles, going round thefe
circles in every lunar day. It is true, that, according to
Plate XLV. fig. 4. when the moon is vertical to the
equator EC^, the poles of the tides feem to fall in with
the poles of the world N and S : but when we confider
that FHG is under the moon’s orbit, it will appear, that
when the moon is over i/, in the tropic of Capricorn,
the north pole of the tides (which can be no more than
90 degrees from under the moon) muft be at c in the
arClic circle, not at N, the north pole of the earth ;
and as the moon afeends from i/ to (7 in her orbit, the
north pole of the tides muft fhift from c to ^ in the
arftic circle, and the fouth pole as much in the antanftic.
It is not to be doubted, but that the earth’s quick
rotation brings the poles of the tides nearer to the poles
of the world, than they would be if the earth were at
reft, and the moon revolved about it only once a month ;,
for otherwife the tides would be more unequal in their
heights, and times of their returns, than we find they
are. But how near the earth’s rotation may bring the
poles of its axis and thofe of the tides together, or how
far the preceding tides may affedt thofe which follow, fo
as to make them keep up nearly to the fame heights, and
times of ebbing and flowing, is a problem more fit to be
fblved by obfervation than by theory.
Thofe who have opportunity to make obfervations,.
and chufe to fatisfy themfelves whether the tides are
really aff&fied in the above manner by the different pofi-
tions of the moon, efpecially as to the unequal times of
their returns, may take this general rule for knowing
when they ought to be fo affe&ed. When the earth’s
axis inclines to the moon, the northern, tides, if not re¬
tarded in their paflage through fhoals and channels, nor af-
fedted by the winds, ought to be greateft when the moon •
is above the horizon, leaft when {he is below it, and quite
the reverfe when the earth’s axis declines from her ; but,
in both cafes, at equal intervals of time. - When the earth’s
axis inclines fidewife to the moon, both tides are equally
high, but they happen at unequal intervals of time. In .
every lunation the earth’s axis incliaes once to the moon,
once from her; and twice fidewife to her, as it does to >
the fun every year ;, becaufe the moon goes round the
ecliptic every month, and the fun but once in a year.
In fummer, the earth’s axis inclines towa.rds the moon
when, new; and. therefore the day-tidCs in the north
ought to be higheft, . and night-tides loweft about the
change ; at the full the reverfe. At the quarters they
ought to be equally high, but unequal in their returns ;
becaufe the earth’s axis then inclines fidewife to the
moon. In winter the phenomena are the fame at full-
moon as in fummer at new. In autumn the earth’s axis
inclines fidewife to, the moon-when new and full; there¬
fore the tides ought to be equally high,. and unequal in
their returns at thefe times. At the firft quarter the
tides of flood ftiould be leaft when the moon is above the
horizon, greateft when ftie is below it; and the.reverfe
476 ASTRO
at her third quarter. In fpring, the phenomema of the
sirfl quarter anfwer to thofe of the third quarter in au¬
tumn ; and vice vsrfa. The nearer any time is to ei¬
ther of thefe feafons, the more the tides partake of the
phenomena of thefe feafons ; and in the middle between
any two of them the tides are at a mean ftate between
thofe of both.
In open Teas, the tides rife but to very fmall heights
in proportion to what they do in wide-mouthed rivers,
opening in the direiftion of the ftream of tide. For, in
channels growing narrower gradually, the water is accu¬
mulated by the opposition of the contra<5Hng bank ; like
a gentle wind, little felt on an open plain, but ftrong
and brilk in a ftreet; efpecially if the wider end of the
ftreet be next the plain, and in the way of the wind.
The tides are fo retarded in their paffage through dif¬
ferent flioals and channels, and otherwife fo varioufly af¬
fected by linking again!! capes and headlands, that to
different places they happen at all diftances of the, moon
from the meridian ; confequently at all hours of the lu¬
nar day. The tide propagated by the moon in the Ger¬
man ocean, when the is three hours pal! the meridian,
takes 12 hours to come from thence to London-^Bridge *
where it arrives by the time that a new tide is raifed in
the ocean. And therefore when the moon has north de¬
clination, and we Ihould expeCl the tide at London to be
greatel! when the moon is above the horizon, we find
it is leal!; and the contrary when fhe has fouth decli¬
nation. At feveral places it is high water three hours
before the moon comes to the meridian ; but that tide
which the moon pulhes as it were before her, is only the
tide oppofite to that which was raifed by her when Ihe
was nine hours pall the oppofite meridian.
There are no tides in lakes, becaufe they are generally
fo fmall, that when the moon is vertical Ihe attraCls e-
every part of them alike, and therefore, by rendering
all the water equally light, no part of it can be raifed
higher than another. The Mediterranean and Baltic
feas fuffer very fmall elevations, becaufe the inlets by
which they communicate with the ocean are fo narrow,
that they cannot, in fo Ihort a time, receive or difcharge
enough to raife or fink their furfaces fenfibly.
Air being lighter than water, and the furface of the
atmofphere being nearer to the moon than the furface
of the fea, it cannot be doubted that the moon raifes
much higher tides in the air than in the fea. And there¬
fore many have wondered why the mercury does not fink
in the barometer when the moon’s adtion on the particles
of air makes them lighter as Ihe palfes over the meridian.
But we mull confider, that as thefe particles are ren¬
dered lighter, a greater number of them is accumulated,
until the deficiency of gravity be made up by the height
of the column ; and then there is an equilibrium, and
confequently an equal prefiure upon the mercury as be¬
fore ; fo that it cannot be affedted by the aerial tides.
Chap. XVI. Of Eclipfes : Their Number
and Periods, A large Catalogue of ancient
and modern Eclipfes.
Every planet and fatellite is illuminated by the fun ;
N O M Y.
and calls a lhadow towards that point of the heavens
which is oppofite to the fun. This lhadow is nothing
but a privation of light in the fpace hid from the fun by
the opaque body that intercepts his rays.
When the fun’s light is fo intercepted by the moon,
that to any place of the earth the fun appears partly or
wholly covered, he is faid to undergo an eclipfe •, though,
properly fpeaking, it is only an eclipfe of that part of the
earth where the moon’s lhadow or penumbra falls.
When the earth comes between the fun and moon,
the moon falls into the earth’s lhadow; and, having no
light of her own, Ihe fuffers a real eclipfe from the in¬
terception of the fun’s rays. When the fun is eclipfed
to us, the moon’s inhabitants, on the fide next the earth,
fee her lhadow like a dark fpot travelling over the earth,
about twice as fall as its equatoreal parts move, and the
fame way as they move. When the moon is in an e
clipfe, the fun appears eclipfed to her, total to all thofe
parts on which the earth’s lhadow falls, and of as long
continuance as they are in the lhadow.
That the earth is fpherical (for the hills take off no
more from the roundnefs of the earth, than grains of
dull do from the roundnefs of a common globe) is evi¬
dent from the figure of its lhadow on the moon; which
is always bounded by a circular line, although the earth
is inceflantly turning its different fides to the moon, and
very feldom Ihews the fame fide to her in different eclip¬
fes, becaufe they feldom happen at the fame hours.
Were the earth fhaped like a round flat plate, its lhadow
would only be circular when either of its fides direftly
faced the moon; and more or lefs elliptical as the earth
happened to be turned more or lefs obliquely towards tbs
moon when Ihe is eclipfed. The moon’s different phafes
prove her to be round; for, as Ihe keeps Hill the fame
fide towards the earth, if that fide were flat, as it appears
to be, Ihe would never be vifible from the third quarter
to the firfl; and from the firli quarter to the third, Ihe
would appear as round as when we fay Jhe is full; be¬
caufe, at the end of her firll quarter, the fun’s light
would come as fuddenly on all her fide next the earth,
as it does on a flat wall, and go off as abruptly at the
end of her third quarter.
If the earth and fun were equally large, the earth’s
lhadow would be infinitely extended/ and all of the fame
bulk ; and the planet Mars, in either of its nodes and
oppofite to the fun, would be eclipfed in the earth’s lhadow.
Were the earth larger than the fun, its Ihadow would in-
creafe in bulk thefartherit extended, and would eclipfe the
great planets Jupiter and Saturn, with all their moons,
when they were oppofite to the fun. But as Mars, in
oppofition, never falls into the earth’s lhadow, although
he is not then above 42 millions of miles from the earth,
it is plain that the earth is much lefs than the fun ; for
otherwife its lhadow could not end in a-point at fo fmall
a diftance. If the fun and moon were equally large, the
moon’s Ihadow would go on to the earth with an equal
breadth, and cover a portion of the earth’s furface more
than 2000 miles broad, even if it fell direftly again!! the
earth’s centre, as feen from the moon ; and much more if
it fell obliquely on the earth : But the moon’s lhadow is
feldom 150 miles broad at the earth, unlefs when it falls
» very
ASTRO
very obliquely on the earth, in total eclipfes of the fun.
In annular eclipfes, the moon’s real fhadow ends in a
point at fome didance from the earth. The moon’s
fmall didance from the earth, and the fhortnefs of her
diadow, prove her to be lefs than the fun. And, as the
earth’s flradow is large enough to cover the moon, if her
diameter were three times as large as it is (which is evi¬
dent from her long continuance in the diadow when die
goes through its centre) it is plain, that the earth is much
bigger than the moon.
Though all opaque bodies, on which the fun diines,
have their diadows, yet fuch is the bulk of the fun, and-
the didances of the planets, that the primary planets
can never eclipfe one another. A primary can eclipfe
only its fecondary, or be eclipfed by it; and never but
when in oppofition or conjun&ion with the fun. The
primary planets are very feldom in thefe pofitions, but
the fun and moon are fo every month : Whence one may
imagine, that thefe two luminaries diould be eclipfed e-
very month. But there are few eclipfes in refpeft of the
number of new and full moons; the reafon of which we
diall now explain.
If the moon’s orbit were coincident with the plane of
the ecliptic, in which the earth always moves and the fun
appears to move, the moon’s diadow would fall upon the
earth at every change, and eclipfe the fun to fome parts
of the earth. In like manner, the moon would go through
the middle of the earth’s diadow, and be eclipfed at eve¬
ry full ; but with this difference, that die would be totally
darkened for above an hour and an half; whereas the fun
never was above four minutes totally eclipfed by the in-
terpofition of the moon. But one half of the moon’s
orbit is elevated y-f degrees above the ecliptic, and the
other half as much depreded below it; fonfequently, the
moon’s orbit interfedls the ecliptic in two oppofite points
called the moon's nodes, as has been already taken notice
of. When thefe points are in a right line with the cen¬
tre of the fun at new or full moon, the fun, moon, and
earth, are all in a right line; and if the moon be then
new, her diadow falls upon the earth ; if full, the earth’s
fhadow falls upon her. When the fun and moon are
more than 17 degrees from either of the nodes at the
time of conjunftion, the moon is then generally too high
or too low in her orbit to cart any part of her fhadow
upon the earth; when the fun is more than 12 deg. from
-either of the nodes at the time of full moon, the moon is
generally too high or too low in her orbit to go thro’ any
part of the earth’s diadow: And in both thefe cafes there
will be no eclipfe. But when the moon is lefs than 17 de¬
grees from either node at the time of conjunction, her fha¬
dow or penumbra falls more or lefs upon the earth, as die is
more, or lefs within this limit. And when die is lefs than
12 degrees from either node at the time of oppofition, die
goes through a greater or lefs portion of the earth’s fha¬
dow, as die is more or lefs within this limit. Her orbit
contains 360 degrees; of which 17, the limit of folar e-
clipfes on either fide of the nodes, and 12, the limit of
lunar eclipfes, are but fmall portions : And as the fun
commonly pafles by the nodes but twice in a year, it is
no wonder that we have fo many new and full moons
without eclipfes.
To illudrate this, (Plate XLVI. fig. 1.) let dBCD
Vol. I. No. 20. 3
N O M Y. 477
be the ecliptic, RSTU a circle lying in the fame plane
with the ecliptic, and VIVXYthe moon’s orbit, ail thrown
into an oblique view, which gives them an elliptical diape
to the eye. One half of the moon’s orbit, as VfVX, is
always below the ecliptic, and the other half XYV above
it. The points V and X, where the moon’s orbit inter-
feCts the circle RSTU, which lies even with the ecliptic,
are the moon’s nodes ; and a right line, as XEF, draw®
from one to the other, through the earth’s centre, is the
line of the nodes, which is carried almoft parallel to it-
felf round the fun in a year.
If the moon moved round the earth in the orbit
RSTU, which is coincident with the plane of the eclip¬
tic, her fhadow would fall upon the earth every time die
is in conjundtion with the fun, and at every oppolitiou
die would go through the earth’s diadow. Were this
the cafe, the fun would be eclipfed at every change, and
the moon at every full, as already mentioned.
But although the moon’s fhadow W mud fall upon the
earth at a, when the earth is at E, and the moon in con¬
junction with the fun at becaufe die is then very near
one of her nodes ; and at her oppofition « die mud go
through the earth’s diadow I, becaufe die is then near
the other node ; yet, in the time that die goes round the
earth to her next change, according to the order of the
letters XYVfV, the earth advances from E to e, accord¬
ing to the order of the letters EFGH, and the line of
the nodes VEX being carried nearly parallel to itfelf,
brings the point f of the moon’s orbit in conjunction
with the fun at that next change; and then the moon
being at f, is too high above the ecliptic to cad her fha¬
dow on the earth : And as the earth is dill moving for¬
ward, the moon at her next oppofition will be at g, too
far below the ecliptic to go through any part of the
earth’s diadow; for by that time the point g will be at a
confiderable didance from the earth as feen from the fun.
When the earth comes to F, the moon in conjunction
with the fun Z is not at ^ in a plane coincident with
the ecliptic,, but above it at Y in the highed part of her
orbit: and then the point £ of her diadow 0 goes far a-
bove the earth (as in fig. 2. which is an edge view of
fig. 1.) The moon, at her next oppofition, is not at o
(fig. 1.) but at W, where the earth’s diadow goes far a-
bove her (as in fig. 2.) In both thefe cafes the line of
the nodes VFX (fig. x.) is about 90 degrees from the
fun, and both luminaries are as far as podible from the
limits of the eclipfes.
When the earth has gone half round the ecliptic from
E to G, the line of the nodes VGX is nearly, if not ex¬
actly, direfted towards the fun at Z; and then the new-
moon / cads her diadow P on the earth G; and the
full moon p goes through the earth’s diadow L ; which
brings on eclipfes again, as when the earth was at E.
When the earth comes to H, the new moon falls not
at tn in a plane coincident with the ecliptic CD, but at
^in her orbit below it; and then her diadow ^ (fee
j’g- 2.) goes far below the earth. At the next full die
is not at q (fig. 1.) but at Y in her orbit 54 degrees a-
bove 7, and at her greated height above the ecliptic CZ) •
being then as far as podible, at any oppofition, from the
earth’s diadow M, as in fig. 2.
So, when the earth is at E and G, the moon is about
6 E hgj-
478 ASTRO
her nodes, at new and full ; and in her greateft north
and Jouth declination (or latitude, as it is generally call¬
ed) from the ecliptic at her quarters : But when the
earth is at F or H, the moon is in her greateft north and
Jouth declination from the ecliptic at new and full, and
in the nodes about her quarters.
The point X where the moon’s orbit crofles the e-
eliptic, is called the afcending node, becaufe the moon
afcends from it above the ecliptic : And the oppofite
point of interfeftion V is called the defcending node, be¬
caufe the moon defcends from it below the ecliptic.
When the moon is at T in the higheft point of her orbit,
fhe is iri her greateft north latitude; and when fhe is at
IV in the lowed: point of her orbit, (he is in her greateft
fouth latitude.
If the line of the nodes, like the earth’s axis, was car¬
ried parallel to itfelf round the fun, there would be juft
half a year between the conjunctions of the fun and.
nodes. But the nodes fliift backward, or contrary to the
earth’s annual mdtion, 19^-deg. every year; and therefore
the fame node comes round to the fun 19 days fooner e-
yery year than on the year before. Confequently, from
the tirrte that the afcending node X (when the earth is at
£■)' pafi'es by the fun as feen from the earth, it is only
173 days (not half a year) till the defcending node V
paffes by him. Therefore, in whatever time of the year
we have eclipfes of the luminaries about either node, we
may be fure that in 173 days afterward we {hall have e-
dipfes about the other node. And when at any time of
the year the line of the nodes is in the fituation VGX,
at the fame time next year it will be in the fituation
rGs; the afcending node having gone backward, that is,
contrary to the order of figns, from X to /, and the de¬
fcending node from ^ to r ; each 19-y deg. At this rate
the nodes {hift through all the figns and degrees of the
ecliptic in 18 years and 225 days ; in which time there
would always be a regular period of eclipfes, if any
complete number of lunations were finiflied without a
fraction. But this never happens; for if both the fun
and moon fhould ftart from aline of conjunction with
either of the nodes in any point of the ecliptic, the fun
would perform 18 annual revolutions and 222 degrees
over and above, and the moon 230 lunations and 8$
degrees of the 231ft, by the time the node came round
to the fame point of the ecliptic again : So that the fun
would then be 138 degrees from the node, and the moon
85 degrees from the fun.
But, in 223 mean lunations, after the fun, moon, and
nodes, have been once in a line of conjunction, they re¬
turn fo nearly to the fame ftate again, as that the fame
node, which was in'conjunction with the fun and moon
at the beginning of the firft of thefe lunations, will be
within 28 12" of a degree of a line of conjunction with
the fun and moon again, when the iaft of thefe luna¬
tions is completed. And therefore, in that time there
will be a regular period of eclipfes-, or return of the fame
eclipfe, for, many ages.'—In this period, (which was firft
difcovered by the Chaldeans), there are 18 JuKan years
11 days 7 hours 43 minutes 20 feconds, when the laft
day of.February in, leap-years is four times included:
N O M Y.
But when it is five times included, the period confifts
of only 18 years 10 days 7 hours 43 minutes 20 feconds.
Confequently, if to the mean time of any eclipfe, either
of the fun or moon, you add 18 Julian years xx days
7 hours 43 minutes 20 feconds, when the laft day of Fe¬
bruary in leap-years comes in four times, or a day lefs
when it comes in five times, you will have the mean
time of the return of the fame eclipfe.
But the falling back'of the line, or conjunctions, or
oppofitions of the fun and moon 28/ 12" with refpeCt to
the line of the nodes in every period, will wear it out
in procefs of time ; and after that, it will not return a-
gain in lefs than 12492 years. — Thefe eclipfes of the
fun, which happen about the afcending node, and begin
to come in at the north pole of the earth, will go a little
foutherly at each return, till they go quite off the earth
at the fouth pole ; and thofe which happen about the de¬
fcending node, and begin to come in at the fouth pole of
the earth, will go a little northerly at each return, till
at laft they quite leave the earth at the north pole.
To exemplify this matter, we fhall firft confider the
fun’s eclipfe, (March 21ft old ftyle, April ift new ftyle),
A. D. 1764, according to its mean revolutions, without
equating the times, or the fun’s diftance from the node j
and then according to its true equated times.
This eclipfe fell in open fpace at each return, quite
clear of the earth, even fince the creation, till A. D-
129J, June 13th old ftyle, at 12 h. 52 m. 59 fee. pojl
meridiem, when the moon’s fhadow firft touched the
earth at the north pole; the fun being then 170 48/ 27"
from the afcending node.—In each period fince that time,
the fun has come 2%' i2,r nearer and nearer the fame
node, and the moon’s ftiadow has therefore gone more
and more foutherly.—In the year 1962, July 18th old
ftyle, at 10 h. 36 m. 21 fee. p. ni. when the fame eclipfe
will have returned 38 times, the fun will.be only 24/ 45,,
from the afcending node, and the centre of the moon’s
fhadow will fafl a little northward of the earth’s centre.
—At the end of the next following period, A D. 1980,
July 28th old ftyle, ati8h. 19 m. 41 fee. p m. the fun
will have receded back 3' 27" from tjre afcending node, .
and the moon will have a very fmall degree of fouthern'
latitude, which will caufe the centre of her (hadow to
pafs a very fmall matter fouth of the earth’s centre.—
After which, in every following period, the fun will be
28'. 12" farther back from the afcending node than in the
period laft before ; and the moon’s ftiadow will go ftill
farther and farther foutHward, until September 12th
old ftyle, at 23 h. 46 m. 22 fee. p. m. A. D. 2665 ;
when the eclipfe will have compleated its 77th periodical"
return, and will go quite off the earth at the fouth pole
(the fun being then 17° jj'22,/back from the node)
and cannot come in at the north pole, fo as to begin
the. fame courfe over again, in lefs than 12492 years after¬
ward.—And fuch will be the cafe of’every other eclipfd
of the fun: For, as there is about 18 degrees on eacli
fide of the. node within which there is a paifibility of e-
clipfes, their whole revolution goes through 36 degrees
about that node, which, taken from 360 degrees, leaves
remaining 324 degrees for the eclipfes to travel in ex-.-
AST R O
panfuvt. And as this 36 degrees is not gone through in
lefs than 77 periods, which takes up 1388 years, the
remaining 324 degrees cannot be fo gone through in
lefs than 12492 years. For, as 36 is to 1388, fo is
324 to 12492.
To illuftrate this a little farther, we fliall examine
Tome of the mofl: remarkable circumftances of the returns
of the eclipfe which happened July 14th 1748, about
noon. This eclipfe, after traverfing the voids of fpace
from the creation, at laft began to enter the Terra Au-
ftralis Incognita about 88 years after the conqueft,
which was the laft of king Stephen’s reign ; every Chal¬
dean period it has crept more northerly, but was dill in-
vifible in Britain before the year 1622 ; when, on the
30th of April, it began to touch the fouth parts of Eng¬
land about 2 in the afternoon ; its central appearance ri¬
ling in the American fouth feas, and traverfing Peru and
the Amazon’s Country, through the Atlantic ocean into
Africa, and fetting in the ^Ethiopian continent, not far
from the beginning of the Red fea.
Its next vifible period was after three Chaldean revo¬
lutions in 1676, on the firft of June, riling central in the
Atlantic ocean, palling us about 9 in the morning, with
four digits eclipfed on the under limb, and fetting in the
gulf of Cochinchina in the Eaft Indies.
It being now near the folftice, this eclipfe, was vilible
the very next return in 1694, in t‘ie evening; and in
two periods more, which was in 1730, on the 4th of
July, was feen about half eclipfed jult after fun-rife, and
obferved both at Wirtemberg in Germany, and Pekin in
China, foon after which it went off..
Eighteen years more afforded us the eclipfe which fell
on the 14th of July 1748.
The next vifible return happened on July 25th 1766,
in the evening, about four digits-eclipfqd; and after two
periods more, will happen on Auguft 16th 1802, early in
the morning, about five digits, the centre coming from the
north frozen continent, by the capes of Norway, through
Tartary China and Japan, to the Ladrone ifldncTs, where
it goes off.
Again, in 1820, Au.guff 26thi between one-and two,
there will be another great eclipfe at London, about 10
digits; but, happening fo near the equinox, the centre
will leave every part of Britain to, the welt, and enter
Germany at Emden, palling by Venice, Naples, Grand
Cairo, and let in the, gulf of Baffora near that city.
It will be no more vifible till 1874, when five digits
will be obfeured (the centre being now about to leave
the earth) on September 28th. In 1892, the fun will go
down eclipfed in London; and "again, An 1928, the paf-
fage of the centre will b$ in the expanfum, though there
will be two digits eclipfed-at London, October the 31ft
of that year, and’ about the year 2090 the whole pe¬
numbra will be wore off; whence no more returns of
this ecliple can happen, till after a revolution of io.ihou-
fand years.
N O M Y. 4)79
From thefe remarks on the entire revolution of this
eclipfe, we may gather, that a thoufand years, more Or
lefs, (for there are fome irregularities that may protradfc
or lengthen this period too years), complete the whole
terredrial phenomena of any fingle ecliple : and iince 20
periods of 54 years each, and about 33 days, compre¬
hend the entire extent of their revolution, it is evident,
that the times of the returns will pafs through a circuit of
one year and ten months, every Chaldean period being
ten or eleven days later, and of the equable appearances,
about 32 or 33 days. Thus, though this eclipfe hap¬
pens about the middle of July, no other fubfequent ec¬
lipfe of this period will return till the middle of the fame
month again ; but wear conftantly each period 10 or 11
days forward, and at laft appear in winter, but then it
begins to ceafe from affedting us.
Another conclufion from this revolution may be
drawn, that there will feldom be any more than two
great echpfes of the fun in the interval of this period,
and thefe follow fometimes next return, and often at
greater diftances. That of 1715 returned again in 1733
very great; but this prefent eclipfe will not be great till
the arrival of 1820, which is a revolution of four Chal¬
dean periods.; fo that the irregularities of their circuits
muft undergo new computa ions to aflign them exa&ly.
Nor do all.eclipfes come in at the fourh pole : That de¬
pends altogether on the pofition of the lunar nodes, which
will bring in as many from the expanfum one way as the
other ; and fuch eclipfes will wear more foutherly by
degrees, contrary to what happens in the prefent cafe.
The eclipfe, for example, of 1736 in September, had
its centre in the expanfum, and let about the middle of
its obfeurity in Britain; it will wear in at the north pole,
and in.the year 2600, or thereabouts, go off into the
expa?fum-on the fouth fide, of the earth.
The eclipfes therefore which happened about the cre¬
ation are little more than, half way yet of their etherial
circuit; and will be 4000 years before they, enter the
earth any more. This grand revolution feems. to have
been intirely unknown to the ancients.-
It is particularly^ to be noted, that eclipfes.which have
happened many centuries ago, will not be. found by our
prefent tables to agree exadtly with, ancient obfervations,
by reafon of (he great anomalies in. the lunar motions ;
which appears an inconteftable demonftration. of the non^
eternity of the univerfe. For it feems confirmed, by un¬
deniable proofs, that the moon now finilhes her period in
lefs time than formerly, and will'continue, by the cen¬
tripetal law, to approach nearer and nearer the earth,
and to go fooner and fboner round it: Nor will the cen¬
trifugal power be fufficient to compenfate the different
gravitations of fuch an affemblage of bodies as conftitute
the folar fyftem, which would come to ruin of itfelf, with¬
out fome new regulation and adjuftment of their original
motions *..
We
* There are two ancient ecllpfes of the moon, recorded by Ptolemy from Hipparchus, which afford an undent-
able proof of the moon's acceleration. The firft of thefe was obferved at Babylon, Decern, it 2d, in the year be¬
fore Chrift 383; when tie,moon began to be eclipfed, about half an hour before the fun rofe, and the eclipfe was
not
4$o ASTRO
We are credibly informed from the teftimony of the
ancients, that there was a total eclipfe of the fun pre-
didted by Thales to happen in the fourth year of the
48th Olympiad, either at Sardis or Miletus in Aha,
where Thales then redded. That year correfponds to
the 585th year before Chrift ; when accordingly there
happened a very dgnal eclipfe of the fun, on the 28th of
May, anfwering to the prefent 10th of that month, cen¬
tral through North America, the fouth parts of France,
Italy, fee. as far as Athens, or the ides in the Aegean
fea ; which is the fartheft that even the Caroline tables
carry it; and confequently make it invifible to any part
of Afia^ in the total charafter ; though there are good rea-
fons to believe that it extended to Babylon, and went
down central over that city. We are not however to
imagine, that it was fet before it pad Sardis and the
Afiatic towns, where the predidlor lived ; becaufe an in-
vilible eclipfe could have been of no fervice to demon-
ilrate his ability in aftronomical fciences to his country¬
men, as it could give no proof of its reality;
For a farther illudration, Thucydides relates, That a
folar eclipfe happened on a fummer’s day in the after¬
noon, in the firft year of the Peloponnedan war, fo
great, that the ftars appeared. Rhodius was viftor in
the Olympic games the fourth year of the faid war, be¬
ing alfo the fourth of the 87 th Olympiad, on the 428th
year before Chrift. So that the eclipfe muft have hap¬
pened in the 43 ift year before Chrift ; and by computa¬
tion it appears, that on the third of Auguft there was a
fignal eclipfe which would have part over Athens, cen¬
tral about 6 in the evening, but which our prefent tables
bring no farther than the ancient Syrtes on the African
coaft, above 400 miles from Athens ; which differing in
that cafe but 9 digits, could by no means exhibit the re¬
markable darknefs recited by this hiftorian ; the centre
therefore feems to have part Athens about 6 in the even¬
ing, and probably might go down about Jerufalem, or
near it, contrary to the conftruiftion of the prefent tables.
Thefe things are only obviated by way of caution to
the prefent aftronomers, in re-computing ancient e-
clipfes ; and they may examine the eclipfe of Ni-
cias, fo fatal to the Athenian fleet; that which over¬
threw the Macedonian army, &c.
In any year, the number of eclipfes of both luminaries
cannot be lefs than two, nor more than feven ; the moft
ufual number is four, and it is very rare to have more
N O M Y.
than fix. For the fun pafles by both the nodes but onc^
a-year, unlefs he paffes by one of them in the beginning
of the year ; and if he does, he will pafs by the fame
node again a little before the year be finilhed ; becaufe,
as thefe points move 19^ degrees backward every year,
the fun will come to either of them 173 days after the
other. And when either node is within 17 degrees of
the fun at the time of new moon, the fun will be e-
clipfed. At the fubfequent- oppofition, the moon will
be eclipfed in the other node, and come round to the next
conjundion again ere the former node be 17 degrees paft
the fun, and will therefore eclipfe him again. When
three eclipfes fall about either node, the like-numbef ge¬
nerally falls about the oppofite ; as the fun comes to it
in 173 days afterward; and fix lunations contain but
four days more. Thus, there may be two eclipfes of
the fun, and one of the moon, about each of her nodes.
But when the moon changes in either of the nodes, {he
cannot be near enough the other node at the next full to
be eclipfed ; and in fix lunar months afterward Ihe will
change near the other node : in thefe cafes there can be
but two eclipfes in a year, and they are both of the fun.
A longer period than the above mentioned, for com¬
paring and examining eclipfes which happen at long in¬
tervals of time, is 557 years, 21 days, 18 hours, 30 mi¬
nutes, 11 feconds ; in which time there are 6890 mean
lunations ; and the fun ancLnode meet again fo nearly as
to be but 11 feconds diftant; but then it is not the fame
eclipfe that returns, as in the ftiorter period above men¬
tioned.
A Lift of EdipfcS) and hiftorical Events,
which happened about the fame times, from
Ricciolus.
Before Christ.
July
721
March
But, according to an old kalen-
dar, this eclipfe of the fun was on
the 21ft of April, on which day the
foundations of Rome were laid ; if
tye may believe Taruntius Fir-
manus.
A total eclipfe of the moon. The
Afi'yrian empire at an end ; the Ba¬
bylonian eftablifhed.
not over before the moon fet: But, by mojl of our aftronomical tables, the moon ivas fet at Babylon half an hoar
before the eclipfe began ; in •which cafe, there could have been no pojjibility of obferving it. The fecond eclipfe was
ohferved at Alexandria, Septem. 22d, the year before Chrift 201; where the moon rofe fo much eclipfed, that
the eclipft muft have begun about half an hour before fhe rofe: Whereas, by meft of our tables, the beginning of
this eclipfe was not till about 10 minutes after the moon rofe at Alexandria. Had thefe eclipfes begun and ended
while the fun was below the horizon, we might have imagined, that as the ancients had no certain way of mea-
furing time, they might have been fo far miflaken in the hours, that we could not have laid any ftrefs on the
acounts given by them. But as, in the firft eclipfe, the moon was fet, and confequently the fun rifen, before it
was over; and in the fecond eclipfe the fun was ft, and the moon not rifen, til! fome time after it began ; thefe
are fuch circumftances as the obfervers could not poffibly be miftaken in. Mr Struyk, in the following catalogue^
notwithftanding the exprefs words of Ptolemy, puts down thefe two eclipfes as obferved at Athens; where they
might have been feen as above, without any acceleration of the moon's motion, Athens being 20 degrees weft of
Baby lon, and 7 degrees weft of Alexandria.
An
ASTRO
Before Chrift.
S8S
523
502
463
43i
4i3
394
168
May 28
July 16
Nov. 19
April 30
April 25
Auguft 3
Auguft 27
Augufl: 14
June 21
After Chrift,
59
306
846
J009
1133
April 30
April 12
July 27
May 4
Auguft 2
An eclipfe of the fun foretold
by Thales, by which a peace; was
brought about between the Medes
and Lydians.
An eclipfe of the moon, which
was followed by the death of Cam-
byfes.
An eclipfe of the moon, which
was followed by the flaughter of
the Sabines, and death of Valerius
Publicola.
An eclipfe of the fun. The
Perfian war, and the falling off of
the Perfians from the Egyptians.1
An eclipfe of the moon, which
was followed by a great famine at
Rome ; and the beginning of the
Peloponnefian war.
A total eclipfe of the fun. A
comet and plague at Athens.
A total eclipfe of the moon.
Nicias with his (hip deftroyed at
Syracufe.
An eclipfe of the fun. The Per¬
fians beat by Conon in a fea-en-
gagement.
A total eclipfe of the moon.
The next day Perfeus, king of
Macedonia, was conquered by Pau-
ius Emilius.
An eclipfe of the fun. This is
reckoned among the prodigies, on
account of the murder of Agrippi-
nus by Nero.
A total eclipfe of the fun. A
fign that the reign of the Gordiani
would not continue long. A fixth
perfecution of the Chriftians.
An eclipfe of the fun. The ftars
were feen, and the emperor Con-
ftan'tius died.
A dreadful eclipfe of the fun.
And Lewis the Pious died within fix
months after it.
An eclipfe of the fun. And Je-
rufalem taken by the Saracens.
A terrible eclipfe of the fun.
The ftars were feen. A fchifm in
the church, occafioned by there be¬
ing three Popes at once.
We have not enumerated one half of Ricciolus’s lift of
portentous eclipfes ; and for the fame reafon that he de¬
clines giving any more of them than what that lift con¬
tains, namely, that it is moft difagreeable to dwell any
longer on fuch nonfenfe : the fuperftition of the ancients
may be feen by the few here copied.
Eclipfes of the fun are more frequent than of the moon,
Vol. 1. No. 21. 3
N O M r. 481
becaufe the fun’s ecliptic limits are greater than the
moon’s ; yet we have more vifible eclipfes of the moon
than of the fun, becaufe eclipfes of the moon are feen
from all parts of that hemifphere of the earth which is
next her, and are equally great to each of thofe parts ;
but the fun’s eclipfes are vifible only to that fmall portion
of the hemifphere next him whereon the moon’s ihadow
falls.
The moon’s orbit being elliptical, and the earth in one
of its focufes, (lie is once at her leaft diftance from the
earth, and once at her greateft, in every lunation.
When the moon changes at her leaft diftance from the
earth, and fo near the node that her dark ftiadow falls
upon the earth, (he appears big enough to cover the
whole difle of the fun from that part on which her (ha-
dow falls ; and the fun appears totally eclipfed there’ for
fome minutes : but when the moon changes at her greateft
diftance from the eaith, and fo near the node that her
dark (hadow is directed towards the earth, her diameter
fubtends a lefs angle than the fun’s ; and therefore (lie
cannot hide his whole di(k from any part of the earth,
nor does her (hadow reach it at that time ; and to the
place over which the point of her (hadow hangs, the
eclipfe is annular, the fun’s edge appearing like a lumi¬
nous ring all around the body of the moon. When the
change happens within j 7 degrees of the node, and the
moon at her mean diftance from the earth, the point of
her (hadow juft touches the earth, and (he eclipfeth the
fun totally to that fmall fpot whereon her (hadow falls ;
but the darknefs is not of a moment’s continuance.
The moon’s apparent diameter, when largeft, exceeds
the fun’s, when leaft, only 1 minute 38 feconds of a de¬
gree ; and in the greateft eclipfe of the fun that can hap¬
pen at any time and place, the total darknefs continrues
no longer than whilft the moon is going 1 minute 38 fe¬
conds from the fun in her orbit, which is about 3 mi¬
nutes and 13 feconds of an hour.
The moon’s dark (hadow covers only a fpot on the
earth’s furface, about 180 Englifti miles broad, when
the moon’s diameter appears largeft, and the fun’s leaft ;
and the total darknefs can extend no farther than the
dark (hadow covers. Yet the moon’s partial (hadow or
penumbra may then cover a circular fpace 4900 miles in
diameter, within all which the fun is more or lefs eclipfed,
as the places are lefs or more diftant from the centre of
the penumbra. When the moon changes exactly in the
node, the penumbra is circular on the earth at the mid¬
dle of the general eclipfe ; becaufe at that time it falls
perpendicularly on the earth’s furface ; but at every o-
ther moment it falls obliquely, and will therefore be ,el¬
liptical ; and the more fo, as the time is longer before or
after the middle of the general eclipfe ; and then, much
greater portions of the earth’s furface are involved in the
penumbra.
When the penumbra firft touches the earth, the ge¬
neral eclipfe begins ; when it leaves the earth, the ge¬
neral eclipfe ends : from the beginning to the end the
fun appears eclipfed in fome part of the earth or other.
When the penumbra touches any place, the eclipfe be¬
gins at that place, and ends when the penumbra leaves
it. When the moon chapges in the node, the penumbra
6 F goes
ASTRONOMY.
482
goes over the centre of the earth’s diflc as feen from the
moon ; and confequently, by defcribing the iongeft line
poffible on the earth, continues the longeft upon it;
namely, at a mean rate, 5 hours 50 minutes ; more, if
the moon be at her greateft diflance from the earth, be-
caufe fire then moves flowed:; lefs, if fhe be at her lead
didance, becaufe of her quicker motion.
To make fevefal of the above and other phenomena
plainer, (Plate XLVI. fig. 3.), let S be the fun, E the
the earth, M the moon, and AMP the moon’s orbit.
Draw the right line Wc 12 from the wedern fide of the
fun at IV, touching the ^wedern fide of the moon at c,
and the earth at’ 12 : draw alfo the right line Vd 12 from
the eadern fide of the fun at V, touching the eadern fide
of the moon at d, and the earth at 12 : the dark fpace
cs\2d included between thofe lines is the moon’s fha-
dow, ending in a point at 12, where it touches the
earth ; becaufe in this cafe the moon is fuppofed to
change at M in the middle between A the apogee, ’or
farthed point of her orbit from the earth, and P the
perigee, or neared point to it. For, had the point P
been at M, the moon had been nearer the earth ; and
her.dark fhadow at e would have covered a fpace upon it
about 180 miles broad, and the fun would have been
totally darkened, with fome continuance : but had the
point A been at M, the moon would have been
farther from_the earth, and her fhadow would have
ended in a point about e, and therefore the fun would
have appeared like a luminous ring all around the moon.
Draw the right lines JVXdh and VXcg, touching the
contrary fides of the fun and moon, and ending on the
earth at a and/£: draw alfo the right line SXM\2,
from the centre of the fun’s dilk, through the moon’s
centre, to the earth at 12 ; and fuppofe the two former
lines JVXdh and VXcg to. revolve on the line SXMi 2 as
an axis, and their points a and b will defcribe the limits
of the penumbra TT on the earth’s furface, including
the large fpace «o^i2tf ; within which the fun appears
more or lefs eclipfed, • as the places are more or lefs di-
ftant from the verge of the penumbra aob.
Draw the right lineyt2 acrofs the fun’s dilk, perpen¬
dicular to SXM the axis of the penumbra : then, divide
the line y 12 into twelve equal parts, as in the figure, for
the twelve digits or equal' parts of the fun’s diameter ;
and, at equal diftances from the centre of the penumbra
at 12 (on the earth’s furface TT) to its edge aob, draw
twelve concentric circles, as marked with the numeral
figures 1234 <bc. and remember that the moon’s mo^
tion in her orbit AMP is from weft to eaft, as from x
to t. Then,
To an obferver on the earth at b, the eaftern limb of
the moon at d feems to touch the weftern limb of the fun
at JV, when the moon is at, TV/; and the fun’s eclipfe be¬
gins at b, appearing as, at A in Plate XLV1I. fig. x. at
the left hand ; but, at the fame moment of abfolute time
to an obferver at a in Plate XLVI. fig. 3. {he weftern
edge of the moon at c leaves the eaftern edge of the fun
at V, and the eclipfe ends, as at the right hand C, Plate
XLVH. fig, 1. At the very fame inftant, to all thofe
who live on the circle marked 1 on the earth E, in Plate
XLVI. fig. 3. the moon M cuts off or darkens a twelfth
pari of the fun S, . and ecligfes him one digit, as at t in
Plate XLVII. fig. 1. : to thofe who live on the circle
marked 2 in Plate XLVI. fig. 3. the moon curs off two
twelfth parts of the fun, as at 2 in Plate XLVI1.
fig. 1.; to thofe on the circle 3, three parts ; and fo on
to the centre at 12 in Plate XLVI. fig. 3. where the
fun is centrally eclipfed, as at B in the middle of fig. 1.
Plate XLVII. ; under which figure there is a fcale of
hours and minutes, to Ihew at a mean ftate how long it
is from the beginning to the end of a central eclipfe of
the fun on the parallel of London ; and how many di¬
gits are eclipfed at any particular time from the beginning
at A to the middle at B, or the end at C. Thus, in 16
minutes from the beginning, the fun is two digits e-
clipfed ; in an hour and five minutes, eight digits ; and
in an hour and 37 minutes, 12 digits.
By Plate XLVI. fig. 3. it is plain, that the fun is totally
or centrally eclipfed but to a fmall part of the earth at any
time ; becaufe the dark conical ihadow e of the moon
M falls but on a fmall part of the earth ; and that the
partial eclipfe is confined at that time to the fpace in¬
cluded by the circle aob, of which only one half can be
projected in the figure, the other half being fuppofed to
be hid by the convexity of the earth : and likewife,
that no part of the fun is eclipfed to the large fpace TT
of the earth, becaufe the moan is not between the fun
and any of that part of the earth : and therefore to all
that part the eclipfe is invifible. The earth turns eaft-
wardonits axis, as from ^ to h, which is the fame way
that the moon’s Ihadow moves ; but the moon’s motion
is much fwifter in her orbit from / to / : and therefore,
although eclipfes of the fun are of longer duration on
account of the earth’s motion on its axis than they would,
be if that motion was ftopt, yet, in four minutes of time
at moft, the moon’s fwifter motion carries her dark Iha¬
dow quite over any place that i:s centre touches at the
time of greateft obfeuration. The motion of the Iha¬
dow on tire earth’s diflc is equal to the moon’s motion
from the fun, which is about 30X minutes of a degree
every hour at a mean rate ; but fo much of the moon’s
orbit is equal to 30!- degrees of a great circle on the
earth; and therefore the moon’s fhadow goes 304 de¬
grees, or 1830 geographical miles on the earth in an
hour, or 304 miles in a minute, which is almoft four
times as fwift as the motion of a cannon ball.
As feen from the fun or moon, the earth’s axis ap¬
pears differently inclined every day of the year, on ac¬
count of keeping its parallelifm throughout its annual
courfe. In Plate XLVII. fig. 2. let EBON be the
earth at the two equinoxes and the two folftices, NS its
axis, iVthe north pole, S the fouth pole, ^.’j^the e*
quator, T the tropic of Cancer, t the tropic of Capri¬
corn, and ABC the circumference of the earth’s en¬
lightened diflc as feen from the fun or new moon at thefe
times. The earth’s axis has the pofition NES at the.
vernal equinox, lying tov/ards the right hand, as feen
from the fun or new moon; its poles N and S being
then in the circumference of the diflc ; and the equator
and all its parallels feem to be ftraight lines, becaufe
their planes pafs through the oblerver’§ eye looking down
upon the earth from the fun or moon diredlly over E',
where the ecliptic EG interfedls the equator A?. At the
fummer folftice, the earth’s axis has the pofition NOS •
ASTRO
and that part of the ecliptic FG, in which the moon is
then new, touches the tropic of Cancer T" at Z>. The
north pole N zx. that time^inclining 23! degrees towards
the fun, falls fo many degrees within the earth’s en¬
lightened dilk, becaufe the fun is then vertical to D,
23-r degrees north of the equator and the equator
with all its parallels feem elliptic curves bending down¬
ward, or towards the fouth pole, as feen from the fun ;
which pole, together with 234 degrees ail round it, is
hid behind the dilk in the dark hemifphere of the earth.
At the autumnal equinox, the earth’s axis has the po-
lition NOS, lying to the left hand as feen from the fun
or new moon, which are then vertical to 0, where the
ecliptic cuts the equator Both poles now lie in
the circumference of the dilk, the north pole juft going
to difappear behind it, and the fouth pole juft entering
into it ; and the equator, with all its parallels, feem to
be ftraight lines, becaufe their planes pafs through the
obferver’s eye, as feen from the fun, and very nearly fo
.as feen from the moon. At the winter iolftice, the
earth’s axis has the pofition NNS; when its fouth pole
S inclining 234 degrees toward the fun, falls 234 de'
grees within the enlightened dilk, as feen from the fun
or new moon, which are then vertical to the tropic of
Capricorn t, 234 degrees fouth of the equator and
the equator, with all its parallels, feem elliptic curves
bending upward ; the north pole being as far hid be¬
hind the dike in the dark heipifphere, as tfie fouth pole
is come into the light. T he nearer that any time of the
year is to the equinoxes or folftices, the more it partakes
of the phenomena relating to them.
Thus it appears, that from the vernal equinox to the
autumnal, the north pole is enlightened ; and the equa-i
tor, and all its parallels, appear elliptical as feen from
the fun, more or lefs curved as the time is nearer to, or
farther from, the fummer folftice ; and bending down¬
wards, or towards the fouth pole ; the reverfe of which
happens from the autumnal equinox to the vernal. A
little confideration will be fuffreient to convince the
reader, that the earth’s axis inclines towards the fun at
the fummer folftice ;. from the fun at the winter folftice ;
and lidewife to the fun at the equinoxes ; but towards
the right hand, as feen from the fun at the vernal equi¬
nox ; and towards the left hand at the autumnal. From
the winter to the fummer folftice, the earth’s axis in¬
clines more or lefs to the right hand, as feen from the
fun; and the contrary from the fummer to the winter;
folftice.
The different pofitions of the earth’s axis,- as feew
from the fun at different times of the year, affedi folar
eclipfes greatly ^ith regard to particular places ; yea, fo
far as would make central eclipfes which fall at one time
of the year invifible if they fell at another, even thong}*
the moon fhould always change in the nodes, and at the
fame hour of the day; of which indefinitely various af-
fedtions, we fhall only give examples- for the times of the
equinoxes and folftices.
In the fame diagram, (Plate XLVJI. fig. 2.), let FG
be part of the ecliptic, and IK, ik, ik, ik, part of the
moon’s orbit; both feen edgewife, and therefore pro-
jedted into right lines j and let the interfedlions NODE.
N O M Y.
be one and the fame node at the above times, when the;
earth has the forementioned different pofitions ; and let
the fpaces included by the circles Pppp be the penumbra
at thefe times, as its centre is paffing over the centre of
the earth’s difk. At the winter folftice, when the earthV
axis has the pofition NNS, the centre of the penumbra
P touches the tropic of Capricorn / in Ad at the middle
of the general eclipfe ; but no part of the penumbra
touches the tropic of Cancer T. At the fummer fol¬
ftice, when the earth’s axis has the pofition NDS (iDk
being then part of the moon’s orbit, whofe node- is at
D) the penumbra p has its centre at D, on the tropic
of Cancer T, at the middle of the general eclipfe, and
then no part of it touches the tropic of Capricorn t.
At the autumnal equinox, the earth’s axis has the po¬
fition NOS, [iOk being then part of the moon’s orbit),,
and the penumbra equally includes part of both tropics
T and t at the middle of the general eclipfe : at the ver-
ml equinox it does the fame, becaufe the earth’s axis
has the pofition NFS ; but, in the former of thefe two
laft cafes, the penumbra enters the earth at A, north of
the tropic of Cancer T, and leaves it at m, fouth of the
tropic of Capricorn t; having gone over the earth ob¬
liquely fouthward, as its centre deferibed the line AOm :
whereas, in the latter cafe, the penumbra touches the
earth at/?, fouch of the .equator and deferibing
the line-;w.Ej', (fimvlar to the former line AOm in open,
fpace), goes obliquely northward over, the earth, and
leaves it at q, north of the equator.
In all thefe circumftances, the moon has been fuppo-
fed to change at noon in her defeending node: Had Ills'
changed in her afeending node, the phenomena would
have been as various the contrary way, with refpedt to;
the penumbra’s going northward or fouthward over the
earth.. But becaufe the moon changes at all hours, as-
often in. one node as in the other, and at all. diftances
from them both at different times as it happens, the va¬
riety of the phafes of eclipfes are almoft innumerable, e-
venatthe fame places; confidering alfo how varioufly
the fame places are.fituated on the enlightened difk of
the earth, with refpedt to the penumbra’s motion, at the
different hours when eclipfes -happen.
When the moon changes 17 degrees fhort of her de-
fcending..node, .the penumbra P 18 juft touches the nor¬
thern part of the earths difk, near the north pole W;
and, as feen from that place, the moon appears to touch
the fun, but hides no, part of him from fight. Had the
change been as far fhort of the afeending node, the pe¬
numbra would have touched the fouthern part of the dike
near the fouth pole 5. When the moon changes 12 de¬
grees fhort of the defeending node, more than a third part
of the penumbra.Pi2 falls on the. northern parts of the.
earth at the middle of the general eclipfe: Had ihe changed
as far paft the fame node, as much of the other fide of the
penumbra .about P would have fallen on the. fouthern
part of the earth ; all the reft in the expanfum, or open
fpace. When the moon.,changes 6 degrees from the
node, almoft the whole penumbra P6 falls on the earth
at the.middle of the general eclipfe. And laftly, when-
the moon changes in the node at N, the penumbra PN
takes the longed courfe poffible on the earth’s dilk ; its
centre
484 ASTRO
centre falling on the middle thereof, at the middle of the
general eclipfe. The farther the moon changes from
either node, v/ithin 17 degrees of it, the fhorter is the
penumbra’s continuance on the earth, becaufe it goes o-
ver a lefs portion of the diilc, as is evident by the fi-
gure.
The nearer that the penumbra’s centre is to the equa¬
tor at the mifldie of the general eclipfe, the longer is the
duration of the eclipfe at all thofe-places where it is
central; becaufe, the nearer that any place is to the e-
quator, the greater is the circle it defcribes by the
earth’s motion on its axis: And fo, the place moving
quicker, keeps longer in the penumbra, whofe motion is
the fame way with that of the place, though falter, as
has been already mentioned. Thus (fee the earth at
D and the penumbra at 12) whilft the point b in the
polar circle abed is carried from $ to c by the earth’s
diurnal motion, the point d on the tropic of Cancer T
is carried a much greater length from dto D; and there¬
fore, if the penumbra’s centre goes one time over c and
another time over D, the penumbra will be longer in
palling over the moving place d than it was in palling o-
ver the moving place b. Confequently, central eclipfes
about the poles are of the Ihortefl duration ; and about
the equator of the longell.
In the middle of fummer, the whole frigid zone, in¬
cluded by the polar circle abed, is enlightened ; and if it
then happens, that the penumbra’s centre goes over the
north pole, the fun will be eclipfed much the fame num¬
ber of digits at « as at c; but whilft the penumbra moves
eaftward over c, it moves weft ward over *7; becaufe,
with refpedt to the penumbra, the motions of a and c
are contrary : For c moves the fame way with the pe¬
numbra towards d, but a moves the contrary way to¬
wards b ; and therefore the eclipfe will be of longer du¬
ration at c than at a. At « the eclipfe begins on the fun’s
eaftern limb, but at c on his weftern: At all places lying
without the polar circles, the fun’s eclipfes begin on his
weftern limb, or near it, and end on of near his eaftern.
At thofe places where the penumbra touches the earth,
the eclipfe begins with the rifing fun, on the top of his
weftern or uppermoft edge ; and at thofe places where
the penumbra leaves the earth, the eclipfe ends with the
fetting fun, on the top of his eaftern edge, which is then
the uppermoft, juft at its difappearing in the horizon.
If the moon were furrounded by an atraofphere of any
confiderable denfity, it would feem to touch the fun a
little before the moon made her appulfe to his edge,
and we 'ftiould fee a little faintnefs on that edge before it
were eclipfed by the moon: But as no fuch faintnefs has
been obferved, it feems plain, that the moon has no fuch
atmofphere as that of the earth. The faint ring of light
furrounding the fun in total eclipfes, called by Caffini
la ckevelure da foleil, feems to be the atmofphere of the
fun; becaufe it has been obferved to move equally with
the fun, not with the moon.
Having been fo prolix concerning eclipfes of the fhn,
we ihall drop that fubjeA at prefent, and proceed to the
do&rine of lunar eclipfes ; which, being more Ample,
may be explained in lefs time.
That the moon can never be eclipfed but at the time
N O M Y.
of her’ being full, and the reafon why (he is not eclipfed
at every full, has been Ihewn already. In Plate XLVI. fig. 3.
let S be the fun, E the earth, RR the earth’s lhadow, and
and i? the moon in oppofition to the fun: In this fitua-
tion the earth intercepts the fun’s light in its way to the
moon ; and when the moon touches the earth’s ftiadow at
v, ftie begins to be eclipfed on her eaftern limb x, and
continues eclipfed until her weftern limby leaves the flia-
dow at w: At Ihe is in the middle of the ftiadow,
and confequently in the middle of the eclipfe.
The moon, when totally eclipfed, is not invifible if ftie
be above the horizon and the ftcy be clear; but appears
generally of a dufky colour, like tarniftied copper, which
fome have thought to be the moon’s native light. But
the true caufe of her being vifible is the fcattered beams
of the fun, bent, into the earth’s ftiadow by going
through the atmofphere; which, being more or lels
denfe near the earth than at confiderable heights above
it, refradts or bends the fun’s rays more inward, the
nearer they are pafiing by the earth’s furface, than thofe
rays which go through higher parts of the atmofphere,
where it is lefs denfe according to its height, until it be
fo thin or rare as to lofe its refradtive power. Let the
circleconcentric to the earth, include the atmo-
fphere whofe refradtive power vanifties at the heights f
and i; fo that the rays JV/nu and Viv go on ftraight
without fuffering the leaft refradlion : But all thofe rays
which enter the atmofphere between f and k, and be¬
tween i and /, on oppofite fides of the earth, are gradual¬
ly more bent inward as they go through a greater por¬
tion of the atmofphere, until the rays IVk and I7/touch¬
ing the earth at m and «, are bent fo much as to meet
at q, a little ftiort of the moon ; and therefore the dark
ftiadow of the earth is contained in the fpace moqpn,
where none of the fun’s rays can enter : All the reft RR,
being mixed by the fcattered rays which are refradted as
above, is in fome meafure enlightened by them ; and
fome of thofe rays falling on the moon, give her the
colour of tarniftied copper, or of iron almoft red hot.
So that if the earth had no atmofphere, the moon would
be as invifible in total eclipfes as ftie is when new. If
the moon were fo near the earth as to go into its dark
ftiadow, fuppofe about po, fhe would be invifible during
her ftay in it; but vifible before and after in the fainter
ftiadow RR.
When the moon goes through the centre of the earth’s
ftiadow, ftie is diredlly oppofite to the fun : Yet the
moon has been often feen totally eclipfed in the horizon
when the fun was alfo vifible in the oppofite part of it :
For, the horizontal refradtion being almoft 34 minutes
of a degree, and the diameter of the fun and moon being
each at a mean ftate but 32 minutes, the refradtion caufes
both luminaries to appear above the horizon when they
are really below it.
When the moon is full at 12 degrees from either of
her nodes, ftie juft touches the earth’.s ftiadow, but en¬
ters not into it. In Plate XLVII. fig. 3. let GH be the e-
cliptic, ef the moon’s orbit where ftie is 12 degrees from
the node at her full; cd her orbit where fire is 6 degrees
from the node, ah her orbit where ftie is full in the
node, AB the earth’s ftiadow, and M the moon. When
ASTRO
the moon defcribes the line ef, fhe juft touches the ftia-
dow, but does not enter into it; when fhe defcribes the
line cd, fhe is totally, though not centrally^ immerfed
in the fhadow ; and when fhe defcribes the line ab, fhe
paffes by the node at M in the centre of the fhadow, and
takes the longeft line poffible, which is a diameter, thro’
it: And fuch an eclipfe being both total and central is
of the longeft duration, namely, 3 hours 57 minutes 6
feconds from the beginning to the end, if the moon be at
her greateft-diftance from the earth; and 3 hours 37
minutes 26 feconds, if fhe be at her leaft diftance. The
reafon of this difference is, that when the moon is far-
theft from the earth, fhe moves floweft; and when near-
eft to it, quickeft.
The moon’s diameter, as well as the fun’s, is fuppo-
fed to be divided into twelve equal parts, called digits;
and fo many of thefe parts as are darkened by the earth’s
fhadow, fp many digits is the moon eclipfed. All that
th*e moon is eclipfed above 12 digits, (hew how far the
fhadow of the earth is over the body of the moon, on
that edge to which fhe is neareft at the middle of the e-
clipfe.
It is difficult to obferve exadtly either the beginning
or ending of a lunar eclipfe, even with a good telefcope ;
becaufe the earth’s fhadow is fo faint and ill defined a-
bout the edges, that when the moon is either juft touch¬
ing or leaving it, the-obfcuration of her limb is fcarce
fenfible ; and therefore the niceft obfervers can hardly be
certain to four or five feconds of time. But both the
beginning and ending of folar eclipfes are vifibly inftan-
taneous ; for the moment that the edge of the moon’s
difk touches,the fun’s, his roundnefs feems a little broke
on that part; and the moment fhe leaves it, he appears
perfeftly round again.
In aftronomy, eclipfes of the moon are of great ufe. for
afcertaining the periods of her motions ; efpecially fuch
eclipfes as are obferved to be alike in all her circumftan-
ces, and have long intervals of time between them. In
geography, the longitudes of places are found by eclip¬
fes : But for this purpofe eclipfes of the moon are more
ufeful than thofe of the fun, becaufe they are more fre¬
quently vifible, and the fame lunar eclipfe is of equal
largenefs and duration at all places where it is feen. In
chronology, both folar and lunar eclipfes ferve to deter¬
mine exactly the time of any paft event: for there are fo
many particulars obfervable in every eclipfe, with refpedt
to its quantity, the places where it is vifible (if of the
fun) and the time of the day or night, that it is impof-
fible there can be two folar eclipfes in the courfe of ma¬
ny ages which are alike in all circumftances.
.From the above explanation of the dodtrine of eclip¬
fes it is evident, that the darknefs at our Saviour’s cru¬
cifixion was fupeniatural. For he fuffered on the day
on which the palfover was eaten by the Jews, on which
day it v/as impoffible that the moon’s fhadow could fall
on the earth; for the Jews kept the paffover at the time
of full moon : Nor does the darknefs in total eclipfes of
the fun laft above four minutes in any place; whereas
the darknefs at the crucifixion lafted three hours, Matth.
xxviii. 15. and overfpread at leaft all the land of Ju¬
dea.
Vol, I. Numb, 21. 3
N O M Y. 485
With regard to the method of calculating and pro”
jedting eclipfes, we muft refer the reader to the aftrono-
mical tables of Mr Fergufon and others. When the
principles are explained, the application and life of the
tables is a matter of fmall difficulty, and eafily acquired
by a little pradtice.
Chap. XVII. Of the fixed Stars.
The ftars are faid to be fixed, becaufe they have
been generally obferved to keep at the fame diftances
from each other : their apparent diurnal revolutions be¬
ing caufed folely by the earth’s turning on its axis. They
appear of a fenfible magnitude to the bare eye, becaufe
the retina is affedted not only by the rays of light which
are emitted diredtly from them, but by many thoufands
more, which, falling upon our eye-lids, and upon the.
aerial particles about us, are refledted into our eyes fo
ftrongly as to excite vibrations not only in thofe points
of the retina where the real images of the ftars are form¬
ed, but alfo in other points at fome diftance round a-
bout. This makes us imagine the ftars to be much big¬
ger than they would appear, if we faw them only by the
few rays which come diredlly from them, fo as to enter
our eyes without being intermixed with others. Any
one may be fenfible of this, by looking at a ftar of the
firft magnitude through a long narrow tube; which,
though it takes in as much of the fky as would hold
a thoufand fuch ftars, yet fcarce renders that one vi¬
fible.
The more a telefcope magnifies, the lefs is the aper¬
ture through which the ftar is feen; and confequently
the fewer rays it admits into the eye. Now fince the
ftars appear lefs in a telefcope which magnifies 200
times, than they do to the bare eye, infomuch that they
feem to be only indivifible points, it proves at once that
the ftars are at immenfe diftances from us, and that they
ftiine by their own proper light. If they Atone by bor¬
rowed light, they would be as invifible without tele-
fcopes as the fatellites of Jupiter are; for thefe fatellites
appear bigger when viewed with a good telefcope titan,
the large!! fixed ftars do.
The number of ftars difcoverable, in either hemifphere,
by the naked eye, is not above a thoufand. This at
firft may appear incredible; becaufe they feem to be with¬
out number: But the deception arifes from our looking
confufedly upon them, without reducing them into order.
For, look but ftedfaftly upon a pretty large portion of
the Iky, and count the number of ftars in it, and you
will be furprifed to find them fo few. Or, if one con-
fiders how feldom the moon meets with any ftars in her
way, although there are as many about her path as in
other parts of the heavens, he will foon be convinced
that the ftars are much thinner fown than he was aware
of. The Britifii catalogue, which, befides the ftars vi-
.fible to the bare eye, includes a great number which
cannot be feen without the affiftance of a telefcope, con¬
tains no more than three thoufaud, in both hcmifpheres.
As we have incomparably more light from the moon
than from all the ftars together, it were the greateft ab-
6 G furdity
436 ASTRO
furdity to imagine that the ftars were made for no other
purpofe than to caft a faint light upon the earth; efpe-
cially fince many more require the affiflance of a good te-
fefcope to find them out, than are vifible without that
inflrument. Our fun is furrounded by a fyftem of pla¬
nets and comets ; all which would be invifible from the
neared fixed ftar. And from what we already know of
the immenfe diftance of the liars, the neared may be
computed at 32,000,000,000,000 of miles from us,
which is farther than a cannon-bullet would fly in
7,000,000 of years. Hence it is eafy to prove, that
the fun, feen from fuch a didance, would appear no
bigger than a dar of the fird magnitude. From all this
ft is highly probable, that each dar is a fun to a fyflem
of worlds moving round it, though unfeen by us ; efpe-
cially as the dodtrine of a plurality of worlds is rational,
and greatly manifeds the power, wifdom, and goodnefs
of the great Creator.
The liars, on account of their apparently various mag¬
nitudes, have-been didributed into feveral dalles, or or¬
ders. Thofe which appear larged, are called Jiars of
fke fitJl magnitude-, the next to them in ludre, fia^s of
the fecond magnitude-, and fo on the fixth, which are
the fmalled thjit are vifible to the bare eye. This diltri-
bution having been made long before the.invention of
telefcopes, the liars which cannot be feen without the
aflidance of thefe inllrumerits, are didinguilhed by the
name of telcfcipfc fan.
The ancients divided the darry fphere into particular
condellations, or fydems of dars, according as they lay
near one another, fo as to occupy thofe dpaces which the
figures of different forts of animals or things would take
up, if they were there delineated. And thofe dars
which could not be brought into any particular condella-
tion, were called unformed Jiars.
This drvifion of the darj into different condellations
or aderifms, ferves to didinguilh them from one another,
fo that any particular dar may be readily found in the
heavens by means of a celedial globe; on which the
condellations are fo delineated, as to put the mod remark¬
able dars into fuch parts of the figures as are mod eafily
didinguilhedj The number of the ancient condellations
is 48, and upon our prefent globes about 70. On Se-
nex’s globes are inferted Bayer’s letters; the fird in the
Greek alphabet being put to the bigged dar in each con-
flellation, the fecond to the next, and fo on : By which
N O M Y.
means, every dar is as eafily found as if a name were
given to it. Thus, if the dar y in the condellation of
the ram be mentioned, every adronomer knows as well
what dar is meant as if it were pointed out to.him in the
heavens.
There is alfo a divifion of the heavens into three parts.
1. The Zodiak from tyj'tov, zodion, an animal,
becaufe mod of the condellations in it, which are twelve
in number, are the figures of animals: As dries the
ram, faurus the bull, Gemini the twins, Cancer the
crab, Leo the lion, Virgo the virgin, Libra the balance,
Scorpio the fcorpion, Sagittarius the archer, Capricor--
nus the goat, Aquarius the water-bearer, and Pifces
the fifties. The zodiac goes quite round the heavens r
it is about 16 degrees broad, fo that it takes in the orbits,
of all the planets, and likewife the orbit of the moon.
Along the middle of this zone or belt is the ecliptic, or
circle which the earth defcribes annually as feen from
the fun ; and which the fun appears to defcribe as feen
from the earth. 2. All that region of the heavens,
which is on the north fide of thd zodiac, containing
twenty-one condellations. And, 3. That on the fouth
fide, containing fifteen.
The ancients divided the zodiac into the above twelve
condellations or figns in the following manner. They
took a veffel with a fmall hole in the bottom, and having
filled it with water, differed the fame to didil drop by
drop into another veffel fet beneath to receive it; be¬
ginning at the moment when fome dar rofe, and conti¬
nuing until it rofe the next following night. The water
fallen down into the receiver they divided into twelve e-
qual parts; and having two other fmall veffels in readi-
nefs, each of them fit to contain one part, they again
poured all the water into the upper veffel, and obierving
the rifing of fome dar in the zodiac, they at the fame
time differed the water to drop into one of the fmall
veffels; and as foon as it was full, they' ftiifted it, and
fet an empty one in Its place. When each veffel was
full, they took notice what dar of the zodiac rofe ; and
though this could not be done in one night, yet in ma¬
ny they obferved the rifing of twelve dars or points,
by which they divided the zodiac into twelve parts.
The names of the condellations, and the number of
dars obferved in each of them by different adronomers,
are as follow.
Uffa minor
Urfa major
Draco
Gepheus
Bootes, Arftophilax
Corona Borealis
Hercules* Engonajin
Lyra
Cygnus, Gallina
Caffiopea
Perfeus
Auriga
Serpentariusg Ophiuchus
The, ancient Condellations.
The Little Bear
The Great Bear
The Dragon
Gepheus
The Northern Crown
Hercules kneeling
The Harp
The Swan
The Lady in her Chair’
Perfeus
The Waggoner
Serpentarius
Ptolemy.
8
35
3*
13
23 „
8
29
10
W
13
29
14
29
Tycho.
7
, 29
32
4
18
18
2<$
29
9
15
51
52
8
45
*7
47
37
46
40
49
Flamfieed.
24
87
80
35
54
81
55
59
66
74
Serpens
astronomy.
487
The
Serpens
Sagitta
Aquila, Vullur
Antinous
Delphinus
Equulus, Equi fetti
Pegafas, Equus
Andromeda
Triangulum
Aries
Taurus
Gemini
Cancer
Leo
Coma Berenices
Virgo
Libra, Chelx
Scorpius
Sagittarius
Capricornus
Aquarius
Pifces
Cetus
Orion
Eridanus, Fluvius
Lepus
Canis major
Canis minor
Argo Navis
Hydra
Crater
Corvus
Centaurus
Lupus
Ara
Corona Auflralis
Eiicis Auftralis
ancient Conftellations.
The Serpent
The Arrow
The Eagle 7
Antinous 3
The Dolphin
0 The Horfe’s Head
The Flying Horfe
Andromeda
The Triangle
The Ram
The Bull
The Twins
The Crab
The Lion 7
Berenice’s Hair 3
The Virgin
The Scales
The Scorpion
The Archer
The Goat
The Water-bearer
The Fifties
The Whale
Orion
Eridanus, the River
The Hare
The Great Dog
The Little Dog
The Ship
The Hydra
The Cup
The Crow
The Centaur
The Wolf
The Altar
The Southern Crown
The Southern Filh
Ptolemy.
18
5
23
4
18
44
25
23
32
17
24
3i
28
45
38
38
34
7
7
37
W
7
13
18
Tycho.
13
5
W
23
43
25
15
30
14
33
41
36
13
13
2
3
19
3
4
5
23
19
14
6
38
47
12
27
51
38
29
49
29
47
39
45
62
27
16
Flamjleed.
64
89
66
16
66
141
85
83
95
43
110
5i
44
69
51
108
1x3
97
78
84
W
31
14
64
60
31
9
35
24 -
9
12
24.
The new Southern Conftellations.
Columba Noachi
Robur Carolinum
Grus
Phoenix
Indus
Bavo
Apus, Avis Indices
Apis, Mufca
Chamaeleon
Triangulum Auftralis
Pifcis volans, PaJJ'er
Dorado, X ip hi as
Toucan
Hydrus
Noah’s Dove
The Royal Oak.
The Crane
The Phenix
The Indian
The Peacock
The Bird of Paradife
The Bee or Fly
The Chameleon
The South Triangle
The Flying, Fifti
The Sword Fifti
The American Goofe
The Water Snake.
Hevelius's Cancellation: made out of the unformed Stars.
Hevel. Flamfl.
Lynx The Lynx 19 44
lieo minor The Little Lion 53
Hevel. Flamft.
Afterion & Chara The Greyhounds 23 23
Cerberus Cerberus 4
Vulpecula& Anfer The Fox and Goofe 27 35
Scutum Sobieftd Sobielld’s Shield 7
Lacerta The Lizard _ .10
Camelopardalus. The Camelopard 32
Monocerns The Unicorn 19
Sextans The Sextant 11
16
58
3i
4i
There is a remarkable track'round the heavens, call¬
ed the Milky Way, from its peculiar whitenefs, which
was formerly thought to be owing to a vaft number of
very fmall ftars therein : but the telefcope ftiews it to be
quite otherwife ;. and therefore its whitenefs muft be ow¬
ing to fome other caufe. This track appears fingle in-
fome parts, in others double.
There are feveral little whitifti fpots in the heavens,
which appear magnifted, and more luminous when feen-
through telefcopes ; yet without any itars in them. One
of thefe is in Andromeda’s girdle, and was firft obferved
A.D. 1612, by Simon Marius: it has fome whitifti
rays
438 ASTRONOMY.
rays near its middle, is liable to feveral clianges, and-is
fometimes invifible. Another is near the eclipticj be¬
tween the head and bow of Sagittarius it is fmall, but
very luminous. A third is on the back of the Centaur,
which is too far fouth to be feen in Britain. A fourth,
of a fmaller fize, is before Antihous’s right foot; having
a dan in it, which makes it appear more bright. A fifth
is in the conitellation of Hercules, between the ftars £
and n, which fpot, though but fmall, is; vlfible to the
bare eye, if the ficy be clear and the moon abfent.
Cloudy Jlars are fo called from their mifly appearance.
They look like dim ftars to the naked eye -; but through
a telefcope they appear broad illuminated parts of the
Iky ; in fome of which is one ftar, in others more.- Five
of thefe are mentioned'by Ptolemy, i. One at the ex¬
tremity of the right hand of Perfeus. 2. One in thd
middle of the Crab. 3. One unformed, near the fting
of the Scorpion. 4. The eye of Sagittarius. 5. !One
in the head of Orion. In the firft of thefe appear more
ftars through the telefcope than in any of the reft, al¬
though 21 have been counted in the head of Orion, and
above 40 in that of the Crab. Two are vifible in the
eye of Sagittarius without a telefcope, and feveral more
with it. Flamfteed obferved a cloudy ftar in the bow of
Sagittarius, containing many fmall ftars ; and the ftar d
above Sagittarius’s right (boulder is encompafled with
feveral more. Both Caffini and Flamfteed difcovered
one between the Great and Little Dog, which is very
full of ftars vifible only by the teleicope. The two
whitilh fpots near the fouth pole, called the Magellanic
Clouds by Sailors, which to die bare eye refemble part
of the Milky Way, appear through telefcopes to be a
mixture of fmall clouds and ttars. But the moft re¬
markable of all the cloudy ftars is that in the middle of
Orion’s Sword, where feven ftars (of which three are
very clofe together) feem tolhine through a cloud, very
lucid near the middle, but faint and ill defined about the
edges. It looks like a gap in the (ley, through which
one may fee (as it were) part of a much brighter re¬
gion. Although moft of thefe fpaces are but a few mi¬
nutes of a degree in breadth, yet, fince they are among
the fixed ftars, they muft be fpaces larger than what is
occupied by our folar fyftem ; and in which there feems
to be a perpetual uninterrupted day among numberlefs
worlds, which no human art ever can difeover.
Several ftars are mentioned by ancient aftronomers,
which are not now to be found ; and others are now vi¬
fible- to the hare eye which are not recorded in the ancient
catalogues. Hipparphus obferved a new ftar about 120
years before Chrift ; but he has not mentioned in what
part of the heaven it was feen, although it occafioned
his making a catalogue of the ftars ; which is the moft
ancient that we have.
The iirft new ftar that we have any good account of,
was difcovered by Cornelius Gemma on the 8th of No¬
vember^. D. 1572, in the chair of Caffiopea. It fur-
pafted Sirius in brightnefs and magnitude ; and was feeh
for 16 months fucceffively. At firft it appeared bigger
than Jupiter to fome eyes, by which it was feen at mid¬
day : afterwards it decayed gradually both in magnitude
and luftre, until Mkrch 1573, when it became invifible.
On the 13th of Auguft 1596, David Fabricius ob¬
ferved the Stella Mira, or wonderful ftar, in the neck
of the Whale ; which has been fince found to appear and
difappear periodically, feven times in fix years, conti¬
nuing in the greateft luftre for 15 days together ; and is
never quite extinguifhed.
In the year 1600, William Janfenius difcovered a
changeable ftar in the neck of the Swan ; which, in time,
became fo fmall as to be thought to difappear entirely,
till the years 1657, 1658, and 1659, when it recovered
its former luftre and magnitude ; but foon decayed, and
is now of the final left fize.
In the year 1604 Kepler and feveral of his friends faw
a new ftar near the heel of the right foot of Serpenta-
rius, fo bright and fparkling, that it exceeded any thing
they had ever feen before ; and took notice that it was
every moment changing into fome of the colours of the
rainbow, except when it was near the horizon, at which
time it was generally white. It furpaffed Jupiter in mag¬
nitude, which was near it all the month of Oftober, but
. eafily diftinguifhed from Jupiter, by the fteady light of
Jupiter. It difappeared between O&ober 1605 and
the February following, and has not been feen fince that
time.
In the year 1670, July 15, Hevelius difcovered a new
ftar, which in Odlober was fo decayed as to be fcarce
perceptible. In April following it regained its luftre,
but wholly difappeared in Auguft. In March 1672 it
was feen. again, but very fmall; and has not been vifible
fince.
In the year 1686 a new ftar was difcovered by Kirch,
which returns periodically in 404 days.
In the year 1672, Caffini faw a ftar in the neck of the
Bull, which he thought was not vifible in Tycho’s time,
nor when Bayer made his figures.
Many ftars, befides thofe above mentioned, have been
obferved to change their magnitudes : and as none of
them could ever be perceived to have tails, it is plain
they could not be comets ; efpecially as they had no pa¬
rallax, even when largeft and brighteft. It would feem,
that the periodical ftars have vaft clufters of dark fpots,
and very flow rotations on their axes ; by which means,
they muft difappear when the fide covered with fpots is
turned towards us. And as for thofe which break out
all of a fudden with fuch luftre, it is by no means im¬
probable that they are funs whofe fuel is almoft fpent,
and again fupplied by fome of their comets falling upon
them, and occafioning an uncommon blaze and fplendor
for fome time ; which indeed appears to be the greateft
ufe of the cometary part of any fyftem
Some
# M. Maupsrtuis, in his dijfertation on the figures of the celeflial bodies, (p. 61,—63is of opinion that
fomefiars, by their prodigious quick rotations on their axes, may not only affurne the figures of oblate fpheroids,
but that, by the great centrifugal force arifmg from fuch notations, they may becom* of the figures of mill-ft ones
ASTRO
Some of the ftars, particularly Anflurus, have been
obferved to change their places above a minute of a degree
with refped: to others. But whether this be owing to
any real motion in the ftars themfelves, muft require the
obfervations of many ages to determine. If our folar
fyftem changeth its place, with regard to abfolute fpace,
this muft in procefs of time occafion an apparent change
in the diftances of the ftars from each other : and in fuch
a cafe, the places of the neareft ftars to us being more af-
fe<5ted than thofe which are very remote, their relative
pofitions muft feem to alter, though the ftars themfelves
were really immoveable. On the other hand, if our own
fyftem be at reft, and any of th^ ftars in real motion,
this muft vary their pofitions ; and the more fo, the
nearer they are to us, or fwifter their motions are, or
the more proper the diredtion of their motion is for our
perception.
The obliquity of the ecliptic to the equinodtial is found
at prefent to be above the third part of a degree lefs than
Ptolemy found it. And moft of the obfervers after him
found it to decreafe gradually down to Tycho’s time.
If it be objedled, that we cannot depend on the ob¬
fervations of the ancients, becaufe of the incorredt-
nefs of their inftruments; we have to anfwer, that
both Tycho and Flamfteed are allowed to have been
very good obfervers ; and yet we find that Flamfteed
makes this obliquity 2-§- minutes of a degree lefs than
Tycho did about too years before him : and as Pto¬
lemy was 1324 years before Tycho, fo the gradual de¬
creafe anfwers nearly to the difference of time between
-thefe three aftronomers. If we confider, that the earth
is not a perfedt fphere, but an oblate fpheriod, having
its axis (horter than its equatorial diameter ; and that the'
fun and moon are conftantly adting obliquely upon the
greater quantity of matter about the equator, pulling it,
as it were, towards a nearer and nearer co-incidence
with the ecliptic ; it will not appear improbable that thefe
adlions fhould gradually diminilh the angle between thofe
planes. Nor is it lefs probable that the mutual attrac¬
tions of all the planets fhould have a tendency to bring
their orbits to a coincidence : but this change is too fmall
to becom&fenfible in many ages.
Chap. XVIII. Of the Divifion of Time. A
■perpetual Table of New Moons. The Times
of the Birth and Death of Christ. A
Table of remarkable JEras or Events.
The parts of time are Seconds, Minutes, Hours,
Days, Tears, Cycles, dges, and Periods.
The original ftandard, or integral meafure of time,
N O M Y. 4S<>
is a year ; which is determined by the revolution of
fome celeftial body in its orbit, viz. the fun or moon.
The time meafured by the fun’s revolution in the
ecliptic, from any equinox or folftice to the fame again,
is called the Solar or Tropical Tear, which contains
365 days, 3 hours, 48 minutes, 57 feconds ; and is the
only proper or natural year, becaufe it always keeps the
fame feafons to the fame months.
The quantity of time meafured by the fun’s revolu¬
tion, as from any fixed ftar to the fame ftar again, is
called the fydereal year-, which contains 3-65 days 6
hours 9 minutes 14^ feconds; and is 20 minutes 17J-
feconds longer than the true folar year.
The time meafured by twelve revolutions of the moon,
from the fun to the fun again, is called the lunar year ;
it contains 354 days 8 hours 48 minutes 36 feconds;
and is therefore 10 days 21 hours o minutes 21 feconds
fhorter than the folar year. This is the foundation of
the epaft.
The civil year is that which is in common ufe among
the different nations of the world; of which, fome rec¬
kon by the lunar, but moft by the folar. The civil fo¬
lar year contains 365 days, for three years running,
which are called common years; and then comes in what
is called the bijfextile or leap-year, which contains 366
days. This is alfo called the Julian year, on account of
Julius Caefar, who appointed the intercalary-day every
fourth year, thinking thereby to make the civil and folar
year keep pace together. And this day, being added to
the 23d of February, which in the Roman kalendar was
the fixth of the kalends of March, that fixth day was
twice reckoned, or the 23d and 24th were reckoned as
one day, and was called bis fextus dies; and thence
came the name biJJ'extile for that year. But in our com¬
mon almanacks this day is added at the end of February.
The civil lunar year is alfo common or intercalary.
The common year confifts of 12 lunations, which con¬
tain 354 days; at the end of which, the year begins a-
gain. The intercalary, or etnbolimic year is that where¬
in a month was added, to adjuft the lunar year to the folar.
This method was ufed by the Jews, who kept their ac¬
count by the lunar motions. But by intercalating no
more than a month of 30 days, which they called Ve-
Adar, every third year, they fell 3^-days ftiort of the
folar year in that time.
The Romans alfo ufed the lunar embolimic year at
firft, as it was fettled by Romulus their firft king, who
made it to confift only of ten months or lunations, which
fell 61 days fhort of the folar year, and fo their year be¬
came quite vague and unfixed; for which reafon, they
were forced to have a table publiftied by the high-prieft,
to inform them when the fpring and other feafons began.
or be reduced to fiat circular planes, fo thin as to be quite invifible 'when their edges are turned towards us ; as
Saturn's ring is in fuch pofitions. But when very excentric planets or comets go round any fiat far, in orbits
much inclined to its equator, the attraftion of the planets or comets in their perihelions mufi alter the inclination
of the axis of that far ; on which account it will appear more or lefs large and luminous, as its broad fide is more
or lefs turned towards us. And thus he imagines we may account for the apparent changes of magnitude and lufire
in thofe flars, and likewife for their appearing and difappearing.
Vol. I. No. 21. 3 ' <$ H
But
49© A S T R C
But Julius Caefar, as already mentioned, taking this
troublefome affair into confideration, reformed the ka-
lendar, by making the year to confift of 365 days 6 hours.
The year thus fettled, is what we {till make ufe of in
Britain; but as it is fomewhat more than 11 minutes
longer than the folar tropical year, the times of the e-
quinoxes go backward, and fall earlier by one day in a-
bout 1^0 years. In the time of the Nicene Council,
{A. D. 32O* which was 1444 years ago, the vernal
equinox fell on the 21ft of March; and if we divide
1444 by 130. it will quote 11, which is the number of
days which the equinox has fallen back fince the Council
of Nice. This caufing great difturbances, by unfixing
the times of the celebration of Eafter, and confequently
of all the other moveable feafts, Pope Gregory XHIth,
in the year 1582, ordered ten days to be at once flxuck
out of that year; and the next day after the 4th of Oc¬
tober was called the 15th. By this means the vernal e-
qijinox was reftored to the 21ft of March; and it was
endeavoured, by the omiffion of three intercalary days
in 400 years, to make the civil or political year keep
pace with the folar for time to come. This new form
of the year is called the Gregorian account, or neou
Jlyle; which is received in all countries where the pope’s
authority is acknowledged, and ought to be in all places
where truth is regarded.
The principal divifion of the year is into months,
which are of two forts, namely, ajironomical and civil.
The agronomical month is the time in which the moon
N O M Y.
runs through the zodiac, artd is either periodical or fy-
nodical. The periodical month is the time fpent by the*
moon in making one complete revolution from any point of
the zodiac to the fame again; which is27d 7h43m. The
fynodicaJ month, called a lunation, is the time contained
between the moon’s parting with the fun at a conjun&ion,
and returning to him again, which is 29d I2h 44m.
-The civil months are thofe which are framed for the ufes
of civil life; and are different as to their names, num¬
ber of days, and times of beginning, in feveral different
cduntries. The firfl: month of the Jewilh year fell ac¬
cording to the moon in our Auguft and September, old
ftyle; the fecond in September andOdtober; and fo on.
The firft month of the Egyptian year began on the 29th
of our Auguft. The firft month of the Arabic and
Turkifti year began the 16th of July. The firft
month of the Grecian year fell according to the moon in
June and July, the fecond in July and Auguft, and fo
on, as in the following table.
A month is divided into four parts called •weeks, and
a week into feven parts called days', fo that in a Julian
year there are 13 fuch months, or 52 weeks, and one
day over. The Gentiles gave the names of the fun,
moon, and planets, to the days of the week. To the
firft, the name of the Sun ; to the fecond, of the Moon ;
to the third, of Mars ; to the fourth, of Mercury ; to
the fifth, of Jupiter; to the fixth, • of Venus; and to
the feventh, of Saturn.
The Jewifh year.
Days N'
Tifri Aug-.-
Marchefvan   Sept.-
Cafleu Odh -
Tebeth   Nov.-
Shebat   Dec.-
Adar   Jan. —
Nifan or Abib   Feb.-
Jiar     Mar.-
Sivan   Apr.-
Tamuz   May-
Ab   June-
Elul  July-
-Sept.
-oa.
-Nov
-Dec.
-Jan.
-Feb.
-Mar.
-Apr.
-May
-June
-July
-Aug.
The Egyptian year.
.J,ys
Thoth   Auguft 29
Paophi Septemb. 28
Athlr Oflober 28
Chojac — — Novemb. 27
Tybi Decemb. 27
Mechir  January 26
Phamenoth  February 25
Parmuthi  March 27
Pachon  April 26
Payni May 26
Epiphi June
Mefori   July
25 i 30
25 ! 3°
Days in the year
Epagomenae or days added -
In the embolimic year after Adar they added a
month called Ve-Adar of 30 days.
Days in the year
-I365
ASTRONOMY
491
The Arabic and Turkifh year. Days N°
The ancient Grecian year.
Days
Muharram -
Saphar  
3 Rabia I.
Rabia II.
Jornada I. -
Jornada II. -
Rajab —
Shafban 
Ramadam -
Shawal —
Dulhaadah -
Dulheggia -
- July. 16
- Auguft 15
- Septemb. 13
- Oftober 13
- Novemb. 11
- Decemb. 11
- January 9
-February 8
- March 9
- April 8
- May 7
- June 5
Hecatombceon —
Metagitnion —
Boedromion —
Pyanepfion  
Maimadterion —
Pofideon   
Gaineiion  
Anthefterion —
Elaphebolion —
Munichion  
Thargelion  
Schirrophorion
- June-
- July -
- Aug.-
- Sept.-
- oa. -
- Nov.-
- Dec.-
-'Jan. -
- Feb. -
- Mar.-
- Apr.-
- May-
-July
-Aug.
-Sept.
-Oa.
-Nov.
-Dec.
-Jan.
-Feb.
Mar.
-Apr.
-May
-June
Days in the year -
Days in the year -
The Arabians add 11 days at the end of every, year, which keep the fame months to the fame
feafons.
A day is either natural or artificial. The natural
day contains 24 hours ; the artificial the time from fun-
rife to fun-fet. The natural day is either ajlrtnotnical
or civil. The aftronomical day begins at noon, becaufe
the increafe and decreafe of days terminated by the horE
zon are very unequal among themfelves; which inequa¬
lity is likewife augmented by the inconftancy of the ho¬
rizontal refradtions, and therefore the aftronomer takes
the meridian for the limit of diurnal revolutions, reckon¬
ing noon, that is, the inftant when the fun’s centre is on
the meridian, for the beginning of the day.' The Bri-
tifli, French, Dutch, Germans, Spaniards, Portuguefe,
and Egyptians, begin the civil day at midnight; the an¬
cient Greeks, Jews, Bohemians, Silefians, with the mo¬
dern Italians, and Ghinefe, begin it at fun-fetting; and
the ancient Babylonians, Perfians, Syrians, with the mo¬
dern Greeks, at fun-rifing.
An hour is a certain determinate part of the day, and
is either equal or unequal. An equal hour is the 24th
part of a mean natural day, as *fhewn by well-regulated
clocks and watches ; but thefe hours are not quite equal
as meafured by the returns of the fun to the meridian,
becaufe of the obliquity of the ecliptic and fun’s unequal
motion in it. Unequal hours are thofe by which the ar¬
tificial day “h divided into twelve parts, and the night in¬
to as many.
An hour is divided into 60 equal parts called minuteti
a minute into 60 equal parts called feconds, and thefe a-
gain into 60 equal parts called thirds. The Jews;
Chaldeans, and Arabians, divide the hour into 1080 e-
qual parts called ycra/’/cr; which number contains 18
times 60, fo that one minhte contains 18 fcruples.
A cycle is a perpetuaf !rhund, or circulation of the
fame parts of time of any fort. The cycle of the fun
is a revolution of 28 years, in which time the days of
the months return again to the fame days of the week;
the fun’s place to the fame figns and degrees of the e-
diptic on the fame months and days, fo as not to differ
one degree in 100 years; and the leap-years begin the
fame courfe over again with refped to the days of the
week on which the days of the months fall. The cycle
of the moon, commonly called the golden, number, is a
revolution of 19 years; in.which time, the conjundions,.
oppofitions, and other afpe&s of the moon, are within an
hour and half of being the fatpe as they were on the fame
days of the months 19 years before. The indittion is a
revolution of 15 years, ufed only by the Romans for in¬
dicating the times of certain payments made by the fub-
jeSs to the republic : It was eflablifhed by Conflantine,
A. D. 312-
The year of our Saviour’s birth, according to the vul¬
gar aera, was the 9th year of the folar cycle, the firfl
year of the lunar cycle, and the 312th year after his
birth was the firfl year of the Roman indidion. There¬
fore, to find the year, of the folar cycle, add 9 to any
given year of Chrifl^ and divide the fum by 28, the
quotient is the number of cycles- elapfed fince his birth,
and the remainder is the cycle for the given year: If
nothing remains, the cycle is 28 > To find the lunar cycle, ,
add 1 to the given-year of Chrift, and divide the fum
by 19; the quotient is the. number of cycles elapfed in
the interval, and the remainder is the cycle for the given
year.: If nothing remains, the cycle is 19. Laftly, fub-
tradt 312 from the giyen year of Chrift, and divide the
remainder by i 5 ; and what remains after this divifion -
is the indidlion for the given year : If nothing, remains,
the indidtion is 15.
Although the above defidency-in the lunar; circle of an
hour and an half every 19 years be but fmall, yet in
time it becomes fo. fenfible as to make a whole natural
day in 310 years. So-that, although this cycle be of
ufe, when the golden numbers are rightly placed againft
the days of the months in the kalendar, as innur Com¬
mon Prayer Books, for finding the days of the mean
conjundtions or oppofitions of the fun and moon, and
confequently the time of Eafter; it will only ferve for
310 years, old ftyle. For as the new and full moons
anticipate a day in that time, the golden numbers ought
,,92 ASTRO
to be placed one day earlier in the kalendar for the next
gio years to come. Thefe numbers were rightly placed
againft the days of new moon in the kalendar, by the
council of Nice, A. D. 325 ; but the anticipation, which
has been neglefted ever fince, is now grown almoft into
5 days: And therefore, all the golden numbers ought
now to be placed 5 days higher in the kalendar for the
old ftyle than they were at the time of the faid council;
or 6 days lower for the new ftyle, becaufe at prefent it
differs 11 days from the old.
In the above table the golden numbers under the
months ftan^l againft the days of new moon in the left-
hand column, for the new ftyle ; adapted chiefly to the
fecond year after leap-year, as being the neareft mean for
all the four; and will ferve till the year 1960.- There¬
fore, to find the day of new moon in any month of a gi¬
ven year tiU that time, Jook for the golden number of
N O M Y.
that year under the defired month, and againft it you
have the day of new moon in the left-hand column.
Thus, fuppofe it were required to find the day of new
moon in September ,1769 ; the golden number for that
year is 3, which I look for under September, and
right againft it in the left-hand column you will find 30,
which is the day of new moon in that month. N. B. If
all the golden numbers, except 17 and 6, were fet one
day lower in the table, it would ferve from the beginning
of the year 1900 till the end of the year 2199. The
table at the end of this chapter (hews the golden number
for 4000 years after the birth of Chrift, by looking for
the even hundreds of any given year at the left hand,,
and for the reft to make up that year at the head of the
table ; and where the Columns meet, you have the gold¬
en number (which is the fame both in old and new ftyle)
for the given year. Thus, fuppofe the golden number
was‘wanted for the year 1769; look for 1700 at the
left hand of the table, and for 69 at the top of it; then
guiding your eye downward from 69 to over-againft 1700,
you will find 3, which is the golden number for that
year.
But becaufe the lunar cycle of 19 years fometimes in¬
cludes five leap-years, and at other times only four, this
table will'fometimes vary a day from the truth in leap-
years after February. And it is impoflible to have one
more correct, unlefs we extend it to four times 19 or'7 6
years ; in which there are 19 leap-years without a re¬
mainder. But even then to have it of perpetual ufe, it-
muft be adapted to the old ftyle; becaufe, in every cen-
turial year not divifible by 4, the regular courfe of leap-
years is interrupted in the new; as will be the cafe in
the year 1800.
The cycle of Eafter, alfo called the Dionyjian period,
is a revolution of 532 years, found by multiplying the folar
cycle 28 by the lunar cycle 19. If the new moons did
not anticipate upon this cycle, Eafter-day would always
be the Sunday next after the firft full moon, which fol¬
lows the 2xft of March. But, on account of the above
anticipation, to which no proper regard was had before
the late alteration of the ftyle, the ecclefiaftic Eafter has
feveral times been a week different from the true Eafter
within this laft century: which inconvenience is now re¬
medied by making the table, which ufed to find Eafter
for ever, in the Common Prayer Book, of no longer
ufe than the lunar difference from the new ftyle will ad¬
mit of.
The earlieft Eafter poflible is the 22d of March, the
lateft the 25th of April. Within thefe limits are 37
days, and the number belonging to each of them is call¬
ed the number of clirettion; becaufe thereby the time of
Eafter is found for any givea year.
The firft feven letters of. the .alphabet are commonly
placed in the annual almanacks, to (hew on v/hat days of
the week the ddys of the months fall throughout the
year. And becaufe one of thofe feven letters muft ne-
ceflarily ftand againft Sunday, it is printed in a capital
form, and called the dominical letter: The other fix
being inferred in fmall characters, to denote the other
fix days of the Week. Now, fince a common Julian
year contains 3^5 days, if this number be divided by 7
A S T R O
(the number 6f days in a week) there will remain one
day. If there had been no remainder, it is plain the
year would conftantly begin on the-fame day of the week:
but fince one remains, it is plain, that the year muft
begin and end on the fame day of the week ; and
therefore the next year will begin on the day follow¬
ing. Hence, when January begins orr Sunday, A is the
dominical or Sunday letter for that year: Then, becaufe
the next year begins on Monday, the Sunday will fall
on the feventh day, to which is annexed the feventh let-**
ter G, which therefore will be the dominical letter for
all that year: and as the third year will begin on Tuef-
day, the Sunday will fall on the fixth day; therefore F
will be the Sunday letter for that year. Whence it is
evident, that the Sunday lettefs will go annually in a
retrograde oijler thus, G, F, E, D, C, B, A. And, ip
the courfe of feven years, if they were all common ones,
the fame days of the week and dominical letters would
return to the fame days of the months. But becaufe there
are 366 days in a leap-year, if this number be divided
by 7, there will remain two days oyer and above the
52 weeks of which the year confifts. And therefore, if
the leap-year begins on Sunday, it will end on Monday;
and the next year will begin on Tuefday, the firft Sun¬
day whereof mult fall on the fixth of January^ to which
is annexed the letter F, and not G, as in common years.
By this means, the leap-year returning every fourth
year, the order of the dominical letters is interrupted;
and the feries cannot retnrn to its firlt Hate till after four
times feven, or 2S years; and then the fame days-of
the months return in order to the fame days of the week
as before.
From the multiplication of the folar cycle of 28 years
into the lunar cycle of 19 years, and the Roman indie*
tion of-15 years, arifes the great Julian period, confift-
ing of 7980 years, which had its beginning 764 years be¬
fore Strauchius’s fuppofed year of the creation (for no
later could all the three cycles begin together) and-it is
not yet compleated : And therefore it includes all other
cycles, periods, and asras. There is but one year in
the whole period that has the fame numbers for the three
cycles of which it is made up: And therefore, if hifto-
rians had remarked in their writings the cycles of each
year, there had been no difpute about the time of any
addon recorded by them.
The Dionyfian or vulgar asra of Chrifl’s birth was a-
bout the end of the year of the Julian.period 4713 ; and
confequently the firft year of his age, according to that
N O M Y. 493
account, was the 4714th year of the faid period. There¬
fore, if to the current year of Chrift we add 4713, the
fum will be the year of the Julian period. So the year
1769 will be found to be the 64820! year Of that period.
Or, to find the year of the Julian period anfwering to
any given year before the firft year of Chrift, fubtradt the
number of that given year from 4714, and the remainder
will be the year of the Julian period Thus, the year
585 before the firft year of Chrift (which was the 584th
before his birth) was the 4129th year of the faid period.
Laftly, to find the cycles of the fun, moon, and indic¬
tion for any given year of this period, divide the given
year by 28 19, and 15; the three remainders will be
the cycles fought, and the quotients the numbers of cycles
run fince the beginning of the period. So in the above
4714th year of. the Julian period, the cycle of the fun
was 10, the cycle ef the moon 2, and the cycle of indic¬
tion 4; the folar cycle having run thrcnigh 168 courfes,
the lunar 248, and the indidtion 314.
The vulgar asra of Chrift’s birth \vas never fettled till
the year 527, when Dionyfius Exiguus, a Roman abbot,
fixed it to the end of the 4713th year of the Julian
period, which was four years too late. For our Saviour
was born before the death of Herod, who fought to kill
him as foon as-he heard of his birth. And, according to
-the teftimony of Jofephus (/i. xvii. ch. 8.) there was an
eclipfe of the moon in the time of Herod’s laft illnefs ;
which eclipfe appears by our aftronomical tables to
have been in the year of the Julian period 4710, March
13th, at 3 hours paft midnight, at Jerufalem. Now,
as our Saviour-muft have been born fome months before
Herod’s death, fince in the-interval he was carried into
Egypt, the lateft time in which we can fix the true asra
of his birth as about the end of the 4709th year of the
Julian period.
As there are certain fixed points in the heavens from
which aftronomers begin their computations, fo there are
certain points of time from which hiftorians begin to
reckon ; and thefe points or roots of time are called (eras
or epochs. The moft remarkable seras are, thofe of the
Creation, the Greek Olympiads, the building of Rome,
the sera of Nabonaftar, the death of Alexander, the
birth of Chrift. the Arabian Hegira, and the Perfian Jef-
degird: All which, together with feveral others of lefs
note, have their beginnings to the following table fixed
to the years of the Julian period, to "the age of the
world at thofe times, and to the years before and after
the year of Chrift’s birth.
A\ Table of remarkable JEras and Events.
1. The creation of the world - . . .
2. The deluge, or Noah’s flood - - - -
3. The Aflyrian monarchy founded by Nimrod
4. The birth of Abraham - ...
5. The deftruflion of Sodom and Gomorrah
6. The beginning of the kingdom of Athens by Cecrops
7. Mofes receives the ten commandments from God
♦ 8. The entrance of the Tfraelites into Canaan
9. The deftnnftion of Troy
Vol. I. No. 21. 2
Julian Ytofthe
Period World,
706
2362
2537
2714
2816
3157
3222
3262
3529
1656
1831
2608
2 i”i o
2451
2516
2556
2823
Before
Chrift.
4007
2351
2176
1999
1897
1556
3
494
ASTRONOMY.
The beginning of king David’s reign - -
The foundation of Solomon’s temple
The Argonautic expedition - - -
Lycurgus forms his excellent laws - - -
Arbaces, the firft king of the Medes
Mandaucus, the fecond - - - - \
Sofarmus, the third - -
The beginning of the Olympiads
Artica, the fourth king of the Medes
The Catonian epocha of the building of Rome
The sera of Nabonaflar - . . .
The deftruftion of Samaria by Salmanefer
The firll: eclipfe of the moon on record - -
Cardicea, the fifth king of the Medes
Phraortes, the fixth ....
Gyaxares, the feventh - - -
The firft Babylonilh captivity by Nebuchadnezzar
The long war ended between the Medes and Lydians
The fecond Babylonilh captivity, and birth of Cyrus
The deftruftion of Solomon’s temple
Nebuchadnezzar ftruck with madnefs
Daniel’s vifion of the four monarchies
Cyrus begins to reign in the Perfian empire
The battle of Marathon - - - _ -
Artaxerxes Longimanus begins to reign
The beginning of Daniel’s ieventy weeks of years
The beginning of the Pelopennefian war
Alexander’s vidtory at Arbela ...
The death of Alexander . . . .
The captivity of 100000 Jews by king Ptolemy
The Coloflus of Rhodes thrown down by an earthquake
Antiochus defeated by Ptolemy Philopater
The famous Archimedes murdered at Syracufe
Jafon butchers the inhabitants of Jerufalem
Corinth plundered and burnt by conful Mummius
Julius Csefar invades Britain - ...
He corretfts the kalendar - - -
Is killed in the Senate-houfe - - -
Herod made king of Judea ....
Anthony defeated at the Battle of Adtium
Agrippa builds the Pantheon at Rome
The true asra of Chrift’s birth ...
The death of Herod - ...
53. The Dionyfian, or vulgar sera of Chrift’s birth ....
54. The true year of his crucifixion -
55. The deftrudtion of Jerufalem - - - -
5-6. Adrian builds the long wall in Britain ....
5 7. Conftantius defeats the Pidts in Britain - -
58. The council of Nice - - - -
59. The death of Conftantine the great ... . .
60. The, Saxons invited into Britain - - - -
61. The Arabian Hegira - - ....
62. The death of Mohammed the pretended prophet ...
63. The Perfian Yefdegird - -
64. The fun, moon, and all the planets in Libra, Sep. 14. as feen from the earth
65. The art of printing difcovered .... .
46, The reformation begun by Martin Luther -
Julian
Period.
3650
3701
3776
3829
3838
3865
3915
3938
3945
3961
3967
3992
3993
3996
4058
4080
4107
4111
4114
4125
4144
4158
4177
4223
4249
4256
4282
4383
439°
4393
4491
4496
4506
4543
4567
4659
4677
4671
4673
4683
4688
4709
4710
4713
4746
4783
4833
5019
5038
5050
5158
5335
5343
5344
5899
6153
623°
Y.ofthe
World
2944
2995
3070
3103
3132
3159
3209
3232
3239
3255
3261
3286
3287
3290
3352
337.4
3401
3405
3408
34W
3438
3452
3471
3517
: 3543
‘ 3350
3576
3677
3684
3687
3875
3790
3800
3837
3861
3953
3961
3965
396?
3977
3982
4003
4004
4007
4040
4077
4127
43i3
4332
4344
4452
4629
4637
4638
5193
5447
5524
Before
Chrift.
1063
10x2
937
884
875
848
798
775
768
752
746
721
720
717
655
633
606
602
599
588
569
555
536
490
464
457
43i
330
323
320
222,
217
207
170
146
54
46
42
40
30
25
4
3
After
Chrift.
o
33
70
120
306
325
337
445
622
630
631
1186
1440
1517
lap.
ASTRONOMY.
In fixing the year of the creation to the 706th year
of the Julian period, which was the 4007th year before
the year of Chrift’s birth, we have followed Mr Bed¬
ford in his fcripture chronology, printed A. D. 1730,
and Mr Kennedy in a work of the fame kind, printed
A. D. 1762.—Mr Bedford takes it only for granted that
the world was created at the time of the autumnal equi¬
nox : But Mr Kennedy affirms, that the faid equinox
G h a P. XIX. A Defer if tion of, the. Afro-
nomical Machinery ferving to explain and
illufrate the foregoing part of this Treatife.
The Orrery, (Plate XLVII. fig. 4.) This machine
fhews the motions of the fun. Mercury, Venus, earth,
and moon; and occafionally the fuperior planets, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn, may be put on; Jupiter’s four fa-
tellites are moved round him in their proper times by a
fmall winch; and Saturn has his five fateilites, and his
ring which keeps its parailelifm round the fun ; and by a
lamp put in the fun’s place, the ring {hews all its various
phafes already deferibed.
In the centre, No. 1. reprefents the fun, fupported
by its axis, inclining almoft 8 degrees from the axis of
495-
was at the noon of the fourth day of the creation-week,
and that the moon was then 24 hours pad her oppofition
to the fun. — If Mofes had told us the fame things, we
Ihould have had fufficient data for fixing the tera of the
creation: But, as he has been filent on thefe points, we
muft cohfider the bed accounts of chronologers as entire
ly hypothetical and uncertain.
the ecliptic, and turning round in 25^ days on its axis,
of which the north pole inclines toward the 8th degree
6f Pifces in the great ecliptic, (No. 11.), whereon the
months and days are engraven over the figns and degrees
in which the fun appears,.as-feen-from the earth, on
the different days of the year.
The neared planet (No. 2.) to the funis Mercury,
which goes round him in 87 days 23 hours, or 87^ di¬
urnal rotations of the earth; but has no motion round
its axis in the machine, becaufe the time of its diurnal
motion in the heavens is not known to us.
The next planet in order is Venus, (No. 3.), which
performs her annual courfe-in 224 days 17 hours, and
turns round her axis in 24 days 8 hours, or in 244- diur¬
nal rotations of the earth. Her axis inclines 75 degrees
from the axis of the icliptic, and her north pole inclines
towards'
t
49 6 ASTRO
towards the 20th degree of Aquarius, according to the
observations of Bianchini. She fhews all the pheno¬
mena defcribed in Ghap. I.
Next, without the orbit of Venus, is the Earth,
(No, 4.), which turns round its axis, to any fixed point
at a great diliance, in 23 hours 56 minutes 4 feconds^
of.mean folar time; but from the fun to the fun again,
in 24 hours of the fame time. No. 6. is a fydereal
dial plate under the earth, and No. 7. a folar dial-plate
on the cover of the machine. The index of the former
fhews fydereaf.. and of the latter, folar time; and hence
the former index gains one entire revolution on the latter
every year, as 365 folar or natural days contain 366 fy¬
dereal days, or apparent revolutions of the liars. In
the time that the earth makes 3654 diurnal rotations on
its axis, it goes once round the fun in the plane of the
eclipticand always keeps oppofite to a moving index
(No. 10.) which fhews the fun’s daily change of place,
and aifo the days of the months.
The earth is half covered with a black cap, for divi¬
ding the apparently enlightened half next the fun from
the other half, which, when turned away from him, is
in the dark. The edge of the cap reprefents the circle
bounding light and darknefs, and ihews at what time the
fun rifes and'fets to all places throughout the year. The
earth’s axis inclines 23-I- degrees from the axis of the ec¬
liptic, the nordi pole inclines toward the beginning of
Cancer, and keeps its parallelifm throughout its annual
courfe; fo that in fummer the northern parts of the earth
incline towards the fun, and in winter from him; by
which means, the different lengths of days and nights,
and the caufe of the various feafons, are demonftrated
to fight.
There is a broad horizon, to the upper fide of which
is fixed a meridian femicircle in the north and fouth
points, graduated on both lides from the horizon to 90°
in the zenith or vertical point. The edge of the horizon
is graduated from the call and weft to the fouth and
north points, and within thefe divifions are the points of
the corhpafs. From the lower fide of this thin horizon-
plate ftand out four final! wires, to which is fixed a twi¬
light-circle :8 degrees from the graduated fide of the
horizon all round. This horizon may be put upop the
earth, (when the cap is taken away), and re&ified to the
latitude, of any place; and then, by a fmall wife called
the fdar ray,, which may be put on fo as to proceed di-
refdy from the fun’s centre towards the earth’s, but to
cpme no farther than almoft to touch the horizon. The
beginning of twilight, time of fun-rifing, with his am¬
plitude, meridian altitude, time of fetting, amplitude
then, and end of twilight, are fhewn for every day of
the year, at that place to which the horizon is re&ified.
The Moon (No. 5.) goes round the earth, from be¬
tween it and any fixed point at a great diftance, in 27
■days 7 hours 43 minutes, or through all the figns and de-
grees of her orbit, which-is called her periodical revolu¬
tion-. but.fire goes round from the fun to the fim. again,
or from change to change, in 29 days 12 hours 45 mi¬
nutes, which is her fynodical revolution', and in that
tirqe fire exhibits all the phafes already defcribed.
When the above mentioned horizon is refilled to the
N O M Y.
latitude of any given place, the times of the moon’s ri¬
ling and fetting, together with her amplitude, are Ihewn
to that place as well as the fun’s; and^ all the various
phenomena of the harveft-moon are made obvious to
fight-
The moon’s orbit (No. 9.) is inclined to the ecliptic,
(No. 11.), one half being above, and the other below
it. The nodes, or points at o and o, lie in the plane
of the ecliptic, as before defcribed, and fhift back¬
ward through ail its fines and degrees in 184 years. The
degrees of the moon’s latitude to the higheft at NL
(north latitude) and loweft at SL, (fouth latitude), are
engraven both ways from her nodes at o and o; and as
the moon rifes and falls iq her orbit according to its in¬
clination, her latitude and diftance from her nodes are
Ihewn for every day, having firft rectified her orbit fo as
to fet the nodes to their proper places in the ecliptic;
and then, as they come about at different, and almoft
oppofite times of the year, and then point towards the
fun, all the eclipfes may be fhewn for hundreds of years,
(without any new reftification), by turning the machinery
backward for time paft, or forward for time to come.
At 17 degrees diftance from each node, on both fides,
is engraved a fmall fun; and at 12 degrees diftance, a
fmall moon ; which fhew the limits of folar and lunar
eclipfes: and when, at any change, the moon falls be¬
tween either of thefe funs and the node, the fun will be
eclipfed on the day pointed to by the annual index,
(No. 10.); and as the moon has then north or fouth la¬
titude, one may eafily judge whether that eclipfe will be
vifible in the northern or fouthern hemifphere j-efpecialiy
as the earth’s axis inclines toward the fun or from him
at that time. And when, at any full, the moon falls
between either of the little moons and node, fhe will
be eclipfed, and the annual index fhews the day of, that
eclipfe. There is a circle of 294 equal parts (No. 8.)
on the cover of the machine, on’which an index fhews
the days of the moon’s age.
There are two femicircles (Plate XLVIII. fig. 1.) fix¬
ed th an elliptical ring, which being put like a cap upon
the earth, and the forked part F upon the moon, fhews
the titfes as the earth turns round within them, and they
are led round it by the moon. When the different
places come to the femicircle AaEbB, they have tides of
flood ; and when they. come, to the femicircie CZiD, they
have tides of ebb; the index on the hour-circle (No. 7.
Plate XLVII.) fhewing the times of thefe phenomena.
There is a jointed wire, of which one end being put
into a hole in the upright ftem that holds the earth’s cap,
and the wire laid into a fmall forked piece which may be
occafionally put upon Venus or Mercury, fhews the di-
re<5t and retrograde motions of thefe two planets, with
their ftaiionary times and places, as feen from the earth.
The whole machinery is turned by a winch or handle,
(No. 12.), and is fo eafily moved, that a clock might
turn it without any danger of flopping.
To give a plate of the whe J-work of this machine,
would anfwer no purpofe, becaufe many of the wheels
lie fo behind others as to hide them from fight in any
view whatever.
The Cometarium, (Plate XLVIII. fig. 2.) This
curious
ASTRO
curious machine fhews the motion of a comet or excen-
tric body moving round the fun, defcribing equal areas
in equal times, and may be fo’ contrived as to Ihew" fuch
a motion for any degree df excentricity. It was invent¬
ed by the late Dr Defaguliers.
The dark elliptical groove round the letters abcdefghiklrn
is the orbit of the comet T: this comet is carried round
in the groove according to the order of letters, by the
wire W fixed in the fun S', and Hides on the wire as it
approaches nearer to, or recedes farther from the fun,
being neareft of all in the perihelion a, and fartheft in
the aphelion g. The areas, aSb, bSc, cSd, &c. or con¬
tents of thefe feveral triangles, are all equal; and in e-
very turn of the winch N, the comet T is carried over
one of thefe areas; confequently, in as much time as it
moves from / to g, or from g to b, it moves from m to
a, or from « to £; and fo of the reft, being quickeft of
all at a, and flowed at g. Thus the comet’s velocity in
its orbit continually decreafes from the perihelion a to
the aphelion g; and increafes in the fame proportion from
gto a.
The elliptic orbit is divided into 12 equal parts or
figns, with their refpedtive degrees, and fo is the circle
nopqrstu, which reprefents a great circle in the heavens,
and to which the comet’s motion is referred by a fmall
knob on the point of the wire W. Whilft the comet
moves from f to g in its orbit, it appears to move only
about five degrees,in this circle, as is (hewn by the fmall
knob on the end of the ware W\ but in as ftiort time as
the comet moves from m to a, or from a to b, and it
appears to defcribe the large fpace tn or no in the hea¬
vens, either of whichv,fpaces contains 120 degrees, or
four figns. Were the excentricity of its orbit greater,
the greater ftill would be the difference of its motion,
and vice verfa.
ABCDEFGHIKLMA is a circular orbit for (hewing
the equable motion of a. body round the fun S, defcri¬
bing equal areas ASB, BSC, See. in equal times with
thofe of the body T in its jelliptical orbit above men¬
tioned ; but with this difference, that the circular mo¬
tion deferibes the equal arcs AB, BC, See. in the fame
equal times that the elliptical motion deferibes the une¬
qual arcs, ab, be, Sec.
Now, fuppofe the two bodies T and 1 to ftart from the
points a and A at the fame moment'of time, and, each
having gone round its refpe&ive orbit, to arrive at thefe
points again at the fame inftant, the body T will be for¬
warder in its orbit than the body 1 all the way from a
to g, and from A to G; but 1 will be forwarder than T
through all the other half of the orbit; and the differ¬
ence is equal to the equation of the body T in its orbit.
At the points a A, and gG, that is, in the perihelion and
aphelion, they will be eqqal; and then the equation va-
nifties. This (hews why the equation of a body moving in
an elliptic orbit, i^idded to the mean or fuppofed circular
motion from the perihelion to the aphelion, and fubtrafted
from the aphelion to the perihelion, in’ bodies moving
round the fun, or from the perigee to the apogee, and
from the*apogee to the perigee in the,moon’s motion
round the earth.
Von. I. No. 21.
N O M Y. ; 49*
This motion is performed in the following manner byr
the machine, (Plate XLVIII. fig. 3.). ABC is a wood¬
en bar, (in the box containing the wheel-wof^|,' above
which are the wheels D and E, and below it the elliptic
plates FF and GG ; each plate being fixed cfa an axis in
one of its focufes, at E and K; and the wheel E is fix¬
ed on the fame axis with the plate FF. Ti'.^Toffdates,
have grooves round their edges precifely of equal diaihev
ters to one another, and in thefe grooves is the teat-gut
ftring gg, gg croffing between the plates at b. On ll,
the axis of the handle or winch Win fig. 2. is an end •
lefs ferew ip fig. 3. working in the wheels D and E,
whofe numbers of teeth being equal, and (hould be equal
to the number of lines aS, bS, cS, Sec. in fig. 2. they
turn round their axes in equal times to one another, and
to the motion of the elliptic plates. For, the wheels
D and E having equal numbers of teeth, the plate FF be¬
ing fixed on the fame axis with the wheel £■, and the
plate FF turning the equally big plate GG by a cat-gut
ftring round them both, they muft all go round their axes
in as many turns of the handle N as either of the wheels
has teedi.
It is eafy to fee, that the end b of the elliptical plate
FF being farther from its axis E than the oppofite end l
is, muft defcribe a circle fo much-the larger in propor¬
tion, and therefore move through fo much more (pace in
the fame time ; and for that reafon the end b moves fo
much fafter than the end l, although it goes no fooner
round the centre E. But then the quick-moving end k
of the plate FF leads about the (hort end bK of the plate
GG with the fame velocity^; and the flow-moving end I
of the plate FF coming half round as to B, muft then
lead the long end k of the plate GG as (lowly about: fb
that the elliptical plate FF and its axis E move uniformly
and equally quick in every part of its revolution; but
the elliptical plate GG, together with its axis K, muft:
move very unequally in different parts of its revolution;
the-difference being always inverfely as the diftance of
any point of the circumference of GG from its axis at
K: or in other words, to inftance in two points, if the
diftance Kk be four, five, or fix times as great as the di¬
ftance Kb, the point h will move in that pofition four,
five, or fix times as faft as the point k does, when the
plate GG has gone half round ; and fo on for any other
excentricity or difference of the diftances Kk and Kh.
The tooth / on the plate FF falls in between the two
teeth at k on the plate GG, by which means the revolu¬
tion of the latter is fo adjufted to that of the former,
that .they can never vary from one another.
On the top of-the axis of the equally-moving wheel
D in fig. 3. is the fun S in ’fig. 2.; which fun, by the
wire fixed to it, carries the ball 1 round the circle
ABCD, Sec. with an equable motion, according to the
order of the letters: and on the top of'th| axis K of the
unequally-moving ellipfis GG, in fig. 3. is the fun S in
fig. 2. carrying the ball T unequabiy round in the ellip¬
tical groove abed. Sec. N. B. This elliptical groove
muft be precifely equal and fimilar to the verge of the
plate GG, which is alfo equal tq that of FF.
In this manner machines may be made to (hew the
6 K true
a
493 ASTRO
true motion of the moon about the earth, or of any pla¬
net about the fun, by making the elliptical plates of the
fame ex<*fntricities, in proportion to the radius, as the
orbits of the planets are, vvhofe motions they reprefent;
and fo their ‘different equations in different parts of their
orbits may be made plain to fight, and clearer ideas of
thefe motions and equations acquired in balf an hour,
than could be gained from reading half a day about fuch
motions and equations.
The Improved Celestial Globe, (Plate XLIV.
fig. 2.). On the north pole of the axis, above the hour-
circle, is fixed an arch MKH of 234 degrees; and at
the end H is fixed an upright pin HG, which Itands di-
redlly over the north pole of the ecliptic, and perpendi¬
cular to that part of the furface of the globe. On this
pin are two moveable collets at D and H, to which are
fixed the quadrantile wires N and 0, having two little
balls on their ends for the fun and moon, as in the figure.
The collet D is fixed to the circular plate F, whereon
the 294 days of the moon’s age are engraven, beginning
-juft under the fun’s wire TV; and as this wire is moved
round the globe, the plate F turns round wiih it. Thefe
•wires are eafily turned, if the ferew G be flackened; and
w hen they are fet to their proper places, the ferew ferves
to fix them there fo as in turning the ball of the globe,
the wires with the fun and moon go round with it; and
thefe two little balls rife and fet at the fame times, and
«n the fame points of the horizon, for the day to which
they are reftified, as the fun and moon do in the heavens.
Becaufe the moon keeps not her courfe in the ecliptic,
(as the fun appears to do), but has a declination of 5-3-
degrees on each fide from it in.every lunation, her ball may
be ferewed as many degrees to either fide of the ecliptic as
her latitude or declination from the ecliptic amounts to at
any given time ; and for this purpofe S, Plate LT. fig. 2.
(by mijlake omitted to be inferted in the proper plate J is a
final! piece of pafteboard, of which the curved edge at 5 is
to be fet upon the globe at right angles to the ecliptic,
and the dark line over S to Hand upright upon it. From
this line, on the convex edge, are drawn the 5y degrees
of the moon’s latitude on both fides of the ecliptic; and
when this piece is fet upright on the globe, its graduated
edge reaches to the moon on the wire 0, by which means
fhe is eafil-y adjufted to her latitude found by an ephemeris.
The horizon is fupported by two femicircular arches,
becaufe pillars would (top the progrefs of the balls when
they go below the horizon in an oblique fphere.
To reftify this globe. Elevate the pole to the latitude
of the place; then bring the fun’s place in the ecliptic for
the given day to the brafen meridian,, and fet the hour-
index to XII at noon, that is to the upper XII on the
hour-circle; keeping the globe in that fituation, flacken
the ferew G, and fet the fun diredtly over his place on
the meridian; which done, fet the moon’s wire under
the number that expreffes her age for that day on the
plate F; and fhe will then ftand over her place in the
ecliptic, and fhew what conflellatian fne is in. Laftly,
ftflen the ferew G, and laying the curved, edge of the
pafteboard S over the ecliptic below the moon, adjuft
the moon to her latitude over the graduated edge of the
pal’ceboard; and the globe will be redlified.
N O M Y.
Having thus redtified the globe, turn it round, and ob-
ferve on what points of the horizon the fun and moon
balls rife and fet, for thefe agree with the points of the
compafs on which the fun and moon rife and fet in the
heavens on the given day; and the hour-index fhews the
times of their rifing and fetting ; and likewife the time of
the moon’s pafling over the meridian.
This fimple apparatus fhews all the varieties that can
happen in the rifing and fetting of the fun and moon;
and makes the fore-mentioned phenomena of the harveft-
moon plain to the eye. It is alfo very ufeful in reading
ledtures on the globes, becaufe a large company can fee
this fun and moon go round, rifing above and fetting be¬
low the horizon at different times, according to the fea-
fons of the year; and making their appulfes to different
filled ftars. But in the ufual way, where there is only
the places of the fun and moon in the ecliptic to keep the
eye upon, they are eafily loft fight of, unlefs they be
covered with patches.
The Planetary Globe, (Plate XLIX. fig. 1.) In
this machine, a terreftrial globe is fixed on its axis
Handing upright on the pedeftal C D E, on which is an
hour-circle, having its index fixed on the axis, which
turns fomewhat tightly in the pedeftal, fo that the globe
may not be liable to fhake; to prevent which, the pede¬
ftal is about two inches thick, and the axis gois quite
through it, bearing on a fhoulder. The globe is hung
in a graduated brazen meridian, much in the ufual way;
and the thin plate N, NE, E is a moveable horizon gra¬
duated round the outer edge, for fhewing the bearings
and amplitudes of the fun, moon, and planets. The
brafen meridian is grooved round the outer edge; and in
this groove is a flender femi-circle of brafs, the ends of
which are fixed to the the horizon in its north and fouth
points : this femi-circle Aides in the groove as the hori¬
zon is moved in rectifying it for different latitudes. To
the middle of this femi-circle is fixed a pin, which always
keeps in the zenith of the horizon, and on this pin the
quadrant of altitude q turns ; the lower end of which, in
all pofitions, touches the horizon as it is moved round
the fame. This quadrant is divided into 90 degrees
from the horizon to the zenithal pin on which it is turned,
at 90. The great flat circle or plate AB is the„ecliptic,.
on the outer edge of which the figns and degrees are laid
down; and every fifth degree is drawn through the reft
of the furface of this plate towards its center. On this
plate are feven grooves, to which feven little balls are
adyufted by Aiding wires, fo that they are eafily moved
in the grooves, without danger of ftarting them. The
ball next the terreftrial globe is the moon, the next
without it is Mercury, the next Venus, the next the
fun, then Mars, then Jupiter, and daftly Saturn. This
plate, or ecliptic, is fupported by four ftrong wires, ha¬
ving their lower ends fixed into the pedeftal, at C Z>,
E, the fourth being hid by the globe. The ecliptic is
inclined 23-r degrees to the pedeftal, and is therefore
properly inclined to the axis of the globe which Hands
upright on the pedeftal.
To r edify this mat bine. Set the fun, and all the pla¬
netary balls, to their geocentric places in the-ecliptic forany
given time, by an ephemeris; then fet the north point of
the..
ASTRO
the horizon to the Ltuude of your place on tl^e brafen
meridian, and the quadrant of altitude to the fouth point
of the horizon; which done, turn the globe with its fur¬
niture till the quadrant of altitude comes right again!!
the fun, vizr to his place in the ecliptic; and keeping it
there, fet the hour-index to the XII next the letter C;
and the machine will be. redlified, not only for the fol¬
lowing-problems, but for feveral others which the artift
may eafrly find out.
Problem I. T'o find the amplitudes, meridian alti¬
tudes, and times of riftng, culminating, and felting,
of the fun, moon, and planets.
Turn the globe round eaftward, or according to the or¬
der of figns ; and as the eaftern edge of the horizon comps
right again!! the fun, moon, or any planet, the hour-
index will Ihew the time of its rifing ; and the inner edge
of the ecliptic will cut its rifing amplitude in the horizon.
Turn on, and as the quadrant of altitude comes right a-
gainft the fun, moon or planets, the ecliptic cuts their
meridian altitudes in the quadrant, and the hour-index
Ihews the times of their coming to the meridian. Con¬
tinue turning, and as the wellern edge of the horizon
comes right again!! the fun, moon, or planets, their fet-
ting amplitudes are cut in the horizon by the ecliptic;
and the times of their fetting are {hewn by the index on
the hour-circle.
Prob. II. To find the altitude and azimuth of the
fnn, moon, and planets, at any time of their being
above the horizon.
Turn the globe till the index comes to the given time
iti the hour-circle, then keep the globe Iteady, and mo¬
ving the quadrant of altitude to 'each planet refpedtively,
the edge of the ecliptic will cut the planet’s mean alti¬
tude on the quadrant, and the quadrant will cut the
planet’s azimuth, or point of hearing on the horizon.
Prob. III. The fun's altitude being given at any time
either before or after noon, to find the hour of the
day, and variation of the conipafs, in any known la¬
titude.
With one hand hold the edge of the quadrant right a.-
gain!! the fun ; and, with the other hand, turn the globe
weftward, if it be in the forenoon, or eaftward if it be
in the afternoon, until the fun’s place at the inner edge
of the ecliptic cuts the quadrant in the fun’s obferved. al¬
titude ; and then the hour-index will point out the time
of the day, and the quadrant will cut the true azimuth,
or bearing of the fun for that time : The difference be¬
tween which, and the bearing {hewn by the azimuth
compafs, fhews the variation of the compafis in that place
of the earth.
The Ttajectorium Lunarte, Plate XTIX. fig. 2.
This machine is for delineating the paths of the earth
and moon, Ihewing what fort of curves they make in the
etherial regions. S is the fun, and E the earth, whofe '
centres are 81 inches dil!ant from each other; every
inch anfwering to a million of miles. M is the moon,
N O M 499'
whofe centre is parts of an inch from the earth’s
in this machine, this being in juft proportion to the
moon’s diliance from the earth. yS'vV is a bar of wood,
to be moved by hand round the axis g which is fixed in
the wheel T. The circumference of this wheel is to the
circumference of the Imall wheel L (below the other end
of the bar)' as 365^ days is to 294> or as a year is to a
lunation. The wheels are grooved round their edges, and
in the grooves is the cat-gut ftring GG crofting between
the wheels at X. On the axis of the wheel L is the in¬
dex F, in which is fixed the moon’s axis M for carrying
her round the earth E (fixed on the axis of the wheel
L) in the time that the index goes round a circle of aqi
equal parts, which are the days of the moon’s age.
The wheel P has the months and days of the year all
round its limb ; and in the bar A4 is fixed the index
which points out the days of the months anfwering to
the days of the moon’s age, ftiewn by the index F, in the
circle of 29^ equal parts at the other end of the bar.
On the axis of the wheel L is put the piece D, below
the cock C, in which this axis turns round ; and in D
are put the pencils e and m, diredtly under the earth E
and moon M-, fo that m is carried round e, as M is
round £►
Lay the machine on an even floor, prefling gently on
the wheel T, to caufe its fpiked feet (of which two ap¬
pear at P and P, the third being fuppofed to be hid
from fight by the wheel) enter a little into the floor to
fecure the wheel from turning. Then lay a paper about
four feet long under the pencils e and m, crofs-wife to
the bar; which done, move the bar flowly round the axis
g of the wheel T; and as the earth E goes round the fun
S, the moon M will go round the earth with a duly
proportioned velocity ; and the fridtion-wheel /f'running ,
on the floor, will keep, the-bar from bearing too heavily
on the pencils e and m, which will delineate the paths
of the earth and moon.. As the index /points out the days
of the months,.the index ftiews the moon’s age on thefe
days, in the circle of^i equal parts^ And as this laft-
index, points, to the different days in its circle, the like-
numeral figures may be fet to thofe parts of the curves-
of the earth’s path and moon’s, where the pencils <? and
m are at thofe times refpedtively, to fhew the places of
the earth and moon. If the pencil e be pufhed a very
little Off, as if from the pencil m, to about part of
their diftance, and the pencil m puftied as much towards
e, to bring them to the fame difMnces again, though not ;
to the. fame points of fpace; then, as m goes round e, .
e will go as it were round the centre of gravity between
the earth e and moon m ; but this- motion will not fen-
fibly alter the figure of the earth’s path or the moon’s.
if a pin, as/-, be put through the pencil w, with its"
head towards that of the pin q in the pencil e, its head
vrill always keep thereto as m goes, round or as the
fame fide of the moon is ftill'obverted to the earth. Bur
the pin p, which may be confidered as an equatorial dia¬
meter of the moon, will turn quite round the point w,
making all poflible-angles with the line of its progrefs, o
line of the moon’s path. This is an ocular proof of the
moon’s turning round her axis,.
The
500 ASTRO
The Tide-Dial, PlateL. fig. i. The outfide parts
of this machine confift of, i. An eight-fided box, on the
top of whichat the corners is flrewn the phafes of the moon
at die octants, quarters, and full. Within thefe is a circle
of 29! equal parts, which are the d y£ of the moon’s age
accounted from the fun at new moon, round to the fun
again. Within this circle is one of 24 hours divided
into their refpeQive halves and quarters. 2. A moving
elliptical plate, painted blue, to reprefent the rifing of
the tides under and oppofite to the moon ; and has the
words, high <vja:er, tide falling, low water, tide ri¬
fing, marked upon it. To one end of this plate is fixed
the moon M by the wire IV, and goes along with- in
3. Above this elliptical plate is a round one, with the
points of the compafs upon it, and alfo the names of a-
bove 200 places in the large machine (but only 32 in the
figure, to avoid confufion) fet over thofe points in which
the moon bears when fhe raifes the tides to the greateft
heights at thefe places twice in every lunar day: And
to the north and fouth points of this plate are fixed two
indexes / and K, which Ihew the times of high water,
in the hour circle, at all thefe places. 4. Below the
elliptical plate are four fmall plates, two of which pro-
j'edt out from below its ends at new and full moon ; and
fo, by lengthening the ellipfe, fhew the fpring-tides,
which are then raifed to the greateft heights by the uni¬
ted attraflions of the fun and moon. The other two of
thefe fmall plates appear at low water when the moon is
in her quadratures, or at the fides of the elliptic plate,
to fhew the neap-tides; the fun and moon then afting
crofs-wife to each other. When any two of thefe fmall
plates appear, the other two are hid; and when the
moon is in her o&ants, they all difappear, their being
neither fpring nor neap-tides at thofe times. Within
"the box are a few wheels for performing thefe motions
by the handle or winch H.
Turn the handle until the moon M comes to any gi¬
ven day of her age in the circle of 294- equal, parts, and
the moon’s wire IV will cut the time of her coming to
the meridian on that day, in the hour circle; the XII
under the fun being mid-day, and the oppofite XII mid¬
night : Then looking for the name of any given place
on the round plate (which makes 29-4 rotations whilft
the moon M makes only one revolution from the fun to
AST
ASTROP-WELLS, in Northamptonfhire, were re¬
commended by the phyficians Willis and Clever, for
the cure of the fcurvy, afthma, 6^.
ASTROSCOPE, an inftrument compofed of two canes,
having the conftellations delineated on their furfaces,
whereby the ftars may be eafily known.
ASTRUM, with chemifts, fignifies that virtue which
accrues to things from their preparation; and among
ancient phyficians, certain medicines in the figure of
round cakes impreffed “with afterifks.
ASTUR, in ornithology, a fynonime of a fpecies of
falco. See Falco.
ASTURIA, a maritime province of Spain, lying along
N O M Y.
the fun again) turn the handle till that place comes to.
the word high water under the moon, and the index
which falls among the forenoon hours will Ihew the time
of high water at that place in the forenoon of the given
day : then turn the plate half round, till the fame place
comes to the oppofite high-water mark, and the index
will Ihew the time of high water in the afternoon at that
place. And thus, as all the different places co».»e fuc-
ceflively under and oppofite to the moon, the indexes
fliew the times of high water at them in both parts of
the day: And, when the fame places come to the low-
water marks, the indexes (hew the times of low water.
For about three days before and after, the times of new
and full moon, the two fmall plates come out a little
way from below the high-water marks on the elliptical
plate, to (hew that the tides rife ftill higher about thefe
times: And abcut the quarters, the other two plates
come out a ’ittle from under the low-water marks to¬
wards the lun, and on the oppofite fide, (hewing that
the tides of flood rife not then fo high, nor do the tides
of ebb fall fo low, as at other times.
By pulling the handle a little way outward, it is dif-
engaged from the wheel-work, and then the upper plate
may be turned round quickly by hand, fo as. the moon
may be brought to any given day of her age in about a
quarter of a minute ; and by puffing in the handle, it
takes hold of the wheel-work again.
On AB, (fig. 2 ) the axis of the handle H, is an endlefs
fcrew C, which turns the wheel FED of 24 teeth round
in . 4 revolutions of the handle: This wheel turns an¬
other ONG of 48 teeth, and on its axis is the pinion
P§>_ of four leaves, which turns the wheel LKI of
59 teeth round in 294 turnings or rotations of the
wheel FED, or in 708 revolutions of the handle, which
is the number of hours in a fynodical revolution of the
moon. The round plate, with the names of places up¬
on it, is fixed "on the axis of the wheel FED; and the
elliptical or tide-plate with the moon fixed to it, is upon
the axis of the wheel LKI; confequently, the former
makes 294 revolutions in the time that the latter makes
one. The whole wheel FED, with the endlefs fcrew
C, and dotted part of the axis of the handle AB, toge¬
ther with the dotted part of the wheel ONG, lie hid be¬
low the large wheel LKI.
A S Y
the bay of Bifcay, with Gallicia on the weft, and Bif-
cay on the eaft. It gives the .title of prince to the
elded fon of the king of Spain.
ASTYNOMI, in Grecian antiquity, magiftrates in A-
thens, correfponding to the tediles of the Romans;
they were ten in number. See Aldile.
ASYLUM, a fan&uary, or place of refuge, where cri¬
minals ffelter themfelves from the hands of juftice.
The afyla of altars and temples were very ancient;
and likewife thofe of tombs, ftatues, and other monu¬
ments of confiderable perfonages: Thus, the temple
of Diana at Ephefus was a refuge for debtors, the
tomb of Thefeus for (laves. The Jews had their
±Jlatc XLir.
lElate X.
A T . H ( 501
afyla, the moft remarkable of which were, the fix ci¬
ties of refuge, the temple, and the altar of burnt-of¬
ferings.
ASYMMETRY, the want of proportion between the
parts of any thing, being the contrary of fymmetry.
See Symmetry.
ASYMPTOTE, in geometry, a line which continually
approaches nearer to another ; but, though;continued in¬
finitely, will never meet with it: Of thefe there are ma¬
ny kinds. In ftricknefs, however, the term afymptotes
is appropriated to right lines, which approach nearer
and nearer to fome curves of which they are faid to be
afy?nptotes; but if they and their curve are indefinite¬
ly continued, they will never meet.
ASYMPTOTIC [pace, the fame with hyperbolic fpace.
See Hyperbolic.
ASYNDETON, in grammar, a figure which omits the
conjundtions in a fentence; as in veni, vtdi,vici, et
is left out.
ATARAXY, a term ufed by the ftoics and fceptics, to
denote that calmnefs of mind which fecures us from
all emotions arifing from vanity and felf-conceit.
ATAXY, in a general fenfe, the want of order : With
phyficians, it fignifies irregularity of crifes and pa-
roxyfms of fevers.
ATCHE, in commerce, a fmall filver coin ufed in Turky,
and worth only one third of the Englilh penny.
ATCHIEVEMENT, in heraldry, denotes the arms of
a perfon, or family, together with all the exterior or¬
naments of the Ihield ; as helmet, mantle, creft, fcrolls,
and motto, together with fuch quarterings as may
have been acquired by alliances,. all marlhalled in or¬
der.
A TEMPO GIUSTO, in mufic, fignifies to fing. and
or play in an equal, true, and juft time. See Time.
ATHAMAPULET, the prime minifter of the Perfian
empire, as the grand vizier is of the Turkifti empire.
He is great chancellor of the kingdom,>prefident of the
council, fuperintendant of the finances, and is charged
with all foreign affairs.
ATHAMANTA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
digynia clafs. The fruit is oblong and ftreaked. The
fpecies are 10, only one of which, viz. the libanotis
or mountain ftone-parfley is a native of Britain. The
root of the athamanta meum or fpignel, a native of I-
taly, is an ufeful aromatic and carminative, though
little regarded in the prefent pra&ice.
ATHANASIA, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia
polygamia sequalis clafs. There are ten fpecies of
this genus, moft of them natives of Africa.
A T H A N A SIAN creed, that fuppofed to be compofed
by Athanafius. See Creed.
ATHANATI, in Pejfian antiquity, a body of cavalry,
confifting of ten tfioufand men, always complete.
They were called atbanati, becaufe, when one of
them happened to die, another was immediately ap¬
pointed to fucceed him..
ATHANOR, in chemiftry, a kind of fixed and large
digefting furnace, made with a tower, fo contrived as
to keep a Conftant moderate heat for a confiderable
time, which may be increafed or diminiflied at plea-
Vol. I. Numb. 2\y 3
) A T H
fure by {hutting the regifters. See Chemistry, Of
furnaces.
ATHEIST, a perfon who does not believe the exiftence
of a Deity. Many people, both ancient and modern,
have pretended to atheifm, or have been reckoned a-
theifts by the world ; but it is juftly queftioned whe¬
ther any man ferioufty adopted fuch a principle. Thefe
pretenfions, therefore, muft be founded on pride or
affe&ation.
ATHELING, Adeling, Edling, Ethling, or
Etheling, among our Saxon anceftors, was a title
of honour properly belonging to the heir apparent, or
prefumptive, to the crown. This honourable appel¬
lation was firft conferred by king Edward the Confef-
for on Edgar, to whom he was great uncle, when,
being without any iffue of his own, he intended to
make him his heir.
ATHENA, a plafter made of aloes, myrrh, and gum
ammoniac, and recommended by fome ancient phyfi¬
cians in wounds of the head.
ATHENAA, in Grecian antiquity* See Panathe-
n.ea.
ATHENAEUM, in antiquity, a public place wherein-
the profeffors of the liberal arts held their affemblies,
the rhetoricians declaimed, and the poets rehearfed
their performances.
Thefe places, of which there Were a great number
at Athens, were built in the manner of amphitheatres,
encompaffed with feats, called cunei. The three moft
celebrated Athenaea were thofe at Athens, at Rome,
and at Lyons, the fecond of which was built by the
emperor Adrian.
ATHENREE, a town of Ireland, in the county of Gal¬
way, and province of Connaught, fituated about ten
miles eaftward of the city of Galway, in 8° 50' W.
long, and 530 if N. lat.
ATHENS, anciently the capital of Attica, fo famous
for its learned men, orators, and captains, now call¬
ed Setines. It Hands upon a plain watered by the
rivers Uliffus and Eridanus, about 40 miles eaft or
the ifthmus of Corinth : At prefent it is faid to -
contain 10,600 inhabitants, three parts of which
are Chriftians. The town does not lie round the caftle
as anciently, but on the north-weft fide of it. Here
a Greek metropolitan refides. Among the many re¬
mains of antiquity, is the temple of Jupiter Qfympius,
and temple of Minerva, called Parthenion, which lait
is ftill entire, and converted into a Turkifh mofque,
which, as later travellers affure us, is the fineft tem¬
ple in the world. This city, as all the reft of Greece,
is.fubjed to the Turks. E. long. 240 15' N. lat.
38° s'
ATHERINA, in ichthyology, a genus of fillies of the
order of abdominales. The charadters of this ge¬
nus are thefe: The upper jaw is plain; the rays of
the branchioftege membrhne are fix; and the fide-belt
or line fhines like filver. The fpecies are two, viz.
1. The hepfetus, with about 12 rays in the fin next
the anus. It is found in the Mediterranean. 2. The
menidea, with 24 rays in the fin next the anus. This
is a very fiuall pellucid fifh, with many black points in-
6 L terfperfed j
ATM ( 502
terlperfed; it has many teeth in the lips, bat none in
the tongue or jaws. It is found in the frefti waters
or Carolin,a, and fpawns in April.
ATHEROMA, in medicine, a tumour without pain or
difcolouring of the fltin,, containing, in a membrana¬
ceous bag, matter like pus, intermixed with hard and
ftony corpufcles,
ATHERTON, a town of Warwickfliire, fituated about
ten miles north of Coventry, in i° 30' W. long, and
j2° 40'' N. lat.
ATHLETiE, in antiquity, men of remarkable ftrength
and agility, difciplined to perform in the public games.
This was a general term, under which were compre¬
hended wreillers, boxers, runners, leapers, throwers
of the difc, and thofe who praftifed in other exercifes
exhibited in the Olympic, Pythian, and other folemn
fports, wherein there were prizes allotted for the con¬
querors.
ATHLONE, aftrong town in the county of Weftmeath,
in the province of Connaught in Ireland, fituated on
the river Shannon, about 60 miles weft of Dublin, in
8° j'W. long, and 530 20' N.dat.
ATHOL, a diftridt of Perthfhire in Scotland, from
whence the ancient and noble family of Murray takes
the title of duhe.
ATHOS, a celebrated mountain, fituated in the province
of Macedonia, on a peninfula, which ftretches into the
Aegean fea, near the gulf of Contefla, being an entire
chain of mountains extended near feven miles in length,
and three in breadth. It is now called Monte Santo,
from the 22 monafteries, befides cells and caves, upon
it, containing near 6000 monks and hermits; no wo¬
man is allowed to come within fight of their convents.
It is fituated 70 miles eaft of Salonichi, or Theffalo-
nica, and pays confiderable tribute to the Turks, it
being under the proteftion of the boftangi bafcha ; on
this chain formerly flood five cities. N. Lat. 40° io'
E. long. 26° 20'.
ATHY, a town of Ireland, in the county of Kildare and
province of Leinfter, fituated on the river Barrow,
about 10 miles fouth of Kildare, in 70 5' W. long,
and 530 N. lat,
ATIGNY, a fmall town of Champaign in France, fitu¬
ated on the river Aifne, about 20 miles fouth ofRheims,
in 40 40'E. long, and 490 25^. lat.
ATINGUACU, in ornithology. See Cuculus.
ATLANTIC OCEAN, that bounded by Europe and
Africa on the eaft, and by America on the weft.
ATLANTIDES, in aftronomy. See Pleiades.
ATLAS the name of a ridge of mountains, running from
eaft to weft through the north of Africa, from whence
the Atlantic Ocean took its name.
Atlas, in architefture, the fame with telamon. See
Telamon.
Atlas, in anatomy, the name by which fome call the
firft vertebra of the neckfo called in allufion to Mount
Atlas. Seep. 167.
Atlas, in matters of literature, denotes a book of uni-
verfid geography, containing maps of all the known
parts of the world.
ATMOSPHERE, the vaft colleflion of air which fur-
) A T R
rounds the earth for a great height. For the height and
other properties of the atmofphere, fee Pneumatics.
ATOM, in philofophy, a particle of matter, fo minute
as to admit of no divifion. Atoms are the minima na¬
ture, and are conceived as the firft principles or com¬
ponent parts of all phyfical magnitude. See Che¬
mistry.
ATOMICAL phil'jfophy, or the dodtrine of atoms, a
fyftem which, from the hypothefis that atoms are en¬
dued with gravity and motion, accounted for the ori¬
gin and formation of things. This philofophy was
firft broached by Mofchus, fome time before the Trojan
war ; but was much cultivated and improved by Epi¬
curus, whence it is denominated the Epicurean philo¬
fophy. See Epicurean.
ATONICS, in grammar, words not accented.. See Ac¬
cent.
ATONY, in medicine, a defedl of tone or tenfion, or a,
laxity or debility of the folids of the body.
ATRA BILI3, black bile, one of the humours of the
ancient phyficians ; which the moderns call melan¬
choly.
ATRACTYLIS, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia
polygamia requalis clafs. The corolla is radiated, and
each corolla of the radius has five teeth. The fpecies
are three, none of which are natives of Britain.
ATRAGENE, in botany, a genus of the polyandria
polygynia clafs. The calix has four leaves; the pe¬
tals are 12 ; and the feeds are caudated. There are
three fpecies, all natives of the eaft.
ATRAPHYXIS, in botany, a genus of the hexandria
digynia clafs. The calix has two leaves ; the petals
are two, and finuated ; and there is but one feed. There
are two fpecies ; viz. the fpinofa, a native of Media ;
and the undulata, a native of ^Ethiopia.
ATRAlTI, in medicine, infants having no perforation
in the anus, or perfons imperforated in the vagina or
urethra.
ATRI, a town of the Farther Abruzzo, in the kingdom
of Naples, fituated in ij° id E. long, and 420 40'
N lat.
ATRICAPILLA, in ornithology, a trivial name of a
fpecies of mufcicapa; and alfo of a fpecies of motacilla.
See Muscicapa, and Motacilla.
ATRICES, or Attrices, in medicine, tubercles about
the anus, reckoned a kind of condylomata.
ATRICI, in furgery, fmall finufes in the extremity of
the inteftinum reftum, which do not perforate into its
cavity.
ATRIPLEX, in botany, a genus of the polygamia mo-
noecia clafs. The calix of th@ hermaphrodite flower
has five leaves ; it has no corolla; the ftamina are
five, and the ftylus is divided into two parts ; there is
but one deprefted feed. The calix of the female flower
has two leaves ; it has no corolla nor ftamina; the fty¬
lus is divided into two parts ; and there is but one de-
prefled feed. The fpecies are 12, of which eight are
natives of Britain; viz. the portulacoides, or fea-pur.-
flain; the lacineata, or jagged fea-orache ; thehaftata,
or fpear-leaved orache ; the eredta, or wild orache
the.patula, or narrow-leaved orache; the ferrata, or
indented.;
ATT ( 503 ) ATT
indented fea-orache; the littoralis, or grafs-leaved
orathe , and the pedunculata, or lialked fea-orache.
ATR.OPA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla is fhaped like a bell; the
Itamina are diftant; the berry is globular, and confifts
of two cells or apartments. The fpecies are five; viz.
1. The mandragora, or mandrake, a native of Spain
and the Eaft. The mandrake is divided into male and
fetaale. The male mandrake has a very large, long,
and thick root; it is largeft at the top or head, and
from thence gradually grows fmailer. Sometimes it is
fingle and undivided to the bottom : but more frequent¬
ly it is divided into two, fometimes into three, or
more parts. From this root there arife a number of
very long leaves, broadeft in the middle, narrow to¬
wards the bafe, and obtufely pointed at the end ; they
are of a foot or more in length, and five inches or
thereabouts in breadth ; they ate of a dulky and.difa-
greeable green colour, and of a very foetid Imell. The
female mandrake perfedly refembles the other in its
manner of growth : but the leaves are longer and nar¬
rower, and of a darker colour, as ate alfo the feeds
and roots. Authors have fpoken very largely and idly
of the virtues of this plant. The moft common qua¬
lity attributed to it, is that of rendering barren wo¬
men fruitful: but we have no tolerable foundation for
this : what we certainly know of it is, that it has a fo-
porific virtue like that of opium ; and the bark in fmall
dofes, Herman affures us, has often been known to do
great feryice in hyfteric complaints ; but it Ihould be.
ufed fparingly, otherwife it will often bring on con-
vulfions, and many other mifchievous fymptoms. The
ancients ufed it when they wanted a narcotic of the
moft powerful kind. 2. The balladona, or deadly
night-fhade, a native of Britain : the berries are poi-
fonous. 3. The phyfalodes, a native of Peru. 4. The
frutefcens, a native of Spain ; and, 5 . The arborefcens,
a native of America.
ATROPHY, in medicine, a difeafe, -wherein the body,
or fome of its parts, do not receive the neceffary nu¬
triment, but wafte and decay incefl'antly. See Me¬
dicine.
ATTACHING, or Attachment, in Englifh law,
the taking or apprehending .of a perfon, by virtue of a ,
writ or precept.
Attachment out of the Chancery, is obtained upon an ;
affidavit made, that' the defendant was ferved with a :
fubpcena, and made no appearance ; or it iffueth upon »
not performing fome- order or decree.
Attachment £«/ of the Fonefl, is one of .the three ,
courts held in the Foreft. The loweft court is called
the court of Attachment, ot •wood mote court', the
mean, fwan mote ; and the higheff, the jufice in eyre's
feat. This attachment is by three means, by goods
and chattels, by body, pledges, . and mainprize, or
the body only. This court is held every.forty days
throughout the year, whence it is caWz&xht:forty-days
court.
Attachment of privilege, is by virtue of a man’s pri¬
vilege to call another to that court whereto he him
felf belongs, and in refped whereof he is privileged to
anfwer fome adtion.
Attachment btnorum, in the old Engliffi ftatutebooks,
imports a diftrefs taken upon the goods or chattels of
a perfon fued for a perfonal eftate, or deb’-, by the
legal attachiatqrs, or bailiffs, as a fecurity to anfwer
the adlion.
ATTAINDER, inScotslaw. See Treason.
ATTAINT, in law, a writ which lies again!! a jury
that have given a falfe verdidf in any court of record,
in a real or perfonal addon, where the debtor damages
amount to above forty (hillings.
Attaint, among farriers, a knock or hurt in a horfe’s
leg, proceeding either from a blow with another horfe’s
foot, or from an over-reach in frofty weather, when
a horfe being rough-ffiod, or having ffioes with long
calkers, (trikes his'hin c&r feet again!! his fore-leg.
ATTAINTED, in law, is applied to a perfon’s being
found guilty of any crime or offence, efpecially trea-
fon or felony, by due courfe of law.
ATTELABUS, in zoology, a genus of infedts belong
ing to the order of coleoptera or beetle-kind. It has
four wings, of which the fuperior is cruftaceous, and
ferve as a (heath or cover to the inferior, which are
membranous. The head tapers behind, and is incli¬
ned.; the feelers turn thicker toward the apex. The
fpecies are 13 ; viz x. The coryli is black, with red
elytra or cruftaceous wings. 2. The avellanae is
black, with the breaft, feet, and elytra red. 3. The
curculionoides is black, with red elytra and bread.
The above three (pecies frequent the leaves of the ha¬
zel and filbert nut-trees. 4. The'furinamenfis has a
double indentation (or two. teeth) in the top of the e-
lytra. It is a native of Surinam. 5. The penfilva-
nicus is black, with red elytra, a black belt round the
middle, and another towards the apex of the elytra.
It is a native of Philadelphia. 6. The melanurus is
black, with teftaceous elytra.black at the apex. It is
a.native of-Sweden. - 7. The betulse has faltatory or
fpringy legs, and the whole body is of a dark-red co¬
lour. It frequents the- leaves of the birch-tree.
8. The formicarius is black, .with red elytra, and a
double white belt toward the bafe. It is a native of
Europe. 9. The fipylus js-green, with a hairy breaft,
and a double yellow belt upon the elytra. 10. The
apiarius is. bluiffi, with red elytra, and three black
belts. It is a native of Germany. 11.. The mollis
is yellowiftr. and hairy, with pale elytra, and three
belts. It is a native of Europe.. 12. The ceramboi-
des is of a blackiffi red colour, and the elytra is fur¬
rowed. It frequents the fpongy boletus, a fpecies of
muffiroom. 13. The bupreftoides is of a darkled
colour, with a globular breaft, . and nervous elytra.
It is a native of Europe.
ATTENDANTS, -medicines which refolve thevifcofity
of the humours; thereby promoting their circulation,
as well as the difcharge of all noxious or excrementi-
tious matter.
ATTESTATION, the ad! of affirming or witneffing-
the truth of fomething, more efpecially in writing.
ATTICV
ATT ( 504 ) A U B
ATTIC, any thing relating to Attica, or to the city of
Athens: thus Attic fait, in philology, is a delicate
poignant fort of wit and humour peculiar to the Athe¬
nian writers; Attic witnefs, a witnefs incapable of
corruption, <bc. \
Attic, in architecture, a fort of building wherein the
roof or covering is not to be feen; thus named, be-
caufe the buildings at Athens were generally of this
form.
Attic vrder, a fmall order railed upon a large one, by
way of crowning, or to finilh the building; or it is,
according to fome, a kind of rich pedeftal, fometimes
ufed for the conveniency of having a wardrobe, or the
like; and inftead of columns, has only pilafters of a
particular form, and fometimes no pilatters at all. .
The name Attic is alfo given to a whole llory into
which this order enters; this little order being always
found over another greater one,
Attic bafe, a peculiar kind of bafe ufed by the ancient
architects in the Ionic order; and by Palladio, and
fome others, in the Doric.
ATTIRE, in botany. See Antherje.
Attire, in hunting, fignifies the head or horns of a
deer. The attire of a flag, if perfect, confifts of
bur, pearls, beam, gutters, antler, fur-antler, royal,
fur-royal, and croches ; of a buck, of the bur, beam,
brow-antler, advancer, palm, and fpellers.
ATTITUDE, in painting and fculpture, the gellure of
a figure or ftatue; or it is fuch a difpofition of their
parts as ferves to exprels the aCtion and fentiments of
the perfon reprefented,
ATTLEBURY, a market-town of Norfolk, about
eighty miles north-eaft of London, fituated in 40 E,
long, and 520 30' N. lat.
ATTOCK, a city on the eaftern frontiers of Perfia,
capital of a province of the fame name, and fituated
on the river Attock, in 720 E. long, and 330 N.lat.
ATTOLLENS, in anatomy, an appellation given to fe-
veral mufcles, otherwife called Icvatores and eleva¬
tor es.
ATTORNEY, a perfon who by confent, command¬
ment, or requeft, takes heed, fees, and takes upon
him the charge of other mens bufinefs, in their ab-
Tence. Attorney is either general or fpecial: Attor¬
ney-general is he that by general authority is appoint¬
ed to all our affairs or lints ; as the attorney-general
of the king, which is nearly the fame with procurator
Csefaris in the Roman empire. Attorneys-general are
made either by the king’s letters-patent, or by our ap¬
pointment before juftices in eyre, in open court. At¬
torney fpecial or particular, is he that is employed in
one or more caufes particularly fpecified. There are
alfo, in refpeCt of the divers courts, attorneys at
large, and attorneys fpecial, belonging to this or that
court only.
Attorneys in common law, are nearly the fame with
proClors in the civil law, and.folicitors in courts of
equity. Attorneys fue out writs of procefs, or com¬
mence, carry on, and defend actions, or other pro¬
ceedings, in the names of other perfons, in the courts
of common law. None are admitted to a& without
having ferved a clerkfhip for five years, taking the
proper oath, being enrolled, and examined by the
judges. The' attorney-general pleads within the bar.
To him come warrants for making out patents, par¬
dons, <bc. and he is the principal manager of all law-
affairs of the crown.
!,!?//(?/• ^Attorney.* See Letter.
Warrant of tokuky. See Warrant.
ATTOURNMENT, or Attornment, in law, a
transfer from one lord to another of the homage and
fervice a tenant makes; or that acknowledgment of
duty to a new lord.
ATTRACTION, in natural philofophy, an indefinite
term, applicable to all adtions whereby bodies tend to¬
wards one another, whether in,virtue of their weight,
magnetifin, eledh'icity, impulfe, or any other latent
power. See Mechanics, Electricity, dxc.
Elective Attractions. See Chemistry.
ATTRIBUTE, in a general fenfe, that which agrees
with fome perfon or thing ; or a quality determining
fomethingto be after a certain manner. Thus, under-
flanding is an attribute of mind, and extenfion an at¬
tribute of body. That attribute which the mind con¬
ceives as the foundation of all the red, is called its
effential attribute: thus extenfion is by fome, and fo-
lidity by others, efteemed the effential attributes of
body or matter.
Attributes, in theology, the feveral qualities or per-
fedtions of the Divine nature, as w.ifdom, power, ju-
ftice, goodnefs, <bc.
Attributes, in logic, are the predicates of any fub-
jedt, or what may be affirmed or denied of any thing.
Attributes, in painting and fculpture, are fymbols
added to feveral figures, to intimate their particular
office and charadter. Thus, the eagle is an attribute
of Jupiter ; a peacock, of Juno; a caduce, of Mer¬
cury ; a club, of Hercules ; and a palm, of Vidfory.
ATTRITION, the.rubbing or flriking of bodies one a-
gainft another, fo as to throw off fome of their fuper-
ficial particles.
AVA, a kingdom of India, beyond the Ganges, fituated
on the north eafl part of the bay pf Bengal, between
the countries of Arracan on the north, and Pegu on
the fouth.
AVALON, a town of Burgundy in France, .fituated in
30 50' E. long, and 47° 25' N. lat.
AVARIA, in the cufioms of Turky and Perfia, money
exadted from Chriftians or Europeans, to be quit of
fome falfe accufation formed on purpofe.
AVAST, in the fea-langue, a term requiring to flop,
or to ftay.
AVAUNCHERS, among hunters, the fecond branches
of a deer’s horns. See Head.
AUBAGNE, a town of Provence in France, fituated a-
bout feven miles fouthward of Marfeilles, in 50 30'
E long. '430 15' N. lat.
AUBANE, in the cuftoms of France, a right veiled in
the king of being heir to a foreigner that dies within
his dominions.
By this right the French king claims the inheritance
of all foreigners that die within his dominions, not-
withfland-
A U D ( 50? ) A V E
•withftanding of any teftament the deceafed could make.
An ambafiador is not fubjedt to the right of aubane;
and the Switz, Savoyards, Scots, and Portuguefe, are
alfo exempted, being deemed natives and regnicoles.
AUBE, a river of France, which, arifing in the fouth-
eaft part of Champaigne, runs north-weft, and falls
into the Seine below Plancy.
AUBIGNE, a town of France, in the province of Ber¬
ry, and government of Orleans, fituated in 20 20 JL.
long, and 47° 3' N. lat.
AUBIN, or St Aubin, a town of Brittany in France;
its W. long, being i° 30', andN. lat. 48° ij'.
Aubin, in horfemanfnip, a broken kind of gate, be¬
tween an amble and a gallop, accounted a defedt.
AUBURN, a market-town in Wilthlhire, fituated about
24 miles weft of Reading, in i° 40, W. long, and
ji° 30' N. lat.
AUBUSSON, a town a France, in the province of
Marche, and government of Lyonois : E. long. 20 ij',
and N. lat. 450 55'.
AUCTION, a kind of public fale, very much in ufe for
houfehold-goods, books, plate, &c. By this method
of fale the higheft bidder is always the buyer. This
was originally a kind of fale among the ancient Ro¬
mans, performed by the public crier fub bafla,~t* e.
under a fpear ftuck up on that occafion, and by fome
magiftrate, who made good the fale by delivery of the
goods.
Auction by inch of candle. See Candle.
AUDE, a river of France, which, taking its rife in the
Pyrenees, runs northwards by Alet and Carcaflbne;
and from thence turning eaftward through Languedoc,
falls into the Mediterranean, a little to the north-eaft
of Narbonne.
AUDIANISM, the fame with anthropomorphifm. See
Anthropomorphites.
AUDIENCE, given to ambafladors, ceremonies obfer-
ved in courts, at the admiffion of ambaffadors, or
public minifters, to a hearing.
In England, audience is given to ambafladors in the
prefence-chamber; to envoys and refidents, in a gal¬
lery, clofet, or in any place where the king happens
to be. Upon being admitted, as is the cuftom of all
courts, they make three bows, after which they“ cover
and (it down; but not before the king is covered and
fat down, and has given them the fign to put on their
hats.
When the king does not care to have them cover¬
ed, and fit, he himfelf ftands uncovered; which is ta
ken as a flight.
At Conftantinople, minifters ufually have audience
of the prime vizier.
Aud 1 en c..-court, a court belonging to the archbiflrop
of Canterbury, of equal authority with the arches-
court, though inferior both in dignity and antiquity.
The original of this court was, becaufe the archbiftiop
of Canterbury heard feveral caufes extrajudicially at
- home in h s own palace ; in 'which, before he would
finally determine any thing, he ufually committed
them to be difcuffed by men learned in the civil and
canon laws, whom, thereupon, he called his auditors ;
Vol. I. No. 22. 3
and fo in time it became the power of the man wh©
is called caufarum negotiorumque audentia Cantuari-
enfis auditor, feu officinalis.
Chamber of Audience. See Chamber.
AUDIT, a regular hearing and examination of ah ac¬
count by fome proper officers, appointed for that pur-
pofe.
AUDITOR, in a general fenfe, a hearer, or one who
liftens' and attends to any thing.
Auditor, according to our law, is an officer of the
king, or fome other great perfon, who, by examining
yearly the accounts of the under-officers, makes up a
general book, with the difference between their ic-
ceipts and charges, and their allowances to allocations.
Auditor of the receipts, is an officer of the exchequer
who files the tellers bills, makes an entry of them,
and gives the lord-treafurer a certificate of the mo¬
ney received the week before. He alfo makes deben¬
tures to every teller, before they receive any money,
and take their accounts. He keeps the black book of
receipts, and the treafurer’s key of the treafury, and
fees every teller’s money locked up in the new trea¬
fury.
Auditors of the revenue, or of the exchequer, officers
who take the accounts of thofe who colle<fl the reve¬
nues and taxes raifed by parliament, and take the ac¬
counts of the ffieriffs, efcheators, colleftots, tenants,
and cuftomers, and fet them down in a book, and per-
fedt them.
Auditors of the prejl and imprejl, are officers of the
exchequer, who take and make up the accounts of
Ireland, Berwick, the mint, and of any money im-
preffed to any man for the king’s fervice.
Auditors collegiate, conventual, See. officers former¬
ly appointed in colleges, &c. to examine and pafs
their accounts.
Auditory nerves, in anatomy. See p. 249.
AVAIL of marriage, in Scots law, that cafualty in
ward-holding, by which the fuperior was intitled to a
certain fum from his vaffal, upon his attaining the age
of puberty, as the value or avail of his tocher. See
Scots Law, tit. Of cafualties due to the fuperior.
AVEIN, a town in the duchy of Luxemburg, remark¬
able for a vidtory which the French obtained over the
Spaniards in 1635.
AVELLANA, in botany. See Corylus.
Avellana purgatrix, a name fometimes given to the
fruit of the ricinus. See Ricinus.
AVELLANE, in heraldry, a crofs, the quarters of which
fomewhat refemble a filbert-nut. Sylvanus Morgan
fays, that it is the crofs which enfignS the mound of
authority, or the fovereign’s globe.
AVELLINO, a town of the kingdom of Naples, and
province of Principata, fituated about 25 miles eaft
of the city of Naples, 'in iy° 20 E. long, and 410
N. lat.
AVE-MARIA, the angel Gabriel’s fallutation of the
the Virgin Mary, when he brought her the tidings of
the incarnation.—It is become a prayer or form of
devotion in the Romifli church. Their chaplets and
rofaries are divided into fo many ave-maries, and fo
6 M many
A V E ( 5o<5 ) AUG
many pater-nofters, to which the papifts afcribe a
wonderful efficacy.
AVENA, oats, in botany, a genus of the triandria di-
gynia clafs. The calix has a double valve; and the
awn on the back is contorted. The fpecies are 13,
fix of them natives of Britain ; viz. 1. The nuda, or
mdced oats. 2. The fatua or bearded oat-grafs.
3. The pratenfis, or meadow oat-grafs. 4. .The pu-
befcens, or rough oat-gr&fs. 5. The elatior, or tall
oat-grafs. 6. The flavefcens, or yellow oat-grafs.
It is remarkable, that the native place of the fativa, or
common oat, cultivated in our fields, is almoft totally
unknown. Anfon fays, that he obferved it growing
wild or fpontaneoufly in the ifland of Juan Fernan¬
dez. But a vague obfervation from an author of that
kind is not to be depended on.
AVENACEOUS, fomething belonging to, or partaking
of the nature of oats.
AVENAGE, in law, a certain quantity of oats paid by
. a tenant to a landlord, inftead of rent, or fome other
duties.
AVENOR, an officer belonging to the king’s ftables,
who provides oats for the horfes. He ads by war¬
rant from the mafter 'of the horfe.
AVENS, in botany. See Caryophillus.
AVENTURE, in law books, means a mifchance, cau-
fing the death of a perfon without felony.
AVENUE, in gardening, a walk planted on each fide
with trees, and leading to an houfe, garden-gate,
wood, &c. and generally terminated by fome diftant
objed. See Gardening.
AVERAGE, in commerce, fignifies the accidents and
misfortunes which happen to {hips and their cargoes,
from the time of their loading and failing to their re
turn and unloading; and is divided into three kinds.
1. The fimple or particular average, which confifts in
the extraordinary expences incurred for the ffiip alone,
or for the merchandizes alone. Such is the lofs of an¬
chors, mafts, and rigging, occafioned by the common ac¬
cidents at fea ; the damages which happen to merchants
by ftorm, prize, fhipwreck, wet, or rotting ; all which
muft be born and paid by the thing which fuffered the
damage. 2. The large and common average, being
thofe expences incurred, and damages fuftained, for the
common good and fecurity both of the merchandizes
and veffels, confequently to be borne by the {hip,and
cargo, and to be regulated upon the whole. Of this
number are the goods or money given for the ranfom
of the {hip and cargo, things thrown overboard for the
fafety of the {hip, the expences of unloading for entering
into a river or harbour, and the provifions and hire of
the failors when the fhip is put under an embargo.
3. The fmall averages, which are the expences for
towing and piloting the fhip out of, or into harbours,
creeks, or rivers, one third of which mull be char¬
ged to the fhip, and two thirds to the cargo.
Average is more particularly ufed for a certain con-
Iribution that merchants make proportionably to their
lolfes. It alfo fignifies a fmall duty which thofe mer¬
chants, who fend goods in another man’s {hip, pay to
the matter for his care of them over and above the
freight. Hence it is exprefied in the bills of lading,
paying fomuch freight for the faid goods, with primage
and average accuftomed.
AVERANCE, or Auranche, a fea-port town in Nor¬
mandy, in France, fituated in i° 2c/W. long, and
48° 4c/'N. lat.
AVER-CORN, that conveyed to the lord’s granary by
his tenants.
AVERDUPOIS, or Avoirdupois-weight, a fort
of weight ufed in England, the pound whereof is made
up of lixteen ounces. SeeWEiGHT.
This is the weight for the larger and coarfer commo¬
dities, fuch as groceries, cheefe, wool, lead, oc.
Bakers, who live not in corporation-towns, are to make
their bread by avoirdupois-weight, thofe in corpora¬
tions by troy weight. Apothecaries buy by avoirdu¬
pois-weight, but fell by troy. The proportion of a
pound avoirdupois to a pound troy is as 1 7 to 14.
AVERIA, in a general fenfe, fignifies any cattle, but is
ufed in law for oxen, or horfes of the plough.
Replegiare de AVERIIS. See Replegiare.
AVERNI, among ancient naturalitts, certain lakes, grot¬
toes, and other places, which infedt the air with poi-
fonous fleams or vapours, called alfo mephites.
AVERRHOA, in botany, a genus of the decandria pen-
tagynia clafs. The calix has five leaves; the petals
are five, open at top ; and the apple or fruit is pen¬
tagonal, and divided into five cells. The Ipecies arc
three, all natives of India.
AVERHOISTS, the follow'ers of Averhoes, a celebra¬
ted commentator of Ariftotle, who denied the natural
immortality of the (bul, and yet pretended to acquiefce
in the Chriftian dodtrine concerning it.
AVERRUNCI, in the ancient heathen theology, an or¬
der of deities among the Romans, whofe peculiar office
it was to avert danger and exile. Apollo and Hercu¬
les are fuppofed to be of this order.
AVERS A, a town of Naples, in the province of Lavoro,
fituated about 17 miles fouth of Capua, in 140 45'
E. long, and 410 1 j' N. lat.
AYES, fome fmall iflands, belonging to the Dutch, on
the coaft of Terra Firma, in South America.
AVESNES, a little fortified town of Hainault, in the
French Netherlands ; fituated about 21 miles fouth of
Mons, in 30 4c/ E. long, and 50° \o' N. lat.
AUGMENT, in grammar, an accident of certain tenles
of Greek verbs, being either the prefixing of a fylla-
ble, or an increafe of the quantity of the initial vowels.
Augments, in mathematics. See Fluctions.
AUGMENTATION, in a general fenfe, is the adl of
adding or joining fomething to another with a defign
to render it large.
Augmentation is alfo ufed for the additament or
thing added.
Augmentation was alfo the name of a court eredled
27 Hen. VIII. fo called from the augmentation of the
revenues of the crown, by the fupprtffion of religious
houfes ; and the office ftill remains, w herein there are
many curious records, tho’ the court has been diflblved
long fince.
Augmentation, in heraldry, are additional charges
AUG ( 507 ) AVI
to a coat-armour, frequently given as particular marks
of honour, and generally borne either in the efcutch-
eon or a con ton ; as have all the baronets of England,
who have borne the arms of the Province of Ullter in
Ireland.
AUGRE, or Awgre, an inftrument ufed by carpenters
and joiners to bore laige round holes ; and confiding
of a wooden handld, and an iron blade terminate^ at
bottom with a fteel bit.
AUGSBURGH, a confiderable city of Swabia, in Ger¬
many; fituated in ii° E. long, and 48° ao'N. lat. It
is an imperial city, and remarkable"for being the place
where the Lutherans prefented their confeffion of faith
to the emperor Charles V. at a diet of the empire held
in 15 jo, from hence denominated the Augjburg con-
fetften.
AUGER, an officer among the Romans appointed to
foretel future events, by the chattering and feeding of
birds. There was a college or community of them,
confiding originally of three members with relpeft to
the threeLuceres, Rhamnenfes, and Tatienfes : after¬
wards the number was increafed to nine, four of whom
were patricians and five plebeians. They bore an au¬
gural daff or wand, as the eniign of their authority ;
and their dignity was fo much refpedted, that they
were never depofed, nor any fubdituted in their place,
though they fhould be convi&ed of the mod enormous
crimes. See Augury.
AUGURY, in antiquity, a fpecies of divination, or the
art of foretelling future events, is didinguifhed into
five forts. 1. Augury from the heavens. 2. From
birds. 3. From chickens. 4. From quadrupeds, j.
From portentuous events. When an augury was taken,
the augur divided the heavens into four parts, and
having facrificed to the gods, he obferved, with great
attention, from what part the fign from heaven ap¬
peared. If, for indance, there happened a dap of
thunder from the left, it was taken as a good omen.
If a flock of birds came about a man, it was a favour¬
able prefage; but the flight of vultures was unlucky.
If, when corn was flung before the facred chickens,
they crouded about it, and eat it greedily,, it was
looked upon as a favourable omen; but if they refufed
to eat and drink, it was an unlucky fign. See the article
Divination.
AUGUST, in chronology, the eighth month of our year,
containing thirty-one days. Auguft was dedicated to
the honour of Augudus Ctefar, becaufe, in the fame
month, he was created conful, thrice triumphed, in
Rome, fubdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and made
an <snd of civil wars; being before called Sexatilis, or
the fixth from March. «
AUGUSTA, or Austa, an ifland in the gulph of Ve¬
nice, on the coad of Damaltia; fituated in 17° 40' EL
long, and 420 35' N. lat.
AUGUSTBURG, a city of Germany, in upper Saxony,
upon the river Chop, fix leagues fouth-of Drefden.
AUGUSTALES, in Roman antiquity, an epithet given
to the flamens or prieds appointed to facrifice to Au¬
gudus after his deification; and alfo to the ludi or
games celebrated in honour of the fame princi Qa the
fourth of the ides of Oidober.
AUGUSTALIA, a fedival indituted by the Roman*
in honour of Augudus Csefar, on his return to Rome,
after having fettled peace in Sicily, Greece, Syria,
Afia, and Parthia; on which occafion they like Wife
built an altar to him, inferibed Fortur.x reduci.
AUGUSTALIS Prafettus, a title peculiar to a Roman
magiflrate who governed Egypt, with a power much
like that of a proconful in other provinces.
AUGUSTINE, or St. Augustine, the capital town
of Spanilh Florida in North America; fituated near the
frontiers of Georgia, in 8u° W. long, and 30° N. lat.
CAPE-AUGUSTIN, a cape of Brazil, in South Ame¬
rica ; lying in 350 W. long, and 8° 30 S. lat.
AUGUSTINS, a religious order in the church of Rome,
who follow the rule of St. Augudin, prefcribeil
them by pope Alexander IV. Among other things,
this rule enjoins to have all things in common, to re¬
ceive nothing without the leave of their fupeior; and
feveral other precepts relating to charity, modefly, and
chadity. There are likewife nuns of this order.
The Augudins are clothed in black, and at Paris
are known under the name of the Religioui of St. Ge¬
nevieve, that abbey being the chief of the order.
AUGUSTINUS, the name of Janfenius’s treatife, from
which are colle&ed the five famous propofitions e-
numerated under the article Janfenifm. See Janse¬
nism.
AVIARY, a place fet apart for feeding and propagating
birds. It Ihould be fo large, as to give the birds fome
freedom of flight; and turfed, to avoid the appearance
of foulnefs on the floor.
AVICIENNA, in botany. SccBontia.
AVIGLIANO, afmall town of Piedmont in Italy; fitu¬
ated about feven miles weft of Turin, in 70 E. long,
and 440 40' N. lat,
AVIGNON, a large city of Provence in France, fitu¬
ated on the eaft fide of the river Rhone, about 20
miles fouth of Orange, in 40 4c/ E. long, and 43^
50° N. lat. It is an archbiihop’s fee, and, with the
whole diftrift of Venailfine, fubjedt to the pope.
Avignon-berry, a name by which fome call the fruit
of the lycium, ufed in dying yellow. See Lycium.
AVILA, a beautiful city of Old Caftile in Spain, fitu¬
ated jo miles N. W.. of Madrid, in. j° id W. long,
and 40° jo' N. lat.
AVILES, afea-port town of Auftria in Spain, in 6° 40''
W. long, and 430 30' N. lat.
AVIS, bird, in zoology. See Natural History,
Avis artica. See Larus.
Avis nivis. See Loxia.
Avis paradiji. SeeMusciCAPA..
Avis pollygletta. See Turdus.
Avis rabo. See Pelican.us.
Avis rabos. See Phaeton.,
Avis venti. See Marcus^
Avis is alfo the name of an order of knighthood in Por¬
tugal, inftituted by Sancho the firft king, in imitation
of the order of Alcantara, whofe great crofs they wear.
AVISO, a term chiefly ufed in matters of commerce, to
denote an advertifement, an advice,, or piece of intel¬
ligence. _See Advxce.
AUK-
A V O ( 508 ) A U R
AUKLAND, a market-town on the river Ware, in the
biih'opric of Durham, fituated about 12 miles S. W.
of the city of Durham, in i° 2y/ W. long, and 54°
4c/ N. lat.
AULCESTER, a market-town of Warwicklhire, fitu¬
ated about fourteen miles fouth-weft of Warwick, in
i° 5c/ W. long, and 530 2c/ N. lat.
AULIC, an epithet given to certain officers of the em¬
pire, who compofe a court which decides, without
appeal, in all procefFes entered in it, Thus we fky,
aulic, council, anise chamber, ttulic counfeltor.
The aulic council is compofed of a prefident, who
is a catholic; of a vice-chancellor, prefented by the
archbifhop of Mentz; and of eighteen counfellors,
nine of whom are proteftants, and nine catholics.
They are divided into a bench of lawyers, and always
follow the emperor’s court; for which reafon they ‘are
called jujlitium imperatoris, the emperor’s juftice,
and aulic council. The aulic court ceafes at the death
of the emperor, whereas the imperial chamber of
Spire is perpetual, reprefenting not only the deceafed
emperor, but the whole Germanic body, which is re¬
puted never to die.
Aulic, in the Sorbonne and foreign univerfities, is an
a<3 which a young divine maintains upon being admitted
a dodtor jn divinity. It begins by an harangue of the
chancellor, addreffed to the young dodtor, after which
he receives the cap, and prefides at the aulic, or de¬
putation.
AULOS, a Grecian long meafure, the fame with fta-
dium.
AUMBRY, a country-word denoting a cup-board.
AUME, a Dutch meafure for Rhenifh wine, containing
forty Englifh gallons.
AUNCEL-WEIGHT, an ancient kind of balance, now
out of ufe, being prohibited by feveral llatutes, on
account of the many deceits pradlifed by it. It con-
fifted of feales hanging on hooks, fattened at each end
of a beam, which a man lifted up on his hand. In
many parts of England, auncel-weight fignifies meat
fold by the hand, without fcales.
AUNE, a long meafure ufed in France to meafure
cloths, fluffs, ribbons, At Rouen it is equal to
one Englifh ell; at Calais, to 1.52; at Lyons, to
1.016; and at Paris, to 0.95.
AUNIS, a maritime province of France, on the weft-
ern fhore of the Bay of Bifcay, having the province
of Poidtou on the north, and Santoigne on the fouth.
AVOCATORIA, a mandate of the empe or of Ger¬
many, addreffed to fome prince, in order to ftop his
unlawful proceedings in any caufe appealed to him.
AVOIDANCE, in the canon law, is when a benefice
becomes void of an incumbent, which 'happens either
in fadt, as by the detith of the perfon; or in law,
as by ceffion, deprivation, refignation, <bc. In the
firft of thefe cafes, the patron mutt take notice of the
avoidance, at his peril; but in avoidance by law, the
ordinary is obliged to give notice to the patron, in or¬
der to prevent a lapfe.
AVON, a river of England, which, taking its rife in
Wiltihire, runs by Bath, where it becomes navigable.
and continues its courfe towards Brittol, below which
city it falls into the Severn.
Avon is alfo a river, which, rifing in Leicefterfhire,
runs fouth-weft by Warwick and Evefham, and falls
into the Severn at Tewkfbury in Gloucefterfhire.
AVOSETTA, in ornithology. See Recurvikostra;
AVOWEE, one who has a right to prefent to a bene¬
fice. See Advowson.
He is thus called in contradiftindtion to thofe who
only have the lands to which the advowfon belongs for
a term of years, or by virtue of intrufion or difleilin.
See Intrusion,
AVOWRY, in law, is where a perfon diftrained fues
out a replevin ; for then the diftrainer mutt vow, and
juttify his plea, which is called his avowry. See Re-
PLEVEN.
AURA, among phyfiologifts, fignifies a vapour or exha¬
lation, fuch as thofe which arife from mephitical caves,
SeeMEPHiris, and Exhalation.
Aura vitalis, in chemiftry, a term ufed by HelmOnt,
for what others call the flamma vitalis, or vital flame.
Aura, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
vulture. See Vulture.
AURACH, a town of Swabia in Germany, fituated
about 15 miles eaft of Tubingen, in 90 20 E. long,
and 48° 25' N. lat.
AURANCHES, a large, ftrong, and well fortified city
of France in the Lower.Normandy, fituated in x° x6,
W. long, and 48° 41' N. lat.
AURANTIUM, in botany. See Citrus.
AURATA, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of fparus.' See Sparus.
AURATUS eepues. See Eques Auratus.
AURAY, a fea-port town of Brittany in France, fitu¬
ated about 18 miles fouth-eaft of Port-Lewis, in 20
45 W. long, and 470 40r N. lat.
AURELIA, in natural hiftory, the fame with what is
more ufually called chryfalis, and fometimes nymph.
See Chrysalis.
AURELIANA, in botany. See Pinax.
AURENGABAD, a large city in the province of Vi-
fiapour in India, on this fide the Ganges; E. long.
50 30', and N. lat. 19° 15'.
AUREOLA, in its original fignification, fignifies a
jewel, which is propofed as a reward of vidtory in fome
public difpute. Hence, the Roman fchoolmen ap¬
plied it to denote the reward beftowed on martyrs,
virgins, and dodfors, on account of their works of fu-
pererogation; and painters ufe it to fignify the crown
of glory, with which they adorn the heads of faints,
confeffors, <bc.
AUREUS, a Roman gold coin, equal in value to
twenty-five denarii.
AURICH, a town of Weftphalia in Germany, fituated
about 12 miles north-eaft of-Embden, in 6° yo7 E.
long, and 53° 4c/ N. lat.
AURICHALCUM, or Orichalcum. Se^ Ori-
c hal cum.
AURICLE, in anatomy, that part of the ear which is
prominent from the head, called by many authors au~
ris externa. See p. 295.
AURI-
A U T ( 5«9 ) A w M
Auricles are likewife two mufcular bags fituated at the
bafis of the'heart. Seep. 279.
AURICULA, in botany, a fynonimeof the dodecatheon
andfeveral other plants. See Dodecatheon, Pri¬
mula, Arenaria, <bc.
AURICULARIS Digitus, the little finger, fo called,
becaiife it is ufed commonly to pick the ear.
AURIGA, the Wagoner, in aftronomy, a conftellation of
the northern hemifphere. See Astronomy, p. 486.
AURILLAC, a neat and well-built city of France, in the
Upper Avergne, noted for its trade in bone-lace: it
is fituated in 30° Ji' E. long and $4° 44' N. lat.
AURIPIGMENTUM, orpiment, in natural hiltory.
See Orpiment.
AURISCALPIUM, an inllrument to clean the ears,
and ferving alfo for other operations in diforders of
that part.
AURORA, the morning-twilight, or that faint light
which appears in the morning, when the fun is within
eighteen degrees of the -hofizon.
AURORA Borealis, is an extraordinary meteor,
Ihewing itfelf in the night time, in the northern part
of the heavens. See Pneumatics, Of Meteors.
AURUM, gold, in natural-hiftory. See Chemistry,
Of metals.
AUSPEX, a name anciently ufed for augur. See
Augur.
AUSTRAL, fomething relating to the fouth : thus the
fix figns on the fouth fide of the equinoctial are called
aujlralJtgns.
AUSTRAL Fifh, a fmall conftellation of the fouthern
hemifphere, invifible to us.
AU STRIA, a circle of Germany, comprehending the
arch-duchy of Auftria, alfo Styria, Carinthia, Car-
niola, Tyrol, Trent, and Brixen. It is bounded by
Bohemia and Moravia on the north; by Hungary,
Sclavonia, and Croatia on the eaft; by the dominions
of Venice .on the fouth, and by Bavaria on the weft.
AUSTRIAN Netherlands. See Netherlands.
AUTHENTIC, fomething of acknowledged and re¬
ceived authority. In law, it fignifies fomething clo¬
thed in all its formalities, and attefted by perfons to
whom credit has been regularly given. Thus we fay,
authentic papers, authentic inftruments.
AUTHOR, properly fignifies one who created or pro¬
duced any thing. Thus God, by way of eminence, is
called the author of nature, the author of the univerfe.
AUTHOR, in matters of literature, a perfon who has
compofed fome book or writing.
AUTHORITY, in a general fenfe, fignifies a fight to
command, and make one’s felf obeyed. In which
fenfe, we fay, the royal authority, the epifcopal au¬
thority, the authority'of a father, <bc. It denotes
alfo the teftimony of an author, fome apophthegm or
fentence of an eminent perfon quoted in a difeourfe by
way of proof.
Authority is reprefented, in painting, like a grave
matron fitting in a chair of (late, richly clothed in a
garment embroidered with gold, holding in her right-
Jiand a fword, and in her left a feeptre. By her fide
is a dpuble trophy of books and arms.
Vol. I. No. 22. 3
AUTO DE FE, aft of faith. See Act of faith.
AUTOGRAPH, denotes a perfon’s hand-writing, or
the original manufeript of any book, tic.
AU POMATUM, or Automaton, an inftrument, or
rather machine, which by means of fprings, weights,
'tic. feems to move itfelf, as a watch, clock, tic. Such
alfo were Archytus’s Hying dove, Regiomontanus’s
wooden-eagle, tic.
AUTUMN, the third feafon of the year, when the har-
veft and-fruits are gathered in.-—Autumn is reprefented,
in painting, by a man at perfect age, clothed like the
vernal, and likewife girded withaftarry girdle; hold¬
ing in one hand a pair of feales equally poifed, with a
globe in each; in the other a bunch of divers fruits
and grapes. His age denotes the perfection of this
feafon; and the balance, that fign of the zodiac which
the fun enters when our autumn begins.
AUTUMNAL Point, is that part of the equinox from
which the fun begins todefeend towards the fouth pole.
Autumnal Signs, in aftronomy, are the figns Libra,
Scorpio, Sagittarius, through which the fun palfes
during the autumn.
Autumnal Equinox., that time when the fun enters
the autumnal point.
AUTUN, a city of Burgundy in France, fituated on the
river Arroux, in 40 15' E. long, and 46° jo7 N. lat.
AUVERGNE, a territory of the Lyonois in France ; ly¬
ing between the Bourbonois on the north, and the Ce-
vennes on the fouth.
AUX, in aftronomy, the fame with the apogeum of the
ancients, or the aphelium of the moderns. See Apc-
geum and Aphelium. It alfo denoted the arch
of the ecliptic, intercepted between the firft degree of
Aries and the apogeum.
Aux, or Augh, in geography, the capital city of Gaf-
cony in France. It is one of the riefieft archbilhop’s
fees in France, though but a fmall town; fituated iri
20 E. long, and 430 40' N. lat.
AUXERRE, a city of Burgundy, in France, fituated on
the river Yonne, in 30 3 5' E. long, and 47° 40' N. lat.-
AUXILIARY, whatever is aiding or helping to another.
Auxiliary Verbs, in grammar, arefuch as help to form
or cbnjugate others ; that is, are prefixed to them, to
form or denote the moods or tenfes thereof; as to
have and to be, in the Englilh ; etre and avoir, in the
French ; ho and fono in the Italian, tic.
In the Englifir language/the auxiliary verbdr/w, fup-
plies the want of paflive verbs.
AUXONE, a fmall city of Burgundy, in France, fitu¬
ated on the river Soane, about feven miles weft of
Dole, in 50 22 E. long, and 470 ij7 N. iat.
AWARD, in law, the judgment of an arbitrator, or of
one who is not appointed by the law a judge, but
chofen by the parties therpfelves for terminating their
• difference. See Arbiter.
AWL; among Ihoe-makers, an inftrument wherewith
holes are bored through the leather, to facilitate the
hitching or fewing 'the fame. The blade of the awl
is ufually a little flat and bended, and the point ground
to an acute' angle.
AWME, or Aume, a Dutch liquid meafure containing
6 N eight
A X I (5
eight fteckans, or twenty verges or verteels, equal to
the tierce in England, or to one fixth of a tun of
France.
AWN, in botany. See Arista.
AWNING, in the fea-language, is the hanging a fail,
tarpaulin, or the like, over any part of the fhip, to
keep off the fun, rain, or wind.
AX-VETCH. See Skcuridaca.
AXBRIDGE, a market-town of Somerfetfhire, fituated
about eight miles north-weft of Wells, in 30 W. long,
and 510 3c/ N. lat.
AXEL, a fmall fortified town of Dutch Flanders, fitua¬
ted about 20 miles weft of Antwerpt, in 30 qo7 E.
long, and 510 id N. lat.
AXILLA, in anatomy, the arm-pit, or the cavity under
the upper part of the arm.
AXILLA, in botany, the angle formed by a branch and
the Item, or a leaf and the branch,
AXIM, a town on the Gold Coaft of Guinea, where the
Dutch have a fort and faftory, called St. Anthony : 40
W. long, and 50 N. lat.
AXIOM, in philofophy, any plain, felf-evident, and re¬
ceived notion, that cannot be made more plain and evi¬
dent by demonftration. It is alfo an eftablilhed prin¬
ciple in fome art or fcience.
AXIOPOLIS, a town of Bulgaria, fubjeft to the Turks.
L Hands upon the river Danube.
AXIS, in geometry, the ftraight line in a plain figure,
about which it revolves, to produce or generate a fo-
lid : thus, if a femi-circle be moved round its diame¬
ter at reft, it will generate a fphere, the axis of which
is that diameter.
Axis, in aftronomy, is an imaginary right line fuppofed
to pafs through the centre of the earth, and the hea¬
venly bodies, about which they perform their diurnal
revolutions.
Axis in conic-fedtions, a right line dividing the fedtion
into two equal parts, and cutting all its ordinates at
right angles. See Conic Sections.
Axis, in mechanics. The axis of a balance is that line
about which it moves, or rather turns about. Axis
of ofcillation is a right line parallel to the horizon,
palling through the centre about which a pendulum
vibrates. See Mechanics.
Axis in peritrochio, one of the five mechanical potvers,
confifting of a peritrochium or wheel concentric with
with the bafe of a cylinder, and moveable together
with it about its axis. See Mechanics.
Axis, in optics, is that particular ray of light coming
from any objedt which falls perpendicularly on the eye.
See Optics.
Axis, in architedture, fpiral axis, is the axis of a twill¬
ed column drawn fpirally, in order to trace the cir¬
cumvolutions without.
Axis of the Ionic capital, is a line palling perpendi¬
cularly through the middle of the eye of the volute.
See Architecture.
Axis of a veffel is an imaginary right line palling
through the middle of it perpendicularly to its bafe,
and equally diftant from its fides.
ro ) a z 1
Axis, in anatomy, the fecond vertebra of the neck, fo
called from the head’s turning on it like an axis.
Axis, in zoology. See Cervus.
AXMINSTER, a market-town of Devonlhire, fituated
about 22 miles call of Exeter, in 30 xy' W. long,
and 50° 40'N. lat.
AXUMA, a city of Ethiopia in Africa, fituated in 38°
E. long, and i5°'N. lat.
AXUNGIA, in a general fenfe, denotes old lard, or
the drieft and hardell of any fat in the bodies of ani¬
mals: But, more properly, it fignifies only hogs-lard.
Axungia foils, in natural hiftory, the fame with the
Silefian earth.
Axungia vitri, Sandiver, or Salt ofglafs, a kind
of fait which feparates from the glafs while it is in fu-
fion. It is of an acrimonious and biting tafte. The
farriers ufe it for cleanfing the eyes of- horfes. It is
alfo made ufe of for cleanfing the teeth ; and is fome-
times applied to running ulcers, the herpes, or the
itch, by way of deficcative.
AXYRIS, in botany, a genus of the monoecia triandria
clafs. The calix of the male is tripartite; it has no
corolla. The calix of the female confifts of two
leaves; it has two ftyli, and one feed. The fpecies
are 4, none of them natives of Britain.
AYAMONTE, a fea-port town of Andalufia, in Spain,
fituated near the mouth of the river Guadiana, in 8°
5 W. long, and 370 N. lat.
AYENIA, in botany, a genus of the gynandria pentan-
dria clafs. The calix has two leaves ; the petals are
in the form of a ftar, with long ungues ; and the capfule
has five cells. There are three Ipecies, all natives of
the W. Indies.
AYRY, or Aery of hahuks, a neft or company of
hawks, fo called from the old French word aire,
which fignified the fame.
AZAB, in the Turkifh armies, a diftinft body of fol-
diery, who are great rivals of the Janizaries.
AZALEA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla is bell-lhaped; the ftamina
are inferred into the receptacle ; and the capfule has
five cells. The fpecies are fix, moft of them natives
of America.
AZAMOR, a maritime city of Africa, in the kingdom
of Morocco, and province of Duquela, fituated in 6°
3c/ W. long, and 320 50' N. lat.
AZAROLUS, in botany. See Crataegus.
AZARUM, in botany. See Asarum.
AZAZEL, the fcape-goat, in Jewilh antiquity. See
Scape-goat.
AZED, in the materia medica, a kind of camphor. See
Camphor.
AZERADACH, in botany. See Melia.
AZIMUTH, in aftronomy, an arch of the horizon, in¬
tercepted between the meridian of the place and the
azimuth, or vertical circle palling through the cen¬
tre of the objeft, which is equal to the angje of the
zenith, formed by the meridian and vertical circle; or
it is found by this proportion, as the radius to the
tangent of the latitude of the place, fo is the tangent
A Z Y
chemiftry, the firft
iry of a metal; me
they call the mercury of
tals, or the mercury of a
that which they call
which they pretend to drawS of
r of the /ley.
A Z O ( 5ii )
of the fun’s or ftar’s altitude, for in/lance, to the co- AZOTH, in ;
line of the azimuth from the fouth, at the time of the
equinox. To find the azimuth by the globe, fee
Geography.
Magnetical Azimuth, an arch of the horizon intercep¬
ted between the azimuth, or vertical circle, paffing AZURE, in a general fenfe, the blue c
through the centre of any heavenly body, and the See Sky and Blue.
This is found by obferving the Azure, amo;
t’adapted to find, in a rally called ultra,
1 by the common fea-com- With greater
jneticai amplitude, or azi- that bright blue colouV prepared from the lapis arme-
muth. See Compass. nus, a different /lone from the lapis lazuli, though
Az 1 mut h-dial) one whofe llyle or gnomen is at right frequently confounded together. This colour is, by
angles to the plane of the horizon. our painters, commonly called Lambert's blue.
Az 1 murh‘Circles, called azimuths, or vertical circles. Azure, in heraldry, the blue colour in the arms of a-
are great circles of the fphere, interfering each o- ny perfon below the rank of a baron. In the efcutche-
ther in the zenith and nadir, and cutting the horizon on of a nobleman, it is czWcA fapphire ■ and in that of
at right angles in all the points thereof. a fovereign prince, Jupiter. In engraving, this co-
AZOGA /hips, are thofe Spani/h /hips     - " ’ '
the quick-Jilver fhips, from their carry
to the Spanilh W. Indies, in order to
■ying quick-filvi
) extraS the fil- AZURIUM, the name of a chemical preparation from
ver out of the mines of Mexico and Peru. Thefe two parts of mercury, one of fulphur, and a fourth of
/hips, ftrialy fpeaking, are not to carry any goods fal ammoniac, mixed in a mortar, put into a glafs vef-
unlefs for the king of Spain’s account. fel, and fet over the fire till a blui/h fmoak arifes, 6c.
AZONI, in ancient mythology, a name- applied by the AZYGOS, in anatomy, a vein riling within the tho-
Greeks to fuch of the gods as were deities at large, rax on the right fide, having no fellow on t
appropriated to the worfhip of any particular town whence it is called azygos, or vena fine pari. See
:ountry; but acknowledged in general by all coun- Anatomy, p. 237.
5, and wor/hipped by every nation. Thefe the La- AZYMITES, in church-hiftory, Chriflians who admi-
called dii communes. Of *his fort were the fun, ni/ler the eucharifl with unleavened bread. This is
rs, Luna, <bc.
AZOPH, in geography. See Aso
AZORES, i/lands in th
and 33° W. long, a
They belong to th<
called the We/lern
. and between 36° and 40° N. lat. mites.
an appellation given by the Latin to the Greek church ;
who alfo call the Armenians and Maronites, who ufe
bread in their office, by the name of Azy~
; weftward of Eu-
AZYMOUS,
00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
B
BAAR, a country of Swabia in Germany, in the prin- Babylon-was alfo an ancient city of Egypt,
cipality of Fur/lenberg, near the fource of the to have flood where Grand Cairo does at pn
cipality of Fur/lenberg, near the fourt
Danube and the Necker.
BABELMANDEL, a little i/land at the entr;
the Red-fea, from the Indian ocean ; from win
/Iraits of Babelmandel take their name.
BABOON, in zoology, a/ynonime of the fimia
See Si mi
1 zoology, a fynonime of a fpecies
,- ih Spain, fituated £
BABYROUSSA, i
of of fus.. See Sus.
he BACA, a town of Gra
48. miles north-ea/l of the city of Granada, in 3° W.
long, and 37° 3.0'N. lat.
BACALIAU, or Barcalxao* See Barcallao
BABYLON, a celebrated city of antiquity, fuppofedto BACCA, berry, in botany, is ufed to ficnify fuch fruits
have been fituated on the river Euphrates, though not as confi/l of a pericarpium full of juice and* feed
on its prefent channel," in 44° E. long. and.32° N. lat. without any valves. ^ J
But of this once fo flouri/hing a city, there are now BACCARAT, a town of I
no remains; nor is even the place where it Ztood cer- tween Nanci and EftivaL
tamly known, BACA
BAG (512
BAGCASERA!,= the capital city of Critn-Tartary, fi-
tuated about So miles weft of the ftraits of Kaffa, in
7,$° E. long, and 450 15' N. lat.
BACCEM, or Baciaim, a feaporttown of Cambay a,"
in the Hither Peninfula of India. It belongs to the
Portuguefe, and is fuuated in 730 E. long, and 19°
20' N. lat.
BACCHtE, in antiquity, prieftefles of the god Bacchus.
They were likewife called tjuenades, on account of
the frantic ceremonies ufed in their feafts ; as alfo thy-
ades, which fignifies impetuous or furious. They ce¬
lebrated the orgies of their god covered with fkins
of tigers and panthers, and running all the night,
fome with their hair loofe, with torches in their hands,
others crowned with vine and ivy leaves, carrying a
thyrfus or rod, turned about with ivy, in their hand.
Along with them went cymbal-players and drummers,
while they themfelves, feized with enthufiaftn, made
hideous lamentations.
BACCHANALIA, feafts celebrated in honour of Bac¬
chus by the ancient Greeks and Romans; of which
the two moft remarkable were called the greater
and leffer. The latter, called leneea, from a word
fjgnifying a nuine-prefs, were a preparation for the
for the former, and were held in the open fields about
autumn ; but the greater, called DionyJja, from one
of the names of Bacchus, were celebrated in the city,
• about the fpring-time. Both thefe feafts were accom¬
panied with games, fpedlacles, and theatrical repre-
ientations; and it was at this time the poets contend¬
ed for the prize of poetry. Thofe who were initiated
into the celebration of the feafts, reprefented, fome
Silenus, others Pan, others fatyrs; and in this man¬
ner appeared in public night and day, counterfeit¬
ing drunkennefs, dancing obfcenely, committing all
kinds of licentioufnefs and debauchery, and running
over the mountains and forefts, with horrible fhrieks
and bowlings, crying out, lo Bacche. Livy informs
us, that during the Bacchanalian feafts at Rome, fuch
{hocking diforders were praftifed under the cover of
the night, and thofe who were initiated were bound to
conceal them with an oath, attended with horrid im¬
precations, that the fenate fuppreffed them firft in Rome,
and afterwards throughout all Italy.
BACCHARAC, or Bacherac. See BACHERAC.
BACCHARIS, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia
polygamia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle is naked,
and the pappus briftly ; the calix is imbricated and cy¬
lindrical; the hermaphrodite flofcules are jntermixed
with the female ones. The fpecies are feven, all na¬
tives of warm climates.
BACCHIUS, in ancient poetry, a kind of foot compo-
fed of a ftiort fyllable, and two long ones, as the word
[Avan]. It takes its name from the god Bacchus,
becaufe it frequently entered into the hymns compofed
in his honour. The Romans called it Irkewife a:no-
trius, tripodius, faltans.
BACHARIS, in botany. See Baccharis.
BACHELOR. See Batchelor. ,
BACHERAC, a town of the Palatinate of the Rhine,-
fituated on the weftern fhore of that river, in 70 E.lon.
) BAD
and jop N. lat. It is remarkable for excellent wine*
from thence called Bacherac.
BACHIAN, one of the Molucca iflands, fituated under
the equator, in 125° E. long. It belongs to the
Dutch.
BACHU, a fea-port town of the province of Chirwan,
or Shirvan, in Perfia. It is fituated on the weftern
ftiore of the Cafpian fea, in 49° E. long, and 40°
N. lat.
BACK, in anatomy. See Back-Wm.
Back, in the menage. To back a horfe, or mount a
horfe a dos, in French, is to mount him bare-backed,
or without a faddle.
BacVL-bone9 or Spine. See Anatomy, p. 166, 167.
ftkcn-gammon, an ingenious game played with dice and
tables, to be learned only by obfervation and prac¬
tice.
'Back, painting. See Painting.
V>AcvL-Jiajf, in the fea-language. See Navigation.
BACYL-Jlays. See Stays.
B&cvi-tack, in Scots law: When a wadfetter, inftead
of polfeffing the wadfet-lands, grants a tack thereof to
the reverfor for payment of a certain fum in name of
tack-duty, that tack is called a back-tack. See Scots
Law, tit. Redeemable rights.
Back-w<5/t«, in falconry. See Filanders.
BACULE, in fortification, a kind of portcullis, or gate,
made like a pit-fall with a counterpoife, and fupport-
ed by two great (takes. It is ufually made before the
corpade-guard, not far from the gate of a place.
BACULOMETRY, the art of meafuring acceffible or
inacceflible heights, by the help of one or more baculi,
ftaves, or rods. See Geometry.
BACULUS dtvinatorius. See Virgula Divina.
BADAJOX, a large fortified town of Spanifti Eftrema-
dura, lituated on the river Guadiana, in 70 20 W.
long, and 38° 45' N. lat.
BADALONj a town of Catalonia, in Spain, fituated
on the Mediterranean, about ten miles eaft of Barce¬
lona, in 2° 1 5^ E. long, and 410 15' N. lat.
BADEN, the name of feyeral towns : 1. Of one about
20 miles north of Strafbourg, capital of the margra-
viate of the fame name, and remarkable for its hot
baths. 2. Of another town of Swabia, in the Brif-
gow; where are likewife feveral hot baths. 3. Of
one in Switzerland, about 14 miles north-weft of Zu¬
rich. 4. Of one in the circle of Auftria, about 15
miles fouth of Vienna. •
BADENOCH, an inland coprttry of Invernefsrtiire in
Scotland, lying between Aberdeenfliire and Lochaber.
BADENWEILLER, a town of Germany, in the Brif-
gow, near the Rhine.
BADGER, in zoology, the Englifli name of a fpecies
of Urftis. SeeUasus.
Badger, in old law-books, ohfe that was licenfed to buy
corn in one place, and carry it to anOtfier to fell,
without incurring" the puniftiment1 of an engrofler.
BADIANE, or Bandian, the feed of a tree which
grows in China, and fmells like anife-feed. The Chi-
nefe, and the Dutch in imitation of them, fometimes
ufethe badiane to give their tea an aromatic tafte.
BADIS,
BAG (5
BADIS, afortrefsof Livonia, fubjeft to Ruflia, and fi-
tuated 20 miles, weft of Revel, in 230 E. long, and
590 15' N. lat.
BALTUS, in ichthyology. See Cottus.
BiETYLIA, anointed ftones, worfhipped by the Phoe¬
nicians, by the Greeks before the time of Cecrops,
and by other barbarous nations. They were commonly
of a black colour, and confecrated to. fome god, as
Saturn, Jupiter, the Sun, fee.
BjEZA, a large city of Andalufia in Spain, fituated on
the river Guadalquivir, in 30 15' W. long, and 370
40' N. lat.
BAFFETAS, or Bastas, a cloth made of coarfe white
cotton-thread, which comes from the Eaft Indies.
That of Surat is the beft.
BAFFIN’/ Bay, a gulph of North America, running
north-eaft from Cape Farewell in Weft Greenland,
from 6o° N. lat. to 8o°.
BAG, in commerce, a term fignifying a certain quantity
of fome particular commodity; as a bag of almonds,
for inftance, is about three hundred weight; of anife-
feeds, from three to four hundred, fee.
Bags are ufed in moft countries to put feveral forts
of coin in, either of gold, filver, brafs, or copper.
Bankers, and others, who deal much in current calh,
label their bags of money, by tying a ticket or note
at the mouth of the bag, fignifying the coin therein
contained, the fum total, its weight, and of whom it
was received. Tare is allowed for the bag. See
Tare and Tret.
Bag, among farriers, is when, in order to retrieve a
horfe’s loft appetite, they put in an ounce of afa-foe-
tida, and as much powder of favin, into a bag, to be
tied to the bit, keeping him bridled for two hours, fe¬
veral times a-day; as foon as the bag is taken off, he
will fall to eating. The fame bag will ferve a long
time.
BAGDAT, a ftrong town of Turky, on the frontiers
of Perfia, fituated on the river Tigris, in the province
of Iracaarabic; it was formerly capital of the Saracen
empire, and lies in 43° E. long, and 330 20 N. lat.
BAGGAGE, in military affairs, denotes the cloaths,
tents, utenfils of divers forts, provifions, and other
neceffaries belonging to the army.
Before a march, the waggons with the baggage are
marfhalled according to the rank which the feveral re¬
giments bear in the army; being fometimes ordered to
follow the refpeftive columns of the army, fometimes
to follow the artillery, and fometimes to form a co¬
lumn by themfelves. The general’s baggage marches
fi/ft; and each waggon has a flag, ftiewing the regi¬
ment to which it belongs.
BAGNAG AR, the capital of Golconda, in the Hither
Peninfula of India, formerly the refidence of the kings
of Golconda, now fubjedt to the mogul; in 770
E. long, and 160 30' N. lat.
BAGNIALUCK, a large city of Bofnia in European
Turky, fituated in i8°I5' E. long, and 440 N. lat.
BAGNIO,'an Italian word, fignifying a bath : We ufe
it for a houfe with conveniencies for bathing, cupping,
fweating, and otherwife cleanfing the body; and fome-
Vx>l. I. Numb. 22. 3
:g ) B A I
times for worfe purpofes. In Turky, it is become a
general name for the prifons where the Haves are
inclofed, it being ufual in thefe prifons to have
baths
BAGNOLIANS, in church-hiftory, a feft of heretics,
who in reality were Manichees, though they fomewhat
difguifed their errors. They reje&ed the Old Tefta-
ment, and part of the New, held the world to be eter¬
nal, and affirmed that God did not create the foul
when he infufed if into the body.
BAGPIPE, a mufical inftrument of the wind kind*
chiefly ufed in country-places, efpecially in the North.
It confifts of two principal parts; the firft a leathern
bag, which blows up like a foot-ball, by means of a
port-vent, or little tube, fitted to it, and flopped by
a valve : the other part confifts of three pipes or flutes;
the full called the great pipe, or drone; the fecond,
the little one; which pafs the wind out only at the
bottom; the third has a reed, and is played on by
compreffing the bag under the arm, when full, and
opening or flopping the holes, which are eight, with
the fingers. The little pipe is ordinarily a foot long ;
that played on, 13 inches; and the port-vent, fix.
BAGRE, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of filurus. See Silurus.
BAGUETTE, in architedture, a fmall round mould¬
ing, lefs than an aftragal, and fo called from the re-
femblance it bears to a ring.
BAHAMA, or Lucaya Islands, a number of iflands
lying in the Atlantic Ocean, between 210 and 27° N.
lat. and between 730 and 8x° W. long.
Thefe iflands, whereof twelve are of a confiderable .
extent, take their name from Bahama, one of th$
largeft of them, lying between 78° and 81° W. long,
and between 26® and 27® N. lat,
BAHAR, or Barre, in commerce, weights ufed in
feveral places in the Eaft Indies.
There are two of thefe weights, one the great ba-
har, with which they weigh pepper, cloves, nutmegs,
ginger, fee, and contains five hundred and fifty
pounds of Portugal, or about five huudred and twenty-
four pounds nine Ounces avoirdupois weight. With
the little bahar, they weigh quickfilver, vermilion,
ivory, filk, fee. It contains about four hundred and
thirty-feven pounds nine ounces avoirdupois weight.
BACHAREN, an ifland in the Perfian gulf, in yo° E.
long, and 26° N. lat.
BAHIR, a Hebrew term fignifying famous or illuftrii
ous ; but particularly ufed for a book of the Jews,
treating of the profound myfteries of the cabbala, be¬
ing the moft ancient of the rabbinical works.
BAHUS, a city of Sweden, capital of a province of the
fame name, and fituated about 20 miles north-weft
ot Gottenburgh, in ii° E. long, and y8° 2Q/ N. lat.
BAJA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and
province of Lavoro, fituated in 14® 40' E. long, and
41° 6/ N. lat.
BAJADOR, a cape on the weft coaft of Africa, in 15°
W. long, and 27° N. lat.
BAIL, in Scots law : When a prifoner is fet at liberty
upon fome perfon’s becoming furety for his appearance
6 0 to
B A I (514
to {land trial under a penalty, he is faid to be admitted
to bail. See Scots Law, tit. Crimes.
Clerk of the Bails, is an officer belonging to the
court of the King’s Bench : he files the bail-pieces
taken in that court, and attends for that purpofe.
BAIL, or Bale, in the fea-language. The feamen
call throwing the water by hand, out of the ffiip or
boat’s-hold, bailing. They alfo call thofe hoops that
bear up the tilt of a boat, its bails.
BAILIAGE, or Bailiwick. See Bailiwick.
Water Bailiage, an ancient duty paid to the city of
London, for all goods brought into, or carried out
of, the port.
BAILIE, in Scots law, a judge anciently appointed by
the king over fuch lands not eredted into a regality as
happened to fall to the crown by forfeiture or other-
wife, now aboliffied. It is alfo the name of a magi-
ftrate in royal boroughs, and of the judge appointed
by a baron over lands eredted into a barony. See
Scots Law, tit. Inferior judges, &c.
BAILIFF, an officer appointed for the adminiftration of
ji'ftice withing a certain diftridt, called a bailiwick.
BAiLiFFs-err^zz/, fuch as are appointed by the ffieriff,
to go up and down the country, to ferve writs and
warrants, fummon country-courts, feffions, affizes, and
the like.
Bailiffs of franchifes, thofe appointed by every lord
within his liberty to do fuch offices therein as the
bailiff-errant does at large in the country.
There are alfo bailiffs of forefts, and bailiffs of ma¬
nors, who diredt hufbandry, fell trees, gather rents,
pay quit-rents,
Water-BAitivv, an officer appointed in all port-towns,
for the fearching of ffiips, gathering the toll for ancho¬
rage, ire. and arrefting perfons for debt, &c. on the
water.
BAILIWICK, that liberty which is exempted from the
ffieriff of the county; over which liberty the lord
thereof appoints his own bailiff, with the like power
within his precindt, as an under-ffieriff exercifes under
the ffieriff of the county: Or it fignifies the precindt
of a bailiff, or the place within which his jurifdidtion
is terminated.
BAILO, thus they ftyle at Conftantinople the -ambaffa-
dor of the republic of Venice, who refides at the
Porte. This minifter, befides his political charge, adts
there the part of a conful of Venice.
BAIOCAO, a copper-coin, current at Rome, and
throughout the whole date of the church, ten of
which make a julio, and an hundred a Roman crown.
BAIRAM, in the Mahometan cuftoms, a yearly feftival
of the Turks, which they keep after the fall of Ra¬
mazan.
The Mahometans have two bairams, the great and
the little. The little bairam holds for three days,
and is feventy days after the firft, which follows im¬
mediately the ramazan. During the bairam, the peo¬
ple leave their work for three days, make prefents to
one another, and fpend the time with great manifefta-
tions of joy . If the day after ramazan ffiould be fo
cloudy as to prevent the fight of the new moon, the
) B A L
bairam is put off to the next day, when it is kept, e-
ven if the moon ffiould ftill be obfeured; when they
celebrate this feaft, after numerous ceremonies, or ra¬
ther ftrange mimickries, in their mofque, it is conclu¬
ded with a folemn prayer againft the infidels, to ex¬
tirpate Chriftian princes, or to arm them againft one
another, that they may have an opportunity to extend
the borders of their law.
BAIT, in fiffiing. See Fishing.
BAITING, in falconry, is when a hawk flutters with her
wings, either from perch or fift, as if it were driving
to get away.
BAJULUS, an ancient officer in the court of the Grc k
emperors There were feveral degrees ot bajuli, as
the grand bajulus, who was preceptor to the emperor;
and the Ample bajuli, who were fub-preceptors.
BAKAL, a great lake in the middle of Siberia, on the
road from Mufcovy to China.
BAKER, a perfon whofe occupation or bufinefs it is to
bake bread. See Baking.
BAKEWELL, a large market town of Derbyffiire, about
150 miles from London. It is a good market for lead.
BAKING, the art of preparing bread, or reducing meals
of any kind, whether Ample or compound, into bread.
The various forms of baking among us may be re¬
duced into two, the one for leavened, the other for
unleavened bread; for the firft, the chief is manchet-
baking, the procefs whereof is as follows.
The meal, ground and boulted, is put into a trough,
and to every buffiel are poured in about three pints of
warm ale, with barm and fait to feafon it: this is
kneaded well together with the hands through the
brake ; or for want thereof, with the feet, through a
cloth ; after which, having lain an hour to fwell, it is
moulded into manchets, which fcorched in the middle,
and pricked at top, to give room to rile, are baked in
the oven by a gentle fire.
For the fecond, fometimes called cheat-bread ba¬
king, it is thus : fome leaven (faved from a former
batch) filled with fait, laid up to four, and at length
diffolved in water, is ftrained through a cloth into a
hole made in the middle of the heap of meal in the
trough; then it is worked with fome of the flour into
a moderate confiftence; this is covered up with meal,
where it lies all night and in the morning the whole
heap is ftirred up, and mixed with a little warm wa¬
ter, barm, and fait, by which it is feafoned, foftened,
and brought to an even leaven: it is then kneaded,
moulded, and baked, as before.
Baking of porcelain. See Porcelain.
B ALA, in geography, a market-town of Marionethffiire,
about 16 miles fouth from Denbigh, in 30 40' W. long,
and 520 55' N. lat.
BALAsNA, or whale, in zoology, a genus of the mam¬
malia clafs, belonging to the order of cete. The cha-
radters of this genus are thefe : The balaena, in place
of teeth, has a horny plate in the upper jaw, and a
double fiftula or pipe for throwing out water. The
fpecies are four; viL 1. The myftieetus, which has
many turnings and windings in its noftrils, and has no
fin on the back. This is the largeft of all animals ; it is
often
B A L ( 5^5 ) B A L
often 100 feet long: the head is very large in propor¬
tion to the body; and the lower jaw is much wider
than the upper one : the ears are fituated below the
eyes. In the belly, it has two dugs a little before the
vulva ; there are two large fins on the brealt; and the
tail is forked. The myfticetus contains fuch a large
quantity of fat, that a (hip is often loaded with the
blubber obtained from a fingle filh. It is a native of
the Greenland Ocean. It feeds chiefly upon the me-
dufa, a fmall fea-infeft. See Medusa. The fub-
ftance called whale-bone is got from the upper lip, and
towards the throat of this and all the other fpecies-of
whales. See Plate LI. fig. 1. For the manner of taking
whales, fee Whale-fishery. 2. The phyfalus, has
a double pipe in the middle of the head, and a thick
fat fin oh the lower part of the back, befides the two
fins on the bread ; it has no teeth ; and the belly is
fmooth. The phyfalus inhabits the European and
American oceans: it feeds upon herrings and other
fmall fifh. 3. The boops has a double pipe in its
fnout, three fins like the former, and a hard horny
ridge on its back. The belly is full of longitudinal
folds or rugse. It frequents the northern ocean. 4.
The mufculus has a double pipe in its front, and
three fins; the under jaw is much wider than the up¬
per one. It frequents the Scotch coafts, and feeds
upon herrings —Linnaeus makes the phyfeter and del-
phinus, which are ranked among the whales by fome
writers, two diftinft genera. See Physeter and
Delphinus
BALAGNA, a town of Mufcovy, in the province of
Novogorod, fituated on the river Wolga, in 450 E.
long, and 56° 30' N. lat.
BALAMBUAN, a fea-port town of the ifle of Java, in
Afi.a, which gives name to the channel called the
Streigbts of Balamhuan.
BALAM-PULLI, in botany. SeeTamarindus.
BALANCE, or Balance See Ballance.
BALANGIAR, the capital city of Tartary, north of
the Cafpian fea.
BALANUS, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
lepas. SccLepas.
Balanus, in anatomy, a term fometimes ufed for the
glans penis, as well as for the clitoris.
Balanus, in pharmacy, denotes a fuppofitory. See
Suppository.
BALASS. or Ballas, the name of a kind of ruby.
See Ruby.
BALAUSTIA, in botany. See Punica.
BALBASTRO, a city of Arragon, in Spain, fituated
upon the river Sinca, fifty miles north-eafi: of Sara-
gofia.
BALBEC, a town of AfiaticTurky, fituated at the foot
of mount Libanus, in 370 30' E. long, and 330 N. lat.
BALCHA, a city of UIbbec Tartary, fituated on the
frontiers of Perfia, in 65° 20' E.long. and 370 N. lat.
BALCONY, in architecture, a projedture in the front of
a houfe, or other building, fupported b' pillars or
confoles, and encompafled with a baluftrade.
BALDACHIN, or Baldaquin, in architecture, a build-
L in2 in form of a canopy, lupported by pillars, and fre¬
quently ufed as a covering to infulated altars. Some
alfo ufe the ternt baldachin for the fhell over a door.
BALDIVIA, or Valdivia, a fea-port town of Chili,
in South America, fituated on the South Sea, in 80®
W. long, and 40° S. lat.
BALDNESS, a defect of hair, owing to the want of a
fufficient fupply of nutricious juice.
BALDOC, a market-town in Hertfordfliire, about 38
miles north of London, in 15' W. long, and 51° 55'
N. lat.
BALE, in commerce: Any goods packed up in cloth, and
corded round very tight, in order to keep them from
breaking, or preferve them from the weather, is called
a bale.
A bale of cotton yarn is from three to four hundred
weight; of raw filk, is from one to four hundred ; of
lockram or dowlafs, either three, three and a half, or
four pieces.
Bale-goods, among the Englifh merchants, are all
fuch as are imported or exported in bales; but the
French give that name to certain hard-wares, and
other fort of merchandize, which come to Paris, and
are commonly made by bad workmen, of indifferent
materials.
BALI, an ifland in the Eaft Indies, fituated in 1 i4<i E.
long, and 70 S. lat. This ifland, and the eaft
- end of the ifland of Java, form a flreight about a mile
over, of extremely difficult paflage.
BALISORE, a fmall fea-port of the Hither India, fitu¬
ated on the north-weft part of the bay of Bengal,
in 85° 1 f E. long, and 210 30' N. lat
BALISTA, orBALLisxA. SeeBALLisrA.
BALISTES, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties belong¬
ing to the order of amphibia names. The characters
are thefe: The head is flat; there are eight teeth in
each fide, and the two anterior ones are longeft ; in
the place of gills, the baliftes has an aperture imme¬
diately above the peCtoral fins; the body is flat, the
fcales are joined together by the fkin, and the belly is
keeled. The fpecies of this genus are eight; viz. the
baliftes monoceros, whofe head-fin confifts of but one
ray, and the tail rays are carinated. It is called the
Unicorn-fijh by Caiefby, and is found in the Afiatic
and American feas. 2. The hifpidus, whofe head-fia
is uniradiated ; and there is a round black fpot in the
tail-fin. The body is rough and briftly towards the
tail. The fpine or horn is fituated between the eyes;
the fnout is fubulated; and inftead of a belly-fin, it
has a jagged fharp fpine. This fpecies is a native of
Carolina. 3. The tomentofus, whofe head-fin is bi-
radiated, and the body of it towards the hind-part is
hairy. It is a native of America. 4. The papillofus,
has a biradiated back-fin, and a papillous body. 5.,
The verrucofus, has a triradiated back-fin; and the
tail is full of little warts. In place of a belly-fin this
fpecies has a large, thick, warty ray. It has 25 fmall
reverfed fharp fpines at the fide of the tail, difpofed in
four rows. It is a native of India. 6. The aculeatus has
a triradiated back-fin; and the fpines of the tail lean
upon each other. It is alfo a native of India. 7. The
vetula, has a triradiated back-fin; the belly-fin islongi-
tudinal.
B A L (; 516 ) B A L
tudinal, and fomewhat carinated ; and the tail-fin is
forked. It is found at Afcenfion Ifland. 8. The rin-
geris, has a triradiated back-fin ; there are three folds
on each fide of the head, and the tail-fin is forked.
This fpecies is likewife found at Afcenfion Ifland.
BALIVO amovendo, in law, was a writ for removing a
bailiff from his office, for want of having fufficient
land in his bailiwick to anfwer the king and his peo¬
ple, according to the ftatute of Weftminfter, 2 reg.
Orig. 78.
BALK, among builders, is fometimes ufed for the fum-
mer-beam of a houfe ;'fometimes for the poles and
rafters, which fupport the roofs of barns, fee.; and
fometimes for the beams ufed in making fea-holds.
Balk, in agriculture, denotes a ridge, or bank between
two furrows.
BALKE, or Balk he, a city of Afia, in the Ufbec
Tartary, fituated upon the river Dilhas, in 68° E.lon.
and 36° 40' N. lat.
BALL, in a general fenfe, a fpherical and round body,
whether it be fo naturally, or turned into that figure
by the hand of an artill: Thus we fay, a tennis-ball,
foot-ball, cotton-ball, <bc.
Ball, in the military art, comprehends all forts of bul¬
lets for fire-arms, from the cannon to the piffol. See
Gunnery.
Cannon-balls are of iron; mufquet-balls, piftol-balls,
$v. are of lead. The experiment has been tried of iron
bails for piftols and fufees, but they are jufliy reject¬
ed, not only on account of their lightnefs, which pre¬
vents then from flying ftrait, but becaufe they are apt
to furrow the barrel.
Ball and focket is an inftrument made of brafs, with
a perpetual ferew, fo as to move horizontally, verti¬
cally, and obliquely; and is generally ufed for the ma¬
naging of furveying, and aftronomical inftruments.
Ball of a pendulum, the fame with bob. See Bob,
Ball, among printers. See Printing.
Pj^-Ball, the Engliffi name of the lycoperdon. See
Lycoperdon.
BALLAD, or Ballet, a king of fong, adapted to the
capacity of the lower clafs of people; who, being
mightily taken with this fpecies of poetry, are thereby
not a little influenced in the conduft of their lives.
Hence we find, that feditious and defigning men never
fail to fpread ballads among the people, with a view
to gain them over to their fide.
BALLANCE, or Balance, in mechanics, one of the
fimple powers, which ferves to find out the equality or
difference of weight in heavy bodies. See Mecha¬
nics.
Hydrofiatical HSb.VLKKC'E. See Hydrostatics.
Ballance of trade, in commerce, the equality between
the value of the commodities bought of foreigners, and
the value of the native productions tranfported into o-
ther nations. See Commerce.
Ballance of a clock, or •watch. See Clock and
Watch making.
Ballance fijk. See Squalus.
BALLANGER, in the hiftory of infeCts, a flyle, or ob¬
long body, ending rin a protuberance or head, found
under each wing of the two-winged flies; thefe ferve
to poife the body of the fly.
BALLAST, a quantity of (tones, gravel, or fand, laid
in a (hip’s hold, to make her fink to a certain depth
into the water, and fail upright. The ballad is fome¬
times one quarter, one third, or one half, according
to the difference of the bulk of the (hip. Flat vef-
fels require the mod ballad. Ships are faid to be in
ballad, when they have no other loading. Maders of
vefiels are obliged to declare the quantity of ballad
they bear, and to unload it at certain places. They
are prohibited unloading their ballad in havens, roads,
<bc. the negleCt of which has ruined many excellent
ports.
BALLASTAGE, or Lastage. See Lastage.
BALLERUS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of cyprinus. See Cyprinus.
BALLET. See Ballad.
BALLIAGE, or Bailiage. See Bailiage.
BALLICONNEL, a town of Ireland, about 11 miles
north-ead o( Cavan, 7° 50' W. long. J40 6' N. lat.
BALTIMORE, a town of Leinder in Ireland, fur-
rounded entirely with a marffi.
BALLISHANNON, a large town of the county of
Donnegal, and province ofUlder in Ireland, fituated
about ten miles fouth of the town of Donnegal, in
8° 30' W. long, and 540 2$' N. lat.
BALLlSTA, in antiquity, a military machine ufed by
the ancients in befieging cities, to throw large dones,
darts, and javelins.
It refembled our crofs. bows, though much larger
and fuperior in force.
From this engine, dones of a fize not lefs than
mill-dones, were thrown with fo much violence, as to
da(h whole houfes in pieces at a blow. It is deferibed
thus: A round iron cylinder was fadened between two
planks, from which reached a hollow fquare beam,
placed crofs-wife, and fadened with cords, to which
were added ferews; at one end of this dood the in-
gineer, who put a wooden (haft with a big head into
the cavity of the beam; this done, two men bent tho
engine by drawing fome wheels : When the top of the
head was drawn to the outmod end of the cords, the
(haft was driven out of the ballida, fsc.
BALLISTES, in ichthyology. See Balistes.
BALLOON, or Ballon, in a general fenfe, fignifies
any fpherical hollow body, of whatever matter it be
compofed, or for whatever purpofes it be defigned.
Thus, with chemids, balloon denotes a round (hort-
necked veffel, ufed to receive what is diddled by means
of fire ; in architeriure, a round globe on the top of a
pillar; and among engineers, a kind of bomb made of
pade-board, and played off in fire-works, either in the
air or on the water, in imitation of a real bomb.
Balloon, in the French paper trade, is a term for a
quantity of paper, containing 24 reams. It is alfo
the name of a fort o^ brigantine ufed in the kingcom
of Siam.
Ballon, in geography, a town of France, in the dio-
cefe of Mans, upon the banks of the Orne, jo7 E.lon.;
48° 10' N. lat.
BALLOTA,
B A L . (
BALLOTA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia gym-
, nofpemia clafs. The calix has four teeth ; the iupe-
rior lip of the corolla is concave and crenated. There
are four fpecies, viz. the nigra, or (linking hore-
hound, a native of Britain ; the alba and lanata, both
natives of Europe; and the fuaveolens, a native of A-
merica. '
BALLOTADE, in the menage, the leap of a horfe be¬
tween two pillars, or upon a llraight line, made with
juftnefs of time, with the aid of the hand, and the
calves of the legs; and in fuch a manner, that when
his fore-feet are in the air, he fhews nothing but the
{hoes of his hinder-feet without yerking oUt.
BALLS, or Ballets, in heraldry, a frequent bearing
in coats of arms, ufually denominated according to
their colours, bezants, plates, hurts, <&c. See Be¬
zants.
BALLUSTER, a fmall kind of pillar ufed for ballu-
ftrades. See Architecture.
BALLUSTRADE, a feries or row of ballufters, join¬
ed by a rail; ferving as well for a reft to the elbows,
as for a fence or inclofure to balconies, altars, ftair-
eafes, &c.. See Architecture.
BALM, in botany. See Melissa.
Balm, or Balsam. See Balsam.
BALNEUM, a term ufed by chemifts to fignify a veflel
filled with fome matter, as fand, water, or the like,
in which another is placed that requires a more gentle
heat than the naked fire. Thus balneum arenofum,
called alfo balneum ftccum, and fand-heat, is when
the cucurbit is placed in fand, in afhes, or filings of
fteel. Balneum maria, or marts, is when the veflel,
. containing the ingredients to be diftilled, &c. is put in¬
to a veflel of water; which is made to boil; fo that no
greater heat than that of boiling water can be commu¬
nicated to the fubftance to be treated. And balneum
vaporis, or vaporarium, is, wljen two veflels are dif-
pofed in fuch a mannter, that the vapour, raifed from
the water contained in the lower, heats the matter
contained in the upper.
BALOTADE, or Ballotade. See Ballotade.
B ALOW A', a city of Afia, in the kingdom of De¬
can.
BALSAM, or Native Balsatvi, an oily, refinous, li¬
quid fubftance, flowing either fpontaneoufly, or by
means of incifion, from certain plants. There are a
great variety of balfams, generally denominated from
the fubftances from which they are obtained. See
Chemistry, Of reftris and balfams.
BALSAMICS, in pharmacy, foftening, reftoring, heal¬
ing and cleanfing medicines, of a gentle attenuating
nature.
Balfamics may be ufed, both internally and ex¬
ternally, in all difeafes of the head, nerves, fto-
mach, <bc.
BALSAMINA, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
of impatiens. See Impatiens.
BALSAMITA, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies of
xeranthemum. See Xeranthemum.
BALSARA, in geography, the fame with Baflbra. See
Bassora.
Vol. I. No. 22.
51-7 ) BAN
BALTIC feai that lying between Sweden on the north,
and Germany and Livonia on the fouth.
BALTIMORE, a town of the county of Corke, and
province of Munfter, in Ireland, fituated about five
miles north of Cape Clear, in 90 if W. long, and
Ji° if N. lat.
BALZANE. See Whiteeoot.
BAMBERG, a city of Franconia, in Germany, io° JO,
E. long, and 50° if N. lat.
The biftiop of Bamberg is fovereign of the city and
diftrid round it, for fixty miles in length, and forty
in breadth.
BAMBOE, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies of
arundo. See Arundo.
BAMFF, or Banff, a town of Scotland, which gives
name to a county, lying between Aberdeenlhire and
Murray, aAng the fouthern bank of the river Spey.
The town is fituated at the mouth of the river Do¬
ve rn.
BAMPTON, a market-town of Oxfordfhire, fituated
on the river Ifis, about ten miles fouth-weft of Oxford,
i° 35' W. long, and 510 40' N. lat.
Bampton is alfo the name of a market-town in Devon-
ftiire, twenty miles north of Exeter, in 30 40' W.
long, and 5i°'5/ N. lat.
BAN, or Bann. See Bank.
Ban, in commerce, a fort of fmooth, fine muflin, which
the Englifti import from the E. Indies. The piece
is almoft a yard broad, and runs about twenty yards
and a half.
BANBURY, a large borough-town in Oxfordlhire,
twenty miles north of Oxford, in i° 20 W. long,
and 520 f N. lat.
BANC, or Bench, inlaw, denotes a tribunal, or judge¬
ment-feat : Hence, king’s-banc is the fame with The
court of king’s-bench, and common banc with that of
common pleas. See King’s Bench and Common
Pleas.
BANCA, an ifland of the E. Indies, feparated from the
fouth-eaft part of that of Sumatra by a very narrow
channel, in 1050 E. long, and 30 S. lat.
BANC. ’.LIS, a fea-port town on the eaft coaft of Su¬
matra, in 990 E. long, and 20 N. lat. It is a Dutch
fettlement.
BANCOCK, a city of the kingdom of Siam, in 101°
E. long, and 130 30' N. lat.
BAND, in a general fenfe, fome froall, narrow ligir
ment, wherewith any thing is bound, tied, or faftened.
Band, in architefture, a general name for any flat, low
member, or moulding, that is broad, but not very
deep.
Band tffoldiers, in military affairs, thofe who fight
under the fame flag or enfign.
Trained Bands. See Trained
Band of penfoners are a company of 120 gentlemen,
who receive a yearly allowance of a hundred pounds
for attending on his majefty on folemn occafions.
Band is alfo the denomination of a military order in
Spain, inftituted by Alphonfus XI. king of Caftile,
for the younger fons of the nobility; who, before
their admifiion, muft ferve ten years, at leaft, either
6 P in
3
BAN { 5*8 ) BAN
in the army, or at court; and are bound to take BANGUE, or Bend See Bend.
up arms for the catholic faith againft the infidels. BANIALUCH, or Bagnaluch, a city of European
Band, in furgery, a fillet, fwath, or piece of linen Turky, the capital of Bofnia, upon the frontiers of
cloth, wherewith either to cover or iurround certain Dalmatia,-near the river Setina : E. long. 180 20,
parts that'Hand in need of afitftance ; and is, in this
fenfe, the famei with what is otherwife called a roller.
BANDA, or Lantor, the chief of the Banda illands
in the E. Indies, where nutmegs grew, in 128° E.
long, and 40 3c/ S lat.
BANDAGE, in furgery, a fillet, roller, or fwath, u-
fed in dreffing and binding up wounds, reltraining
dangerous haemorrhages^ and in joining fradiured and
difiocated bones. See Surgery.
BANDALEER, or Bandeleer, in military affairs,
a large leathern belt, thrown over the right ihoulder,
and hanging under the left arm ; worn by the ancient
mufqueteers, both for the fulfaining of their fire-arms,
and for the carriage of their mufquet-charges, which
being put up in little wooden cafes, coated with lea¬
ther, were hung, to the number of twelve, to each
bandeleer.
BANDELET, or Bandlet, in architedfure, any lit¬
tle band, or flat moulding, as that which crowns the
Doric architrave.
BANDER-ABASSI, in geography. See the article
Gombron.
BANDER-CONGO, a fea-port town on the eaftern
fide of the Perfian gulf: E. long. 54° 5c/, and N.
lat. 27°.
BANDERET, a general, or one of the commanders in
chief of the forces.
This appellation is given to the principal command¬
ers of the troops of the canton of Bern in Switzer¬
land, where there are four banderets, who command
all the forces of that canton.
BANDEROLE, a little flag, in form of a guidon, ex¬
tended more in length than breadth, ufed to be hung
out on the mails of veffels, <bc.
BANDITTI, a term peculiarly denoting companies of
highwaymen, common in Italy and France ; butfome-
times alfb- ufed, in a more general fenfe, for robbers,
pirates, out-lawed perfons, ruffians, <fac.
BANDO, the fame with Afmer. See Asmer.
BANDORA, the capital of the ifland of Salfet, or Co-
norin, on the weft coaft of the Hither India : E. long.
720 30', and N. lat. 190.
Bandora is alfo the name of an ancient mufical inflru-
ment, with firings, refembling a lute. See Lute.
BANGLE ears, an imperfedtion in a horfe, remedied
in the following manner. Place his ears in fuch a
manner as you would have them Hand; bind them with
two little boards fo faff that they cannot ftir, and
then clip away all the empty wrinkled fkin clofe by
the head.
BANDY-LEGGED perfuns are fuch wbofe feet are
difforted, turning either inward or outward on either
fide.
B ANGOR, a city of Carnarvonfhire, in North Wales :
W. long. 4° 15', and N. lat, 53® 20 .
It is a biffiop’s fee, and fituated on the fea-fide,. a-
bout 30 miles well.of St Afaph.
N. lat. 44° 20 .
BANIANA, a city of India, upon the road from Surat
to Agra.
BANIANS, a religious fedl in the empire of the Mo¬
gul, who believe a metempfychofis ; and will therefore
eat no living creature, nor kill even noxious animals ;
but endeavour to releafe them, when in the hands of
others.
BANJAR', a river in the ifland of Borneo, in the mouth
of which is a floating ifland, where the Eafl-India
company have a fadlory.
BANILLA, or Vanilla, See Vanilla.
BANISFIMENT, a kind of punifhment, whereby the
guilty perfon is obliged to leave the realm.
BANK, in commerce, a common repofitory, where
many perfons agree to keep their money, to be always
ready at their call or direction; or certain focieties or
communities, who take the charge of other peoples
money, either to improve it, or to keep it fecure.
There are banks of various kinds, and different in
the nature of their conftitutions and eftablifhments;
Some are inffituted wholly on the public account, and
put under the direftion of the magirtrates, as the fa¬
mous bank of Amfterdam, where the money depofited
therein fhall be always kept for the ufe of the proprie¬
tors, and fhall never be let out for profit or advan¬
tage.
Payments made by affignments upon this bank, are
valued from 3 to 6 per cent above the payment of the
money in fpecie, arifing-from an opinion that the pro¬
prietors entertain of the equity of its adminiffration ;
for judging themfelves fecure, that their money lies
always ready at hand, they feldom draw out large
Aims, but make their mutual payments by transferring
the fums from one man’s account to another.
A fecond fort of bank, is fuch as confiffs of a com¬
pany of monied men, who being duly eftabliffied, and
incorporated by the laws of their country, agree to de-
pofite a confiderable fund, or joint ftock, to be em¬
ployed for the ufe of the fociety; as lending money
upon good fecurity, buying and felling bullion, gold
and filver, difcounting bills of exchange, ©c.
A third fort, is the banks of private men, or part-
nerfhips, who deal in the fame way as the former, up¬
on their own fingle flock or credit. There are public
banks eftablifhed in moll of the trading cities of Eu¬
rope, as in Venice, London, Paris, Amfterdam,
Hamburgh, <bc. The bank of Venice is the moft an¬
cient, It is eftablifhed by a folemn edift of the com¬
monwealth, which enadls, That all payments of whoie-
fale merchandife, and letters of exchange, fhall be in
bank-notes ; that all debtors fhall be obliged to carry
their money to the bank, and all creditors receive their
money from the bank ; fo that payments are perform¬
ed by a fimple transfer from the one perfon to the o-
ther. In matters of retail, effective payments are
fometimes made, which do not diminifh, but rather
augment
BAN
augment the flock, by reafon of the liberty of with¬
drawing their money at pleafure, <kfc.
BANKAFALET, a game at cards, which being cut in¬
to as many heaps as there are players, every man lays
as much money on his own card as he pleafes ; and the
dealer wins orloofes as many as his card is fuperior or
inferior to thofe of the other gameflers.
The befl card is the ace of diamonds ; the next to
it, the ace of hearts ; then the ace ot clubs ; and, lalt-
ly, the ace of fpades : And fo of the reft of thefe fuits
in order, according to their degree.
The cheat lies in fecuring an ace, or any other fare
winning card ; which are lomehow marked,- that the
fharper may know them.
BANKER, a perfon who traffics and negociates in mo¬
ney; who receives and remits money from place to
place by commiffion from correfpondents, or by means
of bills or letters of exchange.
BANKlSH, a province of the Mogul’s dominions, in
the north part of the Hither India, lying fouth weft of
the province of Caffimere.
Comraijjiin 0/BANKRUPTCY. See Commission.
BANN, or Ban, in the feudal law, a folemn proclama¬
tion or publication of any thing. Hence the cuftom
of afking, or bans, before marriage. See Mar¬
riage.
Bann, in military affairs, a proclamation made in the
army by beat of drum, found of trumpet, <bc. re¬
quiring the ftridt obfervance of difcipline,- either for
the declaring a new officer, or puniffiing an offender.
Bann of the empire, an imperial profcription, being a
judicial puniffiment, wherewith fuch as are acceflary
to difturbing the public peace are judged unworthy of
the immunities and prote&ion of the empire, and are
out-lawed or baniffied, be..
BANNAGHER, a town of Ireland, in the king’s
county, and province of Leinfter, lituated on the river
Shannon, 8° W. long, and 530 ic/ N. lat.
BANNER denotes either a fquare flag, or the principal
ftandard belonging to a prince.
BANNERET, an ancient order of knights, or feudal
lords, who, poffeffing feveral large fees, led their vaf-
fals to battle under their own flag, when fummoned
thereto by the king.
BANNISTERIA, in botany, a genus of the decandria
trigynia clafs. The calix is divided into 5 parts, with
a nedtarium at the bafe of each ; the petals are round-
iffi and unguiculated ; the capfule contains 3 membra¬
naceous alated feeds The fpecies are 7, all natives
of America.
BANNIMUS, the form of expulfion of any member
from the univerfity of Oxford, by affixing the fen-
tence up in fome public place,, as a denunciation
of it.
BANNOCK, a kind of oat-cake,, baked in the embers,
or on a ftone placed before the. fire : It is,common.in,
the northern parts of this kingdom.
B ANNUM, in law, fignifies the utmoft bounds of a ma*-
nor or town.-
BANQUET, a feaft or entertainment, where people
BAP
regale themfelves with pleafant foods, or fruits, fe
fignifies alfo a little bank, or raifed way.
Banquet, in the menage, that fmall part of the branch'
of a bridle that is under the eye, which being rounded
like a fmall "rod, gathers and joins the extremities of
the bitt to the branch, and that in fuch a manner, that
the banquet is not feen, but covered by the cope, or
that part of the bitt that is next the branch.
Banquet-//«<?, an imaginary line drawn, .in making a
bitt, along the banquet, and prolonged up or down,
to adjuft the defigned force or weaknefs of the branch,
in order to make it ftiff or eafy.
Banquet, or Banquette, in fortification, a little
foot-bank, or elevation of earth, forming a path,
which runs along the infide of a parapet, upon which
the mufqueteers get up, in order to difeover the coun-
terfearp, or to fire on the enemy in the moat, or in
the covert-way.
BANSTICLE. in ichthyology. See Gasterosteus.
BANTAM, the capital of a large kingdom, and a port-
town of great trade, fituated on the north-weft coaft
of the ifland of Java, in 105° E. long, and 6° 3</
S. lat.
Bantam-work, a kind of painted or carved work, re-
fembling that of Japan, only more gaudy.
BANTON, in geography, one of the Philippine iflands.
BANTRY, a town of Ireland, fituated on a bay of the
fame name, in the county of Cork, and province of7
Munfter, in 90 2d W. long, and 510 3c/ N. lat.
BANZA, a city of Africa, , the capital of the kingdom
of Congo.
BAPAUME, a fortified town of the French Nether¬
lands, about 12 miles fouth-eaft of Arras, in 30 E.
long, and jo°io' N. lat.
BAPTISM, in matters of religion, a facrament, by
which a perfon is initiated, into the Chrillian churchy
See Religion.
Baptism, in the fea-lang.uage, aceremony in long voyages-
on board merchant-ffiips, pradtifed both on perfons and
veffels who pafs the tropic or line for the firft time.
The baptizing the veffel is fimple, and confifts only in
wafliing them throughout with fea-water ; that of the
paffengers is more myfterious. The oldeft of the crew,.
that has paft the tropic or line, comes with his face
blacked,, a grotefq.ue cap on his head, and fome fea-
book in his hand, followed by the reft of the fea-men
dreffed like bimfelf, each having fome kitcben-utenfil
in his hand, with, drums beating. He places himfelf
on a feat on the deck, at the foot of the main mail..
At the tribunal of this mock magiftrate, each paflen-
ger not yet initiated, fwears he will take care the
fame ceremony.be obferved,.whenever he is in the like
circumftances : Then by giving a little money by way
of gratification, he is difeharged with a little fprinkiing,
of water, otherwife he is heartily drenched with ftreams
of water poured upon him; and the ffiip-boys are in-,
clofed in. a cage, and ducked at diferetion.
The feamen, on the baptizing a ffiip, pretend to a
right of cutting off the beak-head, unlefs redeemed by
the captain.
( 519 )
bap;
B A R ( 51
BAPTISMAL, fomething belonging to baptifm; thus,
we fay, baptrfmal vonv, fonts, prcfnts. See.
BAPTISTS, in church-hiftory, the name by which the
Anabaptifts love to diftinguilh themfelves. See Ana¬
baptists.
BAPTISTERY, in eccleftaftical writers, a place in which
- the ceremony of baptifm is performed. In the an¬
cient church, it was one of the exedrae, or buildings,
. diftinft from the church itfelf, and confided of a porch
or anti-room, where the perfons to be baptized made
. their confeffion of faith ; and an inner room where the
ceremony of baptifm was performed.
BAR, in a general fenfe, denotes a flender piece of wood,
or iron, for keeping things clofe together.
Bar, in courts of juftice, an inclofure made with a drong
partition of timber, where the council are placed to
plead caufes. It is alfo applied to the benches where
the lawyers or advocates are feated, becaufe anciently
there was a bar to feparate the pleaders from the at¬
torneys and others. Hence our lawyers, who are
called to the bar, or licenfed to plead, are termed ba¬
nders, an appellation equivalent to licentiate in other
countries.
Bar, in law, a plea of a defendant, which is faid to be
fafficient to dedroy the plaintiff’s aftion.
Bar, in heraldry, an ordinary in form of the fefs, but
much lefs.
It differs from the fefs only in its narrownefs; and
in this, that the bar may be placed in any part of the
field, whereas the fefs is confined to a fingle place.
See Plate LI. fig. 4.
Bar-gemel, that is a double bar, called by the French
jumtlles, and by the Latin writers jugarine fafciolte,
and jiijlitid: bijuges, is a diminutive of the fefs. See
Plate LI. fig. 5.
Bar, in the menage, the highed part of that place of a
horfe’s mouth, fituated between the grinders and tufhes ;
fo that the part of the mouth which lies under and
at the fide of the bars, retains the name of the gum.
, A horfe with fenfible bars has a fine light mouth, with
an even and firm appui. See Appui.
TA Bar a vein, in farriery, is an operation perform¬
ed upon the veins of the legs of a horfe and other
parts, with intent to dop the malignant humours. It
is done by opening the fkin above it, difengaging it,
and tying it both above and below, and driking be¬
tween the two ligatures.
Bar, in mufic, adroke drawn perpendicularly acrofs the
. lines of a piece of mufic, including between each two
a certain quantity or meafure of time, which is vari¬
ous as the time of the mufic is either triple or com¬
mon. In common time, between each two bars is in¬
cluded the meafure of four crotchets ; in triple, three.
The principal ufe of bars is to regulate the beating of
time, in a concert. See Time and Measure.
Bar, in hydrograph ', denotes a bank of fand, or other
matter, whereby the mouth of a river is in a manner
choaked up.
The term bar is alfo ufed for the drong beam
wherewith the entrance of an harbour isfecured: This
is more commonly called boom.
o ) BAR
Bar, Barra, in qommerce. See Barra.
Bar, or Bar-le-duc, in geography, a duchy belong¬
ing to France, lying north-wed of Lorrain, on both
fides the river Maefe, whereof Bar-le-duc is the prin¬
cipal town; in 50 15' E. long, and 48° 40' N. lat.
Bar is alfo a town of Podolia, in Poland; fituated in
28° E long, and 48° 20'N. lat
Bar is alfo the name of two towns in France; the one
in Champaign, upon the Aube; and the other in Bur¬
gundy, upon the Seine.
BARABINSKOI, a country of Tartary, tributary to the
Mufcovites.
BAR-MASTER, among miners, the perfon who keeps
the gage, or dilh, for meafuring the ore.
BAR SHOT. See Shot.
BARACKS, or Barracks. See Barracks.
BARACOA, a tpwn on the north-ead part of the ifland
of Cuba in North America, in 76° W. long, and 210
N. lat.
BAR ALIPTON, among logicians, a term denoting the
fird indirud mode of the fird figure of fyllogifm. A
fyllogifm in biralipton, is when the two fird propofi-
tions are general, and the third particular, the middle
term being the fubjeA in the fird propofition, and the
predicate in the fecond.
BAR ALLOTS, in church-hidory, a feft of heretics at
Bologna in Italy, who had all things in common, even
their wives and children.
Thei? facility in complying with all manner of debau¬
chery, made them get the name obedientes, compliers.
BARANCA, a port-town of Terra Firma, in South
America; fituated about 30 miles up the river Grande,
in 7j° 30' W. long, and 110 IN. lat.
BARANGI, officers among the Greeks of the lower em¬
pire. Cujas calls them in Latin proiettores, and others
give them the name offecurigeri. It was their bufi-
nefs to keep the keys of the city-gates, where the em-
pe or refided.
BAR ANWAHR, a town of Lower Hungary, not far
from the Danube, in 20° E. long, and 46° 2d N. lat,
BARAPICKLET, bread made of fine flour, and
kneaded up with barm, which makes it very light and
fpungy. Its form is round, about a hand-breadth.
BARATHRUM, in antiquity, a deep dark pit at Athens,
into which condemned perfons were cad headlong. It
had ftiarp fpikes at the top, that no man might efcape
out, and others at the bottom to pierce and torment
fuch as were cad in.
BARB, orBARBE, in commerce. See Barbe.
BARBA, in botany, a word often ufed in compofition
with fome other, to form the^ trivial names of feveral
plants, as barba jovis, barba copra. See.
BARBACAN, or Barbican, an outer defence, or for¬
tification to a city or cadle, ufed efpecially as a fence
to the city, or walls; alfo, an aperture made in the
wall of a fortrefs, to fire through upon the enemy.
Barbacan is alfo ufed to denote a fort at the entrance
of a bridge, or the outlet of a city, having a double
wall with towers.
BARB ALIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermia. The calix confids of four divifions ; the
1 capfuls
capfule is quadrangular, with two da/lic valves, and
two feeds. There are fix fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
Barbacan, in architefture, a canal, or opening left in
the wall, for water to come in and go out, when build¬
ings are eredted in places liable to be overflowed, or to
drain off the water from a terras, or the like.
BARBADOES, one of the Britilh Caribbee Blands, ly¬
ing eaftward of all the relt, in 590 30'W. long, and
130 N. lat. being only 25 miles in length, and about
15 in breadth.
Barbadoes-tar, a mineral fluid of the nature of the
thicker fluid bituinens, of a naufeous, bittcrilh tafte,
very llrong and difagreeable fmell, found in many
parts of America trickling down the fides of the
mountains, and fometimes floating on the furface of
the Waters. It has Keen greatly recommended in
coughs, and other diforders of the breaft and lungs,
BARBANCON, a principality of Hainault.
BARBARA, among logicians, the lirft mode of the
firft figure of fyllogifms.
A fyllogifm in barbara, is one whereof all the pro-
pofitions are univerfal and affirmative; the middle
term being the fubjedt of the firft propofition, and at¬
tribute in the fecond. For example.
Bar. Every wicked man is miferable;
Ba. All tyrants are wicked men ;
Ra. Therefore alljtyrants are miferable.
BARBARIAN, a name given by the ancient Greeks and
Romans to all who were not of their own country,
or were not initiated in their language, manners, and
cuftoms.
In this fenfe the word fignified with them no more
than foreigner; not fignifying, as among us, a wild,
rude, or unciviliaid perfon.
BARBARISM, in a general fenfe, a rudenefs of lan¬
guage or behaviour.
Barbarism, in grammar, an offence againft the purity
of ftyle or language; or an ungrammatical way of
fpeaking or writing, or contrary to the true idiom of
any particular language.
BARBARY, a large tradt of Africa, extending along
the Mediterranean, from 20 W. long, to 30° E. long,
that is, from the river Mulvia, which feparates it from
Morocco, to Egypt.
It comprehends the countries of Algers, Tunis, Tri¬
poli, and Barca. *-
BARBASOTE, a fea-port of Africa in the kingdom of
Fez, at a little diftance from Ceuta. See Ceuta.
BARBE, in commerce, a barbary horfe, greatly efteemed
for its beauty, ftrength, and fwiftnefs. Barbes are
commonly of a Him lhape, and have very thin legs;
they retain their vigour to the laft, and are therefore
much prized fbr ftallions. They are ufed both for the
faddle and the coach.
Barbe, in themilitaryart: To fire in barbe, means to fire
the cannon over the parapet, inftead of firing through
the embraffures; in which cafe the parapet muft not
be above three feet and a half high.
Barbe, or Ba.rde, is an old word, denoting the ar-
. mour of the horfes of the ancient knights and foldiers,
Vol. I. No. 22. 3
) R A R
who were accoutred at all points. It-is faid to be ati
armour of iron and leather, wherewith the neck, breaft,
and ffioulders of the horfe were Covered.
BARBED, in a general fenfe, bearded like a fiffi-book,
fet with barbs; alfo fhaved or trimmed.
Barbed, and crested, in heraldry, an appellation given
to the combs and gills of a cock, when particularized
for being of a different timffure from the body.
A barbed crofs, is a crofs, the extremities whereof
are like the barbed irons ufed for ftriking of fifli. See
Plate LI. fig. 6.
BARBELICOTAE, in church hiftory, a fed! of gnoftics,
who affirmed that an immortal Eon had commerce with
a virgin called Barbelath, to whom he granted fuc-
ceflively the gift of prophecy, incorruptibility, and eter¬
nal life.
BARBER, one who makes a trade of (having or trim¬
ming the beards of other men for money.
BARBERINO, a town of Tufcany in Italy, fituated
upon the river Siera, in 11° E. long. and440 j7 N. lat.
BARBERRY, in botany. SccBerberis.
BARBICAN, or Barbacan. See Barbacan.
BARBLE, or Barbel. See Barbel.
BARBLES, or Barbs, in farriery, the knots or fuper-
fluous fleffi, that grow, up in the channels of a horfe’s
mouth ; that is, in the intervalsnhat feparate the bars.,
and lie under the tongue.
BARBOTINE, a feed called femen fantonicum, & fe-
men contra vermes; in Englilh, worm feed. See
Worm-seed.
BARBORA, a maritime city of Africa, in the kingdom
of Adel, upon the ftreights of Babelmandel.
BARBUDA, one of the Britiffi Caribbee Iflands, about
20 miles long, and 12 broad, in 6i° W. long, and
180 N. lat.
BARBUS, in ichthyology. See Cyprinus.
BARBUSINSKOI, a city of Afia, in the Ruffian em¬
pire, fituated upon the eaftern bank of the lake Baikal.
BARBY, a town of Upper Saxony, in Germany, upon
the Elbe.
BARBYLA, in botany. See Prunus.
BARCA, a country lying on the Mediterranean, be¬
tween Tripoli and Egypt; a barren defart for the
moft part.
BARCALON, an apellation given to the prime minifter
of the king of Siam. The barcalon has in his depart¬
ment every thing relating to commerce, both at home
and abroad. He is likewife fuperintendant of the
king’s magazines.
BARCELONA, the chief city of Catalonia, in Spain.
It is fituated in a large plain along the fhore of the
Mediterranean ; being divided into the new and old
town, feparated from $aeh other by a wall and ditch :
2° E. long, and 410 20'N. lat,
BARCELONETA, a town of Piedmont, nour fubjeft
to France: 6° 40' E, long, and 440 35' N. lat,
BARCELGR, or Basselor, a port-toum on the coaft
of Malabar, in 74° ij7 E. long, and 13 0 3c/ N. lat.
BARCELOS, a town of the province ot Entre-Minho-
Duro, in Portugal, about 30 miles north of Porto, in
90 15' W. long, and 410 20 N. lat.
6 Q_ BARD,
BAR
BARD, a poet among the ancient Gauls and Britons,
who celebrated the praifes of heroes, with a view to
inculcate virtue, and fometimes to terminate a diffe¬
rence between two armies at the point of engagement.
It is dfputed wherein the bards differed from the
druids : Some pretend that thefe werd the priefts and
philofophers of the nation, and that thofe were only
the poets and hiftorians; but it is more probable that
druid was a general word, comprehending the priefts,
the judges, the inftrudtors of youth, and the bards
or poets.
BARDANA, in botany. See Arctium.
BARDED, in heraldry, the fame with caparifoned.
BARDELLE, in the menage, a faddle made in the
form of a great faddle, but only of cloth fluffed with
ftraw, and tied tight down with packthread, without
either leather, wood, or iron. In Italy they trot their
colts with fuch faddles.
BARDESANISTS, in church-hiftory, Chriftian here¬
tics of the fecond century, who piaintained that the
devil was a felf-exiftent independent being ; that Jefus
Chrift was not born of a woman, but brought his body
with him from heaven ; and denied the refurre&ion of
the body.
BARDEWICK, a town in Lower Saxony in Germany,
about feven miles north of Lunenburg. It is fubjedt
to the eledtor of Hanover, and fituated in io° E.
long, and 530 4c/ N. lat.
BARDS, Bardi. See Bard.
Bards, in the art of cookery, broad flices of bacon,
with which pullets, capons, pigeons, 6'c. are fome¬
times covered, before they are roafted, baked, or other-
wife dreffed.
BARDT, a port-town of Pomerania, in Germany; it is
fubjedt to Sweden, and fituated in 130 20 E. long, and
540 20' N. lat.
BAREITH, a town of Franconia in Germany, in
the margraviate of Culbach; ,in 120 20/ E. long, and
50° N. lat
BARENTON, a town of lower Normandy in France.
BAR-FEE, a fee of twenty pence which every prifoner
acquitted of felony pays to the goaler.
BARFLEUR, a town and cape of Normandy, in France,
about 12 miles eaft ofj Cherburg ; in i° 15' W. and
490 47/. N. lat. »
BARGE, in naval affairs, a boat of ftate and pleafure,
adorned with various ornaments, having bales and tilts,
and feats covered with cufhions and carpets, and
benches for many oars; as the lord-mayor’s barge,
a company’s barge, an admiral’s barge, be. It is al-
fo the name of a flat-bottomed velfel employed for car
rying goods in a navigable river; as thofe upon the
river Thames, called weft-country^ barges.
Barge, in ornithology. See Scolopax.
BARGE-coa/’/er, in architedlure, a beam mortifed into
another, to. ftrengthen the building.
BARGE-caar/k, with bricklayers, a term ufed for that
part of the tiling which projects over without the
principal rafters, in all forts of buildings, where there
is either a gable or a kirkin-head. See Gable and
Head,
BAR
BARGEMONT. a town of Provence in France, in the
diocefe of Frejus.
BARILLIA, a kind of Spanifh pot-afh, ufed in the
glals-trade.
BARING o/'/tisr.r, in agriculture, the taking away fome
of the earth about the roots, that the winter-rain and
fnow-water may penetrate further into the roots. This
is frequently pra&ifed in the autumn.
BARJOLS, a town of Provence in France, in 6°
E. long, and 430 qb' N. lat.
BARIPICNI, or Suoni Baripicni, in mufic, fignify
in general any low, grave, or deep found.
BARK, in the anatomy of plants, the exterior part of
trees, correfponding to the fldn of an animal. See
Agriculture, p 43.
Bark, or Jesuit’s Bark, is a name given by way of
eminence to the quinquina. See Quinquina.
Bark, in navigation, a little veffel with two or three
triangular fails; but, according to Guillet, it is a vef¬
fel with three marts, viz. a main-maft, fore-maft, and
mizen-maft. It carries about two hundred tons.
BARKAN, a town of Hungary, remarkable for two
vidtories which the Chriftians obtained there over the
Turks, the one in 1664, and the other in 1683.
BARKARY, a tan-houfe, or place for keeping bark,
fStiKK-binding, a diftemper incident to trees, cured by
flitting the bark, or cutting along the grain.
Bark-galling, is when the trees are galled with thorns,
be. It is cured by binding clay on the galled places.
BARK-/«;z£Mf, or Barca longa, a fmall low ftiarp-built,
but very long veflel without a deck. It goes with
fails and oars, and is very common in Spain.
BARKHAMSTEAD, a market-town in the weft part
of Hertfordlhire, about eighteen miles weft of Hert¬
ford, in 4' W. long, and 5ip 40' N. lat.
BARKING, a filhing town of Eflex, fituated on the
river Thames, about eight miles eaft of London.
Barking of trees, the peeling off the rind or bark.
This muft be done, in our climate, in the month of
May, becaufe at that time the fap of the tree fepa-
rates the bark from the wood. It would be very diffi¬
cult to perform it at any other time of the year, un-
lefs the feafon was extremely wet and rainy, for heat
and drynefs are a very great hinderance to it.
BARKLEY, a market-town of Gloucefterffiire, about
fifteen miles fouth-weft of Gloucefter, in 20 35^ W. Ion.
and 51° 4c/ N. lat.
BARKWAY, a market-town in Hertfordffiire, under
the meridian of London, and fifteen miles fouth of
Cambridge.
BARLEDUC, the capital of the duchy of Bar. See
Bar.
BARLEMONT, a town of Hainault, in the French
Netherlands, fituated on the river Sambre, about fif¬
teen miles fouth of Mons. m30 40/ E. long, and
50° to7 N. lat.
BARLETTA, a port-town of Barri, in the kingdom of
Naples, fituated on the gulf of Venice, twenty-two
miles weft of Barri, in 17° E. long, and 41° N. lat.
BARLEY, in botany. See Hordeum.
Barley--
( 522 )
BAR (
Barley-w/?, the leaft of our long-meafufes, being the
third of an inch.
BARLOVENTO Ifles, the fame with the Caribbees.
BARM, the fame v/ith yeft. See Test.
BARNABITES, a religious order, founded in the fix-
teenth century by three Italian gentlemen, who had
been advifed by a famous preacher-of thofe days to
read carefully the epiftles of St Paul. Hence they
were called clerks of St Paul, and Barnabites, be-
caufe they performed their firft exereife in a church of
St Barnabas at Milan. Their habit is black, and thf^r
office is to inftruft, cathechjfe, and ferve in’ miffien.
BARNACLE, in ornithology, a fpecies of goofe. See
Anas.
BARNACLES, in farriery, an inftrument compofed of
two branches joined at one end with a hinge, to put
upon horfes nofes when they will not Hand quietly to
be {hod, blooded, or dreffied.
BARNARD-CASTLE, a town of the biffiopric of
Durham, in i° s'W. long, and 540 26», N.lat.
BARNET, a njarket-town of Middlefex (part of it in
Hertfordffiire) ten miles north-weft of London, in ic/
W. long, and 510 42/ N. lat.
BARNSTABLE, a port-town of Devonffiire, fituated
on the river Tan, about thirty miles north of Exeter,
in W. long. 40 io', and 510 42' N. lat. It fends
two members to parliament.
BAROCHE, a port-town of the hither India, in the
province of Cambaya; fituated fixty miles north, of
Surat, in 720 $ E. long, and 22° 1$ N. lat.
BAROCO, in/logic, a term given to nhe fourth mode
of the fecond figure of fyllogifms. A fyllogifm in
baroco has the firft propofition univerfal and affirma¬
tive, but the, fecond and third'particular and negative,
and the middle term is the .predicate in the two firft
propofitions. For example,
Nullus homo non eft bipes r
Non omne animal eft bipes :
Non omne animal eft homo.
BAROMETER, a machine for meafuring the weight
of the atmofphere, and the variations therein, in or¬
der to determine the changes of' the weather. See
Pneumatics.
BARON, a degree of nobility next below a vifcount,
and above a baronet. It is probable that formerly
all thofe were barons who had lordffiips with courts-
baron, and foon after the conqueft all fuch fat in the
houfe of peers ; but they being very numerous,.it grew
an order and cuftom, that none fliould fit. but fuch
as the king thought fit to call up by writ, which ran
pro hac vice tantum. This ftate of nobility being
very precarious, they at length obtained of the king
letters patent; and theft were called barons by patent,
or creation, the only way now in uft of making bar
roqs, unlefs when the fon of a lord, in his anceftor’s
life-time, is fummoned by a writ.
On.folemn occafions, barons wear a coronet, repre-
ftnted in Plate LI. fig, 19.
Baroj^ by tenure, one who held certain territories of the
king, who ftill retained the tenure in chief to himfelf.
Barons of the exchequer, the four judges to whom the
523 ) BAR
adminiftration of juftice is committed, in caufes be-r
tween the king and his fubjefts, relating to matters
concerning the revenue. They were formerly barons
of the realm, but of late are generally perfons learn¬
ed in the laws. Their office is alfo to look into the
accounts of the king, for which reafon they have au¬
ditors under them. See Auditor.
Barons of the cinque-ports are members of the houfe
of commons, eledted by the five ports, two for each
port. See the article Cinque-port/.
Baron Feme, in our law, a term uftd for the
huftiand in, relation to his wife, who is called feme ;
and they are deemed but one perfon; fo that a wife-
cannot be witnefs for or againft her hufband, nor he
for or againft his wife, except in cafes of high treafon.
Baron Feme, in heraldry, is when the coats of
arms of a man and his wife are borne per pale in the
fame efcutcheon, the man’s being always on the dex¬
ter fide, and the woman’s on the finifter; but here the
woman is fuppoftd not an heirefs, for then her coat
muft be borne by the hufband on an efchutpheon of
pretence. See Pale and Escutcheon ;?/'pretence.
Prendre de Baron. See Prendre.
BARONET,, a modern degree of honour, nexp to a ba¬
ron, created by K. James I. im order to propagate
a plantation in Ulfter in Ireland, for which purpoft
each of them was to maintain thirty foldiers in Ireland,
for three years, after the rate of eight pence fterling
per day to each foldier. The honour is hereditary,-
and they have the precedence of all knights, except
thofe of the garter, bannerets, and privy-counfellors.
They areftyled baronets in all writs,, and the addition '
of Sir is attributed to them, as the title of Lady is to
their wives. No honour is be created between barons
and baronets.
BARONY, the honour and territory which gives title
to a baron, whether he be a layman or a biffiop.
BAROSCOPE, the fame with barometer. See Baro¬
meter
BARR, or Bar. See Bar.
BarR-//c*y falfe dice, fo contrived as not; readily to
turn up certain fides.
BARRA, in commerce, a long-meafure uftd in Portu¬
gal and fome parts of Spain, to meafure woolen cloths^
linen cloths, and ferges. There are three forts, the;
barra of Valencia, 13 of which make 12^-yards Eng-
liffi meafure;. the barra of Caftile, 7 of which make.
6| yards; and the barra of Aragon, 3 of which make •
24- yards Engliffi.
BARRACAN,, in commerce, a fort of ft-uff, not dia¬
pered, fomething like camblet, but of a coarftr grain.
It is uftd to make eloaks,. furtouts; and fuch other-
garments, to keep off the rain.
BARRACKS, or Baracks, places for foldiers to lodge
in, efpecially in garrifons.
BARRATOR, inlaw, a common mover of .maintained
of fuits and quarrels, either in courts, or elfewhere in
the country. A man cannot be adjudged a barrator
for bringing any number of fuits in his own right,
though they are vexatious,. Barrators are puniifhed
by fine and imprifonment.
BAR-
BAH
BARRATRY, in law, fignifies the fomenting quarrels
and law-fuits.
Barratry, in a fhip-mafter, is his cheating the own¬
ers. If goods delivered on Ihip-board, are embezzled,
all the mariners ought to contribute to the fatisfaftion
of the party that loll his goods, by the maritime law;
and the caufe is to be tried in the admiralty. In a cafe,
where a Ihip was infitred againft the barratry of the
mailer, <bc. and the jury found that the Ihip was loll
by the fraud and negligence of the mailer, the court
agreed, that the fraud was barratry, though not named
in the covenant; but that negligence was not.
BARREAUXAor/, a fortrefs of Savoy, having Mont-
melian on the north, and Grenoble on the fouth, fitu-
ated in j° 30' E. long, and 450 N. lat.
BARREL, in commerce, a round veffel, extending
more in length than in breadth, made of wood, in
form of a little tun. See Tun.
It ferves for holding feveral forts of merchandize.
Barrel is alfo a meafure of liquids. The Englilh
barrel, wine-meafure, contains the eighth part of a
tun, tbe fourth part of a pipe, and one half of a hogf-
head ; that is to fay, it contains thirty-one gallons
and a half: A barrel, beer-meafure, contains thirty-
lix gallons ; and, ale-meafure, thirty-two gallons.
The barrel of beer, vinegar, or liquor preparing for
vinegar, ought to contain thirty-four gallons, accord¬
ing to the llandard of the ale quart.
Barrel alfo denotes a certain weight of feveral mer¬
chandizes, which differs according to the feveral com¬
modities : A barrel of Effex butter weighs one hun¬
dred and fix pounds ; and of Suffolk butter, two hun-
hundred and fifty-fix pounds. The barrel of herrings
ought to contain thirty two gallons wine meafure,
which amount to about twenty-eight gallons old fland-
ard, containing about a thoufand herrings. The bar¬
rel of falmon mud contain forty-two gallons. The
barrel of eels the fame. The barrel of foap mufl
weigh two hundred and fifty-fix pounds.
Barrel, in mechanics, a term given by watch-makers
to the cylinder about which the fpring is wrapped :
And by gun-fmiths to the cylindrical tube of a gun,
piflol, <bc. through which the ball is difcharged.
Barrel, in anatomy, a pretty large cavity behind the
tympanum of the ear, about four or five lines deep,
and five or fix wide.
Thundering Barrels,' in the military art, are filled
with bombs, grenades, and other fire-works, to be
rolled down a breach,
BARRENNESS, the fame with flerility. See Ste-
rility.-
BARRERA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria pen-
tagynia clafs. The calix has five divifions, and the
petals five, with long filiform claws. There is but
one fpecies, viz. the capenfis, a native of ^Ethiopia.
BARRI, ^ city of the kingdom of Naples, and capital
of a province of the fame name, fituated on the gulf
of Venice, in 17° 40' E. long, and 40° 40' N. lat.
BARRICADE, "a warlike defence, confiding of empty
barrels and fuch like veffels, filled with earth, dones,
carts, trees cut down, againd an enemy’s fhot, or af-
R A R
fault; but generally trees cut with fix faces, which
are eroded with battoons as long as a half-pike, bound
about with iron at the feet.
BARRIER, in fortification, a kind of fence made at a
pafiage, retrenchment, <fac. to dop up the entry there¬
of, and is compofed of great dakes, about four or five
feet high, placed at the didance of eight or ten feet
from one another, with tranfums, or over-thwart
rafters, to dop either horfe or foot, that would enter
or rufii in with violence : In the middle is a moveable
bar of wood, that opens and fhuts at pleafure. A bar¬
rier is commonly fet up in a void fpace, between the
citadel and the town, in half moons, <bc.
Barrier has been alfo ufed to fignify a martial exercife
of armed men, fighting together with fwords, within
rails or bars, which inclofed them.
BARRING a vein, in farriery, an operation performed
upon the veins of a horfe’s legs, and other parts of his
body, with intent to dop the courfe, and lefien the
quantity of the malignant humours that prevail there.
BARRISTER, in common law, a perfon qualified, and
impowered to plead and defend the caufe of clients, in
the courts of judice. They are of two forts, the out¬
ward, or outer-barriders, who, by their long dudy in
and knowledge of the law, which mud be for a term
of feven years at lead, are called to public praftice,
and always plead without the bar.
The inner-barriders are thofe, who, becaufe they
are either attorney, follicitor, ferjeant, or council to
the king, are allowed, out of refpeifl, the privilege of
pleading within the bar. But at the rolls, and fome
other inferior courts, all barriders are admitted with¬
in the bar.
Barriders, in the Englidi laws, amount to the fame
with licentiates and advocates in other countries, and
courts, where the civil, foe. laws obtain.
BARROW, in the falt-works, wicker-cafes, almod in
the fliape of a fugar-loaf, wherein the fait is put to
drain.
BARRULET, in heraldry, the fourth part of the bar,
or the one half of the cloflet : An ulual bearing in
coat-armour.
BARRULY, in heraldry, is when the field is divided
bar-ways, that is acrofs from fide to fide, into feveral
parts. See Plate LI. fig. 7.
BARRY, in heraldry, is when an efcutcheon is divided
bar-ways, that is, acrofs from fide to fide, into an even
number of partitions, confiding of two or more tinc¬
tures, interchangeably difpofed : It is to be exprelfed
in the blazon by the word harry, and the number of
pieces mud be fpecified ; ’ but if the divifions be odd,
the field mud be fird named, and the number of bars
exprefled.
Barry-bendy is when an efcutcheon is divided evenly,
bar and bend-ways, by lines drawn tranfverfe and dia¬
gonal, interchangeably varying the timflures of which
it confids. See Plate LI. fig. 8.
Barry-pily is when a coat is divided by feveral lines
drawn obliquely from fide to fide, where they form
acute angles.
BARTER, or Truck, is the exchanging of one com¬
modity
( 5M )
BAR ( 525 > BAS
modity for another ; in doing of which the price of one
of the commodities, and an equivalent quantity of the
other, muft be found either by practice, or by the rule
of three.
Queji. 1. How many pounds of cotton, at 9 d. per
lb. muft be given in barter for 13 C. 3 0,^X4 lb. of
pepper, at 2 1. 16 s. per C. ?
Firji, Find the price or value of the commodity
whofe quantity is given, as follows.
, C lb. L. s.
13 3 14 at 2 16
2 1. 26
16 s. 10 8
2Q^ x 8
xCL 14
14 lb. 7
L.38 17
Secondly, Find how much cotton, at <)&. per lb.
38 1. 17 s. will purchafe, as under.
d. lb. L. s.
If 9 : I :: 38 17
20
777
12
9)9324( •
  ^
Anf. 1036 lb. — <) 1
If the above queftion be wrought decimally, the
operation may ftand as follows :
C. L. C.
If 1 : 2.8 :: 13.875
2.8
111000
27750
  lb.
.0375)38.8500(1036 =
C. ^
9 x Anf.
37 5 ” *
1350
1125
2250
2250
The value or price of the goods received and deli¬
vered in barter being always equal, it is obvious, that
the produ<5l of the quantities received and delivered,
multiplied into their refpe6tive rates, will be equal.
Hence arifes a rule which may be ufed with advan¬
tage in working feveral queftions ; namely, Multiply
the given quantity and rate of the one commodity, and
the produft divided by the rate of the other commodity
quotes the quantity fought; or divided by the quan¬
tity quotes the rate.
Vol.I. Numb. 22. 3
Quejl. 2. How many yards of linen, at 4s. per
yard, fhould I have in barter for 120 yards of velvet,
at 15 s. 6d. ?
Yds. Sixp. Sixp. Yds.
120 X 31 = 3720, and 8)3720(459 Anf
BARTHOLOMEW, or St Bartholomew, one of
the Caribbee iflands, fituated in 62° 5? W. long, and'
180 6' N. lat.
BARTQN, a market-town in Lincolnfhire, fituated on
the fouthern {bore of the Humber, 30 miles fouth-eaft
of York, in i5r W. long, and 530 40/ N. lat.
Barton is alfo ufed, in the weft of England, for the
demefne lands of a manor ; alfo for the manoj-houfe j
and in fome parts for out-houfes, <bc.
BARTSIA, in botany, a gequs of the didynamia angi-
ofpermia clafs. The calix has two coloured emargi-
nated lobes ; the corolla is lefs than the calix, and the
fuperior lip is longeft ; the capfule has two cells. The
fpecies are 4, of which the vilcofa,' or marfh eye-
bright cow-wheat, and the alpina, or mountain eye-
bright cow-wheat, are natives of Britain.
BARUA, a city of Abyllinia, in Africa, the capital of
the kingdom of Barnagalfa.
BARULES, in church-hiftqry, certain heretics, who
held that the Son of God had only a phantom of a
body; that fouls were created before the world, and
that they lived all at one time.
BARUTH, an Indian meafure, containing feventeen
gantans : It ought to weigh about three pounds and an
half Englifh avoirdupois.
BARYTONUM, in the Italian mufic, the fame with
our bafs. See Bass.
BAS-RELIEF. See Basso-relievo.
BASALTES, in natural hiftory, called alfo coticula,
lapis keraclius, and lapis lydius, a kind of marble, of
a very fine texture, of a deep gloffy black, refembling
that of polifhed fteel, and mixed with no other colour,
nor any extraneous matter. The moft remarkable
quality of this marble Is its figure, being never found
in ftrata, like other marbles, but always ftanding up
in the form of regular angular columns, compofed of a
number of joints, one placed on and nicely fitted to
another, as if formed by the hands of a fkilful work¬
man. It is remarkably hard and heavy, will not ftrike
fire with fteel, and is a fine touch-ftone. See Plate
LI. fig. 20. The bafaltes was originally found in
columns in Ethiopia, in fragments in the river Tmo-
lus, and fome other places ; we now have it frequent¬
ly, both in columns and fmall pieces, in Spain, Ruf-
fia, Poland, near Drefden, and in Silefia ; but the
nobleft ftore in the world feems to be that called the
Giant's caufenuay, in Ireland, where it rifes far up in
the country, runs into the fea, croffes its bottom, and
rifes again on the oppofite land.
BASANUS, or Basanites, names ufed by ancient
writers for the bafaltes.
BASARUCO, in commerce, a fmall bafe coin in the
Eaft Indies, being made only of very bad tin. There
are, however, jtwo forts of this coin, a good and a
bad; the bad is one fixth in value lower than the good.
6 R BASE*
BAS (5:
BASE, in geometry, the lowed fide of the perimeter of
a figure : Thus, the bafe of a triangle may be faid of
any of its fides, but more properly of the lowed, or
that which is parallel to the horizon. In redangled
triangles, the b.afe is properly that fide oppofite to the
right angle.
Base of a /olid figure, the lowed fide, or that on which
it dands.
Base of a conic fettion, a right line in the hyperbola
and parabola, arifing from the common interfedion of
the fecant plane, and the bafe of the cone.
Jltern Base. See Altern.
Base, in architedure, isufed for any body which bears
another, but particularly for the lower part of a co¬
lumn and pededal. See Architecture.
Base, in fortification, the exterior fide of the polygon,
or that imaginary line which is drawn from the flanked
angle of a badion, to the angle oppofite to it.
Base, in gunnery, the leal! fort of ordnance, the dia-
■ meter of whofe bore is i| inch, weight 200 pound,
length 4 feet, load 5 pound, (hot i f pound wt. and
diameter i-|. inch.
Base line, in perfpedive, the common fedion of a pic¬
ture, and the geometrical plane.
Diftintt Base, in optics. See Focus.
Base of the heart, in anatomy, denotes its upper part.
Base, or Bass, in mufic. See Bass.
Basein heraldry. See Point.
BASELLA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria tri-
cegynia clafs.. It has no calix ; the corolla has 6 di-
vifions ; and there is but one feed in the caplule. The
fpeciss are 3, viz., the rubra, alba, and lucida, all
natives of India.
BASEMENT, in architedure, a bafe continued a con-
liderable length, as round a houfe, room, •be. See
Architecture.
BASHAW, a Turkifh governor of a province, city, or
other diflrid.
Bafliaws include beglerbegs, and fometimes fangiac-
begs, though a diflindion is fometimes made, and the
name bajha’w is appropriated to the middle fort, or
fuch as have two enligns or horfe-tails carried before
them. Thofe who have the honour of three tails, are
called beglerbegs; and thofe who have only one, fan-
giacbegs.
The appellation bajhaiu is given by way of cour-
tefy to almoft every perfon of any figure at the grand
fignior’s court.
BASIENTO, a river of the kingdom of Naples, which
rifes near Potenza in the Bafilicate, waters that pro¬
vince, and runs into the gulf of Tarento„
BASIGLOSSUS, or Basioglossus. See Basio-
GLOSSUM,
B ASIE, in geography, a city and canton of Switzer¬
land, near the confines of Alface, fituated-on both fides
the river Rhine,
The city is large, populous, and fortified ; being
fituated in 70 4c/ E. long, and 47° 4c/ N. lat.
Basil, imbotany. See Ocymum.
Basil, among joiners, the doping edge of a duffel, or
of the iron, of a plane, to work, on foft wood : They
6 ) BAS
ufually make the bafil 12 degrees, and for hard wood
18 ; it being remarked-, that the more acute the bafil
is, the better the inftrument cuts ; and the more ob-
tufe, the ftronger and fitter it is for fervice.
Order of St Basil, the mod ancient of all the religious
orders, was very famous in the eaft. It paffed into the
weft about the year 1057, and was held in great e-
fteem, efpecially in Italy. As to their rules, the Ita¬
lian monks of that order faft every Friday in the year t
They eat meat but three times a week, and then but
once a-day : They work all together at certain hours
of the day: Their habit is nearly like that of the Be-
nedidines, and they wear a fmall beard like the fa¬
thers of the miflion.
BASILARE of, in anatomy, the fame with osffhenoides.
See Sphenoides.
BASILIC, in ancient architedure, a term ufed for a
large hall, or public place, with ifles, porticos, gal¬
leries, tribunals, be. where princes fat and admi-
niftered juftice in perfon.
BASILICA, in anatomy, the interior branch of the ax¬
illary vein, running the whole length of the arm.
BASILICATE, a province of the kingdom of Naples,
having the Terra di Barri on the north,, and the pro¬
vince of Calabria on the fouth.
BASILICI, a denomination given in the Greek empire
to thofe who carried the emperor’s orders and com¬
mands.
BASILICON, in pharmacy, an epithet for a great ma¬
ny compofitions to be found in the ancient medicinal
writers : But it more particularly denotes an officinal
ointment, compofed of wax, refin, pitch, and oil of
olives, from thence called tetrapharmacum. It is
much ufed in wounds.
BASILICS, a body of the Roman laws, tranllated
into Greek. The bafilics comprehend the infti-
tutes, digefts, code, novels, and fome edids of Jufti-
nian and other emperors.
BASILICUS, in aftronomy, cor leonis, a fixed ftar of
the firlt magnitude in the conftellation Leo. See
Leo.
BASILIDIANS, in church-hiftory, a. branch of gno-
ftics, who maintained that Chrift’s body was only a
phantom, and that Simon the Cyrenean fuffered in his
ftead.
BASILIGOROD, a city of the Ruffian empire, in
Mufcovitiih Tartary, fituated upon the banks of the
Wolga.
BASILISCUS, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of lacerta. SeeLACERTA.
BASILISK, in military affairs, a large piece of ord¬
nance, being a 48-pounder, and weighing about 7200
pounds. Thofe of the French were 10 feet long, and
thofe of the Latch i-j. The French do not call any
more of that calibre.-
BASINGSTOKE, a market-town of Hampfliire, abost
16 miles north-eaft of Winehefter, in i° 15' W. Ion.
and yi° 20/ N. lat.
BASIOGLOSSUS, in anatomy, a mufcle arifing from,
the bafe of the os hyoides.
BASIS, fo/e, in geometry. See Base.
Basis,
BAS
Basis, among phyficians, denotes the principd ingre¬
dients in compound medicines.
BASKET, a machine made of twigs interwoven toge¬
ther, in order to hold.fruit, earth, &e. It denotes
an uncertain quantity, as a bafket of medlars is two
- bufhels, of afa foetida from 20 to 50 pound weight.
Baskets of earth, in the military art, called by the
French corbeilles, are fmall bafkets ufed in lieges, on
the parapet of a trench, being filled with earth. They
are about a foot and a half high, about a foot and a
half diameter at the top, and 8 or 10 inches at bot¬
tom ; fo that being fet together, there is a fort of em-
braflures left at their bottoms, through which the fol-
diers fire, without expofing themfelves.
Basket-fish. See Asterias.
Basket-salt, that made from fa!t-fprings^ being purer,
whiter, and compofed of finer grains- than the com¬
mon brine-falt.
Basket-tenure, a tenure of lands by the fervice of
making the king’s bafkets.
BASKIRI, a country of Mufcovitilh Tartary, bounded
on the north by the Tartars of Tumen, on the call by
Barabinfkoi, on the fouth by the tnountain Sortora,
and on the welt by the dutchy of Bulgaria.
BASON, in anatomy. See Pelvis.
Bason, in hydraulics, a refervoir of water, ufed for va¬
rious purpofes : Thus we fay, The bafon of a jet
d'eau, the bafon of a fountain, and likewife the bajon
of a port or harbour.
Bason, in Jewifh antiquities, the laver ofthe taberna¬
cle, made of the brafs looking-glafles belonging to
thofe devout women that watched and flood centinels
at the door of the tabernacle.
Bason, in mechanics, a term ufed by glafs-grinders for
a dilh of copper, iron, &c. in which they grind con¬
vex glaffes, as concave ones are formed on fpheres :
And by hatters for a round iron mould, in which they
form the matter of their hats; and alfo for a leaden
one for the brims of- hats, having an aperture in the
middle, of a diameter fufficient for the largeft block to
go through.
Ba s o n s <?/■ a balance, the two feales or difhes faftened
to the extremities of the firings, the one to hold the
weight, and the other the thing to- be weighed.
Sale by the Bason, at Amflerdam, is a public fale made
by authority, over which prefides an officer, appointed
by the magiflrates. It is fo called, becaufe, before
the lots are delivered to the highefl bidder, they com¬
monly ftrike on a copper bafon, to give notice that the
lot is going to be adjudged.
BASQUE, or Labour, the fouth-weft'divifion of the
province of Gafcony, in France.
BASS, in mufic, that part of a concert which is moft
heard, which confifts of the graved and deeped founds,
and which is played on the larged pipes or drings of a
common indrument, as of an organ, lute, drc. or on
indruments larger than ordinary, for that purpofe, as
bafs-viols, balloons, bafs-hautboys, <tpc. The. bafs
is the principal part of a mufical compofition, and the
foundation, of harmony ; for which reafon it. is a ma-
B A S
xim among muficians. That when the bafs is good, the
harmony is feldom bad.
Thorough-^is the harmony made by the bafs-viols-,
or theorbos, continuing to play both while the voices
fing, and the other indruments perform their parts,
and alfo filling up the intervals when any of the other
parts flop. It is played by cyphers marked over the
notes, on the organ, fpinet, harplicord, fac. and fre¬
quently Amply and without cyphers on the bafs-viol
and baffoon.
£W/j/<?/--Bass is a fecond or double bafs, where there
are feveral in the fame concert.
Bass, in geography, a deep rock, with an old fort, ac-
ceflible only at one place,, lying on the coalt of E. Lo-
thain in Scotland, at the mouth of the frith of Forth.
BASSAIM, or BACCEIM, a port-town of the Hither
India, fubjedt to the Portuguefe, fituated in 710 j'Ef
long, and 190 3c/ N. lat.
BASS ANUS, in ornithology. See Pelican us.
BASSEE, a town of French Flanders, upon the confines-
of Artois, fituated in 30 3c/ E. Ion. and 50° 53' N. lat.
BASSEMPOIN, a town of Gafcony, in France.
BASSET, a game at cards, faid to have been invented
by a noble Venetian, for which he was baniffied.
The perfons concerned in it are a dealer, or Tanker;
his affidant, who fupervifes the lofing cards ; and the.
punter, or any one who plays againd the banker.
BxiSSIGNY, the fogth ead divifion of the province of
Champaign, in Fiance. See Campaign.
BASSOON, a mulieal indrument of the wind-fort, blown
with a reed, farniffied with eleven holes, and ufed as-
a bafs in a concert of hautboys, flutes, <bc.
To render this indrument more portable, it is di¬
vided into two parts, whence it is alfo called a fagot.
Its diameter at bottom is nine inches, and its holes are
flopped like thofe of a large flute.
BASSORA, a large city of Afia, fituated below the con¬
flux of the Tigris and Euphrates, in 530 E. long, and:
30° 20 N. lat.
BASSO-RELIEVO, or Bass-relief, a piece of fculp-
ture, where the figures or images do not protuberate,.
jet, or dand out far. above the plane on which they,
are formed.
Whatever figures or reprefentations are thus-cut,,
damped, or otherwife wrought, fo that not the entire
body, but only part of it is raifed above the, plane, are-
faid to be done in relief, or relievo; and when that
work is low, .flat, and but a little raifed, it is called"
low reliefr When a piece of fculpture, a coin, ora
medal, has its figure raifed. fo as to be well diflin-
guiffied, it is called bold, and we fay its relief is flrong.
BASS-VIOL, a mufical indrument-of the like form with:
that of a violin, but much larger. It is Aruek with a
bow as that is, has the fame number of. flrings, and
has eight flops, which are fubdivided into femi-ltops::
Its found is grave, and has a much nobler effedt in a
concert than that of the viohn.
BASTERNA, a fort of vehicle, much the fame with
our chariot, ufed by the ancient Roman ladies. This
was a different carriage from the ledtica, which it fuc--
ceeded3,
( 527 )
BAS ( 528 ) BAT
t-ceded, inafmuch as the ledtica was borne on mens
ihoulders, whereas this was drawn by beafts.
BAS1IA, the chief city of the ifland of CorGca. It is
a good port, fituated on the north-eaff part of the ifland,
in 9° 40' E long, and 420 20 N. lat.
BAS JTLE, a caftle for ftate prifoners in Paris, anfwer-
ing to the Tower of London.
BASTIMENTOS, fmall iflands on the coaft of Darien,
in South America, lying a little to the eaftward of
Porto Bello.
B ASTION, in the modern fortification, a huge mafs of
earth, faced ufually with fods, fometimes with brick,
and rarely with ftone, Handing out from a rampart,
whereof it is a principal pa/t, and is what, in the an¬
cient fortification, was called a bulwark. See Forti¬
fication.
Solid Bastions are thofe that have the void fpace with¬
in them filled up entirely, and raifed of an equal height
with the rampart.
Void and hollow Bastions are thofe that are only fur-
rounded with a rampart and parapet, having the fpace
within void and empty, where the ground is fo low,
that if the rampart be taken, no retrenchment can be
made in the centre, but what will lie under the fire of
the befieged.
Flat Bastion, is a baftion built in the middle of the
curtain, when it is too long to be defended by the
baflion at its extremes.
Cut' Bastion is that whofe point is cut off, and inftead
thereof has a re-entering angle, or an angle inwards
with two points outwards, and is ufed either when
without fuch a contrivance the angle would be too
acute, or when water or fome other impediment hin¬
ders the carrying on the baflion to its full extent.
Compofed Bastion is when two fides of the interior po¬
lygon are very unequal, which makes the gorges alfo
unequal.
Deformed Bastion is when the irregularity of the lines
and angles makes the baftion out of ihape, as when it
wants one of its demigorges, one fide of the interior
polygon being too ftiort.
Demi Bastion is compofed of one face only, and but
one flank, and a demigorge.
Double Bastion is that which is raifed on the plane of
another baflion.
Regular Bastion is that which has its true proportion
of faces, flanks, and gorges.
Bastion de France, afortrefs in the kingdomofTu-
nis, fubjeifl to France. It is fituated about 80 miles weft
of the city of Tunis, in 8° E. long, and 36° 30 N.
lat.
BASSTOIGNE, a town of the Netherlands, in the
province of Luxemburg, fituated in 50 26) E. long,
and yo0 N. lat.
B ASTON, in law, one of the fervants to the warden of
the Fleet prifon, who attends the king’s courts with a
red ftaff, for taking into cuftody fuch as are commuted
by the court. He alfo attends on fuch prifoners as
are permitted to go at large by licence.
Baston, of Batoon, in architecture, a moulding in
the bafe of a column, called alfo a tore.
Baston, osBatpon, in heraldry, a kind of bend, ha¬
ving only one third of the ufual breadth.
The bafton does not go from fide to fide, as the
bend or fcarf does, being in the form of a truncheon.
Its ufe is a note or mark of baftardy. See Plate LI.
fig. 9.
BASTONADE, or Bastinado, a kind of puniftiment
inflicted -by beating the offender with a flick. This
fort of beating, among the ancient Greeks and Ro¬
mans, was the puniftiment commonly inflicted on cri¬
minals that were freemen, as that of whipping was on
the flaves. We find fome inftances of this fort of dif-
cipline among the Hebrews; and it is a penalty ufed in
the eaft even at this day.
BAT, in zoology. See Vespertilio.
Bat, Bate, oeBatz, a fmall copper coin, mixed with
a little filver, current in feveral cities of Germany:
it is worth four crutzers. It is alfo a coin in Switzer¬
land, current at five livres, or one hundred fols, French
money.
EATABLE ground, that land which lay between Scot¬
land and England, when the kingdoms were'diltinCt,
to which b6th nations pretended a righi^
BATACALO, a fort and town on the eaftern coaft of
the ifland of Ceylon, in 8i° E. long, and 8° N. lat.
BATAVIA, the capital of all the Dutch colonies and
fettlements in the Eaft Indies. It is fituated on the
.eaft part of the ifland of Java, and has an excellent
harbour, in 106° E. long, and 6° S. lat.
BATCHELOR, or Bachelor, a man who ftill con¬
tinues in the ftate of celibacy, or who was never mar¬
ried.
Batch el or was anciently a denomination given to thofe ■
who had attained to knighthood, but had not a num¬
ber of vaffals fufficient to have their banner carried be¬
fore them in the field of battle; or, if they were not
of the order of bannerets, were not of age to difplay
tneir own banner, but obliged to march to battle un¬
der another’s banner. It was alfo a title given to
young cavaliers, who having made their firft campaign,
received the military girdle accordingly. And it ferved
to denominate him who had overcome another in a
tournament, the firft time he ever engaged.
Knights Batchelors were fo called, as being the loweft
order of knights, or inferior to bannerets.
Batchelors, in an univerfity-fenfe, are perfons that
have attained to the baccalaureate, or who have taken
the firft degree in the liberal arts and fciences. Be¬
fore a perfon can be admitted to this degree at Ox¬
ford, it is neceffary that he ftudy there four years ;
three years more may intitle him to the degree of ma-
fter of arts; and in feven years more he may commence
batchelor of divinity. At Cambridge the degrees are
ufually taken much the fame as at Oxford, excepting in
law and phyfic, in either of which the batchelor’s de¬
gree may be taken in fix years. In France, the de¬
gree of batchelor of divinity is attained in five year’s
ftudy; that is, in two years of phiiofophy, and three
of divinity.
BAT-FOWLING, a method of catching birds in the
night, by lighting fome draw, or torches, near the
place
BAT (
place where they are at rooft ; for upon beating them
up, they fly to the flame, where being amazed, they
are eafily caught in nets, or beat down with bullies
fixed to the end of poles, <bc.
B ATENBOURG, a town of the United Provinces, fitu-
ated upon the Maefe, between Ravenftein andMegen.
BATH, a fufficient quantity of water collected in fome
convenient receptacle, for people to wafh in, either for
health or pleafure.
Baths are diftinguilhed into natural and artificial,
and natural again into hot and cold. The chief hot
baths in our country are thofe at Bath, near Wells, in
Somenetlhire; and thofe at Buxton and Matlock in
Derbyfliire.
In the city of Bath are four hot baths : one trian¬
gular, called the crofs bath, the heat of which is niore
gentle than that of the reft, becaufe it has fewer fprings
in it; the fecond is the hot bath, which was formerly
much hotter than the reft, but it was then not fo
large as at prefent: the other two are the King’s and
Queen’s Bath, divided only by a wall; the laft having
no fpring, but receives its water from the King’s Bath :
each of is furnifhed with a pump, to throw out
the water upon the difeafed, where that is required.
Thefe waters abound with a mineral fulphur; they
are hot, of a bluifli colour, and ftrong fcent; they do
not pafs through the body like moft other mineral wa¬
ters ; though if fait be added, they purge prefently.
On fettlements, they afford a black mud, which is ufed
by way of cataplafm in aches, and proves of more fer-
vice to fome than the waters themfelves: The like
they depofite on diftillation, and ho other: The crofs-
bath preys on filver, all of them on iron, but none on
brafs.
The ufe of thefe baths is found beneficial in difor-
ders of the head, as palfies, fcc. in cuticular difeafes,
as leprofies, fac. Obftrudtions, and conftipations of the
bowels, the fcurvy and ftone, and in moft difeafes of
women and children; they are ufed as a laft remedy
in obftinate chronic difeafes, where they fucceed well,
if they agree with the conftitution of the patient.
Of the three hot European waters of note, viz. Aix-
la-Chapelle, Bourbon, and Bath, the firft abounds
more eminently in fulphur, which makes its heat, nau-
feoufnefs, and purgative faculty fo great, that few fto-
machs can bear it.
The Bpurbon are of a middle nature, between the
Aix-la-Chapelle and the Bath waters ; being lefs hot,
naufeous, and purgative than thofe of Aix-la-Chapelle;
but more fo than the Bath waters.
Cold baths were by the ancients held in the greateft
efteem; and though they were long baniftied out of
medicine, the prefent age can boaft of abundance of
noble cures performed by them, and fuch as were long
attempted in vain by the moft powerful medicines.
The cold bath"1 isyferviceable in moft chronic difor-
ders; it always ads the part of a diuretic ; and will
do more, efpecially plunging over head in fea-water/
in the cure, of melancholy, madnefs, and particularly
that occafined by the bite of a mad dog, than any
other medicine.
Van. I. No. 23. 3
529 ) BAT
Artificial baths are various, according to the various
occafions ; as aqueous baths, vaporous baths, dry baths,
4sc. Aqueous baths are made from common plants,
and other emollient, refolvent, and nervine fubftances ;
confiding fometimesof milk and emollient herbs, with
rofe-water, fee. when the defign is to humedate, or
when it is only to cleanfe, icconfifts of bran and water
alone ; and when it is for an exceflive pain or tumour,
fee. in thefe cafes it confifts of a decodion of roots,
plants, and fome fpirit of wine.
In vapour-baths, the defign of which is to promote
a perfpiration, the fleam or fume of fome decodion is
received upon fome part of the body for that purpofe.
In thefe baths there is no part of the patient’s body
plunged into the decodion, only thofe parts which re¬
quire it are.properly difpofed to receive the fleams of
fome proper fomentation. Of this kind are the bag¬
nios, where perfons are made to fweat by the heat of
a room, and pouring on of hot water.
Vapour-baths are of lingular fervice in cold diftem-
pers, anafarca’s, oedematous tumours, paralytic cafes,
fwellings of the tefticles, fee.
Dry baths are made of alhes, fait, fand, Ihreds of
leather, fee. This bath is fuccefsful in provoking
fweat in a plentiful manner, the patient being placed
conveniently for the reception of the fumes : They are
found ufeful in removing old obftinate pains, and are
very effedual in venereal xomnlaints.
Bath, in Hebrew antiquity, a meafure of capacity,
containing the tenth part of an omer, or feven gallons
and four pints, as a meafure for things liquid; or three
pecks and three pints, as a meafure for things dry.
Baths, in architedure, fuperb buildings, ereded for
the fake of bathing.
Thofe buildings, among the ancients, were moft
pompous and magnificent; Inch were thofe of Titus,
Paulus dEmilius, and Dioclefian, whofe ruins are ftill
remaining.
Bath, in geography, a city of Somerfetfhire, fituated
on the river Avon, ten miles eaft of Briftol, in 20 30^
W. long, and 51° 3c/ N. lat.
Bath is alfo the name of a town in Hungary, in 20° 4c/
E. long, and 46° N. lat.
Knights of the Bath, a military order in England, fup-
pofed to have been inllituted by Richard II. who li¬
mited their number to four: However, his fucceffor,
Henry IV. increafed them to forty-fix. Their motto
was tres in uno, fignifying the three theological virtues.
This order received this denomination from a cu-
ftom of bathing, before they received the golden fpur.
It is feldom ever conferred but at the coronation of
kings, or the inauguration of a prince of Wales or
Duke of York. They wear a red ribbon belt wife.
The order of the bath, after remaining many years
extind, was revived under George I. by a folemn
creation of a great number of knights.
Bath-/W, the daughter of a voice. So the Jews call
one of their oracles, which is frequently mentioned in
their books, efpecially the Talmud, being a fantaftical
way of divination invented by the Jews themfelves,
not unlike the fortes virgiliana of the heathens. How-
6 S ever.
BAT (53
ever, the Jewifh writers call this a revelation from
God’s will, which he made to his chofen people, af¬
ter all verbal prophecies had ceafed in Ifrael.
Bath-zw/#/, a mixed metal, otherwife called prince s
metal. See Prince’s Metal.
BATH-m?/dT. See the article Bath. *
BATH A, the name of two towns, the one in Barbary,
in the kingdom of Algiers, and the other in Hungary,
upon the banks of the Danube.
BATHING, the walking, foaking, fuppling, refrelh-
ing, moiftening, <bc. the body, or any part thereof,
in water, liquor, <bc. for pleafure or health. See
Bath.
Bathing a falcon, is when, weaned from her ramage
fooleries, Ihe is offered fome water to bathe berfelf in
a bafon, where Ihe may Hand up to her thighs. By
this means Ihe gathers ftrength and boldnefs.
BATHMUS, in anatomy, denotes the cavity of a bone,
fitted to receive the prominence of another bone.
BATICALA, in geography, a kingdom of India, upon
the coaft of Malabar, to the north of the kingdom of
Canara.
BATIS, in zoology* the trivial name of a fpecies of ra¬
ja. See Raja.
BATMAN, in commerce, a kind of weight ufe at Smyr¬
na, containing fix okes of four hundred drams each,
w'hich amount to fixteen pounds, fix ounces, and fif¬
teen drams of Englilh weight.
BATON, or Baston. See Baston.
BATRACHITES, or Frog-stone, a kind of gem
mentioned by the ancients, and fo called from its re-
fembling the colour of a frog.
BATRACHOMYOMACHIA, the battle of the frogs
and the mice, the title of a fine burlefque poem, ufu-
ally afcribed to Homer.
The fubjedt of the work is the death of Pfycharpax,
a moufe, fon to Toxartes, who, being mounted on the
on the back of Phyfignathus, a frog, on a voyage to
her palace, to which Ihe had invited him, was feized
with fear, when he faw himfelf in the middle of the
pond, fo that he tumbled off and was drowned. Phy¬
fignathus being fufpedted to have lhaken him off with
defign, the mice demanded fatisfadlion, and unanimouf-
ly declared war again!! the frogs.
BATTA, a province of the kingdom of Congo in Afri¬
ca, which is watered by the river Barbela.
BATTALIA, denotes an army drawn up in order of
battle.
BATTALION, a fmall body of infantry, ranged in form
of battle, and ready to engage.
A battalion ufually contains from 5 to 800 men ;
but the number it confifts of is not determined. They
are armed with firelocks, fwords, and bayonets; and
divided into thirteen companies, one of which is gre¬
nadiers. They are ufually drawn up with fix men in
file, or one before another. Some regiments confifl:
but of one battalion, others are divided into four or
five.
BATTEL, a town of Suffex, fix miles north of Ha-
ftings, in E. long, and 50° 55' N. lat.
BATTEN, a name that workmen give to a fcantling of
o ) BAT
wooden (luff, from two to four inches broad, and a-
bout one inch thick; the length is pretty confiderable,
but undetermined.
This term is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of doors and
windows of (hops, <bc. which are not framed of whole
deal, foe. with ftyles, rails, and pannels like wain-
fcot, but are made to appear as if they were, by means
of thefe battens, bradded on the plain board round
the edges, and fometimes crofs them, and up and
down.
BATTENBURY, a town of Dutch Guelderland, fitu-
ated on the north Ihore of the river Made, %|moft op-
pofite to Ravenftein, in 50 3c/ E. long, and 510 45'
N. lat.
BATTEP^ING, the attacking a place, work, or the
like, with heavy artillery.
To batter in breach, is to play furioully on a work,
as the angle of a half-moon, in order to demolilh and
make a gape therein. In this they obferve never to
fire a piece at the top, but all at the bottom, from
three to fix feet from the ground.
The battery of a camp is ufually furrounded with
a trench, and pallifadoes at the bottom, with two re¬
doubts on the wings, or certain places of arms, capa¬
ble of covering the troops which arfe appointed for
their defence. See Battery.
Batte ring-//Vc£/, or pieces of battery. See Cannon
and Gunnery. '
BATTERiNG-r«w, in antiquity. See Ram.
BATTERiNG-r^/rw, in heraldry, a bearing, or coat of
arms, refembling the military enfign of the fame name.
See Plate LI. fig. 10.
BATTERY, in the military art, a parapet thrown
up to cover the gunners, and men employed about the
guns, from the enemy’s Ihot. This parapet is cut in¬
to embraffures, for the cannon to fire through. The
height of the embraflures, on the infide, is about three
feet; but they go Hoping lower to the outfide. Their
widenefs is two or three feet, but open to fix or feven
on the outfide. The mafs of earth that is betwixt
two embraflures, is called the merlon. The platform
of a battery is a floor of planks and fleepers, to keep
the wheels of the guns from finking into the earth;
and is always made Hoping towards the embraflures,
both to hinder the reverfe, and to facilitate the bring¬
ing back of the gun.
Battery of mortars differs from a battery of guns,
for it is funk into the ground, and has no embraf¬
fures.
CV-'j/t-Batteries are two batteries, which play athwart
one another, upon the fame thing, forming there an
angle, and beating with more violence and deftruflion;
becaufe what one bullet lhakes, the other beats down.
Battery funk or buried, is when its platform is funk,
or let down into the ground, fo that there mult be
trenches cut in the earth, againft the muzzles of the
guns, for them to fire out at, and to ferve for em¬
braflures. .
Battery d'enfilade, is one that fcours, or fweeps the
whole length of a ftraight line.
Battery en echarpe is that which plays obqliuely.
Bat-
BAT (
Battery^ revcrfe, that which plays upon the enemy’s
back.
Battery is when feveral guns play at the
fame time upon one place.
Battery, in law, the ftriking, beating, or offering
any violence to another perfon, for which damages
may be recovered.
BATTEURS d'ejlrade, or Scouts, are horfemen fent
out before, and on the wings of an army, one, two,
or three miles, to make difeoveries.
BATTLE, a general engagement between two armies,
in a country fufficiently open for them to encounter in
front, and at the fame time.
Other great addons, though of a longer duration, and
even attended with a greater daughter, are only called
fights.
iVhtW Battle, the fame with a fea-fight, or engage¬
ment between two fleets of men of war.
Before a naval battle, every fquadron ufually fubdi-
vides itfelf into three equal divifions, with a referve
of certain fhips out of every fquadron to bring up
their rear. Every one of thefe, obferving a due birth
and didance, are in the battle to fecond one another ;
and the better t© avoid confufion and falling foul of
each other, to charge, difeharge, and fall off, by
threes or fives, more or lefs, as the fleet is greater or
fmaller. The fhips of referve are inftrudted either to
fuccour and relieve thofe thit are any way in danger;
or to fupply, and put themfelves in the place of thofe
that lhall be made unferviceable.
As for a Ileet confiding but of few {hips, when ob¬
liged to fight in an open fea, it (hould be brought up
to battle in only one front, with the chief admiral in
the middle of them, and on each fide of him the
dronged and bed provided {hips of the fleet.
Battle is alfo ufed figuratively, for a reprefentation
of a battle in fculpture, painting, and the like.
BATTLE-/-dy.7?/, in cock-fighting, a fight between three,
five, or feven cocks all engaged together, fo that the
cock which Hands longed gets the day.
Battle-«x, a kind of halbard, fird introduced into
England by the Danes.
BATTLEMENTS, in architedure, are indentures or
notches in the top of a wall or other building, in the
form of embraflures, for the fake of looking though
them.
BATEOLOGY, in grammar, a fuperfluous repetition
of fome words or things.
BATTON, Batoon, or Baston. SccBaston.
BATTORY, in commerce, a name given by the Hanfe
towns to their country-houfes and warehoufes in fo¬
reign countries. The principal batteries were at Lon¬
don, Archangel, Novogorod, Liftion, Venice, and
Antwerp.
BATTUS, an order of penitents at Avignon, and in
Provence, whofe piety carries them to exercife very
fevere difeipline upon themfelves, both in public and
private.
BATUECOS, or Los Batuecos, a people of Spain in
the kingdom of Leon, that inhabit the mountains be-
531 ) BAY
tween Salamanca and Corica, and are thought to be
defeended from the Goths
BATZ, a copper coin mixed with fome filver, and cur¬
rent at different rates, according to the alloy, in Nu¬
remberg, Bafil, Fribourg, Lucerne, and other cities
of Germany and Switzerland.
BAVARIA, one of the circles of the German empire,
lying between Audria on the ead, and Swabia on the
wed.
The duke of Bavaria is one of the nine electors.
See Elector.
BAVAY; a fmall town in the province of Hainalt in
French Flanders, about twelve miles fouth-wed of
Mons, in 30 4Q/ E. long, and 50° 25 N. lat.
BAUHINIA, in botany, a genus of the decandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix has five divifions, and is de¬
ciduous ; the petals are open, oblong, and inferred by
claws into the calix. The fpecies are eight, all na¬
tives of the Indies.
BAVINS, in the military art, denote brufti-faggots^
with the brudr at length.
BAUM, in botany. See Melissa.
BAURAC, a name ancienty ufed for nitre.
BAUTZEN, the chief town of Lufatia in Germany, a-
bout thirty-five miles north-ead of Drefden, in 140 30^
E. long, and 51° 15' N. lat.
BAWLING, among fportfmen, the fame with babbling.
See Babbling.
BAY, in geography, an arm of the fea {hooting up into
the land, and terminating in a nook. It is a kind of
lefler gulf, bigger than a creek, and is larger in its
middle within than at its entrance. The larged and
mod noted bays in the world ate thofe of Bifcay,
Bengal, Hudfon’s, Panama,
Bay, among farmers, a term ufed to fignify the magni¬
tude of a barn ; as, if a barn confids of a floor and two
heads, where they lay corn, they call it a barn of two
bays. The bays are from fourteen to twenty feet long.:
Bay denotes likewife a pound head, made to keep in.
dore of water for driving the wheels of the furnace or
hammer belonging to an iron-mill, by the dream that
comes thence through a flood-gate, called the pen-Jlock.
Bay is alfo one of the colours of the hair of horfes, in¬
clining to red, and coming pretty near the colour of a,
chefnut. There are five different gradations of the
bay-colour, viz. chefnut-bay, light-bay, yellow-bay
or dun-day, bloody-bay, which is alfo called fcarlet-
bay, and the brown-bay.
Bay, among huntfmen. Deer are faid to dand at bay,,
when, after being hard runy they turn head againd the.
hounds.
BAY-rr?(?, See Laurus..
BAY-falt. See Salt.
BAYEUX, a city of Normandy in France, about fif¬
teen miles north-wed of Caen, in 50' W. long. and.
490 20 N. lat.
BAYONET, in the military art,, a diort broad dagger,
formerly with a round handle fitted for the bore of a;
firelock, to be fixed there after the foldier had fired ;
but they are now made with iron handles and rings,
that
B E A
that go over the muzzle of the firelock, and are fcrew-
ed faft, fo that the foldier fires with his bayonet on
the muzzle of his piece, and is ready to aft againft the
horfe.
BAYONNE, a large city of Gafcony in France, fitua-
ted on the river Adour, near the bay of Bifcay, in
i° 20' W. long, and 430 3c/ N. lat.
BAYS, in commerce, a fort of open woollen duff, ha¬
ving a long nap, fometimes frized, and fometimes not.
This duff is without wale, and is wrought in a loom
with two treddles, like flannel. It is chiefly manu-
faftured at Colcheder and Bockin in Eflex, where
there'is a hall called the Dutch bay-hall or ranu-halL
The exportation of bays was formerly much more con-
fiderable than at prefent that the French have learn¬
ed to imitate them. However, the Englilh bays are
dill fent in great quantities to Spain and Portugal,
and even to Italy. Their chief ufe is for dreffing the
monks and nuns, and for linings, efpecially in the ar¬
my. The looking-glafs makers alfo ufe them behind
their glades, to preferve the tin or quickfilver; and
the cafe-makers, to line their cafes. The breadth of
bays is commonly a yard and a half, a yard and three
quarters, or two yards, by 42 to 48 in length. Thofe
of a yard and three quarters are mod proper for the
Spanifh trade.
BAZAR, Bazari, orBAZAARD, a place defigned for
trade among the eadern nations, particularly the Per-
fians, fome of which are open at top, like the market¬
places of Europe ; others are covered with high-vault¬
ed ceilings, and adorned with domes to give light. In
the fird, they fell ony the lefs precious and mod bulky
commodities ; whereas, in the latter, are the ftiops of
thofe merchants who fell jewels, rich duffs, wrought
plate, be.
BAZAS, a town of Guienne in. France, about thirty
miles fouth of Bourdeaux, in 25' W. long, and 440
20' N. lat.
BAZAT, or Baza, in commerce, a long, fine, fpun
cotton, which comes from Jerufalem, whence it is alfo
called Jerufalem-cotton.
BDELLIUM, is a gummy refinous concreted juice,
brought from Arabia and the E. Indies, in globes of
different figures and magnitudes. It is of a darkred-
difli brown colour, and, in appearance, fomewhat re-
fembles myrrh; and is recommended as a fudorific,
diuretic, and uterine; and in external applications, for
maturating tumours, be. In the prefent praftice, it
is fcarce otherwife made ufe of, than as an ingredient
in theriaca.
BEACHY-HEAD, a cape or promontory on the coad
of Suflex, between Hadings and Shoreham.
BEACON, any public fignal, to give warning againd
rocks,' fhelves, invafions, be.
BEACONAGE, a tax or.farm paid for the ufe and
maintenance of a beacon. Trinity-houfe is empowered
to levy this tax by aft of parliament.
BEACONFIELD, a market-town of Buckinghamfhire,
twenty-two miles wed of London, in 2,0 W. long,
and ji° 30' N. lat.
B E A
BEAD, a fmall glafs ball, made in imitation of pearl,
and ufed in,necklaces, be.
Bead, in architefture, a round moulding, commonly
made upon the edge of a piece of duff, in the Corin¬
thian and Roman orders, cut or carved in fnort em-
bofiments, like beads in necklaces.
TSeA.T>-proof, among didillers, a fallacious way of deter¬
mining the drength of fpirits, from the continuance of
the bubbles, or beads, raifed by fhaking a fmall quan¬
tity of them in a phial.
Bead-;W/, among papids, a lid of fuch perfons, for the
red of whofe fouls they are obliged to repeat a certain
number of prayers, which they count by means of their
beads.
BEADLE, a meflenger or apparitor of a court, who
cites perfons to appear and anfwer in the court to what
is alledged againd them.
Beadle is alfo an officer at an univerfity, whofe chief
bufinefs it is to walk before the maders with a mace,
at all public proceflions.
BEAGLE, the name of a particular kind of hunting-
dogs, of which there are feveral forts, viz. the fou-
thern beagle, which is fomething lefs than the. deep-
mouthed hound, and fomething thicker and fhorter ;
the fleet-nothern, or cat-beagle, which is fmaller and
of a finer (hape than the fouthern beagle, and is a hard
runner: There is alfo a very fmall beagle, not bigger
than a lady’s lap-dog.
BEAK, the bill or nib of a bird.
Beak, in architefture, the fmall fillet left on the head
of a larmier, which forms a canal, and makes a kind
of pendant.
Beak, a moulding the'fame as the quarter-round,
except that its fituation is inverted: This is very fre¬
quent in modern buildings, though few examples of it
are found in the ancient.
Beak, orBEAK-^msf, of a fhip, that part without the
fhip, before the fore-cadle, which is fadened to the
dem, and is fupported by the main knee.
BEAKED, in heraldry, a term uled to exprefs the
beak or bill of a bird. When the beak and legs of a
fowl are of a different tinfture from the body, we
fay beaked and membered of fuch a tinfture.
BEAKING, among cock-fighters, is when one cock
holds another by his bill, and drikes him with his fpurs
or gafflers at the fame time.
BEAM, in architefture, the larged piece of wood in a
building, which lies crofs the walls, and ferves to fup-
port the principal rafters of the roof, and into which
the feet of thefe rafters are framed.
Beams of a Jhip are the great main crofs-timbers which
hold the fides of the Ihip from falling together, and which
alfo fupport the decks and orlops: The main beam is
next the main-mad, and from it they are reckoned by
fird, fecond, third beam, be. the greated beam of all
is called the mid-Jhip beam. See Ship.
'QTZAM-compafs, an indrument confiding of a fquare wood¬
en or brafs beam, having Aiding fockets, that carry
deel or pencil points; they are ufed for deferibing
large circles, where the common compaffes are ufelefs.
Beam,
( S32 )
B E A ( 533 ) B E A
Beam, in heraldry, the term ufed to exprefs the main
horn of a hart -or buck.
Beam, among hunters, the main flem of a deer’s head,
or that part which bears the antlers, royals, and tops.
Charnber-iiK\M. See Chamber-^tw.
Beam is alfo the name of a fort of fiery meteor in the
Iha^e of a pillar ; alfo a ray of the fun.
BEAM-yf//z«^, in building, the filling up of the vacant
fpace between the raifon and roof, with Hones or
bricks laid between the rafters on the raifon, and
plaftered on with loam, where the garrets are not par¬
geted, or plaftered, as in country places, where they
do not parget or plafter their garrets.
Beam of an anchor, the longeft part of it, called alfo
the Jhank.
'Bv.&M-feat hers, in falconry, the longeft feathers of a
hawk’s wing.
Beam alfo denotes the lath, or iron, of a pair of feales ;
fometimes the whole apparatus for weighing of goods
is fo called: Thus we fay, it weighs fo much at the
king’s beam.
Beam of a plough, that in which all the parts of the
plough-tail are fixed. See Agriculture.
Beam, or Roller, among weavers, a long and thick
wooden cylinder, placed length-ways on the back-part
of the loom of thofe who work with a ihuttle.
That cylinder, on which the fluff is rolled as it is
weaved, is alfo called the beam or roller, and is pla¬
ced on the fore-part of the loom.
BEAN, in botany. See Vicia.
BEAR, in zoology. SccUrsus.
Bear, in aftronomy. See Ursa.
Bear, in heraldry. He that has a coat of arms is faid
to bear in it the feveral charges or ordinaries that are
in his efcutcheon.
Bear, in gunnery. A piece of ordnance is faid to come
to bear, when it lies right with, or direftly againft the
mark.
BEARALSTON, a borough of Devonfhire, fituated on
the river Tamar, about ten miles north of Plymouth,
in 40 30' W. long, and 50° 3J1 N. lat. It fends
two members to parliament.
V>v.\^’s-breech. See Acanthus.
BEARD, the hair growing on the chin, and adjacent
parts of the face, chiefly of adults and males. See
Anatomy, p. 256.
Various have been the ceremonies and cuftoms
of moft nations in regard of the beard. The Tar¬
tars, out of a religious principle, waged a long and
bloody war with the Perfians, declaring them infi¬
dels merely becaufe they would not cut their whifk-
ers after the rite of Tartary: And we find, that a
confiderable branch of the religion of the ancients
confifted in the management of their beard. Ecclefi-
aftics have fometimes been enjoined to wear, and at
other times have been forbid the wearing, the beard ;
* and the Greek and Romifh churches have been a long
time by the ears, about their beards. To let' the
beard grow, in fome countrier, is a token of mourn¬
ing, as to fhave it is the like in others.
The Greeks wore their beards till the time of Alex-
Vol. I, No. 23. 3
ander the"Great, that prince having ordered the Mace¬
donians to be fhaved, for fear it ftiould give a handle
to their enemies. The Romans did not begin to
ftiave till the year of Rome 454. Nor did the Ruf¬
fians cut their beards till within thefe few years, that
Peter the Great, notwithftanding his injunction upon
them to ftiave, was obliged to keep on foot a number of
officers to cut off, by violence, the beards of fuch as
would not otherwife part with them.
Beard of a comet, the rays which the comet emits to¬
wards that part of the heaven to which its proper mo¬
tion feems to direCt it, in which the beard of a comet
is diftinguiftied from the tail, which is underftood of
the rays emitted towards that part from whence its
motion feems to carry it.
Beard of a horfe, that part underneath the lower man¬
dible on the outfide and above the chin, which bears
the curb. It is alfo called the chuck.
It ftiould have but little flefti upon it, without any
chops, hardneft, or fwelling, and neither too high rai-
fed nor too flat, but fuch as the curb may reft in its
right place.
BEARDED hujk, among florifts, is a hulk, hairy on
the edges.
BEARDING of wool. See Wool.
BEARER, in architecture, a poft, or brick-wall, trim¬
med up between the two ends of a piece of timber, to
fliorten its bearing, or to prevent its bearing with the
whole weight at the ends only.
Bearer of a bill of exchange, the perfon in whofe
hands the bill is, and in favour of whom the laft or¬
der was made.
When a bill is made payable to the bearer, it is un¬
derftood to be payable to him in whofe hands it is, af¬
ter it becomes due. See Bill.
BEARERS, in heraldry. See Supporters.
CVs/y-BEARERS. See Cross.
BEARING, in navigation and geography, the fituation
of one place from another, with regard to the points of
the compafs ; or the angle which a line drawn through
the two places, makes with the meridians of each.
Bearing, in the fea language. When a ftiip fails to¬
wards the ftiore, before the wind, ftie is faid bear in
with the land or harbour. To let the ftiip fail more
before the wind, is to bear up. To put her right be¬
fore the wind, is to bear round. A ftiip that keeps off
from the land, is faid to bear off. When a fliip that
was to windward comes under another (hip’s ftern, and
fo gives her the wind, (he is faid to bear under her
lee, cbc. There is another fenfe of this word, in re¬
ference to the burden of a (hip; for they fay a (hip
bears, when having too (lender or lean a quarter, (he
will fink too deep into the water with an over light
freight, and thereby can carry but a fmall quantity
of goods. See Navigation.
Bearing j/" timber, among carpenters, the
fpace either between the two fixed extremes thereof,
when it has no other fupport, which they call bearing
at length, or between one extreme and a pod, brick-
wall, 6c. trimmed up between the ends to ftiorten its
bearings.
6 T
High
B E A ( 534 ) B E A
High Bearing cock, one larger than the cock he fights
Bearing claws, among cock-fighters, the foremoft toes
of a cock. If thefe are hurt or gravelled, he cannot fight.
BEARN, a province in the fouth of France, bounded by
Gafcony on the North, and by the Pyrenean moun¬
tains, which feparate it from Spain, on the fouth.
BE AST among gamefters, a game "at cards, played in
this manner: The heft cards are the king, queen, eirc.
whereof they make three heaps, the king, the play,
and triolet.
T hree, four, or five may play; and to every one is
dealt five cards. However, before the play begins,
every one flakes to the three heaps. He that wins
moll tricks, takes up the heap called the play: He
that hath the king, takes up the heap fo called; and
he that hath three of any fort, that is, three fours,
three fitfes, three fixes &sc. takes up the triolet heap.
Be ast , in a general fenfe, an appellation given to all four-
footed animals, Ik'either for food, labour, or fport.
Beasts of burden, in a commercial fenfe, all four-footed
animals which ferve to carry merchandizes on their
backs. The beads generally ufed for this purpofe,
are elephants, dromedaries, camels, horfes. mules,
affes, and the Iheep of Mexico and Peru.
Beasts of the chace are five; viz. the buck, the doe,
the fox, the roe, and the martin.
Beasts and fevils of the warren, are the hare, the co¬
ney, the pheafant, and partridge.
Beasts of the forell are the hart, hind, hare, boar,
and wolf
Rether-^z AST S. See Rother.
BEAT, in a general figmfication, fignifies to chaflife,
ftrike, knock, or vanquilh
This word has feveral other fignifications in the ma-
nufadtures, and in the arts and rades. Sometimes it
Signifies to forge and hammer, in which fenfe fmiths
and farriers fay, to beat iron; fometimes it means to
pound, to reduce into powder: Thus we fay, to heat
drugs, to beat pepper, to beat fpices ; that is to fay, to
putverife them.
Beat of drum, in the military art, is to give notice by
beat of drum of a fudden danger ; or, that fcattered
foldiers may repair to their arms and quarters, is to
beat an alarm, or to arms ; alfo to fignify, by diffe¬
rent manners df founding a drum, that the foldiers
are to fall on the enemy; to retreat before, in, or after
an attack; to move, or march, from one place to an¬
other ; to treat upon terms, or confer with the ene¬
my ; to permit the foldiers to come out of their quar¬
ters at break of day : to order to repair to their co¬
lours, <bc. is to beat a charge, a retreat, a march, &c.
BEATIFIC Vision. See Vision.
BEATIFICATION, among papills, an adl by which the
pope declares a perfon beatified, or bleffed after death.
This is the firft Hep towards canonization, and dif¬
fers from it; becaufe in the former, the pope does not
adl as a judge, determining the ftate of the beatified,
-but only gives a privilege to certain perfons to honour
him by a particular religious worlhip, without incur¬
ring the penalty of fuperftitious worlhip; whereas in
canonization, the pope fpeaks like a judge, and deter¬
mines upon the Hate of the canonized.
No perfon can be beatified till fifty years after death.
All certificates or attellations of virtues and miracles
are examined before the congregation of rites: The exa¬
mination continues for feveral years, after which his ho-
linefs decrees the beatification. The corpfe and relics of
the future faint are thenceforth expofed to the veneration
of every body ; his images are crowned with rays, and
a particular office is fet apart for him.
BEATING, or Pulsation, in medicine, the reciprocal
agitation or palpitation of the heart or pulfe. See
Pulse.
Beating geld and fiver. See Gold-beating, i&e.
Beating with hunters, a term ufed of a Hag, which
runs firft one way, and then another. He is then faid
to beat up and down.
The noife made by conies in rutting time is alio
called beating or tapping.
BEATS, in a watch or clock, are the ftrokes made by
the fangs or pallets of the fpindle of the balance, or
of the pads in a royal pendulum. See Watch¬
making.
BEAUCAIRE, a town of Languedoc, fituated on the
weftern ihore of the river Rhone, about feven miles
north of Arles; in 4° 40' E. long, and 430 40' N. fat.
BEAVER, in zoology. See Castor.
BE AUFORT, a town of the duchy of Anjou in France,
fituated 15 miles call of Angers; in 15' E. long, and
47° 30' N. lat.
Beaufort is alfo a town of Savoy, about 30 miles eaft
of Chamberry; in 6° 40' E. long, and 450 30^. lat.
BEAUGENCY, a town of Orleanois, in France ; fitu¬
ated on the river Loire, about 15 miles fouth-weft of
Orleans, in i° 36/ E. long, and 47° 48'N. lat.
BEAUJEU, a town of the Lyonois in France, about 25
miles north-weft of Lyons; in 4° 3c/ E. long, and
46° 15' N. lat.
BEAUJOLOIS, the fouth-eaft divifion of the Lyonois,
and fo called from Beaujeu.
BEAUMARIS, a market town of Anglefey in Wales ;
fituated about nine miles north of Bangor, in 40 15'
W. long, and 53Q25, N. lat.
BEAU-MASS. See Mass.
BEAUMONT, a town of Hainalt, about 17 mih s fouth-
eaft of Mons; in 4° 15' E. long, and 50° 20' N lat.
Beaumont is alfo a town of France, about x6 miles
fouth of Alenin ; in 5' E. long, and 48® 20' N. lat.
BE iUNE, a town of Burgundy in France, fituated in 50
20 E. long, and 47° 2 N. lat.
BEAUTY, in its native fignification, is appropriated to
objects of fight. Objedls of the other lenfes may be
agreeable, fuch as the founds of mufical inftruments,
the fmoothnefs and foftnefs of feme furfaces; but the
agreeablenefs called beauty belongs to objefts of fight.
Objects of fight are more complex than thofe of any
other fenfe: In the fimpleft, we perceive colour, fi¬
gure, length, breadth, thicknefs. A tree is compofed
of a trunk, branches, and leaves; it has colour, figure,,
fize, and fometimes motion : By means of each of thefe;
particulars, feparately confidered, it appears beauti-
B E A ( 535 ) B E A
ful; but a complex perception of the whole greatly
augments the beauty of the objed. The human body
is a compofition of numberleis beauties arifing from
the parts and qualities of the objed, various colours,
various motions, figures, fize, <bc. all united in one
complex objed, and flriking the eye with combined
force. Hence it is, that beauty, a quality fo remark¬
able in vifible objeds, lends its name to every thing
that is eminently agreeable. Thus, by a figure of
fpeech, we fay, a beautiful found, a beautiful thought,
a beautiful difcovery, <bc.
Confidering attentively the beauty of vifible objeds,
two kinds are difcovered. The firfl may be termed
intriniic beauty, becaufe it is difcovered in a Angle
objed, without relation to any other ; the other may
be termed rfilative, being founded- on the relation of
objeds. Intrinfic beauty is a perception of fenfe mere¬
ly ; for to perceive the beauty of a fpreading oak, or
of a flowing river, no more is required but fingly an
ad of vifion. Relative beauty is accompanied with an
ad of underftanding and refledion ; for we perceive
not the relative beauty of a fine inftrument or engine,
until we learn its ufe and deilination. In a word, in¬
trinfic beauty is ultimate; and relative beauty is that
of means relating to fome good end or purpofe. Thefe
different beauties agree in one capital circumflance,
that both are equally perceived as belonging to the ob¬
jed ; which will be readily admitted with refped to
intrinftc beauty, "but is not fo obvious with refped to
the other. The utility of the plough, for example,
may make an objed of admiration or of defire; but
why fhould utility make it beautiful ? A natural pro-
penfity of the human mind will explain this difficulty :
By an eafy tranfition of ideas, the beauty of the effed
is transferred to the caufe, and is perceived as one of
the qualities of the caufe : Thus a fubjed void of in¬
trinfic beauty, appears beautiful by its utility, a
dwelling-houfe void of all regularity, is however beau¬
tiful in the view of convenience . and the want of fym-
metry in a tree, will not prevent its appearing beauti¬
ful, if it be known to produce good fruit..
When thefe two beauties concur in any objed, it
appears delightful. Every member of the human body
poffelfes both in a high degree.
The beauty of utility, being accurately proportioned
to the degree of utility, requires no illullration: But
intrinfic beauty being more complex, cannot be handled
dillmdly without being analyfed. If a tree be beaur
tiful by means of its colour, figure, motion, fize,
it is in reality poflefied of fo many different beauties.
The beauty of colour ia too familiar to need explana¬
tion. The beauty of figure is more; for example,
viewing any body as a whole, the beauty of its figure
arifes from regularity and fimplicity ; viewing the parts
with relation to each other, uniformity, proportion,
and order, contribute to its beauty. The beauties of
grandeur and motion mull be confidered feparately.
See Grandeur, and Motion.
We (hall here make a few obfervations on fimplicity,
which may be of ufe in examining the beauty of fingle
objeds. A multitude o£ objeds crowding into the
mind at once, difturb the attention, and pafs vvitliour
making any lading impreflion : In the fame manner, even
a fingle objed, confiding of a multiplicity of parts, e-
quals not, in drength of impreflion, a more fimple ob¬
jed comprehended in one view. This judifies fimplicity
in works of art, as oppofed to complicated circumltances
and crowded ornaments.
It would be endlefs to enumerate the effeds that are
produced by the various combinations of the principles
of beauty A few examples will be fufficient to give
the reader fome idea of this fubjed. A circle and a
fquare are each perfedly regular; a fquare, however, is
lefs beautiful than a circle; and the reafon is, that the
attention is divided among the fides and angles of a
fquare; whereas the circumference of a circle, being a
fingle objed, makes one entire impreflion: And thus
fimplicity contributes to beauty. For the fame rcafon,
a fquare is more beautiful than a hexagon or odagon.
A iquare is likewife more beautiful than a parallelogram,
becaufe it is more regular and uniform. But this holds
with refped to intrinfic beauty only; for in many in¬
dances, as in the doors and windows of a dwelling-houfe,
utility turns the fcales on the fide of the parallelogram.
Again, a parallelogram depends, for its beauty, on
the proportion of its fides: A great inequality of its
fides annihilates it* beauty: Approximation toward e-
quality hath the fame effed ; for proportion there dege¬
nerates into imperfed uniformity, and the figure appears
an unfuccefsful attempt toward a fquare. And hence
proportion contributes to beauty.
An equilateral triangle yields not to a fquare in regu¬
larity nor in uniformity of parts, and it is more fimple..
But an equilateral triangle is lefs beautiful than a fquare;
which mud be owing to inferiority of order in the pofition
of its parts; the order arifing from theequal inclination
of the fides of fuch an angle, is more obfcure than the
parallelifm of the fides of a fquare. And hence order
contributes to beauty not lefs than fimplicity, regularity,
or proportion.
Uniformity is Angular in one circnmdance, that it is
apt to difgud by excefs. A number of things dedined.
for the fame ufe. as windows, chairs, cb'c. cannot be too
uniform. But a fcrupulous uniformity of parts in. a large
garden or field, is far from being agreeable..
In all the works of nature, fimplicity makes a capital;
figure It alfo makes a figure in works of art: Profufe
ornament in painting„gardening, or architedure, as well as
in drefs or in language, fhows a mean or corrupted tade.
Simplicity in behaviour and manners has an- inchanting
effed, and never fails to gain our affedion. Very dif¬
ferent are the artificial manners off modern times. A
gradual progrefs from fimplicity to complex forms and
profufe ornament, feems to be the fate of all the fine
arts; refembling behaviour, which from original candor
and fimplicity, has degenerated into duplicity of heart
and artificial refinements. At prefent literary produc¬
tions are crowded with words, epithets, figures: In mu-
fic, fentiment is negleded for the luxury of harmony,
and for difficult movement.
With regard to the final caufe of beauty, one thing is-
evident, that our relilh of regularity, uniformity, pro¬
portion^
B E C ( 53^ ) BED
portion, order, andfimplicity contributes greatly to en¬
hance the beauty of the obje<£b that furround us, and
of courfe tends to our happinefs. We may be con¬
firmed in this thought, upon refledting, that our tafte
for thefe particulars is not accidental, but uniform and
univerfal, making a branch of our nature. At the
fame time, regularity, uniformity, order, and fim-
plicity, contribute, each of them, to readineis of ap-
prehenfion, and enable us to form more diftindt ideas
of objedts than can be done where thefe particulars are
wanting. In fome inftances, as in animals, propor¬
tion is evidently connedted with utility, and is the
more agreeable on that account.
Beauty, in many inftances, promotes induftry, and
as it is frequently connedted with utility, it proves an
additional incitement to enrich our fields and improve
our manufadtures. Thefe, however, are but flight
effedts, compared with the connedtions that are form¬
ed among individuals in fociety by means of beauty.
The qualifications of the head and heart are undoubt¬
edly the moft folid and moft permanent foundations of
fuch connedtioos : But, as external beauty lies more
in view, and is more obvious to the bulk of mankind
than the qualities now mentioned, the fenfe of beauty
has a more extenfive influence in forming thefe con¬
nedtions. At any rate, it concurs in an eminent degree
with mental qualifications, in producing facial inter-
courfe, mutual good-will, and confequently mutual aid
and fupport, which are the life of fociety. It muft not
however be overlooked, that the fenfe of beauty does
not tend to advance the interefts of fociety, but when
in a due mean with refpedt to ftrength. Love, in par¬
ticular, arifing from a fenfe of beauty, lofes, when
exceflive, its focial charadter ; the appetite for gratifi¬
cation, prevailing over affedtion for the beloved ob-
jedt, is ungovernable, and tends violently to its end,
regardlefs of the mifery that muft follow. Love, in
this ftate, is no longer a fweet agreeable paffion ; it
becomes painful, like hunger or thirft, and produceth
no happinefs, but in the inftant of fruition. This fug-
gefts an important lefibn, that wtoderation in our de¬
fires and appetites, which fits us for doing our duty,
contributes at the fame time the moft to happinefs;
even focial paffions, when moderate, are more plea-
fant than when they fwell beyond proper bounds.
Beauty, in architefture, painting, and other arts, is
the harmony and juftnefs of the whole compofition
taken together.
BEAUVIN, a city of Burgundy, in France, about 15:
miles north of Chalons, in 40 50' E. long, and 470
N. lat.
BEAUVOIR, a port-town of France, about ay miles
fouth-weft of Nants, in 20 W. long, and 47° N. lat.
BEAUVOIS, a city of the ifle of France, about 43
miles north of Paris, in 20 20' E. long, and 40 30'
N. lat.
BECAH, or Bekah, in Hebrew antiquity, a Jewifti
coin, equal to of our money.
BECALM, in a general fenfe, fignifies to appeafe, to
allay.
Becalm, in the fea language. A ftiip is faid to be be¬
calmed, when there is not a breath of wind to fill the
fails.
BECANER, the capital of the territory of Becar in In¬
dia, fituated on the river Ganges, in 83° E. long,
and 28° N. lat.
BECCABUNGA, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of veronica. See Veronica.
BECHICS, medicines defigned to relieve coughs, be¬
ing the fame with what we call expectorants and pec¬
torals.
BECHIN, a town of Bohemia, in iy° E. long, and
490 14' N. lat.
BECKENRIEDT, a town of Switzerland in the can¬
ton of Underwaldt.
BECZAU, a town of Bohemia, upon the river Topel.
BED, a machine for ftretching and compofing the body
on, for eafe, or fleep, confifting generally of feathers
inclofed in a ticken cafe. There are varieties of
beds, as a (landing-bed, a fettee-bed, a tent-bed, a
truckle-bed, isc.
Bed of juftice, in the French cuftoms, a throne upon
which the king is feated when he goes to the parlia¬
ment. The king never holds a bed of juftice unlefs
for affairs that concern the ftate, and then all the offi¬
cers of parliament are cloathed in fcarlet robes.
Bed of the carriage of a great gun, a thick plank, that
lies under the piece ; being, as it were, the body of
the carriage.
Bed, in mafonry, a courfe, or range of (tones ; and the
joint of the bed is the mortar between two ftones,
placed over each other.
Bed, in gardening, fquare or oblong pieces of ground,
in a garden, raifed a little above the level of the ad¬
joining ground, and wherein they fow feeds, or plant
roots.
//cZ-Bed. See Hot-bed.
Lords of the Bed-chamber, in the Britifh cuftoms, ten
lords who attend in their turns, each a week ; during
which time they lie in the king’s bed-chamber, and
wait on him when he dines in private.
BEDAL, a market-town of Yorkftiire, eight miles
fouth of Richmondj in i° 20' W. long, and y4° 20
N. lat.
BEDEL. See Beadle.
BEDEREPE, a cuftomary fervice, by which tenants
were anciently bound to reap their landlord’s corn in
harveft-time.
BEDFORD, the county-town of Bedford/hire, fituated
on the river Oufe, about 22 miles fouth-weft of Cam¬
bridge, in 20 W. long, and y2° ic/ N. lat.
BED-MOULDING, in architecture, a term ufed for
thofe members of a corniche, which are placed below
the coronet; and now ufually confifts of. an ogee, a
lift, a large boultine, and another lift under the co¬
ronet.
BEDOUINS, in the Arabian cuftoms, tribes of Arabs,
who live in tents, and are difperfed all over Arabia,
Egypt, and the north of Africa.
BEDWIN, a borough-town of Wiltftiire, about 18
miles north-weft of SalHbury, in i° 40' W. long, and
BEG ( 537 ) BEL
BEE, in zoology. See Apis.
Bee-eater, in zoology. See Merges.
BEECH, in botany. See Fagus.
Beech-galls, hard protuberances found on the leaves
of the beech, wherein are lodged the maggots of a
certain fly.
Beech-mast, the fruit of the beech-tree, faid to be
good for fattening hogs, deer, 6v.
Beech-oil, an oil drawn by expreflion from the maft
of the b?ech-tree, after it has been ftielled and pound¬
ed. This oil is very common in Picardy, and ufed
there, and in other parts of France, inftead of butter ;
but moft of thofe who take a great deal of it, com¬
plain of pains and a heavinefs in the ftomach.
BEELE, a kind of pick-ax, ufed by the miners for fe-
parating the ores from the rocks in which they lie :
This inftrument is called a tubber by the miners of
Cornwall.
BEER, a common and well-known liquor, made with
malt and hops. See Brewing, he.
Beer, among weavers, a term that fignifies nineteen
ends of yarn, running all together the whole length of
the cloth.
Beer measure. See Measure.
BEESTING, a term ufed by country-people for the firft
milk taken from a cow after calving.
BEET, in botany. See Beta.
BEETLE, in the hiftory of infers. See Scara-
bjeus.
Beetle alfo denotes a wooden inftrument for driving
piles, he. It is likewife called a Jiamper, and by
paviors a rammer.
BEFORT, a town of Alface, fubje&to France, and fi-
tuated about 15 miles north of Bafil, in 70 E. long,
and 47q 35' N. lat.
BEG, or Bey, in the Turkilh affairs. See Bey.
BEGGAR, one who begs alms.
BEGHARDI, a certain fed! of heretics, which arofe in
Germany, and in the I ow Countries, about the end
of the 13th century. They madd profellion of the
monaftical life, without obferving celibacy ; and main¬
tained, that man could become as perfect in this life,
as he (hall be in heaven ; that every intellectual na¬
ture is of itfelf happy, without the fuccour of grace ;
and that he who is in thisAtate of-perfedion ought to
perform no good works, nor worlhip the hoft.
BEGLERBEG, a governor of one of the principal go¬
vernments in the Turkilh empire. There are two forts
of beglerbegs : The one have a certain revenue afligned
upon the cities, boroughs, and villages of their go¬
vernment, which they raife by power of the commiflion
granted to them by the fultan ; the others have a cer¬
tain rent paid by the treafurer of the grand fignior.
They are become almoft independent; and have under
their jurifdidion feveral fangiacs or particular govern-
mentsi and begs, agas, and other officers who obey
them.
BEGONIA, in botany, a genus of the polygamia mo-
noecia clafs. The hermaphrodite flower has no calix ;
the corolla has 5 petals ; it has many ftamina,. and 3
ftyli, the male has likewife no calix ; the corolla has
Vol. I. No. 21. 3
4 petals ; and has a great number of ftamina. There
is but one fpecies of begonia, viz. the obliqua, a na¬
tive of India.
BEGUARDI, or Beghardi. See Beghardi.
BEGUINS, congregations of devout young women, who
maintain themfelves by the work of their hands, lead¬
ing a middle kind of life between the fecular and re¬
ligious. Thefe focieties confift of feveral houfes placed
together in one inclofure, with one or more churches,
according to the number of beguins.
There is in every houfe a priorefs, without whofe
leave they cannot ftir out. Their vow is conceived in
thefe terms : Ipromife to be obedient and chafe, as
long as I continue in this beguinage. They obferve
a three years novitiate before they take the habit, and
the reftor of the parilh is their fuperior, but can do
nothing without the advice of eight beguins.
They are eftablilhed in feveral parts of Flanders.
BEHEADING, a capital punilhment, inflicted by cut¬
ting off the head with an ax, fword, he.
Among the Romans, beheading was a military pu¬
nilhment, performed at firft with an ax, but after¬
wards with a fword, as done at prefent in Holland and
France. In England the ax is preferred ; and in
Scotland they ufe, for this purpofe, a machine called
a. maiden.
BEHEN, in botany. See Cucubalus.
BEJA, a city of Alentejo, in Portugal, in 8° 40'W.
long, and 370 ^ N. lat.
BEICHLINGEN, a city of Thuringia, in the circle of
Upper Saxony in Germany, in 11 0 25' E. long, and
5 i° 20' N. lat.
BEILA, a town of Piedmont in Italy, about thirty-two
miles north of Turin ; E. long. 70 45,> and N.
lat. 450.
BEILSTEIN, a town of the landgraviate of HtlTe
in Germany, fituated about 32 miles north of Mentz,
in 8° E.long. and 50° 1,0' N. lat.
BEIZA, or Beizath, in Hebrew antiquity, a word
fignifying an egg, was a certain meafure in ufe a-
mong the Jews. The beiza was likewife a gold coin,
weighing forty drachms, among the Perfians, who
gave out, that Philip of Macedon owed their king
Darius a thoufand beizaths or golden eggs, for tri¬
bute-money; and that Alexander the Great refufed
to pay them, faying, that the bird which laid thefe
eggs was flown into the other world.
BELAC, a fmall city of la Marche, in the Lyonnois;
E, long. i° 15', and N. lat. 46° \ .
BELAY, in the fea-language, is to make fall the ropes
in their proper places.
BELCASTRO, a city of Calabria, in the kingdom of
Naples ; E. long. 170 ij7, and N. lat. 390 15'.
BELCOE, a town of Ireland, fituated on Loch-ninny,
in the county of Farmanagh, and province of Ulfter;:
W. long. 8° 67, and N. lat. 540 j'.
BELEM, a fortrefs on the north fide of the river Ta¬
gus, about three miles weft of Lilbon.
BELEMNITES, in natural hiftory, a fubftance con¬
cerning the pature of which there has been much dif-
pute. Some maintain it to be a petrified animal; others
6 U will
BEL ( 538 ) BEL
vtill have it to be a fofljl, tec. Linnaeus refers the
fcdcmnites to the clafs of (hells with feveral cells.
The drape of the belemnites is fometimes conical,
foroetimes cylindrical; and they commonly confiit of
a black horny kind of fubftance. Their length is from
two to eight inches ; and their diameter from the fixth
part of an inch to two or three inches. The inward
part confifts of rays; and there is generally a cell at
the large end, and a furrow running from top, to bot¬
tom. Dr Plott fays, that when fcraped or burnt, they
fmell like horn. They are generally hollow about an
inch deep, and filled with gravel. 1 heir colour is
various; fome are afh-coloured, others bluilh. They
are commonly found, in gravel-pits. See Plate LI.
fig 21.
BELEZERO, the capital of a province of the fame
name, in Ruffia, fituated on the fouth-eaft (hore of
the white lake; E. long. 36°, and N. lat. 6o° 5c/.
BELFAST, a port-town of Ireland, in the county of
Antrim, and province of Uliter; W. long. 6° 15',
N. lat. 540 38'.
BELFRY, that part of a fteeple where bells are hung,
or the timber frame whereby they are fupported.
BELG ARDEN, a town of Eaftern Pomerania, in Ger¬
many, fubjedt to Pruflia; E. long. 16? 5', and N.
lat. 540.
BELGOROD, the capital of a province of the fame
name, in Ruflia, fituated almoft in the middle of that
empire; E. long. 370, and N. lat. 510 id.
Belgorod is alfo a fortified town of Beflarabia, in
Turky, fituated on the Black-fea, at the mouth of
the river Neifter; E. long. 310, and N. lat. 46° 30'.
BELGRADE, the capital of the province of Servia,
in European Turky, fituated on the fouth fide of the
Danube, in E. long. 210 2o\ and N. lat. 45°. It
was yielded to the Turks in 1739.
BELI cculus, in natural hiftory. See Oculus.
BELIEF, the affent of the mind to the truth of any
propofition. See Metaphysics.
BELL, a well known machine, ranked by muficians a-
mong the mufical inflrnments of percuffion.
The metal of which a bell is made, is a compofition
of tin and copper, or pewter and copper; the propor¬
tion of one to the other is almoft twenty pounds of
pewter, or twenty-three pounds of tin, to one hundred
weight of copper.
Bell-metal is prohibited to be imported, as are
hawk-bells, tec.
The conflituent parts of a bell are the body or bar¬
rel, the clapper on the infide, and the ear or cannon
on which it hangs to a large beam of wood.
D/V/flg-BELL. See Pneumatics.
^\.\.-foundery. See Foundery.
BELL-yfWwr, in botany. See Campanula.
Bell-oiwi/, in botany. See Jacea.
BELLADONA, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of atropa. See Atropa.
BELLCLAIRE, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Sligo, and province of Connaught, about twenty-three
miles fouth-weft of Sligo; W. long. 90 5', and N.
to-5 3° 55'.
BELLE, a town in French Flanders, about twelve
miles north-eaft of Lifle; E. long. 20 4c/, N. lat.
50° 45'.
BELLENTS, a city ot Switzerland, in 90 E. long,
and 46° N. lat.
BELLESM, a town of the Orleanois in France; E.
long. 40', N. lat. 48° 30'.
BELLEY, a town of Burgundy in France, fituated on
the frontiers of Savoy, about fixteen miles north-weft
of Chamberiy; E. long. 50 20, N. lat. 450 4C/.
BELLEVILLE, a town of the Lyonois, in France,
about nineteen miles north of Lyons; E. long. 40
45', N. lat. 46° 8'.
BELLIDIASTRUM, in botany, a fynonime of a fpe-
cies of doronicum. See DoitoNicuM.
BELLIDIOIDES, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies
of chryfanthemum. See Chrysanthemum.
BELLING cf hops denotes their opening and expanding
themfelves. See Hops.
BELLIS, or Daisy, in botany, a genus of the fynge-
nefia polygamia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle of the
bellis is naked and conical; it has no pappus; the ca-
lix is hemifpherical, with fquamte of an equal fize ;
and the feeds are oval. There are two fpecies; viz.
the hortenfis, a native of feveral parts of Europe;
and the perennis, or common daify, a native of Bri¬
tain. The leaves of the perennis have a fubacid tafte,
and are recommended as vulneraries, and in afthmas
and heftic fevers.
BELLEISLE, an ifland on the coaft of Britany, in
. France; in 30 W. long, and 47° 20/ N. lat.
Bell isle is alfo an ifland of America, on the coaft oF
New Britain.
It gives name to the ftreights which Separate New¬
foundland from New Britain; in 58° W. long, and
*2° N. lat.
BELLON, a diftemper common in countries where they
fmelt lead-ore. It is attended with languor, intole¬
rable pains and fenfation of gripings in the belly, and .
generally coftivenefs.
Beafts, poultry, tec. as well as men, are fubje£t to
this diforder : Hence a certain fpace round the fmelt-
ing houfes is called bellon-ground, becaufe it is dan¬
gerous for an animal to feed upon it.
BELLONARII, in Roman antiquity, the priefts of Bel-
lona, who, in honour of that goddefs, ufed to make
incifions in their body; and, after having gathered the
blood in the palm of their hand, give it to thofe who
were partakers of their myfteries.
BELLONIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla is rotated; the capfule
confifts of one cell inclofing many feeds. There is -
but one fpecies, v/z. the afpera, a native of America.
BELLOWING, among fportfmen, denotes the noife of
roes in rutting-time.
BELLOWS, a machine fo contrived as to expire and
infpire the air by turns, by enlarging and contracting
its capacity.
This machine is ufed in chambers and kitchens, in
forges, furnaces, and founderies, to blow up the fire:
It ferves. alfo for-organs'and other pneumatic inftru-
ments3
B E M ( 5;
ments, to give them a proper degree of air : All thefe
are of various conftmf!ions, according to their diffe¬
rent purpofes; but in general they are compofed of two
flat boards, fometimes of an oval, fometimes of a tri¬
angular figure: Two'or more hoops, bent according
to the figure of the boards, are placed between them ;
a piece of leather, broad in the middle, and narrow
at both ends, is nailed on the edges of the boards,
which it thus unites together; as alfo on the hoops
which feparate the boards, that the leather may the
eafier open and fold again; a tube of iron, brafs, or
copper is faftened to the undermoft board, and there
is a valve within that covers the holes in the under¬
board to keep in the air.
Each pair of bellows imported is valued in the book
of rates at three (hillings and four pence, and pays
duty whereof is drawn back on expor¬
tation. See Pneumatics.
BEL^TJNA, the capital of the Bellunefe, in the domi¬
nions of Venice, about 40 miles north of Padua ; in
120 4c/ E. long, and 46° 20' N. lat.
BELLY, in anatomy, the fame with what is more ufually
called abdomen. See p. 256.
BELOAR, a ffone, otherwife called widuris. SeeWi-
n u a 1 s, ‘r
BELOMANGY, a fort of divination by means of arrows,
pra&ifed in the eaft, and particularly in Arabia.
Belomancy has been performed different ways,
whereof one was this: Suppofe a parcel of arrows,
eleven or more of them being put into a bag ; thefe
were afterwards drawn out, and according as they
were marked or not, they judged of future events.
BELONE, in ichthyology, the trivial name of afpecies
of efox. See Esox.
BELT, in the military art, a leathern girdle forfuftain-
ing the arms, <&c. of a foldier.
Belts, in aftronomy, two zones, or girdles, furround¬
ing the body of the planet of Jupiter, more lucid than
the reft, and of unequal breadth.
Belts, in geography, certain ftreights between the Ger¬
man ocean and the Baltic. The belts belong to the
king of Denmark, who exafts a toll from all fhips
which pafs through them, excepting thofe of Sweden,
which are exempted.
BELTURBET, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Cavan in the province of Ulfter, fituated upon the ri¬
ver Earn, about eight miles north of Cavan; in 70 3,5'
W. long, and 54° 7' N. lat.
BELTZ, the capital of a palatinate of the fame name, in
the province of Red Ruffia, in Poland; in 240 E. long,
and 50^ 5' N. lat.
BELVIDERE, in the Italian architedfnre, denotes
either a pavilion on the top of a building, or an artifi¬
cial eminence in a garden; the word literally, fignify-
, ing a fine prcfpett.
Belvidere, in geography, the capital of.a province of
the fame name, on the weftern coaftof the Morea, in
220 E. long, and 37q N. lat.
BEMA, in ecclefiaftical antiquity, denoted the moft fa-
cred part of a church, or that where the altar flood..
9 ) B E N
It was alfo ufed for the bifnop’s throne, as well as for
the ambo. See Ambo.
BEMBER, a chain of mountains, dividing India from
Tartary.
BEMSTER, a market-town of Dorfetfhire, about
twelves miles north-weft ■ of Dorchefter, fituated in
2° 50' W. long, and 30° 45' N. lat.
BEN. See Behen.
Ben of Judea, a name fometimes ufed for benzoin. See
Benzoin.
BENAVARRE, or Benhuarri, a town of Aragon in
Spain, fituated in ic/ E, long, and 42° $ N. lat.
BENBECULA, one of the weftern ifles of Scotland,
BENGALIS, or Bancahs. SeeBANGAns.
BENCH, or Banc, in law. See Banc.
Free Bench fignifies that eftate in copyhold-lands, which-
the wife, being efpoufed a virgin, has, after the de-
ceafe of her hufband, for her dower, according to the
cuftom of the manor. As to this free-bench, feveral
manors have feveral cuftoms; and in the manors of
Eaft and Weft Enbourne, in the county of Berks, and
other parts of England, there is a cuftom, that when
a copyhold tenant dies, the widow (hall have her free-
bench in all the deceafed hufband’s lands, whilft (he
lives Angle and ehafte ; but if fhe commits inconti-
nency, fhe (hall forfeit her eftate : Neverthelefs, upon
her coming into the court of the manor, riding on x
black ram, and having his tail in her hand, and at the
fame time repeating a form of words preferibed, the
fteward is obliged, by the cuftom of the manor, to re¬
admit her to her free-bench.
Widow's Bench. See Widow.
Amiable Bench. See Amiable.
BENCHERS, in the inns of court, the fenior members
of the fociety, who. are inverted with the government
thereof.
BENCOOLEN, a town and fort on the fouth-weft
coaft-of Sumatra, belonging to the E. India company,.
from whence great quantities of pepper are imported. ,
It is fituated in ioi0 E. long. , and 40 S. lat.
BEND, in heraldry, one of the nine honourable ordi¬
naries, containing a third part of the field when char¬
ged, and a fifth when plain. It is fometimes, like other,
ordinaries, indented, ingrafted, <&c. and is either dex¬
ter or finifter.
Bend dexter is formed by two lines-drawn from theup-‘
per p^rt of the fhield on the right, to the lower part,
of the left,, diagonally. It is fuppofed to reprefent a
fhoulder-belt, or a fcarf, when worn over the fhoulder.
See Plate LI. fig. 11.
'Bwd finijier is that which comes from the left fide of the .
fhield to the right: This the French heralds call a barre.
In Bend, is when any things, borne in arms, are placed i
obliquely from the upper corner .to. the oppofite lower,
as the bend lies.
P-arti per Bend-, Point in Bend, &c. See Parti
and Point.
BENDER, a town of Beffarabia, in European Turky,
fituated on the river Neifter, in 29° E.long. and 46°
40' N. lat.
BEN-
BEN ( 540 ) BEN
BENBERICK, a fea-port town, fxtuated on the Perfian
gulf.
BENDIDIA, a feftival, not unlike the Bacchanalia, ce¬
lebrated by the Athenians in honour of Diana.
BENDING, in a general fenfe, the reducing a ftraight
body into a curve, or giving it a crooked form.
The bending of timber-boards, ebf. is effected by
means of heat, whereby their fibres are fo relaxed
that you may bend them into any figure.
Bending, in the fea-language, the tying two ropes or
cables together: Thus they fay, bend the cable, that
is, make it fall: to the ring of the anchor; bend the
fail, make it fall to the yard.
BENDITTO, a town of the Mantuan in Italy, fituated
near the fouth fltore of the river Po, about twelve
miles fouth-eaft of Mantua, in 110 20' E. long, and
450 N lat.
BENDLET, in heraldry, the fame with cottice. See
Cottice.
BENDS, in a (hip, the fame with what is called wails,
or \yales ; the outmoft timbers of a flip’s fide, on
which men fet their feet in climbing up. They are
reckoned from the water, and are called the firll, fe-
cond, or third bend. They are the chief ftrength of
a fliip’s fides, and have the beams, knees, and foot-
hooks bolted to them.
BENDY, in heraldry, is the field divided into four, fix,
or mote parts, diagonally, and varying in metal and
colour.
The general cuftom of England is to make an even
number, but in other countries they regard it not, whe¬
ther even or odd. See Plate LI. fig. 12.
Counter Bendy is ufed by the French, to exprefs what
we ordinarily call bendy of fix per bend finifter, coun-
terchanged.
Barry Bendy. See Barry.
/G/y Bendy. See Paly.
BENE, or De bene esse. See De bene esse.
BENCAPED, among failors. A (hip is faid to beben-
caped when the water does not flow high enough to
bring her off the ground, out of the dock, or over
the bar.
BENEDICITE, among ecclefiaftical writers, an appella¬
tion given to the fong of the three children in the fiery
furnace, on account of its beginning with the word
benedicite.
BENEDICTINS, in church-hiftory, an order of monks,
who profefs to follow the rules of St. Benedift.
The benedi&ins, being thofe only that are proper¬
ly called monks, wear a loofe black gown, with large
wide fleeves, and a capuche, or cowl, on their heads,
ending in a point behind. In the canon law, they are
ftyled black friers, from the colour of their habit.
The rules of St. Benedift, as obferved by theEng-
Ii(h monks before the diflblution of the monafterieS,
were as follows: They were obliged to perform their
devotions feven times in twenty four hours, the whole
circle of which devotions had a refped to the paflion
and death of Chrift: They were obliged always to go
two and two together: Every day in lent they were
obliged to faft till fix in the evening, and abated of
their ufual time of deeping and eating; but they were
not allowed to praftife any voluntary aufterity without
leave of their fuperior: They never converfed in their
refe&ory at meals, but were obliged to attend to the
reading of the fcriptures : They all flept in the fame
dormitory, but not two in a bed ; they lay in -their
cloaths : For fmall faults they were (hut out from
meals ; for greater, they were debarred religious com¬
merce, and excluded from the chapel; and as to in--
corrigible offenders, they were excluded from the mo-
nafieries. Every monk had two coats, two cowls, a
table-book, a knife, a needle, and a handkerchief;
and the furniture of their bed was a mat, a blanket, a
rug, and a pillow.
BENEDICTION, or Blessing. The Hebrews, un¬
der this name, underfland the prefent ulually fent from
one friend to another, as alfo the blefling conferred by
the patriarchs, on their death-beds, upon then children.
The privilege of benediction was one of thoie early
inftances of honour and refpeCt paid to biftiops in the
primitive church. The cuftom of bowing the head to
them, and receiving their bleflings, was become univer-
fal. In the weftern churches there was anciently a kind
of benediction which followed the Lord’s prayer;
and aftef the communion, the people were difmiffed
with a benediction.
BENEDICTUS, among phyficians, an epithet given to
feveral medicines, on account of their lenitive quali¬
ties ; thus we meet with aqua benedicla, benediciutn
laxativum, vinum benediflum, &c. *
BENEDIT rO Sacco. Seq Sacco.
BENEFICE,,in an ecclefiaftical fenfe, a church endowed
with a revenue for the performance of divine fervice ;
or the revenue itfelf afligned to an ecclefiaftical per-
fon, by way of ftipend, for the fervice he is to do
that church.
All Church-preferments, except bi(hoprics,,are called
benefices; and all benefices are, by the canonifts,
fometimes ftyled dignities: But we now ordinarily di- .
ftinguifti between benefice and dignity, applying dignity
to bifljoprics, deanries, archdeaconries, and preben¬
daries ; and benefice to parfonages, vicarages, and
donatives.
Benefices are divided by the canonifts into fimple
and facerdotal: In the firft there is no obligation but
to read prayers, fing, &c. fuch are canonries, cha-
plainfhips, chantries, Ctc.: The fecond are charged with
the cure of fouls, or the direftion and guidance of
confciences; fuch are vicarages, reftories, fcc.
The Romanifts again diftinguifti benefices into re¬
gular and fecular.
Regular or titular benefices are thofe held by a reli¬
gious, or a regular, who has made profeflion of feme
religious order; fuch are abbeys, priories, conven¬
tuals, &c.; or rather, a regular benefice is that which
cannot be conferred on any but a religious, either by
its foundation, by the inftitution of fome fuperior, or
by prefcription : For prefcription, forty years poflef-.
fion by a religious makes the benefice regular.
Secular benefices are only fuch as are to be given to
fecular priefts, i. e. to fuch as live in the world, and
are
BEN ( 5 <
are not engaged in any monadic order. All benefices
are reputed fecular, till the contrary is made to ap¬
pear. They are called fecular benefices, becaufe held
by feculars ; of which kind are almoft all cures.
BENEFIT of Clergy. See Clergv.
BENESCHAW, the name of two towns ; the one in the
kingdom of Bohemia, and the other in Silefia.
BENEVENTE, a town of Leon, in Spain, fituated on
the river Efta, about 40 miles fouth of the city of Leon,
in 6° W. long, and 420 ic/ N. lat.
BENEVENTO, the capital of the Farther Principate,
in the kingdom of Naples, about 34 miles north-tad
of the city of Naples; fituated in 150 30' E. long, and
410 ij' N. lat.
BENEVOLENCE, in morals, ftgnifies the love of man¬
kind in general, accompanied with a defire to promote
their happinefs. See Morals.
Benevolentia regis babenda is the ancient form of
purchafing the king’s pardon and favour, on fubmiflion,
in order to be redored to place, title, or edate.
BENFIELD, a town of Alface, in Germany, about 15
miles fouth of Stralburg; fituated in 70 30' E. long,
and 48° 25' N. lat.
BENGA, one of the Molucca iflands. See Molucca.
BENGAL, the mod eaderly province of the Mogul’s
empire, lying at the bottom of a large bay, which
takes its name from this province.
It is one of the mod fertile provinces in India, be¬
ing yearly overflowed by the Ganges, as Egypt is by
the Nile.
BENGUELA, a kingdom upon the wedern coad of
Africa between Angola and Jaga. It is alfo the name
of the capital of that kingdom.
BENJAMIN, the fame with benzoin. SeeBENZOiN.
BENJAEL, the mod confiderable river of the illand Bor¬
neo, which, arifingnear the middle of that ifland, runs
fouthwards, and falls into the great South Sea.
BENIN, the capital of a country of the fame name, on
the coad of Guinea; fituated in j° E. long, and 70
30' N. lat.
BENSHEIM, a town of Germany, fituated on the ead-
fideof the river Rhine, about xo miles ead of Worms,
in 8° 30/ E. long, and 490 4c/ N. lat.
BENTHEIM, the capital of a county of the fame name,
in the circle of Wedphalia; fituated in 70 15'E. long,
and 520 25' N. lat.
BENTIVOGLK), a town in the territory of Bologna,
in Italy, about 10 miles north of that city, fituated in
120 E. long, and 440 3c/ N. lat.
BENZOIN, in materia raedica, a concrete refinous juice,
obtained from a large tree growing naturally in both
the Indies. The refin is brought from the Ead Indies in
large mafles, compofed of white and light-brown pieces,
with yellowifh (peeks: It eafily breaks betwixt the
hands. That which is whited is mod edeemed. It
has very little tade; but its fmell is very fragrant and
agreeable, efpecially when heated. The principal ufe
of benzoin is in perfumes, and as a cofmetic; and en¬
ters in fubdance only into one officinal compofition,
the balfamum tranmaticum. But its flowers, which is
a white faline concrete obtained by committing it to
Vol. I. No. 23, 3
t ) B E R
the fire in proper veflels, are recommendedjin diioi
ders of the bread ; and in this intention they are made
an ingredient in the paregoric elixir, pectoral elixir,
and pills, and in the troches of fulphur.
BERAMS, a coarfe cloth, all made with cotton-thread,
which comes from the Ead Indies, and particularly
from Surat.
BERAR, an inland province of India, on this fide the
Ganges, lying wedward of Orixa.
BERAUN, a town of Bohemia, fituated in 140 E. long,
and 50° 2 N. lat.
BERAY, a town of Normandy, in France, fituated in
i° eo'W. long, and 49c>6, N. lat.
BERBERII, the Palsy, in medicine. See Palsy.
BERBERIS, in botany, a genus of the hexandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix confids of fix leaves or pieces;
the petals are fix, with two glands at the ungues; it
has no flylus; and the berry contains two feeds. There;
are two fpecies, viz. the vulgaris, or barberry or pip-
peridge-bufh, a native of Britain ; and the cretica, a
native of Candia. The inner bark, which ij bitter,
is faid to be of ufe in the jaundice. The berries,
which are gratefully acid, have been given with fuc-
cefs in bilious flukes, and difeafes proceeding from
heat, acrimony, or thinnefs of the juices.
BERCHEROIT, or Berko its, a weight ufed at Arch¬
angel, and in all the Ruffian dominions, to weigh fuch
merchandizes as are heavy and bulky: It weighs about
364 pounds Englifh avoirdupois weight.
BERENGARIANS, a religious fe£t of the Xlth cen¬
tury, which adhered to the opinion of Berengarius,
who, even in thofe days, drenuoufly aflerted, that the
bread and wine in the Lord’s fupper is not really and
eflentially, but only figuratively, changed into the
body and blood of Chrifl.
BERENICE, a port-town of Egypt, now called Suez.
Berenice’s hair, coma Berenices. SccComa.
BERE-REGIS, a market-town in Dorfetfhire, about
10 miles north-eaft of Dorchefter, in 20 20 W. long,
and 50° 40' N. lat.
BERESOWA, a town of Mufcovy, in Samogitia, fitu¬
ated upon the river Oby.
BERG, a dutchy of Weflphalia, in Germany, lying on
the eaftern fhore of the river Rhine, which feparates
it from Cologne.
'Bzkg of St.Winox. See Winoxberg.
BERGAMO, a town in the territories of Venice, in
Italy, about 25 miles north-eaft of Milan, in io° E.
long, and 450 40' N. lat.
BERGAMOT, the name of a fragrant effence extracted
from a fruit which is produced by ingrafting a branch
of a lemon-tree upon the ftockpf a bergamot-pear. It
is alfo the denomination of a coarfe tapeftry, manu¬
factured with flocks of filk, wool, cotton, hemp, ox,
cow, or goats hair, and fuppofed to bo invented by the
people of Bergamo.
BERGAS., a town of European Turky, in Romania, in
28° E long, and 41° 17'N. lat.
BERGEN, the capital of a province of the (ame name,
in Norway : It is a confiderable port-town on the Ger¬
man ocean, in 6° E. long, and 60 0 N. lat.
6 X
Bergen,
B E R ( 542 ) B E R
Bergen is alfo the name of the capital of the ifle of Ru-
gen, on the coafl of Pomerania, in 140 E. long, and
540 15' N. lat.
Bergen-op-zoom, a fortified town of Dutch Brabant,
about 20 miles north of Antwerp, in 40 5' E. long,
and 5 1 9 .30' N. lat.
BERGERACK, a city of Guienne in France, fitu-
■uated on the river Dordonne, about 40 miles call of
Bourdeaux, in 2O0E. long, and 44® 55' N. lat.
BERG-GRUEN, a kind of green ochre, ufed in paint-
BERGHMOT, an aflembly, or court, held upon a hill
in Derbylhire, for deciding controverfies among the
miners.
BERGZABERN, a town of Lower Alface, about five
miles fouth of Landau, in 8® E. long, and 49® 5' N.
lat. It is fubjefi to France.
BERKSHIRE, a county in England, lying on the fouth
fide of the river Thames, oppolite to Oxfordfhire and
Buckinghamlhire. It gives the title of earl to a branch
of the Howard family.
BERLIN, the capital of the king of Pruflia’s dominions
in Germany, fituated on the river Spree, in the mar-
quifate of Brandenburg; in i4°E.long. and 52® 30
N. lat.
Berlin is alfo the name of a kind of chariot, fo called
from the city of Berlin.
BERME, in fortification, a fpace of ground left at the
foot of the rampart, on the fide next the country, de¬
fined to receive the ruins of the rampart, and prevent
their filling up the folfe. It is fometimes palifadoed,
for the more fecurity; and in Holland it is generally
planted with a quick-fet hedge. It is alfo called li-
z’ere, relais, foreland, reiraite, pais de four is. See.
BERMUDA-ISLANDS, aclufterof very fmall iflands,
in the Atlantic ocean, lying almoft in the fhape of a
fhepherd’s hook, in 65 ® W. long, and 32° N. lat.
BERMUDIANA, in botany, a fynonime of the ixia.
See Ixia.
BERN, a town of Bohemia, about 15 miles weft of Prague,
in 14° E. long, and $0° N. lat.
Bern is alfo the name of a city and canton in Switzer¬
land ; the former being fituated in 70 id E. long, and
47° N. lat.
The Canton of Bern is. by far the moft extenfive
and powerful of all Switzerland: Their government is
ariftocraticaf and their religion proteftant, according
to the Prelbyterian form.
BERNARDIA, in botany, a fynonime of the adelia.
See Adelia.
BERNARDINES, an order of monks, founded by Ro¬
bert abbot of Mokme, and reformed by St. Bernard.
They wear a white robe with a black fcapulary; and
when they officiate they are cloathed with a large gown
which is all white, and hath great fleeves, with a
hood of the fame colour.
BERN AW, the name of three towns in Germany, one
in the efeftorate of Brandenburg, another in the bi-
fhopric of Ratifbon, and the third in the Upper Pa¬
latinate.
BERNBURG, a town of Anhalt, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, lituatedin 120 2d E.long. and 510 5o'N.lau
BERNERA, one of the weftern ifles of Scotland, lying
in lat. 56° 48'.
BERNICOLA, in ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpeciesof anas. See Anas.
BERNICLE, in zoology. Se Lepas.
BERRY. See Bacca.
Berry, in geography, a territory of the Orleanois, ha¬
ving Tourain on the weft, and the Nivernois on the
eaft.
Berry-point, a cape at foe entrance of Torbay iu
Devonffiire.
BERSELLO, or Bresello, a town of the Modenefe,
in Italy, fituated on the river Po, about 14 miles north-
eaft of Parma ; in 110 E. long, and 440 4c/ N. lat.
BERTH, or Birth, among failors. See Birth.
BER T RAND, or St. Bertrand, a city of Gafcony,
in France, fituated on the river Garonne, about 45
miles fouth of Toloufe, in 30'E. long, and 43° 15'
N. lat.
BERVY, a fea-port town and borough of Scotland, fi¬
tuated on the German ocean, about 22 miles fouth-
weft of Aberdeen, in 20 5' W. long, and 56° 50' N. lat.
BERWICK, a borough-town on the borders of England
and Scotland, fituated on the north fide of the river
Tweed, in i° 40' W. long, and 55° 30'-N. lat. It
fends two members to parliament.
AW/Zj-Berwick, a town of Scotland, fituated at the
entrance of the frith of Forth, about 17 miles eaft of
Edinburgh, in 2° ifW. long, and 56° 5' N. lat.
BERYL, in natural hiftory, called by our lapidaries
aqua marina, is a pellucid gem of a bluifh green co¬
lour, found in the Eaft Indies and about the gold mines
of Peru : We have alfo fome from Silefia, but what
are brought from thence are oftener coloured cryftals
than real beryls ; and when they are genuine, they are
greatly inferior both in hardnefs and luftre to the ori¬
ental and Peruvian kinds.
The beryl, like moft other gems, is met with both
in the pebble and columnar form, but in the latter
moft frequently. In the pebble form it ufually ap¬
pears of a roundilh but flatted figure, and commonly
full of fmall flat faces, irregularly difpofed. In the
columnar or cryftalline form it always confifts of hex-
angular columns, terminated by hexangular pyramids.
It never receives any admixture of colour into it, nor
lofes the blue and green, but has its genuine tinge in
the degrees from a very deep and dulky to the paleft
imaginable of the hue of fea-water.
The beryl, in its perfect ftate, approaches to the
hardnefs of the granet, but it is often fofter; and its
fize is from that of a fmall tare to that of a pea, a
a horfe-bean, or even a walnut. It may be counter¬
feited by reducing burnt copper to an impalpable pow¬
der, and melting it with cryftalline glafs or calcined
cryftal, in the proportion of one dram to a pound of
glafs.
HEKYL-cryflal, in natural hiftory, a fpeces of what Dr
Hill calls ellipotnacrojlyla, or imperfeA cryftals, is of
an extreme pure, clear, and equal texture, andfcarce
ever fubjeft to the fliglfteft films or blemilhes. It is
ever conftant to the peculiarity of its figure, which is
that of a long and Header column, remarkably taper¬
ing.
BET ( 543 ) BET
ing towards the top, and very irregularly hexanguJar.
It is of a very fine tranfparence, and naturally of a
pale brown ; and carries fo evident marks of diltinffion
from all brown cryftals, that our lapidaries call it, by
way of eminence, the beryl-cryfial, or Amply the beryl,
BES, or Bessis, in Roman antiquity, two thirds of
the as. See As.
Bes alfo denotes two thirds of the jugerum. See Ju-
GERUM.
BESAILE, fignifies the father of a grand-father.
Besaile, in law, a writ that lies where the great-grand¬
father was feifed in fee of any lands, <bc. at the time
of his death'; and after his- deceafe, a Granger enters
thereon, the fame day, and keepa out the heir.
BESANCON, the capital of Franche Comte in France,
fituated in 6° E. long, and 470 20r N. lat.
BESANT, or Bezant, a coin of pure gold, of an un¬
certain value, ftruck at Byzantium, in the time of the
Chriftian emperors ; from hence the gold offered by
the king at the altar, is called befant or bifant.
Besants, in heraldry, round pieces of gold, without
any ftamp, frequently borne in coats of arms. See
Plate LI. fig. 14.
BESIERS, a city of lower Languedoc in France, about
two miles north of the Mediterranean, and fifteen
north-eaff of Narbonne, in 30 E. long, and 430 25'
N. lat.
BESLERIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermia ciafs. The calix is divided into five parts;
and the berry globular, and contains many feeds. The
fpecies are three, viz. the melittifolia, the lutea, and
the criftata, all natives of America.
BESORCH, a coin of tin, or Lome alloyed metal, cur¬
rent at Ormus, at the the rate of parts of a farthing
fterling.
BESSARABIA, a province of Turky in Europe, lying
about the feveral mouths of the Danube.
BESSIS. See Bes.
BESSY, one of the Molucca iflands, fituated in the In¬
dian ocean, in 10 5c/ S. lat.
BESTAIL, or Bestial, in ancient ffatutes, all kinds-
of beads, or cattle, efpecially thofe purveyed for the.
king’s provifion.
BESTIARII, in Roman antiquity, fuch as fought againff
beads, or thofe who were expofed to them by fentence
of the law. There were four kinds- of bediarii; the
fird were thofe who made a trade of it, and fought for
money; the fecond were fuch young men as,., to fhew
their drength and dexterity in managing their arms,,
fought againd beads; the third kind was, where feve¬
ral bediarii were let loofe at once, well armed, againd:
a number of beads; and the fourth kind were thofe
condemned to the beads, confiding either of enemies-
taken prifoners in war,, or as being flaves, and guilty
of fome enormous crime; thofe were all expofed na¬
ked, and without defence.
BESTRICIA, a city of Tranfylvania, remarkable for
the gold mines near it; it is fituated in 220 E. long,
and 48° N lat.
BETA, the beet, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
digynia clafs. The calix has four leaves; it has no
corolla; the feeds are (haped like kidneys, and are fim'
ated within the bafe of the calix. There are two fpe"
cies, viz. the maritima or fea-beet, a native of Bri"
tain ; and the vulgaris or green beet of Bauhinus.
which is chiefly cultivated for culinary ule. Decoc¬
tions of the vulgaris loofen the belly ; and hence have
been ranked among the emollient herbs. The juice
exprefled from the roots is a powerful errhine.
BETANCOS, a city of Gallicia in Spain, in 8° 50'
W. long, and 430 15' N. lat.
BETAW. See Betue.
BETEL, or Betle, in botany, the trivial name of a
fpecies of piper. See Piper.
BETELFAGUI, a town of Arabia Felix, about thir¬
ty-five leagues from Mocha.
BETHLEHEM, once a flouridling city of Paledine,
but now only a poor village, is dill much frequented,,
as being the place of our Saviour’s birth ; it is fitu¬
ated in 36° E. long, and 310 30' N. lat.
Bethlehem is alfo the name of a town of Brabant, in
the Audrian Netherlands, about two miles north of
Louvain, fituated in 40 35' E. long, and 51 0 N. lat.
BETHLEHEMITES, in church-hidory, a religious
order, called alfo Jlar-bearers, becaufe they were di-
flinguiflied by a red dar with five rays,, which they
wore on their bread, in memory of the dar that ap¬
peared to the wife men, and conduded them to Beth¬
lehem.
BETHUNE, a little fortified town of Artois, in the
French Netherlands, about thirteen miles north of
Arras, fituated in 2° 35' E. long, and 506 32'
N. lat.
BETLIS, a city in the north of Curdidan, fituated on
a deep rock, at the fouth end of the lake Van, on the
frontiers f>f Perfia and Turky, in 4.50 E. long. and.
and 370 30' N. lat.
BETONY, in botany, the Englidi name of the betoni-
ca, and of feveral fpecies of veronica. See Betonica
and Veronica.
BETROTHMENT, among civilians, the fame with;
efpoufals,.
BETUE, or Betaw, a terriory in Dutch Guelderland,^
between the rivers Maefe and Lech, fuppofed to be-
the ancient Batavia.
BETULA, or Bi rch-tree,. in botany, a genus of the
monoecia tetrandria clafs. The calix of the male flower
has but one trifid leaf, and inclofes three flowers; the co¬
rolla confids likewife of one leaf cut into four fegmcnts..
The calix of the female is trifid, and inclofes two
flowers ; and the feed is membranous, and alated on;
each fide. The fpecies are five, viz., tire alba or
birch-tree, a native of Britain ; the nigra, and lenta,
both natives of America; the nana, a native of Lap-
land, Ruflia, and Sweden; and the alnus, likewife a
native of Lapland. The bark of the alba,.or common
birch-tree, is a highly inflammable fubdance ; but its
medical virtues are little known. Upon boring the
trunk in the the beginning of fpring, a fweetiih juice
iffues forth in great quantities ; one branch will bleed:
an Engliflr gallon or more in a day. This juice is
chiefly recommended in fcorbutio diforders, andotherr
foui-
B £ Z ( 544 ) BIB
foulneffes of the blood: Its moil fenfible effeft is to
promote the urinary difcharge.
BEVECUM, a town of Brabant in the Auftrian Ne¬
therlands, about feven miles fouth of Louvain, fituated
in 40 45' E. long, and 50° 45' N. lat.
BEVEL, among mafons, carpenters, &c. a kind of
ftjuare, one leg whereof is frequently crooked, ac¬
cording to the fweep of an arch or vault. It is
moveable on a centre, and fo may be fet to any
angle.
BEVEL-angle, any other angle befides thofe of ninety or
forty-five degrees. See Angle.
BEVELAND, the name of two iflands, in the pro¬
vince of Zealand, in the United Netherlands.
The are called North and South Beveland; and lie
between the ealtern and weltern branches of the
Scheld.
BEVERLY, a borough-town of Yorklhire, about feven
miles north of Hull, in 12' W. long, and 530 50'
N. lat. It fends two members to parliament.
BEVILE, in heraldry, a thing broken or opening like a
carpenter’s rule: Thus we fay, he beareth argent, a
chief bevile, vert, by the name of berverlis. See
Plate LI. fig. 13.
BEUTHEN, the name of two towns in Silefia, one of
which is famous for a filver mine.
BEWDLEY, a borough-town of Worcellerfitire, fitu¬
ated on the river Severn, about twelve miles north of
Worcefter, in 20 20' W. long, and 520 25' N- lat-
It fends only one member to parliament.
BEWITS, in falconry, pieces of leather, to which a
hawk’s bells are faftened, and buttoned to his legs.
BEXOQUILLO, a name fometimes given to the white
ipecacuanha.
BEY, among the Turks, fignifies a governor of a coun¬
try or town. The Turks write it begh, or bek, but
pronounce it bey.
This word is particularly applied to a lord of a ban¬
ner, whom, in the fame language, they call fangias-
beg or bey. Every province in furky is divided into
feven fangiacs, or banners, each of which qualifies a
bey ; and thefe are all commanded by the governor of
the province, whom they alfo call begler-beg, that is,
lord of all the beghs or beys of the province : Thefe
beys are much the fame as bannerets were formerly in
England.
Bey of Tunis, the fame with the dey of Algiers, is the
prince or king of that kingdom.
BEYLAN, a town of Syria, upon the road from Aleppo
to Conllantinople.
BEZANS, cotton cloths, which come from Bengal;
■fome are white, and others ftripped with feveral co¬
lours.
BEZANTLER, the branch of a deer’s horns next be¬
low the brow-antler.
BEZOAR, in natural hiftory, is a llony concretion
found in the ftomach of feveral animals of the goat
kind. It is compofed of concentrical coats furround-
ihg each other, with a fmall cavity in the middle, con¬
taining a bit of wood, Itraw, hair, or the like fub-
Eances. . .
There are two kinds of bezoar. The firft, which is
brought from Perfia and the Eaft Indies, is found in
the flomach of the capra bezoardica, and efteemed by
phyficians to be the beft. It is called oriental bezoar,
and is of a fhining dark-green or olive-colour, arid has
an even fmooth furface. On removing the outer coat,
that which lies underneath is likewife fmooth and Ihi-
ning. It is generally lefs than a walnut.
The fecond kind, called occidental bezoar, is
brought from the Spanilh Weft Indies, has a rough
furfftce, and lefs of a green colour than the oriental.
It is likewife much heavier, more brittle, and of a
loofer texture; the coats are thicker, and, on break¬
ing, exhibits a mynber of ftrise curioufly interwoven.
The occidental is generally larger than a walnut, and
fometimes as big as a goofe-egg.
The great value of this ftone in Perfia and the Eaft,
and the little ufe it is found to be of in Europe, has
made many fufpedt that the true kind is never brought
to us. Many of them are indeed evidently made by
. art. The ufual mark to diftinguilh its being of a good
quality, is its ftriking a deep green colour on white
paper that has been rubbed with chalk. But it is of
little importance to fay much on this fubjeft. The
ftone is nothing more than a morbid concretion, much
of the fame nature with the human calculus, of no
fmell or tafte, indigeftible in the ftomach of the animal
in which it is found, and fcarce cap'able of being adled
upon by any of the juices of the human body ; and,
notwithftanding its many boafted virtues, it cannot be
confidered in any other light than as an abforbent of
the weakeft kind.. However, bezoar, on account of
its high price, if it ferves no other purpofe, is of an
excellent ufe in the apothecaries bill.
BEZOARDIC, an appellation given to whatever par¬
takes of the nature of bezoar; alfo to compound me¬
dicines whereof bezoar makes an ingredient.
BIA, in commerce, a name given by the Siamefe to
thofe fmall Ihells which are called cowries throughout
almoft all the other parts of the Eaft Indies. See
Cowries.
BIAFAR, a kingdom of Africa in Negritia,-bounded
on the Weft by tl kingdom of Benin, on the north
by that of Medra, and on the eaft and fouth by the
kingdom of Mujac.
BIALOGOROD, a town of Befiarabia, upon the Nie-
fter. It is likewife called Akerman; E. long. 320
• 20, N. lat. 46° 24/.
BIALGRODKO, the capital of the Ukraine, fituated
upon the river Pnetz.
BIARU, a cape on the north-eaft part of the ifland of
Macaflar, in the Indian Ocean.
BIAS, or Biass, in a general fenfe, the inclination or
bent of a perfon’s mind to one thing more than an¬
other. It alfo fignifies the lead or weight put into a
bowl, that draws or turns the courfe of it any way to
which the bias looks.
BIATHANATI, the fame with filicides, or felos de fe.
BIBERSBERG, a town of Upper Hungary, fifteen
miles north of Freiburg; E. long. 170 30', and N,
i2. ADVICE, liAKU
I)Af.KXA
Hate XJ.
<3--
IB^KR OKMEJ^TiE IBaRHED CilO S S
BIB ( 545 ) BIB
BIBIO, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies of ti-
pula. See Ti pula.
BIBITORY mufcle, the fame with the adduftor oculi.
See Adductor.
BIBLE, a name applied by Chriftians, by way of emi¬
nence or diftindtion, to the colleftion of facred wri¬
tings, or the holy fcriptures of the Old and New Te-
ftament; known alfo by various other appellations, as,
the Sacred Books, Holy Writ, Infpired Writings,
Scriptures, ’be. The Jews ftiled the Bible (that is,
the Old Telkment) fnikra, which fignifies Lejfon, or
Leflure. ,
This collection of the facred writings, containing
thofe of the Old and New Teftament, is judly looked
upon as the foundation of the Jewiflr as well as the
Chriftian religion. The Jews, it is true, acknow¬
ledge only the fcriptures of the Old Teftament, the
correcting and publifhing of which is unanimoufly a-
feribed, both by the Jews and Chriftians, to Ezra.
Some of the ancient fathers, on no other founda¬
tion than that fabulous and apocryphal book, the fe-
cond book of Efdras, pretend, that the fcriptures
were entirely loft and deftroyed at the Babyloniih
captivity, and that Ezra reftored them all again
by divine revelation. What is certain is, that in
the reign of Jofiah there was no other book of
the law extant befides that found in the temple bp
Hilkiah; from which original, by order of that pious
king, copies were immediately written out, and fearch
made for all the other parts of the fcriptures, (2 Kings
xxii.); by which means copies of the whole became
multiplied among the people, who carried them with
them into their captivity. After the return of the
Jews from the Babylonilh captivity, Ezra got toge¬
ther as many copies as he could of the Sacred wri¬
tings, and out of them all prepared a correct edition,
difpofing the feveral books in their proper order, and
fettling the canon of feripture for his time. Thefe
books he divided into three parts. 1. The Law.
2. The Prophets. 3. 'jTh6 Cetiibim, or 'Hagiogra-
phia, i. e. The holy nuritings.
I. The Law contains, x. Genefis. 2. Exodus.
3. Leviticus. 4. Numbers. 5. Deuteronomy.
II The writings of the Prophets are, 1. Jbftma.
2. Judges, with Ruth. 3. Samuel. 4. Kings, 5. I-
faiah. 6. Jeremiah, with his Lamentations; 7. E-
zekiel. 8. Daniel. 9. The twelve, minor Pro¬
phets. 10. Job. ix. Ezra. 12. Nehemiah. 13.
Efther.
III. And the Hagiographia confifts of, 1 The
Pfalms. 2. The Proverbs. 3. Ecclefiaftes. 4. The
Song of Solomon. This divifion was made for the
fake of reducing’ the number of the facred books to
the number of the letters in their alphabet, which
amount to twenty-two At prefent, the Jews reckon
twenty-four books in their canon of feripture, in dif¬
pofing of which the law ftands as it did in the former,
divifion, and the prophets are diftributed into the for¬
mer and latter prophets.
The former prophets are,
Jofiiua, Judges, Samuel, Kings.
Vol. I. Numb. 23.
The latter prophets are,
Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor prophets.
And the hagiographia confift of.
The Pfalms, the Proverbs, Job, the Song of Solomon,
Ruth, the Lamentations, Ecclefiaftes, Efther, Daniel,
Ezra, the Chronicles.
Under the name of Ezra, they comprehend Nehe¬
miah. It is true this order hath not always been obfer-
ved, but the variations from it are of little or no moment.
The five books pf the law are divided into fifty-four
fettions. This divifion many of the Jews hold to have
been appointed by Mofes himfelf; but others, with more
probability, aferibe it to Ezra. The defign of this di¬
vifion was, that one of thefe fedtions might be read in
their fynagogues every fabbath-day. The number was
54, becaufe in their intercalated years, a month being
then added, there were 54 fabbaths. In other years,
. they reduced them to 52, by twice joining together two
Ihort feddions. Till the perfecution of Antiochus Epi-
phanes, they read only the law; but the reading of it be¬
ing then prohibited, they fubftituted in the room of it
J4 feftions ou& of the Prophets; and when the reading
of the law was reftored by the Maccabees, the fedtion
which was read every fabbath out of the law, fervedfor
their firft lefibn, and the fedtion out of the prophets for
their fecond. Thefe fedHons were divided into verfes, of
which divifion, if Ezra was not the author, it was intro^
duced not long after him, and feems to have been defigned.
for the ufe of the Targumifts, or Chaldee interpreters ;
for after the return of the Jews from the Babylonilh cap¬
tivity, when the Hebrew language had ceafed to be their
mother tongue, and the Chaldee grew into ufe inftead
of it, the cuftom was, that the law fhould be firft read
in the original Hebrew, and then interpreted .to the peo¬
ple in the Chaldee language, for which purpole thefe
Ihorter fedtions or periods were very convenient.
The divifion of the fcriptures into chapters, as we at
prefent have them, is of much later date. Some attri¬
bute it to Stephen Langton, archbilhop of Canterbury,
in the reigns of John and Henry III. But the true au¬
thor of the invention was Hugo de Sandto Caro, com¬
monly called Hugo Cardinalis, becaufe he was the firft
Dominican that ever was raifed to the degree of cardi¬
nal. This Hugo flourilhed about the year 1240. He
wrote a comment on the fcriptures, and projedled the
firft concordance, which is that of the vulgar Latin Bi¬
ble. The aim of this work being.for the more eafy find¬
ing out any word or pafiage in the feriptures, he foiind it
neceflary to divide the book into fedtions, and the lec¬
tions into fubdivifions ; for till that time the vulgar La¬
tin Bibles were without any divifion at all. Thele fec-
tions are the chapters into which the Bible hath ever
fince been divided. But the fubdiylfion of, the chanters
was not then into verfes. as it is now. Hugo’s method of
fubdividingthem was by the letters A; B, C, D, E, F, G,
placed in the margin at an equal diftance from each other,
according to the length' of the chapters. The fubdivi-
fioo ol the chapters into verfes, as they now Hand in our
Bibles, had its original from a famous Jewilh rabbi, na¬
med Mordecai Nathan, about the year 1445. This rab¬
bi, in imitation of Hugo Cardinalis, drew up a concord-
6 Y anee
3
B 1 B ( 546 ) BIB
ance to the Hebrew Bible, for the ufe of the Jews. But
though he followed Hugo in his divifion of the books
into chapters, he refined upon his invention as to the fub-
divifion, and contrived that by verfes : this being found
to be a much more convenient method, it has been ever
fince followed. And thus, as the Jews borrowed the
divifion of the books of the holy fcriptures into chapters
from the Chriftians, in like manner the Chriftians bor¬
rowed that of the chapters into verfes from the Jews.
The order and divifion of the books of the Bible, as
well of the Old as the New Teftament, according to the
difpofition made by the council of Trent, by decree I.
feffion iv, are as follow; where we are to obferve, that
thofe books to which the afterifms are prefixed, are re-
jedted by the Proteftants, as apocryphal. See Apocry-
pha.
Genefis,
Exodus,
Leviticus,
Numbers,
Deuteronomy,
Jofhua,
Judges and Ruth,
1 Samuel, or x Kings,
2 Samuel, or 2 Kings,
1 Kings, otherwife called iii. Kings,
2 Kings, otherwife called iv. Kings.
1 Chronicles, •
2 Chronicles,
x Efdras, (as the LXX and Vulgate call it), or the
book of Ezra,
2 Efdras, or (as we have it) the book of Nehemiah.
* Tobit,
* JudithJ
Either,
Job,
Pfalms,
Proverbs,
Ecclefiaftes,
Song of Solomon,
* The book of Wifdom,
* Ecclefiafticus,
Ilaiah,
Jeremiah and * Baruch,
Ezekiel,
Daniel,
Hofea,
Joel,
Amos,
Obadiah,
Nahum, which we place immediately after Micah, be¬
fore Habakkuk.
Jonah, which we place immediately after Obadiah.
Micah,
Habakkuk,
Zephaniah,
Haggai_,
Zechariah,
Malachi,
* 1 Maccabees,
* Maccabees..
The Epiftle of
St Paul to
The general
Epiitle of
The books of the New Teftament are,
C St Matthew,
The Gofpeloffe*.
^St John,
The adts of the Apoitles.
f the Romans,
the Corinthians I.
the Corinthians II.
the Galatians,
the Ephefians,
the Philippians,
the Coloflians,
the TheiTalonians I.
the Theflalonians II.
Timothy, I.
Timothy, II.
Titus,
Philemon,
the Hebrews,
t James,
t Peter, I.
t Peter, II.
( St John, I.
St John,II.
St John, III.
I St Jude,
The Revelations of St John.
The apocryphal books of the Old Teftament, accord¬
ing to the Romanifts, are, the book of Enoch, (fee Jude
14.) the third and fourth books of Efdras, the third
and fourth books of Maccabees, the prayer of Manafl'eh,
the Teftament of the twelve Patriarchs, the Pfalter of
Solomon, and fome other pieces of this nature.
The apocryphal books of the New Teftament are the
epiftle of St Barnabas, the pretended epiftle of St Paul
to the Laodiceans, feveral fpurious gofpels, Adis of the
Apoftles, and Revelations; the book of Hernias, intitled
the Shepherd, Jefus Chrift’s Letter to Abgarus, the
epiftles of St Paul to Seneca, and feveral other pieces of
the like nature, as may be feen in the colledtion of the
apocryphal writings of the New Teftament made by Fa¬
bric ius.
The books which are now loft, and cited in the Old
Teftament, are thefe, the book of the Righteous, or of
Jalher, as our verfion of the Bible has it, (Jolh. x. 13.
and 2 Sam. i. 18.); the book of the wars of the Lord,
(Numb. xxi. 14.); the annals of the kings of Ifrael, fo of¬
ten cited in the books of the Kings and Chronicles. The
authors of thefe annals were the prophets, who lived in
the kingdoms of Judah and Ifrael. We have likewife
but a part of Solomon’s three thbufand proverbs, and his
thoufand and five fongs, (1 Kings iv. 32.); and we have
entirely loft what he wrote upon plants, animals, birds,
fillies, and reptiles.
Ezra; in the opinion of moft learned men, publilhed
the fcriptures in the Chaldee charadter: For that lan¬
guage being grown wholly into ufe among the Jeifrs, he
thought proper to change the old Hebrew charadler for
it-, which hath fince that time been retained only by the.
Samaritans, among whom it is preferved to this day.
Prideaux
BIB ( 547 ) BIB
Prideaux is of opinion that Ezra made additions in
feveral parts of the Bible, where any thing appeared ne-
ceflary for illuftrating, conne&ing, or compleating the
work; in which he appears to have been affifted by the fame
fpirit in which they were firft written. Among fuch addi-
tions~are to be reckoned the laft chapter of Deuteronomy,
wherein Mofes feems to give an account of his own death
and burial, and the fucceffion of Jofhua after him. To
the fame caufe our learned author thinks are to be attri¬
buted many other interpolations in the Bible, which cre¬
ated difficulties and objections to the authenticity of the
facred text, no ways to be folved without allowing them;
Ezra changed the names of feveral places which were
grown obfolete, and inffead of them put their new names,
by which they were then called, in the text. Thus it is
that Abraham is faid to have purfued the kings who car¬
ried Lot away captive, as far as Danwhereas that
place in Mofes’s time was called Laiffi ; the name Dan,
being unknown till the Danites, long after the death of
Moles, poffeffed themfelves of it.
The Jewiffi canon of fcripture was then fettled by
Ezra, yet not fo but that feveral variations have been
made in it. Malachi, for inftance, could not be put in
the Bible by him, fince that prophet is allowed ro have
lived after Ezra ; nor could Nehemiah be there, firice
mention is made, in that book, of Jaddus, as high-pried,
and of Darius CodomannuS, as kihg of Perfia, who were
at lead an hundred years later than Ezra. It may be
added, that in the fird book of Chronicles, the genealogy
of the fons of Zerubbabel is carried down for fo many ge¬
nerations as mud necedarily bring it to the time of Alex¬
ander, and confequently this book could not be in the ca¬
non in Ezra’s days. It is probable, the two books of
Chronicles, Ezra, Nehcmiah, Edher, and Malachi, were
adopted into the Bible .in the time of Simon the Jud, the
lad of the men of the great fynagogue.
As the Jews were very backward in having any inter-
courfe with drangers, it was a long time before their facred
books came to be known and read in other nations. Jo
fephus afcribes the little that is faid of the Jews by pa¬
gan writers to this, that the latter had no opportunity of
being acquainted with their hidorians, for want of a
tranflation of their books into the Greek language. A-
rideas indeed pretends, that there was ah imperfeCI ver-
don of the fcriptures before the time of Demetrius Pha-
Jereus; and that Theopompus intending to infert a part of
them in his verfes, was deprived of bis underdanding/,
but of this there is no proof..
The Jews, upon their return from the Babyloniffi cap¬
tivity, having brought with them their Chaldaic or Affy-
rian language, which from that time became their mother-
tongue, gave birth to the Chaldee trandutions, or rather,
paraphrafes of the Bible,.called Targum. See Targum.
Greek Bible. It is a mattey of difpute among authors
whether there was a Greek verfion of the Old Tedament:
more ancient than the Septuagint. See Septuagint.
Before our Saviour’s time, there was no other Greek
verfion of the Old Tedament, befides that which went
under the name of the Septuagirit: But after the eda-
bliffiment of Chridianity, Lome authors undertook new
trandations, under pretence, of making them more con¬
formable to the Hebrew text. The fird who performed
thi defign was the Jewifh profelyte Aquila, of the c: -. of
Synope inPontus, dilcipie to Rabbi Akiba, who pie it ;• ex¬
ecution the twelfth year of the emperor Adrian, -. D.[28.
St Epiphanius pretends, that being excommunicated af¬
ter his converfion, for addiAing himfelf to judicial adro-
logy, he fet about this verfion out of hatred to the Chri-
dians, and with a wicked defign of corrupting the pada-
ges of the prophets relating to Jefus Chrid. St Jerom
fays, his verfion is made word for word, and with too
fcrupulous a nicety.
The fecond Greek verfion after the Septuagint is that
of Symmachus, a Samaritan by birth, who fird turned
Jew, then Chridian, and at lad Ebionite. He compo-
fed it, according to Epiphanius, in the reign of the em¬
peror Severus. His verfion was more free than the red;
for he applied himfelf chiefly to the fenfe, without tranf-
lating word for word; wherefore his verfion comes near¬
er the Septuagint than that of Aquila. The third Greek
verfion is that of Theodotion of Ephefus. It is faid he
was a difciple of Marcion, and that, having had fome
difference with thofe of his feft, he turned Jew. The
verfion of this author was the bed of the three, becaufe
he kept a jud medium between Aquila and Symmachus#,
not confining himfelf fo fervilely to the letter as the firft
did, nor wandering fo far from it as the fecond did.
There were, befides thefe, three other Greek verfions,.
whofe authors are unknown.
Syriac Bible. The Syrians have in their language
a verfion of the Old Tedament, which they pretend to
be of great antiquity. A great part of it,. they fay, was
made in Solomon’s time, and the red in the time of Ab-
garus king of Edeffa. 1’hey relate, that Hiram king of
Tyre defired Solomon to communieate the ufe of let¬
ters and writing to the Syrians, and to get tranflated for
them the facred books of the Hebrews ; which Solomon
complied with, and fent them the Pentateuch, Jofhua,
Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Pfalms, Proverbs, Ecclefiades,.
Solomon’s Song, and Job, which were the only books
then extant ; the remaining books of fcripture, they add,
were trandated into Sy riac after the death of Chrid, by
tire care of Abgarus king of Edeffa. But this account is
looked upon as fabulous. It is true, the Syriac verfion
which we have now mud be very ancient, fince it is often ■
cited by the fathers. Dr Prideaux is of opinion, it was
made within the fird century; that the author of it was
fome Chridian of th& Jewifh nation ; and that it is the
bed tranflation of the Old Tedament. This verfion is
not always agreeable to the original; but in fome places
is more conformable to the Samaritan Pentateuch, and
in fome to the verfion of the Septuagint. In the Pfalms, .
the tranflator has taken the liberty to leave out the an¬
cient titles and infcriptions of each pfalm,- indead of
which he gives an abdrad of the contents of .each pfalm,
Bible. It.is pad'difpute, that the Latin
churches had, even* in the fird ages, a tranflation of the
Bible in their language, which being the vulgar lan¬
guage, and confequemly underdood by every one, occa-
fioned a vad number of Latin verfions. Among all thefe,
there was one which was generally received, and called
by St Jerom the vulgar, or common tranflation, St Au-
, din •
BIB ( 548 ) BIB
ftin gives this verfion the name of the Italic, and prefers
it to ail the relt: But we referve a diltinft article for
this verfipn. See Vulgate.
St jerom undertook to revife and correft the Latin
verfion of the Bible ; but, having afterwards attained to
a more per fed knowledge of the Hebrew language, he fet
about a new tranflation of fome books of the Old Tefta-
ment from the Hebrew; and continuing, at the folicita-
tion of his friends, to tranflate the red, he at lad per-
feded an entire new verfion of all the books contained in
the Hebrew canon. In his tranflation, he followed, as
nearly as he could, the verfion of the Septuagint, and
retained the very exprefiions of the ancient vulgar Latin,
as far as was confident with purity of dyle and true Lati-
nity. This tranflation was fo highly applauded by the
Chridian church, that fome authors have pretended it
was brought to perfedion by the infpiration of the Holy
Ghofl. But St Augudine looked upon the author to be
fo well Ikilled in the Hebrew language, as to be able to
undertake, and bring to perfedion fuch a work by the
drength of his own abilities. St Jerom’s verfion was
foon received in many churches ; and in the fixth centu¬
ry it became as general, and in as great edeem, as the
ancient Vulgate.
It was not till the fixteenth .century that any new La¬
tin tranflations were made of the Bible from the Hebrew
text. Sandes Pagninus, a Dominican monk, was the
fird who undertook a new verfion of the books of fcrip-
ture from the modern Hebrew text. His defign Was
encouraged by pope Leo X.; and his verfion made its
fird appearance at Lyons in the year 1527. It adheres
too fcrupuloufly to the words of the text, which makes
it obfcure, and favour of barbarity in many places. He
is like wife often mifled as to the fenfe, having affeded
too much to follow the explications of the Jewifh Rab¬
bins. It is however a very ufeful work, and very pro¬
per to explain the literal fenfe of the Hebrew text. A-
rias Montanus, when he compiled the edition of the
Biblia Polyglot!a, revifed this tranflation of Pagninus.
Cardinal Cajetan, though not verfed in the Hebrew,
undertook a tianflation of fome parts of the Bible by the
affidance of two perfons well (killed in that language, the
one a Jew, the other a Chridian. After him Ifidore
Clarius, a monk of Mount Caflin, fet himfelf to reform
the vulgar verfion of the Bible after the Hebrew text; in
the doing _of which he pretends to have correded above
eight thoufand paflages of the Bible. Befides thefe tranf¬
lations, made by catholic authors, there are fome likewife
performed by protedant tranflators ; the fird of whom
was Sebadian Munder. His verfion is more intelligible,
and in much better Latin, than that of Pagninus. Hue-
tius bedows on him the charader of a tranflator well
verfed in the Hebrew, and whofe dyle is very exad and
comformable to the original. The tranflation of Leo
Juda, a Zuinglian, printed at Zurich in 1543, and after¬
wards by Robert Stephens in 1545, is written in a more
elegant dyle than that of Munder; but he often departs
from the literal meaning of the Hebrew text for the fake
of an elegant Latin expreflion. However, in this he has
not taken fo great a liberty as Sebadian Cadalio, who
undertook to give the world an elegant Latin verfion of
the Bible : But there are critics who cenfure him for de¬
parting from the noble fimplicity and natural grandeur of
the original, and deviating into an affeded effeminate
dyle, overcharged with falfe rhetoric, and not always
true Latinity. The verfion of Junius and Tremellius,
has much more of the true natural fimplicity: The chief
Hebraifms are preferved in it, and the whole is dridly
conformable to the Hebrew text. We mud not forget
the verfion of Theodore Beza, a protedant divine of Ge¬
neva, in the fixteenth century. Sebadian: Cadalio found
fault with this verfion, and Beza wrote an apology for it
about the year 1 564.
Jr able Bible. The Arabic verfions of the Bible
are of two forts; the one done by Chridians, the other
by Jews. There is one of the Old Tedament, whofe
author is fuppofed to be Saadias Gaon, a Jew of Baby¬
lon, who wrote the fame about the year of Chrid 900.
Of this whole work the Pentateuch alone is printed.
The Jews have another Arabic verfion in Hebrew charac¬
ters, which Erpenius publidied in Arabic charaders at
Leyden in the year 1622. Among the Arabic tranfla¬
tions done by Chridians, there is one printed in the po¬
lyglots of Paris and London ; but both the author, and
the time when it was written, are unknown. It mud
have been made fince the publication of the Koran, be-
caufe the author, in many places, has evidently followed
it. In this verfion the Pentateuch is tranflated from the
Hebrew text; Job, from the Syriac; and the red from
the Septuagint, and two other verfions of the Pentateuch,
the manuferipts of which are in the Bodleian library*
There are alfo fome Arabic tranflations of the Pfalms;
one printed at Genoa in 1516, the other at Rome in
1619 : And there is a manufeript verfion of the prophets
in this language preferved in the Bodleian library.
The gofpel being preached in all nations, there is no
doubt, but that the Bible, which is the foundation of
the Chridian religion, was tranflated into the refpedive
languages of each nation. St Chryfodom and The'odo-
ret both tedify, that the books of .the Old and New Te¬
dament had been tranflated into the Syrian, Egyptian,
Indian, Perfian, Armenian, AHhiopic, Scythian, and
Samaritan languages. Socrates and Sozomen tell us,
that Ulphilas bifhop of the Goths, who lived about the
middle of the fourth century, had tranflated the holy
feriptures into the Gothic language ; and pope John VIIL
gave his approbation to the verfion of the holy feriptures
made into the Sclavonian.
JEthiopic Bible. The 4Ethiopic verfion of the Old
Tedament is made immediately from the Greek text of
' the Septuagint; and'there is a very plain agreement be¬
tween this tranflation and the Alexandrian' manufeript:
The order of the chapters, the inferiptions of the Pfalms,
and every thing elfe being exadtly alike. The fEthio-
pians attribute this verfion to Frumentius, the apodle of
^Ethiopia, fent thither by Athanafius bifliop of Alexan¬
dria.
Coptic or Egyptian Bible. The Coptic or Egyptian
tranflation is likewife made from the Greek of the Sep¬
tuagint, in which the Egyptian tranflator fo pundually
followed the Greek text, that he refilled to make ufe of
the labours of Origen and others, who had been at the
pains
* B I B ( 549 ) BIB
pains to compare the Greek verfion with the Hebrew
text. We are quite in the dark as to the author and
the time of this verfion, but probably it is very ancient,
fince we cannot fuppofe the Egyptian church was long
without a tranflation of the fcriptures in their mother
tongue.
Perfian and Tnrkifh Bible. There are feveral ver-
fions of the Bible in the Perfian language, mod of which
are in manufcript. There is a tranflation of the Pfalms
by one father John, a Carmelite; and another of the
fame book done from the Latin by the Jefuits. Wal¬
ton, in the London Polyglott, has publilhed the Gofpels,
tranflated by one Simon the fon of Jofeph, a Chriftian of
Perfia, who lived in the year 1341. We have likewife
fome manufcript tranflations of the Bible in the Turkifh
language, particularly a verfion of the New Teftament
printed at London in the year 1666.
Armenian and Georgian Bible. The Armenians
have an old tranflation of the fcriptures in their language,
taken from the Greek of the Septuagint. Three learned
Armenians were employed about it, in the time of the
emperor Arcadius, viz. Mofes firnamed the Grammarian,
David the Philofopher, and Mamproeus. The Arme¬
nians, in 1666, procured an edition of the Bible in their
language to be made at Amfterdam, under the direction
of an Armenian bifliop. Another was printed at Ant¬
werp in 1670, by the procurement of Theodoras Patraeus,
and the New Teftament feparately in 1668.
The Georgians have likewife a tranflation of the Bible
in the old Georgian language: But as this language is
known only to a very few perfons,' and the people of the
country are extremely ignorant, there is fcarce any one
who either reads or underftands this verfipn.
Whilft the Roman empire fubfifted in Europe, the read¬
ing of the fcriptures in the Latin tongne, which was the
univerfal language of that empire, prevailed every where.
But fince the face of affairs in Europe has been changed,
and fo many different monarchies eredted upon the ruins
of the Roman empire, the Latin tongue has by degrees
grown into difufe; whence has arifen a neceflity of tranf-
lating the Bible into the refpeftive languages of each
people; and this has produced as many different verfions
of the fcriptures in the modern languages, as there are
different nations profeffing the Chriftian religion. Hence
we meet with French, Italian, Spanifh, German, Fle,-
miih, Danifh, Sclavonian, Polifh, Bohemian, and Ruf¬
fian or Mufcovite Bibles; befides the Anglo-Saxon and
_ modern Englifh andlrilh Bibles.
French B/ble. The oldeft French Bible we hear of
is the verfion of Peter de Vaux; chief of the Waldenfes,
who lived about the year 1160. Raoul de Prefle trarif-
lated the Bible into French in the reign of Charles V.
king of France, about the year 1380. Befides thefe,
there are feveral old French tranflations of particular
parts of the fcripture. The doctors of Louvain pub-
liftied the Bible in French at Louvain, by order of the
emperor Charles V. in 1550- There is a ,verfion by
Ifaac le Maitre de Sacy, publifhed in 1672, with ex¬
planations of the literal and fpiritual meaning of the text,
which was received with wonderful applaufe, and has
been often reprinted. As to the New Teftaments in
French, which have been printed feparately, one of the
moft remarkable is that of F. Amelotte of the oratory,
compofed by the direftion of fome French prelates, and
printed with annotations in the year 1666, 1667, and
1670. The author pretends he had been at the pains to
fearch all the libraries in Europe, and collate the oldeft;
manufcripts. ' But, in examining his work, it appears
that he has produced no confiderable various readings,
which' had not before been taken notice of either in the
London Polyglott or elfewhere. The NewTeftament of
Mons printed in 1665, with the archbifhop of Caijibray’s
permiffion, and the king of Spain’s licence, made a great
noife in the world. It was condemned by pope Clement
IX. in 1668, and by pope Innocent XL in 1679, anc^
in feveral biftiopiics of France at leveral times._ The
NewTeftament publifhed at Trevoux in 1702, by M.
Simon, with literal and critical annotations Upon diffi¬
cult paffages, was condemned by the bifbops of Paris
and Meaux in 1702. F. Bohours, a Jefuit, with the
afliftanceof F. F. Michael Tellier, and Peter Bernier,
Jefuits likewife, publifhed a tranflation of the New Te¬
ftament in 1697: But this tranflation is, for the moft:
part, harih and obfcure, which was owing to the au-,
thor’s keeping too ftridtly to the Latin text from which
he tranflated.
There are likewife French tranflations publifhed by
Proteftant authors ; one by Robert Peter Olivetan, printed
at Geneva in 1535, and fince often reprinted with the cor-
re<flions of John Calvin and others; another by Sebafti an
Caftalio, remarkable for particular ways of expreffion never
ufed by good judges of the language. John Diodati
likewife publifhed a French Bible at Geneva in 1644;
but fome find fault with his method, in that he rather
paraphrafes the text than tranflates it. -Faber Stapaienfis
tranflated the New Teftament into French, which was
revifed and accommodated to the ufe of the reformed
churches in Piedmont, and printed in 1534. Laftly,
M. John LeClerc publifhed a New Teftament in French
at Amfterdam in 1703, with annotations taken chiefly
from Grotius and Hammond; but the ufe of this verfion
was prohibited in Holland by order of the States-Ge-
neral, as tending to revive the errors of Sabellius and
Socinus.
Italian Bible. The firft Italian Bible publifhed by
the Romanifts, is that of Nicolas Malerme, a Benedidtine
monk, printed at Venice in 1471. It was tranflated
from the Vulgate. The verfion of Anthony Brucioli,
publifhed at Venice in 1532, was prohibited by the coun¬
cil of Trent. The Calvinifts likewife have their Italian
Bibles. There is one of John Diodati in 160.7 anc^
1641, and another of Maximus Theophilus in 1351,
dedicated to Francis de Medicis duke of Tufcany. The
Jews of Italy have no entire verfion of the Bible in Ita¬
lian ; the inquifition conftantly refufing to allow them the
liberty of printing one.
Spanijh Bible. Thefirft Spanifh Bible that we hear
of, is that mentioned by Cyprian de Valera, which he
fays was publifhed about the year 1500. The Epiftles
and Gofpels were publifhed in that language byAmbroie
de Montefin in 1512; the whole Bible by. Caffiodore de
Reyna, a Calvinift, in 1569; and the New Teftament,
6 Z dedicated
BIB (5
dedicated to the emperor Charles V. by Francis Enzinas,
otherwife called Driander, in 1543. The firft Bible
which was printed in Spanifh for the ufe of the Jews,
was that printed at Ferrara in 1553, in Gothic charac¬
ters, and dedicated to Hercules d’Eft duke of Ferrara.
This verfion is very ancient, and was probably in ufe
among the Jews of Spain before Ferdinand and Ifabella
expelled them out of their dominions in 1492.
German Bible. The firft and moft ancient tranfla-
tion of the Bible in the German language, is that of Ul-
philas oiftiop of the Goths, about the year 360. This
bifhop left out the books of Kings, which treat chiefly of
war, left it ftiould too imsch encourage the martial hu¬
mour of the Goths. An imperfedt manufcript of this
verfion was found in the abbey of Verden near Cologn,
written in letters of filver, for which reafon it is called
Codex Argenteus ; and it was publiftied by Francis Junius
in 1665. The oldeft German printed Bible extant, is
that of Nuremberg, printed in 1447; but who the au¬
thor of it was, is uncertain. John Emzer, chaplain to
George duke of Saxony, publilhed a verfion of the New
Teftament in oppofition to Luther. There is a German
Bible of John Eckius in 1537, with Emzer’s New Te¬
ftament added to it; and one by Ulembergius of Weft-
phalia, procured by Ferdinand duke of Bavaria, and
printed in 1630. Martin Luther, having employed ele¬
ven years in tranflating the Old and New Teftament,
publifhed the Pentateuch in 1522, the hiftorical books
and the Pfalms in 15:24, the books of Solomon in 1527,
Ifaiah in 1529, the Prophets in 1531, and the other
books in 1530: He publilhed the New Teftament in 1522.
The learned agree, that his language is pure, and the
verfion clear,, and free from intricacies: It was revifed
by feveral perfons of quality, who were mafters of all
tire delicacies of the German language. The German
Bibles which have been printed in Saxony, Switzerland,
and elfewhere, are for the moft part the fame as that of
Luther, with very little variation. In 1604. John Pif-
cator publilhed a verfion of the Bible in German, taken
from that of Junius andTremellius: But his turn of ex-
preflion is purely Latin, and not at all agreeable to the
genius' of the German language: The Anabaptifts have
a German Bible printed at Worms in 1529. John Crel-
lius publilhed his verfion of the New Teftament at Ra-
covia in 1630; andFelbinger his,.at Amfterdam, in 1660.
Ftemijh Bible. TheFlemilh Bibles of theRomanifts
are very numerous, and for the moft part have no au¬
thor’s name prefixed to them, till that of Nicolas Vinck,
printed at Lovain in 1548. The Flemilh verfions made
ufe of by the Calvinifts till the year 1637, were copied
principally from that of Luther. But the fynod of Dort
having in 1618 appointed a new tranflation of the Bible
into Flemilh, deputies were named for the work, which
was not finilhed till the year 1637.
Danijh Bible.. The firft Danilh Bible was publilhed
by Peter Palladius, Olaus Ghryfoftom, John Synningius,
and John Maccabseus, in 1550, in which they followed
Luther’s firft German verfion. There are two other ver-
fiohs, the one by John Paul Refenius bilhop of Zealand,
in 1605 ; the other, being the New Teftament only, by
John Michel, in 1524.
50 ) BIB
Siuedifl) Bible. In 1534 Okus and Laurence pub¬
lilhed a Swedilh Bible from the German verfion of Mar¬
tin Luther. It was revifed in 1617, by order of king
Guftavus Adolphus, and was afterwards almoft univer-
fally followed.
Bohemian, Polijh, Ruffian or Mufcovite, and Scla-
vonian Bibles. The Bohemians have a Bible tranf-
lated by eight of their doftors, whom they had fent to
the fchools of Wittemberg and Bafil, on purpofe to ftudy
the original languages. It was printed in Moravia in the
year 1539. The firft Polilh verfion of the Bible, it is
faid,,was that compofed by Hadewich wife of Jagellon,
duke of Lithuania, who embraced Chriftianity in the year
1390. In 1599, there was a Polilh tranflation of the
Bible publilhed at Cracow, which was the work of fe¬
veral Divines of that nation, and in which James Wieck,
a Jefuit, had a principal lhare. The Proteftants, in 1596-,
publilhed a Poliih Bible from Luther’s German verfion,
and dedicated it to Uladiflaus IV. king of Poland. The
Ruflians or Mufcovites publilhed the Bible in their lan¬
guage in 1581. It was tranflated from the Greek by
St Cyril, the apoftle of the Sclavonians; but this old
verfion being too obfcure, Erneft Gliik, who had been
carried prifoner to Mofcow after the taking of Narva,
undertook a new tranflation of the Bible in the Sclavo-
vonian ; who dying in 1705, the Czar Peter appointed
fome particular divines to finilh the tranflation : But whe¬
ther it Was ever printed, we cannot fay.
Englijh-Saxon, and modern Englijh Bibles. If we
inquire into the verfions of the Bible of our own country,
we Ihall find that Adelm bilhop of Sherburn, who lived
in 709, made an Englilh-Saxon verfion of the Pfalms;
and that Eadfrid, or Ecbert, bilhop of Lindisferne,
who lived about the year 7 30, tranftated feveral of
the books of fcripture into the fame language. It is
faid likewife, that venerable Bede, who died in 785,
tranflated the whole Bible into Saxon. But Cuth-
bert, Bede’s difciple, in the enumeration of his mafter’s
works, fpeaks only of his tranflation of the Gofpel; and
lays nothing of the reft of the Bible. Some pretend,
that king Alfred, who lived in 890, tranflated a great
part of the fcriptures. We find an old verfion in the
Anglo-Saxon of feveral books of the Bible, made by El-
fric abbot of Malmelbury : It was publilhed at Oxford,
in 1699. There is an old Anglo-Saxon verfion of the
four Gofpels, publilhed by Matthew Parker, archbilhop
of Canterbury, in 1571, the author whereof is unknown.
Dr Mill obferves, that this verfion was made from a La¬
tin copy of the old Vulgate.
As to the Englilh verfions of the Bible, the moft an¬
cient is that of John de Trevifa, a fecular prieft, who
tranflated the Old and New Teftament into Englilh, at
the requeft of Thomas lord Berkley: He lived in the
reign of Richard II. and finilhed his tranflation in the
year 1357. The fecond author, who undertook this
work, was the famous Wickliff, who lived in the reigns
of Edward III. and Richard II. The manufcript of his
verfion is in feveral libraries in England. In the year
1534, an Englilh verfion of the Bible, done partly by
Willi,am Tindal, and partly by Miles Coverdale, was
brought
BIB (551
brought into England from Antwerp. The biihops found
great fault with this tranflation ; upon which amotion was
made in convocation for an Englilh tranflation of the Bible
to be fet up in all churches. This motion, though op-
pofed by bilhop Gardiner and his party, fucceeded at lall.
The king gave orders for fetting about it with all poffible
hafte, and within three years the impreflion of it was fi-.
niflred. Cromwell procured a general warrant from the
king, allowing all his fubje&s to read it; for which
Cranmer wrote his thanks to Cromwell, ‘ rejoicing to
* fee the work of reformation now rifen in England,
‘ fince the word of God did now fliine over it all without
‘ a cloud.’ Cromwell likewife gave out injuftions, re¬
quiring the clergy to fet up Bibles in all their churches,
and to encourage the people to read them. In 1542, an
aft palled for reltraining the ufe of the Bible. The pre¬
amble fets forth, that ‘ many feditious and ignorant
‘ people had abufed the liberty granted them for reading
‘ the Bible ; and that great diverfity of opinions, animo-
‘ fities, tumults,, and fchifms had been occafioned by
‘ perverting the fenfe of the fcripture. To retrieve the
‘ mifchiefs ariling from hence, it is enafted, that a cer-
‘ tain form of orthodox doftrine be fet forth, as a ftan-
‘ dard of belief; and that Tindal’s fatfe Iranjlation of
‘ the Old and New Teflament be fupprelTed, and for-
* bidden to be read in any of the'king’s dominions.’ In
the reign of Edward VI. Fuller mentions another tranf¬
lation of the Bible, printed in two editions ; the firft in
1549, tlie other *n I55I> but neither of them divided
into verfes.
In the reign of queen Elizabeth came out the Bilhops
Bible, fo called, becaufe feveral of that order were con¬
cerned in that verfion. The work was divided into fe¬
veral parcels, and affigned to men of learning and cha-
rafter. Moll of the divifions are marked with great ini¬
tial letters, lignifying either the name or the titles of the
perfons employed. Archbilhop Parker had the principal
direftion of this affair; he revifed the performance, and
perhaps put the finilhing hand to it. He likewife em¬
ployed feveral critics in the Hebrew and Greek lan¬
guages, to review the old tranflation, and compare it
with the original.
The laft Englilh Bible is that called King James’s
Bible, which proceeded from the Hampton-court confe¬
rence in 1603, where many exceptions being made to the
Bilhops Bible, king James gave orders for a new one,
not, as the preface exprefles it, for a tranflation altoge¬
ther new, nor yet to make of a bad one a good one, but
to make a good one better; or of many good ones, one
belt. Fifty-four learned perfons were appointed for this
office by the king, as appears by his letter to the'arch-
bilhop, dated in 1604, which being three years before
the tranflation was entered upon, it is probable feven of
them were either dead, or had declined the talk, fince
Fuller’s lift of the tranflators makes, but forty-feven, who,
being ranged under fix divifions, entered on their pro¬
vince in 1607. It was publiffied in 1610, with a dedi¬
cation to king James, and a learned preface, and is com¬
monly called king James’s Bible. After this all other
verfions dropped, and fell into difufe, except the Epiftles
and Gofpels in the Common-prayer book, which were
) BIG
ftill continued, according to the bilhops tranflation, till
the alteration of the Liturgy in 1661, and the Pfalms
and hymns, which are to this day continued as in the
old verfion.
The judicious Selden, in his Table-Talk, fpeaking
of the Bible, fays, ‘ The Englilh tranflation of the
‘ Bible is the bell tranflation in the world, and ren-
‘ ders the fenfe of the original bell, taking in for the
‘ Englilh tranflation the bilhops Bible, as well asking
‘ James’s. The tranflators in king James’s time took
‘ an excellent way. That part of the Bible was given
‘ to him who was moll excellent iitfuch a tongue, (as
‘ the Apocrypha to Andrew Downs) and then they
‘ met together, and one read thd* tranflation, the reft
‘ holding in their hands fome Bible either of the learn-
‘ ed tongues, or French, Spaniffi, Italian, <bc. If
‘ they found any fault, they fpoke; if not, he read on.’
King James’s Bible is that now read by authority in
all the churches in England.
Irijb Bible. Towards the middle of the fixteenth
century, Bedell, bilhop of Kilmore,. fet on foot a
tranflation of the Old Teftament into the Irilh lan¬
guage; the New Teftament and the Liturgy having
been before tranflated into that language. The bilhop
appointed one King to execute this work, who, not
underftanding the oriental languages, was obliged to
tranflate it from the E.nglilh. This work was received
by Bedell, who, after having compared the Irilh
tranflation with the Engliffi, compared the latter with -
the Hebrew, the LXX. and the Italian verfion of-
Diodati. When this work was finilhed, the bilhop
would have been himfelf at the charge of the impref-
fion, but his defign was flopped upon advice given to
the lord-lieutenant and the archbilhop of Canterbury,
that it would prove a lhameful thing for a nation to
publilh a Bible tranflated by fuch a defpicable hand as
King. However, the manufcript was not loft, for it
went to prefs in the year 1685.
BIBLIOTHECA, in its original and proper fenfe, de¬
notes a library; or place for repofiting books.
Bibliotheca, in matters of literature, denotes a trea-
tife, giving an account of all the writers on a certain
fubjeft : Thus, we have bibliothecas of theology, law,
philofophy, tec.
There are likewife univerfal bibliothecas, which
treat indifferently of all kinds of books ; alfo feleft:
bibliothecas, which give an account of none but au¬
thors of reputation.
BIBLISTS, fo the Roman-catholics call thofe Chrifti-
ans that make fcripture the foie rule of faith ; in which
fenfe, all proteftants either are, or ought to be, bib-
lifts.
BIBRACH, an imperial city of Swabia in Germany, a-
bout twenty miles fouth-weft of Ulm ; E. long. 90 30',
and N. lat. .48° I2/.
BICANER, a city of Afia, in the country of the Mo¬
gul, upon the Ganges. It is the capital of the
province of Bacar ; E. long; 870 20', N. lat.
28° 40'.
BICAUDA, in ichthyology, a name given to the xiphi-
as, or fword-filh. SeeXiPH IA-S.
BICE,,
BID (55
BICE, or Bise, among painters, a blue colour prepa¬
red from the lapis ai menus.
Bice bears the bed body of all bright blues ufed in
common work, as houfe-painting, <&c. but it is the
paleft in colour. It works indifferently well, but in¬
clines a little to fandy, and therefore requires good
grinding. Next to ultramarine, which is too dear to
be ufed in common work, it lies belt near the eye of
all other blues;
BICEPS, in anatomy, the name of feveral mufcles : As
the biceps humeri, or cubiti, biceps tibiae,, &c.
BICHET, a quantity, or meafure of corn, which differs
according to the places where it is ufed. The bichet
is not a wooden meafure, as the minot at Paris, or
the bufhel at London, but is compounded of feveral
certain meafures. It is ufed in many parts of
France, &L
Bichet, a certain quantity of land, namely, as much
s as may be fown by a bichet of corn. ,
BICKERN, the beak-iron of an anvil.' See the article
Anvil.
BICLINIUM, in Roman antiquity, a chamber with two
beds in it; or when two beds only were round a table.
See Table.
BICORNIS, in anatomy, a name for the os hyoides.
See Hyoides.
Bicornis 77iufculus, a name for the extenfor carpi ra-
dialis.
BIDDING of the, banns, the fame with what is other-
wife called a/king. See Marriage,
Bidding, in a commercial fenfe, the offering a fum of
money, or a certain price, for any ware or merchan-
' dize; and when any thing is fold by auction, a perfon
who has a mind to have it, muft offer fomething more
for it than the perfon who bade laft.
BIDDER, he that bids money for any merchandize that
is felling by au&ion : The bed, or laft bidder, is he
who offers moft money for it. See Sale,
B-IDENS, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia polyga-
mia sequalis clafs. The receptacle is paleaceous ; the
pappus has eredtfcabrous awns; and the calix is im¬
bricated. There are thirteen fpecies, only three of
which, viz. the tripartita or trifid water-hemp agri¬
mony, the cornua or whole-leaved water-hemp agri¬
mony, and the minima or leaft water-hemp agrimony,
■are natives of Britain, The leaves of the bidens are
recommended for ftrengthening the tone of the vifce-
‘ ra, and as an aperient; and faid to have excellent ef-
fefts in the dropfy, jaundice, cahexies, and fcorbutic
diforders.
BIDENTAL, in Roman antiquity, a place blafted
with lightning, which was immediately confecrated by
an harufpex, with the facrifice of a bidens. This
place was afterwards accounted facred, and it was un¬
lawful to enter it, or to tread upon it; for which rea-
fon it was commonly furrounded with a ditch, wall,
hedge, ropes, 6c. See the next article.
BIDENTALES, in Roman antiquity, priefts inftituted
to perform certain ceremonies and expiations when
.thunder fell on any place. Their principal office was
the facrilicing a ffieep of two years old, which, in La-
2 ) B I L
tin, is called bidens; from whence the place ftruck
with thunder got the name of bidental.
BIDON, a liquid meafure, containing about five pints
of Paris, that is, about five quarts Englilh wine-mea-
fure. It is feldom ufed but among fhips crews..
BIEL, a town of the canton of Bern in Switzerland, fi-
tuated at the north-end of a lake to which it gives
name, about fifteen miles north-weft of the city of
Bern, in 70 E. long. 470 15' N. lat.
BIELSKI, a town of Polachia in Poland, about fixty-
two miles 'fouth of Grodno ; E. long. 240, and N.
lat. 530.
Biel ski, or Bihela, is alfo a town of Smolenffio, in
Ruffia; E. long. 350, and N. lat. 56° 40'.
BIER, a. wooden machine for carrying the bodies of
the dead to be buried. See Burial.
BIENNE, in geography. See Biel.
BIGA, in antiquity, a chariot drawn by two hoifes a-
breaft. Chariot-races, with two horfes, were intro¬
duced into the Olympic games in the 93d Olympiad :
But the invention was much more ancient, as we find
that the heroes in' the Iliad fight from chariots of that
kind.
BIGAMY, the poffeffion of two hufbands or two wives
at the fame time. See Scots Law, tit. Crimes.
BIGEN, the name of a kingdom and city in Japon, in
the ifland Niphon.
BIGGLESWADE, a market-town in Bedfordffiire, fi-
tuated on the river Ivel, about eight miles fouth-eaft.
of Bedford; W. long. 2o\ N. lat. 520 5'.
BIGHT, among feamen, denotes one roll, or round, of
a cable or rope, when quoded up.
BIGNESS, or Magnitude. See Magnitude.
BIGNONIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermia clafs. The calix confifts of five fegments,
and is ffiaped like a cup; the faux of the corolla is bell-
ffiaped, and divided into five fegments; the pod has
two cells, and the feeds are membranaceous, and ala-
ted. The fpecies are feventeen, all natives of Ame¬
rica and the Indies.
BIGOREE, the fouth divifion of the province of Gaf-
cony, in France.
BIGOT, a perfon fooliffily obftinate and perverfely wed¬
ded to any opinion, but particularly an opinion of a
religious nature.
BILANDER, a fmall flat-bottomed veffel, with only
one large maft and fail, and its deck raifed half a foot
above the plat-board.
BILATERAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething
with two fides. Hence,
Bilateral cognation, is kinffiip both by the father
and mother fide.
BILAWS. See By-laws.
BILBO A, the capital of the province of Bifcay, in Spain,
fituated near the mouth of the river Ibaicabal, which,
falling into the fea a little below it, forms a good har¬
bour; in 3°W. long, and 430 3c/N. lat.
BILBOWS, a puniffiment at fea, anfwering to the ftocks
at land. The offender is laid in irons, or ftocks,
which are more or lefs ponderous according to the ■
quality of the offence of which he is guilty.
B I L ( 553 )
BILDESTON, a market-town of Suffolk, about ten
miles fouth-eaft of Bury, E. long 40/, and N. lat.
52° 2o\
BILDGE of a (hip, the bottom of her floor, or the
breadth of the place the (hip refts on when fhe is a-
ground. Therefore, bildge-water is that which lies
on her floor, and cannot go to the well of the pump :
And bildge-pumps, or burr-pumps, are thofe that car¬
ry off the bildge-water. They hkewife fay the (hip is
bildged, when Ihe has fome of her timber ftruck off on
a rock or anchor, and fprings a leak.
BILE, a yellow, bitter juice, feparated from the blood
in the liver, colle&ed in the porus bilarius arid gall¬
bladder, and thence difcharged by the common duft
into the duodenum.
The bile is properly of two kinds, and is diftinguifli-
ed by the names of cyjiic and hepatic. The hepatic
bile is thin, almoft inlipid, and fcarce coloured; the
cyftic bile is thicker, more coloured, and very bitter.
See Anatomy-, p. 265.
BILEDULGERID, one of the divifions of Africa, ha¬
ving Barbary on the north, and Zaara or the Defart
a the fouth.
Bli-JIVEST, a town of Weftphalia, in Germany, a-
bout feven miles fouth-eaft of Ravenlburg, E. long.
8° 15', N.lat. 520. It is fubjeft to the king of Pruflia.
-LGE. See Bildge.
BILIARY dutts. See Anatomy, p. 265.
BILIMBI, in botany, a fynonime of the averrhoa. See
Averrh OA.
BILINGUIS, in a general fenfe, fignifies one that fpeaks
two languages; but in law, is ufed for a jury that
paffes in any cafe between an Englilhman and a fo¬
reigner, whereof part ought to be Englilh, and part
ftrangers.
BILOUS, in general, denotes fomething belonging to,
or partaking of, the nature of bile. Hence,
Bilious fevers are thofe occafioned by the over-copi-
oufnefs, or bad qualities of the bile. See Medicine,
Offevers.
Bilious colic. See Medicine, Of colics.
BILL, an inftrument made of iron, edged in the form
of a crefcent, and adapted to a handle. It is ufed by
plumbers, to perform feveral parts of their work; by
balket-makers, to cut the largeft- pieces of chefnut-
trees and other wood; and by gardeners, to prune
trees. When (hort, it is called a band-bill, and when
long, a hedge-bill.
Bill, in Scots law, has two general fignifications: Eve¬
ry fummary application in writing, by way of petition,
to the court of fellion, is called a bill. But the word
more commonly denotes a Ihort obligation or mandate,
by which one perfon obliges himfelf to pay a fum of
money to another, or his order, againft a certain time;
or by which one perfon draws upon another'for a fum
payable to a third perfon : By this laft kind of bill,
money-matters are commonly tranfadted betwixt the
inhabitants of different countries, and is called a bill
of exchange: When the parties concerned live in Scot¬
land, it is termed an inland bill. As to the folem-
nities of bills, methods of negotiating them, their le-
Vot. 1. No. 24. 3
gal privileges, he. See Scots Law, tit. Obliga¬
tions by nxiord and ivrit.
Bill fignifies alfo a paper, either written or printed, in
very large charadters, which is ported up in fome open
and public place, to give notice of the fale of any
merchandize, or Ihip, or of the failing of any veffel
into foreign parts.
Bill in trade, both wholefale and retail, as alfo among
workmen, fignifies an account of merchandizes or
goods delivered to a perfon, or of work done for one.
Settled Bili,, a bill, at the bottom of which they to
whom the goods are delivered acknowledge that they
have.received them; that they are fatisfied with the
price, and promife to pay it.
Bill of credit, that which a merchant or banker gives
to a perfon whom he can truft, impowering him to re¬
ceive money from his correfpondents in foreign coun¬
tries.
Bill of entry, an account of the goods entered at the
cuftom houfe, both inwards and outwards. In this bill
muft be expreffed, the merchant exporting or import¬
ing; the quantity of merchandize, and the divers fpe-
cies thereof; and whither tranfported, or from whence.
Bill 0/rlading, an acknowledgment figned by the ma-
fter of a (hip, and given to a merchant, <bc. contain¬
ing an account of the goods which the mafter has re¬
ceived on board from that merchant, he. v/ith a pro¬
mife to deliver them at an intended place for a certain
falary. Each bill of lading muft be treble, one for
the merchant who loads the goocls, another to be fent
to the perfon to whom they are configned, and the
third to remain in the hands of the mafter of the Ihip.
It muft be obferved, however, that a bill of lading is
ufed only when the goods, fent on board a Ihip, are
but part of the cargo: For when a merchant loads a.
whole veffel for his own perfonal account, the deed
parted between him and the mafter of the fhip is call¬
ed charter-party. See CHARTER-/>«r/j.
Bill of parcels, an account given by tl;e feller to the
buyer, containing the particulars of all the forts and
prices of the goods bought.
Bill of fale, is when a perfon wanting a fum of money,
delivers goods as a fecurity to the lender, to whom he
gives this bill, impowering him to fell the goods, in
cafe the fum borrowed is not repaid, with intereft, at
the appointed time.
Bill of fore, a licence granted at the cuftom-houfe to
merchants, by which they have liberty to carry, cu-
ftom-free, all fuch ftores and provifions as they may
have occafion for during their voyage.
Bill offufferance, a licence granted to a merchant, at
the cuftom-houfe, fuffering him to trade from one
Englifli port to another, without paying cuftom..
Bank-Bi\.L, a private inftrument whereby private per-
fons become intitled to a part in the bank-ftock. See
Bank.
Bill denotes alfo a declaration in writing, exprefling
either fome wrong the complainant Has fuffered by the
defendant, or elfe a fault that the party complained
of has committed againft fome law or ftatute of the
realm.
7 A
This
B I L ( 554 ) BIN
Tills bill is fometimes exhibited to juftices at the
general affixes, by way of indi&ment, or referred to
others having jurifdiftion ; but more efpecially is ad-
dreffed to the lord-chancellor, for inconfcionable wrongs
done. It contains the thing or fadt complained of,
the damage fuftained, and a petition or procefs againft
the defendant for redrefs ; and is ufed both in cri¬
minal and ci^il cafes. In a criminal cafe, the words
Billa vera are indorfed by the grand jury upon-a pre-
fentment, thereby fignifying, that they find the fame
made with probable evidence, £nd on that account
worthy of farther confideration.
Bill in parliament, a paper containing propofitions of¬
fered to the houfes to be parted by them, and then
prefented to the king to pafs into a law.
Bill of attainder. See Attainder.
Bill of appeal. See Appeal.
Bill of mortality. See Mortality.
BILLARD, a name given, in fome parts of the king¬
dom, to the young fiffi of the gadus-kind. See Gadus.
BILLERECA, a market-town of Eflex, about twenty
miles call of London, in E. long. 20', and N. lat.
BILLET, in heraldry, a bearing in form of a long
fquare^ They are fuppofed to reprefent pieces of
cloth of gold or filver; butGuillim thinks they repre¬
fent a letter fealed up ; and other authors take them
for bricks.
Billete fignifies that the efcutcheon is all over-ftrew-
ed with billets, the number not afcertained. See
Plate LI. fig. 15;
Billet-wW, fmall wood for fuel, cut three foot and
four inches long, and feven inches and a half in com-
pafs; the affixe of which is to be inquired of by jurtices.
BILLETING, in military affairs, is the quartering of
foldiers in the houfes of a town or village. And, a-
mong fox-hunters, it fignifies the ordure and dung of
a fox.
BILLIARDS, an ingenious kind of game, played on
a redtangular table, covered with green cloth, and
placed exa<5Ily level, with little ivory balls, which are
driven by crooked flicks, made on purpofe, into ha¬
zards or holes, on the edge and .corners of the table,
according to certain rules of the game
BILLINGHAM, a market-town of Northumberland, a-
bout twenty-five miles north-weft of Newcaftle, in
W.long. i° 40*, and N. lat. 550 sc/.
BILLITON, an iftand in the E. Indian ocean, lying
fouth-weft of Bornea, in x° xa' S. lat.
BILLON, in the hiftory of coins, a compofition of pre¬
cious and bafe metals, where the latter predominate.
Wherefore gold under twelve carats fine, is called bil¬
lon of gold ; and filver under fix penny-weight, billon
of filver. So little attention was paid formerly to the
purity of gold and filver, that the term billon of gold
was applied only to that which was under twenty-one
carats; and billon of filver to that which was lower
than ten penny-weight.
Billon, in geography, a town of the Lower Auvergne,
in the Lvonois in France, about ten miles fouth-eaft
®f Clermont; E.long. 30 ay,, and N. lat. 45? 40'..
BILSDON, a market-town of Leicefterfhire, about fe“
ven miles fouth-eaft of Leicefter; W. long, yo7, and
N. lat. 520 40'.
BILSEN, a town of Germany, about fix miles weft of
Maeftricht; E.long. y0 30', and N. lat. yi°.
BIMEDIAL, in mathematics. If two medial lines, as
AB and BC, commenfurable only in power, containing
a rational re<5tangle, are compounded, the whole line
AC will be irrational, and is called a firft bimedial
line.
See Euclid, lib. X. prop. 38.
BIMINI, one of the Lucaya-iflands, in N. America,
to the fouth of the Bahama-iflands.
BIMLIP AT AN, a port-town of Golconda in India, where
the Dutch have a farftory. It is fituated on the weft
fide of the bay of Bengal, in 83° E. long, and 180
N. lat.
BINARY arithmetick, that wherein unity, or 1 and o
are only ufed.
This was the invention of M. Leibnitz, who /hm
it to be very expeditious in difcovering the prop',
of numbers, and in conftru<5ting tables: anc
Dangecourt, in the hiftory of the royal acade;.
fciences, gives a fpecimen of it concerning arithi i'
cal progreffionals; where he fhews, that becaufe, ir
binary arithmetick, only two charafters are ufed, there¬
fore the laws of progreffion may be more eafily difco-
vered by it than by common arithmetic.
All the chara&ers ufed in binary aiithmetick are o
and 1, and the cipher multiplies every thing by 2, as
in the common arithmetic by 10. Thus 1 is one ; 10,
two; 11, three; 100, four; 161, five; no, fix;
in, feven', 1000, eight; 1001, nine; 1010, ten;
which is built on the fame principles with common a-
rithmetick.
The author, however, does not recommend this
method for common ufe, becaufe of the great number
of figures required to exprefs a number; and adds,
that if the common prdgreffion were from 12 to 12,
or from 16 to 16, it would be ftill more expeditious.
Binary meafure, in mufic, is a meafure which is beaten
equally, or where the time of riling is equal to that of
falling. This is ufually called common time. See
Music.
Binary number, that compofed of two units.
BINDBROKE, a market-town of Lincolnfhire, about
twenty-five miles north-eaft of Lincoln; E. long. 6',
and N. lat. y3° 32'.
BINCH, a little fortified town of Haioault, ten miles
eaft of Mons; E. long. 40 20', and N. lat. yo° 0,0 .
BIND, a country-word for aftalk of hops.
Bind of eels, a quantity, confifting of 2yo, or 10
ftrikes, each containing 2y eels.
BINDING, in a general fenfe, the faftening of two or
more together by a vinculum or bond.
HocLBinding. See Book-binding.
Binding, among fencers, denotes the fecuring the ad-
verfary’s fword, which is effected by a preffure an^
fpring from the wrift.
Binding
B I S ( 557 ) BIT
Bishop’s-CAstle, a borough-town in Shropfhire, iitu-
ated on the river Ony, about 15'miles fouth-weft of
Shrewlbury, in 30 W. long, and 520 30/ N. lat.
Bishop and his clerks, fome little iflands and rocks
on'the coaft of Pembrokelhiie, not far from St Da¬
vid’s, very fatal to mariners.
Bishop’s-stortford, a market-town in Hertfordlhire,
r 30 miles north of London, and only 10 miles north-
eaid of Hertford; in 20'E. long. ji° 3c/ N. lat.
BISHOPING, a term among horfe-courfers, to denote
the fophiftications ufed to make an old horfe appear
young, a bad one good, 6"c.
BISHOPRIC, the didridt over which a bifliop’s jurif-
diftion extends, otherwife called a diocefe.
In England there are twenty-four bilhoprics, and
two archbilhoprics; in Scotland, none at all; in Ire¬
land, eighteen biftioprics, and four archbifhoprics.
BISIGNANO, a city of Hither Calabria, in the king¬
dom of Naples; in 160 4s' E. long, and 390 50' N.
lat.
BISKET, a kind of bread prepared by the confectioners,
of fine flour, eggs, and fugar, and rofe or orange-
water; or of flour, eggs, and fugar, with anifeeds
and citron-peel, baked again and again in the oven, in
tin or paper moulds. There are divers forts of bifkets,
as feed-bilket, fruit-bilket, long bilket, round bilket,
naples-bilket, fpunge-bilket, <&■£.
iSea-BisKET is a fort oLbread much dried by palling
the oven twice, to make it keep for fea-fervice. For
long voyages they bake it four times, and prepare it
fix months before the embarkation. It will hold good
a whole year.
BISMILLA, a folemn form ufed by the Mahometans at
the beginning of alj their books and other writings, fig-
nifying, In the name of the nioji merciful God.
BISMUTH, a ponderous brittle femi-metal, refembling
zinc and the regulus of antimony, but differing greatly
from them in quality. It dilfolves with vehemence in the
nitrous acid, which only corrodes the regulus of anti¬
mony ; and is fcarce foluble in the marine acid, which
adts llrongly on zinc. A calx and flowers of bifmuth
have been recommended as fimilar in virtue to certain
antimonial preparations; but are at prefent of no other
ufe than as a pigment or cofijietic.
Bifmuth is fometimes found native, in fmall com-
padt maffes, of a pale lead-colour on the outfide, but a
filvery white within. It attenuates the parts of all
other metals, and thereby promotes their fufion. When
diflblved in ftrong acids, it yields the famous, cofmetic
magiftery, and is a very valuable ingredient in the
mixed metals, ufed in calling types, and for bell-metal.
Bifmuth is very common in Germany, and not un-
frequently found in the tin-mines of Cornwall, though
little known, or at leal! regarded, there.
BISNAGER, the capital of a province of the fame name
in the higher peninfula of India; imyS0 E. long, and
,14° N. lat.
.BISNOW, or Bischnou, a fed! of the Banians in the
Eaft Indies; they call their god Ram-ram, and give
him a wife : They adorn his image with golden chains,
necklaces of pearls, and all foils of precious Rones.
Vol. I. No. 24. 3
They ling hymns in honour of their god, mixing their
devotion with dances and the found of drums, flage-
lets, biazen bafons, and other inllniments. This feet
lives wholly upon herbs and pulfe, butter and milk.
BISOCHI, or Bizochi. See Bizochi.
BISOMUM, or Disomum, in Roman antiquity, a fe-
pulchre, or vault, containing two dead bodies. On
the tombs of the primitive ChriRians were wont to.be
inferibed the words bifomi, or trifnii, or quadrifomi,
<bc. that by thefe means they might the ealier calcu¬
late the number of their dead.
BISON, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies of bos.
See Bos.
BISQUET, or Bisket. See Bisket.
BISSACRAMENTALES, adenomination giventoPro-
teftahts, on account of their allowing of only two fa-
craments, viz. baptifm and the eucharift.
BISSECTION, in geometry, the divifionof a line, angle,
<bc. into two equal parts.
BISSELjEUM, among ancient naturalifts, denotes the
oil of pitch, more properly calledSee Pis-
SELZEUM.
BISSEXTILE, in chronology, a year confifting of ,366
days, being the fame with our leap-year. See Astro¬
nomy, Of the divifton of tbne. '
BISTER. See Bistre.
BISTI, in commerce, a fmall coin of Perfia: Some fay
that it is among the current Giver coins of Perfia, and
worth only a little above three farthings of our money;
others fpeak of it again as a money of account.
BISTORTA, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies of
polygonum. See Polygonum.
BISTOURY, in furgery, an inftrument for making in-
cifions, of which there are different kinds, fome being
of the form of a lancet, others ftrait and fixed in the
handle like a knife, and others crooked with the (harp
edge on the infide. See Surgery.
BISTRE, or Bister, among painters, denotes glofiy
foot, pulverifed and made into a kind of cakes, with
gum-water. It is ufed to wafh their defigns. See
Washing.
BIT, or Bitt, an effential part of a bridle. Its kinds
are various. 1. The mufrol, fnaffle, or watering-bit.
2. Tbe canon-mouth, jointed in the middle. '3. The
canon with a fall mouth, all of a piece, only kneed
in the middle, to form a liberty or fpace for the tongue;
fit for horfes too fenfible, or ticklilh, and liable to be
continually bearing on the hand. 4. The canon-
rpmith, with the liberty in form of a pigeon’s neck;
proper where a horfe has too large a tongue. 5. The
canon with a port mouth, and an upfet or mounting
liberty; ufed where ,a horfe has a good mouth, but
large tongue. 6. The fcatch-mouth, with an upfet;
ruder but more fecure than a canon-mouth. 7. The
canon-mouth with a liberty; proper for a horfe with a
large tongue, and round bars. 8. The mafticadour,
or flavering-bit, &c. The feveral parts of a fnaffle,
or curb-bit, are the mouth piece, the cheeks and eyes,
guard of the cheek, head of the cheeks, the port, the
welts, the campanel or curb and hook, the bofles, the
bulners and rabbets, the water-chains, the fide-bolts,
7 B bolts.
BIZ ( 558 ) B L A .
bolts, and rings, kirbles of the bit or curb, trench, top-
rol, flap, and jeive. The importation of bits for bridles
is now prohibited.
Bit alfo denotes the iron part of a piercer, augre, and
the like tnfliruments.
Bit of a key, the part which contains the wards. See
Wards.
Bit, or Bitts, in (hip-building, the name of twogreat
timbers, ufually placed abaft the manger, in the (hip’s
loof, through which the crofs piece goes : The ufe of
it is to belay the cable thereto, while the (hip is at
anchor.
BITCH, the female of the dog kind. See Canis.
BITONTO, a city of the province of Barri, in the
kingdom of Naples, fituated about eight miles fouth-
weft of Barri, in 170 40' E long, and 410 20' N. lat.
BITTACLE, on (hip-board, a fquare box (landing before
him that (leers the (hip, with the compafs placed there¬
in, to keep and diredt the (hip in her Courfe.
BITTER, an epithet given to all bodies of an oppofite
tafte to fweetnefs. For the medical virtues of bitters,
fee Materia Medica.
Bitter, a fea-term, (ignifying any turn of the cable
about the bits, fo as that the cable may be let out by
little and little. And when a (hip is (lopped by a cable,
(he is faid. lo be brought up by a bitter. Alfo that end
of the cable which is wound about the bits is called the
bitter end of the cable.
Bitter-apple, in botany. See Colocynthis.
Bitter-salt. See Epsom-salt.
Bitter-sweet, in botany. See Solanum.
Bitter-waters. See Water.
BI T T E R - WI N e . See WIN E .
BITTERN, in ornithology. See Ardea.
Bittern, in the falt-works, the brine remaining after
the fait is concreted: This they ladle off, that the
fait may be taken out of the pan, and afterwards put
in again; when, being farther boiled, it yields more
fait. See Salt.
BITUMEN, in natural hiftory. See Asphaltum.
BIVALVES, a term fometimes ufed for fuch (hells as
confid of two pieces. It is alfo an appellation given
to fuch pods, or capfules,, as confift of two valves in-
clofing the (beds.
BIVENTER, in anatomy, called aMb digaftric, or two-
bellied, amufcleof the lower jaw. See p. 222. col. 1.
BIUMBRES, in geography, the fame with the amphifcii.
See Am phi sci 1.
BIXA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria mongynia
clafs. The corolla conlifts of 10 petals ; the calix has
five teeth ; and the capfule is rough, and double-
valved. T here is but one fpecies, viz. the orellana,
a native of America.
BIZARRO, in the Italian mufic, denotes a fanciful kind
of compofition, fometimes fad, flow, foft, flrong, <&c.
according to the fancy of thecompofer.
BIZOCHI, or Bi sochl, in church-hidory, certain he¬
retical monks, faid to have affumed the religious habit
contrary to the canons, rejected the facraments, and
maintained other errors.
BIZU, a town of Barbary, in Africa, in the kingdom of
Morocco-
BLACK, a well known colour, fuppofed to be owing to
the abfence of light; all the rays thereof being ab-
forbed by the black bodies. See Optics
Black, among dyers, one of the five fimple and mother
colours ufed in dying. It is made differently, ac¬
cording to the feveral qualities of the duffs that are to
be dyed. For duffs of a high price, as woolen cloth
an ell and a half or an ell and a quarter wide, broad
and narrow rattens, fine woollen druggets, they
mud ufe a black made of the bed woad and indigo,
inclining to a bluilh brown. The goodntfs of the
compofition confids in there being not above fix pounds
of indigo ready prepared to each ball of woad, when
the latter, being in the tub, begins to cad its blue
flower; and in not being heated for ufe above' twice;
after which it mud be boiled with alum, tartar, or
allies of lees of wine, then maddered with common
madder, and ladly the black mull be given with gall-
nuts of Aleppo, copperas, and fumach. As for more
indifferent fluffs, fuch as fmall rattens, and (iialloons,
as they cannot pay for the expence of maddering it is
fufficient that they be well boiled with woad, and after¬
wards blacked with gall and copperas. There is like-
wife jefuits black, which is made with the fame ingre¬
dients as the good black, but without having firft dyed
the fluff blue.
German Black, called by fome Frankfort black, is made
with the lees of wine, burnt, wafhed afterwards in
water, then ground in mills made for that purpofe, with
ivory, bones, or peach-flones, alfo burnt. It comes
from Frankfort, Mentz, and Stralbourg, either in
lumps or powder, and muft be chofen moifl, without
having been wetted, of a fine (hining black, foft, fri¬
able, light, and with as few (hining grains as pofiible.
Ivory Black, otherwife called velvet black, is burnt
ivory, which becoming quite black, and being reduced
to thin plates, is ground in water, and made into tro¬
ches, to be ufed by painters, and by jewellers, who
fet precious ftones, to blacken the ground of the col¬
lets, and give the diamonds a teint or foil. In order
to be good, it ought to be tender, friable, and tho¬
roughly ground.
.ZLws-Black is made with the bones of oxen, cows, &c.
and is ufed in painting; but is not fo much efteemed as
ivory black'.
’/-Black, that which remains in the retort after
the fpirits, volatile fait, and oil, have been extrafted
from hart’s-horn. It anfwers the purpofes of painters
almoft as well as ivory-black.
Spanijb Black, is nothing but burnt cork : It is ufed in
feveral works. It (hould be light, and have as few
grains of fand mixed with it as poflible.
Liimp-BLACK, or Liw-Black, the footy fmoke of ro-
fin. There is fome in powder and fome in lumps, and
is moftly brought from Sweden and Norway, and pays
duty 11. 10s. q-i^d. the hundred weight. It is ufed
on various occafions, particularly for making the print¬
er’s ink, for which purpofe it is mixed with oil of wal¬
nuts, or linfeed, and turpentine, all boiled together.
Earth-BLACK, a fort of coals found in the ground,,
with which the painters and limners ufe to paint in.
ffefco, after it has been well ground.
There.
B L A ( 559 ) B L A
There is alfo a black made with gall nuts, copperas,
or vitriol, fuch as common ink. And a bla'ck^made
with filver and lead, which ferves to fill up the cavities
of ingraved things.
Curriers Black, a black made with gall-nuts, four
beer, and old iron, termed the firft black The fe-
cond black, which gives the glofs to the leather,, is
compofed of gall-nufs, coppefasj and gum-arabic.
Bl4Ck-£««/£, in geopraphy, a town of Ireland, about fe-
ven miles fouth. of Armagh, in 6° yc/ W. long, and
54° iV N. lat.
Black-berry, in botany. See Robots.
Black-^^ of the exchequer. See Exchequer.
’R-LA.ziiL-bourn, a market-town of Lancaihire, about nine
miles eaft of Preiloh', in '2°''2c/ W. long, and 53° 40'
N. lat.
Black-*7?/), in ornithology, the Englifh name of the
mufctcapa utricapilla. See MusciCAPA.
Black-m^/?. See'FALCo.
"BzA.ZK-foreJl, a part of Swabia, divided from Switzer¬
land by the river'Rhine.
fthkCK-game. See Tetrao.
'Hi.kCK.-tnail, a hnk of mail, or fmall pieces of metal
or money. In the counties pf Northumberland, Cum¬
berland, Weftmoreland, tmdfeveral parts of Scotland,
it was formerly taken for a certain rent of money,
corn, cattle, or other confideration, paid by poor peo¬
ple near the borders, to perfons of note and power,
allied with fome mofs-troopers, or known robbers, in
order to proteA them from pillage.
Black-See Order.
Black-*-^. See Rod.
BLACK-yi?tf, the fame with the Euxine fea, lying north
ofNatolia, between 29° and 440 E. long, and 42°
and 46° N. lat.
Black-//v. See Tin.
BLACK-w^/er, the name of two rivers in Ireland; one
of which runs through the counties of Cork and Wa¬
terford, and falls in Youghal bay; and the other, af¬
ter watering the county of Armagh, falls into Lough.
Neagh.
BLACKS, in phyfiology. See Negroes.
BLADDER, in anatomy. Seep. 260. col. 2.
^A -Bladder, in phyfiology. See Air.
^//-Bladders. See Oil.
BLA1RIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix is divided into four fegments,
as alfo the corolla; the (lamina are inferred into the
receptacle; and the capfule has four cells, containing
many feeds. There is but one fpecies, viz. the cri-
coides, a native of the cape of Good Hope.
BL ‘ FART, in cornmerce, a fmall coin, current at
Cologn, worth fomething more than a farthing of our
money.
BLAIN, among farriers, a diflemper incident to beads,
being a certain bladder growing on the root of the
tongue, againft the wind-pipe, which dwells to fuch a
pitch as to flop the breath. It comes by great chaf¬
fing and heating of the ilomach. and is perceived by
the bead’s gaping and holding out his tongue, and
foaming at the mouth. To cure it, cad the bead, take
forth his tongue, and then, flitting the bladder, wadi
it gently with vinegar and a little fait.
BLAIR of Athol, a fmall tow n of Athol in Scotland,
fituated about twenty-eight miles north of Perth.
BLAIRIA, in botany. See Verbena.
BLAKEA, in botany, a genus of the dodecandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix has five leaves ; the petals
are fix; the antherae are connected ; and- the capfule
has fix cells. There is only one fpecies, viz. the tri-
neivia, a native of Jamaica.
BLAMONT, a town of Lorrain, about twenty-eight
miles fouth-ead of Nancy, in E. long. 6° and
N. lat. 48° 3S/.
BLANC. See Blank.
BLANCH-/’£>/<A'«£, in Scots law, a tenure by which the
vaflal is only bound to pay an elufory yearly duty to
his fuperior merely as an acknowledgment of his right.
See Scots Law, tit. The Jcveral kinds of holdings.
Carte-YszAtiOiE. See Carte.
BLANCHING, in a general fenfe, denotes the art of
bleaching or whitening.
Blanching of copper is done various ways, fo as to.
make it refemble filver. If it be done for fale, it is
felony by 8 and 9 William III. chap. xxvi.
Blanching, in coinage, the operation performed on
the planchets or pieces of filver, to give them the re-
quifite ludre and brightnefs They alfo blanch pieces
of plate, when they would have: them continue white,
or have only fome parts of them burniflied..
Blanching, as it is now pracflifed, is peformed by
heating the pieces on a kind of peel with a wood fire,
in the manner of a reverberatory; fo that the flame
pafies over the peel. The pieces being diffidently
heated and cooled again, are put fucceflively to boil in
two pans, which are of copper: In thefe they put
water, common fait, and tartar of Montpelier. When,
they have been well drained of this water in a copper
fieve, they throw fand and freffi water over them; .
and when dry, they are well rubbed with towels.
Blanching, among gardeners, an operation whereby
certain fallets, roots, 6c. are rendered whiter than,
they would otherwife be.
It is this : After pruning off the tops and roots of
the plants-to be blanched, they plant them in trenches
about ten inches wide, and as many deep, more or
lefs. as is judged neceflary ; as they grow up, care is
taken to cover them with earth, within four or five:
inches of their tops : This is repeated from time to-
time, for five or fix week's, in which time they will bo
fit for ufe, and of a whitiffi colour where covered by.
the earth.
Blanching alfo denotes the operation of covering iron
plates with a thin coat or cruft of tin;
BLANCO, or G7/c-Blanoov a promontory of Peru,
in S. America, W. long. 8i°, and S. lat; 30 45''.
Blanco is alfo the name of one of the Antille-iflands,
on the coaft of1 Terra Firma, in* W. long. 640, and
N. lat. 12°.
Cape-Bh anco is alfo a promontory of Africa, in.i8Q
W. long, and 20° N. lat.
BLANFORD, a marker town of Dorfetffiire, ten miles
north.
B L A ( 5<*o ) B L A
north of Pool, ia 20 20' W. long, and jo° jo'
N. ht.
BL ANKS, a port-town of Catalonia in Spain, E. long.
20 40', N. lat. 410 30'.
BLANK, or Blanc, properly fignifies white. See
White.
Blank, in commerce, a void or unwritten place which
merchants fometimes leave in their day-books or jour¬
nals.
BLANK-^t/r, inlaw, the fame with common bar. See
Bar.
Blank-verje^ in the modern poetry, that compofed of a
certain number of fyllables, without the a Alliance of
rhime. See Verse and Rhime.
Pc;»/-Blank. See ¥ona r-blank.
BLANKENBURG, a town of Dutch Flanders, eight
miles north-ealt of Oftend, in 30 E. long, and j 10 20
N. lat.
Blankenburg is alfo the name of a town in lower Sax¬
ony, aboutjforty-five miles fouth-eaft of Wolfembuttle,
in ii° 15^ E. long, and 510 50 . N. lat.
BLANKET, a coverlet for a bed. A fluff commonly
made of white wool, and wrought in a loom like
“ cloth ; with this difference, that they are croffed like
ferges.
When they come from the loom, they are fent to
the fuller ; and after they have been fulled and well
cleaned, they are naped with a fuller’s thiftle.
There are blankets made with the hair of feveral a-
nimals; as that of goats, dogs, and others.
French blankets, called Paris mantles, pay duty
igs. 11 d, each, if coloured and the manufadture of
France; otherwife only 5 s. i-t^d. If uncoloured,
and the manufacture of France, they pay each
9s. S-reg-d. otherwife only 3s. ic>A^-d. Blankets
imported into France, pay a duty of importation ac¬
cording to their finenefs; namely, thofe of fine wool,
fix livres per piece ; thofe of coarfe - and middling
wool, three livres. None can be imported but by the
way of Calais and StVallery.
BLANOS, a maritime town of Spain in Catalonia, near
the mouth of the river Tordera.
BLANQUILLE, in commerce, a fmall filver coin cur¬
rent in the kingdom of Morocco, and all that part of
the coaft of Barbary; it is worth about three-half-pence
of our money,..
BLARE, in commerce, a fmall copper coin of Bern,
nearly of the fame value with the ratz.
BLAREGNIES, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
about feven miles fouth of Mons; E. long. 30 55',
and N. lat. 50° 30'.
BLASIA, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia algae
clafs. The calix of what is called the male is cylin¬
drical, and full of grains ; the calix of the female is
naked, and inclofing a roundilh feed funk in the leaves.
There is hut one fpecies, viz. the pufilla, or dwarf
blafia, a native of Britain.
BLASPHEMY, an indignity or injury offered to the
Almighty, by denying what is his due, and of right
belonging to him; .or by attributing to the creature
that which is due only to the Creator.
BLAST, in a general fenfe, denoted any violent explo-
fion of air, whether occafioned by gun-powder, or by
the adion of a pair of bellows.
Blasts, among miners, the fame with damps. See
Damps.
Blast, or Blight, in hulbandry. See Blight.
BLASTING, a term ufed.by miners for the tearing up
rocks which lie in their way, by the force of gun¬
powder.
BLATTA, or Cockroche, a genus of infeds belong¬
ing to the order of hemiptera, or fuch as have four
femicruflaceous incumbent wings. The head of the
blatta is infleded towards the bread ; the antennas, or
feelers, are hard like bridles ; the elytra and wings are
plain, and refemble parchment; the breaft is fmooth,
roundifii, and is terminated by an edge or margin ; the
feet are fitted for running; and there are two fmali
horns above the tail. This infed refembies the beetle;
and there are 10 fpecies; viz. 1. The gigantea is of a
livid colour, and has fquare brownilh marks on the
breaft. It is found in Afia and America, and is about
the fize of a hen’s egg. 2. The alba is red, and the
margin of the breaft is white. It is found in Egypt.
3. The furinamenfis is livid, and the breaft edged with
white. It is a native of Surinam. 4. The ameri-
cana is of an iron colour, and the hind part of the
breaft is white. The wings and elytra are longer than
its body. It is found in America and the fouth of
France. 5. The pivea is white, with yellow feelers.
It is a native of America. 6. The africana is alh-co-
loured, and ha$ fome hairs on its breaft. It is found
in Africa. 7. The orientalis is of a dulky alh colour,
has Ihort elytra, with an oblong furrow in them. Th;s
fpecies is frequent in America. They get into chefts,
be. and do much hurt to cloaths ; they infeft peoples
beds in the night, bite like bugs, and leave a very un-
favoury fmeil behind them. They avoid the light,
and feldom appear but in the night time. The female
refembies a kind of caterpillar, as it has no wings:
She lays an egg of about one half the bulk of her
belly. They eat bread, raw or dreffed meat, linen,
books, filk-worms tfnd their bags, be. Sir Hans
Sloane fays, that the Indians mix their alhes with fu-
gar, and apply them to ulcers in order to promote the
fuppuration. 8. The germanica, is livid, and yellow-
ifti, with two black parallel lines on the breaft. It is
found in Denmark. 9. The lapponica, is yellow, and
the elytra are fpotted with black. It is found in Lap-
land, and feeds upon cheefe, fifties, <bc. 10. The
oblongata, is of an oblong figure; the colour is livid
and ftiining; and it has two black fpots on the breaft.
The feelers are red and clavated; and the feet are
very hairy. It is a native of America.
Blatta in pharmacy. See Unguis.
BLATTARIA, in botany. See Verbascum.
BLAVET, or Port-Lewis, a port-town of Brittany
in France, fituated at the mouth of the river Blavet;
W. long. 30, and N. lat. 47° 40'.
BLAWBUREN, a town of Swabia, in Germany, a-
bout eleven miles eaft of Ulm; E. long. 90 45', and
N. lat. 48° 24r.
BLAYE,
B L A ( ) B L E
BLAYE, a fortrers of Guienne, in France, fituated on
the river Garonne, about twenty-one miles north of
Bourdeaux; W. long. 4.5', and N. lat. 45° 70'.
The intention of it is, to hinder any Ihip from go¬
ing to Bourdeaux without permiffion.
BLAZE, a white fpot in a horfe’s face.
Blaze. See Blare.
BLAZONING, or Blazonry, in heraldry, the decy-
phering the arms of noble families.
The word originally fignified the blowing or wind¬
ing of a horn, and was introduced into heraldry as a
term denoting the defcription of things borne in arms,
with their proper fignifications and intendments, from
an ancient cuftom the heralds, who were judges, had
of winding an horn at jufts and tournaments, when
they explained and recorded the atchievements of
knights.
BLEA, in the anatomy of plants, the inner rind or bark.
See Agriculture, parti.
BLEACHING.
BLEACHING is the art of whitening linen cloth,
thread, <bc. ; which is conduced in the following
manner by the bleachers of this country.
After the cloth has been forted into parcels'of an e-
qual finenefs, as near as can be judged, they are latched,
linked, and then fteeped. Steeping is the firft operation
which the cloth undergoes, * and is performed in this
manner. The linens are folded up, each piece diftindt,
and laid in a large wooden veffel; into which is thrown,
blood-warm, a fufficient quantity of water, or equal parts
of water and lye, which has been ufed to white cloth only,
or water with rye-meal or bran mixed with it, till the whole
is thoroughly wet, and the liquor rifes over all. Then a
cover of wood is laid over the cloth, and that cover is fecu-
red with a poll betwixt the boards and the joifting, to pre¬
vent the cloth from rifing during the fermentation which
enfues. About fix hours after the cloth has1 been fteeped
in warm water, and about twelve in cold, bubbles of air
arife, a pellicle is formed on the furface of the liquor,
and the cloth fwells when it is not prefieddown. This
inteftine motion continues from thirty-fix to forty-eight
hours, according to the warmth of the weather; about
which tin^ the pellicle or fcum begins to fall to the bot¬
tom. I^eTore this precipitation happens, the cloth muft
be taken out; and the proper time for taking it out, is
when no more air-bubbles arife. This is allowed to be
the jufteft guide by the moft experienced bleachers.
The cloth is then taken out, well rinfed, difpofed re¬
gularly by the felvage, and waihed in the put-mill to
carry off the loofe duft. After this it is fpread on the
field to dry: When thoroughly dried, it is ready for
bucking ; which is the fecond operation.
Bucking, or the application of falts, is performed in
this manner. The firft, or mother lye, is made in a"
, copper, which we (hall fuppofe, for example, whert full,
holds 170 Scots gallons of water. The copper is filled
Three fourths full of water^ which is brought to boil:
juft when it begins, the following proportion of allies is
put into it, viz. 30 lb. of blue', and as much white pearl-
afbes ;> aocelb. of Maicoft allies, (or, if they have not
thefe, about 300 lb. of Cafhub,} ; 300'fb. of Mufcovy,
or blanch allies; the three laft ought to be well pounded.
Vol. I. Numb. 24. 3
This liquor is allowed to boil for a quarter of an hour,
ftirring the alhes from the bottom very often ; after
which the fire is taken away. The liquor muft ftand till
it has fettled, which takes at leaft fix hours, and then it
is fit for ufe.
Out of their firft, or mdther-lye, the fecond, or that
ufed in bucking, is made in this manner. Into another
copper, holding, for example, 40 Scots gallons, -are put
38 gallons of water, 2 lb. fbft foap, and 2 gallons pf
mother-lye ; or, for cheapnefs, in place of the foap, when
they have lye which has been ufed to white linen, called
'uibite-linen lye, they take 14 gallons of it, leaving out
an equal quantity of water. This is called bucking-lye.
After the linens are taken up from the field dry, they
are fet in the vat or cave, as their large veffel is called;
in rows, endwife, that they may be equally wet by
the lye; which, made blood-warm, is now thrown on
them, and the cloth is afterwards fqueezed down by a
man-with wooden (hoes. Each row undergoes the fame
operation, until the veffel is full, or all the cloth in it. At
firft the lye is put on milk-warm, and, after ftanding a
little time on the cloth, it is again let off by a cock into
the brcking-copper, heated to a greater degree, and then
put on the cloth again. This courfe is repeated for fix
or feven hours, and the degree of heat gradually increa-
fed, till it is, at the laft turn or two, thrown on boiling,
hot. The cloth remains after this for three or four hours
in the lye; after which the lye is let off, thrown away,
or ufed in the firft buckings, and the cloth goes on to an¬
other operation.
It is then carried out, generally early in the morning,
fpread on the grafs, pinned, corded down, expofed to
the fun and air, and watered for the firft fix hours, fo
Often, that it never is allowed to dry. Afterwards it is
allowed to lie till dry fpots appear before it is watered..
After feven at night it gets no more water, unlefs it be a
very dr'ing night. Next day, in the morning and fore¬
noon, it is watered twice or thrice if the day be very
dry; but if the weather be not drying, it gets no wa¬
ter : After which it is taken up dry if the green be
clean ; if not, it is rinfed, mill-waftied, and laid out to
dry again, to become fit for bucking.
This
562 B L E A
This alternate courfe of bucking and watering, is per¬
formed for the moft part, from ten to fixteen time^, or more,
before the linen is fit for fouring; gradually increafing the
Itrength of the lye from thefirft to the middle bucking, and
from that gradually decreafmg it till the fouring begins.
The lyes in the middle buckings are generally about a
third Wronger than the firft and laft.
Souring, or the application of acids to cloth, is the
fourth operation. It is difficult to fay when this opera¬
tion fhould commence, and depends moftly on the fkill
and experience of the bleacher. When the cloth has an
equal colour, and is moftly freed from the fprat, or
outer bark of the lint, it is then thought fit for fouring ;
which is performed in the following manner. Into a
large vat or veflel is powered fuch a quantity of butter¬
milk, or four milk, as will fufficiently wet the firft row
of cloth; which is tied up in loofe folds, and preffed
down by two or three men bare-footed. If the milk is
thick, about an eighth of water is added to it if thin,
no water. Sours made with bran, or rye-meal and wa¬
ter, are often ufed inftead of milk, and ufed milk-warm.
Over the firft row of cloth a quantity of milk and water
is thrown, to be imbibed by the fecond; and fo it is
continued till the linen to be foured is fufficiently wet,
and the liquor rifes over the whole. The cloth is then
kept down by covers filled with holes, and fecured with
a poft fixed to the joift, that it may not rife. Some
hours after the cloth has been in the four, air-bubbles
arife, a white fcum is found on the furface, and an inte-
ftine motion goes on in the liquor. In warm weather it
appears fooner, is ftronger, and ends fooner, than in
cold weather. Juft before this fermentation, which lafts
five or fix days, is finifhed, at which time the fcum falls
down, the cloth fhould be taken out, rinfed, mill-wafhed,
and delivered to the women to be wafhed with foap and
water.
Wafhing with foap and water, is the fifth operation;
and is performed thus. Two women are placed oppofite
at each tub, which is made of very thick ftaves, fo that
the edges, which dope inwards, are about four inches in
thicknefs. A fmall veffel full of warm water is placed
in each tub. The cloth is folded fo that the felvage
may be firft rubbed with fbap and warm water length¬
ways, till it is fufficiently impregnated with it. In this
manner all the parcel is rubbed with foap, and afterwards
carried to be bucked.
The lye now ufed has no foap in it, except what it
gets from the cloth ; and is equal in ftrength to the
ftj ongeft formerly ufed, or rather ftronger, becaule the
cloth is now put in wet. From the former operation
thefe lyes are gradually made ftronger, till die cloth
feems of an uniform white, nor any darknefs or brown
colour appears in its ground. After this the lye is more
fpeedily weakened than it was increafed; fo that the laft
which the cloth gets, is weaker than any it got before.
But the management of fours is different; for they
are ufed ftrongeft at firft, and decreafed fo in ftrength,
that the laft four, confidering the cloth is then always
taken up wet, may be reckoned to contain three fourths
of water.
C H I N G.
From the bucking it goes to the watering, as former¬
ly, obferving only to overlap the felvages, and tie it
down with cords, that it may not tear; then it returns
to the four, milling, wafhing, bucking, and watering a-
gain. Thefe operations fucceed one another alternately
till the cloth is whitened ; at which time it is blued,
ftarched, and dried.
This is the method ufed in the whitening fine cloths.
The following is the method ufed in the whitening of
coarfe cloths.
Having forted the cloths, according to their quality,
they are fteeped in the fame manner as the fine, rinfed,
wafhed in the mill, and dried before boiling.
In this procefs, boiling fupplies the place of bucking,
as it takes lefs time, and confequently is thought cheap-
eft. It is done in the following manner : 200 lb. caflrub
afhes, 100 lb. white Mufcovy, and 30 lb. pearl-afhes,
boiled in 105 Scots gallons of water for a quarter of an
hour, as in the procefs for the fine cloth, makes the nrto-
tber or firft lye. The cloth-boiler is then to be filled
two thirds full with water and mother-lye, about nine
parts of the former to one of the latter ; fo that the lye
nfed for boiling the coarfe cloth, is about a third weaker
than that ufed in bucking the fine. Such a quantity of
cloth is put into the foregoing quantity of lye, when
cold, as can be well covered by it. The lye is brought
gradually to the boil, and kept boiling for two hours ; the
cloth being fixed down all the time, that it does not
rife above the liquor. The cloth is then taken out,
fpread on the field, and watered, as mentioned before in
the fine cloth.
As the falls of the lye are not exhaufted by this boil¬
ing, the fame is continued to be ufed all that day, add¬
ing, at each boiling, fo much of the mother-lye as will
bring it to the fame ftrength as at firft. The lye by boil¬
ing lofes in quantity fomewhat betwixt a third and a
fourth ; and they reckon that in ftrength it lofes about a
half, becaufe they find in pra<5iice, that adding to it
half its former ftrength in frefti lye, has the fame effefl
on cloth. Therefore fome frefti lye, containing a fourth
part of the water, and the half of the ftrength of the firft
lye, makes the fecond boiler equal in ftrength to the
firft. To the third boiler they add fomewhat more than
the former proportion, and go on ftill increafing gradu¬
ally to the fourth and fifth, which is as much as can be
done in a day. The boiler is then cleaned, and next
day they begin with frelh lye. Thefe additions of frefti
lye ought always to be made by the mafter-bleacher, as
it requires judgment to bring fucceeding lyes to the fame
ftrength as the firft.
When the cloth comes to get the fecond boiling, the
lye ftiould be a little ftronger, about a thirtieth part, and
the deficiencies made up in the fame proportion. For fix
or feven boilings, or fewer, if the cloth be thin, the lye
is increafed in this way, and then gradually diminiflied
till the cloth is fit for fouring. The whiteft cloth ought
always to be boiled firft, that it may not be hurt by what
goes before.
In this procefs, if the cloth cannot be got dry for boil¬
ing, bufinefs does not flop as in the fine ; for after the
coarfe
B L E A C
coarfe has dreeped pn racks made for the purpofe, it is
boiled, making the lye ftrong in proportion to the water
in the cloth.
The common method of fouring coarfe linen is, to
mix fome warm water and bran in the vat, then put a
layer of cloth, then more bran, water, and cLth ; and
fo on, till the cave is full. The whole is tramped with
mens feet, and fixed as in the former procefs. A thou-
fand yards of cloth, yard-broad, require betwixt four
and fix pecks of bran. The cloth generally lies about
three nights and two days in the four. Others prepare
their four twenty-four hours before, by mixing the bran
with warm water in a feparate vefiel; and before pouring
it on the cloth, they dilute it with a fufficient quantity
of water. After the cloth is taken from the four, it
ought to be well walked and rinfed again. It Is then
given to men to be well foaped on a table, and after¬
wards rubbed betwixt the rubbing-boards. When it
comes from them, it Ihould be well milled, and warm
water poured on it all the time, if conveniency will al¬
low of it. Two or three of thefe rubbings are fufficient,
and the cloth very feldom requires more.
The lye, after the fouring begins, is decreafed in
ftrength by degrees ; and three boilings after that are
commonly fufficient to finiffi the cloth. Afterwards it is
Hatched, blued, dried, and bittled in a machine made
for that purpofe, which fupplies the place of a calendar,
and is preferred by many to it.
This method qfed in the bleaching of our coarfe cloths,
is very like that pradtifed in Ireland for both fine and
coarfe. The only material difference is, that there the
bleachers ufe no other affies but the kelp or caffiub. A
lye is drawn from the former by cold water, which dif-
folves the falts, and not the fulphureous particles of the
kelp affies. This lye is ufed till the cloth is half whi¬
tened, and then they lay afide the kelp-lye for one made
of caffiub affies.
In the preceding hiflory of bleaching we may obferve,
that it naturally divides itfelf into feveral different
branches or parts, all tending to give linen the degree
of whitenefs required. How they effe&uate that comes
next to be confidered.
The general procefs of bleaching divides itfelf in¬
to thefe different parts. i. Steeping and milling. 2.
Bucking and boiling. 3.-Alternate watering and drying.
4. Souring. 5. Rubbing with foap and warm u'ater,
Itarching, and bluing. We ffiall treat of thefe different
parts in their order.
STEEPING,
Green linen, in the different changes which it has
undergone before it arrives at that Hate, contrails a
great foulnefs, This is chiefly communicated to it by
the dreffing compofed of tallow and fowen, which is a
kind of flummery made of bran, flour, or oat-meal
feeds. The firft thing to be done in the bleachfield is to
take off all that filth which is foreign to the flax, would
blunt the future adlion of the falts, and might, in unlkil-
ful hands, be fixed in the cloth. This is the defign of
fteeping.
KING. 56$
To accompliffi this end, the cloth is laid to deep in:
blood-warm water. A fmaller degree of heat would not
diffolve the dreflxng fo foon ; and the greater might c6-
agulate and fix, in the body of the linen, thofe particles
which we defign to carry off. In a few hours the dref*
fing made ufe in weaving is diffolved, mixed with the
water; and, as it had acquired fome degree of acidity,
before application, it becomes a fpecies of ferment. Each
ferment promotes its own particular fpecies of ferment¬
ation, or inteftine motion; the putrid ferment lets in
motion the putrefadlive fermentation ; the vinous ferment
gives rife to the vinous fermentation; and the acid fer¬
ment to the acetous fermentation. That there is a real
fermentation going on in fteeping, one muff be foon con¬
vinced, who attends to the air-bubbles which immediate¬
ly begin to arife, to the feum which gathers on the fur-
face,' and to the inteftine motion and fwelling of the-
whole liquor. That it muft be the acetous fermentation,.
appears from this, that the vegetable particles, already
in part foured, muft firft undergo this procefs.
The effetfl of all fermentations is to fet the liquor in
motion ; to raife in it a degree of heat; and to emit air-
bubbles, which, by carrying up fome of the light oleagi¬
nous particles along with them, produce a feum. But
as the dreffmg is in fmall quantity in proportion to the
water, thefe effects are gentle and flow, The acid falts
are no fooner feparated, by the acetous fermentation,,
from the abforbent earth, which made them not percep¬
tible to the tongue in their former ftate, than they are
united to the oily particles of the tallow, which likewife
adhere fuperficially, diffolve them, and render them, in
fome degree, miffible with water. In this ftate they are
foon waflted off by the inteftine motion of the liquor.
The confequenee of this operation is, that the cloth-
comes out freed in a great meafure from its fuperficial
dirt; and more pliant and foft than what it was. •
Whenever this inteftine motion is pretty much abated,.
and before the feum fubfides, bleachers take out their
cloth. The feum, when no more air-bubbles rife to fupport
-it, Teparates, and falls down ; and would again commu¬
nicate to the cloth great part of the filth. But a longer
ftay would be attended with a much greater difadvantage. -
The putrid follows clofe upon the acetous fermentation:
When the latter ends, the former begins. Were this to
take place, in any cqnfiderable degree, it would render
the cloth black and tender. Bleachers cannot be too carer -
ful in this article; ..
The firft queftion that arifes to be determined on thefe •
principles is, .What is the propereft liquor for fteeping ,
cloth ? Thofe ufed by bleachers are plain water; white-
linen lye and water, equal parts; and rye-meal or bran
mixed with water. They always make ufe of lye when,
they have it. .
After fteeping, the cloth is carried to the putftock-
mill, to be freed of all its loofe foulnefs. There can be
nothing contrived fo effedlual to anfwer the purpofe as
this mill. . Its motion is eafy, regular, and fafe. While
it preffes gently, it turns the cloth; which is continually
waflted with a ftream of water. Care muft be taken that
no water be detained in the folds of the linen, otherwife
that part may be damaged.
BUCKING
5 ^4
B L E A C
BUCKING and BOILING.
This is the mod important operation of the whole
procefs, and deferves a thorough examinatio'n. Its de-
fign is to Idofen, and carry off, by the help of alkaline
lixives or lyes, that particular fubftance in cloth, which
is the caufe of its brown colour.
All afhes ufed in lye, the pearl excepted, ought to be
wed pounded, before they are put into the copper; for
the Marcoft and Calhub are very hard, and with fome
difficulty yield their fails. As thefe two laft contain a
very confiderable proportion of a real fulphureous matter,
Which mud in fome degree tinge white cloth ; and as this
is diflblved much more by boiling, than by the inferior
degrees of heat, while the falts may be as well extradied
by the latter. The water ffiould never be brought to
boil, and fhould be continued for fome time longer under
that degree of heat. The pearl-affies diould never be
put in till near the end, as they are eafily diffolved in
water.
If the falts were always of an equal drength, the
fame quantities would make a lye equally drong; but
they are not. Salts of the fame name'differ very much
from one another. The Mufcovy alhes are turning
weaker every day, gs every bleacher mud have obferved,
till at lad they turn quite feffetei A decodion from them
when new, mud differ very much from one when th|ey
have been long kept. Hence a neceffity of fome exadt
criterion to difcover when lyes are of an equal drength.
The tade cannot ferve, as that is fo variable, cannot be
defcribed to another, and is blunted by repeated trials.
The proof-ball will ferve the purpofe of the bleachfield
fufficiently ; and, by difcovering the fpecific gravity, will
fhow the quantity of alkaline falts diffolved. But it
cannot fhow the dangerous qualities of thefe falts; for
the lefs caudic and lefs heavy this liquor is, the more
dangerous and corrofive it rmfy be for the cloth.
The third lye, which they draw from thefe materials
by an infufion of cold water, in which the tade of lime
is dil’coverable, appears plainly to be more dangerous
than the fird. The fecond lye, which they extradl from
the fame affies, and which is reckoned about a third in
drength, when compared to the fird, mud be of the fame
nature ; nor fhould it be ufed without an addition of
pearl-afhes, which will correid. it.
It is taken for a general rule, That the folution of any
body in its mendmum is equally diffufed through the
whole liquor. The bleachers depending on this, ufe e-
qual quantities of the top and bottom of their lye, when
once clear and fettled; taking it for granted, that there
is an equal quantity of falts in equal quantities of the lye.
But if there is not, the midake may be of fatal confe-
quence, as the lye may be.in fome places dronger than
what the cloth can'with fafety bear. That general law
of folution mud have taken its rife from particular expe¬
riments, and not from reafoning. Whether a fufficient
number of experiments have been tried'to afcertain this
point, and to edablifh an undoubted general rule, may
be called in quedion.
“ But, fays Dr Home, .when I had difcovered that
KING.
lime makes part of the diffolved fubdance, and relieved
how long its groffer parts will continue fufpended in wa¬
ter, there appeared dronger reafons for Cufpefting that
this rule, though it may be pretty general, does not ake
place here ; at leaf! it is worth the purfuit of experiment.
“ I weighed at the bleachfield apiece of glafs in fome
cold lye, after it had been boiled, dood for two days,
and about the fourth part of it had been ufed. The glafs
weighed 3 drachms 14 grains in the lye, and 3 rVachms
y-y grains in river-water. The fame glafs weighed in
the fame lye, when almod all ufed, 2 grains lefs than it
had done, before. This ffiows, that the lad of the lye
contained a third more of the diffolved body; and, con-
fequently, was a third dronger than the fird of the lye.
“ As this might, perhaps, be owing to a continhation
of the folution of the falts, I repeated the experiment in
a different way.
“ I took from the furface fome of the lye, after the
falts were diffolved, and the liquor was become clear.
At the fame time I immerfed a bottle, fixed to a Jong
dick, fo near the bottom, as not to raife the afhes there,
and, by pulling out the cork by a firing, filled the bottle
full of the lye near the bottom. The glafs weighed in
river-water 3 drachms 384 grains; in the lye taken irom
the furface 3^ drachms 34-r grains; and in the lye taken
from the bottom 3 drachms 314 grains. This experi¬
ment fhows, that the lye at tty: bottom was, in this cafe,
4 dronger then the lye at the furface,
“ At other times when I tried the fame experiment,
I found no difference in .the fpecific gravity; and there¬
fore, I leave it as a quedion yet doubtful, though de¬
ferring to be afcertained by thofe who have an oppor¬
tunity of doing it. As the lye ftands continually on the
afhes, there can be no doubt but what is ufed lad mud
be dronger than the fird. I would, therefore, recom¬
mend, to general praflice, the method ufed by Mr John
Chriflie, who draws off the lye, af|er it has fettled, into
a fecond receptacle, and leaves the afhes behind. By
this means it never can turn dronger; and he has it in
his power to mix the 'top and bottojn, which cannot be
done fo long as it dands on the affies.”
Having confidered the lye, let us next inquire how it,
afts. On this inquiry depends almod the whole theory
of bleaching, as its adion on cloth is, at lead in this
country, abfolutely neceffary. It is found by experiment,
that one effed they have on cloth, is the diminiffiing of
its weight; and that their whitening power is, generally,
in proportion to their Weakening power. Hence arifes a
probability, that thefe lyes ad by removing fomewhat
from the cloth, and that the lofs of this fubffahce is the
caufe of uhitenefs. This appears yet plainer, when the
bucking, which lads from Saturday night to Monday
morning is attended to.
There are various and different opinions with regard
to the operation of thefe falts: That they ad by alter¬
ing the external texture of the cloth, or by feparating
the mucilaginous parts from the' red, or b,y extrading
the oil which is laid up in the cells of the plant The
lad is the general opinion, or rather conjedure, for none
of them deferves any better name ; but may we venture to
affirm, that it is fo without any better ti;le to pre-emi¬
nence.
BLEACHING.
Hence, than what the others have. Alkaline falts diffolve
oils, therefore thefe falts diflblve the cellular oil of the
cloth, is all the foundation which this theory has to reft
on ; too flight, when unfupported by experiment,- to be
relied on.
Dr Home endeavours to fettle this queftion by the fol¬
lowing experiments and obfervations.
“ Wax, fays he, is whitened by being expofed to the
influence of the fun, air, and moifture. A difcovery of
the changes made on it by bleaching, may throw a light
upon the queftion.
“ Six drachms of wax were diced down, expofed on a
fouth window. Sept. 10. and watered. That day being
clear and warm, bleached the wax more than all the fol¬
lowing. It feemed to me to whiten quicker when it had
no water thrown on it, than when it had. Sept. iy. it
was very white, and t drachm 3 grains lighter, g-f.
drachms of this bleached wax, and as much of unbleach¬
ed, taken from the fame piece, were made into two
candles of the fame length and thicknefs, having cotton
wicks of the fame kind. The bleached candle burned
one hour thirty-three minutes; the unbleached three mi¬
nutes longer. The former run down four times, theJat-
ter never. The former had an obfcure light and dull
flame ; the latter had a clear pleafant one, of a blue co¬
lour at the bottom. The former when burping feemed
to have its wick thicker,, and its flame nearer the wax,
than the latter. The former was brittle, the latter not.
It plainly appears from thefe fads, that the unbleached
wax was more inflammable than the bleached ; and that
the latter Jrad loft fo much of an inflammable fubftance,
as it had loft in weight; and confequently the fubftance
loft in bleaching of wax is the oily part.
“ As I had not an opportunity of repeating the former
experiment, I do not look on it as entirely conclufive ;
for it is poflible that fome of the dull, flying about in the
air, might have mixed with the bleached wax, and fo
have rendered it lefs inflammable. Nor do I think the
analogical reafdjing from wax to linen without objec¬
tions. Let us try then if we cannot procure the fubftance
extraded from the cloth, ftiow it to the eye, and exa¬
mine its different properties. The proper place to find
it, is in a lye already ufed, and fully impregnated with
thefe colouring particles.
“ I got in the bleachfield fome lye, which had been
ufed all that day for boiling coarfe linen, which was to¬
lerably white, and had been twice boiled before. There
could be no drefling remaining in thefe webs. No foap
had ever touched that parcel; nor do they mix foap with
the lye ufed for coarfe cloth. Some of this impregnated
lye was evaporated, and left a dark-coloured matter be¬
hind. This fubftance felt oily' betwixt the fingers, but
would not lather in water as foap does. It deflagrated
with nitre in fufion, and afforded a tinfture to fpirit of
wine. By this experiment the falts feem to have an oily
inflammable fubftance joined with them.
“ Could we feparate this colouring fubftance from
thefe falts, and exhibit it by itfelf fo that it might be¬
come the obje<ft of experiment, the quelfion would be
foon decided. Here chymiftry lends us its afliftance.
Whatever has a ftronger affinity or attra&ion to the falts
Vol. I. No. 24. 3
565
with which it is joined, than this fubftance has, muft fet it at
liberty, and make it vifible. Acids attradf alkaline fait from
all other bodies; and therefore will ferve our purpofe.
“ Into a quantity of the impregnated lye mentioned in
the former experiment, I poured in oil of vitriol. Some
bubbles of air arofe, an inteftine motion was to be per¬
ceived, and the liquor changed its colour from a dark
to a turbid white. It curdled like a folution of foap,
and a fcum foon gathered on the furface, about half an
inch in thicknefs, the deepnefs of the liquor not being
above fix inches. What was below was now pretty clear.
A great deal of the fame matter lay in the bottom; and
I obferved, that the fubftance on the furface was preci¬
pitated, and ftiowed itfelf heavier than water, when the
particles of air, attached to it in great plenty, were dif-
pelled by heat. This fubftance was in colour darker than
the cloth which had been boiled in it.
“ I procured a confiderable quantity of it by fldm-
ming it off. When I tried to mix it with water, it al¬
ways fell to the bottom. When dried by the air, it di-
miniftied very much in its fize, and turned as black as a
coal. In this ftate it deflagrated ftrongly with nitre in
fufion; gave a ftrong tinfture to fpirit of wine; and when
put on a red-hot iron, burnt very flowly, as if it con¬
tained a heavy ponderous oil; and left fome earth behind.
“ From the inflammability of this fubftance, its re-
jedling of water, and diflblving in fpirit of wine, we dif-
cover its oleaginous nature; but from its great fpecific
gravity we fee that it differs very much from the ex-
prefled or cellular oil of vegetables ; and yet more from
their mucilage. That it diflblves in fpirit of wine, is not
a certain argument of its differing from expreffed oils ;
becaufe thefe, when joined to alkaline falts, and reco¬
vered again by acids, become foluble in fpirit of wine.
The quantity of earthy powder left behind after burning,
fhows that it contains many of the folid particles of the
flax. The fubftance extracted from cloth by alkaline
lyes appears then to be a compofition of a heavy oil, and
the folid earthy particles of the flax.
“ In what manner thefe falts a<ft fo as to diffolve the
oils, and detach the folid particles, is uncertain; but we
fee evidently how much cloth muft be weakened by an
. improper ufe of them, as we find the folid particles them-
felves are feparated.”
It is neceffary that cloth fhould be dry before bucking,
that the falts may enter into the body of the cloth along
with the water ; for they will not enter in fuch quantity,
if it be wet; and by ading too powerfully on the ex¬
ternal threads, may endanger them.
The degree of heat is a very material circumftance in
this operation. As the aftion of the falts is always in
proportion to the heat, it would appear more proper to
begin with a boiling heat, by which a great deal of time
and labour might be faved. The reafon why this method
is not followed, appears to be this. If any vegetable or
vegetable fubftance is to be foftened, and to have its juices
extracted, it is found more proper to give it gentle de¬
grees of heat at firft, and to advance gradually, than to
plunge it all at once in boiling water. This 1 aft degree
of heat is fo ftrong, that when applied at once to a ve¬
getable, it bardeps, inftead of foftening its texture. Dried
7 D vegetables
BLEACHING.
5<j<$
vegetables are immediately put into boiling water by
cooks, that thefe fubftances may preferve their green co¬
lour, which is only to be done by hindering them from
turning too foft. Boiling water has the fame effeft on
animal fubflances; for if fait beef is put into it, the wa¬
ter is kept from getting at the falls, from the outfide of
the beef being hardened.
But when we confider, how much of an oily fubftance
there is in the cloth, efpecially at firft, which will for
fome time keep off the water, and how the twilling of
the threads, and clofenefs of the texture, hinders the
water from penetrating, we lhall find, that if boiling wa¬
ter were put on it at once, the cloth might be liable, in
feveral parts, to a dry heat, which would be much worfe
than a wet one. That the lyes have not accefs to all
parts of the cloth, at firft, appears plainly from this,
that when it has lain, after the firft bucking, till all the
lyes are wailted out, it is as black, in fome parts, as
when it was fteeped. This muft be owing to the dif-
cbarge of the, colouring particles, from thofe places to
which the lye has accefs, 'and to their remaining where
it has not. It would feem advifeable, then, in the firft
bucking or two, when the cloth is foul, to ufe the lye
confiderably below the boiling point; that by this foak-
ing or maceration, the foulnefs may be entirely difcharg-
ed, and the cloth quite opened for the fpeedy reception
of the boiling lye in the buckings which follow.
The lyes firould likewife be weakeft in the firft buck¬
ings, becaufe then they a<ft only on the more external
parts ; whereas, when the cloth is more opened, and
the field of addon is increafed, the adtive powers ought
to be fo too. For this reafon they are at the ftrongeft
after fome fourings.
The only thing that now remains to be confidered, is,
the management of the coarfe cloth, where boiling is fub-
ftituted in place of bucking. This fpecies of linen cannot
afford the time and labour neceffary for the latter ope¬
ration ; and therefore they muft undergo a ftiorter, and
more active method. As the heat continues longer at
the degree of boiling, the lyes ufed to the coarfe cloth
muft be weaker than thofe ufed to the fine. There is
not fo much danger from heat in the coarfe as in the fine
cloth, becaufe the former is of a more open texture, and
will allow the lye to. penetrate more fpeedily. In the
clofer kinds, however, the firft application of the (alts
fliould be made without a boiling heat.
ALTERNATE WATERING and DRYING.
After the cloth has been bucked, it is carried out to
the field, and frequently watered for the firft fix hours.
For if during that time, when it is ftrongly impregnated
with falts, it is allowed to dry, the falts approaching
clofer together, and, aflifted by a greater degree of heat,
increafing always in proportion to the drinefs of the cloth,
aA with greater force, and deftroy its very texture. Af¬
ter this time, dry fpots are allowed to appear before
it gets 3ny water. In this ftate it profits moft, as the
latter part of the evaporation comes from the more ma¬
ternal parts of the cloth, and will carry away moft: from
thofe parts. The bleaching of the wax, in a preceding
experiment, helps to confirm this ; for it feemedto whiten
moft when the laft panicles of water were going off.
This continual evaporation from the furface of the
cloth /hows, that the deiign of the operation is to carry
off fomewhat remaining after the former procefs of buck¬
ing. This appears likewife from a fact known to all
bleachers, that the upper fide of cloth, where the eva¬
poration is ftrongeft, attains to a greater degree of white-
nefs than the under fide. But it is placed beyond all
doubt by experiment, which /hews, that cloth turns much
lighter by being expofed to the influence of the fun, air,
and winds, even though the falts have been wa/hed out
of it.
What, then, is this fubftance ? As we have difeovered
in the former fedlion, that the whitening, in the opera¬
tion of bucking, depends on the extradhng or loofening
the heavy oil, and folid particles of the flax ; it appears
highly probable, that the effefts of watering, and expo-
fition to the fun, air, and winds, are produced by the
evaporation of the fame fubftance, joined to the falts,
with which compofite body the cloth is impregnated when
expofed on the-field. That thefe falts are in a great
meafure carried off or deftrpyed, appears from the cloth’s
being allowed to dry without any danger, after the eva¬
poration has gone on for fome time. “ If we can /how,
fays Dr Home, that oils and falts, when joined toge¬
ther, are capable of being exhaled, in this manner, by
the heat of the atmofphere, we /hall reduce this queftion
to a very great degree of certainty.
“ Sept. to. I expofed, in a fouth-weft window, half
an oz. of Caftile foap, fliced down, and watered. Sept.
14. when well dried, it weighed but 3 dr. 6 gr. Sept.
22. it weighed 2 dr. 2 gr. Sept. 24. it weighed 1 dr..
50 gr. It then feemedavery little whiter; but was much
more mucilaginous in its tafte, and had no degree of falt-
nefs, which it had before.
“ It appears from this experiment, that foap is fo vo¬
latile, when watered, and expofed to air not very warm,
that it lofes above the half its weight in fourteen days.
The fame muft happen to the faponaceous fubftance,
formed from the conjunftion of the alkaline falts, heavy
oil, and earthy particles of the flax. The whole defign,
then, of this operation, which, by way of pre-eminence,
gets the name of bleaching, is to carry off, by the eva¬
poration of water, whatever has been loofened by the
former procefs of bucking.
“ Againft this do&rine there may be brought two ob-
je&ions, feemingly of great weight. It is a general opi¬
nion among/! bleachers, that linen whitens quicker in
March and April, than in any other months : But as the
evaporation cannot be fo great at that time, as when the
fun has a greater heat; hence the whitening of cloth is
not in proportion to the degree of evaporation; and
therefore the former cannot be owing to the latter. This
obje&ion vani/hes, when we confider, that the cloth
which comes firft into the bleachfield, in the fpring, is
clofely attended, having no other to interfere with it for
fome time ; and, as it is the whittft, gets, in the after buck¬
ings, the firft of the lye; while the fecond parcel is’often,
bucked with what has been ufed to the firft. Were the
fa<ft true, on which the objedion is founded, this would
B L E A C
be a fuilicient anfwer to the objeftion. But it appears
not to be true, from an obfervation of Mr John Chriftie,
That doth laid down in the beginning of June, and fi-
nifhed in September, takes generally lefs work, and un¬
dergoes fewer operations, than what is laid down in March,
and finilhed in June.
“ The other objection is, That cloth dries much fader
in windy weather than in calm funlhine; but it does not
bleach fo fad. This would feem to Ihow, that the fun
has fome particular influence independent on evaporation.
In anfwer to this obje&ion, let it be confidered, that it
is not the evaporation from the furfaee, but from the
more internal parts that is of benefit to the cloth. Now,
this latter evaporation mud: be much dronger in funfliine
than in windy weather, on account of the heat of the
fun, which will make the cloth more open; while the
coldnels of windy weather mud fhut it up, fo that the
evaporation will all be from the furface. Clear funlhine,
with a very little wind, is obferved to be the bed wea¬
ther for bleaching; a convincing proof that this reafon-
ing is jud.
“ It would feem to follow as a corollary from this rea-
foning, that the number of waterings ftiould in general
be in proportion to the drength of the lye; for the
dronger the lye is, the more, there is to be evaporated;
and the greater the danger, in cafe the cloth ihould be
allowed to dry. But there is an exception to this gene¬
ral rule, arifing from the confideration of another cir-
cumdance. It is obferved, that cloth, when brown, dries
fooner than when it becomes whiter, arifing from the
clofenefs and oilinefs which it then has, not allowing the
water a free pafiage. Perhaps that colour may retain a
greater degree of heat, and in that way affid a very little.
Cloth therefore, after the fird buckings, mud be more
carefully watered than after the lad.
“ It follows likewife from this reafoning, that the foil
of the bleachfield flrould be gravelly or fandy, that the
water may pafs quickly through it, and that the heat may
be increased by tire reflection of the foil: for the fuccels
of this operation depends on the mutual aCtion of heac
and evaporation. It is likewife neceffary that the water
fliould be light, foft,. and free from mud or dirt, which,
not being able to rife alongwith the water, mud remain
behind. When there is much of this, it becomes necef¬
fary to rinfe the cloth in water, and then give it a mill¬
ing, to take out the dirt; elfe it would be fixed in the
cjoth by the following bucking, as it is not foluble by
the lye.
“ This operation has more attributed to it by bleach¬
ers than it can Judly claim. The cloth appears, even to
the eye, to whiten under thefe alternate waterings and
dryings ; and thefe naturally get the honour of it, when
n more properly belongs to the former operation. Here
lies the fallacy. Alkaline falts give a very high colour
to the decoCtions, or infufion of vegetables. This is
probably owing to the folution of the oleaginous colour¬
ing particles of the plant; which particles,, being opened;
and feparated by the faks, occupy a greater fpace, and
give a deep colour (o the liquor. The cloth participates
of the liquor and colour. Hence bleachers always judge
ef the goodnefa of the bucking by the deepneis of its
H I N G. 567
colour. The rule, in general, is good. I obferve, that
in thofe buckings which continue from the Saturday night
to the Monday morning, the cloth has always the deeped
colour. When that cloth has been expofed fome hours
to the influence of the air, thefe colouring particles,
which are but loofely attached to it, are evaporated, and
the linen appears of a brighter colour. This operation
does no more than complete what the former had almod
finilhed. If its own merit were thoroughly known, there
would be no occafion to attribute that of another opera¬
tion to it. Thread, and open cloths, fuch as diaper,
may be reduced to a great degree of whitenefs, after one
bucking, by it alone. No cloth, as would appear, can
attain to a bright whitenefs without it.
“ Since the only advantage of watering is the remo¬
val of the falts, and what they hive diflblved, might we
not effectuate this by fome cheaper, and more certain
method ? For it occupies many hands ; and mull depend
altogether on the uncertainty of the weather ; fo that, in
the beginning of the feafon, the bleacher is often obliged
to repeat his buckings without bleaching. We might
take out the alkaline falts by acids; but then the other
fubdance would be left alone in the cloth, nor would any
walking be able to remove it. Mill-wafhing appears a
more probable method of taking out both falts and oils ;
and it would feem that this might, in a great meafure,
fupply the place of watering; but upon trial it does not
fucceed. Two parcels of linen were managed equally in
every other refped, except in this, that one was water¬
ed, and expofed to the influence of the air, and the o-
ther was only mill-walhed. This method was followed
until they were fit for fouring. The cloth which had
been mill-walhed, had a remarkable green colour, and
did not recover the bright colour of the pieces managed
in the common way, until it had been treated like them
for a fortnight. The green colour was certainly owing
to a precipitation of the fulphureous particles, with which
the lye is impregnated, upon the furface of the cloth ;
owing to the falts being walhed off more fpeedily thau
the fulphur, to which they are united in the lye. The
attachment betwixt thefe two bodies we know is very
loofe, and the feparation eafily made. Evaporation theu
alone is fufficient to carry off thefe fulphureous par¬
ticles.”
SOURING.
It is well known to all chymifts, that alkaline faks
are convertible, by different methods, into abforbent
earths. Frequent folution in water, and evaporation o£
it again, is one of thefe. This tranfmutation then of
thefe falts, which are not volatilifed or walhed away,,
mult be continually going on in the cloth under thefe al¬
ternate waterings and dryings of the former procefs ; not:
much indeed after the firfl two or three buckings < be¬
ta ufe the falts, not having entered deep into the cloth,
are eafily walhed off, or evaporated. But when they
penetrate into the very compofition of the laff and mi-
nuteft fibres, of which the lirft veffels are made, they
find greater difficulty of efcaping again, and mull be more
fubjeff to this tranfmmation. But if we confider the
bleaching
5S8 B I. E A 0
bleaching allies as a compofition of lime and alkaline falts,
•we muft difcover a frelh fund for the depofition of this
abforbent earth. The common cauftic, a compofition of
this very kind, foon converts itfelf, if expofed to the o-
pen air, into' a harmlefs earthy powder.
.Frequent buckings and bleachings load the cloth with
th's fubftance. It becomes then necelfary to take it out.
No walking can do that, becaufe earth is not foluble in
water. Nothing but acids can remove it. Thefe are
attrafted by the abforbent earth, join themfelves to it,
and compofe a kind of neutral imperfedt fait, which is
foluble in water ; and therefore eafily walked out of the
clo'th. The acid liquors commonly ufed are butter-milk,
which is reckoned the bell:, four milk, infufions of bran,
rye-meal, 6c. kept for fome days till they four. Sour
whey is thought to give the cloth a yellow colour.
The linen ought to be dried before it is put in the
four, that the acid particles may penetrate, along with
the v/atery, through the whole. A few hours after it
has been there, air-bubjes arife, the liquor fwells, and a
thick fcum is formed ; mahifcft ligns of a fermentation.
The following experiment, fays Dr Home, ihews the
degree of heat which attends it.
“ May 25. I put a thermometer of Fahrenheit’s in¬
to fome butter-milk, of which the bleachers were com-
pofing their fours, and which flood in a vat adjoining to
another, where the milk was the fame, and the fouring
procefs had been going on for two days. After the
thermometer had been twenty minutes in the butter¬
milk, the mercury Hood at 64 degrees. In the fouring
vat it rofe to 68 degrees. An increafe of 4 degrees
Ihows a pretty brilk inteftine motion
“ To what are all thefe effefts owing ? To the ace¬
tous fermentation going on in thofe vegetable liquors,
whofe acids, extricating themfelves, produce heat, in-
teflinc motion, and air-bubbles. As the change is flow,
the procefs takes five or fix days before it is finilhed.
During this time the acid particles are continually uni¬
ting themfelves to the abforbent earth in the cloth. That
this fermentation goes on in the Lquor alone, appears
from this confideration, that the fame effe&s, viz. air-
bubbles, and fcum, are to be feen in the butter-milk a-
lone. The only effedt then it has is, by the fmall de¬
gree of heat, and inteftine motion, which attend it, to
aifift the jun&ion of the acid and abforbent particles.
We Ihall prefently fee, that this procefs may be carried
on, to as great advantage, without any fermentation;
and therefore it appears not abfolutely neceflary.
“ When thefe abforbent particles are fully faturated,
the remaining acids may unite with, and have fome fmall
effedt in extradling the colouring particles. This appears
from the two following experiments.
“ Sept. 20. A piece of cloth which had been fteep-
ed, weighing 414- gr. was put into a half-pound of but¬
ter-milk, whigged, and well foured, by a mixture of
water, and by boiling. Sept. 24. When taken out, and
walked in water, it appeared a very little whiter. The
mineral acids, as will appear afterwards, whiten cloth,
even though they are very much diluted.
“ Juft before the acetous fermentation is finilhed, the
cloth Ihould be taken out; otherwife the fcum will fall
H N G.
down, and lodge in the cloth, and the putrefadtion which
then begins will weaken it. This appears from the fol¬
lowing experiment.
“ Sep. 16. A piece of cloth, weighing 42. gr. was
laid in butter-milk unwhigged. Novem. 15. The milk
had a putrified fmell. The cloth was a little whiter,
but very tender ; and weighed, when well walhed in
warm water and dried, 40 gr.”
All the fours made of bran, rye-meal, 6c. ought to
be prepared before ufe ; for by this means fo much time
will be faved. Befides, when the water is poured upon
the cloth, and bran, as is done in the management of
coarfe cloth, the linen is not in a better fituation than if
it had been taken up wet from .the field; and by this
means the acid particles cannot penetrate fo deep. A-
gain, this method of mixing the bran with the cloth,
may be attended with yet worfe confequences. All ve¬
getable fubftances, when much prefled, fall into the putref-
cent, and not the acetous fermentation. This often hap¬
pens to the bran prefled betwixt the different layers
oh the linen, which muft weaken the cloth. Hence,
all fours Ihould be prepared before the cloth is fteeped in
them; and none of the bran or meal Ihould be mixed
with the cloth.
The fours are ufed ftrongeft at firft, and gradually
weakened till the cloth has attained to its whitenefs. In
the firft fourings, there is more of the earthy matter in
the cloth, from the many buckings it has undergone,
than what there can be afterwards. As the quantity of
this matter decreafes, fo fhould the ftrength of the
four. There is not, however, the leaft danger, at any
time, from too ftrong a four.
What is molt wanted in this operation is a more ex¬
peditious and cheaper method of obtaining the fame end.
As it takes five or fix days, it retards the whitening of
the doth confiderably; and as bleachers are obliged to
fend for milk to a great diftance, it becomes very dear.
This laft confideration makes them keep it fo long, that,
when ufed, it can have no good effeft; perhaps it may
have a bad one.
There is one confideration that may lead us to Ihorten
the time. It is obferved, that the fouring procefs is
fooner finilhed in, warm than in cold weather. Heat
quickens the fermentation, by aiding the inteftine mo¬
tion. The vats therefore Ihould not be buried in the
ground, as they always are, which muft keep them cold;
there Ihould rather be pipes along the walls of the room,
to give it that degree of heat, which, on trial, may be
found to anfwer beft. There are few days in fummer fo
hot as is neceffary; and the beginning and end of the
feafon is by much too cold. That this is no ideal
fcheme, the following faft is a fufficient proof? There are
two vats in Salton bleachfield, adjoining to a partition-
wall, at the back of which there is a kitchen fire. In
thefe vats the fouring procefs is finilhed in three days,
whereas it lalls five or fix days in the others placed round
the fame room.
This improvement, though it Ihortens the time of
fouring a very little, yet is no remedy againft the fcar-
city and dearnefs of milk fours. Such a liquor as would
ferve our purpofe, mult be found either among the vege¬
table
B L E A C
table acids, which have no further fermentation to under*
go, or among the mineral acids. The former are a
large clafs, and contain within themfelves many different
fpecies; fuch as th& acid juice of feveral plants, vinegars
made of fermented liquors, and acid falts, called tartan.
But there is one objedion agaiijft thefe vegetable acids :
They all contain, along with the acid, a great quantity
of oily particles, which would not fail to difcolour the
cloth. Befides, the demand of the bleachfields would
raife their price too high.
The mineral acids have neither of thefe objedions.
They are exceedingly cheap, and contain no oil. “ I
will freely own, fays Dr Home, that at firft I had no
great opinion of fuccefs from the mineral, from two rea-
fons ; their want of all fermentation, which I then look¬
ed on as neceflary ; and their extreme eo^rofivenefs.
But the experience of two different fummers, in two
different bleachfields, has convinced me, that they will
anfwer all the purpofes of the milk and bran fours ; nay,
in feveral refpeds, be much preferable to them. I have
feen many pieces of fine cloth, which had no other fours
but thofe of vitriol, and weje as white and flrong as thofe
bleached in the common way. I have cut feveral webs
through the middle, and bleached one half with milk,
and the Other with vitriol; gave both the fame number
of operations, and the latter were as white and ftrong as
the former.”
The method in which it has been hitherto ufed is this.
The proportion of the oil of vitriol to the water, with
which it is diluted, is naif an ounce, or at mofl three
quarters, to a gallon of water. As the milk-fours are
diminifhed in ftrength, fo ought the vjtriol-fours. The
whole quantity of the oil of vitriol to be ufed, may be
firft mixed with a fmall quantity of water, then added to
the whole quantity of watbr, and well mixed together.
The water ftiould be milk-warm ; by which means the
acid particles will penetrate further, and operate fooner.
The cloth fhould then be put dry into the liquor.
It is obferved, that this four performs its talk much
fooner than thofe of milk and bran; fo that Mr John
Chryftie, in making the trial, ufed to lay the milk-fours
twenty-four hours before the vitriol. Five hours will
do as much with this four, as five days with the common
fort. But the cloth can receive no harm in allowing it
to remain for fome days in the four ; but rather, on the
contrary, an advant age. The cloth is then taken out,
well rinfed, and mill-walhed in the ordinary way.
The liquor, while the cloth lies in this four, is lefs
acid the fecond day than the firft, lefs the third than the
fecond, and fo diminilhes by degrees. At fixft it is clear,
but oy degrees a mucilaginous fubftance is obferved to
float in it, when put into a glafs. This foulnefs increa-
fes every day. This fubftance, extracted by the acid, is
the fame with what is extracted by the alkaline falts,
and blunts the acidity of the former, as it does the alka-
lefcency of the latter. Hence the liquor lofes by de¬
grees its acidity. But as the acid falts do not unite fo
equally with oily fubftances as the alkaline do, the liquor
is not fo uniformly tinged in the former as in the latter
cafe, and the mucous fubftance prefents itfelf floating
in it.
Vpl. I. No. 24.
H I N G. 569
It is obferved, that, in the firft fouring, which is the
ftrongeft, the liquor, which was a pretty ftrong acid be¬
fore the cloth was put in, immediately afterwards be¬
comes quite vapid; a proof how very foon it performs
its talk. But in the following operations, as the linen
advances in whitenefs, the acidity continues much long¬
er ; i fo that in the laft operations the liquor lofes very
little of its acidity. This happens although the firft
buckings, after the firft fourings, are increafed in ftrength,
while, the fours are diminilhed. There are two caufes to
which this is owing. The texture of the cloth is now
fo opened, that although the lyes are ftrong, the alka¬
line falts and abforbent earth are eafily walhed out; and
the oily particles are, in a great meafure, removed whicfl
help to blunt the acidity of the liquor.
Two objedions are made againft the ufe of vitriol-
fours. One is, that the procefs of fouring with milk is
performed by a fermentation; and, as there is no fer¬
mentation in the vitriol-fours, they cannot ferve the pur-
pofe fo well: The other, that they may hurt the texture
of the cloth. The anfwer to the former objedion is very
Ihort; that the vitriol-fours operate fuccefsfully without
a fermentation, as experience ftiews ; and therefore in
them a fermentation is not neceflary.
As to the latter objedion, that oil of vitriol, being a
very corrofive body, may hurt the cloth ; that will va-
nifh likewife, when it is confidered how much the vitriol
is diluted with water, that the liquor is not ftronger than
vinegar, and that it may be fafely taken into the human
body.
That it may be ufed with fafety, much ftronger than
what is neceflary in the bleachfield, appears from the
following experiment with regard to the ftamping of li¬
nen. After the linen is boiled in a lye of allies, it is
bleached for fome time. After this, in order to make it
receive the colour, it is fteeped in a four of water and
oil of vitriol, about fifteen times ftronger than that made
life of in the bleachfield; for, to 100 gallons of water
are added two and a half of oil of vitriol. Into this
quantity of liquor, made fo warm as the hand can juft
be held in it, is put feven pieces of 28 yards each. The
linen remains in it about two hours, and comes out re¬
markably whiter. The fine cloth often undergoes this
operation twice. Nor is there any danger if the oil of
vitriol is well mixed with the water. But if the two are
not well mixed together, and the oil of vitriol remains
in fome parts undiluted, the cloth is corroded into holes.
Let' us now take a view of the advantages which the
vitriol-fours muft have over the milk. The latter is full
of oily particles, fome of which muft be left in the cloth :
'But the cafe is worfe when the fcum is- allowed to pre¬
cipitate upon the cloth. The former is liable to neither
of thele objections.
The common fours haften very fall to corruption ; and
if, from want of proper care, they ever arrive at that ftate,
muft damage the ck>th very much. As the milk is kept
very long, it is often corrupted before it is ufied ; and,
without aCting as a four, has all the bad effeCts of putre-
faCtion. The vitriol-fours are not fubjeCt to putrefac¬
tion.
The milk takes five days to perform its talk, but the
7 E • vitriol-
3
570 B L E A <
vitriol-fours do it in as many hours ; nay, perhaps as
many minutes ' Their junction with.the abfdrbent parti¬
cles in the'cloth muft be immediate, whenever thefe acid
particles enter with the water. An unanfwerable proof
that the fadt is fo, arifes from the circumftances which
happen when the cloth is firft fteeped in the vitriol-four;
the cloth has no fooner imbibed the acid liquor than it
lofes all acidity, and becomes immediately vapid ’This
effedi of vitriol fours mull be of great advantage in the
bl achfield, as the bleachers are at prefent hindered from
enjoying the feafan by the tedioufnefs of the fouring
procefs. The whole round of operations takes feven
days; to anfwer which they muft have feven parcels,
which are often mixing together, and caufing miftakes.
As three days, at moft, will be fufficient for all the ope¬
rations when vitriol-fours are ufed, there will be no more
than three parcels, 'fhe cloth will be kept a Ihorter
time in the bleachfield, and arrive fooner at market.
• The milk-fours are very dear, and often difficult to be
got: but the vitriol are cheap, may be eafily procured,
and at any time.
There is yet another advantage in the ufe of vitriol,
and that is its power of whitening cloth. Even in this
diluted ftate, its whitening power is very confiderable.
We have already feen, that it removes the fame cblour-
ing particles, which the alkaline lyes do. What of it
then remains, after the alkaline and abforbent particles
are neutralized in the cloth, muft adt on thefe colouring
particles, and help to whiten the cloth. That this is
really the cafe, appears from the following fadh Mr
Chryftie being obliged to chufe twenty of the whiteft
pieces out of a hundred, five of the twenty were taken
out of feven pieces which were bleached with vitriol.
From both experience and reafon, it appears, that it
would be for the advantage of our linen-manufadture to
ufe vitriol in place of milk-fours.
Hand-rubbing' <nvith Soap and Warm Water, Rub¬
bing-boards*, Starching, Bluing.
After the cloth comes from the fouring, it ffiouldbe
well waflied in the waihing-mill, to take off all the acid
particles which adhere to its furface. All acids decom-
pofe foap, by feparating the alkaline fairs and oily parts
from one another. Were this to happen on the furface
of the cloth, the oil would remain ; nor would the wafii-
ing-mill afterwards be able to carry it off.
From the waffiing-mill the fine cloth is carried to be
rubbed by womens hands, with foap and water. As the
liquors, which are generally employed for fouring, are
impregnated with oily particles, many of thefe muft
lodge in the cloth, and remain, notwithftanding the pre¬
ceding milling. It is probable, that all the heavy oils
are not evaporated by bleaching. Hence it becomes ne-
ceffary to apply foap and warm water, .which unite with,
diffolve, and carry them off. It is obferved, that if the
cloth, when it is pretty white, gets too much foap, the
following bleaching is apt to make it yellow; on tliat ac¬
count they often wring out the foap.
It is a matter worth inquiring into, whether hard or
fiifx idap is heft for cloth. Moft bleachers, agree, that
: H I N G.
hard foap is apt to leave a yellownefs in the cloth. It is
faid, that the ufe of hard ioap is difcharged in Holland.
As there muft be a confiderable quantity of fea-falt in
this kind, which is not in the foft, and as this fait ap¬
pears prejudicial to cloth, the foft foap ought to be pre-,
ferred.
The management of the coarfe cloth is very different,
in this operation, from fine. Inftead of being rubbed
with hands, which would be too expenfive, it is laid on
a table, run over with foap, and then put betwixt the
rubbing-boards, which have ridges and grooves from one
fide to another, like teeth. Thefe boards have fmali
ledges to keep in the foap and water, which faves the
clqth. They are moved by hands, or a water-v. heel,
which is more equal and cheaper. The cloth is drawn,
by degrees, through the boards, by men who attend j
or, which is more equal and cheaper, the fame water¬
wheel moves two rollers, with ridge and groove, fo that
the former enters the latter, and, by a gentle motion
roond their own axis, pull the cloth gradually through
the boards.
This mill was invented in Ireland about thirty years
ago. The Irifli ble-ichers ufe it for their fine, as well as
coarfe cloatb. Thefe rubbing-boards were difcharged,
fome years ago, in Ireland, by the Truftees for the ma¬
nufactures of that country, convinced from long expe¬
rience of their bad effects. But as proper'care was not
taken to inftruct the bleach rs by degrees in a fafor me¬
thod, they continued in the old, made a party, and kept
poffeffion of the rubbing-boards. There were confide¬
rable improvements made in them in this country; fuch
as the addition of the ledges, to keep the cloth moift;
and of the rollers, which pull the cloth more gradually
than mens hands. Thefe improvements were firft made
in Salton bleachfield.
The objections againft thefe rubbing-boards, are un¬
anfwerable. By rubbing on fuch an unequal furfaCe, the
folid fibrous part of the cloth is wore; by which means
it is much thinned, and in a great meafure weakened be¬
fore it comes to the market. As a proof of this, if the
water which comes from the cloth in the rubbing-boards
be examined, it will be found full of cottony fibrous
matter. Thefe boards give the cloth a cottony furface,
fo that it does not keep long clean. Again, they flatten
the threads, and take away all that roundnefs and firm-
nefs, which is the diftinguifhing property of cloth bleached
in the Dutch method.
For thefe reafons they muft be very prejudicial to fine
cloth, and fliould never be ufed in bleaching it. As
they fe^m to be, in fome meafure, neceffary to leffen the
expence of bleaching coarfe linen, they ought never to
be ufed above'twice, or thriee at moft. They might be
rendered much more fafe, by lining their infides with
fome foft elaftic fubftance, that will not wear the cloth
fo much as the wooden teeth do. Mr Chryftie at Perth
has lined his boards.with fliort hair for fome years paft,
knd finds that it anfwers very well.
After the coarfe linen has undergone a tubbing, it
fltould be immediately milled for an hour, and warm
water poured now and then on it to make ;t lather. This
milling has very good effects; for it cleans the. doth af
all.
B L E A C
all the dirt and filth which the rubbing-boards have
•loofened, and which, at the next boiling, would disco¬
lour the' clqth. Befides, it is obferved, that it makes
the cloth lefs cottony, and mere firm, than when whi¬
tened by rubbing alone.
The laft operation is that of ftarching and bluing. It
often happens, that the cloth, when expoTed to the wea¬
ther to be dried after this operation, gets rain ; which
undoes all again, and forces the bleacher to a new ex-'
pence. To remedy this• inconvenience, Mr Chryfhe,
fome years ftgo, invented the dry-houfe, where the cloth
may be dried, after this operation, in any weather. This
invention meets with univerfal approbation.
A METHOD of BLEACHING safely with
LIME.
Dr Home has found by repeated trials, that alkaline
falts added to lime,' diminifh its power of weakening and
corroding cloth; and that in proportion to the quantity
of thefe falts added to the lime. This compofition, as
it is not fo dangerous as lime alone, fb it is not fo expe¬
ditious in whitening. When equal parts of each are
ufed, the whitening power is ftrong, and the weakening
power not very confiderable; fo that they might be tiled
with fafetv to bleach cloth, in the proportion of one part
of lime to four of pure alkaline falts. This fully accounts
for an obfervation made by all bleachers, That the bleaching
falts, when mixed together, operate fafer and better than
when ufed feparately. For the corrofive power of the
Mufcqvy, Marcoft, and Caihub afhes is correfted by the
pearl afhes. and the whitening quality of the latter is in-
creafed by that of the former.
There is not a more corroding fubftance, with regard
to animals, than alkaline fairs and lime joined together,
efpecially when fufed in the fire. This is the compofition
of the common caufHc. But lime, and lime-water alone,
preferve animal fubftances in a found entire date. It ap¬
pears then furprifing, that falts and lime (hould be found
fo little deftrudfive ofs cloth, when lime, or lime-water
alone, deftroys it fo remarkably. But that this is a fad,
is made evident by many experiments, and has been
pradifed both with fuccefs and fafety, by a bleacher who
gives the following account of his method of bleaching
with lime.
“ FirfI, fays he, I deep the cloth in warm waten for
twenty-four hours; then clean it in a wafhing mill, of all
the drefling, or fowen, as the vulgar term it. After¬
wards I buck the cloth with cow-dung and water, and
bleach it with this for three days ; then clean it again,
and boil it with a lye made of Caihub afhes. A pound
to each piece of 18 or 20 yards long is fufficient. This
I do twice, as no lime. ought#to be given to cloth before
it is a full third whitened; it by no means advances
the whitening of the cloth, but, on the contrary, pro-
trads it: For, inftead of loofening the oil and dirt in
the cloth, when brown, it rather fixes them; juft as
when fine cloth is bucked with over-warm lyes in the
firft buckings. Lime is by ho means fit for difeharging
the oil in the cloth, but for cleaning it of"the dead part,
commonly called fprat. The cloth, being cleaned, is
H I N G. 57i
laid upon'a dreeper. It muft not be drier before buck¬
ing with lime, otherwife it will take in more than can
be got out again before the next application: For as I
have obferved already, that lime* is only fit for difefar-
ging the_dead part, bucking thus wet make it reft on the
outfide of the cloth. I take a lippy of the fineft and
richeft powdered lime that can be got, of the brigKteft
white colour, as poor lime does more hurt than good,,
to thirty pieces of the above length; and make a cold
lye of it, by ftirring and pouring water off the lime, un¬
til all be diffolved, but the drofs, which is thrown away:.
Then I add a little foap, which makes the lye have the
neareft refemblahce to milk that breaks in boiling, of any
thing I can think of: For this foap blunts the hotnefe
of the lime. Then I take the cloth, and dip it in the
lime-lye; and that moment out again, and lay it on a
dreeper until it be bucked ; then put it on the field,
watering it carefully; for if allowed to dry, it is much
damaged. This is done always in the morning; as it
cannot be done at night, in regard of the hot quality of
the lime, which foon heats the cloth, and tenders it. If
a hot funlhine follows, it has great effeift; for lime is
juft like all other materials for-bleaching, that have more
o.r lefs effedt according as the weather is good or bad, I
take it up the fbcond day after-bucking, and. give it a
little milling, or hand-bleaching, or bittling, commonly
called blocking; and lay it on the field again, watering
it carefully as before. The effed is more vifible the fe-
cond than the firft day. As all cloth when limed ftiould
have a great deal of work, otherwife more than half the
effed is loft; and not only that, but a great deal of la¬
bour and pains is requifite to take the lime out of'the
cloth again; it muft never be expofed on the Sabbath
day, but carefully kept wet always while ufed in this way.
Thus bucking for three or four times at moft, is furli-
cient for any cloth, except that made of flax pulled ei¬
ther over-green, or which grows in a droughty feafion,
or perhaps not fo well heckled as it fliould be. This
fort occafions-great trouble and expence to the bleacher..
But the moft effedual and expeditious way I ever found
for this kind, was, after boiling, to take a little off the
warm lye, and mix a very fmali quantity of lime with it,
and draw the cloth through that as hot as poffible, and
put it on the field diredly, watering it carefully. This
will clean it of the-fprat furprifingly. Then I boil it w'ith
pearl alhes, and give it the laft boil with foap;
“ There are innumerable miftakes in the ufe of lime
committed by the vulgar,'who are ignorant of its quality
arid effeds. They know only this in general, that it is
a thing which whitens cloth cheap, and is eafy purchafed;
therefore they will ufe it. Some of them begin whiten¬
ing of their cloth with it, which.I have already obferved
to be wrong, and given reafons for it, and. continue it
until the cloth is "bleached; gite It a boil or two at moft,
and then wafh it up while the grofs body of the lime is in
the fubftance of^the cloth. This makes limed cloth ea-
fily diftihguifhable from unKmed,- as the former has a ytl-
lowifh colour, and is full of a powder. Befides, as lime
is of a.very hot corroding nature, it muft by degrees,
weaken the cloth. The bad effeds of this fubftance do
not end here. When the. cloth is put on board, it -con-
trada
572 BLEACHING.
tracts a dampnefs, which not only makes it yellow, and cipal reafons for fo much complaint in bleaching with this
h ! : any thing of colour it has, but diredly rots it. And material.”
a* hough it fhouid efcape this, v/hich it is poflible it may, The whole art and fafety in ufing the lime, according
by a quick and fpeedy paffage ; yet whenever it is put to this method, depends on the junfhon of the alkaline
in any warehoufe, it will meet with moifture there, efpe- falts, during the bucking, "to the particles of lime which
ciaily if the winter-feafon Ihould come on before it is were on the furface of the cloth,
difpofed or made ufe of. Thefe I take to be the prin-
B L E B L I
BLEAK, the Englilh name of the filh called cyprinus.
See Cyprinus.
BLECHINGLY, a borough-town of Surry, about
twenty miles fouth of London; W. long. 20, and
N. lat. 510 20r.
BLECHNUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
filices. The feeds and parts of fru&ification of this
fern lie in fmall lines under the plaits of the leaves.
The fpecies are two, viz. the occidentale, a native of
America ; and the occidentale, a native of China.
BLEEDING, in furgery. See Surgery.
Bleeding at the nofe. See Hemorrhage, and
Medicine.
Bleeding is alfo ufed for the drawing out the fap of
plants, otherwife called tapping. See Tapping.
BLEKING, the moll fouth-eaflerly province of Swe¬
den, having the Baltic on the fouth, Smaland on the
north, and the province of. Schonen on the well., #
BLEMISH, a term in hunting, when the hounds or
beagles finding where the chace has been, make a prof¬
fer to enter, but return.
BLEMYES, opBlemmyes, a fabulous people of E- '
thiopia, faid to have had no heads; their eyes, mouth,
being fituated in their breads.
BLENCH or Blanch. See Blanch.
BLEND, or Blende, a mineral fubdance refembling
lead-ore, but containing very little of that metal.
Blend-water, called alfo morehough, a didemper in¬
cident to black cattle, comes either from the blood,
from the yellows, or from the change of ground.
In order to cure it, take bole armoniac, and as much
charcoal dud as will fill an egg-lhell, a good quantity
of the inner bark of an oak, dried and pounded toge¬
ther to a powder, and give it to the bead in a quart of
new milk and a pint of earning.
BLENHEIM, a village of Swabia in Germany, fituated
on the wed fide of the Danube, three miles north-ead
of Hockdet, and twenty-feven miles north-ead of
Ulm; E. long. io° 25', N. lat. 48° 40'.
BLENNIUS, in ichthyology, a genus of-fidies belong¬
ing to the order of jugulares; the characters of which
are thefe: The head Hants or declines to one fide;
there are fix rays in the membrane of the gills; the
body tapers toward the.tail; the belly-fins have only
two blunt bones ; and the tail-fin is didindt. The fpe¬
cies are 13, viz. 1. The galeria, with a tranfverfe
membranous cred upon the head. It is found in the
European feas. 2. The cridatus, with a longitudinal
’ bridly cred betwixt the eyes. 3. The cornutus, with
afimple ray above the eyes, and a fingle back-fin. The
above two are natives of the Indies. 4. The ocella-
ris, with a furrow betwixt the eyes, and a large fpot
on the back-fin. 5. The gattorugine, with fmall pal-
mated fins about the eye-brows and neck. It is about
feven or eight inches long. Thefe two lad are found
in the European feas. 6. The fuperciliofus, with
fmall fins about the eye-brows, and a curved lateral
line. It is a native of India. 7. The phycis, with
a kind of creded nodrils, a cirrus or beard on the un¬
der lip, and a double fin on the back. It has feven
rays in the gill-membrane; the anus is furrounded
with a black ring; and the tail is roundidr. 8. The
pholis has a fmooth head, a curve line upon the fides,
and thempper jaw is larger than the under one. The
two lad are found in the Mediterranean fea. 9. The
gunnellus has 10 black fpots on the back-fin. It is
found in the Atlantic Ocean. 10. The mudelaris has
three rays on the fore-part of the back-fin. It is a
native of India. 11. The viviparus has two tentacula
at the mduth. 12. The lumpenus has feveral.dulky-
coloured areolae running acrofs its body. The two
lad are found in the European feas. 13. The rani-
nus, with fix divifions in the belly-fins. It is found in
the lakes of Sweden. It is remarkable, that when
this fifh appears in the lake, all the other filhes retire;
and what is worfe, it is not fit for eating.
BLEYME, an inflammation ariiing from bruifed blood
between a horfe’s foie and the bone of the foot, to¬
wards the heel. Of thefe there are three forts : The
fird being bred in fpoiled wrinkled feet, with narrow
heels, are ufually feated in the inward or weaked quar¬
ter. In this cafe the hoof mud be pared, and the
matter let out; then let oil de merveille be poured
in, and the hoof be charged with a remolade of foot
and turpentine.
The fecond fort, befides the ufual fymptoms of the
fird, infeCls the gridle, and mud be extirpated, as in
the cure of a quitter bone, giving the horfe, every day,
moidened bran, with two ounces of liver of antimony,
to divert the courfe of the humours, and purify the
blood.
The third fort of bleymes, is occafioned by fmall
dones and gravel betwrvn the flioe and the foie. In
this cafe the foot mud be pared, and the matter, if
any, let out: If there be no matter, then the bruifed
foie mud be taken out; but if there be matter, the
fore mud'be drefled like the prick of a nail.
BLIGHT, in hulbandry/ a difeafe incident to plants,
which affeds them varioufly, the whole plant fome-
times periftiing by it, and fometimes only the leaves
and
B L I ( 573 ) B L O
and bloflbms, which will be fcorched and Ihrivelled
up, the relt remaining green and flourifhing.
Some have 1'uppoled that blights are ufually produced
by an eafterly wind, which brings vaft quantities of
infects eggs along with it, from fome diltant place,
that, being lodged upon the furface of the leaves and
floe ers of fruit-trees, caufe them to fluivel up andperifh.
To cure this diftemper, they advife the burning of
wet litter on the windward fide of the plants, that the
fmoke thereof may be carried to them by the wind,
which they fuppofe will Itille and deltroy the infe&s,
and thereby cure the diltemper.
Others dired: the ule of tobacco-duft, or to wafh
the trees with water wherein tobacco-ftalks have been
infufed for twelve hours; which they fay will deftroy
thofe infeds, and recover the plants.
Pepper-duft fcattered over the bloflbms of fruit-
trees, <bc. has been recommended as very ufeful in
this cafe ; and there are fome that advife the pulling
off the leaves that are diftempered.
The true caufe of blights feems to be continued dry
eafterly winds for feveral days together, without the
intervention of/howers, or any morning dew, by which
the perfpiration in the tender blofl'om is flopped; and
if it fo happens, that there is a long continuance of the
fame weather, it equally affeds the tender leaves, where¬
by their Colour is changed, and they wither and decay.
The beft remedy for this diftemper, is gently to
wafh and fprinkle over the tree, from time to time
with common water; and if the young fhoots feem to
be much infefted, let them be waihed with a woollen
cloth, fo as to clear them, if poflible, from this gluti¬
nous matter, that their refpiration and perfpiration
may not be obftrudied. This operation ought to be
performed early in the day, that the moifture may be
exhaled before the cold of the night comes on: Nor
ftiould it be done when the fun fhines very hot.
Another caufe of blights in the Ipring, is (harp hoary
frofts, which are often fuceeded by hot funlhine in the
day time: This is the molt fudden and certain de-
ftroyer of the fruits that is known.
BLIGHTED corn. See Smut.
BLIND. See Blindness.
Perc-BhitiD, or par-BLiNoT A perfon who is very fhort-
fighted is faid to be pur-blind.
Aftfev-BniND, denotes horfes that lofe their fight at cer¬
tain times of the moon.
Blind is alfoufed figuratively, for things without aper¬
tures ; Thus we fay, a blind ovall, a blind alembic, See.
Blind, among traders, a kind of falfe light which they
have in their warehoufes and fliops, to prevent too
great a light from diminiftiing the luftre of their fluffs.
Blind, Blinde, or Blend. See Blend.
BLINDS, or Blindes, in the art of war, a fort of de¬
fence commonly made of oziers, or branches inter¬
woven, and laid icrofs, between two rows of flakes,
about the height of a man, and four or five feet afun-
der, ufed particularly at the heads of trenches, when
they are extended in front towards the glacis; ferving
to (belter the workmen, and prevent their being over¬
looked by the enemy.
Vol. I. Numb. 24.
BLINDNESS, a total privation of fight, arifing from
an obitru£tion of the fundlions of the organs of fight,
or from an intire deprivation of them. See Medi¬
cine, Of the gutla ferena, &c.
Blindness, in farriery. When a horfe becomes blind,
it may be thus difcerned : His walk or ftep is always
unceitain and unequal, fo that he does not fet down
his feet boldly when led in one’s hand : But if the
fame horfe be mounted by an expert horfeman, and if
he be a bead of metal, then the fear of the fpurs will
make him go refolutely and freely; fo that his blind*
nefs can hardly be perceived.
BLISTER, in medicine, a thin bladder containing a wa¬
tery humour, whether occafioned by burns, and the
like accidents, or by veficatories applied to different
parts of the body for that purpofe.
Cantharides, or Spanilh flies, applied in the form of
a plafter, are chiefly ufed with this intention. See
Cantharides.
ELITE, in botany. SccBlitum.
BLITH, a market-town in Nottinghamfhire, about 18
miles north-weft of Newark; in i° W. long, and 53°
25' N. lat.
ELITE M, in botany, a genus of the monandria digynia
clafs. The calix confilts of three fegments ; there are
no petals ; and the feed, which is fingle, is inclofed in
the calix, which becomes a kind of berry. The fpe-
cies are two; viz. the capitatum, a native of Tyrol;
and the virgatum, a native of Tartary and Spain.
BLOATING, among phyficians. See Emphysema.
BLOCK, a large mafs of wood, ferving to work or cut
things on.
Blocks, on (hip-board, is the ufual name of what we
call pulleys at land. They are thick pieces of wood,
fome with three, four, or five (hivers in them, through
which all the running ropes run. Blocks, whether fingle
.or double, are diftinguiftted and called by the names of
the ropes they carry, and the ufes they ferve for.
Double blocks are ufed when there is occafion for
much ftrength, becaufe they will purchafe with more
eafe than fingle blocks, though much (lower.
Block and block is a phrafe fignifying that two blocks
meet, in haling any tackle, or halliard, having fuch
blocks belonging to them.
Fiflr-block is hung in at a notch at the end of the
davit. It ferves to hale up the (looks of the anchor
at the (hip’s prow.
Snatch-block is a great block with a (hiver in it, and
a notch cut through one of its cheeks, for the more
ready receiving of any rope; as by this notch the
middle-part of a rope may be reeved into the block,
without palling it endwife. It is commonly faftened
with a ftrap about the main-maft, clofe to the upper
deck, and is chiefly ufed for the fall of the winding
tackle, which is reeved into this block, and then
brought to the capflan.
Block, among bowlers, denotes the fmall bowl ufed as
a mark.
Block, in falconry, the perch upon which they place
the hawk. It ought to be covered with doth.
BLOCKADE, in the art of war, the blocking up a
7 F pUce,
3
B L O ( 574 ) B L U
pla^e,' by porting troops at all the avenues leading to
it, to Jteep fupplies of men and provifions fronvgetting
into it; and by thefe means propofing to ftarve it out,
without making any regular attacks.
To raife a'blockade, is to force the troops that keep
the place blocked u£, from their ports.
BLOIS, a beautiful city of Orleanois, about 30 miles
fouth-weft of Orleans; fituated on the north fhore of
the river Loire, in one of the fineft coun tries in France;
in i° 20 E. long, and 470 g'y7 N. lat.
BLOMARY, or Bloomary, in metallurgy, the firft
forge through which iron partes, after it is melted out
of the ore.
BLONIC, a town of Poland, about 20 miles wert of
Warfaw; in 20° 2,0 E. long, and 520. N. lat.
BLOOD, a well known fluid, which circulates through
the arteries, veins, <&c. of animal-bodies, and nou-
rifhes all their parts.
Blood is compofed of a thin watery liquor called
ferum, and a thick fed part called crajfamenium,
which, when viewed by the microfcope, appears to
confirt of red globules of a certain determined magni¬
tude. Thefe globules are generally believed to be of
the fame magnitude in all animals that have red blood.
As blood is originally derived from our aliment, it
murt confift of the fame principles, and confequtntly
abound with fairs and oils. The falts of the blood
are partly of the fixed neutral kind, and partly fuch
as are rendered femi-volatile by the heat and motion to
which they are fubje<5ted: Both irritate the fenfible
nervous parts of animals; for it is well-known that any
kind of fait applied to the eye gives great uneafinefs.
From thefe qualities of blood the late learned and cele¬
brated Dr Whytt concluded that it muft be well fitted
to communicate a gentle ftimulus to thofe fenfible
nerves which terminate on the internal furface of the
auricles and ventricles of the heart; and confequently
that the contra&ion of the heart is principally owing to
this caufe. The diameter of a red globule is com¬
puted to be about Part °f an inch. See Circu¬
lation ; and for the analyfis of blood, fee Che¬
mistry.
Authors are not agreed in regard to the quantity of
blood contained in the human body; fome making it
only 10 pounds, whilrt others, make it to be 20, 60,
or even 100 pounds : But then thefe laft comprehend
the juices of the lymphatic vertels under the term
blood. As to the quantity of current blood jn ahorfe,
the ingenious Dr Hales found it be, at a low compu¬
tation, 1105 cubic inches, or 42.2 pounds.
Spitting a/"Blood. SccHaemoptoe and Medicine.
Ebullition of the Blood, adifeafe in horfes, which pro¬
ceeds from want of exercife, and gives rife to outward
fwellings, frequently mirtaken for the farcin.
Blood running itch happens to a horfe by the blood’s
being over-heated by hard riding or other labour. As
the blood gets between the Ikin and the flefli, it makes
a. horfe rub and bite himfelf, and if neglefted will
turn to a grievous mange.
Blood of Chrijl-, the name of a military order inftir
tuted at Mantua in 1608. The number of knights
was reftridted to twenty, befides the grand marter..
Their device was, Donum probajii ike, or, Nihil hoc,
trifle, recepto.
Blood ofChrifl is alfo the name of a congregation of
nuns at Paris.
Dragon's Blood. See Dragon.
BLOOD-ykrfta. See Anguis.
¥>hoox)-ftone. See Hematites.
Blood-w.;/, a mu]<rt or fine for fhedding of blood.
Bl.ood-«u;0>-/, in botany. See Sanguinaria.
Bloody-/fax. See Dysentery, and Medicine.
BLOOM, a mafs of iron after having undergone the firrt
hammering, called blomary. See Blomary.
BLOSSOM denotes the flowers of plants, but more efpe-
cially of fruit-trees.
Blossom, or peach-coloured, in the menage, a
term applied to a horfe that has his hair white, but in¬
termixed all over with forrel and bay hairs. Such
. horfes are fo infenfible and hard both in the mouth
and the flanks, that they are fcarce valued ; befides,
they are apt to turn blind.
BLOW, in law, any kind of rtroke, whether given with
the hand or a weapon. See Battery.
Blow-pipe, or Blowing />!/<?, a hollow tube, ufed by
feveral artificers ; as enamellers, glafs-makers, &c.
BLOWING, in a general fenfe, denotes an agitation
of the air, whether performed with a pair of bellows,
the mouth, a tube, or the like.
Blowing of glafs, one of the methods of forming the
divers kinds of works in the glafs-manufadhire. See
Glass.
It is performed by dipping the point of an iron
blowing-pipe in the melted glafs, and blowing through
it with the mouth, according to the circumltances of
the glafs to be blown.
Blowing of tin denotes the melting its ore, after being
firft burnt to dertroy the mundic.
Blowing, among gardeners, the fame with the blof-
foming of plants, or putting forth their flower-leaves.
BLUBBER denotes the fat of whales and other large
fea-animals, whereof is made train-oil.
BLUE, otherwife called azure, is one of the primitive
colours of the rays of light. See Optics.
Painters Blue is made different according to the dif¬
ferent kinds of painting. In limning, frefco, and
miniature, they ufe indifferently ultramarine, blue-
afhes, andfmalt: Thefe are their natural blues, ex¬
cepting the laft, which is partly natural, and partly
artificial.
In oil and miniature, they alfo ufe indigo prepared ;
as alfo a fiditious ultramarine. See Ultramarine
and Indigo.
Enamellers, and painters upon glafs, have alfo blues
proper to themfelves, each preparing thenr after their
own manner.
Turnfole Blue is ufed in painting on wood, and is
made of the feed of the turnfole: The way of pre¬
paring it is, to boil four ounces of turnfole in a pint
and half of water in which lime has been flacked.
Flanders Blue is a colour bordering on green, and fel-
dom ufed but in landfkips.
76
B L U ( 575 ) BOA
'Ta write cn paper or parchment ivitb J3 L u E' ink. Grinds
blue with honey, then temper it with glair of eggs, or
gum made of ifmglafs.
Blueing of metals is performed by heating them in the
fire, till they afiume a blue colour; particularly prac-
tifed by gilders, who blue their metals before they
apply the gold and filver leaf.
To dye fins Blue. Boil elder-berries or dwarf-elder,
then imear and walh the Ikins therewith, and wring
them out; then boil the berries, as before, in a folu-
tion of alum-water, and wet the flcins in the fame man¬
ner once or twice ; dry them, and they will be very
blue.
Dyers Blue is one of their fimple or mother-colours,
ufed in the compofition of others. It is made of
woad, indigo, and a paftel brought from Normandy.
Some dyers heighten their blue, by adding Brafil and
other woods.
Blue for painting or flaining of glafs. Take fine
white fand twelve ounces, zaffer and minium of each
three ounces; reduce them to a fine powder in a bell-
metal mortar; then putting the power into a very
ftrong crucible, cover it . and lute it well, and, being
dry, calcine it over a quick fire for.an hour; take out
the matter and pound it; then to fixteen ounces of
this powder add fourteen of nitre powder; mix them
well together, and put them into the crucible again ;
cover and lute it, and calcine for two hours on a
very ftrong fire.
Pruffian Blwe. This blue- is next to ultramarine for
beauty, if it be ufed in oil : This colour does not
grind well in water.
Blue bice is a colour of good brightnefs, next to Prufiian
blue ; and alfo a colour of a body, and will flow pret¬
ty well in the pencil.
Saunders Blue is alfo of very good ufe, and may ferve
as a fiiade to ultramarine or the blue bice, where the
fhades are not required to be very deep, and is of it-
felf a pleafant blue, to be laid between the light and
ftiades of fuch a flower as is of a mazarine blue.
J fine Blue from Mr Boyle. Take the blue leaves of
rue, and beat them a little in a Hone mortar with a
wooden peflle; then put them in water, juice and all,
for fourteen days or more, walking them every day
till they are rotten ; and at lall beqt them and the wa¬
ter together, till they become a pulp, arid let them
dry in the fun. This is a fine blue for lhading.
JndigoMhvz. This makes the ftrongefl lhade for blues
of any other, and is of afoft warm colour, when it has .
been well ground, and walked with gum-water, by
means of a Hone and a muller
Lactnus, or Litmus'Bx.vv.. This is a beautiful blue,.
and will run in a pen as free as ink. It is made of
lacmus, and prepared thus : Take an ounce of lacmus,
and boil it in a pint of fmall-beer wort, till the colour
is as ftrong as you would have it; then pour off the li¬
quor into a gallipot, and let it cool for .ufe. This af¬
fords a beautiful colour, has extraordinary effefts, and :
is a holding colour ; if it be touched with aqua-fortis,
it immediately changes to a fine crimfon, little inferior
' to. carmine.
’B-lwe-Japan. Take gum-water, what quantity you:
pleafe, and white lead a fufficient quantity ; grind them
well upon a porphyry; then take ifinglafs lize what
quantity you pleafe, of the find! and bell fmalt a fuf¬
ficient quantity, mix them well; to which add, of
your white lead, before ground, fo much as may give
it a fufticient body ; mix all thefe together to the con-
filtence of a paint.
TdLUE-^o/r/e, in botany. See Cyanus.
Blue-c«/>, in ichthyology. SccSalmo.'
V>i.we.-mantle, in heraldry, the title of a pourfuivant at
arms.
BLUFF-HEAD, among failors. A fliip is faid to be
bluff-headed, that has an upright Hern.
BLUNDERBUSS, a ftiort fire-arm with a wide bore,
capable of holding a number of bullets at once.
BLUSHING, a fuffufion, or rednefs of the cheeks, ex¬
cited by a fenfe of lhame, on account of a confciouf-
nefs of fome failing or imperfection.
B MI, in mufic, the third note in the modern fcale. See
Scale and Music.
B MOLLARRE, or Molle, one of the notes of the
fcaje of mufic, ufually called foft or flat, in oppofition
to b quandro. See B Quandrp.
BOA, in zoology, a genus of ferpents, belonging to the
order of amphibia. The characters of this genus are,
that the belly and tail are both furnithed with fcuta.
The fpecies are ten, viz. i. The contortrix, has 150
fcuta on the belly, and 40 on the tail; the head is
broad, very convex, and has poifon-bags in the mouth,
but no, fang, for which reafon its bite is not reckoned
poifonous : The body is alh-coloured, interfperfed
with large dulky fpots; and the tail is about a third
of the length of the body. This ferpent is found in
Carolina. 2. The canina, has 20.3 fcuta on the bel¬
ly, and 77 on the the tail; it is greenifli, and variega¬
ted with white belts. It is. a native of America, and
lodges in the hollow-trunks of trees, and is about two
feet long. The bite of the canina is not poilbnops.
3. The bipnale, is of a dull yellow colour, and is
found in Afia. It has 179 fcuta on the belly, and 120
on the tail.—4. The conllriCfor, has 240 fcuta on ■
the belly, and 60 on the tail. This is an immenfe a-
nimal; it often exceeds 36 feet in length ; the body
is very thick, of a duflty white colour, and its back.
is interfperfed with 24 large pale irregular fpots ; the
tail is of a darker colour ; and the fides are beautifully
k variegated with pale Ipots Befides, the whole body
is interfperfed with fmall brown fpots. The head is
covered with fmall fcales, and has no broad laminae
betwixt the eyes, but has a black belt behind the eyes.
It wants the large dog-fangs, and of courfe its bite is-
not poifonous. The tongue is flefhy, and very little
forked. Above the eyes, on each fide, the head rifes
high. The fcales of this ferpent are all very fmall,
roundilh, and fmooth. The tail does not exceed one
eighth of the whole length of the animal. The Indi-
ansx who adore this monftrous animal, ufe the fltin for
cloaths, on account of its fmoothnefs and beauty.
There are feveral of thefe Ikins of the above dimen-
fions preferred,, and to be feen in the different mu-
feums-'
BOA ( 576 ) BOA
' feums of Europe, particularly in the library and bo¬
tanic garden of Upfal in Sweden,' which has of late
been greatly enriched by count Grillinborg. The
flefh of this ferpent is eat by the Indians, and the ne¬
groes of Africa. Pifo, Margraave, and Kempfer give
the following account of its method of living and
catching its prey. It frequents caves and thick fo-
refts, where it conceals itfelf, and foddenly darts out
upon travellers, wild hearts, fyc. When it chufes a
tree for its watching-place, it fupports itfelf by twill¬
ing its tail around the trunk or a branch, and darts
down upon Iheep, goats, tigers, or any animal that
comes within its reach. When it lays hold of ani¬
mals, efpecially any of the larger kinds, it twills it¬
felf feveral times round their body, and, by the vaft
force of its circular mufcles, bruifes and breaks all
their bones. After the bones are broke, it licks the
fkin of the animal all over, befmearing it with a glu¬
tinous kind of faliva. This operation is intended to
facilitate deglutition, and is a preparation for fwallow-
yig the whole animal. If it be a flag, or any horned
animal, it begins to fwallow the feet firft, and gradu¬
ally fucks in .the body, and laft of all the head. When
the horns happen to be large, this ferpent has been ob-
ferved to go about Tor a long time with the horns of a
flag fticking out from its mouth. As the animal digerts,
the horns putrify and fall off. After this ferpent has
fwallowed a flag or a tyger, it is unable for fome days
to move ; the hunters, who are well acquainted with
this circumftance, always take this opportunity of de-
rtroying it. When irritated, it makes a loud hilling
noife. This ferpent is Paid to cover itfelf over with
leaves in fuch places as flags or other animals frequent,
in order to conceal itfelf from their light, and that it
may the more ealily lay hold of them. See Plate
LII. fig. 1.—ij. The murina, has 254 leuta on the
belly, and 65 on the tail. The colour of it is a light
blue, with round fpots on the back. It is a native
of America, and its bite is not poifonous. 6. The
fcytale, has 250 fcuta on the belly, and 70 on the
tail. The body is afh-coloured and bluilh, with round
black fpots on the back, and black lateral rings edged
with white. This ferpent is a native of America ; and,
like the conftriftor, though not fo long, twills itfelf a-
bout Iheep, goats, &c. and fwallows thpm whole.
7. The cenchria, has 265 fcuta on the belly, and 57
on the tail. It is of a yellow colour, with white eye¬
like fpots. It is a native of Surinam, and its bite is
not poifotipus. 8. The ophrias, has 281 fcuta on
the belly, and 64 on the tail ; the colour is nearly the
fame with that of the conrtri^lor, but browner. The
place where this ferpent is to be found is not known ;
but its bite is not venomous. 9. The enydris, has
270 .fcuta on the belly, and 105. on the tail. The
colour is a dulky white, and the teeth of the lower
'aw are very long; but its bite is not poifonous.
t is a native of America. 10. The hortulana, has
290 fcuta on the belly, and 128 on the tail. It is of a
pale colour, interfperfed with livid wedge-like fpots.
It is a native of America, and its bite is hot poifon¬
ous.—For the nature and qualities of ferpents in ge¬
neral, their method of propagation, tjrc. fee Natu¬
ral Hj STORY.
BOAR, a male fwine. See Sus.
Boar, in the menage. A horfe is faid to boar, when
he rtioots out his nofe as high as his ears, and toffes
his nofe in the wind.
BOARD, a long piece of timber, fawed thin for build
ing and feveral other purpofes. See Timber.
£arr?/-BoAR.DS, imported from Ireland, Afia, or A-
frica, pay only iir^d. die hundred; but if import¬
ed from elfewhere,. they pay 1 s. J-rliyd. Clap boards
pay 4s. 9T|*d. the hundred; but if imported from
Ireland, Afia, or Africa, only 2 s. lOj-f’d. Pipe-
boards pay 5s. 8T^§d. the hundred; but if from Ire¬
land, etc. only 3 s. ioT-§-§d Scale-boards pay 8 s.
Si-^d. the hundred weight; and -|d. more if import¬
ed in foreign bottoms.
Board, among feamen. To go aboard, fignifies to go
into the fiiip. To flip by the board,, is to flip down
by the Ihip’s fide. Board and board, is when two
flips come fo near as to touch one another, or
when they lie fide by fide. To make a board, is to
turn to windward; and the longer your boards are,
the more you work into the wind. To board it a/yis
to beat it up, fometimes upon one tack, and fometimes
upon another. She makes a good board, that is, the
flip advances much at one lack. The nneathcr-board,
is thatiideof the flip which is to windward.
Board is alfo ufed for an office under the government:
thus we fay, the board of trade and plantations, the
board of works, ordnance, <&c.
BOARDING a flhip, is entering an enemy’s flip in a
fight.
In boarding a flip, it is beft to bear up diredlly
with him, and to caufe all your ports to leeward to
be beat open; then bring as many guns from your wea¬
ther fide as you have ports for; and laying the ene¬
my’s flip, on board, loof for loof, order your tops
and yards to be manned and ftirnified with necefia--
ries; and let all your fmall fliot be in a readinefs;
then charge at once with both fmall and great, and at
the fame time enter your men under cover of the fmoke,
either on the bow of your enemy’s flip, or bring
your midfliip clofe up with her quarter, and fo enter
your men by the firouds: or if you would ufe your
ordnance, it is beft to board your enemy’s ftiip athwart
her hawfe; for in that cafe you may ufe moll of your
great guns, and (he only thofe of her prdw. Let fome
of your men endeavour to cut down the enemy’s yards
and tackle, whilft others clear the decks, and beat the
enemy from aloft. Then let the fcuttles and hatches
be broke open with all pofiible fpeed to avoid trains,
and the danger of being blown up by barrels of pow¬
der placed under the decks.
BOAT, a fmall open veffel, commonly wrought by
rowing.
BOATSWAIN, a flip-officer, to whom is committed
the charge of all the tacklings, • fails, and rigging,
ropes, cables, anchors, flags, pendants, fee. is
alfo to take care of the long-boat and its furniture,
and to fleer her either by himfelf er his mate.
He
1 Jf
* ^u/.U-^Or
ri.
< Te
' ..
BOD ( 577 ) BOG
He calls out the feveral gangs and companies aboard,
to the due execation of their watches, works, fpells,
He is likewife provoft-marlhal, who fees and pu-
nilhes all offenders fentenced by the captain, or a court-
martial of the fleet.
Boatswain’s mat? has the peculiar command of the
long boat, for the fetting forth of anchors, weighing
or fetching home an anchor, warping, towing, or
mooring; and is to give an account of his ftore.
BOB, a term ufed for the ball of a fhort pendulum.
BOBARTIA, in botany, a genus of the triandria digy-
nia clfifs. The calix is imbricated; and the corolla
confifts of a double-valved gliima. There is but one
fpecies, viz. the indica, a native of the Indies.
BOBBIN, a fmall piece of wood turned in the form of
a cylinder, with a little border jutting out at each end,
bored through to receive a fmall iron pivot. It ferves
to fpin with the fpinning-wheel, or to wind thread,
worfted, hair, cotton, filk, gold, and filver.
BOBBING, a method of fifhing. See Fishing.
BOBBIO, a town of the Milanefe, in Italy, -about
twenty-eight miles fouth-eaft of Pavia 5 E. long, to0,
N lat. 440 35'.
BOCA, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
Boca-chica, the entrance into the harbour of Cartha-
gena, in South America, defended by feveral forts.
Boca del drago, a ftrait between the iflandof Trini¬
dad and New Andalufia, a province of Terra Firma.
See Terra Firma.
BOCARDO, among logicians, the fifth made of the
third figure of fyllogifms, in which the middle propo-
fition is an univerfal affirmative, and the firft and laft
particular negatives, thus:
Bo Some ficklyperfons are not ftudents ;
car Every fickly perfon is pale ;
do Therefore-fome perfons are pale that are not
ftudents.
BOCCONIA, in botany, a genus of the dodecandria
monogynia clafs. There is only one fpecies, viz. the
frutefcens, a native of America.
BOCE, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
BOCHARA, a large town of Ulbec Tartary, fituated
on the river Oxus, about fixty miles weft of Samar-
cand, in 65° E. long, and 40° N. lat.
BOCKHOLT, a town of Munfter, in Weftphalia, fi¬
tuated in 6° 20' E. long, and 510 40' N. lat.
BOCK-EAND, in the Saxons time, is what we now call
freehold lands, held by the better fort of perfons -by
charter or deed In writing ; by which name it was di-
ftinguiffied from folkland, or copy-hold land, holden
by the common people without writing.
BODKIN, a fmall inftrument made of fteel, bone, ivo¬
ry, <bc. ufed for making holes.
The fmall grofs, or. twelve dozen, of bodkins pays
on importation is. 3-r|§d.; if of.iron or fteel, 4s.
8-rMd.; and.if of brafs, only 3 ^di
BODMIN, a borough-town of Cornwall, about twenty-
fix miles north-eaft of Falmouth, in 50 10' W. Jong,
and 50° 32' N. lat. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment, and gives the title of vifcount to the earl of
Radnor,.
Vol.I. Numb. 25. 3
BODROCH, a town of Hungary, about an hundred
miles fouth-eaft of Buda, and fituated on the north-
eaft ffiore of the Danube, in 20° 15'E. long, and 46°
15' N. lat.
BODY, in phyfics, an extended folid fubftance, of itfelf
utterly pallive and inadive, indifferent either to motion
or reft. See Matter, and Mechanics.
Colour of Hornes. See Optics.
Defcent of Bodies. See Mechanics.
Divifon of moons. See Chemistry.
Body, with regard to animals, is ufed in oppofition to
foul, in which fenfe it makes the fubjeft of anatomy.
Body, among painters, as to bear a body, a term fig-
nifying that the colours are of fuch a nature, as to be
capable of being ground fo fine, and mixing with the
oil fo intirely, as to feem only a very thick oil of the
fame colour.
Body, in the manege. A horfe is chiefly faid to have
a good body, when he is full in the flank. If the laft
of the ffiort ribs be at a confiderable diftance from the
haunch bone, although fuch horfes may, for a time,
have pretty good bodies, yet, if they are much la¬
boured, they will lofe them; and thefe are properly
the horfes that have no flank. It is alfo a general
rule, that a man ffiould not buy a light-bodied horfe,
and one that is fiery, becaufe he will foon deftrov
himfelf.
Body, in the art of war, a number of forces, horfe
and foot, united and marching under one commander.
Main Body of an army, the troops encamped in the
centre between the two wings, and generally infantry:
the other two bodies are the vanguard and the rear¬
guard; thefe being the three into which an army,
ranged in form of battle, is divided.
Body, in matters of literature, denotes much the fame-
with fyftern, being a colledlion of every thing belong¬
ing to a particular fcience or art, difpofed in proper
order: thus, we fay, a body of divinity, law, phy-
fic, drr.
BOEDROMIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival-cele¬
brated yearly by the Athenians in the month Boedro-
mion; for the ceremonies of which,, fee Potter’s
Arch. Grtec. b. ii. c. 20,
BOEDROMION, in chronology, the third month of
the Athenian year, anfwering to the latter part of
our^uguft and beginning of September.
BOERHAAVIA, in botany, a genus of the monandria
monogynia clafs. It has no calix; the corolla confifts
of one bell ffiaped plaited petal; and there is but one
naked feed. There are fix fpecies, all natives of the
Indies.
BOESCHOT, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, fi¬
tuated in Brabant, about twelve miles north-eaft of
Malines, in 40 40' E. long, and 510 5' N. lat.
POG properly fignifies a quagmire, covered with grafs,
but not folid enough to fupport the weight of the body.
Bog, in geography, a river of Poland, which, running
fouth-eaft through the province of Podoliaand Buziac
Tartary, falls into the Euxine fea between Oczakow
and the mouth of the BoriftKenes.
Bog, or Bog of Gight, a foiall town of Scotland,
7 G near
B O L ( 57S ) B O L
near the mouth of the river Spey, fituated in 20 23'
W. long, and 570 40' N. lat.
BOGARMITiE. See Bogomilt.
BOGDOI, a great nation of Tartary in Afia. The
Chinefe call them eaftern Tartars; and in the Mogul’s
country they are called Niuchi or Nuchi.
BQGHO* or Bueil, a town in the county of Nice, in
Piedmont, fituated on the frontiers of France, about
twenty-five miles north-weft oFNice, in 6° 45' Ei
long, and 440 ^ N. lat.
BGGOMILI, or Bogarmitje, in church-hiftory, a
fed of heretics, which fprung up about the year 1179.
They thought that but feven books of the fcripture
are to be received, that the ufe of churches, of the
facrament of the Lord’s fupper, and all prayer, ex¬
cept the Lord’s prayer, 6ught to be abolilhed; that
the baptifm of Catholics is imperfect; that the per-
ions of the Trinity are unequal, and that they often¬
times made themfelves vifible to thofe. of their fetft.
They faid, that devils dwelt in the churches, and that
Satan had refided in the temple of Solomon from the
deftru&ion of Jerufalem to their own time.
BOGOTO, the capital of New Granada, in Terra Fir-
ma, fituated in 740 W. long, and 40 N. lat.
BOHEA, in commerce, one of the belt kinds of tea
. that come from China. There are three forts of it:
the firft is bought at Canton for 80 tals per pice ; the
fecond for 45 ; and the third for 25. See Tea.
BOHEMIA, a kingdom fubjeft to the houfe of Auftria,
bounded by Saxony on the north, by Poland and Hun¬
gary on the eaft, by Auftria on the fouth, and by Ba¬
varia and part of Saxony on the weft. It lies between
I2q and 170 E. long, and 48° and 520 N. lat.
BOHEMIAN Bole. See B o l e .
BOHOL, one of the Philippine iflands, in Afia; E.
long. 1220, N. lat. io°.
BOJANO, a city of Molife, in the kingdom of Naples,
about fifteen miles north of Benevento; E.. long. 150
2.c/, and N. lat. 410 20A.
BOJARS denote Ruffian noblemen. See Russia.
BOIGUACU, in zoology, a fynonime of the boa con-
ftriiftor. See Boa.
BOIL, or Furuncle, in furgery. See Furuncle.
BOILING,, or Ebullition, the agitation of a fluid
body, arifing from the application of fire. See Che¬
mistry.
BOIQUIRA, the American name for the rattle-fnake.
de foignies, the foreft of Soignies, in the Auftrian
Netherlands, and province of Brabant, about three
miles fouth-eaft of Bruffels.
BOISLEDUC, called by the Dutch Hertogenbofch, a
large fortified town of Dutch Brabant, fituated on the
river Bommel, about twenty-three miles north eaft of
Breda; E. long. 50 2o\ and N. lat. yi° 45'.
BOKHARAH, Bocar, otRoghar, a city of Tartary,
in the country of theUfbecs, near Gihuri and Bikunt.
BOLES are vifcid earths, lefs coherent and more fri¬
able than clay, more readily uniting with water, and
more freely fubfiding from it. They are foft and unc¬
tuous to the touch, adhere to the tongue, and by de¬
grees melt in the mouth, impreffing a light fenfe of
aftringency. There are a great variety of thefe earths r
the principal of which are the following. .
x. Armenian bole, when pure, is of a bright red
colour, with a tinge of yellow; It is one of the hard-
eft and moft compad of the bodies of this clafs, and
not fmooth and gloffy like the others, but generally of
a rough dufty furface. It does not efFervefce .with
acids.
2. French bole is of a pale red colour, variegated
with irregular fpecks of,white and yellow. It is much
fofter than the Armenian, and flightly effervefces with
acids.
3. Bole of Blois is yellow, remarkably lighter than
the moft of the other yellow earths, and effervefces
ftrongly with acids.
4. Bohemian bole is of a yellow colour, with a
caft of red, and generally of a flaky texture. It is
not afted on by acids.
5. Lemnian earth is of a pale red colour, andflight-
iy effervefces with acids.
6. Silefian bole is of a browntfti yellow colour, and
acids have no fenfible effeds upon it.
Thefe and other earths, made into little maffes, and
ftamped with certain impreflions, are called terra Jigil*
lata. Thefe earths have been recommended as aftrin-
gent, fudorific, and alexipharmic. But thefe, and
many other virtues that have been afcribed to them,
appear to have no foundation. They are ftill ufed in
fluxes and complaints of the firft paffages.
BOLETUS, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
fungi clafs. This mulhroom is horizontal, fpungy,
and porous below. There are 14 fpecies, of which
feven are natives of Britain, viz. the fuberofus, or
cork boletus; the fomentarius, or fpongy boletus;
the verficolor, or ftriped boletus; the albus, or white
boletus ; the igniarius, or hard boletus, or touchwood ;
the bovinus, or brown boletus; and the luteus, or
yellow boletus.
BOLINGBROKE, or Bullingbroke, a market-
town of Lincolnfhire, about twenty-five miles eaft of
Lincoln; E. long. 15', N. lat 530 ij7.
BOLISLAW, a town of Bohemia, about thirty miles
north-eaft of Prague; E. long. 14° 40,> N.| lat.
50° 25'.
BOLLARDS, large polls fet into the ground, on each
fide of a dock. On docking or undocking fhips, large
blocks are lafhed to them; and through thefe blocks
are reeved the tranfporting hawfers to be brought to
the capftons.
BOLLITO, a name by which the Italians call a fea-
green colour in artificial cryftal. To prepare this co¬
lour, you muff have in the furnace a pot filled with
forty pound of good cryftal, firft carefully Ikimmed,..
boiled, and purified, without any manganefe: then
you muft have twelve ounces of the powder of fmalh
leaves of copper, thrice calcined, half an ounce of
zaffer in powder; mix them together, and put them
at four times into the pot, that they may the better
mix with the gjafs, ftirring them well each time of
putting in the powder, for fear that it.fliould fwell too
much and run over.
BOLOGNA.
B O L ( 5 /
BOLOGNA, a city of Italy, fifty rmles north of Flo.
rence. It is about five miles in circumference, and is
remarkable for its magnificent churches an$} monaite-
ries, as well as for its univerfxty, which is one of the
molt confiderable in Europe; E. long. 110 40', and
N. lat. 440 30'.
BOLOGNE. See Boulogne.
BOLONIAN is a fulphureous kind of (lone, a-
bout the bignefs. of a walnut, found near Bologna;
which, when duly prepared by calcination, makes a
Ipecies of phofphorus. See Phosphorus.
BOLS£NN*A, a town of the pope’s territories in Italy,
about forty-five miles north of Rome, at the jiorth
end of a lake to which it gives name ; E. long. 130
45', andN. lat. 42 9 40/.
BOLSLAW, a town of Bohemia, fituated on the ri¬
ver Sizera, about thirty miles north-eaft of Prague;
E. long. 140 45', and N. lat. 50° 24/.
BOLSTERS of a fuddle, thofe parts of a great faddle
which are raifed upon the bows, both before and be¬
hind, to hold the rider’s thigh, and keep him in a right
pofture.
BOLSWAERT, a town of Weft Friezland, in the U-
nited Provinces, about eighteen miles fouth-weft of
Lewarden; E. long. 50 20', and N. lat. 53° io'.
BOLT, among builders, an iron faftening fixed to doors
and windows. They are generally diftinguiftied into
three kinds, viz. plate, round, and fpring bolts.
Bolts in gunnery are of feveral forts; as, 1. Tran-
fum bolts, that go between the cheeks of a gun-car¬
riage, to {Lengthen the tranfums. 2. Prife-boks,
the large knobs of iron on the cheeks of a carriage,
which keep the hand-fpike from Aiding when it is poi¬
zing up the breech of a piece. 3. Traverfe-bolts,
the two ftiort bolts that being put one in each end of a
mortar-carriage, ferve to traverfe her. 4. Bracket-
bolts, the bolts that go through the cheeks of a mor¬
tar, and by the help of quoins keep her fixed at the
given elevation. And, 5. Bed-bolts, the four bolts
that faften the brackets of a mortar to the bed.
Bolts in a ftiip are iron pins, of which there are fe¬
veral forts, according to their different makes and ufes..
Such are drive-bolts, ufed to drive out others. Ray-
bolts, with jags or barbs on each fide, to keep them
from flying out of their holes. Clench-bolts, which
are clenched with rivetting hammers. Forelock-bolts,
which have at the end a forelock.of iron driven in, to
keep them from ftarting/ back. Set-bolts, ufed for
forcing the planks, and bringing them clofe together.
Fend or fender-bolts, made with long and thick heads,,
and ftrucL into the uttermoft bends of the {hip, to fave
her fides from bru fes. And ring-bolts, ufed for bring¬
ing to of the planks, and thofe parts whereto are faft-
ened the breeches and tackles of the guns.
Bolt of canvas, in commerce,, the quantity of twenty-
eight ells.
BoLT-ra/ie. See Rope,
BOLTING, a term formerly ufed in our inns of court,,
for the private arguing of caufes. An ancient and two
barrifters fat as judges; and three ftudents, bringing
each a cafe, out of which the judges chofe one to. be
9 ) BOM
argued, the ftudents firft began to argue it, and after
them the barrifters. It was inferior to mooting. See
Moot.
BOLTON, a market-town of Lancafltire, about twen-
ty-feven miles north-eaft of Liverpool; W. long. 20
10 , and N. lat. 530 35'.
BOLUS, an extemporaneous form of a medicine, foft,
coherent,, a little thicker than honey, and the quantity
of which is a little morfel or mouthful; for which
reafon it is by fome called buccella.
Whatever is fit for internal ufe, either by itfelf, or
when mixed with other fubftances, provided it is ca¬
pable of the above mentioned confiftence, is a proper
material for the compofition of a bolus. Such are foft
fubftances more or lefs thick, as conferves, electuaries,
robs, pulps, extracts; fyrups and liquid fubftances, as
oils, fpirits, eflences, elixirs, fyc. The dofe of bo¬
lus may be extended from one dram to one dram and
a half, or two drams.
BOLZAS, a fort of ticking which comes from the Eaft-
Indies.
BOMAL, a town of Luxemburg, in the Auftrian Nether¬
lands, fituated on the river Ourt, about 20 miles fouth
of Liege; in j° 30' E. long, and 50° 20' N. lat.
BOMB, in military affairs, a large fhell of caft iron,
having a great vent to receive the fufee, which is made
of wood. The fiiell being filled with gunpowder, the
fufee is driven into the vent or aperture, within an.
inch of the head, and faftened with a cement made of
quick-lime, afires, brick-duft, and fteel-filings, worked
together in a glutinous water; or of four parts of
pitch, two of colophony, one of turpentine, and one
of wax. This tube is filled with a combuftibie matter,
made of two ounces of nitre, one of fulphur, and three
of gunpowder duff, well rammed. To preferve the
fufee, they pilch it over, but uncafe it when they put
the bomb into the mortar, and cover it with gun-
power dull; which having taken fire by the flafh of the
powder in the chamber of the mortar, burns all the
time the bomb is in the air ; and the conipofition in
the fufee being fpent, it fires the powder in t^ bomb,
which burfts with great force, blowing up whatever is
about it. The great height the bomb goes in the air,
and the force with which it falls, makes it go deep in¬
to the earth.
Bomb-che st, a kind of cheft ufually filled with bombs,
fometimes only with gunpowder, placed under ground
to tear it and blow it up in the air,, with thofe who
ftand on it. It was fet on-fire by means of a fauciffe
faftened at one end, but is now much difufed.
Bomb-battery. See Battery.
BOMBARD, a piece of ordnance anciently, in ufe, ex¬
ceedingly fliort and thick, and with a very large mouth.
There have been bombards which have thrown a ball of
500 pound weight.. They made ufe of cranes to load
them.
The bombard is by fame, called and by the
Dutch, dondtrbufs.
BOMBARDIER,, a perfon employed about a mortar.
His bufiriefs is to drive the fufee, fix the ftitll, load
and fire the mortar.
BQM-
BOM (58
BOMBARDMENT, the havock committed in throwing
bombs into a town or fortrefs.
BOMBARDO, a rnufical inftrument of the wind kind,
much the fame as the baffoon, and ufed as a bafs to
the hautboy.
BOMBASINE, a name given to two forts of fluffs, the
one of filk, and the other croffed, of cotton.
Bombafine of filk pays duty on importation as other
foreign filks. See Silk. That of cotton pays each
piece, not exceeding 15 yards, if narrow, il. 3s. i^^-d.
but if broad, il. 6s. ii-i^d.
BOMBAST, in compofition, is a ferious endeavour, by
drained defcription, to raife a low or familiar fubjedt
beyond its rank; which inftead of being fublime, never
fails to be ridiculous. The mind, in fome animating
- pafiions, is indeed apt to magnify its objects beyond
natural bounds. But fuch hyperbolical defeription has
its limits, and, when carried beyond thefe, it dege¬
nerates into burlefque, as in the following example :
^ Sejanus.    Great and high
The world knows only two, that’s Rome and I.
My roof receives me not; ’tis air I tread,
And at each ftep I feel my advanc’d head
Knock out a ffar in heaven.
Sejan. Ben. Johnfon, a£t j.
A writer who has no natural elevation of genius is ex¬
tremely apt to deviate into bombaft : He drains above
his genius, and the violent effort he makes carries him
generally beyond the bounds of propriety.
BOMB AX, or Cotton-tree, in botany, a genus of the
monodelphia polyandria clafs. It has but one ftylus ;
the ffigma confifls of five lobes; the capfule has five
cells; and the feeds are downy. There are three
fpecies, viz. the pentandrum, the ceiba, and the hep-
taphyllum, all natives of the Indies. The cotton-tree
grows generally above 60 feet high, and is fo thick
that the Indians dig canoes which hold feveral men
out of the whole wood. There are hollows in diffe¬
rent parts of the trunk which contain large quantities
of water, which is of great ufe to travellers in the hot
climates where there is often a fcarcity of water. For
the method of making cotton, fee Cotton.
Bombax, in zoology, a fynonime of a fpecies of conus.
See Conus.
It is fometimes ufed for filk or cotton. It is like-
wife applied by Linnaeus to fignify fuch infefts as have
incumbent wings and feelers refembling a comb.
BOMBAY, an ifland on the weftcoaft of the hither pe-
ninfula of India, fituated in 720 20' E. long, and 18°
30/ N. I at. It is about feven miles long', and twenty
in circumference ; and is the property of our Eaft-In-
dia company.
BOMB-KETCH, a fmall veffel built and flrengthened
with large beams for the ufe of mortars at fea.
BOMBUS, in medicine, a refounding and ringing noife
in the ear.
BOMBYL1US, in zoology, a genus of infedls belonging
to the order of diptera. The roftrum is long, briftly,
and bivalved; the briflles being fixed between the ho-'
rizontal valves. There are are five fpecies, viz. 1.
The major, with black wings. 2. The medius, with
o ) BOM
a yellowifh body, white behind, and the wings fpotted
with yellow. 3. The minor, with unfpotted wings.
4. The ater, has red wings, but a little blackifh at the
bafe; and green feet. The above four are natives of
Europe. j. The capenfis, with the wings fpotted
with black, an a(h-co!oured body, and white behind.
It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope.
BOMENE, a port-town of Zeland, in the United Pro¬
vinces, fituated on the northern (hore of the ifland of
Schouen, oppofite to the ifland of Goree; in 40 E.
long, and ^ i° 50' N. lat.
BOMMEL, a town of Dutch Guelderland, fituated on
the northern flrore of the river Waal, about four miles
north-eaft of Nimeguen; in 5® yc/ E. long, and 520
N. lat.
BOMONICI, in Grecian antiquity, young men of La¬
cedaemon, who contended at the facriiices of Diana
which of them was able to endure moft laflies ; being
fcourged before the altar of this goddefs.
BON, in geography, a town of the electorate of Cologo,
in Germany, fituated on the weflern fltore of the river
Rhine, about 12 miles fouth of Cologn; in 70 E.
long, and 50° 35' N. lat. It is a final! but well for¬
tified town, and has a fine palace, which the eledtor of
Cologn makes his ufual refidence.
Bon is alfo the name of one of the Molucca iflands, ly¬
ing weft of Coram.
BONA, in geography, a port-town of the kingdom of
Algiers, in Africa, about 200 miles eaft of the city of
Algiers; in 8° E, long, and 36° N’. lat.
There is alfo a cape called Bona on the fame coaft
to the eaftward, almoft oppofite to Sicily.
Bona-fides, in law: When a perfon performs any ac¬
tion, which he believes at the time to be juft and law¬
ful, he is faid to have afted bona fide.
Bona mobilia, the fame with moveable goods or effects.
Bona notabilia, are fuch goods as a perfon dying has in
another diocefe than that wherein he dies, amounting
to the value of yl. at leaft; in which cafe the will
of the deceafed muft be proved, or adminiftration
granted in the court of the archbilhop of the province,
unlefs by compofition, or cuftom, any diocefes are au-
thorifed to do it, when rated at a greater fum.
Bona patria, an aflize of country men, or good neigh¬
bours, where twelve or more are chofen out of the
country to pafs upon an aflize, being fworn judicially
in the prefence of the party.
Bona, in geography, a cape of Africa, near Tunis, in
the Mediterranean fea.
BONAIRE, an ifland near the coaft of Terra Firma, in
South America, fitua'ted in 67° W. long, and 120 30'
N. lat. It is fubjeft to the Dutch, who traffic from
thence with the Caracao-coaft.
BONAROTA, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
of pa-derota. See Pjederota.
BONASIUS, in-zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of bos. See Bos.
BONAVENTURA, a fea-port town in Popayan in
South America, upon the South fea.
BONAVISTA, one of the Cape Verd Iflands, fubjeiff
to Portugal: in 23° W. long, and 160 3c'. N. lat.
BOND, ‘
BON ( 581 ) BOO
BOND, in Scots law, a formal writing by which a per-
fon binds himfelf to pay a certain fum of money to an¬
other, or to perform a certain deed, under a penalty.
Bonds refpe&ing money are divided into heritable and
moveable. See Law, tit. Heritable and moveable
rights.
Bond, in carpentry, a term among workmen; as, to
make good bond, means that they Ihould fallen two
or more pieces together, either by tenanting, mor-
tiling, or dovetailing, <&c.
BONDAGE, properly fignifies the fame with llavery ;
but, in old law-books, is ufed for villenage. SeeViL-
LENAGE.
BOND-MAN, the fame with villain. See Villain.
BONDOUR, a city of Natolia in Afia.
BONDUC, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies of
guilandria. See Guilandria.
BONE, in anatomy. See Part I.
Bone-ace, an eafy but licking game at cards, played
thus : The dealer deals out two cards to the firll hand,
and turns up the third, and fo on through all the
players, who may be feven, eight, or as many as the
cards will permit ; he that has the higheft card turned
up to him, carries the bone, that is, one half of the
• Hake, the other remaining to be played for: Again,
if there be three kings, three queens, three tens, be.
turned up, the eldell hand wins the bone: But it is to
be obferved, that the ace of diamonds is bone-ace, and
wins all other cards whatever. Thus much for the
bone ; and as for the other half of the flake, the near-
ell to thirty-one wins it; and he that turns up or
draws thirty-one, wins it immediately.
BON-ESPERANCE, the fame with the Cape of Good-
hope. See Good-hope.
BONGO, or Bunco, the capital of one of the illands
of Japan, to which it gives name; in 1320 E. long,
and 320 30r N.lat. It is a fea pqrt town, fituated on the
call fide of the illand, oppofite to the ifland of Tonfa,
from which it is feparated by a narrow channel.
BONIFACIO, in geography, a port-town of Corfica,
fituated at its fquth end, in 90 20 E. long, and 410
20' N. lat. It; is one of the bell towns in the whole
illand, and gives name to the llreight between Corfica
and Sardinia.
BONIS non amovendis, in law, is a writ directed to the
Iheriffs of London, be. charging them, that a perfon,
againll whom judgment is obtained, and profecuting a
writ of error, he not fuffered to remove his goods un¬
til the error is determined.
BONNET, in a general fenfe, denotes a cover for the
head, in common ufe before the introdu’dlion of hats.
See Hat.
Bonnets are llill ufed in many parts of Scotland.
Bonnet, in fortification, a fmall work, confiding• of
two faces, having only a parapet with two rows of
palifadoes, of about ten or twelve feet dillance : It is
generally raifed before the lalfant angle of the coun-
terfearp, and has a communication with the covered
way, by a trench cut through the glacis, and palifa¬
does on each fide.
Bonnet a pretre, or Priejl's Bonnet, in fortification,
Vol. I. No. 25. 3
is an out-work, having at the head three faliant an¬
gles, and two inwards. It differs from the double te¬
nable only in this, that its fides, inllead of being pa¬
rallel, are like the queve d'aronde or fwallcw’s tail,
that is, narrowing, or drawing clofe at the gorge,
and opening at the head.
Bonnet, in the fea-language, denotes an addition to a
fail: Thus they fay, lace on the bonnet, or Jhake ojf
the bonnet.
BONNEVILLE, a town of Savoy, fituated oft the
north fide of the river Arve, about twenty miles fputh-
eall of Geneva, in 6° io/ E. long, and 46° iS7 N.
lat.
BONNY, among miners, a bed of ore, differing only
from a fquat as being round, whereas the fquat is
flat. See Squat.
BONONIAN. SeeBoLONiAN.
BONOS-AYERES. See Buenos-ayres.
BONTIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia angio-
fpermia clafs^ The calix is divided into five pieces ;
the corolla is bilabiated, with the fuperior labium e-
marginated, and the inferior confills of three deep-cut
fegments; the berry, which is of the drupa kind, is
oval, oblique at the apex, and contains but one plaited
feed. The* fpecies are two, viz. the dapbnoides and
the germinata, both natives of the Indies.
BONZES, Indian priells, who, in order to dillinguifh
themfelves from the laity, wear a chaplet round their
necks, confifling of an hundred beads, knd carry a
Ilaff, ?.t the end of which is a wooden bird. They
live upon the alms of the people, and yet are very
charitably difpofed, maintaining feveral orphans and
widows out of their own colledlions. The Tonqui-
nefe have a pagod, or temple, in each town, and eve¬
ry pagod has at leafl two bonzes belonging to it; fame
have thirty or forty. The bonzes of China are .the
priefls of the Fohifls, or fedts of Fohi; and. it is
one of their eftablilhed tenets, that there are rewards
allotted for the righteous, and punilhments for the
wicked in the other world; and that there are various
manfions, in which the fouls of men will refide, ac¬
cording to their different degrees of-merit. The bon¬
zes of Pegu are generally gentlemen of the higheft ex-
tradlion.
BOOK, the general name of almofl every literary com-
pofition ; but, in a more limited fenfe, is applied only
to fuch compofitions as are large enough to make a vo¬
lume. As to the origin of books or writing, thofe of
Mofes are undoubtedly the moll ancient that are ex¬
tant: ButMofes himfelf cites many books that beho¬
ved to be wrote before his time. See Character.
OF profane books, the oldefl extant are Homer’s
poems, which were fo even in the time of Sextus
Empiricus ; though we find mention in Greek writers
of feventy others prior to Homer; as .Hermes, Or¬
pheus, Daphne, Horus, Linus, Mufeus, Palamedes,
Zoroafler, be.; but of the greater part of thefe there
is not the leafl fragment remaining; and of others,
the pieces which go under their names are generally
held, by the learned, to be fuppofititious.
Several forts of materials were ufed formerly in
7 H making
582 B O O K - K
making books: Plates of lead and copper, the barks
of trees, bricks, (tone, and wood, were the fir ft mate¬
rials employed to engrave fuch things upon as men
■were willing to have tranfmitted to pofterity, Jofe-
phus fpeaks of two columns, the one of ftone, the o-
ther of brick, on which the children of Seth wrote
their inventions and aftronomical ’ difeoveries : Por¬
phyry makes mention of fome pillars, preferved in
Crete, on which the ceremonies praftifed by the Co-
rybantes in their facrifices were recorded. Hefiod’s
works were originally written upon tables of lead., and
depofited in the temple of the Mufes, in Bceotia: The
ten commandments, delivered to Mofes, were written
upon ftone; and Solon’s lav/s upon wooden planks.
Tables of wood, box, and ivory,’ were common among
the ancients: When of wood, they were frequently
covered with wax, that people might write on them
-i with more eafe, or blot out what they had written.
1'he leaves of the palm-tree were afterwards ufed in-
ftead of wooden planks, and the fineft and thinneft.
part of the bark of fuch trees, as the lime, the aih,
the mapple, and the elm ; from hence comes the word
liber, which figniiies the inner bark of the trfees : and
as thefe barks were rolled up, in order to be removed
with greater eafe, thefe rolls were called volumen, a
volume; a name afterwards given to the like rolls of
paper or parchment.
Thus we find books were firft written on ftones,
witnefs the Decalogue given to Mofes : Then on the
parts of plants, as leaves chiefly of the palm-tree ; the
rind and barks, efpecially of the tilia, or phillyrea,
and the Egyptian papyrus. By degrees wax, then
leather, were introduced, efpecially the Ikins of goats
and ftieep, of which at length parchment was prepared:
Then lead came into ufe; alfo linen, filk, horn, and
iaftly paper itfelf.
BOOK-KEEPING.
The Wafte-book opens with the inventory; which
confifts of two parts : Firft, the effetts, that is, the mo¬
ney a merchant has by him, the goods he has on hand,
his fhare in fhips, houfes, farms, with the debts
due to him; the fecond part of the inventory is the debts
due by him to others: The difference betwixt which and
the effedts, is what merchants call neat Jlock. When a
man begins trade, the inventory muft be gathered from
a furvey of the particulars that make up his real e.ftate;
but muft afterwards be collefted from the balance of his
old books, and carried to the new. This inventory is
the firft thing narrated in the Wafte-book, as being the
fource and fpring whence all fubfequent traniaftions flow.
After the inventory is fairly narrated in the Wafte-
book,.. the tranfa&ions of trade come next to be jotted
down ;
BOOKKEEPING is an art, teaching how to record
and difpofe the accompts of bufmefs, fo as the true
ftate of every part; and of the whole, may be eafily and
diftihftly known.
Though the number and kinds of books ufed in this art
be in fome meafure arbitrary, there are three which can
never be difpenfed with by thofe whofe trade is complex
or extenfive, viz. the IVajle-book. Journal, and Ledger.
I. Of the Waste-book.
Twi Wajle-book is a regifter, containing.an inventory
of a merchant’s effeefts and debts, with a record of all
his tranfadions, narrated in a plain, fimple ftyle, and in
the. exadt order of time as they fucceed one another.
E E P I N G.
The firfc books were in the form of blocks and ta¬
bles.; but as flexible matter came to be wrote oh, they
found it more convenient to make their books in the
form of rolls : Thefe were compofed of feyeral Iheets,
faftened to each other, and rolled- upon- a flick, or
umbilicus; the whole making a kind of column, or
cylinder, which was to be managed by the umbilicus
as a.handle, it being reputed a crime to take hold of
the roll itfelf: The outlide of the volume was called
frons ; the ends of the umbilicus, cornua, which were
’ ufually carved, and adorned with filver, ivbry, or e-
ven gold and precious ftones : The title <rv\}.a.Cic, was
ftruck on the outfide; the whole volume, when ex¬
tended, might make a yard and a half wide, and fifty
long. The form Which obtains among us is the
fquare, compofed of feparate leaves ; which was alfo.
known, though little ufed, by the ancients. •
To the form of books belongs alfo the internal
ceconomy, as the order and arrangements of points and
letters into lines and pages, with margins and other
appurtenants : This has undergone many varieties ; at
firft the letters were only divided into lines, then into
feparate words, which, by degrees, were noted with
accents, and diftributed, by points and flops, into pe
riods, paragraphs, chapters, and other divifions. In
fome countries, as among the orientals, the lines be-
gan ffom the right and ran leftward ; in others, as
the northern and weftern nations, from left to right;
others, as the Greeks, followed both directions, alter¬
nately going in the one, and returning in the other,
called boujirophedon : In moft countries, the lines
run from one fide to the other ; in forhe, parti¬
cularly the Chinefe, from top to bottom. See Com¬
position.
B O O K - K
down; which is a daily talk, to be performed as they
occur; and fhould be done difHnftly, that is, every
thing (hould be clearly and exactly expre/l'ed.
If no fubfidiary books are kept, the Wade-book
fliould contain a record of all the merchant’s tranfaftions
and dealings in a way of trade; and that not only of
fuch as are properly and purely mercantile, but of every
occurrence that affefts his dock, fo as to impair or in-
creafe it; fuch as, private expences, fervants fees, houfe-
rents, money gained or lod on wagers; legacies, and'the
like. By fuch occurrences as thefe, a 'met-chant as ef-
feftualiy becomes fo much poorer or richer, as by the
refult of any branch of his trade. And the ends pro-
pofed in book-keeping can never be gained, if ftich things
pafs unrecorded.
E E P I N G. 583
that didinguifheth the two books is the dyle ; that of the
one being natural, and that of the other artificial. -In
the Journal, perfons and things are charged Debtors to
other perfons or things as Creditors; and in this it agrees
with the Ledger, where the fame dyje is ufed, but dif¬
fers from it as to form and order: So that it agrees with
the Wade-book in thofe very things wherein it differs
from the Ledger; and on the other hand, it agrees with
the latter in that very point wherein it differs from the
former.
But an example of the Wade-book turned into the
Journal form, will give a clearer idea than can be con¬
veyed by words.
WASTE-BOOK.
II. Of the Journal.
The Journal is the book wherein the tranfaclions
recorded in the Wade-book are prepared to be carried
to the Ledger, by having their proper debtors and cre¬
ditors afcertained and pointed out.
One great defign of the Journal is, to prevent errors
in the Ledger ; a thing of the word confequence in
book-keeping ; which yet, without the help of this book,
would be almod inevitable For, fuppofe a perfon fhould
attempt to form the Debtors and Creditors from the
Wade-book in his mind, and at the fame time pod them
to the Ledger, he fhall find his thoughts fo much em-
barraffed and over-charged, by attending at once to fo
many different things as occur here, that, were he an
accomptant of very- great experience, he could not well
mifs of falling into frequent blunders. This makes it
necefiary todidvidethe talk, and do at twice what can¬
not be performed at once, without fuch hazard of mif-
takes; that is, fird to write out the Debtors and Cre¬
ditors in a feparate book by themfelves, and afterward
transfer them to the Ledger. The work by this means
being divided into parts, becomes more fimple, and cbn-
fequently more eafy, and fo may be performed with great¬
er certainty of its being right. Again, after the Ledger
is filled up, the Journal fafcilitates the work required in
revifing and corredfing it;- for, fird the Wafie-bopk and
Journal are compared, and then the Journal and Ledger.
Whereas, to revife and corredt the Ledger immediately
from the Wade-book, would be a matter of no lefs dif¬
ficulty than to form it without the help of a' Journal.
Ladly, The Journal is defigned as a fair record of a
merchant’s bufinefs: For neither of the other two books
can ferve this purpofe ; not the Ledger, by reafon both
of the order that obtains in it, and alfo on account of its
brevi y, being little more than a large Index. Nor can
the Wade-book anfwer this defign ; for being written up
in the time of bufinefs, and commonly too by different
hands, it can neither be fair and-uniform., nor very .ac--
curate.
The Journal is a kind of middle book betwixt the 0-
ther two ; it looks back to the one, and forward to the
other. With the Wade-book it agrees in form,, being
ruled after the fame manner. The order alfo and fuc-
ceffion of things is the fame in. both. The thing then
Bhck Cloth Dx xo Cajh 28V.
Paid for 40 yards, at 140. — —
JOURNAL.
-July id-
/. /. V.
Shalloon Dr to Sundries 434
'To Cajh, in part for ioo7
yards, at io<A 3
To J. Sloan, for the red, >
at 2 months 3
—4 th —
Sundries Drs to Port IVine 110 /.
Cajh, in part, for 4 pipes, at 7
-27/. tor. 3
Will. Pope, for the red on 7
demand 3
/. r. ,
55 00
Bqfore proceeding to give rules for writing in the-
Journal, it will be necefiary to take notioe, that every,
cafe or example of the Wade-book, when entered in the
Journal, is called a Journalpojl or entry : Thus the ex¬
amples above make up three didinfl pods. Again, a pod
is either fimple or complex. A fymple poft is that which
has-..
584 B O O K - K
has but one Debtor and one Creditor, as the firft of
thefe above. A complex pofi is either when one Debtor
is balanced by two or more Creditors, as in the fecond
port; or when two or more Debtors are balanced by
one Creditor, as in the third poll ; or when feveral
Debtors are balanced by feveral Creditors, and then the
poll is faid to be complex in both its terms. This being
premifed, the rules to be obferved are thefe following.
I, In a Ample poft, the debtor is to be exprefsly men¬
tioned, then the creditor, and, laftiy, the fum, all in
one line : After which follows the narrative, or reafon
of the entry, in one or more lines, as in the firft of
thefe three ports above.
II. In a complex poft, the feveral Debtors or Creditors
are exprefled in the firft line, by Sundries, or Sundry
Accompts, and the reft of the line filled up as in the
E E P I N G.
former rule. After which, the feveral Debtors or'
Creditors muft be particularly mentioned, each in a
line by themfelves, with their refpedtive fums fubjoin-
ed to them; which are to be added up, and their to¬
tal carried to the money-columns, as in the fecond
and third pofts.
The'Journal, as defcribed and exemplified above, is
the form that was firft in ufe among merchants; and is
ftill the moft common : but fome make their Journal juft
a fair copy of the Wafte-book, with the. Debtors and
Creditors written out on the margin, which is ruled large
for that purpofe. We lhall here fubjoin the three pre¬
ceding pofts done after this way; which, to one who un-
derftands the common method, will be fufficient inftruc-
Dr Black Cloth,
Cr Cajh, - j
■July ift.-
d. Bought 40 yards black cloth,
Crs$% - I 2 00 00
pj. Sloan, I 2 03 04
Drs
Cr Port Wine,
Bought of James Sloan 100 yards
(balloon, at 10 d.
Whereof paid — — 2 00
Reft due at 2 mon. - 2 03 04
55 00 00
5 S 00 00
-4th.-
Sold Will. Pope 4 pipes Port wine, at
27/. 10 r.
Whereof received — 55 00 00
Reft due on demand 55 00 00
/. ' s.
28 00
Of the Terms Debtor and Creditor.
The nature and ufe of the terms Debtor and Credi¬
tor will be obvious, from the confiderations following.
I. Accompts in the Ledger confift of two parts,
which in their own natufe aredire&ly oppofed to, and the
reverfe of one another; which therefore are fet fronting
one another, on oppofite fides of the fame folio. Thus,
all the articles of money received go to the left fide of
the Cafh-accompt, and all the articles or fums laid out
are carried to the right. In like manner, the purchafe
of goods is ported to the left fide of the accoinpt of the
faid goods, and the fale, or diipofal of them, to the
right, <bc.
II. Tranfaftions of trade, or cafes of the Wafte-
book, are alfo made up of two parts, which belong to
different accompts, and to oppofite fides of the Ledger:
e. g. If goods are bought for ready money,- the two
parts are, the goods received, and the money delivered ;
the former of which goes to the left fide of the accompt
of faid goods, and the latter to the right fide of the
Ca(h-accompt.
HI. Thefe two different parts, in cafes of the Wafte-
book, are not oppofed to one another, as the two fides
of the Ledger-accompts are ; but, on the contrary, have
a mutual connexion and dependence, the one being the
ground, condition, or caufe of the other. Thus, in the
preceding example, when goods are bought for ready
money, the receipt of the goods is the caufe of parting
with the money; and, on the other hand, the delivering
of the money is the condition on which the goods are
received.
From thefe three obfervations, it is plain, that, in or¬
der to poft a cafe of the Wafte-book to the Ledger, the
firft thing the accotaptant muft do, is, to divide the cafe
into its, parts, and then to think with himfelf, to which
accompt, and to what fide, each of thefe parts is to be
carried ; and when the entry is adhially made, the con-
neftion of the parts with one another muft be expreffed
in each of the accompts to which they are tranfported.
Now, fince in fpeaking and writing things muft have
names whereby they may be expfeffed and written, it is
neceffary that two words or terms be contrived, and ap¬
propriated to thefe two different parts, that have the
fame relation to one another as the parts themfelves
have, which may at once charafterrfe and diftinguifli the
parts from one another, point out and afceftain to what
fide of the Ledger each of them is to be carried, and
withal exprefs their relation to, and dependence upon
one another.
The Italians at firft for this purpofe pitched upon the
terms
(*585)
B O O K - K
terms Debtor and Creditor, becaufe their common ac¬
ceptation comes nearer to the thing here meant than any
other they could think on. By means of thefe terms,
the two parts, in any cafe of the Wafte-book, when poll¬
ed to thejournal, are denominated, the one the Debtor,
and the other the Creditor, of that port And when
carried from thence to the Ledger, the Deotor, or
Debtor part, is entered upon the left fide (hence called
the Debtor fide) of its own account, where it is char¬
ged Debtor to the Creditor part. Again, the Creditor,
or Creditor part, is ported to the right fide, or Credr
tor-fide of its accompt, and made Creditor by the Debtor
fait. Hence Italian book-keeping is laid to be a me¬
thod of keeping accompts by double entry, becaufe every
fingle cafe of the Warte-book requires at lead two entries
in the Ledger, viz. one for the Debtor, and another for
the Creditor.
We fhall illuftrate what has been faid by two examples.
Firji, Suppofe a merchant buys a pipe of wine for ready
money, the two parts in this cafe are, the wine received,
and the money delivered for it' which are charadlerifed
by the terms Debtor and Creditor in the Journal-poll
thus: Wine Dr to cajhwhere the meaning is, (though
to exprefs it fo is needlefs), that as Wine '\% DrioCajh, lb
Cajh is Cr by Wine. And accordingly when carried to
the Ledger, the Wine-aecompt is charged Dr to Cajh,
and the Cafh-accompt is made Cr by Wine. Again,
tidly. Admit the me/chant fells this pipe of wine for pre-
fent money, in this cafe the two parts are the fame as
before; but when clothed with Debtor and Creditor,
will (land inverted thus : Cajh Dr to Wine. And ac
cprdingly, in the Ledger, the Cajh-accompt is charged
Dr to Wine, and the Wine-accompt gets credit by Cajh.
From all which it is evident, the terms Debtor Cre¬
ditor /ax z nothing elfe but marks or charaifterillks flamped
upon the different parts of tranfadtions in the Journal,
exprelling the relation of thefe parts to one another, and
fhewing to which fide of their refpedtive accompts in the
Ledger they are to be carried.
Rules relating toDebtorand Creditor.
I A thing received upon truft, is Dr to the perfop of
whom it is received.
II. The perfon towhom a thing is delivered upon trurt,
is Dr to the thing delivered.
Ill A ihing received, is Dr to the thing given for it.
IV. In antecedent and fub equent cafes, parts that are
the reverfe of one another in the nature of the thing, are
alfo oppoied in relptdl of terms.
V In cafes where perfonal and real Drs or Crs are
wanting, the detedl muft be fupplied by fidlitious ones.
VI. In complex cafes, the fundry Drs or Crs are to be
mar'e out from the preceding rules jointly taken.
We now proceed to ihe particular application of Debt¬
or and Creditor in the feveral branches of trade, viz.
I. Proper trade, which a merchant carries on for him-
felf.
II. Faft or age, which he manages for another, called
his Employer.
HI. Partnerjhip, which is carried on by a truftee, in
name of all the partners.
E E P I N G.
i. IN PROPER TRADE.
Proper trade is either domeftic or foreign. Proper
doniejiic trade, is that which a merchant carries on by
himfelf, without the help of a fadtor. Proper Joreign
trade, is the bufinels that occurs to a merchant by em¬
ploying a fadtor.
ijl. Debtor and Creditor applied in proper domeftic
trade.
Proper domeftic irade, comprehends the inventory,
buying, Jelling, bartering, receiving money, and paying
money. To each of thefe we fhall afiign a diftmdt pro¬
blem ; and, to prevent burdening the lea ner’s memory,
we fhall deliver the feverai cafes as compendioufly as pcf-
fible, fubjoining to each problem fuch notes as feem ne-
ceflary for clearing any thing that requires further illu-
llration.
h\ B. A» vve refer from the cafes and notes of each problem, to the exam¬
ples of the irafc-bootymA JoumaL, by the dates^ fo we have made tife^.f let-
blems, which the reader willealily obferee.
Prob. i. A. Debtor Creditor *?/>/>//«//o the
inventory.
The inventory-coaCifts, of two parts, and accordingly
is journalized at twice, viz. i Sundries Drs ro Stock.
The feveral Drs are. CuJd, for the mere! ant’s ready
money ; Goods on hand, for their refpetftivt values-, Per
Jons, for their debts due to him. 2 Stock Dr to Sun¬
dries The feveral Crs are, the perfons to whom the;
merchant owes. Compare the W/Jie-book and Journal,
Jan. I
Note, Stock is a fi&itious term ufed inftead of the merchant’s name.
Prob. 2. B. Debtor and Creditor applied in buying.
In buying one fingle commodity there are feven dif-
tindl cafes, (vtz. three fimple, ana tout complex): in>
?11 which the goods bought and received art Dr; but the
Cr varies according to die tetmsof pufehaie.
Caje 1. When goods are bought for ready money,
the entry is, -Goods bought Dr to C. Jh. Jan. 6.
2. When goods are bought, and paid for by giving the
feller a bill or note upon a tliird perfon, Goods bought
Dr to die Accepter, viz. the laid third perfon
3. When goods are bought on time, Goods bought Dr
to the Seller. Jan. 10 Oct. 21.
4. When goods are bought for part money, part bill.
Goods bought Dr to Sundries, viz.
1 o Cajh, for the fum paid,
To Accepter, for value of the bill.
5. Wlien goods are bought for part money, part on time.
Goods bought Dr to Sundries, viz.
110 Cajh, paid in part,
To Seller, for the reft. Jan. 15.
6. When goods are bought for part bill, part time.
Goods bought Dr to Sundries, viz.
To Accepter, for value of the bill.
To Seller, for the reft.
7. When goods are b.ought for part money, part bill,,
part time,
Goods bought Dr to Sundries, viz.
To Cajh, for the fum paid,.
T
(586*)
B O O K - K
To Accepter, for value of the bill,
To Seller, for the reft. Feb. 2.
Note 1. When two or more kind* of goods ire bought'from one perfon*t the
fame time, there will be two or more Drs, -viz. the feveral kinds of goods
bought, each for their value. And the fame variety of cafes wil! occur here as
v.-hen one fingle commodity.is bought; fo that, if the fundry goods be bought
, the entry will be,
' To Cajh, ifbought for ready monev. teb.
| To Accepter, if on bill,
But if the fundry goods are bought for part money, part bill, or for partn
ncy, part time, or for part.biU, part time, &c. it j« belt to refolve the cafe
11. two entries, viz. Firft charge theGoocis Drtothe^c/to-, for their full va
iue, as if they had been bought on time; and then make the5c//er Dr to Cd/Z>
or to the Accepter, or to both, (as the nature Of the cafe is), for the part paid,
:rhus, fuppofe the goods are bought for part money, part bill, part time, the
j r. Sundries Drs
2. Seller, Df to   ,
To Cajh, fortlie fum p;
To Accepter, for value o
■Note!. If you buy goods to be r
peel of this ' ^
-, for the refpe£live values of the goods.
rceived fome time afterward; and, in prof-
the price to the feller: in this gafe, charge
  ... Cii/ft, for the lum advanced; and when you receive the goods,
make them Dr to the feller, for their full value. Or if immediately upon recei¬
ving them you cleat with the .feller, then make Goods received Dr to Sundries,
viz. to the Seller, for the fum formerly advanced; and to Cajb, for the fum
now paid. In bargains of this nature, there is commonly a penalty agreed on
to'bc paid by the feller in cafe of non-performance. Now, if in this cafe the
feller happen to fail, you the buyer, upon receiving payment of the advanced
money and penalty, enter Cajh Dr to Sundries, viz. to the Seller, for the fum
advanced, and now recovered, and to Profit and Lofs, for the penalty: or,
initead of ufing the general accovnpt, Profit and Lofs, you may ere ft in the
Ledger an accompt, under the title of Refufal of bargains, which is to be made
Debtor for all the penalties of this nature you pay, and Credit for all you re¬
ceive. May 13. If you buy goods to be received afterwards, without advan¬
cing any part of the price; it is fufScient to take a note of them in a pocket-
book ; and when you receive them, they are booked as goods prefently
Prob. 3. C. Debtor and Creditor applied in felling.
Selling is juft the reverfe of buying, atf(f has the fame
variety of cafes, viz. feven ; whereof three are fimple,
and four complex: in all which, the goods fold and de¬
livered are Cr; but the Dr varies according to the con¬
ditions of fale. .
Cafe 1. When goods are fold for ready money, the en¬
try is, Cafl> Dr to Goods fold. Feb. 25.
'‘2. When goods are fold on bill or note, Accepter Dr
to Gosi/r fold. March 17. Stz Note
3. When goods are fold on time, Buyer Dr to Goods
fold. March 1.
4. When goods are fold for part money, part bill,
Sundries Drs to Goods fold, viz.
Cajh, for the fum received.
. Accepter, for value of the bill. March 22.
5. When goods are fold for part money, part on time.
Sundries Drs to CWrfold, viz.
Cajh, received in part.
Buyer, for the reft. March 4.
B. When goods are fold for part bill, part time.
Sundries Drs to Goods fold, viz.
Accepter, for value of the bill.
Buyer, for the reft.
7. When goods' are fold for part money, part hill,
part time,
Sundries Drs to Goods fold, viz.
Cajh, for the fum received,
Accepter, for value of the bill.
Buyer, for the reft.
Note I. Thus the entries in buying and fellingoneiingle commodity are juft
the reverie of one another: and this alfo holds in buying and felling two or
more kinds of goods; which we ihall therefore pafs, referring the learner to
the cafes o 1 buying in the preceding problem.
Note 2. If you fell goods to be delivered, not prefently, but fome time after¬
ward. and receive money ^(-advance, charge Cajh Dr to the Buyer, for the
fum received; and when you deliver the goods, charge the Buyer Dr to hud
Goods, for their full value. But if, upon delivery ofthc goods, you immedi¬
ately receive the remaining part of their price, enter Sundries (viz. the Buyer,
for the fum received per advance, and Cafh, for the fum now received) Drs to
-the Good.!delivered. If you find you cannot perform the bargain, and be.ebli-
E P I N G.
ie money advanoed, and pay the penalty, make Sundries (viz.
""" ' J “d Profit and Lbfs, os Refufal of bargains.
ged to return th
the Buyer, for the fum advan
fpr the penalty) Drs to Cafh nc.. r  |
" * T ‘f you fell »fhlp, houfe, &c. enter Cajh, or the Buyer, Dr to faid Ship
Hmfl Vortl
...re 4. It you fend goods to A. B. and leave it to his choice, whether to
keep or return them, ereftan account under the title Of Sufpenfe-accompt, and
charge it Dr to the goods tent off. If the goods be returned, reverfe the former
entry. If he keep them, charge A. B. Dr to Sufpenfe-account, for the value of
compf^Mayi y”1’ I1/ hc fendS Up the price’ charge CaJb Dr to Suffenfe-ac-
Prob. 4. D. Debtor and Credithr applied in bartering.
Barter, or the exchanging of goods for goods, is no¬
thing elfe but buying and felling blended together; the
cafes of which, if the .goods received and delivered be of
equal value, are thefe four.
Cafe 1. When one commodity is received for another
delivered, orsf.tr Wares received Dr to Wares delivered.
April 10.
2. When one commodity is received for two or more
delivered, enter Wares received Dr to Sundries, viz.
to the feveral wares delivered, for their refpedtive va¬
lues.
3. When two or more forts of wares are received for
one delivered, trsttr Sundries (viz. the feveral re¬
ceived, each for their value) Drs to Wares delivered.'
April 16.
4. When feveral wares are bartered with A. B. for
feveral, make two entries, and that whether the wares
received and delivered be of equal value or not.
1. A.B. T>r to Sundries, viz. to each fort delivered,
for their refpe&ive values.
2. Sundries (viz. each fort received, for their refpec-
tive values) Drs to B. April 30.
Note 1. Suppoling the goods received and delivered are not in themfelves
of equal value, but that the deficiency is made up by money or bill, or the
one merchant gives the other credit for the difference: upon this fuppofition
there will be feveral other cafes; fuch as, i. Wares received, for part wares,
part money, a. For part wares, part bill. 3. Part wares, part time. 4. Part
wares, part money, part time, &c. In all which cafes, the /Pares received
are Dr^to Sundries. The particular Crs in each cafe are as follows.
CTo Wares delivered, for their value,
2. To Cajh, for the fum paid,
CTo Wares delivered, for their value,
2‘ |To Accepter, for the bill.
( To delivered, for their value,
3’ ^To dealer, for the reft.
fTo /Fardf delivered, for their value,
4. <To Cafh, for the fum paid,
(To Dealer, for the reft.
Note 2. On the other hand, wares in barter may go off, or be delivered,
1. For part wares, part money, z. For part wares, part bill. 3. Part wares, part
time. 4. Part wares, part money, part time, &c. In all which cafes. Sundries
are Drs to the /Tares delivered. The particular Drs in each cafe are the fame
with,the Crs in the cafes immediately preceding, a* follows.
r C Wares received, for their value,
Laje 1. ^Cafh, for the fum received. April 22.
( Wares received, for thetr value,
2' ( Accepter, for the bill.
C Wares received, for their value,
3* | Dealer, for the reft.
C Wares received, for their value,
4. < Cafh, for the fum received,
(_ Dealer, for the reft.
Prob. 5, E. Debtor Creditor applied in receiving
money.
In all cafes of this nature, Cafh is Dr; but the Cr
varies, according to the terms on which the money is re¬
ceived.
Cafe
Cafe :
B O
K
•Cafe i.s When you receive money for goods prefently
'Told,, the entry, as already mentioned in the firlt cafe of
Telling,is, CW/& Dr to Ccoi/r fold, for their value. Feb. 25.
2. When you borrow, or take up money at interdt,
enter Cafh Dr to the Lender, for the fum received,
mentioning the rate of intereft, and time of payment .
3. When you get money, whether as payment of a
debt, or taken up at intereft, and receive it, not from
the debtor or lender, but upon his allignation from a
third perfon, enter Cajh^ Dr to the Jfigner, not to him
that pays it.
4. When you receive money, as payment of goods
formerly fold, or in payment of an accepted bill or note,
or any other debt, where neither difcount nor intereft
is allowed, enter Cafh Dr to the Payer, for the fum
received, mentioning whether in full or in part. Feb. 5.
March 23. April 6. July 30. Aug. 3. Nov. 12.
y. When you receive money, as payment of an accept¬
ed bill or note, or any other debt, (except for goods for¬
merly fold), per advance, and upon that account allow
difcount, or abatement on any other confideration, enter
Sundries Drs to the Payer, viz.
Cafh, for the fum rtceived,
Profit and Lofs, for the fum difcounted**or abated.
Nov. 12.
6. When, in receiving payment for goods formerly
fold, you allow difcount or abatement; if the accompt
of faid goods be clofed in the Ledger, enter as in the
laftcafe: but if the faid accompt be yet open, enter thus.
Sundries Drs to the Buyer, viz.
Cafh, for the fum received,
Goods, for the fum difcounted or abated. April 1.
7. When you receive money, as intereft of a fum for¬
merly lent, the principal being continued, enter Cafh Dr
to Profit and Lofs, or to Interefl accompt, for the fum
received. Sept. io.
8. When you receive both principal and intereft, enter
Cajh Dr to Sundries, viz.
To the Borroweer, for the principal,
To Profit and Left, or to Interefi-accompt, for the
intereft Nov. 8.
9. When you receive moneyas the premium for infu-
ring another man’s Ihip or goods at fea, enter Cafh Dr
to Infurance accompt, or to Profit and Lofs.
10. When you receive money as the price of a (hip,
houfe, or eftate, prefently fold, or as the freight, or the
rent of them, fuppofing the hiring out of the (hip, or
fetting of the houfe, <bc. not to be booked, enter Cafh
Dr to fuch a Ship, Houfe, or EJlate. Sept. 1.
11. But if the hiring out of the (hip, houfe, or eftate,
was formerly booked, the entry for money received as
freight or rent will be, Cafh Dr to the Freighter or Tenant.
12. When you receive money, in legacy or compli¬
ment, or with an apprentice, on as gained on a wager,
or by exchange of money, <&c. for which nothing goes
out, enter Cafh Dr to Profit and Lfs, or to Stock.
Note;. It common! v happens that tcsacies are not paid prefentlv: and in this
cafe you muftcharRe the executor A B. Dr to Profit ami Lofs, till you receive
payment; and then difeharge him by Cajb, or the Thing received. June 3.
Prob. 6. F. Debtor and Creditor applied in p&ying
money %
In all cafes of this nature, Cajh is Cr ; but the Dr va-
E E P I N G. (*A)
ries, according to the terms on which the money is de_
livered.
Cafe 1. When you pay money for goods prefently
bought, the entry (as already dated in the firft cafe of
buying) is, Goods bought Dr to Cajh, for the fum paid.
Jan. 6
2. When you lend or give out money at intereft, en¬
ter the Dr to for the principal, mention¬
ing the rate of intereft, and time of payment. March 10.
Augujl 6.
3 When, by order of your creditor, you pay money
to any perfon, enter the Ajfigntr (not the Afignee) Dr to
- Cajh, for the fum paid.
4. When you pay for goods formerly bought, or pay
an accepted bill or note, or any other debt, where neither
difcount nor intereft is allowed ; enter the Receiver Dr to
Cafh, for the fum paid, mentioning whether in full or in
part. Jan 15. Jan. 30. March 10. and 23. May 3.
June 8. June 22. and 29.
5. When you pay an accepted bill or note, or any other
debt, (except for goods formerly bought), per advance,
and upon that account have difcount allowed you, or a-
batement on any other confideration; enter
Receiver Dr to Sundries, viz.
To Cafh, for the fum paid,
To Profit and Lofs, for the fum difcounted.
6. When, in paying for goods formerly bought, you
have difcount or abatement allowed ; if the accompt of
faid goods in the Ledger be clofed, enter as in the laft
cafe ; but if the faid accompt be yet open, enter thus.
Receiver Dr to Sundries, viz.
To Cafh, for the fum paid,
To Goods, for the fum difcounted or abated.
7. When you pay the intereft of a fum formerly bor¬
rowed, the principal being continued in your own hand;
enter Profit and Lofs, or Interefl accompt. Dr to Cajh,
for the fum paid.
8. When you pay both principal and intereft, enter
Sundries Drs to Cajh, viz.
Lender, for the principal.
Profit and Lofs, or Interejl.accompt, for the intereft.
9. When a (hip or goods you have formerly infured
happens to be loft, and thereupon you pay the value to the
owners, enter Infurance~accompt Dr to Cafh, for the fum
paid.
10. When you pay for a (hip, houfe, or eftate, pre¬
fently bought; or pay repairs, taxes, or other charges
on them : enter Ship, Houfe, or EJlate, Dr to Cajh, for
the fum paid.
11. When you pay charges on goods, as freight, por.
terage, tec. enter Goods Dr to Cafh, for the fum paid.
12. When you pay charges that relate to trade in ge.
neral, fuch as warehoufe rent, (hop-rent, (hop keepers
w.iges, portage of letters, &£•. Charges of merchan¬
dize Dr to Cafh. July 2. July 5.
13. Whtn you pay your landlord rent for a dwelling-
houfe, (ervants their wages, or make any diftmrfements
for youi felt or family; as all expences of this nature
(hould be colletfed in a fmall book by themfelves; fo,
when you bring them to the Journal, enter thus:
Houfe-expences Dr to Cajh, for the total. Nov. 1-1.
Dec. 30.
14,
(*A) B O O K - K
14. When you pay upon lofing a wager ; xr when
you lofe upon exchange, that is, put off a piece'of coin
P I N G.
dA.K^
adly, Debtor and Creditor applied in proper foreign
trade.
Proper foreign trade comprehends, 1. The/hipping of
% fattor. 2. Advices concerning them from the
3. Returns made hy the faftor to you.
Prob. 1. G. Debtor Creditor applied in /hipping
off go.ds to a /after.
In all cafes, voyage to is Dr; but the Cr. va¬
ries, according as the goods fetpped off are already en¬
tered in your books, 01 prefently bought; and that again,
:her for ready money, c on time, fcc.
Cafe x. If you ihip off goods v
Voyage Dr to Sundries, 1
To th
the rtfye&ivz Goods, for their value,
ToCa/h, for cultom, inlurance, and all other
2 If you buy -a cargo for ready money, and flvip it off
mediately, without entering the purchafe in your books,
ter Voyage Dr to Ca/h, for prime coft, and ail charges.
3. If you buy goods on time, and Ihip them off, with¬
out entering them in your books, enter
Voyage Dr to Sundries, viz.
To Seller, or Sellers, for value of the goods,
To Caff, for charges at (hipping.
If you (hip off a cargo, made up partly of goods
from your own warehoufe, partly of
Voyage Dr to Sundries, viz.
To Goods your own, for their
To S Her or Sellers, for value of the goods bought,
To Caff, for all charges. Jan. c
\e^applied, upon a
x. 2. H. I.
vice from yourjal
H § I. The cafs of the fir/l advice.
In all cafes of the firft advice, Voyage to is Cr ‘
but the Dr varies, according to the naiure of the advice.
C/e 1 If the hrftadv.ee be, That A B. has recei
A B
accompt of goods Dr to Voyage, for the ium the (aid
voyage was formerly charged with
2 If the (irft a vice be That A. B has received the
goods, and fold them for ready money enter A. B my
accompt current Dr to Voy ge. for the neat proceeds ;
that is, the fum due to you, after the fa&or’s commilBon
and all charges are deduced. Sep. 22.
3. if
B O O K - K
3. If the firfl; advice be, That the goods are r
and all fold on time, enter A B. my accompt on time Dr
to Voyage, for the neat proceeds
4. If the firlt advice be, That they are received, and
all fold, part for ready money, part on time, enter
Sundries Drs to Voyage, viz
A. B my acconipt current, for the money in his hands,
A. B. my accompt on time, for the debts outftanding.
5. If the firft advice be, That the goods are not only
received and foldK but a cargo fhipped in return, and now
at fea ; here there are three varieties 1. If the value
of the cargo inward, with charges paid by the fattor, be
equal to the neat proceeds, enter Voyage inward Dr to
outward, for the neat proceeds. 2. If the faftor
overfh p the neat proceeds, enter Voyage inward Dr to
Sundries, viz. to Voyage outward for the neat pro eeds,
and to Faflor my accompt-current. for the re{\. 3. If he
underfhip the neat proceeds, enter Sundries (viz. Voyage
inward, for its value, and A. B. my accompt current,
for the reft) Drs to Voyage outward. June 18
6. If the firft advice be, whether from the faftor —
any body elfe, That the (hip and cargo is loft at
there will be alfo
were not infured,
for the whole vah
red, charge the Infurer, or Cajh, if you get
1 cargo is loft at fea,
t. If the goods loft
enter Profit and Lo/s Dr to Voyage,
le. 2. If the goods loft were all infu-
Dr to Voyage. 3. If part of tl
make Sundries f'
to Voy*i
pay-
only were
(viz. the Infurer, or Cajh, for
and Profit and Lofs, for the reft) Drs
the whole lofs.
I. § 2. The cafes of the Jecond advice.
In journalizing a fecond or third advice, refpeft muft
be had to the entry that was made upon the advice im¬
mediately preceeding ; for whatever was then Dr, muft
be now made Cr. And therefore, fuppofing the firft or
former advice was. That the fadtor had received the goods,
but fold none of them, the entry to be made upon a fe
cond advice will be as in the cafes following.
Cafe 1. If the fecon 1 advice be, That the goods for-
merlv received are now fold, in whole or in part, for
ready money, enter A. B. my accompt-current Dr to
ditto my tccompt of qoods for neat proceeds
2. If the fecond advice be. That goods received for
tnerly are row fold in whole or in part, on time, en'er
A B my accompt on time Dr to ditto 7
3 Ifthefecond advi:e he. That goods formerly recei¬
ved are now old, part for ready money, part on time, enter <
Sundries Drs to A, B my accompt of goods, viz
A B my accotnpt current, for the money in his
h mds.
A B my accompt on time, for the outftanding debts.
Bur if the former advice had been, That the faftor had
fold your goods on time, then upon this fuppofition, the
adv.ce that comes next, whether fecond or third, is iour
nal zed as follows.
Cafe 1 If the next advice be. That the fattor has
now received payment of the debts outftanding, enter
A. B. my accompt current Dr to ditto my accompt on
time, for the fum. received by him.
E E P I N G. (*B)
2. If the next advice be, That he has indeed received
payment of the debts, but was obliged to allow abate¬
ment, for inlack of goods, or for other reafons, enter
Sundries Drs xo A. B. my accompt on t:me. viz.
A. B. my accotnpt-current, fty the fum received by
him,
Profit and Lofs, for the fum abated.
Prob. 3. K. L. 'De'oxoeandQrt&worapplied, when
returns are made you hy the Jador.
Returns are made mgoods or bills.
K. §1. The cafes of returns in goods.
■ (hip off, and confign goods to
you thereof by poll, before the arrival
Voy '
Cafe t. If
yourtelf, 1
of the (hip, enter Voyage from Dr to A. B. tny
accompt-current, for coit and charges of the cargo, as
per faiftor’s invoice.
2. If the fa&or (hip off goods for yourfelf, of which
you have no advice, or of which you book no advice,
prior to the arrival of the (hip, enter
Goods received Dr to Sundries, viz.
To A B. my account-current, for coft and charges,
as per invoice,
To Cajh, for new charges paid here.
3. If your faiftor A. B. at Leghorn (h'p off goods not
to yourfelf. but by your order, to C D. )
LJbon, and advife you ther
the invoice, enter Voyage from 1
ir oroer, to o sa. your ractor at
hereof, by fending you a copy of
e from Leghorn to Lijbon Dr to-
nt, for colt and charges, as per
L. § 2. The cafes of returns in bills.
Cafe 1. If you draw upon your fadfor, and receive
prefent money for the bill, enter Cajh Dr to B. my
accompt-current, for value of the bill
2. If you draw upon your fadtor, and give the remit¬
ter a day for payment ; or if you owe the remitter, and
1 give him the bill as payment; enter the Remitter Dr to
A. B my accompt-current, for the value of the bill
7«b i?-
3. If you draw upon your fadlor A. B. payable to
your fa'dfor C. D charge C. D. my aceompt-current Dr
to A. B my accompt.current, for value of the bill.
4. If your fadfor remit you a bill, for which you re¬
ceive prefent payment, enter Cajh Dr xo A. B. my ac¬
compt current, for the value of the bill.
5. If your fadtor remit you a bill, payable at (ingle or
double ufance, or any other time after date or fight; up¬
on getting the bill accepted, enter Bills receivable Dr to
A, B, my accompt.current, for value of the bill. Sept. 30.
6, if
(B*) B O O K - K
If your faftor 4 B by your order, remit a bill
to your f aft or C. D. charge C. D. my accompt current
Dr to A. B. my accernpt-current, for value of the bill.
2. In FACTORAGE.
Factorage comprehends three things: i. The re¬
cent rf the employer's goods. 2. The difpofal of them.
3. Returns made for them.
Prob. i. M. Debtor and Creditor applied upon the re-
ceipt of goods.
When you turn faftor, and have goods configned to
you by your employer : upon receiving the goods, enter
A. B. his accompt of goods Dr to Cafh. for freight, cuf-
tom, or other chat;
Prob. 3. O. P. Debtor and Creditor applied wheny
snake returns to your employer.
made either goods or bills.
O. § 1. The cafes of returns in goods.
Cafe 1. When you buy up goods for readv m
and fir ip them off for your employer, enter
A. B. his accompt current Dr to &
To Cafe, for prime colt, and c
To Profit and tofs, for your c
2. When ]
X^rd!'nl
A. B. his accompt current Dr to Sundries, viz.
To Sellers, for pnme coil of the goods,
To Cafh, for charges, as caltom, inlurance, be.
To P,ofit and Lo[s, for your commiflion.
3. When you tal
Cafe I. When you fell all, or any part of your em-
.ployer’s goods, for ready money, enter Cajh Dr to A. B.
As accompt of goods, for the fum received. Aug. \ 7.
2. When you fell all, or any part of his goods, on
time, charge the Buyer Dr to A. B. his accompt of goods,
for the fum due. Aug. 23.
3. When you take all, or any part of his goods, to
yourfelf at the cuirent price ; or when you put off his
goods in barter, for others which you
 Dr to A. B. his a
r Goods
t of goods.
4. When all your employer’s goods are difpofed of,
balance his accompt of go As ; that is, charge A. B. his
accompt of goods Dr to Sundries, viz. to Cajh, for any
charges paid by you, not yet booked ; or to the perjon
or perfons to whom they are due, if not yet paid ; and
to Profit andLofs, for your commiflion ; and to A. B.
his accompt on time, for the outllanding debts, if any ;
and to A- B. bis accornpt-current, for
ready money in your hands. Aug. 2$.
5. When you receive payment of the c
enter as in proper trade, viz. Cajh Dr to the Buyers ;
bat if you be obliged to make abatement, for defeft in.
weight or meafure, or bad markets, 6c.
Sundries
P. § 2. The cafes of returns in bills.
Cafe I. When your employer draws a bill on you,
which you accept and pay on fight, enter A. B. his ac¬
compt.current Dr to Cajh, for value of the bill.
z:ip~^r—-»
r if you receive prefent money for ,he Mi, », if nor,
r™ received, th' Dr ,o A. B. hi, for ».lue
nnpt-current, tor tne mm aoaicu. „r.u ..11 ■
r Drs to the Buyer,
Cajh, for the '
A. B. his accompt-
6. When you receive payment of a debt on your em¬
ploye!’s account, you muft not only give the buyer or
payer credit as direfted above, but at the fame time
charge A. B. his accompt on time Dr to ditto his accompt
current, for the whole fum of the debt, whether any a
f the bill. May 31.
4. Vthen you remi, a bill to your
you pay ready money, enter A IS. his aoiv
Dr to Cash, for value of the bill. Sept. 8.
When you remit a bill to.your employer, which you
either procure on time, or receive in payment ot a deot
B O O K - K
6. When your employer remits a bill to you, enter
Cash, if you receive prefent payment ; or, if not, Bills
receivable. Dr to A. B. his acccmpt-current, for value
of the bill.
Note i. When you pay the bill mentioned in cafe 2.
tnter" Bills pajab/e Dr u> Cash. Sept. 10.
Note 2 Charge A. B. his accompt current Dr to
Cash, for all charges you pay in making returns, fuch
as poffage.
Note 3. Having now (hewn how to .keep/ivt?(jry-<rc-
compts in your own books, along with your other bufi-
nefs, it will not be improper to obferve, that thefe ac
compts may alfo be kept, by help of the Sales book,
without bringing any thing to your Ledger, or other
books, except the accotupt current, thus: Turn the
SaleS'look into a folio-form ; and when you receive the
eonfigned goods, enter them on the Dr fide, mentioning
their quantity, mark, and number, with the charges you
pay ; to which fide alfo carry all after charges, abate¬
ments m-ide to buyers, and your own coramiflion On
the Cr fide, enter rhe fales, mentioning the names of
the buyers on time; and, as they pay, mark the article
as paid.on the margin; or, which will do juft as well,
never draw out the fums to the money columns, till you
receive payment. In your Ledger, give A. B. his ac
cotnpt cur-ent credit for all the mon: y you receive for hts
gpods, asid make the fame accompt Dr fot all the char¬
ges pakl by you, abatements made to buyers, your own
comraiflion, and returns made to your employer. But
though this method may now and then be ufed with
n-fpedt to fmall confignments ; yet the conducing of large
concerns in fadtory requires the ufe of all the five books
mentioned at the beginning of this chapter.
Note 4. When you cannot difpofe of your employer’s
goods to advantage, and thereupon by his order Chip
them off to a fadlor of your own, in expedfation of a
better market, the regular method in this cafe is, 1.
When you (hip off the goods, Voyage to forac
count of your Employer, Dr to Cash, for charges paid
at (hipping 2. When you have adyice from yourfaiftor,
that he has received them, enter your Employer his ac¬
compt of goods in the hands of fattor, or rather your
Employer his accompt of goods at fuch a place, Dr to Voy¬
age thither, for charges of the faid voyage. 3. When
you have advice that he has fold them, e. g. for ready
money, enter your Employer his accompt current at  
Dr to ditto his accompt of goods at , for neat pro¬
ceeds. The entry in any other cafe will be obvious to
o»e who underftands proper trade <sr\A faflorage, as ex¬
plained above But though this be the regular method,
yet in real pradfice, the beft way, in our opinion, is, when
you (hip the goods, to charge the employer’s atcompt of
goods (as they (land in your Ledger) Dr to Cash, for char¬
ges at (hipping, making no more entries, till you receive
the Accompt of fates, and then charge A B. his accmpt
of goods, for the neat proceeds ; and difcharge A. B. his
accompt current at   , as returns are made to you by
-your fadlor.
3. In PARTNERSHIP.
Partnership is that branch of trade which is ma-
E £ P I N G. (*C)
naged and carried on by a truftee, in the name, and for
the account of the partners ; that is, when a joint flock,
made bp by two or more merchants, is depolued in the
hands of one perfon, to be employed by him in a way of
commerce, according to inftrudtions.
Merchants, upon entering \niopartnership. generally
chufe one of their own number, to w orn they commit
the management of their company-eoncerns ; whb, oh
account of his being partner, as wtll as manager or doer
for the company, is called partner-tr-ajlee ; and (hares
of gains and Ioffes that happen, according to his (hare of
the (lock ; and muft allow his proportion of all charges,
even of his own comm:(lion, iince, in quality of truftee,
he ferves himfelf as partner equally with tire reft.
The accompts of the company’s affairs may be kept by
the truftee in his own books, along with the accompts of
his own private bufinefs ; or they may be kept in fepa-
rate books allotted for that purpofe. The former is
common pradtice, in matters of fmall concern, or (hort
adventures ; the latter is ufed by fixed companies, whofe
trade is confiderable, or who have the profpedt of deal¬
ing long that way.
Hence it is obvious, that each partner will have occa-
fion to keep an accompt in his own books, of every thing
he gives in and receives from the company, and alfo of
what he owes to the company, or they to him : and, ofi
the other hand, it will be the bufinefs of the truftee, not
only to keep rlear accoropts with the perfons he deals
with, in buying up and difpofing of goods feff the com¬
pany ; but he muft alfo keep diftindt accowtpts, with re-
fpeft to the partners, (hewing what (hire each of them
gives in, and what part of neat proceeds is due to them,
and likewife what every one of them owes to the com¬
pany, or the company ro them. Thefe things premifed,
1. We (hall (hew how a partner keeps the accompts
which he has occafton for.
2. The way how a truftee keeps the accompts of the
company’s affairs in his own books.
3. The manner of keeping company-accompts in books,
apart, that contain nothing elfe.
I. How a partner keeps the accompts he has occajion for.
The Ledger.accompts deferibed.
A merchant concerned as partner in a company, muft
keep the two Ledger-accompts following ; in which ob¬
ferve, that A. B. reprefents the truftee’s name.
1. A. B. my accompt in company. This accompt is
Dr for your inputs, and proportion of all charges, and
Cr for your (hare of neat proceeds.
2. A. B. my accompt proper. This is a perfonal ac¬
compt, being charged and difcharged exadtly as fuch,
for the mutual debts and payments betwixt you and the
truftee
Note 1. A. B. my accompt in company, is a general
title, that may reprefent one or more kinds of goods ;
and that whether in the truftee’s cuftody, or by him feat
to fea. But different authors title this accompr diffe¬
rently. Some chufe to exprefs it thus: Goods in the hands
of A. B.\ or particularly, Broad cloth in the hands of
A. B. If it be a fea-adventure, you may ufe the title,
A. B, my ae count of Voyage to —. If the company
(*C) B O O K - K
be fixed, the title may'be taken from the commodity they
deal in, as Accojnpt in Wine-company t accompt in ‘Tobac¬
co company, &c.; or from the place they trade to, as
c mpt in Eafl-lnaia company*, tkc.
Note ?, Inftead of si. B. my accompt proper, fome
write A B. my accompt-currcnt ; fome too w rite A B.
his accompt cur>ent\ and others title this accompt (im¬
ply by the tru(fee?s name. But the ugh the titles of ac-
compts are in fome fort arbitrary, or as he me chant
pleates , yet it is fuitable or congruous, that they Carry
in them fome badge of diftin&ion, (hewing to whatclafs
of accompts they belong.
We now proceed to a pirticcjar application of Dr and
Cr in 'he cafes that moft commonly occur on this head,
which (hall be confined to the two problems following.
Prob. x. Q;_ Debtor and Credi or applied, when you
give in your Jhare of Jiode to the trujlee.
Cafe i. If you give in ju(I your own part ; and that
either, i. In money, or in goods preftntly bought for
ready money ; or, 2. In goods prefently bought on time;
or, 3. In goods already entered in your books, enter
A. B. my accompt in company Dr
To Cajh, if you give in money, or pay for goods,
on. 4.
To Seiler, if you buy goods on time.
To Goods proper, if the goods were formerly your
own.
2. If you find both your own part and the truftee’s,
enter Sundries (viz. A. B. my accompt in company, for
your own part, and A. B. my accompt proper, for his
part) Drs.
To Cash, if you give in money, or pay for goods,
To Seller, if you buy the goods on time,
To Goads proper, if you give in goods formerly your
own, On. 9.
g. If the truftee provide both your part and his own,
enter A. B. my accompt in company Dr to ditto my accompt
proper. And when you pay him, charge A. B. my ac¬
compt proper Dr to Cash. But if he demand intereft,
make Sundries (viz. A. B. my accompt proper, for the debt,
and Profit and Lofs, tor the intered) Drs to Cash.
Note 1. There may he feveral other varieties in c.tf; i. betides thole men¬
tioned; as, 1. When you give in part money, part goods prefently bought on
time 2. when you give part in money, part goods of your own. 3. When
you give in goods, part bought on time, part your own. 4 When von cive
in p itt money, part goods bought on time, part goods of
which cafes, enter A. B. my act o n t in company Dr to Sundrit
Variety, 1 T r° ^ fort;he fum given in,
r L fo StJer, for value of the goods bought.
, pro C-iJh, for the fum given in,
Lro Goods proper, for their value.
- pTo Seller, for value of the goods bought,
3’ L to Goods proper, for their value,
p To Cnjh, for the fum gi'
goods bought,
ly be fuppofed in cafe 2. In journalizing of
LTo Goods proper,
Note 2. The like varieties ms
which, the belt method is, firrt _ ,
Sundries, as in the former note, for the whole value of the money, and goods
given jn; and then, in another entry, charge A. B. my aceompt'proper Dr to
aitto Ifi'y accompi in company, for the truftee’s part. And whsn the truftee
pavs you for his part, enter CajTo Dr to A. B. my accompt proper, 03. U. But
If he pay you alfo intereft, make Cajh Dr to Sundries, •v'r/. to A. B. my accompt
proper, for tile debts aItd 1° Profit and Lofs, for tl»e intereft.
Prob. 2 R. Debtor and Creditor applied, when goods
in ootnpany are difpofed of, and you receive all or
part of your Jloareof neat proceeds.
Cafe u If you have advice of falea, and at the fame
E E P I N G.
time receive your fliare of neat proceeds which may be
either in money, bills, or goods; enter Cajh, Bills re¬
ceivable, or Goods received, Dr to A. B my accompt in
company, for value received, On. 9. and 20
2. If you have only advice of Tales on time, without
receiving any thing, enter A. B. my accompt proper Dr
to ditto my accompt in company, for your (hate of neat
proceeds due to you ; and when you receive payment,
charge Ctfh, Bills receivable, or Goods, Dr to A. B.
my accompt proper, for valus received. But if the tru-
ftees had been obliged to allow abatement to the buyers,
or had any of the debts outdanding proved bad, then, in
this cafe if the accompt in company be. yet open, enter
Sundries {viz Cajh Bills receivable &c. for the fum re-
ceivtd, and, A. B my accompt in company, for your
(hare of the fum abated or loll) Drs to A. B. my ac¬
compt proper. If the accompt in company be balanced,
charge Profit and Lojs Dr fpr your (hare of the abate¬
ment, or of the lofs.
3 If the goods are fold, part for ready money, part
on time, and thereupon you receive your (hare of money
received, enter Sundries {viz Cafly, for the fum you re¬
ceive, and A. B my occompt proper, for your (hare of
fales on time) Drs to A. B. my accompt in company.
4. If part of the goods only are fold, you may put off
the booking of it till further advice; unlefs it be forready
money, of which you immediattly receive your (hare: in
which ca(e, enter Cajh Dr to A. B. my accompt jn com¬
pany, for the fum you receive
5. If you withdraw your (bare of (lock, or any part
of it, enter Cajh, or Goods withdrawn. Dr to A. Q\
my accompt in company, for the fum or value withdrawn,
6. If after the goods are difpofed of, you take up only
your {hare of neat gain, continuing yonr (hare of flock as
a fund for a new adventure, charge Cash Dr to Profit
and Lofs, for the fum received, and let the accompt in
compary (land as it is.
N. B. This is the ordinary cafe in fixed companies.
Note 1. t here may be other varieties m Cafes 1. & 2. belides thote men¬
tioned; viz. 1. You may receive, as your fturc of neat proceeds, part money,
part bill; and then Sundries are Drs, viz. Cajh, and Bills receivable. 03. 9.
" ”  !  sy, part goods; and then the Drs are, O/yJ,
You may receive part bill, part goods; and
‘ ‘ " WZVaT.
N. B. If the perfon on whom you get the bill have an accompt in your Led¬
ger, make him Dr, and not Bills receivable.
2. How a trujlee keeps the company's acootnpts in his own
books.
The Ledger acompts deferibed.
A Truftee who keeps the company’s accompts in his
own books, has occafion for the three Lcdger-accompts
following, in which ^.5. reprefent your pa tner’s name.
1. Goods in company with A. B. o Sales in compa¬
ny with A. B. or particularly Sugar in company with
A. B. This accompt is debited for the value of the goods
brought into company, for all charges, and your com-
miffion: it is credited as you difpofe of the goods, in the
fame manner as if the goods were your own.
2. A. B. his accompt in company. This is credited
for your partner’s imputs, his (hare of charges, and'pro¬
portion of neat gain at clofe: it is debited for his (hare of
neat
B O O K - K
heat proceeds, and his proportton of lofs, if any, when
the company accomprs are finiflied.
a. A. B hif accompt proper. This is a perfonal
acco'mpt, which is debited and credited for the mutual
debts contraded and payments made betwixt you and
partners.
Note i. If the comoany deal in foreign trade, you who
manage as truftee will have occafion for other accotnpts,
vb.. Voyage in company, Pa ft or our accompt current, <bc.
all which are ufed the fame way as their parallels in
proper foreign trade.
Note 2. As you muff keep an accompt in cotnpany,
mi aa accotnpt proper, for each partner; lb, if thefe be
compared with the accompts of the like name kept by the
partners, they will be found exa&ly the reverfe of one
another; that is, the Dr fide of the accompts kept by
you will be the fame with the Cr fide of thofe kept by
partners ; and on the other hand, the Cr fide of the for¬
mer will be exactly the Dr fide of the latter.
Note 3. Inflead of the title 4. B his accompt pro¬
per, a great many ufe A. B. his accompt current. And
it mud be owned the merchant is at liberty to do in this
as he inclines ; it comes to the fame thing in the iflue,
only the one title is more didindive than the other.
Prob. 1. S. Dr and Cr applied, no hen goods are brought
into company.
Cafe 1. If the goods are bought, (which is either from
you the truflee, or from a partner, or from a neutral
perfon,) enter twice; viz. iji. Goods in company Dr
'ToGoods proper, if bought ofyourfelf, forvalueof
’Yo Part tier's accompt proper, if of a partner, > the goods
To Cash, or Seller, if of a neutral perfon j bought.
2dly, Charge each partner his accompt-proper Dr to
ditto his accompt in company, for his part of the purchafe
Oft. 26. Nov 22
K jts. When vou pat a neutral perfon for goods bought on time, charge the
laid Perjttt Dr U) Ca/k ; and there is no fecond entry Off. 27. Mov. 2?. But
Sundries, viz. to Cajh, for the fum paid, and to Goods in company, for the fum
discounted or abated. 2: Each partner’s accompt in com tuny Dr to ditto bis ac-
compt-l'roper, for his (hare of the fum difeoumed or abated.
Cafe 2. If each partner bring in juft his own part of
goods to company, enter once ; viz.
Goods in company Dr to Sundries, viz.
To Goods proper, for value of your (hare,
To each Partner his accompts in company, for va¬
lue of thtir (hares.
volt i. This is ihorter than to enter as if the goods were bought, though
that way would alfo be right, and prove the fame in effeft.
- i.Eiiteraifoasabove.ifthepartn
I N G.
(D*)
:h you buy g(
Prob. 2. T. Debtor and Creditor applied, when goods
in company are difpofsd of.
Cafe i. If goods in company are fold, (which is cither
to you the truftee, or to a partner, or to a neutral per¬
fon,) a double entry is neceifary ; viz. \Jl,
Goods proper, io\& io youVtV, D
Partner's accompt-proper, if to him on time, > Dr
Cash, or Buyer, if to a neutral perfon, J
To Goods in company, for their value in the (ale.
2dly, Each partner his accompt in company Dr to ditto
his accompt proper, tor his lhare of the fale. Oft. 29,
Nov. 1. and 30. Dec. 2. 18. and 28.
Kme 1. The entries are the fame when you receive freight for a Ihip in com¬
pany. Oft. 2?. Dee. 27.
Note 2. When you receive payment for goods m company formerly fold, to
a neutral perfon, charge I'b Dr to the Buyer ; and there is no fecond entry.
Non. 1. Dec 13. But if you allow difeount or abatement to the buver;. a
; oeceffary : namely, iji. Sundries
Buyer; idly. Each partner
ny, -or his part of the difi 
Note'}. If goods in coi
ibated) Drs to the
goous; or, »1 ucu is me lame thing, ifupon huyingol the
mllantly pay down his part of the price, only Cam, and
own part. Oil 22.
fe money received from the partners, en-
company Dr to Cijb, for tlieir value; and
Cafe 3. 11 you or partner pay charges on goods brought
into company, as carriage, infurance, <bc. this augments
the coll, and mud be entered as the coft, namely, \Jl,
Goods in company Dr
F > Cash, if paid by you. Oft 25. Nov 1.
To Partner, his accompt proper, paid by him.
idly Each partn r his accompt proper Dr to ditto his
accompt in company, for his (hare of the faid charges.
Cafe 2. If goods in company are difpofed of in barter,
for other goods of the fame value brought into it, charge
Goods in company received Dr to Goods in company deli¬
vered ; and there is no fecond entry. Dec 7.
Note 1. If the goods to be received and delivered be of
different values, a double’entry will be neceffary: As,
fuppofe a truftee engaged in company with A B each 4.
(hould deliver 80 l. worth of broad cloth, in company,
for tobacco to the value of 100 /. ; in this cafe he enters
twice: \ft, Tobacco in company Dr to Sundries, viz. to
Broad cloth in company, Sol. and to Caflo, or Dealer,
20 /.; 2dly, A. B. his accompt proper Dr to ditto bis ac¬
compt in company, 10/. for his (hare of the money now
laid, out or due to Dealer. Again, invert the fuppolition,
and admit, that he delivers broad cloath in company to
the value of 100 /. and receives 80 /. worth of tobacco,
the reft in money, or due by his dealer; in this cafe he
enters alfo twice: \Ji, Sundries [viz. Tobacco in compa¬
ny, 80 /. and Cash, or Dealer, 20 l.) Drs to Broad
cloth in company ; 2dly, A. B. his accompt in company
Dr to ditto his accompt proper, 1 o l. his part of money
received, or due by Dealer.
Note 2. If you barter goods in company, for others
which you rake to yourfelf, enter alfo twice: iji. Goods
proper received Dr to Goods in company delivered ; 2dly,
Each partner’s accompt in company Dr to ditto his accompt
proper, for his part of fale. In like manner, if you bar¬
ter goods of your own, for others which you bring into
company, enter twice: viz. iji. Goods in company re¬
ceived Dr to Goods proper delivered; 2dly, Each partner
his accompt proper Dr to ait to his accompt in company,
for his p rt of purchafe.
Cafe 3. If you or partner withdraw juft your or his
exaft part of goods in company remaining unfold, enter
Goods proper, if withdrawn by you,
.Partner's accompt in company, if by him,
To Goods in company, igr their value in company.
Dec. 24.
Nol£
► Dr
(*r>)
K - K
r or his i
I N G.
drawn, fir that aft a:
Goods ip. company Di
for any charges not
'in pans
re all fold
% for charge
t, ■ Note z. Bi
intended vc
i adjult that
, if paidby vou
partner bis.qcc
fuch goods as
lit if each pa
lyage, withourregard to their juft
matter with money, the heft wa
.1 —:cordingly ': ‘ ”
a dnuT,)'*journal entry; -viz.
Sundries, viz. to Cajt, or Cb tries aj' m:rchMu(
booked, fuch as cellar-rent, &c. ami to Projit
inion, or for inteielt of money advanced by v.
■impt-proper Dr to ditto hit accoiv.pt in company, for
«is part or tue wnoie, lyo'v. t.
JV. B. This is alfo to be done, if it be a voyage in company.
Prob. 3. U. Debtor and Creditor applied in payments
betwixt trujiee and partners.
Cafe 1. If you the truftee receive payment of partner
in money, charge Cash Dr to partner his accompt-proper,
for the fum received. Oft. 27. 'Nov. ‘2^.
2. If partner give you his bill on- £. F. charge Cash,
or Bills receivable, or E. F. Dr to partner bis accompt
proper, for value of the bill.
3.. If you draw on partner, charge Cash, or E. F.
viz. the man you deliver the bill to, Dr to partner bis
accompt pooper, for value of the bill.
4. If you pay partner in money, charge pa rxrstrhis ac ^ ^'company', for his" pm of 7he whole"
cor?ipt-proper Dr to Cash, tor the lum paid. Nov. 4.
and 17.
5. If you give partner your bill on E, F. charge part¬
ner his accompt proper Dr to E. F, for value of the bill.
6. If jiartner draw on you, charge partner bis accompt
proper Dr to Cash, if you pay at figh t; if not, to Bills
payable.
7. IF, in adjoinng lharesin company, one partner pay
into another, charge partner receiver/;;/proper
hey have proper for the
Lions; being refolved to
> corif.der. the goods aa
of the goods brought in by
Tcy Goods proper, for value Ofthofe given in by you:
To Cafh, for charges, if paid by vou,’
,, 'I'o partner his accompt proper, if by him.
zdtv Eacii partner bis accompt-proper Dr to ditto-Ids accompt in company, for
thcir refpeoiyeJbares of the cargo and charges, and not for the value of the
goods given m by them. from. 15.
Cafe 3. If you or partner commiflion your or his fac¬
tor, to ihip ofF goods to compa-ny’s fa&or ; upon recei¬
ving the invoice, enter twice ; ift.
Voyage in company to   Dr
CFaftor 7Jty accompt-current, if commifiion-
To < ed by you.
(^Partner his accompt-proper, ifbyhim.
2dly, Each partner his accompt-proper Dr to dittobis ac-
Prob. 5. X. Debtor and Creditor applied, upon advice
from company's feftor.
Cafe 1. If you receive per advice from fatflor the ac¬
compt of fales, enter twice; viz. i/l, Faftor our accompt--
currentDr to Voyage in company, for the amount of neat
proceeds, idly. Each partner bis accompt in company
Dr to ditto his accompt-pr.oper, for his lhare of the whole.
Cafe 2. If fadtor in Jamaica advrfe you, that becaufe
1 ■ r \ r <-.a e 2. dt lactui 111 Jamaica auviie yuu, iiid-t uceauu
D, to partner payee t„ uccmjt tr,ter, for the font. ^ ^ dirpofe of 'ths goods „ ajvantage, he has
J K T TheVntr, is the fame, if ym draw a bill upon *“«*•* » ord"!- lhiPPfd JhEm fj° faa°r “
, 1 r Carolina, enter twice ; namely, i/7, Voyage tn company
one partner payable to another. ,0 Carolina Dr to Sundries, viz. to Voyage in company
8. If partner make payment to E. F. of a debt due for Value of the cargo outward, and to Fac-
hy the company, charge E. F. Dr to partner ed accompt our accompt.currhenty for n£W charges paid
proper. I'cv.-iy, by him. idly. Each ^rtotr bis accompt-proper, Dr to
Prob. 4. V, Debtor and Creditor applied, when the ditto bis accotnpt in company, for his fiiareof new charges.
company fend goods tofea. Cafe 3. If the cargo outward be loft at fea, there are
Cafe 1. If the goods fent to fea have been formerly three varieties, x. If none of the goods beinfured, enter
brought into company, and (land already entered in the Suttdries (viz. each partner bis accompt in company, for
books, upon (hipping them off make a double entry; 1/?, his part of the lofs, and Profit and Lfis, for your own
Voyage in company to Dr to Sundries, viz. part) Drs to Voyage in company ; and no fecond entry.
To Goods in company, for their value, 2. If the goods be all inlured, enter twice; viz. if.
To Gajh, for charges, as cuftom, infurance, <bc. Charge the Infurers, or Cajh if you get prefent payment,
idly, Each partner his accompt-proper Df to ditto his Dr to Voyage in company, idly. Charge each partner
accompt in company, for his (hare of charges only. bis accompt in company Dr to ditto his accompt.pr*pcrt
ifp.-mner pay the charges, ti»e is chargedprj not to but for his fhare of the fum received from, or due by the In-
‘“S' ?.Tfthe goods fent to fea are prefently bought, ^ers. 3. If only part of the goods be injured enter
(which is either from you, from a partner, or from aneu- air° twtce-iy?. Sundries (v\z. Infurers, or ^ajh, for
tral perfon), enter alfo twfice; namely, if, value mfured ; eadi panoerbisaccompt in company,
VVoyage in company to Dr to Sundries, viz. *°r his ^are of the lofs ; and Profit and Lofs, for your
C'Goidsproper, if bought of you, ^e) Dts to Voyage m company 2dly. Each part-
To \Partner his accompt-proper, ifof a partner, ner bis accompt in company Dr to ditto his accompt pro-
7Cafe, or Seller, if of a neutral perfon ; P”, for his (hare of the fum received from, or due bythe
' ■' : And 5 "C 
T {Cajh, for charges, if paid by you,
1 0 | Partner his accompt-prbper, if by him.
2tf'/>', Each-partner his acecmpt-proper Dr to ditto his ac¬
compt in company, for his part of the whole.
Note 1. If each partner find juft his own part of goods fent tofea^you
infurers.
Prob. 6. Y. Debtor and Creditor applied, when returns
are'made by faftor.
Cafe 1. If you receive returns in goods, enter twice;
namely, \ft, goods in company received Dr to Sundries,
viz. to Faftor our accompt-current, or to Vby age in com¬
pany.*
B O O K - K
pany, if not yetdifchargsd, for value of goods; andtoCW/5,
for charges here, if paid by you, or to partner his accompt-
proper, if by him), idly. Each partner/j/V accompt-proper
Dr x.0 ditto his accotnpt in company, for his (hare of laid
charges.
Cafe 2. If you have return in bills, enteronce; namely,
Cash, if remitted to you, and paid at fight, ^
Bills receivable, if remitted to you at ufance, V Dr
Partner his accompt proper, if remitted to him, J
TloFaftor our accompt current, for value of the bill.
Cafe o,. If you or partner remit a bill to the fadtor,
enteronce, viz. FaClor our accompt current XDt
To Cash, or the Drawer, if remitted by you, 7 for value
To Partner his accompt proper, if by him, 5 of the bill.
Prob. 7. Z. Debtor and Creditor applied in admitting
a new partner.
The entries to be made in admitting a new partner not
being reducible to didindt cafes, we (hall explain the
matter by a particular example. Suppofe then yourfelf,
as truflee, already in company with one partner A. each
one half, for 300 /. a,nd that you agree with B. to ad¬
mit him as a third partner, upon his paying in 100/. as
his -f (hare of (lock ; upon this fuppofition, the entries
to be made are as follows.
ijl. You may either let the accompt of Goods in com¬
pany (land as it is, till the goods are (old, or balance it,
by charging Goods in company with A. and B. Dr to
Goods in company with A.
idly, Charge A. his accompt in company Dr to ditto
his accompt proper, 50 /. for his one half of the fale to B.
idly. If B. prefentiy pay in his (hare of (lock, there
are three varieties. \Ji, If he pay the whole to you,
charge Caflo Dr to E. his accompt in company, too /.
idly. If he pay the whole to A. charge A. his accompt
proper. Dr to B. his accompt in company, 100. 1. idly.
If he pay one half to you, and the other to A. charge
Sundries (viz. Cafh, 50 /. paid in to you, and A. his
accompt proper, 50 /. paid to him) Drs to B. his ac¬
compt in company.
^tkly. If B. do not pay in his (hare of (lock prefentiy,
then charge B. his accompt proper Dr to ditto his ac¬
compt in company, 100 /.; and when he pays, difcharge
his accompt praper, as above.
III. Of the Ledger.
The Ledger is the principal book, wherein all the fe-
veral articles of each particular accompt, that lie feat-
tered in the other books according to their dates, are
colledted and placed together, in fpaces allotted for them,
in fuch manner, that the oppofite parts of every kccompt
are fet diredtly fronting one another, on oppofite (ides of
the fame folio.
The Ledger is the chief or principal book of accompts;
as being that which immediately anfwers the end of book¬
keeping For, as has been already obferved, the Jour¬
nal is only preparatory or introdudtory to the Ledger ;
and the Wafle-boi k contains only the matter of accompts,
without either the form or order ; whereas the Ledger
has all the perfeftion of form and order aimed at in book-
keeping, affording a ready anfwer to all the demands of
E E P I N G. (E*,
the inquifitive merchant; and is therefore juflly efieemcd
the principal book of the three. It is called the Ledge;,
(an Italian word that fignifies art or dexterity), becaufe
in it the artificial part of book-keeping chiefly appears.
The Ledger, in oppofition to the fcattered order of
things in the Wade-book, has all the particular articles
of each accompt colleded and placed together ; and thar
in fucb a manner, as to have the oppofite articles (epa-
rated, and fet fronting one another on oppofite fides
of the fame folio. Thus, the oppofite articles of the
Ca(h-accompt are, the fums of money received, and the
fums laid out ; which accordingly (land, the former on-
the Dr fide, and the latter on the Cr fide of the lame
folio. Again, in an accompt of goods, the prime cod
and charges go to the Df fide, and the fales to the Cr
fide ; by comparing of which, appears the gain or lofs :
and fo in other accompts.
The Ledger folios are divided into fpaces, for con¬
taining the accompts ; on the head of which are written
the titles of the accompts, marked Dr on the left-hand
page, and Cr on the right : Below which dand the ar¬
ticles, with the word To prefixed to the Dr fide, and the
word By on the Cr fide. Upon the margin are recorded'
the dates of the articles, in columns allotted for that pur.
pofe. The money-columns are thefame as in the other
books. Before them dands the folio-column, which con-
tains figures direfting to the folio where the correfpon.
dent Ledger-entry of each article is made; fey every
thing is twice entered in the Ledger, viz. on the Dr
fide of one accompt, and again upon the Cr fide of forae
other accompt; fo that thefe figures mutually refer from,
the one to the other, and are of ufe in examining the
Ledger.
For the ready finding any accompt in the Ledger, it
has an alphabet, or index, wherein are written the titles-
of all accompts, with the number of the folios where they
dand.
Not_e. If the Ledger-accompts be numbered, 1, 2, 3,
<bc. according to their order ; thefe numbers may be in¬
ferred in the Folio-column and Index, and pfed indead
of the folio figures. We have nambered the accompts
of the following Ledger, but have not made this ufe of ‘
them ; our defign being only to refer, by means of them,
to the Ledger-accompts as occafion. requires.
Ktnv the Ledger is filled up from the Journal.
To tranfport immediately from ’he Wade-book to the
Ledger, would, as has been formerly obferved, be a com¬
plex tafle, and require too great a meaiure of thought
and attention ; but the former being fird reduced to a
Jonrnal, the transferring from it to the Ledger becomes
eafy, and may be performed by the following
RUL E S.
1. Turn to the Index, and fee whether the debtor of'
the Journal pod to be tranfported be written there: If it
be not, infert it under its proper letter, with the number
of the folio to which it is to be carried.
2. Upon the folio, and in the head of the fpace allot¬
ted for the accompt, write the title in a large text lettar
fo&r
(*E) B O O K - K
for ornament, making it Dr on the left fide of the folio,
and Cr on the right.
3. Record the date in the columns on the margin of
the Dr fide, and write the Cr with the word To pre¬
fixed to it, immediately below the title, or other articles
formerly ported ; and complete the entry in one line, by
giving a fiiort hint of the nature and terms of the tranf-
atlion, carrying the fum to the money-columns; and in-
fert the quantity, if it be an accompt of goods, <bc. in
the inner columns, and the referring figure in the folio-
column.
4. Turn next to the creditor of the Journal port, and
.proceed in the fame manner with it, both in the Index
and Ledger; with this difference only, that the entry is
to be made upon the Cr fide, and the word By prefixed
to it.
5. The port being thus entered in the Ledger, return
to the Journal, and, on the margin, mark the folios of
the accompts, writing the folio of the Dr above, and the
folio of the Cr below, a fmall line drawn between them,
thus, *. Fhefe marginal numbers in the Journal are a
kind of Index to the Ledger, and are of ufe in examining
the books, and on other occafions.
6. In opening the accompts in the Ledger, follow the
order of the Journal ; that is, beginning with the firft
Journal poft, allow the firll fpace in the Ledger for the
Dr of it, the next for the Cr, the third for the Dr of the
following port, if it be not the fame with fome of thofe
already opened ; and fo on till the whole Jonrnal be
tranfported.
The above fix rules are formed for fimple ports, where
there is but one Dr and one Cr; but may cafily be ap¬
plied to complex ones: e. g. In ports where only one of
the terms is complex, the fimple terra is entered Dr to,
or Cr by Sundries or Sundry-accompts, referring to the
Journal for particulars. And the fingle Drs or Crs of
the complex term, are each of them, in their refpeffive
accompts, entered Dr to, or Cr by the fimple term. A.-
gain, in ports where both terms are complex, each parti¬
cular Dr and Cr are entered Dr to, or Cr by, Sundry ac¬
compts, with a reference to the journal, as before. And
here obferve, that an article of Sundry-accompts has no
referring figure in the folio-column, becaufe it refers to
feveral accompts: But this deleft is fupphed by the mar¬
ginal numbers of the Journal, which muft ftill be con-
fulted before the particulars of the indefinite article can be
be known.
Ho 10 to tranfpofe an account from 'One folio to
another.
When the fpace allotted for an accompt proves too
little : that is, when either the Dr or Cr fide, or both,
are fo charged and filled with articles, that they can hold
no more ; theacconipt muirt be tranfpofed to a new fpace:
Which may be done by one or other of the methods fol¬
lowing. ..
1. In all accompts that have inner colamns for the
•■quantities, fuch as Accompt of goods, ire. .add up both
F. E P I N G.
the Dr and Cr fides, and charge the new accompt Dr to the
old, for the total of the Dr fide; and make the old ac¬
compt Dr to the new, for the total of the Cr fide. Thus
the old accompt will be evened ; that is, the fums and
quantities on both fides will be equal; and the new ac¬
compt will exhibit the fame films and quantities on its
Dr and Cr fides, that the old did, before it was tranf¬
pofed.
2. In accompts that have no inner columns, fuch as
Perfonal accompts, Cafti-accompt, Profit and Lofs, &c,
where the difference betwixt the two fides is only confi-
dered, it is fufficient, after adding up both fides, as be¬
fore, to carry the balance or difference only to the new
accompt, by making it Dr to the old, for the faid ba¬
lance, if the Dr fide of the old be heavieft ; but if the
Cr fide be heavieft, then charge the old accompt Dr to
the new. See N° 1. and 61.
Aote. The number of the folio on which the new ac¬
compt is opened, muft be inferted in the Index, and alfo
in the folio-column of the old accompt; and again, the
folio-number of the old muft be written in the folio-co¬
lumn of the new ; that the accomptant may readily turn
from the one to the other, as occafion requires,
Hqvj the Books are examined.
An accomptant rtiould be at all imaginable pains in
filling up the books, to make them exaft and correft:
But as errors nauft happen, the examination of the books
after they are written up becomes ablolutely neceffary.
1. The Wafte-book being the firft and fundamental
book, the only means left for difeovering errors in it, are,
a careful reading of it, and comparing it with the ac-
comptant’s memory, or the Book of letters, or Letters
of correfpondenis, Bills, Invoices, iye. ; or pethaps fome
accident or circumftance may happen to bring things to
remembrance. And this, with carting up the fums of
money anew, is all that can be done.
2 In revifing the Journal, compare each poft with the
Warte-book, to fee if the fums of money be right, and
whether the narrative or reafon of the entry be juftly ex-
preffed. Next, Confider whether the true Dr and Cr
are affigned; and, after having thus narrowly examined
the ports, and correfted what happens to be wrong, re¬
turn to the Warte-book, and, on the margin oppofite to
the revifed port,, make a dalh with the pen, thus, /, to
fignify that the Journal has been compared with it, and
found right.
3. The Ledger is revifed or examined, by comparing
it with the Journal, in the manner following Tak the
Journal, and, beginning with the firft poll, turn (as the
marginal numbers direft) to the folio of the Ledger where
the Dr of the faid poft ftands, and fee whether it b • duly
entered: And, upon finding it right ret urn to -he Jour¬
nal, and affix to the marginal number of the faid D. a
dot or point, thus [.], to (hew that it ha? been examined.
Next, Turn to the folio where the Ct is ported, and,
upon finding it right, or after corre. ling it if wrong,
return to the Journal, and affix a dot to its referring
B O O K-K E E P I N G.
figure in the margin, for the fame purpofe as before. If
there be more Drs or Crs in the poft, proteed the fame
way with each of them. And thus go on with the next
poit, and after it with the third, 6'c. till the whole jour¬
nal and Ledger be compared.
As every thing is twice entered in the Ledger, once
upon the Dr fide of one accompt, and again upon theCr
fide of fome other accompt; it is plain, thaf the total
fum of all the money on the Dr fides will be precifely
equal to the total fum of all upon the Cr fides : And there¬
fore the accomptant, after revifing the books, is next,
for further fatisfadion, to add up the Dr fides of the
whole Ledger into one fum, and the Cr fides into an¬
other. If they agree, it is highly probable that all is
right; if they differ, fomething is unqueftionably wrong.
This addition of the Dr andCr fides is, by merchants,
called the Trial-balance; and ought to be made, not
limply by taking the fum of every page, but by fumming
the Dr and Cr fides of every account feparately, and then
adding thefe on every page into one fum. By going to
work in this manner, you lofe no labour; for when you
come afterwards to clofe the accompts, inftead of adding
their Dr and Cr fides anew, you take their funis from,
the trial-balance.
If, after the revife is made, the totals of the Dr and
Cr fides agree, the accomptant may,, without further
trial, conclude the books to be right. But if they differ,
his next ftep is to examine the Ledger by itfelf. Which
is done thus: Beginning with the firfl accompt, compare
the firft article ,on the Dr fide with, its counter-part (to
which the referring figure diredfs), and, upon finding
them right, or making them fo, affix a dot to the end
of the fum, or in the folio or month column of each of
tliem, thus [].], to fignifythat they have been compared;
Proceed in like manner with all the other articles on the
Dr fide, and next with thofe upon the Cr fide; and then
go on to a new accompt, and from it to the followings till
the whole Ledger be finilhed. Here obferve, that, in pro-
fecuting the examination, all the dotted articles you corqes
to are to be omitted, as having been compared already.
The Ledger, being thus examined, if the corrections of the
errors found bring the films of the Dr and Cr fides to a ba¬
lance, the books may now be prefumed right; but if notr
fomething is ftill wrong: And there is no way left to difeo-
ver the miftake, but a more careful refearch of the books.
This revifing or examination is what.merchants call
Pricking of the books ', and fliould not be put off till the
Ledger is filled up, but performed weekly, and in due
order,; that is, the Wade-book fhould be revifed, before
it be polled to the Journal; and the Journal ought to
be examined, before-it be tranfported to the Ledoer;-
and the revifing of the Ledger finiffied, before the ba¬
lance is begun.
Hovj Errors are corrected.
Is explaining the method of correcting errors, we fnall.
join the Wade-book and Journal together, becaufe .the
manner of correcting is the fame in both; aad then ihew
the way of correcting miftakes in the Ledger.
I. Errors in the Wafle-book and Journal may be re¬
duced to fix claffes, and corrected as follows.
587
if. If the errors be the omiffion of a whole pod, the
way to correct or fupply the defeCt is, to write it in a fe-
parate place by itfelf, with a reference to it from the
place where it fliould have been, zdly. If only a word
or two be wanting, they may be interlined or written up¬
on the margin, idly. If a whole pod be repeated, or
twice written, it is corrected by cancelling one of them ;
but the cancelling ought to be done in fuch a flight man¬
ner, that the original writing may dill be legible and dr-
dinCt. fh/y. In like manner, if only a word or fentence
be repeated, let one of them be flightly cancelled, ithly.
If there be any wrong name, word, or figure, the bed
way is, to let the wrong name, word, or figure, ftjmd as
they are, but correCt the midake by a note on the mar¬
gin or foot of the page. 6thly, If you commit a mif¬
take, and prefently difeover it in the very time of wri¬
ting, the handfomefl way of correcting it is, not to alter
or cancel any thing, but to write the pod or fentence a- -
new, beginning with fuch a phrafe as this, /fay ; as in the
following example: Sold A. B. I fay, Bought of A. B..
II. Errors in the Ledger are of four forts. \Jl, When
an article is entered upon a wrong accompt : This is to
be corrected, fird, by making the other fide of the faid ac¬
compt Dr to, or Cr by Error, for the fum of the faid
article ; which rectifies this accompt: After which, the
article mud be entered in due form, in the accompt to
which it belongs; or rather make the correction thus,
viz. charge the one accompt Dr to the other, for fo'
much per error. By either of thefe methods, the error
is removed, and the purity of the books redored. 2dly,
When an article is entered in the right accompt, but up-
oa the wrong-fide; that is, upon the Dr fide, when it
fliould have been upon the Cr fide, or ~vice verfa ■ to
correCt this, the fird thing to be done is, to remove the
error, by making, the other fide of the faid accompt Dr
to, or Cr by Error, for the fum of the article: After
whichj the article mud be entered anew upon the .right
fide, as if no fuch blunder had happened, idly, When
there is an error in a fum of money : This, if it be too
little, is corrected, by a new charge on the fame fide, .
for the defeCt; and if it be too .much, the midake is
rectified by a difeharge on the oppofite fide for the excefs,
viz. the accompt is debited or credited to, or by ditto
perfon, or ditto goods, for fo much fliort-poded, or over¬
charged. s^thly. When an article is quite forgot, or ne¬
glected, errors of this nature are eafily adjuded, viz. by‘
making the entry omitted-; only obferve, that it is not to
be crouded in betwixt two former entries,- in order to
make it poflefs the place it would have done, had it come -
regularly in; for though the order,- whatever it be, can
occafion no error in the ifiue, yet this interlining would1
look more confuted and irregular than the difotder of the.
date, which any perfon /killed in book-keeping will eafily
perceive to have happened through midake. .
Of-balatr/wg the Ledger, .mid raifuig from if art-
Inventory, to begin a nerj. Scp of Books-. C
Merchants commonly once a-year balance or dofe ‘
their Ledger, and raTe from it the materials of an In-
ventory to a new fet of books, for the enfaing year..
Now, ,
588 B O O K - K
Now, to make the method of doing this plain and intel¬
ligible to a learner, it muft be obferved, that, by the
word Balance, merchants underftand the difference be¬
twixt the fums on the Dr and Cr fides of any accompt.
Which difference being entered on the defedive fide, the^
accompt is faid to be balanced ; that is, to have the fums
of the Dr and Cr Tides evened, or made equal. And
the fides of the feveral accompts throughout the Ledger
being thus evened, and the total fums formally fet down
on the foot of the accompts, the Ledger is faid to be ba¬
lanced, clofed, or finifhed. Again, in order to under-
fland how the new Inventory is formed from the old
Ledger, it muft be obferved, that thefe balances or differ¬
ences of the fides of accompts, are of different kinds.
In fome accounts, the balance is, the gain or lofs made
upon the fale of goods ; in fome, the balance is, the
price of goods remaining unfold; and in others, it is a
debt due to, or by the merchant, -fyc. Now, balances
of the firft kind, viz. of gain or lofs, muft be diftin-
guifhed from the reft, and carried to the Profit and Lofs
accompt; which being done, the balance or difference of
its fides, will be the gain or lofs made upon one year’s
trade, and goes to the Stock-accompt. All the other
kinds of balances muft be brought together into one fpace
or folio, under the title of Balance-accompt, and are the
very articles of which the Inventory is made up. The
moit natural method of balancing the Ledger is, firft to
point out what is contained upon the Dr and Cr fides of
each accompt, and confequently what the balances are ;
and then, to fhew the mercantile and approved way of
going to work, in doling the Ledger, colle&ing the ba¬
lances, and converting them into a new Inventory. This
we fhall do in the form of problems.
P R O B. I.
What the Balances 'in the Accompts of proper
Tracle are,
§ i. JVhat the Balances in proper domejlic
Trade are.
i. Cafh-accompt, N° I. and 61.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the ready money
which the merchant had at firft, or when the books
were begun ; together with all he has received fince that
time. The Cr fide contains all the payments he has
made, or the money he has given out. So that the dif¬
ference of the two fides is, the ready money he has by
him; and therefore this accompt is clofed, by being cre¬
dited by Balance, for the faid difference.
2. An Accompt of Goods, N° 2. 3. II. 12. 14. 18.
20. 21. 27. <bc.
Contains upon the Dr fide, the prime coft and char¬
ges ; and, upon the Cr fide, the fale or difpofal of them.
So that there are here three varieties. 1. When the
goods are all difpoftd of, which is known by the inner
columns being equal, the difference of its fides is, the
gain or lofs made upon the fale ^ and fo is clofed, by
charging it Dr to Profit and Lofs, for the gain, if the
Cr fide be heavieft > or giving it credit by Profit and
E E P I N G.
Lofs, for the lofs, if the Dr fide be heavieft. N° 2.
11. 14. 18. <bc. 2. When none of the goods are dif-
pofed of, which will appear by the Cr fide being empty,
then it is clofed by Balance, for the whole fum on the
Dr fide. N° 21. 27. isc. 3. When only part of the
goods are difpofed of, which will appear by the inequa¬
lity of the quantity-columns; this cafe requires common¬
ly two clofing entries, viz. Firft, the accompt muft be
credited by Balance, ibr the goods remaining, valued at
the prime coft; which equals the inner columns : After
this, if the money-columns be unequal, it muft be made
Dr to, or Cr by Profit and Lofs, for the gain or lofs
made upon what are fold; which evens the outer co¬
lumns, and clofes the accompts. N° 3. 12.
Note 1. If the goods are of different kinds or prices, •
as they fhould be diftinguifhed, when pofted to the
Ledger, by different numbers, or feparate inner columns;
fo care muft be taken, in balancing the accompt, to
mention the kind of goods remaining unfold, and to va¬
lue them at their own prices.
Note 2. A merchant may, at any time, know what
goods he has on hand, by comparing the inner columns
of the Accompts of Goods, without being put to the
trouble of infpefting his warehoufe, and weighing or
meafuring the goods themfelves.
Note 3. If there be inlack or outcome of goods,
that is, defeft or excefs in weight or meafure, it will
happen, when the goods are all difpofed of, that the in¬
ner columns will not be equal. In this cafe, the ba¬
lance or equality muft be reftored, by inferting as much
in the deficient column as will make it equal to the o-
ther, writing the words Inlack, Broken Loft in weight,
Ullaged, Outcome, or the like, before it, as the reafon
why it is added: but nothing goes to the money-columns.
3. Plate and Jewels.
This account contains, on the Dr fide, the things of
that kind you are poffeffed of; and, like an accompt of
goods remaining on hand, is clofed, by being credited
by Balance.
4. Perfonalaccompts, N° 5. 6. 7. 9. 10. 13. 15. fyc.
Contain, upon the Dr fide, the debts due by the per-
fon to the merchant, with the payments made upon any
other fcore by the merchant to him. The-Cr fide con¬
tains the payments made by the perfon to the merchant,
with the debts due by the merchant to the faid perfon,
upon any other dealings. So that there are here two
cafes. \ft. If the Dr fide be heavieft, the difference is
a debt due by the perfon to the merchant. N° 13. 24. <bc.
idly. If the Cr fide be heavieft, the difference is a debt
due by the merchant to the perfon. N° 15.57. J^n^-
in both cafes the accompt is clofed, by making it Dr to,
or Cr by Balance, for the difference of its fides.
5. Bills receivable, N° 25.
This is a general perfonal accompt, and contains upon
the Dr fide, bills accepted, and payable to the merchant.
The Cr fide contains the payments he has received. So
that the difference of its fides (if there be any) is, what
is yet unpaid : And the accompt is clofed, by giving it
credit by Balance, for the faid difference.
6. Bills
BOOK-KEEPING.
6. Bills payable, N° 52.
This is an accompt of the fame nature with the form¬
er ; and contains, upon the Cr fide, the bills accepted
by the merchant, payable to others ; and, upon the Dr
fide, the payments he has made. So that the difference
of the fides (if ther<? be any) is the bills yet unpaid:
And the accompt is clofed, by charging it Dr to Ba¬
lance.
7. Bills of Exchange.
This accompt exhibits, on the Cr fide, all the bills you
draw on your fadlors or correfpondents ; and the Dr fide
{hows what of them are accepted, protefted, or yet out-
ftanding ; and is clofed, if the fides happen to be unequal,
by being debited to Balance, for the bills out-ftanding,
viz. the bills of whofe acceptance you have hitherto
had no advice.
8. Bonds.
This accompt exhibits, on the Dr fide, all the bonds
you have received, and on the Cr fide, what of them are
paid, or out-ltanding ; and is clofed, if the fides happen to
be unequal, by being credited by Balance, for the bonds
yet unpaid.
9. Sufpenfe-accompt, N° 34.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the goods fent off; and
upon the Cr fide, either the fame goods returned, or ad¬
vice from your correfpondent that he defigns to keep
them, or the price fent up. So that either the fides
of this accompt are equal, and then the accompt clofes
of itfelf; or, if there be any difference, it is owing to
your having hitherto had no advice concerning fome of
the goods lent off; and in this cafe the accompt is clo¬
fed, by being credited by Balance, for the faid dif¬
ference.
10. Foreign Coin., N° 26.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the value at which the
feveral pieces are received; and on the Cr fide, the va¬
lue at which they are put off. In doling this accompt,
there are three cafes, ijl. If the pieces are all difpofed
of, the accompt is clofed, by being debited or credited to or
by Profit or lofs, for the gain or lofs made by them. 2dly,
If none of the pieces are yet dii'pofed of, it is clofed by be¬
ing credited by Balance, for the whole value on the Dr fide.
"idly. If part of them are difpofed of, and part of them
yet on hand; in this cafe, the accompt mult firft be cre¬
dited by Balance, for value of the pieces on hand; and
if alter this the money-columns Hill remain unequal, it
mult be debited or credited to or by Profit and Lofs, for
the faid difference; which is the gain or lofs made upon
the piece's difpofed of.
11. Wagers Accompt.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the confignments made
when the wagers were entered into. The Cr fide con¬
tains the decifions of the wagers. So that here occur
two varieties, viz. \Jl, If all the wagers are determined,
the difference of the fides will be the gain made upon
thofe decided in favour of the merchant; and the ac¬
compt is clofed, by being charged Dr to Profit and Lofs,
for the faid difference, idly. If any of the wagers are
yet undecided, the accompt mull firlt be credited by Ba¬
lance fpr them: After which, if the lides are Hill un-
Vol. I. Numb. 25. 3
5'89
equal, it mull be charged Dr to Profit and Lofs, for
the difference.
12. Dea-afd P erf on's Efate.
The Dr fide of this accompt exhibit? the legacies, bills,
or debts, you the executor have paid on account of the
perfon deceafed; and the Cr fide Ihows what he died
poffelfed of: And the accompt is clofed, by being made
Dr to Profit and Lofs, for the difference of its fides ;
which is the fum that falls to you the executor.
13. Accompt s of Ships, Houfes, and it her Pof
fejfions, N° 4.
Contain, upon the Dr fide, what they coll at fir 11, or
are valued at, with all charges, fuch as repairs, or other
expences laid out upon them. The Cr fide contains,
(if any thing be writ upon it), either what they are fold
or exchanged for, or the profits arifing from them ; fuch
as freight, rent, &c. Here there are three cafes.
If nothing be written upon the Cr fide, it is clofed, by
being credited by Balance. 2dly, If the Cr fide be fill¬
ed up, with the price of the Ihip, houfe, &c. folrl, or
otherwife difpofed of, then the difference of the fides is
the gain or lofs made upon the fale; and the accompt is
clofed, by being debited or credited to or by Profit and
Lofs. idly. If the Cr fide contain only the freight or
rent; in this cafe, firll charge the {hip, houfe, &c. Dr
to Profit and Lofs, for the freight or rent; and then
clofe the accompt with Balance. N° 4.
14. Houfe-expences, Charges of Merchandize, Refufal
of Bargains, Interejl-accompt, Infurance-accompt,
and all others of the like nature, that are dilburfe-
ments for which nothing con|gs in, or pure incomes
for which nothing goes out. N° 65. 42. 35-.
Contain, upon their Dr fides, the articles of lofs, and
upon the Cr fides the articles of gain ; and are clofed,
by being debited or credited to or by Profit and Lofs,
for the difference of their fides.
15. Profit and Lofs, N° 38.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the articles of lofs, and
on the Cr fide the articles of gain. To this accofspt
are carried, not only whatever comes in courfe to it from
the Journal, but alfo all the articles of gain and lofs that
occhr in doling the Ledger-accompts. After which, the
Dr and Cr fides being added up, their difference is the
neat gain or lofs made fince the books were begun; and
therefore this accompt is clofed, by being debited or cre¬
dited to or by Stock, for the difference of its fides.
16. Stock-accompt, N° 8.
As gathered from the Journal, contains, upon the Dr
fide, the debts due by the merchant when the books
were begun. The Cr fide contains his ready money, ef¬
fects, and debts due to him at the lame time. But
then, to this accompt, as it now Hands, there is brought,
at doling of the Ledger, the difference of the fides of
the Profit and Lofs accompt. After which, the Dr and
Cr fides being added up, and compared, their difference
will be the merchant’s prefent neat llock; and the ac¬
compt is clofed by Balance.
7 K § 2.
B O O K - K
E
E P
I N
G.
59°
§ 2. JVhat the Balances in proper Foreign
Trade are,
I. Voyage to, ox from  , N° 16. 40. 47.^
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the prime coft and char¬
ge? of the cargo, 't he Cr fide is either empty, or it
contains the receipt or difpofal of the goods by the factor,
or perhaps returns made for them. There are therefore
here two cafes. \Jl, If the Cr fide be empty, the fhip
is ftiil .at fea, or, at leaft, there has been as yet no ad¬
vice of her arrival; and the accompt is clofed, by gi¬
ving it credit by Balance, idly. If the Cr fide be filled
up, the difference of the fides is the gain or lofs made
upon the voyage ; and accordingly the accompt is doled
by being made Dr or Cr to or by Profit and Lofs. If
the fums of the fides happen to be equal, there is nei¬
ther gain nor lofs on the voyage y and the accompt clofes-
of ifelfi.
2. A. B. my Accompt of Goods.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the goods configned to,
and received by die fad or; and on the Cr fide, the
difpofal of the faid goods. Tiis accompt balances ex-
actly as an Accompt of goods in proper domeJUc trade.
3. A. B. my Accompt on Time.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the debts due to the
fador, for my goods fold by him on time. 1 he Cr fide
contains the payments made by debtors to the fadors.
So that, if there be any difference of the fides, it is the
debts yet out-(landing : And the accompt is clofed, by
giving it credit by Balance.
4. A. B. my accompt-current, N° 41. 53.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the money in the fador’s
hands, received by him of the fales of my goods, with
the remittances I had fent him, or payments I have made
him upon any other account. The Cr fide contains the
payments or remittances he has fent me, with the debts
I owe him upon any other fcore. In clofing this accompt,
there are two cafes. \ft. If the inner columns, which
contain the foreign money, be equal; then, if there be
any difference-between the outer columns, it is the gain
or lofs m-de by exchange; which flows from the diffe¬
rent rates of exchange at which thefe debts have been
(charged and difcharged : And the accompt in this cafe is
clofed, by being made Dr to or Cr by Profit and Lofs,
for the difference of the outer columns, idly* If the
inner columns are unequal, they muft firft be brought to
an equality, by making the accompt Dr to, or Cr by Ba¬
lance, for their difference, valuing the foreign money at
the current rate of exchange; which difference is a debt
duo by the fador if the.Dr fide be heavieft, but due to the
fader if the Cr fide be heavielt. If after this the outer
columns are unequal, their difference is, the gain or
lofs made by exchange; and the accompt muft be clo¬
fed, by making it Dr to or Cr by. Profit and Lofs, for
die faid difference.
P R O B. II.
What the Balances in Fattory-accompts are.
1. A. B. bis Accompt of Goods, N° 48.
This accompt contains, upon the Dr fide, the charges
paid by the fador. The Cr fide contains the fale or
difpofiil of the goods. In clofing this .accompt, there
are-fiye varieties. 1/?, If the goods are all fold, and all
the money received, this accompt is balanced, by being
charged Dr, firft to Profit and Lofs, for the fador’s
commiflion, at-fo much per cent, after which, the.difFe.-r
tence of the fides is, the money due to the employer;
and is clofed, by being again charged Dr to A. B. his
Accompt-current, for the faid difference, idly. If the
goods, are all fold, but no money yet received, it is clo¬
fed, by being made Dr to Profit and Lofs, for the fac¬
tor’s commiflion, and to A. B. his Accompt. on Tims,
for the out-flanding debts due to him. ^dly. If the
goods are all fold, and only part of the money received,
it is clofed, by being made Dr to Profit and Lofs, for
the fador’s cbmmiffion ; X.o A. B. his Accompt on Time,
for the out-ftanding debts; and to A. B. his Accompt-
current, for the employer’s money in fador’s hands.
qthly. If none of the goods be yet fold, it is clofed, by
giving it credit by Balance, for the futn of the charges
on the Dr fide. 5^^, If only part of the goods are
fold, and fo the accompt unfiniflied, the beft way to
clofe it is, by a double balance; that is, firft charge it
Dr to Balance, for the fum upon the Cr fide; and then
give it credit by Balance, for the charges on the Dr
fide. Thus the accompt will appear in the new books in-
the fame ftate that it did in the old.
2. A. B. his Accojnpt on Time, N° 49.
Contains, upon the Cr fide, the debts due by thofe
who bought the employer’s goods ; and as thefe debts are
paid in to the fador, it is charged Dr to A. B. his Ac¬
compt-current, for the faid payments ; and therefore, if,
at clofing of the Ledger, there be any difference of its
fides, it is the debts yet out-ftanding ; and is clofed, by
being charged Dr to Balance, for the faid difference.
3. A. B. his Accampt-current, N° 36. 50.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the money laid out by the
fador for the employer’s ufe, as in anfwering his bills,
or remitting bills to him, or- otherwife. The Cr fide
contains the money in the fador’s hands belonging to the
employer. So that the difference of its fides is, the
debts due by the fador to A. B. or by A. B. to him ;
and the accompt is clofed, by being made Dr or Cr ta
or by Balance.
Note, If the fador difpofe of the employer’s good on
truft, to perfons with whom he has private dealings of
his own, it will be proper, in clofing their accompts, to
divide the balance into two parts, viz. ohe due for
the employer’s goods, and the other due to or by-
himfelf.
PROB,
B O O K » K
591
p Pv O B. III.
What the Balances in Company-accompts are.
$ 1. What the Balances in the Accompts kept by
a Partner are.
X. A. B. my Accompt in Company, N° 54.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the partner’s inputs,
and (hare of charges ; upon the Cr fide, the returns made ;
and the difference is the gain or Ibfs. In balancing this
accompt, there are two cafes. 17?, If the accompt be
fmifhed, /. e. if the goods be fold, and returns made, it
is clofed, by being made Dr or Cr to or by Profit and
Lofs. 2dly, If the accompt be yet un.finifhed, the bcfl
way is, to clofe it with a double' balance: that is, to
make it Dr to Balance, for the fum of the Cr fide, and
give it credit by Balance, for the fum of the Dr fide.
2. A.B. my Accompt-proper, N° 5 y.
This accompt is merely perfonal, and clofed with Ba¬
lance, for the difference of its fides ; which is the debt
due to, or by the'company.
§ 2. What the Balances of the Accompts kept by
a Trufiee in his own Books are.
Before the truftee clofe the Company’s accompts, he
ought to make the double Journal entry following, if it
be not done already; namely, \Jl, Goods in Company,
or Voyage, &c. Dr to: Sundries, viz. to Cafh, for all
charges not yet ftated to accompt, fuch as cellar-rent, &c.
and to Profit and Lofs, for his own commiffion, at fo
much per cent, 2Ay, Each partner’s Accompt-proper
Dr to his ACcompt in Company, for their refpeClive
fhares of the above charges and commifiion. Thefe en¬
tries being made, the balances of the accompts are as
follows.
1. Goods in Company, N® 58. 62. 71. 74.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the prime coll of the
goods flocked in* with all charges, and the truftee’s com¬
miffion. The Cr fide contains the difpofal of them.-
The difference of the fides is gain or lofs, to J>e divided ’
amongft the partners. Here there are three cafes.
the goods be all fold, the accompt is clofed, by being
debited or credited to or by Sundries, viz. to, or by
each partner’s Accompt in company, for their fhares of
the gain or lofs; and to, or by Profit and Lofs, for the
truftee’s own fhare. 2dly, If none of the goods are fold,
then the accompt is clofed, by being credited by Sun¬
dries; viz. by each partner’s Accompt ia Company, for
their fhares of the goods unfold; and by Balance, for the :
truftee’s fhare. idly, If part of the goods are fold, and .
part of them yet remain not difpofed of, this cafe is a
compound of the two former ; and accordingly the ac¬
compt is clofed, by making the entry mentioned in the.
fir ft cafe, for the gain or lofs on thofe fold ; and then,.
by making the ntry mentioned in the. fecond cafe, for
thofe not difppfed of.
S E P I N G.
2. Voyage in Company, N° 66.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the value and charges of
the goods fent to fea. The Cr fide contains the receipt
or difpofal of them by the fadtor. The difference of the
fides is gain or lofs. Here there are three cafes. \Jl, If
the Dr and Cr fides be equal, then the accompt ciofes
of itfelf. 2dly, If one of the fides exceed the other,
then the accompt is clofed, by being made Dr or Cr to-
or by Sundries; viz. to, or by each partner’s Accompt
in Company, for their {hares of the gain or lofs ;
and to, or by Profit and Lofs, for the truftee’s fhare.
idly. If nothing be yet writ upon the Cr fide, then the
accompt is clofed, by being credited by Sundries, viz.
by each partner’s Accompt in Company, for their fhares of
the goods at fea; and by Balance, for the truftee’s fhare.
3. Faflor our Accompt of Goods.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the company’s goods con-
figned to, and received by the faffor. Tne Cr !ide con¬
tains the difpofal of them. The difference of the fides
is gain or lofs made upon the file of them. This ac¬
compt has the fame varieties, and is balanced the fame.
way with Goods in company.
4. FaGor our Accompt-current.
Contains, upon the Dr fide, what money belonging to
the company is in the fadtor’s hand. The Crfide con¬
tains the returns he has made in goods or bills. The
difference is the debt due to or by the fadtor. This ac¬
compt is clofed, by being made Dr or Cr to or by Ba¬
lance, for the faid difference.
5. Partner his Accompt in Company, N° 59. 69. 70.
Contains, upon the Cr fide, the partner’s inputs, with’-
his fhare of charges,, and of gain at clofe. The Dr fide
contains returns for inputs difpofed of, , or goods remain¬
ing unfold, with the partner’s fhare of Ioffes, if any..
This accompt, after the preceding accompts are balanced,
will always clofe of itfelf; as is- evident by confidering
what goes to the two fides of it: fo that if the balance
of this accompt fail, the accomptant may conclude, for
certain, that fomething in the company’s accompts is
wrong, or at leaft fome miftake has happened in clofing
them.
6. Partner bis Account-proper, N° 60. 67. 68.
Is a perfonal account, the difference of whole fides is
the debt due to or by the partner, and is clofed with-
Bala nee.
Note. If the defign of balancing the company-accompts -
be, not in order to know the ftate of the company’s af¬
fairs, but-only that the old Ledger may be finifhed, and
the accompts carried to new books : the accomptant, in
this cafe, may either balance them as above-direffed ; or
he may, if he pleafes, clofe all of them by a double ba¬
lance,; which is the eafieft and fhorteft way, and will
have the fame effeff in the iffue. .
§; 3. What the Balances of the Accompts kept by as
Prujlee in feparate Books are.
1. Goods in Company, and Voyage in Company,.
Have, the fame things upon their Dr and Cr fides, as
when.
592 B O O K - K
when kept in-books along with other bufmefs; but are
clofed with Profit and Lofs in Company, for the gain or
lofs; and with partners /iccompts in company, for their
refpe&ive ihares of goods remaining unfold, or at fea.
2. CafJo in Company,
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the fums of money given
in by partners, and received from dealers for goods fold ;
the Cr fide contains the firms kid out; fo that the dif¬
ference of its fides is the money on hand ; and is clofcd
, with Balance in company.
3. Partner his Accotnpt in Company,
Contains the fame thing upon its Dr and Cr fides re-
fpedHvely, as when kept in books along with other bufi-
nefs; and, after the accompts of goods and voyages are
balanced, will always clofe of itfelf.
4. Partner his Accompt proper.
This and all perfnnal accompts, as they contain the
fame things upon their Dr and Cr fides, as their paral¬
lels, in proper trade, fo they are all clofed With Balance
in company.
5. Profit and Lofs in Company.
The difference of its fides is the gain or lofs made
upon company-trade, and mult be charged Dr to the
truftee his Accompt-proper, for his commiflion; after
which, it is clofed, (if no Stock-accompt is kept), by be¬
ing made Dr or Cr to or by Sundries, viz. Each part¬
ner his accompt in company, for the refpe&ive lhares of
gain or lofs. But if you keep a Stock-accompt in com¬
pany, then this accompt is clofed with it: and the Stock-
accompt is again cloftd with the partners Accompts in
company.
6. Balance in Company,
Contains, upon the Dr fide, the company’s ready mo¬
ney in the truflee’s hand, with the debts to the com¬
pany, whether by partners or dealers; the Cr fide con¬
tains the debts due by the company, and that whether to
partners or to dealers: And if .the books have been right¬
ly kept, and duly balanced, the two fides of this accompt
will always equal one another to a farthing.
Note. If you incline the goods remaining unfold, or
at fea, fliould appear upon the Balance-accompt, you
muft clofe the Accompt of goods and Voyages with Ba¬
lance in company, for the value of the quantity not dif-
pofed of, or at fea ; and you may clofe the partners Ac¬
compts in company (which in this cafe will not clofe of
themfelves), either with their Accompts proper, or with
Balance in company., as you pleafe.
How the Balances are collected, the Ledger clofed.
and a new hroentory formed.
When you defign to balance your Ledger, in order
to begin a new fet of books, proceed in the manner fol¬
lowing.
Take two ftieets or folios of loofe paper, rule them
like the Ledger, and write on the heads or tops of them,
the titles of the two following Accompts, viz. on the
head of the one, Profit and Lofs Dr, and Contra Cr;
E E P I N G.
on the other, Balance Dr, and Contra Cr. Then, be¬
ginning with the Accompt of calh, go over every accompt
in the Ledger, (omitting only the Accompts of Profit and
Lofs and Stock, which muft be left open to the laft), and
carry the articles of gain or lofs found on any of them,
to the Profit and Lofs ftieet; and the articles of debt, or
goods remaining, to the Balance fheet, without touching
the accompts themfelves: e.g. Taking from theTrial-ba-
lance the fums of the Dr and Cr fides of the Calh-aecompt,
fubtraifi: the one fum from the other, and, on the Balance
ftieet, make Balance Dr to Calh, for their difference, be¬
ing the ready money in your hands. Again, in an Ac¬
compt of goods that are all ibid, taking the fums of the
Dr and Cr fides, fubtract the one from the other, aud,
on the other ftieet, make Profit and Lofs Dr or Cr to or
by the faid Accompt of Goods, for the difference of its
fides. And in this manner proceed with every other ac¬
compt in the Ledger, according to their nature, as ex¬
plained in the laft fection.
Having advanced thus far, your next ftep is, to add
up the Dr fides of the Profit and Lofs Iheet, and the
Profit and Lofs accompt in the Ledger, into one fum,
and their Cr fides into another ; and, on the faid Iheet,
make Profit and Lofs Dr or Cr to or by Stock, for their
difference: Which difference being carried to the Stock-
accompt, add up its Dr and Cr fides, and carry their
difference to the Balance Iheet. Which being done, the
total fums of the Dr and Cr fides of the Balance Iheet
will be equal to a farthing, if the books be right, and
the balancing work truly performed: As may be thus
demonftrated.
It is obvious, that the Balance ftieet, before the ba¬
lance of the Stock-accompt is brought to it, contains,
upon the Dr fide, the money and goods you have on
hand, or at fea, or in the hands of factors, with the
debts due to you; the articles on the Cr fide are the
debts due by you to others : So that the difference of its
fides is your prefent worth, or neat ftock. Now, if the
balance of the Stock-accompt be alfo equal to your pre*-
fent neat ftock, it is plain, that it will even the fides of
the Balance-accompt. But that it is fo, appears thus.
Your prefent neat ftock is equal to your neat ftock
when the books were begun, with the addition of the
gain, or diminution of the lofs, made fince that time:
but the difference of the fides of Stock accompt, before
the balance of Profit and Lofs accompt be brought to
it, is your neat ftock when the books were begun; and
the balance of Profit and Lofs accompt, is the gain or
lofs made fince that time; which, confequently, being
brought to Stock-accompt, makes the balance of Stock-
accompt equal to your prefent neat ftock; and therefore
the balance of Sto.ck-accompt evens the fide.s of JBalance-
accompt.
If, after’the balance of Btock-accompt is brought to
Balance-accompt, the fides happen to be ftill unequal,
there has unqueftiontibly fome error been committed;
which you muft find out by a careful review of the ba¬
lancing work : for here the error muft lie, fince the books
are fuppofed to have been examined, and found right,
or made fo, before the balancing was begun. On the
other hand, if the fides of Balance-accompt be equal.
BOO K-KEEPING.
593
all may be prefumed right. There is not, indeed, an
abfolute certainty in the cafe: for, if you imagine two
midakes committed, either both in the articles of Profit
and Lofs, or both in the articles of Balance, or one in
the former, and the other in the latter, both excefles,
or both defeats, equal, and on oppofite fides, it is plain
this would not impede the equality of the Dr and Cr
fides of the Balance-accompt. But then this is fo great
a chance, that it is more than probable fuch a thing can
never happen, and pafs too, without being difcovered.
Having brought the two ijdes of the Balance-accompt
to an equality, which is the teft of every thing being
right, proceed to clofe the Ledger-accompts, thus. Firft,
to the Profit and Lofs c^compt, transfer the articles on
the Profit and Lofs meet. Next, at the end of the
Ledger, ereft an Accompt of Balance, into which tran-
fcribe the Balance iheet. After which, return to the
beginning of the Ledger, and giving the Cafh-ac«ompt
credit by Balance,, for your ready mtfney, draw a line
crofs the money-columns on- each fide, at the foot of the
accompt ; below which fet down the total fums, which
will be now equal. Proheed in like manner with all the
following accompts, transferring to each the refpe&ive
articles that belong to them, from the two (beets of loofe
paper, inferting the referring figures in the folio.-column,
and writing the total fums on the foot of the accompt;
by which means all the accompts in. the Ledger will come
to be balanced and doled; that is, evened and finifhed.
But here it will be proper to obferve, that merchants,
in balancing their Ledger, do not all go the fame tvay
to work. For fome, inftead of proceeding according to
the above dire&ions, dole their Ledger-accompts, and
poll the doling entries to the Accompts of Profit and
Lofs, and Balance, all at the fame time. And it mull
be owned, that this way, pradifed with care, will well
enough anfwer the purpofe; but to poll the clofing en¬
tries in the firlt place, and then to clofe the accompts,
feems to be the furer and better method.
The Ledger being now clofed, the next thing to be
done is, to begin a new fet of books ; in order to which,
a new inventory mull be fetched from your old books,
as the foundation of your future trade in the new. Now,
it is plain, at firll view, that the feveral articles on the
Dr fide of the Balance-acconapt, being the particular
items of your effeds, and debts due to you, makeup the
firll part of the Inventory; and the feveral articles on the
Cr fide, except the lall, being the debts due by you to
others, make up the fecond part of it: and accordingly
in your new Journal, the feveral particulars on the Dr
fide mull all of them be made Drs to Stock, and Stock
Dr to the feveral particulars on the Cr fide; and Stock-
accompt in your New Ledger will Hand thus :
Stock Dr,
To Jacob Ruff'd,
To H. V. Bcek,
&c.
Contra Cr,
By Cajh,
By Indian chints.
See
Vol. T. No. 25.
3
W A S T E-
594
B O O K - K E
( i )
W A S T E - B O O K.
Edinburgh, the ill of January 1769.
4}i Inventory of the money, goods,
and debts belonging to me A. B. as
alfo of the debts due by me to others,
Have in ready money -
Alfo 2000 yards line linen, at 7
2s.6d. 5
 1 j pieces Indian chints, 7
at 24/. ior. £
—\ of the fhip Britannia'^
(freighted by Mr and^
comp, for a voyage to Bar- r
badoesJ with repairs, coft 7
 John Harris owes me 7
per note, on demand, 3
 Thomas Freeman owes \
me per bill, due 2d Febru- >
ary next, - - ^
 George Evans owes me-
per bond, dated the nthV
Nov. laft, and payable^
Mart, next, with intereftN
at 5 per cent. - -
l. s. d.
[2000 OO O
250 OO O
367 IO O
348 xo o
96 00 o
I ovje as follows.
To Jofeph Martin, on de- 7
mand, - - 3
To Sir Ifaac Crifp, due ill ?
of June next, - >
A.
36 00 o
120 00 o
-6th.-
Bought for ready money, 40 pieces <
bhcs, at 2 /. 16 r.
B. 1. F.i.
1 oth. ■
Bought of John Vernon 100 pieces du-
roys, at 26/. to pay at two months,
B. 3.
5 th.
/ Paid Jofeph Martin in full,
F.4.
/ Bought of Jacob RuJJel 26 pieces drug¬
gets, at 7 /. 10 r.
/. s. d.
Paid half down.
Reft due on demand,
97 10 o
97 10 o
B.5.
E P I N G.
WASTE-BOOK. ( 2 )
-January 21ft.-
Sent as an adventure to Jamaica, in the
2. Ihip Hopewell, Captain Gordon mafter, con-
/ figned to William Boyd, the following goods,
marked and numbered as per margin, viz.
1. s.d.
70 pieces of my own duroys,7
at 26 /. £ 91 00 °l
6 pieces holland, prefentlyO
bought of Jacob Green, at C 108 OO o
18/. to pay at 2 months, 9
Paid charges, till on board, 14 11 4
Paid alfo premium to SimonJ
Smith and company, forv 10 00 o
infuring 200 l. j
Paid Jacob Ruffel, in full for druggets,
F. 4.
 February 2d. 
Bought of Ed-ward Harley 1000 yards
broad cloth, at 13/. (sd.
1. s. d.
Paid him part in money, - 330 00 oi
Given him a bill on lobn Har- 7
rii for £ 45 00 o
Reft due at 3 months, - 300 o
156
1300000
3 6 OO QO:
G. 4
- 30th.-
-Jth.-
B.7.
Received of Thotnas Freeman in full,
E. 4
x6th.-
Bought for prefent money the goods fol¬
lowing, viz.
1. s. d.
90 pieces kerfeys, at 6/. - 540 00 o
X2opiecesfuftians, at37r. 6<^. 225 00 o
-25th.—
B.n.1.
Sold 10 pieces druggets, at
-eady money,
C. x.E.
■March xft.
3/. 3^. for
223jlfo4
971
6750000
960000
7650000
Sold George Young 400 yards broad cloth,-
at 14^. to pay at 1 month, - - j 280W00
C. 3.
 4th. 1
Sold John Keil my 90 pieces kerfeys, at1
6/-7'-. /• J
Received in part, - - 300 00 o
Reft due at 20 days, - - 271 10 o
C. 5. i ‘
Paid John Vernon, in full for duroys,
F. 4.
Lent Jacob Spencer, upon bond, for 6
[months, at 5 per cent. - - - i 1000 oo 00
March,
( 3 )
BOOK
WASTE-BOOK.
-March 17th.-
Sold Jacob Prejlon 200 yards broad cloth,
at 14/. and 2d. for payment whereof he has
given me a bill on Henry Sidney, payable at
fight; the fum is - - -
C. 2. F. n. 4.
22d,
Sold Richard Stone 400 yards broad cloth,
at 14/. 34which he has paid, as follows, viz.
1. s. d.
Given me 26 moidores, at 27/. 35; 02 o
Given me in Britijh coin, 150 14 8
And for the reft, an affignment 7
^ r, 1 r 100 00 o
on O. Dtghy, - - y
/. s.\d.
E P I N G.
WASTE-BOOK.
( 4 )
-23d.-
Paid Jacob Green in fall for holland, as
follows, viz.
1.
Given him my 26 moidores at 26/. (od. 3.4 09
And the reft in coin, - ' 73 11
F. 4. & n. 8.
Received of Henry Sidney, in full of Jacob
Prejion's bill,
E. 4. F. n. 4. & 9.
 , —April ift. 
l.
Received of John Keil, in full for 7 0
kerfeys, the fum of - - j 280 00
Abated him, on account he com¬
plains two of the pieces proved not
fo good as the reft.
285
—April 30th.-
Bartered with George Dennis l. s.
1000 yards linen, at 2s. yd. 137 10 o
And 2 pieceschints, at 25/. 50 00 o
-6th.-
E. 6.
Received of George Young, in full for broad
cloth.
E.
oth.
Bartered 2 pieces Indian chints, at 25/. for
40 pieces lockrams, of the fame value, viz. at
D.
6th.
Bartered 1000 yards linen, at 2 s. 8 d. for
the following goods of the fame value, vi:
l. s. d.
1 C, cochineal, valued at 108 160
64 lb. cinnamon, at 7 /. 8 d. 24 1
-22d.-
D. 3.
J- J
N°i,
For 17 bags cotton, containing^
42 C. 2 Q^neat, at 3 /. 15 /. C 159 07 6
perQ. - - j
And 12 lb. cloves, at 9/. i</. 5 09 o
—May 3d.—
D. /
Paid Edward Harley, in full for broac
cloth
F. 4.
 7th. 
Sent Nathaniel Napier, in the country, 1 f
pieces druggets, defiring him to take them a
7 /. ' 15 ; if not, to return them on my
charges.
C. n. 4.
  13th.— 
Paid Simon Smart, as a penalty for refufinj
a bargain of Norwich fluffs,
B. n. 2.
- 18th
595
s. d.
187 1000
[641606
I
Bartered 6 pieces Indian chints, at 24 /.
15 s. for
/.
8 bales muflin, at 12/. 16 /. 102 8
The balance I have received in money 46 2]
 '148 IOCO
D. n. 2. III.
Shipped on board the Swan, Robert Scot
mafter, by order and for account of John JeJ-
fop merchant in Genoa, the following goods,
marked and numbered as per margin, viz
l.
8 tun lead, bought of GeorgeJ
Dennis, at 13/. 10/. to pay> 108 oc
at x month, - - 3
7335:1b. tanned leather, prefentO
ly bought for ready money, at C 219 16
J d. - - 3
Paid cuftom and other charges
Due to George Alton for packing,
My commiffion at 2i- per cent.
Paid Simon Smith and company, 7
for infuring 350/. on the whole, y
My commiflion on ditto, at i per 7
cent. - - y
10 15
1 05
8 10
if
O. r
-22d.-
I. 2. 3.
Paid George Alton, in, full for packing Job)
JeJfop'% leather,
O. n. 3
31ft.
Drawn my bill on John JeJfop in Genoa, foh
960 dollars, payable to George Stiapleion, oi
order,, for value here received, at jo d.
P- 3-
June 3d!
Dr George Friend is deceafed, and has left
me a legacy, payable by his executor John
Vtrnon, the fum is
E. n.
8 th,
Paid Sir Ifaac Crifp in part,
F. 4.
360 1500
June;
59<S
( 5 >
B O O K
W A S T E - B O O K.
———-3-—J un s -x 6 th.   
Nathaniel Napier writes me, that he de-
figns to keep the 16 pieces of druggets fent hhr
the 7th of May lad, and proniifes payment,
the one half againft the xft of .4Ugufl
and the other half at Marti am xs, the
whole being - - - -
C. n. 4.
    —^, 8 th.   ;   —
Received advice from William Boyd in Ja-
ilea, That he hath received and fold my ad
mure, tlie neat proceeds, as /><fr accompt of
Tales, amounting to 304/. 7/. In return fim
which, he hath put on board the fame fhip the
following goods, deliring me to draw for the
Settled accompts with George Dennis, and
paid him in full,
F.
June 29th
:fl.
6 barrels indigo, containing
126 lb, per barrel, at 2 a.
2 d. per lb.
5 hogfheads pymento, contain¬
ing in all 15351b, and 6 rri 38 07 06
per lb. J
5 hoglheads fugar, containing"?
63 C. at ,9.r. per C. ^ 59 I?
Charges as per his invoice, 15 04
Baiance in his hands, - 108 19 07
H.
■22d.-
Paid Sir Ifaac Crifp in full,
—July 2d.-
Paid Iho^rent for half a. year, viz. from Ja¬
nuary. 1. to July 1.
F.
— £th ^—-
Paid my fhopkeeper his bill of podage, and
other petty charges,
F.
•qth
Ship Hopewell is arrived fafe with my goods
from Jamaica ; freight, duty, and other charges
paid here, amount to
K. n. 2.
Sold John Dyer my fix barrels indigo upon
the key, at 4^. ^d.perlb.
Received in part, - - 80
Red due at 6 months, - - 80 oc
K. n. 2.
Brought into my w.arehoufe
My 5hhds pymento, containing"?
1 5.3 5 lb. valued a.1;6d. per lb. '
l. s
38 07 6
And alfomy 5 hhds fugar, con-"? ^
taining 63 C. at 19/. per C. 3
19 s. pe>
K.
KEEPING.
WASTE-BOOK.
—July i5.th.~
( ^ )
J- P.
N°i,
/
Drawn my bill on William Boyd in Jamai-
t, payable to Edward Dupper, or order, for
alue due by ditto Dupper, at 10 days,
L. 2.
-22d.
Shipped on board the Dolphin, configned
John Perkins merchant in Hamburg, to fell
for my account, the goods following, marked
and numbered as per margin, viz.
1. s. d.
My 5 hhds fugar, valued-at - 59 17 o
18 pieces calicoes, bought of}
Jacob Rufel, at 2/• lyr.v 49 10
to pay at 6 months, j
8 fother lead, prefently bought"?
for ready money, atia/. 18/.5 I0^ °
Paid cuftom and other charges, 14 06 8
—30th.-
G. 1
Received of Edward Dupper,
bill on William Boyd,  
/
-Auguftad.-
in full for my
E. 4
Received of Nathaniel Napier, in part for
druggets,    
E* 4-
6 th
/ Lent Edward Harley upon bond, for three
months, at 5 per cent.
F. 2.
10th
Received from on board the Griffin, Job,
Temple mailer, the following goods, to fell
for account of Herman Van Beek, merchant in
Amjlerdam. viz. 18 C. flax, and 14 but-ts
"nadder, each butt containing 12 C.  
Paid cuftom, freight, wharfage, porterage.
M.
—17 th .-
Sold Herman Van Beck's 14 butts madder,
lontaining 168 C. at 2/. 10/. per C. for ready
N. 1,
  — 23d. 
Sold to 'Thomas Freeman, for account of
Herman Van Beek, 18 E. flax at 3/. to p,ay
fix M°.    
N. 2.
Paid ftorage, brokerage, and other charges
a Herman Van Beck's goods,
N. 4.
My commiffion on 490/. at. 21 per cent.
qmes to - - - - -
n.-4.
Auguft
( 7 )
BOOK
WASTE-BOOK.
KEEPING.
WASTE- BOOK. (8)
HVB
N‘
— Auguft 30th.-
By order of Herman Van Beek, I have Ship¬
ped on board the IVeaJle Jloop, Thomas Dykt
matter, bound for Amfierdam, the goods fol
lowing, marked and numbered as per mar¬
gin, viz.
My jhhds pymento, containing^
1535 lb. which I value at io*/. > 63 19 2
per lb. - - J
12 hhds tobacco, prefently bought ^
for ready money, containing 6o> 62 10 o
C. at 24- d. per lb. - J
Paid cuftom and other charges, 7 18 2
Due to James Wright for cooperage 0128
My commiffion on the whole, at 7 ^
■ ■ ^ 3 07 6
-3lft.-
O. n. I. 3.
/. /. d
Paid James Wright in full for 7 .
cooperage, - - y
The abatement allowed by him is, o 00 8
N. n. 2. O. n. 3.
-September ift,—
Our Ihip the Britannia is arrived from Bar-
badoes, and Mr Steel has paid the owners in
full for freight. My 4 Part> which I have re¬
ceived, is - - - -
E. xo.
 3d. —
Accepted Herman Van Beek’s bill
payable to William Sabin at fix days fight; the
fum is - - - -
P. 2. F. n. 4. & 9.
8 th,
Remitted Herman Van Beek a bill of 584
guilders, drawn by Jofeph Buchan on Ralph
Roger merchant in Amjlerdam, value paid here
exchange at 36/. (sd. is - -
P.4.
•10th,
Paid William Sabin in full for V-sn Beck's bill 2i
P. n. 1. F. n. 4. & 9.
Received oi Jacob Spence 6 months intereft
of 1000/. lent him, the principal being conti¬
nued in his hands for another half-year; the
fum received is - - -
E. 7.
22d.
Received advice from John Perkins of Ham¬
burgh, That he hath received and difpofed of
my goods, the neat proceeds, as per accomptof
fales, amounting to 405/. jr. i\d. FlemijTo, ex¬
change at 34/. $d. makes Sterling
H. 2.
28th
Received from the commiffioners of the cu-
ftoms the drawback on my 5 hhds fugar export¬
ed to Hamburg. ...
G. n. 3. '
Vol. I. No. 25. 3
1380^
805
/
—September 30th.-
John Perkins hath remitted me in full, ex¬
change at 34/. in bills on the following perfons,
viz. 1. s. d
One, on John Aljlon, for 80 00 o
One, on Jacob Finch, for 120 00 o
One, oh Stephen Morden, for 38 07 8-
L. 5. 
 October 4th. 
Edouard Hopkins and myfelf have agreed to
go equal halves in 10 hhds tobacco, he to be
manager; my half fltare, which I have paid
him down, comes to -
9 th
Edouard Hopkins having difpofed of our to
ibacco, has paid me my proportion of neat pro¬
ceeds, as follows, viz. 1. s. d
Paid me in money - - ' 27 07 4
Given me a bill on Richard Ad- 7
difon for the rett - j 45 0
R. 1. n. 1.  
Delivered to Edouard Hopkins, 40 pieces
cambrics, to fell for our account, each
lued at 3 /. per piece,
I ^
/ j Received of Edouard Hopkins, in full for his
jhalf-fliare of 40 pieces cambrics,
; CLn. 2.
! 20th. 
/ \ Edouard Hopkins has fold our cambrics for
iprefent money, and paid me my part of neat
[proceeds, as follows, viz. 1. s. d.
Given me 721b. cloves, at 9/. 32 08 00
The reft in money, - 30 00 00
Bought of James Ward 90 pieces fluffs, at
2/. 8/. to pay at 3 months,
B-3'
044
— 2 ift. -
R. 1. n. 1
Paid lofs of a wager c
a horfe-ra
F. i
Bought in company with George Kent, each
one half, the fhip Phoenix, for which we have
paid down our refpective fhares to the owners,
amounting to -
S. 2. n. 2.
 —— 25th. 
The carpenter has brought in his bill of re¬
pairs on the Phoenix, which I have paid,
S. 3.
Mr Jones and company have freighted the!
Phoenix, for tear and wear of a voyage to Ca-\
diz, at 22/. per month, and have-thereupon
advanced 1 month’s freight, which I have re¬
ceived, -
T. 1. n. 1.
7 M
238
597
sSd.
08-'
640 00
Gclohor
59^
( 9 )
BOOK
W A S T E - B O O K.
K E
The Royal Exchange infurance-office has in
fured to us 600/. on the Phtznix, outward and
inward at 3 per cent, the premium, which I
have paid, comes to,
S. 3.
-26th
- October ayth.-
Bought of Richard Owen, for account of
leorge Kent and myfelf in company, each --
l.
4 pipes (Kerry, at 26/. - 104
5 pipes ditto, at 26/. xo/. 132 10
Due on demand,
S. 1.
-— 27th. 
Adjuifed accounts with George Kent, and
eceived
/. /. d.
His half-fir are of my difburfements 7 ,
on the Phoenix, y ^ 0
Received aifo his half-(Irare of the 7 ^
price of 9 pipes (Kerry, 5 11 ^ °
236
U.
Paid Richard Owen, in full for (Kerry
S. i.n.
 29th.   
Sold Edward Turner our 5 bed pipes (Ker¬
ry, at 29/.
/. /.
Received in part, - - 120 00
Reft due on demand, - 25 00
T. 1.
Sold our other 4 pipes (herry, for ready
money, at 27/. 12/.
T. 1.
Received of Edward Turner, in full for our
(hfeVry, - -
T. i.n. 2.
Paid carriage, cellar-rent, and other charges
on our (herry, - - --
S. 3. T. 3. n. 2.
/ I My commiffion on the whole, at per cent,
jarnounts to - - - ' -
j T. 3. n. 2.
 — 4th . 
/ ; Paid George Kent, in full for his half-fliare
[of neat proceeds on (Kerry,
I u.
-8th.
/ \ Received from Edward Harley, in full of his
bond dated (ixE Augujl laft, with 3 months in-
tereft at 5 per cent.
/.
The principal is - - 400 00!
The intereft comes to - - 5 oo1
708
06 /
i
E P I N G.
W A S T E - B O O K.
George Evans is broke, and I have compound¬
ed his debt bf 300 /. at 12 /. per pound.
/.
The compofition received is 180 60
The difeount is - - 120 00
E. 5.
Received of Nathaniel 'Niaper
druggets,
P- J
N°i
—November nth.-
Paid one year’s rent of my dwelling-houfe.
iz. irom Mart. 1764 to 1765,
t. 13.
12th
■t jth.-
E. A
225 00
27 10
Simon King, John Oker, and myfelf, ft:fol-
ig to make an equal joint adventure, we have
put into company what goods each of us have
proper for the intended voyage, without regard
to our due proportions, purpofing to adjuft that
matter with money.
1.
Simon King, 80 pieces ftrge, at 7
Sl.tos. - - j44°oo
John Oker, 70pieces frize, at 4/. 280 00
I have put in my 90 pieces fluffs,
which I value at 2/. 10 s.
I have paid charges till on board,
I have alfo paid Simon Smith and'
comp, for infuring 900/. on our
faid adventure,
Shipped the whole on board the Thijlle, Capt.
Bently mafter, configned to Philip Jenkins
merchant in Lisbon, to fell for our account, be¬
ing marked and numbered as per margin.
V. 2.n. 2.
   17th.   --
Upon adjufting accompts with Simon King
and John Oker, there appears doe to the
former, /. s. d.
Exora. John Oker, - - 51 13 4
And from me - - - 56134
Which we have paid, the total 7
being 3
U. 4.8c 7.
22d.
Simon King, John Oker, and myfelf,
folving further to trade in company, have
bought of George Wood 18 tuns oil of Galli-
poly, at 29/. 10 r. due on demand,
S. 1.
 25th.  
Simon King, John Oker, and myfelf, have
paid Gecrrge Wood, in full for oil,, as follows.
S. King has given him goods to7 c
the value or - 5
John Oker has counted withhim for 200 C
I,have paid him the reft in money, 211 c
U. 8,. S. X. n.
599
B O O K - K E
( n ) WASTE-BO-OK.
—November 21ft.-
Simon King has evened our accompts, by
paying A
To John Oker, - - 23 o
And to me, - - 340
-30th.-
U. 7. & 1.
Sold James Fuller, 1 tun of our oil, to pay
at 14 days. . - .
T. 1.
■December 2d,
Sold George Yeung, 7 tuns of our oil, at
30 A 10 /. A j
Received in part, - - 113 1
Reft due in 10 days, - - 100 00
T. 1.
-7th.-
Bartered 10 tuns of our oil, at 32 A for 12
pipts Canary wine, of the fame value, viz.
A r.
6 pipes at 28 A 6.r. 8 - 170 o
And 6 pipes at 25 A - - ijo o|
T. 2.
-13th.-
y Received of George Young, in full for oil,
T. 1. n. 2
E P I N G.
WASTE-BOOK.
( 12 )
/ j Sold our 6 pipes heft Canary, for prefentj
[money, at 29A 12./.
-20th.-
James Fuller is broke, and we have com¬
pounded his debt of 30 /. at 8 /. per pound,
A
The compofition which I have recei- ?
ved is - - . °
The difcount amounts to - 18 o
T. 1. n.
  24th. 
Simon King, John Oker, and myfelf, have
parted the remaining 6 pipes Canary equally a-
mong ourfelves; which, valued at 25 A per
pipe, comes to - -
T. 3,
  — 27th.   
The Phoenix is arrived from Cadiz, and Mr
Jones has paid me, in full for freight,
T. 1. n. 1
28th.
Sold our Phxnix 10 M.r Jor.
to pay at 3 months,
-30th.-
s and company,
T. 1.
Laid out for the ufe of my family. Cnee the
ift of January laft,
E. 13.
IIO URN A LL.
r>00
B O O K - K E
JOURNAL.
Edinburgh, the ill of January 1769.
Sundries Drs to Stock, 12407 /.
1.
Cajh, for ready money, 12000 00 o
Linen, for 2000 yards, at ,
2/. 6d. - - ^ 25° 00 0
Indian chints, for 1 c pieces, 7 /
at 34 /. 10s. - i 36710 0
Ship. Britannia, for ^ coft, 348 10 o
John Harris, per note on de- "7
mand, - ~ $
Thomas Freeman, per bill 7 ,
due Feb. 2. - > 96 00 0
George Evans, per bond at^
45 00 o
5 per cent.
Stock Dr to Sundries, 156/.
/. /. d.
To Jofeph Martin, on demand, 3 6 00 o
ToS'wIfaacCrifp, Aw likoiJune, 120 oc o
-6 th.-
2.Cambrics Dr to Caps, 112 /.
Paid for 40 pieces, at 2/. 16 r.
oth. •
Duroys Dr to John Vernon, 130/.
1 Bought 100 pieces, at 26/. to pay at 2
months,
15th,
Jofeph Martin Dr to Cajh, 36/.
Paid him in full,
Druggets Dr to Sundries, 195 l.
To Cajh, in part for 26 pieces, at ?
7/.
"o Jac
demand.
l.
97 10
To Jacob Rujfel, for the reft, on^ ^
•3 Voyage to Jamaica Dr to Sundries, 223 7
11 r. 4«7.
1. s. d.
To Duroys, for 70‘pieces, at 7 bo c
. 26/. 5
To Jacob Green, for 6 pieces ^
holland, at 18/. to pay at C 108 00 o
2 months. - j
To Cajh, paid charges and 7 ^
premium, - * 5 ^
-30th.-
ff Jacob Rujfel Dr t0 Cajh, 97/. tor.
.1 Paid him in full for druggets,
156
•97
E P I N G.
J O U R N A
-February 2d.-
( 2 )
.yBroad Cloth Dr to Sundries, 675/.
/.
330 c
d. .3
To Cajh, in part, for 1000 yards,
at 13/. drf'.
To John Harris, for my bill on?
him, - - j 4J
To Edward Harley, for the reft 7
at 3 months, 3 ^0°
- 5th.-
Cap) Dr to Thomas Freeman, 96/.
Received of him in full,
 16th. 
Sundries Drs to Cajh, 765 /.
.3 Kerfeys, for 90 pieces, at 6 /.
" ijliai
6 d.
1.
540
Fujlians, for 120 pieces, at 37j'i^22j 0
-25th.-
. I Cajh Dr to Druggets, 81 /. 10 s.
Received for 10 pieces, at 8 l. 3 /,
• AyT L ,n.
^George Toung Dr to Broad Cloth, 280/'.
T, Sold him 400 yards, at 14/. to pay at 1 M°.
 -ath.     
\Sundries Dfs to Kerfeys, 571/. 10/.
Cajh, in part for 90 pieces, at?
/.
6/, 7,: -• ■-
'■J John Keil, for the reft, at 20 days, 27
,}john Vernon Dr to Cajh, 130/.
“1 Paid him in full for duroys.
gjacob Spencer Dr to Cajh, 1000/.
— Lent him upon bond for 6 months, at 5 per
cent, per ann.
-17th-
'gBills receivableDx toBroadCloth, 141 /. 13/. 4^.
—| Sold Jacob PreJJon 200 yards, at 14/. 2d.
’■* and received his bill on Henry Sidney for the
whole, payable at fight,
-22d
Sundries Drs to Broad Cloth, 285/. 16/. 8d.
1. s. d.
Foreign Coin, for 26 moidores, 7
at 27/. in part for 400 yds, C 35 02 o
at 14/. ikd. - - 3
Cajh, \n Britijh money, 150 14
Bills receivable, for Richard ')
Stone's affignment on Georges 100 00 o
Dig by, for the reft, j
-23d.-
Jacob Green Dr to Sundries, 1081.
To Foreign Coin, for 26 moidores, 7
at 26/. 6d. ■ - 5 34 9
To Cajh, for Britijh money, 73
Paid him in full for holland.
675*00
96
765
285
( 3 )
BOO
JOURNAL.
K - K E
/. s.'d.
E P
-March 23d.-
ajh Dr to Bills receivable, 141/. 13 s. 4 d.
Received of Henry Sidney, in full of Jacob
Prejlon s bill,
—April 1 ft,
4 Lockrams Dr to Indian Chints, 50/.
Received 40 pieces, at 25 x. in barter, for 2
pieces, at 25 /.
16 th,
Sundries Drs to Linen, 133/. 6x. 8d.
/. s.d.
.4 Cochineal, for 1 C. valued at 108 16
Cinnamon, for 641b. at 7x. 8d. 24 10 8
Received in barter for 1000 yards, at ax. 8d.
 22d.
Sundries Drs to John Keil, 271/. iox,
Cajb, in full for kerfeys,
Kerfeys, abated him.
/.
270 00
Cajh Dr to George Young, 280/.
Received of him in full for broad cloth,
■ 10 th,-
Sundries Drs to Indian Chints, 148/. I0x.
Mujlin, for 8 bales', at 12/. 16 x.
Cajb, for the balance paid me.
Received in barter for 6 pieces, at 24/. 15
30th.
/.
102
46 2
George Dennis Dr to Sundries, 187 /. 10x.
To Lxw/z, for 100 yards, at ax. 9*/. J37 10
To IndianChints, for 2 pieces, at 25 /. jo 00
Delivered him in barter.
Sundries Drs to George Dennis, 164 16 x. 6 d.
1. x. d.
Cotton, for 17 bags, containing^
42 C. 2 neat, at 3/. 15X.C 159 07 6
perC. - J
Cloves, for 12 lb. at 9 x. 1 d. 5090
Received of him in barter.
 May 3d. 
Edward Harley Dr to Cajh, 300 /.
Paid him in full for broad cloth,
- — 7th.-
.5 Sufpenfe-accompt Dr to Druggets, 124/.
Sent Nathaniel Napier 16 pieces, defiring him
to take them at 7/. ijx. or return them,
13th
Refufal of Bargains Dr to Cajh, 2 /. 2 x.
Paid to Simon Smart, as a penalty for refufing
bargain of Norwich fluffs,
Vol. T. No. 26.
27lOO|
280
5000
187
164
I N
J o U
G.
R N
6(51
4 )
Cajh Dr to John Jefop his accompt current, 200/.
Drawn my bill on him, for 960 dollars,
50^. p&yMe to George Stapleton, or order, va;
lue received, ...
June 3d. 
3 John Vernon Dr to Profit and Left, 200 /.
Left me in legacy by Dr George Friend, and
payable by ditto Vernon, his executor,
8th.-
 May 18th.—
John Jeffop his accompt-current Dr to Sundries
■$bol. rjx. /.
To George Dennis, for 8 tuns lead,
3 /. iox. to pay at 1 month,
> ro8
To Cajh, for 75361b. tanned leather, 7
at 7 d. with cuftom, infurance, <bc. 5
To George Alton, for packing,
To Profit and Loft, for my commiflion,
2-41 5
• 22d.—
George Alton Dr to Cajh, 1 /. 5
Paid him in full for packing John JeJfop'% lea¬
ther,
31ft. -
Sir Ifaac Crifp Dr to Cajlo, 80/.
Paid him in part,
i6tb.--
Nathaniel Napier Dr to SuJ'penJe accompt, 124 /.
Writes me, that he keeps the 16 pieces drug¬
gets fent him the 7 th of May laft, promifing to
pay one half againft the ift of Augujl, and th<
other half at Martinmas, the whole being,
18th,
Sundries Drs to Voyage to Jamaica, 304 /. 7
/. x. d,
• 6 Voyage from Jamaica, for goods 7
returned, and charges, ^ *95 °7 J
•6 William Boyd my accompt- current, 7 _
for balance in his hands, 3° ^
- 22d.- •
George Dennis Dr to Cajh, 85/. 6x. 6 d.
Paid him in full
    29th. 
Sir Ifaac Crifp Dr to Cajlo, 40/.
Paid him in full . . .
■July 2d -
■ 7 Charges of merchandize Dr to Cafh, 12 l.
Paid fhop-rent for 4 year, viz, from January
• ^ July r.
-5th,
■ 7 Charges of merchandize Di to Cajh, 2I. I 2X. 8d.
,i Paid my Ihop keeper his bill of poftage, and
other charges,
- -9th.
-6 Voyage from Jamaica Dr to Cafh, 97/. \_
Paid freight, duty, and other charges here,
Sundries Drs to Voyage from Jamaica, 160/. 13X.
Cajh in part for 6 barrels indigo, con-7 Q
taining 7561b. at 4X. Jd. per lb. JSa
John Dyer, for the reft at fix months, 80 oc
7 N
360
1300
July
602
( 5 )
Pymento, for 5 hogfheads, con¬
taining 1535 lb. at 6 </.
per lb.
Sugary for 5 hogfheads, cc
taining 63 C. at 19
per C.
Brought into my warehoufe.
  1 15th- 
Ednxiard Dapper Dr to William Boyd my accompt-
current, 108/. 19/. 1 d.
Drawn my bill on him, payable to ditto Dap¬
per, value due by him, at' i,o days,
22d.—  
Voyage to Hamburg Dr to Sundries, 226 /.
17/. 8 d.
/. /. d.
To for 5 hogfheads, valued at 59 17 0
To Jacob Rujjel, for 18 pieces"
callicoes, at 2/. ijr. to pay^ 49 10 o
at 6 months,
To Cajh, for 8 fother lead, at
12 /. 18 r. and charges atS. 117 10
fhipping,
B O O K - K
JOURNAL.
—July 10th.—
Sundries Drs x.0 Voyage from Jamaicaf
4 s. (sd.
/. s. d.
38 07 6
- 30th.'-
Cajh Dr to Edouard Dapper, 108 /. 19/. 7 d.
Received of him, in full of my bill on William
Boyd,
Auguft 3d.
Cafh Dr to Nathaniel Napier, 62 /.
Received his firft moiety for druggets,
6th.—
Edouard Harley Dr to Cafh, 400/.
Lent him upon bond, for 3 months, at 5 per
cent.
10th;
98 04
Herman Van Beek his accompt of goods, Dr to
Cafj, 14/. \2 s. 6d.
Paid cuflom, freight, and other charges on
them, -
-—  17 th.   
Cafh Dr to Herman Van Beek his accompt of
goods, 420/.
Received for his 14 butts madder, containing
168 C. at 2 /. 10 /. per C.
 23d. 
Thomas Freeman Dr to Herman Van Beek his
accompt of goods, 54 /.
For his 18 C. flax, at 3 /. to pay at 6 months,
Herman Van Beek his accornpl of goods Dr to
Cafh, 1 /. 7 /. 6 d.
Paid florage, brokerage, foe.
Herman Van Beek his accompt of goods Dr to
Profit and Lcfs, 12 /. 5 s.
For my commiilion at if per cent.
1708
Herman Van Beek his acoompt-current Dr to
1 Bills payable, 200/,
Accepted his bill on me payable to Williasn Sa¬
bin at 6 days, - - -
8th
E P I N G.
J O U R N A
( 6 )
-Auguft 30th.—
Herman Van Beek his accompt current Dr .
Sundries, 138 /. ~js. 6d.
To Pymento, for 5; hogfheads, con¬
taining 1535 lb. which I value
zt io d. per Vo.
To Cajh, for 12 hogfheads tobac¬
co, containing 60 C. at 24 d.
per lb. and charges, -
To James Wright, for cooperage,
To Profit and Lofi , for my com-
miffion at 24 per cent.
/. s.
63 19
70 08 2
O 12
3 07 6
-31ft.-
Janus Wright Dr to Sundries, 12/. 8 d.
To Cafio, in full, ...
To H. Van Beek his accompt-current, 1
abated, - - 3 (
—September ift.-
Cafh Dr to Ship Britannia, 72 A 10/.
Received my 4 of freight from Mr Steel,
3 d-
Herman Van Beek his accompl-current Dr to
Cajh, S3 A 6/. 8 d.
Remitted him 584 guilders in Jofeph Buchan's
bill on Ralph Roger, value paid here,
 -10th. 
Bills payable Dr to Cafio, 200 A
Paid William Sabin, in full of Van Beek’s bill
on me,
Cajh Dr to Profit and Lofs, 25 A
f Received 6 months intereft of 1000 A lent Ja¬
cob Spencer, -
2 2d,
.8 John Perkins my accompt current Dr to Voyage
to Hamburg, 235A 10/.
Received advice that he hath fold my goods,
the neat proceeds amounting to 405 A 5; r. \i d.
Flemijh, exchange at 34 x. $ d. makes Sterling,
28th. —
Cajh Dr to Voyage to Hamburg, 8 A $ S. 4^ d.
Received drawback on my 5 hogfheads i'ugai
exported, -
30th.
Bills receivable Dr to John Perkins my accompt-
current, 238/, 7/. 84*A
Remitted to me in full of 405 A 5 x. i4^A ex¬
change at 34X. in bills, viz.
1. s. d.
One, on John Hlfion, for - 80 OO O
One, on Jacob Finch, for - 120 00 o
One, on Stephen Morden, for - 38 07 84
138
23807
©dober
6o.
Ts
Sundries Drs to Cambrics, 120 l.
( 7 )
B O O K - K
J O U R N A L.
E E
—Odober 4th.-
EJ-jjard Hopkins my accompt in company Dr to
Cap,, Sol.
Paid him my half (hare of 10 hogfheads tobac¬
co in his hands, ...
9th
Sundries Drs to Edward Hopkins my accompt in
company, 12 l- Is. 4 d.
1. s. d.
Cap,, received in money, - 27 07 4
Bills receivable, for one on R. Ad-'
45 00 o
/.
Edward Hopkins my accompt in com¬
pany, for my half fliare of 40 v 60 co
pieces, at 3 /. -
Edward Hopkins my accompt pro- / ,
per, for his half fhare, ^600^
PING.
JOURNAL.
\ 3 )
nth. -
Cap, Dr to Edward Hopkins my accompt prope
60 l.
Received for his half {hare of cambrics,
20th. -
Sundries Drs to Edward Hopkins my aceompt in
company, 62/. 8r.
/.
Cloves, for 721b. at 9 /. - 32 8
Cap,, received in money, - - 30 o
ift-
g Stuffs Dr to James Ward, 2161.
Bought 90 pieces, at 21- 8 s. to pay at 3
months,
■2 2d.
^Profit and Lofs Dr to Cajh, 2 l. 2 s.
Paid lofs of a wager on a horfe-race.
Ship Phoenix in company with George Kent Dr to
Sundries, 640 /. /.
To cajh, for my half {hare, - 320 .0
To George Kent his accompt in com- 7
pany, for his half {bare, y
320 o
-25th. •
Ship Phoenix in company with George Kent Df
to Cajh, 161. 10 s.
Paid the carpenter his bill of repairs,
9 George Kent his accompt proper Dr to ditto Kent
his accompt in company, 8 /. 5
For his half {hare of repairs.
Rich-
.9 Sherry in company with George Kent Di
ard Owen, 236/. IO/.
For 9 pipes, viz. 4 at 26 /. and 5 at 261. 10
due on demand, - - -
George Kent his accompt proper Dr to ditto his
accompt in company, 118 7. 5 s.
For his half {hare of 9 pipes {berry,
27 th.-
Cap, Dr to Ship Phoenix in Company with George
Kent, 22.1.
Received 1 month’s freight,
■orge Kent his accompt in company Dr to ditto
his accompt proper, 1 1 /.
For his half .{hare of 1 month’s freight re
Ceived,_, - > - - ^ j
-Odober 25th
Ship Phoenix in company with George Kent Dr to
Cap,, 18/.
Paid premium for in faring bool, to and from
ladiz,
leorge Kent his accompt proper Dr to ditto his
accompt in conipany, 9 /.
For his half {hare of premium,
• -26th,
Cajh Dr to George Kent his accompt proper,
124/. 10/.
Received of him his half {hare of my difburfe-
ments on the Phoenix, and alfo his half ihare of
the price of 9 pipes {berry,
Richard Owen Dr to Cap,, 236/. 10s.
Paid him in full for {berry,
 29th.  
Sundries Drs to Sherry in Company with Georgt
Kent, 145/.
1. s.
Cap,, in part for our j beft pipes, at 7
29 /. - - ^ 120 oc
Edward Turner, for the reft, on de- 7
mand, - - j 00l
George Kent his" accompt in company Dr to ditto
his accompt proper, 72/. ioj.
For his half {hare of 5 pipes {berry fold Ed¬
ward Turner, at 29 /.
November ift
.9 Cajh Dr to Sherry in company with George Kent,
no /. 8
Received for 4 pipes, at 27 /. 12 /.
640 OO 00 . -8 George Kent his dccompt in company Dr to ditto
his accompt proper, 55/. 4 s.
For his half {hare of no/. Sr. received for
4 pipes ftierry,. -
236
0500
.cyCaJh, Dr to Edward Turner, 25/.
Received of him in full for flierry.
Sherry in company with George Kent Dr to Cajh,
3 l. 2 s.
Paid carriage, cellar-rent, drc.
George Kent his - accompt proper Dr to ditto his
accompt in company, 1 / 11 s.
For his half {hare of carriage, cellar-rent, 6-r.
November.
6o4
• ( 9 )
B O O K - K E
JOURNAL.
Sherry in company •with George Kent Dr to Pro¬
fit and Lofty 7/. 8/. 6d.
For my commiilion, at per cent.
9 George Kent hit accompt proper Dr to ditto his
“ accompt in company, 3/. 14/. 3 </.
For his half ihare of my commiflion,
4th.-
George Kent his accotnptproper Dr to Cafk, 122/.
8 r. 9 </.
Paid him in full for his half (hare of neat pro¬
ceeds on (herfy, ...
-8th,
Cajb T)r to Sundries, 405 /.
.3 To Edward Harley, for principal^
lent him the 6th of Hugujl v 400 00
lad, - j
.6 To Profit and Lofs, for 3 months 9
intereft, at 5 per cent. - 3 5
Houfie expences Dr to Cajh, 40/.
Paid one year’s rent of my dwelling-houfe,
2 th. -
Sundries Dts to Getrge Evans, 300/.
i
Gajh., received in compofnion of his debt, 180 o
Pn;//Lis//, abated him, - 1200
Cajh Dr to Nathaniel Napier, 62/.
Received of him in full,
15th. -
l.
Voyage to Lijbon in company with Simon King
and John Oker Dr to Sundries, 995 /.
To Simon King his accompt proper,
for 80 pieces ferge, at 5 /. to s. y ^
To John Oker his accompt proper,! 2g(> OQ
for 70 pieces frize, at 4/. 5
To Stuffs, for 90 pieces, at 2 /. 10s. 225 00
To Gaff, for charges and premium, 50 00
Simon King his accompt proper Dr to ditto his
accompt in company, 331 13 4 ^
For his (hare of the voyage to Lijbon.
John Oker, ditto,
7th.-
Simon King his accompt proper Dr 10 Sundries
108/. 6s. 8d.
1. s. d.
To J. Oker his accompt proper 7
paid by him, - 5 > 3 4
To Caff, paid by me, - 56 13 4
{
PING.
J O U R N A
—November 22d.
( 10 )
Simon King his accoornpt proper Dr to ditto his
accompt in company, 177/.
For his -f (hare of 18 tuns oil,
John Oker, ditto,
Sundries Drs to S. King his accompt pro¬
per, 57/,
/.
John Oker his accompt proper, paid ^
Oil in company with Simon King and John
Oker Dr to George IVood, 531/.
Bought 18 tuns, at 29/. 10/. due on de
mand,' - -
—2jth.-
'eorge IVood Dr to Sundries, 531/.
/.
To Simon Kina his accompt pro-!
per, paid by him, - ^ 120 00
To John Oker his accompt proper,!
paid by him, - - j 200 00
To Caff, paid by me, - 211 00
to him,
Caff, paid to me.
34 00
-30th.-
James Fuller Dr to Oil in company with S.
King and J. Oker, 30/.
Sold him 1 tun, to pay at 14 days,
Simon King his accompt in company Dr. to ditto
his accompt proper, 101.
For his -j- (hare,
John Oker, ditto,
■December 2d.-
Sundries Drs to Oil in company with S. King
and J .Oker, 213/. 10/.
in part for 7 tuns, at 30/. 10/. 113 10
George Young, for the reft, at 10 days, too 00
Simon King his accompt in company Dr to ditto
his accompt proper, 71/. 3 /. 4 </.
For his \ (hare of feven tuns of-oil fold.
John Oker, ditto,
-7th.-
Canary in company with S. King and J. Oker
Dr to Oil in company with ditto, 320/.
Received 12 pipes, viz. 6 pipes at 28/. 6s.
id. and 6 pipes at 25/. in barter for 10 tuns;
at 32/. - - - -
13th,
'aff Dx \.o George Young, 100I
Received of him, in full for oil in company.
December
B O O K - K E
( ii ) JOURNAL.
j l. Is. d.
9 Cajh Dr to Canary in company •with Simon King
and John Oker, 177/. 12/.
Received for 6 pipes, 3129/. 12/. 1177
Simon King his accompt in company Dr to
ditto his accompt -proper, 59/. 4/.
For his y fhare of 177/. 12/. received for
Canary, - - - ' -
—December 18th.-
John Oker, ditto.
—20th.-
Sundries Drs to James Fuller, 30/.
/.
Cafo, received in compofition of his ?
debt, - - r2 00
Oil in company 'with S. King andl _
John Oker, abated him, 3 1 °
. 1 o Simon King his accompt-proper Dr to ditto his
.10! accompt in company, 61.
j For his -i fliare of 18 /. abated
Q john Oker, ditto.
-24th.-
Sundries Drs to Canary in company ’with S.
King and J. Oker, 150/.
/. /.
S. King his accompt in company, for}
2 pipes taken to himfelf, as his C 50 03
(bare of what remains, }
7. Oker his accompt in company, for 7
ditto, - . \ 50 00
Canary, for 2 pipes retained, as my 7
/hare. - - 3
50 00
Von. I. No. 16.
E P I N G.
JOURNAL.
( 12 )
—December 27 th.-
Cajh Dr to Ship Phoenix in company ’wit!
George Kent, 22/.
Received in full for freight,,
George Kent his accompt in company Dr to ditto
his accompt-proper, \\l.
For his half lhare of 22 /. received as freight,
■28th.
Mr Jones and company Dr to Ship Phoenix
company •with George Kent, Tool.
Sold ditto {hip, to pay at 3 months,
George Kent his accompt in company Dr to ditto
his accompt proper, 3 50/.
For his half {hare,
—  30th. 
Houfe expenses Dr to Cajh, 200/.
Expended fince the 1 ft oiJanuary laft,
60$
s.d.
7 O
LEDGER
6o6
BOOK-KEEPING.
LEDGE Iv? 176^.
The INDEX, or ALPHABET.
Fol.
Alton (George) 5
Broad cloth
Bills receivable
Boyd (William) 7 6
my acct-curt j
Bills payable
Balance
B. j C.
Fol\
3 Cafh
Chints (Indian)
Crifp (Sirlfaac)
Cambrics
Cochineal
Cinnamon
Cotton
Cloves
Charges of mer- ^
chandize 5
Canary in comp.
Canary
Fol.
1—9
D.
Fol.
Duroys
Druggets
Dennis (George) 5
Dyer (John) 7
Dupper (Edward) 7
Fol.
Evans (George) 2
T. \
Fol.
Freeman (Thom.) 2
Fuftians
Foreign coin '4
Fuller (James) 10
Green (Jacob)
H. I.
Fol. Fol
Harris (John) 2lJeflbp(John)his
Harley (Edward) 3; acct current
Hopkins (Edw.)^ |Jones (Mr) and7
my accompt in v 8 company 5
comp.
Hopkins (Edw.) 7 g
my acct proper 3
Houfe-expences 9
K.
Fol.
Kerfeys
Keil (John)
Kent (George)}
his accompt C
in comp. j
Kent (Geo.) his^
acct proper 5
King (Simon))
his accompt C
proper }
King (Simon))
his accompt C 10
in comp. )
Linen
Lockrams
Martin (Jofeph)
4Muflin
Napier (Nath.)
O.
Fol.
6 Owen (Richard) 9
Oker (John) his 7
acct proper )
Oker (John) his 7
acct in comp. 3
Oil in company 10
Fol.
Profit and Lofs 6
Pymento
Pefkins (John) 7
mv acct-curt 3 ^
CL
R.
Fol.
Ruflel (Jacob) 3
Refufal of bargains y
Ship Britannia
Stock
Spencer (Jacob)
Sufpenfe-acct
Sugar
Stuffs
Ship Phoenix in?
company 3
Sherry in comp.
T.
FaJ.
Turner (Edward) 9
V. W
Fol. Fol.
Vernon (John) 3IWright (James)
Voyage to Jam. 3!Ward (James)
Voy. from Jam. 6 Wood (George) 10
Voy. to Hamburg 7
VanBeek(H.)his 7
acct of goo^s 3 '
Van Beek his ac-7
compt on time 3 7
Van Beek his ac-7
compt-current 3 '
Voy. to Lilbon7
-in company 3
Y.
Fol.
Young (George) 4
Z.
BOOK-KEEPING.
(x)
LEDGER.
1769
Jan.
Fob.
dpr.
May
July
Jug
Sept.
1769
J‘
1769
Jan.
1769
Jan.
Cajb,
Dr
To Stock, for ready money,
To Thomas Freeman, received in full.
To Druggets, for 10 pieces, at 8/. 3/,
To Kerfeys, in part for 90 pieces, at
6 l. 7 s.
To Broad Cloth, in part for 400 yds.
To Bills receivable of Henry Sidney
1 full.
To John Keil, in full for kerfeys,
6 T0 George Young, in full for broad
cloth.
To Indian chints, a balance in barter.
To 7. Jeffop his accompt current.
9 To Voyage from Jamaica, in part for
indigo,
ToEd-ward Dupper, in full of my bill
3 To Nathaniel Napier, in part for
druggets.
To H. V. Seek his accompt of goods.
To Ship Britannia, for freight,
To Proft and Lofs, iov 6 months
intereit of 1000/.
To Voyage to Hamburg, for drawback
on fugar,
9 To Edward Hopkins my accompt in
company.
To Edward Hopkins my accompt pro¬
per, -
To Edward Hopkins my accompt in
company.
To Ship Phoenix in company, for
month’s freight.
To Stock, at 2 s. Gd. for
To Profit and Lofs, gained.
Yards.
2000
IndianchintSy Dr
To Stock, at 24/. 10/. for
To Profit and Lofs, gained,
Ship Britannia,.
To Stock, for i part,
To Profit and Lofs, gained.
LEDGER.
:200c
96
08
04
280 c
46 c
200 bo 00
4482
1769
Jan.
Feb.
Mar
May
June
July
Jug.
0704
I '
0000 .
00,00
opo
S°&
1769
Jp>
1769
Jp>
1769
00 ■ Sept\
( X ),
Contra,
Cr¬
ibs.
By Cambrics, for 40 pieces, at 2 /.
By Jofeph Martin, in full.
Druggets, in part for 2 6 pieces, at 7/.
By Vsy . to Jamaica, paid charges and prem,
By J. Ruj/'el, in full for druggets,
Ry BroadCloth,inyi\.rx.foriooo yds,i.u^s.Gd.
By Sundries, as per Journal,
By John Vernon, in full for duroys,
By J.Spencer, lent him for 6 M°, at 5 per
By Jacob Green, in part for holland,
By Edward Harley, in full,
By Refufal of bargains.
By J. JeJfop his aect-curt. for leather, <bc.
By George Alton, in full,
By Sir Ifaac Crifp, in part.
By George Dennis, in full
By Sir Ifaac Crifp, in full, -
By Charges of mer. paid year’s Ihop-rent,
y By Charges of mer. paid portage, isc.
By Voyage from Jamaica, for charges paid,
By Voy. to Hamburg, for lead and charges,
By Edward Harley, lent him at 5 per cent.
By H. V. Seek his acct of goods, for charges,
By H. V. Beek his accompt of goods'.
By H.V.Beek his acct- current, for tobacco,
By James Wright, in full,
By H. V. Beek his acct-curt, remitted him,
By Bills Payable,
By Edward Hopkins my acct in company.
By Profit and Lofs, paid lofs of a wager,
By Ship Phtenix in company, for my J (hare
By Ship Phoenix in company, paid repairs,
By New accompt.
Contra, Cr
By Sundries, in bart. at ar. 8</. for
By George Dennis, at 2 s. yd. for
Yards
IO00
ioOo
Contra,.
Cr
By Lock rams, in barter, at 25/. for
By Sund, in bart. at 24/. 15/ for
By George Dennis, at 2 71.
By Balance, remaining at 24/.IOJ-.
Pieces.
— .2!
— 6
— 2< 5
— 5n
By Cafis, for my l of freight,
By Balance, for my ^remaining,
605
l. s.’d.
112 00 00
360000
97 1000
2'4 1 ljc4
97 '0,00
33000J00
76500,00
1300000
10000000
73 11 00
30000 00
2 02 00
2410400'
1 05 00 ■
800000-
850606.
4000 00
12 00 00 •
2 12 08
07 12 00
117 1008
40000 00
14 12 06
1 07 06
70 08 02
o 12 00
5 3 06 08
2 00 6c 00
60 oc 00 •
2 02 00
320 00 00
16 10 00
9698 00 03 '
4482 15034,;
13.1 608
737ic oo
270 16 08
5000 30
I4S It 30
59 OC 00
122 IC 30
'37X cc 30
72 1000
348 I coo
42110000
Jyhn.. '
<Se3
1769
Jan
1769
Jan.
Aug.
1769
Jan
.1769
B O O K - K E
( 2 ) LEDGER,
| . Fo l.
j John Harris, Dr
ijTo Stock, per note on demand,
6-
Tbonias Freeman,
Dr
IjTo Stock, per bill due February 2.
To H. Van Beek bis accompt of goods.
at 6 months.
George Evans, Dr
To Stock, per bond at 5 per cent.
1769
Jan.
1769
June
3769
Jan.
1769
Jan.
To Jofeph Martin, on demand.
To Sir Ifaac Crifp, due June 1.
To Balance, the neat of myeftate.
Jofeph Martin, Dr
To Cajh, paid him in full,
Sir IJaac Crifp,
8|To Cajh, paid him in part,
2^ To Cajlo, paid him in full,
Dr
Cambrics, Dr I
I Pieces.
To Cajh, at 2/. \6s. for I 40
To Profit and Lofs, gained | -
Duroys, Dr
To John Vernon, at 26s. for
Pieces.
100
3600
120
13474
13630
E P I N G.
LEDGER. {2^
176c
oo Feb.
176c,
30 Feb.
1769
Nov.
1769
00 Jan.
80
4000
176'
00 Jt
1769
00 Jt.
176c
oa.
1769
00 00 Jan.
Contra, Cr
By Broad Cloth, for my bill on him.
By Cajh, received in full.
By Balance., for Van Beek'% flax.
Cot lira, Cr
By Sundries, as per Journal,
Contra,
Cr
By Cajh, for ready money.
By Linnen, 2000 yards, at 2/. 6 d.
By Indian Qiints, 15 pieces, at 24/.
10/. -
By Ship Britannia, forepart,
By John Harris, per note on demand.
By Thomas Freeman, per bill due Feb. 2.
By George Evans, per hond at j per
cent. -
By Profit and Lofs, gained fince the ift
of January laft.
Contra,
By Stock, on demand
Contra,
By Stock, dated June 1. ■
Contra,
By Sundries, at 31. for
Cr
Pieces,
40
Contra.
By
Voyage to Jamaica, at 7
26/. for
By Balance, remaining, at 2 dr.
Cr
Pieces*
70
30
l. s. d.
45 oc 00
96joc 00
5400 00
1500000
300 0000
120000000
25000 00
3671000
348 io|oo
45 oojoo
96 oo'oo
I
300 00 00
223 15:03
136301503
360000
120,00 00
120 00 00
91 00 00
390000
1300000
John
N0 i3
X769!
Mar ic
June 2
1769.
Jan.,-,
1769
Jan '
176c,
1769
1769
1769
May
Aug\ t
John Vernon, Dr
To Cajh, paid him in full.
To Profit and Loft, for Dr Friend'
legacy, - - - '
1769
Feb. 16
Jlpr.
1769
Feb. 16
3 )
B O O K - K E
LEDGER.
E P I N G.
LEDGER.
( 3:) „
Druggets, Dr
fo Sundries, at 7/. 10/. for
Co Profit and Loft, gained,
Pieces,
26
Jacob Kujfel,
To Cajh, paid him in full.
To Balance, dug to him.
Voyage to Jamaica,
To Sundries, as per Journal,
To Profit and Lofs, gained,
Jacob Green, Dr
To Sundries, paid him in full.
Broad Cloth, Dr
To Sundries, at 13/. 6~d. for
To Profit and Lofs, gained
Yards.
1000
Edouard Harley, L
To Cajh, paid him in full,
To Cajh, lent him at 5 per cent.
Kerfeys, Dr
To Cajh, at 6/. for
To John Keil, abated -
To Profit and Lofs, gained,
Pieces.
90
Fujtians, Dr
To Cajh, at 3 7/. hd. for
Von. L No. 26.
j Pieces
| 120
30
6(200
1769'
Jan. 10
00 00
1000
97
49 10J08
47 oc|oo
1769
Feb.
May
223
6 80
675 00
32
1 54°
4|
6 3°
Contra, Cr
2 y By Cajh, at 8/. 3/. for
7 By Sufpenfe-accompt, at 7 /.
ij/. for
• 1769
Jan.
Jub
1769
June
1769
Jan.
1769
Mar
By Duroys, to pay at 2 months,
By Balance, due by him,
Contra, Cr
15 By Druggets, on demand,
22 By Voyage to Hamburg, due at fix M°.
Contra, Cr
Sundries, as Journal,
Contra, Cr
21 By Voyage to Jamaica, to pay at 2 M°
Contra
Cr
George Young, zx 14/. for
7 By Bills receivable, at 14/. id.
| for ....
22'Qy Sundries, at 14/. ^\d. for
Yards.
400
1769
Feb.
Nov'.
1769
Mar
Contra,
Cr
By Broad Cloth, due at 3 months,
Cajb, for principal.
8 By
Contra, Cr I
| I Pieces.
4 By Sundries, at 6/. 7/. for I 90
609
uu
3300000
0000
1000
42800a
i '
4 M1 13
|2SS '
^'30000 00
9(4000000.
Contra, Cr
TyBalance, remain. at 3 ys.hd.
7P
Pieces.
120 1
6io
4 )
1769
Mar. • 1
Dec. | 2
1769
Mar
1769
J769
Alar
Sept.
Cfl.
1769
1769
j76'_
Apr.
J769
dpr.
George Young, Dr
To Broad Cloth, to pay at 1 month,
To 0:1 in compa/.j, due at 10 days,
John Keil, Dr
To Kerfeys, to pay at 20 days,
B O O K - K
LEDGER.
\Fo /.
E E P I N G.
L E D G E R.
Jacob Spencer, Dr
To Cafo, lent him at 5 per cent.
Bills receivable,
Dr
To Broad Cloth, for 1 on Henry Sidney.
To Broad Cloth, for 1 on George Digby
To J. Perkins my accompt-current, fot
on John Aijlon, L. 80 OO OO ^
on Jacob Finch, 120 00 00 >
on Stephen Blorden, 38 07 oSiJ
Ed. Hopkins ?ny accompt in amp.'?
for i on Rich. Addlfon, 3
9 To
i Foreign coin, Dr I
Moidores
2 To Broad Cloth at 27/. for | 26
To Indian Chints, in barter
at 25/.
Pieces.
40
Cochineal, Dr
16 To Linen, in barter.
I Cinnan'/sn, Dr I
6T0 Linen, in barter at 7/. 8^. I
3 280
O 1 00 OO OO
1769
Ap
Dec. 13
1769
Apr.
OO OO
01 004.
1769
Mar
1769
Mar
Contra, Cr
By Sundries, as per Journal,
Contra,
By Balance, due by him,
( 4 )
Contra,
By Cajh, received in full,
8y Cajh, received in full,
Cr
Contra,
Cr
By Cajh, received of Henry Sidney in full.
By Balance remaining,
1 on George Digby, L. 100 00 00
I on J. Aljlon, 80 00 00
1 on J. Finch, 120 00 00
l on Stephen Morden, 38 07 084
1 on Rich. Addijon, 45 00 00
Contra, Cr
By Jacob Green, at 26s.
6 d. for
By Profit and Lefs, loft,
Moidores,
26
Contra, Cr I
I Pieces,
By-ffaAwe remaining, at 25/. I 40
Contra, Cr
By Balance remaining.
Contra, Cr
^Balance, remain, at yr. %d.
3800000
BOOK-KEEPING.
611
Mu/lin, Dr I
1769 I Bales.
Apr. 22To Indian Chints, at 12/. i6r. |
for - * - 8
1769
Apr.
June
1769
Apr.
1769
Apr.
on.
,769
May
1769
May
1769
J 769
; ) LEDGER.
George Dennis% Dr
To Sundries, as per Journal,
To Cajh, paid him in full,
Cotton, Dr
To G. Dennis, at 3/. 15s. perC.
Cloves, Dr
To George Dennis, at 9/. 1 d. for
To E. Hopkins, my accempt in
company, at 9 / . for
C.Q.
42 2
Sufpenfe-accompt, Dr
To Druggets, fent Nathaniel Napier,
16 pieces.
Kefufal of Bargains, Dr
To Cajh, paid penalty for refuting Nor-
•wich fluffs, -
John JeJJop his acst-curt. Dr
To Sundries, as per Journal,
George Alton, Dr
22T0 Cajh, paid him in fullj
LEDGER. ( 5 )
1769
_ Apr.
06 May
06
606
32:08
_ 1769
—  June
360
1769
May
1769
J OO May
Cr
By Balance, remaining, at
12/. 16/.
Contra, C
By Sundries, as per Journal,
By J. JeJJop his acct-curt, at 1 month.
Contra, Cr I j
c.qJ
ByZ/tf/tfwc^remaining.atj/. 15/. 42 2 11
164
J 108
Contra, Cr
^Balance, remaining, at 9/. id.
  and at 9/.
lb
1211' 5
72j ■ 32
84!
Contra,
By Nathaniel Napier,
Contra,
By Profit and Lojs, loft.
Cr
Contra, Cr
By Cajh, for my bill,, value received,.
By Balance, due by him.
Contra, Cr
18.By J. JeJJop his acct-curt, for packing,
.37
6 124
1 200 00
11160 x 5
360 15
V
BOO
D G E R.
K - K E E
oa.
J*cv,
1769
Junt
1769
July
1769
Profit and Lofis, Dr
To Cajh, paid lofs of wager,
To George Evans, abated, -
To Foreign Coin, loft,
To) Refufialsfi Bargains,
To. Voyage fromfifamaica,
ToiCharges of merchandize.
To' Houfe-expences, - •.
To: Stock, neat gain fince ift Jan f ad
Nathaniel Napier, D
To Sufpenfe-accompt, ift Augufl and
Martinmafs,
A 34
7j J
9240
2 223
627
2 00
0000
3|oo
0200
°i n
08
00
Voyage from Jamaica, Dr
To Voyage to Jamaica, for returns,
To Cafh, for charges' here,
William Boyd my acct-curt, Dr
To Voyage to Jamaica, balance in his
hands, ...
!4(OOCM
1769
0705 Jul
PING1
LEDGER.
( 6 )„
176-0
May
June
Aug,
00
. Sept,
Nov.
1769
Aug,
Nov,
1769'
JAy
Contra, I it 1
By J. JeJf'op his accompt current, for
my cbmmiffion,
3 By John Vernon, for a legacy,
23 By //, V. Beck his accompt of goods, for
my com mi ill o n, -
By H .V. Beck his accompt-current, for
commiffion, at - -
Cafto, for 6 months int. of 1000/.
By Sherry in comp, for my commiffion.
By Cajh, for 3 months intereft of 400/.
By Linen, gained,
By Indian Chints, gained, -
By Ship Britannia, gained.
By Cambrics, gained.
By Druggets, gained.
By Voyage to Jamaica, gained, -
By Broad Cloth, gained
By Kerfeys, gained.
By Pymento, gained,
fd>y Voyage to Hamburg, gained,
By John Perkins my accompt-current.
By Ed. Hopkins my acct in comp, gained^
By Stuffs,, gained.
By Ship Phoenix in company, gainedj
By Sherry in company, gained.
By Oil in company, gained,
By Canary in company, gained.
Co l. V. d.
Contra,
, By Cajh, in part,
j By Cajh, in full.
Cr
3 07 06
0000
00 00
Contra,
) By Sundries, as per Journal,
>By Sundries, as per Journal,
By Profit and Lofs,
160
93
6 34
292
1300
9^ 0406
Contra, Cr
\$\Qy Edward Dupper, due at 10 days, 7 joS 1907
1769
7»h
1769
J«h
1769
J*h
1769
J«b
1769
1769
Jub
1769
1769
Jug.
Sept,
( 7 )
BOOK
LEDGER.
Charges of Merchandize, Dr
ToCafh, fori-year’s (hop-rent,
To Cajh, paid portage, be.
John Dyer, Dr
To Voy age from Jatnaica, due at 6 Mo,
o To Voy. from Jamaica, at 6^.for
To Profit and Loft, gained,
Sugar, Dr J
To Voy. from Jamaica, zt.U)sSor | 63
Edward Dupfier, Dr
To JVil. Boyd, my acc. curt, at todays,
Pymento,
Dr
Voyage to Hamburg,
To Sundries, as /er Journal,
To Profit and Loft, gained,
Herman Van Seek hisl
accompt of goods, 3
Dr
To Cafh, paid charges,
ToCaJh, for rtorage, brokerage, <&c. .
To Profit and Loft, formycommif. ataj,
To H.Van Seek his accompt'on time.
due by T. Freeman,
T0 ditto his accompt-cnprent, in my hand;
Herman Van Seek his
accompt on time,
To Balance, outfta,nding,
j Dr
50   
, Hennan Van Seek his\ j,
accompt current, 3 r
To Sundries, as per Journal •
J To Bills payable, for 1 to W. Sabin, ;
6 days -
To Cajh, remitted him.
To Balance, due to him.
- K E
/. |,
E P I N G.
LEDGER. ( 7 )
<5*3
0706
08
391 tyfoS
3
1765
Aug
1769
July
1769
7»iy
Contra,
By Profit and Lofs,
Contra,
By Balance due by him,
By H. V. Beek his accompt-')
current, at to*/. - j
1769
Sept. 22
28
°4t
1769
Hug
1769
Aug
1769
Aug,
Contra,
Cr
c-
By Voy. to Hamburg, at 19/. for f 63
Contra,
By Cafh, received in full.
By John Perkins my accompt current,
By Cajh, for drawback on fugar.
7 By Cajh, for 14 butts madder,
23By Tho. Freeman, for 18 C. flax, due
at months, - -
Contra, Cr
23 By H.V. Beek his accompt of goods,
1 due by T. Freeman,
Contra, Cr
By H. Van Beek his accompt of goods.
By James IVright, abated.
7391U5
8i o'oo
39i' 508
Voi.. I. No. 26.
614
(8 )
R O O K - K
D G E R.
N'
1769
dug,
James TVright, -
31 To Sundries, as per Journal,
1769
Sept,
3769
Sept
1769
Oil.
1769
C£l,
Bills payable, Dr
ToCaJlr, paid TVil. Sabin Van Beck’s bill.
3769
ca.
j Edward Hopkins my ac- n
I compt proper, 3 e
91T0 Cambrics, for h is 4 lhare of 40 ps. at 3 /.
56
Stuff's, Dr I Pieces,
21 To James Ward, at 2/. 8/. for 90
To Profit and LoJ's, gained, | 
3769
ca,
1769
on.
no-
Dec.
Hcv
John Perkins my ?
acct-current, S 1Jr
ToVoy. toHamb. at 34/. $d.
To Profit and Lofs
Fiemijh.
1. s. d.
40s 5
Dr
Edward Hopkins my ac-
compt in company,
o\ToCaJh, paid 4 lhareof lohhds tobacco;
yToCambrics, formy4lbareof 40ps.at 3/.
To Profit and Lofs, gained.
James Ward,
To Balance due to him,
Ship Phoenix in company 7 -^r
' with George Kent, 5
Vo Sundries, asJournal,
l^WoCaJh, paid repairs
To Cajh, paid premium on 600/.
Vo G.Kent his acct in Co. for his 4 gained.
To Profit and Lofs, for my half gained.
George Kent his accompli ^
in company, 5
To ditto his accompt proper for his 4 °f
1 month’s freight,
29 To ditto his aceompt-proper, for 4 of 5
pipes of fherry,
T o ditto his acct prop, for 4 of 4 pip.fherry
jTo ditto his acct prop, for 4 of freight,
Dec. 28 To ditto his aceompt-proper for 4 °f
Pltenixy, fold,,
238
60 00 •
60
216 oc
9
o8t
o84
E P I N G
LEDGER, ( 8 )
1769' Contra, Cr \
Aug. 30 By //. V.Beekhisacct-cur. for cooperage,
176?
Sept.
1769
Sept,
1769
0(i.
1000
oopo
IS
5
3 50 oopc
j Contra, Cr j
3 By H. V.Beek his acc-cur. for 1 at 6 days,1 7
i 1
Contra, Cr I Flemijh. j
/. s. d.\
39 Bills receivable, fx.ch. j
at 34/. for - - 3 I ^
1769
oa.
1759
Nov,
1759
oa.
1769
oa.
Dec,
Contra, Cr j Pieces.
1 SjBy Voyage to Lisbon in corn- 7 1 90
pany, at 2/. 10/. for 3 1  
1769
oa.
1000.
0100
oopo
Contt'a,
> By Sundries, as per Journal,
5 By Sundries, as per Journal,
Contra,
: By Cafh, received in full.
Contra, Cr
: By Stuffs, to pay at 3 months,
Contra, 1
2<iBy Cafh for 1 month’s freight,
lyPty Cafh, for 1 month’s freight,
28 By Mr Jones and company, fold
Contra,
Cr
4 238
By Ship Phoenix in Co. for his j fhare,
By ditto his acct proper, for half repairs,
By ditto his acct prop, for his 4 of prem .
By ditto his acct proper, for his half of 9
pipes fherry,
By ditto his Meet proper, for his half
carriage, &c.
By ditto his acct prop, for his 4 of commif.
ByM. Phoenix in Co. for his 4 fhare gained,
By Sherry in camp, for his half gained,
22 oojoo
yoopojoo
32000
80s
3
34
403
i 4-991400
l
1
1769
on.
George Kent his acct prop. Dr
To dit. his acct in com. for hi half repairs,
To Jit. his ac.in com. for his half premium,
26 To dit. his ac. in com. for ^9 pipes Iherry,
To dit. his acct in comp, for 4 carriage.
To dit. his acct in comp, for his 4 of c
4 To Cajh paid him,
To Balance, due to him,
1769
0(1.
Cajh, Dr
To old accompt, . - .
To George Kent his accompt proper,
9 To Sherry in co. in part for 5 pipes, at 29 /.
To Sherry in com. for 4 pipes, at 27/. 12 s.
To Ed. Turner, in full for fherry.
To Sundries, as per Journal,
To George Evans, received in compofition,
To N. Napier, in full for druggets,
2 5 To S. King his acct prop, received of him,
To Oil in co. in partfor 7 tuns, at 30/. 10/.
George Toung, in full,
3 To Canary in co. for 6 pipes, at 29 /. 12 s.
To J. Fuller, recJ in compof11 of his debt,
To Ship Phoenix in co. for 1 M° freight,
1769
on.
1769
on.
176c
on
176'
Nov.
1769
Nov.
C 9 )
B O
L E D G
O K
E R.
- K E E
Fo\ l. \s.\d.
p I
N G.
LED
( 9 ),
Sherry in company 'with 7 n
non,,~» 5 JJr
George Kent.
To Richard Owen, at 26/. for
26/. ior. for
To Cajh, paid carriage, (3c.
To Profit and Lofis, for my"?
commif. at 4 per cent. y
To Geo Kent his accompt in')
company for his 4 gained, y
To Prefit and Lofs, for my7
half gained, y
Pipe.
Richard Owen,
To Cajh, paid him in full.
9T<
Edward Turner, Dr
o Sherry on company, on demand.
Houfe-expences, Dr
[ To Cajh, paid 1 year’s rent of my dwel-
ling-houfe,
>0 To Cajh, laid out Cnee the ill of Jan. laft
Voyage to Lijbon in com. with 7 n
Simon King and John Oker, y r
To Sundries as per Journal,
05
00
05
11
1403 Dec.
00 00
04 00
9698
124
1118400
255 08
236
9 40
9: 200
09
708
1769
on.
\ 1769
on.
03-r
Contra,
Cr
By dit. his acct .in comp, for his 4 freight.
By Cajh, for his half of dilburfements and
Iherry, - -
19 By dit. hisaect inco. for4of 5 pipes fherry,
By dit. his acct in co. for 4 of 4 pipes Iherry.
By ditto his acct in comp, for 4 of freight.
By dit. his acct inco. for 4 of Phxnix fold,
Contra,
Cr
By Ship Phoenix in company, for premium
27'By Richard Owen, in full for fherry,
1 By Sherry in company, paid carriage, fisc.
4|By Geo. Kent his accompt proper, paid him,
x 1 By Houfe-expences, paid one year’s rent,
\yBy Voyage to Lijbon in company,
17 By Simon King his accompt proper,
2^\By George Wood, paid him,
30 By Houfie-expencet, Cnee the tf\.Jan. laf:
By Balance, remaining in my hands,
Contra,.
1.769 ,
On. ‘29 By Sundries, at 29/. for
1 By Cajh, at 27/. 12/. for
1769
on.
Contra, Cr
26 By Sherry in company, on demand.
1769
00 Nov.
0000
00*00
Pipe
Contra,
By Cajh, received in full,
Contra,
By Profit and Lofs,
Contra, (
By Sim. King his acct in comp. 4 remaining
By J. Oker his acct in comp. \ remaining.
By Balance, for my \ remaining,
615
/. d.
08I09
oooo-
OOpO
236
331
33’
-li1
; 99:
°3l|
3 °4- {
3°4 :
3£b|
00 coJ
6i6
BOOK-KEEPING.
( 10 )
LEDGER.
1769]
JVov. 15
Simon King, his acct prop. Dr
To ditto his accompt in comp, for his y of
voyage to Li/bon,
To Sundries, as Journal,
To dit. his ac. in co. for his of 18 tuns oil,
ooTodit. his ac. inco. for his J-of iS/. abated,
To Balance, due to him,
1769
Nov
1769
Nov
Dec.
1769
Nov.
Dec.
1769
Nov.
Dec.
1769
Nov.
John Oker his accompt-proper, Dr
To ditto his accompt in comp, for his J- of
voyage to Lijbon,
To dit. his ac. in co. for his -f of 18 tuns oil,
To Simon King his acct-prop. paid to him,
To dit .his ac. in co. for his J of 18/. abated,
To Balance, due to him.
1033
J0177
to, 23
o! 6 00
1 13407
672 00
Simon King his acct in co. Dr
To dit. his ac. pr. for his of 1 tun oil fold.
To dit. his ac. pr. for his -J of 7 tuns oil fold.
To ditto his accompt-proper, for his J of
6 pipes canary fold,
To Canary in co. for 2 pipes taken to himfelf,
To Voy. to Li/bon in co. for his J-remaining.
John Oker his acct in comp. Dr .
30 To dit. his ac. pr. for his J of I tun oil fold
2 To dit. bis ac.pr. for hisof 7 tuns oil fold
|To ditto his accompt-proper, for his of
.8! 6 pipes canary fold,
24 To Canary in co. for 2 pipes taken to himfelf,
To Voy. to Lijbon in co. for his \ remaining,
\ Oil in co. 'with Simon')
King and J. Oker, 3 f
2 To George Wood, at 29/. 10/. for
20T0 James Fuller, abated him,
ToS.K. his ac. in C9. for his y gained
ToJ. 0. hisac. in co. for his y gained
To Profit andLofs, for my J gained,
Tuns
18
George JVood,
25 To Sundries, as per Journal,
James Fuller, Dr
jojTo Oil in company, to pay at 14 days.
10 33
108
10.177
6
11 13
757
J22 OO
IO 30
LEDGER.
( 10 )
1769;
Nov. 15'
Contra,
Cr
By Voy . to Lijbon in co. for 80 pieces ferge,
OSfiy George Wood, paid to him,
jBy Sundries, as per Journal,
3°jBy<//7. hisac. in co. forhisj of 1 tun oil fold,
l dit. hisac. in co. forhisyof 7 tuns oil fold.
8 By ditto his accompt in company, for his
y of 6 pipes canary fold,
1769
Nov.
•'769
Nov.
1769
Nov.
1769
Nov.
Dec.
1769
Nov. 22
Contra,
Cr
By Voy. to Lijhon in co. for 70 pieces frieze,
By S. King his accompt-proper.
By George Wood, paid to him,
ftydit. his ac. /« cs. forhis-yof 1 tun oil fold.
dit.hit ac.inco.(orbss Jof 7 tuns oil fold,
By ditto his aecompt in comp, for his y of
6 pipes canary fold.
Contra,
Cr
By^/7. hisac. pr. for his J-of voy. to Lijbon,
By ditto his acct prop, for his ^ of 18 tuns
oil bought,
'Qy dit. his ac.pr op. for his y of 18/. abated,
By Oil in company, for his J gained,
By Canary in company, for his y gained,
Contra,
Cr
15 By dit. his ac. pr. for his y of voy. to Lijbon,
22 By ditto his acct prop, for his J- of 18 tuns
j oil bought,
20'By dit. his ac. prop, for his y of 18/. abated,
By Oil in company, for his J- gained,
By Canary in comp, for his y gained.
Contra, Cr
By James Fuller, - * .
By Sundries, as per Journal,
By Canary in co. in barter at 32/. for I
1769
00 00 Dec. 2<
I Tuns
7
10 1
I 18
Contra
By Oil in company, on demand.
o By
Contra,
Sundries, as per Journal,
4400000
2000 00
5 7 00 00
00 00
7x0304
59
>00
1608
17700^0
6 00 00
.4 i6|o8
ojo8
10 08
f .
N° 74-
( ii )
B
E D
O O
G E R
K - K
/.
E E P I N G.
LEDGER.
( ii )
Canary in co. vjithS.'l
j j King and J. Oker, 5
1769, *
Dc-c.\ TTo Oil in company, in barter
iTo S. King bis acct in co. for
his -f gained,
To J. Oker his acct in comp.
for his -5- gained.
To Profit and Lofs, for my -f
gained.
1769
Dec.
Canary, Dr
24 To Canary in co. retained at 2 5/.
176.
Dec.
Mr Jones and Company, Dr
To Ship Phosnix in co. to pay at 3 Mc
Pipe
P'pe.
Balance,
Dr
To Cajh, remaining in my hands,
To Indian Chints, remaining y pieces,
at 24/. tor.
To Ship Britannia, for ^ remaining,
To Tho Freeman, due for V. Peek's flax,
To Duroys, rent. 30 pieces, at 26/.
To John Vernon, due by him,
Fo FuJlians, rem. 120 pieces, 3137/. 6d.
To Jacob Spencer, lent him,
To Bills receivable, as per accompt,
To Lockrams, rem. 40 pieces, at 25 s
To Cochineal, remaining 1 C.
To Cinnamon, rem. 64 lb. at yr. 8
To Mnjlin, rem. 8 bales, at 12/. 16 r
To rem. 42 C. 2Q4,at 3/. tyr
To Cloves, remaining 12 lb. at 9/. id.
and 72 lb. at 9/.'
To John JeJfop, his ac. curt, due by him,
To John Dyer, due by him,
To Voy. to Lijhon in co. for my y rem.
To Canary, remaining 2 pipes, at 25 /.
To Mr Jones and Compatiy, outftanding,
Vol. I. Numb. $6.
320
327
5o<
1769
Dec
[0246
122
348
54
39
200
225
1000
383
50
108
24
102
159
37
160
80
33i
50 00 00
700 00 00
07081.
100
60
008
08
07 06
Contra,
By Cajh, at 29/. 12 r. for
By Sundries, at 2$/..for '
.Contra, Cr
By Balance, remaining at 25/.
Contra, ,
By Balance, outftanding,
Pip-
Contra,
V
Cr
By Jacob RuJJel, due to him,
By H. Van Seek, his acct on time.
By H. Van Beek, his acct-current.
By James Ward, due to him,
By George Kent his acct-proper.
By Simon King his acct-proper.
By John Oker his ■ cct proper.
By Stock, the neat of my eftate, -
617
•. d.
r^jOo
EZ
12 OO
49
54
o
216
36
i34
13
13474
14424
7 R
6i8
BOOK-KEEPING
Of the S U B SJ D I A 11 V BOOKS ufed by Merchants.
Though all tnerchant-accompts may be kept hy xhzWafte-
book. Journal, and Ledger, alone; yet men of great bufinefs
find it convenient, either for abridging thefe, or for other
ends, to ufe fome others, generally called fubjjdlary or fub-
fervient Books; the molt common of which are thefe nine fol¬
lowing, viz.
i. The Cajh-book.
This book is kept in a folio form, like.the Ledger, and
ferves to abridge the Cafn-accompt there. On the left-hand
page, or Dr fide, Cajh is charged Dr for all the fums received ;
and on the right-hand page, Cajlo is made Cr for all the (urns
paid. Once a week, or, which is more ordinary, once a
month, this book is polled to the Ledger ; or, if you pleafe,
firft to the Journal, by fwo entries, vizCajl) Dr to Sundries,
for all the receipts, and Sundries Drs to Cajb, for all the pay¬
ments. By this means the Caflr-accampt in the Ledger will
be fo far contradted as to confill of 12 lines, viz. one for each
month in the year. A fpecimen oi this book follows.
/. /. d.
   1769. 
Caffs, t Dr.
To George Hill, received in fi ll for lead.
To John Scot, in part for fugar.
To Robert Hunter, for .A ZTs bill on him,
18 To Port wine, received for 1 pipe,
31 To James Neil and comp, in full for tobacco.
July
-1769.-
Contra, Cr.
iBy George Duncan, paid in full for canary,
By R. Richmond and Co. in part for dowlas,
By Samuel Smith, paid him R. Blair'h bill.
By Holland, for 2 pieces, at 18/.
By Charges of vurchandtze.
By Houfe-expences, - -
10000
60
the money-columns of this book are added up, and the fnm
carried to the credit-fide of the Cafh-book.
N. B. At the fame time you poll the monthly fums of this
book tQ the Cafh book, you mull debit the feveral accompts
of goods and voyages for their particular fhares of charges ;
-which is done by palling the following entry in the Journal,
namely, Sundries the feveral accompts of goods and
voyages for their rcfpedtive (hares) Drs to Charges of mer¬
chandize. The remaining part of th’efe charges will be fuch
as relate to trade in general, being chargeable to no particular
accompt, and will of courfe fall into the general accompt of
Profit and Lofis, when the accompt of Charges of merchan¬
dize in the Ledger is clofed, at balancing the books. The
form of this book follows,
July
 1769. 
Charges o f Merchandize, Dr.
To Cafi}?, paid for freight of 10 tuns of iron,
To ditto, paid cullom of ditto,
To ditto, paid other petty charges on ditto.
To ditto, paid porterage of goods bought oLAZ?.
To ditto, paid the llationers for paper,
i8]To ditto, paid portage of letters,
27IT0 ditto, paid rent of 2 cellars,
3ijTo ditto, paid charges on 12 bales of Ikins,
18 00
20^5
i
o(ioo6
3 18 00
9 Jo 4 00
_j
56(02 02
The Book of lloufe-expences.
Note, Merchants that have calh-keepers mull bewarfe to
write any thing in the Calh-book themfeives ; for if they do,
the cafh-keeper is no more accountable for what is Hated in the
book; and therefore the mailer, in cafe of money delivered
to him, in the calh-keeper’s abfence, mull keep it till he come
home ; and then deliver it to him, and fee him enter, it in the
book himfelf.
2. The Book o f Charges of Merchandize'.
This book is only.paged, and defigned to abbreviate the
Calh-book. It contains particular charges on goods and
voyages; fueh as, carriage, cultom, freight, cranage, W'harf-
age, <tic.: As alfo other expences that affedl trade in gene¬
ral • fuch asj warehoufe-rent, Ihop-rent, accomptant’s wages,
polfoge of letters, and the like. At the end of each month
This book is alfo paged, and defigned likewife to eafe the
Calh-beok. It contains all diftmrfements for family-provi-
fions, fervants wages, houfe-rent, apparel, utenfils, The
money-columns of this book are alfo added up at the end of
each month, and the fum transferred to the credit fide of the
Calh-book.
N. B, If goods are brought from the Ihop for the ufe of the
family, this more properly belongs to the Wafte book, and is
not to be inferted here. A fpecimen of this book follows.
I l. s.\d.
   1769. 
j Houje-expences, Dr.
1 To Cajh, paid for new cloaths, hat, and lhoes,tio
10 To, ditto, paid for fix drinking-glades,
17T0 ditto, paid for earthen-ware,
25 T0 ditto, paid for 12 dozen bottles,
31 To ditto, paid pocket-expences, - - ^og'oo
fio dim, paid the houfekeeper, - - 150609
_ 6 ©c 00
4. The Invoice-book.
This book, which is ufed chiefly by faftors, is paged, and
contains doubles or copies 01 the invoices of goods fent tofea,
or of goods received from abroad. The form of an invoice is
as follows.
Londotty
BOOK-KEEPING. (i\y
;ilfo abatements allowed to buyers, <bc. whofe fum fubtra&ed
London, ift Jid?
Invoice of 8 boxes indigo, and 4 boxes fpiceries, Jhipped per
the Bonadventure, Robert Hay wafer, for Leith, /y order,
and for accompl of A. B. merchant there.
A. B.
N° x
INDIGO 8 boxes.
Grofs. Tare.
 701
 65
 80
 67
 75
-—57i
-85i
from the grofs amount of Tales, gives the neat proceeds.
From this book, when a cargo is fold off, an accompt of Tales
is drawn out, in order to be tranfmitted to the employer. IF
the confignment confifl but of one kind of goods, the Sales-
book may be ruled and written up as in the following example.
Rotterdam, \ ft June 1767.
Sales of 6 pack ’fences, containing 4380 yards, received yet
the Friendship, Samuel Sharp wafer, for account of Ps. B;
merchant in Giafgow, North Britain.
,76,|
June
4/. 3 d.
SPICERIES 4 boxes,
lb.
3 1 12 cinnamon, at 7/. c)d.
2   4 nutmegs, at 8/. 8</.
3  57 pymento, at 8 d.
4   1 macei ...
Boxes,
Bill of lading, cocket, and other charges.
GommifEon at 2$-per cent.
Ibfurance on the above 100/. 14per cent, and 7
policy, 4/. 6 d. is - - - y
. Commiffion on ditto at \ per cent.. -
jobos^,.
Errors excepted, per M. S.
N. B. When a merchant in Britain (hips: off imported
goods, fuch as tobacco, to Holland, or other places, for Tale,
the invoice Tent to the fablor ufually contains only the marks,
nuptbers, and quantity (hipped, but nothing of the prime cofl:
or charges ; which in this cafe could .not be eafily afeertained;.
and the want thereof is pretty well Tupplied by inflrubling the
fadlor not to fell under fuch a price. But invoices of all
kipds of manufactures and goods configned . from Britain to
North America or the IVcf Jndies, generally exhibit prime
cqft and all charges; which is neceffary, not only as it ferves
for a fort of directory to the faCtor, but (till more To, in re¬
gard Briiifh goods are frequently fold, in thofe places at fo
much advance on the invoice prices.
5. The Sales-book.
This book too is chiefly ufed by faftors; and'into if is
polled, from the Wafte-book, the particular fales of every
configned cargo; by which means the feveral articles of a Tale,
that lie fcattered in the Wafte-book, are brought together,
and reprefented under one view, and th;: in a manner more-
full and minute than they are collected in the Ledger accompt.
This book exhibits the fales of every conlignment feparately
and by themfelves; to which are fubjoined the refpeCtive
charges, fuch as freight, cuftom, the factor’s commiffion, as
Sold Frederick Gordon, at 1 month.
Packs. Pieces. Yards.
N° 1 19 743
4  20 643
 1386 at 7 ftivers.
Sold for ready money,
N°2 t7—^-7i7
3 ,8 730
5  M 830
6  16 717
 2994 at 6 ftivers
Total 4380
- Guil.
CHARGE S.
G. St. D
25 IO OG
31 OO OC
Freight and-average,
Cuftom and waiters dues,
Scout-freight, and other fmall 7
charges, - - £ 3 00 oc
Meafuring, at 4 ftivers per 7
xoo yards, - - £ 8 14 oc
Charges in felling, and pack-7
hobfe-rent, - £ 4 °4 oc
Commiffion, at 2 per cent. 27 13 oc
Neat proceeds, (errors-and bad debts 4
excepted,) carried to the credit of his C
Accompt-current; - - j
If the configned cargo confi’fts of two
283
S7 D.
oyjoo
more kinds of
goods, the Sales book muft be ruled with columns for the dif¬
ferent forts of goods ; and the heads of thefe columns muft be
titled with the names and quantities of the goods from the in- •
voice..
6. The Rill-book.
The defign of this Bill-book, or Month-book, is to furniffi
a merchant with a ready way of knowing the time when bills
or other debts become payable to .or by-him. It confifts of 1 2
folios, one for each month in the year. The left-hand page
contains the debts that fall due to the merchant in-the month on
the top, and the right-hand page contains the debts payable by
him to others in the fame month; as in the annexed fpecimen.
/, jAA.
769.   
Day:
January, to receive.
Of Edward Finch, 600 crowns, at 54 c/. bill,
Of Robert Banks, for lintfeed.
Of George Hally, for- Norwich fluffs,
Oi John Short, 2539 guilders, 19 ftivers, 7
at 34/. 5 d. Fhrnijh per L, Sterling, 3
OOjOO
10 00 -
oo'oo
!
OO OO
Days
BOO
Days
769.-
K - K
/. /. d.
January, to pay.
1.
13 (S'oo
3 To Simon Smith, qooo crowns, at 56^.?
hill of G. F. * - - 5 | 70
ll'To Janies Jeffery, for fundry goods, j 68
2 5[To James Martin and company, S125
gojTo James Halley, for oil, * - I ']6pJ\.0
N. B. Upon the payment of any fum, merchants either
cancel the line, or, which is better, they write the word Re¬
ceived or Paid upon the margin, or ufe fome mark of their
own, to (ignify that the fum to which it is affixed is paid.
7. The Keceipt-book.
In this book a merchant takes receipts of the payments
he makes. The receipt ffiould contain the date; the him re¬
ceived, expreffed in words at large, and alfo in figures in the
money-colunins ; the reafon why and whether in full or in
part; and unfit be figned by the-perfon receiving. But there
is no occafion to mention the merchant’s name ; for the book,
being hi's own, fufficiently implies that. This book is paged,
and the form of it is as follows.
1-
Received, July x. 1769, in part for fug;
the fum of one hundred thirty fix pounds,
per John Stewart.
Received, this 4th of July 1769, in full for '
indigo, the fum of forty eight pounds ten
(hillings, - - - -
per Tho. Green.
Received, July 6/ 1769, in part for lead, 7
twenty pounds, for my mailer David Douglas, y
per Sam. Sprat.
Received, July 10. 1769, in full for co-h
peras, thirty fix pounds twelve ffiillings, fork
felf and company, - ~ ’ j
Per David Diiff.
Received, July it. 1769, forty-five pounds \
twelve (hillings and nine pence, in full for to T
bacco fold the 10th of January lafl, for felf^
and partner, - - J
Per Simon Trujfy.
Received, July 12. 1769, the fum of fifty 7
pounds, by order, and for the account ofk
George Grant, - - J
Per Nath. Smith.
8. The Copy-Boob of Letters.
It is very imprudent in any perfon to fend away a letter of
bufinefs, without keeping a double of it to himfelf; and there-
E E P I N G.
fore, to prevent the bad cbnfequences of fueh a carelefs prac¬
tice, merchants are provided with a large book, in folio, into
which is copied verbatim every letter of bufinefs before it be
fent off. So that this ^book, together with the letters recei¬
ved-(which muft alfo be carefully kept,in files or boxes,)
makes a complete hiltory of all the dealings that pafs betwixt
a merchant and his correfpondents; which may be very ufeful
and neceffary on many occafions.
9. The Pocket-book.
This is a fmall book, of a portable fize, which a merchant
carries in his pocket when bufinefs calls him abroad to a ta¬
vern, a fair, the country, or other places. In this he fets
down the bargains he makes, the expences he is at, the debts
he pays, or fums he receives, with every other part of bufi¬
nefs he tranfafts while abroad; as alfo any occurrence or piece
of news he thinks worth while to record. And when he comes
home to his compting-houfe or (hop, he transfers .the things
contained in this book, each to their proper places in the
Wafte-book, or Books Subfidiary.
Faffors of great bufinefs fometimes keep another fmall
book, called the Memorandum hook. Into this book is co¬
pied, from letters as they come to hand, ffiort notes of the
feveral commiffions for buying goods contained in them ; and
as the commiffions are effected, the notes are croffed, or have
fome mark affixed to them. This is more convenient in doing
bufinefs, than to be continually running to the letters them-
felves. Suppofe a merchant of Lifbon, by his letter, give a
commiffion for buying goods, a note of it in the Memoran¬
dum book will (land thus.
Lijbon, i$l\\ June 1769.
Out of Carlos Popham'% letter an order for
4000 yards of ferges, at 8 d. or 8-^a. per yard,
20 dozen (lockings, not above 36/. per dozen, &c.
All which to be packed and (hipped for Lilbon, con-
(igned to himfelf, and marked C. P.
In like manner fa&ors may, and thofe much employed ge¬
nerally do, take a note, from the letters of advice, of all the
goods configned to them, either in a feparate place of this
book, or in another book of the fame nature^ By this means
a fadtor has daily under his eye, both the time when fuch a
(hip may be expedted, and the goods (lie brings: And fo is in
a readier way of minding to look out for a merchant for them
before hand, than if he had only the letter as his remembran¬
cer. An example follows.
Nctples, 18th June 1769.
In the Profperity, Robert Wilfon mailer, filks for ac¬
count of Anthony Carew, marked C. N° 122 to 140.
The above are the fubfidiary books mod in ufe: But a
merchant is not tied down or rdlridled to them; he may keep
fome, and negledt others, or invent more, as the nature of his
bufinefs requires, and he finds convenient.
* Addendum
BOO
( '62
Addendum to the article Book.
• All foreign boupd books pay duty on importation
14s. for every ualb. As to unbound books, they
are commonly entered by the hundred weight, and
pay, if French, 13 s. d- but if from any o-
ther country, only 7s. y-j-^d. It is alfo to be ob-
ferved, that all popilh books are prohibited to be im¬
ported ; as are all Englifh books printed abroad, un •
lefs with the confent of the proprietor of the copy.
Common-place-^ooK. See Common -place-book.
T«t/-Book. See Text.
Book binding. The art of gathering and fewing together
the (beets of a book, and covering it with a back, tec.
It is performed thus : The leaves are firfl: folded with
a folding-ftick, and laid over each other in the order
of the fignature; then beaten on a (tone with a ham¬
mer, to mike them fmooth and open well, and after¬
wards prefled. They are fewed upon bands, which
are pieces of cord or packthread; fix bands to a folio
book, five to a quarto; odtavo, he. which is done by
drawing a thread through the middle of .each fheet,
and giving it a turn round each band, beginning with
the firft, and proceeding to the laA. After this the
books are glued, and the bands opened and feraped,
for the better fixing the palleboards; the back is
turned with a hammer, and the book fixed in a prefs
between two boards, in order to make a groove for
fixing the palteboards; thefe being applied, holes are
made for fixing them to the book, which is prefled a
third time. Then the book is at laft put to the cut¬
ting prefs, betwixt two boards, the one lying even
with the p'refs, for the knife to run upon, the other
above it, for the knife to run againft: After which
the pafte-boards are fquared.
The next operation is the fprinkling the leaves of
the book, which is done by dipping a brufh into ver¬
milion and fap-green, holding the brufh in one hand,
and fpreading the hair with the other; by which mo¬
tion the edges of the leaves are fprinkled in a regular
manner, without any fpots being bigger than the o-
thers.
Then remains the covers, which are either of calf-
fkin, or of (heep-fkin ; thefe being moiflened in wa¬
ter, are cut out to the fize of the book, then fmeared
over with pafte made of wheat flour, and afterwards
ftretched oyer the pafteboard on the outfide, and
doubled over the edges withinfide ; after having firfl:
taken off the four angles, and indented and platted the
cover at the head-band: which dope, the book is co¬
vered, and bound firmly between two bands, and then
fet to dry Afterwards it is waflied over with a little
pafte and water, and then fprinkled fine with a brufh,
unlefs it fhould be marbled; when the fpots are to be
made larger, by mixing the ink with vitriol. After
this the book is glazed twice with the white of an
egg beaten, and at lafl polifhed with a polifhing.-iron
palled hot over the glazed cover.
BOOKSELLER, one who trades in books, whether he
prints them hinjfelf* or gives them to be printed by
others.
Vol. I. No. 26. 3
i ) BOO
Bookfellers are in many places ranked among the
members of uriiverfities, and entitled to the privilege
of ftudents, as at Tubingen, Salifburg, and Paris,
where they have always been diftinguifhed from the
vulgar and mechanical traders, and exempted from di¬
vers taxes and impofitions laid upon other companies.
The traffic of books was anciently very inconfider-
able, in fo much, that the book-merchants of England^
France, and Spain, and other countries, were diftin¬
guifhed by the appellation of flat toners, as having no
(hops, but only flails and (lands in the ftreets. Du¬
ring this (late, the civil magiftrates took’ little notice
of the bookfellers, leaving the government of them to
the univerfities, to whom they w'ere fuppofed'more im¬
mediate retainers ; who accordingly gave them laws
and regulations, fixed prices on their books, examined
their corredlnefs, and puniffied them at diferetion.
But when, by the invention of printing, books and
bookfellers began to multiply, it became a matter of
more confequence, and the fovereigns took the direc¬
tion of them into their own hands ; giving them new
ftatutes, appointing officers to fix prices, and granting
licences, privileges, foe.
BOOKING, among merchants, the making an entry of
any thing in a Journal. See Book-keeping.
BOOM, in the fea-language, a long piece of timber with
which the clew of the ftudding-fail is fpread out; and
fbmetimes the boom is ufed to fpread or boom out the
clew of the mainmaft.
Boom-fpars, imported from the Britifh plantations,
are free; if from Ireland, Afia, or Africa, they pay
6s. jd. the hundred; and if from elfewhere, 9s. 6^d.
Boom denotes alfo a cable ftretched athwart the mouth
of a river or harbour; with yards, topmafts, battling
or fpars of wood lafhed to it, to prevent an enemy’s
coming in.
BOOMING, among failors, denotes the application- of
a boom to the fails.
A fhip is faid to come booming forwards, when fhe
comes with all the fail fhe can make.
BOOPHTHALMUS, a kind of agat with large circles
in it, bearing fome refemblance to an ox’s eye, from
whence it has got this name.
BOOPS, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
balsena. See Bal^ena. #
BOOT, a well known cover for the leg, made of lea¬
ther.
Boot tree, or BooT-/afl, an inftrument ufed by fhoe-
makers to widen the leg of a boot. It is a wooden
cylinder flit into two parts, between which, when it is
put into the boot, they drive by main force a wedge
or quoin.
BOOTES, a conftellation of the northern hemifphere,
confifting of 23 liars, according to Ptolemy’s cata¬
logue, of 18 in Tycho’s, of 34 in Bayer’s, of £2 in
Helvelius’s, and of 54 in Mr Flamftead’s catalogue.
See Astronomy, p. 486.
BOOTY, whatever is taken from an enemy in time of
war.
BOPPART, a town of the electorate of Triers, fituated
on the weft fhore of the Rhine, about eight miles fouth
of Coblentz : E. long. 70 io', N. lat. 50° so'.
7 S BOQUE-
B O R ( (
BOQUEROON, an ifland in the E. Indian ocean, ly¬
ing north-eaft of Borneo, in N. lat. 30.
BOQUINIANS, in church-hirtory, a fe<5t of heretics,
fo called from Boquinus their founder, who tanght
that Clirift did not die for all mankind, but only for
the faithful, and confequently was only a particular
Saviour.
BORA, in natural hiftory, a name ufed by fome for the
Bufonites. See Bufonites.
BORAGO, in botany, a fynonime of the anchufa. See
Anchusa."
BORAK, a fabulous animal, faid to be of a middle na¬
ture between an afs and a mule, and to have carried
Mahomet'in his aerial journeys from Jerufalem into
■ heaven.
BORASSUS, in botany, a genus belonging to the Order
of palmse flabellifoliae. The boraffus, of which there
is but ope fpecies, has palmated and plaited leaves,
and is a native of India.
BORAX, the name of a faline fubftaoce brought from
the E. Indies in large maffes, compofed partly of large
cryftals, T>ut chiefly of fmaller ones, partly white and
partly green, joined together, as it were, by a greafy
yellow fubftance, intermingled with fand, fmall /tones,
i*ml other impurities. The purer cryftals, expofed to
the fire, melt into a kind of glafs, which is neverthe-
lefs foluble in water.
This fait, diffolved and cryftalized, forms frriall
tianfparent mafies. The origin of this fait is not
known ; but experiments have clearly fhewn, that it
confifts of a fixt alkaline fait, the fame with the bafis
of fea-falt, in fome degree neutralifed by another fa-
line fubflance, which is fuppofed to exilt no where
but in borax itfelf.
The medical virtues of borax are little known : In
dofes of half a dram to two fcruples, it is fuppofed to
be diuretic, emmenagogue, and a promoter of deli¬
very.
BORBONIA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia de-
candria clafs. The calix is pointed and prickly; and
the ftygma is emarginated. There are lix fpecies of
borbonia, which-is a kind of broom, all natives of A-
merica
BORBORITES, in church-hiftory, a feft of gnoftics,
in the fecond century, who, befides embracing the er¬
rors of thefe heretics, denied the laft judgment.
Their pame comes from the Greek, [Borborof^,
filth, on account of a cuftom they had of daubing their
faces, and bodies with dirt and filth.
BORCH, a town of lower Saxony, in Germany, about
fourteen miles north-eaft of Magdeburg: E. long. 120
14', N. lat. 520 25'.
BORCHLEON, or Loots, a town of the bilhopric of
Liege in Germany, about fifteen miles north-weft of
the city of Liege : E. long. 50 30', N. lat. 50° 50'.
BORDAT, in commerce, a fraall narrow fluff, which
is manufadured in fome parts of Egypt, particularly at
Cairo, at Alexandria, and Damieta.
BORDER, in gardening, is made to inclofe parterres,
that they may not be injured by walking in them.
Borders are made either circular, ftrait, or in cants;
22 ) BOR
and are turned into knots, fcrolls, volutes, and other
compartiments. They are rendered very ornamental
by the flowers, fhrubs, yews, <bc. that are raifed in
them. They are always laid with a fiiarp rifing in
the middle ; becaufe, if they are flat, they are no¬
ways agreeable to die eye : And as for their breadth,
the largeft are allowed five or fix feet, and the lefier
commonly four. There are four forts, i.Thofe con¬
tinued about parterres, without any interruption. 2.
Thofe cut into compartiments and convement diftan-
ces by fmall paflages; thefe two are raifed in the mid¬
dle, and adorned with flowers and fhrubs. 3. Even
and flat ones, without flowers. And, 4- Quite plain
borders, only fanded, as in parterres of orangery.
BORD-yLf,*. See Free.
OKTi-halfpenny, a fmall toll, by cuftom paid to the
lord of the town for fetting up boards, tables, booths,
&c. in fairs and markets.
Bord-/««(//, the demefnes which lords keep in their
hands for the maintenance of their board or table.'
Bord-Z^i?, afervice required of tenants to carry timber
out of the woods of the lord to his houfe. It is alfo
ufed to fignify the quantity of provifion w'hich the
bordarii or bordmen paid for their bord lands.
BoRD-y>/-t>/«’, the tenure of bord-lands, by which fome
lands in certain places are held of the bifhop of Lon¬
don, and the tenants now pay fixpence per acre, in
lieu of finding provifion anciently for their lord’s table.
BORDURE, in heraldry, a cutting off from within the
efcutcheon all round it about \ of the field, ferving as
a difference in a coat of arms, to diftinguifh families
of the fame name, or perfons bearingThe fame coat.
See Plate LI. fig. 16.
If the line conftituting the bordure be ftrait. and
the bordure be plain, then in blazoning you muft on¬
ly name the colour of the bordure.
Bordures are fbmetimes ingrailed, gobonated, in-
vifted, isc. See Ingrailed, <bc.
If the border be charged with any part of plants or
flowers, the term is verdoy of trefoils, or whatever
flower it be. If it confifts of enriins, vairy, or any
of the furs, they fay purflew of ermins, <bc. If the
bordure be charged with martle'ts, the word is char¬
ged with an enalyron of martlets, <bc.
Bordures are fymbols of protedlion, favour and re¬
ward ; and as fuch kings beftow them on thofe they
have a value for.
BORE, among engineers, denotes the diameter of the
barrel of a gun or cannon, or rather its whole cavity.
Square Bore, among mechanics, a fquare piece of well-
tempered fteel, fitted into a handle, lerving to. widen
holes, and make them perfectly round.
BOREAL, in a general fenfe, fomething relating to the
north. Thus,
Boreal^wj-, in aftronomy, are the firft fix figns of
the zodiac, or thofe northwards of the equinoftial.
Borealis. See Pneumatics.
BOREAS, a Greek name, now in common ufe for the
north wind.
Pezron obferves, that anciently boreas fignified the
north-eaft wind, blowing at the time of the fummer
folftice*
BOR ( 623 ) BOR
folfKoe. Boreas is reprefented in painting like an old
ma» with a horrible look, his hair and beard cover¬
ed with fnow dr hoar froll, with the feet and tail of
a ferpent.
BOREASMI, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival kept by
the Athenians in honour of Boreas.
BOREEL, a cape on the north part of New Zeland,
in the South Sea, lying well by fouth from the mod
foutherly part of South America.
BORGO, a town of Finland, in the province of Ny-
land, upon the northern coal! of the gulph of Finland.
Borgo di Sesia, a town of Italy, in the dutchy of
Milan, burned upon the Sefia.
Borqo de St Sepulchro, a town of Tufcany, about
fifty miles eaft of Florence, near the head of the Ti¬
ber; E. long. 130, and N. lat 430 30'.
Borgo de Val de Faro, a town of Italy, in the
dutchy of Parma, about twenty miles fouth-wefl of
• that city, E. long. io° 36', and N. lat. 440 35'.
Borgo-Forte, a town of the Mantuan, in Italy, fi-
tuated at the confluence of the rivers Po and Menzo,
about eight miles fouth of Mantua ; E. long. 11 0 N. lat.
440 jo'.
Borgo St Domingo, a city of Italy, in the dutchy
of Parma, about ten miles north-weft of that city;
E.long, to0 31', N. lat. 440 jo'.
BORIA, a city ofArragon, in Spain, about thirty-five
miles north-weft of Saragoffa; W. long. 20, and N.
lat. 41 0 40V
BORING, in a general fenfe, the art of perforating, or
making a hole through any folid body..
Boring of water-pipes. The method of boring wa¬
ter-pipes is as follows. The poles of alder, which is
a very ufeful wood in making pumps, water-pipes, &c.
being laid on horfes or treflels of a foot height, to
reft the auger upon while they are boring, they fet up
a lath to turn the leaft end of the poles, to lit them
to the cavities of the great end of the others. They
turn the fmall ends of the poles about five or fix inches
in length, to the fize they intend to bore the bigger
ends about the fame depth, viz. five or fix inches.
This is defigned to make a joint to (hut each pair of
poles together, the concave part being the female part,
and the other part the male of the joint. In turning
the male part, they turn a channel in it, or a fmall
groove at a certain diftance from the end; and in the
female part, they bore a fmall hole to fit over this
channel. This being done, they bore the poles
through; and to prevent them from boring out at the
fide, they flick great nails at each end to be a guide
in boring. It is ufual, however, to bore them at both
ends; fo that if a pole be crooked one way, they can
bore it through, and not fpoil it.
Boring, in farriery, an operation in ufe for the cure of
wrenched (boulders in horfes. It is this; havjng cut
a hole in the Ikin, over the part affedted, they blow it
with up a tobacco-pipe, as a butcher does a (boulder
of veal; after which they thruft a cold flat iron, like
the point of a fword-blade, eight or ten inches up be¬
tween the ftioulder-blade and the ribs: This they call
boring.
Boring, in mineralogy, a method of piercing the earth
with fcooping ironsK which being drawn back at pro¬
per times, bring up with them famples of the different
ftxata through which they have pafl'ed; by the exami¬
nation of which the fleilful mineralift will be able to
guefs whereabouts a vein of ore mayl ie, or whether it
will be worth while to open a mine there or no.
BORIQUE, one of the Caribbee iflands, lying fouth-
eaft oTPorto Rico, in 64° 30' W. long, and 18° N.
lat.
BORISSOW, a town of Poland, in the dutchy of Li¬
thuania, fituated upon the river Berozina.
BORISTHENES, in geography. See Nieper.
BORITH. See Kali.
BORMIO, a territory of the Grifons, in Italy, having
the dominions of Venice on the fouth.
BORNE, a market-town in Lincolnfhire, about 30 miles
fouth of the city of Lincoln ; in 20 XV. long. and^2°
40' N\ lat.
BORNEO, a large ifland in the Indian ocean, fituated
between 1070 and 1170 E. long, and between 70 30'
N. lat. and 40 S. lat.
Its figure is almoft round, and computed to be 2500
miles in circumference, and confequently containing
a greater number of fquare acres than any ifland in the
known world.
Borneo is alfo the name of the principal town of the
above ifland, fituated on a bay at the north-weft part,
in 1110 30' E. long, and 40 30' N. lat.
BORNHOLM, an ifland in the Baltic Sea, fituated on
the coaftof Schonen, in Sweden, about 43 miles nprth-
ehft of tire ifland of Rugen, in 150 E. long, and 550
15' N. lat.
BORNEO, or Boornou, the name of a town and
country of Nigritia, in Africa. This coantry abound;,
in cattle, millet, and cotton. It lies between 150 and
240 E. long, and between io° and 20° N. lat.
Borneo is alfo the name of a lake, in the river Niger,
where it traverfes the above-mentioned country.
BOROUGH, in Scots law, is a body corporate made up
of the inhabitants of a certain trail of ground ereiled
by the fovereign, and endowed with a limited juril-
diilion, and certain privileges. They are divided into
boroughs royal, of regality, and of barony. See
Law, tit. Inferior Judges and Courts of Scotland.
Borough-English, a cuftomary defeent of lands or
tenements, in certain places, by which they defeend
to the youngeft inftead of the eldeft fon; or, if the
owner have no iffite, to the younger inftead of the el¬
der brother. This cuftom goes with the lanfl, al¬
though there be a devife or feoffment at the common
law to the contrary. The reafon of this cuftom, fays
Littleton, is, becaufe the youngeft is prefumed in law
to be leaft able to provide for hinafelf.
Borough-head, or Headborough, called alfo bo¬
rough-holder, or burlholder, the chief man of the de-
cenna, or hundred, chofea to fpeak and act in behalf
of the reft.
Headborough alfo ftgnifies a kind of head -conftable,
where there are feveral chofen as his alfiftants, to
ferve warrants, &c. See Constable.
Borouch-
BOS ( 624 ) BOS
yoFvOUCH -BRIDGE, a town in the North Riding of
Yorkihire, about 15 miles norh-weft of York; in i°
15'. W. long, and 54° ic/ N. lat.
BOROZAIL, or the zail of the Ethiopians, a difeafe
epidemic in the countries about the river Senega. It
principally affects the pudenda, but is different from
the lues venerea. It owes its rife to excdlive venery:
In the men this diftemper is called afab, and in the
women affabatus.
BORRAGE. See Anchusa.
BORRELLISTS, in church-hiftory, a Chriftian feftin
Holland. They rejeft the ufe of churches, of the fa-
craments, public prayer, and. all other external afts
of worfhip. Theyaffert, that all the Chriftian churches
of the world have degenerated from the pure apofto-
lical doctrines, becaufe they have fuffered the word of
God, which is infallible, to be expounded, or rather
corrupted, by dodors, who are not infallible. 1'hey
lead a very auffere life, and employ a great part of
their goods in alms.
BORSALO, a kingdom of Africa, in Nigthia: It ex¬
tends along the north fide of the river Gambia, as far
as Tantaconde.
BOS, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to
the order of pecofa. The chara&ers of this genus are
taken from the horns and teeth. The horns are hol¬
low within, ancl turned forward, in the form of cref-
eents: There are eight fore-teeth in the under jaw,
and none in the upper, their place being fupplied by a
hard membrane; and there are no dog-teeth in either
jaw. Lmnseus enumerates fix fpecies, viz. 1. The
taurus, including the bull and cow, has cylindrical
horns, bent outwards, and loofe dewlaps. The bull
or male is naturally a fierce and terrible animal. When
the cows are in feafon, he is perfectly ungovernable,
and often altogether furious. When chaffed, he has
an air of fallen majelly, and oft t^ars up the ground
with his feet and horns. The principal ufe of the bull
is to propagate the fpecies; although he might be
tfained to labour, his obedience cannot be depended
on. A bull, like aftallion, fnould be the moft hand-
fome of his fpecies. He Ihould be large, well made,
and in good heart; he (hould have a black eye, a fierce
afpec't, but an open front; a fhort head ; thick, fhort,
and blackifh horns, and long lhaggy ears; a fhort and
ftraight nofe, large and full bread and fhoulders,
thick and fidhy neck, firm reins, a ftreight back,
thick flefhy legs, and a long tail well covered with
hair. Caftration remarkably foftens the nature of this
animal; it deflroys all his fire and impetuofity, and
renders him mild and tra&able, without diminilhing
his ftrength; on the contrary, after this operation,
his weight is increafed, and he becomes fitter for the
purpofes of plow’. g, <bc.
The bed time for cafirating bulls is at the age
of puberty, or when they are eighteen months or
two years okl; when performed fooner, they often
die. However, it is not uncommon to caftrate'calves
a few' days after birth. But fuch as furvive an ope¬
ration fo dangerous to their tender age, generally grow
larger and fatter, and have more courage and attivity
than thofe who are caftrated at the age of puberty. When
the operation is delayed till the age of fix, feven, or
eight years, they lofe but few of the qualities of bulls,
are much more furious and untra&able than other oxes,
and when the cows are in feafon, they go in queft of
them with their ufual ardor. See Plate LII. fig. 2.
The females of all thofe fpecies of animals which we
keep in flocks, and whofe increafe is the principal object,
are much more ufeful than the males. The cow pro¬
duces milk, butter, cheefe, which are principal ar¬
ticles in our food, and befides anfwer many ufeful pur¬
pofes in various arts.
Cows are generally in feafon, and receive the bull,
from the beginning of May to the middle of July. Their
time of gellation is nine months, which naturally brings
the veal or calves to our markets from the beginning of
January to the end of April. However, luxury has
fallen upon methods of interrupting this natural courfe,
and veal may be had almoft every month in the year.
Cows, when improperly managed, are very fubjedt to
abortion. In the time of gellation, therefore, they
.ought to be obferved with more than ordinary care, left
they fitould leap ditches, <foc. Neither fhould they be
fuffered to draw in the plough or other can iage, which
is a pradlice in fome countries. They ihould be put into
the beft pafture, and ftiould not be milked for fix weeks
or two months before they bring forth their young. The
calve Ihould be allowed to ‘fuck and follow its mother
during the firft fix or eight days. After this it begins to
eat pretty well, and two or three lucks in a day will be
fufficient. But if the objedl be to have.it quickly fat¬
tened for the market, a few raw eggs every day, with
bofted milk, and a little bread, will make it excellent
veal in four or five weeks. This management of calves
applies only to fuch as are defigned for the butcher.
When they are intended to be nourilhed and brought up,
they ought to have at leaft two months fuck; becaufe
the longer they fuck, they grow the ftronger and larger.
Thofe that are brought forth in April, May, or June,
are the moft proper for this purpofe; when calved later
in the feafon, they do not acquire fufficient ftrength to
fupport them during the winter.
The cow comes to the age of puberty in 18 months,
but the bull requires two years: But although they
are capable of propagating at thefe ages, it is better
to reftrain them till they be full three years. From
three to nine years thofe animals are in full vigour; but
when older, they are fit for nothing but to be fed for the
butcher. A milk cow ought to be chofen young, fleffiy,
and with a brifk eye.
The heavieft and moft bulky animals neither fleep (p
profoundly, nor fo long as the fm^ller ones. The fleep
of the ox is fhort and flight; he wakes at the leaft noife.
He lies generally on the left fide, and the kidriey of that
fide is always larger than the other. There is great va¬
riety in the colour of oxen. A reddiffi or black colour
is moft efteemed. The hair ffiould be gloffy, thick, and
foft; for, when otherwife, the animal is either not in
health, or has a weakly confthtstion. The beft time for
BOS ( d
inuring them to labour is at the age of two and a half or
three years.
The ok eats very quick, and foon fills his firft fto-
mach ; after which he lies down to ruminate, or chew
the cud. The firft and fecond ftomachs are continuations
of the fame bag, and very capacious. After the grafs
has been chewed over again, it is reduced to a kind of
mafh, not unlike boiled fpinage, and under* this form it
is fent down to the third ftomach, where it remains and
digefts for fome time; but the digeftion is not fully com-
pleated till it comes to the fourth ftomach, from which
it is thrown down to the guts. The contents of the
firft and fecond ftomachs are a colledtion of grafs and
other vegetables roughly macerated; a fermentation
however foon commences, which makes the grafs fwell.
The communication between the fecond and third fto
mach is by an opening much fmaller than the gullet,
and not fufficient for the paifage of the food in this ftate.
Whenever then the two firft ftomachs are diftended with
food, they begin to contraft, or rather perform a kind
of re-adtion. This re-a£tion comprefles the food, and
makes it endeavour to get out: Now the gullet being
larger than the faflage between the fecond and third fto¬
machs, the preflure of the ftomach neceflarily forces it
up the gullet. The adtion of ruminating, however, ap¬
pears to be in a great meafure voluntary; as animals of
this kind have a power of increafing the re-adtion of their
ftomachs. After the food undergoes a fecond maftica-
tion, it is then reduced into a thin pulp, which eafily
paffes from the fecond to the third ftomach, where it is
ftill further macerated; from thence it pafles to the
fourth, where it is reduced to a perfedi mucilage, every
way prepared for being taken up by the ladteals, and
converted into nourilhment. What confirms this ac¬
count of chewing the cud is, that as long as thefe ani¬
mals fuck or feed upon liquid aliment, they never rumi¬
nate ; and in the winter, when they are obliged to feed
upon hay and other dry vidtuals, they ruminate more
than when they feed-upon frelh grafs.
Bulls, cows, and oxen, are fond of licking themfelves,
efj ecially when lying at reft. But this pradlice fhould
be prevented as much as poffible; for as the hair is an
undigeftible fubftance, it lies in the ftomach or guts, and
is gradually coated by a glutinous fubftance, which in
time hardens into round ftones of a confiderable bulk,
which fometimes kills them, but always prevents their
fattening, as the ftomach is rendered incapable of digeft-
ing the food fo well as it ought.
The age of thefe animals may be diftinguifhed by the
teeth and horns. The firft fore-teeth fall out at the age
of fix months, and are fucceeded by others of a darker
colour, and broader. At the end of fixteen months, the
next milk-teeth likewife fall out; and at the "beginning
of the fourth year all the fore-teeth are renewed, and
then they are long, pretty white, and equal : However,
as the animal advances in years, they become unequal
and blackifti. At the end of three years, the horns of
oxen fall off, and new ones arife, which continue as long
as they live. The horns of oxen four years of age are
Imall pointed, neat, and fmooth, but thickeft near the
Vol. I. No. 27. 3
25 ) BOS
head: This thick part next feafon is pulhed further
from the head by a horny cylinder, which js alfo termi¬
nated by another fwelling part, and fo on, (for as long
as the ox lives, the horns continue to grow); and thefe
fwellings become fo many annular knots by which the
age may eafily be reckoned: But, from the point to the
firft knot muft be counted three years, and every fuc-
ceeding knot only one year.
Ox-beef is very nourifhing, and yields a ftrong aliment;
the fldh of a cow, when well fatted and young, is not
much inferior. Bull-beef is hard, tough, and dry; for
which reafon it is not much ufed for food. Veal is well
tafted, eafy of digeftion, and rather keeps the body open
as otherwife.
The northern countries of Europe produce the beft
cattle of this kind. In general, they bear cold better
than heat; for this reafon, they are not fo plenty in the
fouthern countries. There are but few in Afia to the
fouth of Armenia, or in Africa beyond Egypt and Bar¬
bary. America produced none till they were carried
there by the Europeans. But the largeft are to be met
with in Denmark, Podolia, the Ukrain, and among the
Calmuck Tartars; likewife thofe of Ireland, England,
Holland, and Hungary, are much larger than thofe of
Perfia, Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain; but thofe
of Barbary are leaft of all. In all mountainous countries,
as Wales, the Highlands of Scotland, the black cattle
are exceedingly fmall, but hardy, and when fattened
make excellent beef. In Lapland, they are moftly white,
and many of them want horns. The bull, cow, and
ox, generally live about 14 or 15 years.
2. The bonafus, has a long main; its horns are bent
round towards the cheek, and not above a fpan in length.
It is about the fize of a large bull, and is a native of
Africa and Afia. When enraged, he throws out his dung
upon dogs or other animals that annoy him; the dung
has a kind of cauftic quality which burns the hair off any
animal it falls upon.
3. The bifon, has likewife a long thick mane, which'
covers the whole neck and breaft on each fide. The
horns are turned upwards, and exceedingly large ; there is
a large protuberance or bunch on the back; his eyes are
red and fiery, which gives him a furious afpedt. He is
fierce, cruel, and fo bold that he fears nothing. It is
unfafe to hunt him but where the trees are large enough
to hide thehunters. He is a native of Mexico and Flo¬
rida.
4. The grunniens, or hog-cow, has cylindrical horns,
bent backwards. The body is fo hairy, that the hair hangs
down upon its knees like a goat. The tail has a kind of
mane on each fide. The colour of the body is black;
but the front is white. It has briftles on its back, tail,
and hind-legs. It is an inhabitant of the North of
Afia.
5. The bubalis, or buffalo, has large black horns
bent backward and inward, and plain before. 7'be hair
on the back is very hard, but thinly fcattered over the
body. It is a native of Afia. But they are tamed in,
Italy, and ufed for the fame purpofes as black cattle in
other countries. They draw carriages, and are guided
7 T by
BOS { 626 ) BOS
by a rope tied to a ring thru ft through their nofes.
The buffalo is larger than an ox, has a thicker body,
and a very hard hide. His pace is flow; but he will
carry a great burden. They feed in herds like cotys,
and yield plenty of milk, of which very good butter and
cheefe is made. Their fleflt is pretty good, but not to
be compared to beef. The wild buffalo is a very
fierce and dangerous animal; he often attacks tra¬
vellers, and tears them to pieces. However, they are
not fo much to be feared in woods as in the plains;
becaufe their horns, which are fometimcs ten feet long,
are apt to be entangled in the branches of trees, which
gives thofe who are furprifed by them time to efcape.
They are excellent fwimmers, and will crofs the
larged river without any difficulty. They run wild
in great troops on the coad of Malabar, for which
reafon drangers are allowed to hunt and kill them at
pleafure.
6. The indicus, or little Indian buffalo, has horns
fliorter than its ears, a bunch on its back, and no
nrane. It is about the fize of a calf fix months
old, and ufed in the Ead Indies for drawing coaches,
qc. Y. . ^
BOSA, or Bossa, a town of Sardinia, fituated on its
w,edern coad, at the mouth of a river of the fame name ;
in 8° 3c/ E. long, and 40° 1 j' N. lat.
BOSCAGE, the fame with a grove, or thicket.
Boscage, in a law fenfe, is that food which trees yield
to cattld, as mad, <bc. But Manwood fays, to be-
quit of bofcage, is to be difchargedof paying any duty
for wind-fall wood in the forefl.
Boscage, among painters, denotes a landfcape repre-
fenting much wood and trees.
BOSCHETTO, in geography, a territory in the ifle of
Malta: And likewife an edate belonging to the grand
maflers of that order, about two miles from Civita
Vecchia, in Italy.
BOSEA,. in botany, a genus of the pentandria drgynia
clafs. The calix confids of five leaves; it has no co¬
rolla ; and the fruit is a dry, compreffed, membra¬
naceous berry. There is but one fpecies, viz. the
yervamora, a native of the Carribbee-iflands.
BOSNA-SERAJO, the capital of the province of Bof-
nia, in 190 E. long, and 440 N. lar
BOSNIA, a frontier province of Chrifiendom, divided
between the Houfe of Auflria and the Turks; that
part of it lying eadward of the river Unna, belonging
to the Turks ; and the red of it, lying wedward of
that river, to the Audrians.
BOSPHORUS,, in geography, denotes, in general, a
narrow tea, or. channel, feparating two continents, and
ferving:aS'a communication between two feas.
Bosphorus is more particularly ufed for the draits of
C on dan t-inople, .which dLvides.Europe from Afia.
This was the original Bofphorus;. fo called becaufe
oxen could fwim over it : And from the refemblance
between it- and the {freights, of KafFa, thefe lad were
anciently called the Cimmerian, as the former were the
Thracian Bofphorus.
BOSQUETS, in gardening, groves fo called from-iu/-
cheilOy an Italian word, which fignifies a little wood.
They are compartments in gardens, formed by branches
of trees, difpofed either regularly in rows; or wildly
and irregularly, according to the fancy of the owner.
A bofquet is either a plot of ground inclofed with pa-
lifadoes of horn-beam, the middle of it being filled with
fall trees, as elm or the like, the tops of which make
a tuft or plume ; or it confids of only high trees, as
horfe-chefnut, elm, Qc. The ground fliould be kept
very fmooth and rolled, or elfe covered with grafs,
after the manner of green-plots. In planting bofquets,
care (hould be taken to mix the trees which produce
their leaves of different fliapes, and various fhades of
green, and hoary or meally leaves, fo as to afford an
agreeable profped. Bofquets are only proper for fpa-
cious gardens, and require a great expence to keep
them up.
BOSS, or Bosse, in fculpture. See Relievo.
BOSSAGE, in architefture, a term ufed for any done
that has a projedture, and is laid rough in a building,
to be afterwards carved into mouldings, capitals, coats
of arms, <bc.
Boffage is alfo that which is otherwife called rudic
work, and confids of dones which advance beyond the
naked, or level, of the building, by reafon of inden¬
tures or channels left in the joinings. Thefe are
chiefly ufed in the corners of edifices, and thence call¬
ed ruflic quoins. The cavities or indentures are
fometimes round, fometimes chain-framed, or bevel¬
led, fometimes in a diamond form, and fometimes in¬
clofed with a cavetto, and fometimes with a liflel.
BOSSINEY, a borough-town of Cornwal, fituated on
the Irifli channel, about fifteen miles north-wed of
Launcefton : W. long. 50, and N. lat. 50° 40'.
It fends two members to parliament.
BOSSORA, orBASSQRA, a large port-town of Afia-
tic Turky, in the province of Eyrac Arabic; fituated
on the wedern fhore of the river Euphrates, about for¬
ty miles north-wed of the gulph of Perfia, or Boffora,'
in E. long. 47°, and N. lat. 30°.
BOSSUPT, a town of Brabant, in the Audrian Ne¬
therlands, about eight miles fouth of Louvain: E. Ion.
40 30', and N. lat. 50° 52'.
BOSTANGIS, in the Turkifh affairs, perfons employ¬
ed in the garden of the feraglio, out of whofe number
are colleded thofe who are to row in the Grand Signior’s
brigantines, when he has a mind to divert himfelf with
fifuing, or take the air upon the canal. They who row
on the left hand are only capable of mean employments*
in the gardens ; but they who row on the right hand
may be promoted to the charge of bodangi-bachi, who*
has the general intendency of all the Grand Signior’s-
gardens, and commands above ten thoufand bodangis.
BOSTON, a port-town of Lincolnfliire-, fituated near-
the mouth of the river Witham, about twenty-fix miles*
fouth-eaff of Lincoln : E. long, if, and N. lat. 530.
Boston, is alfo the name of the capital of New-Englandy
fituated on a peninfula, at the bottcim of a fine bay,
covered with fmall iflands and rocks, and defended by
a cadle and platform of guns: W. long. 710, and
^ N. lat. 420'24'.
It is a flourifliirig town, wherein, are ten churcl>es,
fix
B O T C <527 ) B O T
fix of them belonging to independents. The number
of its inhabitants are computed to be about fourteen
thoufand.
BOSWORTH, a market town of Leiccfterftiire, fitua-
ted about eleven miles fouth-weft of Leicelter : W.
long. i° 25', and N. lat. 520 45'.
BOTALE foramen* in anatomy, a name given to the
BOX
BOTANY is that branch 0/ natural hiftory. which.
treats of the ufes, charadters, claifes, orders, genera,
and fpecies of plants.
Before we explain: the moll approve^ method of di-
S e c t. J. USE S
WHen this fcience is carried no further than to di-
ftinguiih one plant from, another, its ufes are few
and uninterefting. However, even this exercife is attended
with fome advantages. It is the firfl, and a neceflary
ftep towards difcovering thofe of a more noble kind. It
is the rudiments of the fcience ^ and mult therefore be
acquired before we can expedt to arrive at any improve¬
ment that may be ufeful to mankind. This part of bo¬
tany is likewife more complete and fyftematic than many
other branches of natural hiftory. By means of the claf-
fical and generic marks, we are enabled in a few minutes.
to difcovcr the name of any plant, from whatever quar¬
ter of the globe it may be brought. Tfns is exceedingly
curious, and altogether incredible to people unacquaint¬
ed with the nature of the fcience. When we have learnt
the name, we are then in a capacity of confulting authors
with regard to the peculiar properties of the plant, fo
far as they are known.
Befides, there is an elegance and fymmetry in plants,,
which give rife to many agreeable emotions. Their
parts, like thofe of animals, are poflefied of all the beau¬
ties of utility, regularity, uniformity, order, and pro¬
portion. Neither is there any clafs of natural, bodies in
which the beauty of variety makes fuch a. capital fi¬
gure. This variety is chiefly exhibited in the magnitude,
figure, colour, odour, and tafte of vegetables. It is
therefore natural to expedf, that th'e ftudy of botany fhould
have fome influence in improving, our tafte.
But as botany is confeffedly a branch of natural hifto¬
ry, the bot-anift ought not to confine, his refearches to
the mere names and.charadters of plants. He ought to
inquire into their qualities. Thefe qualities,, indeed,
when we talk of vegetables in general, are exceedingly
numerous, and the inveftigation of many of them attend¬
ed with fueh difficulty, that no perfoh, however induftri-
foramen ovale, from Botall, phyfician to Charles IX,
to whom the difcovery of it is afcribed. See Fora¬
men ovale.
BOTANIST, a perfon fkilled in botany. See Bo¬
tany.
BOTANOPHILI, perfons who have treated of plants,
not as botanifts, but as gardeners, phyficians, 6 c.
A N Y.
ftinguifhing plants, it will not be improper to, inquire in¬
to the nature of the fcience, and what ufeful or orna¬
mental purpofes may be expebted from the cultivation
of it.
o E BOTANY.
ous, can ever expedf to unfold the whole. But this cir-
cumftance does not afford any argument for lofing fight
of utility altogether,. On the contrary, it is the only,
thing that can give dignity to the fcience', or entitle it to
be ranked as a branch of natural hiftory. There is but
little pleafure in ftudying a science which is already car¬
ried to its higheft pitch of improvement. The profpedt
of difcovering any thing that may be ufeful to mankind
ftimulates our induftry,.and makes us profecute our re-,
fearches with vigour and alacrity.
A botanift, or an inquirer into the-nature and proper¬
ties of vegetables, ought to diredt his views principaily
towards the inyeftigaticn of ufefur qualities. For this
purpofc, in examining plants, he fliould confider whe¬
ther they be poflefTed of any qualities which may render
them of ufe in food, in medicine, or in any of the arts.
Thefe are objedts worthy the attention of philofophers.
Let us examine the afliftance that may be expedted from
the ftudy of botany with regard to thefe important articles.
1. Food.—Many animals are endowed with an inftinc-.
tive faculty of readily diftinguifhing whether the food that
is prefented to them be noxious or falutary. Mankind-
have no fuch inftindf. Theymuft have recourfe to expe-'-
rience and obfervatiom But thefe are not fiifficient to,
guide us in every cafe. The traveller is often allured by.
the agreeablenefs of fmell and tafte to eat poilbnous
fruits. Neither will a general: caution not to eat any
thing but what we know from experience to be falutarv,
anfwer in every emergency. A fliip’s company, in wain
of provifions, may be thrown upon an uninhabited.coaft,:
or a defert ifland. Totally ignorant of the nature of the
plants which they meet with;—difeafes, or fca/city of
animals, may render it abfolutely neceflary to make ufe
of vegetable foodthe cbnfequence is dreadful: They-
mult
623 B O T
mud firft eat, before any certain conclufion can be formed.
This is not the defcription of danger arifing from an imagi¬
nary fituation. Before the vegetables that grow in Ame¬
rica, the Eafl and Weft Indies, &c. became familiar to our
failorg, many lives were loft by trials of this kind: Nei¬
ther has ail the information received from experience
been fufficient to prevent individuals from ftill falling a
prey to ignorance or rafhnefs.
If the whole fcience of botany were as complete as
fome of its branches, very little llcill in it would be fuf-
ficient to guard us infallibly from committing fuch fatal
miftakes. There are certain orders and clafles which
' are called natural, bycaufe every genus and fpecies com¬
prehended under them are not only diftinguilhed by the
fame charaderiftic marks, but likewife poflefs the fame
qualities, though not all in an equal degree. Forex-
ample : Shew a botanift the flower of a plant whofe calix
is a double-valved glume, with three ftamina, two pi-
ftils, and one naked feed, he can pronounce with abio-
lute certainty, that the plant from which the flower was
taken bears feeds of a farinaceous quality, and that they
may be fafely ufed as food. In like manner, ftiew him
a flower with twelve or more ftamina, ail inferted into
the internal fide of the calix; though it belonged to a
plant growing in Japan, he can pronounce, without hefi-
tation, that the fruit of it may be eat with fafety. On
the other hand, (how him a plant whofe flower has five
ftamina, one piftil, one petal or flower-leaf, and whofe
fruit is of the berry kind, he will tell you to abftainfrom
eating it, becaufe it is poifonous. Many other examples
might be given: but we ftiail referve them till we come
to the medical qualities.
Fails of this kind make botany not only a refpeilable,
but a moft interefting fcience. The French and fome
other nations ufe a greater variety of vegetable food than
the Britilh. This praitice is attended with many advan¬
tages. The greater number of vegetables that are made
ufe of in any country, the poor have the greater number
of refources when there happens to be a fcarcity of any
particular kind. It likewife affords an opportunity of a
more univerfal cultivation. When agriculture or gar¬
dening is confined to "few plants, there is great hazard
from bad feafons and other unavoidable accidents, befides
the certain lofs arifing from allowing fuch foils as are im¬
proper for raifing the ufual plants to lie unemployed.
Though we are principally influenced by example in in¬
troducing the culture of new plants; yet the advice and
direction of the botanift may be ufeful. From his know¬
ledge of the qualities of plants that grow in other coun¬
tries, he is enabled to guefs, with tolerable exaflnefs,
whether they will agree with the foil or climate in which
they are propofed to be cultivated. He can do more:
he can point out what particular fpecies of the plant will
be moft eafily naturalized. Befides, without having re-
courfe to the example of foreign countries, the botanift can
point out a number of plants that grow wild in his own
country, which might be cultivated with advantage, as
food either for men or cattle. For example, in the whole
clafs called diadelphia by Linnaeus, which includes the
polygala, or milk-wort; the anthyllis, or kidney-vetch ;
ANY.
the orobus, or heath-peafe; the lathyrus and vicia, which
comprehend a number of plants of the Vetch-kind; the
ornithopus, or bird’s-foot; the hedyfarum, or St-foin;
the aftragalus, or wild liquorice; the medicago, or lu¬
cent ; the lotus, or bird’s-foot trifoil, <bc.; the leaves
are excellent food for cattle, and the feeds may be tifed
either by men or cattle. In like manner, all the feeds of
the grafs-kind, which belong to the triandria clafs of
Linnaeus, and are very numerous, make excellent food
for men, and the leaves afford the beft pafture for cattle.
Many of the plants belonging to this clafs are not culti¬
vated in this country, though we have a great variety of
them growing, wild.
It has been frequently obferved, that poor people, du¬
ring a fcarcity of corn, have been induced to fill their
bellies with fubftances that were both pernicious and
loathfome, while they were trampling under their feet
plants that would at once have afforded good nourifh-
ment and been highly grateful. This conduft could
proceed from nothing but their ignorance of the nature
and effedts of tlrefe plants, and from their not being able
to diftinguifh the noxious ones from the falutary. It is the
duty of every man to point out the remedy for calamities
of this kind, efpecially when it is not impoflible that the
caufes which produced them may exift in fome future pe¬
riod. For this purpofe, we fhall fubjoin a fhort lift of
native plants that may be eat with fafety and advantage.
Salicornia Europsea, or marfh-famphire, jointed glafs-
wort, or faltwort. This plant grows plentifully near
the fea-coafts, and eats very well with fait and vinegar.
Veronica becabunga, or common brook-lime. This
plant, which grows in marfhes, is commonly gathered in
the fpring, and eat as a fallad.
Valeriana locufta, lamb’s-lettuce, or corn-fallet, grows
in corn-fields and pafture-grounds. The leaves are rec¬
koned more wholefome than the common lettuce culti¬
vated in our gardens.
Scirpus maritimus, or round-rooted cyperus, grows
near the fea-fhores. The root confifts of a number of
knots, which, after being dried and grinded, have been
frequently ufed as bread when provifions were fcarce.
Bromus fecalinus, or field brorhe-grafs, grows in vaft
quantities in rye-fields, efpecially after the rye is cut
down. The feeds of this plant, mixed with grain of a
better quality, make very good bread : But if the quan¬
tity of brome-grafs feeds be great, the people who ufe
the bread are apt at firft to be afFe&ed with a flight de¬
gree of intoxication; but this efFe£t ceafes, after being a
little accuftomed to the food.
Feftuca fluitans, or flote-fefcue-grafs, grows in ditches
and marfhy places. In Sweden and Germany, the feeds
are ufed in broths and gruels, on account both of their
nutritive quality and agreeable flavour. When grinded,
and made into bread, they are efteemed little inferior to
wheat or oats.
Triticum repens, common wheat-grafs, dog’s-grafs,
quick-grafs, or couch-grafs, grows fo plentifully in our
fields, that it is a great objedt with farmers to root it out..
The roots of this plant, after being walked, dried, and
grinded, have often been ufed as bread in a dearth of corn.
With
B O T
With regard to the other kinds of grafs, the feeds of them
may be fafely ufed as food; but fome of them are fo
fmall, that a fuflicient quantity cannot eafily be colledted.
Campanula, or bell-flower. Nine or ten fpecies of
bell-flower grow in Britain. Both the roots and leaves,
when boiled, efpecially before the Italk grows up, may be
ufed.
Chenopodium bonus henricus, common Englifli mer¬
cury, or all-good, grows almoft every where. This plant
is ufeddn broth by the country-people, in place of cabbage
or other pot-herbs When the young leaves and (talks
are drefled with butter, they are not inferior, in their
flavour and nutritive power, to afparagus or fpinage.
Eryngium maritimum, fea-holly, or eryngo,..gene¬
rally grows near the fea-lhore. The young twigs, pre¬
pared as afparagus, are grateful to the tafte, very nou-
rifhing, and give vigour to the body.
Daucus carota, wild carrot, or bird’s-neft, grows in
every field. It is the fame fpecies with the.carrot culti¬
vated in gardens, and is equally nourifliing.
Heracleum fphondylium, or cow-parfnip. The inha¬
bitants of Poland and Lithuania make a fermented liquor
of the feeds and leaves, which the poorer fort ufe as ale.
The inhabitants of Camfcatka eat the (talks, after peel¬
ing off the bark.
Carum carvi, or caraways, grows, in meadows and
pafture-grounds. The young roots of this plant are
more agreeable to the tafte than the parfnip, and there¬
fore might be of great fervice to the poor in a dearth of
provifions.
Convallaria polygonatum, or fweet-fmelling Solomon’s-
feal, grows in the cliffs of rocks. The roots are made
into bread, and eat by the inhabitants of Lapland, when
corn is fcarce. The Turks ufe the young ftalks as afpa¬
ragus.
Bunium bulbocaftanum, earth-nut, kipper-nut, pig¬
nut, or hawk-nut, grows plentifully on lea-grounds, the
banks of rivers, fides of hills, drc. The roots are very
fweet, afford excellent nourifhment, and may be eat ei¬
ther raw, boiled, or roafted.
Vaccinium uliginofum, the great bilberry-bufh, grows
upon high grounds. The berries are much eat by chil¬
dren; but when taken in too great quantity, are. apt to
occafion a giddinefs and headach.
Vaccinium myrtyllis, black whorts, whortle-berries.
or bilberries, grows in woods. The berries have a fine
flavour, and may be eat with fafety.
Vaccinium vitis idea, red whorts, or whortle-berries,
grows^on hills. The berries are eat in the autumn, and
many people make an excellent jelly of them.
Polygonum viviparum, fmall biftort, or fnake-weed,
grows upon high grounds. The roots may be prepared
into bread. In Lapland and the northern parts of Eu¬
rope, it is principally eat along with the flefli of (lags
and other wild animals.
Spergula arvenfis, or corn-fpurrey, grows in corn¬
fields, efpecially in fandy foils. 'In Norway, they col-
-ledt the feeds of this plant, and make them into bread.
Sedum rUpeftre, or St Vincent’s rock (lone-crop, grows
on high grounds. The Swifs cultivate this plant, and
ufe it as a pot-herb.
Vox.. 1. Numb. 27. 3
ANY. 629
Primus padus, wild clufter-cherry, or bird’s-cherry,
grows in woods and hedges. Some people cat the ber¬
ries with fait.
Prunus fpinofa, the black-thorn, or (loe-tree, grows in
hedges and woods. The berries are very auftere.; but
the leaves are tender, and, when gently toafted, may be
ufed in place of tea,
Prunus cerafus, or black-cherry, grows Jikewife in
woods and hedges. The berries are eat both in a crude
and dried (late. When this plant is wounded, a gum
exfudes from it nearly of the fame quality with gum-
arabic. Dr Haffelquift informs us, that above loo.men,
when befieged in an Egyptian town, were preferved alive
for more than two months, without any other fuftenance
than they derived from the ufe of this gum.
Cratsegus aria, or the white bean-tree, grows in woods.
The berries are eat by the peafants ; and in Sweden they
are prepared and ufed, as bread when there is a fcarcity of
corn.
Crataegus oxycantha, the white thorn, or hawthorn,
grows every where in woods and hedges. The berries,
when dried and grinded, are fometimes made into bread;
but it is apt to bind the belly too much.
Sorbus aucuparia, the quicken-tree, or mountain-afh,
grows in woods. Very good cyder is made of the ber¬
ries: and, when dried, they make very wholefome bread.
Rofa canina, red-flowered dog’s-rofe, or hip-tree,
grows in hedges. The berries afford excellent nourilh-
ment, and may ejther be eat in a crude (late, or dried
and made into bread.
Spiraea filipendula, or drop-wort, grows in pafture-
grounds and the (ides of hills. The roots of this plant,
which are compofed of fmall tubercles like peafe, whep
dried and grinded, make tolerably good bread.
Ranunculus ficaria, pile-wort, or leffer celadine, grows
in pafture-grounds, fac. The Norwegians collect the
leaves in the fpring, and ufe them in broth.
Origanum vulgare, or wild marjoram, grows in hedges
and among brulh-wood. The leaves of this plant, when
toafted, and infufed in boiling water, have fuch a refem-
blance to tea, that it is difficult to make a diftin&ion.
As tea is fo unfverfally ufed in diet, it is much to be re¬
gretted that the ladies cannot be prevailed upon to prefer
this or fome other of our own plants, and thereby faye
fome millions ft'erlin^'annually to their country.
Stachys paluftris, or clown’s all-heal, grows in njarflies
and the banks of rivers. The roots are fucculent, and
may be ufed either boiled, or dried and made into bread.
Melampyrum arvenfe, or purple cow-wheat, grows in
corn-fields. Bread is fometimes made of the feeds; but
it is a little bitter.
Sinapis arvenfis, wild muftard, or charlock, grows
plentifully in corn-fields, &C. The leaves of this plant
are often ufed in broth.
Crambe maritima, or fea-colewort, grows in fandy
ground near the fea-lhore. The leaves, when young and
tender, may be ufed in place of cabbage; but when too
old, are apt to make the head giddy.
Malva rotundifolia, or dwarf-mallow, and malva fyl-
veftfis, or common mallow, are every where to be met
vita. The leaves of both thefe plants may be ufed inbrotb.
7 U Orobus
6%o BO T
Orobus tuberofus, wood-peafe, or heath-peafe, grows
in pafluie-ground, woods, hedges, &c. The roots,
when boiled, or made into bread, a (Ford excellent nou-
rifliment.
Pifum maritimum, or fea-peafe. In the year 1655,
when a great famine prevailed in England, the poor peo¬
ple in Oxfordfliird lived principally upon the feeds of this
plant.
Trifolium repens, or white clover, grows in meadows
and pallure-grounds. The flowers of this plant, when
dried, make tolerably good bread.
. Trifolium pratenfe, purple or honeyfuckle clover.
The Scotch, when opprefled with a famine, ufed bread
made of the flowers of this plant. And indeed bread
may be made of the flowers of every plant belong¬
ing to the clafs called diadeiphia, which comprehends
near 600 fpecies. , .
Hipochrasfis maculata, or fpotted hawkweed, grows on
high pallure-grounds. The peafants of Norway ufe the
leaves as cabbage.
Sonchus oleraceus, or common fow-thiftle. The
young leaves eat exceedingly well when boiled.
Tragopodon pratenfe, or yellow goat’s-beard, grows
in meadows And pallure-grounds. The roots, when dug
up before the plant flowers, have a fine flavour, and are
very nourilhing.
Arctium lappa, or burdock. The young flalks, when
the bark is taken off, eat, when boiled, like afparagus.
-Some people ufe them in a crude Hate, with oil and vi¬
negar.
Carduus paluftris, or marfh-thiflle. Almofl all the
fpecies of ihiftle may be ufed in the fame manner as the
burdock.
Urtica dioica, or common nettle. The ufe of this
plant as a pot-herb is well known.
Quercus robur, or common oak. Acorns, during a
famine, have often been made into bread.
Fagus fylvatica, or beach tree. Bread has fometimes
been made of the nuts; but uniefs they be well dried,
the bread made of them will produce a flight degree of
intoxication.
Gorylus avelhma, Or the hafel-nut tree. Every body
knows the agreeable flavour and nutritive quality of ha-
fel nuts.
Einus fylvefiris, or Scots fir. The Norwegians and
others make bread of this tree in the following manner:
They feledt fuch trunks as are moft fmooth and have Leaft
refin; they take off the bark, then dry it in the {hade,
and afterwards toaft it over a fire, and grind it into meal.
They generally mix with it a little oat-meal, or barley.
This bread, made of fir-bark, is not only ufed in. a fear-
city of provifions, but is eat at all times by the poorer
fort.
Lichen iflandicus, or eryngo-leaved liver wort, grows
among heath and upon high grounds. The inhabitants
of Iceland have long ufed this plant, both boiled^ and in
the form of bread.
ANY.
Lichen vellcus, or fleecy liver-wbrf, grows upon hiuV.
In time of famine, the inhabitants ufed this plant for
food.
Fungus, or mufhroom. The fpecies of this plant are
very numerous. Some of them ate ufed by the rich,
rarher as a feafoning, than as food. When taken in tob
great quantity, they are abfolutely indigeflible ; and, un.-
lefs thrown up from the ftomaeh, will prove as fatal as
the moll: deadly poifon. The poor, therefqre, who
would be very apt to fall into this error, had better re¬
frain from the ufe of mufnrcoms altogether.
From this fhoi t lifl of efculent plants 'that grow wild
in our own country, we fee how libeiaily we are provi¬
ded with refources in cafe of a fcareity of the vegetables
ufually cultivated for food, and at the fame time the ad¬
vantages that might be derived from a very flight degree
of knowledge in botany. Many of thefe plants grow beft
in foils which cannot be employed for railing corn of any
kind. Befides, they are exceedingly hardy, and fuffer
but little from feafons, which in a gieat meafure deflroy
the more delicate plants which we cultivate with fa much
labour and expence. It may be further remarked, that
many improvements in agriculture and the ufeful part of
gardening might be expeffed from propagating a tafle for
refearches into the nature and properties of vegetables..
2. Medicine.—It is an unhappy circumflance, that
the bulk of phyficians in all age&have been more remark
able for their attachment to, the abftrufe and ufelefs
parts of the fcience, than to the nature and cure of dif-
eafes, the proper objects of their profeflion. Inftead of
difputing in folio how fuch a plant cures fuch a difeafe,
had they exerted their induftry and genius in afeertain-
ing the fa£t, and then proceeded to make further inqui¬
ries into the qualities of other fimples, the praflice of
phyfic would not have been a thing of fuch a flu&uating
nature as it ever has been, and ftill continues to. be.
Many praditioners, fome of them men of confiderable
abilities, affed to defpife the fcicnce of botany, alledging
that it affords no afirftance to their art; and that it is very
ufclefs to load their memories with a long catalogue of
hard names, without being a whit th.e wifer with regard
to the medical properties. Befides, they imagine every
fingle genus and fpecie.s of the whole vegetable tribes
to be poffeffed of peculiar and diftind properties ; and
that it would require the labour of a whole life time to
afeertain the virtues of a few plants.
It muff indeed be confefled, that the writers and teach¬
ers of botany have not been fufficiently careful to prevent
refledions of this kind. The technical part of the fci¬
ence ingroffes their chief attention: If the virtues are
talked ©f, it is only in a curfory manner: The only thing
that can render the fcience refpedable, is either totally
omitted in their fyftems, or difpatched in a line or two.
But we are happy to find, that the fcieace, begins now to
get fome footing in this country. By the induftry and
fpirit of a. worthy Profeffor *, the tafte has been propa¬
gated
* Dr John Hope profelfor of medicine and botany in the univerflty of Edinburgh. Immediately after the Dodor’s ad.-
wiiiTion to the botanical chair,, he offered gold and filver medals to his {Indents for the bed colledions of indigenous
plants
B O T
gated in a few years far beyond what could have been ex¬
pected, efpecially when the Hate of the country before
that petiod is taken into conuderation.
We have no doubt of being able to fnew, that botany,
even in its prefent (late, is fo far front lying open to the
objections brought againil it by thofe who are either un¬
acquainted with it, or affeCt to defpife it as ufelefs and
trifling, that we have little reafon to hope for any exten-
five infight into the medical virtues of plants by any o-
ther means.
In order to bring the numerous tribes of vegetables
under certain claffes or denominations, various methods
have been adopted by different authors. Some have
clafled them by the figure of their roots ; fume by the
caulis or flems; fome by the leaves. Linnceus has pre¬
ferred the parts of fruCHfrcation, becaafe thefe are not
only the moH effential, but likewife the moft univerfal.
This method of claffing is preferable to any that has
been propofed, on many accounts. It is found by ex¬
perience, that plants which are diltinguiflied by the lame
characters in the flower and fruit, have precifely the fame
qualities, though not always in an equal degree as to
llrength or weaknefs ; fo that, upon infpeClion of the
flower and fruit, a botanill can determine a frltri the ef¬
fects- that will refult from the plant when taken into the
ftomach. Here then is a foundation for natural clafles.
In drder, therefore, to determine the medical virtues of
all the plants belonging, to a natural clal's, the phyfician
has nothing further to do than to afcertain, by a fet of
clear and unqueftionable experiments, the virtues of
any one of them. This greatly fliortens the labour of
invelHgation. Suppofing the number of known fpecies
tu be 20,000, by ascertaining the virtues of one. genus,
at a medium, you determine the virtues of 12 Ipecies.
But, by afcertaining the virtues of one genus, belonging
to a natural order, the virtues of perhaps 300 or 400
fpecies are afcertained. Again, by afcertaining the vir¬
tues of one genus belonging to a natural clafs,. you dif*
cover the virtues of perhaps 800 or 10.00 fpecies.
As this branch of the materia medica has been hither¬
to greatly negleCled, we {hall fubjpin a few examples of
natural orders and daffes, with the virtues they, are fup-
pofed to poflefs.
The Stellatje of Mr Ray, which, make the. 44th
natural, order of Linnseus, are faid to be all.diuretics.
Of thefe, the rubia and afperula are remarkable for their
diuretic and detergent qualities, and as fuch are admit¬
ted into both the Edinburgh and London difpenfatories.
The aparine, gallium., <bc. poflefs the fame qualities,
though not perhaps in an equal degree.
The AspERifOLiiE of Ray, belong, to the pentandria
monogynia clafs, with one petal and four feeds, of Lin-
nasus, end form his 43d natural order. The plants of
tlris order are faid to be aftringent and v-dneraryv Un¬
der it the following genera are comprehended : Tourne.-
A N Y. 63*
fortia, cerinthe, fymphytum, pulmonaria, borrago, cy-
noglolfum, anchufa, lithofpermum, myofotis, heliotropi-
um, afperugo, lycopfis, echium.
The plants inqluded under the Pentandria, with-
one ftylus, one flower-leaf, and which bear berries, form
the 33d natural order, and are generally poifonous. To
this order belong all the folana, or night-fliades ; the
mandragora and atropa, which are well known to be
poifonous; the hyofeyamus and datura occafion madnefs.
and death ; the verbafeum intoxicates and kills fifltes.
The Umbellate, which make the 23d natural or¬
der, are faid to be aromatic, refolvent, and carminative,
efpecially thofe that grow in a dry foil; but fuch of
them as grow in a wet foil are faid to be poifqnous. The
virtues refide in the roots and .feeds. To this order be¬
long the daucus creticus, gentiana alba, filer montanum,
ammi verum, pet-rofdinum macedonicum, <bc.
The foots of the plants belonging to the Hexandria
clafs, are either efcelent or poilonous, Thefe qualities
may be dillinguiflied by the tafte andfmeil. In the 7th,
8th, qth, and toth natural orders, the following poifou-
ous plants of the hexandria clafs are enumerated, viz. the
leucoium, galanthus, pancratium, amaryllis, fritillaria,
corona imperialis, gloriofa, ccnvallaria, hyacinth.us, a-
loes, isc. The allium, cepa, and parum, are acrid;
and, when taken ir> top great a quantity, are highly cor-
rofive; but, as this hurtful quality is owing to a vola¬
tile alkaline fubilance in the roots, when they ate roail-
ed or boiled it flies off, and they may be eat with fafety.
The fruit of all the plants belonging to the Pcos^n-
dp.ia clafs, which are enumerated iu the 36th, ‘37th,
38th, and. 39th. aatural ordprs,. are efculent, and not
one of them poifonous. To this class belong the eugc-
nia, punica, cerafus, crategus, pyrus^ rofa, fragaria, be.
The. plants belonging to the Polyandria clafs, or the
23d natural order, are moftly poifonous, e.g. thenym-
phtea, argemone, papaver,.adaea, bocconia, euphorbia,
delphinium, Haphifagria,. aconitum, nigella, errhina, a-
quilegia, hclleborus, be.
The leaves of the plants belongingto the Didynamia
GYMNasTERMiA, oc 58th natural order, are faid to be
cephalic and refolvent. This order contains the ajuga,
teucrium, hyfopus, lavendula, mentha, lamium, betonica,
ballota, leonurus,. origanum,, thymus, melifla, draco-
cephalum, be.
The plants belonging to.the Tetradynamia clafs,
or the 57th natural order, are antifcorbutic, and a little
acrid.; e.g. the lepidiura, cochlsaria, raphanus, carda-
mine, . finapis, eryfimum barbarea, fifymbrium, be.
All the plants of. the Monodelphia clafs, which
form .the 34th. natural order, are emollient and mucila¬
ginous. Whoever knows the qualities of the althea and
malva, knows the qualities of the whole clafs, which
comprehends about 180.fpecies. The emollient and mu¬
cilaginous virtues are not confined to the.leaves or any
par-
plants prepared in the manner of a hortus fitcus.. The oonfequence of this plan fully anfwered his expectation-:. In
a few years, he was in pofleilion of many more plants than were ever formerly fuppofed to grow in Scotland. After this
acquifition, the Dr judicioufly changed the object of his medals, and offered them for the heft accounts of the fenfibli
qualities and medical virtues of any number of native plants. But we are forry to find, that no gentlemen have hither*
ta become candidates for thefe medals fmee they were oixbred upon this fenfible and ufefuL plan..
dg2 B O' T
particular part, but are diffufed through the whole
plant.
The Diadelphia clais forms the jyth natural order.
This clafs comprehends above 500 fpecies; and, as was
obferved above, the feeds of every one of them are efcu-
lent, the leaves afford excellent pafture for cattle, and
not one of them have any poifonous quality.
The Svngenesia clafs, or 21ft natural order, con¬
tains a very great number of fpecies. The virtues of
fome plants belonging to this clafs are faid to differ con-
fiderably. The bardana, carlina, tuflilago, arnica, ci-
chorium, fcorzonera, taraxacum, <bc. are fuppofed to
be deobftruent, and are kept as fuch in the {bops. But
the greatefl number of them are bitter and ftomachic ;
e. g. the abfmthium abrotanum, artemifia, fantolina,
balfamita, tanacetum eupatorium, matricaria, chamo-
milla, acmella, verbefina, <bc.
The G y n a nn r. 1 a D1 an d r t a, Or 4th natural order, are
faid to excite venery; e. g. the orchis, fatyrium, ferapias,
herminium, ophrys, epidendrum, <bc. The roots of
thefe are ufed with this intention by practitioners.
The Amentacete Acifolije, or 15th natural or¬
der, are refinous; e. g, the pious, abies, juniperus, cu-
preffas, <bc. They are all warm Simulants and diuretics.
The virtues oftheCRYProGAMiAclafs,which compre¬
hends the 61 ft, 62d, 63'd, and 64th natural orders, are
moftly of a fufptcious nature. Hardly any of the filices
are efculent; their fmell is difagreeable, and they are faid
to kill worms. All the mufei, except the lichen iflan-
dicus, are improper for food. Some of the fungi are eat;
but they arc a very dangerous food.
Plants which have their nedtaria feparate from the
flowers, are commonly poifonous ; e. g. the epimedium,
nigella, aquilegia, aconitum, monotropa helleborus, isc.
Thofe plants which are called lattefcent, from their
oozing out a whitifli juice upon being wounded, are ge¬
nerally poifonous; e. g. the euphorbia, papaver, peri-
ploca, cynanthum, &c. But thofe which are called
fsmiflofculofdc by Tournefort, are of a milder nature; t.g.
ladtuca, hieracium, crepis, leontodon, <bc.
Befides natural clafles and orders, which prefuppofe
fome acquaintance with botany, we are provided with
other means of difeovering the general qualities of plants.
The feilfations of fmell and tafte give us fome intima¬
tion of the nature and qualities of plants. An agreeable
tafte or fmell is feldom accompanied with noxious quali¬
ties • on the other hand, when ihefe fenfes are difagree-
ably affefted, the qualities are generally more or lefs
noxious, being either purgative, emetic, or poifonous.
Plants that have a fweet tafte are generally nutritive;
thofe that have a fait tafte are warm and ftimulant.
Plants of an acrid tafte are corrofive; but, when de¬
prived of their acrimony by drying, fome of them become
fit for food. Bitter plants are alkaline, ftomachic, and
fometimes of a fufpicious nature. Acid plants are cool¬
ing, and allay third; but thofe of an auftere tafte are
aftringent.
Even the colour and afpeA of plants throw fome light
upon their nature Flowers, or fruit of a red colour are
generally acid. Yellow flowers indicate a bitter tafte.
Plants that have green flowers are crude ; thofe of a pale
ANY.
colour are commonly infipid ; thofe of a white colour are
generally fweet; and thofe whofe flowers have a gloomy
and difmal afpeA, are moftly poifonous.
Thefe examples naturally fuggeft the following obferva-
tions.—The Creator of the univerfe hath endowed us with
fufficient abilities for inveftigating thevirtues of plants, and
applying them to the cure of difeafes and other ufeful pur-
pofes, even on the fuppofition that we were obliged to
afeertain the virtues of every Angle plant by experiments.
But this labour, though praAicable in a courfe of years*
and under proper regulations, is greatly abridged. The
information afforded by the fenfes is confiderable. Our
inquiries are ftili further aflifted by the general diftribu-
tion of vegetables into tribes and families. The mutual
relation and conneAion of thefe tribes depend not upon
fancy or conjeAure: The relations are fo ftrongly mark¬
ed by the fimilarity of their flowers, fruit, and fenfible
qualities, that they are confpicuous at firft fight.
A perfon unacquainted with medicine, from this view
of the virtues of plants, will be apt to imagine, that bo¬
tany is the only road to that fcience; and of courfe
that every phyfician muft either be a good botanift, or a
bad praAitioner. The thought is natural, and, with
fome limitation, not unjuft. The common praAice of
phyfic does not require an extenfive {kill in the virtues
of plants. A certain number of vegetables and other
fubftances are kept in the {hops, and recommended for
particular purpofes in difpenfatories and books of praAice.
It is the bufinefs of the praAitioner to have a general ac¬
quaintance with thefe, and to preferibe them according
to the cuftom of the times. But inveftigations into the
nature and properties of fimples or drugs, require more
time than can be beftowed by men of bufinefs. When¬
ever any fcience is converted into a trade, and the ftudy
of it confined to people who muft live by it, there is little
profpeA of improvement. This has been the fate of phy¬
fic. Every body difpenfes medicines ; but few are none
inquire into their virtues. Some valuable medicines
have been difeovered, But by whom ? Not by phyficians,'
but by favages, old women, priefts, and chymifts. Un¬
til, therefore, the ftudy of phyfic be confidered as a
branch of natural hiftory, and cultivated by people who
have time to make experiments, the fcience muft conti¬
nue to be vague, defultory, and limited in its utility.
Botany has always been confidered as a branch of na¬
tural hiftory. But, as was formerly obfervCd, the ufe¬
ful part of it hath been too much negleAed. The vir¬
tues of plants may be fuccefsfully inveftigated without
an extenfive knowledge in all the branches of the medical
art. To propagate a tafte for inquiries into the nature
and properties of vegetables, would therefore lay the moft
folid foundation for improvements in medicine.
3. Art s.—The application of the qualities of vege¬
tables to the various mechanical arts affords a moft ex¬
tenfive field for ufeful obfervation. There are few plants,
however different in their nature, but are found.by ex¬
perience to be not only the moft proper, but effentially
neceffary, in fome particular art or employment.
The qualities which render vegetables fo generally ap¬
plicable to mechanical employments are principally thefe:
Softnefs
Plate xnr
B O T
Softnefs or hardnefs of texture, elafticity, inflammability,
aftringency, colour, he. Hence fome plants are proper
for domeftic utenfils, others for dying, tanning, he.
Some may be apt to think that qualities of this kind are
not tite proper objeds of botany. But if the natural
hiftorian be at liberty to negled-ufeful qualities, he de-
ferves little thanks for expatiating on thofe that are ufe-
lefs. It would be foreign to our defign in this place, to
enumerate the particular plants that are ufed for the va¬
rious purpofes of the mechanic. We fliall however, by
way of fpecimen, fubjoin a lifl of plants that change the
colour of cloths and other fubftances.
List 0/Dying Plants.
YELLOW.
Curcuma, or turmeric. This plant grows in the Eaft
Indies; the root of it tinges a rich yellow colour; but it
is not very durable.
Rumex maritimus, or golden dock, grows on road-
fides, he. The root dyes a fine yellow.
Thalidrum flavum, or meadow-rue, grows in marfhes,
on the banks of rivers, he. Both the root and the leaves
dye a very deep yellow.
Urtica dioica, or common nettle. The country people
dye eggs a beautiful yellow with tbe roots of this plant at
the feaft of Ealler.
Santalum album, or white fanders. The wood of this
tree, which is a native of the Eall Indies,' dyes a good
yellow.
LawCmia inermis, or alkanna, is-a fmall flirub culti¬
vated in Alia and Africa. The Hem and branches of this
plant afford an excellent yellow; the natives paint their
bodies with it. The root, prepared with quick-lime,
gives a fine fhining red. The natives ufe it for dying
their teeth, nails, faces, the mains of their horfes, lea¬
ther, he.
Morus tindoria, or fuflic, grows in America. The
wood of this tree is in great efteem among dyers for the
fine yellow it affords.
Rhamnus frangula, or the black berry-bearing alder,
grows in woods and hedges. The bark ringes a dull yel¬
low ; and the unripe berries dye woollen fluffs green.
Rhamnus catharticus, or purging buck-thorn, grows
wild in woods and hedges. The bark gives a beautiful
ytllow.
Rhamnus minor, grows in the fouthern parts of Europe.
The berries give an excfellent yellow.
Rhus Coriaria, of ftnnach, grows in Italy, he. The
bark of the ftem gives a yellow colour, and the bark of
the root a yellowifh red.
Berberis vulgaris, barberry* or pipperidge-bufh. The
root of this plant gives an excellent yellow to cloth ; and
the bark gives leather a beautiful yellow colour.
Pruhus domeftica, or common plumb-tree. The coun¬
try people ufe the bark for dying their cloth yellow.
Pyrus malus, or apple-tree. The dyers ufe the bark
for giving cloth a yellow colour.
Carpinus betulus, the horn or hard beam tree, horfe
or horrvbeach tree, grows in v/oods. The bark is ufed
as a yellow dye.
Vol. I. No. 27.
A N Y.
Refeda luteola, or bafe-rocket, grows in pallure grounds,
meadows, and efpecially on a chalky foil; This herb,
which is a native of Scotland, gives cloth a moft beauti¬
ful yellow colour, and is much ufed by dyers, who import
it in large quantities, though it might be eaiily cultivated
in our own country.
Serratula tindloria, or faw-wort, grows in woods and
meadows. This plant gives the fame colour with the
refeda, and, though not fo beautiful, is much uled by
dyers.
Hierachium umbellatum, or narrow-leaved bufhy
hawkweed, grows in woods, hedges, and gravelly foils.
This plant gives a very fine yellow.
Acanthus mollis, is a native of Italy. It appears that
this plant was ufed by the ancients for dying yellow-:
Et circumtextum croceo vetamen acantbo, Yirg.
Bidens tripartita, or trifid water hemp-agrimony, grows
in marfhy places. This plant gives a pre«tty elegant yellow.
Xanthium flrumarium, or leffer burdock, grows near
dunghills. When this plant is boiled entire, together with
the fruit, it gives a pretty good yellow.
Salix pentandra, or fweet willow. The dried leaves
give a fine yellow.
Bettila alba, or birch-tree. The leaves give a faint
yellow colour to cloth.
Stachys filvatica, or hedge-nettle, grows in woods and
hedges, and gives a yellow colour to cloth.
Centaurea jacea, or common knapweed, grows in pa-*
fture and barren grounds. This pTant is often ufed as a
fuccedaneum for the ferratula orfaw-woft.
Polygonum perficaria, dead or fpotted arfmart, grows
in corn-fields, he. and dyes cloth yellow.
Lyfimacha vulgaris, yellow willow-herb, or loofe-Arife,
grows in marlhes, and on the banks of rivers. This herb
laid to dye yellow.
Scabiofa fuccifa, or devil’s-bit, grows in meadows and
paflure-grounds, The dried leaves give a yellow colour p
but it is feldom ufed.
Anthyllus vulneraria, kidney-vetch, or ladies-finger,
grows on dry pafture-grounds. The country people ufe-
this plant for dying their cloth yellow.
Lichen juniperus, or juniper-liverwort, grows-on the-
trunks and branches of trees. Lichen parietinus, or
commoft liver-wort, grows on walls and the bark of trees.
Lichen candelarius, or yellow liverwort. Thefe three
fpecies of liverwort are ufed by the common people for
dying their fluffs yellow.
Anthemis tindloria, or common ox-eye, grows on
high grounds. The flowers give a bright yellow colour.
Chterophyllum fylveflre, wild cicely* or cow-weed,
grows in hedges, he. The umbel or tops and flowers
of this plant give an excellent yellow.
Thafpia villofa, or deadly carrot, grows in Spain
and its umbel is ufed as a yellow dye by the inhabitants
of that country. - . . . :
Genifta timfloria, green -wood, dyers-weed or v/cad-
waxen, grows in pafture-grounds, he. The flowers are
much .ufed as a yellow dye.
Hypericum perforatum, or St. John’s wort, grows
among brulh-wood and in hedges. The flowers are ufed
as a yellow dye, but it is-not much efteemed.
7 X
3
Calen-
<$34 B O T
Caleficiuk officinalis, or garden marygold. The dried
flower-leaves are fometimes ufed as a yellow dye: Their
expreffed juice, boiled with alum, makes an excellent yel¬
low paint.
RED.
Rubia tin&orum, or madder, grows in the fouthern
parts of Europe. The roots are much ufed by dyers for
giving a red colour to cloth.
Gallium boreale, or crofswort madder; gallium ve-
rum, yellow ladies bed-ftraw, or cheefe-rening. Both
thefe plants grow plentifully in our own country, and
their roots are ufed for. dying cloth red.
Lithofpermum tin&orium, grows in France. The
root gives a red colour, but it is not eaflly fixed.
Rumex acetofa, or common forrel, grows in meadows
and pafture-grounds. The root is ufed by apothecaries
for tinging decoftions, «5>c. with a red colour; but it is
not ufed by dyers.
Ctefalpina Brafilienfis, or Brafil wood, is a native of
the Eaft Indies, The wood is commonly ufed by the
dyers for .giving a red colour,. .
Calamus rotang, or dragon’s blood, is an Eaft-.India
fruit. The infpifihted juice is principally ufed by apo¬
thecaries for giving a red tinge to their medicines.
Bixa Orellana, grows in both the Indies. The feeds
of this tree are much ufed as a red dye, and the natives
of America paint their, bodies with them.
PURPLE.
Caefalpinia veficaria. The wood of this tree gives a
purple dye. The eaefalpinia fappan is ufed for the fame
purpofe. The lignum rubrum, or Fernambuca wood,
gives likewife a reddiffi purple dye.
Origanum vulgare, or wild marjoram, grows in woods,
.he. The tops of this plant are ufed for dying, cloth
purple.
Carthamus tindorius, is an annual plant, and a native
of Egypt. The corolla; of this plant give a fiery red
colour to cloth; but they are principally ufed for dying
filks.
BLUE.
Ifatis tindoria, or woad. This plant grows wild in
corn-fields, and gives a blue colour to cloth.
Indigofera tindoria, or indigo, grows in the Eafi In¬
dies. The blue dye given to cloth by this plant is pre¬
ferable to any otherbecaufe it is of fo fixed and durable
% nature, that it is not afFeded either by acid or alkaline
fubftances.
Galega tindoria, is a perennial plant of Zeylon. Her-
mannus affirms, that the blue obtained from this plant is
even preferable to the indigo, although it has never hi¬
therto been ufed by Europeans.
ANY.
Fraxinus excelfior, or common alh-tree. The bark
tinges water blue ; and the,inner bark is faid to give cloth
a very good blue colour.
VIOLET.
Haematoxylon campechianum, or logwood, grows in
the Weft Indies, and gives doth a violet colour. It is,
however, chiefly ufed as a bafis for fome other colours.
Empetruru nigrum, black-berried heath, crow or crake-
berries, grows on high grounds. The berries, boiled
with alum, are ufed as a purple- dye.
GRE EN.
Senecio jacobtea, or common raywort, grows in pa-
fture-grounds, he. The whole plant is ufed, before it
begins to flower, for dying cloths greeen.
Chserophyllum fylveftre, or wild cicely. This plant,
when the tops are taken off, dyes cloth a beautiful green.
Iris germanica, grows in the fouthern parts of Europe.
The expreffed juice of the corolla gives a green dye.
BLACK.
Lycopus europteus, or water horehound, grows in
marflty places. The juice of this plant gives a black
dye of fuch a fixed nature, that it cannot be waffied out.
Aftaea fpicata, herb-chriltopher, or- barberries, grows
among brulhwood. The juice of the berries, when
boiled with alum, affords a fine black ink.
Genipa americana, is an American tree. The unripe
berries tinge cloths with a deep black. The natives dye
their mouth with thefe berries, to give them a terrible
afpedt to the enemy. It remains fixed for many days.
Quercus, or oak-tree. The capfuls of the oak, on ac¬
count of their great ftipticity, are ufed for fixing and im¬
proving the mineral black. They are ufed both by dyers
and curriers.
Th i s ffiort fit etch off the utility of botany with regard
to Food, Medicine, and the Arts, v/ill be fufficient to fug¬
ged the many advantages that may be expedled from the
cultivation of it. The objedts prefented by the fcience
are curious, refpedtable, andufeful. Tne natural hiftory
of plants is not even confined to the above important ar¬
ticles. It is ftridtly connedted with agriculture and gar¬
dening. The ftrudlure of vegetables, the foils that natu¬
rally produce particular kinds, things that promote or retard
their growth, are effential parts of their natural hiftory.
Hence a fchool of botany, efpecially when fufficient at¬
tention is paid to the ufeful part of the fcience, merits
the higheft encouragement from the public, and ought
to be attended by farmers, landed gentlemen, gardeners,
he. as well as by phyficians and philofophers.
S E C T:
B
O T A N V.
635
SEC T. II. Of the Method of reducing Plants to Classes, Orders, Ge¬
nera, and Species; and of invefligating their generic and specific names by
certain marks or characters.
"'OcrE obferved in the former feftion, that in the pro-
^ ’ grefs of this part of botany many different me¬
thods had been followed by different authors. Casfalpi-
nus, R iy, Bauhinus, Van Royan, Ricinus, Tournefort,
Linnteus, Sauvages, have each adopted a peculiar me¬
thod of chara&erizing and claffing plants. It would be
foolifli to diffrad the attention of the reader by an ex¬
planation of all thefe methods. We fhall therefore pro¬
ceed to explain that of Linnaeus, which is perhaps the
only one now taught in Europe.
This method of reducing plants to claffes, genera,
and fpecies, is founded upon the fuppofition that vege¬
tables propagate their fpecies in a manner fimilar to that of
animals. Linnteus endeavours to fupport this hypoihefis
by the many analogies that fubhft between plants and a-
nimals, which (hail be more particularly pointed out in
the third fe&ion. It is from this circutnftance that Lin-
nams’s fyftem of botany has got the name of the Jexuat
fjftem. The names of his ciaffes, orders, <hc. are all
derived from this theory. He calls, the ftamina of flowers
the males, or the male parts of generation; and the pi-
fHls females, or the female parts of generation. Plants
whofe flowers contain both male and female parts, are
faid to be hermaphrodites, &c. His claffes, orders, and
genera, are ah derived from the number, fituation, pro¬
portion, and other circumftances attending tliefe parts,
as will appear from the following fcheme.
SCHEME of the Sexual System. See Plate LIU.
Either publicly, i. e. have vilible flowers.
' Monoclinia, males and females in the fame bed:—/. e. The flowers are all hermaphrodite, having ila-
mina and piliils in the fame flower..
f Diffinitas, the males or ftamina unconnected with each other.
Indifferentijfmus, the males or ftamina having no determinate proportion betwixt each other as to
length.
1. Monandria, / e. one male or ftamen in a hermaphrodite flov/er.
2. Diandria,   two males or ftamina.
3. Triandria,   three males.
4. Tetrandria,   four males.
5. Pentandria,   five males.
6. Hexandria,   fix males.
7. Heptandria,   feven males.
&. Octandria,   eight males.
9. Enneandria,   nine males.
10. Decandria,   ten males.
ix. Dodecandria,  eleven males.
12. Icosandria,   twenty, or more males inferted into the calix, and not into the re¬
ceptacle.
13. Polyandrja,   all above twenty males inferted into the receptacle.
ySubordinatio, two of the males or ftamina uniformly fhorter than the reft.
14. Didvhamia,   four males, two of them uniformly fhorter than the other two,
1 j. Tetradynamia, fix males, two of which are uniformly fhorter than the reft.
\j4ffinUas, the males or ftamina either connedted to each other, or to the piftillum.
16. Mon gdelph ia, the males or ftamina united into one body by the filaments.
17. Diadelphia, the ftamina united into two bodies or bundles by the filaments.
18. PoLYADELPHtA, the ftamina united into three or more bundles by the filaments.
19. Syngenesia, the ftamina united in a cylindrical form by the antlrerse.
20: Gynanoria, the ftamina inferted into the piftillum.
Diclinia, males and females in feparate beds /Ye. plants that have male and female flowers in the fame
fpecies.
21. Monoecia, male and female flowers in the fame plant.
22. Dioecia, male flowers in one plant, and females in another, of the fame fpecies.
23. Polygamia, male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers in the fame fpecies.
Or clandeftinely, /. e. whofe parts of fructification are invifible.
24. Cryptogamia, the flowers invifible, fo that they cannot be ranked according to the parts
of frudtification.
Thefe-
'630 B O T
Thefe twenty-four clafles comprehend every known ge¬
nus a.nd Specie's. It is an eafy matter to clafs a plant belong¬
ing to any of the fird eleven clalfes, as they ail depend on
the number of (lamina or male parts, without regard to
any other circumftance. The r 2th clafs requires more at¬
tention. When the (lamina amount to above 20, a tyro
will be apt to imagine that the plant belongs to the po-
lyandria clafs. In reducing plants of this kind -to their
clafles, particular regard mull be had to the infercion of
the (lamina. If they are infected into the calix or cup,
the plant belongs to the icofandria ciafs; if to the recep¬
tacle or bafis of the flower, it belongs to the polyandria.
The 14th clafs is likewile in danger of being con¬
founded with the 4th. In the 4th, the number of (la¬
mina is the fame with that of the 14th. But, in the
14th, two of the (lamina are uniformly mtich (horter than
the other two; at the fame time each particular (lamen
belonging to the different pairs (lands diredlly oppofite to
one another.
The 15th clafs may be miftaken for the fixth, as they
con fid of the fame number of (lamina. But in the 15th,
four of the damina are uniformly longer than the other
two ; and thefe two are always oppoiite to each other.
ORDERS.
In the fird thirteen claflls, the orders, which are infe¬
rior divifions, and lead us a dep nearer the genus, are
taken from the pillils or female parts, in the lame man¬
ner as the clafles from the (lamina: Monogynia.-digynia,
trigynia, tetragynia, fcc. i. e. one, two, three, four,
&c. female parts: When the piflils or female parts have
no Aalk or filament like the damina, they are numbered
by the ftigmata or tops of'the pidils, which in that cafe
adhere to the capfule in the form of fmall protuberances,
as may b,e obferved in the flowers of the poppy, fyc.
The orders of the 14th clafs are derived from a diffe¬
rent fource. The plants belonging to it have their feeds
either inclofed in a capfule, or altogether uncovered.
Hence they naturally admit of a divifion into the fcllow-
ing orders, viz. gymnofpermia, comprehending fuch as
have naked feeds ; and angiofpermia, which comprehends
iuch as have their feeds covered, or inclofed in a capfule.
The 15th clafs is divided into two orders, viz. the
Jiliculofa, or thofe which have a (hort fiiiqua or pod;
and K.h$ Jiliquofa, or. thofe which have a longer filiqua.
The orders of the 16th, 17th, iSth, and 20th claffes,
are taken from the number of (lamina, e. g. monodel-
phia pentandria, decandria, polyandria,
The Syngenesia, or 19th clafs, confids of plants
whofe flowers are compounded of a great number of fmall
flowers or fldfcules inclofed in one common calix. The
orders of this clafs are,
Polyg.imia a quaiis, or fuch whofe flofcules are all fur-
nifhed with damina and piftils.
Poly garni a fguria, comprehends thofe which have her-
,maphrodite flofcules in the difk, and female flofcules in
the margin." This circumftance is made the foundation
of the three following orders. 1. Polygamia fuperjlua,
includes ail thofe whofe hermaphrodite flowers in the
ANY.
di(k are furnifhed with ftigmata, and bear feed; and
whofe female flowers in the radius likewife produce
feeds. 2. Polygamia frujlranea, include fuch as have
hermahprodite feed-bearing flofcules in the difk ; but
whofe flofculesdn the radius, having no jligmata, are bar¬
ren. 3. Polygamia neceffaria, is the reverfe of the former;
The hermaphrodite flowers in the difk want ftigmata, and
are barren ; but the female flofculcs in the radius are
furniflied with (ligmata, and produce feeds.
Polygamia fsgrtgata, many flofcules inclofed in one
coipmon calix, and each of the flofcules likewife furnifli¬
ed with a perianthium proper to itfelf.
Monogamia, this order confifts only of feven genera,
viz. the ftrumphia, feriphium, coryiribium, jafione, lo¬
belia, viola, and impatiens ; none of which have prsiper-
ly compound flowers, but are ranked under tins clafs
purely from the circumftance of having their (lamina uni¬
ted by the antherac.
The orders of the 21ft clafs are partly taken from the
number of (lamina, and partly from the names and cha¬
racters peculiar to fome of the other claffes, e g mo-
ncecia triandria, moncecia fyngendia, monoecia gynandria.
The orders of the 23d are all taken from clailicai
characters, e. g. polygamia mbncecia, polyga'mia ..tecia,
arid polygamia trioecia.
The 24th, or Cryptogam'ia clafs, is divided into
the four following orders: 1. Filices, comprehending all
plants that bear their feed in the back or edges of 'the
leaf, and thofe that are called capillary plants. 2. Muf¬
ti, which comprehends all the mofs kind. 3. Algce, in¬
cluding the lichens, fuel, and many, others whofe parts
of fructification are either altogether invifible or exceed¬
ingly obfeure. 4. Fungi, comprehending all the mufti-
room tribe.
Having thus explained the method of reducing plants
to their clalfes and orders, we (hall proceed to inform
the young botanift how to inveftigate the genus. This
depends upon minuter diftinCtions, and requires more at¬
tention. But it is impoflible to inveftigate the genera,
without being previoully acquainted with a confider-
able number of terms. All the terms neceflary for
this purpqfe belong to the parts of fructification. To
attempt to give an idea'by words of the parts to which
particular terms are applied, would not only.be difficult,
but, in a great meafure, ufelefs, efpecially to fuch as
are totally ignorant of botany. We (Hall therefore give
a lift of the terms themfelves, with proper references to,
the figures of the things (ignified by them, which will
both be fhorter, and more intelligible than the moft ac¬
curate defeription that language is capable of.
Lift of Terms belonging to the Flowers and Parts
of Fructification. See Plate LIV.
Fig. 1. Spatha, a fpecies of calix opening longitudi¬
nally when the flower breaks through it.
2. Spadix, a fpecies of receptacle peculiar to palm-trees,
- which confifts of fruit-bearing branches included in a
fpatha.
3. *,
BOX
Tig.
3. a, Gluma, anoth ;r fpecles of calix, beleftging chief¬
ly to graffes and corns, and confifts of different valves;
b, arijia, or awn.
4. a a, Umbella univerfalis, comprehends the whole
flowers, <b 'c. arifing from a common centre, and re-
fembling a large fan, b, Umbella partialis, or a
fnaaller parcel of the flowers, <bc. refembling a fmall
fan. c c, Involucrum univerfale, a fpecies of calix
in which the whole flowers were inclofed before their
blowing, d d, Involucrum partiale, a lefler calix,
which includes a fmaller bundle of flowers, and which,
before their blowing, is inclofed in the involucrum u-
niverfale. Examples of thefe are found in the hem¬
lock, carrot, 6r.
5. c, Calyptra; b, operculum; a, capitulum. Thefe
terms are peculiar to mofles.
6. Amentum, a fpecies of calix, e. g. in the willow,
birch-tree, (sc.
7. Strobilus, a pericarpium or capfule compofed of an
amentum, an example of which occurs in the mag¬
nolia.
8. Fungi, a, Pileus; b, voha ; c, Jhpes. Thefe two
are moitly applied to the parts of mufhrooms.
9. a, Receptaculum commune nudum, the Common re¬
ceptacle, or bafe of the flower, when the llamina, pi-
flil, capfule, (sc. are taken off.
10. Receptaculum commune paleis imbricalum, or com¬
mon receptacle imbricated or tiled with paleae, or
membranaceous lamellae.
ix. Corollee mompetalec, a, Tubus; b, limbus', i. e.
a, the tube; b, the edge or margin of a monopeta-
lous corolla. The corolla fignifies the flower-leaf,
when it Confifts but of one, and the whole flower-
leaves, when it confifts of more.
12. Is a flower laid in a proper pofition for {hewing its
different parts, a, Germen, which includes the feeds
and capfule in which they are inclofed ; b, Jlylus,
which is a continuation of the germen ; c, Jligma, or
top of the ftylus; d d d d d d, filamenta, or threads;
e e e e e, anther*. The filamenta and antheras,
confidered as a whole, are called Jlamina; and the
germen, ftylus, and ftigma, as a whole, are called pi-
Jlillum. tiiif, Petala, or flower-leaves.'
13. a, The ungues, or claws; b, the lamina, or plates
of a polypetaious corolla, or corolla confifting of feve-
ral flower-leaves.
14. a, Ne Aar sum campanulatum in narcijfa, or bell-
fnaped nedtarium of the narciffus. Nedarium is ap¬
plied to every glandular part of a flower which fecerns
a fvveet juice. Their ftrudure is very different in
different plants.
ij. Neft aria cor nut a in aconita, horned nedaria of the
monkfhood.
x6. Horned neftarium in the calix of the tropceolus.
17. a a a a, Neftarium in pamajjia; the nedaria of
the parnaflia grafs are fix in number, each of which
have thirteen ftyli, with round buttons on their tops.
18. a, Perianthium, that fpecies of calix which is .con¬
tiguous to the frudification; b, germen; c, Jlylus;
d, Jligma: e e, filamenta ; f f, anther* dehifcentes,
or antheras fhedding the pollen or duft; g, anther a
Vol. I. No. 28. 3
A N Y. -63.7
Fig-
Integra, i. e. the appearance of the- anthera befcrs it
fheds the pollen.
19. a, The filament, and b, the anthera, feparated
from the flower.
20. a, One grain of the pollen magnified by a micro-
fcope ; b, halitus elajlicus, i. e. an elaftic aura fup-
pofed to be necefiary for impregnating the feeds.
21. a, Germen; b, Jlylus \ z z, Jligma.
22. Folliculus, i. e. a pericarpium confifting only of one
valve, opening longitudinally, and in which the feeds
do not adhere to the future, but are inclofed in a par¬
ticular receptacle a.
23. Lsgurnen, is a double-valved pericarpium, having
the feeds fixed only to one of the futures a a.
24. Siliqua, is a double-valved pericarpium with the feeds
fixed to both futures or margins a b.
25. Potnum, a pericarpium without any valve, but made
up of a pulpy fubftance, and containing a capfule in
which the feeds are inclofed, as in the apple, <Gc.
a, The pericarpium ; b, the capfule, or feed- cafe.
26. a, Drupa, or a pericarpium containing a nut or
ftone, and having no valve, e.g. plumbs,'b, the
nucleus, or ftone.
27. Bacca, or berry, is a pericarpium containing naked
feeds difperfed through the pulpy part.
28. Capfula apice dehifcens, a capfule opening at the
top to allow the feeds to fall out.
29. Four capfules included in a common pericarpium.
a a, Tlte valves; b b, the diffepimentum, or partition
which feparates the different feed-capfules from one
another; c, columella, or central column by which
the capfules are cdnnefted.
30. A-capfule cut open longitudinally, to ftiow the re¬
ceptacle of the feeds.
31. Pappus, a kind of corona or crown which is either
hairy or penniform, and connected to the feeds of
fome plants, by means .of which they are blown about
by the wind, a. Pappus pilofus, or pappus refem¬
bling a hair; b, pappus plumofis, ox feathered pappus ;
c, femen ; d, Jlipes. The dandelion, and many plants
of the fyngenefia clafs, afford examples of thefe parts.
Terms .belonging to the Pedunculus or Foot--
Jialks of Flowers.
32. Corymlus, i. e. flowers upon alternate pedunculi and
foot-ftalks, elevated proportionally above each other.
33. Racemus, a pedunculus or foot ftalk furnifhed with
lateral branches.
34. Spica, alternate feflile flowers [i. e. flowers with¬
out any particular foct-ftalk, but inferted directly in¬
to one common to the whole], upon a common foot-
ftalk, as in the fcirpus.
35. Verticillus. This term is applied to fuch plants as
have clufters of flowers at different diftances furround¬
ing the caulis or ftem ; as in feveral fpecies of mint.
36. Panicula, i. e. flowers placed fparfely upon feparate
foot-ftalks, as rn oats, (sc.
When thefe terms are underftood, the genus may he
eafily inveftigated. But in order ftill further to affift the
young botanift, we fhall give a fyftematic defcription of
a few common plants belonging to different claffts.
7 X DIAN-
638 BO T
D I A N D R I A M O N O G Y N I A.
Veronica, or Speedwell.
The Calix is a perianvhium (18), divided into four
parts Or fegmen^, and perfiftent (i. e. does not fall off
till the feeds are ripe); the fegments are fliarp and lance-
fhaped.
The Corolla (ii) confifts of one rotated petal;
The tubus (n) is about the fame length with the calix ;
the limbus {11) is plane, and divided in four oval feg¬
ments, the loweft of which is narrower than the reft,
and the one immediately oppofite broader.
The Stamina (12) are two, narrower below, and
inclined upwards; the antherse (12) are oblong.
The Pistillum (12) has acompreffed germen(i2),
a filiform or thread-like ftylus (12), about the fame length
with the ftamina, and a little declined to one fide: The
ftigma (12) is fimple.
ThePERiCARPiuM (12) is aheart-fhapedcapfule, com-
pireffed at the top, and having two cells or partitions,
and four valves.
The Seeds are roundilh and numerous.
I C O S A N D R I A POLYGAMIA.
FragaRia, or Strawberry.
The Calix is a perianthium, confifting of one plain
leaf, divided into ten fegments, each alternately nar-'
rower.
The Corolla has five roundifh open petals inferted
into the calix.
The Stamina are twenty in number, fubulated or
tapering> /hotter than the corolla, and inferted into the
calix. The antherse ate lunulated, or ftiaped like a
crefcent.
The Pistillum confifts of many fmall germina, col-
ledled into a little head or knob. The ftyli are fimple,
and inferted into the fides of their refpeftive germina.
The ftigmata are fimple.
The Pertcarpium is wanting in this plant. But
the common receptacle of the feeds, which fuppiiea the
place of a pericarpium, is a roundi/h oval berry, plain at
the bafe, pretty, large* foft, pulpy, coloured,, and de¬
ciduous, /. e. falls off before the feeds be ripe.
The Seeds are fmall, pointed, very numerous, and
difperfed through the fuperficial part of the receptacle.
DIBYNAMIA A N GI O S P ER MI A.
Digitalis, or Fox-glove.
The Calix is a perianthium, divided into four deep
cut fegments, which are roundi/h, /harp at the top, per¬
fiftent, and the higheft one is narrower than the reft.
The Corolla confifts of one bellfthaped petal; the
tabus"is large, open, ventricofe or bellied at. the back-
fide ; the bafe is cylindrical and narrow: The limbus is
fmall, and divided into four fegments; the fuperior feg-
aiebt is more open and more emarginated than the reft,
ANY.
The Stamina are four, fubulated (44), inferted into
the bafe of the corolla, and inclined to the fame fide ; two
^of them are longer than theothef two: The anthers are
divided into two parts, and pointed at the top.
'The Pistillum cohfifts of a germen /harp at the top,
a fimple ftylus fituate like the ftamina, and an acute
ftigma.
The Pericarpium has an oval capfule, of the fame
length with the calix, /harp at the-top, having two cells,
and two valves which burft open at both fides.
The Seeds are many and fmall.
TETR.ADYNAMIA SILIQJJOSA.
Sinapis, or Mustard.
The Calix is a perianthium confifting of four open or
fpreading leaves ; the leaves are linear (43), concave, fur¬
rowed, difpofedin the form of a crofs, and deciduous.
The Corolla confifts of four cruciform petals: The
petals are roundi/h, plain, open, entire or not emar¬
ginated, with ereift linear ungues (13) fcarcely fo long as
the calix.
The Nectaria (14, <bc.), orglanduhe neflariferx,
are four, of an oval figure, one of which is fituate on each
fide betwixt the Zhort ftamina and ftylus, and likewife one
on each fide between the long ftamina and the calix.
The Stamina have fix fubulated, ereft filaments, two
of which are of the fame length with the calix, and al¬
ways oppofite to each other, and the other four are uni¬
formly longer: The anther a are ereft, and /harp at
the top.
The Pistillum has a cylindrical germen; the ftylus
is of the fame length with the germen, and the fame
height with the ftamina; the ftigma is entire, with a little
knob or button.
The Pericarpium is an oblong, fcabrous, double-
celled, two-valved pod, gibbous, and full of little pro¬
tuberances on the under parts : The di/Tepimentum (29)
is large, comprefled, and often twice the length of the
valves.
The Seeds are many and round.
MONODELPHIA PGLYANDRIA.
Malva, or Common Mallow.
The Calix is a double perianthium : The exterior
one confifts of three lanceolated, loofe, perfiftent leaves
the interior has but one large, broad, perfiftent leaf, di¬
vided into five fegments.
TheCoROLLA has five plain leaves, united at the bafe,
heart-lhaped, and premorfe (54).
The Stamina confift of numerous filaments, united
into a cylindrical form below, loofe above, and inferted
into the corolla: The anthers are kidney-ffiaped.
The Pistxllum has an orbicular germen, a cylin¬
drical, ftiort ftylus, and many briftly ftigmata of an equal
length with the ftylus.
The Pericarpium confifts of feveral diftimft capfules
joined by an articulation, refembling a deprefied globe,
and
B O T
and opening from within when ripe : The receptaculum
is a kind of column binding the capfules together.
The Seeds are folitary, and kidney-ftiaped.
SYNGENESIA POLYGAMIA AEQUALIS.
LeonTodon, or Dandelion.
The common Calix.is oblong, and imbricated. The
interior fcales are linear, parallel, evjual, and open at
the top; the exterior fcales are fewer in number, and
frequently refledted at the bafe.
The compound Corolla is uniform and imbricated.
The fmall hermaphrodite corollee are very numerous
and equal.
The corolla proper to each flofcule confifts of one ligu-
lated (/'. e. plain and expanded outwards), linear, trun¬
cated (/. e. terminated by a tranfverfe line), and five-
teethed petal.
The Stamina confift of five very fmall capillary fila¬
ments : The anthers are connected together, and form a
cylindrical tube.
The GERMENof the pijlillum isfituate below the pro¬
per corolla. The ftylus is filiforme, and nearly of the
fame length with the corolla: The ftigmata are two, and
turned back in a fpiral form.
This, plant has no pericarpinm.
The Seeds are.folitary, oblong, rough, and terminated
by a long pappous ftipes (3 r).
The receptacle, or common bafe of the flofcules (9),
is naked, and full of fmall hollow points.
GYNANDR1A PENTAND III A.
Passiflora, or Passion-flower.
The Calix is a perianthium confiding of five plain,,
coloured leaves, fimilar to thofe of the corolla^
The Corolla confifts of five plain obtufe femi-lan-
ceolated leaves, of the fame magnitude and figure with
thofe of the calix.
The neflariam is a triple corona, the exterior of
which is longed, furroundtng the dylus within the petals,
and ftraitened above.
The Stamina are five, fubulated, open, and connefled
to the dylus at the bafe of the germen : The antherse are
oblong, obtufe, and incumbent.
The Pi STiLLUM'Cocfids'of an erefl cylindrical dylua,
upon the top of which an. oval germen is placed : The
dyli are three, thicker, and wider above : The digmata
are roundifh knobs.
The Pericarpiu^i is a ftediy, fuboval, one-celled
berry, reding upon the ftylus.
The Seeds are numerous, oval, and each of them in-
-clofed in a fmall membraVne.
MONOECIA TETRANDRlA.
Urtica, or Common Nettle.
The Calix of the male flowers is a four-leaved peri--
anthium; the leaves are roundifli, concave, and obtufe.
A N Y. 639
The Corolla has no petals ; but there is a fmall ur-
ceolated (/. e. an inflated flcin, gibbous on each fide) nedla
rium in the centre of the flower.
The Stamina confidsof four fubulated open filaments,
of an equal length with the calix, and one of them is
placed between each leaf of .the calix : The anther# have
no cells.
The Calix of the female flowers is a double-valved,
oval, concave, ereft, perfident perianthium.
The Corolla is wanting.
The p 1 s t 1 l lu m has an oval germen, no dylus, and a
downy digma.
They have no pericarpium.
The Seed is Angle, oval, Ihining, and a little com-
prefled.
Thefe examples will not only illudrate mod of the ge¬
neric terms, but will likewife fix them in the mind more
fuccefsfully than any formal explanation. A careful pe-
rufal of them will enable any perfon to underhand the
defcriptions in the Genera Plantarum of Linnaeus, al¬
though he fhould not be much acquainted with the Latin
language.
But the young botanid, after advancing this far, mud
dill be conduced a dep further. Though he may be able
to reduce plants to their claffes, orders, and genera, he
is hitherto totally ignorant of the fpecific characters.
Before he be able to invedigate the fpecies, he mud again
fubmit to learn a confiderable nnmber of terms necdfary
for that purpofe.
Lift of Terms neceffary for invefligating the Spe ¬
cies of Plants.
Simple Leaves.
Fig.
37. Orbiculatum, globular.
38. Subrotundum, roundifh.
39. Ovatum, (haped like an egg.
40. Ovale, oval or elliptical.
41. Oblongum, oblong.
42.. Lanceolatum, in the form of a dart,, or tapering or.
each fide to a point.
43. Lineare, like a line, or of the fame breadth and
thicknefs- throughout.
44. Suhulatum, tapering to a point, like an awl.
45. Reniforme, fhaped like a kidney.
46. Cordatum, like a heart,
47. Lunulatum, refembling a crefcent or half moon.
48. Triangulare, three-cornered.
49. Sagittatum, like an arrow.
50. Cor data-fagit tat urn, refembling both a heart and an
arrow'.
yi. Hafnium, like a fpear or lance.
$2. Tiff urn, cut in at the top.
53. Tribolmn, confiding of three (y5) lobes.
y4. Preemcrfim, i. e. as if a piece were bit out of the
fore-part of the leaf,
yy. Lolatum, confiding of lobes, orfegments cut to the
middle of the leaf, and convex at the edges.
y6. ^uinangulare, confiding of five angles.
yy. Erofum,
B O T
N
.Fig.
57. Erofuvi, as if eroded or eat irregularly by fome cor-
rofive fubftance.
58. Palmatum, refembling a hand.
59. Pinnatum, divided into pieces refembling fins.
60. Laciniatum, with many cuts or indentures in the
margin.
6t. Sinuatim, having wide finufes or hollows in the
margin.
6-2. Dertato-Jinuatum, having finufes and divifions re¬
fembling teeth.
63. Retrorfum finuatum, hollowed and bent backwards.
64. Partitum, when the divifions or fegments reach near
the bafe of the leaf.
65. Repandtim, a waving but undivided margin.
66. Dentatum, teethed, /. e. when the tops of the feg¬
ments are remote from each other.
67. Serratum, when the fegments uniformly incline to
the extremity.
68. Duplicalo-ferratum, doubly ferrated, i. e. when the
leffer fegments incline to the extremities of the
larger ones.
69. Duplicato-crenatuni, doubly crenated, (74) ,
70. Cartilagineum, when the margin of the leaf has a
cartilaginous or griftly texture.
71. Acute-crenatum, fnarp fegments having no deter¬
minate inclination to either extremity.
72. Ohtufe-crenatum, the fame with the above, only the
fegments are blunt.
73. Plicatum, plaited, or confifting of regular folds.
74. Crenatum, fegments having no inclination to either
extremity.
77. Crifpttm, when the margin is larger than the difc,
and formed into a kind of waves.
76. Obtufum, blunt at the top.
77. Jcutum, fharp, or pointed.
78. Acuminatum, when the leaf tapers to a fiiarp point
at the top.
79. Obtufum acumine, having a ftiort Tubulated point.
80. Emarginatum acute, having lharp divifions at the
top of the leaf.
81. Unciforme marginatum, having wedge-fliaped divi¬
fions at the top.
82. Retufum, having blunt finufes.
83. Pilofum, covered with long diftinft hairs.
84. Tomentofum, interwoven with foft hairs, and often
of a white colour.
85. Hifpidum, having brittle rough bridles diffufely fcat-
tered upon the difc of the leaf.
86. Ciliatum, having parallel briftles round the margin.
87. Rugofum, full of rugae or wrinkles.
88. Vencfum, having veins or nerves confifting of many
ramifications.
89. Nervofum, when the veins or nerves are extended
from the bafe to the top without any branches.
90. Papilhfum, covered with veficles, bladders, or hol¬
low points.
91. Linguifsrme, like a tongue, i. e. flelhy, linear, ob-
tufe, convex below, and having frequently a car¬
tilaginous margin.
92. Acinaciforme, refembling a kernel;—comprefled.
Fig.
flelhy, having one edge narrow and convex, and
the other thicker and more ftraight.
93. Dolabrifcrnte, refembling an ax;—comprefled,
roundilh, gibbous on the outfide, with a lharp
edge, which is a little blunter below.
94. Deltoidcs, an irregular rhomboidal figure. See
the leaf of the black poplar.
95. Triquetrum, having three plain fides.
96. Canaliculatum, having a deep longitudinal furrow.
97. Sulcatum, having feveraJ deep furrows.
98. Teres, cylindrical, or like a cylinder.
99. Binat.um, when a Ample petiolus has two leaves
connected to its apex.
100. Ternatum foliis fejjilibus, three fellile leaves (/. e.
having no petioli) conne&ed to one common
petiolus.
101. Ternatum foliclis petiolatis, three leaves upon a
' common petiolus, each having at the fame time
a feparate petiolus.
102. Digitatum, or refembling fingers, /. e. when a
Ample petiolus has two, three, four, or more
leaves connected to its apex.
-J03. Pedatum, a bifid or forked petiolus, having fmall
leaves conneded to its interior fide.
104. Pinnatum cum impart', fmall leaves connefted to
the fides of a fimple petiolus, terminated by an
odd leaf.
ioj. Pinnatum abruptum, neither terminated by an odd
leaf nor a cirrhus.
106.  alternatum, when the fmall leaves rife
higher and higher alternately upon the petiolus.
107.    interrupts, when the pinnated leaves are
alternately larger and fmaller.
108.  cirrkofum, when the common petiolus
ends in a cirrhus.
109.   conjugatum, when the common petiolus
has only two leaves connected.
no.   decurfive, when the fmall leaves run
along the petiolus.
Hi. articulate, when the common petiolus
is jointed.
112. Lyratum, like a harp, /. e. when the leaf istranf-
verfely divided into fegments, the fuperior of
which are larger than the inferior, and the in¬
ferior ones are more diftant from each other.
113. Biternatum, or duplicato-ternatum, when the com¬
mon petiolus has three ternated (100) leaves
fixed to it. The epimedium is an example of
this.
114. Bipinna turn, or duplicato-pinnatum, when the com¬
mon petiolus gives off pinnated (104) petioli
from its fides.
115. Triternatum, or triplicato-ternatum, when the
common petiolus fends off from its fides three
biternated (113) leaves.
116. Tripinnatum fine impari, when the common pe¬
tiolus has three or more bipinnated (114) leaves
fixed to its fides, not terminated by a Angle leaf.
XI7, cum impari, the fame with the former,
only terminated by a fingle leaf.
Terms
B O T
Terms refpefting the Determination of Leaves.
Fig.
118. Inflexum, when the leaves bend or arch upwards
upon the caulis or flem.
X19. EreCtumf when the leaves make a very acute angle
with the caulis.
120. Patens. This term is applied to leaves which make
a more obtufe angle with the caulis than the
former.
121. Horizontals, when the leaves ftand at right angles
with the caulis.
122. Reclinatum, or reflexum, when the leaf bends
down, fo that the apex is lower than the bafe.
123. Revolutuj/i, when both iides of the leaf are rolled
backwards in a fpiral form.
124. Seminale, feed-leaves, or diffimilar leaves. They
are the lobes of the feed, which in many plants
arife entirely out of the ground, and are always
the firlt that appear above the furface. See
Agriculture, p. 41.
125. Caulinum, fuch as rife immediately from the cau¬
lis or ftem,
126. Rameum, fuch as arife from a branch of the caulis.
127. FI or ale, fuch as arife from the fame place with
the flower.
128. Peltatum, when the petiolus is inferred, not into
the edge or bafe, but into the dilk of ^he leaf.
429. PetiolatuM, when the petiolus is inferred into the
margin of the bafe.
\o,o. SeJJile, when the leaf has no petiolus, but is im¬
mediately connedted to the caulis.
131. Decurrens, when the bafe of a fefiile (130) leaf is
extended downwards along the caulis ; as in the:
verbefina, carduus, 6c.
132. Aniplexicaiile, when the bale of the leaf embraces
the caulis on all fides.
133. Perfoliatum, when the bafe of the leaf entirely
furrounds the caulis,, fo that the caulis feems to
perforate the leaf.
134. Comatum, when the oppofite leaves run into one
. another, and furround the caulis, as in the eu-
patorium.
135. Vaginans, when the bafe of the leaf forms a cy¬
lindrical tube invefting the caulis.
136. Articulaturn, in the form of joints, /. e. when one
leaf arifes from the apex of another.
137. Stellata, radiated like a ftar, i. e. when more
than two leaves furround a verticillated (35)
caulis.
138. Ipjiaterna, quina, fena,&jz. are fpecies of ftellated
(137) leaves, when there are four, five, or fix,
<bc. leaves furrounding tile caulis.
139. Oppojita, when the leaves of the caulis are exactly
oppofite to one another.
140. Alterna, when the leaves rife alternately higher
upon the caulis.
14r. Acerofa, linear, perfiftent leaves, as in the pinus
or fir-tree, 6‘c.
Yol. L No. 270.. 3.
A N Y. 641
Fig.
142. Imbricata, when the leaves reft upon one another
like tiles on a roof.
143. Fafciculata, when many leaves rife from the fame
point, as in the larynx.
144. Frons. This term is applied to a. fpecies of trunk,
which confifts of branches and leaves, and fome-
times the frudfification, all united together: It is
peculiar to the Alices, or ferns, and the palmse.
145. spat hula tusn folium, is a roundifti leaf, with a nar¬
row linear bafe.
146. Parabolicum folium, like a parabola, i. e. having
its longitudinal diameter longer than the tranf-
verfe, and growing narrower from the bafe till
it terminates in an oval figure.
Terms relatingto theCaules or ftems. Plate LVII.
147. Squpmofus culmus. The culmus is a trunk or ftem
peculiar to grafles ; and fquamofus culmus is a
fcaly culmus.
148. Repens caulis. The caulis or ftem is a fpecies of
trunk peculiar to herbaceous plants, and fup-
ports the leaves or parts of fuaftification : Re¬
pens caulis is a ftem which gives out fmall roots
on every fide, as it runs along the furface of the
ground, or upon another plant.
149. Scapns, is a fpecies of trunk which fupports the
parts of fructification, but has no leaves.
150. Articulatus culmus, a culmus (147) with many
joints.
151. Volu.bilis caulis, a caulis (148) which runs in a
fpiral form upon the trunk or branch of another
plant, 6c.
152. Dtchotomus caulis, a caulis (145) uniformly di¬
viding into branches.
153. Brachiatus caulis, a caulis having oppofite decuf-
fating branches, refembling arms.
Terms relating to the Fulcra or fupports. of
Leaves.
134. a, Cirrhus, a fpiral thread which connects the
plant to any other body, b, Stipules, or little
fcales at the bafe of the petiolus or pedunculus.
c, Glandules concaves, fmall hollow glands for
fecreting a liquor.
155. a, Glandulee pedicellatez-, fmall glands, each fup-
ported by a pedunculus.
13 d. a, Braflea, or flower-leaf, which differs in fliape
from the other leaves of the plant b.
137. a, Spina Jimplex, a Ample thorn or prickle, b,
Spina triplex, or three prickles proceeding from
ne. Spina is applied to fuch thorns as are pro¬
truded from the wood of the plant.
138. Aculeus Jimplex. Aculeus is a prickle not pro¬
truded from the wood, but only fixed to the
bark. It is faid to be ftmple, when it rifes
Angle.
139. Aculeus triplex, a triple aculeus (138)..
160. Oppojita folia, or oppofite leaves, a, The axilla 4
or arm-pit.
7 Z Terms
642
B O
Terms relating to Floats.
Fig.
\(t\.*jjtdbus fquamofus, when the root is compo-fed of.
imbricated or tiled fcales or plates, as in the lily-
root.
162. Bulbus fotidus, confiding of a folid fubftance.
163.. Bulbus tunicatus, confiding of coats lying above
one another, as in the onion.
164. 7uberofa radix, a root confiding of a great jnany
little knots, as in the filipendula.
16j. Fuftformis radix, like a fpindle, i. e. oblong,
thick, and tapering to a point below, as in the
root of the carrot.
166. Raviefa radix, having many lateral branches.
167. Repens radix, a root which creeps horizontally,
and fends off every where fmaller roots at dif¬
ferent didances.
These are the principal terms neceffary for under-
ftanding Linnaeus’s defcription of the fpecific charaflers
of plants.—To make the reader acquainted with the
manner in which thefe terms are ufed, we diall give a
few examples.
ClafsTI. DTANDRIA.
Order, MONOGYNIA.
Genus, Veronica, or Speedwell.
Species, Veronica arvsnjh, has folitary flowers,
cut, feflile (130), and cordated (46)'
leaves.
Veronica agrejlis, has folitary flowers, cut,
cordated (46),, and petiolated (129)
leaves.
Clafs XVI. MONODELPHIA.
Order, P O L Y G Y N I A.
Genus, Malva, or Mallow.
Species, Malva fpicata, has tomentofe (84), cre¬
mated (74). and cordated (46) leaves,
and oblong hairy fpicae (34).
Malva fylvsjlris, has an eredt (119) her¬
baceous caulis (148), with acute (74),
feven-lobed (50) leaves, and hairy pe-
dunculi and.petioli (129).
Clafs XIX. S Y N G E N E S I A.
Order, POLYGAMIA JEQJJ ALI S.
Genus, Carduus, or Thistle.
Species, Carduus helenioides, or melancholy thi-
JUe, has lanceolated (42), teethed.
(66), amplexicaule (132) leaves, with
unequal ciliated (86) fmallfpines( 158).
Clafs XXIV. CRYPTO GAMI A.
Order, F I L 1 C E S.
Genus, Asplenium, or Maidenhair.
Species, Afplenium trichomanes, has a pinnated
(104) frons (144); the pinme (104)
are roundifli (38) and crenated (74).
To thefe examples we fliall add a complete defcription
of a plant reduced to its clafs, order, genus, and Ipecies,
with figures of all the parts neceffary for that purpofe.
Rheum Palmatum, or True Rhubarb. See
Plate LVIII.
The flower of this plant has no Calix.
The Corolla dd, confifts of one petal, narrower at
the bafe, not perforated, and divided in the margin
into fix obtufe fegments, one left and one larger al¬
ternately; the petal is mafcefcent, /. e. decays, but
does not fall off till the feeds be ripe.
The Stamina e e, confifl: of nine capillary filaments in-
ferted into the corolla, and about the fame length with
it. The antherte are didymous, (/. e. appear to be
double), oblong, and obtufe.
The Pistillum/', has a (hort three-fided germen. It
can hardly be faid to have any ftyli; but has three re-
fle&ed, plumofe (Hgmata.
The Pericarpium is wanting.
Each flower contains but one large, three-fided, acute
feed g, with a membranaceous edge.
The numbw of ftamina determines this plant to belong
to the Enneandria cl aft; and the number of Stig¬
mata fixes its order to be Trigynia. The other
parts of the above defcription clearly demonftrate the
genus to be the Rheum or Rubarb, and fufficiently di-
ffinguilh it from the Laurus, Tinus, Caffyta, and Bu-
tomus, the only other genera belonging to this claft.
The Specific mark is taken from the leaves, which
are palmated (58), and iharp and tapering at the
points. There are but five fpecies of Rheum, none of
whofe leaves are palmated, except the fpecies now de-
fcribed.
But though the above, defcription be fufficient for af-
certaining the genus and fpecies of this valuable plant,
there are other reafons for giving a complete botanical
defcription of the whole parts of it. The true rhubarb,
though of the moft extenfive ufe in medicine, was never
known in this country till the year 1762, when Dr
Mounfey brought fome feeds from Ruflia, and gave them
to Dr Hope profeffor of medicine and botany in Edin¬
burgh. Dr Hope fowed them in the botanical garden,
arid colletSed about 30 feeds from one of the plants,
which rofe to eight feet in height. This plant is now
propagating jn the botanic garden, in the garden of Sir
Alexander Dick, and many other gardens in Scotland.
The root is found, by repeated trials, to be equally
powerful in its operation as the beft foreign rhubarb;
and we have the greateft reafon to hope, that in a fiiort
time this plant will be fo univerfally cultivated as to pre¬
vent the future importation of it. The firft botanic de¬
fcription we have of the true rhubarb was publiflied by
Dr Hope in the philofophical tranfattions for the year
1765 * ; which we lhall tranflate into Englifh.
; Vid. Phil. Tranf. for the year 1765.
The
B O T
The Root a, is of the branchy kind, and perennial.
The Leaves of (which b in the plate is an outline) are a-
bout fixteen in number, grow near the root, about two
feet long, and are furnifhed with petioli or foot-ftalks.
—The petioli are about a foot long, cylindrical, plane
above, fmooth, of a green colour, but in fome places
interfperfed with fmall, narrow, purple fpots ; at the
bafe of the leaf, the petiolus terminates in three or
five large nerves or ribs, which are prominent above;
the leaves are ovated, deep cut, with lharp lacinia or
fegments ; the fuperior part of the bafe is green, the
inferior of a whitilh green, and both are alit-le rough.
The Caulis or Stem is eredt, fomewhat cylindrical,
fiftulous or hollow within, jointed, (heathed, rough,
ftriated, about eight feet high, and about two inches
over near the bale. It has fourteen joints, each of
which, from the bafe to the ninth joint, is furnilhed
with a refledted leaf, placed alternately, gradually di-
minilhing as they rife higher, and the petiolus forms
a kind of fheath, which embraces the ftem.
The Pedunculi or Foot-stalks of the flowers,
which are numerous, arife from the alas or arm-pits of
the leaves, are almofl eredt, unequal, ftriated, cylin¬
drical, plainilh at the bafe, and out of their fides other
S ErC T. III. Of the S
A S many philofophers and botanifb deny that fuch a
thing as the dilfindHon of fexes takes place in vege¬
tables, it will be neceflary to give a narration of the ar¬
guments employed by Loth parties on this fubjedt. We
fhall begin with the arguments in favour of- the fexes.
Linnaeus, like every perfon attached to* a parti¬
cular dodtrine or theory, is at great pains in tracing
the notion of fexes in plants to the remoteft periods of
antiquity. He informs us, that Empedocles, Anaxago¬
ras, and other ancient philofophers, not only attributed
the diftindUon of fexes to plants, but maintained that
they were capable of perceiving pleafure and pain.
Hippocrates and Theophraftus are next introduced as
diftinguilhing the conyza, the abies, the filix, &c ‘. into
male and female. The latter of thefe writers affirms,
that the fruit of the female palm will not germinate un-
lefs the pollen of the male be fhaked over the fpatha of
the female, previous to the ripening of the feed
Diofcorides takes notice of a male and female mandra-
gora, mercurialis, ciftus, 6r.,
Pliny does not confine his views of fex to animals, but
exclaims, that every thing this earth produces is charac¬
terized by the diftindtion of fex.
From the days of Pliny to thofe of Caifalpinus, who
lived in the i6th century, the analogy between the vege¬
table and animal feems to have been entirely negledted.
Cxfalpinus tells us, that the males of the oxycedrus,
taxus, mercurialis, urtica, and cannabis, are barren;
and that the females of thefe plants only bear fruit.
After Casfalpinus, we find Dr Grew and Sir Thomas
Millington engaged in a converfation concerning the uti-
A N Y. 64}
foot-flalks arife, to be diflributed in the fame manner,
c, is a flowering branch feparated from the flem.
The Taste, Odour, and Colour of the Root are
precifely the fame w ith thofe of the foreign rhubarb.
The Taste of the Flowers is aflringent, herbaceous
and fubacid ; they have no fenfible fmeli.
The Taste of the Leaves is bitterifh, aftringent, and
herbaceous; the tafle of the Ribs or Nerves is
acid, bitterilh, and very ungrateful;;—the tafie of the
Stem is a little four.
We have now pretty fully explained the method of
reducing plants to clafl’e?, orders, genera, and fpecies,
according to the fexual fyftem of Linnaeus. The man¬
ner in which this explanation has been executed was fug-
gefted by the difficulties which naturally occur to a per¬
fon unacquainted both with the fubjedt and the fyllem.
Although this manner has not, fo far as we know, been
hitherto attempted, we hope it will not be the lefe accep¬
table to the public, efpecially as it is likely to be more
ufeful to the botanical ftudent.
It only now remains to make the reader more fully ac¬
quainted with the origin and nature of the fexaal fyftem.
EXES of PLANTS.
lity of the ftamina and ftyli of plants. The refult of
this converfation was the mutual agreement of thefe two
eminent naturalifts, that the ftamina and ftyli of vege¬
tables were analogous to the organs of generation in ani¬
mals,-and that they were adapted by nature to anfwer
the fame purpofes. Dr Grew, in his anatomy of plant?,
after enumerating the analogies between plants and ani¬
mals, concludes, that the pollen probably emits certain
vivific effluvia, which may ferve for the impregnation of
the feeds.
Mr Ray gave a further fandtion to the dodtrine of
fexes, by concurring with Grew, and adding fome fur¬
ther illuftrations from analogy.
In the-year 1695, Camerarius attempted to prove the
fexes of plants. But, as he trufted folely to the palm-
tree, and withal feemed to be doubtful as to the authen¬
ticity of the fadt, he cannot be confidered as having done,
any thing in confirmation of -the fexual hypothefis.
Mr Morland, in the year 1703, adopted the fame hy¬
pothefis; but gave it a new modification, by fuppofing
that the pollen contained the feminal plant in miniature;
and confequently, that one pollen at leaft behoved to be
conveyed into every feparate feed before it could be pro¬
perly impregnated. Analogy and the ftrudture of the.
parts are the only arguments he employs.
Some years after this, Mr GeofFroy wrote a treatife
on the fexes of plants : But as he advanced nothing new,
we fliall take no further notice of him.
Vaill.tnt, in the 1717, judicioufly confidering that
the CHtial in the ftylu's of moft plants was too narrow
to admit the pollen itfelf, republifhed Dr Grew’s theory
of impregnation by means of a fubtile feminal aura.
Thefe
644 BOX
Thefe are the fentiments of the principal botanifts
with regard to the generation of plants, till the celebra¬
ted Linnaeus made his appearance as a botanical writer,
who has extended the idea fo far as to compofe a com¬
plete fyllem upon it.
Although Linnaeus can have no claim to the fuppofed
difcovery of the fexual hypothefis, his being precifely the
fame with that of Dr Grew; yet, as he is the chief fup-
porter and improver of this doftrine, we fliall give a fuc-
cinft narration of the arguments he makes ufe of in or¬
der to prove that vegetables propagate their fpecies by a
regular commerce of fexes.
In a treatife, intitled, Sponfalia Plantarum, publifhed
as an inaugural difl'ertation by Wahlbom, in the firft vo¬
lume of the Avicenitates Academic#, all the arguments
made ufe of by Linnseus in hi$ Fundamenta Botanica
and other works, are collected and arranged in one view.
But as Wahlbom honeftly attributes ail the merit ofghis
di/Tertation to his great mailer, we lhall here drop his
name altogether, and give the arguments as the proper¬
ty of Linnaeus, by whom they were originally employed.
Linnaeus, then, firlt attempts to Ihow, that vegetables
are endowed with a certain degree of animal life; and,
fecbndly, that they propagate their fpecies in a, manner
limilar to that of animals. ,
“ That vegetables are really animated beings,” fays
he, “ mull be obvious at firft fight; becaufe they pof-
fefs all the properties contained in thaLaccurate definition
of life laid down by the great Dr Harvey, namely, Pita
eji fporttanea propulfio humorum. But univerfal experi¬
ence teaches, that vegetables propel humours or juices :
Hence it is plain that vegetables mull be endowed with
a certain degrees of animal life.”
Not trufting*folely to a fyllogifin founded on a defini¬
tion, Linnseus proceeds to fupport the life of vegetables
by arguments drawn from the following particulars in
their oeconomy; the firlt of which he intitles
“ Nutritio.—The very idea of nutrition implies a
propulfion of humours, and, of courfe, the idea of life.
But vegetables derive their nourilhment from the earth,
air, ere. and confequently mull be confidered as living
creatures.
“ 2. JEtas.—Every animal mull not only begin to
exill, and have that exillence difiblved by death, but
mull likewife pafs through a number of intermediate
changes in its appearance and afFeiSions. Infancy, youth,
manhood, old ape, are char after!fed by imbecillity, beau¬
ty, fertility, dotage', are not all thefe viciffitudes con-
ipicuous in the vegetable world? Weak and tender in
infancy ; beautiful and falacious in youth; grave, ro-
bult, and fruitful in manhood; and when old age ap¬
proaches, the head droops, the fprings of life dry up,
and, in fine, the poor tottering vegetable returns to that
dujl from whence it fprung.
“ 3. Mctus.—No inanimate body is capable of felf-
motioo. Whatever moves fpontaneoully is endowed with
a living principle ; for motion depends on the fpontaneous
propulfion of humours-, and where-ever there is a fpon¬
taneous propulfion of humours, there alfo is life. That
vegetables are capable of motion is evident from the fol¬
lowing fafts: Plants,, when confined within doors, al-
A N Y.
ways bend towards the light, and fome of them even at¬
tempt to make their efcape by the windows. The
flowers of many plants, efpeciaily thofe of the fyngenefia
clafs, purfue the fun from ealt to w'ell, rejoicing in his
beams. Who then can deny that vegetables are poflef-
fed of living and felf-moving powers ?
“ 4. Morbus. — The term difeafe means nothing
more than a certain corruption of life: It is well known,
that vegetables are fubjeft to difeafes as well as animals :
When over-heated, they turn thirlly, languiih, and fall
to the ground: When too cold, they are tormented
with the chilblain, and not unfrequently expire : They
are fometimes afflifted with cancers ; and every plant is
infefted with lice peculiar to its fpecies.
“ 5. Mors.—Death is oppofed to life, the former
being only a privation of the latter. Experience ihows,
that every living creature muft die. But, as vegetables
are daily cut off by internal difeafes and external inju¬
ries ; as they are fubjeft to death from the attacks of
hunger, third, heat, cold, &c. with what propriety
could vegetables be thus faid to die, unlefs we allow that
they previoufly lived ?
“ 6. Anatomia.—Under this article we are referred
to Malpighius and Grew for the organic fibres, mem¬
branes, canals, veficles, <bc. of plants, as additional
proofs of their living powers.
“ 7. Organizatio.—Vegetables not only propel hu¬
mours, but alfo prepare and fecern a number of different
juices for the fruit, the neftar, fee. analagous to the va¬
rious fecretions in animal bodies.”
From thefe fafts and obfervatiohs, Linnseus concludes,
that plants are unqueflionably endowed with life as well
as animals; and then proceeds in the following manner
to flvew how thefe animated vegetables propagate their
fpecies.
After difeufling the long exploded doftrine of equivo¬
cal generation, he lays hold of another maxim of Dr-
Harvey, viz. Omne vivum ex ovo.—“ It being fully, e-
vident,” fays he, “ from the foregoing chain of reafon-
ing, that vegetables are endowed with life, it neceflarily
follows, agreeable to this maxim of Harvey’s, that eve¬
ry vegetable mud in like manner derive its exidence
from an egg. But as vegetables proceed from eggs, and
as it is the didinguifhing property of an egg to give birth
to a being fimilar to that which produced it, the feeds
mud of courfe be the eggs of vegetables.
“ Granting then that the feeds of vegetables are. in¬
tended by nature to anfwer the fame end as the eggs of
animals, and confidering at the fame time that no egg
can be fecundated without receiving an impregnation front-
the male, it follows, that the feed or eggs of vegetables
cannot be fecundated by any other means. Hence alfo
the neceflity of vegetables being provided with organs of
generation. But where are thefe organs fituated ? The
anfwer is eafy:—We have already found impregnated
feeds within the flowers of plants ; and it is natural to
expeft that the genitalia fliould not be at a great didance.
Now, as copulation always precedes birth, and every
flower precedes the fruit., the generating faculty mud
be aferibed to the flower, and the birth to the fruit.
Again, as the anther# and Jligmata are the only eflen-
) !-'te 1AT.
'Jf>'6
V
m s m
_Plat e JLTVTL
I
.
t
I
I’lafe JlMK
Tuve Kitltbaiiib
B O T
tial parts of flowers, thefe parts mu ft neceflarily be the
organs of generatisin”
Iking thus far advanced, Linnaeus affirms, that the
anthtra are the tejies, and that the pollen performs the
office of the male femen. Thefe affirmations he attempts
to eftablifh by the following, arguments; the firft of
which he terms
“ i. Pracedentia.—The antherae, or vegetable teftes,
always precede the fruit; and as foon as the antherae
come to maturity, which conftantly happens before the
maturity of the fruit, they continue to throw out their
pollen as long as the flower lafts; but decay and fall off
whenever the fruit comes to perfection.
“ 2. Situs.—The antherae of all plants are uniformly
fituate in fuch a manner that the pollen may with the
greateft facility fall upon the ftigma or female organ.
“ 3. Tempus.—The antherae and ftigmata always
flourifh at the fame time, whether the flowers be of the
hermaphrodite or dioicous kind.
“ 4. Localumenta.—When the antherae are difleCted,
they difcover as great a variety of ftrufture as the peri
carpia or feed capfules: For fome of them have one cell,
as the mercury; fome two, as the hellebore,
“ 5. Cdftratio.—If all the antherae be cut off from
an hermaphrodite plant, juft before the flowers begin to
expand, takifig care at the fame time that no plant of the
fame fpecies grows near it, the fruit will either prove en¬
tirely abortive, or produce barren feeds.
“ 6. Figura.—When the pollen of different plants
is examined by the microfcope, it exhibits as great a
variety of figures as is difcoverable in the feeds tbem-
felves
“ The accumulated force of thefe arguments”, con¬
cludes Linnaeus, “ amounts to a full demonftration that the
antherae are the teftes, and that the pollen is the femen
or gemtura of vegetables.
“ The male organ being thus inveftigated, we hope,”
fays Linnaeus, “ that none will hefitate to pronounce
the ftigma to be the female organ, efpecially when the
following obfervations are fufficitntly attended to.
“ T he piftillum is compofed of the germen, ftylus,
and ftigma The germen being only a kind of rudiment
of the future foetus or feed, ceafes to exift as foon as
the flower comes to maturity. Neither is the, ftylus an
effential part, as many flowers have no ftylus. But no
fruit ever comes to maturity without the afliftance of the
ftigma. It follows, that the ftigma muft be the female
organ adapted by nature for the reception of the pollen
or impregnating fubftance. This will appear ftill clear¬
er from the following chain of reafoning.
“ 1 • Situs.—The ftigmata are always fituate fo that
the pollen may with moft eafe fall upon them. Befides,
it is remarkable, that in moft plants (though not in all)
the number of the ftigmata exaCtly correiponds with the
loculamenta or cells of the pericarpuim.
“ 2. Tempus.—Here the obfervation, that the ftigmata
and antherae conftantly flourilh at the fame time, is re¬
peated.
“ 3- Decidentia.—The ftigmata of moft plants, like
the aqtheras, decay and fall off as foon as they have dif-
charged their proper function; which evidently ftiows,
Vol. I. Numb. 27 3
ANY. 645
that their office is not to ripen the fruit, but folely to
anfwer the important purpofe of impregnation.
“ 4. Abfcijfio.—The argument here is precifely the
fame with the caftration of the antherae ; and the refuk
is likewife the fame, namely, the deftrudion of the fruit.
“ Thefe arguments,” concludes Linnaeus, “ are
fufficient to demonftrate, that the ftigma is the female
organ of generation, or that organ which is luited
for the reception and conveyance of the ftmen to the
vegetable eggs. Hence, plants may be faid to be in
attu veneris, when the antherae, or tefticuli, fpread
their pollen over the ftigma or female vulva ’'
To fhow how the coitus of vegetables is effected, is
our author’s next objeCt of inveftigation. He affirms,
that the pollen is conveyed, by means of the wind or in-
feCts, to the moift ftigma, where it remains until it dif-
charges a fubtile fluid, which, being abforbed by the
veffels of the ftigma, is carried to the feeds or ova, and
impregnates them. His proofs are taken from the fol¬
lowing particulars.
“ 1. Ocnlus.—When the flowers are in full blow,
and the pollen flying about, every one may then fee the
pollen adhering to the ftigma. This_ he illuftrates by
mentioning as examples the viola tricolor, iris, campa¬
nula, fcc.
“ 2. Proportio. — The ftamina and piftilla, in moft
plants are of equal heights, that the pollen, by the inter-
' vention of the wind,. may, with the greater facility, fall
upon the ftigma.
“ 3. Locus.—The ftamina of moft plants furround
the piftillum, to give the pollen ^n opportunity of falling
on the ftigma at every breeze of wind. Even in the mo-
noecia clafs, the male flowers ftand generally above the
female ones, to afford an eafier conveyance of the pol¬
len to the ftigma.
“ 4. Tempus It is remarkable that the ftamina and
piftilla conftantly appear at the fame time, even in plants
belonging to the monoecia clafs.
“ 5 Pluvial.—The flowers of moft plants expand by
the heat of the fun, and ffiut themfelves up in the even¬
ing or in rainy weather. The final caufe of this muft
be, to keep the moifture from the pollen, left it fiiould
be thereby coagulated, and of courfe prevented from be¬
ing blown upon the ftigma.
“ 6. Patmicolee.—That the cultivators of palm trees
were in ufe to pull off the fpadices from the males, and
fufpend them over the fpathse of the females, is aoefted
by Theophraftus, Pliny, Profper Alpinus, Kempfer, and
many others. If this operation happened to be neglect¬
ed, the dates were four and deftitute of nuts. Kemp¬
fer adds this Angular circumftance, that the male fpa-
dix, after being thoroughly dried and kept till next fea-
fon,- ftill retained its impregnating virtue.
“ 7. Flores nutaiites.—As the pollen is fpecifically
heavier than air, fuch flowers as have their piftillum
longer than the ftamina, hang down, or incline to one
fide, e. g. the fritillaria, campanula, &c. An eafy ad-
niiinon of the pollen to the ftigma, is the final caufe of
. this appearance.
%. Subrnerji.—Many plants that; grow below wa¬
ter, emerge when their flowers begin to blow, and fwim
8 A • upon
6^6 B O T
upon "he furface till they receive their impregnation, and
then fink down.
“ 9. Omnium florum genuina conjideratio.—Here .a
number of particulars are recited. We (hall confine our-
felves to thofe that are moil ftriking and applicable to the
fubje#.
“ When the flowers of the male hemp are pulled off
before thofe of the female are fully expanded, the fe¬
males do not produce fertile feeds. But as a male flower
is fometimes found upon a female plant, this may be the
reafon why fertile feeds are fometimes produced even af¬
ter this precaution has been obferved.
“ The tulip affords another experiment to the fame
purpofe.—Cut off all the antherae of a red tulip before
the pollen is emitted; then take the ripe antherse of a
white tulip, and throw the pollen of the white one upon
the (Hgma of the red; the feeds of the red tulip being
thus impregnated by one of a different complexion, will
next fe'afon produce fome red, feme white, but moft va¬
riegated flowers.”
In the year 1744, Linnaeus publiflied a defeription of
a new genus, which he Called peloria, on the fjppofition
of its being a hybrid or mule plant, i. e. a plant produ¬
ced by an unnatural commixture of two different genera.
The root, leaves, cauiis, <bc. of this plant are exceed¬
ingly fimilar to thofe of the antirrhinum linaria; but the
flower and other parts of fru&ification are totally differ¬
ent. On account of its fimilarity to the linaria in every
part but the flower, Linnaeus imagined it to have been
produced by a fortuitous commixture of the linaria with
fome other plant, although he has never yet been able to
condefcend on the father. This dodtrine of the produc¬
tion of mule plants has fince been greatly prized and
carefully ptopagated by Linnaeus and the other fupport-
ers of the fexual hypothefis. In the third volume of
the Amcenitcites Academic#, there is a complete differta-
tion, intitled. Plant# Hybrid#, wherein the dodrine of
vegetable muleJ is much improved and extended. This
diflertation contains a lift of 47 mules, with their fuppo-
fed fathers and mothers. For example.
The Veronica Spuria is faid to be a wa/eplant begot
by the verbena officinalis upon the veronica maritima.
The delphinium hybridum, a mule begot by the aconitum
napellus uponi the delphinium datum.
The ardotis calendula, a mule begot by the calendula
pluvialis upon the ardotis triftis.
The afclepias nigra, a mule begot by the cynanchum acu-
tum upon the afclepias vincetoxicum, fcc.
From the, examples given in this differtation, Linnaens
draws this Angular conclufion, that only two fpecies of
each genus exifted ab origine-, and that all the variety of
fpecies which now appear have been produced by unna¬
tural embraces betwixt fpecies of different genera.
Under this head, Linnaeus likewife quotes from Ray the
ftory of Richard Baal gardener at Brentford. This Baal
fold a large quantity of the feeds of the braflica florida to
feveral gardeners in the fuburbs of London. Thefe gar¬
deners, after fow’ing their feeds in the ufual manner, were
furprifed to find them, turn out to be plants of a different
ANY.
fpecies from that which Baal made them believe they had
purchafed; for, inftead of the brafica florida, the plants
turned out to be the braflica longifolia. The gardeners,
upon making the difeovery, commenced a profecution of
fraud againft Baal in Weftminfter-hall. The court found
Baal guilty of fraud, and decerned him not only to re-
ftore the price of the feeds, but likewife'to pay the gar¬
deners for their loft time, and the ufe of their ground.
“ Had thefe judges (fays Linnaeus) been acquainted with
the fexuail hypothefis, they would not have found Baal
guilty of any crime, but would have aferibed the acci¬
dent to the fortuitous impregnation of the braflica fiorida
by the pollen of the braffica longifolia.”
Linnasus next proceeds to celebrate the utility of in¬
fers, becaufe they convey the pollen of the male to the
ftigma of the female. “ In this way,” fays he, “ it is
reafonable to think that many dioicous plants are impreg¬
nated. Nay, even the hermaphrodites themfelves are
greatly obliged to the different tribes of infeds, which,
by fluttering and treading in the corolla, are conftantly
fcattering the pollen about the ftigma.
“ Upon the whole,” then, concludes Linnsms, “the
coitus of vegetables is evident to a demonftration This
coitus is nothing more than the conveyance of the pollen
to the ftigma, to which it adheres till it borfts and dif-
charges a fubtile elaftic fluid. This fluid or aura is ab-
forbed by the veffels of the ftylus, and carried diredlly
to the ovarium or germen, where the myfterious work of
impregnation is fully compleated.”
These are the arguments employed by Linnaeus and
other advocates for the fexual commerce of vegetables.—
Let us next attend to thofe employed by the oppofers of
this hypothefis.
It is admitted by Pontedera, Dr Alfton, fyc. that
fome of the acients applied the terms male and female to
feveral plants. But then they deny that thefe terms con¬
veyed the fame ideas to the ancients that they do to the
moderns. Male and female, when applied to plants,
were to the ancients mere terms of diftindtion, ferving
only as trivial names to diftinguiffi one fpecies or variety
from another. The ancients were ignorant of the very
charafters which conftitute the difference between what
is cal'.ed a male and female plant among the moderns.
Theophraftus, Diofcorides, Pliny, and, in a word, the
whole ancient bontanical writers, confound the very no¬
tion of the modern fexes f they call the real female, or
feed-bearing plant, the male; and the male, or barren
plant, the female. Nay, they have even applied the
terms male and female to many plants which bear no¬
thing but hermaphrodite flowers.
Such is the nature of this controverfy, that it cannot
be determined with any degree of certainty, but by ex¬
periments made upon dioicous plants. If a female plant
can produce fertile feeds without having any communica¬
tion with the pollen of the male, the ufe of this pollen,
with refpedt to the impregnation of feeds, muft of necef-
fity be entirely fuperfeded.
Now, both Camerarius and Dr Alfton tried thefe ex¬
periments with the fame fuccefs. Thofe two eminent
botanifts took female plants of the mercury, fpinage, and
hemp,.
B O T
hemp, tranfplanted them at a great diftance from any
males of the fame genus, and befides had them inclofed
by double rows of hedges. The refult was, that each
bf thefe plants produced great quantities of fertile feeds.
Tournefort made the fame trial upon the lupulus, Mil¬
ler upon the bryony, and GeofFroy upon the mays ; and
all of them declare that the feeds of thefe plants were as
fertile as if they had been furrounded by athoufand males.
Linnaeus, in his firft argument for the coitus of plants,
refers every man to the evidences of his fenfes.
“ Do we not fee, (fays he) the ftigma of almoft every
hermaphrodite flower covered over with the pollen or im¬
pregnating fubftance ? Do not we fee the parietaria, the
urtica, by violent explofions, difeharging their pol¬
len in the open air, that it may be carried in that ve¬
hicle to the ftigmata of their refpefHve females —All
this is admitted by the oppofers of the fexes ; bet then
they deny that thefe explofions, lire, are intended to
create any intercourfe between the male and the female ;
and further alledge, that this ejection of the pollen is in¬
tended by nature to throw off fomething excrementitious,
or at lead fomething, which, if retained, would prove
noxius to the fructification.
Linnaeus takes his fecond argument from the propor¬
tion which the /lamina bear to the ftylus, alledging that
they are generally of the fame height.—This obferva-
tion is not only contrary to experience, bur, allowing
it to be univerfal, no conclufion can be drawn from it
either for or again/l the fexual hyppthefis.
The third argument is taken from the /ecus or fituation
of the /lamina with refpedt to the ftylus ; “ and as the
male flowers in the monoecia clafs /land always above
the female flowers, it mu/l be concluded (fays Linnaeus)
that the intention of nature, in this difpofition of the
parts, is to allow a free and eafy accefs of the pollen to
the /ligma.”—But the/lamina cannot be faid tofurround
the pi/lillum in the monandria and diandria claffes : And
•the pofition of the male flowers in the monoecia clafs is a
mere chimera; for in the ricinus, one of the examples
which Linnaeus mentions in confirmation of his doClrine,
the female flowers Hand uniformly fome inches above the
males.
That the /lamina and pi/lilla generally come to per¬
fection at the fame time, and that this happens even in
the dioicous plants, is Linnaeus’s fourth argument. But,
as it is acknowledged by Linnaeus hirnfelf, that there are
many exceptions with refpeCl to this fad, the oppofers
of the fexual hypothefis alledge that it carries the bt/l an-
fwer in its own bofom.
The fifth argument is founded on the circum/lance of
fbme flowers /hutting up their petals in rainy or moi/l
evenings.—But many flowers do not /hut themfelves up,
eithgr in the night or moifl weather, as the pa/fion-flower,
ire. The lychnis noctiflora, mirabilis peruvianar, ire.
open their flowers in the night, and /hut them at the
approach of the fun. Hence this is another final caufe
evidently perverted to fupport a favourite hypothefis.
We come now to the culture of the palm-tree, which
is the fixth and mo/l plaufible argument employed by the
fexuali/ls. Herodotus, Theophra/lus, Pliny, and fome
others, have informed us, that the female palm-tree, unlefs
ANY. 647
a male grows fu/fieiently near it, or unlefs the pollen be
artificially conveyed to the female fpatha, will produce
nothing but four dates and unfertile feeds. This fad is
partly denied by Pere-Labat and Tournefort. The for¬
mer of thefe authors exprefsly affirms, that a female palm-
tree, in the garden belonging to the mona/lery at Mar-
tinico, produced mo/l excellent fruit, although there was
not a male within fix miles of it : From which he con¬
cludes, that the prefence of the male is not neceffary to
render this tree fruitful, whatever may be pretended by
ancient or modern naturali/ls. Herodotus relates, th«'
the people of Babylon, when the male was at too great
a di/lance from the female, made a rope pafs from the
boughs of the one to the boughs of the other, to afford
an opportunity to the culices and other infecls to pafs
along the rope, and convey fome kind of impregnating
influence from the male to the female. Tournefort,
wiien he was in that country, inquired at the mo/l in¬
telligent people of the place, as to the truth of this re¬
lation ; but received for anfwer, That they had never
heard of any fuch matter. Even the favourers of the
fexual hypothefis give very different accounts of the me¬
thod of cultivating palm-trees in thofe countries. Vef-
lingius, who refided many years in Egypt, denies that
any artificial method is employed for frudlifying the
palm-trees in that country. Thus Yeflingius exprefsly
contradidls Herodotus and many others. In a word, ai-
mo/l every different author gives a different account of
this /lory. Amid/l fo many contradidlions concerning the
culture of palm-trees, the oppofers of the fexes conclude,
that the whole /lory is a vular error, taken for granted
by fome learned men, fpurioufly fathered upon others,
and fwallowed down without examination by their cre¬
dulous readers.—As we have not feen any anfwer to
Mylefius’s letter on this fubjecl, our obfervations upon it
/hall be reffrved till this bi/lorical view of the contro-
verfy be finiffied.
The feventh argument of Linnaeus is taken from the
flores nutantes.—The piftils of thefe flowers, according
to Linnasus, are always logger than the /lamina,, and na¬
ture has affigned them this penfile po/lure, that the pol¬
len, which is fpeci/ically heavier, than air, may the more
conveniently fall upon the /ligma.—But the pi/tils of the
campanula, lilium, and many other flares nutantes, are
not longer than the /lamina. Befides, granting this
were uniformly the cafe; yet, as the polkn is heavier
than air, this po/lure mu/l of neceflity either make the
pollen mifs the pi!tillum altogether, or, at any rate, it
can only fall upon the back part of the piflil in place of
the /ligma ; and, of courfe, fuch a direction would ra¬
ther tend to fru/Irate than promote the impregnation of
the feed.
The eighth argument is taken from the plant a fub-
merfle, which are laid to emerge as foomas their flowers
begin to blow, le/l the pollen ffiould be coagulated or
wa/hed off by the water.—But many fubmarine and aqua¬
tic plants fructify, entirely below water;. and, fuppo/ing
they did not, the fame argument would equally prove it
to be the intention of nature, that the pollen ffiould be
blown away by the winds, as that it fhould be fubfer-
vient to.the impregnation, of the feed..
The.
643 B O T
The ninth and laft argument is intitled Omnium florum
genuina conjideratio; which is nothing more than a col-
leftipn of vague obfervations upon the ftrudture and (Eco¬
nomy of particular plants, lome of them true, others
falfe, but all of them evidently thruft in as fupports to a
favourite hypothefis.
Having thus given a pretty full hiftorical view of the
controverfy concerning the fexes of plants, we (hall now
lay before our readers a few obfervations that have oc¬
curred from the perufal ofit.
It may be obferved in general, that the fadts and ar¬
guments adduced by the fexualilts are by far too few to
admit of any general indudtion. Nay, moft of them are
merely accidental, many of them not being uniform even
in the fame fpecies; and the final caufes of the whole are
unnatural, and tortured fo as bed: to anfwer the pur
poles of a theory, which, for all that hath yet been (aid,
merits no higher appellation than that of a whimfical
conjecture.
Fird, then, Linnaeus’s reafoning is of a mixt nature,
partly analogical, partly founded* on obfervation. He
iets out with an attempt to prove, that plants are en¬
dowed with a certain degree of animal life; and his fun¬
damental reafnn is, becaufe, agreeable to Dr Harvey’s
definition of life, they fpmiancoujly propel humours.—
Strange, that a man of Linnaeus’s capacity, or indeed of
any capacity at all. (hould ferioufly employ an argument
pregnant with every degree of abfurdity !—Stranger dill
that he (hould take up near twenty pages in illudrating
and drawing conclufions from fuch an argument!—If
Harvey has given a vague and unintelligible definition of
life, can that be a fufficient excufe for laying hold of
fuch a definition in order to fortify an undable hypothe¬
fis ? But, were'Harvey’s definition more accurate than it
is, and were vegetables adtually poflelfed of living powers,
it is eafy to conceive how the life of vegetables might
be a proper ted of, or contradiction to, the received de¬
finition : But, how a definition, which, from the com
plex and intricate nature of the fubjeCt defined, mud
neceflarily be vague and precarious can be employed in
confirmation of any general theory, exceeds the powers
of common apprehenfion.
But let us examine this notable definition a little fur¬
ther: What idea of.life does a fpontaneous propulfion of
humours convey ? If Harvey means to fay, that men
and other animals regulate the motion of their blood,
and the fecretions of their different humours, by certain
exertions of the fentient principle, fuch a meaning is
contradicted by univer(al experience ; fo far is this from
being the cafe, that the mod abdraCt attention cannot
render us confcious of thefe motions; Again, if he
means, that every body is endowed with life, whofe or¬
gans are fuited to propel humours, then the term fpon¬
taneous is abfurd, becaufe it afcribes intellectual powers
to the organs themfelves, than which nothing can be
more ridiculous. Befides, allowing the organs to enjoy
an independent faculty of propulfion, what does this pro-
puKLn mean when applied to vegetables ? Surely no¬
thing more than a power of conveying certain liquors
from the root to the fuperior parts of the plant. A wet
ANY.
cloth, with one end in contaCt with the water in any
vefiel, and the other hanging over its fide, will do the
fame; fo will a fpunge, fo will a bed of loofe fund, fo
will a fugar loaf, ‘&c. ; but it is to be hoped, that man¬
kind have more fenfe than to believe that a bit of cloth;
or a fugar loaf, are animated beings.
As confcious of the lamenefs and futility of his rea¬
foning on this fubjeCt, Linnaeus endeavours further to
corroborate the life of vegetables by analogies drawn
from their nutrition, age, motions, difeafes, death, ana¬
tomy, and organization In thefe nothing new or re¬
markable occurs, excepting the uncommon method of
reafoning, and the (till more whimfical purpofes to which
this reaforring is applied. We (hall take notice oi his
arguments under the articles of motion and death, which
indeed are the chief of thofe which do not depend more
or lefs upon the above definition.
Under the former of thefe, Linnseus informs us, that
plants, when confined within doors, always bend to-
watds the light; and that many flowers, particularly thofe
of the fyngenefia clafs, purfu'e the courfe of the fun from
ea(t to weft. This inclination of flowers towards the
light, Linnseus would have us to believe are real inllan-
ces of the living powers and fpontaneous motion of plants.
—This phenomenon, however, may be eafily accounted
for, independent of any idea of life. Every body knows,
that a certain degree of heat relaxes the tone of the ve¬
getable organs, and at the fame time proportionally eva¬
porates the fluids which thele organs contain. Now, to
whatever fide of the plant that heat is principally applied,
there of neceflity mult alfo be the greateft flaccidity of
the fibres, and the greateft evaporation of the fluids; of
courfe, from the law of gravitation, the flower, indeed
the whole plant, muft incline towards that fide from
whence the light or heat proceeds. The (lighted obfer¬
vation is fufficient to convince us of the propriety of this
method of accounting for the inclination of heavy flowers
fupported by weak ftems, towards the rays of the fun.
If a pot of flowers be put loofely into a glafs, and al¬
lowed to remain a little time in an apartment where a fire
is burning, as foon as the fibres.begin to be enervated,
they all, unlefs obftrufted by fome other caufe, bend to¬
wards the fire. Hence the abfurdity of aferibing this
phenomenon to a fentient and living principle, which is
more eafily and with more certainty explained by the
common laws of mechanifm.
Let us next attend to Linnaeus’s argument under the
article of death. After telling us, with much folemr.ity,
that death is only a privation of life, arid that vegetables
die of many grievous diftempers, he thus concludes;
“ With what propriety,” fays he, “ could vegetables
be thus faid to die. unlefs it be allowed that they previ-
oufly//werfr”’ However, if the life of vegetables hath
no other fupport than this trifling quibble, (for it merits
not the name of argument), we are afraid that every man
of common fenfe will conclude, that they never were en¬
dowed with life, and confequently cannot, with any
more propriety than an ordinary figure of fpeech can be-
ftow, be faid to die.
Having in this manner attributed living powers to ve¬
getables, Linnseus, in the next place, makes an effort to
(how
B O T
fhpWj.that they tnjoy the faculty of generation. But
yhat, pi'pcef* of argument,ayon does he employ ? ; He lays
hold of another maxim of Dr Harvey : Omne vivum ex
ovo, fays Haryey. “ Now,!’ adds Linnaeus, “ we have
already proved that vegetables,/,/»<?; and therefore they
rnu-d in like manner derive their origin from eggs. A-
gain, no eggs can be fertilized without receiving an im¬
pregnation, from the femen of the male: And hence the
eggs or feeds of vegetables mu ft like wife be impregnated
by the male vegetable femen, in order to their fertiliza¬
tion. Further, it is an effential property ol an egg ta
produce a creature of the fame fpecies with that from
which itfelf was produced: Hence the feeds are the eggs
pf vegetables. Befides, as the anthers and ftigmata are
the only efle'ntial parts of a flower, it follows, that thefe
parts are the organs of generation.” In this way Lin
nasus goes on till he finds the antherse to be the teftes;
the pollen, the femen; and the ftigma, the female or¬
gan of generation.
But, as we have already ftiewn that Linnaeus has re¬
markably, failed in the proof of his firft point, namely,
that vegetables are endowed with life, his fubfequent rea-
foning, which refts folely on the fuppofition of the living
powers of vegetables, muft of courfe fail to the ground.
However, allowing a fponlaneous propulfton of hu¬
mours to be a pe'rfeft definition of life, philologifts are
Far from being agreed* with regard to the propriety of
Harvey’s fecond maxim. Omne vivum ex ovo may be
■be applied to a great variety of animals. But to this
day it remains a very doubtful point, whether man and
moft quadrupedes derive their exiftence from the fame
fource. Hence the impropriety of drawing an analogy
from a property not univerfal even among the animal cre¬
ation in order to fupport an imaginary one among the ve¬
getable tribes.
When our author comes to explain the manner in which
the coitus of vegetables is performed, he tells us, that
the pollen may be feen lying upon.the top of the ftigma
in moft hermaphrodite flowers, where it is diffolved by
the moifture which conftantly adheres to that part ; and
after this difiblution, that the feminal aura contained in
die pollSn is abforbed by the ftigma, and fo conveyed
direttly to the feeds.
This account of the coitus lies open to two objedlions.
fft. Admitting that the pollen may be feen adhering to
the ftigmata of moft hermaphrodite plants, and admitting
likewife that moifture caufes the pollen to burft and dif-
charge a fuhtile fluid, ftill a very natural queftion occurs
with regard to the abforbing quality of the ftigma It is
true, that the top of the ftigma is generally covered with
moifture. But does not this indicate that the proper
office of the ftigma is to fecern and propel rather than
to abforb moifture ? It will be the more readily admit¬
ted, that the veflels of the ftigma are not fuited to ab¬
forb, if it be confidered that the moifture of the ftigma is
fubjeded to a conftant evaporation, and of courfe muft al¬
ways Hand in need of new fupplies of this liquor, which can
flow from no other fource than the internal veflels of the
ftigma itfelf. It may indeed be alledged, that the ftigma
is furniffied with two fets of veflels, one for abforbing
the feminal fluid, another for fecerning the diflolving
_ Vpl. I. No. 28. ' 3'
ANY. 649
moifture. No ,body, however, has ever pretended to
ftiow that the ftigma is poflefled of any peculiar veflels
for abforbing; whereas every man’s eyes will convince him
that it is poflefled of fecerning veffels : Hence, until the
abforbing quality of the ftigma be fufficiemly proved, the
poflibility of an impregnation in this way muft at leaft re¬
main problematical.
2dly, Linnaeus makes the appearance of the pollen ad¬
hering to the ftigmata of hermaphrodite flowers an ocu¬
lar demonftration of an a&ual coitus. Granting this to
be an ocular demonftration of the coitus of vegetables,
ffiould not the pollen be likewife feen adhering, to the
ftigmata of dioicous plants ? But the appearance of pol¬
len upon the ftigmata of dioicous plants has never yet-
been difcovered. We may, therefore, fairly conclude,-
that if the appearance of pollen upon the ftigmata of her¬
maphrodite flowers be an ocular demonftration of the
coitus or copulation of plants, the want of that appear¬
ance, or. no pollen’s being ever feen upon the ftigmata
of dioicous flowers, muft likewife be an ocular demon¬
ftration of the contrary !
In fupporting theoretical opinions, mankind are ex¬
tremely apt to render the fubjeft ridiculous try puffiing
them too far. No man ever blundered more remarkably
in this refpedt than Linnaeus He is not fadsfied with
attributing life and a generative faculty to plants: He
muft likewife attempt to prove, that this generative fa¬
culty is fo ftrong and vigorous, as to enable them to
produce hybrids or mules, by means of unnatural com¬
mixtures.
In fupport of this notion, he tells us, that, when the
antherae of a red tulip are cut off, and the ripe antherse.
of a white one are ffiaked over the ftigma of the red one,
the feeds of the red tulip, by this artificial impregnation,
will produce flowers ftreaked with red and white. 0£
this fa<ft no body who knows any thing of the nature of
tulips, and the changes to which the colour of their
flowers are liable, will entertain any doubt. But this
change of colour is evidently afcribed to a wrong caufe *
for the fame change would unqueftionably happen whe¬
ther the antheras of the white tulip had been ffiaked 0-1
ver the ftigma of the red one or not. When tulips blow,
for the firft time, their petals are generally of one uniform
colour. For feveral fucceeding feafons this original colour,
continues to vary, in fo much that, by certain methods
of culture, the colour of the flower may he varied with¬
out end. Linnaeus, in his fyftematic works, wifely cau¬
tions his readers not to fgund any diftiniftions upon the
colour of plants, which, he dliferves, is fubjedt to fuch
numberlefs alterations from culture, foil,, and other ca-
fual incidents, that it can never furniffi the botanift with
any permanent or uniform marks. ^ With what propriety^
then, Linnaeus attributes the change in the colour of
this tulip to his artificial impregnation, is iiibmitted to
the cdnfiueraiion of his warmeft admirers.
The firft hint of mules Was taken from a* plant the fi¬
gure and difpofition of wh.ofe leaves, &c. rei'embled the
antirrhinum linaria, or common yellow toad-flax ; but
attended with this peculiarity, that its parts of frudtifica-
tion were entirely diffimilar. Linnaeus, when the plant
was firft prefen ted. to. him, imagined it to he fume kind
SB of
650 B O T
of deception. But, after a more accurate examination,
the notion of a fj>urious iflue opportunely came to his
aid. The thought pleafed him on a double account: It
had a direct tendency to corroborate his favourite hypo-
thelis, and laid the foundation of another ftill more ex¬
travagant. Now, thinks he, by this ineftimable difco-
very, we Ihall be enabled to take a dry and rigid plant
from the mountain’s top, make it copulate with a moift
and fpungy aquatic, and their offspring will participate
of the rigidity and hardnefs of the former, together
with the moifture arid flaccidity of the latter; and hence
mankind fhall foon be blefled with an eafy purchafe of
their united virtues when flourifliing in the intermediate
vale ! More wonderful ftill, we fhall caufe the plants
which dwell upon the frozen mountains of Greenland to
intermarry with the more delicate and wayward inhabi¬
tants of the torrid zone, and the conftitutions of their
children fhall be fo moulded and attempered, that they
will live moft comfortably in every temperate clime!—
Not contented with extracting two theories out of this
iingle plant, Linnaeus forms a third ftill more wild and
fantaftical: “ From this curious phenomenon,” fays he,
“ it is natural to think, that only two fpecies of each
genus exifted ab origins, and that all the variety of fpe¬
cies which now appear are only the fpan of fortuitous
commixtures !”
If either the fortuitous or artificial copulation of two
different fpecies were capable of producing a third per¬
fectly diftinCt from the other two, the number of fpecies
would be infinite. According to our author, every blaft
of wind, every butterfly, would daily produce hundreds
of new fpecies. Neither the gardener nor hufbandman
could purchafe feeds with fafety, unlefs they cotild difco-
ver, from inipeCfion, whether they had been impregnated
by the femen of the fame, or of a different fpecies. Lin
naeus would have us to believe, not only that different
fpecies of the fame genus copulate together, but even
that genera belonging to different claffes engender, and
beget mules. For example, he makes the poterium hy-
bridum a begot by the agrimonia eupatoria the
poterium fanguiforba. The agrimonia belongs to the do-
decandria digynia clafs, and the poterium to the moncecia
polyandria. Now, let any man ferioufly confider the un¬
avoidable confequences that would follow on the fuppofi-
tion that this wanton proftitution of fexes really exifted a-
mong vegetables In the firft place, it would be impofi-
fible to reduce botany to any regular fyftem ; for every
feafon would produce fuch a troop of new and ftrange
plants, as would confound every fcheme or method of
claffification that ever was, or ever will be invented. A
botanift, for inftance, carefully collects and preferves the
f^eds of the poterium, in order to raife that plant next
feafon; but, after fowing the feeds, to bis utter afto-
mfhment, not a Angle poterium appears, but every one
of them is metamorphofed into a fpecies of agrimonia, a
plant fo totally different that it cannot even be arranged
under the fame clafs. ' adly, Linnasus is obliged to con-
fiefs, that his vegetable mules, are not fubjeCted to that
perverfe law of nature, which cruelly prevents animal
mules from propagating their fpecies. On the contraty,
lus vegetable.mules enjoy all the, fweets of mutual em-
A N Y.
braces, and all the comforts that arife fronma nomerou
progeny ! It is a happy circumftance that the oeconomy
of nature is not influenced by the whims and caprices of
thofe very ingenious and learned gentlemen whofe heads
are conftantly hunting after hypothetical phantoms.
There is hardly a general theory of the oeconomy of a-
nimals, or vegetables, which, on the fuppofition of its
truth, would not in a very fhort time extirpate both a-
nimals and vegetables from the face of the earth. In the
theory under confideration, we have not only mules pro¬
duced by different genera and fpecies, but thefe very
mules fuccefsfully propagating their kinds, and fubjeCt
to be metamorphofed ad infinitum by fubfequent im¬
pregnations. This would be ftrange work indeed ! How
unlike the oeconomy of nature !—Let us take an exam¬
ple, and trace it through a few metamorphofes. A net¬
tle receives an impregnation from an oak, the feed falls
to the ground, a plant of a very uncouth afpeCI fprings
up ; it is no longer a nettle, neither is it an oak; but
then it makes an excellent mule ! This mule next re¬
ceives an impregnation from a turnip ; the feed now brings
forth neither a nettle, an oak, nor a common mule, but
fomething fo monftruous that no language can* afford a
name for it! Thefe are a few of the confequences that
would inevitably happen, if this theory of fexual em¬
braces were really founded in nature.
It is natural to think, that no author would venture to
publifli a theory of this kind, without having previoufly
made a great variety of fuccefsful experiments. If plants
were really capable of unnatural commixtures^ any perfou
might make many hundred mules in the fpace of twelve
months. But we can affirm with confidence, that Lin¬
naeus never made a Angle vegetable mule in his life. He
has indeed collefted forty-feven plants which he calls mules.
Why ? not becaufe they were produced by an artificial
or fortuitous impregnation ; but becaufe the leaves.
Item, or parts of fruAification have a refemblance to fome
other genus or fpecies; even of thefe forty-feven he ac¬
knowledges that thirteen cannot be depended upon. The
only attempts he has made to produce mules, have been
confined to a few hermaphrodite plants: When endea¬
vouring to impregnate a plant, Linnaeus proceeds in this
manner: He lays hold of a hermaphrodite plant juft be¬
fore the flowers begin to blow; unfolds the petals, cuts
off all the ftamina, and then with his own hands per¬
forms the office of a male plant, by {baking the pollen
of a different fpecies over its piftillum. This operation
being finiffied, he fows the feeds next feafon :—Now, if
Linnaeus’s theory were juft, thefe feeds {houfd produce
mules, or plants which cannot be referred to any of- the
two fpecies upon which the experiment was made. But
all the changes he has ever been able to produce by his
manual impregnations are confined to the colour of the
flower; a different ftreak or ffiade in the petals paffes
with him for a mule or mixture of the fpecies, although, ,
in other parts of his works, he pofitively declares, that
generic or fpecific differences can never be taken from
the colour offlowers, as it is conftantly liable to a thoufand"
changes from caufes that are merely fortuitous.
But no experiment can be made with any degYee of can¬
dor upon hermaphrodite flowers. No man can determine
with
B O T
with certainty what changes the young feeds mayundergo,
what injury they may fuffer, by prematurely forcing open
their petals and cutting off the ftamina. If a pregnant
animal be wounded, and in a part too intimately con-
netted with the foetus, what reafon have we to hope for
a beautiful or well-proportioned offspring ? One thing
however is certain, that if the office of the ftamina, as is
alledged by the oppofers of the fexes, be to feparate and
carry off noxious or excrementitious matter from the
fruit, the retention of this matter would of itfelf intro¬
duce a change into the colour of the future plant; be-
caufe in that cafe the feeds would not be properly purged
or rettified, being prematurely deprived of the veffels de-
ftined for that purpofe.
We (hall now examine the famous ftory of Baal the
gardner at Brentford, related above in the hiftofical view
of the controverfy. Linnaeus accufes Baal’s judges of
ignorance, becaufe they convitted him of fraud. But,
would not any judge fmile to hear himfelf branded
with ignorance, or a partial adminiftration of juftice,
merely becaufe he paid no regard to the fexual com¬
merce of plants in his decifions ? It is happy for man¬
kind that judges are ’obliged to decide according to
law or equity, and not according to the hypothetical
whims of the naturalift.—But, even fuppofing Baal’s
judges to have had a perfett knowledge of the fexual com¬
merce of vegetables, and to have been at full liberty to
determine the point of law upon that medium, if they
had acquitted Baal of fraud, or at leaft of negligence,
we ffiould have been inclined to doubt both of their in¬
tegrity and ingenuity.—It is acknowledged, that great
quantities both of the braffica llorida and braffica longi-
folia were raifed that feafon in Baal’s garden. A feedf-
man or gardner, in packing up many parcels of different
feeds, by the Ample error of putting a wrong mark upon,
any of the parcels, would produce a miftake fimilar to
this of Baal’s. But, whether the circumftance. took its
rife from negligence or fraud, belongs not to our prefem
inquiry. Even up<5n Linnaeus’s own principles, it is far
from being clear of abfurdity, how, by a cafual impreg¬
nation, the fpecies of a plant could be entirely changed.
For, by the analogy of all animals, nay, taking our ana¬
logy from Linnaeus’s vegetable mules, this fortuitous
impregnation ffiould have only produced a mule, or mix¬
ture of the two fpecies, and not a perfett metamorphofis of
either. Hence it may be fairly concluded, that this fa¬
mous ftory, upon which the fexualifts lay fo much ftrefs,
inftead of ftrengthening, tends to the final deftruttion of
that hypothefis in fapport of which it was originally ad¬
duced.’
' Of a fimilar nature is the ftory contained in Mylius’s
Ifetter to Dr Watfon. This gentleman writes to his cor-
refpondent, “ that a female palm, tree grew many years
in the garden belonging to the Royal Academy at Berlih,
without producing any ripe or fertile fruit; that a male,
branch, with its flowers in full blow, was brought from
Leipfic, which is about twenty German miles from Ber¬
lin, and . fufpended over the female; the refult of this
operation was, that the female, that very year, produced
Foo ripe and fertile fruit. The fame experiment being
repeated the following year, 2000 ripe fruit were pro-
A N Y. 6s z
dueed.” — Not to call Mylius’s veracity in queftien,
we ffiall allow the fatt to be as he has related it: Ne-
verthelefs it is far from being fatisfattory. Berlin is
not the native climate of palm-trees. Mylius in¬
forms us, that this palm bore flowers and fruit for thirty
years before the experiment was tried ; but the fruit
never came to full maturity. Now it is well known, that
many exotic plants, particularly thole of the larger kinds,,
feldom produce ripe fruit in a climate which is^ not
adapted by nature for their nourifhment, unlefs they are
aflifted by artificial culture, and have grown in that cli¬
mate for a great number of years. Mylius’s palm-tree
had carried unripe fruit for the fpace of thirty years.
Now, according to the ufual courfe of exotics, it is na¬
tural to think that, during all this time, the fruit was
every feafon making gradual advances towards perfettion r
It might fo fall out, then, that at the very feafon when
the male branch was fufpended over the female, the
plant had arrived at the higheft degree of perfettion it
could ever acquire in the climate of Berlin; and of courfe,
the accidental circumftance of fufpending the male, branch
over it, at this critical period, might give rife to the
deception of attributing the perfettion and fertilization of
the fruit to the prefence of the male branch. The cir¬
cumftance of the tree’s bringing forth only 100 ripe fruit
the firft year, and 2000 the fecond, remarkably favours
this account of the matter.
However, be tins a? it will, the experiment is fo very
defettive, that no conclufion can be drawn from it either
for or againit the fexual hypothefis. To convince any
thinking perfon, that the fertility of this tree was folely
owing to fome impregnating virtue derived to it from the
male branch, a branch ffiould have been fufpended over,
the female one year, omitted the next, and fo on alter¬
nately for a courfe of years, or (as Linnteus would ex-
prefs it), giving her a hufband one year, and depriving
her of that gratification the next: After treating the-
female in this • manner for feveral years, if■ it had uni¬
formly happened, that the fruit was fertile every year'
the male branch was fufpended over it, and. unfertile e-
very year that the fufpenfion of the male branch was o-
mitted, then indeed there would have been a foundation
for'concluding, that there was fome connettion between
the fertility of the fruit and the prefence of the male
branch. But as this neceffary ftep has, been negletted,
the experiment is incomplete, and the conclufion drawn
from it uncandid and precipitate..
We cannot conclude our remarks on this theory, with¬
out hazarding a few-obfervations on the truly miraculous ,
effetts which Linnaeus afcribes to the wind; In account¬
ing for the impregnation of all the dioicous and moft of
the hermaphrodite plants, recourfe is. conftantly had to
the wind, which is faid to convey the pollen of the male
to the ftigmata of the female. When the female again,
is at fuch a diftance as to render the carriage of the pol¬
len fufprcious or impoffible', our author is not difcouraged
by this circumftance, but confidently affirms, that Lome
infett has-been rummaging amongft the ftamina of the
male, carries off a quantity of the pollen adhering to its
legs, and, unconfcious of its precious load, flies from”
flower to flower till it arrives at the unmarried female,:
where.
2 B O T
where flopping to take another bait, it luckily depofites
fome of this adhering pollen directly upon the ftigitia of
the female!—-
Here it is proper to obferve, that generation is One of
the capital, and indeed one of the mOft important laws of
nature that we are acquainted with. The laws of nature
are all fixed', Heady, and uniform in their operation. None
bf the effetts produced by them are fubjeft to thofe un¬
certainties which always refult from chance or any for¬
tuitous train of circumftances. But is there any thing
in nature more unfettled, defultory, arid capricious, than
the direction and motions of the wind ? Can we form a
conception of any. thing more cafual and fortuitous than
the wild and wayward paths of infefts ? The very fup-
pofiuon, therefore, that nature has left the generation of
at lead a tenth part of the whole vegetable tribes to thefe
accidental caufes, muff be unphilofophical, whimfical,
and abfurd. We will be the more readily convinced of
the abfurdity of this dodirine, when it is confidered that
many of the monoecious and dioicous plants are of the
mm oft importance to the human race, and the confequent
impropriety that the fru&ification of thefe Ihould be fub-
jedt to the fport of the winds.
After all, it requires the utmoft ftretch of ftincy to
conceive the pbflibilit.y of a regular impregnation by
means of the wind, even when the male and female are
within-,590 yards of each othef, which is a much more'
favourable fujpppfition than two, three, or according to
forrie authors, a dozen of miles. Conceive then a male
and female hemp, or any other dioicous plant, growing 500
yards afunder. Let the male and female flowers, which,
by the by, is not always the cafe, blow at the fame time.
Well, the antherse are fully ripe; the pollen is difchar-
ged; and the ftigma, as our author exprefles it, gaping
nv'uh: for its reception. Now, even this favourable fup-
gofition is fubjed: to fo many accidents, and pregnant
with fuch a troop of improbabilities, that it is abfolutely
impqflible, upon any principles bf belief hitherto invent¬
ed, to be fully perfuaded that the pollen, in luch circum
fiances, can be thus conveyed on the wings of the wind,
diredly to the ftigma, a point in moft plants juft not in-
vifible.—-To accQmplifh a regular impregnation in this
way, whenever the abtherae are ripe, the wind muft blow
in a direct line from the male to the female; if the blaft
be too fti ong, it will overfhoot the mark ; if too weak,
it will fall fhorf of it; if any vegetable or other body
higher than the plants themfelves intervene, the progrefs
of the pollen will be inte; cepted ;—if it rains, the pollen
will be beat to the ground ;—the leaft tremor of the air,
or fmalier blaft refledted from any other quarter, will in¬
fallibly alter the direftion of this fluduating pollen.- 
Nay, fuppofing Linnaeus, or any other expert botanift,
Ihould take his ftation by the male plant, having his poc¬
kets loaded with pollen; fuppofe him further to take e-
very advantage of v/ind and weather, and aiming a; the
female, let him, for hours together, throw at her repeat¬
ed handfuls of this frudifying pollen, it is a thoufand to
one, if, at the diftance of 500 yards, a Jingle g ain of
pollen would touch any part of the female, and many
millions to one againft its falling diredly upon the ftig-
mata of her refpedive flowers. In a word, this theory '
A N Y-
of impregnation by the wind, is a palpable refuge of ig¬
norance, invented wi(th a view to account for the frudifi-
cation of dioicous plants, whicfy Linnaeus knew to be a
formidable barrier Handing in oppofmon to the fexual
hypothefis. How far that obftacle is removed by this
vague fubferfuge, is fubmitted to the judgment of every
candid inquirer.
Upon the,whole, we have endeavoured to fliovy, that
every fad or experiment Linnreus has employed to fup-
port his theory of the procreation of vegetables by means
of fexual embraces, is .either falfe, or accidental ; and
that the conclufions drawn from them are unnatural, and
often ftrained to fuch a pitch of extravagance as renders
them truly ridiculous.
The only argument that now remains to be examined,
is drawn from the analogy betwixt animals and vege¬
tables. That many beautiful analogies may be traced
betwixt the animal and vegetable, is an undeniable truth.
But, in reafoning upon a phyfical fubjed, which admits
of a clear determination by experiment, to truft foleiy
or chiefly to analogical dedudions, is an evident mark ei¬
ther of a bad reafoner or an unftable hypothefis. The
very nature of analogy prefuppofeth fome radical differ¬
ence in the fubjeds between which the refemblance fub-
fifts. If the analogy be fupported by fads and experi¬
ments, they mutually (Lengthen the evidence . But, if
the analogy be not fupported by fads and experiments,
or, if the experiments contradid the analogy, which is
the cafe with the theory under confideration; in either of
thefe iqftances the analogy is Carried beyond its proper li¬
mits, and affords no argument in favour of the hypothe¬
fis. Without the concurrence of fads, how can we be
certain but that the very property we contend for confti-
tutes the effential difference betwixt the two fubjeds ?
Without fads, how can we be certain but that generation
by the intercourfe of fexes is the identical charaderiftic
by whi :h an animal and vegetable are diftinguifhed ?
Thefe principles are applicable even in the cafe of a per-
fed and uniform analogy, but acquire ah accumulated
force when the analogy is partial and incomplete, which,
is evidently the cafe with regard to the fexual commerce
of vegetables.
For example, to compleat the analogy in dioicous
plants, a male fhould be uniformly found growing by the
fide of the female ; and befides, at the age of puberty, or
as foon as the anthers come to maturity, the male flower,
fliould be fituated in fuch a manner, that the pollen could
not poflibly mifs the ftigmata of the female flowers, from'
whatever quarter the wind might blow: the fam: thing
(hould take place with regard to the motioicous flowers.
But this is not the. analogy prefented to us by nature.
On the contrary, the males and females feldom grow in
the neighbourhood of each other. Nothing is more
common than to meet with large beds of males growing
in one place, and large beds of females at the diftance of
fome miles from them, pointing out, as it were, that no
neceflary connedion, no mutual affedion, no natural de¬
pendence fubfifted between thefe males and females; but
rather that nature intended, for fome purpofe or other,
that they fhould be kept at a diftance.
Further, the fexualifts, in fupport of their theory,
are
B O T
are obliged to have recourfe to the unpardonable impro¬
priety of employing a double analogy, the one betwixt
the animal and vegetable, the other betwixt two differ¬
ent tribes of vegetables. In order to account for the
propagation of the mufci, fungi, and, in a word, the
whole cryptogamia clafs, whofe parts of generation are
either wanting altogether, or invilible to our eye-fight,
Linnreus maintains, that, this circumftance notwithftand-
ing* they propagate their fpeciesby a regular and uniform
commerce of fexes. “ As it has been proven (fays he) that
all thofe plants whofe organs of generations are vifible,
propagate their fpecies by, male and female embraces ;
therefore all thofe whofe organs are lefs fubjedt to our
obfervation, muft likewife propagate in the fame way.”
Before fuch reafoning as this can admit even of a decent
apology, before the fexualifis attempt to Ihew that fuch
plants enjoy the faculty of generation, it is incumbent
on them to prove that they are pofl'effed of generating
organs.
According to the dodtrine of fexes in vegetables, an*
other capital defedl, or rather redundance, occurs in the
analogy between the animal and vegetable. It is one of
the mofl: benevolent and ufeful laws in nature, that
mules, or fuch animals as are produced by the unnatural
commixtures of two different kinds, are deprived of the
capacity of propagating their monjlrout fpecies. It is
true, Linnaeus’s mules are not obliged to comply with
this law; they are not animal but vegetable mutes ; and
confeijuently may freely tranfmit their monjirous iffue
to pofterity! As they are not objedts of rewards or pu-
niihments, they cannot be anfwefable for the horrid con-
fequences of turning the whole vegetable world into con-
fulion, and covering the face of the earth with monfters
horrible to behold!
It is a trite obfervation, that no fault is more common
among bad writers than to render their arguments ridi¬
culous by hunting down metaphors or analogies till every
jfhadow of refemblahce be loft. It is equally true, that
this blunder occurs in almoft every page of Linnseus’s
works. But it is peculiarly unlucky when an analogy
is of fuch a nature that it neceffarily runs into obfeenity
when treated in this manner. In purfuing a fexual ana¬
logy, the utmoft delicacy of exprellion is required. This
however is exceedingly difficult,- efpecially when the ana¬
logy is puffied beyond its natural limits. But, in per-
ufing the Sponfalia Plantarum, one would be tempted to
think, that the author had more reafons than one for re-
liffiing this analogy fo highly. In many parts of this
treatife, there is fuch a degree of indelicacy in the ex-
preffion as cannot be exceeded by the moft obfeene ro¬
mance-writer. For example, in p. 103. he fays, “ The
“ calix is the bride-chamber in which the ftamina and
“ piftilla folemnize their nuptials;” “ Vel, fi mavis
“ CUNNUS, feu Labia ejufdem, inter .quae organa
“ genitalia mafeulina & feminina, delicatiffima: iftae partes,
“ foventur & ab externis injuriis muniuntur !—Corolla
“ eft aulxum, vel potius nympho:!—Filamenta funt vafa
“ fpermatica, quibus fuccus ex planta fecretus in an-
“ theras transfertur !—Antherx funt Testiculi.,—
“ Pollen, feu pulvis amherarum, genitura & verrniculis
** feminaiibus refpondet.—Stigma eft vulva,, in qua
Vol. I. No. 28. 3
ANY. 655
“ agit marls, quaeque hanc excipit.—Stylus A
“ vagina, vel potius pars ilia qua; tuba: Fallopian# re-
“ fpondet.r—Germen eft ovarium; continet etiam femin t
“ fubventanea feu non fcecundata ante copulam—Peri-
“ carpium & ovarium Jxcundatusn."—In p. 90, fee, we
meet with virginea vulva lafeive hians—eejlra venerea
“ agitata, pi/lillum jligmate hiat, rapacis instar
“ draconis, nil nifi mafeulinum pulverem affedlatis.”
fee. It is impoffible to do juftice to thefe expreffions in
any tranflation.
Befides the obfeenity of thefe paffages, it would be no
difficult talk to ffiow that the analogies are entirely with¬
out foundation. The calix is made to reprefent no lefs
than three things of very oppofite natures; firll, it is
analogous to the chamber of the bride, then to. the fe¬
male organ, and laft of alt to the Labia. What analogy
is there betwixt the corolla of a plant and the nymph#
of an animal ? Where is the analogy between the pollep
and the animalcules in femine mafeulino ? &c.
There is not any fcience which has fo little cenneftion
with theory as botany. Theorjirmay perplex and coo-
found, but never can have the lead tendency to aflift the
botanic ftudent. A man would not naturally expert to
meet with difgufting ftrokes of obfeenity in a fyftem
of botany. But it is a certain fart, that obfeenity is
the very bafis of the Linnaean fyftem. The names of his
claffes, orders, fee-, convey often the vileft and moft un.-
natural ideas. For example, diandria, the name of his
fecond clafs, is thus explained by Linnaeus, “ mariti
“ duo in eodem conjugio; feu ftamina duo in flore her¬
maphrodite;” /. e. one female married to tixio mates ; or
tun Jlamina in a hermaphrodite flower. The number
of males goes on increafing till the 13th clafs, the plants
belonging to which are faid to have from 20 to 1000
hulbands to one wife !—-We might afk Linnaeus', where
is the analogy in this fuppofition ? The fyngenefia clafs
is thus defined by Linnaeus : “ Mariti genitalibus foeclus
“ conftituerunc feu ftamina antheris in cylindrum coa-
“ hta;” e. the males have made a covenant with
their tejles ; or the ftamina are united by the anther# in
the form of a cylinder. The chararters of die orders are
ftill worfe. Polygamia frufranea, the name of an order
of the fyngenefia clafs, is thus defined: “ Fruftranea di-
“ citur, cum feminse maritatoe, fertiles funt, et fpsciem
“ propagate queunt; caftratae, impregnari nequettnt.”
Men or philofophers can fmile at the nonfepfe and abfur-
dityoffuch obfeene gibberilh ; but it is eafy to gUefs what
efferts it may have upon the young and thoughdefs.
But the bad tendency upon morals is not the only evil
produced by the fexual theory. It has loaded the beft
fyftem of botany that has hitherto been invented, with
a profufion of foolifh and often unintelligible terms,
which throw an obfeurity upon the fcience, obftrurt the
progrefs qf the learner, and deter many from ever enter¬
ing upon the ftudy.
Upon the whole, we muft: conclude, that the diftinc-
tion of fexes among vegetables has no foundation in na¬
ture ; or, at lead, that the farts and arguments employ¬
ed in fupport of this dortrine, when examined with any
degree of philofophical accuracy, are totally infufficient
to eftabliih it.
8 C
BOTAR-
EOT ( <*54 ) B O U
BOTARGO, a kind of faufage, made with the eggs
and blood of the fea-mullet, a large filh common in
the Mediterranean. The bell kind comes from Tunis
in Barbary : It muft be chofen dry and reddilh. The
people of Provence ufe a great deal of it, the com¬
mon way of eating it being with olive oil and lemon
juice. There is alfo a great confumption of botargo
throughout all the Levant.
Botargo pays on importation 2-iVod. the pound;
whereof 2 So^d. is repaid on exportation.
BOTATRISSA, in ichthyology, a fynonime of a fpe-
cies of gadus. See Gadus.
BOTE, in our old law books, fignifies recompence or a-
mends : Thus man-bote, is a cbmpenfation for a man
flain.
There are likewife houfe-bote and plough-bote, pri¬
vileges to tenants, of cutting wood for making ploughs,
repairing tenements, and likewife for fuel.
BOTELESS, or Bootless, is when an offender was
laid to be without emendation, when no favour can ac¬
quit him; as in the cafe of facrilege.
BOTHNIA, the name of two provinces in Sweden, di-
ftinguilhed by the epithets ealt and weft, and lying
on each fide the Bothnia gulf, which takes its name
from them. -
BOTRYTIS, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies of mu-
cor. See M u c o a.
BOTTLE, a veffel proper to contain liquors, made of
leather, glafs, or ftone. There are bottles of boiled
leather, which are made and fold by the cafe-makers.
Thofe among the ancient Hebrews were generally
made of goat Ikin, with the hair on the infide, well
pitched and fewed together; the mouth of the bottle
was through the animal’s paw that furnifhed the mat¬
ter of it.
There are now in ufe bottles of fine glafs which are
commonly covered with ozier, and others of thick
glafs which are not covered. Formerly all thofe bot¬
tles made in France Held exa&ly a pint Paris meafure
(or about a quart of our Englifti wine meafure); but
fiace the tavern-keepers fell moft of their wine in fuch
bottles, norwithftanding an ordonnance to the contrary,
that one would think the glaffmakers had entered into
an agreement with them not to make any bottles that
hold the full meafure, there are none but what hold
lefs, and fome confiderably fo. See Glass-ma¬
king.
In commerce, bottles of earth or ftone pay 1 iTsi-d.
each dozen, on importation; whereof iOto^T is re¬
paid on exporting them.-^ Glafs bottles covered with
wicker, pay 6 s. y-i^d'. the dozen; whereof 6 s.
2xuo'd. H repaid on exporting them, Glafs bottles
covered with leather, pay 11. 9 s. 1 the do¬
zen; whereof 1 1. 7s. io7*-^d. is repaid on export¬
ing them. Glafs bottles uncovered, pay is Sx0^-d.
the dozen ; 1 s. 4-r^d. being repaid on exporting
them. Bottles made of flint-glafs, pay 8 d. for each
pound weight; and thofe made of green glafs, only
2-d. for each pound weight. Bottles made of wood,
Cilhd fucking-bottles, pay by the grofs,. or twelve do¬
zen, is. itx^d; whereof is. 8TVcyft. is repaid on
exporting them.
BOTTOM, in a general fenfe, denotes the loweft part
of a thing, in contradiftimftion to the top, or upper-
moft part.
Bottom, in navigation, is ufed to denote as well the
channel of rivers and harbours, as the body or hull of
' a flop : Thus, in the former fenfe, we fay, a gravelly
bottom, clayey bottom, fandy bottom, and- in
the latter fenfe, a Britifh bottom, a Dutch bottom, &c.
By ftatute, certain commodities imported in foreign
bottoms pay a duty called petty cuftoms, over and
above what they are liable to if imported in Britiih
bottoms.
BOTTOMRY, in commerce, a marine contradl for the
borrowing of money upon the keel or bottom of a /hip,
that is to fay, when the mafter of a ihip binds the
{hip itfelf, that if the money be not paid by the time
appointed, the creditor {hall have the faid {hip.
Bottomry is aifo where a perfon lends money, to a mer¬
chant, who wants it in traffic, and the lender is to be
paid a greater fum at the return of the {hip, {landing
to the hazard of the voyage. On which account,
though the intereft be greater than what the law com¬
monly allows, yet it is not ufury, becaufe the money
being furnifhed at the lender’s hazard, if the fhip pe-
rifhes, he {hares in the lofs.
BOTTONY. A crofs bottony, in heraldry, terminates
at each end in three buds, knots or buttons, refem-
bling, in fome meafure, the three-leaved grafs ; on
which account Segoing, in his Trefor Heraldique,
terms it rro/.v trefjtee. It is the badge of the order of
St Maurice. See Plate LI. fig. 17.
BOTWAR, a town of Wirlemburg, in the circle of
Swabia in Germany, fituated about fifteen miles fouth-
eaft of Hailbron: E. long. 90 15', and N. lat. 49®.
BOTZEN, a very beautiful town of Germany, in the
Tyrolefe.
BOTZENBOURG, a town of Germany, fituated upon
the Elbe, in the duchy of Mecklenburg, in 11 0 23'
E. long, and 530 34' N. lat.
BOVA, a town of the kingdom of Naples in Italy, a-
bout twenty miles {bmh eaft of Reggio: E. long. 160
15', and N. lat., 38® ic/.
BOUGH AIN, a fortified town of HainaJt, in the French
Netherlands, about feven miles north of Cambray :
E. long 30 15', and N. lat. 50* 30'.
BOUCHE of court, xh* privilege of having meat and
drink at court, fcot free. This privilege is fometimes
only extended to bread, beer, and wine ; and was an¬
ciently in ufe as well in the houfes of noblemen, as in
the king’s court.
BOUGE, in commerce, a fort of fine, white, and clear
ftamine, of which Hurts are made for moft of the monks,
who ufe none made of linen.
BOUGH denotes much the fame with branch. See
Branch.
BOUILLON, a ftrong town with a caftle, about three
leagues from Sedan, on the river Semoy : It is capi¬
tal of a duchy of the fame name, fituated between the
duchy
B O U ( 655 ) BOW
duchy of Luxemburg and biftioprickof Liege: E. Ion.
50, and N. lat. 490 49'.
Bouillon, in the menage, a lump or excrefcence of
fleih, that grows either upon, or juft' by, the frufh,
infomuch that the fruftt fhoots out, juft like a lump
of fleih, and makes the horfe halt; and this we call
. the flelh blowing upon the frulh. Menage horfes, that
never wet their feet, are fubjedt to thefc excrefcences,
which make them very lame. See Frush.
BOVINES, ivhnall town in the province of Namur, in
the Auftrian Netherlands, about ten miles louth of
Namur: E. long. 40 yo7, and N. lat. 50° 20'.
BOVINO, a fmall city of the Capitonate, in the king¬
dom of Naples, about fixty miles eaft of the city of
Naples : E. long. 160 1 y,J and N. lat. 410.
BOVISTA, in botany, a fynonime of the lycoperdon.
See Lycoperdon.
BOULDER.-'uwV, a kind of wall built of round flints
or pebbles, laid in a ftrong. mortar, and ufed where
the fea has a beach call: up, or where "there are plenty
of flints.
BOULETTE, in the menage. A horfe is called
when the fetlock, or poftern-joint, bends forward,
and out of its natural fituation ; whether through vi¬
olent riding, or by reafon of being too fhort jointed,
in which cafe the leaft fatigue will bring it.
BOULOGNE, or Bologne, a port-town of France,
fituated in the province of Picardy, on the Englilh
channel: E. long. i° jo7, arid N. lat. yo0^©7.
BOULTINE, a term which workmen ufe for a moul¬
ding, the convexity of which is juft one fourth of a
circle, being the member next below the plinth in the
Tufcan and Doric capital.
BOUNCE, in ichthyology, the Englilh name of a fpe-
cies of fquatus. See SqjJALUs.
BOUNDS of lands. See Abuttals.
BOUNTY, in commerce, a premium paid by the go
vernment to the exporters of certain Britilh commo¬
dities, as fail-cloth, gold and filver lace, fdk ftockings^.
fifh, corn, &c.
The happy influence which bounties have on trade
and mangfaftures is well known: Nor can there be a
more convincing proof of the good intentions of the
government under which we live, than the great care
that is taken to give all poffible encouragement to th’ofe
who lhall eftablilh, or improve, any hazardous branch
of trade.
BOURBON, or Mascarenha, an ifland in the Indian
ocean, about one hundred miles’eaft of Madagafcar,
and fubjefft to.France : E. long. y4°, and S. lat. 21°.
Bourbon-archebaut, the capital of the,duchy of
curbon, in the Lyondis, in France : E. long. 30 io7,
and N. lat. 46° 3y7.
Bourbon-lancy, a town of Burguhdy, in France; in
30 4b7 E. long, and 46° 337 N. lat.
BOURBOURG, orBouRBORCH, a town of the French
Netherlands, about 10 miles fouth-weft of Dunkirk;
in 20 to7 E. long, and yo° yo7 N. lat,
BOURDEAUX, the capital of all Guienne and Gaf-
cony, fituated on the river Garonne, in 40/W. long,
and 440 $0 N. lat.
BOURDINES, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, 10
miles north-eaftof Namur; iny°E.long. and yo° 3y/
N. lat.
BOURDONE'E, in heraldry, the fame with pomee.
See Pome'e.
BOURG, the capital of the ifland of Cayenne, a French
colony on the coaft of Guiana, in South America ; in
y 2° W. long, and y° N. lat.
BOURG-en-bress, the capital of Brefie, in the pro¬
vince of Burgundy, in France, 36 miles W. of Ge¬
neva, and 32 north, of Lyons; in y° y7 E. long. 46®'
20 N. lat.
Bourg-sur-mer, a town of Guienne, in France, ly
miles north: of Bourdeaux, in 30 W. long.
BOURGES, the capital of the territory of Berry, in the
Orleanois, in France, fituated about yo miles fouth-
eaft of Orleans ; in a° 307 W. long, and 47° io7 N.
lat.
BOURGET, a town of Savoy, fix miles north of Cham-
berry; y° yy7 E. long, and 4y° 4y7. N. lat.
BOURIGNONISTS, the name of a fed among the Low
Country Proteftants, being fuch as follow the do&rine
of Antoinette Bourignon. a native of Lifle, an apo-
ftateof the Roman Catholic religion.
The principles of this fed bear a very near refem-
femblance to thofe of the Quietifts or Quakers.
BOURO, an ifland in the Indian Ocean, fubjed to the
Dutch; E long. 124°, and S. lat. 30 3Q7.
BOUT, in the manege. A horfe is faid to be a-boutfc.
when he is overdone, and quite fpent with fatigue.
BOUTANT, or Arch-boutant, in architedure, an
arch, or part of an arch, abutting againft the reins of a
vault to prevent its giving way.
Boutant is a large chain or pile of ftone, made
to fupport a wall, terrace, or vault.
BOUTE7, in the menage. A horfe is called boute, when
his legs, are in a ftraight line from the knee to the
coronet: Short-jointed horfes are apt to be boute ; and, .
on the other hand, long-jointed horfos are not._
BOUTON, an ifland in the Indian-Ocean : E. long 121°
307, and .lying betweem 40 and y° S. lat.
BOUVILLON, a city of Luxemburg, in -the Auftrian
Netherlands, about 40 miles weft of Luxemburg.: E.
long. y° and N. lat. 490 yy°.
BOW, a weapon of offence made of fteel, wood, horn, .
or other elaftic fubftances, which, after being bent by
means of aftring faffened to its two ends, in returning,
to its natural ftate, throws out an arrow with prodi¬
gious force.
The ufe of the bow is, without all doubt, of the -
earlieft antiquity. It has likewife been the moft uni-
verfal of all weapops, having obtained amongft the
moft barbarous and remote people, who had the leaft
communication, with the reft of mankind.
The figure of the bow is pretty much the fame in
all countries, .where it has been,, ufed ; for it has ge¬
nerally two inflexions or bendings, between which,
in . the place where the arrow is drawn, is a right
line. The Grecian bow was in the lhape of a s , of
which form we meet with many, and generally adorn¬
ed with gold or . filver. 7’he Scythian bow was di-
ftinguiflietL
iftnguifhed from the bows of Greece and other nations,
by its incurvation, which v/as fo great, as to form an
hair moon or femicircle. The matter of which bows
were made, as well as their fize, differed in different
countries. The Perfians had very great bows made of
reeds; and the Indians had alfo, not only arrows, but
bows made of the reeds or canes of that country; the
Lycian bows were made of the cornel tree ; and thofe
of the ^Ethiopians, which furpaffed all others in mag¬
nitude, were made.of the palm-tree.
Though it does not appear, that the Romans made
ufe of bows in the infancy of their republic, yet they
afterwards admitted them as hofiile weapons, and em¬
ployed auxiliary archers in all their wars.
In drawing'the bow, the primitive Grecians did not
pull back their hand towards their right ear, according to
the fafhion of modern ages, and of the ancient Perfians,
but, placing their bow diredtly before them, returned
their hand upon their right breaft. This was alfo the
ctjftom of the i\mazons.
The bow is a weapon of offence amongft the inha-
- bitants of Afia, Africa, and America, at this day; and in
Europe, before the invention of fire-arms, a part of the.
infantry were armed with bows. LewisXI. firfl: abolifh-
ed the ufe of them in France, introducing, in their place,
the halbard, pike, and broad fword. The long bow was
formerly in great vogue in England, and many laws
were made to encourage the ufe of it. The parliament
under Henry -VII.-' complained of the difufe of long,
bows, heretofore the fafeguard and defence of this
kingdom, and the dread and terror'ofits enemies.
Bow is alfo an inftrument formerly ufed at feafor taking
the fun’s altitude; confiding of a large arch of ninety
degrees graduated, a fhank or ftaff, a {hade vane, a
fight vane, and an horizon vane. It is now out of ufe.
Bow, among builders, a beam of wood or brafs, with
three long fcrews, that dire<5t a lath of wood or
fteel to any arch; chiefly ufed in drawing draughts of
fnips, and proje&ions of the fphere; or where-ever it
is requifite to draw large arches.
Bow, in mufic, a fmall machine, which, being drawn
over the firings of a mufical inftrument,- makes it re-
found. It is compofed of a fmall ftick, to which are
faftened eighty or an hundred horfe-hairs, and a fcrew
which ferves to give thefe hairs the proper tenfion. In
order that the bow may touch the ftrings briikly, it is
ufual to rub the hairs with rofin.
Bow, among artificers, an inftrument fo called from its
figure; in ufe among gunfmiths, lockfmiths, watch¬
makers, lire, for making a drill go. Among turners,
it is the name of that pole fixed to the ceiling, to
which they faften the cord thab whirls round the piece
to be turned.
Bow-staves, imported from the Britilh plantations, are
free; if from Ireland, Afia, or Africa, they pay jys.
4-IA°iJd. for every 120; and if from any other coun¬
try, 11. 2 s. ioT\%d. for the fame number.
Bows of a faddle are two pieces of wood laid archwife
to receive the upper part of a horfe’s back, to give the
faddle its due form, and to keep it tight.
The fore-bow, which fuftains the pommel, is com-
) BOW
pofed of the withers, the breafts, the points or toes,
and the corking. SeeWiTHEas, &c.
The hind-bow bears the troufequin or quilted roll.
The bows are covered with finews, that is, with bulls
pizzels beaten, and fo run all over the bows to make
them ftronger.. Then they are ftrengthened with
bands of iron to keep them tight, and, on the lower
fide, are nailed on the faddle-ftraps, with which they
make faft the girths.
Bow of a /hip, that part which begins at the loof, and
compafling ends of the ftem, and ends at the ftern-
moft part of the fore-caftle.
If a fhip have a broad round bow, they call it a bold
bow. If ftie has a narrow thin bow, they fay flie has
a lean bow.
Bow-line. SccBowling.
Bow pieces are the pieces of ordinance at the bow of
a fhip.
Rain-now. See Rain-bow, and Optics.
Bow-bearer, an inferior officer of the foreft, who is
fworn to make inquifition of all trefpaffes againft vert
or venifon, and to attack offenders.
BOWE, a market-town of Devonfhife, about twelve
miles north-weft of Exeter; W. long. 40, and N.
lat. 50° qj'.
BOWELS, in anatomy, the fame with inteftines. See
p. 2jo, 6c.
BOWER, in gardening, a place under covert of trees,
differing only from an arbour, as being round or fquare,
and made with a kind of dome or ceiling at top;
whereas the arbour is always built long and arched.
Bower, in the fea-language, the name of an anchor
carried at the bow of a,fhip. There are generally two
bowers, called firft and fecond, great and little, or
beft and fmall bower. See Anchor.
BOWESS, or Bowet, in falconry, a young hawk,
when ftie draws any thing out of her neft, and covets
to clamber on the boughs.
BOWGE, or Bouche oy court. See Bouche.
BOWL denotes either a ball of wood, for the ufe of
bowling; or a veffel of capacity, wherein to hold li¬
quors.
Bowls and buckets of wood, imported, pay a duty
of q-j^gd. the dozen; whereof S/^d. is repaid on
exporting them.
BOWLDER-y?ff»i?/, fmall ftones, of a roundifh figure,
and no determinate fize, found on the fea-lhore and
banks or rather channels of rivers.
BOWLING, the art of playing at bowls. The firfl:
thing to be obferved in bowling is, the right chufing
your bowl, which muft be fuitable to the ground you
defign to run on. Thus, for clofe alleys, the flat
bowl is the beft; for open grounds of advantage, the
round biaffed bowl; and for plain and level fwards,
the bowl that is as round as a ball. The next is to
chufe your ground; and, laftly, to diftinguiffi the ri-
fings, fallings, and advantages of the places where you
bowl.
Bowling, or Bow-line, in a (hip, a rope made faft
to the leech or middle part of the outfide of the fail:
it is faftened by two, three, or four ropes, like a crow’s
foot.
BOX (6
foot, to as mat!)' parts of the fail; only the mizen
bo'.v-line is fattened to the lower end of the yard. This
rope belongs to all fails, except the fprit-fail and
fprit top-fail. The ufe of the bow-line is to make the
fails Hand fharp or dole, or by, a wind.
Sharp the bow-line, is hale it taught, or pull it
hard. Hale up the bow-line, that is, pull it harder
forward on. Check or eafe, or run up the bow-line,
that is, let it be more flack.
BowLiNG-Ar/V/ifj-, are the ropes by which the bow line
is fattened to the leech of the fail.
Bowling 'knot ^ a knot that will not flip, by which the
bow-line bridle is fattened to the cringles.
BowLiNG-^raw, a kind of parterre, laid with fine turf, -
defigned for the exercife of bowling. See Bowling.
BOW-/z<r/, among fportfmen. See Net.
Bow-/Wi, among artificers. See Saw.
BOWSE, in the fea-language, fignifies as much as to
hale or pull. Thus bowling upon a tack, is haling
upon a tack. Bowfe away, that is, pull away all to¬
gether.
Bow sprit, or Bolt-sprit, a kind of matt, retting
flopewife on the head of the main ftern, and having
its lower end fattened to the partners of the fore-matt,
and farther fupported by the fore-ftay. It carries the
fprit-fail, fprit top-fail, and jak-ftaff; and its length
is ufually the fame with that of the fore-matt.
Bow-sprit-ladder. See Ladder.
BOWYERS, artificers whofe employment or occupa¬
tion it is to make bows. There is a company of bow-
yers in the city of London, firft incorporated in 1623.
BOX, in its moft common acceptation, denotes a fmall
cheft or coffer for holding things.
Fire-boxes, or tinder-boxes, pay, on importation,
a duty of 3 s. ioT*^d. the grofs; whereof 3 s. 4|d.
is repaid on exportation. Wooden money-boxes pay
3$. y-rlod- tlie grofs; whereof 3s. 2-rVed. is repaid
on exportation. Nett-boxes pay 11 s. bT^d. the
grofs; whereof 10s. i{d. is repaid. Pepper-boxes
pay 4 s. 3-t9oV1' *» whereof 3 s. 9-iT^d. is repaid.
French boxes, for marmalade-or jelly, pay each dozen
3 s. 5 whereof is. 9iVtyd. is repaid. Sand¬
boxes pay 3s. lo-r^d. the grofs; whereof 3s. 44-d.
is repaid. Snuff-boxes, if of wood, pay 2 s. 4-r7s^d.
the dozen ; whereof 2 s. i-j^y^d. is repaid : if of horn,
they pay 4s. 9-rlrod- the dozen; 4s. 3TV5d. being
drawn back: if of ivory or tortoife-.fhell, they pay
9s. b.^d. the dozen; whereof 8s. 74<1. is drawn
back. Soap-boxes pay 7 s. 8-/a%d. the fhock, con¬
taining fixty boxes. Spice-boxes pay is. iTs^d. the
dozen. Tobacco-boxes, pay 5 s. 97^d. the grofs.
Touch-boxes, covered with leather, pay only b-s^d.
the dozen ; but if the leather be the mott valuable part,
they pay bs. 1 iTyTd. for every 20 s. value upon oath :
if covered with velvet, they pay 2 s. 10-s^d. the do¬
zen : and if of iron, or other metal gilt, they pay 3 s.
10-r^d. the dozen : in all which cafes, a proportion-
able draw-back is allowed.
Box is alfo ufed for an uncertain quantity or meafure:
thus a box of quickfilver contains from one to twq
Vol. I. Numb. 28. 3
57 ) B R
hundred weight; a box of prunellas, only 14 pounds 5
a box of rings for keys, two grofs, Cpt.
Box cf a plough, the crofs-piece in the head of a plough,
which fupports the two crow-ttaves. See Plough.
Box, or Box tree, in botany, the Englifh name of
the buxus. See Buxus.
BOXBERG, a town of Germany in Franconia, belong¬
ing to the debtor palatine.
BOXTEL, a town of Dutch Brabant, fituated on the
river Bommel, about eight miles louth of Boifleduc,
in 50 ib' E. long, and 5 10 3c/ N. lat.
BOXTHUDE, a town of the duchy of Bremen, in
Germany, about fifteen miles welt of Hamburgh, and
fubjedt to the debtor of Hanover; E. long. 90 ib\
and N. lat. 530 50'.
BOYAR, a term ufed for a grandee of Ruffia and Tran-
fylvania.
Becman fays, that the boyars are the upper nobi¬
lity ; and adds, that the Czar of Mufcovy, in his di¬
plomas, names the boyars, before the waywodes. See
Waywode.
BOYAU, in fortification, a ditch covered with a para¬
pet, which ferves as a communication between two
trenches. It runs parallel to the works of the body
of the place, and i'erves as a line of ccntravallation,
not only to hinder the Tallies of the befieged, but alfo
to fecure the miners. But when it is a particular cut
that runs from the trenches to cover fome fpot of
ground, it is drawn fo as not to be enfiladed, or fcour-
ed by the (hot from the town.
BOYER, a fmall vefiel of burden, refembling a fmack,
with only one matt and a bolt-fprit.
BOYES, idolatrous puefts among the favages of Flo¬
rida.
Every priett attends a particular idol, and the na¬
tives addrefs tbemfelves to the prieft of that idol to
which they intend to pay their devotion.
The idol is invoked in hymns, and his ufual offering
is the' fmoke of tobacco.
BOYNE, a river of Ireland, which, taking its rife in
Queen’s county, in the province of Leintter, runs
north-eaft by Trim and Cavan, and falls into the Irifli
channel, a little below Drogheda.
BOZOLO, a town of the duchy of Mantua, about 12
miles fouth-weft of that city; E. Jong. n°, and N.
lat. 44° 40'.
B QUADRO, Quadrato, or Durale, in mufic,
called by the French b quarre, from its figure . This
is what we call B natural or flvarp, in dittinbtion to 3
mol or fiat. See Flat, and Sharp.
If the flat (9 be placed before a note in the tho¬
rough bafs, it intimates, that its third is to be minor ;
and if placed with any cipher over a note in the bafs,
as ^36, or it denotes, that the fifth or fivth
thereto are to be flat. But if the.quadro Jij be pla¬
ced over any note, or with a cipher, in the thorough
bafs, it has the contrary efifedt; for thereby the note
or interval thereto is raifed to its natural order.
BRABANT, a large province of the Netherlands, lying
eattward of Flanders ; the greater part of it is fubjedt
8 D to
BRA ( 6j
to the houfe of Auftria, the capital Bruffels; and the
reft to the Dutch, their capital Breda.
BRABEjUM, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla is below the fruit, and
confifts of four petals. It has no calix ; the fruit is a
hairy drupe, of an oval figure. There is only
one fpecies, viz. the ftellatiferum, a native of JtL-
thiopia.
BRABEUTES, or Brabeuta, in antiquity, an offi¬
cer among the Greeks, who prefided at the public
games, and decided contrbverfies that happened among
the antagonifts in the gymnaftical exercifes. The
number of brabeutae was not fixed; fometimes there
was only one, but more commonly they amounted to
nine or ten.
BRACCIANO, a town of St Peter’s patrimony, about
twelve miles north of Rome, fituated on the weft fide
of a lake, t<j which it gives name ; E. long. 130, and
N. lat. 420.
BRACE is commonly taken for ft couple or pair, and ap¬
plied by huntfmen to(feveral beafts of game, as a brace
of bucks, foxes, hares,
Brace, or Brasse, is alfio a foreign meafure, anfwer-
ing to our fathom. See Fathom.
Brack, in architedlure, a piece of timber framed in with
bevil joints, the ufe of w hich is to keep the building
from fwerving either way. When the brace is fra¬
med into the kinglefles or principal rafters, it is by
9 fome called a ftrut.
Braces, in thefea-language, are ropes belonging to all
the yards of a (hip, except the mizen, two to each
yard, reeved through blocks that are faftened to pen¬
nants, feized to the yard-arms.. Their ufe is either
to fquare, or traverfe die yards. Hence to brace the
yard, is to bring it to either fide. All braces come
aftward on, as the main brace comes to the poop,
the main-top-fail brace comes to the mizen-top, and
thence to the main ftllouds: The fore and fore-top-
fail braces come down by the main and main-top-fail
flays, and fo of the reft. But the mizen-b iwline
ferves to brace to the yard, and the crofs-jack braces
are brought forwards to the main (broads, when the
(hip fails clofe by a wind.
BRACED, in heraldry, a term for the intermingling
three cheorooels. See Plate LI. fig 18.
BRACELET, an ornament worn on the wrift, much
ufed among the ancients: It was made of different ma-
• terials, and in different falhions, according to the age
and quality of the wearer.
Bracelets are flill v/orn by the favages of Africa,
who are fo excelfively fond of them, as to give the
' richeft commodities and even their fathers, wives,
and children, in exchange for thofe made of no richer
materials than (hells, glafs, beads, and the like
Bracelets of .glafs pay 3 s. Sd^d.. the fmall
grofs, containing twelve bundles or dickers ; and, if of
the French roanufaifture, they pay 4 s. 1d. for the
(ame quantity: A proportionable drawback is allowed
in each cafe.
BRACHLEUS, in anatomy, the name of a mufcle.
See p. 197..
;8 ) BRA
Coraco-BKAClllAhlS, in anatomy, . the name of a
: mufcle. See p. 196.
BRACHIONUS, in zoology. SeeLABELLA.
BRACHIUM, or Arm, in anatomy, one of theTupe-
rior extremities of the human body, comprehending
the Scapula, the Os humeri, the Cubit, and
the Hand. See rhefe articles.
BRACHMINS, a fed! of Indian philofophers known
to the ancient Greeks by the name of Gymnofophijis..
Thb ancient brachmins lived upon herbs and puife, and
abftained from every thing that had life in it. They,
lived in folitude without matrimony, and without pro¬
perty: and they wifhed ardently for death, confideiing.
life only as a burden. The modern brachmans make
up one of the cafts or tribes-of the banians. They
are the pr.efts of that people, and perform their office
of praying and reading the law, with feveral mimical
gefturef, and a kind of quavering voice. They believe,
that, in the' beginning, nothing but God and the wa¬
ter exifted, and that the fiipreme Being, defirous to
create the world, caufed the leaf of a tree^ in , the
(hape of a child playing with its great toe in its mouth,
to float on the water. From its navel thereiiffued out
a flower, whence Brama drew his original, who was
intrufred by God with the creation of the world, and
prefides over it with an abfolute fw'ay. They make
no diftimffion between the fouls of men and brutes, but
fay the dignity of the human foul confifts in being pla¬
ced in a better body, and having more room to dif-
play its faculties. They allow of rewards and puniffi-
ments after this life; and havh fo great a veneration,
for cows, that they look on themfelves as blefled, if
they can but die with the tail of one of them in their
hand. They have preferved fonre noble fragments of
the knowledge of the ancient bracbmans They are
fkiiful arithmeticians, and calculate, with great exadt-
nefs, eclipfes of the fun and moon. They are remark¬
able for their religious aufterities. One of them has
been known to make a vow, to wear about his neck a
heavy colar of iron for a confiderable time : Another
to-chain himfelfby the foot to a tree, with a firm re-
folution to die in that place: And another to walk in
wooden (hoes, (luck full of nails on the infide. Their
divine worfhip confifts chiefly of proceffions, made in
honour of their deities. They have a 'college at Ba-
nara, a city feated on the Ganges.
BRACHYGRAPHY, the art of (hortrhand writing. See
Short-hand.
BRACHYPTERA, a term ufed by Willoughby, to de¬
note thofe hawks which have their wings fo (hort, as
not to reach to the end of the tail: Of this kin^l are
the gofs hawk, fparrow-hawk, &c.
BRACHYPYRENIA, in the hiftory of foffils, a genus
of feptarias, with a (hart roundiffi nucleus. See Sep¬
ta Rim.
BRACHYTELOSTYLA, in natural hiftory, the name
by which Dr HilBcalls thofe cryftals, which are com-
pofed of a (hort hexangular column, terminated at
each end by an hexangular pyramid. See Crystal.
BRACKET, among carpenters, fcc. a kind of wooden
flay, ferving to (import (helves,- and the like.
Brack-
BRA ( .659
Brackets, in a fiiip, the fmall knees, ferving to fup-
port the galleries, and commonly carved. Alfo the
timbers that fupport the gratings in the head, are cal¬
led brackets.
Brackets, in gunnery, are the cheeks of the carriage
of a mortar: they are made of llrong planks of wood,
of almofl: a femicircular figure, an<| bound round with
tliiek iron plates ; they are fixed to the beds by four
bolts, which are called bed-bolts; they rife up on
each fide of the mortar, and ferve to keep her at any
elevation, by means of fome ftrong iron bolts, called
bracket-bolts, which go through thefe cheeks or
brackets.
BR.ACKLAW, the capital of the palatinate of Brack- •
law, in Podolia, in Poland, ficuated on the river Bog,
an hundred and ten miles eaft of Kaminec: E. long.
290 20', and N. lat. 48°.
BRACKLEY, a borough-town of Northampton/hire, a-
bout tifteen miles fouth-weft of Northampton : W. ion.
i° 15', and N. lat. 520.
It fends two members to parliament.
BRACTEA, in natural hiftory, denotes a fpangle, or
thin flake of any fub/lance.
Bractea, in botany. , See Floral Leaf.
BRACTEARIA; in natural hiltory, a genus of talcs,
competed of fmall plates in form of fpangles, each plate
either being very thin, or fiflile into very thin ones.
Of this genus there are a great many fpecies, called,
from their different colours, mica aurea, or gold-
glimmer ; and mica argentea, filver-glimmer, or cats-
filver,
BRAD, in geography, a town of Sclavonia, fituated on
the north fide of the river Save, eighteen miles fouth
ofPofega: E. long. 18° 40,J and N. lat. 450 id.
BRADFIELD, a market-town in EfTex, fourteen miles
north of Chelmsford : E. long, jo7, and N. lat..
?i° 54 •
BRADFORD, a market-town in Wiltfhire. about nine
miles weft of the Devizes : E. long.,2° 40'. and N..
lat. 510 id.
BRADFORTH, a market town of Yorkfhire, thirty
miles fouth-weft of York : W. long. 1° gy', and N.
lat. S3P 40'.
BRADNICH, a market town of Devonflbire, ten miles
north of Exeter: W. long; 30 35', and N. lat.
50° 4-
BRADS, among artificers, a kind of nails ufed in build¬
ing, which have no fpreading heads, as other nails
bate. They are diftinguifhed, by iron-mongers, by
fix names, as joiner’s-brads, flooring bradsj batten-
brads, bill-brads, or quarter heads, <bc. JoineYs-
brads are* for hard wain-fcot, batten brads are for foft
waiafeot; bill-brads are ufed when a floor is laid in
bafte, or for {hallow joifts fubjeff to warp. See Nail.
BRADYPUS, or fleth, a genus of quadrupeds be¬
longing to the order of bruta. The charadters are
thefe: They have no fore-teeth in either jaw; the
dog-teeth are blunt, folitary, and longer than the
grinders; they have five grinders on,each fide. The
body is covered with hair. There are only two fpe-
cits-of bradyjus, v:z. 1. The trld ft/lis, or American
) B R A
floth, has a fhort tail, and only three toes on each
foot. It is about the fize of a fox. The body is co¬
vered over with hair of a grey colour ; the face is
naked ; the throat is yellowilh ; the fore-feet are longer
than the hind-feet; the claws, which are three on each
foot, are cbmprefltd, and very ftrong; and they hive
no mammas on the breaft; they have no external ears,
but only two winding holes. This fpecies is a native
of America, and feeds upon the tender leaves of trees,
and particularly the leaves of the cecropia. It never
drinks, Ind is terrified’ at rain. It climbs trees with
great eafe; but its motion on the ground is fo flow,
that it can hardly walk fifty paces in a day, and from
this circumftance it is called a Sloth. It makes a moft
difagreeable noife, refembling that of a young cat. See
Plate LIX. fig. 1. 2. The dida&ylus, or Ceylon
floth, has two toes on each foot, and no tail: The
head is round; the ears are large; and it has two
mammas on the breaft : The body is covered with afli-
x coloured hair. It has the fame difagreeable cry with
the American floth, and is a native of Ceylon.
BRAG, an ingenious and pleafant g^me at cards, where
as many may partake as the cards will fupply ; the
eldeft hand dealing three to each perfon at one time,
and turning up the laft card all round. This done,
each gsmefter puts down three ftakes, one for each
card. The firft ftake is won by the beft card turned
up in the dealing round; beginning from the ace,
king, queen, knave, and fo downwards. When cards
of the fame value are turned up.to two or more of the
gamefters, the eldeft hand gains; but it is to be ob-
ferved, that the ace of diamonds wins, to whatever
hand it be turned up.
The fecond ftake is won by what is called the bras,,
which confifts in one of the gainefters challenging the
reft to produce cards equal to his : Now it is to be
obferved, that a pair of aces is the beft brag, , a pair
of kings the next, , and fo on;. and a pair oY any lore
wins the ftake from the moft valuable fingle card. In
this part confifts the great divejfion: of the game ; for,
by the artful management of the looks, • geftures, and
voice, it frequently happens, that a pair of fives, treys,
or even duces,, out-brags a much higher pair, and
even fome pairs royal, to the no fmall merriment of
the compay. The knave of clubs is here a principal
favourite, making a pair with any other card in hand,
and with any other two cards a pair royal.
The third ftake is won b1^ the perfon who fii ft makes
up the cards in his hand one and thirty; each dignU
fied card going for ten, and drawing from the pack, as
ufual in this game,
BRAGA, the capital of the province of Entre-minho-
diiro, in Portugal,'fituated on the river Cavado, 32
miles north of »Porto.; W. long, 8° 40', and N. lat.
41° 20'.
BRAGANZA; a city of the province of Tralofmontes,
in Portugal, fituated on the. river Sabor, in 70 W-.
long, and 41° 50' N. lat.
BRAGGET, a kind of drink made of malt, honey, and
fpices, much ufed in Wales.
BRAIL, or brails, in a fbip, are fmall ropes made
BRA ( 660 ^ BRA
•nf? of to furl the fails acrofs: They belong only to
the two courfes &nd the mizen fail; they are reeved
through the blocks, feized on e-ich fide the ties, and
come down before the fail, ‘being at the very Ikirt
thereof fattened to the cringles ; their ufe is, when the
fail is furled acrofs, to hale up its bunt, that it may
the more eafily be taken up or let fall. Hale up the
brails, or brail up the fail, that is, hale up the fail, in
order to he furled or bound clofe to the yard.
BRAILOW, a town of Podolia, in Poland, fituated on
the river Bog, 40 miles north of Bracklow ; E. long.
290, andN. lat. 48° 50 .
BRAIN, in anatomy. See p. 283, &c.
Brain i.e compte, a town of Hainalt, in the Auftrian
Netherlands, fifteen miles fouth-eaft of Bruflels, and
nine north-eaft of Mons; E. long. 40, and N. lat.
50° 40'.
BRAINTREE, a.market-town of Eflex, 12 miles north
of Chelmsford; E long. 3 5', and N. lat. 51° jo'.
BRAKE denotes female fern, or the place where it
grows : Alfo a (harp bit or Inattle for horfes; and a
baker’s kneading trough: Alio an iuftruihent with
teeth, to bruife flax or hemp,
BRAKEL, a town of the bifliopric of Paderborn, in the
circle of Wettpha.lia, in Germany; E. long. 90, and
N. lat. yt° 40'.
BR ALROENS, one of the Sundadflands, lying north-
eatt of Java, in 40 30' N. lat.
BRAMA, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of cyprinus. See Cyprinus.
BR AMANT, a town of Savoy, 35 miles north-weft of
Turin; E. long. 6° 45', andN. lat. 45 °.
BRAMBER, a borough-town of Sulfex, about r6 miles
fouth-eatt of Grinded; W. long. 15 , and N. lat.
90° jo/. It fends two members to parliament.
BRAMBLE, or Bramlle-bush, in botany, the Eng-
lilh name of the rubus. See Rubus.
Bramble-net, otherwife called hallier, is a net to catch
birds in, of feveral fizes; the great malhes mutt be
four inches fqaure; thofe of th.e leaft fize are three or
four inches fquare; and thofe of the biggeft five. In
the depth, they fliould .not be above three or four
inches; but as for the length, they may be enlarged at
pleafure; the fhorteft being eigtheen feet long.
Bramble, or Brambling. in ornithology, the Eng-
lilh name of a fpecies of fringilla. See Bring ill a.
BRAMIN3, the name of the priefts among the idola¬
trous Indians; the fucceflbrs of the ancient brachmans.
See Brachmans.
BRxAMPORE, a town of the Blither Peninfula of India;
E. long. 770, andN. lat. 210 30'.
BRAMPTON, a market-town of Cumberland, about
fix miles north-eaft of Carlifle ; W. long. 20 40', and
N. lat. 540 50'.
BRAMYARD. a market-town of Herefordlhire, about
12 miles north-eaft of Hereford; W. long. 20 30',
and N. lat. 520 20'.
BRAN, the fltins or hulks of corn, efpecially wheat
ground, feparated from the flour by a fieve or boulter.
It is of wheat-bran that ftarch-makers make their
ftarch. The dyers reckon bran among the not-co-
lourirg drugs, and ufe it for making, what they call,
the Jour •waters, with which they prepare their leve-
ral dyes.
BRANCH, in botany, an arm of a tree, or a part,
which, iproming out from the trunk, helps to form
the head or crown thereof.
Branches of a bridle, in the manege, are two pieces of
iron bended, which, in the interval, between the one
and the other, bear the bit-mouth, the crofs-chains,
and the curb; fo that on one end they anfwer to the
head-ftall, and on the other to the reins, in order to
keep the horfe’s head in fubjeffion. With regard to
their form and ftrudlure, branches are either ftrait,
in form of a piftol, for young horfes to form their
mouth; or, after the conftable of Brance’s falhion,
proper for a horfe that carries his head well. Some
are in form of a gigot or leg, which will prevent horfes
from carrying too low: Some in form of a bent knee,
contrived for horfes that arm themfelves again!! the
operation of the bit; and others after the Breach fa-
fhion, which is hardly about \ of an inch at the levile
hole, and kneed, inch at the jarret or ham.
It is to be obferved, t. That the farther the branch
is from an horfe’s neck, the more effedt it will have.
2* That fhort branches, cceteris paribus, are ruder,
and their effedls more ^ndden, than thofe of longer. 3.
That the branch is to be proportioned to the length
of a horfe’s neck; and one may fooner err in chuling
one toofliort than too long.
Branches of ogives, in architedhire, are the arches of
Gothic vaults. Thefe .arches traverfing from one
angle to another diagonal wife, form a crof? between
the other arches, which make the iides of the fquare,
of which the arches are diagonals.
Branch of a trench. See Boyau.
Branch of a mine. See Gallery.
Branch-stand, with falconers, a term ufed to fignlfy
the making a hawk leap from tree to tree, till the dog
fprings the game.
BRANCHER, among fportfmen, a young hawk, newdy
taken out of the nett, that can hop from bough to
bough.
BRANCHIAL or gills, in the anatomy of fifhes, the
parts correfponding to the lungs of land-animals, by
which fifties take in and throw out again a certain
quantity of water, impregnated with air. All fifties,
except the cetaceous ones and the petromyzum, are
furniftied with thefe organs of refpiration ; which are
always eight in number, four on each fide the throat.
That next the heart is always the leaft, the reft in-
creafing in order as they Hand near the head of the
fifh.
Each of thefe gills is compofed of a bony laming,
in form of a femicircle, for the moft part; and on its
convex fide ftand the leaves or lamella?, like fo ma¬
ny fickles. The whole convex part of the lamellse is
befet with hairs, which are longeft near the bafe, and
decreafe gradually as they approach towards the point.
There are alfo hairs on the concave fide of the lamel¬
lae, but ftiorter than the others, and continued only to
its middle.
The
BRA ( 661 'l BRA
The convex fide of one lamina is fitted into the
concave fide of the next fuperior one; and all of them
are connedted together by means of a membrane,
which reaches from their bafe half-way their height,
where it grows thicker, and in fome meafure relem-
bles a rope. The reft of the lamina is free, and ter¬
minates in a very fine and flexible point.
As to the ufe of thefe gills, they feem to be defign-
ed to receive the blood protruded from the heart into
the aorta, and convey it into the extremities of the
lamellae ; from whence being returned by veins, it is
diftributed over the body of the filh.
BRANCHIARUM foramina, apertures of the gills. In
moft fifties there is only one aperture ; in the cartila¬
ginous ones, thefe apertures are ten in number, five on
each fide ; and in the petromyzon or lamprey, there
are no lefs than fourteen of thefe apertures, feven on
each fide.
As to the cetacious fifties, they have no aperture of
this kind; and the reafon feems to be, becaufe they
are furniftied with lungs.
BRANCHIDA1, in Grecian antiquity, priefts of the
temple of Apollo, which was at Dydimus in Ionia, a
province of lefter Alia, towards the /Egean fea, upon
the frontiers of Caria. They opened to Xerxes the
temple of Apollo, the riches whereof he took away.
After which, thinking it unfafe to ftay in Greece, they
fled to Sogdiana, on the other fide of the Cafpian
fea, upon the frontiers of Pe/fia, where they built a
city, called by their own name ; but they did not e-
fcape the punifhment of their crime: For Alexander
the Great having conquered Darius king of Perfia, and
being informed of their treachery, put them all to the
fword, and razed their city, thus punilhing the impiety
of the fathers in their pofterity.
BRANCHON, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, a-
bout eight miles north of Namur: E. long. 40 50^
and N. lat. 50° 32'.
BRANCHL/S, a defluxion of humours upon the fauces,
being a fpecies of catarrh.
BRANDEIS, a town of Bohemia, fituated on the river
Elbe, ten miles north-eaft of Prague: E. long. 140
25', N. lat. 50° 15'.
BRANDENBURG, a city of the marquifate of Bran¬
denburg in Germany, fituated on the river Havel,
twenty-fix miles weft of Berlin: E.-long. 130, N.
lat. 520 25'.
It was once the capital of Brandenburg; but is now
on the decline, fince Berlin fupplanted it.
BRANDON, a market-town of Suffolk, ten miles north
of Bury.- E. long. 45', N. lat. 520 3c/.
It gives the title of duke to his grace the duke of
Hamilton.
BRANDRITH, a trevet, or other iron utenfil, to fet
a veffel on over the fire.
BRANDY, a fpirituous and inflammable liquor, ex-
traded from wine and other liquors, by diftillation.
See Chemistry, Of fpirituous fermentation, and
difilling.
Wine-brandy, made in France, is efteemed the beft
in Europe. They make it where-ever they make wine, ,
yon. I. No. 28. 3
and for that purpofe ufe wine that is pricked rather
than good wane. The chief brandies for foreign
trade, and thofe accounted beft, are the brandies of
Bourdeaux, Rochelle, Cogniac, Charenton, the ifle
of Rhe, Orleans, the county of Blafois, Poidou,
Touraine, Anjou, Nantes, Burgundy, and Cham-
paign.
BRANLIN, in ichthyology, a fpecies of falmon, with
feveral tranfverfe black ftreaks, refembling the impref-
fion of fo many fingers.
BRANSKA, a town of Tranfilvania, fituated on the ri¬
ver Mariili: E.Iong. 230 1 5\ and N. lat. 46°.•
BRASEM, in ichthyology, a ffth otherwife called aca-
ra peba.
BRASIDIA, an anniverfary folemnity at Sparta, in me¬
mory of Brafidas, a Lacedaemonian captain, famous for
his atchievments at Methone, Pylos, and Amphipolis.
It was celebrated with facriiices and games, wherein
none were permitted to contend, but free-born Spar¬
tans. Whoever negieded.to be prefent at the foletfi-
nity u'as fined.
BRASIL, or Brazil, a large maritime country of
South America, lying between 350 and 6o° W. Ion.
and between the equator and 350 S. lat.
It is bounded by the Atlantic ocean and the river
Amazon On the north, by the fame ocean on the eaft,
by the river of Plate on the fouth, and by Paragujy
on the weft ; being computed to be 2500 miles in
^length, and 700 miles in breadth. The Portuguefe
have now the foie dominion of this extenfive country,
where, befides iugar and tobacco, there are rich mints
of gold and diamonds ; from whence his Portuguese
majefty draws a very confiderable revenue.
Brasil suoisr/, or Brazil-w5o^, an American wood of
a red colour, and very heavy. It is denominated va-
rioufly, according to the places from whence it as
brought: Thus we have brafil from Fernambuco,' Ja¬
pan, Lamon, <tc.
The brafil-tree ordinarily grows in dry barren
places, and even in the cliffs of rocks,: It is very
thick and large, ufually crooked and knotty: Bis
flowers, which are of a beautiful red, exhale a very
agreeable fmell.
Though the tree be very thick, it is covered with
fo grofs a bark, that when the favages have taken it
off, the wood or trunk, which was before the thick-
nefs of a man, is fcarce left equal to that of his leg.
This wood muft be chofen in thick pieces, clofe,
found, without any bark on it, and fuch as, upon
fplitting, of pale becomes reddifti, and, when chewed,
has a faccharine tafte. It is much ufed in turned
work, and takes a good polilh : But its chief ufe is in
dying, where it ferves for a red colour: It is a fpuri-
ous colour, however, that it gives, and eafily evapo-
rates and fades; nor is the wood to be ufed without
alum and tartar. From the Brafil of Fernambuco, is
drawn a kind of carmine, by means of acids: Ther s
is alfo a liquid lacca made of it, for miniature. *
BRASLAW, the capital of a palatinate of the Eam:
name, in the province of Lithuania in Poland: Eolon,
, ,.26°, N. lat. 56° 20. ..
8 E BRASS,-
BRA ( 662 ) B R E
BRASS, or, as the French call it, yellow copper, is a
faftitious metal, made of copper and zinc, or lapis ca-
laminaris. See Chemistry, (2/z/wc
Corinthian Brass has been famous in antiquity, and
is a mixture of gold, (liver, and copper. L. Mum-
mius having facked and burnt the city of Corinth, 146
years before Chrift, it is faid this metal was formed
from the immenfe quantities of gold, filver and copper
wherewith that city abounded, thus melted and run to¬
gether by the violence of the conflagration.
Brass-coAk'’, one prepared by the braziers and colour-
men to imitate brafs. There are two forts of it, the
red brafs, or bronze and the yellow or gilt brafs :
The latter is made only of copper-filings, the fmalleft
and brightell that can be found ; with the former they
mix fome red ochre, finely pulverized; they are both
ufed with varnifti.
BRASSE, in ichthyology, the Englilh name of the per-
ca lucioperca. See Perca.
BRAS SIC A, or Cabbage, in botany, a genus of the
tetradynamia filiquoia clafs. A he calix is ereft and
connivent ; the feeds are globular ; and there is a
netflariferous gland between the pifHUum and the fhort
flamina, and between the calix and the long ftamina.
There are ten fpecies of this plant, mod of which are
excellent pot-heibs, and cultivated in our gardens.
BRASSICAVIT, or Brachtcavit, in the menage, is
a horfe whofe fore-legs are naturally bended archwile :
being fo called by way of dillindfion from an arched
horfe, whofe legs are bowed by hard labour.
BRAVA, or/Atre/ra-BRAVA. See P a re 1 r a Brava.
BRAULS, Indian cloths with blue and white ftripes.
They are otherwife called turbants, becaufe they
ferve to cover thofe ornaments of the head, particu¬
larly on the coafl of Africa.
BRAUNAU, or Bran Air, a town of Bavaria in Ger¬
many, about twenty:fiye milts fouth-weft of Paffau.
BR AUNSBURG, a town of Pruffia, fnuated on the
Baltic fea, about thirty miles fouth-weft of Koningf-
burg; K. long. 20°, N. lat. 54° 15'.
BR AVO, one of the Cape verd iflands: W. long. 250,
N lat. 140.
BRAURONIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feflival in ho¬
nour of Diana, furnamed Braaronia, from its having
been obferv-ed at Brauron, an Athenian borough.
This feftival was celebrated once in five years, be
ing managed by ten men, called, in Greek, \_ieropoioi'].
The viftim offered in facrifice was a goat, and it was
cuftomary for certain men to fing one of Homer’s ili-
ads. The mod remarkable perfons at this folemnity
. were young virgins, habited in yellow gowns, and
confecrated to Diana. It was unlawful for any of
them to be above ten, or under five years of age.
BRAWN, the fleih of a boar fouced or pickled ; for
which end the boar fhould be old; becaufe the older
he is, the more horny will the brawn be.
The method of preparing brawn is as fallows ; The
boar being killed, it is the flitches only, without the
legs, that are made brawn; the bones of which, are
to.he taken out, and then the flefh fprinkled with ialt,
and laid in. a tray, that the blood may drain off: Then
it is to be falted a little, and rolled up as hard as pof-
fible. The length of the collar of brawn, ftiouid be
as much as one fide of the boar will bear ■ fo that when
rolled up, it will be nine or ten inches diameter.
The collar being thus rolled up, is to be boiled in
a copper, or large kettle, till it is fo tender, that you
can run a ftraw through it; then fet it by, till it is
thorough cold, and put it into the following pickle.
To every gallon of water, put a handful or two of
fait, and as much wheat bran: Boil them together,
then drain the bran as clear as you can from the li
quor; and when the liquor is quite cold, put the
brawn into it.
BRAY, a town of Champaign in France, about 16 miles
north of Sens: E. long. 30 20', N. lat. 48° 2 5\
Bray is alfo the name of a port town of the county of
Wicklow, and province of Leinfter, in Ireland ; W.
long. 6° 16', N. lat. 530 12'.
BRAYLE, among fportfinen, apiece of leather flit to
put upon the hawk’s wing, to tie it up.
BRAZED, in heraldry, a term ferving to deferibe three
cheverons, one clafping another.
BRAZEN, fomething confifting of brafs, or formed out
of it. See Brass. ^
BRAZIER, an artificer who makes or deals in all kinds
of brafs-ware.
BRAZIL. See Brasil.
BRAZING, the foldering or joining two pieces of iron
together by means of thin plates of brafs, melted be¬
tween the pieces that are to be joined. If the work
be.very fine, as when two leaves of a broken faw are
to be brazed together, they cover it with pulverized
borax, melted with water, that it may incorporate
with the brafs powder, which is added to it; The
piece is then expofed to the fire without touching the
coals, and heated till the brafs is feen to run.
Brazing is alfo the joining tw<J pieces of iron together
by beating them hot, the one upon the other, which
is ufed for large pieces by farriers, <bc.
BRAZZA, a town and ifland on the coaft of Dalmatia,
in the Gulph of Venice ; E.long. 180, N. lat. 430.
BREACH, in fortification, a gape made in any part of
the works of a town by the cannon or mines of the be-
fiegers, in order to make an attack upon the place.
To make the attack more difficult, the befieged iow
the breach- with crow-feet, or flop it with chevaux
de frize.
A practicable breach, is that where the men may
mount and make a lodgement, and ought to be fifteen
or twenty fathoms wide. THe befiegers make their
way to it, by covering themfelves with gabions, earth-
bags, <bc.
Breach, in a legal^ fenfe, is where a perfon breaks
through the condition of a bond or covenant; on an
aCtion upon which, the breach muff be aflignedr And
this Affignment muft not be general, but particular ; as,
in an aCtion of covenant for not repairing houfes, it
ought to be afligned particularly what is the want of
reparation ; and in fuch certain manner, that the de¬
fendant may take an iffue.
BREAD,
B R E (Mi ) B R E
BREAD, a mafs of dough, kneaded and baked in an
oven. See Baking.
Bread ought to be well kneaded, and feafoned with
a little fait, otherwife it is accounted very unwholefome.
We find bread fometimes made of rye, oats, bar¬
ley, or vetch-flour; but of all others, that prepared
from wheat affords the rnofl wholefome nourifhment.
In feveral parts of Afia, Africa, and America, they
make bread of maiz-flour; befides which, the Ameri¬
cans make bread of the caffava-root. See Cassava.
Some are of opinion, that corn growing in gravelly
and light lands, makes better bread than that which
grows in deep and low grounds.
Fn?«£^-BREAD. To m ike good French bread, for every
two quarts of flour, add fix fpoonfuls of ale yeaft;
alfo milk and water, warmed ; a bit of butter, and a
little fait; make them pretty light, and letting them
rife before the fire, bake them in a quick oven
Some put the yolks of fix eggs, and the \vhites of
two, to this quantity; but others think the bread better
without them.
Foreign bread, or bifket, pays duty on importation
is. y^jjd. for every ii2n>. whereof is. j^^d. is
repaid on exporting it again.
Bread-room, inaihip, that deftined to hold the bread,
or bifket.
The boards of the bread-room fhould be well joined
and caulked, and even lined with tin plates, or mats.
It is alfo proper to warm it w'elL with charcoal, for
feveral days before the bifleet is put into it; fince no¬
thing is more injuries to the bread than moifture.
Bread, in feripture ftyle, is taken for every fort of
food. The ancient Hebrews had feveral ways of ba¬
king bread, as baking it under tfie allies, between two
fires made of cow-dung, and in an oven. The Jews
had, befides their leavened and unleavened bread, their
fhew-bread, bread of affliction, 6c. See the articles
Leavened, 6c.
BREADTH, in geometry, one of the three dimenfions
of bodies, which multiplied into their length confti-
tutes a furface.
BRE AK, in a general fenfe, fignifies to divide a thing
into feveral parts with violence.
In the art of war, to break ground, is to open the-
trenches before a place.
Among fportfmen, to break a horfe in trotting, is to
make him light upon the hand in trotting, in order to
make him lit for a gallop. To break a horfe for hunt¬
ing,'is to fupple him, to make him take the habit of
running.
BREAKING, in a mercantile fiyle, denotes the not
paying one’s bills of exchange, accepted, or other pro-
miflary notes, when due; and abfeonding, to avoid
the feverity of one’s creditors. In which fenfe, breaking
is the fame with becoming bankrupt. See Bankrupt.
Breaking bulk, in the fea language, is.the fame with
unlading part of the cargo.
BREAM, in ichthyology, theEnglilh nameof the cypri-
nus brama. See Cyprinus.
BREAST, in anatomy, denotes the fore-parts of the
thorax. See Anatomy, p, 227.
Breasts, or mamma;, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
p. 227.
Breast-plate, in antiquity, apiece of armour worn to
defend the breaft, originally believed to be made of
hides, or hemp twilled into fmall cords, but afterwards
made of brafs, iron, or other metals, which were
fometimes fo exquifitely hardened, as to be proof
againft the greateft force.
Breast-plate, in the ipenage, the ftrap of leather that
runs from one fide of the faddle to the other, over the
horfe’s breall, in order to keep the faddle tight, and
hinder it from Hiding backwards.
Breast-plough, .one fo fafliioned that a man may
{hove it before him.
Breast-work the fame with parapet. See Parapet.
BREATH, the air infpired and expelled again in the
a£tion of refpiration.
Breath, orwind, in. the menage, fometimes fignifies
the eafy refpiration of an horfe, and fometimes it im¬
plies the eafe and reft or repofe of a horfe; as, give
your horfe breath, that is, do not ride him down ;
give that leaping horfe a long breathing-time between
the turns or repetitions of his menage, 6c.
BREATHING, the fame with refpiration.
BRECHIN, a borough-town of the county of Angus in
Scotland, about 1 5 miles north-eaft of Dundee ; W.
long. 20 20', north lat. 56° qd.
BRECON, or Brecknock, a borough-town of Breck-
nocklhire, in Wales; W. long. 30 25', N. lat. 520.
BREDA, the capital of Dutch Brabant, about 30 miles
north-eaft of Antwerp; E. long, qd, N. lat. 51°
/\d. It is a ftrong fortified town.
BREECHES, a kind of clofe garment or covering for
the thighs, hips, 6c. worn by the modern Europeans.
The breeches are peculiar to the male fex, and an-
fwer, in fome meafure, to, the femoralia of the Romans ,
BREECH of a great gun, or cannon, the end next the
touch-hole.
BREECHINGS, in the fea-language, the ropes with
which the great guns are laffled, or faftened to the
(hip’s fide.
They are thus called, becaufe made to pafs round
the breech of the gun.
BREEDING, in a general fenfe, the producing, nou-
nfliing, and educating all manner of young animals.
B r E edj.nG sf horfes. See Equu s.
BREEZE, a fnifting wind, that blows from fea or land
for fome certain hours in the day or night ; common
in Africa and fome parts of the E. and W. Indies.
The fea breeze is only fenfible near the coafts; it.
commonly rifes in the morning, about, nine, proceed¬
ing (lowly in a fine fmall black curl on the water, to¬
wards the (hore; it. increafes gradually till twelve,.
and dies about five. Upon its ceafing, the land-breeze
commences, which increafes till twelve at night, and
is-fucceeded in the morning by the fea-breeze again.
Breeze, in brick-making, fmall afties and cinders,,
fometimes made ufe of inftead of coals, for the burn¬
ing of bricks : But as this does not fo well anfwer the
end, the ufe of it is prohibited by 12 George I.
cap. xxx,v.
Brejeze>
B R E ( 664 ) B R E
"'Br'kszb, is alfo th« name of an infeft, called the gad¬
fly, or horfe-fly. See Fly.
‘BREGENTS, or Bergents, a town fituated at the
eaflt end of the lalte of Conftance, in the county of
. Tyrol in Germany; E. long. 90 40', andN. lat. 47®
BREGMA, in anatomy, the fame with finciput. See
Anatomy, p. 154.
BREIDEWICK, a cape on the fouth-wefl of Iceland,
in the northern ocean.
BREMEN, the capital of the duchy of the fame name,
in Lower Saxony, fituated on tee river Welch, in 8°
do' E. long, and 73° 2s' N. lat.
This city and duchy belongs to the king of Great
Britain, as ele&or of Hanover.
BREMERVHOIDE,, a fortified town of the duchy of
Bremen, about feventeen miles north of Bremen; E.
long. 8° jsR and N. lat. 530 48/.
BREMGARTEN, a town of Switzerland, in the coun¬
ty of Baden, about twelve miles wed of Zurich; E.
long. 8° 15', and N. lat. 470 20'.
BREMINGHAM, in geography. See Birmingham.
BRENBERG, in geography. See Bernburg.
BRENT, iri geography, a market town of Devonlhire,
fituated twenty-feven miles fouth-weftof Exeter; W.
long. 4° 7% and N. iat. yo° 30,. '
Brent a fpecies of goofe with a black neck, and
a white collar round; ulually confounded with the
barnacle, though in reality a diftindt fpecies.
It is a little larger than the common duck, and is
deferibed by authors under the name of anas torquata.
BRENTA, a liquid meafure ufed at Rome.
BREN FE, in geography, a river which, taking its rife
in the bifnopric of Trent, in Germany, runs fouth-
ead through the Venetian territories, and falls into the
Adriatic fea, oppofite to Venice.
BRENTFORD, a market-town of Middlefex, about
feven miles wed of London; W. long. 7', and N.
lat 510 26'.
BRENTWOOD, orBuRNTWooo, a market town of
Effex, about fifteen miles ead of London; E. long.
15', and N. lat. 510 qj'.
BREPHOTROPHIUM, an hofpital for the mainte¬
nance of children; notunlike our foundling-hofpital.
See Hospital.
BRESCIA, a city of Italy, about thirty miles north of
Cremona; E. long. io° 35', andN. lat. 450 30/.
It is a bilhop’s lee, andfubjeid to Venice.
BRESELLO, a town of the duchy of Modena, in I-
taly, fituated on the fouthern Ihore of the river Po,
about twenty five miles north-wed of Modena; E.
long. 110, andN. lat. 440 /\(>.
BRESICATE, in commerce, a kind of bays, of which
there is fome trade carried on with the negroes, be¬
tween the river Gambia and Sierra Leone. The bed.
forts for that purpofe are the blue and the red.
BRESLAW, the capital of Silefia, fituated upon the
river Oder,-in 160 jc/ E. long, and 510 ij' N lat.
BRESMA, in ichthyology, a name ufed by fome for the
bream. See Bream.
BRESSE, a territory of Burgundy, in France; it is
bounded by Franche Compte on the north, by Savoy
on the ead, by Dauphine on the fouth, and by the.
LyOnois on the wed.
BRESSICI, in geography. See Breste.
BRESSVIRE, a town of Poidtou, in the Orleanois, in
Fiance, fituated about thirty-five miles north-wed of
Poiftiers; W. long. 3c/, and N. lat. 46° 50.
BREST, in geography, an excellent port-town of Bri-
tany in France; W. long. 4® , and N. lat. 48° 25 .
Brest, or Brea.st, in archite&ure, a term fometimes
ufed for the member of a column, more ufually called
torus. See Torus.
BREST-yiiwwerr, in timber buildings, are pieces in the
outward thereof, into which the girders are framed:
this, in the ground-door, is called a ceil; and; in the
garret-door, abeam.
As to their fize, it is the fame with that of girders.
See Girders.
BRESTE, or Bressici, the capital of the palatinate
of Breffici, and of Polefia, in Poland, fituatedon the
river Bog, about eighty miles ead of Warfaw; E.
long. 240, and N. lat. 52®.
BRETESSE, in heraldry, denotes a line embattled on
both fides.
BRETON, or Cape-ereton, an American ifland, fub-
jed to the Ehgldh, and feparated from New-Scotland
by a narrow dreight called Canfo : it is about one hun¬
dred miles in length, and fifty in breadth, and is fitu¬
ated between 6i° and 62° W. long, and between 45 9
and 48° N. lat.
BRETVEIL, a town of Normandy, in France, about
thirty-five-miles fouth of Rouen; E. long. i°, and
lat. 48° 50'.
Bretveil is alfo the name of a town in Picardy, about
fix leagues from Amiens.
BREUBERG, a country and town of Germany, in the
circle of Franconia, fituated upon the banks of the
Maine.
BREVE, in law, is any writ direded to the chancellor,
judges, fheriffs, or other officers, whereby a perfon is
fummoned, or attached, to anfwer in the king’s court,
<bc.
Breve perquirere, the purchafing of a writ or licence
for trial in the king’s courts; whence comes the pre-
fent ufage of paying 6 s. 8d. fine to the king in fuit,
for money due on bond, where the debt is 401. and
of 10 s, where it is 100I. <bc.
Breve de refto is a writ of right, or licence, for a per¬
fon ejeded, to fue for the poffeffion of the eftate de¬
tained from him.
Breve, in mufic, a note or charader of time, in the
form of a diamond or fiquare, without any tail, and
equivalent to two meafures or minims.
BREVET, in the French cuftoms, denotes the grant of
f6me favour or donation from the king, in which fenfe
it partly anfwers to our warrant, and partly to letters-
patent.
BREVIARY, a daily office, or book of divine fervice,
in the Romifh church. It is compofed of matins,
lauds, firft, third, fixth, and ninth vefpers, and the
compline, or poll communio.
B R E ( 66$ ) B R E
The breviary of Rome is general, and may be ufed
in all places; but on the model of this various others
have been built, appropriated to each dibcefe, and
each order of religious.
The breviary of the Greeks is the fame in almoft
all churches and monafteries that follow the Greek
rites : the Greeks divide the pfalter into twenty parts.
In general, the Greek breviary confifts of two parts;
the one containing the office for the evening, the other
that of the morning, divided into matins, lauds, arft,
third, fixth, and ninth vefpers, and the compline;
that is', of feven different hours, on account of that
faying of David, Septies in die latidem dixi tibi.
ilie inftitution of the hreyiary is not very ancient:
there have been inferred in it the lives of the faints,
full of ridiculous and ill-attefted Itories, which gave
occafion to feveral reformations of it, by feveral coun¬
cils, particularly thofe of Trent and Cologn; by fe¬
veral pope?, particularly Pius V. Clement VIII. and
Urban VIII.; and alfo by feveral cardinals and bi-
ffiops, each lopping off fome extravagances, and bring¬
ing it nearer to the fimplicity of the primitive offices.
Originally, every body was obliged to recite the
breviary every day; but by degrees the obligation was
reduced to the clergy only, who are enjoined, under
penalty of mortal fin and ecclefiaftical cenfures, to re¬
cite it at home, when they cannot attend in public.
In the XIVth century, there was a particular referve
granted in favour of bi'ffiops, Who were allowed, on
extraordinary occafions, to pafs three days without re-
hearfing the breviary.
This office was originally called curfus, and after-
waids the bteviarium\ which latter name imports,
that the old office was abridged, or rather, that this
col left ion is a kind of abridgment of all the prayers.
The breviaries now in ufe are innumerable; the
difference between them confilts principally in the
number and order of the pfalms, hymns, pater-no-
fters, ave-Maries, creeds, magnificats, cantemus’s,
benedidus’s, canticamus’s, nunc dimittis’s, miferere’s,
halelujah’s, gloria patri’s, be.
Breviary, in Roman antiquity, a book firft introduced
by Auguftns, containing an account of the application
• of the public njoney.
BREVIATOR, an officer under the eaftern empire,
whole bufinefs it was to write and tranflate briefs.
At Rome thofe are Hill called breviators, or abbre-
viators, who diffate and draw up the pope’s briefs.
BREVIBUS a retulis liberandis\ a writ or command
to a ffieriff to deliver to his fucceffor the county, with
the appurtenances, and the rolls, writs, and other
things to his office belonging.
BREVIER, among printers, a fmall kind-of type or
letter between bourgeois and minion.
BREVIUM See Gustos.
BREVORDT, a town of Guelderland, in the United
Netherlands, fituated about twenty-five miles fouth-
eaft of Zutphen, in 6° 3/ E. long, and ja0 N. lat.
BREWER, a perfon who profeffes the art of brewing..
There are companies of brewers in moff capital ci¬
ties ; that of London was incorporated in 1427, by
Hen. VI. and that of Paris is hill ohler.
Brewer’s-haven, a good harbour at the north end of
the ifland of Chiloe, on the coaft of Chili, in South.
America; W. long. 82°, and S. lat. 420.
BREW HOUSE, a place for brewing. See.BREWiNG..
BREW
BREWING is the operation of preparing ale or beer
from malt. Before we treat of this operation, it
will be neceffary to explain the nature of malt, and the
method of making it..
O F M ALT.
That fpecies of fermentation which is called the vi¬
nous fermentation, is only produceable by the juices of
vegetable fubftances. The fygar or faccharine matter is
the caufe of this fermentation. If fugar be added to
water in the proportion of 1 to.3, a proper vinous fer¬
mentation is excited. When this' faccharine matter is
extrafted from vegetables, they immediately, lofe their
fermentative power. Moll plants either naturally con¬
tain this faccharine matter, or are capable of acquiring
it by a certain method of treatment. This. proceff of
converting vegetable fubftances into a fugar is known , by
the name of malting.
. Vol.T. Numb. 28. ' 3
I N G.
©
Though moft vegetable fubftances be convertible into:
malt, barley is found by experience to be the moft proper
for undergoing this operation.
As the converting of grains into malt, is only a part
of the progrefs toWards their germination, it may be
performed by committing them for fome time to the earth.
But the ordinary method is to fteep the barley for fome
time in water, and then to expofe it in heaps on the floor
of a barn till it begins to heat: after which, it muft be
fpread out in thin layers, to prevent putrefaction. It
ought to continue in this fituation till the plume or bud is
juft about to efcape from the feed, and then it is confi-
dered as perfectly malted; that is, the feeds are con¬
verted into a fweet, moift fnbftance. This change of
tafte, or malting, keeps exaCt pace with the progrefs of
the, plume;. hence one half of the feed is frequently malt¬
ed, while the other undergoes no change. If the plume
be allowed to ffioot fully out, the feeds immediately
lofe their faccharine tafte, and are changed into infipiii
8 F ' hollow
666 B R E W I N G.
hollow bags. Whett feeds are thus fufficiently malted,
they mult be dried in malt-kilns, the fuel of which
ftiould fmoke as little as poflible.—The hulks mull now
be broke open by malt-milns, and then infufed or riialh’ed
nn warm water, in order to extradt the faccharine fub-
ftance; the heat applied Ihould be very flow and gradual.
Thus the malt is diflblved, and lies till the liquor be fuf¬
ficiently tindiured. When the malt is too long diffufed,
fo that an acetous fermentation begins to take place, it
Is called blinking, or foxing, by brewers.
This tindlure obtained from the infufion of grinded
malt, is commonly known by the name ok onort.
We lhall now give an account of this procefs in the
language and manner of the adhial brewer, which will
probably be more acceptable than treating it in a philofo-
phical manner.
Of making Malt.
The barley mull be put into a leaden or tiled ciftern,
that holds five, teh, or more quarters, and covered with
Water four or fix inches above the barley, to allow
for its fwell. Here it muft lie five or fix tides, as the
rbaltller calls it, reckoning twelve hours to the tide, ac¬
cording as the barley is in body or in drinefs. The way
to know when it is enough, is to take a corn, end-ways.
Between the fingers, arid gently crufli it; and if it be in
all pat ts mellow, and the hulk opens, or Harts a little
from the body of the corn, then it is enough . The nice
ty of this is a material point; for if it be infufed too"
much, the fweetnefs of the malt will be greatly taken
off, and yield the lefs fpirit, and will caufe deadnefs and
fournefs in ale or beer in a Ihort time, for the goodnefs
of the malt contributes much to the prefervation of all
ales and beers. Then the water muft be well drained
from it, and it will come equal and better on the floor,
which may be done in twelve or fixteen hours in tempe¬
rate weather, but in cold near thirty. From the ciftern,
it is pm into a Iquare hutch or couch', where it muft lie
thirty flours; then it muft be worked night and day in
one or two heaps, as the weather is cold or hot, and
turned every four, fix, or eight hours, the outward part
inwards, and the bottom upwards, always keeping a clear
floor, that the corn that lies next to it be not chilled;
and as foon as it begins to come or fpire, then turn it
every three, four, or five hours, as was done before,
According to the temper of the air, which greatly go¬
verns this management; and as it comes or works more,
fo muft the heap be fpreaded and thinned larger to cool
it. Thus it may lie and be worked on the floor in feve-
ral parallels, two or three feet thick, ten or more feet
broad, and fourteen or more in length, to chip or fpire,
but not too much nor too faft; and when it is come enough,
it is to be turned twelve or fixteen times in twenty four
hours, if the feafon is warm, as in March, April, or
May; and when it is fixed, and the root begins to be
dead then it muft be thickened again, and carefully
kept often turned and worked, that the growing of the
root may not revive, and this is better done with the
Sloes off than on : And here the Workman’s art and dili¬
gence ia particular is tried, in keeping the floor clear,
and turning the malt often, that it neither moulds nor
acre-fpires, that is, that the blade does not grow out at
the oppofite end of the root; for, if it does, the flower
and ftrength of the malt is gone, and nothing left be¬
hind but the acre-fpire, hulk, and tail: Now, when it
is at this degree, and fit for the kiln, it is often put into
a heap, and let lie twelve hours before it is turned, to
heat and mellow, which wilf much improve the malt
if it is done with moderation, and after that time it
muft be turned every fix hours during twenty-four ; but
if it is overheated, it will become like greafe and be
fpoiled, or at leaft caufe the drink to be unwholefome.
When this operation is over, it then muft be put on the
kiln, to dry four, fix, or twelve hours, according to the
nature of the malt; for the pale fort requires more lei-
fure, and lefs fire, than the amber or brown forts: Three
inches thick was formerly thought a fufficient depth for
the malt to lie on the hair-cloth ; but now fix is often
allowed it; fourteen of fixteen feet fquare will dry about
two quarters, if the malt lies four inches thick, and
here it ftiould be turned every two, three, or four hours,
keeping the hair cloth clear: The time of preparing it
from the ciftern to the kiln is uncertain, according to
the feafon of the year; in moderate weather, three weeks
are often fufficient. When the malt is dried, it muft
not cool on the kiln, but be direftly thrown off, not into
a heap, but fpreaded wide in an airy place, till it is
thoroughly cool; then put it into a heap, or otherwife
difpofe of it.
There are feveral methods ufed in drying of malts, as
the iron-plate frame, the tile-frame, that are both full
of little holes; the brafs-wired, and iron-wired frame,
and the hair-cloth. The iron and tiled ones were chiefly
invented for drying of brown malts, and faving of fuel;
for thefe, when they come to be thorough hot, will make
the corns crack and jump by the fiercenefs of their heat,
fo that they will be roafted or fcorcbed in a little time ;
and after they are off the kiln, to plump the body of
the corn, and make it take the eye, fome will fprinkle
water over it, that it may meet with the better market:
But if fuch malt is not ufed quickly, it will flacken and
lofe its fpirits to a great degree, and perhaps, in half a
year or lefs, may be taken by the whools and fpoiled.
Such hafty dryings, or fcorchings, are alfo apt to bitter
the .malt, by burning its fkin, and therefore thefe kilns'
are not fo much ufed now as formerly. The wire-frames
indeed are fomething better, yet they are apt to fcorch
the outward part of the dorn, that cannot be got off fo
foon as the hair-cjoth admits of, for thefe muft be fwept
when the other is only turned at once; however, thefe
laft three ways are now in much requeft for drying pale
and amber malts, becaufe their fire may be kept with
more leifure, and the malt more gradually and better
dryed. But by many the hair cloth is reckoned the
beft.
Malts are dried with feveral forts of fuel; as the
coak, Welch coal, ftraw, wood, and fern, &c. But
the coak is reckoned by moft to exceed all others for
making drink of the fineft flavour and pale colour, be¬
caufe it fends no fmoke forth to hurt the malt with any
offenfive tang, that wood, fern, and ftraw are apt to do
BREWING. 667
in a lefler or greater degree; but there is a difference part of it of a hard<barley nature, and weigh heavier than
even in what is called coak, the right fort being large that which is true malt.
pit- coal charred or burnt in fome meafure to a cinder,
till all the fulphur is confumed and evaporated, which is
called choak ; and this, when it is truly made, is the
beft of all other fuels. But if there be but one cinder as
big as an egg, not thoroughly cured, the fmoke of this
one is capable of doing damage, which happens too often
by the negligence or avarice of the choak-maker : There
is another fort, by. fome wrongly called choak, and
rightly named culm or Welch-coal, from Swanzey in
Pembrokefhire, being of a hard ftony fubftance, in fmall
bits, refembling a fhinning coal, and will burn without
fmoke, and by its fulphureous effluvia call a moft excel¬
lent whitenefs on all the outward parts of the grainy bo¬
dy: In Devonfflire their marble or grey fxre-ftone is
burnt into lime with the ftrong fire that this culm makes,
and both this and the chalked pit-coal afford a moderate
and certain fire to all malt that is dried by it. Straw is
the next fweeteft fuel; but wood and fern are the worft.
Some put a peck or more of peafe, and malt them
with five quarters of barley, to mellow the drink :
Beans are ufed for the fame purpofe; but they do not
come fo foon, nor mix fo conveniently with the malt, as
the pea.
Barley is not fit to make malt of till it is fully mel¬
lowed and fweated in the mow, and the feafon of the
year is ready for it, without both which there can be no
affurance of good malt. This untimely making of malt
often occafions bad ales and beers; for fuch malt retain¬
ing fome of its barley nature* or that the feafon of the
year is not cold enough to admit of its natural working
on the floor, is not capable of producing a true malt,
but will caufe its drink to (link in the calk inftead of
growing fit for ufe, as not having its genuine malt nature
to cure and preferve it, which all good malts contribute
to as well as the hop.
Mellilet, a moft ftinking weed that grows among bar¬
ley, if not thoroughly cleaned from it before malting,
makes the drink fo heady, that it is apt to intoxicate the
unwary by drinking a fmall quantity : Befides, it gives a
naufeous flavour to the liquor.
To know good from bad Malts.
F1 rst, break the mak-corn acrofs between the teeth, in
the middle, or at both ends, and if it tafteth mellow and
fweet, has a round body, breaks foft, is full of flour all
its length, fmells well, and has a thin Ikin, then it is-
good Secondly, take a glafs near full of water, and
put in fome malt ; if it fwims, it is right; but if any
finks to the bottom, then it is not true malt, but fteely,
and retains fomewhat of its barley nature; this, however,
is not an infallible rule, becaufe, if a corn of malt is
cracked, fplit, or broke, it will then take the water and
fink ; but an allowance may be given for futh incidents,,
and ftill room enough to make a judgment. Thirdly,
malt that is truly made will not be hard and fteely, but
of fo mellow a nature, that, if forced againft a dry.
board, it will mark, and caft a white colour almoft like
chalk. Fourthly, malt that is not rightjy made will be
Of the Nature and life of Pale, Amber, and
Brown Malts.
-The pale malt is the floweft and flackeft dried of any,
and where it has had a leifure fire, a fufficient time al¬
lowed it on the kiln, and a due care taken of it, the
flour of the grain will remain in its full quantity, and
thereby produce a greater length of wort than the brown
high-dried malt. It may be brewed either with fpring or
common well water.
The amber-coloured malt is that which is dried in a
medium degree, between the pale and the brown, arid is
very much in ufe, as being free of either extreme. Its
colour is pleafant, its tafte agreeable, and its nature
wholefome, which makes it be preferred by many as the
beft of malts ; this by fome is brewed either with hard or
foft waters, or a mixture of both.
The brown malt is the fooneft and higheft dried of any,
even till it is fo hard, that it is difficult to bite fome of
its corns afunder. This malt, by fome, is thought to oc-
cafion the gravel or ftone, and is by its fteely nature Ids
nourilhing than the pale or amber malts, being very
much impregnated with the fiery particles of the kiln,
and therefore its drink fooner becomes ftiarp and acid
than that made from the pale or amber forts, if they are
all fairly brewed: For this reafon the London brewers
moftly ufe the Thames or, New River waters to brew
this malt with, for the fake of its loft nature, whereby
it agrees with the harfli qualities of it better than any of
the well or other hard forts, and makes a lufcious ale
for a little while, and abut-beer, or porter, that will keep
very wdl five or fix months ; but after that time it ge;
nerally grows ftale, notwithftanding there be ten or twelve
bufhels allowed to the hogftiead, and it be hopped ac»
cordingly.
Pale and amber malts dried with coak or culm, ob¬
tain a more clean, bright, pale colour, than if dried with
any other fuel; becaufe there is not fmoak to darken and
fully their ficins or hulks, and give them an ill rtlafti,-
which thofe malts have, more or lefs, that are dried
with ftraw, wood, or fern, drc. The coak or Welch
coal alfo makes more true and compleat malt than any
other fuel, becaufe its fire gives both a gentle and cer¬
tain heat, whereby the corns are in all their parts gra-i
dually, dried; and therefore of late thefe malts have
gained fuch a reputation, that great quantities have been
confumed in moft parts, of the nation for their whole-t
fome nature and fweet fine tafte.
Next to the coak-dried malt, the ftraw dried is the
fweeteft and beft tafted : This, it muft be acknowledged,
is fometimes- well malted, where the barley, wheat,;
ftraw, convemencies, and the maker’s Ikill, are good;
but as the fire of the ftraw is not fo regular-as the coak,
the malt is attended with more uncertainty in its making,;
becaufe it is dilficult to keep it to a moderate and equal-
heat, and alfo expofes the malt in fome degree to the
tafte of the fmoak.
Brown malts are dried with ftraw, wood, and fern;
m B R E
Yti:. the ftraw-dried is the bcft; the wood-fort has a
mofl: ungrateful tafte, and few can .bear it, but the ne-
ceffitous, and thofe that are accuftomed to its ftrong
fmoaky tang; yet it is much ufed in feme of the weftern
parts of England.
The fern-dried malt is alTo attended with a rank dif-
agreeable talle from the fmoak of this vegetable.
Of ^grinding Malts.
Twts article'Well deferves the notice of all brewers,
for on it the goodnefs of our drink greatly depends ; be-
caufe, if it is ground too fmall, the flour of the malt will
-be the eafier and more freely mixed with the water, and
will caufe the wort to run thick; therefore the malt muft
be only juft broke in the mill, to make it emit its fpirit
gradually, and incorporate its flour with the water in
fuch a manner, that fir-ft a ftout beer,: then an ale, and
afterwards a fmall beer may be had at one and the fame
brewing, and the wort run off fine and clear to the laft.
Many are likewife fo fagacious as to grind 'their brown
malt a fortnight before they ufe it, and keep it in a dry
place, that it may become mellower, by.lofing in a great
meafure the.fury of its harlh fiery particles, and its fteely
nature, which this -fort of malt acquires on the kiln.
However, this, as well as many other-hard bodies, may
be reduced by time and air into a more foluble, mellow,
and foft condition, and then it will imbibe the water, and
give a natural kind tinfhire more, freely, by which a
greater-quantity and ftronger drink may be made than
if it was ufed directly from the mill, and be much
fmoother and better tafted. But pale malts will be fit
for ufe at a week’s end, becaufe the leifurenefs of their
drying endows them with a foftnefs from the time they
are taken off the kiln to the time they are brewed, and
fupplies in them what time and air muft do in the brown
forts. This method of grinding malt fo long before¬
hand cannot be fo conveniently pratftifed by fome of the
great brewers, becaufe feveral of them brew two or three
times a week ; but now moft of them grind their malts
into the tun by the help of a long, defcending, wooden
fpout; and here they fave the charge of emptying or un-
cafing it out of the bin,-and alfo the wafte of a great deal
of the mhit-flour, that is loft when carried in balkets.
A fteel hand-mill, will, by the help of only one man,
grind fix or eight bufhels in an hour, and will laft a fa¬
mily many years without hardening or cutting. There
are fome old fafhioned ftone hand-mills in being, that
fome prefer to the iron ones, becaufe they alledge that
thefe break the corn’s body, when the iron ones only
cut it in two, which occafions the malt, fo broke by the
ftones, to give the water a more eafy, free, and regular
power to extrad its virtue, than the cut-malt can that is
more confined within its hull. Notwithftanding, the iron
ones are now moftly in ufe, for their great difpatch and
long duration. In the country they frequently throw a
fack of malt on a ftone or brick floor as foon as it is
ground, and let it lie, giving it one turn, for a day or
two, that the ftones or bricks may draw out the fiery
quality it received from the kiln, and give the drink a
foft mild tafte.
W I N G.
Of the Nature of feveral Waters, and their Ufe
in Brevsing.
Water is a matter of great importance in brewing
wholefome fine malt-liquors. Now, the more fimple and
freer every water is from foreign particles, it is the bet¬
ter.
Spring-waters are in general liable to partake of thofe
minerals through which they pafs. At Uppingham in
Rutland, their water is .faid to come off an alem rock,
and fo. tinges their beer with its faline quality, that it is
eafily tafted at the firft draught. But that which will
lather with foap, or foft water, that percolates through
chalk,, or a grey fire.-ftone, is generally accounted.heft ;.
for chalk in this refped excells all other earths, becaufe
it communicates nothing unwholefome. to the waters, but
abforbs. any minerals that, may .accompany the water
that runs through them : For which reafon they throw,
in great quantities of chalk into their wells at AUeftmry
to foften their water, which, coming off a black fand-
ftone, is fo hard and /harp, that it will often turn their
beer four in a week’s time ; fo that in its original ftate
it is neither fit to walli nor brew with, but fo long as the
alcaline particles of the chalk hold good, they put it tq
both ufes.
River-water is lefs liable to be loaded with metallic,*
petrifying, or faline particles^ than the well or fpring
forts, efpecially at fome dillance from the fpring head,,
becaufe the rain-water mixes with and. foftens it. But
in running, it often colleifts grofs particles, from ou-zy
muddy mixtures, particularly near town, which make
the beer fubjed to new fermentations, and g?ow foul up¬
on any alteration of the weather, as the ThameS-water.
generally does ; yet this, for its foftnefs, is much betten
than the hard for t; however, both thefe waters are ufed-
by fome brewers. But where river-water.can be had clear}
in a dry time, when no great rain has lately fell out of
rivulets, or rivers that have a gravelly, chalky, fandy,'
or ftony bottom, free from the difturbance of cattle, &c.
and in good air, it may then juftly claim the name of a
moft excellent water for brewing, and will make a ftrong¬
er drink with the fame quantity of malt than any of the
well-waters; infomuch-that that of the Thames has been
proved to make as ftrong beer with feven buftiels of malt,
as well-water with eight; and fo are all river-waters in
a proportionable degree, arid, where they can be obtain¬
ed clean and pure, drink may be drawn fine in a few days
after tunning.
Rain-water is very foft, of a moft fimple and pure na¬
ture, and the beft diluter of any, efpecially if received
free from dirt and mortar that often mix with it as it
runs off tiled roofs; this is very agreeable for brew¬
ing of ales that are not to be kept long, but for beers
that are to remain fome time in the calks, it is not fo
good, being apt to putrify the fooneft of any.
Pond waters. This includes all.ftanding waters, chief-;
ly from rain, and are good or bad according to circum-
fiances; for where there is a clean bottom, and the wa-.
ter lies undifturbed from the tread of cattle, or too ma¬
ny filh, in an open found air, in a large quantity, and
where
BREW
where the fun has free accefs, it is then nearly as good
as rain or river-waters. But where it is in a fmall quan¬
tity, or full of fi(h (efpecially the fling-tench) or is fo
difturbed by cattle, as to force up mud and filth, it is
then the moft foul and difagreeable of all others : So is
it likewife in long dry feafons, when our pond-waters are
fo low as to oblige us to drain it through fieves before
we can ufe it, to take out the fmall red worms and o-
ther corruptions that ftagnant waters are fubjeft to.
The London Method of Brewing.
Stout Butt leer or Porter.
Th i s is the ftrongefl: porter that is brewed from brown
malt, and often fold for forty (hillings the barrel, or fix
pounds the butt out of the wholefale cellars : The liquor
(for it is fix-pence forfeit in the London brew- houfe if
the word water is named) in the copper defigned for the
firft mafli, has a two-bu(hel bafket, or more, of the mod
hully malt thrown over it, to cover its top, and after¬
wards its boiling; this mud be made very hot, almod
ready to boil, yet not fo as to blifler, for then it will be
in too high heat; but, as an indication of this, tire foul
part of the liquor will afcend, and the malt fwell up, and
then it mud be parted, looked into, and felt with the
finger or back of the hand, and if the liquor be clear,
and of fuch heat as can be but jufl endured, it is
then enough, and the doker mud damp his fire as foon
as poflible, by throwing in a good parcel of freftr coals,
.and (hutting his iron vent-doors ; immediately on this,
they let as much cold liquor or water run into the copper
as will make it all of a heat, fomewhat more than
blood-warm; this they pump over, or let it pafs by a
cock into an upright wooden fquare (pout or trunk, and
it directly rifes thtough the holes of a falfe bottom into
the malt, which is worked by feveral men with oars for
about half an hour, and is called the fird and difFmafli:
While this is doing, there is more liquor heating in the
copper, that mud not be let into the mafh-tun till it is
very (harp, almod ready to boil; with this they mafli again,
then cover it with feveral bafltets of malt, and let it (land
an hour before it runs into the under back, which, when
boiled an hour and a half with a good quantity of hops,
makes this (lout. The next is maflied with a cooler li¬
quor, then a (harper, and the next blood-warm or quite
cold; by which alternate degrees of heat, a quantity of
fmall beer is made after the dout.
To make Porter, or Butt-beer, to have a fine Tang.
This, of late, has been improved two ways : Fird,
by mixing two bufhels of pale malt with fix of brown,
which will preferve butt-beer in a mellow condition, and
caufe it to have a pleafant fweet flavour: Aijd, fecond-
ly, further to improve and render it more palatable, they
boil it two hours and a half, and work it two days as
cold as poflible-in the tun ; at lad, they dir it, and put
a good handful of common fait into the quantity of a
butt: Then, when the yead has had one rifihg more,
they tun it.
' Strong Brown Ale, called Stitch.
Most of this is the fird running of the malt, but yet
Von. I. Numb. 28. 3
I N G.
of a longer length than is drawn from the flout; it has
but few hops boiled in it, and is (old for eight-pence per
gallon at the brew-houfe out of the tun, and is generally
made to amend the common brown ale with, on particu¬
lar occafions.
Common Brown Ale and Starting-beer.
They take the liquors from the brown ale as for the
dout, but draw a greater quantity from the malt than
for dout or ditch ; and after the difF and fecond malh,
they cap the goods with frelh malt, to keep in the (pint,
and boil it an hour; after this, fmall beer is made of the
fame goods. Thus alfo the common brown darting butt-
beer or porter is brewed, only boiled with more hops
an hour and a half, and worked cooler and longer than
the brown ale, and a fhorter length drawn from the mair.
But it is cudomary after the brown ale, or when a quan¬
tity of fmall beer is wanted, or is to be brewed better
than ordinary, to put fo much, frelh malt on the goods as
will anfwer that purpofe.
Pale and Amber Ales and Beer.
As the brown malts are brewed with river, thefe are
brewed with well or fpring-Iiquors. The liquors are by
forne taken (harper for pale than brown malts, and, after
the fird fcalding liquor is put over, fome lower the red
by degrees, to the lad, which is quite cold, for their
fmall beer; aqd for butt-beers, there is no other differ
rence than the addition of more hops, and boiling, and
the method of working.
Entire Guile Small Beer,
On the fird liquor they throw fome hully malt,, to
drew the break of it, and when it is very (harp, they let
in fome cold liquor, and run it into the tun milk-warm;
this is malhed with thirty or forty pulls of the oar, and
let dand till the fecond liquor is ready, which mud be
almod fclalding hot to the back of the hand ; then run
it by the cock into the tun, mafh it up, and let it dand
an hour before it is fpent off into the under-back: Thefe
two pieces of liquor will make one copper of the fird
wort, without putting any frefli malt on the goods ; the
next liquor to be blood-warm, the next (harp, and the
next cool or cold ; for the general way in great brew--
houfes is, to let a cool liquor precede a (harp one, be-
caufe it gradually opens the pores of the malt and.goods,
and prepares the way for the hotter liquor that is to fol¬
low.
The feveral Lengths or Quantities of Drinks that have
been made from Malt, and their feveral Prices, as
they have been fold at a common Brew-houfe.
Foa dout-beer, is commonly drawn one barrel off a
quarter, of malt, and fold for thirty (hillings per barrel
from the tun. For flitch or drong brown ale, one bar-,
rel and a firkin, at one and twenty (hillings and four
pence per barrel from the tun. For common brown
ale, one barrel and a half, or more, at fixteen (hillings
per barrel, that holds thirty-two Englifli gallons from
the tun. For entire fmall beer, five or fix barrels off a
quarter, at ('even or eight (hillings per barrel from the
tun. For pale and amber ale, one barrel and a firkin,
at one fhilling per gallon, from the tun.
8 G A
670 B R E
Method praftifed hy a Victualler, for Brewing Ale
or October Beer, from NettIngham.
His copper holds twenty-four gallons, and the mafh-
lub has room enough for four or more bulhels of malt.
The firft full copper of boiling water he puts into the
mafh-tub, there to lie a quarter of an hour, till the
ffeam is fo far fpent that he can fee his face in it; or, as
foon as the hot water is put in, throws a pail or two of
cold water into it, which will bring it at once into a tem¬
per ; then he lets three bulhels of malt be run leifurely
into it, and ftirred or malhed all the while, but as little
as can be, or no more than juft to keep the malt from
clotting or balling; when that is done, he puts one
bufhel of dry malt at th<i top, to keep in the vapour or
fpirit, and fo lets if ftand covered two hours, or till the
neat copper-full of water is boiling hot, which he lades
over the malt or goods three hand-bowls full at a
time, that are to run off at the cock or tap by a very
fmall ft ream before more is put on, which again muft be
returned into the mafti tub till it comes off exceeding
fine ;■ for, u'nlefs the wort is clear when it goes into the
copper, there are little hopes it will be fo in the barrel ;
which leifure way obliges him to be fixteen hours in
brewing thefe four buffels of malt. Now between the
ladings-over he puts cold warer into the copper fo be
boiling hot, while the other is running off; by this means
hi<; copper is kept up near full, and the cock fpending to
the end of brewing his ale or fmall beer, of which only
twenty-one gallons muft be faved of the firft wort that is
referved in a tub, wherein four ounces of hops are put,
and then it is to be fet by. For the fecond wort we
will fuppofe there are twenty gallons of water in the
copper boiling hot, that muft be all laded over in the
fame manner as the former was, but no cold water need
here be mixed ; when half of this is run out into a tub,
it muft be diredly put into the copper with half of the
firft wort, ftrained through the brewing-fieve as it lies on a
final! wooden i'oofe frame over the copper, to keep back
thofe hops that were firft put in to, preferve it, which is
to make the firft copper twenty-one gallons ; then, upon
its beginning to boil, he puts in a pound of hops in one
or two canvas qr other' coarfe linen bags, fomewhat
larger than- wi^att.'contain the hops, that an allowance
may be giv^^Mpi their fwell; this he boift away very
briikly for-fij^pS' hour, when he takes the hops out and
continctsToiftfig the wort by itfelf till it breaks into par¬
ticles-.flu tie ragged, and then it is enough, and muft be
difperted’-ihto the cooling-tubs very thin : Then put the
remainder of the firft and fecond wort together, and boil
that the-fame time, in the fame manner, and with-the
/abie quantity of frelh hops, as the firft was. The reft
6f the third or fmall-beer wort will be about fifteen or
twentv gallons more or lefs, which he mixes diredly
with fome cold water to keep it free of excife,. and puts
it into the copper as the firft liquor to begin a fecond
brewing of ale, with another four bu/hels of malt as he
did before, and fo on for feveral days together if necef-
fary ; and at laft there may be fome fmall-beer made.
The Nature and Ufe of the Hop.
This vegetable was formerly thought-to be an un-
w I N G.
wholefome ingredient. Indeed, when the hop, in a dear
time, is adulterated with water, in which aloes, ©r.
have been infufed, in order to make the old hops recover
their bitternefs, and feem new, then they are to be look¬
ed on as unwholefome; but the pure new hop, when
properly managed, has no hurtful qualities. But if the
hops are boiled in ftrong or fmall worts beyond their fine
and pure nature, the liquor fuffers, and will be tanged
with a noxious tafte, both ungrateful and unwholefome
to the ftomach; and, if boiled to a very great excefs,
they will be apt to caufe teachings. . It is for thefe rea-
lons that we advife the boiling tv/o parcels of frelh hops
in each copper of ale-wort; and, if there were three for
keeping beer, it would be fo much the better for the
tafte, health, of body, and longer prefervation of the
beer in a found fmooth condition. For this purpofe,
fome make a bag, like a pillowber, and boil the hops
in it half an hour; then take them out, and put in an¬
other bag of the like quantity of frefti hops, and boil
them half an hour more ; by which means there is an
opportunity of boiling both wort and hops a due time,
faving the trouble of ftraining them through a fieve, and
fecuring the feeds of the hops at the fame time from
mixing with the drink; afterwards they boil the fame
bags in the fmall beer, till the fubftance of it is got
out; but obferve that the bags be made larger than
what would juft contain the hops, otherwife it will be
difficult to boil out their fubftance. It is true, that
here is a charge increafed by the confumption of a great¬
er quantity of hops than ufual; but then how greatly
will they anfwer the defired end of enjoying fine-pala-
ted wholefome drink, that, in a cheap time, will not a-
mount to much, if bought at the beft hand; and, if we
confider their after-ufe and benefit in fmall beer, there is
not any lofs at all in their quantity: But, where it can
be afforded, the very fmall beer would be much impro¬
ved if freffi hops were alfo fhifted in the boiling of this
as well as the ftronger worts. Hence may appear the
hardfhips that many are under of being neceffitated to
drink of thofe brewers malt-Kquors, who, out of ava¬
rice, boil their hops to the laft, that they may not lofe
any of their quinteffence.
After the wort is cooled and put into the working-vat
or tub. fome throw frefh hops into it, and work them
with the yeaft, at the fame time referving a few gallons
of raw wort to wafh the yeaft through a fieve to keep
back the hop. This is a good way where enough of hops
have not been fufficiently boiled in the wort, or to pre*
ferve it in the coolers where it is laid thick.
When hops are dear, many ufe the feeds of worm¬
wood inftead of them: Others ufe the daucus or wild*
carrot feed that grows in our common fields, which many
of the poor people gather1 and dry in their houfesf for the
purpofe of felling them to the brewers : Others ufe borer
hound, which indeed is a fine bitter, and grows on fe¬
veral of our commons.
Hops have a fine grateful bitter, which makes the
drink eafy of digeftion; they alfo keep it from running
into fuch cohefions as would make it ropy, vapid, and
four; and therefore are not only of great ufe in boiled,.
but in raw. worts, to preferve them found till they can be
put
BREW
put into the copper, and afterwards in the tun, while the
drink is working.
Here then it muft be obferved, that the earthy part of
the hop is the caufe of that rough, harfh, unpleafant
tafle which accompany both ales and beers that have the
hops fo long boiled in them, as to tin&ure their worts
with their mifchievous effe&s; for, notwithstanding the
malt be ever fo good, the hops, if boiled too long in
them,, will be fo predominant as to caufe a bad tafte.
Of boiling Malt-liquors.
Althou’Gh it has been formerly faid, that an hour
and a half is requisite for boiling of Oftober beer, and
an hour for ales and fmall beer ; yet it is to be obferved,
that an exadt time is not altogether a certain rule in this
cafe , for, when loofe hops are boiled in the wort fo long
till they all fink, their feeds will arife and fall down
again ; the wort alfo will be curdled, and broken into
fmall particles if examined in a hand-bowl, but after¬
wards into larger, as big as great pins heads, and will
appear clean and fine at the top. This is fo much a rule
with fome, that they regard' not time, but this Sign, to
fhew when the wort is boiled enough ; and this will hap¬
pen fooner or later, according to the nature of tbej>ar-
ley, and its being well malted; for, if it comes off
chalks or gravels, it generally has the good property of
breaking or curdling Soon; but, if off tough clays, then
it is longer, which, by fome perfons, is not a little va
hied, becaufe it faves time in boiling, and confequently
the confumption of the wort.
It is alfo to be obferved, that pale malt-worts will not
break fo foon in the copper as the brown forts; but,
when either of their worts boil, it ftiould be to the pur-
pofe, for then they will break, fooner, and Wafte lefs,
than if they are kept fimmering, . and will likewife work
more kindly in the tun, drink fmoother,. and keep longer.
Now all malt-worts may be fpoiled by too little or too
much boiling: If too little, then the drink will.always
tafie raw, mawkifh, and be unwholefome in the flomach,
where, inftead of helping to dilute, and digeft our food,
it will caufe obllrudions, cholics, head-achs,. and other
difeafes: Befides,-all fuch under-boiled drinks are cer^-
tainly expofed to ftalenefs and fournefs, much fooner
than thofe that have had their full time in the copper.
And if they are boiled too long, they will then thicken
and nbt come out of the copper line and in a right condi¬
tion. which will caufe it never to be right clear in the
barrel.
But to be more particular, no ale-wdrts, boiled lefs
than an hour, can be good; becaufe, in an hour’s time,
they cannot acquire a thicknefs of body any ways detri¬
mental to them; and, in lefs than an hour, the ramous
vifcid parts of the ale cannot be fufhciently broke and di¬
vided, fo as to prevent its running.into cohefions, ropir
nefs, and fournefs; becaufe in ales there are .not hops-
enough allowed to do this, which good boiling muft in a
great meafure fupply,-or elfe fuch drink can never be
good; for then its cohefive parts being not thoroughly
broke and comminuted by time and boiling, remain hard.
I N G. 671
and in a good meafure indigeftible in the ftomach : How
ignorant then are thofe people, who, in tippling of fuch li¬
quor, can praife it for excellent good ale, only becaufe its
tafte is fweetifh, (which is the nature of fuch raw drinks)^
believing it to be the pure effedt of the genuine malt, and
not perceiving the brewer’s avarice and cunning, to fave
the confumption of his wort by fhortnefs of boiling, tho’
to the great prejudice of the drinker’s health ?
In boiling, both time and the curdling or breaking of
the wort fhould be confulted ; for if a perfon was to boil
the wort an hour, and then take it out of the copper be¬
fore it was rightly broke, it would be wrong manage¬
ment, and the drink would not be fine and wholefome;
and if it Ihould boil an hour and a half, or two hours,
without regarding when its particles are in a right order,
then it may be too thick; fo that due care muft be had
to the two extremes, to obtain it in its due order;
therefore, in Odtober and keeping beers, an hour and a
quarter’s good boiling is commonly fufficient to have a
thorough cured drink; for generally in that time it will
break and boil enough ; becaufe in this there is a double
fecurity by length of boiling, and a quantity of hops
fhifted ; but in the new way there is only a fingle one,
and that is by a double or treble allowance of frefh hops
boiled only half an hour in the wort; and for this prac¬
tice a reafon is afligned, that the hops, being endowed
with difeutient apertive qualities, will, by them and
their great quantity, fupply the defedt of underboil¬
ing the wort; and that a farther conveniency is here
enjoyed by having only the fine, wholefome, ftrong,
floury, fpirituous parts of the hop in the drink, exclu-
fiye of the phlegmetic, earthy parts which would be
extradhed, if the hops were to be boiled above half an
hour; and therefore there are many now that are fo at¬
tached to this new method, that they will not brew ale
or beer any other way, thinking, that if hops are boiled
above thirty minutes, the wort will exhibit fome of their
bad qualities.
The allowance of hops for ale or beer cannot be ex-
adfly adjufted without coming to particulars, becaufe the
proportion fhould be according to the nature and quality
of the male, the feafomof the year it is brewed in, and
the length of time it is to be kept.
For ftrong brown ale brewed in-ally-of the winter^
months, and boiled an hour, one pound “is but barely
fufficient for a hogffiead, if it be tapped in three weeks
or a month.
If for pale aie brewed at that time, and for that age;
one pound and a quarter pf hops; but if thefe ales are
brewed in any of the .fummer months, there ihould be
more hops-allowed i
For Odlober or March brown beer, a hogffiead made;
from eleven buffiels of malt, boiled an hour and a quarter,
to be kept nine months, three pounds and a half ought to
be boiled in fuch drink at the Jeaft.
For O&ober or March pale beer, made from fourteen
buffiels, boiled,an hour and a quarter, and kept twelve
months, fix pounds ought to be allowed to a hogfhead of
luch drink, and more if the Imps are flufted in two
bags, and lefs time given the wort to baiL.
Of
672
BREW
• Of Foxing or Fainting Malt-Liquors.
Foxing,is a misfortune, or rather a difeafe, in malt-
drinks, occafioned by divers means, as the naftinefs of
the utenfils, putting the worts too thick together in the
backs or coolers, brewing too- often and foon one after
another, and fometimes by bad malts and waters, and
the liquors taken in wrong heats, being of fuch perni¬
cious confequence to the great brewer in particular, that
he fometimes cannot recover and bring his matters into a
right order again in lefs than a week or two, and is fo
hateful to him in its very name, that it is a general law
among them to make all fervants that name the word
Fox or Foxing in the brew-houfe to pay fix-pence, which
obliges them to call it Reynard; for, when once the
drink is tainted, it may be fmelt at Ibme difiance fome-
what like a Fox: It chiefly happens in hot weather, and
caufes the beer and ale fo tainted to acquire a fulfome
fickilh tafie, that will, if it is received in a great degree,
become ropy like treacle, and in Tome fliort time turn
four.
i\nd here we ihall mention the great value of the hop
in preventing and curing the fox in malt-liquors. When
the wort is run into the tub out of the maihing-vat, it is
a very good way to throw feme hops diredliy into it be¬
fore it is put into the copper, and they will fecure it a-
gainft fournefs and ropinels, that are the two effedts of
foxed worts or dfinks, and are of fuch power in this
refpedt, that raw worts may be Icept fome time, even in
hot weather, before they are boiled, and which is ne-
ceflary where there is a large quantity of malt ufed to a
little copper; but it is certain that the ftronger worts
will keep longer with hops than the fmaller forts: So
likewife, if a perfon has fewer tubs than are wanted,
and he is apprehenfive his worts will be foxed by too
thick lying in the coolers or working tubs, then it will
be a fafe way to put fome frefh hops into fuch tubs, and
work them with the yeafi, or, in cafe the drink is alrea¬
dy foxed in the vat or tun, new hops fhould be put in
and worked with it, and they will greatly fetch it again
into a right order; but then fuch drink fliould be care¬
fully taken clear off from its grofs nafty lee, which be¬
ing moftly tainted, would otherwife lie in the barrel, cor¬
rupt, and make it worfe.
Some lift quick-lime into foxed drinks while they are
working in the tun or vat, that its fire and fait may
break the cohefions of the beer or ale, and burn away
the ftench that the corruption would always caufe; but
then fuch drink fhould by a peg at the bottom of the
vat be drawn off as fine as poflible, and the dregs left
behind.
Of fermenting and ■working of Beers and Ales.
Though a frnall quantity of yeafi be neceffary to
ferment and fine the wort; yet it is in itfelf of a poifonT
ous nature, and if beat into the wort too often or in too
large a quantity, by its ftupifying and narcotic quality,
it makes the liquor fo heady, that five bufhels of malt
may be equal in ftrength to fix. But liquor made in
this manner is extremely unwholfome.
I N G.
It is alledged indeed, that beating the yeafi into worl
gives it a fine relifh, or it makes the ale bite of theyeaft J
but the true reafon is, to further its fale, on account of
its intoxicating quality. But fome people are fo fond of
white thick ale, that they often kill themfejves by drink¬
ing it; nor is their humour much different as to the com-i
mon brewers brown ale, who, when the cuftomer wants
a hogfhead, they put in immediately a handful of fait,
and another of flour, and fo bring it up ; this is no foon^
er on the Hilling than it is tapped, that it may carry a
froth on the top of the pot, otherwife they defpife it.
See Chemistry, Offermentalion.
Of working and fermenting London Stout Beer and Ale.
The yeaft is at once put into the tun to work the
fiout-beer and ale with ; by this means, and the fhortnefs
of time we have to ferment our firong drinks, we can¬
not make referves of cold worts to mix with and check
the too forward working of thofe liquors. The ftrong
beer brewed for keeping is fuffered to be blood-warm in
the winter, when the yeaft is put into it, that it may
gradually work two nights and a day at leaft, for this
will not admit of fuch a hafiy operation .as the common
brown ale, becaufe, if it is worked too warm and baity,
fuch beer will not ke«p near fo long as that fermented
cooler. The brown ale has, indeed, its yeaft put into
it in the evening very warm, becaufe it is often carried
away the vety next morning. The pale or amber ales
are often kept near it, not quite a week under fermen¬
tation, for the better incorporating the yeafi with the
wort.
Of forwarding and retarding the Fermentation of Malt-
liquors.
In cafe beer or ale is backward in working, it is cu-
ftomary to call fome flour out of the dufting-box, of
with the hand, over the top of the drink, which will be¬
come a fort of cruft or cover to help to keep the cold
out: Others put in one or two ounces of powdered gin¬
ger, which heats the wort and brings it forward : Others
take a gallon ftone-bottle and fill it with boiling water,
which, being well corked, is put into the working tub,
where it communicates a gradual 'heat for fome time,
and forwards the fermentation: Others referve fome raw
wort, which they heat and mix with the reft; but then
care muft be taken, that the pot in which it is heated
has no manner of greafe about it, left it fhould impede;
inftead of promoting the working; but, for retarding and
keeping back any drink that is too much heated in work¬
ing, the cold raw wort is the moft proper of any thing
to check it; though fome are known to put one or more
pewter diihes into it for that purpofe; or, it maybe
broke into feveral other tubs, where, by its ftiallow ly¬
ing, its fury will be abated. Others again, to make
drink work that is backward, will take the whites of
two eggs, and beat them up with half a quartern of good
brandy, and put it either into the working-vat, or into
the calk, which will quickly bring it forward, if a
warm cloth is put over the bung. Others tie up bran
in a coarfe thin cloth, and put it into the vat, where,
by its fpongy nature, it abforbs a quantity of the drink,
and breeds a heat to forward its working.
Some
BREW
Some brewers take off all the top-yeafl: firft, and then,
by a peg near the bottom of the working-tub, draw off
the beer or ale, fo that the dregs are by this means left
behind. This is very right, in ales that are to be drank
foon ; but in beers, that are to lie nine or twelve months
in a butt or other calk, there certainly will be wanted
fome faces or fedim'ents for the beer to feed on, elfe it
muft confequently grow hungry, fliarp, and eager; and
therefore, if its own top or bottom are not put into a
calk with the beer, fome other artificial compofition, or
lee, Ihould fupply its place, that is wholefomer, and
will better feed with fuch drink, than its own natural
fettlement; and therefore, there are here inferted feveral
receipts for anfwering this end.
Of artificial Lees for Stout or Stale Beer to
. feed on.
This article is of very great importance in the cu¬
ring of our malt-liquors. The general, misfortune of
the porter or keeping-beers drinking hard and harlh, is
partly owing to the hafty foul feces that lie at the bot¬
tom of the calk, compounded of the fediments of malt,
hops, and yealt. Wheat is, by many, put into fuch beer
to feed and preferve it, as being reckoned a fubftantial
alcali; however, it has been proved, that fuch wheat in
about three years time has eat into the very wood of the
calk. Others hang a bag of wheat in the veffel, that it
may not touch the bottom; but, in both cafes, the
wheat is difcovered to abforb and collect the acid quali¬
ties of the beer, yeaft, and hop. Hence it is, that fuch
whole wheat is loaded with the qualities of the unwhole-
fome fettlernents or grounds of the beer, and becomes of
fuch a corroding nature, as to do mifchief; and, for
that reafon, fome hang a bag of the flour of malted oats,
wheat, peafe, or beans, in the veflels of beer, as being
of a lighter and mellower body than the whole wheat or
its flour, -and more natural to the liquor: But whether
it be raw wheat or malted, it is fuppofed, after this re?
ceptacle has emitted its alcalous properties to the beer,
and taken in all it can of the acid qualities thereof, that
fuch beer will in time prey upon that again, and fo com¬
municate its pernicious qualities to the liquor.
Compofition for feeding Porter or Keeping-Beers.
Take a quart of French brandy, or as much of En-
glilh, that is free from any burnt tang, or other ill tafte,
and is full proof; to this put as much wheat'or bean-
flour as will knead it into dough, put it in long pieces
‘into the bung-hole, as foon as the beer has done work¬
ing, or aftorwards, and let it gently fall piece by piece
to the bottom of the butt ; this will maintain the diink
in a mellow frelhnefs, keep ftalenefs off for fome time,
and caufe it to be the flronger as it grows aged.
Another.
Take one pound of treacle, or honey, one pound of
the powder of dried oyfter-lhells, .or fat chalk, mix them
well, and put it into a butt, as foon as it has done work¬
ing, or fome time after, and bung it well; this will both
fine and preferve the beer in a foft, fmooth condition for
a great while.
Vol. 'I. No. 39.
I N G. 673
Another.
Take a peck of egg-(hells, and dry them in an oven,
break and mix them with two pounds of fat chalk, and
mix them with water wherein four pounds of coarfe fu-
gar have been boiled, and put it into the butt as afore-
faid.
To fine and preferve Beers and Ales, hy boiling an In¬
gredient in the Wort.
In each barrel-copper of wort, put in two quarts of
whole wheat as foon as poflible, that it may foak before
it boils; then (train it through a fieve, and put the wort
in cooling-tubs: Thus there will be extra&ed a gluey
confidence, which, being incorporated with the wort by
boiling, gives it a more thick and ponderous body, and,
when in the calk, foon makes a fediment or lee, as. the
wort is more or lefs loaded with the weighty particles of
this fizy body; but if the wheat were firfl parched, or
baked in an oven, it would do better, as being rather
too raw as it comes from the ear.
To fiop the Fret in Malt-liquors.
Take a quart of black cherry-brandy, and pour it in
at the bung-hole of the hoglhead, and flop it clofe.
To recover deadifh Beer.
When firong drink grows flat, by the lofs of its fpi-
rits, take four or five gallons out of a hogftiead, and
boil it with five pounds of honey, (kim it, and, when
cold, put it to the red, and (top it up clofe: This will
make it pleafant, quick, and drong.
To make fiale Beer drink new.
Take the herb horehound, damp it and drain it,
then put a fpoonful of the juice (which is an extreme
good peidoral) to a pitcher full of beer, let it (land co¬
vered about two hours, and drink it.
To fine Malt-liquors.
Take a pint of water, half an ounce of unflacked
lime, mix them well together; let it flandthree hours,
and the lime will fettle to the bottom, and the >wate^
be as clear as glafs; pour the water from the fediment^,
and put it into your ale or beer; mix it with half aii
ounce of ifing-glafs, (irfl cut fmall and boiled; and in
five hours time, or lefs, the beer in the barrel will fettle'.
and be clear.
TLeceipt for making Balls for fining, feeding, pre-
ferving, relifhing, and colouring Malt Drinks,
Wines, and Cyders.
Brown Balls.
Alabaster, or marble calcined into a powder, two
pounds. Oyfler-fhells, a little calcined and freed from
their brown or dirt-coloured out-fide, one pound.
Pure fat chalk, well dried, one pound, Horfe-bean
flour, firft freed from the hulls, one pound. Red laun¬
ders, four ounces. Grains of paradife, half an ounce.
Floren ine orrice-root, half an ounce. Coriander-feed,
a quarter of an ounce. Cloves, in. number fix. Hops,
half an ounce. The beft ftaple inciled ifing-glafs, two
ounces. The firft runnings of the molofles, or treacle,
two pounds.
8 H
3
' Pale
674
T7 I N G.
B R E
Pale Balls,
Are made tn the fame manner, and with the hke
quantity of every thing, except a pound or two of fiiie
fugar made into a fyrup, inftead of the raolofles, and o-
mitting the faundera.
TV. B. The powders are to be pretty fine, and the
balls dried very gradually without heat for the firft three
or four days upon brown paper laid over a large fieve
bottom, and turned often. Afterwards they may be put
into the fun, or at a proper diftance from the fire, in or¬
der to dry .them thoroughly; and the quantity of the
hops may be augmented, or wholly omitted, at difcre-
tion, according as the liquor requires.
Put as much water to your glafs as will juft cover it,
in order to open its body, letting it ftand fo twelve
hours; then add the following inlulion to it, and gra¬
dually diflblve the whole over a gentle fire. Then
-ftrain it off hot among fome of the powder, adding the
reft by a little at a time, with fome of the treacle or fy¬
rup likewiie alternately, till you beat the whole into a
ftiffmafs, out of which form balls weighing four oun¬
ces each.
inf upon.—Pour a pint of boiling water upon the
coriander-feed, and cloves bruifed, and the hops well
rubbed.* Cover them clofe, and let it ftand twelve
hours, then ftrain for the ufe aforefaid.
The number of balls for each cajk.—Powder one of
the balls and put it into a pin or half a firkin ; into a
firkin, two; into a kilderkin, three; into a barrel, fix;
and fo on in proportion as the calk is larger or lefier,
ftirring them well in; and, if the liquor- has age enough,
fo that it will bear racking, it Ihould be firft fetved lo>
and.then they will anfwer much better.
Of the Cellar or Repofitory for keeping Beers
and Ales.
It is' certain, that the weather has not only a power
or influence in brewing, but alfo after, die drink is in. the
barrel, hoglhead, or butt, in cellars, or other places,
which is often the caufe of forwarding or retarding the
finenefs of malt-liquors; fur if we brew in cold weather,
and the drink is to ftand in a cellar of clay, or where
fprings. rife, or waters lie or pafs through fucb a place,
tliefe will check the due courfe of .the ch ink, chill, flat,
deaden, and hinder it irom becoming fine. So like wife, if
beer or ale. is brewed in hot weather, and put into chalky,
gravelly, or fandy cellars, and efpecially if the-windows
open to the fouth, fo.uth-eaft, or fouth-weft, then it is
very likely it will not keep long, but be muddy and ftale :
Therefore, to keep beer in fuch a cellar, it fhould be
brewed in-Oftober, that the drink may have time to cure
kfelf before the hot weather comes on ; but, in wettilh
or dampr cellars, it is beft to brew in March, that the
drink may have time to fine and fettle before the winter
weather is advanced. Now, cellars fhould have double
or treble doors, that the outer one may be fhut before
the inner one is opened, to keep the air out. If a cellar
fee kept dry, and have double doors, it is reckoned
warm in winter, and cool in fummer. But the beft of
ceiims are thought to be thofe in chalks,, gravels, or
fands; and particularly in chalks, which’are of a drying
quality more .than any other, and ccnfequently tiifiipati:
damps ; which contributes much to the 'gook keeping of
the drink, for all damp cellars are prejudicial to the pre-
fervation of beers and ales, and fooner bring on the rot¬
ting of the cafks and hoops than the dry ones. Befides,
in fuch inclofed cellars and temperate air, the beers and
ales ripen triore kindly, are better digefted and foftened,
and drink fmoother : But, when the temperature of the
air in the cellar is unequal, the drink foon grows ftale.
Though malt-liquor be truly brewed, yet it is often ('poll¬
ed in a bad cellar, that occafions fuch alternate ferment¬
ations as to make it thick and four, though it fometimes
happens that after fuch changes it fines itfelf again.'
To prevent thefe commotions of the beer, fome brew their-
pale malt in March, and their brown in Oftober ; be-
caufe the pale malt, having not fp many fiery particles in
it as the brown, (lands more in need of the fummer s
weather to ripen it, while the brown fort, being more
hard and dry, is better able to defend itfelf againft the
winter-colds that will help to fmooth its harfh particles ;
yet, when they happen to be too Violent, horfe-dung
(hould be laid to the windows as a fortification apainii
them.
Some are of ppinion, that Oftober is the beft of all o-
ther months to brew any fort of malt in, by reafon there
are fo many cold months dire&ly following, that will di-
geft the drink and make it much excel that brewed in
March, becaufe fuch beer will not want that care and
watching, as that brewed in March abfolutely requires,
by often taking out and putting in the vent-peg on change
of weather ; and, if it is always left out, then it dead¬
ens and palls the drink; yet,-if due care is not taken
in this refpeft, a thunder or ftormy night may marr all,
by making the drink ferment and burft the ca(k; for
which redfon, as iron hoops are moft in fafhion at this
time, they are certainly the greateft fecurity to the fafe-
ty of the drink thus expofed; and next to tliem is the
chefnut-hoop; both which will endure a (horter or longer
time, as the cellar is more or lefs dry, and according to the
management attending them : The iron hoops generally
begin to mil firft at the edges, and therefore ftiould be
rubbed off, and be kept from wet as much as poflihle.
Of Cleaning and Sweetening of Cafks.
In cafe your c?.(k is a butt, then with cold water rinfe
out the lees clean, and. have ready boiling or very hot
water, which put in, and, with a Jong dale $nd a little
birch faftened to its end, fcrub the bottom as well as voir
can : At the 'fame time let there be, provided another
(hotter broom of about a foot and a half long, that with
one hand may be fo employe-d In the upper and other
parts as to clean the cafe well : So in a hogfhead, or
other, fmaller veffel, the one-handed (hart broom may be
ufed with water, or with water, fjmd, or a(hes, and be
effeftually cleaned; the outfide of the. calk about the
bung-hole (hould be well waftred, left-the yeaft, as it
works over, carry fome of its filth with it.
But, to fweeten a barrel, kilderkin, firkin, or pin, in
the great hxewhoufes, they put them over the copper-
hole
B R E
Ji-ole for a night together, that the (leant of the boiling
water or wort may penetrate into the wood ; this way is
fuch a furious fearcher, that unlefs the cade is new-hopp¬
ed juft before, it will be apt to fall to pieces.
Another Way.
Take a pottle, or more, of ftone-lime, and put it into
the calk^ on this pour fome water, and ftop it up di-
redtly, (baking it well about.
Another Way.
Take along linen rag, and dip it in melted brim-
ftone; light it at the end, and let it hang pendant with
the upper part of the rag faftened to the wooden bung;
this is a moft quick and fure' way, and will not only
(weeten, but help to fine the drink.
Another.
Or, to make your calk more, pleafant, you may ufe
the vintners way thus: Take four ounces of (lone brim-
ftone, one ounce of burnt allum, and two ounces of
brandy; melt all thele in an earthen pan over hot coals,
and dip therein a piece of new canvas, and inftantly
fprinkle thereon the powders of nutmegs, cloves, cori¬
ander, and anife feeds : this canvas fet on fire, and let it
burn hanging in the calk faftened at the end with the
wooden bung, fo that no fmoke comes out.
For a mujly Cafk.
Boil fome pepper in water, and fill the calk with it
fealding hot.
To prepare a new VefJ'el to keep Flail-liquors in.
A new vefiel is rnoft improperly ufed byTome ignorant
B R E
BREY, a town of the bilhopric of Liege, in Germany,
about fixteen miles north of Maeftricht; E. long. 50
40', and N lat. 510 15'.
BREYNIA, in botany, a fynonime of the capparis.
See Capparis.
BRI ANCON, a town of I>auphiny, in France, fituated
about forty live miles fouth-eaft of Grenoble; E.
long. 6° 20', and N. lat. 440 50'.
BRIAR, in botany, the Englifn name of a fpecies of
rofa. See Rosa.
BRI ARE, a town of the Me of France, fituated on the
river Loire, about feventy-five miles fouth of Paris;
E. long. 20 4$', andN. lat. 47° 4c/.
BRIBE, a gift given to a perfon for doing or forbearing
any action that he ought to do -or forbear.
BRIBERY. See Law.
BRICIANI, thofe of the order of that name. This
was a military order, inftituted by St Bridget, queen
of Sweden, wlro gave them the rules and co'tftit'.nions
of thofe of Malta and St Auguftin. This order was
approved by pope Urban V. They were to fight for
the burying of the dead, to relieve and aflift widows,
orphans, the lame,. fick,
WING. <575
people for ftrong drink, after only once or twice fealding
with water; which is fq wrong, that fuch beer or. ale
will not fail of tailing thereof for half, if not a whole
year afterwards. To prevent this inconvenience, when
your brewing is over, put up' Lome water fealding hot,
and let it run through the grains; then boil it and fill up-
the calk, ftop it well, and let it liand till it is cold; do
this twice ; then take the grounds of ftroag drink and
boil in it green walnut-leaves and new hay or wheat-
ftraw, and put ail into the calk, that it be.full, and ftop
it clofe : After this, ufe it for fmall beer half a year to¬
gether, and then it will be thoroughly fweet and: fit for
ftrong drinks.
Wine-cafks.
These are the cbeapeft of ail others to furnifh a per¬
fon readily with, as being many of them good calks for
malt-liquors, becaufe the fack and white-wine forts are
already feafoned to. hand, and will greatly improve beers
and ales that are put in them : But beware of the Rhe-
niih wine calks for ftrong drinks ; for its wood is fo tinc¬
tured with this lharp wine, that" it will hardly ever be
free of it; and therefore fuch calk is beft ufed for fmall
beer: the claret calk will a great deal fooner be brought
into a ferviceable ftate for holding ftrong drink, if it is
two or three times fealded with grounds of barrels, and
afterwards ufed for fmall beer for fome time. But to
cure a claret-calk of its colour and tafte, put a peck of
ftone-liroe into a hoglhead, and pour upon it three pails
of water; bung immediately with a wood or cork-bung,
and lhake it well about a quarter of an hour, and let ,it
Hand a day and night, and it will bring off the red co¬
lour, and alter the tafte of the calk very much.
B R I
BRICK, a. fat reddilh earth, formed into long, fquares, .
four inches broad, and eight or nine long; by means
of a wooden mould, and then baked or burnt in a
kiln,-to lerve the purpofes of building.
Bricks are of great antiquity, as appears by the-fa-
cred writings, the tower and walls of Babylon being
with them.
In the eaft, they baked their bricks in the fun; the
Romans tiled them unburnt, only leaving them to dry
for four or five years in the air.
The Greeks chiefly tiled three kinds of bricks ; the
firft whereof was called \dtd(lron,~\ i. e. of two palms ;
the fecond, \tetrad6ron\, of four palms ; the third,
X_pentad6ren~\, of five palms. They had- alfo other
bricks, juft half each of thofe, to render their works
more folid, and alfo more agreeable to the fight,'by
the diverfities of the figures and fizes of the bricks.
Pliny fays, that to make good bricks they muft hot
confift of any earth that is- fuil of Land or gravel, nor
of fuch as is gritty or ftony; but of a greyish mail,
or whitilh chalky clay, or at leaft of a reddilh earth :
He alfo adds, that the beft feafon for making bricks
is the fpring; becaufe, if mitde in fummer, they will
ba..
B R I (676
be fubjeft to crack, and be full of chinks. He di-
re&s, that the loam of which bricks are made be well
fte'eped and wrought with water.
Bricks, among us, are various, according to their va¬
rious forms, dimenfions, dies, method of making, ebc.
the principal of which are, Compafs-bricks, of a circu¬
lar form, ufed infleyning of walls : Concave, or hol¬
low bricks, on one fide flat like a common brick, on
the other hollowed, and ufed for conveyance of wa¬
ter : Feather-edged bricks, which are like common
llatute bricks, only thinner on one edge than the o-
ther, and ufed for penning up the brick pannels in
timber buildings: Cogging bricks are ufed for making
the indented works under the caping of walls built
with great bricks : Caping bricks, formed on purpofe
for caping of walls: Dutch or Flemilh bricks, ufed to
pave yards, ftables, and for foap-boHers vaults and
cifterns: Clinkers, fuch bricks as are glazed by the
heat of the fire in making : Sandel or famel-bricks,
are fuch as lie outmoll in a kiln, or clamp, and con-
fequently are foft and ufelefs, as not being thoroughly
burnt: Great bricks are thofe twelve inches long, fix
broad, and three thick, ufed to build fence-walls:
_Plai%r or'buttrefs bricks, have a notch at one end,
half the breadth of the brick ; their ufe is to bind the
work which is built of great bricks: Statute-bricks or
frnall common bricks, ought, when burnt, to be nine
inches long, four and a quarter broad, and two and a
half thick ; they are commonly ufed in.paving cellars,
links, hearths, 6"£.
Bricks are burnt either in a kiln or clamp. Thofe
that are burnt in a kiln, are firll fet or placed in it,
and then the kiln being covered with pieces of bricks,
they put in fome wood to dry them with a gentle fire ;
and this they continue till the bricks are pretty dry,
which is known by the fmoke’s turning from a darkifh
colour to a tranfparent fmoke: They then leave off
putting in wood, and proceed to make ready for burn¬
ing, which is performed by putting in brulh, furze,
fpray, heath, brake, or fern-faggots; but before they
put in any. faggots, they dam up the mouth or .mouths
of the kiln with pieces of bricks (which they call Jhin-
log) piled up one upon another, and clofe it up with
wet brick-earth, inllead of mortar.
The fhinlog they make fo high, that there is but
juft room above it to thruft in a faggot; then they
proceed to put in more faggots, till the kiln and its
arches look white, and the fire appears at the top of
the kiln ; upon which they flacken the fire for an
hour, and let all cool by degrees. This they continue
to do, alternately heating and flacking, till the ware
be, thoroughly burnt, which is ufually effected in forty-
eight hours.
About London they chiefly burn in clamps, built of
the bricks themfelves, after the manner of arches in
kilns, with a vacancy between each brick, for the fire
to play through ; but with this difference, that inftead
of arching, they fpan it over by making the bricks
project one over another on both fides of the place,
for.the wood and coals to lie in till they meet, and are
bounded by the bricks at the top, which cfofe all up.
) B R I
The place for the fuel is carried up ftrait on botsh
fides, till about three feet high ; then they almoft fill
it with wood, and over that lay a covering of fea-coal,
and then overfpan the arch; but they ftrew fea-coal
alfo over the clamp, betwixt all the rows of bricks;
laftly, they kindle the wood, which gives fire to the
coal ; and when all is burnt, then they conclude the
bricks are fufficiently burnt.
0/7 ^ Bricks, olive oil imbibed by the fubftance of
bricks, and afterwards diftilled from it. This oil was
once in great repute for curing many difeafes, but is
now entirely laid afide.-
BRICKING, among builders, the counterfeiting of a
brick-wall on phlfter, which is done by fmearing
it over with red ochre, and making the joints with an
edged tool; thefe laft are afterwards filled with a fine
plafter.
BRIDE, a woman newly married. Among the Greeks
it was cuftomary for the bride- to be condudted from
her father's houfe to her hufband’s in a chariot, the
evening being chofen.for that purpofe, to conceal her
blufties; fhe was placed in the middle, her hufband
fitting on one fide, and one of her moft intimate
friends on the other; torches were carried before her,
and Ihe was entertained in the paffage with a fong fui-
table to the occafion. When they arrived at their
journey’s end, the axle-tree of the coach they rode in
was burnt, to fignify that the bride was never to re¬
turn to her father’s houfe. Among the Romans, when
a bride was carried home to her hulband’s houfe., (he *
was not to touch the threlhold at her firft entrance,
but was to leap over it.
BRIDEGROOM, a man newly married, the fpoufe of
the bride.
The Spartan bridegrooms committed a kind of rape
upon their brides; for matters being agreed on be¬
tween them two, the woman (hat contrived and ma¬
naged the match, having (haved the bride’s hair clofe
to her (kin, drefled her up in man’s deaths, and left
her upon a mattrefs; this done, in came the bride¬
groom, in his ufual drefs, having fupped as ordinary,
and dealing as privately as he could to the room where
the bride lay, and untying her virgimgirdle, took her
to his embraces ; and having ftayed a (hort time with
her, returned to his companions, with whom he con¬
tinued to fpend his life, remaining with them .by night
as well as by day, unlefs he ftole a (hort vifit to his
bride, which could not be done without a great deal
of circumfpedtion, and fear of being difeovered.
BRIDEWELL, a work-houfe, or place of corredion
for vagrants, (trumpets, and other diforderly perfons.
Thefe are made to work, being maintained with
cloathing and diet; and when it feems good to their
governors, they are fent by pafles into their native
countries : however, while they remain here, they are
not only made to work, but, according to their crimes,
receive, once a-fortnight, fuch a number of ftripes as
the governor commands. Yet to this hofpital feveral
hopeful and ingenious lads are put apprentices, and
prove afterwards honeft.and fubftantial citizens.
BRIDGE, a work of mafonry or timber, confifting of
one
B R I ( t
ene or more arches, built over a river, canal, or
the like, for the conveniency of croffing the fame.
Bridges are a fort of edifices very difficult to exe¬
cute, on account of the inconvenience of laying foun¬
dations, and walling under water. The parts of a
bridge are the piers, the arches ; the pavement, or
way ever for cattle and carriages; the foot-way on
each Tides for foot paffengej-s; the rail or parapet,
which inclofes the whole; and the hutments or ends
of the bridge on the bank.
The conditions required in a bridge are, that it be
well-defigned, commodious, durable, and fuitably de¬
corated. The piers of ftone-bridges ffiould be equal
in number, that there may be one arch in the middle,
where commonly the current is ftrongeft; their thick-
nefs is not to be lefs than a fixth part of the fpan of
the arch, nor more than a fourth; they are common¬
ly guarded in the front with angular fterlings, to break
the force of the current: the ftrongeft arches are thofe
whofe fweep is a whole femicircle;. as the piers of brid¬
ges always diminiffi the bed of a river, in cafe of inunda¬
tions, the bed niuft be funk or hollowed in proportion
to the fpace taken up by the piers (as the waters gain
in depth what they lofe in breadth) which otherwife
conduce to waffi away the foundation and endanger the
piers: To prevent this, they fometimes diminiffi the
current, either by lengthening its eburfe, or by ma¬
king it more winding; or by flopping the bottom with
rows of planks, ftakes, or piles, which break the
current. It is alfo required that thq foundation of
bridges be laid at that feafon of the year, when the
waters are loweft; and if the ground be rocky, hard
gravel, or ftony, the firft ftones of the fohndation
may be laid on the furface; but if the foil be foft fand,
it will be neceflary to dig till you come to a firm bot¬
tom.
Among the bridges of antiquity, that built by Tfa-
jan over the Danube is allowed to be the moft magni¬
ficent ; it was compofed of twenty arches, of an hun¬
dred and fifty feet in height, and their opening from
one pier to another was an hundred and fixty feet:
The piers of this fine bridge are ftill to be feen in the
Danube, being erefted between Servia and Moldavia',
a little above Nicopolis.
Among modern bridges, that of Weftminfter, built
over the river Thames, may be accounted pne of the
fineft in the world: It is forty-four feet wide, a com¬
modious foot-way being allowed for paftengers, on
each fide, of about feven feet broad, raifed above the
ro^d allowed for carriages, and paved with broad
moor-ftones, while the fpace left between them is fuf-
ficient to 'admit three carriages and two horfes to go.
a-breaft, without any danger. Its extent from wharf
to wharf is 1220 Or 1222 feet, being full three hun¬
dred feet longer than London-bride. The free wa¬
ter-way under the arches of this bridge is eight hun¬
dred and feventy feet, being four times as much as
the free water-way left between the fteflings of Lon
don-bridge: This difpofkion, ^together with the gen-'
tlenefs of the ftream, are the chief reafons why no
fenfible fall of water can ever flop, or in the leaft
Vol. I. Numb. 29. ‘ 3
7 ) B R I
endanger the fmalleft boats in their paflage through
the arches.
It confifts of thirteen large and two fmall arches,
together with fourteen intermediate piers.
Each pier terminates with a faliant right angle a-
gainft either ftream: the two middle piers are each fe-
venteen feet in thicknefs at the fntinging of the
arches, and contain three thoufand cubic feet, or near
two hundred tons of folid ftone; and the others de~
creafe in width equally on each fide by one foot.
All the arches of this bridge are femicircular; they
all fpring from about two feet above low-water mark;
the middle arch is feventy-fix feet wide, and the o-
thers decreafe in breadth equally on each fide by four
feet.
This bridge is built of the beft materials ; and the
fize and difpofition of thefe materials are fuch, that
there is no falfe bearing, or fo much as a falfe joint in
the whole ftruflure ; befides that, it is built in a neat
and elegant tafte, and with fuch fimplicity and gran¬
deur, that, whether viewed from the water, or by
the paffengers who walk over it, it fills the mind with
an agreeable furprize. The femioftangular towers,
which form the recefles of the foot-way, the manner
of placing the lamps, and the height of the baluftrade,
are at once the moft beautiful, and, in every other
refpedt, the beft contrived.
But the moft Angular bridge in Europe is that built
over the river Tave in Glamorganffiire. It confifts
of one ftupenduous arch, the diameter of which is
175 feet, the chord 140, the altitude 37, and the
abutments 32. This magnificent arch was built by
William Edward, a poor coUntry-malbn, in the year
1756.
Bridges are either built of ftone or timber, as is
judged moft convenient.
5r««e-B ridges confift of piers, arches, and hutments,
made of hewn ftone, foraetimes alfo intermixed with,
bricks.
IVooden-BRittGES are compofed of beams and joifts,
fupported by punchions, well cramped and bound
together.
RuJhen-BRiDGES are made of great bundles of ruffies,
bound faft together, over which planks are laid, and
fattened: thefe are put Over marffiy places, to ferve
for a croffihg ground.
Pendent or hanging-Bridges, called alfo philofophical
bridges, are thofe not fupported by ports or pillars,
but hung at large in the air, fuftained only at the two
ends or hutments.
Dr^w-B ridge, one that is faftened with hinges at one
end only, fo that the other may be drawn up; in
which cafe, the bridge ftands upright, to hinder the
paffage of a ditch or moat.
Flying or floating Bridge, is generally made of two
fmall bridges, laid ene over the other in fuch a mar*
ner, that the uppermoft ftretches and runs out, by
help of certain cords, running through pullies placed
along the fides of the under bridge, which puffi it for¬
wards, till the end of it joins the place it is intended
to be fixed on.
8 I Bridges
BUT ( 67S } B R I
Bridge of boats, boats made of copper, and joined fide
by fide, till they reach a-crofs a river, which being co¬
vered with planks, are faflened with flakes or anchors.
Bridge of communication is that made over a river,
by which two armies, or forts, which are feparated
by that river, have a free communication with one a-
nother.
Floating Bridge, a bridge made ufe of, in form of a
work in fortification, called a redoubt, confifling of
two boats, covered with planks, which are folidly
framed, fo as to bear either horfe or cannon.
Bridge, in gunnery, the- two pieces of timber which
go between the two tranfums of a gun-carriage, on
which the bed refts.
Bridge, in mufic, a term for that part of a (fringed
inftrument over which the firings are ftretched. The
bridge of a violin is about one inch and a quarter
high, and near an inch and a half long.
Bridge-town, the capital of the ifland of Barbadoes :
Weft Ion. 56°, and North lat. 130. It has commo¬
dious wharfs for unlading goods, alfo fome forts and
caftles for the defence of the place.
Bridge-north, a borough-town of Shropfhire, fitua-
ted on the river Severn, about fifteen miles fouth-eaft
of Shrewfbury: Weft Ion. 20 30', and North lat. 520
40,. It fends two members to parliament.
Bridgewater, a large borough-town of Somerfet-
fhire, fituated near the mouth of the river Evil, in 30
Weft long, and 510 15' North lat. It fends two
members to parliament.
BRIDLE, in the menage, a contrivance made of ftraps
or thongs of leather and pieces of iron, in order to
keep a horfe in fubje&ion and obedience.
The feveral parts of a bridle are the bit, or fnaffie;
the head-ftall, or leathers from the top of the head
to the rings of the bit; the fillet, over the fore-head
and under the fore-top; the throat-band, which but¬
tons from the head-band under the throat; the reins,
or long thongs of leather that come from the rings of
the bit, and being call over thehorfe’s head, the rider
holds them in his hand •, the oofe band, going through
loops at the back of the head-ftall, and buckled under
the cheeks ; the trench ; the cavefan; the martingal;
and the chaff-halter.
Bridles imported pay a duty of 4 s. q-renyd. the do¬
zen ; whereof 4 s. 3-r^d. is repaid on exporting
them again: befides which they alfo pay 6s. for eve¬
ry 20 s. value upon oath, without any drawback.
Bridle-hand is the horfeman’s left hand, the right
hand being the fpear or fword hand.
To /wallow the Bridle, is faid of ahorfe that has too
wide a mouth,, and too fmall a bit-mouth.
BRIDON, or Snaffle, after the Englilh fafhion, is a
very flender bit-mouth, without any branches. The
Englifh make much ufe of them, and fcarcely ufe any
{rue bridles: except in the fervice of war. The French
call them bridons, by way of diftindtion from bridles.
BRIDPORT, a borough and port-town of Dorfetfhire,
fituated about ten miles weft of Dorchefter j W. long.
50, and N. lat. 50° 4c/.
It fends, two members to parliament.
BRIEF, in Scots law, a writ iffued from the chancery,
diredted to any judge-ordinary, commanding and au-
thorifing that judge to call a jury to inquire into the
cafe mentioned in the brief, and upon their verdidt to
pronounce fentence.
Apojlolical Briefs,' letters which the pope difpatches
to princes, or other magiftrates, relating to any public
affair.
Thefe briefs are diftinguiftied from bulls, in re¬
gard the latter are more ample, and always written on
parchment, and fealed with lead or green wax; where¬
as briefs are very concife, written on paper, fealed
with red wax, and with the feal of the fifherman, or
St Peter in a boat.
BRIEG, a town of Silefia, about twenty miles fouth-
eaft of Breftaw ; E. long. 170 20 , and N. lat. 50® 50’.
BRIENNOIS, the fouthern divifion of the duchy of
Burgundy, in France.
BRIEUX, a port-town of Britany, in France, fituated
on the Englifti channel, about thirty miles weft of St
Malo; W. long. 20 5c/, and N. lat. 48° 4c/.
BRIGADE, in the military art, a party or divifion of a
body of foldiers, whether horfe or foot, under the
command of a brigadier.
An army is divided into brigades of horfe and bri¬
gades of foot: a brigade of horfe is a body of eight
or ten fquadrons; a brigade of foot confifts of four,
five, or fix battalions.
The eldeft brigade has the right of the firft line,
and the fecond the right of the fecond, and the two
next take the left of the two lines, and the youngeft
ftand in the centre.
Brigade-major, is an officer appointed by the briga¬
dier, to affift him in the management and ordering of
his brigade.
BRIGADIER is the general officer who has the com¬
mand of a brigade. The eldeft. colonels are generally
advanced to this port. He that is upon duty is briga¬
dier of the day. They march at the head of their
own brigades, and are allowed a ferjeant and ten men
of their own brigade for their guard.
Brigadiers, and Sub-brigadiers, are polls in the
horfe-guards.
BRIGANDINE, a coat of mail, a kind of ancient de-
fenfive armour, confifting of thin jointed fcales of
plate, pliant and eafy to the body.
BRIGANTINE, a fmall light veffel, which can both
row and fail well, and is either for fighting or giving
chace. It hath about twelve or fifteen benches for
the rowers, one man to a bench ; all the hands aboard
are foldiers, and each man hath his mufquet lying
ready under his oar.
BRIGG, a market-town in Lincolnfhire, about twenty-
four miles north of Lincoln; W. long. 2c/, and N.
lat. 530 40'.
BRIGHTELMSTONE, a little port-town in Suffex,
about feven miles fouth-weft of Lewes; W. long. \dt
and N. lat. 50° $0 .
BRIHUEGA, a town of New Caftile, in Spain, about
forty-three miles north-eaft of Madrid; W. long. 30
20', and N. lat. 41°.
BRILL,
B R I ( ^79 ) B R I
BRILL, or Briel, the capital of the iflafid of Voorn,
in Holland, lituated about twelve miles fouth of the
Hague; E, long. 40, and N. lat. 510 jo'.
BRILLIANT, in a general fenfe, fomething that has
a lucid and bright appearance.
Brilliant, in the menage, a brilk, high-mettled,
llately horfe, is called brilliant, as having a rai ed
neck, a fine motion, excellent haunches, upon which
he rifes, though never fo little put on.
BRIM denotes the utmoft verge or edge, efpecially of
round things.
Brim, in country affairs. A fow is faid to brim, or to
go to brim, when fhe is ready to take boar.
BRIMSTONE. See Sulphur, and Chemistry.
Brimstone-w^/p. See Marble.
BRIN, a city of Moravia, dependent on Bohemia, a-
bout thirty miles fouth-weft of Olmutz : E. long. 160
20, and N. lat. 490 40 .
BRINDISI, a port-town of the kingdom of Naples, fi-
tuated on the gulph of Venice, about thirty-five miles
north-weft of Otranto; E. long. 1S0 45/, andN. lat.
400 40/.
BRINE, water replete with faline particles ; or pickle.
Brine-w«/ct, a fait water, which being boiled, turns
into fait.
Brine taken out of brine-pits, or brine-pans, ufed
by fome for curing or pickling of fifh, without boiling
the fame into fait, and rock-Ialt without refining it in¬
to white-falt, are prohibited by 1 Anne, cap. xxi.
BRINGING-IN a borfe, in the menage, the fame as to
fay, keep down the nofe of a horfe that boars, and
toffes his nofe in the wind; this is done by means of a
good branch. See Banquet, and Wind.
BRION, an ifland of North America, in the gulph of
St Lawrence.
BRIONES, a fmall town of Old Caftile, in Spain, fi-
tuated on the river Ebro.
BRIONI, the name of three iftands in the Adriatic fea,
upon the weftern coaft of Iftria. They belong to the.
Republic of Venice.
BRlONNE, a town of Normandy, in France, fituated
on the Rill, about ten leagues from Rouen.
BRISAC, a fortified town of Swabia, in Germany, fi¬
tuated on the eaftern fhore of the river Rhine, about
thirty miles north of Stralburg; E. long. 70 ij7, and
N. lat. 48° io'.
New Brisac, a fortrefs on the weftern fhore of the
Rhine, oppofite to Old Brifac. It is fituated in Al-
face, and belongs to the French.
BRISGOW, a territory of the circle of Swabia, in
Germany, fituated on the eaft fide of the Rhine, op¬
pofite to the Upper Alface, whereof Fribourg and Brir
fac are the chief towns.
BRISTLE, a rigid glofty kind of hair, found on fwine,
and much ufed by brufhmakers, &c.
Bnftles, rough and undrefled, pay a^ duty of 1 s.
2t3oVL the dozen pound, whereof 1 s. -^5d, is drawn
back on exporting them ; whereas dreffed briftles pay
a duty of 2 s. 4T^d. the dozen pound, whereof a s-
is drawn back on exportation..
The whifkers of cats are alfo fometimes called bri¬
ftles ; as are the quills of the porcupine.
BRISTOL, a city and port-town of England, fitnated"
partly in Gloucefterfhire, and partly in Somerfetfhire ;
W. long. 20 40', andN. lat. 5*° go'.
It (lands on the river Avon, about ninety miles weft
of London, and is a town of the greateft foreign trade
of any in Britain next to London. It is alfo a bifhop’s
fee, fends two members to parliament, and gives the
title of earl to the noble family of Harvey.
New Bristol, the capital of the county of Bucks, in
Penfilvania, about twenty miles north of Philadelphia.
It is fituated on the river Delawar, in 750 W. long,
and 40° 45' N. lat.
Bristol wa/r’r. Thefe waters are the fourth in de¬
gree amongft the waters which are efteemed warm.
The waters of Bath are the firft, Buxton the fecond,.
and Matlock the third.
Bath waters are beneficial, when the fecietions from'
the blood are diminifhed ; Briftol, when too much in-
creafed: Bath attenuates powerfully; Briftol incraf-
fates : Bath is fpirituous, and helps defe&s; Briftol
is more cooling, and fiipprefles plentitude, with its
confequences, inflammations and haemorrhages. *
If we may judge of the contents of Briftol waters,
from their effefts, which are exceedingly deterfive and
healing ; they partake chiefly of chalk, lapis calcarius,
and calaminaris, the virtues of which are too dry to
cleanfe*r they fill ulcers with flefli, and cicatrize them.
But whatever the fubftances are that impregnate
them, it is plain they are very fubtile, and that there
is but little of a terreftrial part in them, from their
fpecific lightnefs above other waters: Yet when we
confider how agreeable to the fight,, fmell and tafte ;
how clear, pure and foft they are ; their gentle degree
of heat, fo adapted to fundry difeafes ; it muft be con¬
cluded, that thofe waters do imbibe fome falutary par¬
ticles in their paffage through the earth; and, from:
the many cures yearly wrought by them, that they
have an undoubted tittle to a place in the firft-clafs of
medicinal waters.
The difeafes in which Briftol waters are properly
prefcribed, are internal haemorrhages and inflamma¬
tions, blood-fpitting, dyfentery, and immoderate flux
of the menfes, purulent ulcers of the vifcera : Hence,,
in confumptions, the dropfy, fcurvy with heat, (lone,
gravel, ftrangury.; the habitual gout, fcorbutic rheu-
matifm, diabetes, flow- fevers, atrophy, pox, cancer,
gleets in both fexes, king’s evil, <&c.; in all thefe difor-
ders, Bath waters are not only improper, but hurtful;
they roufe the too languid, and quicken the too lazy
circulation ; they allay the heat, and reftrain the too
rapid motion of the blood. Thofe impregnate the
phlegmatic, thefe attemperate the choleric conftitution.
Bath water feems to be adapted to the maladies of the
ftomacb, guts, and nerves; Briftol, to thofe of the:
lungs, kidneys, and bladder : Again, Bath waters are
at variance with a milk courfe ; and the Briftol can
never be judicioufly direfted, but when they may be;
joined with reafoh and fuccefs.
The.
B R O f 680 ^ B R O
The Brtftol waters are taken medicinally only du¬
ring the hot months* as from April to September.
Bristoi,in botany, a name fometimes given to
the Hchnis. See Lichnms.
BRITAIN, or Great-britain, the moft confiderable
of ail the European iflands, lies between 50° and 6o°
N. lat. and between 20 E. long, and 6° W. long.
The general divifion of Britain, is into South and
North Britain, or England and Scotland.
New Brita/IN, a large country of North America,
called alfo Terra Labrador, has Hudfon’s bay and
llrait on the north and weft; Canada and the river of
St Lawrence, on the fouth; and the Atlantic ocean
on the eaft.
It is fubjedt to Great-Britain, but yields only Ikins
and furs.
BRITANNIC A, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of Rumex. SccRumex.
BRITAN Y, a province of France, furrounded by the
Englifh channel and the bay of Bifcay, on the north,
weft, and fouth ; and bounded on the eaft by the pro¬
vince of Orleanois.
BRITE, or Bright, in hufbandry. Wheat, barley,
or any other grain, is faid to brite, when it grows o-
ver ripe, and {hatters.
BRITTLENESS, that quality of bodies, on account
of which they are denominated brittle, or which fub-
jedts them to be eafily broken.
Brittle bodies are likewife very hard and durable,
barring accidents; and it is remarkable, that tin,
though tough in itfelf, makes all other metals brittle,
when mixed with them.
BRIVE la Gaillarde, a town of France in the Li-
moufin, upon the Coureze.
BRIXEN, a city of Tyrol in Germany, about fifty
miles north-eaft of Trent: E. long. 110 45', N. lat.
46° 45'.
BRIZA, a genus of the triandria digynia clafs. There
are five fpecies of Briza, two of which are natives of
Britain, viz. the media or middle quaking grafs, and
the minor or fmall quaking-grafs. They grow in pa-
fture-grounds.
BRIZE, in hulbandry, denotes ground that has lain long
untilled.
Briz{belters ufed by gardeners who have not
walls on the north-lide, to keep cold winds from da¬
maging their beds of melons. They are inclofures a-
bout fix or feven feet high, and an inch or more thick;
made of ftraw, fupported by ftakes fixed into the
ground, and props acrofs on both infide and outfide ;
and faftened together with willow twigs, or iron-wire.
BROADALBIN, a diftritt or county of Perthfhire, in
Scotland, bordering upon Argyleftiire: It gives the
title of earl to a branch of the noble family of
Campbell.
BROAD-/*, in the fea-language, denotes a volley of
cannon, or a general difcharge of all the guns on one
fide of a fhip at once.
BROCADE, or Brocado, a fluff of gold, filver, or
filk, raifed and enriched with flowers, foliages, and
other ornaments, according to the fancy of the mer¬
chants or manufacturers.
Formerly the word figrtified only a ftuflf, wove all
of gold,, both in the warp and in the woof, or all of
filver, or of both mixed together; thence it pafled to
thofe of fluffs in which their was filk mixed, to raile
and terminate the gold or filver flowers: But at pre¬
fect all fluffs, even thofe of filk alone, whether they
be grograms of Tours or of Naples, fattins, and even
taffeties or luftrings, if they be but adorned and work¬
ed with fome flowers, or other figures, are called bro-.
cades.
Brocade/><?//, the Englifti name of a fpecies of limax.
See Limax.
BROCATEL, or Brocadel, a kind of coarfe bro¬
cade; chiefly ufed for tapeftry.
BROCCOLI, a kind of cabbage cultivated for the ufe
of the table; the manner of drefling which is this:
When their heads are gfown to their full bignefs,
they are to be cut off, with about four inches of the
tender ftem ; the outer lkin is then to be dripped off
the ftem, after which they are to be waftied, and
boiled in a clean linnen cloth, as is praCtifed for cauli¬
flowers.
They are tenderer than any cauliflower, though ve¬
ry like them in tafte.
BROCK, among fportfmen, a term ufed to denote a
badger.
A hart too of the third year is called a brock, or
brocket; and a hind of the. fame year, a brocket’s
After.
BROD, a town of Sclavonia, fituated on the river Save,
about fixteen miles fouth of Pofega : E. long. 180 jo',
N. lat. 45g 20'.
BRODERA, or Brodra, a city of Afia, in the coun¬
try of the Mogul and kingdom of Gnzurat, where
there is a great trade in cotton cloths : E. long. 730
30', N. lat. 220 25'.
BRODIUM, a pharmaceutical term, fignifying the fame
as jufculum, or the liquor in which fome folid medi¬
cine is preferved, or with which fomething elfe is di¬
luted.
BROGLING for eels, the fame with fniggling. See
Sniggling.
BROGLIO, a town of Peidmont in Italy, fituated
near the frontiers of Provence, about twenty five miles
north-weft of Nice: E. long. 6° 42', N. lat. 440 I2/.
It is the capital of a county of the fame name.
BROITSCHIA, a city of Afia in Indoftan, about twelve
leagues from Surat.
BROKEN wind, 'hmong farriers, is a malady that hap¬
pens to a horfe when he is fuffered to Hand too long
in the {table, without exercife : By this means he con-
tradls grofs and thick humours in fuch abundance, that, -
adhering to the hollow parts of his lungs, they flop
his wind-pipe.
This diftemper is known by the horfe’s heaving and
drawing up his flanks together, and blowing wide his
noftrils.
To cure this diforder, take the guts of a hedge-hog,
dry
B R O ( 681
dry them* and pound them to powder, and give the
horfe two or three fpoonfuls of it in a pint of wine or
ftrong ale ; then mix the reft with anife-feed, liquo¬
rice, and fweet butter, of which make round balls,
or pills, and give him two or there of them after
drink, and let him fall; two or three hours.
BROKER, a name given to perfons of feveral and very
different profeflions, the chief of which are exchange-
brokers, Itock-brokers, pawn-brokers, and brokers,
{imply fo called, who fell houfehold-furniture, and fe-
cond-hand apparel. v
Exchange-^ro ke as are a kind of agents, or negotiators,
who contrive, propofe, and conclude bargains between
merchants, and between merchants and tradefmen, in
matters of bills of exchange, or merchandife, for
■which they have fo much commiflion. Thefe, by the
ftatute of 8 and 9 William III. are to be licenfed in
London by the Lord Mayor, who gives them an oath,
and takes bond for the faithful execution of their offi¬
ces. If any perfon ftall a<ft as broker, without being
thus licenfed and admitted, he ffiall forfeit the fum of
5001. and perfons employing him 51. and brokers are
to regifter contracts, fee. under the like penalty: Al-
fo brokers ffiall not deal for themfelves, on pain of for¬
feiting 200 1. They are to carry about with them a
filver medal, having the king’s arms, and the arms of
the city, and pay 40s. a year to the chamber of the city.
The exchange brokers make it their bufinefs to
know the alteration of the courfe of exchange, to in¬
form merchants how it goes, and to give notice to
thofe who have money to receive or pay beyond fea ;
they -are the proper perfons for negotiating the ex¬
change, and when the matter is accompliffied, that is,
when the money for the bill is paid, and the bill de¬
livered, they have for brokerage 2 s. for 100I. fterling.
They reckon at Paris, among the city-officers, who
are employed under the jurifdidlion of the provoft of
the merchants, and echevins or aldermen, three forts
of brokers.
1. The brokers of horfes for the carriage of mer¬
chandife by water they are eftabliffied for the navi¬
gation, and take care to examine the horfes ufed to
draw the boats up the river; to fet the horfes toge¬
ther, to oblige the carriers to repair their boats, or to
break fuch as are no longer fit to ferve.
2. Sworn wine-brokers on the keys, to examine
and tafte all the wine that arrives there.
3. Brokers of bacon and lard. Thefe are eftabliffi¬
ed to examine thofe forts of merchandifes, as they are
landed or unloaded, and to anfwer for their goodnefs
to the buyer, and to the feller, for the price of his
wares.
5/ecf-BROKERS, are thofe who are employed to buy
and fell ffiares in the joint ftockof a company, or cor¬
poration.
As the pradlice of ftock-jobbing has been carried on
to fuch an excefs as became not only ruinous to a great
number of private families, but even affedfed, or at
leaft might foon afFedt, the public credit.of the nation,
the legiftature thought fit to put a flop to it, or at
Von. I. Numb. 29. 3
) B R O
leaft to bring it withing certain bounds, and under
fome regulation, by ftatute 7 George II. c. viii. fedt. 1.
T^ww-Brokers. Perfons who keep ffiops,. and lend
money upon pledges to neceffitous perfons, and moft
commonly at an exorbitant intereft. They are more
properly ftyled pawn-takers, or tally men, fometimes
fripers, orfriperers. Thefe are meant in 1 Jac.I. cap.
xxi. fedt. 5. where it is declared, that the fale of
goods wrongfully taken to any broker, or pawn-bro¬
ker in London, Weftminfter, Southwark, or within
two miles of London, does not alter the property.
And fedt. 7. If a broker, having received fuch
goods, ffiall not, upon requeft of the owner, difeover
them, how and when he came by them, and to whom
they are conveyed, he ffialj forfeit the double value
thereof, to be recovered by adtion of debt, ere.
In the cities of Italy, there are companies eftabliffi¬
ed by authority for the letting out money on pawns,
called mounts of piety ; a title little becoming fuch io-
ftitutions, as the loan is not gratis. In fome parts of
Italy, they have alfo mounts of piety of another kind,
wherein they only receive ready money, and return it
again with intereft, at a certain fum per annum.
At Bologna, they have feVeral fuch mounts, which
are diftinguilhed into frank and perpetual; the intereft
of the former is only four per cent, that of the lat¬
ter, feven.
Brokers are alfo thofe who fell old houfehold-furniture,
and wearing apparel, ebc.
BROMELIA, or pine apple, in botany, a genus of the
hexandria monogynia clafs. The calix is divided in¬
to three fegments; it has three petals, and there is a
fcaly nedlarium at the bafe of each petal; the berry
has three cells. There are five fpecies of bromelia,
viz. the ananas or common pine-apple, which is a na¬
tive of Surinam and New Spain ; the pinguin, a native
of Jamaica and Barbadoes; the karatos, lingulata, and
nudicaulis, all natives of the fouthern parts of America.
BROMSGROVE, a market-town in Worcefterffiire, a-
bout ten miles north of Worcefter .: W. long. 20 f,
N. lat. 520 26'.
BROMLEY, a market-town of Kent, ten miles fouth-
eaft of London: E. long, f N. lat. 510 25'.
Bromley is alfo the name of a market-town of Staf-
fordffiire, about ten miles eafi of Stafford : W. long.
i° 50', N. lat. 520 45'.
BROMOIDES, in botany. See Festuca.
BROMUS, in botany, a genus of the triandria digynia
clafs. The calix is double-valved ; the fpica is ob¬
long and cylindrical; the awn is below the apex. There
are 17 fpecies, eight of which are natives of Britain,
viz. the fecalinus or field brome-grafs, the arvenfis or
corn brome grafs, the ciliatus or wall brome-grafs,
the fterilis or barren brome-grafs, the giganteus or
tall brome-grafs, the ramofus or wood brome grafs,
and the pinnatus or fpiked brome-grafs.
BRONCHIA, in anatomy, the ramifications-of the tra¬
chea. See p. 280. (col. 2.) & p. 28J.
BR.ONCHOCELE, in forgery, a tumour arifing in the
anterior part of the neck. See Surgery.
8 K BRON-
B R O (682
BRONCHOTOMY, infurgery, an incifion made in the
afpera arteria, or wind-pipe, which is neceffary in ma¬
ny cafes, and efpecially in a violent quinfey, to pre¬
vent fuffocation from the great inflammation or tumor
of the parts. It is alfo called laryngotomy and tra¬
cheotomy. See Surgery.
BRONCHUS, according to Galen, is the afpera arte¬
ria which reaches from the larynx to the lungs, con-
fifting of the bronchia.
Sometimes it is put for the whole afpera arteria;
and Hippocrates ufes it to fignify the throat.
BRONTI^E, or Thunder-stones, in natural hifto-
ry. See Belemnites.
BRONTIUM, in Grecian antiquity, a place under¬
neath the floor of the theatres, in which were kept
brazen veflels full of ftones and other materials, with
which they imitated the noife of thunder.
BRONTOLOGY denotes the do&rine of thunder, or an
explanation -of its caufes, phsenomena, <&c. together
with the prefages drawn from it. See Thunder, and
Electricity.
BRONZE, a compound metal, confiding of one part of
tin, ten of copper, and a little zinCi See Chemi stry.
BRONZES, a name given by antiquarians to figures ei¬
ther of pien orbeafts, to urns, and, in general, to e-
very piece of fculpture which the ancients made of that
metal. We likewife give the name of bronzes to fla-
tues or bulls call of bronze, whether thefe pieces be
copies of antiques, or original fubjefis.
Among medallifts, all copper medals bear the name
of bronze.
BRONZING, the art of varnifliing wood, plafter, ivo¬
ry,, fo as to give them the colour of bronze. See
Varnishing.
BROOD, the young of fifli, fowls, die.
BROODING, the ad of a hen in hatching her eggs.
See Hatching.
BROOK, a little river or fmall current of water.
A brook is diftinguilhed from a river infomuch as
a river flows at all times, whereas a brook flows at
fume particular feafons. only.
Brook-/zw<?. See Anagallis.
BROOM, in botany. See Genista.
jSa/c^rr-BRooM, the Enghlh name of the rufeus. See
Spartium.
S/>atiiJh-BKOOM, in botajiy. See Spartium.
Broom-flower, ordre de la genijh, an order infli-
titfed by St Louis, king of France, to Ihew the efteem
which he had for the queen his wife, who, the.even¬
ing befbre his queen’s coronation, received this order
himfelf.
Broom-rape, in botany. See Orobanche.
BROOMING, or Breaming, of a Jhip, the v/afliing
and burning off all the filth that (he has contracted on
her fides with weeds, draw, broom, or the like, when
die is on the careen, or on the ground. See Ca¬
reening.
BROTHEL. See Stews.
BROTHER, a term of relation between male children,
fprung from the fame parents, or from the fame fa¬
ther., or the dune, mother.
) B R O
The ancients ufed the term brother, indifferently,
to almod all who dood related in the collateral line,
as uncles and nephews, coufms-german, 6v.
According to the laws of Mofes, the brother of a
man, who died without children, was obliged to mar¬
ry the widow of the deceafed, in order to raife up
children to him, that his name and memory might
not be extindt. See the article Widow.
Among us, it is cudomary for kings to give the ti¬
tle brother to each other.
In the civil law, brothers, fratres, in the plural
number, fometimes comprehends fiders.
Brother is alfo a cudomary term for prieds of the
fame perfuafion to addrefs one another by; but it is
more particularly ufed to denote the relation between
monks of the fame convent, as father Zachary: In
Englifh, we more ufually fay, Friar Zachary, from
the French word frere, brother. Preachers alfo call
their hearers, my brethren, or my dear brethren ; and
fometimes they ufe the Angular number, and fay, my
brother.
This appellation is borrowed, from the primitive
Chridians, who all called each other brothers : but it
is now principally ufed for fuch of the religious as are
not prieds ; thofe in orders are generally honoured with
the title of father, whereas the red are only Amply
brothers.
Brotkers-german. See German.
Brothers of the rofy-crofs. See RosicruciAn.
BROUCK, the name of a town of Germany, in the
circle of Wedphalia, upon the river Roer; and iike-
wife of a town of Switzerland, upon the banks of the
Aar.
BROUERSHAVEN, a port-town of Zeland, in the
united Netherlands, Atuated on the north Ade of the
iflabd of Schonen, about nine miles fouth-wed of
Helvoetfluys: E. Ion. 30 55', and N. lat.-5i0 50'.
BROW, or Eye-brow, an hairy arch extended over
the orbit of each eye. See p, 291. col. 1.
BROW-post, among builders, denotes a beam which
goes acrofs a building.
Brow-antler, among fportfmen, that branch of a
deer’s horn next the tail.
BROWALLIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia
angiofpermia clafs. The calix has Ave teeth ; the lim¬
bus of the corolla is divided into Bve equal and open
fegments ; and the capfule is unilocular.
BROWN, among dyers, painters, a dofley colour*
inclining towards rednefs. Of this colour there are
various (hades or degrees, didinguiflied by different;
appellations; for indance, SpaniIRbrown, a fad-
brown, a tawney-brown, the London brown, a clove-
brown, fyc.
Spanilh-brown is a dark dull red, of a horfe-flefli
colour. It is an earth, and is of great ufe among
painters, being generally ufed as the Ard and priming
colour that they lay upon any kind of timber-work
in houfe-painting. That which is of the deeped co¬
lour, and freed from dones, is the bed. Though
this is of a dirty brown colour, yet it is much ufed,.
not to colour any garment, unlefs it be an old man’s
gown;
B R U ( 683 ) B R U
gown ; but to (badow vermillion, or to lay upon any
dark ground behind a pidture, or to fhadow yellow
berries in the darkeft places, when you want lake,
<bc. It is bell and brightell when burnt in the fire,
till it be red hot, although, if you would colour any
hare, horfe, dog, or the like, it ihould not be burnt;
but, for other ufes, it is bell when it is burnt ; as for
inflance, for colouring wood, pods, bodies of trees,
or any thing e'lfe of wood, or any dark ground of a
pidture. See DyingI
BROWNISTS, in church-hiftory, a religious fed,
which fprung up in England towards the end of the
XVIth century. Their leader was one Robert Brown,
born at Northampton. They feparated from the efta-
blifhed church, on account of its diTcipline and form
of government. They equally difliked epifcopacy and
prelbyterianifm. They condemned the folemn cele¬
bration of marriages in churches, maintaining, that
matrimony being a political contrad, the. confirmation
of it ought to proceed from the civil magiflrate. They
rejeded all forms of prayer, and held, that the Lord’s
prayer was not to be recited as a prayer; being given
only as a model, upon which to form our prayers.
BRUCA, the name of a river- and fea-port town of Si¬
cily, in the valley of Noto.
BRUCHSAL, a town of the bilhopric of Spires, in the
palatinate of the Rhine, in Germany : E. Ion. 8° 30' ,
and N. lat. 490 15'.
BRUCHUS, in zoology, a genus of infeds belonging
to the order of caleoptera. The feelers are filiform,
and gradually increafe in thicknefs. There are feven
fpecies, viz. the pifi,, has grey elytra interfperfed
with white fpots, and a white fundament with two
black fpots. It is a native of North America, and
deftroys whole fields of peafe : It is now found in fe*
veral of the fouthern parts of Eurppe; where it does
great injury to the* corn. 2. The theolromas with
whitilh elytra interfperfed with black points. It fre¬
quents the theolroma or chocolate trees in the Eall
Indies. 3.' The gleditfiae, with ftriated elytra of
the fame length with the belly, a pitch-coloured body,
and green feelers. It is a native of America. 4.
The badris, with fmooth elytra, a hoary body, and'
the hind part of«the thighs oval. If frequents the
palm-trees of Jamaica. 5. The granarius, has black
elytra; the fore feet are red, and the hind-feet are
dentated. It frequents the feeds of plants in differ¬
ent parts of Europe. 6. The femiparius is black,
with the bafe of the feelers and fore-feet teftaceous.
' It is about the fize of a loufe, and a native of Eu¬
rope. 7. The pedicornis, with comb-lhaped feelers
longer than the body. It is a native of Barbary and
China.
BRUGES, a city and port-town of Flanders, eleven
miles eaft of Ofiend, and twenty-four north-well of
Ghent: E. Ion. 30 5', and N. lat. 51° id'.
There is a navigable canal from Ollend to Bruges,
which has Hill the bell foreign trade of any town in
Flanders.
BRUISE, in furgery, the fame with contufion. See
€ q n.t u s to n , and Sur.ger. y ..
BRUMALIA, in Roman antiquity, feflivals of Bacchus
celebrated twice a-yearj.the firll on the twelfth of
the calends of March, and the other on the eigh¬
teenth of the calends of November. They were m-
ftituted by Romulus, who, during thefe fealls, ufed
to entertain the fenate. Among other heathen felii-
vals which the primitive Chrillians were much incli¬
ned to obferve, Tertullian mentions the brumae or bru-
malia.
BRUNELLA, in botany. See Prunella.
BRUNIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia clafs. The flowers are aggregated; the fila¬
ments of the llamina are inferted into the ungues of
the petals ; the lligma is bifid, and the feeds are
Angle. There are fix fpecies, all natives of ./Ethi¬
opia.
BRUNSBUTTEL, a port-town of Holflein, in the
circle of Lower Saxony, in Germany, fituated at the
mouth of the river Elbe : E. Ion. 8° 42'’, and N. lat.
540 ic/. It is fubjed to Denmark.
BRUNSFELSIA, in botany, a genus of the penfan-
dria monogynia clafs. The corolla is long and lhaped
like a tunnel; the berry is unilocular, and contains
many feeds.
BRUNSWICK, the capital of the duchy of Brunfwick,.
in the circle of Lower Saxony, in Germany, fituated
on the river Oeker, about 35 miles eall of Hanover :
E. Ion. io° 30', and N. lat. 52® 3c/.
The eledor of Hanover is llyled duke of Brunfwick',
though he has no property in, or dominion over, the
city of that name, which belongs to the duke of Brunf¬
wick Wolfembuttle.
BURNTISLAND, a parliament-town on the coalt of.
Fife, in Scotland, about ten miles north-well of E-
dinburgh; W. long. 30, and N. lat. 56° I2/.
BRUSH, an inllrument made of brillles, hair, wire, or
fmall twigs, to clean cloaths, rooms, and alfo to.
paint with. There are various forts of them, dillin-
guilhed by their lhape or ufe. In the choice of paint¬
ers brulhes, obferve whether the briftles are fall bound
in the Hocks, and if the hair be Hrong and lie clofe
together; for if they fprawl abroad, fueh will never
work well ; and if they are not fafl bound in the Hock,
the briltles will come out when you are ufing them,
and fpoil your work, as may be feen where the lobfe
hairs of the brulh have lain up and down in the colours
laid on, to.the great detriment of.the work.
Wine-brulhes are of ufe for fcrubbing thofe filver,:
• copper, and brafs pieces, which are to be gilded over,,
in order to. clear them perfedly from any dirt, ruff, or
filth, which may adhere to them, and, if not brulhed
off, would hinder the doling of the gold with them.
They, are therefore ufed by gilders, filverfmiths, &r.
and are ufually-fold by ironmongers. Beard-brulhes
pay a duty, bn importation, of 1 s, 3-r‘~yd. the grbfs
or twelve dozen; whereof ts..i-£ is drawn back on
exporting them. Comb-brulhes pay 2 s. 6T~d. for
the fame number; and of this 2s. 3d. is repaid.
Head-brulhes pay is. 3-j^d. die dozen ; rubbing-
brulhes 3x1-^. the dozen; weavers-brulhes n-r^d..
for the fame number;, in all which a proportional;
drawbacks
BUB ( 684 ) BUB
drawback is allowed. However, it is to be obferved,
that bruihes are among the number of goods prohibited
to be imported.
BRUSSELS, the capital of the province of Brabant,
and of all the Auftrian Netherlands. It is fituated on
the river Senne, and is the fee of a bilhop; W. long.
40 6', and N. lat. 50° jo'.
It is a ftrong fortified town, and agreeably fituated,
which, together with the viceroy’s refidence, occafions
a great refort of nobility and gentry.
BRUTE, an animal guided mofily by mere inftindt, and
comprehends all animals, excepting mankind.
BRUTON, a market-town in Somerfetfhire, about ten
miles fouth-eaft of Wells; W. long. 2° 35', and N.
lat. 510 15'.
BR VANSBRIDGE, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Clare, and province of Connaught, fituated on the
river Shannon, about eight miles north of Limerick.
BRYGMUS, among phyficians, a grating noife made by
the gnafhing of teeth.
BRYONIA, in botany, a genus of the monoecia fynge-
nefia clafs. The cahx of the male has five teeth ; ths
corolla is divided into five fegments; and there are
three filaments. The calix of the female is likewife
teeihed; the corolla has five divifions; the ftylus is
trifid; and the berry is roundifir, and contains many
feeds. There are fix fpecies of bryony, only one of
which, viz. the alba, or white bryony, is a native of
Britain. The root is a ftrong cathartic, and, applied
externally, is faid to be a powerful difcutient.
B/rfcTBryony. See Tamus.
BRYUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia mufci
clafs. The anthera is covered with an operculum;
the calyptra is fmooth. There are 41 fpecies, mod of
them natives of Britain.
BUBALIS, in zoology, the trivial name of the buffalo,
a fpecies of the bos. See Bos,
BUBBLE, in philofophy, fmall drops or veficles of any
fluid filled with air, and either formed on its furface,
by an addition of more of the fluid, as in raining,
<b.c. ; or in its fubftance, by an inteftine motion of its
component particles. Bubbles are dilatable or com-
preflable, /. e. they take up more or lefs room, as the
included air is more or lefs heated, or more or lefs
prefled from without, and are round, becaufe the in¬
cluded air a&s equally from within, all around.
Bubble, in commerce, a cant term given to a kind of
projecfl for raifing of money on imaginary grounds,
much pradlifed in France and England in the years
1719, 1720, and 1721.
The pretence of thofe fchemes was the raifing a ca¬
pital for retrieving, fetting on foot, or carrying on
feme promifing and ufeful branch of trade, manufac¬
ture, machinery, or the like : To this end propofals
were made out, fhewing the advantages to be derived
from the undertaking, and inviting perfons to be en¬
gaged in it. The fum neceflary to manage the affair,
together with the profits expected from it, were divi¬
ded into fhares or fubferiptions, to be purchafed by a-
ny difpofed to adventure therein.
Bubbles, by which the public have been tricked.
are of two kinds, viz. 1. Thofe which we may pro¬
perly enough term trading-bubbles ; and, 2. Stock or
fund-bubbles. The former have been of various kinds ;
and the latter at different times, as in 1719 and 1720.
BU BO, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpecies of
ftrix. Sefe Srkix.
Bubo, or Buboe, in furgery, a tumour which arifes,
with inflammation, only in certain or particular parts,
to which they are proper, as in the arm-pits and in the
groins. See Medicine, and Surgery.
BUBON, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia
clafs. The fruit is oval, ftriated, and hairy. There
are four fpecies, and none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
BUBONOCELE, or Hernia inguinalis, in fur¬
gery, a tumour in the inguen, formed by a prolapfus
of the inteffines, omentum, or both, through the pro-
ceffes of the peritonaeum, and rings of the abdominal
mufcles. See Surgery.
BUBONIUh^I, in botany, a fynonime of the inula. See
Inula.
BUCANEPHYLLON, in botany, the name by which
Plukenet calls the farracena. See Sarracena.
BUCARDIA, or Bucardit^:, in natural hiffory, a
kind of figured ftones, formed in the cavities of the
larger cockles, and refembling, in fome meafure, a
heart at cards.
BUCARIZA, a town of the kingdom of Hungary, in
Croatia, upon the Adriatic fea, in a gulf that takes
the fame name.
BUCCA ferrea, in botany, a name given by Micheli to
the ruppia of Linnasus. See Ruppia.
BUCCAL, fomething belonging to the cheeks: Thus,
the buccal glands, are thofe difperfed over the inner
fide of the cheeks.
BUCCANEERS, thofe who dry and fmoke fleffi or
filh, after the manner of the Americans.
This name is particularly given to the French inha¬
bitants of the ifland of St Domingo, whofe whole em¬
ployment is to hunt bulls, or wild boars, in order to
fell the hides of the former, and the flefli- of the latter.
The buccaneers are of two forts: The buccaneers
ox-hunters, or rather hunters of bulls and cows ; and
the buccaneers boar-hunters, who are Amply called
hunters; though it feems, that fuch a name be lefs
proper to them than the former; fince the latter fmoke
and dry the flelh of wild boars, which is properly cal¬
led buccaneering, whereas the former prepare only the
hides, which is done without buccaneering.
Buccaneering is a term taken from Buccan, the
place where they fmoke their flelh or filh, after the
manner of the favages, on a grate or hurdle, made of
Brafil wood, placed in the fmoke, a confiderable di-
ftance from the fire: This place is a hut, of about
twenty five or thirty feet in circumference, all fur-
rounded and covered with palmetto leaves.
Buccaneers alfo fignify thofe famous adventurers of
all the nations in Europe, who join together to make
war againft the Spaniards of America, cruifing about
in privateers, to take all the veflels and fmall craft
they can meet with.
BUCCARI,
BUG
B'UCCARl, a town of Iftria upon the Adriatic fea, be¬
longing to the houfe of Auftria.
Buccari, or Bouchari, is alfo the name of a large
province of Afiauc Tartary, fituated between 78° and
oo° E. Ion. and 34° and 440 N. lat. . , ,
BUCCELLARII, an order of foldiery under the Greek
emperors, appointed to guard and diftribute the am-
munition-bread; though authors are fomewhat divi¬
ded as to their office and quality* Among the Vifi-
goths, buccellarius was a general name for a client or
vaffal who lived at the expence of his lord. Some
give the denomination to parafites in the courts of
princes, fome make them the body-guards of empe¬
rors, and fome fancy they were only fuch as empe¬
rors employed in putting perfons to death privately.
BUCCINA, an ancient mufical and military inftrument.
It is ufually taken for a kind of trumpet; which opini¬
on is confirmed by Feftus, by his defining it a crook¬
ed horn, played on like a trumpet. Vegetius obferves,
that the buccina bent in a femicircle, in which refpea:
it differed from the tuba or trumpet. It is very hard
to diftinguifh it from the cornu or horn, unlefs it was
fomething lefs, and not quite fo crooked; yet it cer¬
tainly was of a different fpecies, becaufe we never read
of the cornu in ufe with the watch, but only the buc¬
cina. Befides, the found of the buccina was (harper,
and to be heard much farther, than either the cornu
or the tuba. In fcripture, the like inftrument, ufed
both in war and in the temple, was called rams-
horns, kiren-jobel, and fopheroth hagijcbelim.
BUCCINUM or Trumpet-shell, a genus of Ihell-
fi(h belonging to the order of vermes teitaceae. This
animal is one of the fnail kind. The (hell is univalve,
fpiral, and gibbous. The aperture is oval, ending in
a fmall ftrait canal. Linnaeus enumerates about fixty
fpecies, moft of which are found in the fouthern Teas.
BUCCO, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the or¬
der of picae. The beak is cultrated, turned inwards,
compreffed on the (ides, and emarginated on each fide
at the apex; and there is a Jong (lit below the eyes.
The noftrils are covered with feathers. The feet have
four toes, two before and two behind. There is hut
one fpecies, viz. the capenfis, which is of a reddifh
colour, with a yellow belt round the (boulders, and a
black one round the breath It is found at the Cape
of Good-Hope.
BUCCULA, in antiquity, denotes the umbo, or moft
prominent part in the middle of a (hield; fo called,
becaufe ufually fafhioned like the mouth or face of a
man or other animal.
BUCENTAUR, a galeas, or large galley of the doge
of Venice, adorned with fine pillars on both fides, and
gilt over from the prow to the ftern. This veffel is
covered over head with a kind of tent, made of pur¬
ple filk. In it the doge receives the great lords and
perfons of quality that go to Venice, accompanied with
the ambaffadors and counfellors of ftate, and all the
lenators feated on benches by him. The fame veffel
ferves alfo in the magnificent ceremony of afcenfion-
Vol. I. No. 29. 3
( S85 )
B U C
day, on which the Duke of Venice throws a ring into
the fea to efpoufe it, and to denote his dominion over
the gulph of Venice.
Bucentaur is alfo the -name of a (hip, as great and
s magnificent as that of the Venetians, built by or¬
der of the eleiftor of Bavaria, and launched on a lake,
which is fix leagues in length.
BUCEROS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of picae. The beak is convex, cultrated, very
large, and ferrated outwards : The fore-head is naked,
with a bony gibbofity. The noftrils are behind the
bafe of the beak. The tongue is (harp and (hort.
The feet are of the greffarii kind, i. e. the toes are
diftindt from each other. There are four fpecies
of the buceros, viz. 1. The bicornis, with a flat
bony fore-head, and two horns before. The body is
black, and about the fize of a hen; hut the bread,
belly and thighs are white. There is a white fpot on
the wing; the tail is long, with ten black prime fea¬
thers, and the four outermoft on each are white. The
feet are greenifh, with three toes before and one be¬
hind. It is a native of China, and called Calao by
Willoughby and other authors. 2. The hydrocorax,
or Indian crow of Ray, has a plain bony fore-head
without any horns. The body is yellowilh, and black-
ifli below. It inhabits the Molucca ides. 3. The
rhinoceros, has a crooked horn in the fore-head join¬
ed to the upper mandible. It is a native of India,
and feeds upon carion. 4. The nafutus, has a finooth
fore-head. It is about the fize of a magpye, and is
a native of Senegal.
BUCH, a town of Guienne, in France, which gives its
name to a territory called le Capitulat de Bucb.
BUCHAN, a country or diftrict of Aberdeenftiire, in
Scotland : It gives the title of Earl, to the noble and
ancient family of Erlkine.
BUCHNERA, in botany, a genus of the didynamiaac-
giofpermia dais. The calix has five teeth; the co¬
rolla is divided into five equal heart-ftiaped fegments;
and the capfule is bilocular. There are three fpecies,
viz. The americana, a native of Canada and Virginia;
the afiatica, a native of Ceylon and China; and the
Africana, a native of .(Ethiopia.
BUCH AW, an imperial city of Swabia, in Germany,,
about twenty-five miles fouth-weft of Ulm : E. long,
90 40', and N. lat. 48° y7.
BUCHAREST, a town of Wallachia, fubjed to the
Turks: E. Ion. 26° 30', and N. lat. 440 20'.
BUCHORN, a city of Swabia, in Germany, fituated
on the eaft fide of the lake of Conftance, and about
twelve miles eaft of the city of Conftance: E. long.
90 2c/, and N. lat. 470 40'.
BUCIOCHE* in commerce, a fort of woolen cloth ma-
nufadured in Provence, which the french (hips cany
to Alexandria and Cairo.
BUCK, in zoology. See Cervus.
Buck bean, in botany. See Menyanthes .
Buck thorn, the Englifti name of the rhamnus.
Buck-wheat. See Polygonum.
8 L
BUCKET,
BUG (686
BUCKET, a fmall portable veflel, to hold water, of¬
ten made of leather for its lightnefs and eafy ufe in
cafes of fire.
It is alfo the vefiel let down into a well, or the
fides of Ihips, to fetch up water.
BUCKING, the fir/1 operation in the whitening of iin-
nen yarn or cloth. See p. 564.
BUCKINGHAM, a borough-town of Buckingharnlhire,
about forty-fix miles north-weft of London: W. Ion.
i°, and N. lat.
It fends two members to parliament.
Buckinghamfhirehas Northamptonlhireon the north;
Bedford, Hertford, and Middlefex, on the eaft ; Berk-
fttire, from which it is divided by the river Thames,
on the fouth ; and Oxfordfhire, on the weft.
BUCKLE, a well known utenfil, made of divers forts
of metals, as gold, filver, fteel, brafs, &c\
The fafhion or form of buckles is various ; but their
ufe, in general, is to make fail certain parts of drefs,
as the fhoes, garters, &c.
Buckles for girdles pay a duty of 3 s. ioT%%d. the
grofs, or twelve dozen; whereof 1 s. 44 d. is drawn
back on exportation. Buckles for girts pay likewife
a duty of is. y-j^d. the grofs; and both thefe pay
fomewhat more, if of brafs. But it is be obferved, that
all buckles are prohibited to be imported.
BUCKLER, a piece of defenfi've armour ufed by the
ancients. It was worn on the left arm, and compofed
of wickers woven together, or wood of the lighteft
fort, but moft commonly of hides, fortified with plates
of brafs or metal. The figure was fometimes round,
fometimes oval, and fometimes almoft fquare. _ Moft
of the bucklers were curioufly adorned with all forts
of figures of birds and beafts, as eagles, lions ; nor of
thefe only, but of the gods, of the celeftial bodies,
and all the works of nature; which cuftom was deri¬
ved from the heroic times, and from them communi¬
cated to the Grecians, Romans, and Barbarians.
Votive Bucklers, Thofe confecrated to the gods, and
hung up in their temples, either in commemoration of
lome hero, or as a thankfgiving for a vidfory obtained
over an enemy; whofe bucklers, taken in war, were
offered as a trophy.
BUCKNHAM, or Buckenham, a market-town of
Norfolk, about nine miles eaft of Thetford: E. long.
1° *io', N. lat. 520 30'.
B.UCKOR, a province of the E. Indies, fituated on tire
river Indus, having the province of Multan on the
north, and Tana on the fouth.
BUCKRAM, in commerce, a fort of coarfe cloth
made of hemp, gummed, calendered, and dyed feve¬
red colours. It is put into thofe places of the lining
of a garment, which one would have ftiff, and to keep
their forms. It is alfo ufed in the bodies of womens
gowns; and it often ferves to make wrappers to cover
cloths, Urges, and Rich other merchandifes, in order
to pteferve them and keep them from the duft, and
their colours from fading. Buckrams are fold whole-
fale by the dozen of fmall pieces or remnants, each
about four ells long, and broad according to the pieces
Lora Which they are cut. Sometimes they ufe new
) BUD
pieces of linen cloth to make buckrams, but mofti
commonly old ftieets and old pieces of fails.
Carrick buckrams pays a duty of 5-i%Vd- the fiiort
piece; whereof y-rVo ft- is repaid on exporting it.
Eaft-country buckram pays 1 s. a-r^-d. the roll or
half-piece ; whereof is. tVo^- is drawn back. French,
buckram pays il.'^s. the dozen pieces ;
whereof 11, 00s. 1 d. is repaid. Fine German
buckrams pays as. 4x75Vd. the piece; whereof as.
irc^d. is drawn back on exportation.
BUCKSTALL, a toil to take deer, which muft not be
kept by any body that has not a park of his own, un¬
der penalties.
BUCOLIC, in ancient poetry, a kind of poem relating
to ftiepherds and country affairs, which, according to
the moft generally received opinion, took its rife in
Sicily. Bucolics, fays Voflius, have fome conformity
with comedy. Like it, they are pictures and imita¬
tions of ordinary life; with this difference, however,
that comedy reprefents the manners of the inhabitants
of cities, and bucolics the occupations of country peo¬
ple. Sometimes, continues be, this laft poem is in
form of a monologue, and fometimes of a dialogue.
Sometimes there is a<5hon in it, and fometimes only
narration ; and fometimes it is compofed both of ac¬
tion and narration. The hexameter verfe is the moft
proper for bucolics in the Greek and Latin tongues .
Mofchus, Bion, Theocritus, apd Virgil, are the moft
renowned of the ancient bucolic poets.
BUD, among gardeners, that part of a feed which firft
begins to fprout, or rather the leaves firft put forth
Thefe in fome plants are two; in others, four; and
in others again, fix, or even more.
Bud is alfo ufed for the fprout fiom whence a branch &-
rifes.
Bud, in country-affairs, likewife denotes a weaned calf
of the firft year ; fo called, becaufe the horns are then
in the bud.
BUDA, the capital of lower Hungary, about 130 miles
fouth-eaft of Vienna: It ftands on the fide of a hill, on
the fouth-weft fide of the Danube, and is well fortified
and defended by a caftle, efteemed one of the ftrong-
eft fortreffes in Hungary : E. long. 196 20', N. lat.
52° 25'.
BUDDESDALE, a market town of Suffolk, about
thirteen miles north-eaft of Bury : E. long. i° io^
and N. lat. 52" 2^.
BUDDLE, in mineralogy, a large fquare frame of
boards, ufed in wafhing the tin ore. See Washing.
BUDDLEIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria
monogynia clafs. The calix and corolla are each di¬
vided into four parts ; the ftamina are inferted into the
receptacle; the capfule has four cells, and contains
many feeds. The fpecies'are two, viz. the occiden¬
tals, and amerkana, both natives of America.
BUDDLING, the aft of cleanfing, or walhing any ore.
See Washino.
BUDGE-tarre/r, among engineers, fmall barrels well
hooped, with only one head; on the other end is nail¬
ed a piece of leather, to draw together upon firings
like a purfe. Their ufe is for carrying powder along
■^itb
B U F ( 687 ) BUI
with a gun or mortar, being lefs dangerous, and eafier
carried, than whole barrels. They are likewife ufed
upon a battery of mortars, for holding meal-powder.
BUDINGEN, the capita! of a county of the fame name
in Germany, fituated in the circle of the upper Rhine,
about twenty miles north-ealt of Frankfort.
BUDOA, a city of Dalmatia, fituated on the gulf of
Venice, in 190 20 E. long, and 420 15' N. lat.
ft is a bilhop’s fee.
BUDWEIS, a town of Bohemia, fituated on the river
Muldaw, about dixty-five miles louth of Prague: E.
long. 140 20', N. lat. 49°.
BUDZIAC Tartary, a country fubjedl to the Turks,
lituated on the rivers Neiller, Bog, and Nieper ; ha¬
ving Poland and Rulfia, on the north ; Little Tarta¬
ry, on the eaft ; the Black-fea, on the fouth; and
Belfarabia, on the weft.
BUEN-AYRE. See Bonaire.
BUENOS-AYRES, one of the moft confiderable Spa-
nilh ports on the eaft coaft of South America, fituated
on the fouthern fhore. of the river Plata, and about
fifty leagues from its mouth ; and yet here the river
is full feven leagues broad: W. long. 60®, S. lat 36°.
■ It is a ftrong fortified town
BUEN-RETIRO, a palace near Madrid, belonging to
the king of Spain.
BUFF, in commerce, a fort of leather prepared from
; the Ikin of the buffalo, which, dreffed with oil, after
the manner of fhammy, makes what we call biiff-fkin.
This makes a very confiderable article in the French,
Englifh, and Dutch commerce at Conftantinople,
Smyrna, and all along the coaft of Africa. The
fkins of elks, oxen, and other-like animals, when
prepared after the fame manner as that of the buffalo,
are likewife called buffs.
Ofbuff-fkin, or buff-leather, are made a fort of
coats for the horfe or gens d’arms of France, banda-
liers, belts, pouches and gloves.
In France, there are feveral manufactories defigned
for the drefling of thofe fort of hides, particularly at
Corbeil, near Paris ; at Niort, at Lyons, at Rone, at
Etanepus, at Cone.
BUFFALO, in zoology. See Bos.
BUFFET was anciently a little apartment, feparated
from the reft of the room by {lender wooden columns,
for the difpofing of china, glafs-ware, &c.
It is now properly a large table in a dinning-room,
called alfo a fide-board, for the plate, glades, bottles,
bafons, to be placed on, as well for the feryiee
©f the table, as for magnificence. In houfes of pdr-
fons of diftin&ion in France, the buffet is a detached!
room, decorated with piftufes relative to the fubjeft,
with fountains, cifterns and vafes. It is commoaly
faced with marble or bronze.
BUFFOON, a droll or mimic who diverts the public by
h's pleafantries and follies.
BUFO, in zoology, the trivial name ofafpecies of rana.
See Rana.
BUFONIA, in botany, a genus of the diandria mono-
gynsa clafs. The cahx is four-leaved.; the petals are
’ four; and the capfule is unilocular, and contains two
feeds. There is but one fpecies, viz, the tenuifolia
or baftard chick-weed, a native of Britain.
BUG, a river, which, taking its rife in red Ruflia irt
Poland* runs norhward to Brefte ; and then, turning
weftward, falls into the Weifel, or Viftula, below
Warfaw.
Bug, or Bugg, in zoology, the Englifh name of a
fpecies of cimex. See Cimex.
BUGEN, a town of Japan, the capital of the kingdom
of that, name, intheifleof Ximo.
BUGEY, a territory in France, being the fouth divifion
of Breffei in Burgundy, on the frontiers of Savoy.
BUGGASINS, in commerce, a name given to buckrams
made of callico: thefe pay a duty, on importation,
of is. 2-r^d', the' half piece ; whereof 1 s. -j%Tyd. is
drawn back on exportation.
BUGGERS, in church-hiftory, the fame with bulga-
rians. a fed! of heretics which, amongft other errors,
held, that men ought to believe no feripture but the
New Teftament; that baptifm was not neceflary to
infants ; that hufbands who converfed with their wives
could not be faved; and that an oath Was abfolutely
unlawful.
BUGGERER, a perfon who is guilty of the crime of
buggery. See the next article.
BUGGERY, is defined by Sir Edward Coke to be a
carnal copulation againft nature, either by the confu-
fion of fpecies, that is to fay, a man or woman with
a brute beaft; or fexes, as a man with a man, or man
unnaturally with a woman. It is faid this fin againft
God and nature was firft brought into England by the
Lombards; and anciently, according to fome writers,
it was punifhable with burning; but others fay, with
. burying alive. It is, by ftatute, felony without bene¬
fit of clergy, and is always excepted out of a general
pardon.
BUGIA, a port-town of the kingdom of Algiers, in A-
frica, fituated about fixty miles eaft of the city of Al¬
giers ; E. long. 40, N. lat. 35® 3c/.
BUGIE, a port-town of Egypt, fituated on the weftern
. Ihore of the Red-fea, almoft oppofite to Ziden, the
port-town to Mecca, and about 100 miles weft of it;
E. long. 36®, N. lat. 22°.
BUGLE, in botany. SeeAujuGA,
BUGLOSS, in botany. See Anchusa.
Viper's Bugloss, in botany. See Ecmt/M.
BUGULA, Bugue, in botany. See Adjuga.
BUHL, a little fortrefs in Swabia, about fix miles fouth-
eaft of Stolhoffen, and nineteen north-eaft of Straf-
burg.
BUILDING, a fabric erefted by art, either for devo-
votion, for magnificence, or for conveniency.
Regular Buildung, is that whofe plan is fquare, the
oppofite fides equal, and the parts difpofed with fym-
metry.
Irregular Building, that whofe plan is not contained
with equal or parallel lines, either by the accident of
fituation, or the defign of the builder, and whofe parts,
are not relative to one another in ‘the elevation.
Infulaisd.
B U L r 688 ^ B U
Injulatai Building, that which is not contiguous to
any other, but is encouipalTed with ftreets, open fquares,
or the like.
Engaged one furrounded with other build¬
ings, having no front to any ftreet or public place, nor
any communication without, but by a common paf-
fage.
Interred or funk Building, one whofe area is below
the furface of the place on which it Hands, and of
which the lowelt courfes of Hone are concealed.
Building is alfo ufed for the art of conftru£ting and
railing an edifice; in which fenfe it comprehends as
well the expences, as the invention and execution of
the defign.
As for the materials of buildings, they are either
Hone, as marble, free-ftone, brick for the walls, mor¬
tar, <bc. or of wood, as fir, cyprefs, cedars for pil¬
lars of upright ules, oak for fummers, beams, and
crop-work, or for joining and conne&ion. See Ar¬
chitecture. ,
BUL, in the ancient Hebrew chronology, the eighth
month of the ecclefiallical, and the fecond of the ci¬
vil year; it has fince been called Marlhevan, and an-
fwers to our O&ober.
BULAC, a town of Egypt, fituated on the eaftern Ihore
of the river Nile, about tv?o miles weft of Grand
Cairo, of which it is the port-town, and contains a-
bout four thoufand families; E. long. 32% and N.
lat. 300.
It is a place of great trade, as all the vdTels going
up and down the Nile make forae flay here : it is al¬
fo in this place that they cut the banks of the Nile e-
very year, in order to fill their canals, and overflow the
neighbouring grounds, without which the foil would
produce neither grain nor herbage.
BULAFO, a mufical inftrument confifting of feveral
pipes of wood, tied together with thongs of leather
fo as to form a fmall interftice between each pipe. It
is ufed by the negroes of Guinea.
BULB, or Bulbous root, in the anatomy of plants,
expreffes a root of a round or roundilh figure, and u-
fually furnilhed with fibres at its bafe.
Bulbous roots are faid to be folid, when compofed
of one uniform lump of matter; tunicated, when
formed of multitudes of coats, furrounding one ano¬
ther; fquamofe, when compofed of, or covered with
lefler flakes; duplicate, when there are only two to
each plant; and aggregate, when there is a congeries
of fuch roots to each plant.
BULBOCASTANUM, in botany. SeeBuNiuM.
BULBOCODIUM, in botany, a genus of the hexan-
dria monogynia clafs. The corolla is ftiaped like a
tunnel, and confifts of five petals; the claws of the
petals are narrow. There is but one fpecies, viz. the
vernum, a native of Spain.
BULBOSE. See Bulb.
BULRUT/E, in Grecian antiquity, were magiftrates
anfwering to the decuriones among the Romans. See
Decurio.
BULGAR, the capital of the province of Bulgar, in
Ruflia, fituated on the river Wolga; E. long, ci0,
and N. lat. 540.
BULGARIA, a province of Turky in Europe, bound¬
ed by the river Danube, which divides it from Walla-
chia and Moldavia on the north, by the Black Sea on
the eaft, by Romania on the fouth, and by Servia on
the weft. Its chief city is Nicopolis.
Bulgarian language, the fame with the Sclavonic.
BULIMY, a difeafe in which the patient is affededwith
an infatiable and perpetual defire of eating; and, un-
lefs he is indulged, he often falls into fainting fits. It
is alfo called fames canina, canine appetite.
BUL1THUS, a ftone found either in the gall-bladder,
or in the kidneys and bladder of an ox. See Bos.
BULK of a flip, the whole content in the hold for the
ftowage of goods.
Bulk-heads are partitions made athwart the ftiip with
boards, by which one part is divided from the other ;
as the great cabbin, gun-room, bread-room, and fe¬
veral other divifions. The bulk-head afore is the
partition between the fore-caftle and gratings in the
head.
BULL, in zoology. See Bos.
Bull, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 486,
487.
Bull’s-eye, among feamen, a fmall, obfcure, fublime
cloud, ruddy in the middle, that fometimes appears to
mariners, and is the immediate forerunner of a great
ftorm at fea.
Bull-finch, in ornithology. See Loxia.
Bull-frog, in zoology, See Rana.
Bull-head, in ichthyology. SccCottus.
Bull, among ecclefiaftics, a written letter, difpatched,
by order of the pope, from the Roman chancery, and
fealed with lead, being written on parchment, by
which it is partly diftinguifhed from a brief. See the
article Brief.
It is a kind of apoftolical refcript, or edidt, and is
chiefly in ufe in matters of juftice or grace. If the
former be the intention of the bull, the lead is hung
by a hempen cord ; if the latter, by a fifteen thread.
It is this pendent lead, or feal, which is, properly
fpeaking, the bull, and which is imprefied, on one
fide, with the heads of St. Peter and St. Paul, and
on the other with the name of the pope and the year
of his pontificate. The Eull is written in an old,
round, gothic letter, and is divided into five parts,
the narrative of the fa<ft, the conception, the claufe,
the date, and the falutation, in which the pope ftyles
himfelffervus fervorum, i. e. the fervant ©f fervants.
Thefe inftruments, befides the lead hanging to
them, have a crofs, with fome text of feripture, or
religious motto, about it. Bulls are granted for the
confecration of bifhops, the promotion to benefices,
and the celebration of jubilees, &c.
Bull in c<xna Domini, a particular bull read every
year, on the day of the Lord’s fupper, or Maundy
Thurfday, in the pope’s prefence, containing excom¬
munications and anathemas againft heretics, and all
who difturb or oppofe the jurifdidion of the holy fee.
After
B U L (
After the reading of the bull, the pope throws a burn¬
ing torch into the public place, to denote the thunder
of this anathema.
Golden Bull, an edift, or imperial conftitution, made
by the emperor Charles IV. reputed to be the magna
charta, or the fundamental law of the German empire.
It is called golden, becaufe it has a golden feal, in
the form of a pope’s bull, tied with yellow and red
cords of filk : upon one fide is the emperor repre-
fented fitting on his throne, and on tit other rhe ca-
pitol of Rome, It is allb called Caroline, on Charles
IV’s account. Till the publication of the golden bull,
the form and ceremony of the eiedhon of an emperor
were dubious and undetermined, and the number of
the ele&ors not fixed. This folemn edidt regulated
the fundtions, rights,, privileges, and pre-eminences of
the eledtors. The original, which is in Latin, on
vellum, is preferved at Frankfort: this ordonnance,
containing thirty articles, or chapters, wras approved
of by all the princes of the empire, and remain Hill in
force.
BULLA, in zoology, a genus belonging to the order of
vermes teftaceae. It is an animal of the fnail-kind :
The fttell confifts of one valve, convoluted, and with¬
out any prickles •, the aperture is narrowilh, oblong,
longitudinal, and entire at. the bafe; the columella is
fmooth and oblique. There are twenty-three fpecies,
moll of them natives of the Afiatic and Atlantic o-
ceans.
BULLAs in Roman antiquity, ornaments at firll given
only to the fons of noblemen ; though afterwards they
became of more common ufe. This ornament was
firft given by Tarquinius with the prsetexta to his fon,
who had, with his own hand, at fourteen years of age,
killed an enemy. Thus we find the bulla was a fign
of triumph. Macrobius relates, that the children of
freed men were allowed to wear the pranexta, and,
inllead of the golden bulla, a leathern one, about
their necks : Thofe bullae were made hollow within to
inclofe amulets againft envy, tec. When the youth
arrived at fifteen years of age, they hung up their
bullae about the necks of their gods lares. We are
farther informed, that the bullae were not only hung
about the necks of young men, but of horfes alfo.
BULLEN, a term ufed by country people for hemp-
ftalks peeled.
BULLET, an iron or leaden ball, pr ftiot, wherewith
fire-arms are loaded. See Ball.
BULLINGBROKE, in geography. See Boling¬
brook.
BULLION, uncoined gold or filver in the mafs.
Thofe metals are called fo, either when fmelted
from the native ore, and not perfectly refined; or
when they are perfedly refined, but melted down in
bars or ingots, or in any unwropght body, of any de¬
gree of finenefs.
When gold and filver are in their purity, they are
fo foft and flexible, that they cannot well be brought
into any falhion for .ufe, without being firft reduced
and hardened with an alloy of fome other bafer metal.
To prevent thefe abufes, which fome might be
Vol. I, Nunjb. 29. 3
689 ) BUN
tempted to commit in the making of fuch alloys, the
legillators of civilized countries have ordained, that
there lhall be no more than a certain propoition of a
bafer metal to a particular quantity of pure gold cr
filver, in order to make them of the iinencls of what
is called the ftandard gold or filver of fuch a country.
According to the laws of England, all forts, of
wrought plate in general, -ought to be made to the
legal ftandard; and the price of our ftandard gold and
filver is the common rule whereby to fet a value on
their bullion, whether the fame be in ingots, bars,
dull, or in foreign fpecie: whence it is eafy to con¬
ceive that the value of bullion cannot beexaftly known,
without being firft aflayed, that the exaft quantity
of pure metal therein contained may be determined,
and confequently whether it be above or below the
ftandard.
Silver and gold, whether coined or uncoined, (tho’
ufed for a common meafure of other things), are no
lefs a commodity, than wine, tobacco, or cloth; and
may, in many cafes, be exported as much to the na¬
tional advantage as any other commodity.
BULLOCK, the fame with an ox, or gelded bull.
See Bos.
BULLY-tree, in botany. See ChrysophyllUm.
BULTEL, a term ufed to denote the refufe of meal after
drefling, or the cloth wherein it is drefled, otherwife
called bulter-cloth.
BULWARK, in the ancient fortification. See Ram¬
part.
BUMICILLI, a religious fed! of Mahometans in Egypt
and Barbary, who pretend to fight with devils, and
commonly appear in a fright and covered with wounds
and bruifes. About the full moon they counterfeit a
combat in the prefence of all the people, which lafts
for two or three hours, and is performed with afla-
gaias, or javelins, till they fall down quite fpent; in
a little time, however, they recover their fpirits, get
up, and walk away.
BUNGAY, a market-town of Suffolk, fituated on the
river Wavenny, about thirty-two miles north-eaft of
Bury: E. Ion. i° 35', and N. lat. 520 35'.
BUNGO, or Bongo. See Bongo.
BUNIAS, in botany, a genus of the tetradynamia fili-
quofa clafs. The pod is deciduous, quadrangular,
and the angles are Unequal and terminate in (harp
points. There are four fpecies, only one of which,
viz. the cakile, of fea-rocket, is a native of Britain.
BUNDLE, a colledtion of things wrapped up together.
Of bafte-ropes, harnefs-plates, and glover’s knives,
ten make a bundle ; of Hamburg yarn, twenty flceans ;
of bafket-rods, three feet about the band.
BUNIUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digy-'
nia clafs. The corolla is uniform; the umbella is
thick; and the fruit is oval. There is but one fpe¬
cies, viz. the bulbocaftanum, earth-nut, kipper-nut,
pig-nut, or hawk-nut, a native of Britain.
BUNK, or Bunken, in the materia medica. See Leu-
CACANTHA.
BUNT of a fail, the middle part of it, formed defign-
edly into a bag or cavity, that the fail may gather
8 M more
B U P- ( 690 ) BUR
more wind. It is ufed moftly in top-fails, beeanfe
courfes are generally cut fq-uare, or with but fmall al¬
lowance for bunt or compafs. The bunt holds much
leeward wind, that is, it hangs much to leeward.
Bunt lines are fmall lines made faft to the bottom of
the fails, in the middle part of the bolt-rope, to a
cringle, and fo are reeved through a fmall block, fei-
zed to the yard. Their ufe is to trice up the bunt' of
the fail, for the better furling it up.
BUNTING, in ornithology, the Englilh name of a fpe-
cies of fringilla. See Fringilla.
BUNTINGFORD, a market town of Hertfordlhire,
about twelve miles north of Hertford: W. long. 5',
and N. lat. 51° 55'.
BUNTZLAU, or Buntzel, the name of two towns
in Germany: the old town is fituated on the river
Elbe, and new town, which is become the moft confi-
derable, upon the Gizare, eight leagues from Lignitz,
in 16° 26' E. long, and 510 \2 N. latitude. There
is likewife a town of that name in Silefia.
BUONO, as tempo-buono, in mufic, fignifies a cer¬
tain time or part of the meafure, more proper for cer¬
tain things than any other, as to end a cadence or
paufe, to place a long fyllable or fyncoped dilfonance,
concord, fac. In common time of four times to a bar,
the fir ft and third is one buono tempo, as the fecond
and laft are called tempo di cattiya.
BUOY, at fea, a Ihort piece of wood, or a clofe-hooped
barrel, faftened fo as to float diredlly over the anchor,
that the men, who go in the boat to weigh the anchor,
may know where it lies.
Buoy is aifo a piece of wood, or cork, fometimes an
empty calk, well clofed, fwimming on the furface of
the water, and faftened, by a chain or cord, to a large
ftone, piece of broken cannon, or the like, ferving to
mark the dangerous places near a coaft, as rocks, fhoals,
wrecks of veflels, anchors, foe.
There are fometimes, inftead of buoys, pieces of
wood placed in form of mafts, in confpicuous places ;
and fometimes large trees are planted in a particular
manner, in number two at leaft, to be taken in a right
line, the one hiding the other, fo as the two may ap¬
pear to the eye no more than one.
Stream //^e Buoy is to let the anchor fall while the fttip
has way.
To buo y up the cable is to fatten fome pieces of wood,
barrels, foe. to the cable, near the anchor, that the
cable may not touch the ground, in cafe it be foul or
rocky, left it Ihould be fretted and cut off.
BUOYANT, fomething which, by its aptnefs to float,
bears up other more ponderous and weighty things.
See Buoy.
BUPHAGA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of pieje. The beak is ftreight and quadrangu¬
lar ; the mandibles are gibbous, entire, and the gib-
bolity is greater on the outfide. The feet are of the
ambulatory kind. The body is greyifh above, and of
a dirty yellow below ; the tail is fhaped like a wedge.
It is a native of Senegal; and frequently perches
upon oxen, and picks out the worms from their backs.
BUPHTHALMUM, a genus of the fyngenefia polyga-
mia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle is paleaceous; the
margin of the pappus is obfolete; the fides of the
feeds are marginated; and the ftigmata of the herma¬
phrodite flofcules are undivided. The fpecies are ten,
none of which are natives of Britain.
BUPLEURUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
digynia clafs. The involucrum of the umbells is large
and five-leaved; the fruit is ftriated, comprefleu,
and roundifii. The fpecies are feventeen, only two
of which are natives of Britain, viz. the rotundifo-
lium, or thorow-wax; and the tenuiflimum, or the
leaft hare’s-ear.
BUPRESTIS, in zoology, a genus of infers belonging
to the order of coleoptera. The feelers are like bri-
ftles, and about the length of the breaft ; the lead is
half retraded into the thorax. There are twenty-fe-
ven fpecies of this infed, moft of them natives of the
Indies.
BUQUOI, a town of Artois, in the French Nether¬
lands, fituated on the confines of Picardy: E. long.
20 4o\ and N. lat. 50° I2,.
BUR, a broad ring of iron, behind the place made for
the hand on the fpears ufed formerly in tilting, which
bur was brought to reft, when the tilter charged his
fpear.
BURBAS, in commerce, a fmall coin at Algiers, with
the arms of the dey ftruck on both fides : it is worth
half an afper. %
BURCHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the lower
Bavaria, fituated on the river Saltz : E. long. 130
and N. lat. 4S0 5'.
BURDEN, or Burdon, in mufic, the drone or bals,
and the pipe or firing which plays it: Hence that part
of a fong, that is repeated at the end of every llanza,
is called the burden of it.
A chord which is to be divided, to perform the in¬
tervals of mufic, when open and undivided, is alfo
called the burden.
Burden of a Jhip is its contents, or number of tons it
will CAxry. The burden of a fhip may be determined
thus : multiply the length of the keel, taken within
board, by the breadth of the (hip, within board, taken
from the midftiip-beam, from plank to plank, and mul¬
tiply the produdt by the depth of the hold, taken
from the plank below the keelfon, to the under part
of the upper deck plank, and divide the laft product
by 94, then the quotient is the content of the tonnage
required. See Freight.
BURDO, that kind of mule produced between a horfe
and a (he-afs. See Mule.
BURDOCK, in botany, the Englilh name of the xan-
thium. See Xanthium.
BURDUGNO, a town of the Mbrea, fituated on the
river Vafilipotomo, near Mifitra.
BUREN, a town of Dutch Guelderland, about fixteen
miles weft of Nimeguen : E. long. 50 20', and N.
lat. J2°.
Buren is alfo the name of a town in Weftphalia in Ger¬
many, about five miles fouth of the city of Paderborn:
E. long. 8° 25', and N. lat. 51° 35'.
BURFQRD, a market-town of Oxfordfhire, about fif¬
teen
BUR ( 691 ) 'BUR
teen miles weft of Oxford: W. long. x° 40', N. lat.
510, 4°'.
It gives the title of earl to the noble family of Beau-
clerc.
BURG, a town of Zutphen, in the Dutch Netherlands,
lituated upon the Old Iffel, about eighteen miles call of
Nimeguen : E. long. 6° io/, and N. lat. 520.
BURGA, a cape of Algiers in Africa, running out into
the Med terranean fea.
BURGAGE, an-ancient tenure in boroughs, whereby
the inhabitants, by cuftom, hold their lands, <&c. of
the king, or other fuperior lord of the borough, at a
certain yearly rent: Alfo a dwelling-houfe in a bo¬
rough, was anciently called a burgage.
BURGEON, a term ufed by gardeners in the fame
fenfe with bud. See Bud.
BURGESS, an inhabitant of a borough, or one who
poflefles a tenement therein.
In other countries, burgefs and citizen are con¬
founded together; but with us they are diftinguilhed :
The word is alfo applied to the magiftrates of fome
towns.
Burgefs is now ordinarily ufed for the reprefenta-
tive of a borough-town in parliament.
BURGGRAVE properly denotes the hereditary go¬
vernor of a caftle or fortified town, chiefly in Ger¬
many.
BURGH, See Borough.
BuRGH-^o/e fignifies a contribution towards the build¬
ing or repairing of caftles, or walls, for the defence of
a borough, or city.
Burgh-breche is properly the breaking open a burgh,
houfe, inclofure, ebc. and in the laws of Canute, cap.
Iv. fignifies a fine impofed upon a community of a
town for a breach of the peace. According to Raf-
tallus, burgh-breche is, to be quit of trefpafles com¬
mitted againft the peace, in city or borough.
BURGHERMESTERS. See Burgomaster.
BURGHMASTER, among miners. See Barmaster.
BURGHMOTE, the court of a borough.
BURGLARY, a felonious breaking and entering into
the dwelling-houfe of another perfon in the night¬
time, with an intent to commit fome felony, whether
the fame be executed, or not.
The like offence committed by day, is called houfe--
breaking.
Burglary is an offence excluded the benefit of clergy,.
and may be committed by taking away goods from a
dwelling-houfe, any perfon being therein; or break¬
ing any Ihop, warehoufe, &c. though in the day-time,
and taking goods from thence of five {hillings value, if
no perfon be therein.
BURGLES, a town of Tranfilvania, about thirty miles
north of Claufenburg, fubje<ft to the houfe of Auftria : .
E. long. 220 40', and N. lat. 47040/.
JBURGOMASTER, the chief magiftrate of the great
towns in Flanders, Holland, and Germany. The
power and jurifdidlion of the burgomafter is not the
lame in all places, every town having its particular eu-
ftoms and regulations: At Amfterdam there are four
chofen by the voices of all thofe people in the fenate.
who have either been burgomafters or echevins. Their
authority refembles that of our lord-mayor and aider-
men ; they difpofe of all under-offices that fail in their
time, keep the key of the bank, and enjoy a ialary but
of five hundred guilders, all fe-.fts, public entertain¬
ments, &c. being defrayed out of the common trea-
fury.
BURGOO, a dilh frequent at fea, being made of oat¬
meal, or greets, boiled in water till they burft, and
then fome butter added.
BURGOS, the capital of Old Caftile in Spain, about
one hundred and ten miles north of Madrid : W. long.
40 5', and N. lat. 420 30'.
BURGOW, a town, of Swabia in Germany, about twen¬
ty miles weft of Auglburg : E. long. io° 20/, N. lat.
48° 30'.
BURGUNDY, or Burgogne, a province or govern¬
ment in France, having Champaign on the north, and
Dauphine on the fouth.
BURIAL, the interment of a deceafed perfon.
The rites of burial are looked upon in all countries,
and at all times, as a debt fo facred, that fuch as ne¬
glected to difcharge it were thought accurfed : Hence
the Romans called them jujia, and the Greeks [nomi*
nia, dikuia, hofia,~\ &c. words implying the inviolable .
obligations which nature has laid upon the living to
take care of the obfequies of the dead. Nor are we
to wonder, that the ancient Greeks and Romans were,
extremely folicitous about the interment of their de¬
ceafed friends, fince they were ftrongly perfuaded, that
their fouls could not be admitted into the Elyfian fields-
till their bodies were committed to the earth; and if
it happened that they never obtained the rites of burial,
they were excluded from the happy manfions-for the
term of an hundred years. For this reafon it was con-
fidered as a duty incumbent upon all travellers who
Ihould meet with a dead body in their way, to caft duft
or mould upon it three times, and of thefe three hand¬
fuls, one at leaft was caft upon the head. The an¬
cients likewife confidered it as a great misfortune if
they were not laid in the fepulchres of their fathers ;
for which reafon, fuch as died in foreign countries had :
ufually their afhes brought home, and interred with
thofe of their anceftors. But notwithftanding their
great care in the burial of the dead, there were fome
perfons whom they thought unworthy of that 1 aft of¬
fice, and to whom therefore they.refufed it: Such ^
were, 1. Public or private enemies. 2. Such as be¬
trayed, or confpired againft their country. 3. Tyrants,
who were always looked upon as enemies to their coun¬
try. 4. Villains guilty of facrilege. y. Such as died
in debt, whofe bodies belonged to their creditors.
And, 6. Some particular offenders, who fuffered ca¬
pital punifhment.
Of thofe who were allowed the rites of burial, fome
were diftinguifhed by particular circumftances of dif-
grace attending their interment: Thus perfons killed
by lightening were buried apart by themfelves, being
thought odious to the gods; thofe who wafted their
patrimony, forfeited the right of being buried in the
fepulchres of their fathers; atd thofe who were guilty
of;
BUR ( 692 ) BUR
of felf-murder were privately depofited in the ground,
without the accuftorned folemnities. Among the Jews,
the privilege of burial was denied only to idt'-murder-
ers, who were thrown out to rot upon the ground. In
the Chriftian church, though good men always defired
the privilege of interment, y. t they were not, like the
heathens, fo concerned for their bodies, as to think it
any detriment to them, if either the barbarity of an e-
oemy, or fome other accident, deprived them of this pri -
vihge. The primitive Chriftian church denied the more
fuiemn rites of burial only to unbaptized perfons, felf-
inurderers, and excommunicated perfons who continued
obilinate and impenitent, in a manifeit contempt of the
church’s cenfures.
The place of burial among the Jews was never par¬
ticularly determined. We find they had graves in the
town and country, upon the highways, in gardens, and
upon mountains. Among the Greeks, the temples were
made repofitories for the dead in the primitive ages ;
yet the general cuftom in latter ages, with them, as
well as with the Romans and other heathen nations,
was to bury their dead without their cities, and chief¬
ly by the highways. Among the primitive Chriftians,
burying in cities was not allowed for the firft three
hundred years, nor in churches for many ages after,
the dead bodies being firft: depofited in the atrium or
church yard, and porches and porticos of the church :
hereditary burying-places were forbidden till the 12th
century. As to the time of burial, with all the cere¬
monies accompanying it, fee the article Funeral-
rites.
BURICK, a town of the duchy of Cleves, in the circle
of Weftphalia in Germany, fituated on the river Rhine,
about twenty miles fouth of Cleves : E. long. 6° s',
N. lat. 5 1 0 35'.
BURLESQUE, a fpecies of compofition, which, tho’
a great engine of ridicule, is not confined to that fub-
jedt; for it is clearly diftinguifhable into burlefque
that excites laughter merely, and burlefque that excites
derifion or ridicule. A grave fubjedt, in which there
is no impropriety, may be brought down by a certain
colouring fo as to be rifible, as in Virgil Traveftie;
the author firft laughs at every turn, in order to 'make
his readers laugh. The Lutrin is a burlefque poem
of the other fort, laying hold of a low and trifling in¬
cident to expofe the luxury, indolence, and contentious
fpirit of a fet c.f monks. Boileau, the author, turns
the fubjedf into ridicule by drefling it in the he¬
roic ftyle; and affedting to confider it as of the utmoft
dignity and importance. Though ridicule is the poet’s
aim, he always carries a grave face, and never once
bewrays a fmile. The oppofition between the fubjedt
and the manner of handling it, is what produces the
ridicule; and therefore, in a compofition of this kind,
no image profefledly ludicrous ought to have quarter,
becaufe fuch images deftroy the contraft.
Though the burlefque that aims at ridicule, produ¬
ces its effedts by elevating the ftyle far above the fub¬
jedt, yet the poet ought to confine himfelf to fuch ima¬
ges as are lively, and readily apprehended. A ftrain-
ed elevation, foaring above the ordinary reach of fan¬
cy, makes not a pleafant impreflion. The mind is
foon difgufted by being kept long on the ftretch. Ma¬
chinery may be employed in a burlefque poem, fuch
as the Lutrin, the Difpenfary, or Hudibras, with
more fuccefs and propriety than in any other fpe¬
cies of poetry. For burlefque poems, though they
aflume the air of hiftory, give entertainment chiefly by
their pleafant and ludicrous pidtures: It is not the aim
of fuch a poem to raife fympathy; and for that rea-
fon, a ftridi imitation of nature is not neceflary. And
hence, the more extravagant the machinery in a ludi¬
crous poem, the more entertainment it affords.
BURLINGTON, a fea-port town in the Eaft Riding
of Yorklhire, fituated on the German ocean, about
thirty-feven miles north-eaft of York : E. long, ic/,
and N. lat. 540 15'.
It gives the title of earl to a branch of the noble
family of Boyle.
Nt-w Burlington, the capital of New-Jerfey, in
North America ; fituated in an ifland of Delawar ri¬
ver, about twenty miles north of Philadelphia : W.
long. 74°, and N. lat. 40° 4c/.
BURMANNIA, in botany, a genus of the bexandria
monogynia clafs. The calix is fhaped like a prifm,
coloured and divided into three ferments, with mem¬
branaceous angles ; the petals are three ; the capfule
is three-celled ; and the feeds are very fmall. There
are only two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
BURN, in medicine and forgery, an injury received in
any part of the body by fire. See Medicine, and
Surgery.
BURNET, in botany. See Poterium, and Sangui •
SORBA.
BURNHAM, a market-town of Norfolk, about 25;
miles north-weft of Norwich : E. long, yo', and N,
lat. 530.
BURNING, the aftion of fire on fome pabulum, or
fuel, by which the minute parts thereof are put into a
violent motion, and fome of them afluming the nature
of fire themfelves, fly off in orbem, while the reft are
diflipated in form of vapour, or reduced to afhes.
See Fire.
Burning, or Brenning, in our old cuftoms, denotes
an infectious difeafe, got in the ftews by converfing
with lewd women, and fuppofed to be the fame with
what we now call the venereal difeafe.
In a manufcript of the vocation of John Bale to
the bifhopric of Offory, written by himfelf, he fpeaks
of Dr. Hugh Wefton, who was dean of Windfor, in
1556, but deprived by cardinal Pole for adultery,
thus : “ At this day is leacherous Wefton, who is
more praftifed in the arts of breech-burning, than all
the whores of the ftews. He not long ago brent a
beggar of St. Botolph’s parilh.” See Stews.
Burning, in antiquity, a way of difpofing of the dead,
much praftifed by the ancient Greeks and Romans,
and ftill retained by feveral nations in both the Eaft
and Weft Indies.
Euftathius afligns two reafons why burning came to
be of fo general ufe in Greece; the firft is, becaufe
bodies were thought to be unclean after the foul’s de¬
parture.
BUR ( <>93 ) BUR
parture, and therefore were purified with fire. The
fecond reafon is, that the foul, being feparated from the
grofs and unadtive matter, might be at liberty to take
its flight into heaven. The body was, rarely burnt
without company, for befides the various anir..als they
threw upon the pile, we feldom find a man of quality
copfumed without a number of flaves and captives,
which, in barbarous times, they ufed to murder for
that purpofe : and in fome parts of the Eaft Indies it
is cuftomary, at this day, for wives to throw them-
felves into the funeral pile with their deceafed huf-
bands. At the funerals of emperors, generals, <bc.
who had their arms burnt with them, the foldiers
made proceffion three times round the funeral pile
with (bouts and trumpets, to exprefs their refpedt to
the dead. During the burning alfo, the dead perfon’s
friends flood by, called on the deceafed, and poured
out libations of wine, with which, when the pile was
burnt down, they extinguifhed the remains of the fire;
and having colledted the bones of the deceafed, walk¬
ed them with wine, and anointed them with oil.
When the bones were difcovered, they gathered the
allies that lay clofe to them, and both were repofited
in urns, either of wood, ftone, earth, filver, or gold,
according to the quality of the deceafed. See Urn.
Burning, among furgeons. See Cauterization.
Burning is much pra&ifed by the people of the Eaft
Indies, particularly thofe of Japan, who ufe the moxa
for this purpofe. See Moxa.
Burning-^/c?/}, a Convex or concave glafs, commonly
fpherical, which being expofed diredly to the fun,
col lefts all the rays falling thereon into a very fmall
fpace, called the focus ; where wood, or any other
combuftible mattei being put, will be fet on fire. See
Optics .
BuRNiNG-WMKW/a/w/. See Volcano.
Burning of colours, among painters. There are fe-
veral colours that require burning; as firft, lamp¬
black, udiich is a colour of fo greafy a nature, that,
except it is burnt, it will require a long time to dry.
The method of burning, or rather drying, lamp¬
black, is as follows : Put it into a crucible over a
clear fire, letting it remain till it be red hot, or fo
near it that there is no' manner of fmoke arifes from it.
Secondly, Umber, which if it be intended for co¬
lour fgr a horfe, or to be a lhadow for gold, then
burning fits it for both thefe purpofes.
In order to burn umber, you muft put it into the
naked fire, in large lumps, and not take it ojjt till it
is thoroughly red hot; if you have a mind to be more
curious, put it into a crucible, and keep it over the
fire till it be red hot.
Ivory alfo muft be burnt to make black, thus : fill
two crucibles with lhavings of ivory, then clap their
two mouths together, and bind them fall with an iron
wire, and lute the joints clofe with clay, fait, and
horfe-dung, well beaten together ; then fet it over
the fire, covering it all over with coals : let it remain
in the fire, till you are fure that the matter inclofed
is thoroughly red hot: then take it out of the fire ;
but do not open the crucibles till they a^e perfeftly
Vol. I. Numb. 29. 3
cold ; for were they opened while hot, the matfer
would turn to alhes ; and fo it will be, if the joints
are not luted clofe.
BURNISHER, around, polilhed piece of flee!, ferving
tofmooth and give a luftre to metals.
Of thefe there are different kinds of different fi¬
gures, ftrait, crooked, &c. Plalfburnilhers are ufed
to folder filver, as well as to give a luftre. See Sol¬
dering.
BURNISHING, the art of fmoothing or polilhfng a
metalline body, by a brifk rubbing of it with a bur-
nilher.
Book-binders burniffi the edges of their books, by
rubbing them with a dog’s tooth. Gold and filver are
burnifhed, by rubbing them with a wolf’s tooth, or by
the bloody ftone, or by tripoli, a piece of white wood,
emery, and the like. Deer are faid to burnilh their
heads, by rubbing off a downy white fkin from their
horns, againft a tree.
BURNLEY, a market-town of Lancalhire, about 27
miles fouth-eaft of Lancafter : W. long. 20 f, and
N. lat. J3° 4c/.
BURR, the round knob of a horn next a deer’s head.
BURRE, Bouree, or Boree, a kind of dance com-
pofed of three fteps joined together in two motions,
begun with a crotchet riling. The firft couplet con¬
tains twice four meafures, the fecond twice eight. It
confifts of a balance and coupee.
BURREGREG, a confiderable river of the kingdom of
Fez, in Africa; which-taking its rife in the Atlas
mountains, falls into the ocean not far from the ftraits
of Gibraltar.
BURR-PUMP, or Bildge-pump, differs from the
common pump, in having a ftaff 6, 7, or 8 feet long,
with a bar of wood, whereto the leather is nailed,
and this ferves inftead of a box; So two men, Hand¬
ing over the pump, thruft down this ftaff, to the mid¬
dle whereof is faftened a rope, for 6, 8, or 10 to hale
by, thus pulling it up and down.
BURROCK, a fmall wier or dam, where wheels are laid
in a river, for the taking of filh.
BURROW, orBoRouGH. See Borough.
BURROWS, holes in.a warren, which ferve as a co¬
vert for hares, rabbits, <&c.
BURSA, orPausA, in geography, the capital of Bi-
thinia, in Alia Minor, fituated in a fine fruitful plain,
at the foot of mount Olympus, about a-n hundred miles
fouth of Conftantinople : E. long. 29°, and N. lat.
40° 30'.
'BvKSh-paJioris, in botany. SeeTHLASPi.
BURSAR, in a general fenfe, fignifies a treafurer or
pdrfe-keeper, efpecially in a monafteiy.
BURSE, in a commercial fenfe, a place for merchants
to meet in, and negotiate their bufinefs publicly, with
us called exchange. See Exchange.
BURSTEN, denotes a perfon who has a rupture. See
Rupture.
BURTON, in geog'raphy, the name of two market-
towns, the one in Staffordftiire, and the other in
Lincolnlhire ; the former being lituated about 18
miles tall of Stafford, in i° 36' W. long, and 520 40'
8 N N. lat.
BUR ( <594 ) BUS
N. lat. and the latter, thirty miles north of Lincoln,
in 30° W. long, and 53^ 40' N. lat.
Burton is alfo the name of a market-town in Weft-
moreland, about thirty miles fouth-weft of Appleby :
W. long. 20 35', N. lat. 540 10'.
Burton, in the fea-language, a fmall tackle confiding
of two (Ingle blocks, and may be made faft any where
at pleafure, for holding fmall things in and out ; and!
will purchafe more than a fingle tackle with two
blocks.
BURY, in geography, a market-town of Lancafhire, a-
bout 30 miles fouth-ead of Lancader : W. long. 20
20', N. lat.-530 36'.
Bury St Edmunds, or1 St Edmund’s Bury, the
county-town of Suffolk, about twelve miles ead of
Newmarket, and feventy north-ead of London : E.
long. 45', N. lat. 520 20'.
Bury is alfo a term fometimes ufed for the hole or den
of fome animal under ground, more ufualiy called
burrow.
Thus we fay, the bury of a mole, rabbit, fac.
BUSH, a term ufed for feveral (hrubs of the fame kind
growing clofe together : thus we fay, a furze-bu(h,
bramble-bu(h, foe.
Bush is fometimes ufed, in a more general fenfe, for
any affemblage of thick branches interwoven and mix¬
ed together.
i?«f7j/«v-BusH, that bnfh wherein the Lord appeared to
Mofes at the foot of mount Horeb, as he was feeding
his father-in-law’s flocks.
As to the perfon that appeared in the bufli, the text
fays, “ That the angel of the Lord appeared unto
him in a flame of fire, out of the middle of the bufh
hut whether it was a created angel, fpeaking in the
perfon of God, or God himfelf, or (as the mod re¬
ceived opinion is) Chrid the Son of God, has been
matter of fome controverfy among the learned. Thofe
who fuppofe it no more than an angel, feem to imply
that it would be a diminution of the majedy of God,
to appear upon every occafion, efpecially when he has
luch a number of celedial mintders, who may do the
bufinefs as well. But cOnfidering that God is prefent
every where, the notification of his prefence by fome
outward fign in one determinate place, (which is all
we mean by his appearance), is in eur conception lefs
laborious (if any thing laborious could be, conceived
of God) than a delegation of angels upon every turn
from heaven, and feems in the main to illudrate ra¬
ther than debafe the glory of his nature and exidence.
But however this be, it is plain that the angel here
fpoken of was no created being,, from the whole con¬
text, and efpecially from his faying, “ I am the Lord
God, the. Jehovah,” i&c. fmee this is not the lan¬
guage of angels, who are always known to expr'efs
themfelves in fuch humble terms as thefe, “ I am fent
from. God; I am thy fellow-fervant,” ebv. It is a
vain pretence to fay, that an angel, as God’s ambaf-
fador, may fpeak in God’s name and perfon ; for what
ambaffador of any. prince ever yet faid, “ I am the
king ?” Since therefore no angel, without the guilt
of blafphemy, could affume thefe titles'; and fince nei¬
ther God the Father, nor the Holy Ghod, are ever
called by the name of abgel, i. e. a meffenger, or per¬
fon fent, whereas God the Son is galled by the pro¬
phet Malachi, (chap. iii. 1.), “ The angel of the co¬
venant ;” it hence feems to follow, that this angel of
the Lord was God the Son, who might very properly
be called an angel, becaufe in the fulnefs of time he
was fent into the world in our flelh, as a meffenger
from God, and might therefore make thefe his tem¬
porary apparitions, prefages and forerunners, as it
were, of his more folemn million.
The Mahometans believe, that one of Mofes’s (hoes,
put off by him as he drew near the burning bufh, was
placed in the ark of the covenant, in order to preferve
the memory of this miracle.
BUSHEL, a mealure of capacity for dry things, as
grain, fruits, dry pulfe, <bc containing four pecks,
or eight gallons, or one-eighth of a quarter.
A bufhel, by 12 Henry VII. c. 5. is to contain
eight gallons of wheat; the gallon eight pounds of
troy-weight ; the ounce twenty derlings, and the der-
ling thirty-two grains, or corns of wheat growing in
the midd of the ear.
At Paris, the bufhel is divided into two half bu(h-
els ; the half bufhel into two quarts ; the quart into
two half quarts ; the half quart into two litrons ; and
the litron into two half litrons. By a fentence of the
provod of the merchants of Paris, the bnfhel is to be
eight inches two lines and a half high, and ten inches
in diameter ; the quart four inches nine lines high,
and fix inches nine lines wide ; the half quart four
inches three lines high, and five inches diameter ; the
litron three inches and a half high, and three inches
ten lines in diameter. Three bufhels make a minot ;
fixr a mine ; twelve, a feptier ; and an hundred and
forty-four, a muid. In other parts of France the
bufhel varies.
Oats are meafured in a double proportion to other
grains, fo that twenty-four bufhds of oats make a
feptier, and 288 a muid. The bufhel of oats is di¬
vided into four picotins, the picotin into two half
quarts, or four litrons. Forfait, four bufhels make
one minot, and fix a feptier ; for coals, eight bufhels
make one minot, fixteen a mine, and 320 a muid;
for lime,, three bufliels make a rainot, and forty-eight
minots a muid.
BUSKIN, a kind of fhoe, fomewhat in manner of a
boot, and adapted to either foot, and worn by either
fex.
This part of drefs, covering both the foot and mid¬
leg, was tied underneath the knee ; it wa% very rich
and fine, and principally ufed on the Page by afters in
tragedy. It was of a quadrangular form, and the'foie
was fo thick, as that, by means thereof, men of the
ordinary flature might be raifed to the pitch and ele¬
vation of the heroes they perfonated. The colour-
was generally purple on the flage : herein it was di-
ftinguifhed from the fock, worn in comedy, that be¬
ing only a low common fhoe. The bufkin feems to
BUS C 695 ) * BUT
have been worn, not only by aftors, but by girls, to
raife their height : travellers and hunters alfo made ule
of it, to defend themfelves from the mire.
In claffic authors., we frequently find the bufkin ufed
to lignify tragedy itfelf, in regard it was a mark of
tragedy on the Rage.
It is alfo to be underftood for a lofty ftrain, or high
Ryle. y
BUSS, in maritime affairs, a fmall fea-veflel, ufed by
us and the Dutch in the herring-fifhery, commonly
from forty-eight to fixty tons burden, and fometimes
more : A bufs has two fmall fheds or cabins, one at the
prow, and the other at the ftern; that at the prow
ferves for a kitchen^
Every bufs has a mafter, an affiftant, a mate, and
feamen in proportion to the veflel’s bignefs : the ma¬
iler commands in chief, and without his exprefs or¬
der the nets cannot be call, nor taken up ; the afiift-
ant has the command after him and the mate-next,
whofe bufinefs is to fee the feamen manage their rig¬
ging in a proper manner, to mind thofe who draw in
their nets, and thofe who kill, gut, and cure the her¬
rings, as they are taken out of the fea : The feamen
do generally engage for a whole voyage in the lump.
The provifion which they take on board the bufles,
_ confift commonly in bifket, oat-meal, and dried or
fait fifh ; the crew being content for the reft with what
frefh fifh they catch. See Fisheries.
BUST, or Busto, in fculpture,^ tic. a term ufed for
the figure or portrait of a perfon in relievo, fhewing
only the head, fhoulders, and ftomach, the arms be¬
ing lopped off: it is ufuaily placed on a pedeftal or
confoie.
M. Felibien obferves, that though, in painting, one
may fay a figure appears in bu/lo,. yet it is not proper¬
ly called a bull; that word bemg confined to things in
relievo. The bull is the fame with what the Latins
called henna, from the Greek hermes. Mercury, the
image of that god being frequently reprefented in that
manner by the Athenians.
BUSTARD, in ornithology. See Qtis.
BUSTUARJI, in Roman antiquity, gladiators who
fought about the buftum, or funeral pile of a deceafed
perfon of diftinriion, in the ceremony of his obfequies.
This cuftom was found to be lefs barbarous than the
firft practice was of facrificing captives at the buftum,
or on the tomb of warriors; inftancts whereof we
meet with both in Roman and Greek antiquities: the
blood fpilt o* this occafion, was fuppofed to appeafe,
by way of facrifice, the infernal gods, that they might
be more propitious to the manes of the deceafed.
BUSTUARL/E moech^e, according to feme, women
that w'ere hired to accompany the funeral, and lament
the lofs of the deceafed: but others are of opinion,
that they were rather the more common proftitutes,
that; Rood among the tombs, graves, and other fuch
lonely places.
BUSTUM, in antiquity, a pyramid or pile of wood
upon which were anciently placed the bodies of the
deceafed, in order to be burnt. Some authors fay,
that.it was properly called buftum after, the burning,
quaji lene njlum', that before the burning it was cal--
led pyra, and during the burning, rogus.
The buftum in the Campus Martius was encompaf-
fed round with white ftone, and an iron rail.
BUTCHER, a perfon who flaughters cattle for the ufe
of the table, or who cuts up and retails the fame.
Among the ancient Romans, there were three kinds
of eftablifhed butchers, whofe office was to furnifh the
city with the neceffary cattle, and to take care of pre¬
paring and vending their fleffi. The fuarii providedi
hogs; the pecuarii or boarii, other cattle, efpecially
oxen ; and under thefe was a fubordinate clafs, whofe;
office was to kill, called lanii, and carnifices. To
exercife the office of butcher among the Jews with
dexterity, was of more reputation than to underftand.
the liberal arts and fciences. They have a book con¬
cerning fhamble-conftitution ; and in cafe of any diffi¬
culty, they apply to fome learned rabbi for advice:
nor wa-s any allowed to pradtife this art, without ~a
licence in form; which gave the man, upon evidence;
of his abilities, a power to kill meat, and others to
eat what he killed ; provided he carefully read every
week for one year, and every month the next year,
and once a quarter during his life, the conftitutio'n a-
bove mentioned. We have fome very good laws for
the better regulation and preventing the abufes com<
mitted by butchers. A butcher that fells fwine’s flefti
meazled, or dead of the murrain, for the firft offence-
fiiall be amerced; for the fecond, have the pillory ;
for the third, be imprifoned and make fine; and for
the fourth, abjure the town. Butchers not felling
.meat it reafonable prices, Ihall forfeit double the va¬
lue, leviable by warrant of two juftices of the peace.
No butcher ffiall kill any fiefa in his fealding-houfe,
or within the walls of London, on pain to forfeit far
every ox fo killed, isd. and for every other beaft, .
8d. to be divided betwixt the king and the profecutor.
Butcher-bird, in ornithology-. See Lan 1 us.
BurcHER’srBROOM, in botany. See Ruscus.
BUTE, an iftand of Scotland, lying' in the mouth of
the frith of Clyde, fouth of Cowal in Argyleffiire.
It gives the title of earl to a branch of the Stuart fa- -
mily. Bute and Cathnefs fend only one member to .
parliament betwe'en. them, each choofing in its turn,
whereof Bute has the firft.
BU FEO, in ornithology^ the trivial name of a fpeciqs
of falco. See Falco.
BUTLER, the name anciently given-to an officer in the
court of France, being the fame as the grand echanfon,
or great cup-bearer of the prefent times.
Butler, in tfte common acceptation of the word, is an
officer in the houfes of princes and great men, whofe
principal bufinefs is to look after the wine, plate, .tie.
BUTLER-AGE of wine, is a-duty of two ffiiilings for
every ton of wine imported by merchants ftrangers ;
being a compefition in lieu of the liberties and free-
aoms granted to them. by king John and Edward I.
by a charter called chafta mereatoria.
Butlerage was originally the only cuftom that was
payable upon the importation of wines, and was taken
and received by virtue of the regal prerogative, for .
the _
BUT ( 606 ) BUT
the proper ufe of the crown. But for many years
pad, there having been granted by parliament fubfi-
dies to the kings of England, and the duty of butle-
rage not repealed, but confirmed, they have been
pleafed to grant the fame away to fome nobleman,
who, by virtue of fuch grant, is to enjoy the full be¬
nefit and advantage thereof, and may caufe the fame
to be colleft; d in the fame manner that the kings them-
felves were formerly wont to do.
HUTMENTS, in architedure, thofe fupporters or
props on Or againft which the feet of arches reft.
Butment is alfo the term given to little places taken
out of the yard or ground-plot of a houfe, for a but¬
tery, fcullery, ejrc.
BUTOMUS, in botany, a genus of the enneandria hex-
agynia clafs. It has no calix; the corolla cpnfifts of
fsx petals ; and the capfules are fix, containing many
feeds. There is but one fpecies, viz. the umbellatus,
flowering-rulh, or water-gladiole, a native of Britain.
BUTRINTO, a port-town of Epirus, or Canina, in
Turky in Europe, fituated oppofite to the ifland of
Coifu, at the entrance of the gulph of Venice: E.
long. 200 40', N. let, 390 45'.
BUT f, in commerce, a velfel or meafure of wine, con¬
taining two hogfineads, or 126 gallons. See Pipe.
Butt, or Butt-ends, in the fea-language, are the
fore-ends of all planks under water, as they rife, and
are joined one end to another.
Butt-ends in great (hips are moft carefully bolted;
for if any one of them fhould fpring or give way, the
leak would be very dangerous nnd difficult to ftop.
.BUTTER, a fat un&uous fubftance, prepared from
milk by heating or churning it.
It was late ere the Greeks appear to have had any
notion of butter ; their poets make no mention of it,
and yet are frequently fpeaking of milk and cheefe.
The Romans ufed butter no otherwife than as a me¬
dicine, never as a food.
The ancient Chriftians of Egypt burnt butter in
their lamps inftead of oil; and in the Roman churches,
it was anciently allowed, during Chriftmas time, to
burn butter inftead of oil, on account of the great con-
fumption of it otherways.
For the making of butter, when it has been churn¬
ed, open the churn, and with both hands gather it well
together, take-it out of the butter-milk, and lay it in¬
to a very clean bowl, or earthen pan; and if the but¬
ter be defigned to be ufed fweet, fill the pan with
clear water, and work the butter in it to and fro, till
. it is brought to -a firm confiftence of itfelf, without
any moifture. When this has been done, it muft be
fcotched and fliced over with the point of a knife,
every way as thick as polfible, in order to fetch out
the fmalleft hair, mote, bit of rag, ftrainer, or any
thing that may have happened to fall into it. Then
Spread it thin in a bowl, and work it well together,
with fuch quantity of fait as you think fit, and make
it up into dilhes, pounds, half pounds, <bc. The
newer the butter is, the more wholefome and pleafant
it is; and that which is made in May, is efteemed
the beft.
There are as many forts of butter, as there are dif¬
ferent milks of animals whereof to make it: That of
the cow is moll: in ufe. It is ufed every where, and
there is hardly any fauce^made without -it. The
northern people, hqwever, make more ufe of it than
others.
Every barrel of butter, imported from abroad, pays
a duty of 3 s. 10-^d whereof 3 s. qid. is drawn
back on exporting it. Irilh butter pays only a duty
of is. iiT^d. the hundred weight; whereof is.
SrVs-d. is drawn back on exporting it.
Butter among chemifts, a name given to feveral pre¬
parations, on account of their confiftence refembling
that of butter; as butter of antimony, of arfenic, of
wax, of lead, of tin. See Chemistry.
Butter-bur, in botany. See Petasites.
Butter-fish. SccBlennius.
BUTTERFLY, the Englilh name of a numerous genus
of infedls. See Papilio.
Butterfly-fish, a fpecies of the blennius. See
Blennius.
BuTtERFLY- shell, in natural hiftory. See Voluta.
BUTTERIS, in the menage, an inftrument of fteei,
fitted to a wooden handle, wherewith they pare the
foot, or cut the hoof of a horfe.
BUTTER-MILK, a kind of ferum that remains behind,
after the butter is made.
Butter-wort, in botany. See Pinguicula.
BUTTERY, a- room in the houfes of noblemen and
gentlemen, belonging to the butler, where he depo-
fites the utenfils belonging to his office, as table linen,
napkins, pots, tankards, glafies, cruets, falvers, fpoons, '
knives, forks, pepper, muftard, 6r.
BUTTOCK of a Jhip, is that part of her which is her
breadth right aftern, from, the tack upwards; and a
fliip is faid to have a broad or a narrow buttock, ac¬
cording as (he is built broad or narrow at the- tranfum.
BUTTON, an article of drefs, ferving to fallen cloaths
tight about the body, made of metal, filk, mohair,
tec. in various forms. Metal-buttons are either caft
in moulds, in the manner of other fmall works, (fee
Foundery), or made of thin plates of gold, filver,
or brafs, whofe Itrudture is very ingenious, though but
of little ufe.
Buttons of all forts are prohibited to be imported.
Button, among gardeners, denotes much the fame with
bud. See Bud.
Button, in the menage. Button of the reigns of a
bridle, is a ring of leather, with the reins palled thro’
it, which runs all along the length of the reins. To
put a horfe under the button, is when a horfe is Hop¬
ped without a rider upon his back, the reins being laid
on his neck, and the button lowered fo far down that
the reins bring in the horfe’s head, and fix it to the
true pofture or carriage. It is not only the horfes
which are managed in the hand that muft be put un¬
der the button; for the fame method muft be taken
with fuch horfes as are bred between two pillars, be¬
fore they are backed.
BUTTON’/-£47, the name of the north part of Hud-
fon’s bay, in North America, whereby Sir Thomas
ButtoA
B U X (\697 ) B Y Z
Button attempted to find out a north-weft paffage to
the Eaft Indies. It lies between 8o° and ioo° W.
long, and between 6o° and 66° N. lat„
BUTTRESS, a kind of butment built archwife, or a
mafs of ftone or brick, ferving to prop or fupport the
fides of a building, wall, on the outfide, where
it is either very high, or has any confiderable load to
luftain on the other fide, as a bank of earth, fcc.
Buttreftes are ufed againft the angles of .fteeples
and other buildings of ftone, he. on the outfide, and
along the walls of fuch buildings as have great and
heavy roofs, which would be fubjeeft to thruft the walls
out, unlefs very thick, if no buttrefles were placed
againft them. They are alfo placed for a fupport and
butment againft the feet of fame arches, that are turn¬
ed acrofs great halls in old palaces, abbeys, he.
BUTZAW, a town of Lower Saxony, in Germany;
it Hands upon the river Varnow, on the road from
Schwerin to Roftock.
BUXTON, a place in the peak of Derbylhire; cele¬
brated for medicinal waters; the hotteft in England,
next to Bath.
Buxton-w?///. The ftrata of earth and minerals, in
the parts adjacent to Buxton, are peat mofs, blue
clay, iron, and coal, mixed with fulphur and brazil.
The warm waters there, at prefent, are the bath,
which takes in feveral warm-fprings-, St Ann's well,
a hot and cold fpring rifing up into tha-fame recep¬
tacle ; and Bingham-well.
Thefe waters greatly promote digeftion, unlefs they
are drunk too long, in which cafe they relax the fto-
.rnach, and retard digeftion ; they- are well adapted to
obftruttions of every kind, whence they produce fur-
prifing efFefls in gouty, rheumatic, athritic, and fcor-
butic pains. As this water is warm, highly impreg¬
nated with a mineral fteam, vapour, or fpirit, it is
fignally beneficial to cramps, convulfions, dry afthmas,
the bilious colic, ftifFnefs, he*.
They advife both drinking and bathing in the.ufe of
thefe waters; only the laft is of bad confequence in
the gout, inward inflammations, fevers, dyfentery,
large inward tumours, or in an outward preflure of the
body.
B.UXUS, in botany, a genus of-the moncecia tetrandria
clafs. The calix of the male confifts of three leaves;
and the corolla has two petals : The calix of the fe¬
male has four leaves; the petals are three; it has three
ftyli; and the capfule has three cells containing two
feeds. There is but one fpecies, vtz. the fempervi-
rens, or box-tree, a native of Britain. A decodion
Vox.. I. No 29. 3
of the leaves and wood has been recommended as a
powerful fudorific ; but is not now ufed by practition¬
ers. The wood is of a hard clofe texture, and is
greatly ufed by mechanics for toSls of various kinds.
BUYS, a town of Dauphine, in France, fituated on
the confines of Provence; E. long. 50.20, and N.
lat. 440 25'.
BUZZARD, in ornithology, the Englifh name of feve-
ral fpecies of the hawk kind. See Fauco.
BYGHOF, or Bygow, a city of Lithuania in Poland,
fituated on-the river Nieper; E. long, 30°, and N.
lat. 53&.
BY'-LAWS, or Bye-laws, private and peculiar laws
for the good government of a city, court, or other
community, made by the general confcnt of the mem¬
bers
All by-ldws are to be reafonable, and for the com¬
mon benefit, not private advantage of any particular
perfons, and muft be agreeable to the public laws.in
being.
BYRLAW, or-gyaLAW /awr, in Scotland, ate made
and determined by neighbours, eledfed by common
confent in byrlaw courts. The men chofen as judges,'
are called byrlaw or burlaw men, and take cognizance
of complaints berween neighbour and neighbour. .
BY'RRHUS, in zoology, an order of infects belonging
to the order of coleoptera. Tire feelers are clavated,
pretty folid, and a little comprefled. There are fike
fpecies, all of which are to be found on particular
plants, and principally diftinguifhed from each other
by the colour and figure of the elytra or cruftaceous •
wing-cafes.
BYSSUS, in botany, a genus of moffes belonging to
the cryptogamia algae. The character is taken from
this circumftance, that they are covered with a’fimple
capillary filament or down, refembling.foft duft. The
fpecies are 15, all natives of Britain.
BYSSUS, in antiquity, that fine Egyptian linen where¬
of the tunics of the Jewifh' priefts were made.
Philo fays, that the byflus is the cleareft and moft
beautiful, the whiteft, ftrongeft, and moft glofly fort
of linen; that it is not made of any thing mortal,
that is to fay, of wool, or the fkin of any animal, but
that it comes out of the earth, and becomes always
whiter, and more Ihining, when it is wa/hed as it
ftiould be.
BYZANT. See Bezant. ^
BYZANTIUM, the ancient mame of Conftantinople,
See Constantinople.
BZO, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Morocco,
8 0.
1
End of the First Volume,.
E
Page 127. column 2. end of the firft paragraph, read.
Plate XL fig. 3.; and at the end of the next pa-
ragraph, ¥'tate XI. fig. 2.
End ot the article Amphisboena, read Plate XII.
fig. 2.
St ANDftsw’r day. For the thirteenth, read the thir¬
tieth of November.
pige 466. col. 1. 1. 52. for vkX, read /kA.
Page 467. col. 1. 3. 12. fupply Plate XLUI. fig. 4.
to which the reference-letters and figures in the pa¬
ragraph belong.
Page 46S. col. x. 1. 26. for fig. 3. read/^. 5.
In fig. 9. of Plate LI. the Bafion, or Bafiard-bar, is
reprefented ic a wrong direction. It fhould run
thus,
Bos. End of par. 2. del. Plate LII. fig. 2. which is
not a figure of the common bull, but of the Biforr,
defcribed p. 625. col. 2.
In the article Breton, tor Jubjett to the Englijh, read
-fubjett to the Britijh.
Plate 47. reprefents a different Orrery from the one de¬
fcribed. The, right one will be engraven, and de?
livered in due time.
Book-keeping. A variety of preliminary Problems,
Cafes,, drc. referred to by the letters and nnmbera
which the reader will obferve fubjoined to the ex¬
amples in the Walte-book, were by accident omit¬
ted in the printing; but will be printed and gi-yen
in proper time, with directions for inferring them,
—So that this and the preceding article may be ex¬
punged from this lilt 'when the book is bound.
***. It is humbly hoped, that the above faults, with others which may have efcaped notice, or are here
omitted as trivial, will Be candidly deemed venial in a work fo complex, fo various, and fo extenfive as. the
prefeat.
.% ■